FINANCIAL TIMES
World
desk Reference 2005
FINANCIAL TIMES
WORLD
DESK REFERENCE
DORLING KINDERSLEY PUBLISHING, INC...
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FINANCIAL TIMES
World
desk Reference 2005
FINANCIAL TIMES
WORLD
DESK REFERENCE
DORLING KINDERSLEY PUBLISHING, INC. LONDON • NEW YORK • MUNICH • MELBOURNE • DELHI For the very latest information, visit: www.dk.com and click on the Maps & Atlases icon
A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK www.dk.com FOR THE
SEVENTH EDITION
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
SENIOR CARTOGRAPHIC MANAGER
Andrew Heritage
David Roberts
SENIOR CARTOGRAPHIC EDITOR Simon Mumford
SYSTEMS COORDINATOR Phil Rowles
SEVENTH EDITION UPDATED AND EDITED BY Cambridge International Reference on Current Affairs (CIRCA) PROJECT MANAGER Catherine Jagger
EDITORIAL SUPERVISION Roger East
EDITORS Richard J. Thomas, Philippa Youngman, Carina O’Reilly
DATABASE & GRAPHICS Carolyn Postgate, Jenny Durham
EDITORIAL
AND
RESEARCH
Patrick Chabal, John Coggins, Alan Day, Ian Gorvin, Amra Hewitt, Lawrence Joffe, Kylie Jerome, Wim Mellaerts, Rory Miller, Frances Nicholson, Gabriella Ramos, Sanna Rimpilainen, Darren Sugar, Farzana Shaikh, Jo Skelt, Paul Sutton, Tim Shaw, Edmund Waite
DIGITAL CONTENT MANAGEMENT Nina Blackett, Nishi Bhasin, Pooja Huria
PICTURE RESEARCH Louise Thomas
DORLING KINDERSLEY CARTOGRAPHY
EDITORIAL DIRECTION Andrew Heritage
MANAGING EDITORS Ian Castello-Cortes, Wim Jenkins
PROJECT EDITORS Debra Clapson, Catherine Day, Jo Edwards, Jane Oliver
EDITORS Alastair Dougall, Ailsa Heritage, Nicholas Kynaston, Lisa Thomas, Susan Turner, Chris Whitwell, Elizabeth Wyse
ADDITIONAL EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE Sam Atkinson, Louise Keane, Zoë Ellinson, Caroline Lucas, Sophie Park, Laura Porter, Jo Russ, Crispian Martin St. Valery, Sally Wood, Ulrike Fritz-Weltz
READERS Jane Bruton, Reg Grant, Ann Kramer, Lesley Riley
ART DIRECTION Chez Picthall, Philip Lord PROJECT DESIGNERS Martin Biddulph, Scott David, Carol Ann Davis, David Douglas, Yahya El-Droubie, Karen Gregory
DESIGNERS Tony Cutting, Rhonda Fisher, Nicola Liddiard, Katy Wall ADDITIONAL DESIGN ASSISTANCE Paul Bayliss, Carol Ann Davis, Adam Dobney, Kenny Laurenson, Paul Williams
DIGITAL CONTENT MANAGER Nina Blackett
PRODUCTION Wendy Penn
PROJECT CARTOGRAPHERS Caroline Bowie, Ruth Duxbury, James Mills-Hicks, John Plumer, Julie Turner
CARTOGRAPHERS James Anderson, Dale Buckton, Roger Bullen, Tony Chambers, Jan Clark, Tom Coulson, Martin Darlison, Claire Ellam, Julia Lunn, Michael Martin, Alka Ranger, Peter Winfield, Claudine Zante
PICTURE RESEARCH Alison McKittrick, Sarah Moule, Christine Rista, Louise Thomas
DATABASE MANAGER Simon Lewis
INDEX GAZETTEER Margaret Hynes, Julia Lynch, Barbara Nash, Jayne Parsons, Janet Smy
Printed and bound in Portugal by Printer Portuguesa Published in the United States by Dorling Kindersley Publishing Inc. 375 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 A Penguin Company Previously published as the DK World Reference Atlas
First American Edition 1994 10 9 8 7 Second Edition 1996. Revised 1998. Third Edition (revised) 2000. Fourth Edition (revised) 2002. Fifth Edition (revised) 2003. Sixth Edition (revised) 2004. Seventh Edition (revised) 2004. Copyright © 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London All rights reserved under International Pan-American Copyright Conventions. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN: 0-7566-1099-0
FOREWORD T
HIS DESK REFERENCE is presented to the public in the full knowledge that the world is in a state of continual flux. Political fashions and personalities come and go, while the ebb and flow of peoples and ideas across the face of the planet creates constant shifts in the cultural landscape. All the material assembled for this book has been researched from the most up-to-date and authoritative sources; our team of consultants and contributors, designers, editors, and cartographers have endeavored not only to explain the meaning of this material, to place it in a useful and clear context, but also to present it in a way that has a lasting value and relevance, regardless of the turmoil of daily events. This new edition, bearing the imprimatur of the Financial Times, has been completely revised and updated, to reflect the global changes of the past few years. It includes the latest statistical data, and over 60 new photographs. The publishers would like to thank the many consultants and contributors whose diligence, perseverance, and attention to detail made this book possible. GENERAL CONSULTANTS Anthony Goldstone, Senior Editor Asia-Pacific, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London Professor Jack Spence, Director of Studies, The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London
REGIONAL CONSULTANTS ASIA Anthony Goldstone, London AFRICA James Hammill, Lecturer in African Politics, University of Leicester Kaye Whiteman, Editor-in-Chief, West Africa Magazine, London RUSSIA AND CIS Martin McCauley, Senior Lecturer, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA Nick Caistor, Producer, Latin American Section, BBC World Service
USA Michael Elliot, Diplomatic Editor, Newsweek, Washington DC EUROPE John Ardagh, London Rory Clarke, Senior Editor Europe, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London Charles Powell, Centre for European Studies, St Antony’s College, Oxford MIDDLE EAST John Whelan, Ex Editor-in-Chief, Middle East Economic Digest PACIFIC Jim Boutilier, Professor in History, Royal Roads Military College, Victoria, Canada
CARIBBEAN Canute James, Financial Times, Kingston, Jamaica
CONTRIBUTORS Janice Bell, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London Gerry Bourke, Asia Correspondent, The Guardian, Islamabad Vincent Cable, Director, International Economics Programme P K Clark, MA, Former Chief Map Research Officer, Ministry of Defence Ken Davies, Senior Editor, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London Roger Dunn, Analyst, Control Risks Group, London Aidan Foster-Carter, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, University of Leeds Professor Murray Forsyth, Centre for Federal Studies, University of Leicester Natasha Franklin, School of Slavonic and East European Studies, London Adam Hannestad, Blomberg Business News, Copenhagen Peter Holden, The Economist Research Department, London Tim Jones, Knight Ritter, Brussels Angella Johnstone, Home Affairs Correspondent, The Guardian, London Oliver Keserü, International Chamber of Commerce, Paris Robert Macdonald, The Economist Intelligence Unit William Mader, Former Europe Bureau Chief, Time Magazine, Washington DC Professor Brian Matthews, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, London Nick Middleton, Oriel College, Oxford Professor Mya Maung, Department of Finance, Boston College, Massachusetts Judith Nordby, Leeds University Simon Orme, London
Professor Richard Overy, Department of History, King’s College, London Steve Percy, East Asia Service, BBC World Service Douglas Rimmer, Honorary Senior Research Fellow, Centre for West African Studies, University of Birmingham Donna Rispoli, Linacre College, Oxford Ian Rodger, The Financial Times, Zürich The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London Struan Simpson, St. James Research, London Julie Smith, Brasenose College, Oxford Elizabeth Spencer, London Michiel Van Kuyen, Erasmus University, Rotterdam Steven Whitefield, Pembroke College, Oxford Georgina Wilde, Regional Director, Asia-Pacific, The Economist Intelligence Unit, London H P Willmott, Visiting Professor, Dept. of Military Strategy & Operations, The National War College, Washington DC Andrew Wilson, Sydney Sussex College, Cambridge Tom Wingfield, Reuters, Bangkok The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge Cambridge International Reference on Current Affairs (CIRCA)
C ONTENTS FOREWORD ..................................
3
CZECH REPUBLIC ...................... 216–217
THE CONTRIBUTORS .................
3
CONTENTS ...................................
4–5
DENMARK
ICON & CHART KEY ................... 6–7
2
(see also flaps on front and back cover)
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DATA SOURCES .......................... 8
1 WORLD FACTFILE THE PHYSICAL WORLD ............. THE POLITICAL WORLD ........... THE SOLAR SYSTEM .................. CLIMATE ...................................... ENVIRONMENT ........................... NORTH AMERICA ........................ SOUTH AMERICA ........................ EUROPE ........................................ AFRICA .......................................... WEST ASIA ................................... NORTH ASIA ................................. SOUTH ASIA ................................. AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA ......................... TIMELINE OF GLOBAL HISTORY .................. THE FORMATION OF THE MODERN WORLD ................... THE WORLD IN 1492 ................... THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 1492–1648 .................................. THE AGE OF EXPANSION 1648–1789 ................................. THE AGE OF REVOLUTION 1789–1830 ................................. THE AGE OF EMPIRE 1830–1914 ................................. THE AGE OF GLOBAL WAR 1914–1945 ................................. THE MODERN AGE From 1945 ................................. POPULATION ............................... THE WORLD ECONOMY ............. GLOBAL TOURISM ...................... GLOBAL SECURITY ..................... TIME ZONES ................................ WORLD CHRONOLOGY 0F 2002–2003 ............................ INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ....................
4
10–11 12–13 14–15 16–17 18–19 20–21 22–23 24–25 26–27 28–29 30–31 32–33 34–35 36–39 40–41 42–43 44–45 46–47 48–49 50–51 52–53 54–55 56–57 58–61 62–63 64–65 66–67 68–69 70–73
................................. DJIBOUTI ..................................... DOMINICA ................................... DOMINICAN REPUBLIC .............
A
FGHANISTAN ......................... ALBANIA ...................................... ALGERIA ...................................... ANDORRA .................................... ANGOLA ...................................... ANTARCTICA .............................. ANTIGUA & BARBUDA ............... ARGENTINA ................................ ARMENIA ..................................... AUSTRALIA ................................. AUSTRIA ...................................... AZERBAIJAN ...............................
B
AHAMAS ................................. BAHRAIN ..................................... BANGLADESH ............................. BARBADOS .................................. BELARUS ..................................... BELGIUM .................................... BELIZE ........................................ BENIN .......................................... BHUTAN ...................................... BOLIVIA ....................................... BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA ......... BOTSWANA ................................. BRAZIL ........................................ BRUNEI ........................................ BULGARIA ................................... BURKINA ..................................... BURMA (MYANMAR) .................. BURUNDI .....................................
C
76–79 80–81 82–85 86–87 88–89 90–91 92–93 94–97 98–99 100–105 106–109 110–111 112–113 114–115 116–119 120–121 122–125 126–129 130–131 132–133 134–135 136–139 140–141 142–143 144–149 150–151 152–155 156–157 158–161 162–163
AMBODIA ................................ 164–167 CAMEROON ................................ 168–169 CANADA ....................................... 170–175 CAPE VERDE ............................... 176–177 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC ............................... 178–179 CHAD ........................................... 180–181 CHILE .......................................... 182–185 CHINA .......................................... 186–193 COLOMBIA .................................. 194–197 COMOROS ................................... 198–199 CONGO ........................................ 200–201 CONGO, DEM. REP. .................... 202–205 COSTA RICA ................................ 206–207 CÔTE D’IVOIRE .............see IVORY COAST CROATIA ..................................... 208–209 CUBA ............................................ 210–213 CYPRUS ........................................ 214–215
E
AST TIMOR ............................. ECUADOR .................................... EGYPT .......................................... EL SALVADOR ............................. EQUATORIAL GUINEA ............... ERITREA ...................................... ESTONIA ...................................... ETHIOPIA ....................................
218–221 222–223 224–225 226–227 228–229 230–231 232–235 236–237 238–239 240–241 242–243 244–247
FIJI
............................................. 248–249 FINLAND ..................................... 250–253 FRANCE ....................................... 254–259
G
ABON ....................................... GAMBIA ....................................... GEORGIA ..................................... GERMANY .................................... GHANA ......................................... GREECE ....................................... GRENADA .................................... GUATEMALA ............................... GUINEA ....................................... GUINEA–BISSAU ......................... GUYANA .......................................
260–261 262–263 264–265 266–271 272–273 274–277 278–279 280–281 282–283 284–285 286–287
H
AITI ......................................... 288–289 HONDURAS ................................. 290–291 HUNGARY .................................... 292–295
I
CELAND .................................... INDIA ........................................... INDONESIA ................................. IRAN ............................................. IRAQ ............................................. IRELAND ...................................... ISRAEL ......................................... ITALY ........................................... IVORY COAST (CÔTE D’IVOIRE).....................
296–297 298–303 304–307 308–311 312–315 316–317 318–321 322–327 328–329
J
AMAICA .................................... 330–331 JAPAN .......................................... 332–337 JORDAN ....................................... 338–339
K
AZAKHSTAN ........................... KENYA ......................................... KIRIBATI ...................................... KOREA, NORTH ............................ KOREA, SOUTH ............................ KUWAIT ....................................... KYRGYZSTAN ..............................
LAOS
.......................................... LATVIA ........................................
340–343 344–347 348–349 350–351 352–355 356–357 358–359 360–361 362–363
LEBANON .................................... LESOTHO .................................... LIBERIA ....................................... LIBYA ........................................... LIECHTENSTEIN ........................ LITHUANIA ................................. LUXEMBOURG ...........................
364–365 366–367 368–369 370–373 374–375 376–377 378–379
MACEDONIA
............................ 380–381 MADAGASCAR ............................. 382–383 MALAWI ....................................... 384–385 MALAYSIA .................................... 386–389 MALDIVES ................................... 390–391 MALI ............................................ 392–393 MALTA ......................................... 394–395 MARSHALL ISLANDS .................. 396–397 MAURITANIA ............................... 398–399 MAURITIUS ................................. 400–401 MEXICO ....................................... 402–405 MICRONESIA ............................... 406–407 MOLDOVA ................................... 408–409 MONACO ..................................... 410–411 MONGOLIA ................................. 412–413 MOROCCO ................................... 414–417 MOZAMBIQUE ............................ 418–421 MYANMAR ............................... see BURMA
NAMIBIA
.................................... NAURU ......................................... NEPAL .......................................... NETHERLANDS .......................... NEW ZEALAND .......................... NICARAGUA ................................ NIGER .......................................... NIGERIA ...................................... NORWAY ......................................
OMAN ........................................ PAKISTAN .................................. PALAU ......................................... PANAMA ...................................... PAPUA NEW GUINEA ................. PARAGUAY ................................... PERU ............................................ PHILIPPINES ............................... POLAND ...................................... PORTUGAL ..................................
QATAR ....................................... ROMANIA ...................................
422–423 424–425 426–427 428–431 432–435 436–437 438–439 440–443 444–447 448–449 450–453 454–455 456–457 458–459 460–461 462–465 466–469 470–473 474–477 478–479
480–483 RUSSIAN FEDERATION .............. 484–491 RWANDA ...................................... 492–493
ST. KITTS & NEVIS
.................... ST. LUCIA .................................... ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES ................. SAMOA .........................................
494–495 496–497 498–499 500–501
SAN MARINO ............................... SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE ............ SAUDI ARABIA ............................ SENEGAL .................................... SERBIA & MONTENEGRO (YUGOSLAVIA) ....................... SEYCHELLES .............................. SIERRA LEONE ........................... SINGAPORE ................................. SLOVAKIA .................................... SLOVENIA ................................... SOLOMON ISLANDS .................. SOMALIA ..................................... SOUTH AFRICA ........................... SPAIN ........................................... SRI LANKA ................................... SUDAN ......................................... SURINAME .................................. SWAZILAND ................................ SWEDEN ...................................... SWITZERLAND ........................... SYRIA ............................................
T
AIWAN ..................................... TAJIKISTAN ................................. TANZANIA ................................... THAILAND ................................... TOGO ........................................... TONGA ......................................... TRINIDAD & TOBAGO ................ TUNISIA ....................................... TURKEY ....................................... TURKMENISTAN ........................ TUVALU .......................................
UGANDA
.................................... UKRAINE ..................................... UNITED ARAB EMIRATES ......... UNITED KINGDOM .................... UNITED STATES ........................ URUGUAY .................................... UZBEKISTAN ..............................
V
ANUATU .................................. VATICAN CITY ............................ VENEZUELA ............................... VIETNAM .....................................
502–503 504–505 506–509 510–511
WORLD MAP ............................... 640–641 512–515 516–517 518–519 520–521 522–523 524–525 526–527 528–529 530–533 534–537 538–539 540–541 542–543 544–545 546–549 550–553 554–557 558–561 562–563 564–565 566–569 570–571 572–573 574–575 576–579 580–583 584–585 586–587 588–589 590–593 594–595 596–601 602–609 610–613 614–617 618–619 620–621 622–625 626–629
Y
EMEN ....................................... 630–633 YUGOSLAVIA ....................... see SERBIA & MONTENEGRO
Z
AMBIA ..................................... ZIMBABWE .................................
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES & DEPENDENCIES
634–635 636–639
AMERICAN SAMOA, ANGUILLA, ARUBA, BERMUDA, BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY, BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS .... 642–643 CAYMAN ISLANDS, CHRISTMAS ISLAND, COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS, COOK ISLANDS, FAEROE ISLANDS, FALKLAND ISLANDS, FRENCH GUIANA .................. 644–645 FRENCH POLYNESIA, GIBRALTAR, GREENLAND, GUADELOUPE, GUAM, GUERNSEY, ISLE OF MAN ......................... 646–647 JERSEY, JOHNSTON ATOLL, MARTINIQUE, MAYOTTE, MIDWAY ISLANDS, MONTSERRAT, NETHERLANDS ANTILLES .. 648–649 NEW CALEDONIA, NIUE, NORFOLK ISLAND, NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS, PARACEL ISLANDS, PITCAIRN ISLANDS, PUERTO RICO ......................... 650–651 RÉUNION, ST. HELENA & DEPENDENCIES, ST. PIERRE & MIQUELON, SPRATLY ISLANDS, SVALBARD, TOKELAU, TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS, VIRGIN ISLANDS (US), WAKE ISLAND, WALLIS & FUTUNA ............... 652–653
3 GLOSSARIES GLOSSARY OF GEOGRAPHIC TERMS .............. 654–655 GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS ...........655 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND PICTURE CREDITS ..................656
COVER FLAPS KEY TO SYMBOLS, ICONS, AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE ATLAS
5
KEY
TO
CHARTS
AND I CONS
ICONS AND TREND INDICATORS vary. Not all variations are shown in the key below, but where they do occur the symbols have been “stacked.”
Date when the country’s current borders were established.
1847
Date of country’s independence, or formation.
CLIMATE
National Day
Statistics are given 30/12 30/86 for the 20/8 20/68 national 10/4 10/50 capital. 0 0/32 -10/14 They -20/-4 represent maximum summer and minimum winter averages. Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
40/104
Vehicle country identifying code
GB
Rainfall
A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
WORLD AFFAIRS
An easy indication of the population density in each country (high/medium/low).
The pie chart proportions show the religious affiliations of those who profess a belief. This pie chart illustrates the ethnic origin of the country’s population.
The country’s principal international airport with annual passenger numbers.
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Comm
Population density. This is an average over the whole country.
Indicates on which side of the road vehicles are driven in each country.
Total size of national merchant or cargo fleet.
Indication of membership of the UN (United Nations), and date of entry.
Main languages spoken, including official languages.
TRANSPORTATION
89%
11%
This graph represents the proportion of the population living in urban areas (gray) and rural areas (green). Age
Female
Male
Extent of expressways, freeways, or major highways
This chart 5.2% 6.5% 60–79 shows the 9.9% 10.3% 40–59 breakdown 14.1% 14.1% 20–39 of the 19.5% 18.9% 0–19 population % of population by age group by age groupings, providing an interesting insight into the country’s demography.
Extent of commercial rail network
POLITICS
National communications infrastructure given in kilometers and miles. Extent of national paved road network
Extent of inland waterways navigable by commercial craft
TOURISM
1%
80+
Indicators showing trend in recent visitor numbers (up/level/down). The state of Uruguay 18% each nation’s Brazil 16% tourism is Paraguay 16% explained, North America 8% with reasons Other 24% 0 30 40 given when 10 20 % of total arrivals there is no significant tourist industry. The chart shows the percentage of total visitors by country of origin. Chile 18%
6
Abbreviations indicate membership of international organizations. Nonmembership of additional international organizations.
AID Indication as to which countries are aid givers (donors) or aid recipients.
The amount of net international aid given or received is shown in US$. Undisclosed military aid is not included. Symbols indicate whether aid payments or receipts are rising, level, or declining.
DEFENSE
0.5%
Indicates the type of elections held within each country.
Dates of last and next legislative elections for Lower (L.) and Upper (U.) Houses.
The ratio of foreign visitors to population.
Number of visitors per year, including business travelers.
Internet country identifying code
.de
PEOPLE
Indication of the climatic types and zones found in each country.
International telephone dialling code
+44
Aug 2
COUNTRY PROFILES 1952
Time zone(s) of country (hours plus or minus from GMT)
+3
Name of head of state. In many cases this is a nominal position and does not indicate that this is the country’s most powerful person. A graphic representation of the political makeup of the country’s government, based on 3% Chamber of Deputies 257 seats FMP each party’s showing at the last election. 49% 18% 4% 2% 24% PJ UCR ARI PS Others Where there PJ = Justicialist Party (Peronists) UCR = Radical Civic Union–UCR ARI = Alternative for a Republic of Equals are two houses, FMP= Popular Movement Front PS = Socialist Party Senate 72 seats the more important elected body is 19% 24% 57% UCR Others PJ shown first.
An indication of the status of conscription and mandatory military service.
The defense budget, the country’s annual expenditure (in US$) on arms and military personnel. Symbols indicate if the trend in defense spending is rising, level, or declining. THE ARMED FORCES
Icons represent the main branches of the national armed forces. Army: equipment and personnel Navy: equipment and personnel Air force: equipment and personnel Nuclear capability: armaments
ECONOMICS An indication of the average rate of inflation per annum, over the period indicated.
Gross National Product (GNP) – the total value (in US$) of goods and services produced by a country. Latest midyear exchange rate against the US$, with previous year’s rate for comparison.
The score cards are intended to INFLATION.........................................5.6% give a broad UNEMPLOYMENT................................10.6% picture of the country’s economy. Gross National Product (GNP), unlike GDP, includes income from investments and businesses held abroad. Balance of payments is the difference between a country’s payments to and receipts from abroad. WORLD GNP RANKING..........................24th GNP PER CAPITA...........................$24,388 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS......................$2.2bn
ENVIRONMENT
EDUCATION
The 2002 Index of progress toward environmental sustainability, based on 22 core indicators. Compiled by the World Economic Forum taskforce.
Protected area (including marine areas) as a percentage of total land area. Protection is often theoretical.
Literacy rate. UNESCO defines as literate anyone who can read and write a short statement.
Trend in total CO2 emissions since 1990 (up/level/down) and current emissions per capita.
The number of students in all forms of tertiary education within that country.
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES 160
140
140
120
120
100
100
Ramsar: (wetlands)
Basel: (hazardous wastes)
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
CITES: (endangered
GDP 1999=100
Consumer price index 1999=100
160
species)
CBD: (biological diversity)
2003
This graph shows year-on-year variations in GDP and consumer prices.
Montreal Protocol: (CFC emissions) Kyoto: (greenhouse gases)
Indicates the average rates of television ownership across the country.
SPENDING
Severe restrictions on media freedom.
Indicates the trend in GDP per capita since 1990.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Rates of telephone landline connectivity (per 1000 head of population)
Main national newspapers
Fish catch per year.
Television services: state-owned/independent
Oil produced in barrels per day (b/d). Refining output and oil reserves are given where applicable.
Radio services: state-owned/independent
CRIME An indication of the status of capital punishment and the death penalty.
Estimated livestock resources.
Prison population statistics
Main mineral reserves are listed in descending order of economic importance.
Symbols show general trend in crime figures.
Hydro 39% (28bn kwh)
Defense 1.9% Education 3.5% Health 4.9% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Percentage of the country’s GDP that is spent by the government on defense, education, and health.
WORLD RANKING
Murders
Combustion 50% (37bn kwh) Nuclear 11% (8bn kwh) Other 0% 60
Levels of car ownership (per 1000 head of population)
National broadcast and print media, by size and ownership.
Indicates the capacity of the combined national electricity generating sources (in kilowatts).
40
Ratio of the number of people per doctor is given as a national average. Major causes of death are listed.
Partial controls or constraints on media freedom.
RESOURCES
20
An indication of the existence of health benefits provided by the state.
Media free to express critical views.
This pie chart gives a broad picture of the country’s principal import trading partners.
0
HEALTH
MEDIA
†
This pie chart gives a broad picture of the country’s principal export trading partners.
This graph shows, for 80 each level of education, 60 100% the total 40 73% enrollment, 20 36% regardless of age, as a 0 Primary Secondary Tertiary percentage of the population of the age group that officially corresponds to that level. 100
National parties to international environmental treaties.
GDP
% of each age group in education
Consumer Price Index
Displays the age until which children are legally required to attend school.
80
100
% of total generation by type
This section 4 per 100,000 population records official Rapes crime figures per 100,000 population 5 only. Reported Thefts per 100,000 population 431 statistics are normally lower than the actual figures.
Each country is ranked in the world by four key indicators and by the UN Human Position in World Development Index, which reflects 34 all-around 43 51 $7460 58 73 97% attainment 71 years 17 deaths in health, education, and wealth (covering 176 countries and GNP per capita in US$ Infant mortality per 1000 live births Life expectancy Hong Kong). Human dev. index Literacy 1st
50th
100th
Percentages of the different energy sources used for the generation of electricity are represented graphically (“Combustion” indicates the burning of fossil fuels, wood etc.). An account of the country’s resource base is given in the text.
CHRONOLOGY Beginning at a significant date in the recent history of the country, the outline chronology continues through to the present day, and highlights key dates and turning points.
150th
193rd
7
SOURCES
OF STATISTICAL DATA USED IN THIS BOOK
Airports Council International
Royal Automobile Club (RAC)
Amnesty International
UK Home Office: World Prison Population List (Research, Development, and Statistics Directorate)
Automobile Association (AA) British Petroleum (BP): World Energy Data Cambridge International Reference on Current Affairs (CIRCA) Canadian International Development Agency Commonwealth Secretariat: Small States Economic Review and Basic Statistics
United Nations (UN) Department of Economic and Social Affairs Statistics Division: United Nations Demographic Yearbook, United Nations Energy Statistics Yearbook, United Nations Industrial Commodity Statistics Yearbook, United Nations International Trade Statistics Yearbook, United Nations Statistical Yearbook
Dorling Kindersley
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
Europa World Yearbook
United Nations Development Program (UNDP): Human Development Report
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) Financial Times Fischer Weltalmanach Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS): The Military Balance International Labor Organization (ILO): World Labor Report International Monetary Fund (IMF): Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook, Government Financial Statistics Yearbook, International Financial Statistics, World Economic Outlook International Road Federation International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) International Union of Railways INTERPOL
International Crime Statistics
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping Organization for Economic Cooperation Development (OECD): Economic surveys Development Assistance Committee (DAC): Development Cooperation Report
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP): United Nations Statistical Yearbook of Asia and the Pacific United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): Statistical Yearbook United Nations Environment Program (UNEP): Ozone Secretariat Secretariat of the Basel Convention Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Secretariat of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC): Surveys on Crime Trends and the Operations of Criminal Justice Systems United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA): The State of World Population United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Bank (IBRD): World Development Indicators, World Development Report, World Bank Atlas World Conservation Monitoring Center (WCMC): Biodiversity Data Sourcebook
OECD
World Economic Forum
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
World Health Organization (WHO)
People in Power
World Tourist Organization (WTO)
Ramsar Convention Bureau
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)
Reporters without Borders
1
W ORLD
FACTFILE
WORLD FACTFILE
THE PHYSICAL WORLD
Continental plate
Plate boundary: most tectonic activity takes place here
T
s
Greenla nd
De
nm
ar
t ra i t kS Iceland
M
dl
eA me
Yucatan Peninsul a
ta
ric
a
G
re
at
Tr e
nc
Ant
s
n c h Tr e
ia
le
IC
T N
N A
A
E
d ge Ri
c
ti n
on
rc
Gough Island
Argentine Basin
tag
C
nd
Pa
O
la
s
L
gh
pa
A
n
T
cer
S Antar
Tristan da Cunha
m
E A
MOST OF THE LAND on Earth is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, though Europe and North America are the only continents that lie entirely in the north.
n H i
Pa
Juan Fernandez Islands
St Helena
dge ic Ri
e
a R i
le
Nazc
d
E
Brazil Basin
ilia
-
Planalto de Mato Grosso
Cerro Aconcagua 22,831ft
Ascension Island
s
tlant
E a s t
u i
e i s
P
i cC
f Ca Tropic o
10
h
A
OC
NO RTH AM ERICA
e
R
O
OCEAN
AMERICA
n C
c f i c i P a
R
AT L A N T I C
SOUTH
RIC
CIF IC
AF
PA U
ARCTIC OCEAN
N
ru s
A
er
nch Tre
A
E
A r ct i
Easter Island
s t E a
c ade K er m
I
Angel
Mid-A
P
i
ench
S
t
s
ger Ni
B raz
s
s ands sl k I
a Tr Tong
A
S o u t hw e s Pa c i f i c Basin
la
Guiana Basin
zon Ama
e o Co
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Cape Verde Islands
co
nd
n a
Pitcairn Islands
At
i
Am a z o n B a s i n
Pe r u Basin
Tonga
n Tropi c of Capricor
r Ant
Or
Galapagos Islands
Pu
la
y Samoa
In d i e s
inoco
dg
Is
Marquesas Islands
Madeira
h
R i s e
ne
l
OCEAN
Iberian Peninsula
Azores
Canary Islands
Guiana Falls Hi g h la nds
P a c i f i c
Li
o Phoenix Islands
i lles
n Sea
Les se
P
PA C I F I C
Bay of Biscay
We s t
er
Ca ribb ea
l
Guatemala Basin
Equator
a
Gulf of Mexico
tl
id
M
North American Basin
en
id
-A
s
Hawaii
n
lle
ds
ia ch ala App
Gr a n Ch a
la n
i Or ad re r e S i err a M d Ma l S i e r r a d ent a O cc i
ia Tropic of Cance n r Is
pi
Sonoran Desert
B a j a C al if o r n i a
ne ure Z o y Fract Murra
Ha w ai
Plains Mi s siss ip
C
R o c k y
oa
st
an
British Isles
M
g
C
oa s tM o u ts n t a i n
Shield area at center of plate: little tectonic activity occurs here
d an sl
ie ack e nz
HE EARTH’S SURFACE IS constantly being transformed: it is uplifted, folded, and faulted by tectonic forces; weathered and eroded by wind, water, and ice. Sometimes change is dramatic, the spectacular results of earthquakes or floods. More often it is a slow process lasting millions of years. A physical map of the world represents a snapshot of the ever-evolving architecture of the Earth. This terrain map shows the whole surface of the Earth, both above and below the sea. The size of the Earth can be measured in different ways. When taken from the Equator, the diameter of the Earth Oceanic plate measures 12,756 km (7927 miles); when taken from pole to pole, the diameter measures 12,714 km (7900 miles). Two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered by oceans. The landscape ARCT IC O of the ocean floor, like the surface of the land, has CEAN Chukch i Queen Beaufort Ellesmere Sea Sea Elizabeth been shaped by movements of the Earth’s crust Island Arctic Islands s k R ange Victoria Circle Broo Island M Baffin ait Baffin Mo over millions of years to form volcanic r un t t Bering S I McKinley Bay Gre at Bea r 20,321ft mountain ranges, deep trenches, basins, Lake sin Grea a t Slav e and plateaus. Ocean currents constantly Lake nB ds Péninsule ia Gulf of sl an eut ian I Hudson d'Ungava Al A l e u t Alaska Labrador redistribute warm and cold water Bay rench T n a Sea i t Aleu C around the world. The largest Vancouver a Laurentian Lake n Island d Winnipeg a d i Mountains a n S hi el ocean in the world is the es Great ce Newfoundland N O R T H Lakes awr en Pacific, which covers an area R L Grand Banks S t. s of over 181 million sq. km of A M E R I C A in a Newfoundland re Zone nt ino Fractu Great Mendoc ou (70 million sq. miles). M
O
Falkla nd Islands TierraCape del Horn Fuego age Pass ake Dr
U
T
South Georgia
South Sandwich Islands
H
N
R
E
rcle ct ic C i
A
N
T
A
WORLD FACTFILE: THE PHYSICAL WORLD
THE DYNAMIC EARTH
PHYSICAL WORLD FACTFILE
THE EARTH’S CRUST is made up of eight major (and several minor) rigid continental and oceanic tectonic plates, which constantly move relative to one another. It is this movement which causes volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and sometimes tsunamis along the plate boundaries. The largest volcanoes formed by this process are Aconcagua in Argentina at 6959 m (22,831 ft) and Kilimanjaro in Tanzania at 5895 m (19,340 ft), both of which are now extinct. Plate tectonics are responsible for the formation of the Himalayas – which were created by two colliding plates – and the Hawaiian Islands, created by the Pacific plate’s movement over a “hot spot” of magma.
ch
a n g He
ze)
nd Hi
I nd
Northwest Pacific Basin
Ryukyu Islands
Tropic of Cancer
h
Tr a
Se
a
Solomon Islands
Arafura Sea
in g Range
Vanuatu
Coral Sea
Fiji
D
g in
r
e
D
l ar
iv
id
New Caledo nia Tr opic of Capricorn
a
t
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
n
Mou nt Coo k 12,2 83ft
S A
LI
A
A
Campbell Plateau
AU
R
e
T
AFR
OU
THE
R N
S
O
ct i A n t ar
c
CEAN
IC
OCEANS DOMINATE the Southern Hemisphere. Australia and Antarctica are the only continental landmasses that lie entirely in the south.
F
N
e
ANTARCTICA
r cl
dg
DIAN IN EAN C O
IC
ia
Ne w Bass Strait Ta s m a n Zealand Sea Tasm ania South Island
OC EAN
Ridge
M
Equator
a
e
Ne w Gui ne a
yea
st
or
l
Ci
R i d g e
E a s t I n d i e s
net
A
el
r sca
ga
eC han n
da
Ma
am biq u
oz
enc
ts
ha E a s t e rn G
Nil e
M
Ni
an
ic
Sc
S ea
g er
sb
e
North Island
d
Antarc tic Cir cle
A
e
a
C
A
n
a
E
Marshall Islands
o
IC NT ATLA AN OCE
C
Java Sea Java
G
Ri Kerguelen
r
i
Crozet Islands
Central Pacific Basin
n
Great Sandy Desert
st
ains
c
Celeb es
Tim
th
unt
s
OCEAN
In
i
M
Great Victor ia Desert a r b or P l a i Nu l l n
a
Mo
i
u
if i c
OCEAN
AU S T R A L I A
o
ac
M
Reef Gr ea t Barrier
n
n
B or ne o
e
S
-P
s
INDIAN
id
PA C I F I C
h Tr e n c
Cocos Basin
Maria
ine
i a
g
M
pp
Malay Peninsula
ra
e
d
d
Maria na Island s
e
t h
w
s t
I n
i
Philippine Islands
at
i
R
u
Sri Lanka
South I ndia n Ba sin
I
s
m
ey
Mauritius
Bouvet Island
T
East China Sea
Shiko Kyushu
South China Sea
Su
ll
Desert
S
o
Andaman Islands
Maldive Islands
Réunion
n ke
Cape of Good Hope
O
nt
Philippine Sea
ats
V
mib
Dra
Japan
g
Nicobar Islands
Lake Nyasa
Na
Kalahari Desert
r
ian g J g ( Ya n
ou
Honshu
M
B ay of B e nga l
Lake Tanganyika
Zambez
ive
am
i li
Gh
Lake Victoria
a
Or a nge R
Se
Ph
rn
n Ade
Kilimanjaro 19,340ft Seychelles
Va l l e y
G r eat Rift
Angola Basin
C
st e
Arabian Basin
of Somali Africa Plain
I C A
Congo Basin
R
We
a
R
Congo
Cape Basin
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
on ek
Se
F
r
en Tr
d
of
G u lf
D e c c an
Arabian Sea
Ethiopian Highlands Horn t Great Rif
A
Gulf of Guinea
ges
ro
n
Re
er t
Arabian Peninsula
Lake Chad
a aw d s n am la Ad i g h H
Mount Everest 29,035ft
pe
Taiwan
Des
S a h e l
an
Em
Hokkaido
r) Yellow Great Sea Plain of China
a l a y a s
G
Thar D es er t
n Tr e n ch
ni
an
Tibesti
Gobi
n M ou n t a i n H u s n lu Plateau of Tib e t
us
l
Ma nch ur ian Pla in
i ns
sin
u ti a
(3710 mi.) (3461 mi.)
f
by
Ahaggar
Ku
nB a
Al e
Sakhal
Am ur
(Yellow
im
t ia
ka
(4049 mi.) (3915 mi.)
LARGEST DESERTS 1 Sahara . . . . 9,065,000 km2 (3,263,400 mi2) 2 Australian . 3,750,000 km2 (1,350,000 mi2) 3 Gobi . . . . . . 1,295,000 km2 (466,200 mi2) 4 Arabian . . . . 750,000 km2 (270,000 mi2) 5 Sonoran . . . . 311,000 km2 (111,960 mi2)
Bo
T
Li
S a h a r a
Gu
H
eu
ch Tren
Iranian s Plateau
ts
he
nta
at
rile
ro
M ou
ch
e
ag
M
Syrian Desert Dead Sea
Sea
s m ir Pa u s h K u
Sea
Z
Al
am
Ri v
El'brus 18,510ft
o
Ku
us
lt a i
2 Amazon . . . . . . . . . . 6516 km 3 Chang Jiang . . . . . . 6299 km 4 Mississippi /Missouri . . . . . . . . . 5969 km 5 Ob’-Irtysh . . . . . . . . 5570 km
K
C
an
an
cas
og
A
I
S
Lake Balkhash Sh a n Tien
pi
ne
Aral Sea as
Black Sea n Mts lka Ba at o l i a An
AA
LONGEST RIVERS
rcle
sk
(29,035 ft) (28,253 ft) (28,169 ft) (27,766 ft) (26,906 ft)
1 Nile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6695 km (4160 mi.)
Arctic Ci
Lake Baikal
ns
ra
C au
be t C h er
Sea of Okhotsk
O b’
ai
Mont Blanc 15,770ft
na
nt
l
E
P
n ia s t h a in
a Danu b e Moun t ps
Mediter
Volg a
O
UCarp R
Mts
n
submarine regions
berian East Si Sea
i a S i b e r
ou
n
l M
a lt pe Ba ro Eu Nort h
P
i la
mountain
hot desert
Le
Central Siberian Plateau
We s t Siber ian Plain
ra
E
Kara Sea
Barents Sea
ia
U
di
v na
needleleaf forest broadleaf forest cultivated land
Khr e
i d - I n d i a n
Norwegian Sea
tropical grassland tropical rainforest
tundra
New Siberian Islands
Laptev Sea
cold desert
gt
Novaya Zemlya
Spitsbergen
North Sea
Franz Josef ya Land Severnalya Zem
ice
C ha n
ARCTIC OCEAN
HIGHEST MOUNTAINS 1 Everest . . . . . . . . . . . . 8850 m 2 K2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8611 m 3 Kangchenjunga I . . . 8590 m 4 Makalu I . . . . . . . . . . 8463 m 5 Cho Oyu . . . . . . . . . . 8201 m
GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
AM S O U ER TH IC A
PA Tropic of
Ca p
C
I
orn ric
11
WORLD FACTFILE
THE POLITICAL WORLD new states on gaining independence moved peacefully N 2002, EAST TIMOR joined the international to establish a democracy, many others have been torn community, becoming the world’s 193rd recognized by religious or ethnic conflicts or became submerged independent state. In 1950 there were only 82. With the in power struggles resulting in dictatorship by a military exception of Antarctica, where territorial claims have regime or an individual despot. been deferred by international treaty, every land area of the Earth’s surface either belongs to, or is claimed by, one country or another. Some 60 overseas dependent territories remain, administered variously by Australia, Denmark, France, the Netherlands, New Zealand, ARC O C ET I C Norway, the UK, and the US. Over the last halfAN A r c tic Circ century, national self-determination has le A l a sk Greenland Jan Mayen Baffin (part of a (to Norway) US)) been a driving force for many states Bay with a history of colonialism or Berin g Se a ICELAND oppression. While some Hudson Faeroe Islands
I
(to Denmark)
Bay
A
D
(to Denmark) UNITED KINGDOM
A
Lake Winnipeg
IRELAND Isle of Man (to UK) Channel Islands (to UK) FRANCE
St Pierre & Miquelon (to France)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Bermuda (to UK)
Guadalupe (part of Mexico)
Tropic of Cancer
MEXICO
Gulf of Mexico
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Canary Islands (part of Spain)
BAHAMAS
WESTERN SAHARA (disputed)
Turks & Caicos Is (to UK)
Hawaii (part of US)
Puerto Rico (to US) Virgin Is British Virgin Is (to UK) Cayman Is (to US) Anguilla (to UK) DOM. (to UK) HAITI REP. ANTIGUA & BARBUDA JAMAICA ST KITTS & NEVIS BELIZE Navassa I. Guadeloupe (to France) Montserrat (to US) DOMINICA GUATEMALA (to UK) Martinique (to France) HONDURAS C a r i b b e a n S e a Netherlands Antilles ST LUCIA (to Neth.) EL SALVADOR ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES Aruba BARBADOS NICARAGUA (to Neth.) GRENADA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO COSTA RICA
Clipperton Island (to French Polynesia)
VENEZUELA
Kingman Reef (to US) Palmyra Atoll (to US)
C
O
R
U SENEGAL GAMBIA
MALI BURKINA
GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA SIERRA LEONE
IVORY COAST LIBERIA (CÔTE D’IVOIRE)
SURINAME
COLOMBIA
C
A
CAPE VERDE
GU YA N A
PANAMA
O
M
Revillagigedo Islands (part of Mexico)
SPAIN
IT
CUBA
Johnston Atoll (to US)
French Guiana (to France)
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
Jarvis I (to US)
Galapagos Is (part of Ecuador)
ECUADOR Fernando de Noronha (part of Brazil)
KIRIBATI
B
IR
P
K
R
A
Z
I
L
Ascension (to St Helena)
E
IB T
R
A
Tokelau (to NZ)
AT L A NT IC O C E A N St Helena
I
U
Wallis & SAMOA Futuna (to France) American Samoa Cook TO (to US) NG Islands A (to NZ)
PACIFIC OCEAN
BOLIVIA
G
A
San Felix Island (part of Chile) San Ambrosio Island (part of Chile)
I L
Juan Fernandez Islands (part of Chile)
E
N T I E N A R G
ds
Easter Island (part of Chile)
Sala y Gomez (part of Chile)
U
AY
H
Pitcairn Islands (to UK) Kermadec Islan (part of NZ)
(to UK) Trindade (part of Brazil)
R
C
Niue (to NZ)
Lake Titicaca
PA
French Polynesia (to France)
Tropic of Capricorn
OLDEST COUNTRIES
PORTUGAL
Gibraltar (to UK) Ceuta (part of Spain) Melilla (part of Spain) Madeira (part of Portugal)
O
Midway Islands (to US)
Baker & Howland Is (to US) Equator
Azores (part of Portugal)
M
PACIFIC OCEAN
NA
N
R
A
GHA
C
IA
)
AN
f US Ale utian Is (part o
URUGUAY
Tristan da Cunha (to St Helena)
Gough Island (part of Tristan da Cunha)
A
Denmark 950 CE
China 960 CE
Chatham Islands (part of NZ)
Falkland Islands (to UK)
Portugal 1139 CE
South Shetland Islands
S le
tic Circ
Antarc
France 987 CE
12
Thailand 1238 CE
Peter I Island (to Norway)
O
U
South Georgia & South Sandwich Islands (to UK)
South Orkney Islands
T
H
E A
WORLD FACTFILE: THE POLITICAL WORLD
KEY
Arctic
Circle
T I O N F E D E R A
N
ED
E
W
AY
Barents Sea
R U S S I A N
FINLAND
SW
NOR
I
T
C
R
A
N
A
E
C
O
C
Se
EST.
a
of
O
POLAND BELARUS GERMANY LUX CZECH UKRAINE REP. SLOVAK LIECH K A Z A K H S TA N AUSTRIA MOLDOVA Lake HUNGARY Aral Balkhash SWITZ. Sea SLOVENIA C ROMANIA a CROATIA s MONACO UZB Black Sea B-H EK KYRGYZSTAN BULGARIA SAN MARINOI T I GEORGIA ST A A LY ANDORRA T U RK MACEDONIA N ARMENIA ME TAJIKISTAN NI VATICAN ALBANIA GREECE TURKEY S TA AZERBAIJAN CITY N
kh
ot
s ile I Kur ss. Fed.) Ru (to
Lake Baikal
LAT. DENMARK RUSS. LITH. FED.
sk
NETH.
BELG
I A M O N G O L
& S.
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
NORTH KOREA
pi
. ON M
an
Se
ST AN
a
HA
IRAQ
I R A N
G
ST
PA
EGYPT
e
KUWAIT
ul
R
BAHRAIN QATAR
f
d
AN
Arabian Sea
N
Socotra (part of Yemen)
DJIBOUTI
A
NG
ND
UG
Northern Mariana Is (to US)
PHILIPP INES
South China Sea
CAMBODIA
Guam (to US)
BRUNEI
MALDIVES
Equator
SINGAPORE NAURU
N
D
O
N
E
S
I
A
SEYCHELLES British Indian Ocean Territory (to UK)
Mayotte (to France)
MALAWI
AR
E
IBI
GA DA
MAURITIUS
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Coral Sea Islands (to Australia)
Rodrigues (part of Mauritius)
FIJI
New VANUATU Caledonia (to France)
OCEAN
A
MA
AM
MO
N
Réunion (to France)
EAST TIMOR Ashmore & Cartier Islands (to Australia)
INDIAN
Tromelin (part of Réunion)
SC
B
U
M
IQ
ZA
ZIMBABWE
Christmas Island Cocos (to Australia) (Keeling) Islands (to Australia)
Agalega Islands (part of
COMOROS
ANGOLA
KIRIB ATI PA P U A NEW GUINEA
Java Sea
TANZANIA
ZAMBIA
MICRONESIA
PA L A U
M A L A Y S I A
I
Cabinda (part of Angola)
MARSHALL ISLANDS
Spratly Is (disputed)
S
RWANDA BURUNDI
BOTSWANA
THAILAND
KE NYA
A
O
DEM. REP. CONGO
CO
IA
M
RO ME GABON
SAO TOME & PRINCIPE
Wake Island (to US)
SRI LANKA Nicobar Is (part of India)
AL
ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
CA
TOGO
Andaman Is (part of India)
Laccadive Is (part of India)
O
ON
NIGERIA
Tropic of Cancer
Paracel Is (disputed) NAM
E
Bay of Bengal
ET
M
Ryukyu Is (part of Japan)
VI
a YE
P A C I F I C O C E A N
BURMA (MYANMAR) LAOS
I N D I A
M
e
O
ERITREA
SUDAN
EP A L
BHUTAN
TAIWAN
SAUDI ARABIA
S
CHAD
A
BANGLADESH
UAE
e
NIGER
N
JAPAN
SOUTH KOREA
VA L
LIBYA
N
KI
A Th
ALGERIA
I
H
C
Ale u t ( pa r t ia n I s. o f U S)
AN
NI
SYRIA
CYPRUS
FG
T UNI SIA
MALTA
M e d i t e r r a n e a n LEBANON Sea ISRAEL
JORDAN
BENIN
1 China: 14 (Afghanistan, Bhutan, Burma, India, Kazakhstan, North Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Vietnam) Russian Federation: 14 (Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Kazakhstan, North Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Mongolia, Norway, Poland, Ukraine) 2 Brazil: 10 (Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela)
U
Gough Island (part of Tristan da Cunha)
COUNTRIES WITH THE MOST LAND BORDERS
BOUNDARIES BETWEEN states fall into three categories. Full borders are internationally recognized territorial boundaries. Undefined borders exist where no fixed boundary has been demarcated. A disputed border is where a de facto boundary exists which is not agreed upon or is subject to arbitration. Disputed borders exist throughout the world, such as the land borders between India and China and between Ethiopia and Eritrea, and the maritime border between Samoa and American Samoa.
TU
Tristan da Cunha (to St Helena)
Svalbard (to Norway)
INTERNATIONAL BORDERS
Full borders Disputed borders Undefined borders Extent of dependent island territories Extent of country boundaries for island territories Dependent territory with self-government Territory without self-government (the state it belongs to is given in brackets)
Tropic of Capricorn
SWAZILAND
A U S T R A L I A
LESOTHO
SOUTH AFRICA
Norfolk Island (to Australia) Lord Howe Island (part of Australia )
YOUNGEST COUNTRIES
Amsterdam Island St Paul Island
Prince Edward Islands (part of South Africa)
Crozet Islands
Bouvet Island (to Norway)
R N
A
O R
C
T
(all territorial claims are held in abeyance under the 1959 Antarctic Treaty)
I
C C
A
D
East Timor 2002
Kerguelen
Bounty Isla nds (pa Auckland Antipodes rt of NZ) nds (pa Isla (part of Isla rt of NZ)nds NZ) Campbe ll (part of Island Macqua NZ) (part of rie Island Australi a)
Heard & McDonald Islands
N T
NEW ZEALAN
French Southern & Antarctic Territories (to France)
E
A
N Antarc
Slovakia 1993
Palau 1994
Czech Rep. 1993
Eritrea 1993
tic Circ
le
13
WORLD FACTFILE
MARS Diameter: 6786 km Mass: 642 billion billion tons Temperature: –137 to 37°C Distance from Sun: 228 million km Length of year: 1.88 years Surface gravity: 1 kg = 0.38 kg
EARTH Diameter: 12,756 km Mass: 5976 billion billion tons Temperature: –70 to 55°C Distance from Sun: 150 million km Length of year: 365.25 days Surface gravity: 1kg = 1 kg
VENUS Diameter: 12,102 km Mass: 4870 billion billion tons Temperature: 457°C Distance from Sun: 108 million km Length of year: 224.7 days Surface gravity: 1 kg = 0.88 kg
THE EARTH GASES SUCH AS CARBON dioxide are known as “greenhouse gases” because they prevent shortwave solar radiation from entering the Earth’s atmosphere, but help to stop longwave radiation from escaping. This traps heat, raising the Earth’s temperature. An excess of these gases traps more heat and can lead to global warming.
Incoming shortwave solar radiation Greenhouse gases prevent the escape of longwave radiation
Longwave radiation deflected by the Earth heats the atmosphere
MERCURY Diameter: 4878 km Mass: 330 billion billion tons Temperature: –173 to 427°C Distance from Sun: 58 million km Length of year: 87.97 days Surface gravity: 1 kg = 0.38 kg
THE SOLAR SYSTEM T
HE SOLAR SYSTEM CONSISTS of the nine major planets, their moons, the asteroids, and the comets that orbit around the Sun. The Sun itself is composed of 70% hydrogen and 30% helium, and at its core nuclear fusion reactions turning hydrogen into helium produce the heat and light which make life possible on Earth. Of the planets, the inner four (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) are termed terrestrial, while the next four (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) are termed gas giants. Pluto, at the edge of the solar system, is much smaller, and made of rock. The largest natural satellite in the Solar System is Ganymede (5262 km – 3270 miles – in diameter), which orbits around Jupiter, the largest planet. Halley’s comet is the brightest comet when seen from Earth, and orbits the Sun once every 76 years. The largest asteroid is named Ceres (940 km – 584 miles – in diameter), which is found in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. The planet Earth is unique within the solar system (and possibly the universe), being the only planet capable of sustaining life.
14
JUPITER Diameter: 142,984 km Mass: 1,900,000,000 billion billion tons Temperature: –153°C Distance from Sun: 778 million km Length of year: 11.86 years Surface gravity: 1 kg = 2.53 kg
WORLD FACTFILE: SOLAR SYSTEM
SATURN Diameter: 120,660 km Mass: 570,000 billion billion tons Temperature: –185°C Distance from Sun: 1427 million km Length of year: 29.46 years Surface gravity: 1 kg = 1.07 kg
URANUS Diameter: 51,118 km Mass: 102,000 billion billion tons Temperature: –214°C Distance from Sun: 2870 million km Length of year: 84.01 years Surface gravity: 1 kg = 0.92 kg
MOON AND TIDES TIDES ARE CREATED by the pull of the Sun’s and the Moon’s gravity on the surface of the oceans. Waves are formed by wind blowing over the surface of the oceans. The highest tides occur when the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are aligned (below left). The lowest tides are experienced when the Sun and Moon align at right angles to one another (below right). LOWEST HIGH TIDES
HIGHEST HIGH TIDES
NEAR SIDE OF THE MOON
NEPTUNE Diameter: 49,528 km Mass: 13 billion billion tons Temperature: –225°C Distance from Sun: 4497 million km Length of year: 164.79 years Surface gravity: 1 kg = 1.18 kg
Earth Moon Sun
PLUTO
Tidal bulge created by gravitational pull
Diameter: 2300 km Mass: 13 billion billion tons Temperature: –236°C Distance from Sun: 5900 million km Length of year: 248.54 years Surface gravity: 1 kg = 0.30 kg
FAR SIDE OF THE MOON
Timeline of Space Exploration 1957: USSR launches Apr 12, 1961: Feb 13, 1966: Sputnik I - first Yuri Gagarin (USSR) Luna 9 first probe artificial satellite first person in space to land on Moon
1955
1960
Oct 10, 1959: Luna 3 sends back first pictures of dark side of the Moon
1976: Missions of Viking 1 and 2 analyze surface of Mars
1970
Jul 10, 1962: Launch of Jul 21, 1969: Neil Armstrong Telstar I, first commercial and Buzz Aldrin first people communications satellite to land on Moon
Feb 20, 1986: Launch of space station Mir
1980
Jan 28, 1986: Challenger shuttle explodes; all seven crew members killed
Apr 24, 1990: 2001: Near probe lands on Eros asteroid. Mir brought to earth. Launch of Hubble Space Dennis Tito is first space tourist. 100th shuttle mission completed Telescope
1990
Aug 25, 1989: Voyager 2 probe passes Neptune on way out of Solar System
2000
1998: Launch of first part of International Space Station
2003: Columbia space shuttle explodes. Three separate missions launched to Mars: ESA’s Mars Express, NASA’s Rovers, and Japan’s Nozomi. First Chinese manned space flight
2010
2005: Cassini probe to land on Titan (Saturn’s largest moon)
15
WORLD FACTFILE
Ar c ti
c C i rc le
ook Chin ary Ja n u
Ja nu ary s M ay– Ju ly
nt
Equator
C o u n t e r
C u r r e n t
nu
Jul
ly Ju r e nt
ur
S T
l u
h
N O R T H Eq
ua
tor
ial
Current
E A S T y
T R A D E S
June
Equatoria
l Current
El
S O U T H
Jul y
Ni (H
T R A D E S
m bo ld
t) Cu nt
Pampero
rre
s
20 to 30°C (68 to 86°F) above 30°C (86°F)
I E S T E R L W E S We s t
An
AVERAGE JANUARY TEMPERATURE
n
W i n d
e c C irc l tar ct i
AVERAGE JULY RAINFALL
t
C u rr e
n Tr o p i c o f C a pric or
u
AVERAGE JULY TEMPERATURE
er u
-10 to 0°C (14 to 32°F) 0 to 10°C (32 to 50°F) 10 to 20°C (50 to 68°F)
ño
P
E A S T
d F a l k l a n
South
THE WORLD CAN BE DIVIDED into three major climatic zones, stretching like large belts across the latitudes: the tropics which are warm, the cold polar regions, and the temperate zones which lie between them. Temperature is also controlled by altitude: mountainous regions are typically colder than those at sea level.
16
a
a ry
El Niño
TEMPERATURE
below - 30°C (-22°F) -30 to - 20°C (-22 to -4°F) -20 to - 10°C (-4 to 14°F)
e
r
G
No
rth er
ia C urr e
Californ
Warm Cold Seasonal* * (seasonal winds which can either be warm or cold)
T R A D E S
E q u a t o r i a l
rt
o
Warm Cold
N
Warm Cold
LOCAL WINDS
ch ar
PREVAILING OCEAN CURRENTS WINDS
S
t
rC rado Lab m W E
f
r
Ja
Doldrums
be r– M
ds
Mediterranean Semi-arid Arid Tropical Humid equatorial
m
zar
Ice cap Tundra Subarctic Cool continental Warm humid
July
Bliz
CLIMATE ZONES
Cur
July
De ce
July
rial Northern Equato
P
Jan u a r y
T
HE EARTH’S CLIMATIC REGIONS consist of stable patterns of weather conditions averaged out over a long period of time. July Different climates are categorized according to particular t ren combinations of temperature and humidity. By contrast, Cur Alaska weather consists of short-term fluctuations in wind, W E S T E R L I E S temperature, and humidity conditions. Different r en t f i c Cur i c a Nor th P climates are determined by latitude, altitude, the prevailing wind, and circulation of ocean currents. Longer-term changes in climate, such as global warming or the onset of ice ages, are punctuated by shorter-term events which N O R T H Tr o p i c o f C comprise the day-to-day weather of a an ce r region, such as frontal depressions, E A S T hurricanes, and blizzards. t en
Tornadoe
THE CLIMATE
Drif t
P
WORLD FACTFILE: THE CLIMATE
r Ju
n
i
S
ro
Ja
A
h
J a n ua ry
S o u t hw e st
n M o n s o o
y
ur
ul b
ary
Monso
er Tr o p i c o f C a n c
ct
ob
rt
nu
h
Equ
er
atorial Current
N O R T H
Ju
he
Ja
ly
nu
ar
as
y
ent
ar
H
ch
T
s
U
S
u
ar
y
en t
E
n
y
Qu ee ns la Tro pi c of Ca pr i co r n nd
Ja n
ua
ry
st
ra
J a nuar
D
J a n u ary
A
T
nC urr
R
S
lia
ng
A
es
ue
E
n ica rr Hu
ary
S ou t h E quatorial C u rr en t so on O ct ob
on
e
O
Equator
tM
–M
Equatorial Cu rr
S
T
Be
ut
Doldrums
er
h out
Ja Ja n u
Ju
ly es
u tA
Ju
ly
Ju
D rif t
ly
W ind
Ju
ly
t
T R A D E S
h
c
a
So
li
ly
M
r
il
ly
Ju
M o n s o o n
N o r t h e a s t
W Wes t
r – b e t o O c
y
ar
ary nu
nu
S
Ja n u a r y
t
W
la Current
en
Equatorial Counter Curren en
ly
z il
rr
ly
T R A D E S
Cu
Doldrums
Ju
E A S T
Bra
Ja
Ja
S O U T H
E A S T
er
il
rr
t
n
Count
W
ial Cur ren
t
rial
Ju
Cu
Equator
Ja
to
ry
uth
Eq
ua
Doldrums So
ua
Jan ua
ry
J ul
y
Ju
ly
Ja
ab
o
–O
o
if t
oo
ry
Dr
H
ua
ly
y
C
ar y
N
Jan
n
tan
nu
Ju
July
a
at
ly
on
J
r
rm
Ju
ho
re
K
Ja n uary r e n t r Cu o w
p Ty
o
J a n ua ry
p
si
am
c
ly
Ku
Ju ly
ua r y
n
er
Ja n
Ja
ly
y
c
Ju
Ja n u a r y
ary
ly
Jul
nt
J
uary
u an
a ry
ry
ly
y
ly
July
S i r o
Ju
ra Bo Ju Ete ne sia –O n ct ob
Bo
ra
Föh n
Mistra l
Jan
ua
Ju
Jul
n
H
C
an
ary J a nu
a n B u r
nu
Jan
ri lS e p tembe
J u ly
E R L I E S
a
y
t if
c
t
Jul Ja
Ju
N
A
ir cle A r c ti c C
ly
ti
h
t or
la
S
E
I
L
R
E
T
S
A
E
D
r
R
Ju
A
ry
L
ua
O
W
E
S
T
E
Wes t
R
L
I
E
S
W i nd
Dr ift
CLIMATE FACTFILE O
L
A
R
E
0–25 mm (0–1 in) 25–50 mm (1–2 in) 50–100 mm (2–4 in)
A
S
T
E
100–200 mm (4–8 in) 200–300 mm (8–12 in) 300–400 mm (12–16 in)
R
Anta r ct
L
I
E
ic C irc le
S
400–500 mm (16–20 in) above 500 mm (20 in)
AVERAGE JANUARY RAINFALL
DRIEST INHABITED PLACES 1 Aswân (EGYPT) 0.5 mm ....... (0.02 in) 2 Luxor (EGYPT) 0.7 mm ....... (0.03 in) 3 Arica (CHILE) 1.1 mm ....... (0.04 in) 4 Ica (PERU) 2.3 mm ......... (0.1 in) 5 Antofagasta (CHILE) 4.9 mm ..........(0.2 in)
RAINFALL
WETTEST INHABITED PLACES
WHEN AIR IS HEATED, it expands, rises, and cools, and the water vapor it carries condenses to form clouds. Heavy, regular rainfall is characteristic of the equatorial region, while the poles, being cold, receive only slight snowfall. Tropical regions have marked dry and rainy seasons, while in temperate regions rainfall is unpredictable.
1 Buenaventura (COLOMBIA) 6734 mm ..... (266 in) 2 Monrovia (LIBERIA) 5131 mm ..... (202 in) 3 Pago Pago (AMERICAN SAMOA) 4990 mm ..... (197 in) 4 Moulein (BURMA) 4852 mm ..... (191 in) 5 Lae (PAPUA NEW GUINEA) 4645 mm ..... (183 in)
17
WORLD FACTFILE
THE ENVIRONMENT
BIODIVERSITY
T
HE EARTH CAN BE DIVIDED into a series of biogeographic regions, or biomes – ecological communities where certain species of plant and animal coexist within particular climatic conditions. Within these broad classifications, other factors affect the local distribution of species in each biome, including soil richness, altitude, and human activities such as urbanization, intensive agriculture, and deforestation. Apart from the polar ice caps, there are few areas which have not been colonized by animals or plants over the course of the Earth’s history. Because of all animals’ reliance on plants for survival, plants are known as primary producers. The availability of nutrients and the temperature of an area define its primary productivity, which affects the number and type of animals which are able to live there; the level of humidity or aridity is also a determining factor.
THE NUMBER OF PLANT AND ANIMAL SPECIES, and the range of genetic diversity within the populations of each species, make up the Earth’s biodiversity. The plants and animals which are endemic to a region – that is, those which are found nowhere else in the world – are also important in determining levels of biodiversity. Human settlement and intervention have encroached on many areas of the world once rich in endemic plant and animal species. Increasing international efforts are being made to monitor and conserve the biodiversity of the Earth’s remaining wild places.
Arctic Ci
rcle
C
in
ns
ins
S h i e ld
N o rt
u hE
ro
a pe
n
Pl
a
eat
K
Pla
ia n
Mediterr
Gr
y M oun tai
ad
n
ck
Ca
Ro
I
T
C
R
A
AT L A N T I C
an
ghiz
Sea n ia ab ula Ar ins n Pe
Tropic of Cancer
ane
ir
OCEAN S a h a r a C a rib bea n S ea
Sahel
P A C I F I C Equator
Congo Basin
A ma zo n B a sin
co
O C E A N
nC ha
AT L A N T I C Kalahari Desert
OCEAN
Gr a
Tropic of Capricorn
Pa
m
p
as
S rc le c ti c Ci An t a r
18
O
U
T
H
E
R A
N N
O T
A
C R
E C
T
A I
WORLD FACTFILE: THE ENVIRONMENT
ANIMAL ADAPTATION
ANIMALS
THE DEGREE OF AN ANIMAL’S ADAPTABILITY to different climates and conditions is extremely important in ensuring its success as a species. Many animals, particularly the largest mammals, are becoming restricted to ever-smaller regions as human development and agricultural practices reduce their natural habitats. In contrast, humans have been responsible – deliberately and accidentally – for the spread of some of the world’s most successful species, many of which now outnumber the indigenous animal populations.
PLANTS
Number of animal species per country More than 2000 1000–1999 700–999
C
O
E
A
400–699 200–399 100–199
0–99 Data not available
N rcle
Arctic Ci
a S i b e r i
S t e pp
Number of plant species per country More than 50,000 7000–49,999 3000–6999
2000–2999 1000–1999 600–999
0–599 Data not available
PLANT ADAPTATION
e
Gobi H
im
al
aya
s
Tropic of Cancer
ca
n
Thar Desert
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, such as climate, soil type, and competition with other organisms, influence the development of plants into distinctive forms. Similar conditions in different parts of the world create similar adaptations in the plants, which may then be modified by other, local, factors specific to the region.
Dec
ENVIRONMENT FACTFILE PACIFIC
LARGEST PROTECTED AREAS (Land and marine, as percentage of land area)
OCEAN
Dominican Republic . . . . .174% Tuvalu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132% Seychelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111% Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69% Venezuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64%
Equator
INDIAN
HIGHEST ANNUAL DEFORESTATION Brazil 24,130 km2 . (9317 mi2) Indonesia 11,000 km2 . (4247 mi2) Sudan 9590 km2 . . .(3711 mi2) 8510 km2 . . .(3293 mi2) Zambia 6310 km2 . . .(2436 mi2) Mexico
OCEAN Great Victoria Desert
Trop ic of Capricorn
DESCRIBED SPECIES BIOME TYPES
N Antar c t
C
A
ic C ir c le
Mountains Polar regions Tundra Tropical rainforests Dry woodlands Savanna Temperate grasslands Mediterranean Coniferous forests Temperate rainforests Broadleaf forests Cold deserts Hot deserts Wetlands
Invertebrates . . . . . . . .1,190,200 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322,500 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28,100 Reptiles & amphibians . .13,712 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9932 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4842 THREATENED SPECIES
Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6774 Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . .1959 Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1194 Mammals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1130 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .750 Reptiles & amphibians . . . . .450
19
a
Line of cross-section
Sea Level
200m/656ft
1000m/3281ft
2000m/6562ft
3000m/9843ft
4000m/13 124ft
LAND HEIGHT
under 50 000
over 50 000
over 100 000
over 500 000
over 1 000 000
over 5 000 000
POPULATION
insu l
a
P
Portland
Seattle
A
C
r a S i e r
I
CALI
FOR
F
I
C
Phoenix
ARIZONA
Denver
WYOMING
O F
R
A
Chicago
Milwaukee
WISCONSIN
ts
Hud
U
so
n
T
tL
ce
Québec Montréal OTTAWA
VIRGINIA
it
a
Lab
a v a d N e
NIA
KENTUCKY
M
WASHINGTON DC
VIRGINIA
ra
do
MASSACHUSETTS
NOVA SCOTIA NEW HAMPSHIRE
Halifax
r
F LA OU BR N A
NUUK
NEW
PRINCE EDWARD I. NEW BRUNSWICK
Sept Iles
MAINE
Labrador City
ra
Q U E B E C
A
St
Iqaluit
D
(to Denmark)
GREENLAND
Boston Buffalo rie RHODE ISLAND L. E Cleveland New York CONNECTICUT PENNSYLVANIA ILLINOIS Philadelphia OHIO Pittsburgh NEW JERSEY INDIANA St Louis Cincinnati DELAWARE Baltimore o MARYLAND i WEST h O Detroit
i
Péninsule d' ungava
ff
B ay
S NEW Toronto L.Ontario YORK
L. Huron
Sault Saint Marie
James Bay
V
Ba
B af f i n
Hudson
OKLAHOMA e d
D Bay
S T A T E S MISSOURI
A
Hudson
Great Lakes
or uperi L. S
Thunder Bay
St Paul
N
Southampton I.
U
Devon I.
O N T A R I O
A
N
Somerset I.
Cornwallis I.
Prince of Wales I.
North Pole
eth Is lands
C
zab
N
Bathurst I.
Eli
I
A M E R I C A
KANSAS
IOWA Omaha
Kansas City
NEBRASKA
Minneapolis
SOUTH DAKOTA
P r a i r i e s MINNESOTA
Lake Winnipeg
A
een
Churchill
Victoria I.
N
Qu
E
T
Melville I.
C
MANITOBA
Winnipeg
NORTH DAKOTA
Regina
C
Banks I.
Great Slave Lake
Saskatoon
U N ICOLORADO T E D
s
s
C
n
U T A H
Salt Lake City
i
MONTANA
Mis so ur
Medicine Hat
Calgary
bas ca Edmonton
C
O
Yellowknife
n
i ip p
Death Valley
IDAHO ake
Great Bear Lake
N O RT H W E S T T E RRI T O RI E S
Inuvik
i
Las Vegas
G r e a t B a s i n
NEVADA
Sn
Boise
OREGON
Spokane
WASHINGTON
A
Beaufort Sea
ALBERTA
At h a
i
Mis s i s s
San Diego
Y UK O N TE R R IT OR Y
B RI TISH C O L UM B IA
Great Basin
Reno
Dawson
Fairbanks
a
GAN HI
Los Angeles
Juneau
Vancouver
Vancouver I.
Queen Charlotte Is
Mt McKinley (Denali) 6194m Anchorage
ska R Ala
Gulf of Alaska
t
A L A S K A (to US)
Strai
a
San Francisco
ing
Yuko n
er
t
l
Sacremento
Kodiak I.
Pen
s
ka
d
as
n
Al
Unimak
Unalaska
Umnak
Atka
B
Alexa A r c h i p en d e r l ag o
Bering Sea
St Lawrence I.
M o u n t a i n s
C o a s t
I.
ere sm
El le
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
n
a
P
Co
u
st R an g C a e s s c a d e
e g n
o
a
M
R
e t
IC
a do
r a
M
or
it
ol
y SK
k G SA
o N
R c WA
zie Mt s HE
ken
la nd
AT C
e ng ac
Is
ra
L. Mich igan
l a M
n
St ST PIERRE & MIQUELON (to France)
Newfoundland
&
re n
Is e
v is ND LA R O D
aw
D
VERMO NT
20
n i a A l e u t R
Denmark Stra it St. John's
rc le
ICELAND
Ci
A r c t i c C ir cle
s g
ic
ok Bro an
Ar ct
Attu
WORLD FACTFILE
R
anc
of C
er
A
Islas Revillagigedo (to Mexico)
lif
N orn Si er
Torreón
T
ia Morelia
León
Acapulco
Puebla
MEXICO CITY
Dallas
Memphis
Gulf of Mexico
Mobile LOUISIANA Baton New Orleans Rouge
Equator
Galapagos (to Ecuador)
114°W
Great Basin
Cold Desert
Rocky Mountains
Mountain Vegetation
102°W
Great Plains P r a i r i e s
Temperate Grassland
Miss
Snak
L a k e s n Lake O
u Lake H
i Lake M
Mississ
ou
90°W
PANAMA CITY
ta
ro
ch
o
ri
ipp
78°W
E
N
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
V
E
(to Neth.)
66°W
ATLANTIC OCEAN
0 0
250
500 km
t Lesser An
l il
500 miles
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
GRENADA
BARBADOS
ST LUCIA
MARTINIQUE (to France)
DOMINICA
GUADELOUPE (to France)
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
MONTSERRAT (to UK)
ST KITTS & NEVIS
ANGUILLA (to UK)
250
SMALLEST COUNTRY: St. Kitts and Nevis 261 km2 (101 mi2)
LARGEST COUNTRY: Canada 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,171 mi2)
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Barbados 628 people/km2 (1627 people/mi2)
LARGEST CITY AND ITS POPULATION: Mexico City, Mexico 22.2 million
TOTAL POPULATION: 501 million
POLITICAL FEATURES
LOWEST POINT: Death Valley, California, US 86 m (282 ft) below sea level
HIGHEST POINT: Mt. McKinley (Denali), Alaska, US 6194 m (20,322 ft)
LONGEST RIVER: MississippiMissouri, US 5969 km (3710 miles)
LARGEST LAKE: Lake Superior, Canada/US 83,270 km2 (32,151 mi2)
PHYSICAL FEATURES
CONTINENTAL FACTS
(to Neth.)
VIRGIN IS (to US)
SAN JUAN
C
Scale : 1:32 500 000
I
BRITISH VIRGIN IS (to UK)
N
Cancer
T
PUERTO RICO (to US)
Tropic of
A
BERMUDA (to UK)
COLOMBIA
Appalachian Mountains
PA NAMA
Broadleaf Forest
G r e a t
an
SAN JOSÉ
COSTA RICA
A
TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS (to UK)
C
HAITI
L
C a r i b b e a n NETHERLANDS S e a ANTILLES ARUBA
so
-8000m 126°W
PACIFIC OCEAN
Cascade Range
Temperate Mountain Rainforest Vegetation
MANAGUA
NICARAGUA
TEGUCIGALPA
HONDURAS
EL SALVADOR
SAN SALVADOR
GUATEMALA CITY
GUATEMALA
BELMOPAN
BELIZE
r e a
U
O
BAHAMAS
NASSAU
T
t e NAVASSA I. r (to US) PORT-AUSANTO JAMAICA DOMINGO A nPRINCE t i l l e KINGSTON s
G
C
Miami
A
B A
Charleston
Jacksonville
HAVANA (La Habana)
Tampa
GEORGIA
SOUTH CAROLINA
CAYMAN ISLANDS (to UK)
ALABAMA
Atlanta Birmingham
NORTH CAROLINA Charlotte
Hud
-4000m
Sea Level
4000m
8000m
Nashville TENNESSEE
Mérida Peninsula de Yucatán Bahía de Campeche Campeche
Houston
S
er
ARKANSAS
R iv
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH NORTH AMERICA: 43° 30'N, 126°W–65°W
ORTH
A
Oklahoma City
Tampico
Monterrey
AMERICA’S climate is as varied as its topography: much of Canada is snowbound or clothed in forest, its sparse population congregating along the US border. Along the continent’s western flank are the spectacular Rocky Mountains. To the east lie the older, wooded Appalachians. Between these are the Great Plains – grazed by herds of livestock or sown with cereals. These plains were once home to tribes of native Americans, supplanted by incoming white settlers. The population and industry of the US are concentrated in the temperate northeast, while the drier south and west are rural and thinly populated. North America is rich in minerals and oil. Mexico has the world’s largest Spanish-speaking population. Central America and the Caribbean contain some 20 countries and numerous small islands. The climate is tropical and prone to storms, the landscape mountainous and volcanic.
Guadalajara
X
San Antonio
E
M E X I C O
tal Aguascalientes
Culiacán
Chihuahua
Ciudad Juárez
El Paso
NEW MEXICO
en
N
Ca cid
NORTH AMERICA
pic
Tro
Tucson
s sippi
Mi ssi
PI
MI S S I S S IP
n
ia
ch
la a p
p A
Hermosillo
de lfo
de
na ELA
c eO adr
ica ZU
E M
no
x Me ra
re Orient a l ad M
E
Altipla nd e Gra
N
Go
rra R io
OR
s
O
C Sie
FL IDA
e
Guadalupe (to Mexico)
WORLD FACTFILE: NORTH AMERICA
n
n
ig
i
ri
e
21
Guayaquil
Trujillo
Gulf of Guayaquil
a ñ on
N
ap o
Ca
P E R U
M ar
LIMA
L
etá
s
qu
P Arequipa
Lake Titicaca
A
ma P utu yo
m
LA PAZ
COLOMBIA
Pur
us
z
i
G
o
ua p
o
Oruro
Ma
SUCRE
Santa Cruz
M
n
n
oré
Ne gr
a
BOLIVIA
ru Ju
a
Ja purá
á
ECUADOR
ti lles
a
n
a eir ad
Bran co
C h a c o
QUITO
u
Totness Brokopondo
GUYANA
H
Essequibo
B
B
a
R
i
A
I
HE
Campo Grande
Z
I
BRASÍLIA
Goiânia
A
L Salvador
O
T
Teresina
São Luis
Represa de Sobradinho
B r a z i l i a n
g
Imperatriz
Belém
H i g h l a n d s a aíb an
Planalto de Mato Grosso
pa
s
on A m az
n
(to France)
GUIANA
i g h l a n d s
Manaus
CAYENNE
St-Laurent-du-Maroni
S U R I N A M E FRENCH
jó s
Cali
Ta
Medellín
u aia
Ca
T
Ara
Montería
Xin gu
Equator
C ch
A D e s e r t
can ti n s
Barranquilla
n p l
e
d
C
Tren
F
t r a l l e i l a l n t r d e o d C c i O c
i a
P
I
a n t a n a l
A
r
li
or é m
Pa
a Uca y
To
d
sco
ní
ranci
PANAMA ena
C
L
E
Aracaju
A
I
João Pessoa Olinda Recifé
C
Equa tor
Fernando de Noronha (to Brazil)
Cabo de São Roque (to Brazil)
N
T
Maceio
N
Fortaleza
A
w ORLD ’S fourth-largest continent includes one of its most important resources – C a r i the Amazonian rainforest. It is a b b e a n S e a major source of oxygen and includes a third of all known living species, while the Amazon – the world’s second-longest river – contains one-fifth of the world’s fresh ARUBA NETHERLANDS ANTILLES (to Neth.) (to Neth.) water. The Andes mountain chain reaches down South A r America’s western flank, sheltering the prairies of the Gran se s e L Maracaibo Chaco, the Pampas, and the wastes of the far south. Most CARACAS Valencia TRINIDAD & South Americans are mestizo – of mixed European and Maracay TOBAGO Lago de Amerindian descent – and live in the coastal regions. al Maracaibo s Spanish is the most widely spoken language, and o Morawhanna Apure n o Cucuta c Or i n o over 90% of South Americans are Roman a Arau c a Charity Catholic. South America has massive l VENEZUELA GEORGETOWN Bartica New mineral resources, many exploited by Amsterdam Salto del Angel eta PARAMARIBO Linden M BOGOTÁ US and European multinationals. G Nieuw Amsterdam Caro
Sã oF
22
a
M ag
uc
SOUTH AMERICA
WORLD FACTFILE
n o
A
Cerro Aconcagua 6959m SANTIAGO
St
hu
b ut
Tierra del Fuego
ag e l l a n
Península Valdés
Golfo San Jorge
Beagle Channel Cape Horn
Bahía Blanca
La Plata
BUENOS AIRES
75°W
p
ille
ra
Atac
o
n la
67°W
a
C en
tra l
ra
Or
ien
tal
at a
0
0
Tropical Dry Forest
59°W
u
250
500 km
ay
Pantanal
Tropical Grassland
250
Scale : 1:26 500 000
ná ra
Porto Alegre
500 miles
51°W
T
Curitiba
Sorocaba
Campinas
I
O
C
Rio de Janeiro
Nova Iguaçu
E
A
POPULATION
of Ca prico rn
under 50 000
over 50 000
over 100 000
over 500 000
over 1 000 000
over 5 000 000
N
Tropic
n
ci
B r a z i l i a n
Temperate Rainforest
sc
o
43°W
H i g h l a n d s
LOWEST POINT: Península Valdés, Argentina 40 m (131 ft) below sea level
HIGHEST POINT: Cerro Aconcagua, Argentina 6959 m (22,831 ft)
LONGEST RIVER: Amazon, Brazil 6516 km (4049 miles)
LARGEST LAKE: Lake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru 8340 km2 (3220 mi2)
Line of cross-section
Sea Level
200m/656ft
1000m/3281ft
2000m/6562ft
3000m/9843ft
4000m/13 124ft
6000m/19 686ft
LAND HEIGHT
ATLANTIC OCEAN
SMALLEST COUNTRY: Suriname 163,270 km2 (63,039 mi2)
LARGEST COUNTRY: Brazil 8,511,965 km2 (3,286,470 mi2)
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Ecuador 47 people/km2 (122 people/mi2)
LARGEST CITY AND ITS POPULATION: São Paulo, Brazil 19.9 million
TOTAL POPULATION: 362 million
POLITICAL FEATURES
CONTINENTAL FACTS
Juiz de Fora
Belo Horizonte
PHYSICAL FEATURES
C
Santos
São Paulo
Ribeirão Preto
Fr
Pa r a
Oc
am
a
-8000m
al
s
lle
t
nt
e di
il
er
de
d Alti
es
n
Mountain Vegetation A Co r d
Peru-Chile Trench
Cord
Sã o
-4000m
PACIFIC OCEAN
Hot Desert Cor
Sea Level
4000m
8000m
Pl
FALKLAND ISLANDS (to UK)
la
MONTEVIDEO
Las Piedras
de
Pa
g uay Uru
URUGUAY
Paysandú
Salto
Lambaré
ASUNCIÓN
PARAGUAY
Fernando de la Mora
Rosario
Golfo San Matías
Ne gr o
C o lorad o
Bahía Grande
Desea do
L. Mar Chiquita Córdoba
l
o
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH SOUTH AMERICA: 18°S, 75°W–36°W
Isla Wellington
Isla de Chiloé
Puerto Montt
Concepción
C
Islas Juan Fernández (to Chile)
Valparaiso
Islas de los Desventurados (to Chile)
Peru - Ch ile
L
I
E t
a
H
A t a c a m a
A n
o g
R
P a A
d n a i C
it o f M
N
s
N
G
Paragua y
o
ra
T
e
E
I m
N
P
Sa l a d o
a
A
s
E
a
C o
p
r a n
A P a raná
O ad
A
Sa
L
ay
Rí
G
T
m
N
lc o Pi
A
Tropic of Capricorn
WORLD FACTFILE: SOUTH AMERICA
a
g
le
r
ci
D
23
WORLD FACTFILE cC cti
Ar le
irc
GREENLAND (to Denmark) JAN MAYEN (to Norway)
D
e
ar
nm
trait k S
Akureyri REYKJAVÍK
ICELAND N o r w e g i a n S e a FAEROE IS (to Denmark)
EUROPE
Shetland Is
Orkney Is Outer Hebrides
T
AUSTRALIA, Europe has a wide variety of climates and landscapes. The tundra of the far north gives way to a cool, wet, heavily forested region. The North European Plain is well-drained, fertile, and rich in oil, coal, and natural gas. The shores of the Mediterranean are generally warm, dry, and hilly, ideal for cultivating olives, citrus fruit, and grapes. A great curve of mountain ranges, including the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians, divides north from south. To the east, the rolling plains of European Russia and Ukraine, clad in coniferous forests or cultivated for wheat, run up to the Ural Mountains. Europeans are mainly Christian – Catholic, Orthodox, or Protestant – and speak a variety of languages, most of which spring from Latin (Romance), Germanic, or Slavic roots. HE SMALLEST CONTINENT AFTER
Edinburgh
N o r t h
Belfast
IRELAND
ISLE OF MAN (to UK)
Manchester
DUBLIN
KINGDOM NETHERLANDS
Cork
Birmingham Cardiff
N
e English Chan n
L
200m/656ft Sea Level
T
A
Toulouse
Py Porto
LISBON
500 km
us
re
Zaragoza
S P A I N
E
Valencia
Sevilla
500 miles
Málaga
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH EUROPE: 46°N, 5°W–48°E 8000m
Broadleaf Forest
Mountain Vegetation
Broadleaf Forest
Mountain Broadleaf Vegetation Forest
Barcelona b ro
Cold Desert
A
l
p
s Alföld
CASPIAN SEA
Black Sea of Sea Crimea Azov Vo l
ga
a√
Dan
Rh ô n
ii
ub
e
e
O
-4000m
Carpathian Mountains
Carp
ATLANTIC OCEAN
c
ci
-8000m
24
0°
11°E
22°E
de
nta
li
33°E
44°E
Bale
ar
ic
Is
e
d
Melilla (to Spain)
A L G ERI A
4000m Sea Level
Menorca
Mallorca Palma
M
GIBRALTAR (to UK) Ceuta (to Spain)
Temperate Grassland
ne
ANDORRA Marseille
ne es
Eivissa
250
0
Lyon
MADRID
POR
Line of cross-section
250
Mas s if C e nt r al
R hô
N
Scale : 1:22 500 000 0
Biscay
A Coruña
Ta g
under 50 000
Genève Bordeaux
GA
over 50 000
A
re
Bay of
L
1000m/3281ft
over 100 000
L oi
F R A N CE
C
T
2000m/6562ft
over 500 000
BELGIUM
PARIS
Nantes
TU
3000m/9843ft
over 1 000 000
I
Azores (to Portugal)
BRUSSELS
l
Se
E
A
CHANNEL ISLANDS (to UK)
C over 5 000 000
AM
LONDON
e in
LAND HEIGHT
THE HAGUE
Rotterdam
O POPULATION
S e a
UNITED
D
el
ta
MOROCCO
WORLD FACTFILE: EUROPE SVALBARD (to Norway)
Karskoye More
Novaya Zemlya
CONTINENTAL FACTS POLITICAL FEATURES
PHYSICAL FEATURES
B a r e n t s
LARGEST LAKE: Ladoga, European Russia 18,390 km2 (7100 mi2)
S e a cle
ir
cC
cti
Ar
TOTAL POPULATION: 774 million
o ech
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Monaco 16,477 people/km2 (42,840 people/mi2)
LONGEST RIVER: Volga, European Russia 3688 km (2290 miles)
P r
a
Murmansk
Tromsø
N
Y
Arkhangel'sk
Sever
Kemi
n aya D
POPULATION:
LARGEST COUNTRY: European Russia 3,955,818 km2 (1,527,341 mi2)
LOWEST POINT: Volga Delta, Caspian Sea, European Russia 28 m (92 ft) below sea level
vina
SMALLEST COUNTRY: Vatican City, Italy 0.44 km2 (0.17 mi2)
th
a
Sankt Peterburg
S
a Daugavpils
‹iauliai
LITHUANIA u KALININGRAD VILNIUS E (to Russian Fed.)
a
DENMARK
B
Malmö COPENHAGEN
Gdaúsk Hamburg Elb e
N
Wi
BERLIN
MSTERDAM
h
t
r
o
e hin
D n iepe r
yr
r
en
Sardinia
n
Se
ia
n
Se
Sicily
IA
E
I R A N
Y
Gaziantep
SYRIA
Aegean
IRA Q
NICOSIA
Sea
LEBANON
CYPRUS
Irákleio
r
AZERB.
k
ATHENS
Ionian Sea
AZERBAIJAN ARMENIA
ƒzmir
GREECE Pátra
n
Adana
Konya
r MALTA
ISRAEL
Crete
a
n
e
a
e
S
n
a
TU
NIS
ANKARA
R K T U
Lárisa
a
GEORGIA
Trabzon
Bursa Thessaloníki
ALBANIA
o
Palermo
e
Istanbul
MACEDONIA TIRANA
Napoli
Cágliari
t
a
a
s
B
Varna
Plovdiv
i
a
T
h
i
a
u
p
e
n
VATICAN CITY
c
s
s
S
n
ROME
a
SOFIA
SKOPJE
c
a
e
S
k
BULGARIA
(YUGOSLAVIA)
u
TBILISI
l Danube
a El'brus 5642m
Crimea
BUCHAREST
Novi Sad
Podgorica
ic
VA
p
e
at
C
O
A p
Odesa
Bra§ov
ZAGREB
CROATIA
Split
ri
Ia§i
Timi§oara
BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA SERBIA & MONTENEGRO SARAJEVO
d
CHISINÂU
Krasnodar
ROMANIA
Alföld
SAN MARINO
A
Corsica Ajaccio
Carpaπii Occidentali
BELGRADE
ITALY
MONACO
hi
LD
LJUBLJANA SLOVENIA
Milano Po Torino
i
HUNGARY
O
s
p
at
Sea of Azov
M
a
Makhachkala
ts
l
A
Nice
BUDAPEST
Salzburg
rp
M
SWITZERLAND
Ca
C
Rostov-na-Donu
Dnipropetrovs’k
D n ie st e r
Miskolc
BRATISLAVA
A UST R I A
BERN
Donets’k
UKRAIN E
an
LIECHTENSTEIN
Volga Delta
KIEV
Kraków
VIENNA
Volgograd Astrakhan’
Kharkiv
WARSAW
SLOVAKIA
München
n Do
sl a
PRAGUE
ube Dan
Strasbourg
Voronezh
BELARUS
CZECH REPUBLIC LUXEMBOURG
Saratov
MINSK
POLAND
Köln R Frankfurt am Main
KA ZA KH S TA N
Orsha
Homyel’
Îód¶
GERMANY
RUS S IA
Tula
r
l
E UR O PE A N
Vol ga
LATVIA
Irm a
t i c
p
RIGA
Gotland
Göteborg
MOSCOW
e
Vättern
Orenburg Samara
FEDERATION
Tartu
ESTONIA
S e a
Stavanger
Nizhniy Novgorod
n
TALLINN
STOCKHOLM
Vänern
Yaroslavl’
o
N
l
P
O
HELSINKI
Åland
Örebro
Kristiansand
Ufa
Kazan’
Uppsala
OSLO
RUSSIAN
l
Tampere Turku
Bergen
Ladozhskoye Ozero
FINLAND
Gulf
E
of
Vaasa
Ur a
W
R
i
Bo
D
W Trondheim
Onezhskoye Ozero
n
ni
a
E
A
LARGEST CITY AND ITS Moscow, European Russia 15.5 million
HIGHEST POINT: El’ brus, Caucasus, European Russia 5642 m (18,510 ft)
L
I
B
Y
A
E
G
Y
P
T
25
Equator
A
N
I
Madeira (to Portugal)
E
A
PORTUGAL
Marrakech
NOUAKCHOTT
BISSAU
DAKAR
LI
RI
A
BE
ASCENSION (to St Helena)
MONROVIA
SIERRA FREETOWN LEONE
CONAKRY
GUINEA
A
BAMAKO
L
Abidjan
YAMOUSSOUKRO
T
h
L
G
OUAGADOUGOU
a
Niger
A
S
L
ACCRA
I N
Kano
I
h
G
l
Agadez
ABUJA
E
L
Príncipe GUINEA
SAO TOME & PRINCIPE
YAOUNDÉ
GABON
LIBREVILLE
Bata
Douala
D
A
S
a
S
BANGUI
d
R E P.
RWANDA
Kisangani
u
D
Mbuji-Mayi
Kananga
d
El Obeid
A
L. Ta ng
ft
Va
N at
a
ik ny
Ri Lubumbashi
Mwanza
BURUNDI
KIGALI
I
N T
A
K E N Y A
A
N
I
A
Dar es Salaam
Zanzibar
Kilimanjaro 5895m Mombasa
NAIROBI
DODOMA
L. Nyasa
y
Z lle
ADDIS ABABA
H o r n o f A f r i c a
Hargeysa
DJIBOUTI
M
C
MORONI
COMOROS
VICTORIA
Equator
O C E A N
I N D I A N
en
SEYCHELLES
Ad
Cancer Tropic of
f f o
MOGADISHU
Kismaayo
S
O
E T H I O P I A
Mbale Kisumu
UGANDA
L. Victoria
DJIBOUTI
Lac'Assal Diré Dawa
Gul
YEMEN
A R A B I A
S A U D I
ASMARA
ERITREA
E t h i o p i a n H i g h l a n d s
Port Sudan
N
Juba
KAMPALA
Gre a
JORDAN
Aswân
Y
SYRIA
E
N u b i a n D e s e r t
Buíeiret Nâsir
KHARTOUM
C O N G O BUJUMBURA
A N G O L A
KINSHASA
BRAZZAVILLE
D E M.
Con go
U
ISRAEL
Suez Canal
E G Y P T
CEN TRA L A FRICA N REPUB L IC
Abéché
A
r
Y
CAIRO
Alexandria
S e a
K
LEBANON
R
A
LUANDA
(to Angola)
H
N’DJAMENA
C
B
Banghází
U
CYPRUS
T
S e a
T
CABINDA
Pointe-Noire
SÃO TOMÉ
mawa Ada hlands Hig
GREECE
B l a c k
M e d i t e r r a n e a n
Sabhá
Y
L. Chad
R
a
I
TRIPOLI
Sfax
CAMEROON
EQUATORIAL
MALABO
Port Harcourt
Lagos
Ibadan
LOMÉ PORTONOVO
Guinea
e
A
Ahaggar
I
L
MALTA
TUNIS
TUNISIA
Constantine
ALGIERS
N I G E R I A
R a
NIAMEY
E
Gulf of
Lake
BURKINA
M
A
Volta IVORY COAST (CÔTE D’IVOIRE) GHANA
S
A
a s t l
s M t
Ceuta (to Spain) Oran Melilla (to Spain) Fez
S P A I N
MOROCCO
Casablanca
RABAT
Tanger
GIBRALTAR (to UK)
C
MAURITANIA
(Occupied by Morocco)
WESTERN SAHARA
Laâyoune
Islas Canarias (to Spain)
GUINEA-BISSAU
BANJUL
GAMBIA
L
N
SENEGAL
Nouâdhibou
Tropic of Ca
ncer
T
A
C
O
T
O C
O G
TOGO
N
BENIN
G
e
lle y
W hi il te N
t Va
N il e Nile ue Bl
Rif
A R at
26 T d re
I e
A
S
A
a
I
e
L
FRANCE
WORLD FACTFILE
500
500
1000 miles
Nig
La k e
14°E
28°E
Tropical Grassland
E
Sudd
Wetlands
POPULATION
Line of cross-section
under 50 000
over 50 000
over 100 000
over 500 000
over 1 000 000
le
y
42°E
Ethiopian Highlands
Mountain Vegetation
LOWEST POINT: Lac’ Assal, Djibouti 156 m (512 ft) below sea level
HIGHEST POINT: Kilimanjaro, Tanzania 5895 m (19,340 ft)
LONGEST RIVER: Nile, Uganda/Sudan/Egypt 6695 km (4160 miles)
LAND HEIGHT
Tropical Grassland
Horn of Africa
Hot Desert
SMALLEST COUNTRY: Seychelles 455 km2 (176 mi2)
INDIAN OCEAN
LARGEST COUNTRY: Sudan 2,505,810 km2 (967,493 mi2)
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Mauritius 645 people/km2 (1671 people/mi2)
LARGEST CITY AND ITS POPULATION: Cairo, Egypt 15.1 million
TOTAL POPULATION: 849 million
POLITICAL FEATURES
Sea Level
200m/656ft
1000m/3281ft
2000m/6562ft
3000m/9843ft
4000m/13 124ft
Farafangana
PORT LOUIS
MAURITIUS RÉUNION (to France)
Tropic of Capricorn
ANTANANARIVO
Antsiraùana
Fianarantsoa
over 5 000 000
LARGEST LAKE: Lake Victoria, Kenya/ Tanzania/Uganda 68,880 km2 (26,560 mi2)
Tropical Grassland
Mahajanga
MAYOTTE (to France)
CONTINENTAL FACTS PHYSICAL FEATURES
Durban
U
Quelimane
Q
Va
Vo
0°
Mountain Vegetation
Adamawa Highlands
Tropical Dry Forest
Port Elizabeth
SWAZILAND LESOTHO
Ni l
ft
14°W
a
Tropical Rainforest
g.
East London
er sb en
MAPUTO MBABANE
B Beira
I
Nampula
i t R
-8000m
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Tropical Dry Forest
Tropical Dry Forest
Cape of Good Hope
CAPE TOWN
a Dr
k
MASERU
BLOEMFONTEIN
Johannesburg
SOUTH A FRICA
Zam be zi Blantyre
M A L A WI
G re a
-4000m
Sea Level
8000m
Tropical Rainforest
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH AFRICA 7°N, 15°W–55°E
4000m
Oran g
A LILONGWE
Bulawayo
PRETORIA
po po im
B OTSWA N A GABORONE
HARARE
I
Ndola
B
ZIM B A B WE
LUSAKA
M
Kitwe
Francistown
Kalahari Desert
WINDHOEK
after Asia. It is dominated by the Sahara in the north and the Great Rift Valley in the east. The Mediterranean climate of the extreme north and south enables cultivation of grapes and other fruit. A belt of tropical rainforest lies along the Equator, while Africa’s great tropical grasslands provide grazing for herds of wild animals and domestic livestock. A narrow strip of Egypt is watered by the world’s longest river, the Nile, which has sustained communities from prehistoric times. The center and south of the continent are rich in minerals. Just over one-eighth of the world’s population lives in Africa – a wide variety of peoples with their own distinctive languages and cultures. Though Islam and Christianity are widespread, many Africans adhere to their own local customs and religious beliefs.
FRICA IS THE SECOND-LARGEST CONTINENT
A
1000 km
Tropic of Capricorn
Walvis Bay
Namibe
I A I B e
AFRICA
0
0
Scale : 1:36 000 000
ST HELENA (to UK)
A
M A
M O Z
Z
L
m za
N Mo
l ne
ha n
C ue
bi q
R
C CA
O A
A A
AD
N
M
M
E GA S
Lubango
WORLD FACTFILE: AFRICA
l
e
er
lt
27
WORLD FACTFILE
Sea of Azov
ROMANI A
RUSSIAN
UKRAINE
FEDERATION BULGARIA B
l
a
c
k
S
e
a
Istanbul Zonguldak
Do êu
T A
Aydin
n
U a
t
R
o
l
K
i
an
e
Al Maw§il
NICOSIA
a
n
S
e
S Y R I A
CYPRUS
a
Tripoli
LE
A
JERUSALEM
Dead Sea
An Najaf
Suez Canal
POPULATION
JORDAN
E
over 5 000 000
Elat
G
3000m/9843ft
over 1 000 000
2000m/6562ft
Y
over 100 000 over 50 000
n
N
a
f
ú
d
Tabúk
l
P
200m/656ft Sea Level
A A
Sinai
over 500 000
1000m/3281ft
Al‘Aqabah
of A qab a
4000m/13 124ft
BAGHDAD
I R A Q
D e s e r t
AMMAN
Gaza Strip
Gu l f
6000m/19 686ft
S y r i a n
West Bank
ris
Y
LAND HEIGHT
DAMASCUS
Golan Heights
T ig
Tel Aviv-Yafo
Eu ph tes ra
L
Kirkúk
Íim§
N
n
ISRAEL
B
Gaziantep
Íalab (Aleppo)
a
BEIRUT
I
Lake Van
Diyarbakır
Adana
NO
r
Erzurum
BA
r
Y
a
es
e
E
Tuz
ec
t
r ii
Konya Gölü ns T a tai urus Moun
e
i
Trabzon
iz D a êla
YEREVAN
Dod
d
en
ANKARA
ƒzmir
e
GEORGIA
Samsun
ad
I
ak rm
G R E E C E
M
Kar
Bursa
Aegean Sea
Íá‘il
under 50 000
T
Line of cross-section
Í i
WEST ASIA
j á
a j
z
Tropic of Ca
ncer
d
Al Madínah (Medina)
e d
S A U D I Jiddah (Jedda)
Makkah (Mecca)
S
S U
‘A
e
D
s
a
A
í
N
r
ASIA, or the Middle East, lies at the meeting point of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The world’s first towns and cities were built in the Fertile Crescent, which extended from the Mediterranean to the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The cradle of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the region has long been a center of religious and ethnic strife – a situation exacerbated by the presence of some of the world’s richest oil fields, the main source of income for several Middle Eastern countries. Much of the region is desert, or rugged mountains and plateaus, rising in the east to the Hindu Kush. Cultivation today depends on sophisticated irrigation techniques. EST
R
W
Buraydah
N
A r
Abhá
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH WEST ASIA: 20°N, 35°E–62°E 8000m
Hot Desert
Hot Desert Mountain Vegetation
4000m
Jabal Al Hijáz
Nubian Desert
SANA
Rub‘al Kháli
Red Sea
Arabian Sea
íj §í
h
Ta‘izz
lM
ra
be
a
Ba an
40°E
45°E
50°E
55°E
60°E
DJIBOUTI
b
35°E
de
28
M
-4000m
-8000m
Al Íudaydah
Kha l
Sea Level
ERITREA
Hot Desert
'Adan (Aden)
G u l f
WORLD FACTFILE: WEST ASIA
K
Aral Sea
A
Z
A
K
H
S
T
A
N Karakol Ozero Issyk-Kul’
BISHKEK
C
Kir g
Qizilqum
Na ry
KYRGYZSTAN TASHKENT
p
i
Aydarko‘l Ko‘li
A
Namangan
a
N
Khûjand
C
n
IA
ER
B.
TAJIKISTAN
Balkanabat
Türkmenabat
TURKMENISTAN Köpetd ag
Länkäran
Ger
s hi
yd
ery a
Mazár-e-Sharíf
R
Rasht
e
sh
te
Mashhad
ye
Kuh
K
Baghlán
Gorgán
h-
há-ye Alborz
H
d
i n
u
s
h
Jalálábád
Pesháwar
Dash t - e - Kavír
AFGHANISTAN
R
A
E§fahán
N
I r a n i a n
g Z a
Helma nd
Hámún-e fláberí
P l a t e a u
s
Ind u
M o
Shíráz
u n t a
i
PAKISTAN
n
s
I
Bandar-e ‘Abbás
G
u
ra
fH it o
DOHA
Sharjah
Dubai
fluíár
ul
f o f Om an
S e a
Ar Rustáq flúr
Nizwa
Scale : 1:17 000 000
K
N Khalíj Ma§írah
M
N
O C
flalálah
Y
E
M H
N
O
a u t a m h r d a
N
I D
Al Mukallá
I
o f
e n A d
N Socotra (to Yemen)
A
200
400 miles
PHYSICAL FEATURES
E
E
400 km
200
CONTINENTAL FACTS
A
i
A
a l b ‘ R u
ncer
of Ca
A r a b i a n
0
l
A
MUSCAT
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
0
á
I
Tropic
Íaraç
A R A B I A
D
Karáchi
G
QATAR ABU DHABI
N
Hyderábád
muz
St
or
lf
BAHRAIN
h
Thar Desert
T
e
s
Sukkur
MANAMA
RIYADH
Faisalábád
Multán
Záhedán
KUWAIT CITY
Al Hufúf
Lahore
Kermán
KUWAIT
h
ISLÁMÁBÁD
Quetta
r o Ábádán
K2 8611m a In m R du an g s e
or
Kandahár
Ahváz Al Ba§rah
ak
Gujránwála
C h e n áb
Bákhtarán
ar
Ráwalpindi
Herát
I
s K
KÁBUL
Qom
A
u
TEHRÁN
Hamadán
r
Kurgan-Tyube
AflGABAT
Tabríz
Daryácheh-ye Orúmiyeh
N
Khorugh
Kûlob
Mary
I
m
i
DUSHANBE
Qarshi Am
EN
Samarqand
a
BAKU
M
AZ
Türkmenbaçy
a S e
AZERBAIJAN
AR
H
P
G a r a g u m
Gäncä
n
a
n
e
Osh
S
n
h
i
s
A
ge
T
a
U Z B E K I S T Da§oguz Urganch
n hiz Ra
LARGEST LAKE: Caspian Sea 371,000 km2 (143,243 mi2) LONGEST RIVER: Euphrates, Turkey/ Syria/Iraq 2815 km (1750 miles) HIGHEST POINT: K2, Kashmir, India/Pakistan 8611m (28,253 ft) LOWEST POINT: Dead Sea, Israel/Jordan 392 m (1286 ft) below sea level
POLITICAL FEATURES TOTAL POPULATION: 484 million LARGEST CITY AND ITS POPULATION: Karachi, Pakistan 13.6 million COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Bahrain 1025 people/km2 (2652 people/mi2) LARGEST COUNTRY: Saudi Arabia 1,960,582 km2 (756,981 mi2) SMALLEST COUNTRY: Bahrain 620 km2 (239 mi2)
29
WORLD FACTFILE Seve r
Ar c
Ostrov Komsomolets
i rcl e
Karskoye
nay
C tic
U K R A I N E
em aZ
Ostrov Oktyabr’skoy Revolyutsii
More
o
v
Po l uo s t r o v T ay m yr
Po lu os
tr
s
R U S S I A
n i
Salekhard
a
Se
Gydanskiy Poluostrov
ve
ro
t
n
o M
Chelyabinsk
T
a
A N I S T E K Z B
A Semipalatinsk
na
Hyargas Nuur
Hovd
M t
a
i
n
Hami
S
n
h
a Q
i
id
Qi li a
am
Pe
S i
a
T
Golmud
nd
n
h
Qingzang Gaoyuan (Plateau of Tibet)
n
m
Qinghai Hu
I a
N
E
Baotou
Tianjin Taiyuan
a
putr a
C
I
N
A R.)
M
T
Xixabangma Feng y 8012m
er
H
Shijiazhuang
Sa lw ee
n
Hu a n g H e ( Y
Xi’an
g on
P
ma
t
BEIJING (PEKING)
Datong
Xining
ek
E
ah
i
b
Lanzhou
B Br
o
Yumen
n a
l
Hulun Nur
n rule
Sh a n
He
u
Kh
Bayanhongor
G
l
yy
Choybalsan
M O N G O L I A s
ov
Saynshand
A l t u n
n
Y
ULAN BATOR
Altay
n
P
u
Turpan Hami
n
on abl
Darhan
o
a
He
K u
Chita
Hövsgöl Nuur Erdenet
Ürümqi
S h
H
TOTAL POPULATION: 1572 million
Ulan-Ude
i
Yining
Ölgiy
re
t a A l
N
Hotan
tim Vi
Irkutsk
Taklimakan Shamo
L
Ca
Kyzyl
be
Ozero Zaysan
Ke
Il i
TA
N
A
Ozero Baykal
Le
Uvs Nuur
IS
K
I
A ST
nc
POLITICAL FEATURES
Bodaybo
Abakan
Taldykorgan
T i e n
Kashi
Aksai Chin
of
C
Rubtsovsk
KYRGYZSTAN
K
ic
I
Krasnoyarsk
N
TAN NIS ME RK
JI
I N D I A
op
n naya
E
Barnaul
Shymkent Taraz
LONGEST RIVER: Chang Jiang (Yangtze), China 6299 km (3915 miles)
Tr
F
T
Huang
U
Karaganda
A
me
Tomsk
Novosibirsk
S
U
Da r y Syr
ASTANA
Ozero Balkhash
LARGEST LAKE: Aral Sea, Kazakhstan/Uzbekistan 66,500 km2 (25,700 mi2)
HIGHEST POINT: Xixabangma Feng, China 8012 m (26,286 ft)
Ploskogor’ye
N
uska ng Tu
H
Tar im
LOWEST POINT: Turpan Hami (Turfan Basin), China 154 m (505 ft) below sea level
k
I
a
Zhezkazgan
nguska
A
Bratsk
AFGHANISTAN
A
Y e ni s e y
him
Almaty
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Tu
Sibirskoye
S
Kyzylorda
TA
CONTINENTAL FACTS
ya
I
Omsk
K
Aral’sk
Aral Sea
T
Is
n
a i
p
a
s
A
A
Ravnina
Sredne ya
S
Po d k
Z
Ustyurt Plateau
C
ysh I rt
S
e
Sibirskaya Kostanay
K A
S
Nizhnevartovsk
hn
a
Zapadno-
Tyumen’
Aktobe
Aktau
nnost’
U
Khanty-Mansiysk
N iz
U Atyrau
ya N izme
Olen ë
Ura l
r
ska
R
Yekaterinburg
a
Ozero Taymyr
bir
Serov
Ural’sk
l
-Si
Noril’sk
Nadym
’ Ob
u
a
E U R O P E A N
ly
Ostrov Bol’shevik
al m Ya
Jinan
ow ell
Zhengzhou
Lhasa
a BHUTAN
s
Chengdu
Chang Jiang
INDIA Chongqing
Nanjing
(Y an g
Wuhan
tz
Fuzhou
L
A
Ta
Shantou Nanning
Guangzhou Macao (Aomen)
Gulf of Tongking
Hong Kong (Xianggang)
S o u t h Haikou
A
Hainan Dao
iw
an
(MYANMAR)
S
M
30
Nanchang
Xi J
BURMA
O
SMALLEST COUNTRY: Taiwan 35,980 km2 (13,892 mi2)
Poyang Hu
Changsha
Kunming
N V I E T
LARGEST COUNTRY: Asiatic Russia 13,119,382 km2 (5,065,394 mi2)
Guiyang
g ian
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Taiwan 701 people/km2 (1815 people/mi2)
Dongting Hu
e)
LARGEST CITY AND ITS POPULATION: Tokyo, Japan 33.9 million
C h i n a S e a
Arc tic Cir cle
WORLD FACTFILE: NORTH ASIA
Ostrov Vrangel’ya
Vostochno-Sibirskoye More
Ostrov Novaya Sibir’
over 50 000
d
Anadyrskiy Zaliv ye or’
Cherskiy
Nag
B e r i n g
ki L
a
hr
eb
S
S
U
R
s
2000m/6562ft
I
K o ry a k s k
200m/656ft
n
e
3000m/9843ft 1000m/3281ft
Zaliv
Sea Level
t
Shelikhova
u
Komandorskiye Ostrova
Magadan
A
I
Aldan
Yakutsk
O
I
T
A
R
E
D
et
go
r ’y
y
K
en
N
kogo
4000m/13 124ft
a
ers
a
LAND HEIGHT 6000m/19 686ft
i
Ch
e N a
lym
et
Koloms
eb
koy
Ko
hoyans
hr
S e a
oy e
Indigi rka
Verk
K
under 50 000
s
Pevek
Ostrov Bol’shoy Lyakhovskiy
Laptevykh
over 100 000
n
More
over 500 000
Chukotskiy Poluostrov
a
a
over 1 000 000
t
Ostrov Kotel’nyy
over 5 000 000
Bering Str ai
Chukchi Sea
N o v o s i bi r skiye Ostrov
POPULATION
ALASKA (to US)
l
A R C T I C O C E A N
A
Ust’-Kamchatsk
l
e
Line of cross-section
Poluostrov Kamchatka
Olëkminsk
S e a
o f
Scale : 1:31 000 000 Petropavlovsk-Kamchatskiy
0
O k h o t s k S t a novoy Khrebe
500 km
250 250
0
500 miles
t
Aleksandrovsk-Sakhalinskiy
Ta t
Komsomol’sk-na-Amure
arsk
Su ng a
Qiqihar
r
YuzhnoSakhalinsk
ri
Da
Lake Khanka
Harbin
Sapporo
Hokkaidó
Ussuriysk Vladivostok Changchun
o f
S e a)
J
SEOUL
SOUTH KOREA Pusan
Yellow Sea
Ósaka Hiroshima
Kitakyúshú
sh
n
A
Dalian
Qingdao
Sendai
P
PYONGYANG
A
( E a s t
N
J a p a n
o
Dandong
lu Ya NORTH KOREA
ú
S e a
Shenyang
H
TOKYO
Yokohama
Nagoya
P A C I F I C Shikoku
Kyúshú Shanghai Hangzhou
O C E A N
East Chin a tó
Sea
ho
i -S r
HE URAL MOUNTAINS form a huge natural boundary between European and Asian Russia. East of the Urals, vast areas of windswept grassland – the steppes – stretch as far as the Pacific Ocean. Much of Siberia is a frozen wilderness, covered by pine forests, but rich in oil and precious stones. To the south, the deserts of Kazakhstan merge with the Tien Shan range. The central Asian republics lie along the ancient Silk Road between Asia and Europe, where traditional nomadic lifestyles are being replaced by agriculture and mineral prospecting. Tibet lies on a remote plateau, the world’s highest region. In Mongolia, the world’s largest landlocked country, people still depend on herding. Onefifth of the world’s population lives in China, the majority along the coast and in the warm, fertile river valleys. China remains a predominantly rural country, but has extensive reserves of coal and iron ore. Japan’s four main islands are mountainous, heavily forested, and have few raw materials, most of the large population living along the coastal fringes.
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH NORTH ASIA: 38°N, 52°E–145°E
an
se St
t ai
NORTH ASIA T
K
Khabarovsk
i l e
liv iy Pro
Blagoveshchensk
u
L i ng
Amur
Hi n gga n
I s a n d s
Ostrov Sakhalin
N
8000m
Cold Desert
Mountain Vegetation Cold Desert
Mountain Vegetation
Cold Desert
Broadleaf Forest
TAIPEI
TAIWAN
Cancer
4000m Caspian Sea
Sea Level
Altun Shan Taklimakan Shamo
Karakumy
Qilian Shan Qaidam Pendi Yellow Sea
et
Ko
-4000m
Korean Peninsula
Honshú (Japan) Sea of Japan (East Sea)
PACIFIC OCEAN
Hu a n
Khreb
Kaohsiung
Tropic of
Pamirs
g
pe td ag
H
Japan Trench
e
-8000m 52°E
71°E
90°E
109°E
128°E
31
WORLD FACTFILE Aksai Chin
I
nd
JAMMU &
N
KASHMIR
H
T
Amritsar
S
i
Ludhiána
A
T
h
a
r
D
es
er
t
C
m
Yamun a
K
I
N
l
P
NEW DELHI
Kánpur
Mount Everest 8850m
a
y
A
Nepalganj
s
a THIMPHU
L
KATHMANDU
BHUTAN
Biratnagar
Jaipur
Jodhpur
ra ut
Bra h m
Guwáháti Patna
Myitkyina
Allahábád
Cancer
g G an e
Imphál
s
f Kachchh Rann o Indore
Ahmahdábád
Vi
ndh
ange ya R
Jabalpur
D
I
Khulna
Kolkata (Calcutta)
A
Chittagong
Mandalay
A Sittwe
G o dáveri
S e a
a
Solápur Hyderábád
a
Pegu
Visákhapatnam
s Vijayawáda
h
E a s t e r n
D
e
r n t e e s
c
W
Hubli
K r ishna
Bangalore
s a t G h
Lakshadweep (to India)
Chiang Mai VIENTIANE
B
a
y
B
e
n
o
f
a
l
Bassein
RANGOON
Udon Thani Phitsanulok
Moulmein
THAILAND
G
c
t
g
Nakhon Ratchasima Tavoy
Chennai (Madras)
Andaman Is (to India)
BANGKOK
Mergui Isthmus of Kra
Gulf of Thailand
Madurai Jaffna Gulf of Mannar
Andaman
Nakhon Si Thammarat
Sea
SRI LANKA
Nicobar Is (to India)
Kandy
Songkhla
S
ai
N
D
I
A
fM to
I
N
PUTRAJAYA
Danau Toba Pekanbaru
Sumatra Padang
Pe gu
ng nu
an
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH SOUTH ASIA: 28°N, 60°E–124°E Cold Desert
Hot Desert
Monsoon Forest
Mountain Vegetation
Temperate Rainforest
Eve
re st
Himalayas
Sandy Desert
ng
h
ia
ia
an
-8000m
32
73°E
86°E
99°E
East China Sea
Xia n x
n
S
ha
J
a
u
u
tr
ng
ap
g
es
Dal o
u
S
m
Gan
Ind s
ua n
Sea Level
Brah
Thar Desert
Ch a
Heng d
4000m
Malay Peninsula KUALA LUMPUR
Pematangsiantar
D
60°E
ca
Medan
by the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world, O C E A N India is isolated from the rest of Asia, forming a densely populated subcontinent. Equator Its climate and topography range from the mountains of Kashmir in the north to coral beaches in the south. It is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Much of mainland southeast Asia is mountainous and forested, the people living in the river valleys and fertile coastal plains. Tropical rainforests, rich in species, cover much of the region. Indonesia forms a huge arc of over 13,000 volcanic islands. The Philippines, the region’s only Christian country until 2002, comprises over 7000 mountainous islands.
-4000m
Ipoh
al
Aech
OMINATED IN THE NORTH
8000m
Kota Bharu
tr
COLOMBO
ac
SOUTH ASIA
MALDIVES
A
Louangphabang
Prome
n
Pune
L
BURMA (MYANMAR)
ma Yo
Cuttack
Mumbai (Bombay)
n ka ra
Nágpur
A r a b i a n
Lashio een Salw
N
DHAKA
Dhanbád
Na rmada
I
BANGLADESH Irrawadd y
Tropic of
I
a
E
Delhi
H
ap
A
P
us
112°E
S
ha
n
WORLD FACTFILE: SOUTH ASIA Yellow
JAPAN
CONTINENTAL FACTS
Sea
PHYSICAL FEATURES
A
E a s t Sho
tó
N
sei -
C h i n a
Na n
S e a
Tropic
TAIWAN
POLITICAL FEATURES
LARGEST LAKE: Tônlé Sap, Cambodia 2850 km2 (1000 mi2)
TOTAL POPULATION: 1802 million
LONGEST RIVER: Mekong, China/Burma/Laos/ Thailand/Cambodia/ Vietnam 4425 km (2749 miles)
POPULATION:
LARGEST CITY AND ITS Mumbai, India 19.2 million
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Singapore 7049 people/km2 (18,220 people/mi2)
HIGHEST POINT: Mount Everest, Nepal 8850 m (29,035 ft)
r
LARGEST COUNTRY: India 3,287,590 km2 (1,269,338 mi2)
LOWEST POINT: About half of Bangladesh lies between sea level and 8 m (25 ft)
of Cance
SMALLEST COUNTRY: Maldives 300 km2 (116 mi2)
HANOI
Hai Phong
LAND HEIGHT
Gulf of Tongking
Xam Nua
POPULATION Luzon
PARACEL IS (Disputed)
T
O
r
n g
S
Quy Nhon
P
S e a
200m/656ft
under 50 000
Sea Level
Samar
Mindoro
Line of cross-section
PH ILIPPIN E S Nha Trang
Panay Iloilo Palawan
Tacloban
Scale : 1:25 000 000
I
SPRATLY IS (Disputed)
PHNOM PENH
C
Tônlé Sap Kâmpóng Cham
Sea
C h i n a
1000m/3281ft
over 50 000
A
CAMBO DIA
MANILA
2000m/6562ft
over 100 000
Philippine
S o u t h
VIET N A M â n P h
Pakxé Ubon Ratchathani
3000m/9843ft
over 500 000 Cabanatuan
Ãa Nâng
4000m/13 124ft
over 1 000 000
Baguio
Huê
u
M ek
on g
6000m/19 686ft
over 5 000 000
Vinh
Cebu
0
Bacolod
500 km
250
F
Hô Chi Minh Negros
Butuan
500 miles
I
S u l u
My Tho
250
0
Cagayan de Oro
C
S e a
Mindanao
Zaamboanga
Davao
O
C
Sandakan
BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN
Sabah
A
Y
S
I
A
Rajan g
B
Ka
Pontianak
o
Manado
r
n
e
Samarinda
Balikpapan
Banjarmasin
I
N J a v a
n
Sorong Jayapura
Palu
D
Sulawesi
Seram Buru
O
S e a
Papua (Irian Jaya)
M o l u c c a s
Sela
Pulau Belitung
Palembang
Ba ri sa
Barito
Pulau Bangka
Halmahera
o
as pu
Kalimantan Jambi
Equator
N
Sarawak Kuching
SINGAPORE
A
S ea
Kepulauan Natuna (to Indoneasia) Johor Bahru
C eleb e s
Miri
ar
L
as
A
t M ak
M
E
BRUNEI
N
E
Ujungpandang
Peg
Ambon
N e w
S
B a n d a
unungan Mao ke
I
A
G u i n e a PAPUA NEW GUINEA
S e a
Bandarlampung
F l o r e s
JAKARTA
Bandung
Semarang
Java
N Surabaya
u
s
S e a a
e
T
Malang
n
g
g
Sumba
a Merauke
A r a f u r a DILI
Flores Denpasar
r
a
S e a
EAST TIMOR
Timor Kupang
CHRISTMAS I. (to Australia)
ASHMORE & CARTIER IS (to Australia)
Tim o r Sea
A
U
S
T
R
A
L
I
A 33
WORLD FACTFILE
Tropic of Cancer
TAIWAN
NORTHERN
WAKE I. (to US)
MARIANA ISLANDS Saipan
F
I
C
A
P
(to US)
South China Sea
I
C
Ph ilippin e GUAM (to US)
S ea
M
MARSHALL ISLANDS Ra
I
Ra
C
k
a
in
h
PALIKIR
in
a
O
Chuuk Is Kosrae
Majuro
N
M I C R O N E S I A
E
PALAU
MALAYSIA
h
C
R
KOROR
Babeldaob
C
k
Pohnpei
Yap
Sulu Sea
ta
li
P H I L I P P I N E S
Tu
BRUNEI
S
BAIRIKI
Tarawa
I
B A r c ihs m a r ipe ck lag o
M
NAUR U
KIRIBATI A
E
L
Bismarck Sea Rabaul New Britain Bougainville
r
Equato
I
N
D
O
N
E
S
I
A
A
New Guinea
Nanumea
T UV A L U
N
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Mt Wilhelm 4509m
Santa Isabel
FONGAFALE
E
Malaita
Solomon Sea
Santa Cruz Is
HONIARA
Arafura Sea
Rennell
sS Torre trait
Nukulaelae
S
PORT MORESBY
San Cristobal
I
EAST TIMOR
Nukufetau
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Guadalcanal
Banda Sea
ar
u
Celebes Sea
ng
Espiritu Santo
A
Timor Sea
Gulf of Carpentaria
Darwin
ASHMORE & CARTIER ISLANDS (to Australia)
G
Coral Sea r
e
a
Cairns
B
a r
I N D I AN
t
CORAL SEA ISLANDS (to Australia)
r
Q U E E N S L A N D
R
A
L
I
WALES
A U S T R A L I A
Gr
n Bight ralia
Adelaide Bendigo
Bunbury
Ba
Albany
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
ss
r St
POPULATION
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL t i TERRITORY a Launceston
TASMANIA
S e a
NEW ZEALAND South Island
Hobart
WELLINGTON
Christchurch
Dunedin
Bounty Islands (to NZ)
over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000
Antipodes Islands (to NZ)
over 500 000 over 100 000
Scale : 1:40 000 000
over 50 000
0
under 50 000 0
34
Hamilton
Melbourne
Geelong
Esperance
Auckland
T a s m a n
VICTORIA
Port Lincoln
North Island
CANBERRA
e
Perth
ea
ust tA
g
Kalgoorlie
Newcastle Sydney Wollongong
n
Murra y
Geraldton
Ball’s Pyramid (to Australia)
NEW SOUTH a
Lake Torrens
NORFOLK ISLAND (to Australia)
Lord Howe I. (to Australia)
R
Desert
S O U T H
Darl i n
g
A U S T R A L I A Victoria
Brisbane Gold Coast Toowoomba
g
Lake Eyre
Great
G r e y R an g e
Si mpson Desert
n
rn
es
i
of pic Tro
co p ri Ca
g Ran
d
e Gibson Desert M u s g r a v
i
Alice Springs
W E S T E R N
A
v
T
ya u té
Rockhampton
i
S
Lo
NOUMÉA
D
U
Île s
FIJI
t
A
a
TERRITORY
G r e a t S a n d y D e s e r t
MacKay
VANUATU
f ee
Broome
New Caledonia
R
O C E AN
e
Viti Levu
Efate
SUVA
NEW CALEDONIA (to France)
r
r
NORTHERN
PORT-VILA
ie
Townsville
G
Vanua Levu
Malekula
Auckland Islands (to NZ)
1000 km
500 500
1000 miles
WORLD FACTFILE: AUSTRALASIA & OCEANIA
AUSTRALASIA & OCEANIA
MIDWAY ISLANDS (to US)
H a w
Tropic of Cancer
O
CEANIA, A CONTINENT OF ISLANDS
I s HAWAII (to US) l a n d s
stretching across a vast area of the Pacific Ocean, is home to only 0.5% of the world’s population. Dominated by Australia, it includes few other countries with significant land mass apart from New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Fiji, but myriad volcanic and coral islands in three main groups, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. Australia, flat and dry, is sparsely populated, most people living along the coastal lowlands, especially in the southeast. Its first inhabitants, the Aboriginal peoples, retain some of their original lands in the interior, but the European and Asian settlers of recent centuries form most of the population. Australia is rich in minerals, such as gold, uranium, and iron ore, which are the basis of its prosperity. Mountainous Papua New Guinea is covered in tropical rainforest, while New Zealand is temperate, rugged, and volcanic in the north. Owing to their isolation, these countries’ flora and fauna have evolved many unique species. The peoples of Oceania colonized the Pacific by 1100 CE, and the many insular farming and fishing communities have Equator developed distinctive cultures, the Maoris of New Zealand being among the most notable.
Honolulu
JOHNSTON ATOLL (to US)
C
E
A
N
PALMYRA ATOLL (to US)
KINGMAN REEF (to US)
Teraina Tabuaeran
L
i
Kiritimati
n
BAKER & HOWLAND IS (to US)
e
JARVIS ISLAND (to US)
A
O
a i i a n
I
I
s
KIRIBATI
l
enix Islands Pho
a
CONTINENTAL FACTS
Millennium Island
Starbuck Island
PHYSICAL FEATURES
n e r ds rth slan Suwarrow o I N k oo COOK C
PAGO PAGO
La
AMERICAN SAMOA (to US)
B
E
I
ISLANDS (to NZ)
T
Îl
ro u G
es
HIGHEST POINT: Mt. Wilhelm, Papua New Guinea 4509 m (14,794 ft)
T
Tongatapu Group
L
Rarotonga Mangaia
Îl O
P
A
es
Tahiti
ié t é
POLITICAL FEATURES TOTAL POPULATION: 31.4 million
A
us
Îles
tr
al
Ga
LARGEST CITY AND ITS Sydney, Australia 4.25 million
POPULATION:
mb
es
ier
COUNTRY WITH HIGHEST POPULATION DENSITY: Nauru 599 people/km2 (1522 people/mi2)
PITCAIRN ISLANDS (to UK)
C
Îlots de Bass
I
F
I
C
Line of cross-section
Chatham Islands (to NZ)
Soc
F REN CH POL YNESI A ( t o F ranc e)
P
Kermadec Islands (to NZ)
la
tu
Southern Cook Islands
LOWEST POINT: Lake Eyre, Australia 16 m (52 ft) below sea level
a
o
up
NIUE (to NZ)
NUKU’ALOFA
PAPEETE
el d e
u
m
A rc h i p
Y
LONGEST RIVER: MurrayDarling, Australia 3750 km (2330 miles)
I
Palmerston V a va ‘u Group
LARGEST LAKE: Lake Eyre, Australia 9583 km2 (3700 mi2) Îles Marquises
A
N
Upolu
TONGA
R
s
SAMOA WALLIS & FUTUNA Savai‘i (to France) APIA
I
Rakahanga Manihiki
Flint Island
d
Penrhyn
S
n
K TOKELAU (to NZ)
LARGEST COUNTRY: Australia 7,686,850 km2 (2,967,893 mi2)
O
C
E
A
SMALLEST COUNTRY: Nauru 21 km2 (8.1 mi2)
N
CROSS-SECTION THROUGH AUSTRALIA: 27°S, 112°E–160°W Hot Desert
Tropical Grassland
Mediterranean-type Vegetation
4000m G r e a t
V i c t o r i a
D e s e r t
n
ow
e
112°E
125°E
138°E
151°E
Ri
h
se
al
edo
nia
ut S o Bas i Fij
a
s
-8000m
O C E A N
C N e wn c Tr e
ge
H
R
ge
Ra
y e E
ve
re
n
P A C I F I C
Lord
Lak
ra
-4000m
Great Dividing Range
Simpson Desert G r ey
INDIAN OCEAN
Musg
Sea Level
h in
164°E
35
WORLD FACTFILE
CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY T
HIS TABLE PRESENTS A SUMMARY of the world’s crucial historical events, from the first evidence of settlement and agriculture until 2002 CE. Each of the six columns is shaded a different color, with each color representing a particular continent. Reading across the columns, one can follow the development of cultures
NORTH AMERICA
SOUTH AMERICA
EUROPE
15,000 BCE Evidence of human settlement in North America
c.20,000 BCE First settlers arrive
c.6500 BCE Farming spreads rapidly into central Europe
4000 BCE Earliest cultivation of corn in Central America
c.11,000 BCE Evidence of settlement at Monte Verde in present-day Chile
100 CE Teotihuacan becomes capital of largest state in Mesoamerica
c.4500 BCE Evidence of agriculture and herding in central Andes
c.300 CE Start of classic Mayan civilization in Yucatan
c.2500 BCE Masonry building and temple architecture on Pacific coast
900 Toltecs rise to power after Teotihuacan and Mayan states collapse
c.1800 BCE Ceremonial center of La Florida built in Peru
c.1000 Vikings colonize Greenland and discover America (Vinland)
c.450 CE Nazca culture flourishing; lines and giant figures drawn in desert
1200 Aztecs enter Valley of Mexico
c.900 CE Wari and Tiwanaku flourish as capitals of first competing empires
1325 Tenochtitlan founded by Aztecs 1492 Columbus reaches Caribbean
c.2800 BCE Building of Stonehenge begins c.1600 BCE Minoan Palace civilization on Crete c.750 BCE Beginnings of Greek city-states 510 BCE Roman Republic founded 431 BCE Outbreak of Peloponnesian War between Sparta and Athens 218 BCE Carthaginians invade Italy under command of Hannibal 49 BCE Julius Caesar conquers Gaul 43 CE Roman invasion of Britain
1100 Emergence of Chimu state on north coast of Peru
238 CE Goths begin to invade borders of Roman Empire
1502 Introduction of African slaves to Caribbean
1380 Beginning of Inca empire in central highlands
330 Constantinople becomes new capital of Roman Empire
1519 Cortes begins conquest of Aztec empire
1475 Chimu conquered by Incas
410 Invasion and pillage of Rome by Visigoths
c.1500 Inuit peoples found throughout Arctic region
1565 First African slaves arrive on mainland North America
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides western hemisphere between Spain and Portugal
1607 First permanent English settlement in North America (Jamestown, Virginia)
1500 Cabral sights Brazilian coast
1608 French colonists found Québec
c.1510 First African slaves brought to South America
1620 Puritans on Mayflower land in New England 1759 British capture Québec 1776 American Declaration of Independence 1789 George Washington becomes first president of US
1502 First expedition sent from Portugal to exploit coast of Brazil
1525 Civil war in Inca empire 1532 Pizarro begins defeat of Incas (to 1540) 1562 War and disease kill much of Amerindian population of Brazil (to 1563)
711 Spain invaded by Muslims 793 Viking raids across Europe 800 Charlemagne becomes first Holy Roman Emperor 950 Harold Bluetooth consolidates the unification of Denmark 987 Feudal lords elect first Capetian king of France 1066 Norman conquest of England 1236 Russia invaded by Mongols 1337 Onset of Hundred Years War 1453 Byzantine Empire collapses as Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople
1630 Dutch establish New Holland, covering much of northern Brazil
1478 Ivan III first czar of Russia
1810 Revolution in Mexico
1654 Portuguese regain control of Brazil
1521 Beginning of Protestant Reformation
1819 US buys Florida from Spain
1663 Brazil becomes viceroyalty
1821 Mexico gains independence
1695 Gold discovered in Brazil
1534 Henry VIII of England breaks with Rome
1828 Federalist–Centralist wars in Mexico (to 1859)
1739 Viceroyalty of New Granada established to defend Spanish interests on Caribbean coast
1791 Revolution in Haiti 1803 Louisiana Purchase nearly doubles size of US
1845 Texas annexed by US 1846 US–Mexican War (to 1848) 1848 Californian Gold Rush
36
across the major landmasses of the world. By reading downward, each continent’s particular cultural history can be seen, from its first steps toward civilization, through periods of migration, empire, and revolution, to its involvement in the global wars and political diplomacy of the 20th and 21st centuries.
1750 Treaty of Madrid defines boundary between Spanish colonies and Brazil
c.1500 Italian Renaissance
1588 Spanish Armada defeated by English 1618 Onset of Thirty Years War 1642 English Civil War (to 1649) 1756 Onset of Seven Years War 1789 French Revolution
WORLD FACTFILE: CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY
AFRICA
ASIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA
c.400,000 BCE First evidence of Homo sapiens (modern humans) in Rift Valley
c.12,000 BCE Beginnings of farming in Palestine
c.60,000 BCE First people arrive in Australia
c.4800 BCE ’Ubaid culture builds towns in Mesopotamia
c.30,000 BCE Aboriginal rock art begins to appear
3100 BCE King Narmer unifies Upper and Lower Egypt and becomes first pharaoh c.2650 BCE Start of great pyramid building in Egypt 2040 BCE Beginning of Middle Kingdom in Egypt 1352 BCE Pharaoh Akhenaten promotes Aten (sun) worship in Egypt 814 BCE Foundation of Phoenician colony of Carthage 146 BCE Rome conquers Carthage 31 BCE Cleopatra’s death marks end of Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt c.600 CE Kingdom of Ghana founded
c.3500 BCE Fortified towns built throughout northern China c.2800 BCE Emergence of city-states in Indus Valley Wheel used in Mesopotamia c.1750 BCE Foundation of Old Babylonian Empire under Hammurabi c.1200 BCE Traditional date for exodus of the Jews from Egypt
c.660 BCE Japanese empire founded
c.300 CE Easter Island settled
550 BCE Persian Empire founded c.480 BCE Death – or parinibbana – of Gautama Buddha
c.900 CE Emergence of Great Zimbabwean state
332 BCE Foundation of Mauryan empire in India
1067 Almoravids destroy kingdom of Ghana
202 BCE Han dynasty begins in China c.112 BCE “Silk Road” links China to West c.30 CE Crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth, founder of Christianity c.350 CE Huns invade Persia and India
1443 Portuguese begin mass export of slaves from Atlantic coast to Europe
622 Mohammed, founder of Islam, flees Mecca; start of Muslim calendar
1498 Vasco da Gama rounds Cape of Good Hope
1044 Foundation of Burma
1502 First slaves taken to New World
c.4000 BCE Austronesians reach southwestern Pacific islands c.1000 BCE Emergence of archaic Polynesian society in Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa
334 BCE Alexander the Great invades Asia Minor
1390 Formation of kingdom of Kongo
c.6000 BCE Migrations from southeast Asia give rise to Austronesian culture
c.1100 BCE Phoenician civilization spreads throughout Mediterranean
641 CE Muslims conquer Egypt
c.1300 Emergence of empire of Benin (Nigeria)
c.8000-6000 BCE Rising sea level covers New Guinea land bridge
960 China united under Sung dynasty 1099 Jerusalem sacked in First Crusade
c.600 CE Polynesians arrive in Hawaii 1520 Magellan enters Pacific 1526 Jorge de Meneses first European to sight New Guinea 1606 Torres sails through strait that now bears his name; proves New Guinea is an island 1642 Tasman, searching for a southern continent, finds Tasmania and New Zealand 1688 Dampier first Englishman to visit Australia 1768 Cook’s first voyage 1773 Cook crosses Antarctic Circle and explores Southern Ocean (to 1775)
1185 Minamoto shoguns rule Japan
1779 Cook killed in Hawaii on third voyage
1206 Mongols begin to conquer Asia under Genghis Khan
1788 First penal settlement established at Port Jackson (Sydney)
1238 Foundation of first Thai kingdom 1258 Baghdad sacked by Mongols
1802 Flinders circumnavigates Australia (to 1803)
1795 British capture Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch
1264 Yuan dynasty founded in China by Kublai Khan
1818 Start of Maori “Musket Wars” in New Zealand
1798 Occupation of Egypt by Napoléon Bonaparte
1275 Marco Polo arrives in China 1333 Civil war in Japan
1819 Bellingshausen’s expedition sights Antarctica
1570 Establishment of Portuguese colony of Angola 1652 Dutch establish colony at Cape of Good Hope 1787 British establish Sierra Leone for freed slaves
1816 Shaka leads expansion of Zulu
1368 Ming dynasty begins in China
1822 Freed black slaves found colony of Liberia
1392 Korea proclaims independence
1830 French invasion of Algeria 1836 Start of Boer Great Trek 1848 Boers found Orange Free State 1853 Livingstone finds Victoria Falls (Musi-o-Tunya) 1869 Opening of Suez Canal 1875 Stanley establishes source of Nile
1498 Vasco da Gama completes first European voyage to India 1526 Foundation of Mughal empire in India
1829 Britain annexes western and final third of Australian continent 1830 A mere 200 foreigners, mostly British, permanently resident in New Zealand
1600 Charter granted to East India Company
1840 Treaty of Waitangi grants sovereignty over New Zealand to British
1609 Beginning of Tokugawa shogunate in Japan
1841 New Zealand becomes a separate Crown colony
1619 Dutch found Batavia (Jakarta)
1845 Northern War in New Zealand (to 1846)
1644 Manchus seize Peking
see pages 68–69 for CHRONOLOGY 2003–2004
37
WORLD FACTFILE
NORTH AMERICA (CONTINUED)
SOUTH AMERICA (CONTINUED)
EUROPE (CONTINUED)
1861 US Civil War (to 1865)
1811 Bolívar starts fight to liberate Venezuela Paraguay independent
1804 Napoléon becomes emperor of France
1863 Emancipation Proclamation 1865 Lee surrenders to Grant at Appomattox Assassination of President Lincoln Slavery abolished in US
1815 Napoléon defeated Treaty of Vienna 1845 Beginning of Irish potato famine 1854 Crimean War (to 1856)
1867 US buys Alaska from Russia Dominion of Canada established
1821 Peru independent 1822 Brazil independent
1869 15th Amendment gives vote to freed slaves in US
1861 Italy unified Emancipation of serfs in Russia
1823 Slavery abolished in Chile
1870 Franco-Prussian War
1825 Bolivia independent
1871 Germany unified
1828 Uruguay independent
1914 World War I (to 1918)
1830 Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela (formerly Gran Colombia) become separate states
1917 Russian Revolution
1851 Slavery abolished in Colombia
1933 Nazis take power in Germany; Hitler is elected chancellor
1871 Start of Apache Wars 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn: Sioux warriors kill 250 US soldiers 1890 Massacre of Sioux warriors at Wounded Knee ends Amerindian wars 1896 Klondike Gold Rush, Alaska 1898 Spanish–American War 1899 Spain cedes Cuba and Puerto Rico to US 1910 Mexican Revolution begins 1921 US restricts immigration
1853 Slavery abolished in Ecuador, Argentina, and Uruguay
1922 Mussolini comes to power in Italy after Fascist “March on Rome”
1936 Spanish Civil War (to 1939)
1854 Slavery abolished in Bolivia and Venezuela
1939 Germany invades Poland precipitating World War II
1864 Paraguayan War: Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay defeat Paraguay
1941 German forces invade Russia
1933 President Roosevelt introduces New Deal
1870 Slavery abolished in Paraguay
1944 British and US troops land in Normandy; Russians advance into eastern Europe
1888 Slavery abolished in Brazil
1945 Defeat of Germany
1940s Race riots in Harlem, Los Angeles, Detroit, and Chicago
1900 Major Italian migration to Argentina
1949 Formation of NATO Cold War begins
1914 Panama Canal opens
1957 Treaties of Rome establish European Economic Community
1929 Wall Street Crash
1941 US enters war against Germany and Japan 1945 End of World War II 1949 Formation of NATO Cold War begins 1950 US supports south in Korean War (to 1953) 1959 Cuban Revolution
1930 Military revolution in Brazil 1932 Chaco War between Bolivia and Paraguay (to 1935); Paraguay defeats Bolivia 1937 “New State” in Brazil launched by Vargas
1961 Building of the Berlin Wall Yuri Gagarin first person in space 1968 Troubles in Northern Ireland 1973 UK and Ireland join European Communities 1975 End of dictatorship in Spain with death of Gen. Franco
1962 Cuban missile crisis
1946 Peron comes to power in Argentina
1963 Martin Luther King leads march on Washington D.C. Assassination of President Kennedy
1955 Peron ousted by military coup; returns to power in 1973
1986 Explosion at Chernobyl nuclear power reactor Soviet launch of Mir space station
1968 Tupamaros urban guerrilla group founded in Uruguay Military junta takes over Peru
1989 Democratic revolutions in eastern Europe Berlin Wall demolished
1970 Allende elected president of Chile
1990 Reunification of Germany
1964 US Congress approves sending first troops to Vietnam 1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King sparks riots in 124 US cities
1973 US withdraws from Vietnam
1973 US backs Pinochet coup against elected government in Chile; Allende assassinated
1991 The Soviet Union splits into its component countries Slovenia and Croatia claim their independence
1974 President Nixon resigns over Watergate scandal
1976 “Dirty War” of right-wing death squads in Argentina
1992 Civil war in Bosnia & Herzegovina (to 1995)
1979 Civil war in Nicaragua (to 1990) Civil war in El Salvador (to 1992)
1982 Falklands War between Argentina and UK
1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) established
1983 Democracy restored in Argentina
1999 President Clinton survives impeachment
1985 Democracy restored in Brazil and Uruguay
2001 World’s worst ever terrorist attack kills thousands in New York and Washington D.C.
1989 Democracy restored in Chile
1969 Neil Armstrong becomes first person on moon
2002 Telecommunications firm Worldcom files largest corporate bankruptcy in US history
38
1817 San Martin wins decisive victory over Spanish and liberates Chile
1993 Velvet Divorce: separation of Czech Republic and Slovakia 1994 Outbreak of war in Chechnya 1995 EU expands to 15 members 1999 “Ethnic cleansing” of Albanians in Kosovo leads to NATO air strikes against Yugoslavia
1999 Panama takes control of Panama Canal
2000 President Milosevic is ousted in Yugoslavia (Serbia & Montenegro) in popular revolution
2001–2002 Economic crisis in Argentina; five presidents in one month
2002 Euro fully adopted in 12 EU states
WORLD FACTFILE: CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY
AFRICA (CONTINUED) 1879 British defeat Zulus 1881 French occupy Tunisia 1882 Britain occupies Egypt 1883 France begins conquest of Madagascar 1889 Colonization of “Rhodesia” 1890 Land connection between Angola and Mozambique ended 1894 Britain occupies Uganda 1896 Ethiopian emperor Menelik II defeats Italians at Adawa 1899 Boer War (to 1902) 1910 Formation of Union of South Africa 1911 Italian conquest of Libya 1935 Second Italian invasion of Ethiopia 1942 British halt German advance at El Alamein 1948 Pro-apartheid National Party wins power in South Africa 1956 UK fails to block Egypt’s nationalization of Suez Canal 1960 Outbreak of civil war in Belgian Congo Fifteen countries gain independence 1962 Algeria gains independence 1963 Zambia and Malawi granted independence Organization of African Unity (OAU) founded 1964 Nelson Mandela sentenced to life imprisonment 1974 Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia deposed 1975 Angola and Mozambique gain independence; civil wars ensue 1980 Black majority rule established in Zimbabwe 1981 President Sadat of Egypt assassinated 1984 Worst recent famine in Ethiopia 1990 Mandela released: apartheid begins to be dismantled Namibia becomes independent 1991 Civil war in Sierra Leone (to 2001) 1994 South Africa holds first multiracial election; Mandela wins presidency Attempted genocide of Tutsis by Hutu in Rwanda 1997 Overthrow of Mobutu in Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo – DRC). Civil war starts in 1998 1999 Nigeria returns to democracy
ASIA AND THE MIDDLE EAST (CONTINUED)
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA (CONTINUED)
1757 East India Company defeats Nawab of Bengal’s forces at Plassey
c.1850 Migrant workers from China, Japan, and Philippines start arriving in Hawaii
1842 Opium Wars (to 1854), Britain compels China to open Treaty Ports and annexes Hong Kong 1851 Taiping rebellion in China (to 1864), 20 million killed 1868 Meiji Restoration in Japan 1877 Queen Victoria proclaimed empress of India 1911 Manchu dynasty overthrown in China, republic declared 1922 The last Ottoman sultan is deposed; Turkey proclaimed a republic 1932 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia founded 1937 Japanese forces invade China 1941 Pearl Harbor attacked by Japan 1945 Atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki; c.210,000 killed, Japan surrenders 1947 Partition of India: Pakistan and India independent 1948 Burma and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) proclaim their independence Establishment of Israel 1949 People’s Republic of China proclaimed Indonesia independent 1950 Korean War (until 1953) 1954 Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam proclaim their independence 1959 China occupies Tibet 1965 US combat troops in Vietnam 1966 Cultural Revolution in China 1971 East Pakistan (Bangladesh) claims independence 1975 Fall of Saigon ends Vietnam War Civil war in Lebanon (to 1989) 1979 Overthrow of shah in Iran, Islamic Republic founded Vietnam pushes Khmer Rouge from Cambodia 1980 Iran–Iraq War (to 1988) 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon 1986 Marcos deposed in Philippines 1989 Massacre in Tiananmen Square 1990 Invasion of Kuwait by Iraq 1991 Gulf War 1996 Taliban take over in Afghanistan 1997 Hong Kong is returned to China Asian financial crisis 1998 India and Pakistan test nuclear weapons 2000 Palestinians begin new intifada
2000 Ethiopia–Eritrea conflict ends
2001 US-led war ousts taliban regime in Afghanistan
2002 End of 27-year Angolan civil war
2002 East Timor gains independence
1851 Gold discovered in New South Wales 1858 King Movement demands Maori state and opposes further land sales 1860 European settlers outnumber Maoris in New Zealand 1862 Second Maori War 1864 First French convict settlers in New Caledonia 1865 1000 Chinese brought to Tahiti to work cotton plantation (to 1866) 1869 Last convict ship arrives in Australia 1870 Maori resistance crushed Germans start to buy up large tracts of Western Samoa 1874 Indian sugarcane workers arrive in Fiji 1888 Chile starts colonization of Easter Island 1890 Gold discovered in Western Australia 1898 US annexes Hawaii and seizes Guam from Spain 1901 Australia is self-governing federation within British Empire 1912 Amundsen’s expedition reaches South Pole 1914 Over 60,000 Australian troops and more than 15,000 New Zealanders lose their lives in World War I (to 1918) 1930s Australia hit hard by global Depression 1942 Australia under threat of invasion as Japanese bomb Darwin 1946 US begins nuclear tests at Eniwetok and Bikini atolls in Micronesia 1952 UK begins nuclear tests (to 1991) on mainland Australia 1966 France begins nuclear tests in Tuamotu Islands (to 1996) 1975 Restrictions imposed on immigrants to Australia 1985 South Pacific Forum declares nuclear-free Pacific 1988 Bicentennial celebrations in Australia occasion Aboriginal protests 1998 Ethnic conflict in Solomon Islands (to 2000) 1999 Australian referendum rejects proposal on becoming republic 2000 Coup in Fiji ousts first ethnic Indian government 2001 Peace accord signed in Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, ending 13 years of conflict
see pages 68–69 for CHRONOLOGY 2003–2004
39
WORLD FACTFILE
THE FORMATION OF THE MODERN WORLD early modern and modern ages. Beginning with the first great achievement of European exploration, the “discovery” of the Americas in 1492, the maps show the way in which various European and Asian powers expanded their cultural and political influence and control down to the present day. This process left indelible cultural imprints in the form of language, religion, education, and systems of government on every part of the planet.
T
HE WORLD AS WE KNOW IT today, like all of the species that inhabit it, is the product of many thousands of years of evolution. The political and cultural map of the globe bears the hallmark of many varied courses of human development the world over. Nevertheless, much of the modern human geography of the planet can be traced to developments in the relatively recent past. The following pages chart the rise and fall of the various states and empires of the
MAJOR MIGRATIONS SINCE 1500
SCANDINAVIA
RUSSIA 1 million Russians to Siberia
GREAT BRITAIN IRELAND
C A N A D A
GERMANY
4 0 mi llion E u r op e a n s t o N o r t h Am e r i c a
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
WE
CENTRAL AMERICA
ST
IND
PORTUGAL
IT
PA
A sia
CE AN
from
IN
FR
AL
ATLANTIC
IES
11
mi
sla
OCEAN
llio
nA
fr i c
an
CENTRAL
Y
S
ARABIA
ve s
WEST AFRICA
sl a v
EAST
es to the A merica s
AFRICA
P A C I F I C O C E A N
ve s
BRAZIL
sl a
SOUTH AMERICA
SOUTHERN AFRICA KEY Europeans Russians Africans East Asians South Asians
40
3
mi
ll io
nE u rop
New ea ns to A u str al i a &
Zeala
nd
WORLD FACTFILE: THE FORMATION
LANGUAGES
OF
OF
THE MODERN WORLD
THE WORLD GER M
NI
C
A
VI
C
MONGOL
C K I T U R
JAPANESE UIGHUR
MONGOL
KOREAN
PACIFIC
A
N
SL
A
PER
SI
TIBETAN
OCEAN
NAHUATL
AU
BERBER
ST
AM
MAYA
-A
SI
AT
IC
FILIPINO, CEBUANO
HA
OCEAN
Arabic
O
R
ATLANTIC
KEY
RI
C
A U S T R O N E S I A N
Chinese English French
INDIAN B QUECHUA
Russian
N
OCEAN
T
U
Portuguese
A
AYMARA
Spanish Hindi
AFRIKAANS
Others
LANGUAGES
SIBERIA
JAPAN t o t h e A m e r i c as
ASIA
C H I N A
P A C I F I C O C E A N
SOUTH ASIA
OF
THE WORLD
THERE ARE OVER 3000 LANGUAGES or “speech communities” in the world today; some are spoken by many millions, some by only dozens. Many people speak more than one language. The diffusion of the major languages throughout the world during the modern era has seen the emergence of a few dominant languages (shown on the map). In many areas, the language of a colonial power has been maintained either as an official language or has become the lingua franca of the region. The largest single language, encompassing many dialects, is Chinese, with over one billion speakers; Hindi (400 million) and Arabic (200 million), are the next largest first languages. The most successful colonial languages are English (estimated at up to 1500 million, including those using English as a second language), French (200 million), and Spanish (270 million). While the last is now estimated to be the world’s fastest-growing language, owing to Latin America’s burgeoning population growth, both English and French are spoken in a wide variety of patois, pidgins, and creoles, thus achieving unique levels of cultural penetration.
MAJOR MIGRATIONS SINCE 1500 E A S T
I N D I E S
INDIAN OCEAN
AUST R A L I A
NEW ZEALAND
THE LAST FIVE HUNDRED YEARS have witnessed a dramatic redistribution of the world’s population, which occurred in a series of waves. The first of these involved, in the 16th–18th centuries, the mass transshipment of captive peoples from sub-Saharan Africa to supply the slave markets of West Asia and to work newly founded European plantations in the Americas. The rapidly growing populations of Europe and Asia encouraged a heavy flow of migration. The Cantonese from southern China spread throughout southeast Asia, while from the 16th century millions of Europeans emigrated to the “New Worlds” of the Americas and, later, Australasia. This European diaspora reached a peak at the end of the 19th century. Then, as the colonial empires coalesced in the early years of the 20th century, there was a final wave of global movement within them, when south and east Asians migrated to fill labor markets and exploit opportunities in Africa and the Americas. While homogeneous societies have developed in North America and Australia, many diverse ethnic communities remain scattered across the world.
41
WORLD FACTFILE
THE WORLD IN 1492 W
HEN CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS sailed west from Europe, seeking a quicker route to Asia, he launched a process of discovery that was eventually to bring the disparate regions of the world into closer contact, to form the global map we know today. The largest political entity in the world at that time was the Chinese Ming empire. Culturally, the Islamic faith had
GLOBAL STATES
AND
forged a bond of religious unity which extended in a broad swathe from southeast Asia to the Atlantic coast of north Africa. Europe was a mêlée of rival monarchies; sub-Saharan Africa a patchwork of trading kingdoms; the Americas, a separate world of rich tribal cultures, with empires established only in Central America and the central Andes.
TERRITORIES
g
St
ra
it
ins
y M oun ta
EUROPE
N O R T H
VENICE
HUNGARY
TT
Black Sea OM
NAPLES
AZORES 1439
Me
Ceuta 1415
MADEIRA 1418
O
PAPAL STATES
PORTUGAL
ck
PO LANDLITH U ANI A
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
SPAIN
Portuguese
dite
AN
EM
PIRE
r r a ne an Sea MAMELUKE EMPIRE
Spanish English
CENTRAL AMERICA
French
Gulf of Mexico
A T L A N T I C We
st In d
MAYA STATES
Danish (Union of Kalmar) 1415
ENGLAND
IRELAND
Ro
Russian
DENMARK
THE PALE 1169
A M E R I C A
Ottoman
RU S S I A ( MU S CO VY )
SCOTLAND
E ANC FR
Chinese
Oc e an
ICELAND to Denmark 1380
Hudson Bay
KEY
Ar c tic
NO RW A SWE Y DE N
in
Be
r
GREENLAND
Date of acquisition
AZTEC EMPIRE
ie
CANARY IS 1478
S
a
A
F
h
a
r
a
O C E A N
s
Caribbean Sea
R
I
C
KANEM BORNU
TEKRUR SONGHAY
A
FUNJ EMPIRE
DARFUR WADAI
MALI YORUBA STATES AKAN
HAUSALAND BENIN
FERNANDO PO I. 1472
PACIFIC OCEAN IN
C
A M E R I C A
A E
M
An illuminated Aztec codex records tribute payments from subject tribes.
KONGO
S O U T H P
IR
E
A T L A N T I C O C E A N ZIMBABWE
A e
s
42
d
THE NEW WORLD discovered by Columbus was inhabited by a string of small tribal societies, and by two large native empires, the Aztec civilization of Mexico, and the Inca empire of Peru. Both were of recent origin, established by warrior tribes in the 12th–14th centuries. They reached their fullest extent as the first European explorers arrived. Aztec rule covered much of modern Mexico. The Incas spread their rule south into present-day Chile and Argentina, and north into Ecuador.
n
THE AMERICAS
Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator employed by the Spanish crown to find a westward route to Asia, discovered instead the Americas. Within 50 years one-third of the New World was under Spanish control.
WORLD FACTFILE: THE WORLD
EUROPE
1492
EAST ASIA
THOUGH CHRISTIAN EUROPE later transformed the exploration and settlement of the world, the Europe from which Columbus sailed was an unstable, violent continent, threatened by invaders from Asia to the east, and from the Ottoman Empire to the south. Civil wars and dynastic conflict resulted in shifting frontiers and small, militarily weak states. Only France, united by the late 15th century, Spain, a single monarchy from the 1490s, Portugal, and England were close to their modern forms.
The Portuguese caravel, buoyant, sturdy, and lateen-rigged, was an ideal ocean-going vessel.
IN
Ber
in g
St
ra
i t
S i b e r i a
THE MOST POWERFUL STATE in the world in 1492 was Ming China. Set up in 1386 after the collapse of Mongol power, the Ming dynasty ruled an area from Manchuria in the north to the borders of Vietnam in the south. Based on a traditional structure of bureaucratic control, the Ming emperors controlled their vast empire from Peking (Beijing), from where they launched punitive wars against the Mongols and Japanese pirates along the coast. Chinese culture and trade spread throughout east and southeast Asia, and Chinese navigators reached the Red Sea and the east African coast.
Chinese junks plied the China seas, and traded as far as the East Indies, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and east Africa. KHANATE OF CRIMEA
A
S
I
A
Aral Sea
Ca s
SOUTH ASIA
G ob i
Sea an pi
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
U Z B E K H K HAN ATE
H
im
Th
SU
e
G
ul
al ay as
LT NE A DE N AT P A L LH E O F I
f
MING EMPIRE
TIBET
AVA
A
A DI BO
M
M CA
VIJAYANAGAR
N
SIAM
PACIFIC
N
ea dS Re
YEMEN
Bay LAOS A of PEGU Bengal
Arabian Sea
South China Sea
OCEANIA
THE ETHNIC, POLITICAL, and religious map of southeast Asia was largely in place by the late 15th century. However, the largest state was the vast Srivijayan Hindu–Buddhist empire, which spanned the East Indies archipelago. Muslim traders were in the process of incorporating this rich region into an Indian Ocean trading empire. Further east, the scattered island groups of the Pacific were being successively colonized by waves of Melanesians.
KOREA AKKOYUNLU
TIMURID PERSIA
AND
JAPAN
OCEAN
ETHIOPIA
M i c r o n e s i a
Ceylon
M e
S R I V I J AYA N EMPIRE
I N D I A N
East Indies
l
a
n
The outrigger canoe was the vehicle of Pacific colonization.
e
s i a
Ma d ag
a sc
ar
O C E A N
MIDDLE EAST
Arab dhows built a trading network around the Indian Ocean.
AND
A U S T R A L I A
AFRICA
AFTER CENTURIES OF INVASION from the Christian West and Asian nomadic empires, the Middle Eastern world stabilized around a revival of the Ottoman Empire. Vassal states extended across north Africa to Morocco, which linked the trading kingdoms of sub-Saharan Africa with the markets of Asia. The great cities of the Middle East surpassed those of Europe in wealth and learning.
NEW ZEALAND
The magnetic compass, in use since the 13th century, was a primary navigational tool for the first ocean-going explorers, although early compasses were not always reliable, and ships often went astray. Accurate navigation only came later with the invention of the chronometer.
43
WORLD FACTFILE
THE AGE
OF
DISCOVERY: 1492–1648 the Caribbean; in Asia, Spanish rule was established in the Philippines. Spain led the way in establishing European settler colonies overseas. By the middle of the 17th century, British, Dutch, and French colonists began to challenge Spanish dominance in the Americas and east Asia, while pirates around the world plundered Spain’s wealthy merchant convoys.
T
HE FIRST STATE to take advantage of the new age of exploration was Spain. By the middle of the 16th century, under the Emperor Charles V, Spain was established as the foremost European colonial power, and one of the richest and most powerful kingdoms in Europe. Spanish rule was extended over the whole of Central America, much of South America, Florida, and
AND
TERRITORIES GREENLAND
Ar c tic
Oc e an OR W AY
GLOBAL STATES
K -N
a it
Hudson Bay
SCOTLAND
nta y M ou
EUROPE
N O R T H
A M E R I C A
New Amsterdam 1623
1
CENTRAL AMERICA
Dutch
CUBA 1511
We
VICE-ROYALTY
BELIZE 1638
Danish 1521
Gulf of Mexico
OF
NEW SPAIN 1535
Date of acquisition
BAHAMAS 1629
st In die
S
s
O C E A N CAPE VERDE IS 1495
GUADELOUPE 1635
Caribbean Sea
MARTINIQUE 1635
a
A
h
F
a AIR
AN
r r a ne
Black Sea EM PI
an Sea
RE
CYPRUS 1571
r
R
I
C
A FUNJ
HAUSALAND
DARFUR WADAI
OYO Elmina 1637
CAYENNE 1643
PACIFIC
a
KANEM
ESSEQUIBO 1602
1536
KWARARAFA BENIN
FERNANDO PO I. SÃO TOMÉ 1648
OCEAN
DUTCH BRAZIL 1630
VI CE
Y LT YA O -R
KONGO
LUBA
ANGOLA
S O U T H
1575
LUNDA
A T L A N T I C
A M E R I C A
OF PE
RU
BRAZIL
3 154
O C E A N
1532
PARAGUAY 1537
Delagoa Bay 1544
E C H IL
EUROPEAN IMPACT on the Americas was rapid and brutal. In 1519–1520, the Spanish adventurer Cortés destroyed Aztec power with only a handful of soldiers. In 1531–1533, Pisarro conquered Inca Peru. Spanish settlement quickly followed. The captured areas furnished Spain with a vast flow of silver, while slaves from Africa flowed across the Atlantic to nourish the new plantations. North America attracted far less interest, with British colonists arriving in Virginia only in 1607, French in New France in 1608, and Dutch in New Amsterdam (later New York) in 1623.
M
BORNU
St Louis 1638
BARBADOS 1626
DUTCH ANTILLES 1634
NEW GRANADA
44
di t e
TOBAGO 1632
AMERICAS
O
CANARY IS
A T L A N T I C
HISPANIOLA 1493 PUERTO RICO 1510
JAMAICA 1509
T
MOROCCO
1513
52
French
FLORIDA
O1
English
Ceuta 1580
MADEIRA
T
NAPLES 1504
Me
Tangier 1640
1607
M E XI C
Spanish
O VENICE PAPAL STATES
PORTUGAL
VIRGINIA
Russian Portuguese
SWITZ.
SPAIN
AZORES
POLAND
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
NEW ENGLAND 1620
Ro
Ottoman
ck
Chinese
UNITED NETHERLANDS
THE PALE
1608
CE AN FR
KEY
ENGLAND
IRELAND
NEW FRANCE
SWEDEN
DENMAR
er
S tr
ins
B
ICELAND
g in
South American Amerindian artists recorded the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores.
The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500–1558) was the first ruler of a global empire, with lands in Europe, the Americas, and Africa.
WORLD FACTFILE: THE AGE
ASIA
FOR MORE THAN A CENTURY after Martin Luther inspired the Protestant Reformation in the 1520s, Europe was torn by religious wars. Scandinavia, England, and Scotland adopted the new beliefs, but elsewhere bitter civil conflicts led to the prolonged warfare and persecution known as the Thirty Years War. This ended in 1648; it destroyed wide areas of central Europe and decimated the German population, but resulted in a religious settlement which continues to the present. The Dutch Republic and northern Germany became Protestant while southern Germany, Poland, and southwest Europe remained Roman Catholic.
IN 1480, THE SMALL PRINCIPALITY OF MUSCOVY (Moscow) threw off Mongol control, and proceeded to expand Muscovite power over the whole of the area from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea. In the 1550s, the conquest of Kazan brought Russian power to the Urals, and over the next century it spread across Siberia, reaching the Pacific coast by 1649. Much of the area remained uninhabited, but to the south this new empire jostled uneasily with a string of central Asian Muslim khanates, and with the newly established Manchurian Ch’ing dynasty, which wrested control of China from the Ming in 1644.
i ng
E M P I R E
St
ra
Printing, using movable type, was a key development in the dissemination of ideas, knowledge, and commerce in early modern Europe.
i
t
R U S S I A N
S i b e r i a
KAZAKHSTAN Aral Sea KHWARIZM
A
S
I
KHOKAND KHANATE
European navigators and surveyors produced accurate maps and charts of their voyages.
A
Sea an pi
KASHGAR KHANATE
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
UZBEKISTAN
H SAFAVID PERSIA Th
im
al a y TIBET as N EP
e
G
DISCOVERY: 1492–1648
EUROPE
Ber
Ca s
OF
ul
MUGHAL EMPIRE
f
OMAN 1508
Diu 1535
JAPAN
PACIFIC Macao 1557 LAOS
A
N
N M
a Se
SIAM
A
d Re
Goa 1510
FORMOSA 1624
BURMA
ARAKAN Bay of Bengal Masulipatam 1611 Madras 1639
Arabian Sea
OCEAN
PHILIPPINES from 1565
South China Sea
CEYLON 1505
ETHIOPIA
M i c r o n e s i a
Galle 1640 Malacca 1641
I N D I A N
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
M e
Makassar 1607
East Indies
Batavia 1619
l
a
n
e
1610 TIMOR 1618
s
Ma
d ag
asc a
r
a
O C E A N
MOLUCCAS from 1605
i
from 1505
THE PORTUGUESE and the Spanish were the first European powers to open trade with the powerful Asian states of Mughal India and Ch’ing China. The Spanish opened trans-Pacific routes between Central America, the Philippines, and China. But the establishment of the Dutch and British East India companies in the early 17th century announced the advent of two new maritime powers.
Deshima 1641
AL
Surat 1608 Daman 1559 Bombay 1534
SOUTH ASIA AND OCEANIA
KOREA
M A N C H U (CH'ING) EMPIRE
Hooghly 1640
The Indian Mughal ruler Shahjahan (1592–1648), builder of the Taj Mahal.
West African trading kingdoms produced artifacts such as this bronze Portuguese soldier from Benin.
AFRICA
AND
A U S T R A L I A
THE MIDDLE EAST
WHILE EUROPE WAS DIVIDED by the Reformation, Islam experienced a remarkable resurgence in the 16th century. The revival of the Ottoman Empire brought Islamic rule over much of southeast Europe. Islam spread along trade routes to sub-Saharan Africa. In east Africa, it spread south along the coast. Further east, Muslim rulers established new imperial states in Persia (Iran) and India.
NEW ZEALAND
The sextant allowed navigators to take accurate measurements of heavenly bodies in relation to the horizon, thus allowing latitude to be calculated correctly. Early sextants had to be hand-held and were often used on shore rather than on board ship.
45
WORLD FACTFILE
EXPANSION: 1648–1789
OF
T
HE YEARS FROM the middle of the 17th century to the end of the 18th century saw a massive consolidation of European discovery and exploration, which took the form of colonial settlement and political expansion. This period also witnessed the beginning of a sharp rise in European population and in its economic strength, accompanied by rapid developments in the arts and sciences. All these
Ar c tic GREENLAND 1763
ai t
ALASKA 1741
Hudson Bay
RUPE RT'S 1670 LAND
tai
un
oc R
EUROPE SPAIN PORTUGAL
UNIT E D STAT E S
1704 BERMUDA 1684
Portuguese
French Dutch Danish United States 1776
CORSICA 1768
PAPAL STATES
Me d
Ceuta ALGIERS
O
MOROCCO
T
FLORIDA
Spanish MEXICO
CENTRAL AMERICA
Gulf of Mexico
We s
t Ind ie
S
s
O C E A N
SANTO DOMINGO PUERTO RICO GUADELOUPE OF JAMAICA SAINT DOMINGUE BELIZE 1655 1697 MARTINIQUE NEW SPAIN
VICE-ROYALTY
Caribbean Sea
MOSQUITO COAST 1655
St Louis
nean Sea
E M P I R E
a
r
a I
R
Bissau 1693 Freetown 1787
C
A
KANEM DARFUR
SEGU
ESSEQUIBO SURINAM 1667
NEW GRANADA
h F
HAUSALAND BORNU
KAARTA
TOBAGO 1783
Date of acquisition
a A
CAPE VERDE IS
BARBADOS
DUTCH ANTILLES
iterra
T O M A N
CANARY IS
A T L A N T I C
BAHAMAS CUBA
HUNGARY
VENICE
Gibraltar MADEIRA
British
SWITZ.
Black Sea AZORES
LOUISIA
ky
NA 176 3
Mo
ST PIERRE & MIQUELON
NOVA SCOTIA 1713
POLAND
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
CE AN
Russian
SWEDEN
NETHERLANDS
NEWFOUNDLAND 1713
FR
Ottoman
A M E R I C A
GREAT BRITAIN
EC EB QU 1763
63 17
Chinese
N O R T H
AD
A
KEY
CAN
Oc e an
ICELAND
K-N O
St r
TERRITORIES
DENMAR
er
g in
AND
ns
B
GLOBAL STATES
factors powered European expansion – a process that would bring European culture to every part of the globe, gradually filling in the world map, and bringing it into often fatal contact with less robust indigenous cultures. By the last quarter of the 18th century, with Europe poised on the brink of political turmoil, only Africa and Australasia remained largely unmolested by European attentions.
RW AY
THE AGE
ASANTE DAHOMEY MOSSI
YORUBA
WADAI BENIN KWARARAFA
CAYENNE Elmina
PACIFIC
Accra 1672 FERANDO PO I. 1778 SÃO TOMÉ
OCEAN V IC E - R OYALT Y OF BR AZ IL
VI CE OY
S O U T H
TY AL OF
46
A M E R I C A
O C E A N
LUNDA
ANGOLA
IMBANGALA
ST HELENA 1661
RU
NORTH AMERICA WAS DIVIDED between the great European empires, Britain, France, Spain, and Russia, but most of it remained unexplored or unsettled. Fish and furs were the main interest. By the 18th century, European rivalry and conflicts with the native American population led to a series of wars. French influence was gradually reduced and excluded by British conquest. In 1776, colonists rebelled against British rule, launching a war of independence which ended with the creation of a republican United States of America. Canada remained under British rule. Modern North America was gradually taking shape.
A T L A N T I C
PE
THE AMERICAS
LUBA
1760
-R
The plantations of the New World grew valuable crops such as cotton and sugar.
VICE-ROYALTY OF RIO DE LA PLATA 1776
Delagoa Bay
CAPE 1652
FALKLAND IS 1770
Peter the Great (1672–1725) oversaw the consolidation of the Russian Empire, and sought to emulate the prestige, learning, and sophistication of the western European monarchies.
WORLD FACTFILE: THE AGE
ASIA
AFTER THE CRISIS of the Thirty Years War, Europe began to develop a more settled state system as successful dynastic houses imposed more centralized rule. The Habsburgs acquired control over Hungary and much of central Europe. Russia’s frontiers pushed into Poland and the Ukraine. The French Bourbon monarchy became the most powerful in Europe. Its material wealth and culture made it a rival to the older empires of Asia. French became the common language of educated Europeans, and French philosophy led to the intellectual “Enlightenment.”
THE CH’ING DYNASTY forged the shape of modern China. By 1658 the whole of southern China was under Manchu control. Formosa (Taiwan) was occupied in 1683, outer Mongolia in 1697. A protectorate was established over Tibet in 1751. Over the course of this expansion, the population of China tripled and the economy boomed through trade in tea, porcelain, and silk with Russia and the West. Manchu China was powerful enough to resist incursions by the European empires, avoiding the fate of the crumbling Mughal empire in India, where Britain and France competed for trade and territory.
Ber
KAZAKHSTAN Aral Sea
A
S
I
pi
KHOKAND
A
S an ea
H
PERSIA AFGHANISTAN
im
Th
PA
i
Dutch and British East Indiamen carried the vast European trade with Asia.
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
PACIFIC
Deshima
L
PHILIPPINES
MARIANAS 1668
South China Sea
M
a Se
ANDAMAN IS 1789 MADRAS Pondicherry 1674 Karikal 1738
Macao
NA
d Re
NORTHERN CIRCARS 1756
FORMOSA 1683
AN
17 57 BURMA MARATHA Surat CONFEDERACY Chandernagore B a y 1688 Diu Daman o f Bombay Bengal SIAM 1661 Arabian
Mahé 1725
CAROLINE IS 1686
ETHIOPIA Galle
CEYLON 1658
M i c r o n e s i a
Penang 1786 MALAYA
I N D I A N
MOLUCCAS
M e
O C E A N CHAGOS IS 1784
SOUTHEAST ASIA AND OCEANIA were areas of small, warring kingdoms, increasingly prey to the ambitions of European traders, first Spanish and Portuguese, then Dutch and British. Yet, by the late 18th century, there was still little formal colonization. Officially discovered by Europeans in the early 17th century, most of Australasia was still unexplored and unsettled, except for a number of small penal colonies set up by the British in New South Wales (1788) and Tasmania (1804).
Maori New Zealand was one of the few indigenous cultures to remain untouched by European contact until the 19th century.
OCEAN
BENG AL
Goa
OCEANIA
JAPAN
KOREA
al a yTIBET 1751 as NE
Sea
ra
MONGOLIA 1697
M A N C H U (CH'ING) EMPIRE
BALUCHISTAN
ulf
St
SINKIANG 1760
TURKESTAN
G
ing
E M P I R E
t
R U S S I A N
e
EXPANSION: 1648–1789
EUROPE
Isaac Newton (1642– 1727), the leading scientist of Europe’s Age of Reason.
Ca s
OF
DU
TCH
l
E A S T I N DI ES
a
n
e
s i
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
Ma d ag
a sc
ar
a
TIMOR
RÉUNION 1662
Fort Dauphin 1766
A U S T R A L I A
African slavers marched their human cargo from the interior to the coast for transshipment.
AFRICA DURING THE 17TH AND 18TH CENTURIES Africa was regarded by the rest of the world as a source of two things: gold and slaves. Some 13.5 million slaves were shipped in the 1700s, from the west coast and from Portuguese Angola. African dealers sold to European middlemen, who in turn sold on the surviving slaves. In northern and northeastern Africa, Arab slavers traded with the Ottoman Empire. But the rest of Africa remained isolated from the outside world.
LORD HOWE I. 1788
NEW SOUTH WALES 1788
NEW ZEALAND
Harrison's chronometer, invented in 1762, allowed navigators to measure time accurately, and thus calculate longitude correctly. This greatly reduced the risk of shipwreck and heralded the beginning of accurate mapping of the world.
47
WORLD FACTFILE
THE AGE OF REVOLUTION: 1789–1830 I
N 1789 ROYAL POWER was shattered by the French Revolution. The collapse of the most powerful monarchy in Europe reverberated worldwide. The revolutions in France and America ushered in the idea of the modern nation state, and of popular representative government. Revolutionary outbreaks occurred elsewhere in Europe, and overseas colonies
GLOBAL STATES
AND
in Latin America won their independence. At the same time, an industrial revolution was taking place in Europe, transforming the old trading economy into a manufacturing base which would require a global supply of raw materials and a global market to fuel it. The revolutionary years thus marked the beginning of the modern political and economic world order.
TERRITORIES GREENLAND
Arct i c
in
g
ALASKA
NORTH-WESTERN TERRITORIES
Hudson Bay
NO RW A SWE Y DE N
er
it
FINLAND to Russia 1809
(Union 1815) UNITED KINGDOM
DENMARK
ou M
ck R
o
A M E R I C A UNITED S TAT E S
PORTUGAL
AUSTRIA
-HUNGARY
O T Black Sea TO M AN
NAPLES
AZORES
Gibraltar
MALTA 1800
Algiers 1830
Mediterranean Sea
c
ha
GERMAN CONFED.
SPAIN
ur
Russian
EUROPE
ST PIERRE & MIQUELON
P an a L o u i s i 8 03 1
Ottoman
y
Chinese
C
N O R T H
NETHERLANDS BELGIUM [1830]
CE AN
KEY
A AN
DA FR
(US/Britain 1818-46)
nt
OREGON COUNTRY
ain
s
B
ICELAND
a St r
O cean
Portuguese
MEXICO
se
Spanish
Dutch
CENTRAL AMERICA
UNITED PROVINCES OF CENTRAL AMERICA
BAHAMAS
We
s
Pu
Caribbean Sea DUTCH ANTILLES
(to Br. 1807-15)
ANGUILLA
REPUBLIC OF GREATER COLOMBIA [1819-30]
A
GUADELOUPE MARTINIQUE ST LUCIA 1814 BARBADOS TOBAGO
VENEZUELA
Date of acquisition Date of independence
S
O C E A N
R ic o erto
[1830] [1820]
EGYPT
(autonomous)
st I ndie HAITI
MOSQUITO COAST
CANARY IS
A T L A N T I C
[1804]
BRITISH HONDURAS
[1825-38] 1790
to US 1819
JAMAICA
Danish United States
MOROCCO
FLORIDA
Gulf of Mexico CUBA
British French
MADEIRA
BERMUDA
[1821]
h R
a
r
I
MASSINA
BRITISH GUIANA DUTCH GUIANA FRENCH GUIANA
DAHOMEY
FUTA JALLON
PORTUGUESE GUINEA
MOSSI
SIERRA LEONE
ASANTE Assinie
LIBERIA (founded 1822)
Elmina
BORNU
FULANI
[1830]
PERU [1821]
EMPIRE OF BRAZIL BOLIVIA [1822]
[1825]
THE AMERICAS
IBO YORUBA BENIN
FERNANDO PO I. PRINCIPE
NYAMWEZI LUBA ASCENSION I. 1815
A T L A N T I C O C E A N
ST HELENA
ANGOLA
LUNDA IMBANGALA OVIMBUNDU MATABELELAND
PARAGUAY [1811]
Delagoa Bay SWAZI SOTHO
ARGENTINA [1816]
CHILE
URUGUAY
[1818]
[1828]
CAPE COLONY TRISTAN DA CUNHA 1815
ta
go ni
a
48
BUGANDA MANYEMA
Pa
THE FLEDGLING UNITED STATES OF AMERICA began to expand rapidly, purchasing the Midwest territories from France in 1803, and Florida from Spain in 1819. Revolutionary fervor both here and in Europe weakened the control of France, Spain, and Portugal throughout Latin America. From 1810 there followed 20 years of violent revolt, with native armies fighting their European masters and each other. The new states were prey to political violence and instability, but they never again came under European rule.
DARFUR WADAI
S O U T H A M E R I C A
OCEAN
SUDAN
Accra
SÃO TOME
ECUADOR
A
(to Egypt 1820)
SENEGAL Bathurst 1816
[1831]
PACIFIC
a
C
CAPE VERDE IS
TRINIDAD
NEW GRANADA
a
F
FALKLAND IS (to Argentina 1820-33)
Simón Bolívar (1783– 1830) led armies of liberation in Peru, Bolivia, and Venezuela.
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769– 1821) began his career as a commander in the French Revolutionary wars. By 1804 he had become emperor of France, which dominated much of western Europe.
ZULULAND Port Natal 1824
WORLD FACTFILE: THE AGE
OF
REVOLUTION: 1789–1830
EUROPE
ASIA
UNDER NAPOLÉON BONAPARTE, France subordinated a large part of Europe and destroyed the old feudal order. Napoléon helped to shape the new nation states that emerged in 19th-century Europe – Belgium, Italy, and Germany. He gave much of Europe its modern legal code and systems of measurement, education, and local government.
THE PRINCIPAL COLONIAL POWER in Asia was Russia, whose consolidation of its empire in northern and central Asia continued throughout the 19th century. But now the Dutch began to extend their control of the East Indies, while a bitter struggle between the British and the French was conducted in and around the Indian Ocean. France was gradually forced to concede many of its footholds in India, where the British East India Company rapidly extended its interests by a mixture of diplomacy and military force. But the elusive key to Asia’s largest markets remained the slumbering giant of Ch’ing China, whose Manchu rulers, like the shoguns of Japan, remained unimpressed by European overtures.
Steam-powered engines transformed the European industrial economy.
The spices of the East Indies, such as pepper, were among the most highly valued trade commodities from Asia.
Be
E M P I R E
ri
R U S S I A N
ng
St
ra it
A
S
I
A MONGOLIA
Aral Sea
Ca s
GHA NI STA N
Sea e
IR
Th
P
G
E
ul
H
i m
AF
PE RSIA
M
f
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
M A N C H U (CH'ING) CHINA
an pi
E
James Cook (1728–1779) charted much of the Pacific.
L
BHUTAN
B
PACIFIC
U
R
A
MARIANAS
OCEAN M
Karikal
TENASSERIM 1826
I
South China Sea
A
ETHIOPIA
Pondicherry
S
ea Mahé LACCADIVE IS 1791
FORMOSA
Macao
A
N
A
Goa
A
N
I
Bay of Bengal
M
B dS Re
Arabian Sea
R
A
INDIA
Diu Daman
THOUGH PORTUGUESE and Dutch explorers had confirmed the existence of Australasia in the 17th century, it was not until the voyages of Captain Cook in the 1770s that the geography of the Pacific was established, and the fertile eastern coast of Australia was explored and charted. Over the next 30 years, small settlements were established around the coast; by 1829, Britain had brought the whole of Australia under the British flag.
KOREA
TIBET (Chinese protectorate a l from 1750) a y NE a s PA
A OMAN
OCEANIA
JAPAN
M
PHILIPPINES
CAROLINE IS
ANDAMAN IS
Ceylon
M i c r o n e s i a MALAYA Malacca 1824
MALDIVE IS 1887
ZANZIBAR (to Oman)
SEYCHELLES 1794
M e
SINGAPORE 1819
Ne CHAGOS IS
DUTCH EAST INDIES
wG
ui
ne
l
a
n
a
e
s i
PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA
I N D I A N
ar a sc Ma d ag
HOVA KINGDOM
a
Timor
O C E A N MAURITIUS 1810
RÉUNION
WESTERN AUSTRALIA 1829
The first European migrants to Africa settled in Cape Colony.
NEW SOUTH WA L E S
A U S T R A L I A LORD HOWE I.
NEW ZEALAND
AFRICA THE NORTHERN REGIONS OF AFRICA were part of the vast Islamic Ottoman Empire; from here Islam spread south to west Africa and the Horn of Africa. Holy wars (or jihads) in the late 18th and early 19th centuries completed the conversion to Islam of much of Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa. Large tribal kingdoms flourished in the Congo basin and southern Africa.
TASMANIA (Van Diemen’s Land)
AUCKLAND IS 1806 MACQUARIE IS 1811
CHATHAM IS 1791
The development during the European industrial revolution of mechanized manufacturing plant and machinery, such as power looms, gave Europe effective control of a booming global trade in raw materials and mass-manufactured commodities.
49
WORLD FACTFILE
THE AGE
EMPIRE: 1830–1914
OF
T
HE 19TH CENTURY was dominated by the spread of modern industry and transportation, and the expansion of European trade and influence worldwide. Industry made Europe rich and powerful; its capital cities were monuments to the self-confidence of the new European age. Railroads and steamships revolutionized communications, bringing a stream
TERRITORIES
GREENLAND
ICELAND
NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES
United States
CUBA [1902] JAMAICA
CENTRAL AMERICA
BRITISH HONDURAS
HONDURAS
di
es
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC [1865]
898 RI C O 1 RTO PUE ANGUILLA
HAITI
DUTCH ANTILLES
NICARAGUA CANAL ZONE 1903
Japanese
COSTA RICA
VENEZUELA
A
[1905]
Date of acquisition
h
F
GOLD COAST 1874
SIERRA LEONE
FRENCH GUIANA
r
R
SÃO TOMÉ
ECUADOR
I
C
1885 CAMEROONS 1884
E FR
B R A Z I L
Date of independence
1914
a
NIGERIA
FERNANDO PO I. RIO MUNI 1857 PRÍNCIPE
PACIFIC OCEAN
a
LIBERIA
Belgian 1845
a
TOGO 1894
PORTUGUESE GUINEA
EGYPT
1911
from 1876 GAMBIA 1843
BRITISH GUIANA DUTCH GUIANA
COLOMBIA Italian
S
L I B YA
FRENCH WEST AFRICA
CAPE VERDE IS
TRINIDAD
PANAMA
German
OCEAN
GUADELOUPE MARTINIQUE ST LUCIA BARBADOS TOBAGO
Caribbean Sea
GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR
In
1870
SPANISH SAHARA 1912 RIO DE ORO 1884
1878
ALGERIA
A SUDAN (AngloEgyptian 1898)
RI A
Danish
We s t
Mediterranean Sea CYPRUS
UA TO
Dutch
ATLANTIC BAHAMAS
MALTA
L AF RICA fr om 1875
MADEIRA
OT ITALY GREECE TOM AN (united 1870) [1830]
SPANISH MOROCCO TUNISIA 1904 1883
Gibraltar
BERMUDA
Gulf of Mexico
Black Sea BULGARIA [1908]
EQ
French
MEXICO
ROMANIA [1878]
SERBIA [1878]
SPAIN
AZORES
CANARY IS
British
UNGARY
RIA-H
ALBANIA [1913]
PORTUGAL
TEXAS 1845
Spanish
AUST
UGANDA 1894
CH
un Mo
ky
EUROPE
ST PIERRE & MIQUELON
BELGIUM [1830]
N
ns
Portuguese
GADSDEN PURCHASE 1853
NETHERLANDS
U N I T E D S T A T E S
oc
MEXICAN CESSION 1848
N O R T H
DENMARK GERMANY
A M E R I C A
R
Russian
(Dominion 1867)
UNITED KINGDOM
CE AN FR
Chinese Ottoman
CANADA
tai
ALEUTIAN IS 1867
FOUNDLAND NEW
Hudson Bay
1870
OREGON COUNTRY 1846
Oc e an
NORWAY [1905]
ALASKA
(Purchased from Russia 1867)
KEY
Ar c t i c
ait
R 19 OCC 12 O
Be
ri n
tr gS
SWE DE N
AND
MO
GLOBAL STATES
of industrial goods, technical know-how, and European settlers across America, Africa, and Asia. Modern industry and weapons brought Europe to the summit of global influence. In these developments lay the origins of the division of the world into rich and poor regions; a developed, prosperous north and an underdeveloped, dependent south.
BELGIAN CONGO 1908
ASCENSION I.
PERU
THE AMERICAS
NYASALAND
S O U T H
ANGOLA N. RHODESIA 1889
A M E R I C A
ST HELENA
BOLIVIA
BY 1830, THE US covered less than half its present area. Over the next 50 years, the whole of the continent was settled as pioneers pushed into the interior. They drove before them the native Amerindian peoples, who were all but eliminated in a long series of bloody wars and confined to small reservations. In 1845, the Republic of Texas was annexed; in 1846, Oregon was acquired; and in 1848, California was seized. In 1867, Alaska was sold to America by the Russian czar. The shape of the modern US was complete.
50
S. RHODESIA
ATLANTIC
PA R
AG
1884
UA Y
CHILE
1888 GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA BECHUANALAND
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA (Dominion 1910)
URUGUAY ARGENTINA
TRISTAN DA CUNHA
FALKLAND IS 1833
Railroads provided cheap transportation for migrants and freight.
1885 MOZAMBIQUE SWAZILAND 1884
OCEAN
Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1819– 1901) ruled the largest empire in world history.
BASUTOLAND 1884
WORLD FACTFILE: THE AGE
ASIA
IN THE 19TH CENTURY, Europe was transformed into an industrial economy. In the new industrial cities, pressure developed for liberal reforms and parliamentary politics. Nationalists created new states in Germany, Italy, Greece, Serbia, and Belgium. While the modern map of Europe gradually began to take shape, European imperialists brought still more areas of the world under their control.
BUILDING ON COLONIAL INTERESTS that stretched back into the 18th century, Britain and France transformed the political world of south Asia. Britain extended its rule in India and, in 1885, Burma was brought under British control. The Vietnamese and Chinese Empires were pressured by Europeans anxious to trade and to spread Christianity: the Ch’ing empire conceded areas of influence; the Vietnamese empire resisted and was brought under French domination by force. By the 1890s the whole of southern Asia except for Siam was dominated by Europe, which created the modern state structure of the region.
B er
K A Z A K H S TA N
MA
MONGOLIA
1854
Aral Sea
ing
St
E M P I R E
(autonomous 1912)
AMUR 1858
NC
nS ia sp Ca
A
S
I
A
HU
RI
im
[1912]
G
ulf
PA
RYUKYU IS 1874
PACIFIC
AN
OM 889
NA HI 7 8 18
Pondicherry Karikal
-C
Mahé LACCADIVE IS
DO
FORMOSA 1895 Hong Kong 1841
South China Sea
OCEAN MARIANAS 1899
PHILIPPINES 1898
GUAM 1898 CAROLINE IS 1899
ANDAMAN IS
CEYLON
AN
D1
IN
SIAM
Goa
SOCOTRA 1886 FRENCH SOMALILAND 1884
CH EN FR
IA
a
BRITISH SOMALILAND 1884
Bay of Bengal
A
B
Se
1888
Aden 1839
M
A
INDIA Diu Daman
Arabian Sea
Macao
R
R ERITREA HADHRAMAUT 1889
U
A d Re
DURING THE 19TH century, Australia and New Zealand remained closely tied to the British homeland. British settlers came to farm and later to prospect for gold and other valuable minerals. In 1840, New Zealand came under British rule and the native Maoris were forced off the land. Not until 1872 was the continent of Australia traversed, and not until 1901 was a single state, the Commonwealth of Australia, proclaimed.
CHINA
L
Chandernagore
NICOBAR IS 1869
MALAYA
M i c r o n e s i a
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 1881
N
SO
M
AL IL
ETHIOPIA
OCEANIA
JAPAN
KOREA 1905
B
BAHRAIN 1861
TIBET
KURILE IS 1875
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
Weihaiwei 1898 Tsingtao 1898
al ay as BHUTAN NE
T
RE
he
H
The colonization of Australia and New Zealand was based on sheep farming.
USSURI 1860
A
Port Arthur1905
ea
AFGHANISTAN
PERSIA
i
1853 SAKHALIN 1905
TURKESTAN BUKH 1895 ARA TURKM 18 EN 6 1885 ISTAN 8
ra
The Japanese emperor Meiji (1852–1912) opened Japan to Western trade and influence.
t
R U S S I A N
PI
AL IT
IA
SARAWAK 1888
MALDIVE IS
NAURU BISMARCK 1888 ARCHIPELAGO 1884 M
BRITISH EAST AFRICA 1888
SEYCHELLES
DUTCH EAST INDIES
CHAGOS IS
PAPUA 1906
COMORO IS 1886
188 2
I N D I A N
GA SC AR DA
el
NEW GUINEA
COCOS IS 1857
CHRISTMAS I. 1888
a
n
e
SO
LO 18 MO 93 N I
TIMOR
si a
ZANZIBAR 1890 GERMAN EAST AFRICA 1885
MA
EMPIRE: 1830–1914
EUROPE
Sailing ships carried most oceanic trade until 1900.
EM
OF
S
O C E A N MAURITIUS
Quinine – the cure for malaria.
NEW CALEDONIA 1853
RÉUNION
New medicines made the colonization of Africa possible.
A U S T R A L I A (Commonwealth 1901) NORFOLK ISLAND
NEW ZEALAND
AFRICA
1840 (Dominion 1907) CHATHAM IS.
THE POLITICAL STRUCTURE of independent Africa was torn up by encroaching European empires. As native societies reacted violently to European intrusion, so European military and political power was increased to secure European interests. In 1884, in Berlin, the European powers divided Africa between them. The “Partition of Africa” established the modern frontiers of many states.
TASMANIA
AUCKLAND IS MACQUARIE IS
The Gatling gun, the most successful of the hand-crankoperated machine guns of the 19th century.
The European imperial powers maintained control of their often far-flung colonies by military superiority. Native forces were rarely a match for the large, highly trained armies, powerful navies, and technically advanced weaponry which the Europeans had at their disposal.
51
WORLD FACTFILE
THE AGE
GLOBAL WAR: 1914–1945
OF
I
N 1914, IMPERIAL AND MILITARY rivalry in Europe provoked the first of two world wars, the largest and most destructive wars in human history. At the end of the first war, in 1918, the old international order was dead. The Russian Empire collapsed in revolution and was transformed by a communist minority into the Soviet Union. The German, Habsburg, and Ottoman
TERRITORIES SPITSBERGEN to Norway 1925
ICELAND [1918]
Hudson Bay
ins
C A N A D A
U N I T E D S T A T E S
AZORES
Caribbean Sea
[1922]
Date of independence Axis occupied territories 1942
COSTA RICA
O C E A N
GUADELOUPE MARTINIQUE ST LUCIA BARBADOS TOBAGO
DUTCH ANTILLES
VENEZUELA
PANAMA
GAMBIA
COLOMBIA
A
PORTUGUESE GUINEA
BRITISH GUIANA DUTCH GUIANA FRENCH GUIANA
GOLD COAST
SIERRA LEONE
F
FERNANDO PO I. RIO MUNI PRÍNCIPE
PACIFIC
SÃO TOMÉ
OCEAN B R A Z I L
a
R
I
SUDAN (AngloEgyptian)
C
A
UGANDA
F
B E LG I AN CO N G O NYASALAND
ANGOLA
A T L A N T I C
A M E R I C A
N. RHODESIA
ST HELENA
O C E A N
BOLIVIA
SOUTH RHODESIA
PA R
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
AG
UA Y
THE AMERICAS
r
ASCENSION I.
S O U T H
PERU
a
NIGERIA
LIBERIA
ECUADOR
The Model T Ford, manufactured on the world’s first assembly lines.
h
FRENCH WEST AFRICA
CAPE VERDE IS
TRINIDAD
a
L AFRICA
O O RIC ERT PU ANGUILLA
REPUBLIC
HAITI
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA
EGYPT [1922]
S
Q UA T ORI A
Date of acquisition
CC
O
e s DOMINICAN
CANAL ZONE
1945
PALESTINE
L I B YA
HE
HONDURAS
GUATEMALA
LEBANON [1941] TRANSJORDAN
RIO DE ORO
di
JAMAICA BRITISH HONDURAS
Mediterranean Sea
ALGERIA
A T L A N T I C
BAHAMAS
t I n
CYPRUS
NC
Belgian
TUNISIA
T UR K E Y [1919]
GREECE
E 19 R O O 22 NS
CENTRAL AMERICA
United States
We s CUBA
Black Sea
MALTA SPANISH MOROCCO
SPANISH SAHARA
Gulf of Mexico
MEXICO
ITALY
AM
Danish
MADEIRA CANARY IS
French
ROMANIA
YUGOSLAVIA [1918]
SPAIN
Gibraltar
BERMUDA
British/ Commonwealth
CZECHOSLOVAKIA [1918] AUSTRIA HUNGARY [1918]
RO
ck Ro
Portuguese
SWITZ.
ALBANIA BULGARIA
PORTUGAL
Spanish
Dutch
EUROPE
ST PIERRE & MIQUELON
A M E R I C A
USSR
NETHERLANDS POLAND [1918]
GERMANY
BELGIUM
O
y M ou
Chinese
N O R T H
DENMARK
CE AN
KEY
UNITED KINGDOM IRELAND [1922]
FR
nta
ALEUTIAN IS
NORWAY
SWE DE N
ALASKA
Oc e an
C
it
M
i
t ra
Ar c t i c
ND LA 17] FIN [19
er
S ng
FOUNDLAND NEW
B
GREENLAND
RE
AND
TOGO
GLOBAL STATES
empires were dismembered. A fragile peace ensued but the old equilibrium was gone. The rise of strident nationalism in Germany, Japan, and Italy destroyed the peace once again in 1939. The second war cost the lives of 50 million people and ravaged Europe and Asia. At its end, in 1945, the US and the Soviet Union had emerged as the new superpowers.
BECHUANALAND SWAZILAND BASUTOLAND
IN 1917, THE US entered the war against Germany with the aim of restoring world peace and the spread of democracy. After the Great Crash in 1929, American prosperity was destroyed, and in the 1930s the US, impoverished and disarmed, sat on the sidelines as the world plunged again into war. However, in 1941, the Japanese attacked American territories in the Pacific, and the US was drawn into World War II. Its economy recovered and by 1945 the US had become the leading military power.
52
CHILE
UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA
URUGUAY ARGENTINA
TRISTAN DA CUNHA
Marx
Engels
Lenin Stalin
FALKLAND IS
The four founders of communism.
WORLD FACTFILE: THE AGE
ASIA
BOTH WORLD WARS had their origins in Europe. In 1914, Germany invaded Belgium; Britain, France, and Russia combined to defeat it, with US help. In 1918 new nation states were established in eastern Europe. But, by 1939, revived German nationalism started a second world war; much of western Europe came under a German “New Order” until the Soviet Union, Britain, and the US developed sufficient military strength to reconquer Europe and defeat Germany.
THE COLLAPSE OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE in 1911, followed in 1917 by the disappearance of the Russian Empire, produced instability across Asia. Full-scale war broke out between Japan and China in 1937, with Japan trying to conquer China. The Soviet Union was the victim of German aggression from 1941. Both Japan and Germany were held at bay by communist forces which eventually succeeded in imposing stable politics on Asia. By 1945, the Soviet Union had reconquered its lost territories and dominated eastern Europe. In China, communist armies filled the vacuum left by the Japanese defeat.
World War II was decided by mechanical and industrial superiority.
S
S
i ng
St
R
ra
Mahatma Gandhi (1868–1948) led India to independence through peaceful noncooperation and protest.
i t
U
SAKHALIN 1945
OCEANIA
MONGOLIA Aral Sea
Ca s
KURILE IS 1945
[1924]
pi
A
S an
S
I
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
A
ea
al
(Persia) eG
ay as N EP
ulf
FOR THE ONLY TIME in its history, Australia was faced with the very real prospect of invasion. In World War II, Japanese armies reached the island of New Guinea, and bombed towns in northern Australia. Japanese submarines attacked Sydney harbor. The Battle of the Coral Sea, in May 1942, saved Australia, but it took almost three years to clear Japanese forces from the South Pacific, where they hung on grimly to the rich oil and mineral resources they had captured.
JAPAN
KOREA [1945]
C H I N A
AFGHANISTAN H i m TIBET
IRAN Th
PACIFIC RYUKYU IS 1945
BHUTAN
AL
OCEAN
BAHRAIN
Chandernagore AN
Diu Daman
M
[1932]
O 1941
Pondicherry Karikal
South China Sea
ETHIOPIA
CAROLINE IS 1945
MA SO N
M i c r o n e s i a
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO
MALAYA
IA
GUAM
ANDAMAN IS NICOBAR IS
SARAWAK
MALDIVE IS
AL IT
MARIANAS 1945
PHILIPPINES
CEYLON
LIL A
ND
Mahé LACCADIVE IS
THAILAND (Siam)
NA HI -C
FRENCH SOMALILAND
Hong Kong
DO
SOCOTRA
Aden
BRITISH SOMALILAND
Bay of Bengal
Arabian Goa Sea
IN
a Se
HADHRAMAUT
BURMA
H
d Re
YEMEN [1918]
TAIWAN (Formosa) 1945
Macao
INDIA
C EN FR
SAUDI ARABIA
ERITREA 1941
BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO 1945 M
KENYA ZANZIBAR
SEYCHELLES
DUTCH EAST INDIES
CHAGOS IS
I N D I A N
COMORO IS
CHRISTMAS I. 1888
NAURU 1945
an
SO LO M
PAPUA
MOZAMBIQUE
TIMOR
es
O N
ia
IS
COCOS IS
O C E A N
SC AR
GA
el
NEW GUINEA
TANGANYIKA
MA DA
GLOBAL WAR: 1914–1945
EUROPE
Be r
IRAQ [1932]
OF
MAURITIUS
NEW CALEDONIA
RÉUNION
A U S T R A L I A (Dominion 1926)
Haile Selassie (1892– 1975), ruler of Ethiopia, the only independent empire in Africa.
LORD HOWE I.
NEW ZEALAND
MIDDLE EAST
CHATHAM IS
TASMANIA
IN 1918, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE disappeared after being in existence for 400 years. The modern map of north Africa and the Middle East was carved out of its ruins by the victors of World War I. The genocide of Europe’s Jews by Nazi Germany during World War II accelerated the foundation of a new state of Israel in 1948, leading inexorably to conflict between displaced native Arabs and Jewish migrants.
AUCKLAND IS MACQUARIE IS
A German Zeppelin airship of the 1930s.
Japan promoted itself as the liberator of Asia from the chains of European colonialism.
The conquest of the air was the most important technological achievement of the period. It added a devastating dimension to warfare, in the form of aerial bombing, while transforming civil transportation.
53
WORLD FACTFILE
THE MODERN AGE: 1945–PRESENT DAY T
WO NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS in Japan finally ended World War II and ushered in a new era of global rivalry. Total destruction by nuclear weapons was a real possibility as the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the US, became locked with their allies in a fearful Cold War. Various side conflicts were staged in the ruins of the old empires where new nation states, with old colonial borders, were emerging.
GLOBAL STATES
AND
By 1991, communist power in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had crumbled, while the capitalism of the West had gained in strength. The US is now the sole global superpower and has used its status to push Western goods and ideals to every corner of the globe, provoking often violent reactions among proud, conservative cultures. The age of globalization has begun.
TERRITORIES Ar c tic
GREENLAND
Oc e an
NORWAY
(U S state 1959) ICELAND
Hudson Bay
y M oun ta
EUROPE
ST PIERRE & MIQUELON
A M E R I C A
PORTUGAL AZORES
U N I T E D S T A T E S
MADEIRA
BERMUDA
CANARY IS
US [1972]
Date of independence
CENTRAL AMERICA
Wes tI CUBA
BELIZE [1981]
BAHAMAS [1973]
n d i es
R IC O RTO PUE ANGUILLA
JAMAICA [1962] HAITI
HONDURAS
GUATEMALA
Caribbean Sea DUTCH ANTILLES
EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA
O C E A N
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
CAPE VERDE IS [1975]
GUADELOUPE MARTINIQUE ST LUCIA [1979] BARBADOS [1966]
COSTA RICA
VENEZUELA
PANAMA
OCEAN
GUYANA [1966] SURINAME [1975] FRENCH GUIANA
COLOMBIA
L I B YA
[1962]
S
MAURITANIA [1960]
a
[1951]
h
a
r
MALI
NIGER
[1960]
[1960]
GAMBIA [1965] GUINEA-BISSAU [1974] GUINEA [1958] SIERRA LEONE [1961]
UPPER VOLTA [1960] (Burkina 1984)
LIBERIA
IVORY COAST [1960]
A
R
A M E R I C A
A
THE AMERICAS
BOLIVIA
DAHOMEY [1960] (Benin 1975)
d
e
A T L A N T I C
UGANDA [1962]
DEM. REP. CONGO (ZAIRE) [1960]
[1 9 6 GO
CO N
GABON [1960]
RWANDA [1962] BURUNDI [1962]
PA R
[1975]
[1990]
AG
(formerly S.W. Africa, controlled by S. Africa)
UA Y
MALAWI [1964]
ANGOLA
ST HELENA
s
54
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC [1960]
NAMIBIA
CHILE
A
[1960]
O C E A N
n
NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA have taken very different routes since 1945. The US and Canada enjoyed an economic boom unrivalled in the world with standards of living soaring. “American” culture took the world by storm. In contrast, the countries of South and Central America struggled through more than 40 years of political uncertainty. Military dictatorships and socialist governments vied for control. Whole generations were decimated as dissidents were “disappeared.” Since the 1970s, South America has begun to embrace democracy. Development has been hamstrung by an unstable economic climate while large areas are dominated by the powerful narcotics trade.
C
ASCENSION I.
S O U T H
PE RU
I
NIGERIA
SAO TOME & PRINCIPE [1975]
B R A Z I L
[1956]
[1960]
F
TOGO [1960]
ECUADOR
SUDAN
CHAD
EQUATORIAL GUINEA [1968]
US President John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) personified American postwar optimism.
EGYPT
a
SENEGAL [1960]
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO [1962]
PACIFIC
ISRAEL [1948]
ALGERIA
WESTERN SAHARA [1975] (occupied by Morocco from 1976)
CYPRUS [1960]
LEBANON JORDAN [1946]
TUNISIA [1956]
0]
ME XICO
Danish
A T L A N T I C
Gulf of Mexico
Mediterranean Sea
Melilla
M [19 E R O O 6 0] N
Dutch
GREECE T U RK E Y MALTA [1964]
CA
French
GEORGIA [1991]
Black Sea
SPAIN
Gibraltar Ceuta
GHANA [1957]
ck
Ro
British
M
R
Spanish
BELARUS
E. POLAND [1991] GERMANY UKRAINE CZECH REP. [1993] SLOVAKIA [1991] AN Y [1993] MOLDOVA AUSTRIA [1991] HUNGARY SLOVENIA [1991] ROMANIA CROATIA B-H S. & MON. [1991] [1992] (YUGO.) IT BULGARIA AL MACED. Y ALBANIA [1993]
NCE FRA
Portuguese
NETHERLANDS
IRELAND BELGIUM
N O R T H
KEY
ESTONIA [1991] LATVIA [1991] LITHUANIA [1991]
DENMARK
O R [1 OC 95 C 6] O
ALEUTIAN IS
UNITED KINGDOM
NEWFOUNDLAND to Canada 1949
W. G E
ins
C A N A D A
(Germany divided 1945 reunited 1989)
SWE DE N
ALASKA
it
M
ra
Be
St
D
i
ng
N LA FIN
r
(Danish province 1953)
ZAMBIA [1964] RHODESIA [1965] (Zimbabwe 1980)
BOTSWANA [1966] SWAZILAND [1968]
SOUTH AFRICA (Republic 1961)
URUGUAY TRISTAN DA CUNHA
ARGENTINA
FALKLAND IS
In 1985, the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev launched a program of economic and political reform which brought Soviet communism to an end.
LESOTHO [1966]
WORLD FACTFILE: THE MODERN AGE : 1945-PRESENT DAY The Berlin Wall, symbol of the Cold War division of Europe, was demolished in 1989.
EUROPE
ASIA
IN 1945, EUROPE LAY IN RUINS. The iron curtain descended to divide capitalist West from communist East. The West underwent an economic boom which restored widespread prosperity and political stability. It progressed toward economic and political unity under the EU. The East, meanwhile, labored under planned economies and quickly sought to catch up with the West after 1989, with many countries queuing to join the EU.
IN SOUTHERN ASIA, popular nationalist movements came to power in India, Burma, Malaya, and Indonesia; in China and Indo-China, power passed to native communist movements whose roots went back to the 1920s. After 1949, China under Mao Zedong became, with its vast population and large military forces, a second communist superpower. Japan, meanwhile, was Asia’s capitalist “miracle.” Its economy and cities laid waste by bombing in 1945, it rebuilt with US aid so successfully that by the 1980s, it was the world's second-largest economy. China’s potential economic growth, however, could put Japan’s past achievements in the shade.
Ber
ing
St
ra
Chinese communism, based on the mobilization of peasants and workers, has nevertheless recognized the need for economic reforms.
i t
R U S S I A N F E D E R AT I O N
K A Z A K H S TA N [1991] C a spi
an
UZBEKISTAN [1991]
Sea
AZERBAIJAN [1991] ARMENIA [1991]
MONGOLIA
A
Aral Sea
S
KYRGYZSTAN [1991]
AFGHANISTAN
IRAN IRAQ Th
Sea of Japan (East Sea)
ul
C H I N A im
PA K I S TA N [1947]
e
G
H
f
QATAR [1971]
A treaty banning the testing of nuclear bombs in the Pacific was signed in 1986.
A
TURKMENISTAN TAJIKISTAN [1991] [1991]
SYRIA [1946]
KUWAIT [1961]
I
al ay as N EP
JAPAN
S. KOREA [1948]
OCEANIA
BHUTAN
AL
MA
O
ERITREA [1993]
N
BANGLADESH [1971] (formerly E. Pakistan)
SAUDI ARABIA
INDIA Arabian Sea
[1947]
dS Re
Bay of Bengal
(Vietnam united 1976) THAILAND
ea
(Yemen united 1990)
PACIFIC
South China Sea
DJIBOUTI [1977]
OCEAN
ETHIOPIA BRUNEI [1984]
I SEYCHELLES [1976]
N
CHAGOS IS
D
PALAU [1995]
O
N
E
S
I
MARIANAS
GUAM
MICRONESIA [1991]
A
M
[1949]
el a
SO
E. TIMOR (2002)
S
si
a
O C E A N
MA DA
GA SC
AR
[19 60]
I N D I A N
ne
LO [1 M 97 O 8] N I
THE POSTWAR economies of Japan, the US, and Australia had by the 1990s created a new industrial and trading network around the Pacific Rim. Cheap labor and low overheads drew younger states – South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia – into the system and much of the world’s manufacturing is now concentrated there, creating a consequent shift in the balance of the global economy.
NEW CALEDONIA RÉUNION
Gamal Abd al-Nasser (1918–1970) of Egypt, galvanized the Arab states to resist the West.
A U S T R A L I A
NEW ZEALAND
AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST THE COLONIAL POWERS, weakened by war, faced an irresistible wave of demands for self-determination. Between 1958 and 1975, 41 African countries gained independence. In north Africa and throughout the Middle East a new form of anti-imperialism emerged in the 1970s in the form of Islamic fundamentalism. In South Africa, white rule and the apartheid system ended in 1994.
AUCKLAND IS (to N Z) MACQUARIE IS (to Australia)
From the 1950s to the 1970s, superpower rivalry focused on space exploration. The Soviets put the first man in space in 1961, and the Americans landed on the moon in 1969. Since then, both manned and unmanned missions have become almost everyday events.
55
WORLD FACTFILE
POPULATION population: it is thought that by 2050 there will be around two billion people over the age of 60. The distribution of population is very uneven, dependent on climate, terrain, natural resources, and economic factors. The great majority of people live in coastal zones and along river valleys. Urbanization is on the increase, and by 2003 just under half of the world’s population lived in cities – most of them in Asia. The mass migration of people from rural areas in search of work has resulted in the growth of huge sprawling squatter camps on the edge of many Third World cities.
T
HE WORLD’S POPULATION – 6.4 billion in 2004 – is likely to reach nearly ten billion by 2050. Better nutrition, health care, and sanitation mean fewer infant deaths and longer life expectancy, though around 800 million people in the developing world are malnourished and over one billion live in extreme poverty. In much of Africa in particular, the AIDS epidemic is so severe that the population is set to fall significantly. Elsewhere it is lower birthrates, already familiar in most industrialized countries, that have slowed the rate of growth. The result is a rapidly aging POPULATION City over 5 million inhabitants POPULATION DENSITY (People/mi2)
Arctic Ci
rcle
Below 3 3–13 13–29 30–51 52–130 131–260 261–520 Above 520
St Petersburg Moscow London Paris
Essen
Chicago
Istanbul
New York Los Angeles
Cairo
Tropic of Cancer
Mexico City
Lagos Bogotá Equator
Kinshasa
Lima
São Paulo
Rio de Janeiro
rn Tropic of Caprico
Santiago Buenos Aires
A n ta r
56
rcl e ct ic C i
WORLD FACTFILE: POPULATION
INFANT MORTALITY
INFANT MORTALITY
INFANT MORTALITY RATES are highest in Africa, South America, and south Asia, where poverty and disease are rife, and where average standards of health care are not as good as in North America or Europe. The country with the highest infant mortality rate is Sierra Leone, where years of conflict have devastated communities. WORLD INFANT MORTALITY RATES (deaths per 1000 live births)
LIFE EXPECTANCY
Above 100 61–100 31–60 15–30 Below 15 Data not available
LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH Above 75 years 65–74 years 55–64 years 45–54 years Below 44 years Data not available
rcle
Arctic Ci
LIFE EXPECTANCY
Beijing
Seoul
Tianjin
Tokyo Osaka
Lahore Tehran
Wuhan
Shanghai
Chongqing
Delhi Karachi
Tropic of Cancer
Dhaka Calcutta (Kolkata)
Mumbai (Bombay)
Hong Kong
POPULATION FACTFILE
Hyderabad Bangkok
Bangalore
LIFE EXPECTANCY IS poorest in Africa, for reasons similar to those noted above. In western Europe and North America, life expectancy is increasing at such a rate that each successive generation may expect to live longer than the last. In the developed world, people can now expect to live twice as long as they did a century ago.
Manilla
Chennai (Madras)
LARGEST POPULATIONS
1 China 2 India Equator
3 US Jakarta
1304 million people 1066 million people 294 million people
LARGEST COUNTRIES BY AREA
Tropic of Capricorn
1 Russian Federation 17,075,200 km2 (6,592,735 mi2) 2 Canada 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,171 mi2) 3 US 9,626,091 km2 (3,717,792 mi2) MOST DENSELY POPULATED COUNTRIES
16,477 people/km2 (42,840 people/mi2) 2 Singapore 7049 people/km2 (18,220 people/mi2) 3 Vatican City 2070 people/km2 (5359 people/mi2) MOST SPARSELY POPULATED COUNTRIES 1 Monaco
1 Mongolia Antarctic
Circle
2 Namibia 3 Australia
2 people/km2 (4 people/mi2) 2 people/km2 (6 people/mi2) 3 people/km2 (7 people/mi2)
57
WORLD FACTFILE
WORLD ECONOMY
Arctic C
ircle
T
HE WEALTHY COUNTRIES of the developed world, with their aggressive, market-led economies and their access to productive new technologies and international markets, dominate the world economic system. At the other extreme, many of the countries of the developing world are locked in a cycle of unrepayable debt, rising populations, and unemployment. Statemanaged systems in the former communist bloc were dismantled in the 1990s, and China has emerged as a major 21st century economic power following decades of isolation. Tropic of Cancer Technological advances mean that transactions between financial centers can occur at even greater speed, and new markets have sprung up throughout the world.
BALANCE OF TRADE (MILLIONS US $) over 20,000 10,000–19,999 1000–9999 0-999 0–999 1000-9999 10,000–19,999 below 20,000
Equator
Surplus
Deficit
data unavailable
DIRECT INVESTMENT from US from Europe from Japan
Tropic of Capricorn
COUNTRIES RELIANT ON A SINGLE EXPORT E bananas K coffee > oil/petroleum { copper
WORLD TRADE AND GLOBALIZATION A basic tenet of liberal economics, embodied in the World Trade Organization, is that free trade stimulates national economies and encourages growth. Global recession has not shaken this faith, but its vocal critics contend that “globalization” undermines local cultures and destroys local economies. It is multinational companies that benefit, they say, by producing goods wherever labor costs and environmental standards are lowest.
c Circle
Antarcti
LOCATION OF MAJOR STOCKMARKETS Major stock markets
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
WORLD ECONOMIES HIGHEST GNP PER CAPITA London New York
Tokyo
1 Liechtenstein . . . . . . . . . . . . $50,000 2 Luxembourg . . . . . . . . . . . . . $39,470 3 Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $38,730 4 Switzerland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $36,170 5 US. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $35,400 LOWEST GNP PER CAPITA
1= Ethiopia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $100 1= Burundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $100 1= Congo, Dem. Rep. . . . . . . . . . . $100 4 Somalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $120 5 Guinea-Bissau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $130
58
WORLD FACTFILE: WORLD ECONOMY
ircle
Arctic C
Tropic of Cancer
Equator
Tropic of Caprico
rn
Antarc
tic Circl
TRADE BLOCS
e
TRADE BLOCS
INTERNATIONAL TRADE BLOCS are formed when groups of countries, often already enjoying close military and political ties, join together to offer mutually preferential terms of trade for both imports and exports. Global trade is dominated by three main blocs: the expanding EU, NAFTA, and ASEAN. They are supplanting older trade blocs such as the Commonwealth, a legacy of colonialism. TRADE BLOCS EU ASEAN
NAFTA SADC
MERCOSUR ECOWAS
59
WORLD FACTFILE
WORLD ECONOMY T
HE SIZE OF A COUNTRY’S economy does not relate directly to its population or even its resources. Japan, for example, has a much “bigger” economy than China, India, Russia, or Latin America as a whole. Such imbalances usually occur because countries differ enormously in their living standards, the education and skills of their workforces, the productivity of their agriculture, and the value of their markets. A country’s economic performance can be evaluated by calculating its gross national product (GNP). This is the total value of both the goods and the services (including so-called “invisible exports” – financial services, tourism, and so on) that it produces. Most trade (62% of the global total by value) is in manufactured goods, but during the last three decades the most rapidly growing sector has been services – banking, insurance, tourism, consultancy, accountancy, films, music and other cultural services, airlines, and shipping. Accounting for 20% of the total, services now exceed the value of trade in food and raw materials.
COMPARATIVE WORLD WEALTH A global assessment of GNP by country reveals great disparities. The developed world, with only a quarter of the world’s population, has 80% of the world’s manufacturing income. This imbalance is maintained as war and political instability undermine poor countries’ prospects.
Mass-market tourism is now an all-important source of revenue in many countries.
AVERAGE GDP PER CAPITA (IN $US) Above 10,000 2000–10,000 500–1999 Below 500 Data unavailable
60
WORLD FACTFILE: WORLD ECONOMY
INTERNATIONAL DEBT
DEBT OF POOR AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES
In response to unsustainable levels of debt in the developing world, the IMF and World Bank have introduced a program to help heavily indebted poor countries (HIPCs) manage their repayments. The Jubilee 2000 campaign, advocating debt cancellation, won some qualified support among creditor countries.
WORLD’S 20 LARGEST CORPORATIONS 1 2 3 4
INTERNATIONAL DEBT (AS PERCENTAGE OF GNP) over 100% 70–100%
50–69% 30–49%
below 30 negligible
not applicable data unavailable
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2003, $ millions Wal-Mart Stores (US) . . . . $263,009 British Petroleum (UK) . . . $232,571 Exxon Mobil (US) . . . . . . . $222,883 Royal Dutch/Shell Group (UK/Neth.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$201,728 General Motors (US) . . . . .$195,324 Ford Motor Company (US) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$164,505 DaimlerChrysler (US/Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$156,602 Toyota Motor Company (Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$153,111 General Electric (US) . . . . .$134,187 Total Fina Elf (France) . . .$118,441 Allianz (Germany) . . . . . . .$114,950 ChevronTexaco (US) . . . . .$112,937 AXA (France) . . . . . . . . . . . .$111,912 ConocoPhillips (US) . . . . . . .$99,468 Volkswagen (Germany) . . . .$98,637 Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (Japan) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$98,229 ING Group (Neth.) . . . . . . . .$95,893 Citigroup (US) . . . . . . . . . . . .$94,713 Intl. Business Machines (US) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$89,131 American Intl. Group (US) .$81,303
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES In the 1990s, the fast-growing export-oriented “Asian tiger” economies, such as Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, offered exciting prospects for foreign investors. The 1997– 1998 Asian financial crisis came as a severe shock. Some countries quickly returned to growth, but investors became more cautious about their exposure in NICs around the world.
NEWLY INDUSTRIALIZED AND INDUSTRIALIZING COUNTRIES
SOUTH KOREA MEXICO
THAILAND VENEZUELA
COLUMBIA
TAIWAN PHILIPPINES
MALAYSIA SINGAPORE INDONESIA
BRAZIL
CHILE ARGENTINA
SOUTH AFRICA
61
WORLD FACTFILE
GLOBAL TOURISM T
leisure time, many of the countries of the developing world are rapidly becoming tourist meccas. Since the 1960s, mass tourism has become increasingly specialized, encompassing sport, adventure, and ecology. Tourism employs 200 million people – 8% of the workforce. However, the benefits of tourism are not always felt at a local level, where jobs are often low-paid and menial.
OURISM IS THE WORLD’S biggest industry. In 2002 there were a record 715 million tourists worldwide, a number expected to rise to over one billion by 2010. The industry had bounced back quickly from the global downturn in 2001, though world events continue to affect numbers. France is the most popular destination country, with 75 million visitors annually, but with cheaper flights, improved transportation, and increased
GREENLAND (to Denmark)
TOURIST ARRIVALS
ICELAND
Alaska (to USA)
S W EDEN
Data not available
Faeroe Islands (to Denmark)
Less than 50,000 NORWAY
50,000 - 99,999 UNITED KINGDOM
C A N A D A
100,000 - 399,999
NETH.
BELG.
F RA N
1 million - 2.5 million
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
(YUGO.)
MONACO
Gibraltar (to UK)
OR O
Bermuda (to UK)
M
LIECHTENSTEIN GIBRALTAR (to UK) LUXEMBOURG
MEXI CO
HAITI
HONDURAS
GUATEMALA
NICARAGUA
EL SALVADOR
MALTA ANTIGUA & BARBUDA Guadeloupe (to Fr.) DOMINICA Martinique (to Fr.) ST LUCIA BARBADOS GRENADA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
ST KITTS & NEVIS
ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
COSTA RICA PANAMA
BERMUDA (UK)
VENEZUELA
ANDORRA
CAPE VERDE
MAURITANIA
NIGER
MALI AFRICA
GUYANA SURINAME French Guiana (to France)
COLOMBIA
MARTINIQUE (Fr.)
L I B YA
Puerto Rico (to USA)
JAMAICA
BELIZE
ALGERIA
WESTERN SAHARA
CAPE VERDE SAO TOME & PRINCIPE
SENEGAL GAMBIA GUINEA-BISSAU
CHAD BURKINA
GUINEA
BENIN
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
CUBA
TUNISIA
CO C
GHANA
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
MACED. ALB.
Y
MALTA
SAN MARINO
DOMINICA
AL
GREECE
BAHAMAS
ST KITTS & NEVIS
SPAIN
EUROPE
BARBADOS
GUADELOUPE (Fr.)
B-H. S.&MON.
CROATIA
IT
PORTUGAL
GRENADA
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
CZECH REP. SLOVAKIA
SAN MARINO
CARIBBEAN
ST LUCIA
LUX.
SLOVENIA
C
More than 10 million
POLAND
GERMANY
SWITZ. AUSTRIA HUNGARY
E
2.5 million - 10 million
ESTONIA
LATVIA LITHUANIA RUSSIAN FED.
DENMARK
IRELAND
400,000 - 1 million
FINLAND
NIGERIA
SIERRA LEONE IVORY LIBERIA COAST TOGO (CÔTE D’IVOIRE)
CAMEROON
P A C I F I C
GABON
NG
SAO TOME & PRINCIPE
ECUADOR
CO
ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES BAHAMAS
O
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
A T L A N T I C B R A Z I L
O C E A N PER U
O C E A N ANGOLA
BOLIVIA
62
PA
NAMIBIA
RA
GU
AY
A IN N T A R GE
Spectacular and ecologically fascinating natural features such as tropical rainforests and coral reefs are becoming increasingly popular as tourist attractions. Holidays in such destinations can put serious pressure on the very ecological systems that bring in the visitors in the first place. Strenuous efforts are being made to limit the environmental impact of this so-called “eco-tourism.”
E
“ECO-TOURISM”
CHIL
Even in the remote Himalayas, rubbish discarded by trekkers and mountaineers pollutes the landscape.
URUGUAY
WORLD FACTFILE: GLOBAL TOURISM
The beautiful island of Phuket, Thailand, has been taken over by tourist developments.
R U S S I A N
A TOURIST PARADISE? THE MOST REMOTE CORNERS of the world are now being penetrated by tourists in their quest for the exotic. In many parts of the developing world, tourism can be described as a form of “neocolonialism”; hotels and beaches are owned by multinational companies, and most of the profits are taken outside the country. Tourism frequently alienates local people from their own land, and has a negative impact on the local culture and environment.
F E D E R A T I O N
BELARUS
UK RAIN E
KAZAKHSTAN
MOLDOVA
MONGOLIA
ROMANIA
UZ
BULGARIA
GEORGIA
TU
ARM. AZERB.
RK
ME
KI
ST
N IS T
KYRGYZSTAN
AN
NORTH KOREA
TAJIKISTAN
AN
STA
SYRIA
P A C I F I C
FG
IR A N
JORDAN
A
KUWAIT
PAKISTAN
BAHRAIN QATAR
PA
NAURU
INDIA
VIETNAM
SAMOA
PHILIPPINES
CAMBODIA
Guam (to USA)
TONGA
IA
KIRIBATI MALDIVES
SRI LANKA
M DEM. REP. CONGO
SOLOMON ISLANDS VANUATU
THAILAND
AL
ETHIOPIA
MIDDLE EAST
MALAYSIA
O
UGANDA
TAIWAN
BURMA (MYANMAR) LAOS
DJIBOUTI
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
MICRONESIA
O C E A N
YEMEN
ERITREA
SUDAN
FIJI
BHUTAN
L
BANGLADESH
UAE
AN
SAUDI ARABIA
NE
OM
EGYPT
PACIFIC OCEAN
HA
IRAQ
ISRAEL
C H I N A
NI
CYPRUS
JAPAN
SOUTH KOREA
N
TURKEY
BE
S
BAHRAIN
KENYA
SINGAPORE
RWANDA
INDIAN OCEAN
BURUNDI SEYCHELLES
TANZANIA
I N D O N E S I A EAST TIMOR
COMOROS
MAURITIUS
R CA DA GA S
O C E A N ASIA
MAURITIUS
SINGAPORE
MA
BOTSWANA
MALDIVES
SEYCHELLES
BI
A
Z
O M
ZIMBABWE
M
COMOROS
I N D I A N
E
QU
MALAWI
ZAMBIA
P A P U A N E W G U I N E A
A U S T R A L I A
SWAZILAND LESOTHO
SOUTH AFRICA NEW ZEALAND
“Eco-tourists” travel to the distant Antarctic, where they observe its rich wildlife.
63
WORLD FACTFILE
GLOBAL SECURITY T
CONFLICTS AND INTERNATIONAL DISPUTES SINCE 2000 Countries involved in active external conflict
ICELAND Rockall Northern Ireland
UNITED KINGDO
SPAIN Gibraltar
CC
O
Ceuta
RO
HE ENDING OF THE COLD WAR in 1989 greatly reduced the risk of another global (and possibly nuclear) war, but did little to resolve localized tensions and conflicts. Since then territorial disputes, and particularly ethnic and religious tensions, have undermined peace and security around the world. In its efforts to bring together the international community the UN has become the accepted arbiter of world peace. It prefers to use IRAQ economic sanctions, but will support military action as a last resort. However, slow decision-making processes and internal politicking have often left it unable to react quickly or effectively, as in U N I T E D S TAT E S the failure to halt the 1994 OF AMERICA genocide in Rwanda. Perhaps its greatest contribution to global security has been the organization of peacekeeping missions which are frequently called into conflict situations to oversee peace treaties Guantánamo Bay CUBA and aid postwar reconstruction. The HAITI BELIZE September 11, 2001, attacks on the GUATEMALA US prompted a shift in that country’s NICARAGUA EL SALVADOR foreign policy and it has now chosen to flex its muscles as the sole remaining VENEZUELA GUYAN A superpower. Identifying terrorism as the greatest SURINAME challenge to world security, and sidelining the UN French Guiana COLOMBIA if necessary, it has drawn on ad hoc coalitions of willing partners in its global “war on terrorism.” It advocates the use of preemptive strikes to ensure future security.
M
O
Melilla
ALGER
WESTERN SAHARA MAURITANIA SENEGAL GUINEA-BISSAU SIERRA LEONE LIBERIA IVORY COAST (CÔTE D'IVORY)
CAMER
SAO TOM
SUDAN
UNITED STATES
Active territorial or border disputes Countries involved in internal conflict Active territorial or border disputes and internal conflict
Falkland Islands
Conflict in the Modern Era 1899–1902: Boer War in South Africa
1910: Start of Mexican revolution
1902
1904: Russo-Japanese War; series of Russian defeats (–1905)
64
Jun 1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, at Sarajevo, precipitates start of World War I
1910
1911: Start of Chinese revolution
1920
1917: Russian revolution
1918: End of World War I
1932: Paraguay defeats Bolivia in Gran Chaco War (–1935)
1940: Germany invades Norway, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France
1941: Japan attacks US at Pearl Harbor; Germany attempts to invade Russia
1949: Mao Zedong and Chinese communists win civil war
1940
1930
1936: Spanish Civil War (–1939)
1939: Germany invades Poland; start of World War II
1950
1945: German surrender in Europe, atomic bombs fall on Japan: end of World War II
1950: Korean War (–1953)
WORLD FACTFILE: GLOBAL SECURITY
CHECHNYA
NEPAL
W
AY
NO
R
Svalbard
R U S S I A N
F E D E R A T I O N
KOREA
DENMARK
ED OM
POLAND
Kurile Islands
U K R A I NE MOLD.
Chechnya UZB
MACEDONIA GEORG.
ALBANIA
AZERB.
Liancourt Rocks EK
IS
TA
C
TURKEY
I
N
JAPAN
A
SOUTH KOREA
TA
N
AFGHANISTAN
IRAQ
IRAN
Golan Heights
KUWAIT
Jammu and Kashmir NEPAL
Senkaku Islands
A
R IA
H
Aksai Chin
SYRIA
IS
CYPRUS ISRAEL
K
GREECE
NORTH KOREA
KYRGYZSTAN
N
P
EGYPT
TAIWAN
UAE
I N D I A
BURMA (MYANMAR)
V
IE AM T N AOS
SAUDI ARAB IA
BANGLADESH
Paracel Islands
L
NIGER CHAD
ERITREA SUD A N
PHILIPPINES
T H A I.
Hamish Islands
NIGERIA
ME
Spratly Islands
SRI LANKA
GO
C.A.R.
CON
ROON
SOMALIA ETHIOPIA
DEM. REP. CONGO
Sipidan and Ligitan
M A L AY S I A
UGANDA
SINGAPORE
KENYA
RWANDA BURUNDI
I
N
D
O
N
E
S
I
A SO L O M O N ISL A N D S
CENTRAL AFRICA
COMOROS
ANGOLA
MADAGASCAR NAM
ZIMBABWE MAURITIUS
IBIA
BOTSWANA
AUSTRALIA
1960: Outbreak of civil war in Belgian Congo
1964: US Congress approves war with Vietnam
1960
1954: Algerian war of independence begins
1968: Troubles begin in Northern Ireland
1975: US withdraws from Vietnam
1970
1965: India–Pakistan War over sovereignty of Kashmir
1975: Angola and Mozambique gain independence; civil wars ensue
1980: Iran–Iraq War (–1988)
1982: Falklands War between UK and Argentina
1990: Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and Gulf War (–1991)
1980
1979: Soviet Union invades Afghanistan (–1989) Civil war in Nicaragua (–1990) Civil war in El Salvador (–1992)
1994: Massacre of Tutsis in Rwanda
1990
1992: Civil war in Bosnia & Herzegovina (–1995)
1996: Civil war in Dem. Rep. Congo (–2003)
2003: US-led invasion of Iraq
2000
1999: “Ethnic cleansing” of 2001: Terror attacks on US, US invasion Albanians in Kosovo by Serbs. of Afghanistan Russian offensive in Chechnya
65
WORLD FACTFILE
–2
–1
0
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
+6
+7
TIME ZONES 0
+8
+9
Severnaya Zemlya
A
R
C
+7
Franz Josef Land
SVALBARD +1 (to Norway)
+10
New Siberian Islands +10
Novaya Zemlya +3
–1
JAN MAYEN (to Norway) +1
–3
+11
EN
+2 ICELAND
ED
R
FINLAND EST.
ANDORRA
–1
PORTUGAL
0
GIBRALTAR (to UK)
M O
ALGERIA
+2
IT R
U
MALI
KUWAIT
BAHRAIN QATAR
E GYPT
P
+3
N
0
+6 SRI LANKA
IA AL M
GUAM (to US)
P HILIP P IN E S
Spratly Islands (disputed) BRUNEI
I
BRITISH INDIAN CHRISTMAS ISLAND +4 OCEAN TERRITORY (to Australia) (to UK) COMOROS COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS +5 (to Australia) MAYOTTE (to France) +61/2
+9
MICRONES
+10
PALAU
N
D
O
N
E
S
I
A
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
+8 EAST TIMOR ASHMORE & CARTIER ISLANDS (to Australia)
CORAL SEA ISLAN (to Australi
G AS
AM
C AR
+3
MOZ
+8
M A L AY S I A
+3
+91/2 REUNION (to France)
+8
I
N
D
I
A
N
A
LESOTHO
O
C
E
A
U
+10
S
T
R
A
L
I
A
+91/2
N
+10 +5 +10 Prince Edward Islands (to South Africa)
Tasmania
FRENCH SOUTHERN & ANTARCTIC TERRITORIES (to France)
+5
+5 HEARD & MCDONALD ISLANDS (to Australia)
A N TA R C T I C A (except for Graham Land, Antarctica is not subject to any time zone)
66
NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS (to US)
Paracel Islands (disputed)
SINGAPORE
DA
Q
U
E
BI
Greenwich Meridian
Gough Island (to Tristan da Cunha)
IA
N
0
Laccadive Islands (to India) +51/2
MALDIVES
SWAZILAND
+2 SOUT H AFRICA
THAI. +7 CAMB.
+7
ZA
NAMIBIA BOTS. +1
TRISTAN DA CUNHA (to St Helena)
(MYANMAR)
+51/2 Andaman Islands (to India)
SEYCHELLES
MALAWI
ZIMB.
TAIWAN
BURMA
SO
UGANDA KENYA
ZAMBIA
O C E A N
LAOS
+61/2
+6
I N D I A +51/2
+8
MA
ER
OO
RWANDA BURUNDI
S. KOREA
A
+6
BANGLADESH
TA N
N
GO
AM
+3
N
BHUTAN
+53/4
YEMEN
ETHIOPIA
ANGOLA
A T L A N T I C
NEPAL
T IS
O
SUDAN
DEM. REP. CO N G O
0
I
ERITREA
C.A.R.
0
AK
H
+9
+5
U.A.E.
SAUDI ARABIA
DJIBOUTI
O
E
ST HELENA (to UK)
AFGH. +41/2
JAPAN
N. KOREA
+8
TAJ.
AM
SENEGAL –1 GAMBIA RKINA GUINEA-BISSAU BU NIGERIA GUINEA SIERRA LEONE BENIN LIBERIA Q. IVORY COAST GU 0 C IN E A (CÔTE D’IVOIRE) GHANA ASCENSION TOGO ISLAND 0 SAO TOME & PRINCIPE (to St Helena) C
CHAD
I R A N +31/2
IRAQ JORDAN
+3
NIGER
+6
TN
0
+10
IE
MA
+9
V
–1
CAPE VERDE
N
M O N G O L I A
C
LEB.
+3
+1
O
+6
+5 TURKMEN.
AZERB.
AN
WESTERN SAHARA
I
+8
SYRIA
L I B Y A +2
A T
KYRG.
UZBEK.
+4
ISRAEL
IA
Canary Islands (to Spain)
GEORGIA ARMENIA +4 AZERB.
TURKEY
CYPRUS
TUNISIA
O CC RO
R
+6
+5
MALTA
Madeira (to Portugal)
E
Asian Russia
+4
MACED.
GREECE
D
+6
K A Z A K H S T A N
MOLD. S.& MON. (YUGO.) BULG.
ALB.
I TA LY
E
+4
+2
AUT. HUNG.
SLVN. CRO. +1 S.M. B.&H. VAT. CITY
S PA I N
+4
Russia
LIECH.
MONACO
Azores (to Portugal)
F +7
N
SWITZ.
N
A
LUX.
A
+5
European
LAT. RUS. FED. LITH.
BELA. POLAND NETH. GERMANY SLVK. BELG. UKRAINE CZ.REP.
FRANCE
I
N
CHANNEL ISLANDS (to UK)
S
A
0
S
+3
UNITED DENMARK KINGDOM IRELAND
U
+10
SW
NORWAY
M
FAEROE ISLANDS (to Denmark)
0
WORLD FACTFILE: TIME ZONES
+11
+12 –12
–11
–9
–8
–7
–6
–5
–4
–3
–2
I nter
I
na tio
T
C
O
C
E
A
N
0
n al D
No Time Zone Queen Elizabeth Islands
–4
ne ateli
GR E E N LAN D –1
(to Denmark)
Baffin Island
–9
Arctic Circle
Alaska
+12
(to US)
–3
–8 –7
C
A
N
A
D
A –4
–10 +11
–31/2
–5
Kurile Islands (to Rus. Fed.)
P
A
C
I
F
I
O
C
E
A
N
C
U N I T E D S T A T E S O F A M E R I C A
O C E A N
XI
–10
C
MARSHALL +12 ISLANDS
WALLIS & FUTUNA (to France)
GUATEMALA EL SALVADOR NICARAGUA COSTA RICA
Clipperton Island (to France)
KINGMAN REEF (to US) PALMYRA ATOLL (to US)
(to Neth.)
VENEZUELA COLOMBIA
Galápagos Islands (to Ecuador)
ECUADOR
KI
P E
BA
COOK
R
TI
Îles Marquises –91/2
ISLANDS
R
A
Z
I
L
–4
(to NZ)
–10 +13
F IJI
SAMOA
+101/2
PARAGUAY –8
–6
AMERICAN SAMOA (to US)
Easter Island (to Chile)
PITCAIRN ISLANDS (to UK)
Kermadec Island (to NZ)
San Ambrosia Island (to Chile)
CHILE –3
NEW ZEALAND +12 Chatham Island (to NZ)
Bounty Island (to NZ)
P
A
C
I
F
I
O
C
E
A
N
C
URUGUAY
FALKLAND ISLANDS (to UK)
Campbell Island (to NZ) Macquarie Island (to Australia)
Tropic of Capricorn
San Felix Island (to Chile)
Juan Fernandez Island (to Chile)
+123/4
–2
–3
BOLIVIA
NIUE (to NZ)
TONGA
NORFOLK ISLAND (to Australia) +111/2
–10 FRENCH POLYNESIA (to France)
A
NEW CALEDONIA (to France)
B U
A R G E N T I N
U AT NU VA
+11
Equator
–3
–5
RI
SOLOMON ISLANDS
TOKELAU (to NZ)
FRENCH GUIANA (to France)
GUYANA SURINAME
+14
KIRIBATI TUVALU
–4
PANAMA
JARVIS ISLAND (to US)
+13
K I R I B AT I
NETH. ANT.
ARUBA (to Neth.)
BAKER & HOWLAND ISLANDS (to US) NAURU
HAITI
NAVASSA I. (to US)
Tropic of Cancer
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA MONTSERRAT (to UK) GUADELOUPE (to France) DOMINICA MARTINIQUE (to France) ST LUCIA BARBADOS ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES GRENADA TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
CUBA
BELIZE
–10
+11
–5
JAMAICA
JOHNSTON ATOLL (to US)
–10
HONDURAS
O
Hawaii (to US)
WAKE ISLAND (to US)
PUERTO RICO (to US) BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS (to UK) VIRGIN ISLANDS (to US) ANGUILLA (to UK) ST KITTS & NEVIS
DOM. REP. TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS (to UK) CAYMAN ISLANDS (to UK) BAHAMAS
ME
–11
–3
A T L A N T I C –5 BERMUDA (to UK)
MIDWAY ISLANDS (to US)
Newfoundland
ST PIERRE & MIQUELON (to France)
–6
SIA
NDS lia)
–10
CHILE
–3
–4 –2
Antarctic Circle
AN TAR C T IC A Graham Land
–3
67
WORLD FACTFILE
CHRONOLOGY 2003–2004 disintegration characterized B the world in 2003–2004. Europe stretched its legs: the EU shifted its center of gravity to the east, while OTH CONSOLIDATION AND
NATO also expanded to the borders of Russia, and a “rose revolution” in Georgia ended Shevardnadze’s rule. Meanwhile, in the Middle East and Asia,
NORTH AMERICA February 1, 2003 Seven astronauts are killed when the US space shuttle Columbia explodes on reentry. April 13, 2003 The human genome is mapped, two years ahead of schedule, by international researchers. April 15, 2003 After nine years in power, the separatist Partí Québécois is ousted from the Québec government.
May 27, 2004 Floods in Haiti and the Dominican Republic kill 2000 people. July 18, 2004 Bolivians vote in a referendum to allow the export of natural gas.
March 11, 2004 Nearly 200 people are killed when bombs explode on packed commuter trains in Madrid. The opposition Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party wins a surprise victory in the general election two days later.
August 15, 2004 President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela wins a referendum on his rule.
March 29, 2004 NATO expands to 26 states, incorporating seven new members.
EUROPE
April 24, 2004 Turkish Cypriots vote “yes” in a referendum on a UN-backed plan to reunify the island; Greek Cypriots vote “no,” thereby rejecting it.
December 12, 2003 Paul Martin becomes Canadian prime minister.
February 4, 2003 The rump “Yugoslavia” ceases to exist and is replaced by Serbia & Montenegro.
April 26, 2004 The US eases 20-yearold sanctions on Libya and allows US firms to buy Libyan oil.
February 14, 2003 Five million people demonstrate in Europe against the impending war on Iraq.
May 1, 2004 The European Union expands to 25 members, including eight ex-communist states, Malta, and Cyprus.
April 29, 2004 Photographs are released of US reservists abusing prisoners at Abu Ghraib jail in Iraq.
March 12, 2003 Serbian prime minister Zoran Djindjic is assassinated by members of the former Serbian secret service.
September 3, 2004 Russian special forces end a school siege in which 1000 people were held hostage.
July 1, 2004 Cuban exiles in US protest as tough new restrictions on travel to the island come into force. July 23, 2004 Commission set up in US to probe 9/11 attacks cites “deep institutional failings” in US intelligence. September 16, 2004 Hurricane Ivan hits US, after devastating Caribbean.
April 23, 2003 The Green Line which divides Cyprus is opened for the first time in 29 years. August 29, 2003 Over 11,000 people are estimated to have died in a heatwave in France.
CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA
September 10, 2003 Swedish foreign minister Anna Lindh is stabbed to death in a department store.
January 1, 2003 Veteran left-wing leader “Lula” da Silva is inaugurated as president of Brazil.
October 19, 2003 The far-right Swiss People’s Party becomes the largest party in Switzerland’s National Council.
March 18, 2003 A crackdown on prodemocracy activists begins in Cuba.
November 24, 2003 Georgia has its “rose revolution”: President Eduard Shevardnadze steps down and flees to Russia after weeks of protests led by opposition leader Mikhail Saakashvili.
September 19, 2003 Argentina defaults on a $2.9 billion debt payment to the IMF. October 17, 2003 Bolivian president Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada resigns and flees the country amid violent protests over gas exports. February 29, 2004 Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide resigns and flees as rebels close in on the capital. March 12, 2004 Congress votes to legalize divorce in Chile.
68
terrorism and insurgency sent oil prices racing to record highs, brought fear and tragedy to southern Russia with the siege of a school in North Ossetia, and left US-led Coalition forces struggling to impose order in Iraq amid guerrilla attacks and uprisings in and around the holiest shrines of the Shi’a faith.
January 28, 2004 The Hutton Inquiry exonerates UK prime minister Tony Blair of lying about the readiness of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction. February 11, 2004 France passes law banning Muslim headscarves and other religious symbols in schools. March 7, 2004 Conservatives return to power in Greece for the first time in a decade.
AFRICA March 16, 2003 Veteran rebel Gen. François Bozizé leads a military coup in the Central African Republic. April 2, 2003 The Final Act is signed outlining a definitive peace plan for the DRC. Rebel leaders are sworn in as vice presidents in July. May 21, 2003 Over 2100 people die in a powerful earthquake in Algiers. June 10, 2003 Three skulls from Herto, Ethiopia, are unveiled. At 160,000 years of age they are the oldest known human remains. July 4, 2003 The civil war in Ivory Coast is declared over after almost ten months. August 4, 2003 The first peacekeepers arrive in Liberia heralding an end to the civil war. A week later President Charles Taylor resigns and flees to Nigeria. December 19, 2003 Libyan leader Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi announces that his regime will abandon the development of weapons of mass destruction.
WORLD FACTFILE: CHRONOLOGY 2003–2004
January 28, 2004 Somali warlords and rival militias agree to the formation of a 275-member parliament. January 30, 2004 Conflict in the Darfur region of western Sudan escalates; around 100,000 flee across the border to Chad. March 9, 2004 A group of 70 suspected mercenaries is arrested in Zimbabwe, accused of traveling to Equatorial Guinea to take part in an alleged coup plot. April 14, 2004 The African National Congress wins the South African general election by a landslide. May 11, 2004 The Zimbabwean government declares that it expects a bumper harvest and refuses food aid.
June 28, 2004 The US-led Coalition Provisional Authority hands over power to an Iraqi interim government. July 20, 2004 The UN General Assembly condemns Israel’s West Bank barrier as illegal.
NORTH AND EAST ASIA February 18, 2003 133 people die in an arson attack on the Seoul subway in South Korea. May 15, 2003 Hu Jintao becomes president of China at the head of a new generation of Communist leaders. June 1, 2003 The controversial Three Gorges Dam in China is flooded with the waters of the Yangtze River.
June 3, 2004 Trials of suspected war criminals begin in Sierra Leone.
June 26, 2003 Beijing is declared free of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS): 191 people had died in the Chinese capital alone.
August 8, 2004 Mauritanian officials warn that as much as 80% of the harvest has been eaten by locusts.
July 8, 2003 The Japanese House of Representatives votes to allow troops to serve abroad for the first time since 1945.
August 15, 2004 African Union (AU) troops arrive in the Darfur region of Sudan to act as cease-fire monitors.
October 15, 2003 China becomes only the third country to launch a man into space.
WEST ASIA/MIDDLE EAST
March 21, 2004 Taiwanese president Chen Shui-bian is reelected by less than 1% of the vote, triggering a lengthy recount.
March 20, 2003 The invasion of Iraq by US, UK, and other “Coalition” forces begins. The regime of Saddam Hussein is toppled by April 9. May 1, 2003 The US publishes its “roadmap” to peace in the Middle East. The plan is accepted by both Israel and the Palestinians, but is violated almost immediately. June 2, 2003 Islamic sharia law is imposed in Pakistan’s Northwest Frontier Province. July 22, 2003 Uday and Qusay Hussein, the sons of the ousted Iraqi dictator, are killed in a six-hour seige. November 11, 2003 At least 25 people are killed in Istanbul in suicide bombings against a bank and the British consulate. December 13, 2003 Saddam Hussein is captured in Iraq by US soldiers. December 26, 2003 Over 30,000 people die in an earthquake in the town of Bam in Iran. June 6, 2004 The Israeli cabinet agrees to a withdrawal from Gaza.
April 23, 2004 A train explosion in North Korea kills 150 people and injures thousands. June 14, 2004 Loudspeakers on the North–South Korean border cease broadcasting propaganda.
SOUTH ASIA January 13, 2003 Leaders of the Naga independence movement declare their decades-long war with the Indian government over. Peace talks begin. May 30, 2003 Burmese opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is rearrested once again following an attack on her motorcade. Her detention prompts widespread international condemnation. August 27, 2003 A cease-fire between Maoist rebels and the Nepalese government collapses. January 15, 2004 The first train from Pakistan for more than two years crosses into India. March 18, 2004 Pakistan is named a “major non-NATO ally” by the US.
May 13, 2004 Congress (I) wins a stunning victory in Indian elections. June 2, 2004 Sher Bahadur Deuba is reinstated as prime minister of Nepal, 18 months after his dismissal. August 17, 2004 Maoist rebels in Nepal blockade Kathmandu for a week.
SOUTHEAST ASIA January 19, 2003 Anti-Thai riots erupt in the Cambodian capital of Phnom Penh. May 19, 2003 The Indonesian government launches a major offensive against separatists in Aceh. May 25, 2003 It is announced that over 2000 people have died during the Thai government’s crackdown on the illegal narcotics trade. October 31, 2003 Mahathir Mohamed steps down as Malaysian prime minister. April 28, 2004 Around 127 people are killed in a series of gun battles in southern Thailand after police stations are attacked by militants.
AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA March 10, 2003 Bernard Dowiyogo, the veteran president of Nauru, dies in office. May 25, 2003 Archbishop Peter Hollingworth, the governor-general of Australia, resigns amid scandal over child abuse in the Australian Church. July 24, 2003 Peacekeepers arrive in the Solomon Islands to restore law and order, on invitation of the government. February 15, 2004 Race riots are sparked in Australia by the death of an aboriginal boy in a Sydney suburb while being chased by police. April 19, 2004 Fijian “founding father” Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara dies aged 83. May 12, 2004 Australia pledges to double its annual aid budget to the south Pacific. May 25, 2004 Opposition politicians take control of Nauru’s parliament and pass several bills while the president and other government ministers are out of the country. July 15, 2004 New Zealand imposes diplomatic sanctions on Israel over the alleged involvement of Mossad agents in a passport scandal.
see pages 36–39 for CHRONOLOGY OF WORLD HISTORY
69
WORLD FACTFILE
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS T
HIS LISTING GIVES the full names of all international organizations referred to, often by acronym, in the World Desk Reference (political parties are to be found under the Politics heading within each
ACC Arab Cooperation Council established 1989 members – Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Yemen Promotes Arab economic cooperation ACP African, Caribbean, and Pacific Countries established 1976 members – 79 developing countries and territories Preferential economic and aid relationship with the EU under the Lomé Convention ACS Association of Caribbean States established 1994 members – 25 countries in the Caribbean region Promotes economic, scientific, and cultural cooperation in the region ADB Asian Development Bank established 1966 members – 45 Asia–Pacific countries and territories, 18 nonregional countries Encourages regional development AfDB African Development Bank established 1964 members – 53 African countries, 24 non-African countries Encourages African economic and social development AFESD Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development established 1968 members – 21 Arab countries (including Palestine) Promotes social and economic development in Arab states AL League of Arab States (Arab League) established 1945 members – 22 Arab countries (including Palestine) Forum to promote Arab cooperation on social, political, and military issues
70
ALADI Latin American Integration Association established 1960 members – 12 Central and South American countries Promotes trade and regional integration AmCC Amazonian Cooperation Council established 1978 members – Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela Promotes the harmonious development of the Amazon region AMF Arab Monetary Fund established 1977 members – 22 Arab countries (including Palestine) Promotes monetary and economic cooperation AMU Arab Maghreb Union established 1989 members – Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia Promotes integration and economic cooperation among north African Arab states ANZUS Australia–New Zealand– United States Security Treaty established 1951 members – Australia, New Zealand, US Trilateral security agreement. Security relations between the US and New Zealand were suspended in 1984 over the issue of US nuclear-powered or potentially nuclear-armed naval vessels visiting New Zealand ports. High-level contacts between the USA and New Zealand were resumed in 1994 AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States established 1991 members – 39 countries and dependencies Promotes interests of small island states and low-lying coastal countries
country entry). The full names are followed by the date of the establishment or foundation, an indication of membership, where appropriate, and a summary of the organization’s aims and functions. AP Andean Pact (Acuerdo de Cartegena), also known as Andean Community established 1969 members – Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela Promotes development through integration APEC Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation established 1989 members – 21 Pacific Rim countries and Hong Kong Promotes regional economic cooperation ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations established 1967 members – Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam Promotes economic, social, and cultural cooperation AU African Union established 2002 members – 52 African countries and Western Sahara Promotes unity and cooperation in Africa (successor to the Organization of African Unity (OAU), established in 1963) BADEA Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa established 1973 members – 18 Arab countries (including Palestine) Established as an agency of the Arab League to promote economic development in Africa BDEAC Central African States Development Bank established 1975 members – Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, France, Gabon, Germany, Kuwait Furthers economic development
Benelux Benelux Economic Union established 1960 members – Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands Develops economic ties between member countries BOAD West African Development Bank established 1973 members – Benin, Burkina, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Togo Promotes economic development and integration in west Africa BSEC Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation established 1992 members – Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Ukraine Furthers regional stability through economic cooperation CAEU Council of Arab Economic Unity established 1957 members – 12 Arab countries (including Palestine) Encourages economic integration Caricom Caribbean Community and Common Market established 1973 members – 14 Caribbean countries and Montserrat Fosters economic ties in the Caribbean CBSS Council of the Baltic Sea States established 1992 members – 11 Baltic Sea states and the European Commission Promotes cooperation among Baltic Sea states CDB Caribbean Development Bank established 1969 members – 17 Caribbean countries/dependencies, 8 non-Caribbean countries Promotes regional development
WORLD FACTFILE: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS CE Council of Europe established 1949 members – 45 European countries Promotes unity and quality of life in Europe CEFTA Central European Free Trade Agreement established 1992 members – Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia Promotes trade and cooperation CEI Central European Initiative established 1989 members – 17 east and central European countries Evolved from Quadrilateral Cooperation; promotes economic and political cooperation within the OSCE CEMAC Central African Economic and Monetary Community established 1994 members – Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon Aims to promote integration, by economic and monetary union (replaced UDEAC) CEPGL Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries established 1976 members – Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda Promotes economic cooperation CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research established 1954 members – 20 European countries Provides for collaboration in nuclear research for peaceful purposes CILSS Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel established 1973 members – 9 African countries in the Sahel region Promotes prevention of drought and crop failure in the region CIS Commonwealth of Independent States established 1991 members – 12 former republics of the Soviet Union Promotes regional cooperation
CMCA Central American Monetary Council established 1960 members – Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua Now a subsystem of SICA. Furthers economic ties between its members; one of its institutions is the BCIE – Central American Bank for Economic Integration COI Indian Ocean Commission established 1982 members – Comoros, France (representing Réunion), Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles Promotes regional cooperation COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa established 1993 members – 20 African countries Promotes economic development and cooperation (replaced PTA) Comm Commonwealth established 1931 members – 53 countries. Members are chiefly former members of the British Empire Develops relationships and contacts between members CP Colombo Plan established 1950 members – Five donor countries: Australia, Japan, New Zealand, South Korea, US; and 20 Asia–Pacific countries Encourages economic and social development in Asia–Pacific region CPLP Community of Portuguesespeaking Countries established 1996 members – Portugal, Brazil, East Timor, and five Portuguesespeaking African countries – Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe To promote political and diplomatic links between member states, and cooperation on economic, social, cultural, judicial, and scientific development among Portuguesespeaking countries
Damasc Damascus Declaration established 1991 members – Bahrain, Egypt, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates A loose association, formed after the 1991 Gulf War, which aims to secure the stability of the region EAC East African Community established 2001 members – Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda Promotes economic cooperation EAPC Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council established 1991 members – The 26 members of NATO plus 20 other European countries Forum for cooperation on political and security issues (successor to the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, NACC) EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development established 1991 members – 60 countries Helps transition of former communist European states to market economies ECO Economic Cooperation Organization established 1985 members – Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan Aims at cooperation in economic, social, and cultural affairs ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States established 1975 members – 15 west African countries Promotes regional economic cooperation EEA European Economic Area established 1994 members – The 25 members of the EU, and Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway Aims to include EFTA members in the EU single market
EEC Eurasian Economic Community established 2001 members – Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan Coordinates regional trade EFTA European Free Trade Association established 1960 members – Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland Promotes economic cooperation ESA European Space Agency established 1973 members – 15 European countries, with Greece and Luxembourg as observers pending full membership on December 1, 2005 Promotes cooperation in space research for peaceful purposes EU European Union established 1992 members – 25 European countries Aims to integrate the economies of member states and promote cooperation and coordination of policies (successor to the European Communities (EC), established in 1957 by the Treaties of Rome) FZ Franc zone established Not applicable members – France (including overseas departments and territories) and 15 African countries Aims to form monetary union among countries whose currencies are linked to that of France G3 Group of 3 established 1987 members – Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela Aims to ease trade restrictions G7 Group of 7 established 1975 members – The seven major industrialized countries: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, US Summit meetings of the seven major industrialized countries, originally for economic purposes. For political purposes summit meetings are now held as the G8, including Russia
71
WORLD FACTFILE G8 Group of 8 established 1994 members – Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, UK, US Global forum of world’s major powers, which holds regular summit meetings G10 Group of 10 established 1962 members – 11 members: G7 members, plus Belgium, Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland Ministers meet to discuss monetary issues G15 Group of 15 established 1989 members – 19 developing countries Meets annually to further cooperation among developing countries G24 Group of 24 established Not applicable members – 24 developing countries within the IMF Promotes the interests of developing countries on monetary and development issues GCC Gulf Cooperation Council established 1981 members – Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates Promotes cooperation in social, economic, and political affairs Geplacea Latin American and Caribbean Sugar Exporting Countries established 1974 members – 23 countries A forum for consultation on the production and sale of sugar GGC Gulf of Guinea Commission established 2001 members – Angola, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, São Tomé and Príncipe Promotes regional cooperation IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency established 1957 members – 137 countries Promotes and monitors peaceful use of atomic energy
72
IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (also known as the World Bank) established 1945 members – 184 countries UN agency providing economic development loans
IsDB Islamic Development Bank established 1975 members – 55 countries (including Palestine) Promotes economic development on Islamic principles among Muslim communities (agency of the OIC)
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross established 1863 members – Up to 25 Swiss nationals form the international committee. Red Cross or Red Crescent societies exist in 178 countries Coordinates all international humanitarian activities of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, giving legal and practical assistance to the victims of wars and disasters. It works through national committees of Red Cross or Red Crescent societies
IWC International Whaling Commission established 1946 members – 52 countries Reviews conduct of whaling throughout world; coordinates and funds whale research
IDB Inter-American Development Bank established 1959 members – 28 American countries and 18 nonregional countries Promotes development in Latin America and the Caribbean through the financing of economic and social development projects and the provision of technical assistance IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development established 1996 members – Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Uganda Promotes cooperation on food security, infrastructure, and other development issues (supersedes IGADD, founded 1986, to promote cooperation on drought-related matters) IMF International Monetary Fund established 1945 members – 184 countries. The voting rights of Liberia are currently suspended. Promotes international monetary cooperation, the balanced growth of trade, and exchangerate stability; provides credit resources to members experiencing balance-of-trade difficulties
LCBC Lake Chad Basin Commission established 1964 members – Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Niger, Nigeria Encourages economic and environmental development in Lake Chad region Mekong River Mekong River Commission established 1995 members – Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam Accord on the sustainable development of the Mekong River basin (replacing the 1958 interim Mekong Secretariat) Mercosur Southern Common Market established 1991 members – Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay Promotes economic integration, free trade, and common external tariffs MRU Mano River Union established 1973 members – Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone Aims to create customs and economic union in order to promote development NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement established 1994 members – Canada, Mexico, US Free trade zone
NAM Non-Aligned Movement established 1961 members – 116 countries (including Palestine). Serbia and Montenegro was suspended in 1992, and is now an observer Fosters political and military cooperation away from traditional Eastern or Western blocs NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization established 1949 members – 26 countries Promotes mutual defense cooperation. Since January 1994, NATO’s Partnership for Peace program has provided a loose framework for cooperation with former members of the Warsaw Pact and the ex-Soviet republics. A historic Founding Act signed between Russia and NATO in May 1997 allowed for the organization’s eastward expansion: the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joined in 1999, and seven more joined in 2004 NC Nordic Council established 1952 members – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden Promotes cultural and environmental cooperation in Scandinavia OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries established 1968 members – Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates Aims to promote the interests of member countries and increase cooperation in the petroleum industry OAS Organization of American States established 1948 members – 35 American countries (though Cuba has been suspended since 1962) Promotes security and economic and social development in the Americas OAU Organization of African Unity Predecessor of the AU
WORLD FACTFILE: INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development established 1961 members – 30 industrialized democracies Forum for coordinating economic policies among industrialized countries OECS Organization of Eastern Caribbean States established 1981 members – Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines Promotes political, economic, and defense cooperation OIC Organization of the Islamic Conference established 1971 members – 57 countries (including Palestine) Furthers Islamic solidarity and cooperation OIF International Organization of Francophony established 1970 members – 47 countries and the governments of Québec, New Brunswick, and the French Community of Belgium To promote cooperation and cultural and technical links among French-speaking countries and communities OMVG Gambia River Development Organization established 1978 members – Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal Promotes integrated development of the Gambia River basin Opanal Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean established 1969 members – 33 countries Aims to ensure compliance with the Treaty of Tlatelolco (banning nuclear weapons from South America and the Caribbean)
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries established 1960 members – Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela Aims to coordinate oil policies to ensure fair and stable prices OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe established 1972 members – 55 countries Aims to strengthen democracy and human rights, and settle disputes peacefully (formerly CSCE) PC Pacific Community established 1948 members – 27 countries and territories A forum for dialogue between Pacific countries and powers administering Pacific territories (formerly South Pacific Commission) PfP Partnership for Peace see NATO established Not applicable members – 20 members: eastern European and former Soviet countries, Sweden, Finland, Malta, Austria, and Switzerland PIF Pacific Islands Forum established 1971 members – 16 countries and self-governing territories Develops regional political cooperation (formerly South Pacific Forum) RG Rio Group established 1987 members – 19 Latin American and Caribbean countries Forum for Latin American and Caribbean issues (evolved from Contadora Group, established 1948) SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation established 1985 members – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka Encourages economic, social, and cultural cooperation
SACU Southern African Customs Union established 1969 members – Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland Promotes cooperation in trade and customs matters among southern African states SADC Southern African Development Community established 1992 members – 14 southern African countries Promotes economic integration San José San José Group established 1988 members – Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama A “complementary, voluntary, and gradual” economic union SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization established 1996 members – China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan Promotes regional security and cooperation (formerly Shanghai Five) SELA Latin American Economic System established 1975 members – 27 countries Promotes economic and social development through regional cooperation SICA Central American Integration System established 1991 members – Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama Coordinates the political, economic, social, and environmental integration of the region UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Union established 1994 members – 8 west African countries Aims for convergence of monetary policies and economic union
UN United Nations established 1945 members – 191 countries Taiwan and the Vatican City do not belong to the UN permanent members of the Security Council – China, France, Russia, UK, US Aims to maintain international peace and security and to promote cooperation over economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems Agencies include the regional commissions of the UN’s Economic and Social Council: ECA (Economic Commission for Africa – established 1958); ECE (Economic Commission for Europe – established 1947); ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean – established 1948); ESCAP (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific – established 1947); ESCWA (Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia – established 1973). Other bodies of the UN, in which most members participate, include IDA(the International Development Association); UNCTAD (the UN Conference on Trade and Development); UNDP (the UN Development Program); UNFPA (the UN Population Fund); UNHCR (the UN High Commissioner for Refugees); UNICEF (the UN Children’s Fund). WEU Western European Union established 1955 members – 10 countries A forum for European military cooperation World Bank see IBRD WTO World Trade Organization established 1995 members – 143 countries and Hong Kong, Macao, and the EU Aims to liberalize trade through multilateral trade agreements (successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT)
73
2
THE NATIONS OF THE WOR LD THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD •
AFGHANISTAN ~ ZIMBABWE
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES & DEPENDENCIES
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
ASIA
AFGHANISTAN
Turkmenistan Uzb.
1919
Aug 19
AFG
+4.5
ist
an
China AFGHANISTAN Iran
OFFICIAL NAME: Islamic State of Afghanistan CAPITAL: Kabul POPULATION: 23.9 million CURRENCY: New afghani OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Pashtu and Dari 1919
Tajikistan
Pa k
A
.af
+93
A
FGHANISTAN LIES LANDLOCKED in central Asia, three-quarters of its territory inaccessible terrain. Its political system, economy, and infrastructure have been devastated by decades of armed conflict. In the 1980s Islamic mujahideen factions defeated the Soviet-backed communist regime, but rivalries undermined their fragile power-sharing agreement and the hard-line taliban militia swept to power in 1996. Islamic dress codes and behavior were vigorously enforced; women were left with few rights. The taliban regime crumbled in the face of the US-led “war on terrorism” launched in late 2001.
CLIMATE
†
Mountain/cold desert
TOURISM
†
4000 visitors
,
WEATHER CHART FOR KABUL
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Visitors : Population 1:5975 No change in 1995–1998
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Afghanistan does not publish tourism
0
0/32
figures by
-10/14
country of origin
-20/-4
Afghanistan has the world’s widest temperature range, with lows of –50˚C (–58˚F) and highs of 53˚C (127˚F). Severe drought, a frequent problem, affected half the population in 2000.
TRANSPORTATION Kabul International
†
Drive on right
10
20
40
30
50
60
% of total arrivals
†
PEOPLE
2730 km (1696 miles)
37/km2 (95/mi2)
Pashtu, Tajik, Dari, Farsi, Uzbek, Turkmen THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
None
25 km (16 miles)
1200 km (746 miles)
22%
78%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 1%
The repair and reconstruction of the roads, severely damaged by war, and the modernization of the air traffic control system are the most urgent priorities. The rebuilding of roads is usually carried out by local communities. However, neighboring Pakistan has undertaken to rebuild a number of key routes, including the Kabul–Peshawar link, which will benefit its own trade with central Asia. Securing key supply routes was a crucial factor in intra-mujahideen feuding and in the taliban’s efforts to gain control over the whole country. Anti-taliban forces relied heavily on supplies from the north. Much of Afghanistan’s outlying territory is sown with landmines.
Shi'a Muslim 15%
Sunni Muslim 84% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 3%
Afghanistan has yet to recover from decades of war. Few hotels are open in Kabul, and travel in the landminestrewn and lawless interior is dangerous. The lack of a formal economy means that there are few visits from businessmen, and most expatriates left Kabul during the taliban period. Most major cultural treasures, such as the famous carvings of Buddha at Bamian, have been destroyed or looted, while Air Ariana, the national airline, lost six of its eight aircraft in the 2001 US bombing.
Pop. density low
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
76
0
The Band-i-Amir River, in the Hindu Kush. Afghanistan is mountainous and arid. Many Afghans are nomadic sheep farmers.
Uzbek and Turkmen 15%
Pashtun 38% Hazara 19%
Tajik 25%
Ethnicity largely determined intramujahideen feuding after 1992. Pashtuns have traditionally been the rulers of Afghanistan, and dominated the taliban. The fall of that regime in 2001 provided the opportunity for the Tajik–Uzbek alliance to enforce a power-sharing agreement. Pashtuns have since faced reprisal attacks, particularly in the north, where
they are a minority. Religious differences between Sunnis and Shi’as became acute under the Sunni taliban regime. Some two million people were killed in the ten-year conflict which followed the invasion by Soviet Union forces in 1979 and in the post-1992 civil war. As many people again were maimed. A further six million people were forced to flee to Pakistan and Iran; many returned, but the US attacks in 2001 which ousted the taliban created a fresh wave of refugees and left hundreds of thousands more people internally displaced. Women had few rights under the rigid Islamic regime of the taliban. The interim government has lifted the ban on women in employment and allowed girls to resume schooling, but social restrictions still exist. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.3% 2.1% 6.3% 12.8% 27.2%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
Male 0.4% 2.8% 7.3% 12.5%
0–19 % of population by age group
28.3%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AFGHANISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
A
In transition
international Islamist terrorists. A full-scale bombing campaign tipped the balance in favor of the opposition Northern Alliance and the taliban were swiftly removed from power. In their place the US sponsored the formation of an interim government around the Pashtun leader Hamid Karzai, who was installed as transitional president in 2002. A new constitution, agreed in January 2004, outlines a strong presidency.
President Hamid Karzai
1988/2005 AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives (dissolved)
Following the downfall of Najibullah's regime in April 1992, both houses were dissolved and an interim mujahideen legislature formed.
Senate (dissolved)
Hamid Karzai has struggled to exert power outside the capital Kabul.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Political stability and central control The control of the Kabul government, which was originally established upon the basis of the ad hoc unity of the Northern Alliance and the military might of the US, is precarious. Promised aid has been slow to arrive, its delivery complicated by the withdrawal of aid agencies as their workers became the target of terrorist attacks. The increased instability is blamed on both the reemergence of pro-taliban Islamist groups – particularly along the border with Pakistan – and the continuing ambitions and rivalries of regional warlords. Pa nj
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3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
100 km
500m/1640ft 0
100 miles
AFGHANISTAN Total Area : 647 500 sq. km ( 250 000 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
200m/656ft
ECO
IBRD
NAM
OIC
The nature of the Islamist taliban regime made Afghanistan a pariah state and the first target of the US-led “war on terrorism” in 2001. The new interim government is consequently heavily dependent on the countries which effectively installed it, making good relations with them essential for future aid. Pakistan was the last country to break off links with the taliban and remains Afghanistan’s most delicately placed partner, with S T a history of religious A as well as ethnic N sympathies with the ousted, Pashtundominated, N Á ÁKH Islamist regime. KÚH-E V Plans for a gas pipeline, carrying Nowshak 7485m gas from Turkmenistan to south Asia, have been revived, and it is now a crucial economic issue.
N
rg h
CP
A
Mo
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Joined UN in 1946
IN
S
Baghlán
Pol-e-Khomrí
Towraghondí
Chahárborjak
Fey∞ábád
Áybak
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
CH
Shúlgareh Meymaneh
Bálá Morgháb
Zaranj
wk
Kunduz Táloqán Zíbák Mazár-e Sharíf Khánábád
Sheberghán
B A ND -E TORKEST
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K Ú H- E S A F Í D
Civil war was fueled from outside by Cold War rivalries. Mujahideen factions fought first against Soviet invaders, and then against each other, before a potent new force, the Islamist taliban, arose in 1995. After capturing Kabul in 1996 the taliban declared Afghanistan to be a “complete” Islamic state, and imposed a strict Islamic code. After the 2001 terrorist attacks on the US, UZBEKISTAN Afghanistan was AN A mu T targeted as a IS Andkhvoy Áqchah harborer of N
eh
PROFILE
ch
Emerging from almost 30 years of constant war, in 2002 Afghanistan chose a transitional government through its Loya Jirga (grand council) as the foundation of a democratic, presidential system. Presidential elections were held in 2004.
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
CHRONOLOGY The foundations of an Afghan state of Pashtun peoples were laid in the mid-18th century, when Durrani Ahmad Shah became paramount chief of the Abdali Pashtun peoples. 1838–1842 First Anglo-Afghan war. 1878 Second British invasion of Afghan territory. 1879 Under Treaty of Gandmak signed with Amir Yaqub Ali Khan, various Afghan areas annexed by Britain. Yaqub Ali Khan later exiled. New treaty signed with Amir Abdul Rahman, establishing the Durand line, a contentious boundary between Afghanistan and Pakistan. 1919 Independence declared. 1933 Mohammed Zahir Shah ascends throne. 1953–1963 Mohammed Daud Khan prime minister; resigns after king rejects proposals for democratic reforms.
77
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A CHRONOLOGY continued
†
/
Up 215% in 2002
The fall of the taliban opened the way for massive inflows of aid. However, pledges by the US and its allies not to “forget” Afghanistan have been tested greatly as international priorities have shifted; only a fraction of the promised aid has arrived. Working conditions for aid personnel are extremely hazardous.
78
,
Not available
500 main battle tanks (T-54/-55, T-62)
6000 personnel
Not available AFGHAN ARMED FORCES
None
5 combat aircraft (MiG-21)
No data
None
The new regime is building a 60– 70,000-strong national army and an air force of 8000. Private armies have been banned. An international peacekeeping force only extended its control beyond Kabul from late 2003. The US continues to launch offensives against the
ECONOMICS $5.68bn
†
remaining al-Qaida and taliban forces. Regional factions are heavily armed, thanks to decades of military assistance from the US and the USSR; warlords remain significant local power brokers. Though direct involvement by the superpowers came to an end in 1991, the arms supplied to rival groups remain. The US government is particularly concerned about the presence of hundreds of Stinger surface-to-air missiles; worried that they might be used against civilian airliners, it has frequently launched drives to buy them back. Foreign Islamic militants have also helped to flood the country with arms. The bulk of these weapons originate in eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. The movement of Islamist militants and weapons between Tajikistan and Afghanistan is now tackled by CIS troops.
Not available
43 new afghanis (43)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
GDP
310
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................110th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$250 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$132m INFLATION .......................................56.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
EXPORTS
UAE 5% Other 34%
Finland 8%
170
100
30 1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Germany 9% India 14%
Pakistan 30% IMPORTS
Japan 8%
240
Turkmenistan 8% Kenya 9%
Other 32% South Korea 17% Pakistan 26%
STRENGTHS Very few, apart from illicit opium trade. Revalued currency issued in 2002. Overseas assets unfrozen from 2002.
needed to rebuild the country and that over 80% of infrastructure has been destroyed. Agricultural activity is lower than the pre-1979 level; the Soviet “scorched earth” policy laid waste large areas, and much of the rural population fled to the cities. Many farmers turned back to growing poppies for opium production, but saw little profit, despite Afghanistan being one of the world’s largest sources of opium. Though prohibited, poppy cultivation has increased under the new, less intimidating, regime.
WEAKNESSES
Recipient
$1.28bn (receipts)
No compulsory military service
GDP unavailable
AID
†
Consumer price index 1990=100
1965 Elections held, but monarchy retains power. Marxist Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) formed and banned. PDPA splits into the Parcham and Khalq factions. 1973 Daud mounts a coup, abolishes monarchy, and declares republic. Mujahideen rebellion begins. Refugees flee to Pakistan. 1978 Opposition to Daud from PDPA culminates in Saur revolution. Revolutionary Council under Mohammad Taraki takes power. Daud assassinated. 1979 Taraki ousted. Hafizullah Amin takes power. Amin killed in December coup backed by USSR. 80,000 Soviet troops invade Afghanistan. Mujahideen rebellion stepped up into full-scale guerrilla war, with US backing. 1980 Babrak Karmal, leader of Parcham PDPA, installed as head of Marxist regime. 1986 Mohammad Najibullah takes over from Karmal. 1989 Soviet Army withdraws. 1992 Najibullah hands over power to mujahideen factions. 1993 Mujahideen agree on formation of government. 1994 Power struggle between Burhanuddin Rabbani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. 1996 Taliban take power and impose strict Islamic regime. 1998 Earthquake in northern regions kills thousands. 1999 Power-sharing agreement between taliban and Northern Alliance breaks down. 2000 Worst drought in 30 years. UN imposes sanctions in response to taliban support for al-Qaida. 2001 Taliban government falls after intense US-led air strikes from October – first campaign in “war on terrorism.” Interim government formed under Hamid Karzai; peacekeepers deployed in Kabul. 2002 Earthquakes kill thousands. Ex-king Zahir Shah returns from exile. Loya Jirga convenes, elects Karzai head of state. 2004 Approval of constitution. 90% of voters registered.
DEFENSE
Decades of fighting: infrastructure, agriculture, and industry in ruins. Communication links damaged by earthquakes and devastated by bombing. Aid slow to materialize.
PROFILE The protracted fighting has left Afghanistan one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. It is estimated that some $15 billion is
Much of Afghanistan’s infrastructure, already damaged by decades of civil war, was reduced to ruins by heavy US bombardment in 2001.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AFGHANISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 800 tonnes
Not an oil producer and has no refineries
11m sheep, 5m goats, 2m cattle, 7m chickens
Natural gas, salt, coal, copper, lapis lazuli, barytes, talc
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 65% (315m kWh)
generation system is a government priority. The construction of dams on the Kunar and Laghman rivers is being considered. Coal production has fallen from prewar levels and mines are in urgent need of rehabilitation. AFGHANISTAN : LAND USE
Combustion 35% (170m kWh) Nuclear 0% H
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
% of total generation by type
Rúd ráh Fa
†
Not available
an
a r y á -y e H
D
.
0.3% (0.2% partially protected)
D
U
S H KU
Cropland Forest Pasture Desert High mountain regions
d
Natural gas and coal are the most important strategic resources. In 2002 Afghanistan signed a gas agreement with Pakistan and Turkmenistan which could generate revenue estimated at $300 million. Restoring the power
ENVIRONMENT
IN
100
80
el m
0
200 km
0
CRIME
0.05 tonnes per capita
†
HEALTH
Electric power 499,000 kW
Death penalty in use
,
Infectious, parasitic, respiratory, and digestive diseases
1 per 10,000 people
The health service has collapsed completely and almost all medical professionals have left the country. Infant and maternal mortality rates are among the highest in the world, and life expectancy is very low. Parasitic diseases and infections are a particular problem. The UN organized a program for the chlorination of well water, following an outbreak of cholera in Kabul, and launched a mass measles vaccination program in January 2002. Under the taliban regime most women in Afghanistan had very little access to health care: their admission to hospital was strongly discouraged, as was the employment of female medical staff.
†
SPENDING
200 miles
†
Afghanistan does not publish prison figures
Sheep Cereals
A
No welfare state health benefits
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
0.2 per 1000 population
Levels of all crimes remain very high
1 per 1000 population
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Defense 12.2% No
Yes
Education No data
Yes
Afghanistan does not publish statistics for murders, rapes, or thefts Yes
No
No
Environmental priorities are low. However, the country’s lack of industry, even in Kabul, means that industrial pollution is minimal. The biggest problem facing Afghanistan is landmines: over ten million have been laid, and the UN estimates that it will take 100 years to make the country safe for civilians. Half the country’s forests have been lost since 1977.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership low
Gun law operates widely. Journeys in rural areas are vulnerable to armed robbery. Cities vary according to which faction is dominant and the level of disruption caused by war. A new national police force is being trained.
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
1 state-owned service, several independent stations
†
EDUCATION 36%
School leaving age: 12
19,796 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
Dailies such as Anis, Hewaad, and the English-language Kabul Times now seek to build an independent post-taliban role
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Health 0.6% 0
80
The vast majority of Afghans live in conditions of extreme poverty. The country does not have the resources to feed its people at present – a situation exacerbated by the severe drought of 2000, the 2001 fighting, and the 2002 earthquakes. The return of refugees from neighboring Pakistan and Iran makes Afghanistan even more dependent on outside assistance for its rehabilitation. A number of mujahideen leaders accumulated personal fortunes during the civil war. These derive in part from the substantial foreign aid that was once available and, in some cases, from the trafficking of opium.
WORLD RANKING
60
40
Position in World 1st
20
15% 0
Primary
22% Secondary
2% 50th
Tertiary 100th
Various factions run newspapers and radio stations. The taliban banned television and the Internet, and though television broadcasts restarted in Kabul in 2001, the new Supreme Court in 2003 banned cable TV as un-Islamic. The BBC, which produces radio programs in Pashtu and Persian (Dari), is popular, especially for its soap operas, which inform on welfare issues.
Under the taliban regime, education for women was extremely limited and segregation rigidly enforced; the literacy rate for women is the lowest in the world. The Northern Alliance announced the lifting of restrictions on female education in November 2001. Kabul University, which had been closed in 1992, has now been partially reopened.
150th
193rd
175
177
$250
43 yrs
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
189
191
36%
165 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
79
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A
ALBANIA
Europe
EUROPE Serb. & Mon. Maced.
ALBANIA Ital y
Greece
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Albania CAPITAL: Tirana POPULATION: 3.2 million CURRENCY: Lek OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Albanian 1912
1921
Nov 28
AL
+1
.al
+355
L
YING AT THE SOUTHEASTERN end of the Adriatic Sea, opposite the heel of Italy, Albania is a povertystricken, mountainous country which became a oneparty communist state in 1944. The “land of the eagles,” as it is known by its people, became a multiparty democracy in 1991. It has struggled to progress from the economic collapse and regional strife which characterized the 1990s, and remains one of the poorest countries in Europe.
†
CLIMATE
Mediterranean/ continental
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR TIRANA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
Pop. density medium 117/km2 (302/mi2)
Albanian, Greek
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
44%
56%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Roman Catholic 10%
-10/14
Orthodox Christian 20%
-20/-4
The coastal climate is Mediterranean, but rather wet in winter. Heavy rain or snow falls in winter in the mountains.
†
TRANSPORTATION Rinas, Tirana 561,446 passengers
Drive on right
74 ships 48,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 7020 km (4362 miles)
None
447 km (278 miles)
43 km (27 miles)
The transportation infrastructure is poor: the rail network is limited and roads are in disrepair. Private cars were first allowed in 1991. Buses and private vans are the main means of transportation.
TOURISM 34,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:94
.
Down 13% in 2001
Sunni Muslim 70%
The existence of ethnic minorities was only officially acknowledged in 1989. The Greek minority strongly contests official statistics, which state that 95% of the population are Albanian. Located mainly in the south, the Greeks claim to make up over 10% of the population. They suffer considerable discrimination. Most Albanians converted to Islam under Ottoman suzerainty. Under communism, Albania was the only officially atheist state in the world. Religious practice has been permitted since 1991. Society is traditional and maledominated. Men are expected to be providers, and unemployment levels have decreased the chances of women finding work. Many women pay to be smuggled to the West, only to end up as prostitutes; Albania is a major transit point for human trafficking.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Macedonia 20%
Other 34% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Instability and then the war in Kosovo upset plans to exploit Albania’s scenic beauty. Facilities remain very limited, especially outside Tirana.
80
AT THE LAST ELECTION
City of a thousand windows. Berat was preserved as a museum while a new town was built further down the valley.
4% 8% DP Others
People's Assembly 140 seats
33% BF
52% PSS
3% PDS
PSS = Socialist Party of Albania BF = Union for Victory (led by the Democratic Party – PD) DP = Democrat Party (splinter from PD) PDS = Social Democratic Party
Albania was dominated for more than 40 years by communist ruler Enver Hoxha, who died in 1985. An exodus of Albanians in 1991 finally persuaded the regime to call multiparty elections, but the resulting center-right coalition failed to create a Western, liberal state. Many people were ruined by investing in “pyramid” savings schemes which collapsed in 1997, prompting rebellion in the south and forcing the resignation of the government. A new coalition led by the former communist PSS was elected later that year, and won a further term in 2001, as Prime Minister Ilir Meta claimed credit for restoring a measure of security and hope. The PSS soon became divided by internal disputes. Veteran party leader Fatos Nano emerged victorious, and has since concentrated power in his own hands, becoming prime minister in July 2002.
†
Joined UN in 1955
WORLD AFFAIRS WTO
CE
OSCE
OIC
PfP
The government has distanced itself from ethnic Albanian separatist movements in neighboring regions after crises in the Serbian province of Kosovo (in the late 1990s) and in Macedonia (in 2001). Membership of NATO and the EU is a long-term goal, but lack of progress with reforms delayed a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU until 2005.
†
Recipient
$317m (receipts)
Italy 14%
Multiparty elections
President Alfred Moisiu
2001/2005
AID
Serbia & Montenegro 32%
†
POLITICS
/
Up 17% in 2002
Since 1991 the West has provided aid. Food aid was stepped up in 1997, when anarchy swept the country, and again in 1999 to help cope with the hundreds of thousands of refugees arriving from Kosovo in Serbia. EU aid now focuses on helping structural reforms.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ALBANIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
DEFENSE
/ Up 2% in 2002
$107m
†
ECONOMICS
Inflation 34% p.a. (1990–2001)
WEAKNESSES
100.9 lekë (118.5)
One of Europe’s poorest countries. Rudimentary public services and infrastructure deter foreign investors.
SCORE CARD
CHRONOLOGY reconstruction program, aiming for a fully professional force and accession to NATO. In 2003, 70 commandos were sent to Iraq to help the US-led Coalition.
Albania plans to reduce its military personnel by 2006 as part of a ten-year
$4.58bn
A
Compulsory military service
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................118th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1450 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$408m INFLATION .........................................7.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................23%
EXPORTS
USA 2% Serbia & Montenegro 2%
Other 5% Germany 6%
Albania gained independence in 1912 for the first time in its history. 1924–1939 Ahmet Zogu in power; crowned King Zog in 1928. 1939–1943 Occupied by Italy. 1944 Communist state; led by Enver Hoxha until 1985. 1991 First multiparty elections. 1997 Economic chaos as failure of pyramid schemes causes revolt. 1999 Refugee influx from Kosovo. 2001 PSS wins second term.
Greece 13%
STRENGTHS
99%
Oil and gas reserves. Remittances from expatriate Albanians. Progress with privatization. Strong agricultural sector.
Turkey 6% Germany 6%
UK 3%
ALBANIA
Italy 36%
POPULATION over 50 000
Greece 22%
500m/1640ft
SE
Sea Level
IA
&
(Y UG M OS O LA N VI A) PS
i
Ko
Fi
er z
ës
Pukë D ri
Peshkopi
Gjiri i Rodonit
Burrel M at
Gjiri i Lalëzit
it
Krujë
TIRANA
Durrës Gjiri i Durrësit
Er
Kavajë
z e n it
Librazhd
ubinit Shk
Rrogozhinë Laguna e Karavastasë
m su O
Vlorë
TV ownership high
0
5
E
s no
Though media freedom has greatly improved, overly critical papers face harassment. A 1998 law banned political or religious control of TV stations.
S E
Konispol
A
0
3053 prisoners
†
Death penalty not used in practice
25
Position in World
40 km
1
.
99%
50
100th
74 years
105 $1450
65 94 26 deaths
193rd
Down 11% in 2000–2002
Lawlessness is widespread; guns are easily available since the anarchy of 1997. Cannabis is widely grown.
N 0
20
WORLD RANKING
50th
CRIME N
G
15
Wealth is limited to a few privatesector entrepreneurs. Poverty is worst in northern rural areas but also acute in slum settlements around Tirana and other cities.
1 state-run service, 30 private stations
1 state-run service, 75 private stations
R
o
Sarandë
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
150th
Delvinë
IA
E
Përmet
Dr i
nt
Gjirokastër
N
E
i
Tepelenë
Education 3.1%
1st
Ersekë
Këlcyrë
71 per 1000 population
Health 2.4%
Bilisht
Çorovodë
t
GDP/cap. increase
Defense 2.5%
0.9 tonnes per capita
There are 12 daily newspapers, including Rilindja Demokratike, Zëri i Popullit, and Koha Jonë, the best-selling newspaper
Lake Prespa
Korçë
†
43 per 1000 population
Sustainability rank: 24th
Daily newspaper circulation 35 per 1000 people
l li t
Poliçan
.
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
†
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
De
vo
Berat
Vjo s ës
Orikum
SPENDING
MEDIA
C
Se
ra Ot Strait of
Kuçovë Patos
Liqeni i Nartës Sazan
Lake Ohrid
Liqeni i Gramsh Pogradec Banjës
a n it
Fier
Gjiri i Vlorës
Përrenjas
Cërrik Lushnjë m
A
Elbasan
IC
S E A
J ABLAN
Shijak
Chromium, oil, coal, natural gas, copper, nickel
Toxic waste pollution from communistera heavy industry is among the worst in Europe. Years of shortages mean that most materials are recycled.
A N I M A C E D O
Rrëshen
Majar e Korabit 2753m
n it t ë Z i
t
Lezhë
1.8m sheep, 1.02m goats, 4.3m chickens
4% (2% partially protected)
Kukës
i Drin
A D R I A T I C
Gjiri i Drinit
The health service is rudimentary, and dependent on Western aid for most drugs and medical supplies.
ENVIRONMENT
RO
ar
ma n
G
it
Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers
6356 b/d (reserves 183m barrels)
E
ut Sc
Koplik
Shkodër
IO
N
Bajram Curri
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 714 people Electric power 1.9m kW
Albania needs huge capital investment to develop its minerals and to create a modern electricity supply system.
E
L RTH A L B A NIA N A
†
3596 tonnes
200m/656ft
RB
T
NO
†
RESOURCES
1000m/3281ft
under 10 000
The communist-derived system is being reformed to European standards. Albania has eight universities.
Other 27%
2000m/6562ft
over 10 000
40,859 students
HEALTH
LAND HEIGHT
over 100 000
School leaving age: 13
IMPORTS
Total Area : 28 748 sq. km (11 100 sq. miles)
La ke
†
EDUCATION
Italy 72%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
40 miles
81
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A
ALGERIA
NORTH AFRICA
Western Sahara
OFFICIAL NAME: People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria CAPITAL: Algiers POPULATION: 31.8 million CURRENCY: Algerian dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1962
1962
Nov 1
DZ
+1
.dz
+213
A
FRICA’S SECOND-LARGEST country, which extends from a densely populated Mediterranean coast to the empty northern Sahara, Algeria won independence from France in 1962. The military blocked radical Islamists from taking power after winning elections in 1991, setting up a new civilian regime and fighting a bloody terrorist conflict ever since. Algeria has one of the youngest populations in the north African region.
†
CLIMATE
Hot desert/ Mediterranean
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density low
13/km2 (35/mi2)
Arabic, Tamazight (Kabyle, Shawia, Tamashek), French
58%
42%
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2003/2006
†
Multiparty elections
President Abdelaziz Bouteflika
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National People's Assembly 389 seats
51% FLN
3% 8% Ind Others
12% 11% 10% RND MRN MSP
5% PT
FLN = National Liberation Front RND = National Democratic Rally MRN = Movement for National Reform MSP = Movement for a Peaceful Society Ind = Independents PT = Workers' Party App = Appointed FFS = Front of Socialist Forces
National Council 144 seats
96 seats are indirectly elected by local assemblies, 48 are appointed by the president
Algeria is a multiparty democracy.
-20/-4
PROFILE
Coastal areas have a warm, temperate climate. The whole area to the south of the Atlas Mountains is hot desert.
†
TRANSPORTATION Houari Boumedienne, Algiers 3.35m passengers
Drive on right
Sunni Muslim 99% ETHNIC MAKEUP
European and Jewish 1%
Berber 24%
141 ships 936,100 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 71,760 km (44,590 miles)
640 km (398 miles)
3572 km (2220 miles)
None
Arab 75%
There are four international airports. Rail is the quickest way to travel between the main urban centers.
TOURISM 1.15m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:28
/
Up 16% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
France 10% Tunisia 5%
The population is predominantly Arab, under 30 years of age, and urban; some 24% are Berber. More than 85% speak Arabic and 99% are Sunni Muslim. Mosques provide social and medical services. Of the million or so French who settled before independence, only about 6000 remain. Most Berbers think of the mountainous Kabylia region as their homeland. Demonstrations there have met with violent police crackdowns, particularly in the Berber Spring of 1980, and since its anniversary in 2001. The Berber language, Tamazight, was recognized as a national, though not official, language in 2002. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Italy 1% Mali 1%
0.7%
Other 82% 10
Age
Female
Germany 1%
20
2.4%
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% of total arrivals 24.7%
The once-popular desert safaris are now rare. Tourists are a target for militant Islamist groups.
82
POLITICS
L i b ya Niger
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Christian and Jewish 1%
-10/14
0
ALGERIA
Mauritania Mali
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR ALGIERS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Africa
Tunisia Morocco
80+ 60–79
Male 0.6% 2.2%
6.3%
40–59
6.3%
15.3%
20–39
15.7%
0–19 % of population by age group
25.8%
Until 1988, Algeria was a socialist singleparty, secular regime. The subsequent adoption of privatization policies was strongly opposed by Islamist militants and the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won the first round of elections in late 1991. Fearing an Islamist victory, the military-dominated High Security Council canceled the second round in 1992. Islamist groups launched a bloody civil conflict, killing tens of thousands of people. Peace was brought a step closer in 1999 with the election of President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, despite an opposition boycott. The FIS’s armed wing, the Islamic Salvation Army, voluntarily disarmed in January 2000, and other groups have followed suit. Bouteflika was resoundingly reelected in 2004, but low-level violence continues.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Islamic fundamentalism Islamist militants want Algeria to become a theocracy. The steps taken in 1992 to prevent the FIS taking office unleashed violence spearheaded by the extremist Armed Islamic Group (GIA) and more recently the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat. The annual death toll currently exceeds 1500. Human rights and democracy Agitation among Islamists and Berbers is fueled by poor living conditions and the lack of adequate representation. An official state of emergency has been in place since 1992; security forces have been accused of meeting insurrection with repression and violence.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ALGERIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
AMU
NAM
OIC
diminished in tandem with its political stability in the 1990s. Popular support for the fundamentalist FIS has raised concerns over the potential spread of Islamist militancy into neighbors in north Africa and further afield. Since 2001, the US has been keen to forge an alliance with the Algerian authorities as part of its “war on terrorism.” European governments are anxious to help stabilize the country to avoid the entry of refugees into France, Spain, and Italy. The EU has been calling for improvements in human rights and good governance and has given support to the Bouteflika regime; in 2003 Jacques Chirac became the first French president to visit Algiers since independence.
OPEC
Struggling against French rule from 1954 until 1962, Algeria’s anticolonial credentials made it a leading figure in the developing and nonaligned worlds during the Cold War; its voice was prominent within the UN, the Arab League, and the Organization of African Unity. Meanwhile, its avowedly secular regime and the presence of significant oil and gas reserves made it an appealing economic partner for industrialized countries. In the 1980s in particular, Algeria was seen by the diplomatic community as a useful bridge between the West and Iran. Algeria’s influence, however,
Boufarik
ALGERIA Total Area : 2 381 740 sq. km (919 590 sq. miles)
Kabyl i a Mts
POPULATION
Guelma Souk Ahras
u
O C
A
L
S
a
S
A
H
A
R
Chott Melrhir
N
Ouled Djellal Laghouat Djamâa
I E
El Oued
Touggourt
I A
T
ts
te
Ghardaïa
C
Ouargla Béchar
R
O
GRA
ND
ER
G
C OC
ID
T EN
GRA
ND
ER
G
over 50 000 over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
AL
El Goléa
over 100 000
under 10 000
S
A
a Pl
over 500 000
I
x
Djelfa
Hau
N
Biskra
Saïda
Mecheria
U
Sidi Bel Abbès Tlemcen
Up 95% in 2002
As a major oil producer, Algeria receives relatively little aid. The collapse in the 1990s of the trade of eastern European goods in return for oil led Algeria to turn to the West for loans. The growing weight of Western economic involvement in turn fortified the regime against criticism of its hardline methods against Islamist opponents. The EU and various Arab countries are now the largest donors, the bulk of funding going toward improving education facilities. After the 2003 earthquakes, aid for reconstruction became a priority.
Blida Chlef Sétif Constantine Médéa Bordj Bou Arreridj Barika Relizane Khenchela M ’Sila Tébessa Aïn Batna Mascara Oussera Tiaret
Oran
O
/
$361m (receipts)
T
M
A
Recipient
N E A N S E A R R A E I T Annaba Tizi Béjaïa Jijel Skikda ALGIERS Ouzou E D
Mostaganem Mohammadia
Saharan town, showing the wide range of Algeria’s scenery, from lush, irrigated gardens near water sources to barren dunes beyond. 80% of Algeria is desert.
†
AID
Joined UN in 1962
OR
I
T EN
AL
Sea Level
A D R PLATEAU DU TADEMAÏT
I
A A D H A M
D U
L
M
In Aménas
RI
E
C
In Salah
AN
Reggane
H
C
IA
Sebkha Mekerrhane
T a s s i l i
Sebkha Azzel Matti
n ' A
G
N E T A
M
Z
R
O
U
F
j j e r
T
A
E
R
Y
T
B
WESTERN SAHARA M A U
H
Tindouf
Djanet
Tahat 2918m
A H A G G A R Tamanrasset
A
R L Tas
tasili
n-A
ha
gg
ar
Abassi Madani, FIS leader, imprisoned and then under house arrest in 1991–2003.
N
G
I Abdelaziz Bouteflika, who was elected president in 1999.
E
I
0 0
200 km 200 miles
N
83
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A CHRONOLOGY The conquest of Algeria by France began in 1830. By 1900, French settlers occupied most of the best land. In 1954, war was declared on the colonial administration by the National Liberation Front (FLN).
.
Compulsory military service
Down 6% in 2002
ALGERIAN ARMED FORCES
The National Liberation Army (NLA), armed mainly with former Soviet bloc weapons, is a dominant political power. There have been fears that parts of the army would forge an alliance with Muslim militants; the extreme rebel Armed Islamic Group (GIA), which has split from the FIS, is led by former army officers. However, the military are also suspected of taking part in reprisal killings of large numbers of Islamists.
ECONOMICS $53.8bn
†
70.65 Algerian dinars (78.38)
EXPORTS
Netherlands 9%
USA 14%
IMPORTS
Spain 5%
Germany 7% Italy 10%
Other 45%
7500 personnel
175 combat aircraft (Su-24, MiG-23, MiG-25, MiG-29, MiG-21)
10,000 personnel
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR GDP
Consumer Price Index 160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Spain 12% France 14%
Italy 20%
2 submarines, 3 frigates, and 25 patrol boats
Inflation 17% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................47th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1720 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$7.06bn INFLATION .........................................1.4% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................30%
Other 31%
110,000 personnel
None
SCORE CARD
1000 main battle tanks (320 T-54/55, 330 T-62, 350 T-72)
GDP 1998=100
84
$2.97bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1962 Cease-fire agreed, followed by independence of Algerian republic. 1965 Military junta topples government of Ahmed Ben Bella. Revolutionary council set up. 1966 Judiciary “Algerianized.” Tribunals try “economic crimes.” 1971 Oil industry nationalized. President Boumedienne continues with land reform, a national health service, and “socialist” management. 1976 Socialist state established. 1980 Ben Bella released after 15 years’ detention. Agreement with France whereby latter gives incentives for return home of 800,000 Algerian immigrants. 1981 Algeria helps to negotiate release of hostages from US embassy in Tehran, Iran. 1985 Two most popular Kabyle (Berber) singers given three-year jail sentences for opposing regime. 1987 Limited economic liberalization. Cooperation agreement with Soviet Union. 1988 Anti-FLN violence; state of emergency. Algeria negotiates release of Kuwaiti hostages from aircraft; Shi’a hijackers escape. 1989 Constitutional reforms diminish power of FLN. New political parties founded, including FIS. AMU established. 1990 Political exiles able to return. FIS victorious in municipal elections. 1991 FIS leaders Abassi Madani and Ali Belhadj jailed. FIS wins most seats in first round of elections. 1992 Second round of elections canceled. Army overthrows President Chadli. President Boudiaf assassinated. 1994 Political violence led by GIA. 1995 Democratic presidential elections won by Liamine Zéroual. 1996 Murders continue, notably of Catholic clergy and GIA leader. 1997 Madani released, subsequently under house arrest. 1999 Abdelaziz Bouteflika elected president in poll boycotted by opposition candidates. 2001 Fresh investment in oil and gas benefits economy. Resurgence of Berber protests. 2002 Berber language Tamazight recognized as national language. FLN election victory. 2003 Over 2000 die in earthquakes. Madani and Belhadj released. 2004 Bouteflika reelected.
DEFENSE
USA 10%
France 23%
STRENGTHS Third-biggest exporter of natural gas, mainly to Europe: large reserves. Privatization program attracts significant foreign investment to energy sector. Potential for strong industrial base, notably electronics, petrochemicals, and food processing.
many have since been resumed under pressure from the IMF and the World Bank. The majority of the economy’s most productive sectors remain under state control, though private investment is encouraged in the oil industry and, since early 2001, in telecommunications. A number of Western oil companies have signed exploration contracts with Algeria since it has accepted more competitive production-sharing agreements. Investment levels are not likely rise, however, as long as the political situation is unstable. The government pledged $1.8 billion in 2003 for post-earthquake reconstruction. ALGERIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Algiers
WEAKNESSES Political instability. Lack of skilled labor coupled with high unemployment. Overdependence on oil and gas industries. Limited agriculture. Shortage of basic foodstuffs. Thriving black market.
Constantine Annaba
Oran
Hassi R'Mel
Hassi Messaoud
PROFILE Under the pro-Soviet National Liberation Front, centralized socialist planning dominated the Algerian economy. In the late 1980s, the economic collapse of the Soviet Union led to a change in policy, and Algeria began moving toward a market economy. These reforms were frozen following the military takeover in 1992, though
Oil/gas Textiles Iron & steel Heavy engineering Light engineering Chemicals/petrochemicals
0
Food processing
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ALGERIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 100,281 tonnes
1.86m b/d (reserves 11.3bn barrels)
17.3m sheep, 3.2m goats, 1.5m cattle, 115m chickens
Oil, natural gas, iron, phosphates, lead, zinc, silver, copper, gold
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 0% Combustion 100% (25bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
A
Electric power 6m kW
100
80
% of total generation by type
Crude oil and natural gas, Algeria’s main resources, have been produced since the 1950s. Algeria also has
diverse minerals, including iron ore, zinc, silver, copper ore, lead, gold, and phosphates. In the 1960s and 1970s, Algeria sought to become a major manufacturer, with investments in building materials, refined products, and steel; none of these sectors are competitive on world markets. Agriculture employs one-quarter of Algeria’s workforce, but its importance to the economy is diminishing. Forests cover less than 1% of the land. Most are brushwood, but some areas include cork oak trees, Aleppo pine, evergreen oak, and cedar. Algeria has a large fishing fleet. Sardines, anchovies, tuna, and shellfish are the major commercial catches.
ALGERIA : LAND USE
Forest Pasture Cropland Desert Sheep Potatoes Dates
S A H A R A
0
200 km
0
200 miles
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Respiratory, heart, and cerebrovascular diseases, malaria
1 per 1000 people
ENVIRONMENT
/
5% (0.1% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 70th
†
CRIME
2.9 tonnes per capita
34,243 prisoners
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Up 71% in 2000–2001
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
1
per 100,000 population
Yes
Yes
No
1
per 100,000 population
162
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Since most of Algeria is desert or semidesert, over 90% of the population are forced to live on what remains – some 20% of the land. The desert is moving northward. Vegetation has been stripped for use as firewood and animal fodder, leaving fragile soils exposed which then require expensive specialist care to conserve them. Techniques for water purification are substandard, and rivers are being increasingly contaminated by untreated sewage, industrial effluent, and wastes from petroleum refining.
MEDIA
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 23 daily newspapers. El Moudjahid is state-owned. The leading daily paper is El Khabar
1 state-run service
4 state-run networks
Newspapers, TV, and radio are mainly state-controlled and are cautious in reporting violence, but there is no overt censorship. TV is broadcast in Arabic, French, and Tamazight. The three main daily newspapers have a combined circulation of over one million. However, distribution is limited outside the major cities.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
†
EDUCATION 69%
School leaving age: 15
57 per 1000 population
61 per 1000 population
Defense 5.9% Education 6% Health 3.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
456,358 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 27 per 1000 people
†
SPENDING
Thousands of people have been killed by radical Islamists since 1992, while human rights groups have accused progovernment death squads of brutal reprisal killings and of persecuting suspected Islamist militants.
% of each age group in education
†
Since 1974 all Algerians have had the right to free health care. Primary health care is rudimentary outside main cities. Because the formal health care system is overburdened, many people turn to alternative forms of medicine. The infant mortality rate has risen recently and is now the highest rate among the coastal states of north Africa.
80
There is great disparity in wealth between the political elite and the rest of the population. Those with military connections form the wealthiest group, while over 15% of people live in poverty and a majority struggles with soaring prices for basic necessities.
60
WORLD RANKING
100% 40
72% Position in World 20
1st
15% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Over three-quarters of the school-age population receive a formal education, and the literacy rate is rising. Since 1973, the curriculum has been Arabicized and the teaching of French restricted. Though the use of Arabic is enforced in public life, Tamazight was allowed in schools from 2003. Ten main universities, and several polytechnics and technical colleges provide higher education.
50th
100th
81 150th
98 $1720
71 years
119 148
193rd
108
39 deaths
69%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
85
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
A NDOR R A
EUROPE France
ANDORRA Spain
OFFICIAL NAME: Principality of Andorra CAPITAL: Andorra la Vella POPULATION: 69,150 CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Catalan 1278
1278
Sept 8
AND
+1
†
PEOPLE
.ad
+376
Pop. density medium 149/km2 (384/mi2)
Spanish, Catalan, French, Portuguese
A
TINY, LANDLOCKED principality between France and Spain, Andorra lies high in the eastern Pyrenees. From the 13th century, French and Spanish coprinces (today the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell) have ruled Andorra. In December 1993, the principality held its first full elections. Andorra’s spectacular scenery, alpine climate, and duty-free shopping have made tourism, especially skiing, its main source of income.
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
92%
8%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 6%
†
TOURISM
.
3.39m visitors
Visitors : Population 49:1
Down 4% in 2002
Roman Catholic 94%
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
While immigrant workers are vital, full residence is difficult to acquire. Many seasonal workers come from Argentina. Low taxes attract wealthy expatriates.
Spain 69% France 25% Other 6% 0
10
20
30
50
40
80
70
60
90 100
Mountain
WEATHER CHART FOR ANDORRA LA VELLA
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
Springs are cool and wettest in May; summers are relatively dry and warm. Snowfalls in December and January provide snow for good skiing up to March. Andorra’s climate supports an abundance of wild flowers.
None
†
N
Has no fleet Pic Alt de la Coma Pedrosa 2942m
None
R
Pic de l'Estanyó 2912m
N
ns
l
Ordino
ra
V
t ien Or d' Encamp
M
Santa Coloma
S
N
el Pas de las Casa Grau Roig
Port d'Envalira
POPULATION over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
Pic dels Pessons 2818m
2000m/6562ft
adr iu
1500m/4921ft
l ir a
1000m/3281ft
Sant Julià de Lòria
N
P
above 800m 0
5 km
a
I 86
E Soldeu
Santuari de Méritxell
ANDORRA Engordany Sant Miguel d'Engolasters LA VELLA les Escaldes
S
The road from France to Spain climbs to 2704 m (8875 ft) through one of the most dramatic mountain passes in Europe. Traffic congestion is a major problem in Andorra la Vella, especially in the summer. In 2001 plans for an overhead rail system were announced.
i al
Total Area : 468 sq. km (181 sq. miles)
s
Sant Joan de Caselles
Canillo
a
la Maçana
None
E el Tarter
la Cortinada
A
ANDORRA
E
Estany de Juclà
E
ri
Arinsal
e
el Serrat
Pal
None
Andorra was a semifeudal state until 1993, when a referendum approved measures which legalized political parties and the right to strike, and altered relations with the coprinces. The ruling PLA, led by Marc Forné, has been returned to power twice.
C Y
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 198 km (123 miles)
14 members are elected on a national list and 14 are elected in seven dual-member parishes
A
P
18% 7% PD UL
PLA = Liberal Party of Andorra PSD = Social Democratic Party PD = Democratic Party UL = Unió Laurediana
Arcalis
Drive on right
21% PSD
54% PLA
Estany Superior de Tristaina
lN
TRANSPORTATION
R
F
AT THE LAST ELECTION
General Council of the Valleys 28 seats
In cle
A
or d
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
ir a d
†
Multiparty elections
Coprinces Jacques Chirac and Joan Enric Vives Sicília
2001/2005
Most tourists visit Andorra to ski or shop. Traditionally there are a great many day-trippers from France and Spain, drawn by the many tax-free designer-label boutiques. Five resorts offer Alpine skiing facilities, and specialize in Nordic skiing. In summer they cater instead for mountain hikers; Andorra’s wild flowers attract many visitors, but there is also much for birdwatchers and entomologists to see. Though not strongly promoted, wild boar and the goat-like chamois are hunted. Fishing is also very popular.
Va l
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
% of total arrivals
Andorra’s outstanding mountain scenery attracts skiers in winter, walkers in summer.
V
A
A
0
5 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ANDORRA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
Joined UN in 1993
OSCE
In 1991 Andorra became a member of the EU customs union and adopted the euro in 2002, having formerly used the French franc and Spanish peseta. Andorra’s status as a tax haven has prompted criticism from the OECD.
†
AID
Not applicable
Andorra has no aid receipts or donations
,
Not applicable
The principality of Andorra neither receives nor provides aid, and has no plans to do so.
DEFENSE Andorra has no defense budget
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
Andorra has no defense budget; France and Spain provide protection. The last military action was intervention by French gendarmes to restore order after a royalist coup in 1933.
ECONOMICS $1.28bn
†
Not available
0.822 euros (0.871)
Not an oil producer and has no refineries
2683 sheep, 1194 cattle, 741 horses, 362 goats
None
Water is a major resource, hydropower providing most energy needs. However, Andorra has to import twice as much electricity as it produces, and plans to develop wind power. A third of the country is under forest cover.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................150th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$19,368 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..Included in Spanish total INFLATION .........................................4.3% UNEMPLOYMENT .................Low unemployment
†
ENVIRONMENT
,
None
Not available
Not available
The impact of millions of visitors each year on Andorra’s alpine ecology is of great concern. The construction of hotels, ski resorts, and transportation links threaten to despoil the country’s picturesque mountain landscape. Tourism development is also endangering the remarkable flora, and creates pressure to clear forested areas. Hunting is no longer promoted but remains a popular attraction; the wild boar and the Pyrenean chamois are particularly targeted. Some restrictions have been introduced to preserve rarer animal species.
†
A
Not available
None
MEDIA
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
CHRONOLOGY Since 1278, Andorra has been autonomous, ruled by French and Spanish coprinces. 1970 Women get the vote. 1982 First constitution enshrines popular sovereignty. 1983 General Council votes in favor of income tax. 1984 Government resigns over attempt to introduce indirect taxes. 1991 EU customs union comes into effect. 1992 Political demonstrations demanding constitutional reform. Government resigns. 1993 Referendum approves new constitution. 1994 Government falls; replaced by center-right Liberal cabinet, which is reelected in 1997 and 2001.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits
Andorra, with just one public hospital, has Europe’s longest life expectancy. Health spas, such as the hot springs at les Escaldes, are popular.
TV ownership high
†
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 60 per 1000 people
Heart and cerebrovascular diseases
1 per 385 people
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
529 per 1000 population
There are 2 daily newspapers, Diari d’Andorra and El Periódic d’Andorra
520 per 1000 population
Defense None
Tourism underpins the economy. Strict banking secrecy laws make Andorra attractive as a tax haven. Healthy luxury retail sector. Farming: cereals, potatoes, and tobacco are the major products.
6 independent commercial stations
1 independent commercial channel
STRENGTHS
Health 4% 0
Andorra has one domestic broadcaster, Radio i Televisio d’Andorra, and receives French and Spanish television channels. A Spanish TV company broadcasts one hour a day of programs for Andorra.
WEAKNESSES
†
France and Spain effectively decide economic policy. Dependence on imported food and raw materials.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Tourists are natural targets for thieves, most of whom are not Andorran. Thefts of expensive cars for resale in France and Spain are on the increase. Andorra’s two criminal courts are known as the Tribunals de Corts.
Lithuania 4% Hong Kong 2%
Germany 8% Other 8%
Spain 52% France 26%
Japan 4% Italy 3%
55 prisoners
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Germany 5% Other 14%
Spain 49% France 25%
Education No data
99%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Hotel owners form the wealthiest group of citizens in Andorran society, though many of them choose to live across the border in neighboring Spain.
No death penalty
/
WORLD RANKING Up 20% in 2000
†
School leaving age: 14
3180 students
There are around 30 schools in Andorra, with instruction in Catalan, French, and Spanish. The University of Andorra specializes in distance learning using the Internet.
Position in World 1st
50th
23
1
1
83 years
99%
$19,368 100th
28 6 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
87
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A
ANGOLA
Dem. Rep. Congo
Congo
ANGOLA Zambia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Angola CAPITAL: Luanda POPULATION: 13.6 million CURRENCY: Readjusted kwanza OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese 1975
Africa
SOUTHERN AFRICA
1975
Nov 11
ANG
+1
Namibia
.ao
+244
A
N OIL-AND DIAMOND-RICH country in southwest Africa, Angola has suffered almost continuous civil war since independence from Portugal in 1975. During the Cold War the West supported UNITA rebels against the Soviet-backed MPLA government. After many failed peace initiatives, the latest, in 2002, has raised hopes yet again of a more permanent end to the violence.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR LUANDA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
11/km2 (28/mi2)
Portuguese, Umbundu, Kimbundu, Kikongo
1992/1998 (postponed)
35%
65%
Ovimbundu 37%
In transition
President José Eduardo dos Santos
AT THE LAST ELECTION
3% 1% 3% PRS PLD Others
National Assembly 223 seats
Bakongo 13%
-20/-4
Other 25%
Luanda International (4 de Fevereiro) 777,350 passengers
†
Drive on right
124 ships 55,125 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK Much of this infrastructure has been destroyed by civil war.
5143 km (3196 miles)
The predominantly rural-dwelling Ovimbundu and the mainly urban-based Kimbundu are the main ethnic groups; they generally supported UNITA or the MPLA respectively. The small mixedrace (Portuguese–African) community enjoys the highest standard of living. Christianity (mostly Roman Catholicism) is practiced alongside indigenous beliefs.
N G O C O
1295 km (805 miles)
A E
C
Camabatela Caxito
Golungo Viana Alto Calandula Lucala N’Dalatando
C I
Portugal 19%
Gabela Sumbe
Lobito
Catumbela
T
France 13% South Africa 11%
Benguela
nz
i
Bailundo Môco 2620m
Camacupa
Luena
N
Cubango
A
Lubango
Cuito Cuanavale
T
o
N'Giva
M
I
i
A
to
B
I
A
L
u ia
C apr
na
ivi St
A
Cu
N
over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
under 10 000
Sea Level
N
I
ng
ne C u ne
over 50 000
B
L
over 100 000 Cuand o
Tombua
POPULATION
M
Namibe
Total Area : 1 246 700 sq. km (481 351 sq. miles)
over 1 000 000
Menongue
C uba
A war zone since independence, Angola is only slowly starting to attract tourists. Most visitors are journalists or work for the oil multinationals in Cabinda.
zi
Kuito
Huambo P LA N A LTO Cubal DO B ÍE Caconda
60
A
50
be
A
40
am
Z
30
% of total arrivals
ANGOLA
a
Uaco Cungo
Caála
Other 57% 20
Malanje a
In power since 1975, the MPLA in 1991 abandoned one-party rule and, under President José Eduardo dos Santos, won the first multiparty polls in 1992. Jonas Savimbi’s defeated UNITA responded by restarting the civil war. A 1994 peace accord signed in Lusaka (Zambia) resulted in UNITA’s joining a national unity government in 1997, but they left the government as fighting escalated once more in 1998. Savimbi’s REP . C death in 2002 led to a renewed O peace initiative, and the N transformation of UNITA G Lóvua from a guerrilla group into a political party, Cambulo but elections due Lucapa in 1998 are still to be held. Saurimo a Cas s
LUANDA
Dondo
2% 1% FNLA Vacant
O
o
Uíge Ambriz
Up 36% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
DEM. M’Banza Congo
Cu
/
91,000 visitors
o ng
ng
†
TOURISM
Visitors : Population 1:149
Cabinda
Cua
War has destroyed infrastructure, restricted movement of people and goods, and devastated port traffic. UN peacekeepers have tried to clear mines and repair roads, bridges, and railroads.
N
CABINDA
O
2761 km (1716 miles)
32% UNITA
MPLA–PT = Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola –Workers' Party UNITA = National Union for the Total Independence of Angola PRS = Social Renewal Party FNLA = Angolan National Liberation Front PLD = Liberal Democratic Party The seats allotted to members from abroad remained vacant
Kimbundu 25%
Co
TRANSPORTATION
58% MPLA–PT
Z
The climate varies from temperate to tropical. Rainfall decreases from north to south. The Benguela Current makes the coast unusually cool and dry.
88
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
0
Angola’s capital, Luanda. Founded in 1575 by the Portuguese, it became a transshipment point for slaves en route to Brazil.
Pop. density low
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
Tropical/steppe
r ip
A NA TSW BO
0 0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ANGOLA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS COMESA
IBRD
AU
NAM
SADC
Peace and reconstruction are now supported by the US and Russia, though Angola has been a key frontier during the Cold War. Regional relations were also affected by the same global
†
AID
/
Up 46% in 2002
Aid agencies and international donors have found it easier to offer assistance to Angola since the return of peace in
DEFENSE $946m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 35% in 2002
By 2002 superior government forces had asserted control over more than 90% of the country. Under the ceasefire, some 5000 UNITA troops were integrated into the regular army. The remaining 80,000 were demobilized. Since then the army’s main priority has been to tackle the separatist rebellion in the Cabinda exclave.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 659% p.a. (1990–2001)
79.03 readjusted kwanza (78.25)
SCORE CARD
CHRONOLOGY
concerns, and when the civil war carried across local borders. Now, postapartheid South Africa is a key partner, while the end of hostilities in Angola eased tensions with Zambia. There is international concern over who exactly profits from the country’s lucrative diamond trade.
Recipient
$421m (receipts)
$9.3bn
A
Joined UN in 1976
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................89th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$710 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.43bn INFLATION ........................................103% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................50%
2002. The immediate focus was on the massive humanitarian crisis left by decades of war. Angola’s ban on importing genetically modified produce is hindering the provision of food aid.
885,000 b/d (reserves 8.9bn barrels)
4.15m cattle, 2.05m goats, 780,000 pigs, 6.8m chickens
Oil, diamonds, iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold, manganese
Deepwater oil fields have been found. The rich alluvial diamond deposits were controlled by UNITA during the civil war.
ENVIRONMENT
MEDIA
Belgium 6%
Taiwan 8% France 8%
USA 41% China 14%
Other 23%
France 7% South Africa 12%
0.5 tonnes per capita
Portugal 20%
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
6 per 1000 population
Defense 9.8%
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
2 services: 1 state-controlled, 1 independent
The news agency and O Jornal de Angola are state-owned. Independent media are critical but can face harassment. No death penalty
.
Education 2.8% Health 2.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
State officials enjoy various luxuries, such as access to cars and other consumer goods, while the majority of people struggle to survive. The MPLA accuses its own generals of illicit diamond mining.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Down in 2000
Violent crime occurs frequently throughout Angola, and murder, theft, corruption, and diamond smuggling are commonplace. Street crime is especially common in Luanda. Rural areas are effectively controlled by gangs.
1st
50th
100th
150th
EDUCATION
†
School leaving age: 9
130 193rd
$710
164 40%
7845 students
Other 41% USA 14%
†
SPENDING
TV ownership medium
There is 1 daily newspaper, O Jornal de Angola. Diário da República is a daily government bulletin
†
Malaria, diarrheal and respiratory diseases, severe malnutrition
Angola’s health system is barely able to cope with casualties of war and the threat of epidemics. Angola has the greatest number of amputees (caused by landmines) in the world. Immunization of three million children against polio began in 2002.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
CRIME
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Daily newspaper circulation 11 per 1000 people.
IMPORTS
Brazil 6%
Sustainability rank: 111th
†
HEALTH
9 per 1000 population
†
4975 prisoners
EXPORTS
†
Years of war have damaged the water supply. UNITA has been accused of widescale ivory poaching.
Oil. Diamonds. Rich mineral deposits. Large private sector. Lifting of wartime sanctions on UNITA territory.
Damaged infrastructure. Subsistence agriculture. Drought. Landmines maim civilians, disrupt farming. Corruption. Continuing conflict in Cabinda.
/
7% (2% partially protected)
1975 Independence. Civil war between MPLA and UNITA. 1979 José Eduardo dos Santos (MPLA) becomes president. 1991 UN-brokered peace. 1992 MPLA election victory provokes UNITA to resume fighting. 1994 Lusaka peace agreement. 1998 Civil war reerupts. 2000 Fighting spreads as UNITA increases guerrilla activity. 2002 UNITA leader Jonas Savimbi killed. April, cease-fire signed.
Electric power 460,000 kW
252,518 tonnes
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
†
RESOURCES
The Portuguese first established coastal forts in 1482.
A government-backed initiative, Adra, is making progress in reviving schooling in cities.
47 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
166 181 40%
188 154 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
89
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
Africa
South America
ANTARCTICA
ANTARCTICA Argentina Chile ANTARCTICA
OFFICIAL NAME: Antarctica CAPITAL: None POPULATION: None CURRENCY: None OFFICIAL n/a
n/a
n/a
HE WORLD’S fifth-largest continent, Antarctica is almost entirely covered by ice over 2000 m (6560 ft) thick. The area sustains a varied wildlife, including seals, whales, and penguins. The Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1959 and in force since 1961, provides for international governance of Antarctica. To gain Consultative Status, countries have to set up a program of scientific research into the continent. Following a 1994 international agreement, a whale sanctuary was established around Antarctica.
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4 -30/-22 -40/-40 -50/-58 -60/-76
Antarctica is the windiest as well as the coldest continent. Powerful winds create a narrow storm belt around the continent, which brings cloud, fog, and severe blizzards. Icebergs barricade more than 90% of the coastline, and climate change has seen an increase in their number and size in recent years. Antarctica contains over 80% of the world’s fresh water.
TRANSPORTATION Airstrips to some stations
Orcadas (Argentina)
S. Orkney Is
Research station
N
d lim
Inset area
Halley (UK)
Palmer (US)
Faraday (UK) San Martín Rothera (Argentina) (UK)
Belgrano II (Argentina)
en
M
a
Novolazarevskaya (Russ. Fed.) Syowa (Japan) n d Asuka a L (Japan) ud
Mawson (Aus)
La n d lim
Ronne Ice Shelf
†
Molodezhnaya (Russ. Fed.)
E n d erby
undefined
Not applicable
Ice Cap
it
Maitri (India)
Georg von Neumayer (Germany)
Weddell Sea
Permanent Sea Ice
O C E A N undefi ne
Sanae (S. Africa)
Clarence I.
Elephant I.
ANTARCTICA Total Area : 14 000 000 sq. km ( 5 405 000 sq. miles)
T O U
S
Signy (UK)
it
Zhongshan (China) Davis (Aus)
GREATER Vinson Massif 4897m
Mts
Ross
Ci rc le
N
O
Weddell Sea
Casey (Aus)
W
i
l
Vi ct ori a La n d
Sea Leningradskaya (Russ. Fed.)
Marambio (Argentina)
Mirny (Russ. Fed.)
k
a
H
S o u th Shetland Is
ti c
ti
c
South Magnetic Pole
rc
rc ta An
R
Ross Ice Shelf
McMurdo (US)
T
Esperanza (Argentina)
E
Vostok (Russ. Fed.)
Scott Base (New Zealand)
Russkaya (Russ. Fed.)
U
General Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile)
Marie Byrd Land
ANTARCTICA
an a nt sa
Amundsen Sea
South Pole
Tr
LESSER
ANTARCTICA
O
Antarctic Peninsula
AmundsenScott (US)
Ellesworth Land
S
90
100 km
Antarctica has no indigenous population. Around 80 Chilean settlers live at any one time in the continent’s only permanent community on King George Island. The rest of the population are scientists and logistical staff working at the 40 permanent, and as many as 100 temporary, research stations. Most stations are too far apart for direct contact between different nationalities.
Up 81% in 2000–2002
Has no fleet
Arctowski (Poland) Artigas (Uruguay) King Bellingshausen George I. (Russ. Fed.) Comandante Ferraz (Brazil) Great Wall (China) Jubany (Argentina) King Sejong Capitán (South Korea) Arturo Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Prat (Chile) (Chile)
0
Antarctica has a transient population of Americans, British, French, Norwegians, Argentinians, Chileans, Chinese, Russians, Poles, and Japanese. Most are involved in research. Few stay more than two years.
Tourism in Antarctica has exploded since the late 1990s, and official regulation of the industry has become essential. Tour operators have replaced elderly ex-Soviet research vessels with cruise ships that can carry 1000 passengers, endangering the fragile ecosystem wherever they put ashore. Adventure sports such as skiing and kayaking are becoming popular. Several Antarctic bases now cater for tourists and even have souvenir shops. H E R
Ships are the main mode of transportation to Antarctica. They are also used for marine research projects. Several countries have built airstrips, used solely for governmental operations. Many aircraft are equipped with skis for rougher landings.
0
/
17,000 visitors
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Not applicable
ue
WEATHER CHART
Research Stations on King George Island
†
TOURISM
Freezing
Not applicable
Q
†
Not applicable
English, Spanish, French, Norwegian, Chinese, Polish, Russian, German, Japanese
T
CLIMATE
†
PEOPLE
.aq
n/a
L a n d
1961
None
e
1961
LANGUAGE:
Australia
s
A
Scott I. Balleny Is
Dumont D'Urville (France)
C E A N
0
1000 km
0
TERRITORIAL CLAIMS
1000 miles
100 miles
Australian claim
British claim
French claim
Norwegian claim
Argentinian claim
Chilean claim
New Zealand claim
Brazilian zone of interest
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ANTARCTICA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS
A Not applicable
Antarctica has no currency
Not applicable
Research is government-funded and is therefore subject to fluctuations. The exploitation of marine stocks provides no income for Antarctica.
†
RESOURCES Neumayer Channel, Antarctica. Many states are pressing for the whole of Antarctica to be protected as an international park.
†
POLITICS
Not applicable
Consultative Parties to Antarctic Treaty
Not applicable
NO LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
The Antarctic Treaty of 1959 was signed by 12 countries. Consultative meetings are held most years to discuss scientific, environmental, and political matters.
There are 27 parties to the Antarctic Treaty and 18 nations with observer status. There are territorial claims by Australia, France, New Zealand, and Norway, and overlapping claims in the Antarctic Peninsula by Argentina, Chile, and the UK. Other states do not recognize these claims. Of main concern is the adoption of a wide range of environmental protection measures. Proposals include the monitoring of all scientific activities and also the prosecution of any country if it were demonstrated that its research would lead to detrimental global change.
WORLD AFFAIRS
†
Not a UN member
Rivalries exist between nations wishing to preserve Antarctica as a world park and those pursuing territorial claims.
AID
†
Recipient
Research is funded by governments
,
Subject to individual government budgets
Scientific programs in the Antarctic are almost entirely funded by government agencies in the home countries. Funding is occasionally provided by scientific institutions and universities.
DEFENSE No defense force
†
,
Not applicable
Not applicable
Under the Antarctic Treaty, Antarctica can be used only for peaceful purposes. Any military personnel present perform purely scientific or logistic roles.
Not applicable
Included in national fish catch totals
Not an oil producer and has no refineries
None
Mineral extraction is banned
Antarctica’s main resources are its marine stocks, including fin fish, seals, and whales. A campaign by environmental groups, supported by Australia and France, to ban mining and declare Antarctica a world park was rewarded with an agreement in 1991 to impose a 50-year ban on mining, and in 1994 by the approval of a whale sanctuary. Prospects for energy sources alternative to fossil fuels, such as solar power and wind generators, are being explored.
†
Not applicable
ENVIRONMENT
,
Most of Antarctica is protected
Not applicable
Antarctica is one of the Earth’s last great wildernesses. Its layer of ice, 4000 m (13,120 ft) thick in places, has formed over thousands of years. Its ecosystem is such that a “footprint” will leave its mark for many years. Several species are unique to the continent, including king penguins. The blood of polar fish contains antifreeze agents. Ecological concerns include overfishing, particularly of krill, cod, and squid; the disintegration of ice shelves; the depletion of the ozone layer over Antarctica; and the various knock-on effects of global warming. In 1994 the IWC agreed to a French proposal to create an Antarctic whale sanctuary which, together with the Indian Ocean sanctuary, protects the feeding grounds of 90% of the world’s whales.
†
MEDIA
Not applicable
There are no daily newspapers produced in Antarctica
A few bases publish newssheets for local consumption. Local radio stations are found at some of the larger bases.
CRIME
†
There are no prisons in Antarctica
Not applicable
,
Crime is negligible
Each person in Antarctica is subject to their national laws. Occasional petty theft from stations is linked to visits from tourists.
CHRONOLOGY The Russian explorer, Thaddeus von Bellingshausen, was the first to sight Antarctica, in 1820. The South Pole was first reached by the Norwegian, Roald Amundsen, in December 1911. 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year launches scientific exploration of Antarctica. 1959 Antarctic Treaty signed by 12 countries. Territorial claims frozen. 1978 Convention limiting seal hunting comes into force. 1985 Ozone depletion disclosed. 1994 Establishment of Antarctic whale sanctuary. 1998 Agreement on 50-year ban on mineral extraction comes into force.
†
EDUCATION Not applicable
Not applicable
None
Schoolhouses exist on the Chilean base, Villa Las Estrellas, and the Argentinian base, Esperanza. Teaching is geared to the relevant national system. Some researchers’ studies contribute to higher degrees. Antarctic-based research has resulted in a number of scientific breakthroughs, including the discovery of the depletion of the ozone layer.
HEALTH 1 medical officer per station
†
Not applicable Deaths are extremely rare in Antarctica
Each station has its own medical officer. The problems usually associated with polar conditions, such as frostbite and snow blindness, are very rare. All personnel are medically screened before arrival. If serious illnesses develop, patients have to be evacuated by air, including in recent years an acute case of gallstones and a doctor who selfdiagnosed breast cancer.
SPENDING
†
Not applicable
US bases are the best-funded, while the budgets of other bases are subject to domestic politics. Most stations have TVs and video recorders. Telephone systems operate only within stations. Computers are supplied for scientific research. A 1670-km (1040-mile) fiber optic cable is set to provide Internet access to the South Pole by 2009.
WORLD RANKING The UN Human Development Index conditions are not applicable to Antarctica.
91
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
North America
CARIBBEAN ANTIGUA & BARBUDA Puerto Rico Redonda I.
OFFICIAL NAME: Antigua and Barbuda CAPITAL: St. John’s POPULATION: 67,897 CURRENCY: Eastern Caribbean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1981
1981
Nov 1
AG
-4.5
L. House 2004/2009 U. House 2004/2009
P
ART OF THE Leeward Islands chain, Antigua was in turn a Spanish, French, and British colony. British influence is still strong and most clearly revealed in the Antiguans’ passion for cricket. Antigua has two dependencies: Barbuda, 50 km (30 miles) to the north, sporting a magnificent beach, and Redonda, 40 km (25 miles) west, an uninhabited rock with its own king.
WEATHER CHART FOR ST. JOHN’S
71% UPP Pop. density medium
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
37% RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Rastafarian 1%
Antigua is less humid than other Caribbean islands. Year-round trade winds moderate the heat.
V. C. Bird International, St. John’s 727,292 passengers
Other Protestant 42%
Drive on left
886 ships 5.07m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
None
T
I C
O A N C E
ds
5 miles
Palmetto Point
UK 26% Five Islands Village
Other 37% 40
% of total arrivals
Pares
A
Jennings
Spanish Point
Guiana I.
Seatons Willikies Glanvilles
Freemans
Green I.
All Saints
R
Swetes
Bolans Boggy Peak 402m
I Johnsons Point
B
Table Hill Gordon
Newfield Freetown
St. Philips Bethesda
Liberta
B
Antigua is especially popular with US cruise ship tourists. Among other draws are the annual international tennis championship, the islands’ three golf courses, and the attraction of large duty-free shopping malls.
V.C. Bird Intl Airport
St. Johnston Village Potters Village Parham
A n t i g u a
C
30
Long I.
Falmouth Urlings
A
N
S
E
A
over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 200m/656ft
English Harbour Town
Old Road
E
POPULATION
g e
ST JOHN'S
Canada 7%
92
lan gh d a Hi e b u a r
0
USA 30%
20
Codrington
5 km
Cedar Grove New Winthorpes Barnes Hill
10
Th
N 0
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
B
Total Area : 442 sq. km (170 sq. miles)
n
Up 3% in 2002
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
Lagoo
/
ton
Visitors : Population 2.9:1
ing
198,085 visitors
†
L
A
dr
TOURISM
T
Goat I.
Co
Recent multimillion EC$ projects have expanded the international airport and provided a further 140 km (90 miles) of roads with all-weather surfaces.
A
N
77 km (48 miles)
Most of the population are descended from Africans, brought over between the 16th and 19th centuries. There are, in addition, a few Europeans and south Asians. Racial tension is rare. Some 4000–5000 Montserratians have been given shelter since the volcanic eruptions on Montserrat in the 1990s. Around 10% of the population are of Hispanic origin, mainly coming from the Dominican Republic. By Caribbean standards, wealth disparities are small.
s a
250 km (155 miles)
Vere Bird Sr., premier from 1960, retired in 1994 and was succeeded by his younger son Lester, who led the ALP into its sixth consecutive term in 1999. The family has been dogged by allegations of corruption. Vere Jr. was removed from public office in 1990 after accusations of gun-running, while Lester Bird was forced to deny a sex and narcotics scandal. The ALP lost the 2004 election to Baldwin Spencer and the UPP.
Other 2% Roman Catholic 10%
Anglican 45%
-20/-4
†
Eleven members of the Senate are appointed by the prime minister, four by the leader of the opposition, one by the governor-general, and one by the Barbuda Council
63%
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
Senate 17 seats
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
0/32
6% BPM
23% ALP
UPP = United Progressive Party ALP = Antigua Labour Party BPM = Barbuda People's Movement
154/km2 (399/mi2)
English, English patois
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 17 seats
s
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
Multiparty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
a
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.ag
+1268
P
A
o e l a d G u
u
p
e
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
ACS
Caricom
A
†
Joined UN in 1981
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
OECS
CHRONOLOGY In 1667, Antigua became a British colony. Barbuda, formerly owned privately by the Codrington family, was annexed in 1860.
OAS
While rejecting attempts by the OECD to regulate tax havens, Antigua has been internationally praised for its own efforts to combat money laundering.
†
AID
Recipient
US$14m (receipts)
/
Up 56% in 2002
Japan is Antigua’s largest aid donor; in response, the government has supported Japan’s pro-whaling stance. The UK gives some aid to help support refugees from Montserrat.
DEFENSE US$4m
†
No compulsory military service
, No change in 2002
There is a 170-strong defense force. The US suspended military aid in 2003 until Antigua signed an agreement exempting US citizens from being tried at the International Criminal Court.
ECONOMICS US$671m
†
Inflation 2.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.7 Eastern Caribbean dollars (2.67)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................163rd GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$9720 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–US$75m INFLATION .........................................1.3% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
Nelson’s Dockyard. Luxury yachts fitted with state-of-the-art gadgetry contrast with the 18th-century St. John’s harbor.
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 27,000 kW
1583 tonnes
Not an oil producer
35,500 goats, 18,600 sheep, 100,000 chickens
None
Antigua has no strategic or commodity resources and has to import almost all its energy requirements.
ENVIRONMENT
/
15%
†
Not available
5.1 tonnes per capita
Sewage from hotels causes major problems. Untreated effluent pollutes the sea, while uncontrolled disposal has killed valuable inshore fish stocks in the mangrove swamps; the whole swamp ecosystem is under threat from poorly planned hotel development.
†
MEDIA
There are 2 daily newspapers, the Daily Observer and the Antigua Sun. The leading paper is the twice-weekly The Worker's Voice 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
6 services: 1 state-owned, 5 independent
CRIME France 7%
IMPORTS
Netherlands Antilles 6% USA 49%
†
186 prisoners
Trinidad & Tobago 6%
Japan 10%
Other 23%
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
342 per 1000 population
488 per 1000 population
Defense 0.6%
87%
5
10
15
20
25
Wealthy Antiguans are active in running the thriving tourist industry; some are allegedly also involved in money laundering. Unemployment is relatively low and the average per capita income is among the highest in the Caribbean.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Death penalty in use
,
Little change from year to year
Murder is rare. Rape, armed robbery, and burglary are main concerns, as is offshore money laundering.
EDUCATION UK 6%
GDP/cap. increase
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
EXPORTS
USA 21%
†
SPENDING
Health 3.4%
In 2003 Antigua’s state-owned radio and television stations, as well as its independent media outlets, reported extensively on charges of corruption against senior government figures.
Montserrat 13%
By Caribbean standards, the health system is efficient, with easy access to the state-run clinics and hospitals. A new hospital has been built in the capital, St. John’s.
0
High levels of debt, exceeding 80% of GDP. Overdependence on tourism, made more vulnerable by Antigua’s promotion as an expensive destination. Lack of natural resources.
St. Kitts & Nevis 11%
Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers
1 per 909 people
Education 3.2%
WEAKNESSES
Other 41%
Welfare state health benefits
Daily newspaper circulation 91 per 1000 people
Tourism and construction of tourist hotels and infrastructure. Financial and communications services linked to offshore financial sector.
UK 7%
†
HEALTH
TV ownership hgh
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
1951 Universal adult suffrage introduced. 1981 Independence from UK; opposed by Barbudan secessionist movement. 1983 Supports US invasion of Grenada. 1994 Lester Bird elected prime minister succeeding his father. 1995 New taxes provoke protests. 1999 ALP wins sixth term. 2004 Baldwin Spencer and UPP oust ALP.
†
School leaving age: 16
631 students
Education is based on the former British selective system. Students go on to the University of the West Indies, or to study in the UK or the US.
1st
50th
100th
40
42
$9720
75 years
51 12 deaths
55
106
150th
87% 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
93
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ARGENTINA
SOUTH AMERICA Bolivia
Chile
South America
Brazil ARGE NTI NA
A
Paraguay Uruguay
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Argentina CAPITAL: Buenos Aires POPULATION: 38.4 million CURRENCY: Argentine peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1816
1816
May 25
RA
-3
.ar
+54
O
CCUPYING MOST OF THE southern portion of South America, Argentina extends 3460 km (2150 miles) from the Gran Chaco to Tierra del Fuego. The Andes mountains in the west run north–south, forming a natural border with Chile; their eastern flanks slope down to the fertile central Pampas, the region known as Entre Ríos. Agriculture, especially wheat, fruit, and beef, and energy resources are Argentina’s main sources of wealth. Politics in Argentina was characterized in the past by periods of military rule, but in 1983 Argentina returned to a system of multiparty democracy.
CLIMATE
†
Mountain/steppe/ subtropical
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR BUENOS AIRES
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
3.33m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
†
Visitors : Population 1:12
/
Up 18% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
Chile 27%
20/68
20/8
Paraguay 18%
10/50
10/4
Uruguay 13%
0
0/32
Brazil 12%
-10/14
Europe 11%
-20/-4
Other 19%
The northeast of Argentina is neartropical. The Andes are semiarid in the north and snowy in the south. The western lowlands are desert, while the Pampas have a mild climate with heavy summer rains.
TRANSPORTATION Ezeiza International, Buenos Aires 4.89m passengers
†
Drive on right
0
10
30
20
40
% of total arrivals
†
PEOPLE
14/km2 (36/mi2)
6.5% 10.3%
88%
12%
94
14.1% 18.9%
Protestant 2% Jewish 2%
60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.5% 5.2% 9.9% 14.1% 19.5%
% of population by age group
Roman Catholic 90% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Amerindian 1%
80+
Other 6%
10,950 km (6804 miles)
Air travel is expensive, and inadequate connections between provinces frustrate business and tourism. The national airline, Aerolineas Argentinas, was privatized in 1990 but in 2000 was the subject of a rescue plan; airports are privately operated. The privatized railroad, one of the largest in the world, is primarily used for freight, but public rail lines in Buenos Aires have attracted strong investment and heavy use. Since 1990, thousands of kilometers of roads have been privatized, and tolls are among the highest in the world. The six main terminals in the port of Buenos Aires are privately run. A $20 billion national infrastructure program announced in 2001 has been stalled due to the economic crisis.
Age 1%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
35,754 km (22,216 miles)
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Female
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
481 ships 422,900 grt
734 km (456 miles)
Tourism has been undersold, and the government, working with business, has launched a huge international marketing campaign. Visitors, still mostly from neighboring countries, are attracted by rich city life in Buenos Aires, the Atlantic coastal resort of Mar del Plata, ski stations such as Bariloche and Las Leñas in the Andes, and wineries around Mendoza; the fashion for tango is also a draw. Other major attractions are Antarctic cruises, the Iguazú National Park, and whale-watching off Peninsula Valdés, northeast of Trelew.
Pop. density low
Spanish, Italian, Amerindian languages
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 62,487 km (38,828 miles)
Herding cattle in the northeast, near Corrientes. Beef, Argentina’s initial source of wealth, remains a major export.
Jewish 2% Mestizo 14%
Indo-European 83%
Most Argentinians of European descent are from recent 20th-century migrations: over one-third are of Italian origin. Indigenous peoples now form a tiny minority, living mainly in Andean regions or in the Gran Chaco. Argentina also has communities of Welsh, Lebanese, Armenians, Syrians, Japanese, and Koreans.
The vast majority of Argentinians are urban dwellers, with some 40% of the population living in Buenos Aires, one of the largest cities in Latin America. Catholicism and the extended family remain strong in Argentina. In addition, the family forms the basis of many successful businesses. Women have a higher profile than in most Latin American states, and were enfranchised in 1947. Today, many enter the professions and rise to positions of influence in service businesses such as the media, but are less prominent in party politics. Eva Perón, who inspired the musical Evita, helped to push women into a more active political role in the 1940s and 1950s, but this trend was reversed under military rule.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ARGENTINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on endpapers
†
POLITICS L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2003/2005
A
Multiparty elections
President Néstor Kirchner
Argentina is a multiparty democracy; the president is head of government.
PROFILE The Peronists dominated politics from the 1940s. The party, founded on mass working-class and left-wing intellectual support, was inimical to the military and was finally overthrown in 1976 after a series of coups; the following seven-year junta left a legacy of human rights abuses. A protest vote saw the B
O L I V I A
P
return of democracy under the UCR in 1983. President Carlos Menem (1989– 1999) steered the Peronist party to the right, conquering hyperinflation but reaping strong public disapproval for his free-market policies. UCR candidate Fernando de la Rúa claimed the presidency in 1999, with the support of the National Solidarity Front (Frepaso) but was brought down by the economic crisis of 2001, and was followed by four stopgap presidents. The muchvilified Menem won the first round of fresh elections in 2003, but withdrew as his support ebbed. Fellow Peronist Néstor Kirchner then won the contest by default.
AT THE LAST ELECTION
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
politics. Principal concerns are lack of governmental transparency, corruption, and ending the socially divisive freemarket macroeconomics of the 1990s.
Durability of government The nature of Kirchner’s electoral R ay victory in 2003 o A San Salvador raised the de Jujuy prospect Salta of struggles within a Tafí Viejo Formosa Peronist party San Miguel de Tucumán divided by Santiago Resistencia á del Estero San Fernando Paran rival loyalties, del Valle de Corrientes Posadas Catamarca jeopardizing y La Rioja a u the passage Reconquista A ug Mercedes Ur of serious reforms. Goya R In the absence of a Lago Mar B Cruz del Eje Chiquita trusted opposition, the Rafaela San Juan Córdoba public remains deeply Concordia San Santa Fe Francisco Villa Dolores cynical of traditional party Paraná Las Heras lc Pi
A
O
S
Lomas de Zamora
A
D
Gualeguaychú
P
Olavarría
M
Azul
Tres Arroyos
a
Mar del Plata
L
I
POPULATION
Esquel
over 500 000
over 50 000
T
A
Ba Gra h n
de
ge l l a n
T ierra S tra d el it Fu eg o Ushuaia Cape Horn
Falkland Islands (UK)
Recovery from economic collapse A near cashless population was reduced to bartering in 2001–2002 by industrial collapse, fiscal austerity, and restrictions on bank withdrawals. Fragile signs of recovery emerged in early 2003. A long-awaited IMF agreement gave a temporary breathing space on debt repayments. Businesses responded well to a period of exchange-rate stability coupled with strong export earnings and the gradual recuperation of the crisis-ridden banking sector.
200m/656ft
over 10 000
Sea Level
N
N
A
200 km
0
E C
I
N
A
L
T A
C
P of M a
Río Gallegos
ía
24% Others
1000m/3281ft
200 miles
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Mercsr
OAS
RG
Carlos Menem: authoritarian freemarketeer, now wanted for embezzlement.
Néstor Kirchner, Peronist victor in the 2003 presidential elections.
Joined UN in 1945
G15
C
G
A
T
A
Caleta Olivia
Golfo San Jorge
19% UCR
2000m/6562ft
over 100 000
0
SELA
Comodoro Rivadavia
Lago Buenos Aires
57% PJ
LAND HEIGHT
Rawson
O
H
N
Trelew
Senate 72 seats
4000m/13124ft
O
I
A
Viedma Golfo San Matías
PJ = Justicialist Party (Peronists) UCR = Radical Civic Union–UCR ARI = Alternative for a Republic of Equals FMP= Popular Movement Front PS = Socialist Party
ARGENTINA
Necochea
B
P
N
San Carlos de Bariloche
18% 4% 2% 24% UCR ARI PS Others
Total Area : 2 766 890 sq. km (1 068 296 sq. miles)
B
A
Bahía Blanca ía ah nca la
e
Tandil Balcarce
Neuquén
49% PJ
3% FMP
over 1 000 000
d o t Rí Pla La
I
Rosario
San Nicolás de los Arroyos Zárate Campana Junín BUENOS AIRES Mercedes La Plata Bragado Morón
San Rafael
Santa Rosa
UAY
Cañada de Luján Mendoza Gómez Villa Nueva Río Cuarto San Luis Casilda Villa Mercedes Pergamino
Godoy Cruz
U RUG
L
E
Z
C
Pa
ra gu
H
ay
A
C
A
R
A Y
G
U
S
N
G
E
om
Rivadavia Cerro Aconcagua 6959m
Chamber of Deputies 257 seats
Argentina takes a pro-Western stance and has deployed its armed forces in a series of UN actions. Solid relations with potential aid donors and trade partners were made all the more essential following severe economic crisis in 2001–2002. President Kirchner’s foreign policy leans toward more regional economic and political independence from the US and the IMF: both of these entities are widely criticized by the public for encouraging the very economic policies held responsible for the recession. Despite this, ties
to the US remain strong, though US pressure for an open-skies agreement and issues of royalty payments on patented drugs have created tensions. Friction with Brazil over trade rules complicates Argentina’s membership of Mercosur. It wants Mercosur to be strengthened, and widened to include Chile as a full member. The normalizing of relations with the UK in 1998 sidelined Argentina’s claim to sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (known locally as Las Islas Malvinas), the focus of the 1982 war between the two countries. Direct flights between the islands and the mainland have been permitted since 2001.
Isla de los Estados
95
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A AID
†
No net receipts
DEFENSE
Recipient
.
Down 100% in 2002
Though one massive “financial shield” was agreed in 2001, the IMF’s refusal of a further rescue package precipitated the crash in December that year.
$1.39bn
200 main battle tanks (TAM)
41,400 personnel
3 submarines, 5 destroyers, 8 frigates, 14 patrol boats
17,500 personnel
128 combat aircraft (Mirage V & III/EA, Dagger Nesher, Fightinghawk)
12,500 personnel
None
The end of dictatorship led to trials and prison for the top brass, but subsequent immunity laws were meant to placate
ECONOMICS $154bn
†
the military and close the chapter on the “dirty war” (1976–1983), during which some 15,000–30,000 people were killed or “disappeared.” The military made public admissions of guilt in 1995. A 2001 ruling, however, said that such immunity was unconstitutional, clearing the way for further trials of military personnel. Former junta leader Gen. Leopoldo Galtieri was arrested in 2002, but died the following year before his trial was completed. The armed forces now participate in international peacekeeping and see themselves as modernized. Nonetheless, President Kirchner felt the need to initiate an overhaul of the military leadership in early 2003.
Inflation 4.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.96 Argentine pesos (2.82)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................27th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4220 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$9.59bn INFLATION .......................................25.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................18%
EXPORTS
Spain 4%
China 4% USA 12% Chile 12%
Other 49% Brazil 19% IMPORTS
China 4% Japan 4%
Germany 6% USA 20%
Other 38% Brazil 28%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
96
Down 68% in 2002
Consumer price index 1998=100
1816 United Provinces of Río de la Plata declare independence; 70 years of civil war follow. 1835–1852 Dictatorship of Juan Manuel Rosas. 1853 Federal system set up. 1857 Europeans start settling the Pampas; six million by 1930. 1877 First refrigerated ship starts frozen beef trade to Europe. 1878–1883 War against Pampas Amerindians (almost exterminated). 1916 Hipólito Yrigoyen wins first democratic presidential elections. 1930 Military coup. 1943 New military coup. Gen. Juan Perón organizes trade unions. 1946 Perón elected president, with military and labor backing. 1952 Eva Perón, charismatic wife of Juan Perón, dies of leukemia. 1955 Military coup ousts Perón: inflation, strikes, unemployment. 1973 Perón reelected president. 1974 Perón dies; succeeded by his third wife “Isabelita,” who is unable to exercise control. 1976 Military junta seizes power. Political parties are banned. Brutal repression during “dirty war” sees “disappearance” of over 15,000 “left-wing suspects.” 1981 Gen. Galtieri president. 1982 Galtieri orders invasion of Falkland Islands. UK retakes them. 1983 Pro-human rights candidate Raúl Alfonsín (UCR) elected president. Hyperinflation. 1989 Carlos Menem (Peronist) president. 1992 Inflation down to 25%. 1998–1999 Argentina battered by Brazilian financial crisis. Economy enters recession. 1999 Fernando de la Rúa of UCR– Frepaso alliance elected president. 2001 December, Government is brought down by economic crisis. 2002 January, Eduardo Duhalde becomes fifth president in 12 days. 2003 Néstor Kirchner president by default after Menem pulls out of poll.
.
No compulsory military service
ARGENTINIAN ARMED FORCES
CHRONOLOGY The Spanish first established settlements in the Andean foothills in 1543. The indigenous Amerindians, who had stopped any Inca advance into their territory, also prevented the Spaniards from settling in the east until the 1590s.
†
2002
it to the US dollar) and on a combination of neoliberal reforms and privatization. Argentina rode out the Mexican crisis of 1995, but was hit by damage to foreign investor confidence and a shrinking Brazilian market in 1998–1999. Regional recession in 2001 brought economic crisis, and the world’s largest default on international debt. Agricultural exports and consumer spending were the base for a rapid revival, with GDP growing by 8.4% in 2003 but inflation soaring.
STRENGTHS Rich agricultural base. Powerful agribusiness (mainly wheat, soybean, beef, fruit, and wine) and wealth of energy resources. Net exporter of oil. Weakened peso boosted exports.
ARGENTINA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Salta
San Salvador de Jujuy Corrientes
Córdoba Santa Fé
WEAKNESSES Vulnerability to external shocks, downturns in Brazil (largest single export market). Heavy debts, public and private, to refinance. Weak banking sector. Global fluctuations in prices of vital non-oil commodities. Energy shortages. High unemployment and risk of unrest. Endemic tax evasion. Subsidies and trade barriers bar agricultural produce from US and EU.
Mendoza Buenos A i r e s
Wine Textiles Agribusiness
Viedma
Tobacco Vehicle assembly Light engineering
PROFILE The “miracle” recovery of the 1990s was based on stabilizing the peso (by pegging
Metals Oranges
Cattle/Meat packing 0 0
400 km 400 miles
Heavy engineering * significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ARGENTINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
924,662 tonnes
793,000 b/d (reserves 3.2bn barrels)
50.9m cattle, 12.4m sheep, 4.3m pigs, 111m chickens
Oil, natural gas, coal, iron, zinc, lead, uranium, tin, silver, copper, gold
ARGENTINA : LAND USE Cropland
E
Pasture Forest Wetlands
ELECTRICITY GENERATION D
High mountain regions Wheat - cash crop
S A
Hydro 32% (29bn kWh)
P
Cattle
Nuclear 7% (6.2bn kWh)
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Oil and gas are now major exports; reserves are increasingly being exploited. Copper and gold mining are
ENVIRONMENT
/
7% (2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 15th
Yes
Yes
400 miles
0
†
CRIME
3.9 tonnes per capita
33,007 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
400 km
just taking off. Wheat, maize, and oilseeds drive agricultural exports rather than trade in beef, which has stagnated, beef’s image having been weakened as a result of foot-andmouth disease.
A
Other 0% 0
0
P A M
N
Combustion 61% (54bn kWh)
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Yes
Yes
MEDIA
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
145 per 1000 population
Health 5.1% 0
9
per 100,000 population
602
per 100,000 population
Economic collapse has led to increased violent crime and kidnapping. Ordinary people have responded by buying more guns. The judiciary and police command little respect. Overcrowded prisons lead to frequent riots, and criminal cases can take over a year to reach court.
†
EDUCATION 97%
School leaving age: 14
1.6m students
15 stations owned by provincial or national authorities, 29 independent channels 122 stations: 37 state-controlled, 4 provincial, 3 university-run, 3 municipal, and 75 independent
Many journalists were murdered by the military in the 1970s, but the press was liberated under the UCR (1983–1989) and harries governments, especially on corruption. Intimidation can still occur, especially of investigative journalists. The Internet had reached over 10% of the population by 2001.
100
% of each age group in education
There are 181 daily newspapers. Clarín and Crónica are market leaders
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
219 per 1000 population
Education 4.6%
per 100,000 population
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 56 per 1000 people
GDP/cap. increase
Defense 1.4%
Thefts
Environmental protection has low governmental priority. Legislation is weak and largely ignored by states, which retain a good deal of autonomy. Political parties typically shy away from the level of public spending needed to tackle major environmental problems, and a corrupt judiciary has meant poor enforcement of existing laws. Key problems are hazardous waste, poor urban water and air quality, inadequate sewerage, pesticide contamination due to agribusiness, deforestation, and illegal hunting.
†
SPENDING
Up 61% in 2000–2001
Rapes Yes
Cancers, heart diseases, accidents
There are more than 1000 staterun hospitals, but free state provision suffers from underfunding, poorly paid staff, and long queues. Governmentsponsored vaccination programs, mother-and-child schemes, feeding programs, and rural health projects barely tackle such problems as malnutrition, lack of decent sanitation, and threadbare medical cover in the poorest provinces. A health care deregulation bill was decreed in 2001 to dismantle the trade unions’ monopoly of health insurance schemes.
Murders 8
A
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 370 people
CRIME RATES Yes
†
HEALTH
Electric power 23.7m kW
S
†
RESOURCES
80
Members of the wealthy elite, who travel in private jets to estancias (country estates), vacation in Europe and the US, and hold dollar accounts offshore to avoid tax, escaped the worst of the economic collapse in 2001–2002. Middle-income groups, squeezed after years of free-market reforms, lost out in the crisis which forced some 15 million below the poverty line, with four million in extreme poverty. Emergency government aid offered in 2002 to one million unemployed people with children under 18 was at a level below half the legal minimum salary. The precrisis figure of some 40% of workers in the low-wage black economy was set to balloon. Millions of cashless and poor people resorted to exchanging goods at barter clubs.
WORLD RANKING
60
100%
100%
Position in World 1st
40
57% 20
0
50th
34 Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
100th
57 $4220
Public schooling is free and compulsory to the age of 14. Huge numbers of poor students drop out of the system near or after this age. Middle-class students began to enter the public system en masse as the economy faltered, forcing thousands of private schools to close. There are more private universities than state-run institutions.
50 74 years
63 97%
60 16 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
97
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A
ARMENIA
Europe
EUROPE Georgia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Armenia CAPITAL: Yerevan POPULATION: 3.1 million CURRENCY: Dram OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Armenian 1991
Azerbaijan
ARMENIA Turkey
1991
Sept 21
ARM
+4
I r a n
.am
+374
L
ANDLOCKED IN THE Lesser Caucasus mountains, Armenia is the smallest of the former Soviet republics. It was the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion, early in the 4th century. Keen to deepen links with the rest of the CIS, Armenia has kept to a path of radical economic reform, including privatization. The confrontation with Azerbaijan over the exclave of Nagorno Karabakh has dominated national life since 1988.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR YEREVAN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Mountain
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
104/km2 (269/mi2)
Armenian, Azeri, Russian
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
67%
AT THE LAST ELECTION
33%
8% 4% ARF–D ULP
National Assembly 131 seats
Other 2% Russian 2%
-10/14
Multiparty elections
President Robert Kocharian
2003/2007
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
Landscape near Yerevan. Armenia’s very dry climate results in expanses of semidesert. Its famous vineyards flourish in sheltered areas.
Pop. density medium
Azeri 3%
-20/-4
27% Ind
Armenia has a continental climate, with little rainfall in the lowlands. Winters can be very cold.
TRANSPORTATION Zvartnots, Yerevan 881,920 passengers
†
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 15,281 km (9495 miles)
7527 km (4677 miles)
711 km (442 miles)
None
A
Z
R
zd
E
Visitors : Population 1:19
R
K
na
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
B
h Lic
Up 31% in 2002
E
/
162,089 visitors
A multiparty democracy since 1991, Armenia held its first legislative elections in 1995. The war with Azerbaijan, over the separatist ambitions of the Armenian exclave of Nagorno Karabakh (inside Azerbaijan), has simmered since a 1994 cease-fire. Levon Ter-Petrossian, the country’s first president, resigned in 1998 after parliament opposed his A softer line in search of peace. He was G I R O G E succeeded by Robert Kocharian, Noyemberyan a former premier and ex-governor Tashir Alaverdi AZERBAIJAN of Nagorno Karabakh. In 1999, ENCLAVES Ashots’k’ Step’anavan RPA prime minister Vazgen Amasia Ijevan Vanadzor Sarkissian was shot dead in a Berd Spitak Gyumri dramatic attack in parliament. Akhuryan Artsvashen Dilijan He was succeeded first by Aparan Art’ik his brother Aram, then Sevan Maralik SH an Aragats Lerr Se in 2000 by Andranik AK a v r Hrazdan a 4090m T'alin H H -D Markarian. Kocharian Ch’arents’avan Kamo AG Tsaghkahovit was reelected in a Abovyan Ashtarak G Nor E disputed ballot Baghramyan Ejmiatsin Hachn G H Vardenis AM in early 2003. His YEREVAN Martuni A Armavir Aras LE authoritarian rule Masis Artashat RR NA Vedi has provoked Ararat Yeghegnadzor S H G HT large-scale Jermuk RMENIA 'A protests. Vayk’ Total Area : 29 800 sq. km ’a
U
†
TOURISM
Minority nationalities are well integrated in Armenia. There are strong contacts with the many Armenian emigrants, numbering over seven million, living principally in the US, France, and Syria. Conflict with Azerbaijan forced the repatriation of 350,000 Armenians and 200,000 Azeris. The small Russian population is centered in Yerevan.
T
Fuel prices are high due to a blockade imposed by neighboring Azerbaijan. Road and rail links with Georgia, connecting with the main east–west corridor, need upgrading.
A
Y
I
CIS 33% USA 15%
A
Other 41%
(11 506 sq. miles) 50
The 1700th anniversary of Armenian Christianity in 2001 boosted the war-damaged tourist industry. Most visitors are diaspora Armenians.
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Sisian
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft
R
Z
B
A
I
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
Ara s
oro n ta
K’ajaran
A
N
Goris
N Kapan
500m/1640ft
I 98
J
V
E NG RA UR EZ G AN
% of total arrivals
60
Meghri
R
N
40
A
30
E
20
Ar p
Z
10
J
Iran 11%
A
0
7% NU
Ind = Independents RPA = Republican Party of Armenia LBS = Law-based State J = Justice Bloc ARF–D = Armenian Revolutionary Federation–Dashnaktsutyun NU = National Unity ULP = United Labor Party
Armenian 93%
Drive on right
14% 13% J LBS
27% RPA
0
N
A
0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ARMENIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS BSEC
CIS
EAPC
CE
OSCE
Continuing tension with Azerbaijan is diplomatically damaging; a Turkish trade embargo has been in place since
†
AID
/
Up 48% in 2002
Expatriates such as US billionaire Kirk Kerkorian are a major source of funds. Control of utilities has passed to Russia in lieu of debt payments.
DEFENSE $615m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
Fresh peace talks on Nagorno Karabakh, which were held in 1999–2000, proved to be inconclusive. Armenia receives military aid both from Russia, which stations a division in the country, and the NATO alliance, which staged war games in Armenia in 2003. The army includes conscripts on 24-month national service.
ECONOMICS $2.43bn
CHRONOLOGY
1988. Armenia joined the Council of Europe in 2001, but faces criticism for imprisoning, among others, Jehovah’s Witnesses who refuse military service on religious grounds. It became a member of the WTO in 2003.
†
Inflation 172% p.a. (1990–2001)
533 drams (558.1)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................136th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$790 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$148m INFLATION .........................................1.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
Electric power 3m kW
2197 tonnes
Not an oil producer
552,538 sheep, 514,200 cattle, 3.31m chickens
Copper, salt, molybdenum, silver, gold
Energy resources are negligible; EU funds to develop alternative energy sources depend on the closure of the sole nuclear power plant. Vegetables and fruit are grown in fertile lowlands, and grains in the hills; agriculture accounts for over a fifth of GDP.
ENVIRONMENT
.
8%
†
Sustainability rank: 38th
†
MEDIA
Armenia lost its autonomy in the 14th century. In 1639, Turkey took the west and Persia the east; Persia ceded its part to Russia in 1828. 1877–1878 Massacre of Armenians during Russo-Turkish war. 1915 Ottomans exile 1.75 million Turkish Armenians; most die. 1920 Independence. 1922 Becomes a Soviet republic. 1988 Earthquake kills 25,000. Conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno Karabakh begins. 1991 Independence from USSR. 1994 Cease-fire with Azerbaijan. 1995 First parliamentary elections. 1998 Kocharian elected president. 1999 Prime minister assassinated. 2003 Kocharian reelected.
TV ownership medium
†
1 state-controlled service, several independent stations
Death penalty not used in practice
Corruption. Energy, raw materials, and semifinished goods need to be imported. High unemployment.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Reforms to the legal system introduced in 1999 included the replacement of the Supreme Court by an appeals court. Assassinations of political figures are common.
USA 8% Iran 11% Other 28% Russia 15%
Belgium 22%
Israel 16%
4343 prisoners
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Israel 10% Other 43%
99%
1 per 1000 population
Belgium 11%
143 per 1000 population
Education 3.2% Health 3.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The richest Armenian people are those living away from Armenia itself, particularly in the US and France. The many refugees from Baku, Azerbaijan, are the poorest.
WORLD RANKING
Up 42% in 2000–2002
Position in World 1st
†
School leaving age: 17
99%
42 100th
75 years
82 101
150th
127 193rd
The education system, previously conforming to that of the USSR, now emphasizes Armenian history and culture. One in eight adults have received higher education.
1
50th
68,704 students
Iran 10%
Russia 12% USA 14%
/
GDP/cap. decrease
Defense 6.4%
Numerous TV and broadcasting stations assist media freedom. Independent journals and newspapers depend on the government-controlled paper industry.
WEAKNESSES
†
SPENDING CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
There are 12 daily newspapers, including Azg, Haiastan, and Ankakhutiun
Strong ties with Armenian emigrants. Deposits of rare metals, currently unexploited. Machine building and manufacturing – includes textiles and bottling mineral water. Development of private sector.
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers
The well-developed network of hospitals and clinics is concentrated in urban areas. Primary health care is still free but it is often necessary to pay for nonbasic medication.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
1 state-controlled service, several independent stations
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 328 people
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
†
HEALTH
1.1 tonnes per capita
Environmental groups, backed by the EU, demand the closure of the Medzamor nuclear power plant, declared unsafe after the 1988 earthquake, but reopened in 1995 owing to the energy crisis. HEP generation near Lake Sevan has seriously lowered its water level.
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$293m (receipts)
A
Joined UN in 1992
30 deaths
$790
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
99
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
A
AUSTRALIA
Ind o n esia
Papua New Guinea
A UST R A L IA
1901
Jan 26
+8 to +11
AUS
Australia New Zealand
OFFICIAL NAME: Commonwealth of Australia CAPITAL: Canberra POPULATION: 19.7 million CURRENCY: Australian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1901
Pacific Ocean
AUSTRALASIA
.au
+61
T
HE WORLD’S SIXTH-LARGEST country, Australia is an island continent located between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Its varied landscapes include tropical rainforests, the deserts of the arid “red center,” snowcapped mountains, rolling tracts of pastoral land, and magnificent beaches. Famous natural features include Uluru (Ayers Rock) and the Great Barrier Reef, while Sydney boasts the world-renowned Opera House. Most Australians live on the coast, and all the state capitals are coastal cities. Only Canberra, the national capital, lies inland. The vast interior is dotted with large nature reserves and some communities of the small Aboriginal population.
CLIMATE
†
Hot deser t/steppe/ tropical/Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR CANBERRA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
,
4.42m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Visitors : Population 1:4.5 Little change in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
New Zealand 16%
20/68
20/8
Japan 15%
10/50
10/4
UK 13%
0
0/32
USA 9%
-10/14
Singapore 6%
-20/-4
Uluru (Ayers Rock), Northern Territory. The renaming of Ayers Rock reflects growing Aboriginal influence on Australian culture.
The mid-1980s saw a phenomenal boom; tourist arrivals almost tripled TIMOR in five years to reach two million in SEA 1990. Even though growth slowed during the early 1990s, the Bonaparte number of visitors reached Archipelago almost five million in 2000, boosted greatly by the celebrated Sydney Kimberley Olympic Games. Derby Plateau
Broome
Other 41%
The interior, west, and south are arid or semiarid and very hot in summer; central desert temperatures can reach 50°C (122°F). The north, around Darwin and Cape York Peninsula, is hot all year and humid during the summer monsoon. Only the east and southeast, within 400 km (250 miles) of the coast, and the southwest, around Perth, are temperate: most Australians live in these areas.
TRANSPORTATION Kingsford Smith, Sydney 24.7m passengers
†
Drive on left
624 ships 1.86m gr t
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 18,619 km (11,569 miles)
9514 km (5912 miles)
8368 km (5200 miles)
20
30
40
50
I
60
Tourism is now one of Australia’s largest single foreign exchange earners. Many tourists have been attracted by faster, cheaper air travel and highly successful marketing campaigns, by both the national and state governments. The focus during the 1990s on drawing tourists from nearby Asian countries left the Australian tourist industry vulnerable after the Asian financial crisis of 1997–1998. In recent years New Zealanders have surpassed the Japanese as the largest category of visitors to Australia. However, tourists from southeast Asia continue to arrive in significant numbers. The country’s many attractions include wildlife, swimming and surfing off Pacific and Indian Ocean beaches, skin diving along the Great Barrier Reef, and skiing in the Australian Alps. Uluru, Aboriginal culture, and the town of Alice Springs are among the outback’s attractions. The far north has tropical resorts, the northwest, pearl fishing. Visitors are also attracted by the vineyards of the south and southeast, the cultural life of Melbourne and Sydney, and the arts festivals held in state capitals. Sydney’s famous landmarks and cosmopolitan feel, as well as the world-renowned Bondi Beach, make it a favorite.
N O
D C
I E
A
N
A
N GREAT SANDY
Port Hedland
DESERT Onslow
Ha m
ers ley R
Paraburdoo
W
an g
E
S
T
E
R
N
GIBSON DES ERT
Lake Macleod
A
Carnarvon Shark Bay
U
Dirk Hartog Island
S
T
R
A
Meekatharra
L
I
A
Lake Carnegie
Mount Magnet
G REAT Geraldton Kalgoorlie
Moora
Perth Fremantle Rockingham
Merredin Northam
N Norseman
Esperance Wagin Bunbury Collie Ravensthorpe Bridgetown Cape Leeuwin Manjimup Albany
AUSTRALIA Total Area : 7 686 850 sq. km (2 967 893 sq. miles)
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level -200m/-656ft
100
Lake Disappointment
Newman
e
e ng ling R a
Air transportation is well developed and vital to Australia’s sparsely populated center and west. Sydney suffers from air congestion, but proposals for a second airport to service the city remain controversial. Most long-distance freight travels in massive trucks known as “road trains,” though the long-planned rail link between Adelaide and Darwin, which opened in 2004, is expected to carry significant loads from north to south. Improvements in urban transportation are a priority.
10
% of total arrivals
Dar
329,100 km (204,493 miles)
0
u
l l
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AUSTRALIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
A
Pop. density low
including many Chinese – who then settled in the cities, especially Melbourne and Sydney. The federal government, THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT installed in 1901, aimed to block nonEuropean immigration through the Immigration Restriction Act. The act, known as the “White Australia” 91% 9% policy, was in force until 1958, while The first settlers arrived in Australia at immigration drives after World War least 100,000 years ago. Their modern II brought many more British, Italian, descendants, the Aborigines, today and Greek settlers to Australia. make up less than 3% of the The White Australia policy population. European settlement was officially ended during the began in 1788 and was dominated by controversial 1972–1975 administration British and Irish immigrants – some of ALP prime minister Gough Whitlam. of whom were convicts – until the Ever since, up to 50% of PAPUA NEW GUINEA gold rushes of the 1850s attracted immigrants each year people of other nationalities – have come from Asia, transforming Australia ARAFURA SEA into a multicultural society T o r r e s S t r a it Melville in which immigrant groups Bamaga Cape Island Wessel York Bathurst are encouraged to Islands Island maintain connections Darwin Cape with their own cultures York Joseph Gulf of Arnham Land and languages. Peninsula Bonaparte Groote Eylandt Gulf Aborigines, Katherine Carpentaria who number Sir Edward Pellew around Wyndham Group Cooktown i tc 410,000, he ll Wellesley are the Lake B Islands a English, Italian, Cantonese, Greek, Arabic, Vietnamese, Aboriginal languages
3/km2 (7/mi2)
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other Protestant 6% United Church 8%
Roman Catholic 26%
Nonreligious 13%
Anglican 24%
Other 23%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Aboriginal and other 3%
Asian 5%
European 92%
G
exception in an otherwise integrated society. Economically and socially marginalized, they face considerable discrimination. Until the mid-1960s, they were denied the vote and full social benefits. Their land had been occupied as terra nullius – land belonging to no one. Since the 1970s, Aborigines have made a more organized stand on land and civil rights. Native title to land was recognized in the 1993 Native Title Act (NTA), which followed the landmark “Mabo Judgment,” Argyle rk Cairns though controversies continue over ly Karumba T the pace of its application under the a Halls Creek b TANAMI le Liberal–National administration. The la n DESERT government has since amended the d Tennant Creek A Townsville NTA, while some courts have favored N O R T H E R N modern leaseholders; the government’s Hughenden E Mount Isa position was effectively summarized by Cloncurry E T E R R I T O R Y Mackay Lake the court in the Yorta Yorta case when Mackay Winton F it ruled in 1999 that native title in Ma es that instance had been “washed cdonnell Rang Longreach Alice Springs away” by the “tide of history.” Emerald Rockhampton Q U E E N S L A N D Civil rights campaigns have Great Artesian Basin also had to focus on areas such Bundaberg as health, housing, and SIMPSON Fraser I. Uluru Birdsville (Ayers Rock) E Maryborough education. Average life Charleville DESERT Gympie expectancy for Aborigines is S O U T H still 20 years lower than the Brisbane Toowoomba Cunnamulla rest of the population while Lake Gold Coast Ipswich Eyre Surfers Paradise alcoholism is a pervasive A U S T R A L I A Lismore problem both in towns and V I CTORIA DES ER T Moree rural areas. Aborigines in Bourke Grafton Lake ng Lake urban areas may be relatively rli Torrens Armidale Da Frome Coffs Harbour P l a i n better housed but face particular N E W S O U T H o r Lake Broken Hill r b Tamworth Port Macquarie Gairdner problems in asserting their a Port Augusta Dubbo Taree cultural identity. Discrimination T W A L E S Whyalla A Maitland is most prevalent in more E Orange R Port Pirie Newcastle n Great Australian a l G Gosford conservative states such as ch Bathurst Mildura La Eyre Elizabeth Lithgow Bight Sydney Queensland, which in fact has Peninsula M urrumb Griffith id Adelaide ge Goulburn Port Lincoln e the largest Aboriginal population. Wollongong R
E
A
T
B
C
O
A
M
R
R
A
R
L
I
S
E
E
R
T E A G R
d Fli n
er
s
R
D
S
I V
O
I D
I
G
U
N
T H
R
A
G
IV
ID
Flinders
IN
Rang
es
Gre y
RAN
R
GE
a
n
g
e
P A C I F I C
Cooper
G
Cre ek
N
D
O
C
Gu lf
E
pe
N
M
Shepparton
Horsham Mount Gambier
Bendigo Ballarat
Warrnambool 0 0
400 km 400 miles
Wagga Wagga Albury
V I C T O R I A urray
Queanbeyan
CANBERRA
Mount Kosciuszko Wangaratta s 2228m lp A n a Australi
Melbourne
Traralgon Moe Sale Geelong Morwell
Ba ss S trait King I.
Fur ne aux G r oup
Ulverstone Devonport
Cape Howe
Flinders I.
Burnie Launceston
N
nce r
A
S
Kangaroo I.
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
AUST. CAPITAL TERRITORY
TASMAN
Age
Female 1.9% 7%
SEA
13.1% 14.8% 13.3%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 1.1% 6.5% 13.3% 15% 14%
% of population by age group
TASMANIA Hobart
101
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A CHRONOLOGY Dutch, Portuguese, French, and – decisively – British incursions throughout the 17th and 18th centuries signaled the end of millennia of Aboriginal isolation. Governor Arthur Philip raised the British Union Flag at Sydney Cove on January 26, 1788. 1901 Inauguration of Commonwealth of Australia. 1915 Australian troops suffer heavy casualties at Gallipoli. 1939 Prime Minister Robert Menzies announces Australia will follow UK into war with Germany. 1942 Fall of Singapore to Japanese army. Japanese invasion of Australia seems imminent. Government turns to US for help. 1950 Australian troops committed to UN/US Korean War against North Korean communists. 1962 Menzies government commits Australian aid to war in Vietnam. 1966 Adopts decimal currency. 1972 Whitlam government elected. Aid to South Vietnam ceases. 1975 Whitlam government dismissed by Governor-General Sir John Kerr. Malcolm Fraser forms coalition government. 1983 Bob Hawke becomes prime minister of ALP administration. 1985 Corporate boom followed by deepening recession. 1992 Paul Keating defeats Hawke in leadership vote, becomes prime minister; announces “Turning toward Asia” policy. High Court’s “Mabo Judgment” recognizes Aboriginal land rights. 1993 Against most predictions, Keating’s ALP government reelected. Native Title Act provides compensation for Aboriginal rights extinguished by existing land title. 1996 Liberal John Howard prime minister. Shooting of 35 people in Tasmania prompts tightening of gun control laws. First death under Northern Territory’s controversial euthanasia legislation; legislation later overruled at federal level. 1998 Elections: Howard’s Liberal and National coalition retains power with reduced majority; fears of right-wing One Nation party breakthrough prove unfounded. 1999 Referendum rejects proposals to replace monarch as head of state by indirectly elected president. 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney. 2001 Surprise reelection of Liberal–National coalition. 2002 Bali bomb kills 88 Australians. 2003 Governor-general resigns amid church child abuse scandal.
102
POLITICS L. House 2001/2004 U. House 2001/2004
†
Multipar ty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 150 seats
45% LP
43% ALP
2% Ind
9% 1% NP CLP
LP = Liberal Party ALP = Australian Labor Party NP = National Party Ind = Independents CLP = County–Liberal Party AD = Australian Democrats G = Greens
5% Others
Senate 76 seats
45% LP–NP
37% ALP
10% 3% AD G
12 seats in the Senate are apportioned to each of the country's constituent states and two each to the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory
Australia is a parliamentary democracy on the British model, incorporating a federal structure. There is a federal government, six state governments, and two self-governing territories.
PROFILE The ALP and the Liberal and National parties have dominated Australian politics since 1945. The last two, politically to the right, work together in coalition and broadly represent big business and agricultural interests. The ALP gained some of this support in the 1980s, adopting free-market policies and blurring the differences between parties, but 13 years of ALP rule ended in 1996, when a Liberal– National coalition took office under John Howard. It has retained power in elections since then, but with a much reduced majority.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Political leadership The election success of Prime Minister Howard in the 2001 polls took political analysts by surprise. It had been expected that the state of the economy and Howard’s own unpopularity would be enough to guarantee victory for the ALP. Howard was saved in part by a successful campaign which capitalized on the two greatest fears of late 2001 – the apparent increase in the number of illegal immigrants and the specter of international terrorism – but also by the even lower popularity rating of his main adversary, the ALP’s Kim Beazley. Despite clear grassroots support for the ALP – as attested in early 2002 when it took control of all regional governments – it has been unable to build on deep opposition to Howard’s conservative policies, notably its commitment to the war on Iraq in 2003. Instead it is mired in factional infighting, and has had three leaders since 2001. The party hopes that the
Vineyards in South Australia. Winemaking has been one of Australia’s greatest agricultural success stories in recent years.
notably outspoken Mark Latham will revive its fortunes. For his part, Howard glossed over previous hints that he would retire in 2003, having reached 64 years of age, and has remained at the Liberal helm. Immigration There is considerable concern at images of boatloads of would-be immigrants entering Australian waters and the dramatic attempts by asylum seekers to protest over the conditions in which they are housed. The Howard government has actively courted mistrust of refugees, focusing on “unacceptable” behavior. Its allegations that immigrants had thrown children overboard in an effort to secure asylum were proved groundless in 2002, and its notorious “Pacific solution” – using tiny Pacific states to house asylum applicants in exchange for aid – has been roundly criticized by the international community. Rightward drift The acceptance of right-wing policies in the political mainstream has been aided by the local success of the farright xenophobic One Nation party. Even the ALP has conspicuously toned down its support for immigration and embraced market economics.
Governor-General Michael Jeffrey. His predecessor resigned amid scandal in 2003.
John Howard, leader of the LP, was elected prime minister in 1996.
Mark Latham, leader of the ALP since 2003.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AUSTRALIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
PC
Comm
Joined UN in 1945
OECD
/
Up 13% in 2002
Australia spent only 0.26% of its GNP on aid programs in 2002. Nearly all is spent in the southeast Asia–Pacific region, the recipient of by far the most being Papua New Guinea, where Australian companies have major mining operations. The main focus in the Pacific region is on security. Trade barriers were dropped for 50 developing countries in 2002.
/
A
No compulsor y militar y ser vice Up 10% in 2002
AUSTRALIAN ARMED FORCES
Strategic ties with the US remain key: Australia committed 2000 troops to the Iraq invasion in 2003, its largest deployment since the Vietnam War. Australia sees itself as a major regional power, and in 2004 announced plans to spend US$320 million on long-range land-attack cruise missiles, drawing criticism from neighbors. Combating terrorism, especially in the Pacific region, has become a priority.
ECONOMICS US$384bn
†
6 submarines, 11 frigates, and 15 patrol boats
12,850 personnel
161 combat aircraft (35 F-111, 71 F/A-18)
14,200 personnel
Inflation 1.7% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.44 Australian dollars (1.491)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................14th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$19,530 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..............–US$17.9bn INFLATION ............................................3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
EXPORTS
China 7%
26,600 personnel
None
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
101 main battle tanks (71 Leopard 1A3)
New Zealand 7%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
Donor
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
US$989m (donations)
†
US$7.55bn
PIF
Geopolitically Australia is in an ambiguous position. Isolated from its historic cultural and economic relatives in Europe and North America, it is seen as a Western outsider by the Asian states with which it has sought closer links. It views the US and EU as its main rivals in the lucrative Asian marketplace. As membership of the EU eroded the UK’s trade links with Australia, there was a determined effort in the 1990s to “turn toward Asia.” Trade and aid ties were developed, though market liberalization slowed after the 1997–1998 Asian financial crisis. Building on its role as the leading power in the south Pacific, Australia has championed the development of APEC (established in 1989) as a regional trading bloc. In order to boost stability, it has also made regional security a priority. In 1999 it led peacekeeping efforts in East Timor, and it played a pivotal role in securing peace in the Solomon Islands in 2000. In 2003 it pushed the concept of “cooperative intervention,” particularly in relation to the Solomons, where it led a regional policing mission in an effort to restore law and order. A serious concern since 2001 has been the perceived threat to Australian nationals from Islamist terrorists, highlighted by the Bali bombing in October 2002. To this end it has sought close cooperation from its neighbors and has strengthened ties with the US. In 2003 it agreed to participate in the US national missile defense project, and later, in a deeply unpopular move, supplied troops for the invasion of Iraq – though Australian soldiers are not involved in the reconstruction effort there. Prime Minister Howard has even backed the idea of preemptive strikes against terrorists and their supporters. Australia has been strongly criticized for its treatment of the Aboriginal population and asylum seekers. The “Pacific Solution” to the immigration problem, adopted in late 2001, received international condemnation.
AID
DEFENSE
2002
South Korea 8%
WEAKNESSES
Other 50%
USA 10% Japan 18%
IMPORTS
UK 5%
Germany 6% China 10%
Other 49%
Japan 12%
Political and financial instability in export markets in southeast Asia. Competition from Asian economies with lower wage rates and less stringent working conditions. EU and NAFTA protectionist policies may hinder Australian exports. Balance-ofpayments deficit.
PROFILE Australian companies concentrated during the 1990s on the Asian market, STRENGTHS which grew to take 60% of Australia’s trade. They were hit hard when the 1997 Efficient agricultural and mining Asian financial crisis tipped the region industries. Viticulture. Vast mineral into recession. Japan remains the key deposits. Highly profitable tourist export partner. In order to compete in industry; record of dramatic growth. Asia, the economy has been undergoing Good history regarding both economic massive structural adjustment. The growth and inflation. Budget surplus. Howard government, like its ALP predecessor, has been dismantling AUSTRALIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Nhulunbuy the tariffs that had made Vehicle manufacture Australia one of the OECD’s Heavy engineering Weipa most protected economies. Bauxite mining Coal mining Unemployment and the Gold mining collapse of many Tennant Creek Electronics businesses have Computers resulted. However, Metallurgy recovery has been Brewing quick, with positive Brisbane Chemicals growth and lower unemployment Sydney in 2002, though * * Perth progress was Kalgoorlie Canberra * * hampered in 2003 Adelaide * * * by serious drought Melbourne * * * and the global SARS 0 400 km Hobart epidemic. 0 400 miles * significant multinational ownership USA 18%
103
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 44.2m kW
†
CRIME
236,282 tonnes
624,000 b/d (reser ves 4.4bn barrels)
98.2m sheep, 27.2m cattle, 94m chickens
Coal, iron, bauxite, zinc, lead, copper, nickel, oil, opals, gold,
22,492 prisoners
Rapes
Rape statistics are unavailable Thefts
Nuclear 0% Other 0% 40
60
100
80
Green Island in the far north of Queensland. It is part of the Great Barrier Reef which stretches 1995 km (1240 miles) down the coast.
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
/
13% (7% par tially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 16th
18 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Australia boasts a number of unique wildlife species, including the egglaying duck-billed platypus and the iconic koala and kangaroo. Many native species have been adversely affected by the arrival of introduced species such as the dingo and the rabbit. The world famous Great Barrier Reef is at risk from rising sea temperatures. Fishing was banned in 2004 in one-third of the area of the reef, creating the world’s largest marine reserve. Despite a high degree of public awareness, green issues are dominated by NGOs such as Greenpeace, while the government has been criticized for favoring business and industry.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 293 per 1000 people
E
2 state-owned services, 44 independent commercial stations
Mu
g lin
DI
ar
rra y
AT
D
RE
GREAT VICTORIA DESERT
VIDI N G RAN
G
GIBSON DESERT
Cropland Pasture Forest Wetlands Desert Wheat - cash crop Sheep Cattle
0 0
500 km 500 miles
per 100,000 population
Each state has its own police force and court system. The High Court and Family Court both have national jurisdiction. Since the 1970s, the legal system has been placing greater emphasis on individual rights. The disproportionate number of Aboriginal deaths in custody is of concern, as are rising narcotics-related offenses. Australia is active in narcotics control throughout southeast Asia. Increasingly strict gun laws helped to halve the number of gun-related deaths over the course of the 1990s. In 1997 the Wood inquiry uncovered widespread police corruption in New South Wales and led to sweeping reforms.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 15/16
845,132 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
80
60
100%
100%
40
65% 20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 65 daily newspapers, mostly state circulation. The leading papers are the Sydney Morning Herald and The Australian
AUSTRALIA : LAND USE
6653
% of each age group in education
Australia has one of the world’s most important mining industries. It is a major exporter of coal, iron ore, gold, bauxite, and copper, and is selfsufficient in all minerals bar petroleum. Since the first discoveries of coal in 1798, mineral production has risen every year; in the decade to 1992 it doubled. The share of minerals in the total economy is expected to continue growing, but, having benefited from Australia’s location close to the markets of southeast Asia, it was left vulnerable following the regional crisis of 1997. While minerals underpin much of Australia’s wealth, there is growing concern at the environmental cost of extraction. There is also ongoing uncertainty over the possibility of Aboriginal claims to land holding valuable minerals. The 1992 “Mabo Judgment” recognized Aboriginal land rights predating European settlement, and was backed by later judgments, but legislation passed by the government in 1998, in deference to powerful mining interests, cut back Aborigines’ rights to make such claims, and in 2002 the High Court ruled that land rights did not apply to minerals beneath the ground. Viticulture is increasingly important and Australia is now the world’s fourth-largest wine exporter, principally to the UK.
104
Up 3% in 2001
per 100,000 population
Combustion 92% (191bn kWh)
20
/
Murders 2
Hydro 8% (17bn kWh)
0
No death penalty
CRIME RATES
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
G
A
6 state-owned networks, 166 independent commercial stations
The printed press is firmly in the grip of “barons” such as Rupert Murdoch and Kerry Packer: four companies own 80% of papers. Private stations overshadow the state-funded Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). A 2002 High Court ruling enables Australians to sue foreignbased websites for defamation, on the basis that they can be read in Australia.
Education in Australia is a state responsibility, except in Canberra (where it is funded by the federal government). State education departments run the government schools and set the policies for educational practice and standards for all schools. Nongovernment schools, run by religious and other groups, exist in all states. Special provision is made for inaccessible outback areas, modern technologies bringing teaching to the bush. Schooling is compulsory from age 5–6 to age 15–16 in all states. After their final year at school, students sit for the Higher School Certificate (HSC). Universities are independent of state control and are funded by the federal government.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AUSTRALIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
POLICEMAN OF THE PACIFIC
A
USTRALIA’S FOREIGN
policy has had to come to terms with the country’s anomalous situation. Long seen as an outpost of the West in the East, it also belongs on the “global north” side of the developed–developing North–South divide, despite being located in the Southern Hemisphere between Asia and the South Pacific. After years of sticking closely to the UK, placing it at risk of invasion from Japan during World War II, Australia set its eyes on the markets of southeast Asia from the 1960s on, and now balances its geographic reality against its cultural heritage.
treatment. It also pulled back the country’s immigration zone in 2001, and eventually settled on the idea of farming out migrants to holding stations on neighboring Pacific islands in return for aid. The so-called “Pacific Solution” was widely criticized around the world, though other immigrant destinations are also now considering “outsourcing” the refugee “sorting” stations.
THE BACKYARD
S
eeking to build a role as the main policing force in the south Pacific region, Australia led the peacekeeping effort in East Timor in 1999. In 2000 when civil conflict in the Solomon Islands escalated, Australia brokered a peace agreement, which nominally ended two years of warfare, but shied away from a longer-term commitment. The situation deteriorated, however, so in 2003 the Australian government convened a multinational taskforce, the Regional Assistance Mission for the Solomon Islands (RAMSI), choosing to maintain the initiative while spreading the burden of action. Meanwhile, Australia’s relative proximity to persecution, war, and poverty in other parts of the region had attracted the attention of those seeking escape to a better life. The “influx” of refugees, growing noticeably in recent years, prompted a panic among the Australian public, goaded by the sight of boatloads of desperate people heading for Australian shores. The government erected detention camps in unwelcoming outback locations to process the asylum applicants, causing many to complain violently at their
Cancers, hear t diseases, accidents
Australia’s extensive public health service has among the highest standards in the world, though hospital waiting lists are lengthening. Outback areas are serviced by the efficient Royal Flying Doctor Service. Vigilance continues in the areas of hygiene, nutrition, and general living standards; current priorities are heart disease, injury prevention, personal fitness, Aboriginal health, and the prevention of cancers. Despite the popular image of Australians as athletic, 21% of over25-year-olds are obese. Government encouragement of private health insurance has raised concerns over public health funding and quality.
†
SPENDING Demonstrators made use of the iconic Sydney Opera House to voice their opposition to Australia’s involvement in the Iraq invasion.
A
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 400 people
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
526 per 1000 population
539 per 1000 population
AUSTRALIA IN THE WORLD Casting its eyes further afield than the immediate backyard, Australia reconnected with its Western roots in the aftermath of the 2001 terrorist attacks on the US, pledging full support for the US “war on terrorism,” and signing up to the US national missile defense system. Australia’s active involvement in the war against the taliban in Afghanistan launched in October 2001 helped precipitate the arrival of significant numbers of Afghan refugees. It also drew down militant Islamist anger on Australia, and the bombing on the Indonesian island of Bali on October 12, 2002, specifically targeted Australian holidaymakers: 88 Australians were among the 202 dead. Perhaps ironically, the outrage served to strengthen support for the tough stance of Prime Minister John Howard. Nonetheless, his decision not only to back, but to fight alongside the US and the UK in the 2003 invasion of Iraq prompted large-scale public anger in Australia; most of the country’s servicemen were quickly withdrawn after the toppling of Saddam Hussein.
Defense 2% Education 4.6% Health 6.2% 0
5
The recent alignment of Australia’s foreign policy with the US is directly linked to the party of power, John Howard’s conservative Liberals. The left-of-center Australian Labor Party, on the other hand, has openly attacked the policies of US Republican president George W. Bush, and has pledged to review Australia’s position in the world if returned to power.
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Australians enjoy a relatively high standard of living. A benign climate and low population density allow for a comfortable life. Most people live in the cities along the southeast coast, in very large suburban areas. Recession in the late 1990s, however, upset the distribution of wealth, and by 2004 one in five people were living in what was defined as poverty, unable to maintain the average standard of living and earning less than the minimum wage. The unemployed, singleparent families, recent immigrants, and Aborigines fare worst.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
7 22 $19,530
Refugees aboard the Norwegian-registered ship, the Tampa. The arrival of the boat in Australian waters in 2001 prompted a hardline response to immigration.
†
HEALTH
79 years
100th
1
3
99%
28 6 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p. 640
105
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
AUSTRIA
EUROPE Czech Rep. Germany AUSTRIA Switz.
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Austria CAPITAL: Vienna POPULATION: 8.1 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: German 1918
1919
Oct 26
A
+1
Italy
YING IN THE HEART OF EUROPE, Austria is dominated by the Alps in the west, while fertile plains make up the east and north. A separate republic after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austria was absorbed into Hitler’s Germany in 1938. It regained independence in 1955 after the departure of the last Soviet troops from the Allied Occupation Force. Its economy encompasses successful high-tech sectors, a tourist industry which attracts wealthier visitors, and a strong agricultural base. Having joined the EU in 1995, in 2002 it was one of 12 EU states to adopt the euro.
Hungary
Slovenia
TOURISM
.at
+43
L
19.1m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 2.4:1
/
Up 3% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Germany 56% Netherlands 7% Italy 5% Switzerland 4% UK 4% Other 24%
†
CLIMATE
0
Mountain/continental
10
20
50
40
30
60
% of total arrivals
WEATHER CHART FOR VIENNA
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
0
-10/14 -20/-4
The Tirol is situated in the heart of Austria’s Alps. It is the most mountainous region of all and attracts both winter and summer visitors.
AUSTRIA
Drive on right
Total Area : 83 858 sq. km (32 378 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT 6 ships 29,900 grt
POPULATION over 500 000
2000m/6562ft
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1644 km (1022 miles)
over 50 000
500m/1640ft
c
0
106
50 km
ta rk Gu
ler
Alpe
Bruck an der Mur
Judenburg
Gailtaler A
Plöcken Pass
Y
n
rk
lpen
Villach
Graz Wolfsberg
Spittal an der Drau Millstätter See
A L
50 miles
un
Möll
Lienz
T
Leoben
r he ac n pe l A
M ur
Großglockner 3797m
Brenner Pass
Kapfenberg
Neusiedler See
itz
Ho he Tauern
D
I 0
Ni
L
Baden
Eisenstadt Neunkirchen
Ra
r Mu
N
n
n
e Tauern ede r
Mödling
Wiener Neustadt
nt
Ö tz t a l e r A l p e
P
L
S
u
A
ns En
Kitzbühel
heler Alpen Kit z b ü
lp e
Ybbs
Liezen burg Alps Salz
G
R
L
Zille
A r t a l er
Steyr ns
va
A
E
N
O
VIENNA
Steirisch-Niederösterr. Kalkalpen Bad Ischl Wolfgangsee
lp e n
n
Klosterneuburg
Sankt Pölten
Amstetten
La
Z
T
Innsbruck R I
In n
Y n Al
pe
Lec h
er
Le
e
r
IT
Sankt Anton am Arlberg
ht
lka
Wels
Stockerau
be
st Fei
SW
Bludenz
LIECH.
dt or NSchwaz
a r K Z iller
Hohenems Feldkirch
le iro
In
Bregenz
D a n ub
OVAKIA
Hallein
Danu
En
Salzburg
R
Dornbirn
Traun Braunau am Inn
Mattsee Wallersee Irrsee Attersee Traunsee Mondsee
M E
Linz
a Tr
A
p
N
SL
Zwettl
Krems an der Donau
Austria’s central location in Europe has encouraged the development of a sophisticated communications and transportation network.
G
Ka m
Sea Level
358 km (222 miles)
Bodensee
Gmünd
over 10 000
200m/656ft 5779 km (3591 miles)
REP UB LI C
over 100 000
1000m/3281ft 200,000 km (124,274 miles)
CH CZE
over 1 000 000
3000m/9843ft
sen
Schwechat, Vienna 12.8m passengers
St. Veit an der Glan
Klagenfurt
Dra v a Kara w anken Loibl Pass
E O V S L
N
I
A
Y
†
TRANSPORTATION
A R
Austria has a temperate continental climate. Alpine areas experience colder temperatures and higher precipitation.
G
10/4
0/32
N
20/8
10/50
U
30/12
20/68
ab
H
30/86
Well-developed Alpine skiing and winter sports resorts now attract over half of visitors. Many resorts, such as St. Anton and Kitzbühel, cater for the top end of the market. In the summer season, which peaks in July and August, tourists visit the scenic Tirol and the lakes around Bad Ischl. Year-round major attractions are Vienna, with its coffee houses and the Prater park (whose Ferris wheel was immortalized in The Third Man), and Salzburg, Austria’s second city. The latter is internationally famous for its summer music festival and as the birthplace of Mozart.
T r ai
A
Fi sc hb
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
al
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AUSTRIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
98/km2 (254/mi2)
German, Croatian, Slovenian, Hungarian (Magyar) THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
68%
32%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Jewish and Muslim) 8%
Protestant 5%
Nonreligious 9% Roman Catholic 78% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 1%
Croat, Slovene, and Hungarian 6%
Austrian 93%
POLITICS L. House 2002/2006 U. House Varies by province
A
Pop. density medium
†
Austrian society is homogeneous. Almost all Austrians are German speakers, though Austrians like to stress their distinctive identity in relation to Germany. Minorities are few; there are some ethnic Slovenes, Croats, and Hungarians in the south and east, as well as some Roma communities. These minorities have been augmented by large numbers of immigrants from eastern Europe and one-time refugees from the former Yugoslavia. The result has been a perceptible increase in ethnic tension, particularly as the far right claims that migrants are taking jobs from the local population. The nuclear family is the norm, and it is common for both parents to work. While gender equality is enshrined in the constitution, in practice society is still strongly patriarchal. Young Austrians tend to live in the parental home until they complete their
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Council 183 seats
10% 9% 38% 43% FPÖ G SPÖ ÖVP ÖVP = Austrian People's Party SPÖ = Social Democratic Party of Austria FPÖ = Freedom Party of Austria G = Greens Federal Council 64 seats
resigning formal leadership in 2000. In September 2002 the ruling coalition collapsed, prompting fresh elections. Though the ÖVP’s popularity reached a 40-year high, and support for the FPÖ dwindled, the coalition was re-formed in 2003 when the ÖVP could find no other partner. Heinz Fischer (SPÖ) was elected president in April 2004. The nine provincial assemblies and governments have considerable powers. Vienna, with provincial status, has long been dominated by the SPÖ.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE 44% ÖVP
36% SPÖ
19% 1% FPÖ G
Austria is a federal, multiparty democracy. The chancellor (premier) holds real executive power.
PROFILE The socialist SPÖ and the conservative ÖVP have dominated postwar politics. They governed Austria in coalition for 21 years until 1966, and then, in 1987, after a period when the SPÖ had dominated, formed the “grand coalition,” in power until 1999. Their hold on power, with no real alternative, reached into all areas of public life. The far-right FPÖ achieved a breakthrough in elections in 1999, when it came equal second with the ÖVP. A new right-wing coalition of the ÖVP and the FPÖ, headed by ÖVP leader Wolfgang Schüssel, was met with regional and international criticism. FPÖ leader Jörg Haider drew strong condemnation, having openly expressed admiration for some of Hitler’s policies. He remained a driving force behind the party, despite
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.7% 9.3% 12.5%
Male 1.1%
80+ 60–79
6.6%
40–59
12.6%
20–39
15.7% 11.3%
16.4%
0–19
11.9%
% of population by age group
†
Joined UN in 1955
WORLD AFFAIRS
Multiparty elections
President Heinz Fischer
higher education. This reflects the relatively long time taken to complete university degrees and the lack of maintenance grants from the state for students. Austria is nominally a Roman Catholic country, but it is socially less conservative than the Catholic Länder (states) in Germany. Many marriages end in divorce; the proportion in 2002 was as high as 44 per 100.
Enlargement of the EU With the accession to the EU of ten more states in May 2004, Austria moved from the edge of the EU toward the center. It shares a land border with four of the new members, and is well placed to take advantage of the opening up of the economies of the new member states. Concerns about an influx of cheap labor from eastern Europe led the government, like most other existing EU members, to impose a seven-year transitional period before workers from these countries can gain access to the Austrian labor market.
EU
CE
†
Donor
$520m (donations)
Wolfgang Schüssel, ÖVP chancellor since 2000.
OSCE
Despite the importance of relations with Germany, Austria’s powerful northern neighbor and main trading partner, there has been a conscious policy of stressing Austria’s independence and creating some diplomatic distance. Austria is keen to maintain its relationship with the US, which is reinforced by Austria’s role as supplier of small arms to the US Army. The inclusion of the far-right FPÖ in the Austrian government in 2000 provoked the imposition of diplomatic sanctions by EU states for seven months. Austria’s status as a neutral state has begun to be questioned since it joined the EU and NATO’s Partnership for Peace program. Austria is part of the Schengen Convention ending border controls between participating EU members. Its geopolitical position gives it considerable influence in eastern Europe, and exports to the region trebled in the 1990s. The ÖVP strongly supported the eastward enlargement of the EU which took place in May 2004.
AID
Heinz Fischer, of the opposition SPÖ, was elected president in 2004.
OECD
PfP
.
Down 2% in 2002
New projects are now assessed for their impact on the environment and on gender issues. Austria targets funds to its east European neighbors and the poorest developing countries. A major exporter to the former Yugoslavia before the wars there in the 1990s, Austria has since held a key role in regional reconstruction.
107
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A CHRONOLOGY Austria came under the control of the Habsburgs in 1273. In 1867, the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was formed under Habsburg rule. Defeat in World War I in 1918 led to the breakup of the Habsburg empire and the formation of the Republic of Austria.
/
$1.7bn
Compulsory military service
Up 16% in 2002
AUSTRIAN ARMED FORCES 114 main battle tanks (Leopard 2A4)
The 1955 State Treaty, which restored Austria’s independence, enshrined the country’s neutrality. However, it has participated in NATO’s Partnership for Peace program since 1995. Despite the small size of Austria’s armed forces, its arms industry is strong. It not only meets most of the hardware needs of its own army, but also exports arms to the US and other countries.
ECONOMICS $192bn
†
27,750 personnel
None
52 combat aircraft (23 Saab J-350e)
6850 personnel (part of army)
None
Inflation 1.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................21st GNP PER CAPITA .........................$23,860 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$838m INFLATION ........................................1.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................4%
EXPORTS
USA 5% UK 5%
Switzerland 5%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
GDP
160
2002
Italy 9% Other 45% Germany 31% IMPORTS
Switzerland 5% Netherlands 4%
Hungary 5% Italy 7%
Germany 43% Other 36%
STRENGTHS Large manufacturing base. Strong chemical and petrochemical industries. Electrical engineering sector, textiles, and wood processing industries. Highly skilled labor force. Tourism is an important foreign currency earner.
EU membership has been largely positive. Foreign investment has increased, as more multinationals locate their headquarters for east European operations in Austria. Fiscal stabilization enabled Austria to meet the criteria necessary for it fully to adopt the euro in 2002. Since then, economic growth has been higher than in other eurozone countries, but not enough to reduce unemployment markedly, leading to concerns about the use of cheaper foreign labor. As in other countries in western Europe, the increasing age of the population obliged the government to reform the pension system, reducing payments and postponing retirement. AUSTRIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
WEAKNESSES Lacks natural resources. Reliant on imported raw materials, particularly oil and gas. Process of introducing greater competition and deregulation has been slow.
Sankt Pölten
Vienna
Linz
Salzburg Bregenz
D
108
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1934 Chancellor Dollfuss dismisses parliament and starts imprisoning social democrats, communists, and National Socialist (Nazi) Party members. Nazis attempt coup. 1938 The Anschluss – Austria incorporated into Germany by Hitler. 1945 Austria occupied by Soviet, British, US, and French forces. Elections result in ÖVP–SPÖ coalition. 1950 Attempted coup by Communist Party fails. Marshall Aid helps economic recovery. 1955 Occupying troops withdrawn. Austria recognized as a neutral sovereign state. 1971 SPÖ government formed under Chancellor Bruno Kreisky, who dominates Austrian politics for 12 years. 1983 Socialists and FPÖ form coalition government under Fred Sinowatz. 1986 Kurt Waldheim, former UN secretary-general, elected president, despite war crimes allegations. Franz Vranitzky replaces Sinowatz as federal chancellor. Nationalist Jörg Haider becomes FPÖ leader, prompting SPÖ to pull out of government. Elections produce stalemate 1987 January, “grand coalition” of SPÖ–ÖVP formed. 1990 ÖVP loses support in elections. 1992 Thomas Klestil (ÖVP) elected president. Elections confirm some traditional ÖVP supporters defecting to FPÖ. 1995 Austria joins EU. Early elections; SPÖ and ÖVP increase representation; “grand coalition” re-forms in early 1996. 1997 Vranitzky resigns; replaced by Viktor Klima. 1999 Haider’s FPÖ wins 40% of votes in Carinthia regional poll, and is equal second with ÖVP in general election in October; SPÖ remains largest party. 2000 ÖVP accepts FPÖ into coalition: political crisis. EU imposes diplomatic sanctions, lifted after seven months. 2002 Euro fully adopted. FPÖ quits coalition. ÖVP wins fresh elections. 2003 ÖVP–FPÖ coalition re-formed. 2004 Heinz Fischer (SPÖ) president.
DEFENSE
a n u be
PROFILE Austria’s industrial and high-tech sector is well developed and contributes over a quarter of GDP. Some services, notably tourism, are highly sophisticated and profitable, though tourism receipts have been down in recent years. A recession in the early 1990s was reversed by a rapid increase in exports to eastern Europe and Germany and by rising domestic demand. The impact of
Graz Textiles
Innsbruck Klagenfurt
Chemicals Metallurgy Electronics Iron & steel Pharmaceuticals Light engineering
0
Heavy engineering
0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AUSTRIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 2755 tonnes
19,328 b/d (reserves 78m barrels)
3.3m pigs, 2.07m cattle, 11m chickens
Iron, coal, magnesite, zinc, lead, oil, gas
Cropland Pasture Forest High mountain regions Pigs Cattle Wheat
Hydro 63% (44bn kWh)
Danube
Combustion 37% (26bn kWh)
s Enn
Nuclear 0% L
A
Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
0
S
P
0
Austria has few resources, and only iron ore is extracted for commercial purposes. It has to import a large amount of its energy. Russia is a key energy supplier, and gas is provided via pipelines running through the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The
bulk of iron ore and raw steel for Austria’s industry have traditionally come from Russia and Germany.
†
ENVIRONMENT
.
33% (29% partially protected)
Sustainability rank: 7th
†
CRIME
Yes
†
GDP/cap. increase
489 per 1000 population
Defense 0.8% Education 5.8% Health 5.5% 0
CRIME RATES
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Murders 2
per 100,000 population
Rapes 7
per 100,000 population
3115
per 100,000 population
Yes
Yes
Environmental awareness is high and the government invests nearly 3% of GDP in environmental protection. Roughly half of all domestic waste is separated for recycling, with heavy fines for failing to observe regulations. The safety of nuclear reactors in the neighboring Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Slovenia is a major concern.
MEDIA
495 per 1000 population
Down 7% in 2001
Thefts Yes
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No death penalty
.
8114 prisoners
7.6 tonnes per capita
Yes
Funding for health has shifted to a more streamlined government budget. Private spending is becoming more significant and accounts for around a third of the total, as patients increasingly choose to use the private health sector to avoid waiting lists for operations. Control of hospitals and other facilities is being decentralized to the regional Länder (states).
SPENDING
100 miles
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Heart and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers
100 km
% of total generation by type
A
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 312 people
AUSTRIA : LAND USE
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
HEALTH
Electric power 18.2m kW
Austria’s crime rate is generally climbing, with the number of burglaries rising in particular. The arrival of the Russian mafia in Vienna has led to an increase in money laundering.
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 15
254,341 students
99% THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
TV ownership high
There are 15 daily newspapers, including the Neue Kronen-Zeitung. The Wiener Zeitung is the world's oldest daily paper 2 state-owned channels, 1 independent channel
1 state-owned service, several independent stations
TV and radio are dominated by the Austrian Broadcasting Company (ÖRF), though its monopoly is being eroded. Private radio stations began broadcasting in 1998 and the first commercial TV channel, ATV, was granted a national license in 2000. Regional newspapers are very popular. The governmentrun Wiener Zeitung, founded in 1703, claims to be the world’s oldest daily.
% of each age group in education
Daily newspaper circulation 296 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
100
80
Austria has retained many of its traditional social divisions. Inherited wealth is still respected above earned wealth, and there is less social mobility than in neighboring Germany. Austrians have become less cautious with their money, and a previously high savings rate has fallen dramatically. Relatively few Austrians own stocks and shares, and most companies are dominated by a single shareholder. Legislation in 2000 banned anonymous savings accounts, a system unique in the EU to Austria which, it had been argued, encouraged money laundering and insider dealing. Government bonds offer low rates of interest and the property market is weak; many people, particularly in Vienna, tend to rent rather than buy their apartments. Asylum seekers, many from Afghanistan, Iraq, and the former Yugoslavia, form the poorest group in Austrian society.
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
99%
40
57% 20
0
Position in World 1st
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
50th
14 $23,860
Some 9.5% of government spending is on education. Secondary education is divided between lower schools (11–15) and higher schools (15–18). Children showing early academic aptitude can attend a Gymnasium from age 11. Students hoping to study at university must pass the Reifeprüfung or Matura. An alternative vocational qualification, the Berufsreifeprüfung, was introduced for 18-year-olds in 1997.
7 79 years
1 99%
16
14
5 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
109
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
AZERBAIJAN
Asia
ASIA Russian Fed.
Georgia
AZERBAIJAN
Armenia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Azerbaijan CAPITAL: Baku POPULATION: 8.4 million CURRENCY: Manat OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Azeri 1991
1991
May 28
AZ
+4
Iran
.az
+994
S
ITUATED ON THE WEST COAST of the Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan was the first Soviet republic to declare independence. The issue of the disputed enclave of Nagorno Karabakh, whose Armenian population seeks secession, led to full-scale war (1988– 1994) and is still a dominant concern. Over 200,000 refugees, and more than twice as many internally displaced, added to the problems of the troubled economy. Azerbaijan’s oil wealth, however, gives it long-term potential.
†
CLIMATE WEATHER CHART FOR BAKU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Landscape typical of the Lesser Caucasus mountains near Qazax in the extreme northwest of Azerbaijan.
Pop. density medium 97/km2 (251/mi2)
Azeri, Russian
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT 2000/2005
52%
President Ilham Aliyev
AT THE LAST ELECTION
48%
2% 1% VBP Vacant
National Assembly 125 seats
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Russian 3% Dagestani 3%
Armenian 2%
-10/14
Other 2%
-20/-4
61% YAP
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 23,012 km (14,299 miles)
None
2122 km (1319 miles)
None
Visitors : Population 1:10
POPULATION over 1 000 000
E
R
O
G
under 10 000
Qazax
Tovuz K
Barxudarli
3000m/9843ft
Sabirabad
z ü ƒmi∞li
S
Ar
as
Biläsuvar
Qazimämmäd Älät Äli-Bayramlı Salyan Bakı Komissarı
Cälilabad Massilı
Mincivan Ta
I
li
Länkäran
s
h M
ts
R
A
N
Astara
A
Saatlı Muêan Düzü
Ab∞eron Yarıma das ı Ma∞taêi Artyom Lökbatan BAKU
Sumqayıt
E
U
A
Ordubad 100 miles
ra
Dü il
Füzuli
S
Naxàıvan
100 km
Xankändi
fiamaxı Kürdämir
Dü zü K u
A
0
I N
KARABAKH
C
0
U
-200m/-650ft
Aêdam
R a n g e
Sea Level
fiirvan
T Aêcabädi NAGORNO-
N
200m/656ft
The Nagorno Karabakh conflict, and anti-Western feelings (Azerbaijan perceived the West as taking the Armenian side), kept tourist numbers low for many years, though arrivals have increased since 1999.
Ucar
Bärdä
A
Y
Göyàay
r tä är
Siyäzän
C A U C A S U S
Mingäàevir
C
500m/1640ft
as
Ar
E
40
% of total arrivals
1000m/3281ft
Bazardüzü Daêı 4485m
R
S
M
2000m/6562ft
Other 15%
r z u R E g e S n S a
Z
R
4000m/13 124ft
Russia 26%
E
Yevlax
E
Iran 29%
T
Mingäàevir Su Anbarı
Gäncä
Xaàmaz
Quba
A
fiäki
ura
L
ARMENIAN ENCLAVE
A
LAND HEIGHT
30
E
N
Yukarı Äskipara
over 10 000
Georgia 30%
20
R
over 50 000
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
FEDERATION
Zaqatala
A
Up 9% in 2002
G
I A
IAN
I
over 100 000
G
C
SS
P
/
834,000 visitors
RU
S
†
TOURISM
AZERBAIJAN Total Area : 86 600 sq. km (33 436 sq. miles)
A
Buses provide the most efficient public transportation. Access to the Naxçivan exclave is by air or via Iran.
Azerbaijan became an independent democracy amid war with Armenian forces in the early 1990s. A lasting solution to tensions is elusive. The YAP, in power since 1995, was controversially reelected in 2000. It supported the aging, and visibly ailing, President Heydar Aliyev, through two consecutive terms and backed the succession of his son Ilham in 2003. The latter’s election was heavily criticized by the opposition and led to violent clashes.
ur
285 ships 633,200 grt
Baku Bina
The Azeris are a Shi’a Muslim people with close ethnic links to the Turks. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the violence of the 1990s, Orthodox Christian Armenians and Russians accounted for 11% of the population. Now ethnic Armenians are concentrated in the Nagorno Karabakh enclave and operate de facto independence. Women, who were once prominent in the ruling party, lost political status after the fall of communism; they are slowly regaining their position.
m
Drive on right
Sa
†
TRANSPORTATION
5% 10% AKC Others
21% Ind
YAP = New Azerbaijan Party Ind = Independents AKC = Azerbaijan Popular Front VBP = Civic Solidarity Party Vacant = Seat reserved for member from Nagorno Karabakh
Azeri 90%
M
Coastal areas are subtropical, but bitter winters inland have become a life-ordeath issue for thousands of refugees.
110
Multiparty elections
0
0/32
0
†
PEOPLE
Mountain/steppe
TURK E
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: AZERBAIJAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CIS
CE
Joined UN in 1992
OIC
EAPC
OSCE
Relations with Armenia remain the central issue. Azerbaijan, despite its Shi’a majority, sees Turkey as a bridge to the West. It wants to join NATO and has close ties to the EU. The West, Iran (which has a large, ethnically related Azari population), and Russia are interested in Caspian oil fields.
†
AID
/
Up 50% in 2002
Japan is the biggest donor. A proArmenia US Congress allowed only limited humanitarian aid in 1992–2002.
DEFENSE $851m
†
/
Compulsory military service
$5.8bn
6.39m sheep, 2.18m cattle, 16.7m chickens
Iron, bauxite, copper, lead, zinc, limestone, salt, oil, gas
Relatively neglected in the Soviet period, Azerbaijan’s Caspian Sea oil fields have attracted international interest. The shallow-water Guneshli field alone has over four million barrels of reserves. Offshore natural gas is also plentiful.
†
Sustainability rank: 114th
3.6 tonnes per capita
Under the Soviet regime oil pollution devastated the Caspian Sea, and pesticides were massively overused in agriculture. Major rivers suffer heavy pollution from Georgia and Armenia. Lack of funds restricts action.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 10 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 6 daily newspapers, including Bakinskii Rabochii, Khalg Gazeti, and Respublika
Inflation 97% p.a. (1990–2000)
1 state-controlled service, 5 independent stations
4911 manats (4921)
SCORE CARD
†
.
Up 3% in 2002
Part of NATO’s Partnership for Peace program since 1994, Azerbaijan has sent small peacekeeping contingents to Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq.
ECONOMICS
313,000 b/d (reserves 7bn barrels)
6% (3% partially protected)
A
Electric power 5.2m kW
11,063 tonnes
ENVIRONMENT
Recipient
$349m (receipts)
†
RESOURCES
1 state-controlled service, 4 independent stations
CHRONOLOGY Under consecutive Persian, Ottoman, and Russian influences, Azerbaijan, one of the world’s major oil producers in 1900, attained independence in 1918. 1920 Red Army invades. Soviet republic established. 1922 Incorporated in Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (TSFSR). 1930 Forced collectivization of agriculture. 1936 TSFSR disbanded; Azerbaijan a full union republic (ASSR). 1945 Attempted annexation of Azari region of Iran. 1985 Gorbachev tackles corruption in Communist Party of Azerbaijan. 1988 Nagorno Karabakh seeks unification with Armenia. 1990 Nagorno Karabakh attempts secession. Soviet troops move in. 1991 Independence. 1993 Heydar Aliyev president. 1994 Cease-fire with Armenia. 1995, 2000 General elections. Noncommunist YAP in power. 2004 Ilham Aliyev, son of Heydar, elected president.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................108th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$710 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$768m INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................1%
From 2002, publications no longer required licenses from the state, but press intimidation still takes place.
CRIME
†
17,795 prisoners
STRENGTHS Extensive oil and natural gas reserves starting to come onstream. Oil pipeline to Turkey under construction. Iron, copper, lead, and salt deposits. Cotton and silk.
WEAKNESSES Antiquated Soviet-era industry. Poor infrastructure; corruption. Fallout from Nagorno Karabakh conflict still drains state resources.
43 per 1000 population
113 per 1000 population
Defense 3.3% No death penalty
Education 3.5%
/
Up 7% in 2000–2002
The judicial system returned to political control in 1993. Criminality is a particular problem in camps for those displaced in the Nagorno Karabakh conflict. Elsewhere, there is a low rate of violent crime, but assaults in the street have become less rare.
†
EDUCATION 97%
School leaving age: 16
Health 1.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
New oil revenues are threatening to create a nouveau riche elite without reaching the 60% of Azerbaijan’s population currently living in poverty.
WORLD RANKING
163,305 students
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
Georgia 7% Italy 30%
France 9% Czech Republic 10% Germany 18%
Other 26% IMPORTS
France 6%
Kazakhstan 7% Germany 10%
Other 48% Turkey 13% Russia 16%
When it came to power in the mid-1990s, the YAP began reversing communist influence over education policy, which had been particularly noticeable in the teaching of history. Baku State is the largest of an increasing number of universities.
HEALTH 1 per 278 people
†
50th
100th
63 97%
91 150th
Welfare state health benefits
130 193rd
$710
125 65 years
Circulatory and heart diseases, cancers
The already poor health care system effectively collapsed as a result of war and the transition to a market economy.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
144 74 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
111
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BAHAMAS
USA
BAHAMAS
OFFICIAL NAME: Commonwealth of the Bahamas CAPITAL: Nassau POPULATION: 314,000 CURRENCY: Bahamian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English
B
1973
North America
CARIBBEAN
1973
July 10
BS
-5
.bs
+1242
T
HE BAHAMAS, THOUGH OFTEN bracketed with Caribbean countries, actually lies northeast of Cuba in the western Atlantic. The archipelago has 700 islands and 2400 cays: just 30 are inhabited. Long established as a tourist resort, the Bahamas today is also a major offshore financial center. It has one of the world’s largest open-registry fleets; only a tiny fraction is owned by Bahamian nationals.
Cu
ba
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low 31/km2 (81/mi2)
English, English Creole, French Creole THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
89%
11%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
†
CLIMATE
†
TRANSPORTATION
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR NASSAU
Nassau International
Methodist 6% Drive on left
S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
35.8m grt
1535 km (954 miles)
None
None
None
-10/14 -20/-4
While traveling around and between the major islands is relatively easy, transportation links for the many “Out Islands” are greatly restricted.
The whole of the Bahamas chain has a typically subtropical climate with consistently mild winters. Hurricanes may occur from July to December.
TOURISM
A
F
Little Abaco
20
10
30
40
50
60
80
70
90 100
The tourist industry, built around beaches, casinos, and cruise ships, employs Eleuthera I. over 40% of the population. Rock Sound Larger hotel complexes on the main islands compete with Cat I. small, family-run The Bight Mount Alvernia 63m San Salvador guesthouses George Town in the outlying d destinations.
I
o
u
O
n
Great Exuma I.
Rum Cay
n
Total Area: 13 940 sq. km (5382 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
over 10 000
N
200 m/656ft Sea level 0
E
Island Range
BAHAMAS
ge sa Clarence P a s Samana Cay Town d la s Crooked I. I d ke Plana Cays e oo r sag C as Mayaguana aP Acklins I. n ua a g The Carlton e g ay sa M as s P o c Cai n
ea
Long I.
Ragged
over 100 000
C
Oc
Cockburn Town
Anguilla Cays
POPULATION
A
100 km
Little Inagua
under 10 000 0
100 miles
Great Inagua Lake Rosa
Matthew Town
112
PLP = Progressive Liberal Party FNM = Free National Movement Ind = Independents
The members of the Senate are appointed by the governorgeneral on the recommendation of the prime minister and the leader of the opposition
C
o
the
Cay Sal
17% 10% FNM Ind
Senate 16 seats
S
of
Exuma Cays
a
e
Double Headed Shot Cays
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
T
NASSAU New Providence m u Ex
Andros I.
east annel rth h No ence C Spanish Wells d ovi P r Current Governor's Harbour
Tongu
Andros Town
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
73% PLP
% of total arrivals
N
Nicholls Town
†
House of Assembly 40 seats
Other 5% 0
el
Berry Is
Down 9% in 2002
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2007
UK 3%
Great Abaco
Bimini Is
.
POLITICS
Canada 5%
Marsh Harbour Hope Town
Grand Bahama I.
Pr No ov r ide thwe s nc eC t han n
A
S t r a i t s
Freeport
Visitors : Population 4.5:1
Africans first arrived as slaves in the 16th century; their descendants constitute most of the population, alongside a rich white minority. About two-thirds of the population live on New Providence Island, and most of them in Nassau. More women are now entering the professions.
USA 87%
Abaco I.
L
f
West End
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
T
r
1.4m visitors
a i d
Roman Catholic 19%
Anglican 20%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
o
Other 17%
Rainfall
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
l
Church of God 6%
Baptist 32%
N
Twenty-five years of unbroken rule by the PLP under Prime Minister Lynden Pindling were brought to an end by the 1992 elections. His legacy of steering the Bahamas to independence and ending white political domination was undermined by allegations of narcoticsrelated corruption. There followed a decade of FNM government under Hubert Ingraham, who emphasized tightening up ministerial accountability, introduced legislation to counter money laundering, and achieved relative economic success. However, his privatization drive proved deeply unpopular and the FNM was roundly defeated in 2002 by a resurgent PLP now led by Perry Christie.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BAHAMAS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
NAM
Comm
Caricom
Joined UN in 1973
CHRONOLOGY Once an English pirate base, the Bahamas, whose first parliament sat in 1729, formally became a British colony in 1783.
OAS
The Bahamas has made great progress in cleaning up its banking system following money-laundering allegations. Drugs trafficking and illegal migration from Haiti remain major problems and dominate regional relations.
†
AID
Archetypal island paradise. Its natural beauty attracts more than four tourists per inhabitant to the Bahamas every year.
Recipient
US$5m (receipts)
.
Down 38% in 2002
Donations rose after Hurricane Floyd in 1999. The US has increased aid in return for action on money laundering linked to funding terrorism.
DEFENSE US$25m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 14% in 2002
The UK is the main trainer of and supplier for the small naval defense force. The interception of narcotics and illegal immigrants is the force’s main activity. There is no land army.
ECONOMICS US$4.53bn
†
Inflation 2.7% p.a. (1990–2000)
1 Bahamian dollar (1)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................119th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$14,860 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$300m INFLATION .........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................7%
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 401,000 kW
9303 tonnes
Not an oil producer
14,000 goats, 6450 sheep, 4950 pigs, 2.98m chickens
Salt, aragonite
The Bahamas has no strategic resources. A 13.5 MW electricity generating plant was opened in 1998.
ENVIRONMENT
.
11% (0.1% partially protected)
†
Not available
5.7 tonnes per capita
As on many Caribbean islands, hotel overdevelopment is a major cause for concern. Environmental groups have also pointed out the potential for accidents posed by the Bahamas’ enormous oil storage depots.
†
MEDIA
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
1 state-owned service
The state-owned TV channel faces very stiff competition from Florida-based US broadcasters.
†
The death penalty remains in force. Violent crime, ranging from narcoticsrelated murders to sexual assault, is on the increase. Tourists can be targets for petty thefts. Illegal weapons are readily available.
1280 prisoners
Other 24%
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Japan 9% Norway 9% Other 36% Germany 10%
USA 18%
South Korea 18%
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
228 per 1000 population
406 per 1000 population
Defense 0.5%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
EXPORTS
Germany 14%
The health service combines state and private systems. In the outlying islands access to care relies on the Flying Doctor Service and around 50 local health centers. Three of the country’s four hospitals are on New Providence.
Health 3.2%
CRIME
Spain 10%
Obstetric causes, heart diseases, cancers, murders, accidents
1 per 667 people
0
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Growing competition in financial services and tourism from neighboring states. Overdependence on US visitors.
Peru 8%
Welfare state health benefits
Education 3.6%
WEAKNESSES
USA 37%
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 99 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
France 7%
1920–1933 US prohibition laws turn Bahamas into prosperous bootlegging center. 1959–1962 Introduction of full male suffrage; women gain the vote. 1973 Independence. 1983 Narcotics-smuggling scandals involving the government. 1992 FNM wins elections, ending 25 years of PLP rule. 2002 PLP returned to power.
TV ownership medium
There are 4 daily newspapers, the Nassau Guardian, the Tribune, the Bahama Journal, and the Freeport News
Major international financial services sector, including banking, insurance, and business trade center. Major tourism and cruise ship destination. Growing container port. International ship registration.
B
96%
Death penalty in use
.
There are marked wealth disparities: urban professionals who work in the financial sector are at one end of the scale, and the poor fishermen from the outlying islands are near the other. Cuban and Haitian refugees, who have no legal status, are the poorest group of all.
WORLD RANKING
Down 29% in 1999
Position in World 1st
†
50th
29 $14,860
54
100th
73 88
School leaving age: 16
5305 students
Schooling follows the former British selective system. Tertiary students attend the University of the West Indies or colleges in the US.
150th
96%
51
13 deaths
70 years
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
113
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BAHRAIN B
Asia
MIDDLE EAST Iran BAHRAIN Saudi Arabia
Africa
Qatar
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Bahrain CAPITAL: Manama POPULATION: 724,000 CURRENCY: Bahraini dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1971
1971
Dec 16
BRN
+3
.bh
+973
B
AHRAIN IS AN ARCHIPELAGO state situated between the Qatar peninsula and the Saudi Arabian mainland. Only three of its islands are inhabited. Bahrain Island is connected to Saudi Arabia’s Eastern Province by a causeway opened in 1986. Bahrain was the first Gulf emirate to export oil; its reserves are now almost depleted. Services such as offshore banking, insurance, and tourism are major employment sectors for skilled Bahrainis.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR MANAMA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Hot desert
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
93%
7%
Other Arab 4% Iranian, Indian, and Pakistani 24%
†
TRANSPORTATION Bahrain International, Manama 4.3m passengers
Drive on right
115 ships 287,740 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2866 km (1781 miles)
None
None
None
The King Fahd Causeway connects Bahrain to Saudi Arabia, and ferries travel regularly to Iran. Buses are the main form of public transportation.
TOURISM 3.17m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 4.4:1
/
Up 14% in 2002
Bahraini 70%
Bahrain is the smallest and most densely populated Arab state. The key division is between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims, about 30% and 70% of the population respectively. Sunnis hold the best jobs in business and government. Shi’a Muslims tend to do menial work and have a lower standard of living. The most impoverished Shi’as tend to be of Iranian descent. Bahrain has a smaller expatriate population than many other Arab countries. The ruling al-Khalifa family has responded to declining oil reserves by diversifying the economy to provide service industry jobs for Bahrainis. Bahrain is the most liberal of the Gulf states. Alcohol is freely available. Women have access to education and are not obliged to wear the veil. Since 2000 they have been entitled to participate in politics.
Saudi Arabia 63% India 6% Kuwait 5%
20
30
40
50
60
70
The al-Khalifa family has been dominant since 1783. The amir was advised from 1993 by an appointed Consultative Council, and in 2002 Bahrain became a constitutional monarchy. That year it held the first legislative (albeit nonparty) elections since 1973: moderate Islamists gained the most seats, while radical candidates boycotted the poll. Shaikh Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa, who has ruled since 1999, supports the economic liberalization initiated by his father. The repeal in 2001 of the State Security Law was welcomed by human rights groups.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
Damasc
OIC
GCC
Joined UN in 1971
OAPEC
Bahrain has good relations with the UK and the US. Though formally opposed to the 2003 war on Iraq, it hosted US forces. The International Court of Justice rejected Qatar’s claim to the Hawar Islands in 2001. There is residual tension with Iran.
AID
†
$71m (receipts)
$314m
80
% of total arrivals
Bahrain’s relatively liberal lifestyle has made it something of a magnet for visitors from neighboring Gulf states. It is a center for business conventions and has a new Formula 1 race course.
114
5% Lib (Su)
17% Ind (Sh)
27% Ind (Su)
DEFENSE
Other 26% 10
35% Isl (Su)
Recipient
/
Up 294% in 2002
Bahrain receives low levels of aid, but takes the lion’s share from the offshore oil field shared with Saudi Arabia, effectively a subsidy from the latter.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
3% 13% Isl (Sh) Lib (Sh)
The Consultative Council is appointed by the king
-20/-4
Temperatures soar toward 40˚C (104˚F) in June–August. In December–March the weather is pleasantly warm.
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Chamber of Deputies 40 seats
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
European 2%
-10/14
H.M. Shaikh Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifa
Consultative Council 40 seats
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
L. House 2002/2006 U. House 2002/2006
1025/km2 (2652/mi2)
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
Nonparty elections
Isl (Su) = Islamists (Sunni) Ind (Su) = Independents (Sunni) Ind (Sh) = Independents (Shi'a) Isl (Sh) = Islamists (Shi'a) Lib (Su) = Liberals (Sunni) Lib (Sh) = Liberals (Shi'a)
Pop. density high
Arabic
40/104
†
POLITICS
The Grand Mosque, Manama. The largest building in Bahrain, it can accommodate 7000 people.
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
With only a small defense force, Bahrain hosts the US 5th Fleet and US air bases. The US has also used Bahrain as a test case in the region for the introduction of sophisticated weapons technology.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BAHRAIN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS
Inflation 0.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.377 Bahraini dinars (0.377)
$7.33bn SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................100th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$10,500 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$516m INFLATION .........................................1.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
CHRONOLOGY Bahrain became a British Protected State in the 19th century.
EXPORTS
Saudi Arabia 2% UAE 2% Japan 2%
India 3% USA 5%
Other 86% IMPORTS
UK 5%
Germany 6% Japan 7%
STRENGTHS Oil and gas. Major offshore banking sector. Inward investment. Good infrastructure. Tourism. Aluminum production. Near self-sufficiency in food.
USA 11%
Other 41%
Saudi Arabia 30%
WEAKNESSES Depleted oil reserves and water supplies. Insufficient diversification. High level of government borrowing.
BAHRAIN
The G ul f Jazírat al
Total Area : 655 sq. km (253 sq. miles) Bárbár Ad Diráz Al Budayyi‘
Muíarraq Al Busaytín Al Muíarraq Karránah Sanábis
Samáhíj Qalálí
‘Arád
Al Íidd
MANAMA
As Sahlat Jidd Al Jufayr al Íadríyah Íaf§ Jazírat an Nabíh a§ flalíh Jamrah Sár Madínat ‘Ísá Al Qaryah Al To mainland Marqúbán Álí Khárijíyah Wádiyán Al Jasrah (Saudi Arabia) Al Hamalah Ar Rifá ‘al Ar Rifá ‘ash Sitrah Umm an Dumistán Gharbí Sharqí Al Ma‘ámír An Nuwaydirát Na‘Sán Karzakkán Madínat Íamad Al Málikíyah
Gulf of Bahrain
Ra's Abú
Awálí Az Zalláq Ra's Abu al Mawj
Askar
Jarjúr Ra's Íayyán
Jabal ad Dukhán 134m
Ra's Nawmah Ra's al Jazá'ir
Ra's al Qurayn
Gulf of B ahrain
Al Muíammadíyah Baní Jiddah
†
RESOURCES 11,230 tonnes 17,500 sheep, 16,000 goats, 470,000 chickens
Oil, natural gas
Bahrain remains dependent on its oil and gas industry. Production of crude oil has declined sharply since the 1970s, and there are fears that reserves may run out by 2010. As oil has declined, so gas has assumed greater importance. Most is used to supply local industries, particularly the aluminum plant, which was established in 1972.
ENVIRONMENT
/
1% partially protected
†
†
0
10 km
0
10 miles
Ra's al Barr
N
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 5 daily newspapers, Akhbar alKhaleej, Gulf Daily News, Khaleej Times, Bahrain Tribune, and Al-Ayam 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
Bahrain has a less authoritarian media regime than most of the Gulf, though government critics have been prosecuted. CNN and BBC satellite TV are freely available.
POPULATION over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 100m/328ft Sea Level
Female literacy rates are among the highest in the Gulf. The University of Bahrain opened in 1986.
†
HEALTH
CRIME 911 prisoners
†
Circulatory diseases, perinatal deaths, injury, poisonings
The high-quality health service is free to Bahraini nationals. Some go abroad for advanced care. The Muharraq Health Center was upgraded in 2001.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
286 per 1000 population
261 per 1000 population
Defense 4% Education 3% Health 2.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Beneficiaries of the king’s extensive patronage form the wealthiest group in society. Bahrain’s largest religious community, the Shi’a Muslims, is also the poorest.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
37 100th
40
$10,500
54
62
13 deaths
73 years
102
150th
Hawar Islands
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 1000 people
27.9 tonnes per capita
TV ownership high
1 state-owned service
11,048 students
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 112 per 1000 people Íadd al Jamal
School leaving age: 15
Not available
Local marine life, particularly the dugong, is vulnerable to upstream oil pollution from the Gulf. Groundwater is deteriorating in quality and quantity, affecting plant life.
MEDIA
†
EDUCATION 89%
Electric power 1.4m kW
37,654 b/d (reserves 206m barrels)
Ra's al Mumma alah
B
1971 Independence from Britain. 1981 Founder member of GCC. 1991 Supports US-led action expelling Iraq from Kuwait. 1999 Accession of Shaikh Hamad. 2001 Referendum approves transition to democracy. 2002 Becomes a constitutional monarchy. Islamists win elections.
89%
Death penalty in use 193rd
.
Down 62% in 1996–1998
Crime is minimal, and theft and muggings are rare. Suspected political dissidents are monitored by the police.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
115
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BANGLADESH B
SOUTH ASIA
India
Burma (Myanmar)
OFFICIAL NAME: People’s Republic of Bangladesh CAPITAL: Dhaka POPULATION: 147 million CURRENCY: Taka OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Bengali 1971
1971
March 26
BD
+6
.bd
+880
L
OCATED AROUND the confluence of the mighty Ganges and Jamuna rivers, Bangladesh is the eastern half of historic Bengal. Most of the country is composed of fertile alluvial plains; the north and northeast are mountainous, as is the Chittagong region in the southeast. After seceding from Pakistan in 1971, Bangladesh had a troubled history of political instability, with periods of emergency rule. Effective democracy was restored in 1991. Bangladesh’s major economic sectors are jute production, textiles, and agriculture. Its climate can wreak havoc – in 1991 a massive cyclone killed more than 140,000 people.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical/subtropical
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
0
During the monsoon, the water level generally rises 6 m (20 ft) above normal, flooding up to two-thirds of the country. The floods are made much worse when the Ganges, Jamuna, and Meghna rivers, which converge in a huge delta in Bangladesh, are swollen by the melting of the Himalayan snows and heavy rain in India. Cyclones build up regularly in the Bay of Bengal, with sometimes devastating effects on the flat coastal region.
TRANSPORTATION Zia International, Dhaka 2.95m passengers
†
Drive on left
325 ships 432,400 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 20,749 km (12,893 miles)
None
2706 km (1681 miles)
8046 km (5000 miles)
Most transportation in Bangladesh is by water, though government policy is now concentrating on developing road and rail links, including the reopening in mid-2000 of a passenger rail service into India. The 4.8-km (3-mile) Bangabandhu road and rail bridge across the Jamuna River at Sirajganj was finally inaugurated in 1998 and is now a major artery. Bangladesh’s two major ports, Mungla and Chittagong, are being upgraded to take advanced container ships.
116
1096/km2 (2837/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
26%
74%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 1%
Hindu 12%
Other 2%
S O N D cm/in 60/24
50/122
Pop. density high
Bengali, Urdu, Chakma, Marma (Magh), Garo, Khasi, Santhali, Tripuri, Mro
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Rainfall A
†
PEOPLE
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 87%
WEATHER CHART FOR DHAKA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 60/140
Asia
BANGLADESH
Begum Khaleda Zia, reelected as prime minister in 2001.
Sheikh Hasina Wajed, AL leader and former prime minister.
TOURISM 207,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:709
,
Little change in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
India 38% UK 16% USA 6% Pakistan 3% Japan 3% Other 34% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
The Mughal architecture in Dhaka and the Pala dynasty (7th–10th centuries) city of Sonargaon, just to the southeast, are major attractions, but tourists may be deterred by social and political unrest. Most visitors are Indian businessmen or Bangladeshis living overseas who return to visit relatives.
Bengali 98%
Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, despite the fact that three-quarters of the population is rural. As in India, there is considerable Muslim–Hindu tension; in 2001, thousands of Hindus and members of other religious minorities claimed persecution by the new nationalist government. Though more than half of Bangladeshis, rural and urban, still live below the poverty line, there has been an improvement in living standards over the past decade. The textile trade has been one factor in the growing emancipation of women, many of whom enjoy an independent income. They are now included in official employment statistics and are the main customers of the Grameen Bank, the most successful rural bank. They have led both the government and the opposition and, from 2004, 45 seats in the Parliament were reserved for women. Amnesty International, however, has repeatedly criticized the number of violent attacks against women, and the UN has estimated that nearly half of Bangladeshi women are victims of domestic violence. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.4% 2.8%
24%
Traders on the Meghna River. Life is governed by the vast network of rivers. The floodplains are among the most fertile in the world.
80+ 60–79
Male 0.4% 3.2%
6.8%
40–59
7.5%
14.7%
20–39
15.3%
0–19 % of population by age group
24.9%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BANGLADESH
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
WORLD AFFAIRS
Multiparty elections
Constitutional changes soon replaced a presidential with a parliamentary system of government. The AL, which had steered Bangladesh to independence in 1971, mounted a sustained campaign against Khaleda Zia’s regime, in 1996 forcing a rerun of elections. It won the largest number of seats and its leader, Sheikh Hasina Wajed, went on to become the first prime minister to complete a full term. Khaleda Zia and her revived BNP returned to power in the 2001 poll, amid much electoral violence, forming a coalition with the Islamist JI.
President Iajuddin Ahmed
2001/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
5% 2% JI Ind
Parliament 345 seats
18% AL
57% BNP
13% 4% 1% W JD Others
BNP = Bangladesh Nationalist Party and allies AL = Awami League W = Reserved for women JI = Jamaat-e-Islami JD = Jatiya Dal (Ershad) Ind = Independents
Bangladesh returned to multiparty democracy in 1991, following a period of military rule.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES PROFILE
The state sector Bangladesh is coming under mounting pressure from multilateral lending institutions, which account for the vast majority of the country’s capital inflows, to cut costs in the state sector. Simultaneously, state-sector workers are demanding wage increases in line with inflation.
Between 1975 and 1990 the military was in power in Bangladesh. The overthrow of President Ershad in 1990 saw a return to multiparty politics; the army remains poised, however, to intervene in the event of a breakdown in internal order. Bangladesh’s first woman prime minister, Begum Khaleda Zia, head of the BNP, was elected in 1991.
Corruption Bangladesh is consistently ranked among the most corrupt nations in the world. The misappropriation of public funds is endemic, while bribes are usually necessary to access basic services such as education, health care, and policing. In 2004, under pressure from donors, the government moved to fulfill its 2001 election pledge to set up D an anticorruption commission.
BANGLADESH Total Area : 144 000 sq. km (55 598 sq. miles)
I N
Thákurgaon
I
Brahm ap u
Lálmanir Hát Kurígrám
Nilphámári
Saidpur Rangpur Dinájpur
a tr
I
Sherpur
Jam una
G
a
DHAKA
Mádárípur
í
p
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft
N
Sea Level 100 km
t h s M o u
o f
e th
G
B A Y O F
919m
Cox's Bázár
B E N G A L
100 miles
Y
200m/656ft
s ge n a
A
Chittagong
Mungla
l s Hil
el ann Ch
á tia
r zpu bá
Patuákháli
0
H
over 10 000
áh
Jhálakáti
Noákháli Sh
Barisál
Bágherhat Pirojpur
Begamganj Sand Rángámáti w
g on
Khulna Sátkhira
over 50 000
Feni
Lakshmipur
t
I
há
T e t u l ia
over 1 000 000 over 500 000 over 100 000
Lákshám
a
i
ng
D
Ha r
Jessore
n Meg h
Munshiganj Chándpur
Mágura
Comilla
ag itt Ch
A POPULATION
(P a
dm Rájbári a) Farídpur
Chuádánga Jhenida
Bráhmanbária
Manikganj
n ges
R M A AN M A R )
Kushtia Meherpur
Srimangal
Bhairab Bázár Narsingdi
U
Pábna
Habiganj
Tangail Shahzadpur
N
I
Ishurdi Páksey
WTO
Good relations with the West, the main source of essential aid, are a priority. Relations with Pakistan have slowly improved since Pakistan’s agreement in 1991 to accept the 250,000 pro-Pakistan Bihari Muslims living in Bangladeshi refugee camps since 1971. Relations with India are improving. The damaging effects of the construction of the Farakka Dam on the Ganges, which deprived Bangladesh of irrigation water, have been alleviated by a 30-year agreement signed in 1996 guaranteeing the right of both parties to share the Ganges’ water. Tensions persist over the illegal migration of Bangladeshis into neighboring Indian states.
AID
†
Recipient
$913m (receipts)
.
Down 11% in 2002
Aid disbursements to Bangladesh each year are substantially greater than the annual value of foreign investment in the country. Aid also finances the bulk of state capital spending. One result of the level of aid is that Bangladesh has fallen into one of the traps of an aid-dependent economy: the large middle class has a vested interest in perpetuating a system which provides its members with lucrative contracts and access to external resources. Severe monsoon flooding in 2004 covered 60% of Bangladesh and resulted in food aid being needed for 20 million people.
Bengal was the first part of the Indian subcontinent to come under British rule when the East India Company was made the diwani (tax collector) by the Mughal emperor in 1765.
Kishorganj
Sirájganj
Nator
SAARC
B
1905 Muslims persuade British rulers to partition state of Bengal, to create a Muslim-dominated East Bengal. 1906 Muslim League established in Dhaka. 1912 Partition of 1905 reversed. 1947 British withdrawal from India. Partition plans establish a largely Muslim state of East (presentday Bangladesh) and West Pakistan, separated by 1600 km (1000 miles) of Indian, and largely Hindu, territory. 1949 AL founded to campaign for autonomy from West Pakistan. 1968 Gen. Yahya Khan heads government in Islamabad.
M
D
Gopálpur
OIC
CHRONOLOGY
Mymensingh
Nawábganj
Rájsháhi
Sylhet
Jamálpur
I
Gange s
Bogra
Naogaon
Netrakona
NAM
Joined UN in 1974
(
N
Jaipur Hát
0
A
Gaibánda
Comm
†
117
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
/
No compulsory military service
Up 4% in 2002
BANGLADESHI ARMED FORCES
The military dominated politics between 1975 and 1990, and still has considerable influence. The army was mobilized to fight rising crime from 2002. The level of defense spending is controversial; some of the air force’s Russian-built MiG-29 fighters were cut from the fleet in 2002, just two years after their purchase by the previous government. Bangladesh is the largest contributor to UN peacekeeping missions.
ECONOMICS $51.1bn
†
180 main battle tanks (80 PRC Type-59/69, 100 T-54/55)
110,000 personnel
5 frigates and 33 patrol boats
9000 personnel
83 combat aircraft 6500 (18 A-5C Fantan, 16 F-6, personnel 23 F-7M/FT-7B, 8 MiG-29)
None
Inflation 3.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
59.1 taka (58.41)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................50th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$380 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$742m INFLATION .........................................6.8% UNEMPLOYMENT.....................................3%
EXPORTS
Italy 4% Other 42%
France 6% UK 10% Germany 10%
USA 28% IMPORTS
Hong Kong 5%
Japan 8% Singapore 12%
Other 48% China 12% India 15%
STRENGTHS Over 80% of the world’s jute fiber exports come from Bangladesh. Low wages ensure a competitive and expanding textile industry, which provides over three-quarters of manufacturing export earnings.
WEAKNESSES
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
Government ministers like to portray Bangladesh as an emerging NIC, but its economy is still overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture and large aid inflows. Agriculture, which provides jute and tobacco, is productive; Bangladesh’s soils, fed by the Ganges, Jamuna, and Meghna rivers, are highly fertile. However, severe weather frequently destroys a whole crop.
2000
2001
2002
Agricultural wages are among the lowest in the world. The state sector, which owns large, inefficient, and massively loss-making companies, is in difficulty. The World Bank, the source of most aid, wishes to see loss-making concerns cut their workforces or close down. In 2002 a privatization program was announced. Textiles and garments are currently the healthiest sectors. Economic zones (export processing zones) with special concessions have attracted foreign investment, as well as helping to promote a small indigenous electronics industry. Bangladesh receives generous textile import quotas from the EU and NAFTA. BANGLADESH : MAJOR BUSINESSES
The agricultural sector, employing the majority of Bangladeshis, is vulnerable to violent and unpredictable weather. Endemic corruption and poor infrastructure deter investment. Large and inefficient state sector.
PROFILE
GDP
160
GDP 1998=100
118
$638m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1970 Elections give AL, under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, clear majority. Rioting and guerrilla warfare following Yahya Khan’s refusal to convene assembly. Year ends with worst recorded storms in Bangladesh’s history – between 200,000 and 500,000 dead. 1971 Civil war, as Sheikh Mujib and AL declare unilateral independence. Ten million Bangladeshis flee to India. Pakistani troops defeated in 12 days by Mukhti Bahini – the Bengal Liberation Army. 1972 Sheikh Mujib elected prime minister. Nationalization of key industries, including jute and textiles. Bangladesh achieves international recognition and joins Commonwealth. Pakistan withdraws in protest. 1974 Severe floods damage rice crop. 1975 Sheikh Mujib assassinated. Military coups end with Gen. Ziaur Rahman taking power. Institution of single-party state. 1976 Banning of trade union federations. 1977 Zia assumes presidency. Islam adopted as first principle of constitution. 1981 Zia assassinated. 1982 Gen. Ershad takes over. 1983 Democratic elections restored by Ershad. Ershad assumes presidency. 1986 Elections. AL and BNP fail to unseat Ershad. 1987 Ershad announces state of emergency. 1988 Islam becomes constitutional state religion. 1990 Ershad resigns following demonstrations. 1991 Elections won by BNP. Khaleda Zia (widow of Zia) becomes prime minister. Ershad imprisoned. Role of the president reduced to ceremonial functions. Floods following cyclone kill 140,000 people. 1994 Author Taslima Nasreen, who is accused of blasphemy, escapes to Sweden. 1996 Election returns BNP to power. Results are rejected by opposition parties, which force fresh elections. Sheikh Hasina Wajed of AL then takes power. 2001 Supreme Court declares issuing of religious decrees (fatawa) to be a criminal offense. BNP returned to power following violence-marred elections. 2002 Privatization program begins.
B
DEFENSE
Bogra Mymensingh
Nawábganj
R.
Dhaka Ga
ng
es
Khulna
Brewing
Chittagong
Tobacco Cotton milling Jute processing
0
Light engineering
0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BANGLADESH
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 3.5m kW
1444 b/d (reserves 70,000 barrels)
1.69m tonnes
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
BANGLADESH : LAND USE
B
Hydro 6% (1bn kWh) Salt, natural gas, oil, limestone
Combustion 94% (15bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.8% (0.7% partially protected)
Other 0% 20
0
†
0.2 tonnes per capita
demand greater domestic provision first. The first offshore oil field at Sangu came onstream in 1998.
There are hundreds of daily newspapers. Dainik Jugantor, Prothom Alo, and Dainik Ittefaq are the leading newspapers
3 services: 1 state-controlled, 2 independent
2 services: 1 state-controlled, 1 independent
†
64,866 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
†
EDUCATION 41%
School leaving age: 10
878,537 students
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts per 100,000 population
Rising levels of sectarian violence have led to the introduction of antiterrorism laws allowing summary justice and heavy penalties, including death. Deaths in prisons are common, and the human rights record of the security forces, especially the paramilitary Bangladesh Rifles, is questionable. From 2002, soldiers have been deployed to support police. Opposition activists have been targeted in crackdowns. Women are increasingly the victims of murder, rape, abduction, and acid attacks.
Rice Jute - cash crop
o
Ga f th e
0
ng
100 km
0
†
100 miles
Welfare state health benefits Parasitic, diarrheal, and communicable diseases
Though primary health care in rural areas improved in the 1990s, problems remain severe and are exacerbated by a shortage of medical staff and facilities. Sanitation is a major problem; drinking water is contaminated with disease and high levels of arsenic. Simple cloth filters could cut cholera infections by half. Priority for birth control programs has reduced the population growth rate dramatically in the last 20 years.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
1 per 1000 population
5 per 1000 population
Defense 1.4% Education 2.3% Health 1.5% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Average incomes in Bangladesh remain very low, but wealth disparities are not quite as marked as in India. State officials tend to be among the betteroff members of society.
100
% of each age group in education
2
13
Yes
With fewer than half of the population able to read, newspaper circulation is limited. English-language dailies appeal to the urban elite. Most TV programs are produced locally by the state-run service, though foreign satellite channels are increasingly available. Press freedom emerged briefly after President Ershad’s fall in 1990 but has since been eroded, and violence or threats against journalists are a daily occurrence; Bangladesh has been named the world’s most violent country for journalists.
Murders per 100,000 population
Forest
1 per 4100 people
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
3
M ou th s
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Up 17% in 1996–1998
CRIME RATES
Wetlands
HEALTH
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
ng es
100
80
Sustainability rank: 86th
Daily newspaper circulation 53 per 1000 people
CRIME
60
40
Ga
% of total generation by type
Bangladesh’s climate gives rise to devastating floods and cyclones, with consequent huge death tolls and substantial damage to crops. The country is too poor to finance environmental initiatives.
MEDIA
R.
es
Bangladesh is the world’s major jute producer, accounting for almost 90% of world jute fiber exports and about 50% of world exports of jute products. There are world-class gas reserves, estimated to last as long as 200 years at the present extraction rate. Gas exports are controversial; many
Cropland
m un a R. Ja
34.5m goats, 24.5m cattle, 13m ducks, 140m chickens
80
WORLD RANKING
60
98% 40
Position in World 1st
47%
20
6% 50th
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary 100th
A dramatic reduction in the 1990s in the number of child workers meant an accompanying rise in school attendance. Islamic madaris are run parallel to the state system. There was an outcry from urban schools in 2002 when goat husbandry was put on the national curriculum. Exam cheating is a serious problem. Universities are frequently beset by political violence.
150th
123 193rd
137 156 $380
51 deaths
62 years
138
179 41%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
119
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BARBADOS B
St. Vincent & the Grenadines
BARBADOS Grenada
OFFICIAL NAME: Barbados CAPITAL: Bridgetown POPULATION: 270,000 CURRENCY: Barbados dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1966
1966
Nov 30
BDS
-4
.bb
+1246
ITUATED TO THE NORTHEAST of Trinidad, Barbados is the most easterly of the West Indian Windward Islands. In the 16th century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the island, then inhabited by Arawak Indians. However, Barbados was not colonized until the 1620s, when British settlers arrived. Popularly referred to by its neighbors as “little England,” Barbados now seeks to forge a new national identity for itself.
†
Tropical oceanic
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR BRIDGETOWN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
498,000 visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16 30/12
UK 39%
20/68
20/8
USA 25%
10/50
10/4
77% BLP
†
Visitors : Population 1.8:1
.
Down 2% in 2002
Grantley Adams International, Bridgetown 2.09m passengers
Drive on left
60 ships 327,583 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1584 km (984 miles)
10
20
40
30
Tourists, essential to the Barbadian economy, are attracted by the white sandy beaches and sporting activities, as well as the postcolonial ambience and the generally laid-back culture.
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density high 628/km2 (1627/mi2)
Bajan (Barbadian English), English THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
None
49%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Roman Catholic 4%
†
Joined UN in 1966
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
ACS
NAM
Caricom
OAS
House of Assembly, Trafalgar Square, Bridgetown. Barbados’s parliament, the thirdoldest in the Commonwealth, dates from 1639.
A fishing dispute with Trinidad & Tobago has developed into an issue over maritime borders.
Methodist 7% Pentecostal 8%
A multimillion dollar expansion program has upgraded facilities at the international airport. Piers at Bridgetown’s port have been improved with foreign aid, as have the island’s paved roads. There are bus routes over most of the island.
120
Barbados is a multiparty democracy. Owen Arthur, BLP leader and prime minister, prioritizes economic growth and international competitiveness. His party was swept to power in 1994 and won further victories in 1999 and 2003. However, the opposition DLP made significant gains in the 2003 poll as the government began to encounter economic difficulties. Arthur has previously pledged to transform Barbados into a republic.
None
51% None
BLP = Barbados Labour Party DLP = Democratic Labour Party
The members of the Senate are appointed. Twelve are chosen by the prime minister, two by the leader of the opposition, and seven independents by the governor-general
Other 27% 0
†
23% DLP
Senate 21 seats
% of total arrivals
TRANSPORTATION
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
-10/14
Barbados has a moderate tropical climate and is sunnier and drier than its more mountainous Caribbean neighbors. Hurricanes may occur in the rainy season.
Multiparty elections
House of Assembly 30 seats
Canada 9%
0
-20/-4
†
POLITICS
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
30/86
0/32
Trinidad & Tobago
L. House 2003/2008 U. House 2003/2008
S
CLIMATE
North America
CARIBBEAN
AID
Anglican 40% Nonreligious 17% Other 24%
Most Barbadians are descended from Africans brought to the island between the 16th and 19th centuries; there is also a small group of Europeans, mainly expatriates from the UK, many of whom take up residence on retirement. There is some latent tension between the white community and the majority black population, though this rarely spills over into violence. Increasing social mobility has allowed many black Barbadians to move into the professions and the civil service. The population has a low growth rate, partly due to high levels of emigration. Barbados enjoys a higher standard of living than most Caribbean countries.
†
Recipient
US$3m (receipts)
/
Up in 2002
Most aid comes from the EU, the US, and the UN, mainly in the form of development project loans and balance-of-payments support.
DEFENSE US$12m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 8% in 2002
The small Barbadian army and the constabulary benefit from financial support and training from the US and UK governments, which also supply equipment. Barbados is the headquarters of the Regional Security System, established in 1982 by the Windward and Leeward Islands, a body which acts as a multinational security force for its members.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BARBADOS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Inflation 2.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
ECONOMICS
2 Barbados dollars (1.99)
US$2.36bn SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................137th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$8790 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$171m INFLATION .........................................0.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 166,000 kW
2676 tonnes
1544 b/d (reserves 7.3m barrels)
57,000 turkeys, 27,000 sheep, 3.45m chickens
Oil, natural gas
Barbados has few strategic resources. Oil extracted by Barbados is refined in Trinidad & Tobago and then returned for domestic use.
†
ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS Well-developed tourism based on climate and accessibility. Information processing and financial services are important new growth sectors.
/
0.5%
Not available
4.4 tonnes per capita
Oil slicks created by waste dumped from passing ships are polluting the encircling reef and adversely affecting the life cycle of the flying fish, Barbados’s main fish stock.
WEAKNESSES Narrow economic base and an ailing sugar industry. Tourism industry vulnerable to global downturns. Relatively high manufacturing costs. Low population growth restricts labour supply.
†
MEDIA
Jamaica 6%
There are 2 daily newspapers, the Barbados Advocate and the Nation
UK 11% Other 51%
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
1 state-owned service with subscription option
Trinidad & Tobago 12%
B
1951 Universal adult suffrage introduced. 1961 Full internal self-government. 1966 Independence from the UK. 1983 Barbados supports and provides a base for the US invasion of Grenada. 1994, 1999, 2003 BLP wins three successive general elections.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
St. Lucia 5%
Colonized by the British in 1627, Barbados grew rich in the 18th century from sugar produced using slave labor.
1 per 769 people
Daily newspaper circulation 200 per 1000 people
EXPORTS
CHRONOLOGY
The health system is based on subsidized government-run clinics and hospitals, supplemented by more expensive private clinics and private doctors. Facilities are within easy reach of all Barbadians.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
USA 15%
There is no political interference in the media. The two daily newspapers are privately owned. Multichannel TV is available on subscription.
IMPORTS
Japan 4%
UK 7%
Canada 3% Trinidad & Tobago 17%
USA 41%
Other 28%
992 prisoners
BARBADOS
Education 7.1%
/
A T
L A
Up 7% in 2000
†
EDUCATION
N
99%
T
Rose Hill
School leaving age: 16
I
Endeavour
Holetown
I C
Black Rock
BRIDGETOWN
O
Church Village
Ellerton Brerton
25
Position in World 1st
St Patricks Providence
C Worthing Oistins E A N
0
The Crane
Mount Friendship
Scarborough
St. Martins
Grantley Adams Intl Airport
0
POPULATION over 10 000 under 10 000
1
50th
99%
29 42
42
$8790
75 years
51 12 deaths
150th
Wellhouse
Marchfield
Station Hill
Hastings
20
WORLD RANKING
N Valley
15
A significant disparity exists between most Barbadians and a small affluent group, usually of European origin, which owns and controls business and industry, and parades status symbols such as yachts. Prime Minister Arthur stated in 1998 that “abject poverty” existed in the country.
100th
Cave Hill
10
C
T A N A T L
Lower Carlton
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
11,226 students
“Edutech,” an ongoing project to restructure education, includes Mt Hillaby the renovation of schools and 340m Bathsheba O a computerization program. C Barbados hosts a campus E of the University of Surinam A Pot House Welchman Hall the West Indies. N
Belleplaine
Health 4.3% 0
Boscobelle
Speightstown
494 per 1000 population
Defense 0.5%
Death penalty in use
An update in 2000 to firearms legislation imposed heavy fines and prison sentences for illegal possession of guns; the measure was in response to growing drugs-related and other violent crime. Money laundering is a problem.
Total Area : 430 sq. km (166 sq. miles)
Checker Hall
†
CRIME
233 per 1000 population
5 km
193rd
5 miles
LAND HEIGHT 200m/656ft Sea Level
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
121
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BELARUS
EUROPE
BELARUS
1991
1991
July 3
BY
+2
ELARUS LITERALLY MEANS “white Russia,” a color associated in Slavic culture with freedom, and a reference to the fact that the country was never conquered by the Mongol Golden Horde. Devastated in World War II, and with few resources other than agriculture, Belarus only reluctantly became independent of Moscow in 1991; efforts to reunite the two countries have lost impetus in recent years. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster in Ukraine in 1986 has had lasting effects on the environment and on the health of Belarussians.
†
Uk r ai n e
Minsk 421,954 passengers
Has no fleet
67,019 km (41,644 miles)
None
5512 km (3425 miles)
Extensive canal and river systems
Belarus has no direct access to the sea, but is close to the Baltic ports. Railroad communications are good.
Continental
TOURISM
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
WEATHER CHART FOR MINSK
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TRANSPORTATION
.by
+375
B
CLIMATE
Russian Federation
Poland
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Belarus CAPITAL: Minsk POPULATION: 9.9 million CURRENCY: Belarussian rouble OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Belarussian and Russian
B
Europe
Latvia Lithuania
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
61,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:162
.
Down 83% in 1999–2001
MAIN OVERSEAS ARRIVALS
Poland 19%
0
0/32
†
Much of southern Belarus is marshy and sparsely populated. It includes the vast Pripet Marshes and the Dnieper lowlands.
-10/14 -20/-4
Russia 16% UK 15% Latvia 12%
L A
Braslaw
A
N
Ula
O
N
A
L
Slonim
Krychaw Cherikaw Bykhaw
Asipovichy
Shyahchytsy
Kastsyukovichy
POPULATION
Babruysk Slutsk
Rahachow
over 1 000 000
h
over 500 000
Zhlobin
Salihorsk
Ivatsevichy
over 100 000
A
Pruzhany
over 50 000 a Tsn
Rechytsa
K
ts '
D
U
Mazyr Yel’sk
Kalinkavichy Khoyniki
under 10 000
Dobrush
LAND HEIGHT
er iep Dn
Pinsk
Luninyets Pripet P RI P E T Davyd-Haradok M A RS H E S
over 10 000
Homyel’
Zhytkavichy
Kobryn
Brest
Ub ar
N
Yasye l'd a
Svyetlahorsk
Ptsich
Byaroza
122
BELARUS Total Area : 207 600 sq. km (80 154 sq. miles)
S oz
Baranavichy
I
O
Nyasvizh
B
Mahilyow
Byerazino
Y Vawkavysk
T
Horki
MINSK
Hora Dzyarzhynskaya 345m
Orsha
Barysaw
Navahrudak
E
Belarus has fewer tourists than its neighbors. Many of its historic buildings were destroyed during World War II. Minsk was totally flattened, and is now characterized by Stalinist and other high-rise buildings. There is little of mass appeal on which to build a tourist industry.
A
D
A
Zhodzina
40
A
K
S
Y
A
Byerazino
P
n
in a
A
R
H
30
N
Vitsyebsk Dv
20
R
Plyeshchanitay
U ma
a
10
% of total arrivals
E
Lida
L
A
D
Vilyeyka
Ashmyany
R
0
te
Smarhon'
Maladzyechna
Ne
rn
Hlybokaye Lyepyel’
Hrodna
I
F
Byahoml'
T
Other 30%
S
E
es
Drysa
U
L
S
Polatsk
Navapolatsk
Pastavy
H
I
U
W
I
V
T
Germany 8%
R
A
I
Dris s
Belarus has a continental climate somewhat moderated by the influence of the nearby Baltic Sea. Temperatures in winter drop well below freezing, however, while summers can be hot and humid. Summer is also the main season for rainfall.
200m/656ft 100m/328ft
N 0 0
R
A
I
N
E
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BELARUS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
48/km2 (124/mi2)
Belarussian, Russian THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
70%
30%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Roman Catholic 8% Other 32%
Only 2% of the population are non-Slav and there is little ethnic tension. Most people speak Russian, and only 11% of the population are fluent in Belarussian, which is used mainly in rural areas; both languages have equal status. The social position of the Orthodox Church has increased since 1991 and was officially strengthened in 2002 at the expense of the growing number of Protestant churches. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Orthodox Christian 60%
Age
Female 1.7%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Ukrainian 3%
Polish 4% Russian 13%
Other 2%
Male 0.5%
80+
10%
60–79
12.6%
40–59
15% 14%
5.8% 11.1%
20–39
14.8%
0–19
14.5%
% of population by age group
Belarussian 78%
†
POLITICS L. House 2000/2004 U. House 2000/2004
EAPC
CIS
President Aleksandr Lukashenka
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 110 seats
2% 1% Opp Ind
PKB = Party of Communists of Belarus and government supporters Opp = Minor opposition parties Ind = Independents
Council of the Republic 64 seats
The Council of the Republic is indirectly elected
Belarus has a directly elected executive president, and a bicameral parliament.
PROFILE Belarus, by far the slowest of the former Soviet states to implement political reform, has struggled to find an identity since 1991. A post-Soviet constitution was not adopted until 1994, and only in 1995 was the first fully fledged postSoviet parliament elected, dominated by the PKB and its Agrarian Party ally. Aleksandr Lukashenka was unexpectedly elected Belarus’s first president in 1994. He has since concentrated power in his own hands, drawing fierce criticism. A strong pluralist culture has yet to be established, however, opposition parties being hamstrung by internal divisions and easily outmaneuvered by the powerful presidency. A clampdown on political opponents effectively invalidated parliamentary elections in late 2000–early 2001. Lukashenka’s reelection in late 2001 was immediately condemned by observers.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES The relationship with Russia In 1994 an accord (reinforced in 1999 and 2000) was signed on future monetary union with Russia. Lukashenka has sought ever closer relations, with the ultimate goal of a joint presidency. A union treaty was signed in late 1999, but it is more symbolic than practical. With Russian reticence and Belarus’s declining enthusiasm for the union, the treaty has produced no significant developments toward joint state institutions or economic programs. Powers of the presidency Described as a dictator by his detractors, Lukashenka has an authoritarian style which has put him into conflict with his own government, let alone the international community, the domestic political opposition, and the public. His second term in office is due to expire in 2006. Some observers predict, however, that the current constitutional two-term limit is unlikely to stand in his way if he chooses to run for a third term; his first term was arbitrarily lengthened twice.
President Aleksandr Lukashenka has been accused of authoritarian rule.
Vladimir Goncharik, Lukashenka’s main rival in presidential elections in 2001.
CEI
IAEA
Joined UN in 1945
OSCE
Relations with Russia are paramount. Numerous bilateral agreements were signed after independence in 1991. Ties have been strengthened further by the pro-Russian stance of Lukashenka, though many in Russia fear that closer links will drain Moscow’s resources for little strategic gain. Concerns over human rights and authoritarianism damage relations with many other countries. A move to relax EU sanctions was hindered in 2001 by the closure of the OSCE office in Minsk. Lukashenka and members of his government were banned from entering any EU country from late 2002 until the office was reopened in April 2003.
AID
†
Recipient
$39m (receipts) Multiparty elections
97% PKB
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density low
,
Little change in 2002
Though both the World Bank and the IMF provided loans for Belarus in the early 1990s, the lack of structural reforms since Lukashenka’s administration came to power in 1994 has meant that further aid has been stalled. Some US bilateral aid continued, but the EU in particular has made it clear that support will depend on human rights improvements and the reversal of authoritarian threats to democracy. Both the US and the EU extended credits to Belarus to assist in the conversion of the defense industry to nonmilitary production. Belarus also still requires aid to combat the effects of radiation pollution in the wake of the Chernobyl nuclear accident of 1986.
CHRONOLOGY After forming part of medieval Kievan Rus, Belarus was ruled by three of its neighbors – Lithuania, Poland, and Russia – before incorporation into the USSR. 1918 Belarussian Bolsheviks stage coup. Independence as Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). 1919 Invaded by Poland. 1920 Minsk retaken by Red Army. Eastern Belorussia reestablished as Soviet Socialist Republic. 1921 Treaty of Riga – Western Belorussia incorporated into Poland. 1922 BSSR merges with Soviet Russia and Ukraine to form USSR. 1929 Stalin implements collectivization of agriculture. 1939 Western Belorussia reincorporated into USSR when Soviet Red Army invades Poland.
123
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
.
Compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
BELARUSSIAN ARMED FORCES 1586 main battle tanks (1484 T-72, 29 T-55, 95 T-80)
29,600 personnel
None
210 combat aircraft (35 18,170 Su-24, 76 Su-25, 23 Su-27, personnel 35 MiG-23, 41 MiG-29) None
After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Belarus briefly adopted a
ECONOMICS $13.5bn
†
policy of neutrality. It also committed itself to disposing of its inherited nuclear capability. Tactical nuclear weapons were removed by 1993 and strategic nuclear weapons by 1996. Despite joining the CIS collective security agreement in 1993, Belarus joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace program in 1995. Lukashenka has not developed NATO ties further, preferring to establish stronger military links with Moscow. Under the Belarus–Russia union treaty defense policies in Belarus and Russia are to be harmonized. From 2002 Belarussian troops have been allowed to serve abroad, despite there theoretically being constitutional barriers.
Inflation 318% p.a. (1990–2001)
2162 Belarussian roubles (2066)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................80th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1360 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$378m INFLATION .......................................42.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
EXPORTS
Poland 3% USA 2%
Ukraine 4% Germany 5% Other 26%
Russia 60%
IMPORTS
Poland 3% Italy 2%
Ukraine 3% Germany 9% Other 15%
Russia 68%
STRENGTHS Low unemployment combined with relative social stability. Potential of forestry and agriculture.
GDP
3700
3700
2500
2500
1300
1300
100
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
124
$1.89bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1941–1944 Occupied by Germany during World War II. 1945 Founding member of UN. 1956–1980 Government dominated by wartime partisan leaders K. T. Mazurov (to 1965) and P. M. Masherov. 1986 Radioactive fallout after Chernobyl accident affects 70% of country. 1988 Evidence revealed of mass executions (over 300,000) by Soviet military between 1937 and 1941 near Minsk. Popular outrage fuels formation of nationalist Belorussian Popular Front (BPF), with Zyanon Paznyak as president. PKB authorities crush demonstration. 1989 Belarussian adopted as republic’s official language. 1990 PKB prevents BPF from participating in elections to Supreme Soviet. BPF members join other opposition groups in Belorussian Democratic Bloc (BDB). BDB wins 25% of seats. PKB bows to opposition pressure and issues Declaration of the State Sovereignty of BSSR. 1991 March, 83% vote in referendum to preserve union with USSR. April, strikes against PKB and its economic policies. August, independence declared. Republic of Belarus adopted as official name. Stanislau Shushkevich elected chair of Supreme Soviet. December, Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine establish CIS. 1992 Supreme Soviet announces that Soviet nuclear weapons must be cleared from Belarus by 1999. Help promised from US. 1993 Belarussian parliament ratifies START-I and nuclear nonproliferation treaties. 1994 New presidential constitution approved; Aleksandr Lukashenka defeats conservative prime minister Vyacheslav Kebich in elections. Monetary union (reentry into rouble zone) agreed with Russia. 1995 First fully fledged post-Soviet parliament elected. 1996 Referendum approves changes to constitution strengthening Lukashenka’s powers. 1997 Belarus and Russia ratify union treaty and Charter. 1998 Eviction from embassies sparks withdrawal of Western ambassadors. 1999 Signs union treaty with Russia. 2000–2001 Disputed parliamentary elections; clampdown on PKB’s political opponents. 2001 Lukashenka reelected; observers label election seriously flawed.
B
DEFENSE
2002
only halfheartedly in 1995, under a policy of “market socialism.” The National Bank began to liberalize the exchange market in 2000 and is taking steps to ensure that money production is not increased. A currency crisis in 1998, and rampant inflation, coincided with two successive bad harvests in 1998 and 1999. Inflation receded in 2000–2002, but the rate of economic growth has slowed. BELARUS : MAJOR BUSINESSES Vitsyebsk
Barysaw Minsk
Orsha
WEAKNESSES Lack of economic restructuring; support for outmoded businesses. Few natural resources. Dependence on Russia for energy and raw materials. Cleanup costs of Chernobyl. High inflation.
Mahilyow Hrodna
Babruysk Brest Homyel’ Pinsk
PROFILE After 1991, Belarus adopted economic reform at a slower pace than other former Soviet states. Attempts to move more quickly to a market economy were thwarted by the largely Communist parliament. Upon election in 1994, Lukashenka suspended privatization moves, resuming them
Mazyr
Rechytsa
Micro electronics
Textiles
Shipbuilding parts Heavy engineering
Chemicals Computers
Food processsing
Saw milling
Vehicle assembly Manufacturing
0
Consumer goods
0
* significant multinational ownership
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BELARUS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 7.8m kW
5609 tonnes
37,113 b/d (reserves 203m barrels)
4.01m cattle, 3.33m pigs, 30m chickens
Potash, oil, natural gas, coal, rock salt
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 20 daily newspapers, mostly published in Russian, while weekly papers tend to be published in Belarussian
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 0% 1 state-controlled service, several independent services
Combustion 100% (26bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0%
1 state-controlled service
20
0
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Belarus is the world’s third-largest producer of potash. Apart from this, there are no other significant strategic resources and the country is heavily dependent on Russia for fuel and energy supplies. BELARUS : LAND USE
Y
L
R
SK
A
HR
A
DA
†
CRIME
Death penalty in use
/
55,156 prisoners
Up 4% in 2000–2002
Belarus’s health service performs relatively well. It has been under particular strain, however, in coping with the long-term effects of the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Assistance for victims of the accident is funded by a Chernobyl tax. The number of cancer and leukemia cases has soared, and extra wards and specialist units have had to be built. Many Belarussian doctors are being trained in the latest bone-marrow techniques in Europe and the US. HIV/AIDS is a growing problem; most infections are via intravenous drug use.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
147 per 1000 population
Murders 12
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, violence
299 per 1000 population
per 100,000 population
Defense 2.5% Rapes 5
Education 6%
per 100,000 population
Health 4.9% Thefts 722
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
per 100,000 population
D ni
B
E
U
YA
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Flax - cash crop Cereals Cattle
There are some independent media outlets, but government critics face harassment. Press freedom is curbed; state-backed publications predominate.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 222 people
Daily newspaper circulation 152 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
er ep
Pripet
0
100 km
0
ENVIRONMENT
.
6% (3% partially protected)
†
100 miles
Sustainability rank: 49th
5.9 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
As elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, economic hardship and a general breakdown in law and order have resulted in a significant rise in crime. The prison population exceeds the intended capacity of 40,000. Belarus has become a transshipment point for illegal narcotics destined for western Europe, while locally produced opium supplies the internal market.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 14
437,995 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
The massive leak from Ukraine’s Chernobyl nuclear plant in 1986 released a huge cloud of radiation. Some 70% of the fallout fell on Belarus; 2.3 million people were immediately affected, and cases of leukemia and cancer continue to emerge. Farmland, forests, and water were all contaminated, including underwater streams feeding rivers in eastern Poland. Some areas in the fallout zone are still being farmed. The cleanup program swallows 20% of government finances, despite substantial Western aid, but the threat of further leaks has been removed by the closure in 2000 of Chernobyl’s last reactor. The Belavezhskaya Pushcha primeval forest, on the border with Poland, is one of Europe’s largest nature reserves. It is now a habitat for the rare European bison or wisent.
The deteriorating economic situation has resulted in an overall drop in living standards. Wealth is concentrated among a small, communist elite which is opposed to market mechanisms. Since it has had the upper hand, its members have strengthened their grip on the state’s resources. Thus far Belarus has not seen the expansion of entrepreneurial activity found in other former Soviet-bloc countries such as Poland or Russia. Wage increases in 2001 – an election year – brought salaries to levels which were unaffordable, so that enterprise profitability and investment were severely affected.
WORLD RANKING
80
60
Position in World
100%
1st
84%
40
62%
1
50th
99%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
100th
64
62
17 deaths
Education is officially compulsory for nine years, and teaching is mainly in Russian. Activists complain that because of political bias there is inadequate provision for the teaching of Belarussian. University education – taught in Russian – is of a fairly high standard.
150th
109 $1360
193rd
113 68 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
125
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BELGIUM B
EUROPE
1919
July 21
B
+1
.be
+32
L
OCATED BETWEEN GERMANY, France, and the Netherlands, Belgium has a short coastline on the North Sea. The south includes the forested Ardennes region, while the north is crisscrossed by canals. Belgium has been fought over many times in its history; it was occupied by Germany in both world wars. Tensions have existed between the Dutchspeaking Flemings and French-speaking Walloons since the 1830s. These have been somewhat defused by Belgium’s move to a federal political structure and the national consensus on the benefits of EU membership.
CLIMATE
†
WEATHER CHART FOR BRUSSELS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TOURISM
Maritime
/
6.72m visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
188 ships 186,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 116,242 km (72,229 miles)
1729 km (1074 miles)
3518 km (2186 miles)
1570 km (976 miles)
Belgium can be crossed within four hours by car or train. The expressway network is extensive, and though the railroad system has been reduced since 1970, it still constitutes one of the world’s densest networks. Using high-speed TGV lines, Paris is just 80 minutes from Brussels, and London via the Channel Tunnel takes 2 hours 20 minutes. In 2001 the national airline Sabena collapsed dramatically, amid a slump in the aviation industry. A section of it subsequently formed the basis for a new private airline, SN Brussels Airlines. Antwerp is the second-largest port in Europe.
126
ma ny
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
97%
3%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 2%
Other 10%
Roman Catholic 88%
Other 6% Walloon 33%
UK 19% France 14%
Fleming 58%
Other 26%
Brussels Zaventem 15.2m passengers
314/km2 (813/mi2)
Dutch, French, German
Italian 2%
USA 4%
Drive on right
Pop. density high
Netherlands 25%
-20/-4
†
†
PEOPLE
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Germany 12%
TRANSPORTATION
Lux.
Moroccan 1%
-10/14
Belgium has a typical maritime climate and is influenced by the Gulf Stream. Temperatures are mild, accompanied by heavy cloud cover and much rain. Widely fluctuating weather conditions, caused by cyclonic disturbances, can disrupt the climate on the coast. Summers tend to be short.
IU M
France
Up 4% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
Visitors : Population 1:1.5
LG
Ger
BE
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Belgium CAPITAL: Brussels POPULATION: 10.3 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Dutch, French, and German 1830
Europe
Netherlands
United Kingdom
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Belgium’s main attractions are its historic cities and the museums of Flemish art. Bruges, the capital of West Flanders, is often referred to as the “Venice of the North.” With Gothic and Renaissance architecture and a complex canal system, it has become a favored destination for British weekend trippers and Japanese honeymooners. In Brussels, the famous Grande Place, a cluster of Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque buildings in a cobbled square, survived bombing during World War II. Much of the rest of the old city center, however, was destroyed. Belgium has 15 resorts on its 62-km (38-mile) coastline, with a tramline running its entire length. Forests in the Ardennes to the southeast attract hikers.
Belgium has been marked by the divisions between its Flemish and Walloon communities. The majority Dutch-speaking Flemings are concentrated in Flanders. Wallonia is French-speaking and Brussels is 85% francophone. Only rarely have tensions between Walloons and Flemings erupted into violence. French speakers were in the ascendancy for many years, their greater economic wealth reinforced by the dominance of the French language in public life. Since the 1960s, however, Wallonia’s industries have declined and Flanders is now the wealthier region. Belgium began in 1970 to change from being one of Europe’s most centralized states to one of its most federal states; each community now has control of much of its affairs and possesses its own government. A small German-speaking community in the east has extensive autonomy in educational and cultural matters. Belgium also has a sizable immigrant population. Women make up two-fifths of the workforce; they only account, however, for one-fifth of the administrators and managers. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.7% 9.7% 12.4% 14.6% 11.7%
The Ardennes plateau, in the southeast, is famous for its scenery and cuisine. It is dissected by rivers, such as the Meuse and Semois.
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 1.1% 7.9% 12.5% 15.1% 12.3%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BELGIUM
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Antwerpen
L
F
S
R
E
F
Roeselare Kortrijk
Dilbeek
10% SPA–S
10% VLD
R
D
N
a Ha utes F Am
blè ve
es g n Botrange 694m
Malmédy
Ciney Marche-en -Famenne
Walcourt
5% 1% CDH Others
8% 7% PS VB
8% CD&V
3% CDH
7% 3% MR Others
The Senate has 40 directly elected members and 31 co-opted members
Successive constitutional reforms in the 1970s and 1980s culminated in the 1993 St. Michael Agreement, since when Belgium has been a federal monarchy. 2001 saw a further transfer of power from the center to Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels.
PROFILE Politics is largely defined along language lines. This apart, a high degree of consensus exists over the benefits of EU membership and monetary union. In the late 1990s a centrist coalition of the Socialist and Christian Democrat parties had difficulty in securing the necessary majority for further constitutional reforms. A “rainbow” coalition composed of the Liberals, Socialists, and Greens, under the VLD’s Guy Verhofstadt, came to power after the 1999 elections. The first government without Christian Democrats since 1958, it undertook a program of social
E
Couvin
liberalization, including the legalization of euthanasia and the decriminalization of cannabis. While the Liberals and Socialists increased their representation in 2003, the Greens saw their support more than halved as a consequence of political inexperience and their pursuit of unpopular policies such as banning tobacco advertising which cost Belgium its place on the Grand Prix circuit.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Language Tensions between the two main language groups have been mitigated by progressive federalization, but Flemish groups in particular continue to demand further powers. The far right In recent years, support has increased for Flanders’ far-right party, the VB, which modeled itself in the 1980s on the National Front in France. With a decidedly anti-immigration position and exploiting popular concern about unemployment, crime, and insecurity, the VB won 18% of the Flemish vote in the 2003 national elections, but it remains politically isolated.
N
N
A
D
R Se
m oi
s
Arlon
Benelux
CE
Joined UN in 1945
EU
OECD
NATO
Belgium’s key concern is its role in the EU. It is a keen supporter of economic and monetary union. As a historic victim of wars between France and Germany, Belgium regards the EU as a guarantor of western European peace. The presence of the EU’s key institutions in Brussels is also seen as economically attractive, and EU membership is an important foundation for Belgium’s own federalist structure. Belgium has little in the way of an independent foreign policy, but strongly favors the development of an EU foreign policy and a more assertive UN. Paying for just over 1% of all UN activities, Belgium is among its ten largest contributors.
$1.07bn (donations)
Guy Verhofstadt, youthful leader of the VLD and prime minister since 1999.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
AID
King Albert II, succeeded his brother King Baudouin, who died in 1993.
Bastogne
E
RG
44% Co-op
Châtelet O C Dinant
bre Sam
Z
O
Charleroi
A
Verviers
OU
16% 15% 14% MR SPA–S CD&V
12% 3% VB Ecolo
VLD = Flemish Liberals and Democrats PS = Socialist Party (francophone) MR = Reformist Movement (francophone) SPA–S = Socialist Party Different–Spirit coalition (Flemish) CD&V = Christian Democratic & Flemish VB = Flemish Block CDH = Humanist Democratic Center (francophone) Ecolo = Greens (francophone) Co-op = Co-opted members
Senate 71 seats
Namur
Esneux
S
H.M. King Albert II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
17% PS
I
Multiparty elections
Chamber of Representatives 150 seats
17% VLD
La Louvière Courcelles
Huy Andenne
Y
L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2003/2007
S
Liège
Seraing
LUXEMB
†
POLITICS
E
Herstal
E
Y
A
B
e Meus
E
40 miles
Sint-Truiden
H
Binche
0
Tienen
BRUSSELS
O Mons
C
40 km
Genk Hasselt
Braine-l’Alleud
N 0
Aarschot Vilvoorde Leuven
e
L
N Maasmechelen
A N R M
Tournai
N
Sea Level
E
E
N
P
Beringen
G
L
A
200m/656ft
Ninove
t ld he
A
Mouscron
500m/1640ft
Sc
er
W
R
Menen
Den d
Ieper
LAND HEIGHT
Geel
Mechelen Aalst Grimbergen
ie Le Waregem
M
el
Gent
Deinze
over 10 000
Lier up
Lokeren
B
E R
A
D
N
K
Schoten
Beveren
Maldegem
th e
Brugge
Sint-Niklaas
over 100 000
Turnhout
ur
Oostende
over 1 000 000 over 50 000
N Brasschaat Ekeren
Me use
Zeebrugge
A
dt
Senn
POPULATION
O
H
T
L
S
N
R
he l
R
D
Total Area : 30 510 sq. km (11 780 sq. miles)
Sc
E BAARLEHERTOG
O
BELGIUM
A S E
H
T
E
N
†
Donor
/
Up 24% in 2002
Some 0.43% of GNP was spent on overseas development aid in 2002. Belgian aid focuses on social projects and economic infrastructure in African countries; the former Belgian colony of the DRC is the top beneficiary.
127
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Previously ruled by the French dukes of Burgundy, Belgium became a Habsburg possession in 1477. It passed from the Spanish to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs in 1713. Belgium was incorporated into France in 1795.
B
/
No compulsory military service
Up 16% in 2002
BELGIAN ARMED FORCES 143 main battle tanks (Leopard 1A5)
24,800 personnel
3 frigates
2450 personnel
135 combat aircraft (F-16A, F-16B, Mirage 5)
10,250 personnel
None
Belgium spends less on defense than the NATO average of 2% of GDP. In
ECONOMICS $237bn
†
1994, the government abolished conscription and undertook to cut troop levels. It also targeted all three military services for cuts as part of a program to reduce government debt; the defense budget was frozen for five years. Spending on paratroops and transport aircraft, however, increased. The aim is to allow Belgian forces to fulfill their role in NATO’s new rapid reaction force. It will also make Belgian forces more useful to the UN’s worldwide operations. In 1996, the Belgian and Netherlands’ navies came under a joint operational command, and in 2003 the government agreed in principle to the creation of a European Security and Defense Union.
Inflation 1.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................19th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$22,940 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$11.5bn INFLATION .........................................1.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................7%
EXPORTS
USA 8%
UK 10%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
Germany 19%
France 16%
IMPORTS
Ireland 7% Other 40%
80 1998
Other 35% Netherlands 12%
UK 7% France 13%
Netherlands 16% Germany 17%
GDP
160
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
128
$3.44bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1814–1815 Congress of Vienna; European powers decide to merge Belgium with the Netherlands under King William I of Orange. 1830 Revolt against Dutch; declaration of independence. 1831 European powers install Leopold Saxe Coburg as king. 1865 Leopold II crowned king. 1885 Berlin Conference gives Congo basin to Leopold as colony. 1914 German armies invade. Belgium occupied until 1918. 1921 Belgo-Luxembourg Economic Union formed. Belgian and Luxembourg currencies locked. 1932 Dutch language accorded equal official status with French. 1936 Belgium declares neutrality. 1940 Leopold III capitulates to Hitler. Belgium occupied till 1944. 1948 Customs union with Netherlands and Luxembourg (Benelux) formed. 1950 King abdicates in favor of son, Baudouin. 1957 Becomes one of six original signatories of Treaty of Rome, the principal foundation of what develops into the EU. 1992 Christian Democrat and Socialist government led by JeanLuc Dehaene takes over federal government. 1993 Culmination of reforms creating federal state. Greater powers for regions and city governments. Death of Baudouin; succeeded by Albert II. 1995 Allegations of corruption and murder involving French-speaking PS force resignations of Walloon premier, federal deputy premier, and Willy Claes, NATO secretarygeneral. 1996 Murder and disappearance of young girls arouse fears of international kidnapping and pedophile ring. 1999 Claes found guilty of bribery in connection with defense contract. Liberals win general election. New coalition formed, including Greens for first time. 2001 Collapse of national airline Sabena. 2002 January, euro fully adopted – withdrawal of Belgian franc. May, legalization of euthanasia. 2003 Government reelected; Greens lose seats, VB makes gains.
DEFENSE
2002
PROFILE Recession and rising unemployment in the early 1990s prompted the introduction of work-sharing schemes and benefit reforms. Unemployment and the massive public debt are declining gradually. Against a background of a downturn in the world economy, the government is committed to both greater fiscal stringency, in pursuit of a budget surplus, and reductions in taxation.
STRENGTHS One of world’s most efficient producers of metal products and textiles. Flanders is a world leader in new high-tech industries. Successful chemicals industry. Highly educated and motivated multilingual workforce: estimates suggest productivity is 20% above that of Germany. Location attractive for US multinationals. Good sea outlets and access to Rhine inland waterway from Antwerp and Ghent.
BELGIUM : MAJOR BUSINESSES Antwerpen Gent
Liège
Kortrijk Brussels
WEAKNESSES Public debt of around 100% of GDP, well over EU target of 60%. High longterm and low-skill joblessness with sharp local variations. Early retirement of large numbers of workers results in high state pension bill. Bureaucracy larger than European average.
Charleroi
Electronics
Vehicle manufacture
Pharmaceuticals
Petrochemicals Textiles
Aerospace industry Heavy engineering Telecommunications
0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BELGIUM
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 31,839 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 764,000 b/d
6.54m pigs, 2.78m cattle, 32m chickens
Coal, natural gas, shale, marble, sandstone, dolomite
of Wallonia closed for good in 1992. There is some deciduous and conifer forestry in the Ardennes region. BELGIUM : LAND USE
ELECTRICITY GENERATION ERS AND ie Le
e
FL
Combustion 41% (34bn kWh)
Meu s
Hydro 2% (1.7bn kWh)
Nuclear 57% (48bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
bre Sam
100
80
% of total generation by type Cropland Pasture Forest 0 Pigs Wheat 0
Belgium has few natural resources and depends largely on the export of goods and services. The once-rich coal mines
ENVIRONMENT
.
3% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 125th
D AR
EN
N
E
S
†
No death penalty
/
9253 prisoners
Yes
6
Yes
Yes
Education 5.9%
per 100,000 population
Health 6.4% 0
19
per 100,000 population
4258
per 100,000 population
MEDIA
†
Penalties for illegal narcotics use are strict. The “universal competence law,” which had allowed the trial of nonBelgians for crimes against humanity, was watered down beyond use in 2003.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 18
298,387 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM TV ownership high
There are 30 daily newspapers, published in Dutch, French, and German, including Het Laatste Nieuws and Le Soir 3 state-owned services, broadcasting in Dutch, French, and German, and 5 independent commercial services 3 state-owned services, broadcasting in Dutch, French, and German, and numerous private stations
Newspapers tend to be regional and divided by language. Individual circulations are low: that of the most widely read paper is only 320,000. Control of broadcasting is divided along linguistic lines between two major corporations. Commercial TV only began in 1989, with the Flemish station VTM. Over 95% of Belgians have cable TV, receiving channels from all over Europe.
100
% of each age group in education
Daily newspaper circulation 160 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
Flanders is concerned about the pollution of groundwater supplies through acid rain, heavy metals, fertilizers, and pesticides. Its government operates an environmental management plan to raise standards. Wallonia has strict laws against illegal tipping of waste, and regulations on air quality and emissions. Awareness of environmental issues is reflected in the rise of the two green parties, which entered government for the first time in the coalition formed in 1999.
494 per 1000 population
Defense 1.3%
Rapes Yes
GDP/cap. increase
461 per 1000 population
Up 1% in 1999–2001
CRIME RATES Yes
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Murders Yes
Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers, accidents
The quality of health care is among the best in the world, and government spending is high. Belgium is a world leader in fertility treatment and heart and lung transplants. Treatment is not free, but Belgians are able to claim up to 75% of their costs. Accidents rate unusually high in Belgium as a cause of death. In 2003 there were around 10,000 people living with HIV/AIDS. In 2002 Belgium became the second country (after the Netherlands) to legalize euthanasia.
SPENDING
50 miles
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 256 people
50 km
CRIME
10 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
HEALTH
Electric power 15.7m kW
80
Despite high levels of state debt and failing traditional industries, Belgium is one of Europe’s richest countries. GNP per capita is lower than for the Netherlands, the UK, or Austria, but higher than for France or Germany. There are considerable regional differences, however: in Flanders the level of unemployment is only half that in Wallonia. The recession of the early 1990s prompted Belgians to save a higher proportion of their income, but the level of savings has fallen since then as consumer confidence has recovered. The presence of highly paid EU officials and international company employees and bankers has made Brussels a distinctly wealthy, and expensive, city.
60
100%
100%
WORLD RANKING
40
58% 20
0
Position in World 1st
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
50th
17 $22,940
In Belgium, parents can choose between schooling provided by the two main language communities, by public authorities, or by private interests. Roman Catholic schools constitute the greatest number of “free” (privately organized) establishments. Since 1989 the system has been administered by the governments of the two main language groups. Some universities teach in French, others in Dutch.
7 79 years
1 99%
16
6
5 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
129
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BELIZE
South America Mexico
1981
1981
Sept 21
BZ
-6
BELIZE
Guatemala
OFFICIAL NAME: Belize CAPITAL: Belmopan POPULATION: 256,000 CURRENCY: Belizean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English .bz
+501
F
ORMERLY BRITISH HONDURAS, Belize was the last Central American country to gain its independence, in 1981. It lies on the southeastern shore of the Yucatán peninsula and shares a border with Mexico along the River Hondo. Belize is Central America’s least populous country, and almost half of its land area is still forested. Its swampy coastal plains are protected from flooding by the world’s second-largest barrier reef.
†
CLIMATE
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
11/km2 (29/mi2)
L. House 2003/2008 U. House 2003/2008
Multiparty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
48%
52%
House of Representatives 29 seats
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Asian Indian 4% Garifuna 7%
Other 4%
-10/14 -20/-4
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
825 km (513 miles)
o
Visitors : Population 1:1.3
/
Up 2% in 2002
50
% of total arrivals
M
Monkey River Town San Antonio
L Sa r stoon
A
E
I
R
B
Total Area : 22 966 sq. km (8867 sq. miles)
Punta Gorda Gulf of Honduras
N
POPULATION over 10 000 under 10 000
Toledo Settlement San Lucas
BELIZE
I
Y
A
A
A
The barrier reef, good beaches, and Mayan ruins draw visitors. “Eco” attractions need conservation.
60
R
40
A
30
Independence
C
20
M
10
A
B
Other 32%
R
M
O
U
E
Victoria Peak 1120m
I n n e r
N
T
Guatemala 11% UK 5%
B
S
A
IN
T
USA 52%
C h a n n e l E R
l ize
A
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
R
E
†
U
200,000 visitors
G
TOURISM
E
A US$16 million IDB loan in 1998 helped improve the country’s road network and its feeder roads. A terminal and a runway extension have been completed at the international airport near Belize City.
E
None
The PUP negotiated Belize’s independence from the UK in 1981. Since then, control of the government has swung between the PUP and the UDP, in the absence of any major X Louisville Calcutta ideological or policy Libertad San Pablo Buena Vista distinctions. The PUP, under Trial Farm Said Musa, won a crushing Ambergris Orange Walk Cay victory in 1998 and gained H o nd San Pedro a historic second term in Maskall 2003, with a slightly reduced Crooked Tree majority. Key political issues Burrell include addressing the rise Bermudian Boom Landing in narcotics-related crimes Belize City and political corruption. Hattieville Be The controversial practice Turneffe Is Roaring Creek of selling Belizean passports Georgeville BELMOPAN Gales San Ignacio Santa Elena under the “economic Point Middlesex Benque Viejo citizenship” program was del Carmen Dangriga finally suspended in 2002. Pomona
S
None
N
488 km (303 miles)
The members of the Senate are appointed by the governorgeneral
A
1014 ships 1.47m grt
Senate 13 seats
Along with the Spanish-speaking mestizo and English-speaking Creole there are the Maya Amerindians and the Afro-Carib garifuna, who have their own language. Around half the population is Roman Catholic. The number of Spanish speakers is rising, mostly through immigration O from C Chetumal neighboring I Chan Chen Bay Patchchacan countries. Corozal
F
†
Creole 30%
E
Phillip S. W. Goldson, Belize City 272,000 passengers
PUP = People's United Party UDP = United Democratic Party
Mestizo 44%
Ne w
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
24% UDP
76% PUP
Maya 11%
Conditions are hot and humid. Coastal regions are affected by hurricanes, notably Hurricane Iris in late 2001.
A
130
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
0/32
0
Small fishing village near Belize City. About 500 tonnes of Caribbean spiny lobster, the main inshore species, are caught every year.
Pop. density low
English Creole, Spanish, English, Mayan, Garifuna (Carib)
WEATHER CHART FOR BELMOPAN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
M
B
CENTRAL AMERICA
0 0
50 km
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
50 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BELIZE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1981
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Comm
NAM
Caricom
OAS
Ties, traditionally to the Caribbean, are refocusing on Central America. The major concern is Guatemala’s periodically restated claim to over half of Belize.
†
AID
,
Little change in 2002
The US is the biggest aid donor, though this is mostly military assistance. With the help of a cheap loan from Taiwan, the government is spending US$50 million on building low-cost housing.
DEFENSE US$17m
†
,
No compulsory military service
ECONOMICS
†
Oil
Belize relies on Mexico for half of its electricity. Oil deposits exist, but not in commercial quantities.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
40% (31% partially protected)
Not available
3.1 tonnes per capita
Tourist developments and logging have depleted the dense tropical forests. Mahogany is endangered, and all exports and transshipments now require a certificate of origin. Global warming poses a major threat to the corals of the barrier reef.
†
MEDIA
STRENGTHS Sugar, textile manufacture, agriculture, fishing, and considerable tourist potential. Sustainable public debt; fair access to concessionary foreign finance. Free trade zones and offshore banking.
Narrow export base dependent on preferential market access; reliance on imports of processed foods. Hurricane damage. EXPORTS
Japan 4% Peru 7%
USA 39% UK 23%
There are no daily newspapers. The leading papers are the weekly Belize Times, Amandala, and Reporter 3 independent services
14 independent services
Belize has not suffered the degree of press interference experienced in neighboring states, but successive governments have remained sensitive to even minor criticisms. The two radio stations of the public Broadcasting Corporation of Belize were sold in 1998 to two local stations, but the government has retained ownership of the transmitters. Two official newspapers compete with partypolitical and independent publications.
CRIME
†
Death penalty in use
/
Increase in narcoticsand gun-related crime
Belize is a major transit point to the US for cocaine, and narcotics-related crime is high. Armed robberies by criminal gangs based in neighboring Guatemala are also a major concern. The police force lacks resources and training, and a government ombudsman was appointed in 2000 to investigate police brutality and corruption.
77%
Cuba 5% Other 36%
Netherlands Antilles 6% Mexico 15%
USA 33%
†
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart diseases, accidents, violence
1 per 2000 people
†
The health service provided by the government includes seven hospitals, more than 30 regional health centers, and numerous mobile clinics. Water supplies and sanitation have been improved; most homes in Belmopan now have both.
SPENDING
Though most schools are run by the different churches, a handful are funded by the government, particularly those catering for special needs. The University College of Belize provides for higher education.
GDP/cap. increase
90 per 1000 population
124 per 1000 population
Defense 2.3% Education 6.2% Health 2.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The European Development Fund in 1999 granted 3.5 million Belizean dollars toward the reduction of rural poverty. Narcotics trading remains a source of wealth.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
50
100th
2853 students
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
School leaving age: 14
Other 24%
Japan 5%
1919 Demands for more political rights by black Belizeans returning from World War I. 1936 New constitution. 1950 PUP formed. Voting age limit for women reduced from 30 to 21. 1954 Full adult suffrage. 1972 Guatemala threatens invasion. Britain sends troops. 1981 Full independence. 2000 Guatemala revives claim to half of Belize. 2001 Hurricane Iris hits Belize. 2003 PUP wins second term.
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
EDUCATION IMPORTS
The Mayan heartland included what is now Belize. Between 1798 and 1981 it was effectively a British colony.
There are no daily newspapers
1097 prisoners
WEAKNESSES
CHRONOLOGY
TV ownership medium
1.98 Belizean dollars (1.97)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................160th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$2970 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$163m INFLATION .........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
Taiwan 3%
58,380 cattle, 38,000 turkeys, 1.45m chickens
Inflation 1.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
18,830 tonnes
No change in 2002
The small Belize Defense Force took over full responsibility from the UK for the country’s defense in 1994. The UK withdrew its garrison in the same year, but continues to maintain a jungle training school.
Electric power 43,000 kW
Reserves commercially unexploitable
Recipient
US$22m (receipts)
US$750m
†
RESOURCES
74
74 years
$2970
99
150th
112 136
193rd
34 deaths
77%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
131
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BENIN
Burkina Nigeria Togo
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Benin CAPITAL: Porto-Novo POPULATION: 6.7 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1960
1960
Aug 8
DY
+1
BENIN
ENIN STRETCHES NORTH from the west African coast, with a 100-km (60-mile) shoreline on the Bight of Benin. Formerly the kingdom of Dahomey, Benin was under French colonial rule, becoming part of French West Africa, until independence in 1960. In 1990 Benin was a pioneer of multipartyism in Africa, ending 17 years of one-party Marxist-Leninist rule. Benin’s economy is based on well-diversified agriculture.
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR PORTO-NOVO
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
-10/14 -20/-4
There are two rainy seasons. The hot, dusty harmattan wind characterizes the December to February dry season.
6 ships 1000 grt
Sections of streams are navigable
.
Down 53% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
B
Bassila Tchaourou
POPULATION
France 14%
% of total arrivals
LAND HEIGHT
O
Kétou
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
0
Mono
0
N Abomey
Bohicon
Lokossa Allada
100 km 100 miles
O uémé
Sea Level
Pobè Sakété
Lac Nokoué
ATLANTIC OCE
AU
OIC
FZ
UEMOA
Benin’s foreign relations are largely dominated by Nigeria. The continuation of good relations with France and the US is considered to be critical. The UN has given funds to Benin and Niger to take a border dispute over Mekrou and the River Niger to the International Court of Justice.
PORTONOVO Cotonou n eni B f o t Bigh AN Ouidah
Grand-Popo
132
Joined UN in 1960
G
Zou
o uff Ko
Tourism is not well developed; there are plans to increase package vacations. There is some safari tourism in the north, particularly in the Atakora Mountains. Benin can be included as a short break for vacationers in Nigeria.
ECOWAS
Savè Glazoué Savalou Tchetti Dassa
I
60
N
50
ara
40
O kp
30
G
over 10 000 under 10 000 20
Ouèssè Bantè
over 50 000
Ivory Coast 11%
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
over 100 000
Other 54% 10
KO
O
Nigeria 21%
0
u
Visitors : Population 1:93
T
72,000 visitors
†
CHAINE
TOURISM
Pen dja ri DE L’A TA
The cofunded Benin–Niger railroad stops short at Parakou. The Cotonou– Porto-Novo line reopened in 1999.
A
578 km (359 miles)
Sot
10 km (6 miles)
Benin’s image as a leader in African democratization was tarnished by allegations of fraud over the 2001 THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT presidential election, and may be further tainted should Mathieu Kérékou amend the constitution 44% 56% to permit a third term in 2006 RELIGIOUS PERSUASION (currently there is a two-term limit Christian 20% and an age restriction of 70, which he has already reached). Democratization had begun at Voodoo 50% the National Conference of 1990, when Kérékou agreed to hold Muslim 30% multiparty elections after years of failed Marxist-Leninist oneparty military rule. There are 42 different ethnic groups, Kérékou became the first of the the southern Fon tending to dominate African one-party leaders to hand politically and the south being better over power peacefully, to Nicéphore developed. Voodoo is thought to Soglo, a former World Bank have originated here official, after elections in 1991. and been taken by N I G E R The main issue became his slaves from Benin N ig Karimama er World Bank-style deregulation to Haiti. French of the economy, and he was culture is Malanville A defeated in a controversial prized in Guéné I N K election in 1996 which brought urban areas. a R Pendjari Banikoara Kérékou back to power. U Kandi Kérékou dismissed claims Ségbana of vote rigging in the 2001 Gogounou presidential election, saying 641m Tanguiéta Gbéroubouè that democracy was “alive Kouandé Sinendé Natitingou and kicking.” Debate is now Bembèrèkè Péhonko rife over whether Kérékou Boukoumbé should be allowed a third Ndali Nikki O Djougou term; a group of some ém ENIN é small parties supports Total Area : the idea as the key to Parakou 112 620 sq. km Bétérou (43 483 sq. miles) peace, unity, and security. 61/km2 (157/mi2)
Fon, Bariba, Yoruba, Adja, Houeda, Somba, French
B
1357 km (843 miles)
6% Other Opp
MP = Presidential Rally PRB = Benin Renaissance Party PRD = Party of Democratic Renewal Other Opp = Other opposition supporters
Pop. density medium
Mékrou
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
18% PRB
63% MP
I
Cotonou Cadjehoun 322,873 passengers
Drive on right
13% PRD
R
†
TRANSPORTATION
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 83 seats
E
0/32
President Mathieu Kérékou
2003/2007
A libo ri
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Multiparty elections
RA
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.bj
+229
B
Ot i
B
Africa
WEST AFRICA
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BENIN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$220m (receipts)
.
CHRONOLOGY
Benin’s poverty is such that the maintenance of aid is at the top of the political agenda. France, the main protector of Benin since independence in 1960, is the major aid donor. Other donors include the World Bank, the US, the EU, Germany, Denmark, and the African Development Bank. Almost all development finance comes from aid, and some has been used to finance debt servicing. There is the usual problem of finding suitable projects, though Benin has a large, well-educated (if top heavy) civil service, making implementation easier than in many parts of Africa.
DEFENSE $46m
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 12% in 2002
The 4300-strong army is involved in attempting to curb smuggling on the Nigerian border. Benin has sent troops to assist with peacekeeping in Liberia and Guinea-Bissau.
ECONOMICS $2.52bn
†
Inflation 8.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
Flat landscape near Cotonou, characteristic of Benin’s coastal region. Numerous lagoons lie behind its short coastline.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................135th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$380 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$126m INFLATION .........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ...........................................2%
962 b/d (reserves 29m barrels)
1.6m cattle, 1.3m goats, 10m chickens
Oil, limestone, marble, gold
Most of Benin’s electricity is derived from dams in nearby countries. Since a drought in Ghana in 1998 it has attempted to diversify its sources.
ENVIRONMENT
EXPORTS
Thailand 7% Other 38%
Indonesia 8% China 8%
/
11% (4% partially protected)
†
India 27%
Germany 4% Italy 4%
France 15% Other 42%
China 30%
Communicable and diarrheal diseases, malaria
Outside the major towns, health services and doctors are scarce. It is forecast that by 2030 one million Beninese will have died from AIDS.
SPENDING TV ownership low
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
7 per 1000 population
9 per 1000 population
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Defense 1.8% There are 18 daily newspapers, including Le Matinal and La Nation 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
19 services: 1 state-owned, 18 independent
Over 50 newspapers and periodicals are published, though circulation figures are tiny. The press has considerable freedom and a voluntary code of practice.
CRIME
†
4961 prisoners
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Up sharply in 1996–1998
Street robbery is a significant problem in the cities. Armed crime is rising. Child smuggling is a major issue and has affected relations with neighboring countries.
EDUCATION 40%
UK 5%
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people
Italy 12%
IMPORTS
†
HEALTH
Sustainability rank: 95th
0.3 tonnes per capita
B
1857 French establish trading post at Grand-Popo. 1889 French defeat King Behanzin. 1892 French protectorate. 1904 Part of French West Africa. 1960 Full independence. 1975 Renamed Benin. 1989 Marxism-Leninism abandoned as official ideology. 1996 Former ruler Mathieu Kérékou defeats Nicéphore Soglo in controversial election. 2001 Kérékou reelected president amid claims of electoral fraud.
†
Desertification in the north is the major problem. Benin has been used in the past as a dumping ground for toxic waste.
WEAKNESSES Large-scale smuggling. Transportation and commerce greatly affected by fluctuations in Nigeria. Reliance on electricity imports from Ghana.
Electric power 55,000 kW
38,415 tonnes
STRENGTHS Agriculture. Small but well-diversified manufacturing sector. Regional agreements support cotton trade. Weak CFA franc makes exports competitive. Growing services sector.
†
RESOURCES
MEDIA
SCORE CARD
In 1625 the Fon, indigenous slave traders, founded the kingdom of Dahomey. Dahomey in turn conquered the neighboring kingdoms of Dan, Allada, and the coast around Porto-Novo.
Down 20% in 2002
†
Education 3.3% Health 2.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Substantial differences in wealth reflect the strongly hierarchical nature of society, especially in the south. French cars are considered to be status symbols.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
School leaving age: 11
18,753 students
More is spent on education than on defense, and this is reinforced by Benin’s active intellectual community, the “Latin Quarter of Africa.” The university at Abomey-Calavi is rated highly in medicine and law.
150th
193rd
156 $380
152 53 years
163 182 40%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
161
93 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
133
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BHUTAN
Asia Ne
C h i n a
pal
BHUTAN
I n d i a
Burma (Myanmar)
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Bhutan CAPITAL: Thimphu POPULATION: 2.3 million CURRENCY: Ngultrum OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Dzongkha 1656
1865
Dec 17
BT
+6
†
PEOPLE
.bt
+975
Pop. density low 49/km2 (127/mi2)
Dzongkha, Nepali, Assamese
P
ERCHED IN THE HIMALAYAS between India and China, Bhutan is 70% forested. The land rises from the low, tropical southern strip through the fertile central valleys to the high Himalayas, inhabited by seminomadic yak herders. Formally a Buddhist state where power is shared by the king and the government, Bhutan began modernizing in the 1960s, but has chosen to do so gradually, and remains largely closed to the outside world.
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
8%
92%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 6%
CLIMATE
†
Mountain/tropical monsoon
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:367
6264 visitors
/
Up 4% in 2003
WEATHER CHART FOR THIMPHU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Hindu 24%
Mahayana Buddhist 70%
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
The majority of the population, the Drukpa peoples, originated from Tibet and are devoutly Buddhist. The Hindu minority is made up of Nepalese who settled in the south from 1910 to 1950. Bhutan has 20 languages. Dzongkha, the language of western Bhutan, native to less than a quarter of the population, was made the official language in 1988. The Nepalese community has reacted strongly, regarding this as “cultural imperialism.”
USA 34% Japan 16% UK 9%
0
0/32
Other 41%
-10/14 0
-20/-4
10
40
30
20
60
50
% of total arrivals
The south is tropical, the north alpine, cold, and harsh. The central valleys are warmer in the east than in the west. The summer monsoon affects all parts.
†
TRANSPORTATION Paro International 19,939 passengers
To protect Bhutan’s culture and natural environment, independent travel is not permitted. Guided visits cost a flat daily fee of $200; some monasteries are closed to tourists. In 1998, fire damaged the famous Taktsang monastery.
Drive on left
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
National Assembly 150 seats
2251 km (1399 miles)
None
None
None
There are no legal political parties; members are indirectly elected individually to the National Assembly, to advise the king, who rules as an absolute monarch
The main surfaced road runs east–west across central Bhutan. Two others run south into India. Only the national airline, Druk Air, flies into Bhutan.
Less than 10% of Bhutan is arable, but its fertility allows almost any crop to grow. The diversity of wild plant species inspired its old name: Southern Valleys of the Medicinal Herbs.
I
H
N
C
A
BHUTAN
Kula Kangri 7554m
Total Area : 47 000 sq. km (18 147 sq. miles) Gasa Tashi Thongmen
Chomo Lhari 7314m
6000m/19686ft
H
I
M
4000m/13124ft
A
L
Punakha
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
Paro Ha
Wangdi Phodrang
Paro Intl
Tongsa
200m/656ft
Chirang Damphu
N
Pemagatsel 0
h
gm
e
e gd
Wang
N
Da
Geylegphug
os
Phuntsholing
I
134
Daga
an
r sa
Samchi
Mongar
M
nk
To
Dzongsa
Chhukha
The modernization of Bhutan’s absolute monarchy began in 1961. Under further changes enacted in 1998, the king relinquished his right to appoint the government in favor of a cabinet elected by the National Assembly. The National Assembly was also empowered to pass a vote of no confidence against the king. These proposals came as a response to a prodemocracy movement fueled by ethnic Nepalese Tashi Yangtsi opposed to the Drukpa-dominated political system. Tashigang
Shemgang
160m/252ft
S Lhuntshi
Jakar
THIMPHU
500m/1640ft
A
Y
A
Kuru
LAND HEIGHT
over 10 000 under 10 000
Nonparty elections
H.M. Druk Gyalpo (Dragon King) Jigme Singye Wangchuk
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
POPULATION
†
POLITICS Not applicable
Sa
B
SOUTH ASIA
Bhangtar
Sarbhang Samdrup Jongkhar
D
I
50 km
n
A
0
50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BHUTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CP
IBRD
SAARC
NAM
Joined UN in 1971
ADB
Bhutan’s closest links are with India. Relations with China are cordial, and negotiations to settle the China–Bhutan
AID
†
/
Up 20% in 2002
Bhutan relies on foreign aid for half of its annual budget. The largest donors are Denmark and Japan.
DEFENSE $18m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 5% in 2002
The army is under the command of the king, and is trained by Indian military instructors. India is committed to defending Bhutan against attack, and in 2004 pledged to modernize the army.
ECONOMICS $512m
†
Inflation 9.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
45.98 ngultrum (46.47)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$73m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
border have progressed smoothly since 1984. There is tension with Nepal over Bhutan’s treatment of its ethnic Nepalese minority: a tentative agreement concerning those who had fled to Nepal was reached in 2003.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................171st GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$600 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$42m INFLATION .........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ..............................Low rate
STRENGTHS
Electric power 362,000 kW
330 tonnes
Not an oil producer and has no refineries
340,000 cattle, 41,000 pigs, 220,000 chickens
Talc, gypsum, coal, limestone, slate, dolomite
Bhutan’s forests remain largely intact, and logging is very strictly controlled. Hydroelectric potential is considerable, but few dams have been built. Power is sold to India from the Chhukha Dam, bringing in substantial foreign earnings.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
21% (5% partially protected)
0.5 tonnes per capita
†
SPENDING
1 state-owned service
EXPORTS
Other 5%
Until 1999 TV was banned, in order to protect cultural values. An Internet café opened in Thimphu in 2000.
†
Bhutan does not publish prison figures
EDUCATION Other 26%
47%
28 per 1000 population
Education 5.2% Health 3.5% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Most of Bhutan’s people are chronically poor, though starvation is virtually unknown. There is a small middle class, consisting of public employees and storekeepers.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
†
School leaving age: 16
3251 students
50th
100th
150th
193rd
139 $600
133
144
63 years
172
India 74%
GDP/cap. increase
5 per 1000 population
Little variation from year to year
Violent crime and theft are rare. In 1991, driglam namzha, an ancient code of conduct including wearing traditional dress, was revived, with fines or imprisonment for noncompliance. The king abolished the death penalty in 2004.
India 95% IMPORTS
No death penalty
,
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Defense 3.3%
There are no daily newspapers. Kuensel is published weekly by the government in Dzongkha, English, and Nepali
CRIME
Diarrheal, respiratory diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, infant deaths
Free clinics, along with Thimphu’s hospital, provide basic health care. Progress is being made in child immunization, and monks have been persuaded to teach hygiene. Infant mortality is high. Bhutanese, Tibetan, and Chinese traditional medicines are widely practiced.
TV ownership low
1 state-owned service
Dependence on Indian workers for many public-sector jobs from road building to teaching. The majority of the population are dependent on agriculture. Cultivated land is extremely restricted because of steep mountain slopes. Very little industry. Few mineral resources.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 6384 people
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
†
HEALTH
There are no daily newspapers
New development of cash crops for Asian markets (cardamoms, apples, oranges, apricots). Hardwoods in south, especially teak, but exploitation currently tightly controlled. Large hydroelectric potential.
B
1907 Monarchy established. 1949 Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Friendship. 1953 National Assembly set up. 1968 King forms first cabinet. 1971 Bhutan joins UN. 1990 Ethnic Nepalese launch campaign for minority rights. 1998 King proposes to reform government. 1999 First TV service inaugurated.
Sustainability rank: 30th
Bhutan’s forests stabilize the steep mountainsides and supply the bulk of its fuel needs. Road building, begun in the 1960s, is the biggest cause of deforestation, which has led to topsoil erosion. The high northern pastures are at risk from overgrazing by yaks. Traditional Buddhist values instilling respect for nature and forbidding the killing of animals are still observed.
MEDIA
The Drukpa, originally from Tibet, united Bhutan in 1656. In 1865 the Drukpa lost the Duars Strip to British India.
Education is free. A small minority of children attend secondary school. Teaching is in English and Dzongkha. There are no universities.
134
74 deaths
47%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
135
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BOLIVIA
SOUTH AMERICA Peru
South America
Brazil BOLIVIA Paraguay
1825
1938
Aug 6
BOL
-4
TOURISM
.bo
+591
B
OLIVIA LIES LANDLOCKED high in central South America, and is one of the continent’s poorest nations. Over half of the population lives on the altiplano, the windswept plateau between two ranges of the Andes, 3500 m (11,500 ft) above sea level. La Paz, the highest capital in the world, has spawned a neighboring large twin, El Alto. Bolivia has the world’s highest golf course, ski run, and soccer stadium. The eastern lowland regions are tropical and underdeveloped but are rapidly being colonized.
†
Visitors : Population 1:23
/
Up 24% in 2002
382,185 visitors MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Peru 16% USA 10% Argentina 9% France 7% Brazil 7%
†
Other 51% 0
Rainfall
Porvenir
I
L
BOLIVIA
u Ba
Magdalena
re
Guapor é
s
I to n a m a
POPULATION
over 50 000
under 10 000 Concepción
LA PAZ C
O
R
Montero
D
Warnes
T
D
A
L
D
RA LE IL
I
P
L
Potosí Uyuni
Villa Martín
A
N
Betanzos Monteagudo Camiri
Cotagaita
Puerto Suárez
O Lagunillas
I
a com Pil
A L N T R C E
E ENTAL CID OC
H
Luca
San José
El Palmar
N
R
R A L E I L
O
C
T
Santa Cruz
yo
San Tupiza Lorenzo
Tarija
San Pablo
L
S
Villazón
A
Yacuiba
G
U A Y
N
4000m/13124ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
0
E
A R G E N T I N A
0
Puerto Busch
LAND HEIGHT
R
N
San Matías
San Ignacio
COR DI L CochabambaL E R Portachuelo D es ag A uader Quillacollo Punata O C Buena Comarapa R I Vista Caracollo E Nevado Oruro Sajama Huanuni Aiquile Toledo 6520m Llallagua Vallegrande Challapata Sabaya SUCRE L. Poopó
L
over 100 000
over 10 000
Lake Puerto Acosta Titicaca Achacachi Copacabana
A
over 500 000
de V er
A
San Ignacio
El Alto Viacha Corocoro
Total Area : 1 098 580 sq. km (424 162 sq. miles)
uá rag Pa
Trinidad
s
U
Reyes
10,000 km (6214 miles)
Potato harvest on the altiplano. Migration to the more fertile lands in the east has been encouraged.
Gu ap or é
13 km (8 miles)
Only 5% of roads in Bolivia are paved. Public transportation is inefficient. The national railroad was privatized in 1996, and passenger services were subsequently cut. Domestic airlines are generally unreliable.
Guayaramerín
Dios de
R
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
ni Be
Riberalta Moreno
Cobija
E
1 ship 15,800 dwt
El Alto, La Paz
Fortaleza
á un Ab
B
P
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
R
Z
The Andean altiplano has an extreme tropical highland climate with winter night frosts. Annual rainfall in the west is only 25 cm (10 in). The hot eastern lowlands receive most rain in summer.
O
-20/-4
Copacabana on the shores of Lake Titicaca. It lies on a large headland owned by Bolivia on the Peruvian side of the lake. A
A
0
-10/14
136
60
AC
10/4
0/32
3698 km (2298 miles)
50
40
30
P
20/8
10/50
GRA
30/12
20/68
M amoré
30/86
3765 km (2339 miles)
20
Foreign tourists are drawn by the traditional festivals, especially carnivals in February or March, the variety of Bolivia’s scenery, and its Spanish colonial architecture. Major attractions include the Silver Mountain at Potosí, and Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world, covering an area of 8970 sq. km (3463 sq. miles). Political instability has set tourism back in recent years, but potential is limited in any case by Bolivia’s isolation, the rugged, inaccessible terrain, and the poor infrastructure.
S O N D cm/in 40/16
Ben i
A
ad re
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
10
% of total arrivals
WEATHER CHART FOR LA PAZ
N C H
CLIMATE
Tropical/mountain
M
B
Chile OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Bolivia CAPITALS: La Paz (administrative); Sucre (judicial) POPULATION: 8.8 million CURRENCY: Boliviano OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara
200 km
200m/656ft 200 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BOLIVIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
8/km2 (21/mi2)
Aymara, Quechua, Spanish THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
63%
37%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 7%
Roman Catholic 93% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 8% European 10% Quechua 37%
Mixed race 13%
Wealthy city elites, dating back to Spanish colonial rule, retain great influence, but new entrepreneurs with political ambitions have appeared. Most Bolivians are low-income earners (small traders, artisans, or miners) or subsistence farmers. Government schemes, spontaneous colonization, and the collapse of tin mining have led in the last few decades to largescale migration from the Andes to lowland eastern regions. Some 130,000 lowland Amerindians live in highland cities in the western regions. Family life tends to be close-knit; Amerindians practice Roman Catholicism mixed with their own traditions and culture. Women have low status. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 1.2%
Aymara 32%
2.1%
Two-thirds of Bolivians are Quechua and Aymara Amerindians who historically have been marginalized. In recent years, however, they have played a more active role in politics by supporting new populist parties.
†
POLITICS L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2007
Chamber of Deputies 130 seats
27% MNR
21% MAS
20% MIR
7.4% 14.6% 24.9%
80+
Male 1%
60–79 40–59 20–39
1.8% 6.9% 14.3%
0–19
25.8%
% of population by age group
5% 3% MIP ADN
19% NFR
4% 1% UCS PS
MNR = Nationalist Revolutionary Movement MAS = Movement for Socialism MIR = Movement of the Revolutionary Left NFR = New Republican Force MIP = Pachakuti Indigenous Movement UCS = Union for Civic Solidarity ADN = Nationalist Democratic Action PS = Socialist Party
7% NFR
Chamber of Senators 27 seats
frequently implicated in political corruption scandals. The main trade union federation COB was traditionally the focus of opposition, but coca growers and other popular groups have now assumed this role; peasant leader Evo Morales was even a close second in presidential elections in 2002. The unpopular austerity policies of the MNR were continued after its defeat in 1997. Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada resumed the presidency in 2002, but he fled the country in October 2003 amid fierce public protest, and was replaced by his deputy Carlos Mesa.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES 41% MNR
30% MAS
AP
AmCC
NAM
OAS
Joined UN in 1945
RG
B
Bolivia’s overriding foreign policy concern has always been to recover access to the Pacific via Peru and Chile. Historic grievances fueled public opposition to a gas pipeline through Chile – the investors’ choice – favoring instead a Peruvian route. Current gas export projects, coupled with the opening of the telecoms sector, and the extension of the Andean Trade Preference Act with the US are essential for growth. Current US aid is conditional on the Bolivian government taking measures to destroy the cocaine-producing and trafficking industry, involving military and police attacks on impoverished coca growers. Bolivia is an associate member of the Mercosur economic trade bloc. This grouping, under the leadership of Brazil, will act as a strong negotiating bloc in upcoming talks for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), due in 2005.
Multiparty elections
President Carlos Mesa
AT THE LAST ELECTION
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density low
18% MIR
4% ADN
Bolivia is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE From 1825 to the early 1980s, Bolivia experienced, on average, more than one armed coup a year, punctuated by a national revolution in 1952 which delivered important reforms. The fragmented and drug-tainted military finally stepped down in 1982, but full elections were delayed until 1985. New populist parties have emerged to challenge traditional politics and even the drift to free-market economics. Coalitions are unstable, nepotism is still rife, and the narcotics trade, the profits of which underpin the economy, is
Economic austerity Violent demonstrations in 2003, ostensibly against gas exports, underlined vocal opposition to the IMFbacked austerity policies of the MNR, particularly among Amerindian groups. A referendum in 2004 backed Mesa’s policy on exporting resources. Coca growers Poor farmers oppose the government’s forced eradication of coca crops in an anticocaine drive to ensure more US aid. Serious clashes between farmers and government security forces have erupted sporadically since 2000. The cocaleros complain that modest subsidies to switch crops take no account of the low prices of other cash crops, such as bananas, pineapples, and palm hearts.
Hugo Banzer Suárez, former dictator, then elected president (1997–2001).
Carlos Mesa took over as president in 2003 when his predecessor fled.
CHRONOLOGY The Aymara civilization was conquered by the Incas in the late 1400s. Fifty years later, the Incas were defeated by the conquistadores, and Upper Peru, as it became, was governed by Spain from Lima. 1545 Cerro Rico, the Silver Mountain, discovered at Potosí, providing Spain with vast wealth. 1776 Upper Peru becomes part of Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata centered on Buenos Aires. 1809 First abortive revolutionary uprisings in Latin America at Chuquisaca (Sucre), La Paz, and Cochabamba. 1824 Spaniards’ final defeat by José de Sucre, Simon Bolívar’s general. 1825 Independence. 1836–1839 Union with Peru fails. Internal disorder. 1864–1871 Ruthless rule of Mariano Melgarejo. Three Amerindian revolts over seizure of ancestral lands.
137
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
B
$119m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 12% in 2002
BOLIVIAN ARMED FORCES 36 light tanks (SK-105 Kuerassier)
25,000 personnel
60 riverine craft
3500 personnel
37 combat aircraft (18 AT-33AN)
3000 personnel
None
Though the military has not actively interfered in politics for more than two
ECONOMICS $7.94bn
†
decades, it is frequently used to quell internal dissent. The army is the major focus of defense spending, weaponry being bought mainly from the US. The Bolivian navy consists chiefly of gunboats on Lake Titicaca, which borders Peru, and on the Pilcomayo River. The army has worked with US forces against the cocaine business, though its integrity is questioned due to its past associations with narcotics trafficking. The main ambition of the military, apart from protecting its own interests and privileges, is the unrealizable aim of recapturing territory that would allow Bolivia access to the Pacific. Military service is selective and lasts for one year.
Inflation 8% p.a. (1990–2001)
7.939 bolivianos (7.659)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................96th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$900 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$335m INFLATION .........................................0.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
Brazil 24%
Colombia 10% Venezuela 13%
USA 14% Other 23% Switzerland 16% IMPORTS
Japan 6% Other 32%
Brazil 22%
Chile 7% USA 16%
Argentina 17%
STRENGTHS Mineral riches: gold, silver, zinc, lead, tin. Newly discovered oil and natural gas deposits attracting foreign investment.
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
†
Recipient
$681m (receipts)
.
Down 7% in 2002
Aid accounts for 9% of GNP; most comes from Germany, the US, and the World Bank. US funds depend on progress in coca crop eradication. Poor rural areas get project aid from Western religious organizations, NGOs, and charities. The IDB provided emergency aid after flash floods destroyed infrastructure and badly damaged the historic center of La Paz in 2002.
BOLIVIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Riberalta Cochabamba
138
Raw materials vulnerable to fluctuating world prices. Lack of processed or manufactured exports with higher added value. Lack of integration between economic sectors and regions. Poor infrastructure.
La Paz
PROFILE
Oruro
Traditionally, the state used earnings from the publicly owned state mining sector to control the economy. Years of deep recession in the 1980s, accompanied by accelerating inflation and a collapsing currency, saw the introduction of severe, IMF-approved,
2002
austerity policies. These, along with the introduction of a new currency and tax reform, succeeded in curbing inflation, reducing public spending, and restoring international loans, but at the price of great social unrest. Growth was restored in the 1990s and stakes in state companies were offered to investors. A plan to reactivate the economy through public works has been financed by multilateral funding in return for austerity. Growth in oil and gas is needed for a sustained upturn.
WEAKNESSES
AID
2001
GDP 1998=100
Consumer price index 1998=100
1879–1883 War of the Pacific, won by Chile. Bolivia left landlocked. 1880–1930 Period of stable governments. Exports from revived mining industry bring prosperity. 1903 Acre province ceded to Brazil. 1914 Republican Party founded. 1920 Amerindian rebellion. 1923 Miners bloodily suppressed. 1932–1935 Chaco War with Paraguay; in 1938 treaty Bolivia loses three-quarters of Chaco. Rise of radicalism and labor movement. 1951 Víctor Paz Estenssoro of MNR elected president. Military coup. 1952 Revolution. Paz Estenssoro and MNR brought back. Land reforms improve Amerindians’ status. Education reforms, universal suffrage, tin mines nationalized. 1964 Military takes over in coup. 1967 Che Guevara killed while trying to initiate guerilla movement. 1969–1979 Military regimes rule with increasing severity. 1979 coup fails. Interim civilian rule. 1980 Military takes over again. 1982 President-elect Siles Zuazo finally heads leftist civilian MIR government. Inflation 24,000%. 1985 MNR wins elections. Austerity measures bring down inflation. 1986 Tin market collapses. 21,000 miners sacked. 1989 MIR takes power after closerun elections. President Paz Zamora makes pact with 1970s dictator Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of ADN. 1990 1.6 million hectares (4 million acres) of rainforest recognized as Amerindian territory. 1993 MNR back in power. Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada president. 1997 Banzer wins presidency. 2001 Banzer resigns due to ill health. 2001–2003 Government program of coca eradication and bans on coca trading and marketing provoke clashes with peasant farmers. 2002 MNR wins elections. Sánchez de Lozada returns as president. 2003 Violent popular demonstrations. Sánchez de Lozada ousted: Carlos Mesa president.
DEFENSE
Santa Cruz
Potosí 0 0
200 km 200 miles
Textiles Saw milling Food processing Pharmaceuticals Tin mining Narcotics Agribusiness
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BOLIVIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 1.3m kW
6260 tonnes
30,215 b/d (reserves 110m barrels)
8.6m sheep, 6.68m cattle, 2.92m pigs, 75m chickens
Tin, natural gas, oil, zinc, tungsten, gold, antimony, silver, lead
†
MEDIA
TV ownership medium
There are 18 daily newspapers, including Presencia, El Diario, and La Razón
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 44% (1.7bn kWh)
1 state-owned service with 9 stations, 36 independent stations
Combustion 56% (2.2bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
1 state-owned service, 145 independent stations
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Bolivia is rich in minerals, especially tin. A referendum in 2004 settled protests over how much of the country’s oil and gas should be exported. A gas pipeline is to be built through Peru. Cropland Pasture Forest Wetlands High mountain regions Río I tén ez
Río
Ben
i
BOLIVIA : LAND USE
Bolivia has strict defamation laws and considerable self-censorship. One of the TV stations is university-run, providing mainly educational programs.
†
CRIME
Death penalty not used in practice
.
8315 prisoners
Down 18% in 1999–2000
Murders 32
Coca - cash crop Sugarcane Cattle
per 100,000 population
per 100,000 population
110
per 100,000 population
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Rapes 19
Influenza, tuberculosis, other communicable diseases, malaria
Great disparities exist between rural and urban populations. Chronic malnutrition affects around 30% of children under three years of age in rural areas, 50% more than in urban centers. Overall Bolivia has one of the worst rates of infant mortality in the Western Hemisphere. Conditions are particularly acute among the Quechua Amerindians living in the highland areas. In 1994 the government decentralized the health system in an effort to redress the imbalance. Immunization drives have now reached most of the population. Traditional medicine and its practitioners are still widely used, especially midwives. Care for the elderly is still lacking.
SPENDING
CRIME RATES
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 769 people
Daily newspaper circulation 55 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
37 per 1000 population
Thefts
68 per 1000 population
Defense 1.6% Education 5.5%
S D E A N
0
200 km
/
13% (7% partially protected)
†
200 miles
0
ENVIRONMENT
Violent crime is centered on narcoticstrafficking towns in the eastern lowlands, particularly Santa Cruz. Main cities are much safer for tourists, and have lower crime rates than cities in neighboring Peru. The police and army have a history of mistreating poor farmers and miners.
†
Sustainability rank: 21st
EDUCATION 87%
1.3 tonnes per capita
School leaving age: 13
278,763 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES 100
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Deforestation is Bolivia’s major ecological problem, as it is throughout the Amazon region. Land clearances are running at 150,000 hectares (370,000 acres) a year. Much of the cleared land is turned over to cattle ranching or the growing of coca. Pesticide and fertilizer overuse in the coca business is a concern. The industry is effectively uncontrolled, and rivers in Amazonia have high pollution levels. Pollution problems are compounded by waste chemicals used in minerals industries. Mercury, used in the extraction of silver, has been found in dangerous quantities in river systems.
% of each age group in education
Yes
80
Health 3.5% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Havoc created by economic reforms has widened the already huge gap between rich and poor. Generally, the indigenous population who form the rural poor are the worst off. The Andean highlands suffer from grinding poverty that has hardly changed in generations. Migrants to more prosperous eastern regions have faired better, but skewed land ownership remains a big problem. Poor housing, and the lack of utilities and a regular income are common to urban poverty. Most people do not have bank accounts.
60
WORLD RANKING
100% 84%
40
Position in World
39%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
IMF targets for increased school attendance are being met, but education, based on a combination of the French and US systems, is seriously underfunded. Though the majority of people speak indigenous languages, most teaching is in Spanish. Bolivia has one of the lowest literacy rates in South America. Reform and multilateral aid have led to some improvements.
1st
50th
100th
105
150th
123 $900 193rd
114
87%
131
132
64 years
56 deaths
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
139
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA
S e Y rb u . go & sl M av on ia . )
Croatia
BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA
(
OFFICIAL NAME: Bosnia and Herzegovina CAPITAL: Sarajevo POPULATION: 4.2 million CURRENCY: Marka OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Serbo-Croat
L. House 2002/2006 U. House 2002/2006
A
MOUNTAINOUS COUNTRY in southeast Europe, Bosnia & Herzegovina has access to the Adriatic Sea via a corridor south of Mostar. The collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia gave rise to fierce ethnic rivalries between the country’s Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats. Around 250,000 people died and more than two million were displaced before the 1995 Dayton peace accord ended three years of war. The country is now effectively an international protectorate.
WEATHER CHART FOR SARAJEVO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Continental
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
28 members are elected from the Federation of BosniaHerzegovina and 14 from the Republika Srpska
House of Peoples 15 seats
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
.
56%
Ten members are appointed from the Federation of BosniaHerzegovina and five from the Republika Srpska
Bosnia is subdivided into the Muslim– Croat Federation and the Serb Republika Srpska (RS), plus the multiethnic district of Brâko. There are two levels of government: the overall Republic – with a rotating three-member collective presidency – and the constituent entities, with their own presidents, governments, and parliaments. A UN High Representative retains ultimate control. Legislative elections in October 2002 were the first to be organized by the Bosnian authorities: nationalist parties triumphed at all levels, overturning governments formed by more moderate parties.
Croat 14%
-10/14 -20/-4
Bosniak 48%
Bosnia has a continental climate with warm summers and bitterly cold winters, often with heavy snow.
TRANSPORTATION Sarajevo 331,711 passengers
†
Serb 38%
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
11,360 km (7059 miles)
None
1032 km (641 miles)
Debris and silt block the Sava River
San
a
Travnik
N
Vr
A R
ni
Livno
Dr
a in
MaglicŁ 2387m
R
60
% of total arrivals
2000m/6562ft
A
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
D
1000m/3281ft
Even before the war, Bosnia did not have much tourism infrastructure; only the adventurous have begun to visit.
0 0
50 km
R
50 miles
I
Trebinje
A
T
I C
S
140
r etv a
P S
Mostar
N
Foâa
E
50
L
Ne
S
40
Konjic
es
ca
30
SARAJEVO Tr
C A
Srebrenica
vi
LAND HEIGHT 20
ca
ka
Other 47%
Zenica
Vlasenica FEDERACIJA BOSNA I a HERCEGOVINA
under 10 000
Slovenia 10%
Tuzla Maglaj
I
over 10 000
Bijeljina
Graâanica
Bugojno
A
Croatia 15%
Sava
Brâko
Gradaâac
Jajce
I
over 50 000
A
Zvornik
T
Serbia & Montenegro 28%
10
Derventa
A
over 100 000
I
Bosanski Brod Bosanski ‹amac Modriâa
Doboj
POPULATION
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
Un a
O
Total Area : 51 129 sq. km (19 741 sq. miles)
T Sa va
REPUBLIKA SRPSKA Tesliá Kljuâ
e â
I
45% in / Up2001–2002
160,000 visitors
BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA
rm
A
D
Visitors : Population 1:26
G
R
†
TOURISM
Despite sharing the same origin and spoken language, Bosnia’s population has been divided by history between Muslim Bosniaks, Orthodox Christian Serbs, and Roman Catholic Croats. Ethnic cleansing, practiced by all sides in the 1992–1995 civil war, left the once integrated communities sharply polarized and geographically redistributed. The process O R C of returning Bosanska Gradi#ka refugees K o z a to their old r a Cazin Prijedor homes has been slow. Banja Luka Bihaá
C
Though bridges, roads, and railroads were wrecked in the war, reconstruction and mine removal have enabled most main routes to be reopened. Sarajevo remains the hub of the communications network.
21% 14% 12% 12% 10% 7% SBiH SDS HDZ SDP SNS Others
24% SDA
SDA = Party of Democratic Action SBiH = Party for Bosnia & Herzegovina SDS = Serb Democratic Party HDZ = Croatian Democratic Union SDP = Social Democratic Party SNS = Independent Social Democrats
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
AT THE LAST ELECTION
82/km2 (213/mi2)
44%
Chair of the Presidency Sulejman Tihic
House of Representatives 42 seats
Pop. density medium
Serbo-Croat
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Multiparty elections
N E G R O
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.ba
+387
&
+1
E
A
M O ( Y N T E U G O S L A V I A )
BIH
I A
March 1
B
1992
Bosna
1992
Vrb as
B
Europe
EUROPE
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BOSNIA & HERZEGOVINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CEI
EBRD
IAEA
2500 tonnes
Not an oil producer
670,000 sheep, 440,000 cattle, 4.7m chickens
Coal, lignite, iron, bauxite, cement
International agencies maintain security. The Stabilization Force (SFOR) is NATO-led; its 35 participant countries include Russia. Policing came under the EU’s mandate from 2003.
†
AID
.
Down 8% in 2002
Aid for reconstruction and refugee return, totaling several billion dollars, has come mainly from the EU and the US. Major objectives have included developing a market economy and job creation, housing, and infrastructure.
DEFENSE $178m
†
/
Compulsory military service
$5.4bn
†
Inflation 2.7% p.a. (1992–2001)
1.53 maraka (1.71)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................113th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1310 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$2.14bn INFLATION ............................................0% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................40%
STRENGTHS Potential to revive prewar industries and become a thriving market economy, with solid manufacturing base. Growth in 2000 of 10%. End of cross-border tariffs with Slovenia from 2002.
War damage of $20–40 billion. Low foreign investment. Corruption. High unemployment and levels of poverty. EXPORTS
Slovenia 7%
†
MEDIA
Sustainability rank: 57th
4.8 tonnes per capita
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 152 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 6 daily newspapers. Oslobodjenje (Liberation) was published daily throughout the war 29 services: 3 state-owned, 26 independent
†
2283 prisoners
No death penalty
/
In 1945, Bosnia & Herzegovina became one of Yugoslavia’s six constituent republics.
†
School leaving age: 15
34,477 students
Ethnic bias and educational segregation are being combated by the development of a new coordinated curriculum.
B
1990 Nationalists defeat communists in multiparty elections. 1991 Parliament announces republican sovereignty. 1992 EU and US recognize Bosnia. Serbs declare “Serbian Republic.” Civil war begins. 1995 NATO air strikes on Serbs; US-brokered Dayton peace accord. 1996 First international war crimes trial since 1945 opens in The Hague. Elections held under Dayton accord. 2001 Ethnic Croats briefly establish autonomy in Herzegovina (in south). 2002 Elections: renewed support for nationalist parties.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Cholera and diphtheria epidemics, violence, deaths from war-stress
1 per 714 people
War strained health services severely and many died for lack of basic care. Reconstruction includes reform of the primary health care system.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
27 per 1000 population
Crime is rising
All sides in the war, but especially the Serbs, have been accused of war crimes. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) sits in The Hague, while a specific court for Bosnia is due to open in 2004. Serb leader Radovan Karadzic and around 20 others have evaded arrest. The RS finally passed laws on cooperating with the tribunal in 2001.
95%
CHRONOLOGY
82 services: 3 state-owned, 79 independent
Constitutionally free, media outlets remain under pressure from government bodies and the danger of violence against journalists, and most are still highly partisan along ethnic lines.
EDUCATION
WEAKNESSES
†
Apart from war damage, Bosnia faces the effects of industrial pollution incurred during the communist regime.
CRIME
SCORE CARD
.
0.5% (0.2% partially protected)
Up 27% in 2002
Overall security is provided by SFOR. A single defense ministry and a 12,000strong professional force were created in 2004, in response to a call for the separate armies to be integrated.
ECONOMICS
Bosnia’s land is not well suited to agriculture, but has mineral deposits, forests, and hydroelectric potential.
ENVIRONMENT
Recipient
$587m (receipts)
Electric power 2.7m kW
RESOURCES
IBRD
OSCE
†
Joined UN in 1992
237 per 1000 population
Defense 3.8% Education No data Health 2.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The war displaced 60% of the population. Housing, jobs, and reintegration are key challenges, while a lack of significant investment means that postwar poverty remains.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Austria 10% 50th
Italy 32% Germany 13%
50
100th
Other 20%
Croatia 18% 150th
15 deaths
66
110 $1310
Hungary 8%
193rd
Italy 13% Germany 14%
Croatia 24%
59 77 95%
IMPORTS
Other 26%
74 years
Slovenia 15%
The Muslim town of Mostar. Its 16th-century bridge was destroyed in the 1992–1995 war, but has been painstakingly rebuilt.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
141
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BOTSWANA
BOTSWANA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Botswana CAPITAL: Gaborone POPULATION: 1.8 million CURRENCY: Pula OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1966
Africa
Zimbabwe
Namibia
1966
Sept 30
RB
+2
S. Africa
.bw
+267
B
OTSWANA IS ARID and landlocked, its central plateau separating the populous eastern grasslands from the Kalahari Desert and the swamps of the Okavango Delta in the west. Diamonds provide Botswana with a prosperous economy, but rain is an even more precious resource, honored in the name of the currency, the pula. Botswana has one of the world’s highest rates of HIV infection among adults.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR GABORONE
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Steppe/hot desert
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
The Okavango Delta, “jewel of the Kalahari,” is the largest inland river delta in the world and home to a rich variety of wildlife.
Pop. density low 3/km2 (8/mi)2
Setswana, English, Shona, San, Khoikhoi, isiNdebele
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT 1999/2004
50%
Multiparty elections
President Festus Mogae
AT THE LAST ELECTION
50%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
13% App
National Assembly 46 seats
0
0/32
Other 2%
-10/14 -20/-4
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 5619 km (3491 miles)
None
888 km (552 miles)
None
Botswana’s stability reflects its ethnic homogeneity (98% Tswana) and the power of traditional authorities. The Bangwato form the largest clan. The indigenous San of the Kalahari were ordered to abandon their nomadic way of life in 2002, but are appealing against the order. A small white community still dominates the professions. Some 80% of people are Christian, but traditional beliefs are also widely practiced.
A
M
B
DELTA
Visitors : Population 1:1.7
I
Toteng
Up 4% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Nata Sowa Tutume Makgadikgadi
I
Serowe
KALAHARI
% of total arrivals
Werda
op o
ol
S
over 10 000
Sherwood Ranch Machaneng po Makwate
Kanye Mmathethe
Sikwane Tlokweng Ramotswa Lobatse
A
Ramatlabama
Tshabong
over 50 000
Mochudi
DESERT
M
142
GABORONE
Molepolole Jwaneng Sekoma Thamaga Khakhea
N
Selebi Phikwe
under 10 000
A
Kang
op os
Tourism is aimed at wealthy wildlife enthusiasts and focuses on safaris, especially to the Okavango Delta.
Mahalapye
Tshane
40
over 100 000
O
U
T
C
30
POPULATION
Bobonong Palapye
Limpo
20
A
10
Total Area : 600 370 sq. km (231 803 sq. miles)
Shash e
Serule
Mamuno
M
Other 18% 0
BOTSWANA
E
Francistown
Zimbabwe 39% Zambia 4%
W
Masunga
Orapa Ghanzi
South Africa 39%
A B
Maun
B
/
1.04m visitors
go an
†
TOURISM
Shakawe Tsodilo Hills 1375m
Botswana, formally a multiparty democracy, has been ruled since independence by the BDP. The party’s majority was eroded in the mid-1990s, as corruption scandals and an economic dip boosted the opposition BNF. Power was transferred smoothly from President Ketumile Masire to Festus Mogae in 1998, while Lt.-Gen. Seretse Ian Khama, the son of Z A independence-era leader Sir M B I A Kasane Seretse Khama, was made vice trip S i i t v i an Capr ny president and heir apparent. The Ok Z av Savu opposition BNF split in two, and te the 1999 elections confirmed OKAVANGO the BDP’s hold on power.
I
The opening of the trans-Kalahari road to Namibia in 1998 has reduced Botswana’s dependence on South African ports. Upgrading existing rail and road networks is a priority.
2% BCP
In addition to 40 elected members, four are co-opted and the president and the attorney general are ex officio members
H
LAND HEIGHT
N 1000m/3281ft
I
Sir Seretse Khama International, Gaborone 473,794 passengers
13% BNF
BDP = Botswana Democratic Party BNF = Botswana National Front App = Appointed BCP = Botswana Congress Party
Tswana 98%
Botet i
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on left
72% BDP
Li
The subtropical climate is dry and prone to drought. Rainfall declines from 64 cm (25 in) in the north to under 10 cm (4 in) in the Kalahari Desert in the west.
N
B
SOUTHERN AFRICA
R
F
500m/1640ft 0 0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BOTSWANA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
NAM
SADC
AU
Joined UN in 1966
WTO
Botswana has strongly backed a politically and economically stable postapartheid South Africa. Though the
†
AID
Recipient
$38m (receipts)
/
Up 31% in 2002
Botswana’s political and economic record has made it a favored recipient of aid, notably from Japan, Germany,
DEFENSE $254m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 38% in 2002
The majority of officers in the Botswana Defense Force have been trained by the US. The force runs one of Africa’s toughest antipoaching programs.
ECONOMICS $5.15bn
CHRONOLOGY
headquarters of the SADC are in Gaborone, the potential for South Africa to dominate the community is a concern. Traditionally pro-Western in orientation, Botswana cherishes its relations with the UK and the US.
†
Inflation 9% p.a. (1990–2001)
4.647 pula (4.926)
the EU, the UK, and Norway. Some 90% of EU aid goes to projects which try to balance wildlife needs with rural development. Aid also targets transportation projects.
†
Electric power: Included in South African total
RESOURCES 118 tonnes
Not an oil producer
2.25m goats, 1.7m cattle, 400,000 sheep, 4m chickens
Diamonds, copper, coal, nickel, soda ash, gold
Botswana is one of the world’s top diamond producers. Large coal deposits are the basis of power grid expansion. Water is Botswana’s scarcest resource.
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................114th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3010 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$47.2bn INFLATION .........................................8.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ..................................16%
/
19% (10% partially protected)
Diamonds; party to Kimberley Process (curbs flow of gems from conflict areas). Recent economic growth among highest in world. Prudent management, large financial reserves, exchange control liberalization. Exports: copper, nickel, beef. Transportation links. Tourism potential. Relatively low corruption.
Sustainability rank: 13th
2.3 tonnes per capita
Botswana is trying to help communities to earn a living from wildlife protection. A campaign has been launched to curb the use of agrochemicals.
†
MEDIA
STRENGTHS
†
Other Africa 1%
Zimbabwe 3% Other Europe 3% SACU 6%
UK 86%
Zimbabwe 3% USA 2%
SACU 78%
UK 4% Other 5% Other Europe 8%
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits AIDS, tuberculosis, heart diseases, pneumonia
1 per 5000 people
In 2001 Botswana began to provide free antiretroviral drugs to people infected with HIV. At that time it had the world’s highest infection rate (38.8%), but levels have dropped slightly since then.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
34 per 1000 population
87 per 1000 population
Defense 4.5% PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Education 8.6% There are 2 daily newspapers. Dikgang tsa Gompieno is published by the government 3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
2 services: 1 state-owned 1 independent
A government-funded TV service was launched in 2000. The progovernment bias of radio and the main daily paper is offset in the many journals.
CRIME
†
5890 prisoners
79%
Health 4.4% 0
5
/
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
GNP per capita is among Africa’s highest, but about half the population live below the poverty line. Economic growth has exacerbated wealth inequalities.
WORLD RANKING
Death penalty in use
Position in World 1st
Crime is rising
President Mogae warned of a “crime wave” in 1999. Diamond smuggling remains a major concern. Human rights are generally respected.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
1965 BDP wins first, and all subsequent, general elections. 1966 Independence declared. 1980 Death of Sir Seretse Khama; succeeded by Vice President Quett (later Sir Ketumile) Masire. 1985–1986 South African raids. 1992–1993 Strikes and corruption scandals prompt resignations of senior BDP figures. 1994 Election: BDP support eroded. 1998 Masire retires; succeeded by Vice President Festus Mogae. 2001–2002 Botswana has world’s highest rate of adult AIDS sufferers.
Daily newspaper circulation 27 per 1000 people
EXPORTS
Other 1%
B
TV ownership low
WEAKNESSES AIDS. Overdependence on diamonds. Agriculture and industry weak. Small population. Water shortages. Impact of cattle farming on land. Unemployment. Economic migrants from Zimbabwe. High costs of transportation to coast.
From 1600, Tswana migrations slowly displaced San people. In 1895, at local request, the UK set up the Bechuanaland Protectorate to preempt annexation by South Africa.
†
50th
100th
72 $3010
School leaving age: 15
7651 students
Revenues from the diamond industry have helped to fund educational programs which have improved the country’s literacy rate.
150th
128
131 79%
193rd
189
155 80 deaths
38 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
143
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BRAZIL
South America
Venezuela Colombia
BRAZIL
Peru Bolivia
OFFICIAL NAME: Federative Republic of Brazil CAPITAL: Brasília POPULATION: 179 million CURRENCY: Real OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese 1822
1828
Sept 7
BR
-3
Paraguay
BRAZIL
.br
+55
Total Area : 8 511 965 sq. km (3 286 470 sq. miles)
T
HE LARGEST COUNTRY in South America, Brazil became independent of Portugal in 1822. Today, it is renowned as the site of the world’s largest tropical rainforest, the threat to which led to the UN’s first international environment conference, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Covering onethird of Brazil’s total land area, the rainforest grows around the massive Amazon River and its delta. Apart from the basin of the River Plate in the south, the rest of the country consists of highlands. The mountainous northeast is part forested and part desert. Brazil is the world’s leading coffee producer and also has rich reserves of gold, diamonds, oil, and iron ore. Cattle ranching is an expanding industry. The city of São Paulo is the world’s fifth-biggest conurbation, with some 20 million inhabitants.
Drive on right
476 ships 3.45m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 164,000 km (101,905 miles)
Trans-Amazonian Highway: 5300 km (3293 miles)
30,403 km (18,892 miles)
50,000 km (31,069 miles)
3.78m visitors
.
Down 21% in 2002
a
m az o
O
z
s
Branco
n)
N
A
S
M
o ru
i
RONDÔNIA C
O
ha pa da Gu do ap s oré
Uruguay 6% Other 45% 60
% of total arrivals
Brazil is underperforming in tourism, with revenues falling to just over 0.5% of GDP in 2000, compared with a world average of over 10%. Attractions are the celebrated beaches and world famous carnival of Rio de Janeiro – the center of the tourist trade –
I
500 km 500 miles
ra ei
nã
n
B
ad
n
s
Porto Velho
U
á
Juruena
a
H nd
P
a
re ci M s
A
V I
A
Brasília, the modern capital, Atlantic beaches stretching 2000 km (1250 miles), the Amazon River basin, the spectacular Iguaçu Falls, the Pantanal – the vast wetland region in the west – and the Afro-Brazilian culture of Salvador. They are offset by the limited availability of mediumto low-cost travel and budget hotels, which deters both domestic and foreign travelers. In the virtual absence of low-cost charter flights, domestic air travel is expensive. This is blamed on high airport charges and inertia in Brazil’s aviation department, which is controlled by the air force. Average overnight hotel rates are higher than in Europe and the US, and the quality of service is generally poor. Basic infrastructure, such as sanitation and water supply, is also deficient.
Y
Paraguay 6%
Parati, in Rio state, was one of Brazil’s major gold-exporting ports in the 17th century. Its colonial architecture is well preserved.
VE
COLO 0
Visitors : Population 1:47
50
õe s( A
Z
Rio Branco
0
†
40
Represa Balbina
L
Germany 8%
30
A
i Mts
Manaus m
E
USA 17%
20
m
A C R E
R
A
o
r Ju
A B
Argentina 18%
10
M
Pu
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
i
ra
UA AG PAR
Brazil’s size means that internal air travel is often essential. However, flights are expensive. Many Brazilians make use of the extensive if arduous bus routes. Urban roads are congested. Rail services have been cut back.
144
N M
TOURISM
A
N
N
ve l t Roose
Guarulhos International, São Paulo 12.5m passengers
†
Ne gr
A
Jap urá Iç á
P
TRANSPORTATION
I
GUYANA
P ar agu ay P a n t a n a l
-20/-4
U
Pico da Neblina 3014m
ca
Ari p u a
-10/14
G
a
ARG EN TI NA
0
0/32
Boa Vista RORAIMA m
uá
10/4
A
u
20/8
10/50
IA
A IM
am
20/68
SE R RA PACAR
Nh
30/12
B
ELA
ZU
A
30/86
Brazil’s share of the Amazon basin, occupying half of the country, has a model equatorial climate. Its 150–200 cm (59–79 in) of rain are spread throughout the year. Temperatures are high, with almost no seasonal variation, but scarcely ever rise above 38˚C (100˚F). The Brazilian plateau, occupying most of the rest of the country, has far greater temperature ranges. Rain falls mainly between October and April. The northeast, the least productive region of Brazil, is very dry and is frequently prone to severe drought. However, periodic bouts of torrential rain can devastate coastal regions, leading to severe flooding in recent years. The southern states have hot summers and cool winters, when frost may occur.
E
li
40/16
Sea Level
So
40/104
200m/656ft
over 50 000
ri
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
500m/1640ft
over 100 000
Pa
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
1000m/3281ft
over 500 000
Tropical equatorial/hot and dr y/subtropical/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR BRASÍLIA
2000m/6562ft
over 1 000 000
r ra
†
LAND HEIGHT
over 5 000 000
Se
CLIMATE
POPULATION
Java r
B
SOUTH AMERICA
S
Uru
UR
U
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BRAZIL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low
Portuguese, German, Italian, Spanish, Polish, Japanese, Amerindian languages
21/km2 (55/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
B Age
Female 0.6% 4.1%
82%
18%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Rio de Janeiro and Sugar Loaf Mountain seen from Corcovado (Hunchback) Peak. With a population of almost 12 million, the Rio conurbation is Brazil’s largest after São Paulo. A
T
Oi ap oq ue
FRENCH GUIANA SURINAME
Tum M o uu c - H u m a c ntains A M A P Á J ar i
L
H
G
D
N
A
L
Roman Catholic 74%
N
T
S
Other 1% White 6% Mixed race 40%
I
Ilha Caviana de Fora Ilha Mexiana Baía de Marajó Ilha de Marajó Belém
C
Brazil’s population is highly diverse. It includes indigenous Amerindian C groups, as well as the descendants on z a m A E of its Portuguese colonizers and Baía de Santarém A São Marcos the Africans brought to work São Luís N the sugar plantations in T ba í a the 17th century – ri Iri Fortaleza Represa Brazil has de Tucuruí TERRITÓRIO DE Imperatriz FERNANDO Teresina the largest Marabá P A R Á DE NORONHA Fernando CEARÁ Atol das Rochas de Noronha MARANHÃO Mossoró black RIO GRANDE DO NORTE population Natal Represa Boa Juazeiro do Norte do Se outside Esperança Ca rra ch PARAÍBA im João Pessoa Africa. Campina Sã PIAUÍ bo ga n i t a Olinda Grande Ca More recent a da TOCANTINS Recife Serr PERNAMBUCO Jaboatão Ilha do Represa de immigrant Bananal Sobradinho groups include Maceió na ALAGOAS ti Italians and n Aracaju a Pa r Taguatinga a g ua m Japanese. SERGIPE çu ia D Feira de Santana Extremes of AT O GROSSO BAH I A social disadvantage Planalto de GOIÁ S Salvador M ato Grosso Baía de Todos challenge the widely os Santos DISTRITO Cuiabá FEDERAL held notion that Brazil Itabuna BRASÍLIA Anápolis Vitória da Conquista is a “racial democracy.” Montes a Claros h Goiânia n nho Afro-Brazilians suffer uiti Rep. da MINAS Jeq Emborcação GERAIS Rep. de higher infant mortality São Simão Rep. Três Governador and poverty and Valadares MATO GROSSO Uberlândia Marias more racial and job Campo Uberaba Contagem ESPÍRITO Grande São José do discrimination than other Belo Horizonte Rio Preto Divinópolis DO SUL SANTO groups – a racial equality SÃO PAULO Rep. de Furnas Marília Vitória program was launched in 2003. Juiz de Ribeirão Presidente Fora Preto Bauru Prudente Volta Campos Amerindians also experience Redonda Campinas Petrópolis RIO DE JANEIRO Londrina Taubaté widespread prejudice, and of the Duque de Caxias Maringá Sorocaba Niterói estimated 1000 groups present at São Paulo Rio de Janeiro PARANÁ Rep. de São Vicente the time of the arrival of the first Nova Iguaçu Itaipu Ponta Grossa São José dos Campos Portuguese, only about 200 remain, Salto do Santo André Curitiba Iguaçu representing a total population of Santos Pa Joinville y SANTA CATARINA São Bernardo do Campo about 220,000 people, who struggle to ua g Blumenau ru U Passo secure land rights. Florianópolis Fundo Lages C Brazil is strongly Roman Catholic, I RIO GRANDE Caxias do Sul but other religions also flourish. The Santa Maria T Canoas DO SUL traditional emphasis on the family is N guaiana Porto Alegre under pressure in urban areas: migrants A Lagoa dos Patos Pelotas L in search of work often have to leave U T G Rio Grande their families behind. A Lake Mirim Women gained the vote in 1934, but are still discriminated against in jobs and politics. Macapá
O
Equator
gu aia
da
pa
ha
C
Fran cisco
al de Goiás
Ger
ra
ná
E
C
O
Serra do E sp
in
ha
ço
A N
S
er
S ão
aús
ad
s G r
do
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Se
sa
mo
anuel oM
Serra F or
A ra
Xing u
Parn
ap
ajó s
Tocantin s
Ilha Grande de Gurupá
ra
I
19.9%
0.4%
60–79
3.4%
40–59
9%
20–39 0–19
16% 20.4%
% of population by age group
CHRONOLOGY
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Black 53%
A
16.5%
Other 3% Atheist 7% Protestant 15%
Afro-American Spiritist 1%
9.7%
80+
Male
Pedro Alvares Cabral became the first Portuguese to arrive in Brazil, in 1500. By the time Portugal took control of the region, in 1580, it was a thriving community drawing its wealth from sugar plantations in the northeast, worked by imported Africans, or Amerindians captured from farther inland.
U
AY
1637–1654 Dutch control sugargrowing areas. 1763 Rio becomes capital. 1788 Inconfidência rebellion, led by Tiradentes, fails. 1807 French invade Portugal. King João VI flees to Brazil with British naval escort. In return, Brazil’s ports opened to foreign trade. 1821 King returns to Portugal; his son Pedro made regent of Brazil. 1822 Pedro I declares independence and is made emperor of Brazil. 1828 Brazil loses Uruguay. 1831 Military revolt after war with Argentina (1825–1828). Emperor abdicates; his five-year-old son succeeds him as Pedro II. 1835–1845 Rio Grande secedes. 1865–1870 Brazil with Argentina and Uruguay wins war of Triple Alliance against Paraguay. 1888 Pedro II abolishes slavery; landowners and military turn against him. 1889 First Republic established. Emperor goes into exile in Paris. Increasing prosperity as result of international demand for coffee. 1891 Federal constitution established. 1914–1918 World War I causes coffee exports to slump. 1920s Working-class and intellectual movements call for end to oligarchic rule. 1930 Coffee prices collapse. Revolt led by Dr. Getúlio Vargas, the “Father of the Poor,” who becomes president. Fast industrial growth. 1937 Vargas’s position as benevolent dictator formalized in “New State,” based on fascist model. 1942 Declares war on Germany.
145
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
B
1945 Vargas forced out by military. 1950 Vargas reelected president. 1954 US opposes Vargas’s socialist policies. The right, backed by the military, demands his resignation. Commits suicide. 1956–1960 President Juscelino Kubitschek, backed by Brazilian Labor Party (PTB), attracts foreign investment for new industries, especially from US. 1960–1961 Conservative Jânio da Silva Quadros president. Tries to break dependence on US trade. 1961 Brasília, built in three years, becomes new capital. PTB leader, João Goulart, elected president. 1961–1964 President’s powers briefly curtailed as right wing reacts to presidential policies. 1964 Bloodless military coup under army chief Gen. Castelo Branco. 1965 Branco assumes dictatorship; bans existing political parties, but creates two official new ones. He is followed by a succession of military rulers. Fast-track economic development, the Brazilian Miracle, is counterbalanced by ruthless suppression of left-wing activists. 1974 World oil crisis marks end of economic boom. Brazil’s foreign debt now largest in world. 1979 More political parties allowed. 1980 Huge migrations into Rondônia state begin. 1985 Civilian senator Tancredo Neves wins presidential elections as candidate of new liberal alliance, but dies before taking office. Illiterate adults granted the vote. 1987 Gold found on Yanomami lands in Roraima state; illegal diggers rush in by the thousand. 1988 New constitution promises massive social spending but fails to address land reform. Chico Mendes, rubber-tappers’ union leader and environmentalist, murdered. 1989 First environmental protection plan. Yearly inflation reaches 1000%. Fernando Collor de Mello wins first presidential election held under completely free conditions. 1992 Earth Summit in Rio. Collor de Mello resigns and is impeached. 1994–1995 Plan Real ends hyperinflation. Congress resists constitutional reforms, but passes key privatizations of state monopolies. 1998–1999 Fernando Henrique Cardoso, in power since 1995, reelected president. Real devalued in economic crisis. 2001–2002 Recovery of economy threatened by crisis in Argentina. 2003 Lula da Silva takes office as president.
146
POLITICS
†
L. House 2002/2006 U. House 2002/2006
President Luiz Inácio da Silva
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Chamber of Deputies 513 seats
18% PT
Multipar ty elections
18% Others
5% PTB
16% 14% 14% 10% 5% PFL PMDB PSDB PPB PL
PT = Workers' Party PFL = Liberal Front Party PMDB = Brazilian Democratic Movement Party PSDB = Brazilian Social Democracy Party PPB = Brazilian Progressive Party PTB = Brazilian Labor Party PL = Liberal Party
Federal Senate 81 seats
23% PMDB
23% PFL
18% PT
14% PSDB
22% Others
Brazil is a democratic federal republic with 27 regional parliaments and a national Congress. In 1993, Brazilians voted to retain the direct election of their president.
PROFILE Military rule between 1964 and 1985 led to gross human rights abuses, against Amazon Amerindians in particular, and to economic mismanagement, which left Brazil with a legacy of huge debts and inefficient state industries. Brazil’s weak party system is centered on personalities. Parties do not have set ideological programs, but form shaky coalitions and engage in horse-trading to get legislation through the Congress. The preponderance of small parties and corruption adds to the problems. Former president Collor de Mello was impeached in 1992 on fraud charges. Despite popular dissatisfaction with the center right in the 1990s, the leftwing PT, led by the charismatic Luiz Inácio “Lula” da Silva, was hindered by a lack of fresh ideas. Conservative Fernando Cardoso held the presidency from 1995. He kept a shaky coalition together, designing an anti-inflation plan for the real and emergency fiscal adjustments which saved Brazil from a return to persistent economic crisis. By 2002, the economic outlook had become less secure in the face of chaos in neighboring Argentina. With Cardoso constitutionally barred from seeking a third term, Lula, who had sufficiently toned down his socialism, was elected president in October – at his fourth successive attempt.
Fernando Cardoso, president from 1995 to 2002.
Luiz Inácio “Lula” da Silva, left-wing leader, elected president in 2002.
predecessor, President Cardoso, which had provided stability and boosted consumer and investor confidence. Maintaining fiscal discipline while fulfilling his election promises is likely to prove difficult. Early signs of frustration with his commitment to the existing center-right policies materialized in early 2003 from the left wing of his own PT party, trade unions, and the landless peasant movement. Economic management Rapid recovery from the 1999 currency crisis relied on a tight monetary and fiscal regime backed by a sound macroeconomic policy. This permitted modest growth in 2001 and 2002, despite the global downturn and energy rationing at home. Plaudits from the IMF separated Brazil in investors’ minds from the economic turmoil in Argentina. Efforts to manipulate the constitution in order to secure further reforms will require delicate consensus politics in a Congress eager to review the state-funding arrangements established under Cardoso. Land redistribution Brazil has up to five million landless families. An active campaign by the Landless Workers’ Movement (MST) aims to redistribute vast tracts of private and often fallow land through illegal invasions, provoking occasional violent confrontations with security forces. The movement stepped up its campaign in 2003, despite the inauguration of the left-leaning President Lula.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Political stability President Lula was elected on a social platform, notably prioritizing the fight against hunger, and his government came to power with unprecedented public support. Nonetheless, he was not eager to stray too far from the successful policy mix promoted by his
Coffee plantation, São Paulo state. Coffee was introduced into Brazil in the early 18th century. It is declining in importance and now accounts for less than 4% of export revenues.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BRAZIL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS AmCC
G24
OAS
Mercosr
RG
ECONOMICS $495bn
†
Inflation 168% p.a. (1990–2001)
3.097 reals (2.869)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
EXPORTS
China 4% Argentina 4%
Germany 4% Netherlands 5%
Other 57%
USA 26%
IMPORTS
Italy 4%
Japan 5% Germany 9%
Other 50%
Argentina 10%
Recipient
$376m (receipts)
/
USA 22% Up 8% in 2002
STRENGTHS
Aid, mainly from Japan and EU states, funds environmental, basic sanitation, road-building, and antipoverty projects. As a consequence of the Argentine economic crisis, the IMF loaned Brazil $10 billion in 2002, and promised $30 billion more in the following years.
DEFENSE $9.65bn
†
/
Compulsor y militar y ser vice
Up 1% in 2002
BRAZILIAN ARMED FORCES 178 main battle tanks (87 Leopard 1, 91 M-60A3)
189,000 personnel
4 submarines, 1 carrier, 14 frigates, 5 corvettes, and 47 patrol boats
48,600 personnel
254 combat aircraft (68 AT-26, 68 AT-27, 47 F-5E/F, 15 Mirage F-103E/D)
50,000 personnel
Dominant economy in region. Strong foreign direct investment flows. Huge growth potential: immense natural resources; major producer of coffee, soybeans, sugar, oranges; large deposits of gold, silver, and iron; major steel producer; expanding oil industry. Development aided by cross-border infrastructural projects and modernization of telecoms.
WEAKNESSES Expensive domestic borrowing. Weak local capital markets. Vulnerability to external shocks and commodity price fluctuations. Modest productivity. Heavy debt burden. Social inequalities threaten unrest. High cost of crime. Electricity blackouts caused by badly maintained transmission network or failure of hydropower supply due to drought.
B
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
†
AID
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................12th GNP PER CAPITA................................$2830 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$7.7bn INFLATION ...........................................8.4% UNEMPLOYMENT.......................................9%
Consumer price index 1998=100
Brazil has ambitions to act as main broker in future talks with the US on the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), which is due to be signed in 2005. It hosted a conference in 2002 of the FTAA candidate countries and has strengthened ties with Mexico, its chief rival for regional leadership. Free trade talks with the EU and Mercosur have raised the prospect of compromise by Europe on agriculture, long the main bone of contention between the two regions. Though pragmatic in his relations with the US, President Lula has supported left-wing president Hugo Chávez in Venezuela’s domestic crisis and has offered to mediate in Colombia, despite protests about apparent support in Brazil for left-wing Colombian guerrillas.
2002
boosted regional confidence and facilitated the launch of Mercosur. In 1995 a fractious Congress blocked reforms of the tax and social security systems, but finally agreed to end state monopolies in such sectors as telecommunications and oil, thus reviving the privatization program. The economy grew strongly through 1996 and 1997, but was seriously threatened in 1998 by an international financial crisis. A $41.5 billion rescue package was arranged by the IMF, but foreign currency reserves were heavily depleted in a bid to support the real, which was devalued in 1999 due to speculative pressures. A deep recession was avoided, however, by the successful application over 18 months of tight fiscal and monetary policies, restoring domestic and international confidence. Modest growth was posted in 2001, but the economic meltdown in Argentina and the effects of global downturn brought the value of the real down in 2002. The IMF calmed market jitters when it approved a billion-dollar credit line. It expressed confidence that President Lula’s administration would keep macroeconomic discipline, even though the economy remains sluggish, notwithstanding an increase in exports. BRAZIL : MAJOR BUSINESSES Manaus Belém
None
The military still has an important internal security role, particularly in the north. The arms industry is large, but Brazil states that it has no intention of using its nuclear energy for military purposes: the Comprehensive Test Ban and Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaties were signed in 1998. Membership of the Mercosur trade bloc has led to increased regional cooperation. Brazilian troops participate in UN peacekeeping, leading the mission in Haiti from June 2004. A $750 million order for US fighter aircraft was suspended in 2003, preference being given to social initiatives.
PROFILE Brazil is the world’s 12th-largest economy. Average growth from the start of the 20th century to the early 1970s was over 5%, second only to Japan over a comparable period. Diversification and industrialization transformed Brazil into a producer of cars, computers, and aircraft, but profligate spending produced heavy debts in the 1980s. International lenders demanded belt tightening in return for rescheduling, and a steep recession followed in 1990–1992. The launching of the new currency, the real, in 1994, was the fifth attempt at monetary stabilization since 1986; it contributed to a dramatic fall in inflation. Economic growth in 1994
azo n Am
Recife
Salvador Brasília Belo Horizonte Rio de Janeiro
Banking Computers Publishing Electronics Saw milling
São Paulo Porto Alegre
Sugarcane refining Vehicle assembly
0
Coffee processing
0
1000 km 1000 miles
* significant multinational ownership
147
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
B
Electric power 73.1m kW
980,000 tonnes
1.55m b/d (reser ves 10.6bn barrels)
190m cattle, 32.6m pigs, 14.2m sheep, 1.05bn chickens
Iron, manganese, coal, bauxite, nickel, oil, tin, silver, diamonds, gold, natural gas, uranium
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
7% (4% par tially protected)
Sustainability rank: 20th
1.8 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 87% (305bn kWh)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Combustion 11% (38bn kWh) Nuclear 2% (6bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
80
100
% of total generation by type
Brazil imports gas from Argentina and Bolivia, and has similar plans with Uruguay. Nuclear power has been dogged by controversy and high costs. Hydropower, accounting for almost 90% of electricity generation, is extremely vulnerable to drought, which forced energy rationing in 2001–2002. Efforts to reduce this dependency include the use of domestically enriched uranium as a fuel. Brazil is the world’s largest producer of ethanol from sugar, used as an alternative to gasoline. It is a leading regional producer of many minerals. Exploration of the Amazon’s biodiversity was brought under government control in mid-2000, with all new ventures involving any living thing requiring official approval.
Federal agencies charged with protecting the Amazon Rainforest are underfunded, understaffed, and accused of corruption. The forest contains an estimated 30% of all the world’s plant and animal
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 46 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 380 daily newspapers. The leading newspapers include A Folha de São Paulo, O Día, and O Globo 19 state-owned services, 237 independent stations
1 state-owned service, more than 2900 independent stations
†
CRIME 284,989 prisoners
Death penalty not used in practice
/
1000 miles
Some 200 indigenous groups remain in the disappearing rainforest.
148
2.78m students
9
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts 175
per 100,000 population
In cities, crime levels are among the world’s highest, with armed robbery and narcotics-related organized crime uppermost. Badly paid police are frequently accused of extortion, violence, and murder. Death squads, thought to be linked to the police, have targeted street children in major cities. A combination of atrocious conditions and overcrowding means that violent disturbances in prisons are common. A strict gun-control law, banning private gun ownership, came into force in 2004. In the countryside, landless squatters and indigenous peoples have been wounded and murdered in the process of being driven off land by gunmen funded by large landowners. In Roraima state, the discovery of large gold deposits has led to the homelands of Brazil’s largest tribe, the Yanomami, being invaded by thousands of guntoting prospectors, garimpeiros.
100
% of each age group in education
per 100,000 population
BRAZIL : LAND USE
1000 km
86%
School leaving age: 14
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
23 A M A Z O N B A S I N
0
†
EDUCATION
Murders
Amazon
0
TV and radio licenses have been notoriously awarded as political favors. The huge Globo group dominates the home market, with radio, press, and online interests: its TV network is one of the largest in the world. However, it is being challenged by the Internet and the growth of new media companies, involving foreign multinationals. A constitutional amendment in 2002 allowed foreign groups to take 30% stakes in TV, radio, and the press.
Up 19% in 2000–2001
CRIME RATES
Cropland Forest Pasture Cattle Coffee – cash crop Oranges
species. However, 38 million animals a year are smuggled out of the region, and irreplaceable genetic diversity is being lost year by year with the forest’s continuing destruction for the sake of cattle pasture, logging, and soybean farming. In 2002 the world’s largest tropical forest reserve was created in northern Brazil. Opencast bauxite mines pollute rivers and threaten indigenous Amerindians, while in 2000 the worst oil spill in 25 years devastated the Iguaçu River. Urban industrial pollution and untreated sewage are also major problems.
80
60
100%
100%
40
20
18% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
The average time spent at school is less than that in other South American countries. The portion of GDP spent on education is comparable to that of European countries, but it is misapplied, so that basic primary education remains weak, while many children of wealthy families receive excellent tuition at free public universities. Of Brazil’s 150 universities, 77 are administered by the state. Children living in remote communities in Amazonia and in the slums around major cities, and urban street children, have limited access to mainstream education. Classes frequently include children older than the expected age range. Despite an anti-illiteracy campaign, begun in 1971, the adult illiteracy rate is still over 10%.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BRAZIL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
BRAZIL’S THREATENED AMAZON REGION
D
the Brazilian Amazon has accelerated alarmingly, with rainforest loss since 2001 amounting to some 23,000– 25,000 sq. km (9000–10,000 sq. miles) a year. These official statistics are the second worst on record, and a 30–40% increase over the late 1990s. EFORESTATION IN
Despite 30 years of destruction, 86% of the Amazon region remains intact, but its continuing decline is a matter of global concern. It is vital as a “carbon sink,” as its plant growth absorbs carbon dioxide to reduce the buildup in the atmosphere of this “greenhouse gas” and helps counteract the climate-altering effects of emissions from the world’s industrial activity and fossil fuel energy use.
KNOWLEDGE
Much medicine depends on research for which biodiversity is vital.
profitable to extract timber and create pasture. According to government figures, 80% of rainforest destruction is attributable to the growth in cattle ranching for beef production.
Brazil has the greatest biodiversity on earth. The loss of habitat compromises future knowledge ranging from medical treatments and possible food crops to information about evolution, adaptation, and survival strategies. The Amazon alone contains some 30% of all the world’s known animal and plant species, besides possibly millions of uncatalogued insects; it has about 80,000 species of trees and flowering plants, more than 2000 bird species, a similar diversity of freshwater fish and more than 3000 species of mammals.
Conservationists fear that the planned paving of the BR-163 highway by 2008, replacing a dirt road with a 1765-km (1097-mile) superhighway to the port of Santarém, will accelerate forest destruction in the heart of the region and hugely expand soybean farming. This industry is already moving rapidly into Para and Mato Grosso states on the back of a boom which has seen Brazil net 34% of world sales (largely at the expense of the US, whose genetically modified soybeans are rejected by European consumers).
To preserve the genetic codes of some 381 threatened Brazilian plant species (not only in the rainforest but in other major “biomes” including the Atlantic temperate forests and the Pantanal floodplains), Rio de Janeiro’s Botanic Gardens in June 2004 opened a DNA bank, with two new laboratories for work on conservation and the development of plant-based drug treatments.
The election in 2002 of the da Silva administration put in doubt the previous government’s “Plan Brasil” for the investment of over $40 billion in new infrastructure for the Amazon. New environment minister Marina Silva, herself a former Amazonian rubber tapper and environmental activist, has pledged better protection of the region. Under the Amazon Regional Protected Areas programme (ARPA) the Tumucumaque National Park, covering more than 38,000 sq. km (14,672 sq. miles), was declared a protected area, and in August 2004 a new Biodiversity Conservation Program was launched, with UNESCO backing, to cover the country’s seven World Natural Patrimony Sites. However, a 1998 pledge to set aside at least 12% of the Amazon for conservation by 2013 remains a distant goal, and environmentalists remain skeptical about the latest in a series of new initiatives to clamp down on illegal logging and forest clearance. Announced with great fanfare in March 2004, this involved giving action plans and targets to 12 federal agencies and providing for the deployment of helicopterbased intervention teams.
EXPLOITATION
Some 85% of deforestation is estimated to occur within 50 km (30 miles) of a road, where it is relatively easy and
Equatorial vegetation near Manaus in the center of Amazonas state. The brown waters of the Rio Solimões and the black waters of the Rio Negro meet near Manaus.
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers, accidents, violence
1 per 769 people
IN DANGER
INFRASTRUCTURE AND
†
HEALTH
B
Federal health is underfunded. Fewer than 20% of hospitals are state-run, and they need modernization, while private care is beyond the means of the majority. On average only 15% of the health budget goes to child health, immunization, and other preventive programs. However, infant mortality, at 95 per 1000 children in 1970, had dropped to one-third of that level by 2000; access to potable water increased from 74% of the population in 1992 to 87%. In 2001 international drug companies and the US dropped patent infringement claims against Brazil for distributing anti-AIDS drugs free to more than 100,000 HIV patients.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
137 per 1000 population
223 per 1000 population
Defense 2.3% Education 4% Health 3.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Brazil’s income distribution is among the most skewed in the world. The richest 10% of the population take almost 50% of the income and the poorest 50% only 10%. Up to five million families remain landless, while nearly 66% of arable land is owned by just 3% of the population. Vast tracts of disputed land are marked for redistribution, but invasions by landless workers continue. In 2003 President Lula launched a Zero Hunger campaign to provide benefits to the poorest families, and pledged to end economic slavery, by which 25,000 people are forced to work in order to pay largely invented debts.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
72
75 $2830 150th
101 69 years
109 86%
101 33 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
149
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
Asia
SOUTHEAST ASIA
BRUNEI B
Malaysia BRUNEI
OFFICIAL NAME: Sultanate of Brunei CAPITAL: Bandar Seri Begawan POPULATION: 358,000 CURRENCY: Brunei dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Malay 1984
1984
Feb 23
BRU
+8
.bn
+673
L
YING ON THE NORTHWESTERN coast of the island of Borneo, Brunei is divided in two by a strip of the surrounding Malaysian state of Sarawak. The interior is mostly rainforest. Independent from the UK since 1984, Brunei is ruled by decree of the sultan. It is undergoing increasing Islamization. Oil and gas revenues have brought one of the world’s highest standards of living.
†
CLIMATE
TOURISM
Tropical equatorial
WEATHER CHART FOR BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
984,093 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 60/24
50/122
50/20
Malaysia 77%
40/104
40/16
Philippines 5%
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
Drive on left
482,600 grt
2397 km (1489 miles)
None
13 km (8 miles)
209 km (130 miles)
10
/
Up 2% in 1999–2000
50
I
Kampong Paring
( R
Bangar
Kampong Batang Duri
A W
Y A
S
I
K
A 20 miles
em bur o ng
Bukit Pagon 1859m
BRUNEI Total Area : 5770 sq. km (2228 sq. miles)
20 km
Y S I )A L AA W A K
A
R
Kampong Sukang
A
t
A
L
Kampong Labi
S
Kampong Labu
A
B
A
( S
ai
M
BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN
T
M
Kampong Bukit Sawat
g ton Tu
Badas
Kampong Teraja
Indigenous 6% Other 11%
Malays are the beneficiaries of positive discrimination; many in the Chinese community are either stateless or hold British protected person passports. Among indigenous groups, the Murut and Dusuns are favored over the Ibans. Women, less restricted than in some Muslim states, are obliged to wear headscarves but not the veil. Many hold influential posts in the civil service.
†
POLITICS
No multiparty elections
H.M. Sultan Haji Sir Hassanal Bolkiah Mu’izzadin Waddaulah
No date set for elections
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
Legislative Council 21 seats
POPULATION over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
A state of emergency has been in force since a failed rebellion in 1962. “Malay Muslim Monarchy” was introduced in 1990, promoting Islamic values as the state ideology. This further alienated the large Chinese and expatriate communities. Power is closely tied to the royal family; the sultan and his brother hold the defense, finance, and foreign affairs portfolios. The Legislative Council was reconvened in 2004 for the first time in 20 years; partial elections are promised, though parties remain banned.
LAND HEIGHT 1500m/4921ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
†
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
Sea Level
150
27%
The appointed Legislative Council was reconvened in 2004 for the first time since 1984. There are also four advisory councils. Political parties were banned in 1988
Pulau Muara Besar B R U N E I
uan P an d ar
Kampong Benutan
el
80
Pekan Muara
Kampong Bunut
Tutong
Kampong Kuala Abang
Kampong Tanajor
70
60
B A Y Kampong Parit
Pekan Seria
Kampong Kuala Balai
73%
A
H
Kampong Lumut
)
40
Perkemahan Berakas Kampong Jerudong
N
Kuala Belait
N
E
A S I M A L A Y
T
U
O
S
30
20
S
Interest-free loans for civil servants, subsidized gasoline, and limited public transportation account H for the high rates of car ownership. C
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Chinese 16%
Though the government is keen to protect Bruneians from Western influence, it wants to encourage quality tourism as part of its diversification program. Promoted as the “Gateway to Borneo,” Brunei’s rainforests could be developed for tourism. The Winston Churchill Museum, founded by the late Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin, has now been superseded by the Museum of Royal Regalia.
A
0
Visitors : Population 2.7:1
% of total arrivals
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
†
Indonesia 4%
Just 480 km (300 miles) north of the equator, Brunei has a long rainy season with extremely high humidity.
Bandar Seri Begawan 1.28m passengers
68/km2 (176/mi2)
Malay, English, Chinese
Malay 67%
0
†
Pop. density medium
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 14%
TRANSPORTATION
†
PEOPLE
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
60/140
0/32
Indonesia
ASEAN
Comm
OIC
Joined UN in 1984
WTO
Brunei leads calls for a regional free trade area. Political exiles opposed to the government and based in Malaysia are a main concern. Relations with the UK, the ex-colonial power, are good.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BRUNEI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
The magnificent Omar Ali Saifuddin Mosque is surrounded by an artificial lagoon.
†
AID
Ad hoc handouts from the sultan
,
Not applicable
Aid spending is largely ad hoc. It has included donations to the Contras in Nicaragua, the Bosnian Muslims, and the homeless of New York.
DEFENSE US$253m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 9% in 2002
In 2003 there was a brief stand-off with Malaysia over oil exploration. The UK maintains over 1000 troops in Brunei and runs a jungle warfare training school. Singapore is also an ally.
ECONOMICS US$7.75bn
1591 tonnes
214,000 b/d (reserves 1.1bn barrels)
70,000 ducks, 6000 buffaloes, 4000 sheep, 11m chickens
Oil, natural gas
Oil and gas are the major resources. Energy policy is now focused on regulating output in order to conserve stocks, since reserves are of limited duration. Almost all food is imported.
Single-product economy. Failure of diversification programs could lead to problems in the future. EXPORTS
Australia 9% Japan 40% Thailand 12% South Korea 12%
IMPORTS
Japan 21%
UK 6% Malaysia 17%
Other 21%
B
1929 Oil extraction begins. 1959 First constitution enshrines Islam as state religion. Internal self-government. 1962 Prodemocracy rebellion. State of emergency; sultan rules by decree. 1984 Independence from Britain. Brunei joins ASEAN. 1990 Ideology of “Malay Muslim Monarchy” introduced. 1991 Imports of alcohol banned. 1992 Joins Non-Aligned Movement. 1998 Sultan’s son, Prince Al-Muhtadee Billah, made crown prince. 2004 Legislature reconvened.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
549 per 1000 population
256 per 1000 population
Defense 5.2% There is 1 daily newspaper, the Borneo Bulletin
Education 4.8% Health 2.5% 1 state-owned service
1 state-owned service
State controls were relaxed somewhat in 2000, but self-censorship on political and religious content continues.
CRIME
†
Death penalty not used in practice
.
Down 21% in 2000–2001
Crime levels are low. Most crime involves petty theft or is linked to alcohol and narcotics (both banned). A stolen car often makes TV news headlines. The state of emergency enables the government to detain without charge or trial for indefinitely renewable two-year periods.
†
EDUCATION 94%
USA 8%
Singapore 31%
TV ownership high
Under British control since 1841, Brunei became a formal British Protectorate in 1888.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
454 prisoners
WEAKNESSES
14.3 tonnes per capita
CHRONOLOGY
Daily newspaper circulation 69 per 1000 people
1.722 Brunei dollars (1.761)
Nearly 15 years of known oil reserves and 30 years of gas. Earnings from massive overseas investments, mainly in the US and Europe, now exceed oil and gas revenues.
Hong Kong 4%
†
MEDIA
†
STRENGTHS
Not available
The Forestry Strategic Plan aims to protect Brunei’s forests (which take up 80% of its land area). It has allocated 64% of their area for protection, recreation, and the prevention of soil erosion. However, Brunei’s mangrove swamps, the largest on the island of Borneo, remain unprotected.
Inflation 1.1% p.a. (1990–1999)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................99th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$24,100 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .................US$3.9bn INFLATION ..........................................–2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
.
21% (0.2% partially protected)
SCORE CARD
Other 19%
†
ENVIRONMENT
Donor
Electric power 483,000 kW
1 per 929 people
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The wealthiest people in Brunei are those close to the sultan, one of the world’s richest men. A generally high standard of living, along with a degree of social mobility among Malays, keeps discontent to a minimum. Bruneians are major consumers of high-tech hi-fi and video equipment, designer-label watches, and Western designer clothes. The sultan’s younger brother, Prince Jefri, in 2001 auctioned his possessions, ranging from fire engines to marble baths, after the failure of his business left him with debts of US$3 billion.
WORLD RANKING
School leaving age: 16
Position in World 1st
3984 students
Free schooling is available to the entire population, with the exception of the stateless Chinese, who do not qualify. The University of Brunei Darussalam was opened in 1985.
HEALTH
0
†
50th
12 $24,100
100th
29
28
77 years
6 deaths
33
81 94% 150th
Welfare state health benefits
193rd
Heart diseases, cancers
The health service is free, though if major surgery is required Bruneians tend to travel to Singapore.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
151
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BULGARIA
Romania Serb & Mon.
1908
1947
March 3
BG
+2
BULGARIA
Maced.
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Bulgaria CAPITAL: Sofia POPULATION: 7.9 million CURRENCY: Lev OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Bulgarian
Greece
Turkey
.bg
+359
E
XTENDING SOUTH FROM the River Danube, Bulgaria has a mountainous interior, with the popular resorts of the Black Sea to the east. The most populated areas are around Sofia in the west, Plovdiv in the south, and along the Danube plain. Bulgaria was directly ruled by the Ottomans until 1878; Communists overthrew the monarchy in 1946 and, under General Secretary Todor Zhivkov from 1954, Bulgaria was one of the Soviet Union’s most loyal allies. Economic and political reform after 1989 was slow, but Bulgaria now hopes to build its future as an integral part of Europe.
†
CLIMATE
Mediterranean/ continental
Sofia 1.36m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on right
Rila Monastery in the Rila Mountains. It is famous for its 1200 National Revival period frescoes dating from the mid-19th century.
TOURISM
165 ships 889,300 grt
4.05m visitors
35,049 km (21,778 miles)
324 km (201 miles)
Visitors : Population 1:2
/
Up 18% in 2003
4318 km (2683 miles)
470 km (292 miles)
Macedonia 15% Serbia & Montenegro 15% Germany 10% Turkey 10%
-10/14 -20/-4
SE R
Tutrakan
A
M
Lom
Ruse
A
I
Knezha
V
S
Troyan
M
O
SOFIA
N
Gabrovo
Kyustendil
Musala 2925m
R ILA
ni
PE
R od
opi
Elkhovo
Asenovgrad
ts a
TA Iz t
E
Kharmanli Khaskovo
UN
Smolyan
Gotse Delchev
R
MO
over 1 000 000 over 100 000
INS
A
oc
Madan
hni
Kûrdzhali Yazovir Studen Kladenets
Svilengrad
over 10 000
E Y R K U T 0
R o do p i
C
50 km
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
N
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
0
E
over 50 000
A
G
ad
POPULATION
Pomorie Burgaski Zaliv
Stara Zagora
Dimitrovgrad
Yazovir Batak
ta
IA
Petrich
ap
DO
s Me
N
a S trum
DO
Z
HO
Burgas
E
R
Blagoevgrad
Yambol
Plovdiv
Velingrad
BULGARIA
S
Pazardzhik
Karnobat
Nova Zagora
ri Ma
MA C E
Dupnitsa
Tund a zh
G O R A
rd a
Samokov
Kazanlûk
Yazovir Georgi Dimitrov
E
40
Total Area : 110 910 sq. km (42 822 sq. miles)
Aytos
Sliven
K
S R E D N A Panagyurishte
Yazovir Iskûr
Zaliv
S
N
I
A
T
Karlovo
Pernik
Provadiya Kamc hiya
Veliko Tûrnovo
Sevlievo
U
Tûrgovishte
C
N Botevgrad
Razgrad Popovo
Gorna Oryakhovitsa
Lovech
A
30
A
Mezdra
r kû
R
A
Cherven Bryag
Vratsa
K
K
20
L
Pleven
Y antra
A
L
Byala Slatina
ndzha Tu
N
B Montana
A
Svishtov
sk ûr
U
10
% of total arrivals
B
D
N
V
Oryakhovo
& MO N TE N E G R O
(Y UG O S LA V IA )
B IA
O
Danube
Other 40% 0
The tourist industry formerly catered for the east European mass market. Western tourists are attracted by low prices for skiing and beach vacations. Bulgaria is now privatizing the industry and seeks to move it upmarket by stressing the country’s heritage. Since the mid-1990s a slump A in earnings has ube Silistra D an been reversed: A Russians are N I returning in larger numbers and there are Dobrich more tours from western Europe, Varnensks Shumen Ezero especially from Varna Germany. Varnenski
I N
R Vidin
Romania 10%
At the crossroads between Europe and Asia, Bulgarian railroads and expressways were underfunded under Zhivkov (when north–south routes were left undeveloped) and in the economically uncertain 1990s. Funding for modernizing key routes is now in place. Ferries are used for most crossDanube traffic. In 2000 agreement was reached with Romania on building a second bridge across the river, scheduled to open in 2005.
The central valley and the lowlands have warm summers and cold, snowy winters, but hot or cold winds from Russia can bring spells of more extreme weather. The hotter summers on the Black Sea coast have encouraged the growth of tourist resorts. Snow may lie on the high mountain peaks until June.
152
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
WEATHER CHART FOR SOFIA
Is
B
Europe
EUROPE
50 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BULGARIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
71/km2 (185/mi2)
Bulgarian, Turkish, Romani THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
68%
32%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Roman Catholic 1%
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
Other 4% Muslim 12%
Orthodox Christian 83% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Roma 5% Turkish 9%
Other 2%
religious freedom was granted in 1989, but 300,000 Turks, or 40%, still left for Turkey – an option denied to Pomaks. The farming skills of the Turkish community have traditionally been important, but many Turks have been left landless by recent privatizations, causing new waves of emigration. Roma suffer discrimination at all levels. It is thought that the number of Roma is much higher than officially recognized, since many disguise their ethnicity in an effort to avoid persecution. Other minorities include Russians, Armenians, and Vlachs. Women have equal rights in theory, but society remains patriarchal, especially among Turks. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
1.4%
The Communist era was marked by the active suppression of minority cultural identities. In the 1970s, Bulgarian Muslims, or Pomaks, were forced to change Muslim names to Bulgarian ones. Bulgarian Turks were particularly targeted in the 1980s. Linguistic and
POLITICS 2001/2005
†
60–79
13.5%
40–59
13.7%
20–39
11.9%
0–19
8.6% 12.9% 14% 12.6%
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections
President Georgi Purvanov
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 240 seats
50% NMS II
10.5%
Male 0.9%
80+
21% UDF
20% CFB
9% MRF
NMS II = National Movement Simeon II UDF = United Democratic Forces (led by the Union of Democratic Forces–UDF) CFB = Coalition for Bulgaria (led by the Bulgarian Socialist Party–BSP) MRF = Movement for Rights and Freedoms
Bulgaria is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE Having moved falteringly to a pluralist democratic system after the fall of the communist Zhivkov regime in 1989, Bulgaria suffered during the 1990s from successive weak governments, each brought down by no-confidence votes. The UDF, a broad anticommunist alliance, fell from office in 1992, and by the time of the 1994 general election the former communist BSP appeared to be firmly in the ascendant, winning an overall majority. The BSP government resisted political and economic change; the result was one of the slowest privatization programs in eastern Europe, with the old communist web of patronage still intact. A new UDF government in 1997 launched free-market reforms backed by the IMF. Its considerable success, and reorientation of policy toward the
CE
NATO
Joined UN in 1955
CEFTA
OSCE
Bulgaria became a member of NATO in March 2004. Not included in the 2004 expansion of the EU, it has been told that membership is likely in 2007. Bulgaria conscientiously adhered to UN sanctions against Yugoslavia, despite the costs of lost trade. Relations with Russia are no longer close, but are maintained carefully because of dependence on Russia for oil and gas. Relations with Turkey have greatly improved since the tensions of the final years of communist rule.
AID
†
Recipient
$381m (receipts)
Age
Female
Bulgarian 84%
BSEC
†
/
Up 10% in 2002
Loans from the IMF, the World Bank, and the EBRD are mainly intended for infrastructure improvements. The EU is by far the largest single donor, with funds aiding reforms in preparation for Bulgaria’s eventual membership of the EU. Humanitarian aid focuses mainly on medical provision and children’s homes.
CHRONOLOGY goals of EU and NATO membership, allowed the UDF to approach the June 2001 elections with some confidence, despite a surge in support for a monarchist party launched by ex-king Simeon II (who had left Bulgaria as a small child in 1946). The poll, however, left the UDF with fewer than a quarter of the National Assembly seats, exactly half of which went to the NMS II. Bulgarianizing his family name, Prime Minister Simeon Saxecoburggotski formed a coalition with the MRF (which traditionally represents the ethnic Turkish minority) and in 2002 secured cooperation from the BSP and the UDF. However, the government’s popularity has declined as its promised “spiritual and economic revival” has been slow to unfold. Divisions within the ideologically vague NMS II and revitalized opposition from the BSP and UDF threaten the government’s survival.
Ex-king Simeon II (Saxecoburggotski) returned as prime minister in 2001.
Georgi Purvanov, of the BSP, elected president against expectations in 2001.
Part of the Ottoman Empire from 1396, Bulgaria gained autonomy in 1878 and independence in 1908. Under King Ferdinand, it sided with Germany during World War I, and subsequently lost valuable territory to Greece and Serbia. Under King Boris, Bulgaria once again sided with Germany in World War II. 1943 Child king Simeon II accedes. 1944 Allies firebomb Sofia. Soviet army invades. Antifascist Fatherland Front coalition, including Agrarian Party and Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP), takes power in bloodless coup. Kimon Georgiev prime minister. 1946 September, referendum abolishes monarchy. Republic proclaimed. October, general election results in BCP majority. 1947 Prime Minister Georgi Dmitrov discredits Agrarian Party leader Nikola Petkov. Petkov arrested and sentenced to death. International recognition of Dmitrov government. Soviet-style constitution adopted; one-party state established. Country renamed People’s Republic of Bulgaria. Nationalization of economy begins. 1949 Dmitrov dies, succeeded as prime minister by Vasil Kolarov. 1950 Kolarov dies. “Little Stalin” Vulko Chervenkov replaces him
153
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
B
154
/
Compulsory military service
Up 4% in 2002
BULGARIAN ARMED FORCES 1474 main battle tanks (1042 T-55, 432 T-72)
25,000 personnel
1 submarine, 1 frigate, and 23 patrol boats
4370 personnel
177 combat aircraft (Su-22, Su-25, MiG-21 bis, MiG-23, MiG-29)
13,100 personnel
None
Defense spending has fallen, from 14% of GDP in 1985 to 2.5% in 2002.
ECONOMICS $14.1bn
†
Preparing to join NATO, a long-held ambition realized in March 2004 after seven years of negotiations, involved a major reorientation in defense thinking. In 1999 the crisis in Kosovo had prompted Bulgaria to make its airspace available to NATO. In late 1999 the government adopted “Plan 2004,” which embodied a radical acceleration of its previous plans to restructure the armed forces. The new plan aimed to downsize from 75,000 to 45,000 personnel, including central staff, and focused on rapid reaction capabilities. It was considered that this smaller but combat-ready force would be less costly to maintain in the long run than a larger force.
Inflation 93% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.608 leva (1.695)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................78th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$1770 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$677m INFLATION ...........................................5.8% UNEMPLOYMENT.....................................17% EXPORTS
France 5%
Turkey 9%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
$378m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
and begins BCP purge and collectivization. 1953 Stalin dies; Chervenkov’s power begins to wane. 1954 Chervenkov yields power to Todor Zhivkov. Zhivkov sets out to make Bulgaria an inseparable part of the Soviet system. 1955–1960 Zhivkov exonerates victims of Chervenkov’s purges. 1965 Plot to overthrow Zhivkov discovered by Soviet agents. 1968 Bulgarian troops aid Soviet army in invasion of Czechoslovakia. 1971 New constitution. Zhivkov becomes president of State Council and resigns as premier. 1978 Purge of BCP: 30,000 members expelled. 1984 Turkish minority forced to take Slavic names. 1989 June–August, exodus of 300,000 Bulgarian Turks. November, Zhivkov ousted as BCP leader and head of state. Replaced by Petur Mladenov. Mass protest in Sofia for democratic reform. December, Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) formed. 1990 Economic collapse. Zhivkov arrested. BCP loses constitutional role as leading political party, changes name to Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP). Elections: BSP victory. Parliament chooses Zhelyu Zhelev, UDF leader, as president. Country renamed Republic of Bulgaria; communist symbols removed from national flag. 1991 February, price controls abolished; steep price rises. July, new constitution adopted. October, UDF wins elections. 1992 Continued political and social unrest. October, UDF resigns after losing vote of confidence. December, MRF forms government. Zhivkov convicted of corruption and human rights abuses. 1993 Ambitious privatization program begins, but progress slow. 1994 General elections return BSP to power. 1995 BSP leader, Zhan Videnov, heads coalition government. 1996 Financial crisis and collapse of lev. Presidential elections won by opposition UDF candidate, Peter Stoyanov. 1997 General election won by UDF, whose leader Ivan Kostov becomes prime minister. 2001 Despite economic upturn, voters turn to new party headed by ex-king, who, as Simeon Saxecoburggotski, becomes prime minister. November, BSP leader Georgi Purvanov elected president. 2004 Joins NATO.
DEFENSE
2002
Greece 9% Other 51% Germany 10% Italy 16% IMPORTS
Greece 6%
France 6% Italy 11%
Other 48%
Germany 14% Russia 15%
toward the EU, while that with the former Soviet Union has fallen sharply. The UDF government which was returned in 1997 followed IMF advice and made free-market reforms, backed by foreign loans, successfully bringing inflation under control. These policies have been continued under Saxecoburggotski, with the stated aim of joining the EU, which confirmed Bulgaria as a market economy in 2002. Growth has been steady.
STRENGTHS Coal and natural gas. Good agricultural production, especially grapes for welldeveloped wine industry, and tobacco. Increased ties with EU. Strong expertise in computer software.
WEAKNESSES
BULGARIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Pleven
Ruse
Shumen
Varna
Pernik
Outdated infrastructure and equipment, and outstanding debt throughout industry. High unemployment.
Burgas
Stara Zagora
PROFILE Restructuring the economy is linked to privatization – a process delayed for political and technical reasons until the late 1990s. A financial crisis in 1996 triggered the collapse of the national currency, the lev. Foreign investment is still low, despite laws that since 1992 have allowed foreign firms to own companies outright. Trade has shifted
Plovdiv Wine
Sofia
Steel Textiles Shipbuilding
Tobacco
Leather tanning
Computers
Food processing
Oil refining
Metal processing Vehicle assembly
0
Heavy engineering
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BULGARIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 11m kW
8140 tonnes
842 b/d (reserves 15m barrels)
1.73m sheep, 1m pigs, 900,000 goats, 18m chickens
Coal, iron, copper, lead, zinc, natural gas, oil, manganese
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 8% (3.2bn kWh) Combustion 48% (20bn kWh)
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Improvements in the production of coal – its chief fossil fuel – and the increasing efficiency of the Kozloduy nuclear
ENVIRONMENT
.
5% (2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 71st
†
CRIME
5.2 tonnes per capita
10,500 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No death penalty
/
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
5
per 100,000 population
6
per 100,000 population
1194
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Environmental degradation led to the foundation in 1989 of the Ecoglasnost party. It circulated information on pollution and nuclear waste dump locations, and brought polluters to court. The Kozloduy nuclear complex, east of Lom, was restarted in 1995 despite safety concerns. It is in the process of closing its oldest reactors. Air pollution has diminished, but problems remain. NATO bombing of Serbian chemical and oil refineries on the Danube in 1999 led to downriver pollution in Bulgaria.
MEDIA
†
In the 1990s Bulgaria became a key narcotics trafficking route to western Europe. Former security agents, party officials, and prestigious ex-athletes moved into protection rackets, counterfeiting, and similar activities. Violations of minority rights are a sensitive political issue.
†
EDUCATION 99%
233,678 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
10 services: 1 state-owned, 9 independent
State-run broadcasters retained an effective monopoly until the 2000 launch of a national commercial channel, bTV, owned by the international giant News Corporation. One group dominates the newspaper market, while political parties own much of the remainder. Internet providers are regulated. Journalists complain of the tough libel laws.
% of each age group in education
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
AL
H
KA
OD
N MOUNTAINS
Marit sa
OP EM
OU NTA IN
Pasture Forest Sheep 0
200 km
0
Cereals Tobacco
200 miles
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers
1 per 294 people
†
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
260 per 1000 population
368 per 1000 population
Defense 2.5% Education 3.2% Health 3.9% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The benefits of economic growth have not been evenly distributed. Pockets of serious poverty remain in rural areas and among ethnic minorities, notably the Roma, and the unemployed.
WORLD RANKING
80
60
Position in World
99%
1st
94%
40
40%
20
0
S
Cropland
0
School leaving age: 15
Daily newspaper circulation 116 per 1000 people
There are 63 daily newspapers, including Duma, Zemya, and Trud
B
SPENDING
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Danube
Hospital facilities have kept pace with population growth, but the 1997 economic crisis brought the health service to the brink of collapse. A new health policy was formulated in 1999, the plan of action emphasizing primary care. The Bulgarian Red Cross assists in health administration.
Murders Yes
B
Up 5% in 2000–2002
CRIME RATES
Yes
BULGARIA : LAND USE
R
Nuclear 44% (18bn kWh)
power plant have made Bulgaria a major regional energy exporter. The EU is providing aid to upgrade two nuclear reactors at Kozloduy, in return for the closure of old reactors there which pose particular safety risks. A new plant north of Pleven is planned to open in 2008. Bulgaria’s strategic position between the rest of Europe and oil-producers in Russia and the Middle East has raised the possibility of lucrative deals for oil and gas transit, particularly as it can offer routes which avoid the relatively precarious Bosphorus. HEP, produced primarily by the Belmekan–Sestrimo facility in the Rila Mountains, is diminishing in importance.
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education is free and compulsory between the ages of seven and 15. The system has been changed from a Sovietinspired to a west European-style model. Over 10,000 teachers were dismissed in 2002 as part of a restructuring of the sector. Standards continue to be lowest in the rural and Turkish communities.
1
50th
99%
100th
57 75
150th
95 $1770
72 years
56
14 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
155
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BURKINA
BURKINA
1960
Dec 11
BF
0
.bf
+226
L
ANDLOCKED IN WEST AFRICA, Burkina (formerly Upper Volta) gained independence from France in 1960. The majority of Burkina lies in the arid fringe of the Sahara known as the Sahel. Ruled by military dictators for much of its postindependence history, Burkina became a multiparty state in 1991. However, much power still rests with President Blaise Compaoré. Burkina’s economy remains largely based on agriculture.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR OUAGADOUGOU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
Pop. density low 47/km2 (123/mi2)
Mossi, Fulani, French, Tuareg, Dyula, Songhai
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Other Christian 1%
The tropical climate comprises two seasons – unreliable rains from June to October, and a long dry season.
Ouagadougou 193,283 passengers
†
Muslim 55%
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2001 km (1243 miles)
None
622 km (386 miles)
None
The railroad to the port of Abidjan in Ivory Coast provides the main commercial route to the sea. Roads through Benin, Togo, and Ghana provide alternative access.
Roman Catholic 9%
†
Visitors : Population 1:87
/
Up 18% in 2001–2002
Traditional beliefs 35%
No ethnic group is dominant, though the Mossi people who live in the area of their old empire around Ouagadougou are the most numerous and play a key political role. The first president, Maurice Yameogo, and the incumbent Blaise Compaoré are both Mossi. The communities in the west are the most ethnically mixed. Extreme poverty has led to a strong sense of egalitarianism within society, but has, along with population pressure, prompted mass emigration, mostly to Ghana and Ivory Coast. The 200,000 or so Burkinabes in Ivory Coast have been caught up in the ongoing conflict there. The extended family is important. The absence of women in public life belies their real power and social influence. However, most women are still denied access to education and the professions.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
France 31%
A multiparty democracy in theory, Burkina is dominated by former military dictator Blaise Compaoré, who has been in power since Capt. Thomas Sankara, his former superior, was assassinated in 1987. Several of Compaoré’s close military colleagues have also been killed. His grip on power appears to be solid, and he was reelected president in 1998 with almost 90% of the vote. The CDP and the government came under pressure in 1998 and 1999 after the assassination of a newspaper editor in which leading establishment figures were implicated. Most opposition leaders still live in exile, but opposition parties made unexpected gains in the 2002 polls. This led to a change to the electoral system which the opposition claims will give the government unfair advantage in future polls.
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Some potential exists for safari tourism, and the cities offer an attractive mix of colonial and African architecture. Big game hunting is allowed in some areas.
156
Camel plowing. Burkina’s poor soils and frequent droughts lead many young men to emigrate seasonally in search of work.
†
Joined UN in 1960
WORLD AFFAIRS CILSS
ECOWAS
OIC
AU
FZ
Being landlocked means that relations with neighbors are vitally important. Burkina, however, has accused Ivory Coast of backing a coup attempt, while Ivory Coast claims that Burkina supports its northern rebels.
†
Recipient
$473m (receipts) 20
21% Others
House of Representatives 178 seats
AID
Other 59% 10
4% 15% ADF–RDA PAREN
CDP = Congress for Democracy and Progress ADF–RDA = Alliance for Democracy and Federation–African Democratic Rally PDP = Party for Democracy and Progress PAREN = Party for National Renewal
Ivory Coast 5% Niger 5%
0
9% PDP
National Assembly 111 seats
Members of the House of Representatives are appointed or indirectly elected on a nonparty basis by provincial councils and various communities
83%
-20/-4
TRANSPORTATION
President Blaise Compaoré
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
-10/14
149,000 visitors
L. House 2002/2007 U. House Varies
Multiparty elections
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
17%
0
0/32
TOURISM
†
POLITICS
51% CDP Tropical/steppe
Ghana
Ivory Coast
OFFICIAL NAME: Burkina Faso CAPITAL: Ouagadougou POPULATION: 13 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1960
Africa Niger
Mali Benin Togo
B
WEST AFRICA
/
Up 21% in 2002
External aid, mostly from the World Bank and France, is important to the economy. The large number of NGOs has caused organizational problems; there is often difficulty in finding suitable projects for all the prospective donors.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
I
G
R
M
Bo
200m/656ft
Gaoua
DEFENSE
ba
(
I C VO Ô 100 km T ER Y C O A S T D’IVOIRE) 100 miles
†
/
$41m
No compulsory military service
Up 8% in 2002
The main role of the 6400-strong army has been maintaining internal security. Burkina is reliant on France for most equipment and training.
ECONOMICS $2.91bn
†
Inflation 4.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
G
N A H A
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................132nd GNP PER CAPITA .................................$250 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$324m INFLATION ...........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT.......................................1%
STRENGTHS Remittances from plantation workers in Ghana and Ivory Coast. Strongly improved economic management. Low debt burden. Ability to attract foreign aid. Cotton. Potential for exploitation of mineral resources.
B
N
RMA jar i
Pe
N E
†
Electric power 78,000 kW
RESOURCES 8505 tonnes
Not an oil producer and has no refineries
8.8m goats, 6.9m sheep, 5m cattle, 24m chickens
Gold, antimony, marble, manganese, silver, zinc
Burkina has substantial mineral wealth, though falling world prices led to the largest gold mine closing in 1999. The completion of two new dams will reduce dependence on diesel power generators and ease pressure on water supplies.
†
Sustainability rank: 101st
ENVIRONMENT
/
12% (8% partially protected)
SCORE CARD
GOU
ék ro u
Tenkodogo
Zabré Tiébélé
O
Sea Level
Pô
Diébougou k Volta Blac
Téna Kourou 747m Banfora Lér a
Vo lta
G TO
500m/1640ft
ug
Léo
riba ou
olta
Orodara
e V
M
Boromo Houndé
Bobo-Dioulasso
d
I
ac
Bl
nd
Re
k
under 10 000
Whi t
Vo
lta
over 10 000
0
Ruled by Mossi kings from the 16th century, Upper Volta, a province of French West Africa in the late 19th century, gained independence in 1960.
E
over 50 000
0
CHRONOLOGY
Barsalogo Ouahigouya Kongoussi Séguénéga Pissila Tougan Gourcy Kaya Bogandé Yako Boussouma Nouna Toma Boussé Ziniaré Dédougou Réo OUAGADOUGOU Ténado Tap Koupéla o a Diapaga Koudougou Kombissiri Saponé Garango Fada-N’gourma Manga
over 100 000
N
Dori
Titao
A
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT
SUDAN Djibo
Total Area : 274 200 sq. km (105 869 sq. miles)
N
L
BURKINA
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BURKINA
I
0.1 tonnes per capita
As for other countries on the southern rim of the Sahara, desertification is the main issue. A ten-year reforestation program was launched in 2003.
†
MEDIA
Singapore 15%
GDP/cap. increase
5 per 1000 population
Education 3% Health 1.5%
1 state-owned service, 46 independent stations
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
2800 prisoners
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
0
There are 6 daily newspapers, including Sidwaya, Le Pays, Le Journal de Soir, and L’Observateur Paalga
CRIME
Italy 12%
SPENDING
Defense 1.5%
EXPORTS
Other 49%
Health spending focuses on primary health care and vaccination. The rate of HIV infection had fallen to 4.2% by 2004.
2 per 1000 population
There are a number of small independent newspapers funded by opposition groups. A code of practice was introduced in 1999.
Colombia 9%
Malaria, diarrheal and respiratory diseases
TV ownership medium
Landlocked. Poor soil quality. Food crop fluctuations. Overseas remittances have dropped. Access to Abidjan port affected by instability in Ivory Coast. Drought and desertification in the Sahel.
France 8%
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 33,333 people
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 1 per 1000 people
WEAKNESSES
India 7%
1980 Ousting of military ruler; Col. Saye Zerbo becomes president. 1982 Capt. Thomas Sankara takes power. People’s Salvation Council (PSC) begins radical reforms. 1984 Renamed Burkina. 1987 Sankara assassinated, Capt. Blaise Compaoré takes power. 1991 New constitution. Compaoré elected president. 1999 Biggest gold mine closed. General strike. 2001 HIV infection rate secondhighest in west Africa. 2001–2003 Meningitis kills thousands. 2002 CDP narrowly wins elections.
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Burkina is a country of extreme, almost universal, poverty. Displays of wealth are rare and ownership of high-tech items is limited to a small elite.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Crime is rising
Crime levels have traditionally been low. However, the urbanization of society and the increase in political violence have seen levels increase.
1st
50th
100th
150th
IMPORTS
Belgium 3% Other 39%
Italy 3% Togo 4% Ivory Coast 23%
France 28%
EDUCATION 25%
†
School leaving age: 16
9900 students
Education is based on the French system. Recently, practical subjects have received more emphasis.
193rd
172 $250
177 43 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
172 191 25%
107 deaths
175
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
157
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BURMA (MYANMAR) B
SOUTHEAST ASIA India
1948
Jan 4
BUR
+6.5
BURMA (MYANMAR)
Laos
Thailand
OFFICIAL NAME: Union of Myanmar CAPITAL: Rangoon (Yangon) POPULATION: 49.5 million CURRENCY: Kyat OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Burmese (Myanmar) 1948
Asia
China
Bangladesh
.mm
+95
A
PREDOMINANTLY BUDDHIST country on the northeastern shores of the Indian Ocean, Burma is mountainous in the north and east, while the fertile Irrawaddy basin occupies most of the country. Rocked by ethnic conflict ever since gaining independence from the UK in 1948, Burma has been ruled by repressive military regimes since 1962. The National League for Democracy (NLD) gained a majority in free elections in 1990, but has been prevented from taking power by the military. Rich in natural resources, which include fisheries and teak forests, Burma remains a mostly agricultural economy.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical/mountain
WEATHER CHART FOR RANGOON
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
/
217,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
Thailand 8%
10/50
10/4
China 8%
0
USA 7%
0/32
Visitors : Population 1:228
Up 6% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
60/140
Taiwan 11% Japan 10%
Other 56%
There are three seasons: the wet season, when rainfall in the far south Tenasserim region and Irrawaddy delta can reach 500 cm (197 in); summer, when northern Burma experiences 50˚C (122˚F) and 100% humidity; and winter, when it is rarely cooler than 15˚C (59˚F) except in the northern mountains.
TRANSPORTATION Mingaladon, Rangoon 580,000 passengers
†
Drive on right
124 ships 402,159 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
10
20
None
3955 km (2458 miles)
12,800 km (7954 miles)
50
40
60
% of total arrivals
PEOPLE
†
75/km2 (195/mi2)
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
29%
71%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Hindu 1%
Muslim 4% Christian 6%
Buddhist 87%
Burma’s main transportation corridors run north–south. Most traffic is concentrated between Rangoon and Mandalay. A daily express train runs between these two cities, though visitors are urged to take internal flights on the stateowned carriers. The Irrawaddy River and its tributaries also provide an important artery for travel. Beyond the Irrawaddy basin, transportation is limited and hazardous. The vast majority of roads remain unpaved, and access to neighboring countries is restricted. At certain points on the Chinese border, access is one-way only: out of China.
158
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Rakhine 4%
Since 1988 the military authorities have courted tourists for their economic value. The previous oneweek restriction for visitors arriving to marvel at Burma’s stunning Buddhist heritage was increased to 28 days. The state-run tourist agency is heavily promoted, while independent travelers are required to spend a minimum of $200 during their stay. However, whole provinces remain entirely off-limits, and elsewhere official guides are often required. Opposition groups wish to discourage people from traveling to Burma at all.
Pop. density medium
Burmese, Shan, Karen, Rakhine, Chin, Yangbye, Kachin, Mon
Other 2% 3384 km (2103 miles)
30
Transporting timber on the Irrawaddy River near Mandalay. Burma once had the world's largest reserves of teak.
Karen 6% Shan 9% Other 13%
Burman (Bamah) 68%
A savage history of ethnic repression at the hands of the Burman majority still plays a large part in the mistrust felt by the smaller minority communities. Each group maintains a distinct cultural identity. At independence the Chin, Kachin, Karen, Karenni, Mon, and Shan all unsuccessfully demanded their own state within a federation. Despite
uniting against the military dictatorship in 1988, most factions had by 1996 signed peace agreements. The Karen National Union, the last major separatist group fighting government forces, began peace talks with the government in 2004. While the Burman claim racial purity, many of them are in fact of mixed blood or ethnically Chinese. Accusations of forced labor lie at the heart of international criticism of the military regime, with ethnic minorities apparently at highest risk. Domestic life in Burma is still based around the extended family. Women have a prominent role, and access to education. Many run or own businesses in their own right. However, top jobs in government are still held almost exclusively by men. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.3%
16% 20.7%
80+
4%
60–79
9.3%
40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.2% 3.5% 8.7% 15.9% 21.4%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BURMA (MYANMAR)
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Hkakabo Razi 5881m
Total Area : 678 500 sq. km (261 969 sq. miles)
Chairman Than Shwe
C
CP
H
D
Ma
Constituent Assembly 485 seats
I
2% 1% 1% RDL MNDF NDP
li H k a
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Myitkyina
N
I
2% 8% NUP Others
5% SNLD
Mawlaik
tng e
i dw hin
Lashio
Shwebo
n
Mandalay
Monywa
ESH
Burma is ruled by the military-backed State Peace and Development Council (SPDC), under Gen. Than Shwe.
w Sh
A
LAD BANG
A Constituent Assembly, responsible for the drafting of a new constitution and with no legislative power, was elected in 1990, but prevented from convening by the regime
C
Falam
Bhamo eli
Myi
I
Katha
N
NLD = National League for Democracy SNLD = Shan National League for Democracy RDL = Rakhine Democracy League NUP = National Unity Party MNDF = Mon National Democratic Front NDP = National Democratic Party for Human Rights
Irrawad dy
Maymyo Sagaing Amarapura Myingyan Kyaukse SHAN PLATEAU Pagan Meiktila Chauk
ASEAN
Joined UN in 1948
NAM
WTO
Thayetmyo
YO
Ramree I.
Prome
MA
O F
N
Letpadan Thonze
S
O
Pyu
Nyaunglebin Pyuntaza Tharrawaddy
Pegu
Th
Henzada
B E N G A L
A
Toungoo
Paungde Sandoway Myanaung
au
ng
I
M
A
I
o Ir uths o f th e ra w ad dy
Ye
L BI
N
A
Preparis I.
L
n yi
D
Bassein
A
Kyaikto Kayan Thaton Syriam Myaungmya Twante RANGOON Martaban Moulmeingyun Moulmein Kyaiklat Mudon Labutta Bogale Pyapon Kyaikkami
Insein
A
Lanbi I.
N 0
Kra
N
Mergui
Letsok-Aw I. Kanmaw I. ARCHIPELAGO
E
200 km
0
200 miles
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT
over 1 000 000 over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Gen. Than Shwe, leader of the military junta since 1992.
GE RAN NG AU
Kadan I. MERGUI Saganthit I.
C
Restoring democracy In a nod to international pressure and the popularity of the prodemocracy movement, the junta has talked openly of steering Burma toward “disciplined democracy.” In reality there has been little progress toward ending the dictatorship. The opposition NLD is led by the charismatic Aung San Suu Kyi who has been intermittently under house arrest since 1990. Her latest detention, in 2003, followed violence in the north.
S E A
O
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
KT
A N D A M A N
AU
Little Coco I. North Andaman ( to INDIA)
Tavoy
H
Great Coco I.
T
I
Cheduba I.
D
g S i t t an
y
AN
Kyaukpyu
B A Y
The military has ruled since 1962. Gen. Saw Maung seized power amid mass prodemocracy protests in 1988. The regime has never recognized the NLD’s 1990 electoral victory and has suppressed all democratic opposition. Recent moves toward negotiation have produced few tangible results. Ethnic rebellion in outer regions degenerated into cross-border guerrilla activity after a concerted government offensive in 1996.
AK
PROFILE
en Taungdwingyi Salw e Pyinmana Loikaw Allanmyo
dd wa I rr a
AR
Oyster I.
Taunggyi
Yamethin
Magwe
N
Yenangyaung Minbu
Sittwe
Burma’s key relationship is with China, which backs the SPDC military regime and is a major supplier of weapons to the Burmese army. The relationship allows China access to the Indian Ocean and gives it influence over a regime dependent on its support. While Burma’s neighbors fear that the arrangement could destabilize the whole of the Asia–Pacific region, many favor a policy of “constructive engagement” with the SPDC. In 1997, Burma was admitted to ASEAN, despite g continuing concerns on about its human rights record. The EU and Western L members of the UN have strongly condemned the human rights violations in Burma. In practice, however, the West has held an ambivalent position. Economic ties have expanded, particularly between SPDC-owned state enterprises and Western multinationals with an interest in Burmese offshore oil and gas drilling sectors. In mid-2003, however, the US imposed an import ban, widening the economic sanctions imposed in 1997.
Me k
Pakokku
Isthmu s of
81% NLD
Aung San Suu Kyi, leader of the prodemocracy movement.
IAEA
†
A ai H k a
1990/suspended
BURMA
No legislative elections
Nm
POLITICS
4000m/13 124ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
Forced labor The practice of using slave labor in rural areas was officially banned in 2000. However, many groups, including the International Labor Organization, insist that the military authorities still regularly make use of slave laborers.
CHRONOLOGY From the 11th century, Burma’s many ethnic groups came under the rule of three Tibeto-Burman dynasties, interspersed with periods of rule by the Mongols and the Mon. The Third Dynasty came into conflict with the British in India, sparking the Anglo-Burmese wars of 1824, 1852, and 1885. 1886 Burma becomes a province of British India. 1930–1931 Economic depression triggers unrest. 1937 Separation from India. 1942 Japan invades. 1945 Antifascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL), led by Aung San, helps Allies reoccupy country. 1947 UK agrees to Burmese independence. Aung San wins elections, but is assassinated. 1948 Independence under new prime minister, U Nu, who initiates socialist policies. Revolts by ethnic separatists, notably Karen liberation struggle. 1958 Ruling AFPFL splits into two. Shan liberation struggle begins. 1960 U Nu’s faction wins elections. 1961 Kachin rebellion begins.
159
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
B
†
BURMESE ARMED FORCES 100 main battle tanks (PRC Type-69II)
350,000 personnel
75 patrol boats
16,000 personnel
123 combat aircraft (50 F-7, 10 FT-7, 10 MiG-29, 22 A-5M)
15,000 personnel
None
The military authorities have steadily increased the country’s military power,
ECONOMICS $46bn
†
doubling the size of the army and obtaining modern weapons and military technology from around the world, primarily from China, which since 1989 has delivered arms worth over $1 billion to Burma, including tanks and jet fighters. Burma’s growing military capability is used mainly to control internal dissent, and the army has suppressed most ethnic insurgent campaigns by utilizing its military superiority and cutting numerous deals with rebel leaders. Neighboring states now assist in combating the remaining militant groups. The army is accused of human rights abuses and of forcibly recruiting underage soldiers.
Inflation 25% p.a. (1990–2001)
6.42 kyats (6.201)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................52nd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1000 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$309m INFLATION .......................................57.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
Japan 4%
Other 39%
China 5% India 7% USA 13%
Thailand 32% IMPORTS
Other 27%
Taiwan 5% Malaysia 9% Thailand 12%
China 27%
Singapore 20%
STRENGTHS Very rich in natural resources: fertile soil, rich fisheries, timber including diminishing teak reserves, gems, offshore natural gas, and oil.
Recipient
.
Down 5% in 2002
Moves in 2000 to begin talks with the democratic opposition were welcomed by the UN, but were not enough to lift the sanctions on aid imposed in 1988. Some humanitarian assistance is provided through agencies such as WHO. Japan led the way in rewarding Burma’s conciliatory gestures and became the largest single donor, but in 2003 joined countries suspending aid when Aung San Suu Kyi was rearrested.
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
The SPDC’s open-door market-economy policy since 1989 has brought a flood of foreign investment in oil and gas (by Western companies), and in forestry, tourism, and mining (by Asian companies). The resulting boom in trade with China has turned less developed Upper Burma into a thriving business center. The northeastern border states account for about 60% of the world’s heroin; a narcotics-eradication program is encouraging farmers to grow food crops instead of opium poppies. The US banned imports from Burma in 2003, particularly affecting the textile and garment industries. BURMA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Hpakapt Real estate Defense
Shortage of skilled workforce. Huge external debt. Rudimentary financial systems and institutions. Nationwide black market. Dependence on imported manufactures. Economic sanctions.
Mandalay
Mawhun
Jade Teak industries Trading centre Gas Oil Fish processing Manufacturing Opium
PROFILE Burma’s economy is agriculture-based and functions mainly on a cash and barter system. Its key industries are controlled by military-run state enterprises. Every aspect of economic life is permeated by a black market, where prices are rocketing – a reaction to official price controls.
GDP
250
WEAKNESSES
$121m (receipts)
160
Up 27% in 2002
GDP 1998=100
AID
/
$2.84bn
No compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
1962 Gen. Ne Win stages military coup. “New Order” policy of “Buddhist Socialism” deepens international isolation. Mining and other industries nationalized. Free trade prohibited. 1964 Socialist Program Party declared sole legal party. 1976 Social unrest. Attempted military coup. Ethnic liberation groups gain control of 40% of country. 1982 Nonindigenous people barred from public office. 1988 Thousands die in student riots. Ne Win resigns. Martial law. Aung San Suu Kyi, daughter of Aung San, and others form NLD. Gen. Saw Maung leads military coup. State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) takes power. Ethnic resistance groups form Democratic Alliance of Burma. 1989 Army arrests NLD leaders and steps up antirebel activity. Country officially renamed Union of Myanmar. 1990 Elections permitted. NLD wins landslide. SLORC remains in power, however. More NLD leaders arrested. 1991 Aung San Suu Kyi awarded Nobel Peace Prize. 1992 Gen. Than Shwe takes over as SLORC leader. 1996 Student agitation over renewed repression of NLD. 1997 Ruling SLORC renamed State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). Burma joins ASEAN. US imposes sanctions and bans further investment. 1998 NLD sets deadline for convening parliament; junta refuses. 1999 Aung San Suu Kyi rejects conditions set by SPDC for visiting the UK to see her husband, Michael Aris, who dies of cancer. 2000 Junta and NLD begin talks. 2003 Aung San Suu Kyi detained once more, after a year’s freedom. US bans imports from Burma.
†
DEFENSE
Tachilek
Rangoon 0 0
Moulmein
200 km 200 miles
Gulf of Martaban
Tavoy
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BURMA (MYANMAR)
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 1.5m kW
1.29m tonnes
8241 b/d (reserves 51m barrels)
11.7m cattle, 6.3m ducks, 4.84m pigs, 60m chickens
Oil, natural gas, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, gemstones
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
†
CRIME 53,195 prisoners
1
per 100,000 population
0.3
per 100,000 population
15
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Nuclear 0%
Thefts
Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Burma is one of the world’s largest teak exporters. It is also a producer of pearls, rubies, and other gems. Extraction of oil and gas desposits is mostly funded from abroad, though public pressure in the West has seen a fall in investment in Burma.
SHAN PLATEAU
BURMA : LAND USE
0 0
200 km 200 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.3%
†
Sustainability rank: 90th
0.2 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No
Yes
Even compared with similar totalitarian regimes, levels of bribery, corruption, embezzlement, and black marketeering are high. The state is guilty of illegal activity. The UN reports regularly on human rights abuses against civilians, and the murder of innocent civilians including children, women, Buddhist monks, students, members of ethnic minorities, and political dissidents. There is a nominal civilian judicial system in Burma, but in practice all judges and lawyers are appointed by the junta and all legal functions are executed by the SPDC. The most common charge is that of sedition against the state or the army under the 1975 “Law to Protect the State from Destructionists.” Among the SPDC’s frequent arbitrary “notices” is Order 2/88, prohibiting assemblies of more than five persons. Most detainees have no legal rights of representation and are either jailed, used as forced labor, or put under house arrest without public trial. Amnesty International is banned.
Yes
†
EDUCATION No
No
Yes
85%
School leaving age: 9
553,456 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
MEDIA
†
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 9 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 5 daily newspapers, including Myanma Alin and New Light of Myanmar
100
% of each age group in education
Deforestation is a major issue; Chinese firms have open logging concessions. The world’s largest tiger reserve was created in 2004 in northern Burma.
80
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Malaria, fevers, heart and diarrheal diseases
1 per 3241 people
Down in 1999
Murders
Combustion 64% (3.2bn kWh)
Cropland Pasture Forest Rice Cattle
.
CRIME RATES
Hydro 36% (1.8bn kWh)
0
Death penalty in use
Health services are well developed and staff well trained, but provision is not comprehensive. Leprosy has a high prevalence in Burma, though programs to target the disease have helped bring the level down dramatically since the 1970s. It still has the third-highest rate of infection in Asia. The growing number of AIDS cases is largely due to migrant prostitution across the Thai–Burmese border, putting an additional strain on health facilities.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
4 per 1000 population
7 per 1000 population
Defense 5% Education 1.3% Health 0.4% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The state monopoly of the production and distribution of goods by rationing under Gen. Ne Win’s administration led to an increase in corruption and the rise of a nationwide black market, with huge disparities between official and unofficial prices. Only the military elite and their supporters could afford to live well. The situation has not changed significantly since 1988. Giant military enterprises grouped under a Defense Services holding company now reap wealth and distribute privileges for a minority. Nevertheless, traditional social and economic mobility still exists. Climbing the socioeconomic ladder is mainly a matter of loyalty to the military. Dissidents forced out of their jobs and hill tribes form the poorest groups. Officially, 23% of the population live in poverty.
WORLD RANKING
60
90% 40
Position in World 1st
20
39% 11%
0
Primary
Secondary
50th
Tertiary 100th
2 state-controlled services
1 state-controlled service
Political dissent of any kind is a criminal offense. An underground prodemocracy press produces antigovernment material.
The education system offers 11 years of schooling; the first five are compulsory. A shortage of teachers, many of whom have left or are in jail, has disrupted education. Ethnic-language schools are discouraged. All but two universities were closed in the late 1990s by the regime, but quietly reopened in 2000. The NLD has criticized the shortened and “sanitized” courses on offer.
150th
111
119
85%
$1000 193rd
145 57 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
132 149 77 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
161
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
BURUNDI
Rwanda BURUNDI
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Burundi CAPITAL: Bujumbura POPULATION: 6.8 million CURRENCY: Burundi franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French and Kirundi 1962
Africa
D e m . R e p . Uganda Kenya Congo
1962
July 1
RU
+2
+257
Tanzania
.bi
L
ANDLOCKED BURUNDI lies just south of the equator on the Nile–Congo watershed. Lake Tanganyika forms part of its border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Tension between the Hutu majority and the dominant Tutsi minority remains the main factor in politics. The current political unrest dates from October 1993, when the assassination of the first Hutu president in a coup by the Tutsi-dominated army sparked terrible violence.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR BUJUMBURA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
L. House 2002/2004 U. House 2002/2004
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
President Domitien Ndayizeye
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Transitional National Assembly 170 seats 10%
90%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Twa 1%
-10/14
Tutsi 14% 38% Frodebu
-20/-4
Burundi is temperate with high humidity, much cloud, and frequent heavy rain. The highlands have frost.
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1014 km (630 miles)
None
None
Lake Tanganyika is navigable
The dense road network has been rehabilitated. There are plans for a railroad to link Burundi with Rwanda, Uganda, and Tanzania. Visitors : Population 1:189
/
Up 20% in 2001
vu bu
Ru g
A
Ru
Bururi
k y i a n n g T a
Rutana
Maramvya
Mabanda Nyanza-Lac
0 0
Z
n gwe
Kinyinya Rotovu
Kayagoro Kigwena Makamba
a
A lack of basic infrastructure and violent political strife have deterred tourists. The industry has limited potential, since Burundi lacks its neighbors’ spectacular scenery and game parks.
N
I
% of total arrivals
2670m
Matana
BURUNDI
N
60
A
50
Rum p u
40
za on
30
L a k e
20
yi r Ruv
Asia 8% Americas 6%
ra z i
Africa 47% Europe 39%
CONGO D E M. R E P.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
The indirectly elected Transitional Senate comprises 24 Hutus, 24 Tutsis, and three Twas, as formulated under the 2000 Arusha peace accord.
After a series of coups, the imposition of a one-party state in 1981, and widespread ethnic violence, Burundi adopted a multiparty system in 1992 under Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya. The first Hutu president, Melchior Ndadaye of Frodebu, was assassinated in 1993, and by 1994 Burundi had plunged into a vicious civil war between Hutu militias and A D Rweru Kage the Tutsi-dominated army. Buyoya ra A N staged another coup in 1996, Giteranyi Cohoha R W agreeing in 1998 to a transitional Ntega Kirundo constitution. A joint Hutu–Tutsi Vumbi y Mabayi Kan transitional government was Rugombo Ngozi Ndora Muyinga installed in 2001 amid ongoing Cibitoke Kayanza Buganda fighting. Two years later Buyoya Bubanza Karuzi handed over to his Hutu deputy Cankuzo Bukeye Gihanga Muyaga Domitien Ndayizeye. Sporadic Mbuye Muramvya Mugera fighting continues, exacerbated ye us Gitega Rusengo by ethnic conflict in the DRC, BUJUMBURA Kayokwe Gisuru with various cease-fire attempts. Makebuko Mount Heha
Ma rag a
36,000 visitors
†
Transitional Senate 51 seats
Burundi’s history has been marked by violent conflict between the majority Hutu and the Tutsi, formerly the political elite, who still control the army. Large-scale massacres have occurred repeatedly over the past few decades. Hundreds of thousands of people, mostly Hutu, have been killed in political and ethnic conflict since 1993. The Twa pygmy minority, however, has not been greatly affected. Most Burundians are subsistence farmers. The vast majority of the population are Roman Catholic.
ar
TOURISM
52% Others
A
Bujumbura International 69,191 passengers
†
Hutu 85%
Drive on right
10% Uprona
Frodebu = Front for Democracy in Burundi Uprona = Union for National Progress The Transitional National Assembly consists of members of all parties that signed the Arusha peace accord, and members of "civil society."
u
TRANSPORTATION
162
In transition
0
0/32
0
†
POLITICS
265/km2 (687/mi2)
Kirundi, French, Kiswahili
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Pig farming and fish ponds. Much of the population depends on subsistence farming.
Pop. density high
Rusizi
B
CENTRAL AFRICA
N
Total Area : 27 830 sq. km (10 745 sq. miles)
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT over 100 000
T
2000m/6562ft 50 km
1000m/3281ft 50 miles
500m/1640ft
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: BURUNDI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
CEPGL
Joined UN in 1962
OIF
COMESA
AU
In 2003 the warring factions agreed to the formation of an African peacekeeping force for Burundi.
AID
†
Recipient
$172m (receipts)
/
Up 26% in 2002
Years of war have left Burundi dependent on international aid. In 2004 donors headed by the EU pledged $1 billion; most of this will relieve debt.
DEFENSE $38m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 9% in 2002
The 45,000-strong army is run by Tutsi; the promotion of Hutu as officers helped cause the 1993 coup. Under recent peace deals rebel Hutu militias have from 2003 been integrated into the regular army. UNICEF began a program to remove child soldiers from these militias in 2001, but 8000 remained in 2004.
ECONOMICS $704m
†
Inflation 13% p.a. (1990–2001)
1060 Burundi francs (1075)
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................162nd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$100 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ........................–$3m INFLATION .......................................–1.4% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................14%
Electric power 44,000 kW
9064 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited
750,000 goats, 325,000 cattle, 4.3m chickens
Gold, tungsten, nickel, vanadium, uranium, oil
Burundi has around 5% of the world’s nickel reserves. Extraction, however, is not economically viable. There are also deposits of gold and vanadium. Surveys in the 1980s detected oil reserves below Lake Tanganyika, but production has yet to begin. Burundi used to import gasoline from Iran and electricity from the DRC. New HEP plants at Mugera and Rwegura, in the north, are intended to meet most domestic electricity requirements.
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (5% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 115th
†
MEDIA
CHRONOLOGY From the 16th century, Burundi (formerly Urundi) was ruled by the minority Tutsi with the majority Hutu as their serfs. Merged with Rwanda, Burundi was controlled by Germany from 1884 and by Belgium from 1919.
1959 Split from Rwanda. 1962 Independence. 1966 Army overthrows monarchy. 1972 150,000 Hutu massacred. 1993 Ndadaye wins first free elections; killed four months later. 1996 Pierre Buyoya retakes power. 2000 Renewed violence. Arusha peace accord signed by most groups. 2001 Multiethnic transitional government appointed. 2003 Domitien Ndayizeye becomes president in peaceful transfer.
0.04 tonnes per capita
Only 2% of Burundi is forest, and even this is under pressure from one of Africa’s highest birthrates. Burundi suffers from the problems associated with deforestation, particularly soil erosion. Some soils are also being exhausted from overuse. Several tree-planting programs have been introduced. UNESCO is also running ecological education initiatives at village level, aimed at women farmers.
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
TV ownership low
SPENDING
Netherlands 6% Other 35%
Kenya 10%
Belgium 13% Germany 27%
Tanzania 6%
France 7%
1 state-controlled service, some independent stations
1 state-controlled service
Pro-Hutu/anti-Tutsi radio stations have been broadcasting since 1994. Radio Umwizero, an EU-funded station promoting peace, was launched in 1996.
CRIME
†
Death penalty in use
/
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
1 per 1000 population
3 per 1000 population
50%
Education 3.6% Health 2.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth is concentrated within the Tutsi political and business elite. Most of Burundi’s people live at the level of subsistence farming.
WORLD RANKING
Crime is rising
Position in World 1st
Burundi has an appalling human rights record. There have been frequent massacres of Hutu by the army. The worst pogroms occurred in 1972, 1988, 1993, and 1994.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
GDP/cap. decrease
Defense 5.9%
8647 prisoners
Rwanda 9%
†
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Small quantities of gold and tungsten. Potential of massive nickel reserves and oil in Lake Tanganyika.
EXPORTS
Communicable infections, parasitic diseases, AIDS
Over half of the population of Burundi are underfed, and over 30% do not have access to health services. By 2004, 6% of adults were living with HIV/AIDS.
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
Harsh regional sanctions since 1996 coup. Agricultural economy under pressure from high birthrate, war damage, and displacement. Little prospect of lasting political stability.
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Le Renouveau du Burundi is published three times a week by the government
WEAKNESSES
†
HEALTH
†
School leaving age: 12
50th
100th
150th
6289 students 193rd
Kenya 8% Other 54%
Saudi Arabia 12% Belgium 13%
Elementary schooling begins at six, and is compulsory to age 12. Civil war has prevented thousands of children from attending school. There is one state-run university.
190 $100
181 42 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
168 50%
177
173
114 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
163
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
CAMBODIA
SOUTHEAST ASIA Laos
Thailand
CAMBODIA Vietnam
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Cambodia CAPITAL: Phnom Penh POPULATION: 14.1 million CURRENCY: Riel OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Khmer
C
1953
1953
Nov 11
K
+7
.kh
+855
T
HE ANCIENT KINGDOM of Cambodia emerged from French colonial rule in 1953, only to be plunged into violent civil conflict. Under the extremist Khmer Rouge, headed by the infamous Pol Pot, the country endured one of the world’s most brutal totalitarian regimes. Since the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops in 1989 the country has gradually returned to relative stability. The dominating geographic feature is the Tônlé Sap, or Great Lake, which drains into the Mekong River. Over three-quarters of Cambodia is forested, with mangroves lining the coast.
CLIMATE
†
Pop. density medium 80/km2 (207/mi2)
Khmer, French, Chinese, Vietnamese, Cham THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
18%
82%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 6%
Christian 1%
Tropical monsoon
Buddhist 93%
WEATHER CHART FOR PHNOM PENH
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Chinese 1%
0
0/32
Vietnamese 4% Other 5%
Khmer 90%
-10/14 -20/-4
Cambodia has a varied climate. Lowlying regions have moderate rainfall and the most consistent year-round temperatures. The dry season from December to April is characterized by high temperatures and an average of eight hours of sunshine a day. From May to September, winds are southeasterly, while from October to April they are north or northeasterly. During the rainy season, Cambodia is sultry and humid. The monsoons in 2000 caused severe flooding of the Mekong River, which inundated Phnom Penh.
TRANSPORTATION Pochentong, Phnom Penh 867,190 passengers
†
727 ships 2.43m grt
1972 km (1225 miles)
None
603 km (375 miles)
3700 km (2299 miles)
Years of war led to a near-collapse of Cambodia’s rail and road systems. Though international aid has helped fund key projects, the state of the country’s roads remains appalling. The government has pledged to make reconstruction a priority. The Mekong River is vital for accessing the interior. Taxi-mopeds, bicycles, and rickshaws dominate urban transportation.
†
TOURISM
.
701,014 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:20 Down 11% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Japan 19% USA 15% France 9% Taiwan 6%
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
164
Angkor Wat stands in the ruins of the ancient city of Angkor, once the capital of the Khmer empire. It is now one of Cambodia’s leading tourist attractions.
China 6% Other 45% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Cambodia, the center of the Khmer empire between 800 and 1400 CE, has some of the most impressive temples in southeast Asia. The most famous is Angkor Wat, near Siem Reap (Siemreab), which is now largely safe for tourists after the Khmer Rouge relinquished control of the area in 1998. Kidnappings and murders of tourists by the Khmer Rouge kept Cambodia off the backpacker circuit in the mid-1990s. Once the political situation is fully stabilized and landmines have been cleared, there is considerable potential, not just for adventurous independent travelers.
Cambodia underwent one of the 20th century’s most horrific experiments in social transformation between 1975 and 1979 under Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge regime. Warfare, starvation, exhaustion, or execution killed one in eight of the population. Half a million more fled to Thailand. The Pol Pot regime’s extreme radical beliefs led to the scrapping of money, possessions, and hierarchy. “Bourgeois” learning was despised, whereas peasants, soldiers of the revolution, and some industrial workers were officially given higher status. Boys and girls of 13 and 14 were taken from their homes, indoctrinated in the tenets of revolution, and allowed to kill those held guilty of bourgeois crimes. Violence at all levels was sanctioned in the name of revolution. The legacies of the regime are both the emigration of surviving professionals, and one of the world’s highest rates of orphans and widows. Religious and ethnic tensions are minimal, though there is a traditional hostility in Khmer culture toward ethnic Vietnamese. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.1% 2.8% 7.6% 14.3% 27.1%
Male
80+
0.1%
60–79
2%
40–59 20–39
5.4% 12.9%
0–19 % of population by age group
27.7%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CAMBODIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS L. House 2003/2008 U. House 1999/2005
Multiparty elections
winners and King Sihanouk formed a coalition government; the Khmer Rouge remained outside this coalition, resuming armed resistance until its surrender in 1998. The strife-torn coalition meanwhile had descended into open hostility in 1997, when Hun Sen of the communist CPP ousted his co-prime minister Prince Ranariddh. Since then the CPP has failed to win the necessary two-thirds majority, forcing it to remain in coalition with Funcinpec. Postelection wrangling in 2003 led to political deadlock until the two parties struck a new deal in June 2004. King Sihanouk triggered a further crisis in October when he stated his desire to abdicate.
H.M. King Norodom Sihamoni
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 123 seats
59% CPP
21% Funcinpec
20% SRP
CPP = Cambodian People's Party Funcinpec = United National Front for an Independent Neutral Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia SRP = Sam Rainsy Party
Senate 61 seats
The membership of the Senate, first established in March 1999, was determined in proportion to the results of the 1998 elections: 53% CPP, 35% Funcinpec, 12% SRP
Settling accounts with Khmer Rouge The Khmer Rouge, which had resumed its armed struggle in 1993, surrendered in 1998, after mass defections and the death of Pol Pot earlier that year. In 2004 parliament ratified a UN-backed plan for a tribunal to try Khmer Rouge leaders for crimes against humanity.
PROFILE Pol Pot and his Maoist extremist and murderous Khmer Rouge regime were ousted in 1979 by a Vietnamese invasion. The Khmer Rouge then joined a Western-backed anti-Vietnamese exile coalition with the supporters of the then Prince Sihanouk and the Khmer People’s National Liberation Front (KPNLF), gaining UN recognition against the Vietnam-backed regime in Phnom Penh. In 1989 Vietnam withdrew its forces, paving the way for UNsupervised elections in 1993. The royalist Funcinpec were the main
Chuô
Ânlong Vêng
Chôâm Khsant
ng
Phumî Thmâ Pôk
I
L
r Phm u n Dângrêk
Sr
e
Angkor Wat
Krâlânh
PHM
m ôr Ph hu
ng
M
Ângk Tasaôm Phumî Chhuk Phumî Véal Rénh Kâmpôt
ek
Suông Phumî Krêk
Prey Vêng
Svay Riêng
T
l a
n d
N
E
V
0
Mekong River
OIF
NAM
During the civil war that followed the Vietnamese invasion of 1979, Cambodia was reduced to an international pariah. The Vietnam-puppet government was recognized by few countries outside the Soviet bloc, and its seat at the UN was allotted to the exiled resistance coalition, despite one of the components being the Khmer Rouge, which had inflicted appalling violence and suffering on Cambodians. The 1993 constitution aims to make the country a nonaligned “island of peace” with a neutral foreign policy. Cambodia’s relations with Vietnam remain problematic, fueled in part by the historic animosity between the two countries. The situation has improved since the late 1990s, and Cambodia’s membership of ASEAN was confirmed in 1999. Relations with Thailand were greatly affected by anti-Thai rioting in Phnom Penh in early 2003, after a Thai actress was (falsely) reported to have claimed that the Angkor Wat temples had been stolen from Thailand.
†
Recipient
/
Up 16% in 2002
Aid is crucial to Cambodia’s economy, providing the bulk of government revenues. Widespread corruption and political instability prompted some countries to withhold assistance in the late 1990s, but NGOs continued working in the country, and Western donors made fresh pledges in 2000.
POPULATION over 500 000
0
Joined UN in 1955
Total Area : 181 040 sq. km (69 900 sq. miles)
T
I
†
CAMBODIA
Takêv
Kaôh Rûng Sâmlôem
i
Snuôl
ng
Ta Khmau
Kâmpóng Spoe
k
f
Kâmpóng Saôm
Ôdôngk
PHNOM PENH
Senmonorom
B asâ
o
Srê Âmbêl
C h h â k K â m pó n g S a ôm Kaôh Rûng
h
Kâmpóng Cham
Phumî Chôâm
un Dâmrei
l f G u
Kaôh Kông
Phumî Chhlong
Skon
U N KRÂVA NH
C
Krâchéh
A
ÔR
Phumî Spoe Tbong
Kâmpóng Chhnâng
t îs â P oûth Phnum Aôral 1771m
CP
$487m (receipts)
Chbar
N
Sân g
Poûthîsât
Sab
HU
Kâmpóng Thum Trâpeâng Vêng
ap
Norodom Sihanouk, a pivotal figure in society and politics, abdicated in 2004.
WORLD AFFAIRS
AID
Kaôh Nhêk
Mek o
T
lé
S
kê
Krông Kaôh Kông
a
n
Moûng Roessi
C
Kâmpóng Khleâng
Tô
Reâng Kései Pailîn
Srêpôk
Phumî Kâmpóng Trâbêk
Sên
Bâtdâmbâng
o
H
Phumî Koûk Kdoûch
Lumphât
Stœng Treng
Siêmréab
Chinit
A
Phumî Mlu Prey Sisôphôn S v ay Chék
San
Virôchey Phumî Bâ Kêv Labâng Siêk
M
Phumî Sâmraông
S
O
A K ôn g
A L
Political violence and intimidation A high level of political violence and intimidation followed inconclusive legislative elections in 2003, with opposition figures targeted for assassination. The situation has been made worse by the lamentable state of the judicial system.
D
N
Prime Minister Hun Sen, who ousted his co-prime minister in 1997.
ASEAN
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy.
C
50 km 50 miles
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
165
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
A former French protectorate, Cambodia gained independence in 1953 as a constitutional monarchy with Norodom Sihanouk as king.
C
/
No compulsory military service
Up 5% in 2002
CAMBODIAN ARMED FORCES 150 main battle tanks (100 T-54/55, 50 PRC Type-59)
75,000 personnel
4 patrol boats
3000 personnel
24 combat aircraft (MiG-21)
2000 personnel
None
The defense priority in the early 1990s was to unify the command structures of the various armies. The surrender of Khmer Rouge forces in mid-1998 and the disintegration of remaining pockets of Khmer resistance later that year
ECONOMICS $3.76bn
†
improved the prospects for a unified national army. Plans for demobilizing and rehabilitating 30,000 soldiers have been hindered by evidence of corruption. Under the nominal overall structure of the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces, there remain in existence three main armies – the CPP’s Cambodian People’s Armed Forces, Funcinpec’s Armée Nationale Sihanoukiste, and the KPNLF’s Khmer People’s National Liberation Armed Forces. The rivalries between them are still intense, with the first two in open conflict as recently as 1997–1998. Though well equipped, their soldiers are poorly paid. A conscription system exists, but it is not implemented. Cambodia is leading the region in destroying surplus stocks of weapons to prevent their falling into the hands of terrorists.
Inflation 22% p.a. (1990–2001)
3990 riels (3835)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................123rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$300 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$64m INFLATION .........................................3.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
EXPORTS
Singapore 4%
Japan 4% UK 7%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
166
$87m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1955 Sihanouk abdicates to pursue political career; takes title “prince.” 1960 Sihanouk head of state. 1970 Right-wing coup led by Prime Minister Lon Nol deposes Sihanouk. Exiled Sihanouk forms Royal Government of National Union of Cambodia (GRUNC), backed by communist Khmer Rouge. Lon Nol proclaims Khmer Republic. 1975 GRUNC troops capture Phnom Penh. Prince Sihanouk head of state, Khmer Rouge assumes power. Huge numbers die under radical extremist regime. 1976 Country renamed Democratic Kampuchea. Elections. Sihanouk resigns; GRUNC dissolved. Khieu Samphan head of state; Pol Pot prime minister. 1978 December, Vietnam invades, supported by Cambodian communists opposed to Pol Pot. 1979 Vietnamese capture Phnom Penh. Khmer Rouge ousted by Kampuchean People’s Revolutionary Party (KPRP), led by Pen Sovan. Khmer Rouge starts guerrilla war. Pol Pot held responsible for genocide and sentenced to death in absentia. 1982 Government-in-exile including Khmer Rouge and Khmer People’s National Liberation Front, headed by Prince Sihanouk, is recognized by UN. 1989 Vietnamese troops withdraw. 1990 UN Security Council approves plan for UN-monitored cease-fire and elections. 1991 Signing of Paris peace accords. Sihanouk reinstated as head of state of Cambodia. 1993 UN-supervised elections won by royalist Funcinpec. Sihanouk takes title of “king.” 1994 Khmer Rouge refuses to join peace process. 1996 Leading Khmer Rouge member Ieng Sary defects. 1997 Joint prime minister Hun Sen mounts coup against royalist copremier Prince Ranariddh. 1998 April, death of Pol Pot; June, Khmer Rouge surrender; July, elections; November, Hun Sen heads coalition with Funcinpec. 2001 Law approved on trials of Khmer Rouge leaders for atrocities committed by regime. 2003 Relatively peaceful elections won by CPP; coalition talks begin. 2004 CPP–Funcinpec coalition reformed after 11-month stalemate.
DEFENSE
2002
Germany 9%
PROFILE USA 60% Other 16%
IMPORTS
Vietnam 5% Other 30%
China 11% Hong Kong 15%
A switch was made in the 1990s from Vietnamese-inspired central planning to encouragement of the private sector. The Asian financial crisis and internal turmoil affected funding after 1997. The country remains dependent on imports and growth has been slow. A period of deflation affected the country in 2001. CAMBODIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Thailand 23%
Singapore 16%
Bâtdâmbâng
STRENGTHS Currently very few, as economy still recovering from long-running conflicts. Considerable future potential. Growth in tourism. Relatively unbureaucratic mentality. Self-sufficiency in rice achieved by 1999. Gems, especially sapphires. Possible offshore oil wealth. Export-oriented garment industry.
M e kong
CHRONOLOGY
Mémót
WEAKNESSES Tiny tax base makes economic reform hard to implement. Deflation in 2001. Dependence on overseas aid: corruption at most levels of government limits its effectiveness. Disputes over land ownership rights.
Ta Khmau Kâmpôt
Phnom Penh
Rubber Textiles Fertilizers
0
Gold mining
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CAMBODIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 35,000 kW
412,700 tonnes
Not an oil producer
7m ducks, 2.95m cattle, 2.15m pigs, 17m chickens
Salt, phosphates, gemstones
Few resources are currently exploited, apart from tropical rainforest timber, particularly teak and rosewood, much of which is felled illegally. ELECTRICITY GENERATION
†
MEDIA
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people
†
6128 prisoners
Nuclear 0% Other 0% 60
40
100
80
Murders
% of total generation by type
5
per 100,000 population
1
per 100,000 population
16
per 100,000 population
Rapes CAMBODIA : LAND USE
Thefts
n
M e kong
Tô
lé
Sa
p
lé Tôn Sab
0
Cropland Pasture Wetland Forest Cattle Rice Rubber – cash crop
200 km
0
200 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
19% (14% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 97th
0.05 tonnes per capita
It is claimed that there has been a proliferation of narcotics trading, money laundering, and illegal banking operations. Mob killings go largely unremarked. Corruption in business is a major issue. Phnom Penh witnessed an increase in violent crime in the aftermath of the 1997 coup, owing to the spread of illegally owned firearms. Until the surrender of the Khmer Rouge in 1998, areas under its command, especially in the west around Pailin and Battambang, were particularly dangerous. Banditry remains rife and policing virtually nonexistent.
†
EDUCATION
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
69% Yes
Yes
School leaving age: 12
25,416 students
Yes THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Yes
No
Yes
% of each age group in education
Deforestation is one of the most serious problems facing Cambodia. Illegal logging is the main culprit. Timber, one of the country’s most valuable assets, was sold in huge quantities by all Cambodian factions to finance their war efforts. A moratorium on logging was declared at the end of 1992, but was largely ignored. Despite international pressure and efforts from 2000 to tighten controls, in many parts of the country logging is impossible to police. Tropical hardwoods extracted illegally from Cambodia find lucrative outlets through Thailand in particular. The environmental consequences – topsoil erosion and increased risk of flooding – are enormous and will hold back Cambodia’s reconstruction.
100
C
6 services: 1 state-run, 5 independent
9 services: 1 state-run, 8 independent
Narcotics-related crime is rising
CRIME RATES
20
There are 2 daily newspapers; only 10 newspapers and magazines publish regularly
†
HEALTH
No death penalty
/
Combustion 63% (145m kWh)
0
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Phnom Penh has several independent TV stations in addition to the national network. Many, however, are reliant on party political support, which compromises their independence. King Sihanouk backs press freedoms, though they are not guaranteed by the state. Foreign radio can be received.
CRIME
Hydro 37% (84m kWh)
TV ownership low
No welfare state health benefits Circulatory and infectious diseases, cancers
1 per 3333 people
The Cambodian health system was effectively destroyed in the Pol Pot period; only 50 doctors survived, and Cambodia’s health indicators were among the worst in the world. Conditions have since improved, but AIDS is widespread, affecting even children in rural areas. Infant mortality remains high, and malaria and cholera are endemic. In 2000, UNICEF helped mount an immunization campaign against tetanus, a major cause of neonatal mortality.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
15 per 1000 population
3 per 1000 population
Defense 2.5% Education 2% Health 1.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
New industries such as textiles, in which female garment workers may earn around $40 a month in vast workshops, help to attract migrants to the towns, though they risk unemployment and homelessness. Cambodians in rural areas face more severe poverty, exacerbated by land shortage.
80
WORLD RANKING
60
100% Position in World
40
1st
20
22% 0
Primary
Secondary
3%
50th
Tertiary 100th
The government aims to provide a complete education system from primary to tertiary. Currently primary education is compulsory, and lasts for six years between the ages of six and 12. Only 5000 of Cambodia’s 20,000 teachers survived the Pol Pot period; the Vietnamese-installed government trained or retrained about 40,000.
150th
130 193rd
151 163 $300
54 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
146 69%
165 96 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
167
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CAMEROON
Chad Nigeria CAR
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Cameroon CAPITAL: Yaoundé POPULATION: 16 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French and English
C
1960
1961
Africa
WEST AFRICA
May 20
CAM
+1
CAMEROON
.cm
+237
L
OCATED ON THE CENTRAL west African coast, over half of Cameroon is forested, with equatorial rainforest to the south and evergreen forest and wooded savanna north of the Sanaga River. Most cities are located in the south, though there are densely populated areas around Mount Cameroon, a dormant volcano. For 30 years Cameroon was effectively a one-party state. Democratic elections in 1992 returned the former ruling party to power.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR YAOUNDÉ
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
Pop. density low
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
2002/2007
National Assembly 180 seats
50%
-20/-4
74% RDPC
Muslim 22%
Douala International 570,246 passengers
59 ships 16,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
A
I
2090 km (1299 miles)
Cameroon is ethnically diverse – there Incumbent president Paul Biya’s are 230 groups, no single group being RDPC narrowly won control of the new dominant. The largest is the Bamileke parliament in multiparty elections of the center southwest, but it has in 1992 boycotted by the main never held political power. When opposition SDF. It has held on President Ahidjo, a northern Fulani, to power in the face of SDF Lake Chad retired, he was replaced by Paul Biya claims of corruption, of the southeastern Bulu-Beti group. steadily increasing Kousséri The north–south enmity which affects its majority in 1997 many other west African states is also and again in 2002. present here, albeit diminished by the Similarly, Biya’s great ethnic diversity. There own reelections in Maroua is growing tension between the 1992 and 1997 were Yagoua French- and minority Englishcondemned as the Guider Kaélé speaking communities over products of fraud identity and related issues and intimidation Ben ue Garoua of exclusion. by SDF candidate Lac de Lagdo John Fru Ndi. 0 200 km
R
E
of
C
E A
N
Nte m
dé ï
Sangmélima Ebolowa Ambam
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
GABON
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
D ja
O
Guinea
Abong Mbang Akonolinga Mbalmayo
ba
Kribi
g
Batouri
YAOUNDÉ
over 50 000 over 10 000
N
N
Nanga Eboko
Bélabo Bertoua
over 100 000
Boum
Sa na Buea Limbe Tiko Douala Edéa Bioko Eséka yon
C
168
Gulf
TI
The government and Commonwealth are trying to boost visitor numbers, with a target of 500,000 a year. There are beach hotels near Kribi and package tours to northern game parks, but high levels of crime and corruption still deter many.
Fako 4095m
S
aga an
m Lo
over 1 000 000 over 500 000
O
60
ga
50
Mbam
POPULATION
A RIC NTRAL AF
40
Total Area : 475 400 sq. km (183 567 sq. miles)
IC
30
ATLAN
20
% of total arrivals
Kumba Mbanga
Foumban Bafoussam
Bangangté Bafang Bafia Loum Yabassi
Meiganga
R EPUBL
MONTS RUMPI
Lac de Mbakaou
Tibati
Pa ng a r rem Dj e
Mamfe Dschang Nkongsamba
Other 26%
Banyo
Kumbo
Bamenda
France 24% USA 5%
10
on
A D A M A O U A
CE
Wum
CAMEROON
Touboro
a V in
Ngaoundéré
ga
N
Africa 45%
Mbé
D
I
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
G
200 miles
N
Ka
0
Up 275% in 2001
D
/
221,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:72
ro Fa
†
TOURISM
A
Major projects are the east–west TransAfrican Highway and the realigning of the Douala–Nkongsamba railroad.
H
1016 km (631 miles)
A Senate is to be created under the 1995 constitution
Logo n e
Trans-African Highway
Traditional beliefs 25%
C
4459 km (2771 miles)
12% 12% SDF Others
RDPC = Cameroon People's Democratic Rally SDF = Social Democratic Front CDU = Cameroon Democratic Union
Climate varies from the equatorial south, with 500 cm (200 in) of rain a year, to the drought-beset Sahelian north. Drive on right
2% CDU
Protestant 18%
Roman Catholic 35%
†
President Paul Biya
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
50%
0
0/32
†
POLITICS
34/km2 (89/mi2)
Bamileke, Fang, Fulani, French, English
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Savanna landscape below Mindif Pic in Cameroon’s far north. From here, the land slopes down to the hot, arid Lake Chad basin.
Moloundou
C
N gok o
O
N
G
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CAMEROON
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS BDEAC
Comm
Joined UN in 1960
LCBC
OIC
FZ
Cameroon’s most important relationship is with France, but it is fast becoming a regional center for oil exploitation.
†
AID
Recipient
$632m (receipts)
/
Up 56% in 2002
France is by far the most important donor; it has twice paid Cameroon’s back debts to the IMF to prevent its
DEFENSE
†
/
$122m
No compulsory military service
Up 3% in 2002
The 12,500-strong army has been active in supporting the regime and maintaining order in the face of prodemocratic protests since before independence. Military equipment and training come mainly from France. There is also a 9000-strong paramilitary gendarmerie.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 4.9% p.a. (1990–2001) 539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
$8.75bn SCORE CARD
CHRONOLOGY
A territorial dispute with Nigeria over the (largely anglophone) oil-rich Bakassi peninsula, where there were clashes in 1996 and 1998, remains an issue, despite there having been an international ruling in Cameroon’s favor in 2002.
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................93rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$550 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$147m INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................30%
being blacklisted. The IMF agreed in 2000 to cancel $2 billion of debt if aid projects, many of which have been abandoned due to lack of funds, are completed.
US companies exploiting oil reserves. Chad–Cameroon oil pipeline project. Very diversified agriculture includes timber, cocoa, bananas, and coffee. Self-sufficiency in food. Strong informal sector. Private sector in relatively good state. Electricity production is 97% HEP.
WEAKNESSES Massive fuel smuggling from Nigeria affects refinery profits. Inflated civil service. Widespread corruption.
111,081 tonnes
68,000 b/d (reserves 200m barrels)
5.9m cattle, 4.4m goats, 3.8m sheep, 31m chickens
Oil, coal, tin, natural gas, bauxite, iron, uranium, gold
New oil discoveries may bolster declining extraction rates. In spite of large bauxite deposits, much is imported for the Edea aluminum smelter, which uses a large share of electricity output.
ENVIRONMENT
/
5% (2% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Sustainability rank: 93rd
0.4 tonnes per capita
Netherlands 9% France 13%
Spain 17%
IMPORTS
France 28%
Malaria, diarrheal and respiratory diseases, AIDS
A sharp fall in government health provision means that more people are using the private health sector or traditional practitioners.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
8 per 1000 population
7 per 1000 population
Defense 1.2% Education 3.2% Health 1.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
There are frequent allegations of censorship and violence against journalists. English-language media are generally more outspoken.
CRIME
†
WORLD RANKING
/
Position in World 1st
Up sharply in 1996–1998
Armed robbery and burglary in Douala and Yaoundé are rising fast. The police are known to use torture.
EDUCATION
Wealth is unevenly distributed and has been declining since the end of the 1980s oil boom. There is still a very wealthy, albeit small, sector of the population.
Death penalty in use
†
School leaving age: 12
50th
100th
150th
68,495 students
Belgium 6%
Nigeria 13%
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
TV ownership medium
There are 2 daily newspapers, the bilingual Le Tribune du Cameroun and Le Quotidien
68%
USA 8%
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 0.5 per 1000 people
20,000 prisoners
USA 9% Other 34%
Other 40%
†
The rate of commercial logging and the Cameroon–Chad oil pipeline constitute major threats to Cameroon’s environment.
EXPORTS
Germany 5%
Electric power 900,000 kW
1955 Revolt; French kill 10,000. 1960 French sector independent. 1961 British south joins Cameroon (north joins Nigeria). 1982 Ahmadou Ahidjo, first president, dies; succeeded by Biya. 1983–1984 Coup attempts. Heavy casualties; 50 plotters executed. 1990 Declaration of multiparty state. 1992 Multiparty elections. 1997 President and ruling RDPC returned in disputed elections. 2000 World Bank funds pipeline project, despite environmental fears. 2001 Over 80% of indigenous forests allocated for logging. 2002 RDPC increases its majority.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Italy 18%
†
RESOURCES
One of the great trading emporia of west Africa, Cameroon was divided between the French and British in 1919, after 30 years of German rule.
193rd
The French-speaking majority has failed in its attempt to take over the bilingual system. Cameroon has a high literacy rate compared with much of the rest of west and central Africa.
141 $550
141
150 162 48 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
68%
164 95 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
169
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CANADA
Greenland USA
CANADA
OFFICIAL NAME: Canada CAPITAL: Ottawa POPULATION: 31.5 million CURRENCY: Canadian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and French
C
1867
North America
NORTH AMERICA
1949
July 1
-3.5 to -8
CDN
USA
CANADA
.ca
+1
Total Area : 9 984 670 sq. km (3 855 171 sq. miles)
POPULATION
C
ANADA IS THE WORLD’S second-largest country, stretching north to Cape Columbia on Ellesmere Island, south to Lake Erie, and across six time zones from Newfoundland to the Pacific seaboard. The interior lowlands around Hudson Bay form part of the vast Canadian Shield. The lowlands give way to the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains are to the west. The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence River lowlands to the southeast are the most populous areas. The St. Lawrence, Yukon, Mackenzie, and Fraser Rivers are among the world’s 40 largest. An Inuit homeland, Nunavut, formerly the eastern part of the Northwest Territories, was created in 1999, covering nearly a quarter of Canada’s land area. French-speaking Québec’s relationship with the rest of the country has been a source of constitutional wrangling.
3000m/9843ft
over 500 000
2000m/6562ft
over 100 000
1000m/3281ft
over 50 000
500m/1640ft
over 10 000
200m/656ft
under 10 000
A R C T I C E
O C E A N
†
)
-20/-4
MA CK E
zie en
NTA
U
N
A
V
U
T
Rankin Inlet Great Slave Lake
Fort Smith
M
INS
P ea ce
BRITISH
O Fort St. John
U Grande Prairie
N
ALBERTA
T
Lake Athabasca
St. Albert
Churchill York Factory
Fort McMurray
n lso Ne
Thompson
SASKATCHEWAN
Fort Saskatchewan
er Fras
M A N I TOB A Edmonton Flin Flon N .S Leduc katchewan a Wetaskiwin Sas Camrose skat c Red Lloydminster h e w a n Prince Albert Lake Deer Lake Winnipeg North O Airdrie Saskatoon Winnipegosis Battleford Vernon Calgary Kelowna n a Yorkton w Penticton S. S a s k a t c h e Medicine Hat Regina Portage la Prairie Cranbrook Moose Lethbridge Swift Brandon Current Jaw Winnipeg Estevan Weyburn
A
I
Vancouver
N
S
Chilliwack
N
Victoria
G ulf o f Bo o thia
Spence Bay Queen Maud Gjoa Haven Pelly Gulf Bay
Yellowknife
Y
MOU
R ed
R.
0
K
IAR
Nanaimo
King William I.
ac k
Hay River
Kamloops
N
0
M
Prince George
Vancouver I.
Boothia Peninsula
TERRITORIES
Watson Lake
N S A I N T M O U
Campbell River
N E A
170
O C
The emergence of a national economy depended on the development of an efficient system of transportation. The Trans-Canada Highway and two transcontinental rail systems are the east–west backbones of the road and rail networks, which also reach into the far north. The Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Seaway system’s cheap transportation helped Ontario and Québec dominate the economy for most of the 20th century. Air Canada, now privatized, remains the largest airline.
Ocean Falls Queen Charlotte Sound
M'Clintock Channel
N
NORTHWEST
COLUMBIA
C
3000 km (1864 miles)
C O A S T
Queen Charlotte Is
I
12,955 km (8050 miles)
Great Bear Lake
C
SS
F
16,900 km (10,501 miles)
O CA
I Prince Rupert
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 497,306 km (309,011 miles)
S AIN NT OU M
R
Whitehorse
C
902 ships 2.8m gr t
e
Mount Logan 5959m TERRITORY
A
Lester B. Pearson, Toronto 24.7m passengers
†
dik
YUKON
P
TRANSPORTATION
on
Kugluktuk
E ZI
Kl
Victoria I.
Cambridge Bay
N
Dawson
Drive on right
Arctic Bay
Somerset I. Brodeur Prince of Peninsula Wales I.
Wollaston Peninsula
Ath aba sca
(A
Yukon
-10/14
Canada’s climate ranges from polar and subpolar in the north, to cool in the south. Summers in the interior are hotter, and winters colder and longer than on the coast, with temperatures well below freezing and deep snow. The Pacific coast around Vancouver has the warmest winters, where temperatures rarely fall below zero.
Amundsen Gulf
Devon I.
Cornwallis I.
Resolute
nt
A
A
0
0/32
Inuvik
K
S
10/4
S
20/8
10/50
Eureka
Axel Heiberg I.
Grise Fiord
Viscount Meville Sound
Banks I.
A
20/68
S
Ellesmere I.
Ellef
Sachs Harbour
U
30/12
D
H
T
Melville I.
Beaufort Sea
L
30/86
E
PARRY ISLANDS Bathurst I.
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
B
Mould Bay
Continental/subarctic/ mountain
40/104
Z LI
A
L
N
N Ringnes I. EE Q U Isachsen Amund Prince Ringnes I. Patrick I. SVERDRUP ISLANDS
WEATHER CHART FOR OTTAWA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
IS
Sea Level
A
Du ba w
CLIMATE
LAND HEIGHT
over 1 000 000
U N I T E D 400 km 400 miles
S T A T E S
O F
Lake of the Woods
A M E R I C A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CANADA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
TOURISM
.
17.5m visitors
Visitors : Population 1:1.8
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low
English, French, Chinese, Italian, German, Ukrainian, Por tuguese, Inuktitut, Cree
Down 13% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
3/km2 9/mi2
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
C
USA 81% UK 4%
79%
France 2%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Japan 2%
Most Canadians are descended from immigrants from Britain, France, Ireland, and other European countries. Many now identify themselves simply as Canadian. In the 2001 census, which allowed multiple ethnic-origin answers, 6.7 million people chose only “Canadian” and 5 million more included it among their choices. Other responses included 14.3 million English, Scots, Irish, or Welsh, 4.7 million French, 8.7 million other European, 3 million Asian, and 1.3 million Amerindian, Métis, or Inuit.
Germany 1% Other 10% 40
50
60
70
80
100
90
Most tourist visitors come from the US, often on short tours. Efforts to attract European visitors center on campaigns emphasizing Canada’s unpolluted natural beauty. Bizarrely, the fictional home of the eponymous heroine Baffin of Anne of Green Gables on Prince Edward Island is a Bay magnet for tourists er S o u nd cast n a L from Japan, where D the novels about a v Borden i s her by L. M. Peninsula S t r Montgomery a i t enjoy Baffin enormous Island popularity. Melville Peninsula Hall Peninsula
Foxe Peninsula
Iqaluit Meta Incognita Peninsula
Southampton I. Coral Harbour Ivujivik
Péninsula
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other and nonreligious 27% Roman Catholic 44%
Ungava Bay
D'ungava
F
L
Schefferville
Q U E B E C Belcher Is
Labrador City
Se v
er
n
e vièr e Ri and L a Gr
Winisk
M
A
N
I
O
Moosonee
A l b a ny
aw
a
Sudbury
Sault Sainte Marie
L. Huron
North Bay Peterborough
Laval Hull
OTTAWA
L. Mic hig a n
Kingston Oshawa L. Ontario Toronto Kitchener Niagara Falls Hamilton St. Catherines London Windsor L. Erie
St John's Corner Brook
Newfoundland
ST PIERRE & Gulf of MIQUELON St. Lawrence C a i t (to France) a a r l b t o S t ' u ns pe PRINCE EDWARD ni as ISLAND e Sydney G P e Prince d Cape Edward I.
NEW BRUNSWICK Moncton Fredericton Saint John
Trois-Rivières O tt
Wawa
S
nc
Québec
ThunderBay L. Superior
N
re
Chicoutimi Jonquière Timmins
AI
e
N
R
St .L aw
R
U
A
LA
T
E
Bay
U
T
Sept-Iles
T
I
James
O
N
A
Sherbrooke
Montréal
Breton I. Charlottetown Dartmouth
Halifax NOVA SCOTIA
I
B a y
O
U N B D R Labrador A D L A N O Smallwood D Happy ValleyR Res. Goose Bay
H u d s o n
Age
Female
7.2% 12.6%
13%
Protestant 29%
&
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
15.8%
Two-thirds of the population live in the 5% of land area taken up by the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence lowlands. Relations between the French-speaking Québécois and the English-speaking majority have been the dominant ethnic issue of the past 40 years. The issue was championed in mainstream politics by the Parti Québécois and, at federal level, the Bloc Québécois. Full independence was only narrowly defeated in two referenda (1980 and 1995), but support for secessionism has since waned as the dominance of the French language LA BR A DO R has been written into S EA Québec law and living N standards have been E W raised generally.
Cumberland Peninsula
A dude ranch in British Columbia. Many tourists are attracted by Canada’s wide choice of outdoor pursuits.
1.8%
EA N
30
C
20
% of total arrivals
O
10
0
C
Alert
21%
Yarmouth
Verdun
A
T
L
A
N
T
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 1% 6.2% 12.6% 16.1% 13.7%
% of population by age group
Canada’s ethnic mix has changed significantly since the 1970s as immigration policy was relaxed to welcome those with money or skills. The government promotes a policy which encourages each group to maintain its own culture, creating a “mosaic” or a “community of communities.” The largest element of the indigenous population is the one millon people of native Amerindian descent, known in Canada as First Nations. There are also 300,000 Métis (French-Amerindians) and an Inuit population of some 56,000 in the north. In 1992 the Inuit successfully settled their long-standing land claim, and in 1999 the Nunavut area, with only 27,000 mainly Inuit inhabitants, gained the status of a territory, the first part of Canada to be governed by indigenous Canadians in modern history. A Supreme Court land rights ruling in 1997, establishing the principle of “Aboriginal title,” opened the way for the return of ancestral lands claimed by native Amerindian nations, and in 1998 the federal government formally apologized for past mistreatment. Claims for extra fishing and land rights and challenges to existing treaties continue. Canada has a long tradition of state welfare more akin to Scandinavia than the US. Unemployment provision and health care, supported by high taxes, are still generous, despite recent cutbacks. The government has sought to end inequalities. Measures include the “pay-equity” laws, which aim to specify pay rates for jobs done by men or women requiring a similar level of skill. Women are well represented at most levels of business and government.
171
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Peopled for centuries by indigenous Amerindians and Inuit, Canada began to be settled by Europeans in the first half of the 17th century, following the English expedition led by John Cabot in 1497 and the landing of Frenchman Jacques Cartier in 1534.
C
1754–1760 British defeat French and Amerindian allies in Canada. 1763 Under Treaty of Paris, France cedes its St. Lawrence and Québec settlements to Britain. 1774 Act of Québec recognizes Roman Catholicism, French language, culture, and traditions. 1775–1783 American War of Independence. Canada becomes refuge for loyalists to British crown. 1867 Dominion of Canada created under British North America Act. 1897 Klondike gold rush begins. 1914–1918, 1939–1945 Canada supports Allies in both world wars. 1931 Autonomy within Commonwealth. 1949 Founder member of NATO. Newfoundland joins Canada. 1968 Liberal Party under Pierre Trudeau in power. Separatist Parti Québécois (PQ) formed. 1970s Québec secessionist movement grows, accompanied by terrorist attacks. 1976 PQ wins Québec elections. 1977 French made official language in Québec. 1980 Referendum rejects secession of Québec. Trudeau prime minister. 1982 UK transfers all powers relating to Canada in British law. 1984 Trudeau resigns. Elections won by PCP. Brian Mulroney prime minister until 1993. 1987 Meech Lake Accord on provincial–federal relationship. 1989 Canadian–US Free Trade Agreement. 1992 Charlottetown Agreement on provincial–federal issues rejected in referendum. Canada, Mexico, and US finalize terms for NAFTA. 1993 Crushing election defeat of PCP, rise of regional parties. Liberal Jean Chrétien prime minister. 1994 PQ regains power in Québec. NAFTA takes effect. 1995 Narrow “no” vote in second Québec sovereignty referendum. 1995 Fishing dispute with EU. 1997 Regionalism dominates federal election; Liberals retain power based on support in Ontario. 2003 PQ ousted by Liberals in Québec after nine years in power. Chrétien stands down in favor of Paul Martin. 2004 Early elections: Liberals again retain power.
172
†
POLITICS
Multipar ty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
L. House 2004/2009 AT THE LAST ELECTION
17% BQ
House of Commons 308 seats
44% LP
32% CP
1% Ind
6% NDP
LP = Liberal Party CP = Conservative Party BQ = Bloc Québécois NDP = New Democratic Party Ind = Independents PCP = Progressive Conservative Party
Senate 105 seats
61% LP
24% CP
8% 3% Vacant PCP
The Niagara Falls are situated between Lakes Erie and Ontario on the Canada–US border. Horseshoe Falls, in Canada, are 49 m (160 ft) high and 790 m (2591 ft) across.
4% Ind
The ambition of the Parti Québécois (PQ) to hold yet another referendum on separatism, despite losing those held in 1980 and 1995, was derailed when the party lost provincial elections to the LP in 2003. The popularity of the PQ suffered as voters were keen to focus on everyday issues, rather than the promise of more constitutional wrangling. Any future vote on secession will anyway require federal approval and the agreement of at least seven of the ten provinces, while the 2000 Clarity Act set strict criteria for the validation of any prosecession referendum.
Senators are appointed by the governor-general on the recommendation of the prime minister, to a usual maximum of 105; the prime minister may also appoint an extra seven senators. Senators retain their seats until the age of 75
Canada is a federal multiparty democracy.
PROFILE The collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party (PCP) in 1993 ushered in an era of left-of-center dominance under the LP and Jean Chrétien. Other parties began to focus on regional, rather than pan-Canadian, issues, leading to the hopeless dissipation of the right wing; after the 1993 election the BQ had become the second-largest party in parliament. Over the next decade the conservatives worked to reconnect with voters, and merged in 2003 to form the CP under Stephen Harper. Chrétien stepped down in 2003, in favor of former finance minister Paul Martin. A funding scandal in Québec damaged the LP in the run-up to the 2004 election, with late opinion polls showing the CP to be in the lead. The LP scraped a surprise win to form a minority government, Martin relying on the somewhat ambivalent support of the BQ and NDP to maintain power.
Health care The publicly funded “medicare” health care system is highly popular but widely criticized. All political parties recognize the need to address problems of staff shortages, long waiting times, and the lack of new technologies. The cost of reforms, however, is potentially large. Market-oriented economic reforms have left few revenue options open to government. Though some politicians see hope in the public–private partnerships pioneered in the UK, full private care remains illegal in Canada.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES The unity of the state Opposition to federal government is not confined to Québec – recent federal elections have confirmed support for greater autonomy for Canada’s western provinces – but Canada has agonized over separatist tendencies in francophone Québec almost since the foundation of the state. Québec did not take part in the 1997 Calgary conference, where a Canadian unity framework was agreed by the other provinces, together with recognition of Québec’s “unique character.” A series of earlier proposals, to recognize Québec as a distinct society and strengthen the powers of all the federal provinces, had failed to gain ratification or been rejected by the electorate.
Jean Charest, Liberal premier of Québec since 2003.
Paul Martin, heir to Chrétien: prime minister from 2003.
Jean Chrétien, Liberal prime minister 1993–2003.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CANADA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
G8
NAFTA
OECD
Joined UN in 1945
NATO
Canada’s most important relationship is with the US. Though relations are on the whole good, there are tensions. Canada has protested over US duties on its timber and a ban on beef products, and many
AID
†
ECONOMICS
Donor
US$2.01bn (donations)
/
Up 31% in 2002
†
.
Consumer Price Index
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................8th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$22,390 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................US$14.9bn INFLATION .........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
EXPORTS
China 1% Germany 1%
UK 1%
Japan 4% China 5%
USA 63%
STRENGTHS 19,300 personnel
13,500 personnel
None
Canada cooperates closely with the US on North American defense and security issues. Canadian troops have served in many UN peacekeeping operations, most recently in Kosovo, East Timor, Sierra Leone and Haiti. Their involvement in Somalia, however, which ended in 1993, was tarnished by a scandal over racism, torture, and murder which shocked Canadian society. International commitments have stretched the armed forces: in 2004 the government announced plans to increase troop strength by 5000. The focus of planning is now the creation of rapid reaction forces.
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
Canada has an enormous resource base, and it has one of the highest standards of living in the world. Since the mid1980s, however, manufactured exports have faced increasing competition, while prices for its primary exports fluctuate. Real growth averaged 3.5% a year for most of the 1980s, but then stagnated for five years, while budget deficits rose, forcing restructuring at both federal and provincial levels. Many welfare programs were cut back; the defense budget was sharply reduced. Growth resumed after 1993 and an unwieldy budget deficit was turned into a record surplus by 1997. Within NAFTA, Canadian firms have had to become more competitive to maintain exports. Most have been successful, with better productivity and a high-tech shift. Unemployment, at almost 10% in the mid-1990s, has “stabilized” below 8%. Canada’s close ties to the US left it hard hit by the 2001 slowdown.
IMPORTS
Mexico 4%
140
PROFILE
USA 88%
UK 3%
160
1998
Other 7%
GDP
160
Japan 2%
Down 7% in 2002
2 submarines, 4 destroyers, 12 frigates, 9000 personnel and 14 patrol boats 140 combat aircraft (122 CF-18)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
1.341 Canadian dollars (1.359)
Other 21% No compulsor y militar y ser vice
CANADIAN ARMED FORCES 114 main battle tanks (Leopard C-2)
Inflation 1.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
C
GDP 1998=100
DEFENSE
US$702bn
†
such as the Kyoto Protocol, signed by Canada in 2002. Canada backed the US-led “war on terrorism,” but refused to support the 2003 attack on Iraq. In the forefront on debt relief for the poorest countries, Canada has also led the world campaign against antipersonnel mines.
Consumer price index 1998=100
Canada’s aid budget, earmarked for cuts in the 1990s, was given extra funding again into the new century. NGOs supported by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) are prominent on global development issues, and most Canadians approve of giving aid. Aid now aims to provide know-how skills, rather than funding for largescale development projects. CIDA has pioneered a theme-based approach, stressing health and nutrition, basic education, AIDS, and child protection. The regional focus of aid has gradually shifted, with less emphasis on Africa. Programs in the 1990s supported recovery and reform in former communist countries. Aid is now given to a range of countries; eastern Europe remains a particular focus.
US$7.77bn
worry about the increase in labor competition from Mexico since the creation of NAFTA in 1994. At a more basic level Canadians are wary of the encroachment of US culture and of its concurrent social ills. There are also concerns over the transportation of Alaskan oil and US resistance to treaties
A broad and rich resource base. Provides exports, raw materials for manufacturing sector, and massive cheap energy, notably HEP; also large oil and gas reserves. Agriculture and forestry contribute 2% of GDP, mining 4%. Successful manufacturing sector, employing 15% of the workforce: forestry products, transportation equipment, and chemicals. Budget surplus. Access to huge US and Mexican markets through NAFTA. Low inflation.
WEAKNESSES Problems of competitiveness: higher taxes, lower productivity, more regulations, relative to NAFTA; other threats from globalization. Vulnerable to price fluctuations for raw material exports. Brain drain Edmonton of professionals heading south.
St John's
Vancouver
Halifax
CANADA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Vehicle manufacture
Electronics
Timber industries
Engineering
Pulp & paper
Chemicals
Food processing Fish processing
Metallurgy
0
Oil & gas
0
Québec
Regina
Calgary
Aerospace industry
Winnipeg 500 km
ThunderBay
Montréal Toronto
500 miles
173
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
2.99m b/d (reser ves 16.9bn barrels)
1.2m tonnes
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 61% (358bn kWh)
asbestos, gypsum, and nickel, and the fourth-largest of zinc. Oil and gas are exploited in Alberta, off the Atlantic coast, and in the northwest – huge additional reserves are thought to exist in the high Arctic. Most exports go to the US. Canada is also one of the world’s top hydroelectricity producers. CANADA : LAND USE
Nuclear 12% (73bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
D N P
NT A
IN S
Sustainability rank: 4th
OU YM
.
11% (5% par tially protected)
†
CK
ENVIRONMENT
LA
RO
Canada is a country of enormous natural resources. It is the world’s largest exporter of forest products and a top exporter of fish, furs, and wheat. Minerals have played a key role in Canada’s transformation into an urban–industrial economy. Alberta, British Columbia, Québec, and Saskatchewan are the principal mining regions. Ontario and the Northwest (NWT) and Yukon Territories are also significant producers. Canada is the world’s largest producer of uranium and potash, the third-largest of
Cropland Forest Pasture Tundra High mountain regions Wheat BAF FIN Cattle IS
0
AU TE LA
1000 km
0
1000 miles
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 159 per 1000 people
There are 101 daily newspapers; over 80 daily or weekly publications appear in 20 languages, catering to immigrant
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
/
36,024 prisoners
Up 2% in 2001
Murders 4
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Canada does not publish rape statistics Thefts 2758
per 100,000 population
Rates for serious crime are lower in Canada than in the US. Canadians ascribe this to their far stricter gun control laws, which were further tightened in the 1990s. Newfoundland police began carrying guns routinely only in 1998, the last force in North America to do so. There have been careful efforts to maintain the inner cities as crime-free zones. Innovative “drug treatment courts” in Toronto and Vancouver link criminal justice with treatment and social care. Federal prisoners were allowed to vote from 2004.
†
EDUCATION 99%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
14.2 tonnes per capita
No death penalty
CRIME RATES
Combustion 27% (159bn kWh)
LAU RE NT IA N
C
Coal, oil, gas, gold, zinc, uranium, nickel, potash, asbestos, gypsum
14.7m pigs, 13.5m cattle, 6m turkeys, 160m chickens
†
CRIME
Electric power 118m kW
School leaving age: 16
1.21m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 100
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
With a population of only just over 30 million living in the world’s secondlargest country, Canada is justly renowned for vast tracts of wilderness untroubled by pollution either from industry or from intensive farming methods. A major conservation issue is the battle to stop the logging of virgin forest in northern Ontario and on the west coast. Notable successes were achieved in the late 1990s, pressuring timber companies to adopt more sustainable policies, and a landmark agreement in early 2001 promised protection for British Columbia’s coastal Great Bear Rainforest. Canadians have tighter pollution controls than the neighboring US. Ontario, the most polluted province, has imposed stricter limits on oil refineries and (from 2001) on electricity-generating plants. Carbon dioxide emissions (mainly from cars) are among the highest in the world per capita. Canada has accepted a target of a 6% cut by 2010. Production of hazardous waste is also higher than the European average.
174
1 publicly owned ser vice, many independent ser vices
1 publicly owned ser vice, many independent ser vices
The public Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) runs two national TV channels, in English and French; the conservative opposition has called for its privatization. Local cable services often include multilingual or ethnic channels. Canadian TV is renowned for its news and sports coverage. La Presse is a leading French daily and the Globe and Mail is the leading national newspaper in English.
Black spruce in fall in northern Canada. Whether due to global warming or localized temperature cycles, the tundra is retreating across Arctic Canada.
% of each age group in education
Yes
80
60
100%
100%
40
59% 20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education is a responsibility of the individual provinces, rather than the federal government, and is accorded a very high priority. The period of free compulsory school attendance varies, but is a minimum of nine years. The prime medium of instruction is English in all provinces except francophone Québec. In several other provinces, French-speaking students are entitled to be taught in French. Multicultural education also helps maintain the cultural identity of immigrant groups. Canada has 58 universities and some 200 other higher education institutions. Nearly all high school graduates go on to some form of tertiary or further education, one of the highest proportions in the industrialized world.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CANADA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
THE CANADIAN WAY
†
HEALTH
Cancers, hear t and respirator y diseases
1 per 476 people
C
near the top of international quality-of-life surveys. With a healthy economy, a modern infrastructure, and stunning natural scenery, it also wins acclaim for exciting urban living; five Canadian cities ranked among the world’s top 30 cities in which to live in the Mercer Human Resource Consulting 2004 listings (Vancouver [3], Toronto [15], Ottawa [20], Calgary [24=], and Montréal [24=]). ANADA IS ALWAYS
The comprehensive state health service is funded from national insurance. Rising costs are the result of an aging population and the spread of more sophisticated and expensive treatments. Health care is a dominant electoral issue. Popular backing for retaining the present publicly funded system has encouraged the LP government to restore spending to earlier levels, after a period of cuts made to reverse the budget deficit. There is fierce debate over the possibility of privatization.
TRUTH In the 19th century the UK extended the transportation, communications, and industrial infrastructure across the continent, in order to exploit Canada’s abundant natural resources, and thus benefit from its vast colony. While agriculture and mining remain important, they have been overtaken in recent decades by services and manufacturing. Since the mid-20th century, Canada has experienced a period of relative economic boom.
Adrienne Clarkson (governor-general 1999–2005) being escorted by Mounties.
SPENDING 548 per 1000 population
Equality for women has become an expected norm. Vietnamese-born television celebrity Adrienne Clarkson served as governor-general from 1999 to 2005, proving that race and gender are not limitations to success.
Quality of life has also been aided by good social services, in particular a health service that is free at source. Liberal values in political life extend to society at large; many thousands of immigrants are welcomed into the country, and their different cultures respected and cherished by the state.
In real terms all this translates to high levels of participation and success in education (largely unaffected by social background), sustainable levels of unemployment, low crime rates, a strong awareness of the environment, and pride in social tolerance.
JUSTICE Inevitably, Canada is not unmitigated paradise. In 2001, the government produced a Citizens’ Report Card, which, while it confirmed a general satisfaction with life, highlighted a number of areas of concern for ordinary Canadians. Foremost was a fear that racial and community discrimination were growing. It was noted that intolerance, though still low, had become more widespread. There is also concern over lengthening hospital waiting lists and an apparent lack of access to the specialist treatment so flaunted in the US health care system. The rising cost of further education also featured, as did the environment, with Canadians noting a fall in air and water quality in recent years.
Vancouver on Canada’s western seaboard is reputedly the country’s most desirable city.
GDP/cap. increase
635 per 1000 population
Defense 1.1% Education 5.2% Health 6.7% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Life for most Canadians is very good, despite strains caused by recession during the early 1990s – including a peak in unemployment at over 10%. The UN ranks Canada as one of the best countries in the world in which to live. In its overall assessment of human development indicators such as income, education, and life expectancy, Canada was consistently top in the 1990s, but has now slipped to fourth. However, disadvantaged groups do exist, in particular among indigenous Canadians. Unemployment, poor housing, and mortality rates for Amerindians and Inuit are well above those for other Canadians; the Inuit suicide rate is three times higher. Those Amerindians who live on reserves are the poorest group.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
7 19 $22,390
The least pressing worry for most, but perhaps a sign of trouble to come, was the increasing gap between rich and poor. The previously even distribution of wealth is showing signs of breaking down as levels of poverty grow. Future governments will have to close the gap and focus on these concerns if they are to protect the Canadian way of life that most now expect.
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
0
A significant economic factor is the moderate size of the population. Canada’s wealth is shared between a relatively small number of people, with the effect of raising the average income. Despite comprising around 40% of the territory of North America, it is home to less than 7% of North Americans; there are just three Canadians to every square kilometer of Canada. This statistic is, of course, somewhat misleading; four-fifths of the population live in urban areas, though only Montréal can boast more than one million inhabitants. In general, Canadian cities are uncluttered, blessed with abundant green space, and far from crowded.
Welfare state health benefits
79 years
1 99%
4 16 5 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
175
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CAPE VERDE
WEST AFRICA Senegal The Gambia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Cape Verde CAPITAL: Praia POPULATION: 463,000 CURRENCY: Cape Verde escudo OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese
C
1975
1975
July 5
CV
-1
.cv
+238
T
HE CAPE VERDE ARCHIPELAGO off the west coast of Africa became independent of Portugal in 1975. Most of the islands are mountainous and volcanic; the low-lying islands of Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio have agricultural potential, though they are prone to debilitating droughts. Around 50% of the population live on Santiago. Cape Verde has been one of Africa’s most stable democracies since multiparty elections were first held in 1991.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR PRAIA
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density medium
115/km2 (298/mi2)
Portuguese Creole, Portuguese THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
64%
36%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 0
0/32
Protestant (Church of the Nazarene) 1%
-10/14
Other 2%
-20/-4
Cape Verde has a very dry climate, subject to droughts that sometimes last for years at a time.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Amílcar Cabral, Sal Island 829,716 passengers
39 ships 16,400 grt
Roman Catholic 97%
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 858 km (533 miles)
None
None
None
Travel between the islands is either by ferry or the more expensive daily flights run by Cabo Verde Airlines.
TOURISM 126,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:3.7
/
Up 10% in 2002
The majority of the population is Portuguese–African mestiço; the remainder is largely African, descended either from slaves or from more recent immigrants from the mainland. The Creolization of the culture has led to a relative lack of ethnic tension. African culture is influential on Santiago Island. The extended family, as well as the Roman Catholic Church, have helped to ensure the vitality of family life. Some 600,000 Cape Verdean emigrants now live abroad, especially in Portugal and the US: overseas remittances are an important part of the economy. Chã da
Vila Maria Pia Ribeira Grande Janela
Santo Igreja Antão Tarrafal
Mindelo
São Pedro
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Calhau
Santa Luzia
São Vicente
I
l
Italy 28%
h
a
s
Ilhéu Branco Barril Ilhéu Raso
d
São Nicolau
e B
A T L A N T I C 10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Tourism is generally on a modest scale; package tourism has gained a foothold. The islands of Santiago, Santo Antão, Fogo, and Brava have tourist potential, offering a combination of mountain scenery and extensive beaches.
2001/2006
Multiparty elections
President Pedro Pires
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 72 seats
55% PAICV
Cape Verde experienced a peaceful transition to multipartyism in 1991, when elections brought the MPD to power. Though there had previously been a decade of single-party rule under the PAICV, it had in fact operated a liberal system in which opposition and dissent were tolerated. The large Cape Verdean diaspora had an important influence in effecting the transition to multiparty politics. The MPD was defeated in legislative elections in January 2001, when the PAICV was returned to power with an absolute majority. Pedro Pires of the PAICV was elected president the following month, beating his MPD rival by just 17 votes. The main issues for the government are economic development, forging new international partnerships, and responding to drought.
CPLP
ECOWAS
NAM
OIF
d e
AU
Cape Verde wishes to diversify its international contacts to secure aid and foreign investment, while maintaining good relations with Portugal. Regionally, it has improved relations with GuineaBissau, after withdrawing from a proposed union in 1980. Ties to other lusophone countries, including Sal Angola and Brazil, are Palmeira Pedra Lume important, as are links with nearby Senegal Santa Maria and Gambia. Sal Rei
r l a v e n t o
Gata
Boa Vista João Barrosa Curral Velho
o e n t t a v S o Maio
Tarrafal s Ribeira h a I l da Barça Ilhéus do Fogo Fajãzinha Rombo
Brava
Joined UN in 1975
CAPE VERDE
Total Area : 4033 sq. km (1557 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
50 miles
N
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
50 km
0
3% ADM
42% MPD
PAICV = African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde MPD = Movement for Democracy ADM = Democratic Alliance for Change
O C E A N 0
Furna Fajã
176
a
†
POLITICS
Derrubado
Netherlands 11%
0
Ribeira Funda Vila de Brava Castilhiano
Preguiça
Portugal 27%
Other 34%
Africa
CAPE VERDE
Picodo do Cano 2829m
São Filipe
Cova Figueira
Cidade Velha
Santiago Maior
Santo Antonio Maio
Santiago (São Tiago) PRAIA
2000m/6562ft
POPULATION over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CAPE VERDE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$92m (receipts)
/
CHRONOLOGY
Aid finances almost all development in Cape Verde, which is one of the least industrialized countries in the world and is vulnerable to food shortages. The World Bank is the main source of aid followed by Portugal. Remittances from Cape Verdeans abroad account for 20% of GDP. The AfDB loaned $8 million in 2002 to finance a food security and environmental project.
DEFENSE $8m
†
/
$572m
Portuguese colonial-style architecture on Fogo, one of the larger islands. The volcano at its center is the highest point in Cape Verde.
†
Compulsory military service
RESOURCES
Up 14% in 2002
9653 tonnes
Not an oil producer
200,000 pigs, 112,337 goats, 417,000 chickens
Salt, limestone, pozzolana
After independence, armed forces were established, now consisting of a 1000-strong army, a small air force, and a naval coast guard. They have never been called upon to play a political role; their main duties are to protect territorial waters against illegal fishing and to curb smuggling.
ECONOMICS
Cape Verde was a Portuguese colony from 1462 until 1975, and was ruled jointly with Guinea-Bissau.
Up 19% in 2002
†
Inflation 4.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
108.9 Cape Verde escudos (109)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................168th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1250 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$71m INFLATION .........................................1.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................21%
STRENGTHS Strategic location close to the midAtlantic where Africa is nearest to Latin America: military and economic advantages, including shipping maintenance and air travel. Low debt-servicing costs. Tourism and fishing. Privatization program.
Electric power 7000 kW
Cape Verde has no known strategic resources. With no oil or gas and no possibility of hydroelectric power, it depends on imported petroleum for energy. There is a permanent shortfall in food production due to poverty of soil and lack of rain. Cereal production meets just one-quarter of requirements.
†
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
/
None
Not available
0.3 tonnes per capita
Cape Verde has recently suffered several years of persistent drought, which have affected food production and reduced livestock herds. It is a very active member of CILSS, which struggles against drought in the Sahel region. Environmental initiatives include reforestation, soil conservation, and a water resources program.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
There are no daily newspapers
Permanent threat of drought and water supply problems, despite desalination plants. Lack of agricultural land and dependence on food aid. Difficulties of communications between islands.
There are no daily newspapers. Independent publications suffer from financial pressures
1 state-controlled service
3 services: 1 state-controlled, 2 independent
†
EDUCATION 76%
School leaving age: 12
Not available
At independence, education became a priority; 99% of children now attend elementary school, though only half go on to secondary education.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Heart disease, tuberculosis, typhoid, and accidents
1 per 5000 people
Health care has improved since the colonial period, though there was an outbreak of polio in 2000.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
32 per 1000 population
160 per 1000 population
Defense 3.2% Education 4.4% Health 2.7% 0
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
1961 Joint struggle for independence of Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau begins. 1974 Guinea-Bissau independent. 1975 Cape Verde independent. 1981 Final split from Guinea-Bissau. 1991 MPD wins first multiparty poll. 2001 General election returns PAICV to power.
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Around 90% of the population of Cape Verde is engaged in primary production; by comparison, the small business class in Praia is well-off.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
UK 26%
The government publishes three weeklies. Press freedom is guaranteed by law; private radio is the main outlet for opposition to the government. Broadcasting is in Portuguese and Creole, with the cooperation of the Portuguese service RTPI.
Spain 4%
†
Switzerland 2% Portugal 38%
Other 3% USA 8% France 23%
Portugal 48%
100th
150th
IMPORTS
Italy 4%
50th
Germany 6% Netherlands 7%
Other 31%
CRIME 755 prisoners
111 $1250
No death penalty
101
99
69 years
29 deaths
105
140
193rd
76%
Little change from year to year
Crime is not a serious problem, even in urban centers, though narcotics trafficking is increasing.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
177
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
OFFICIAL NAME: Central African Republic CAPITAL: Bangui POPULATION: 3.9 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French
C
1960
1960
Dec 1
RCA
+1
.cf
+236
L
ANDLOCKED AT THE EASTERN end of the Sahel, the Central African Republic (CAR) is a low plateau stretching north from the Ubangi River. Almost all the population lives in the equatorial, rainforested south. “Emperor” Bokassa’s eccentric rule from 1965 to 1979 was followed by military dictatorship. Democracy was restored in 1993. Any hopes for political stability have been shattered by a string of mutinies and coups since 1996.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR BANGUI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density low 6/km2 (16/mi2)
Sango, Banda, Gbaya, French
Baya 34%
The south is equatorial, the north has a savanna-type climate, and the far north lies within the Sahel.
TRANSPORTATION Mpoko, Bangui 43,174 passengers
Banda 27%
†
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 729 km (453 miles)
Trans-African Highway
None
900 km (559 miles)
The CAR has a limited transportation system, depending on the river link to Brazzaville, Congo, and rail from there to Pointe-Noire and the Congo River ports.
†
TOURISM
,
10,000 visitors
Mandjia 21%
Visitors : Population 1:390
The Baya and Banda are the largest ethnic groups, but the lingua franca is Sango, a trading creole originating among the southern riverine minorities which provided the political leaders from independence until 1993 (Presidents Dacko and Kolingba and “Emperor” Bokassa). Resentment against the river peoples occasionally flares up, as happened after the coup attempt in 2001. As in other nonMuslim African countries, women have considerable power. Elizabeth Domitien was prime minister from 1975 to 1976 and Ruth Rolland ran for president in 1993.
†
POLITICS
Little change in 2000 AT THE LAST ELECTION
6% 9% National Assembly (dissolved) 109 seats PSD Others
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
France 28% Cameroon 8% 43% MLPC
Chad 7% Other 57% 0
10
20
30
40
50
% of total arrivals
High levels of insecurity and crime, particularly in recent years, have prevented the CAR from promoting tourism, despite the abundance of scenery and big game wildlife.
178
60
Joined UN in 1960
AU
n
roo me
Regional relations were altered by Gen. Bozizé’s 2003 coup. While Chad had given him active support, Libya and factions from the neighboring DRC had emerged as the major allies of Patassé, becoming directly involved in the precoup conflicts. Bozizé is now keen to normalize relations, especially with other CEMAC countries and the DRC, but the AU is reluctant to recognize his regime.
†
Recipient
.
Down 10% in 2002
Almost all development projects are funded from external aid. France, the former colonial power, provides onethird of the total. Japan and the EU are other major donors. The CAR receives assistance from the World Bank and the IMF, which have provided funds to support its economic program. The Paris Club of creditor countries in 1998 rescheduled and reduced its debt.
DEFENSE $20m
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 33% in 2002
The well-equipped, 1400-strong army drains the budget and has frequently intervened in politics. Military rebellion resurfaced in 2001, a year after the withdrawal of a UN force. In 2001 and 2002 progovernment soldiers were supported by forces from Libya and Chad and rebel fighters from the DRC, but were unable to halt the 2003 coup.
In transition
President François Bozizé
1998/2005
† LCBC
FZ
$60m (receipts)
-10/14
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Dem. Rep. Congo
CEMAC
58% Other 8% Sara 10%
-20/-4
BDEAC
AID 42%
Sudan
WORLD AFFAIRS
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
Chad
Ca
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Africa
CENTRAL AFRICA
18% 7% 6% 6% 5% RDC MDD FPP Ind ADP
MLPC = Central African People's Liberation Movement RDC = Central African Democratic Rally MDD = Movement for Democracy and Development FPP = Patriotic Front for Progress Ind = Independents PSD = Social Democratic Party ADP = Alliance for Democracy and Progress
Elections in 1993 ended 12 years of single-party rule under Gen. André Kolingba. Former prime ministerturned-dissident Ange-Félix Patassé became president. His decade in power
was dogged by army mutinies. The first major rebellion, in 1996, was only calmed after the intervention of a French-led multinational force in 1997. His party, the MLPC, remained the largest in parliament after the 1998 elections, but he was faced with yet more rebellion in 2001. Kolingba led a failed coup in May and was later supported by army chief Gen. François Bozizé. Patassé was kept in power with the assistance of Libyan and Congolese fighters in 2001, and again in 2002, but was finally toppled in a coup led by Gen. Bozizé in 2003. Bozizé appointed an independent commission to supervise elections in 2005, when, he said, he would not contest the presidency.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
O
M A SS
I
éré mb
Berbérati
BANGUI
Boda
Bimbo
Gamboula
Mbaïki Mongoumba
Nola
N
$969m
†
Inflation 4.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
SCORE CARD
Mobaye
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................155th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$250 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .......................$16m INFLATION .........................................3.4% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
Obo Zémio
Bangassou Ubangi
EP DEM. R
. CO
/
N
Djéma Ou
Mingala Alindao
9% (4% partially protected)
200m/656ft
ECONOMICS
Bambari
ENVIRONMENT
O
500m/1640ft
Yalinga
G O
C
1000m/3281ft
Kadéï
LAND HEIGHT
Bria Ippy
ra
Grimari Bossembélé Damara Kouango Boali
Lo ba
ye
Ma
Carnot
ka
am
uh
dé
Sibut
Baoro
to ot
A
O
Bozoum
Bouar
Batangafo Kaga Bandoro u a O Mbrès Bouca Bakala Dékoa
D
i
ngo u Bou
gu
Mont Kayagangiri en P 1420m Bossangoa
B ou mb é I I
C A N M E R O O
Markounda
a
Ndélé
ES Ouanda Djallé FD
K ott o
mi n Ba
C
over 10 000 under 10 000
The French colony of Ubangi-Chari gained autonomy as the CAR in 1958.
N
U
H
Bo m
u
NGO
†
Sustainability rank: 43rd
†
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 3 daily newspapers, E Le Songo, Le Citoyen, and Le Novateur
WEAKNESSES Instability. Landlocked. Government mismanagement. Poor infrastructure. Shortage of trained workers.
1 state-owned service
France 3% Portugal 3%
Italy 4% Spain 7% Other 12%
Belgium 71% IMPORTS
Germany 4% Dem. Rep. of Congo 3%
Cameroon 5% USA 5%
RESOURCES
4168 prisoners
†
/
Crime is rising
Human rights abuses were rampant during the Bokassa years and are again on the rise. While Bangui retains a fragile calm, rural areas are virtually lawless. Roaming militias made up of demobilized Chadian fighters who backed Gen. Bozizé in 2003 are blamed for much of the increase in crime.
†
School leaving age: 14
Schooling, on the French model, is compulsory, but in practice is only received by 55% of 6–14-year-olds.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Communicable and parasitic diseases, malnutrition, AIDS
1 per 25,000 people
The health system has all but collapsed. Much of the population now relies on traditional medicine.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
2 per 1000 population
Defense 2.1% Education 1.9% Health 2.3% 0
Death penalty not used in practice
C
6323 students
1 per 1000 population
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
There is a small political–military elite in the CAR, which came into being only in postcolonial days. For its members, Paris is the chosen destination and source of style.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
France 30%
Other 53%
49%
The three weeklies and three daily newspapers have only limited circulation. A small opposition press has developed with multipartyism, but is inhibited by lack of resources.
CRIME
EXPORTS
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
†
EDUCATION
TV ownership low
STRENGTHS Self-sufficiency in food. Some diversity of export earnings (diamonds, cotton, timber, iron, coffee). Transit zone in central Africa.
1960 Independence under David Dacko; one-party state. 1965 Coup by Jean-Bédel Bokassa. 1977 Bokassa crowned “emperor.” 1979 French help reinstate Dacko. 1981 Gen. Kolingba ousts Dacko. 1993 Democracy restored. AngeFélix Patassé president. 1996–1997 Army rebellion. 2001–2003 Further mutinies. 2003 Gen. Bozizé leads coup.
0.1 tonnes per capita
Hunting elephants was banned in 1985, as numbers had fallen by 84% in a decade. The government empowered private antipoaching militias in 2002 to tackle the trade in bushmeat.
MEDIA
CHRONOLOGY
200 miles
N BO
B
over 50 000
0
G
A ahr Ao uk
K
over 500 000
200 km
S
Total Area : 622 984 sq. km (240 534 sq. miles)
POPULATION
0
Birao
D
Chinko
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
100th
Electric power 43,000 kW
15,125 tonnes
Not an oil producer and has no refineries
3.35m cattle, 2.92m goats, 771,000 pigs, 4.58m chickens
Diamonds, gold, uranium, iron, copper, manganese
150th
193rd
172 $250
181 42 years
Very little of the country’s territory has been explored, and there is great potential for hidden resources.
Baskets of cotton, Meme village. Cotton is one of the Central African Republic’s most significant export crops.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
171 49%
180
169
115 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
179
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHAD
CENTRAL AFRICA Libya
Sudan Nigeria
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Chad CAPITAL: N’Djamena POPULATION: 8.6 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Arabic and French 1960
1960
Aug 11
TCH
+1
L
ANDLOCKED IN NORTH central Africa, Chad has had a turbulent history since independence from France in 1960. Intermittent periods of civil war, involving French and Libyan troops, followed a coup in 1975. Another coup in 1990 preceded a transition to multipartyism, enshrined in a new constitution. The tropical, cotton-producing south is the most populous region. The discovery of large oil reserves could potentially have a dramatic impact on the economy.
60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
There are three distinct zones: the tropical south, the central semiarid Sahelian belt, and the desert north.
N’Djamena International 16,861 passengers
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low 7/km2 (18/mi2)
French, Sara, Arabic, Maba
Drive on right
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Has no fleet
25%
75%
Christian 10%
D E N N E
over 500 000
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
over 10 000 under 10 000
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft 100m/328ft
N 200 km
Pala
200 miles
D
DU
IF
za l
U
Melfi ari
Kélo
ig
Laï
Bénoy
Moundou
N
0
N
G Léré
O
0
Fianga
Ch
Bongor
u
over 50 000
3000m/9843ft
Abou-Déïa
Massenya g Er
over 100 000
Mangalmé
Mongo
N’DJAMENA
IA
O C A M E R
Tourism is virtually nonexistent due to poverty and years of war. Among potential attractions are national parks and game reserves, prehistoric rock painting in the Tibesti plateau, and the Muslim cities of the Sahara.
Abéché Ati Bath a
R
LAND HEIGHT
POPULATION
SS
Am Timan
at m
Ké
Kyabé
Koumra Doba Goré
Sarh
CENTRAL
HarazeMangueigne
it a
Aou
k
Maro
Moïssala
Baïbokoum
AFR
Goz-Beïda
m ou Az
S
% of total arrivals
E
MA
IC
IC
40
Biltine
Moussoro
Logone
30
Mao Bol
G
Total Area : 1 284 000 sq. km (495 752 sq. miles)
Other 28%
Nokou
Lake Chad
NI
CHAD
USA 15%
I
A
AB
D ERG DU Koro Toro
la
Africa 23%
180
I DÉPRESSION DE MOURD
Fada
R JOU
ERDI MA
A
R
Faya
el G ha
France 34%
20
A
KA
Down 43% in 2002
H
K AP
.
About half the population, mainly the Sara-speaking and related peoples, is concentrated in the south in one-fifth of the national territory. Most of the rest are located in the central sultanates. The northern third of Chad has a population of only 100,000 people, mainly nomadic Muslim Toubou.
A
I
Visitors : Population 1:269
Ounianga Kébir
S
N
†
Emi Koussi 3415m
E
Traditional beliefs 35%
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
A
Zouar
Chad has a limited transportation infrastructure. The nearest rail links are in Nigeria and Cameroon.
0
Y Kamai
T I B E S T I
2000 km (1243 miles)
32,000 visitors
Aozou
Bardaï
R
Muslim 55%
TOURISM
B
MASSIF D'ABO
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
None
None
15% Others
I
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 334 km (208 miles)
7% RDP
Idriss Déby overthrew President Hissène Habré in 1990 after an armed invasion from Sudan. He promised multipartyism, and in 1992 – for the first time since the early 1960s – political parties were legalized. A referendum in 1996 approved a new constitution based on the French model. President Déby was confirmed in office in elections in 1996 and again in 2001. In 2004, amid an opposition boycott, Déby and his ruling MPS amended the constitution to allow him to run again in 2006. Critics suggest that the discovery of oil may have influenced Déby’s decision. A peace deal with northern rebels was struck in 2003. L
Watering hole at Oum Hadjer, a village on the Batha watercourse in central Chad, 145 km (90 miles) east of Ati.
0
†
6% FAR
MPS = Patriotic Salvation Movement RDP = Rally for Democracy and Progress FAR = Front of Action Forces for the Republic
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
TRANSPORTATION
AT THE LAST ELECTION
72% MPS
Hot desert/steppe/ tropical
0/32
President Idriss Déby
National Assembly 155 seats
WEATHER CHART FOR N’DJAMENA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Multiparty elections
2002/2006
Sa
†
†
POLITICS
.td
+235
Ouh am
C
CLIMATE
Africa
Niger CHAD
RE
AN
PU
B
L
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHAD
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CILSS
FZ
Joined UN in 1960
AU
LCBC
OIC
Chad’s most important relationship is with France. Relations with Sudan are strained by cross-border skirmishes.
†
AID
Recipient
$233m (receipts)
/
Up 25% in 2002
In return for financial support for the new oil pipeline, Chad has entered into a partnership agreement with the World Bank under which the vast majority of oil revenue is kept in a trust and must be spent on development.
DEFENSE $14m
†
/
Compulsory military service Up 8% in 2002
On seizing power, Déby swelled the existing army with irregulars, a policy now reversed and the army reduced to 25,000, including former rebels. Chadian forces are fighting Islamist militant groups with US backing.
ECONOMICS $1.78bn
†
Inflation 6.7% p.a. (1990–2001) 539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................141st GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$210 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$660m INFLATION .........................................5.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ........Widespread underemployment
STRENGTHS Discovery of large oil deposits and Chad–Cameroon pipeline could transform economy. Cotton industry; potential for other agriculture in south. Strategic trading location in heart of Africa. Natron and uranium deposits.
84,000 tonnes 6.27m cattle, 5.59m goats, 2.51m sheep, 5m chickens
Natron, uranium, oil, kaolin, soda, rock salt
The opening in 2003 of a pipeline to take oil from newly found reserves in the southern Doba region to the coast of Cameroon has made Chad a net oil exporter. Natron, a type of salt, is the only other resource currently exploited. There is uranium in the Aozou strip.
ENVIRONMENT
.
9% (8.6% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Nigeria 6%
France 6% USA 8%
Other 35%
USA 31%
France 31%
Other 25%
1960 Independence. One-party state. 1973–1994 Libyans occupy uranium-rich Aozou strip. 1975 Coup by Gen. Félix Malloum. 1979–1982 North–south civil war. 1980 Goukouni Oueddei in power. 1982 Hissène Habré (northerner) defeats Oueddei. 1990 Idriss Déby overthrows Habré, who flees to Senegal. 1996 National cease-fire; new constitution. 1997 Déby’s MPS wins elections. 1999 Rebellion breaks out in north. 2001 Déby reelected. 2002 MPS increases its majority. 2003 Oil production begins.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Diarrheal, parasitic, and communicable diseases
There are a few city hospitals and over 300 smaller health centers. One in five children die before the age of five.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
8 services: 1 state-controlled, 7 independent
2 per 1000 population
2 per 1000 population
Defense 0.8%
Broadcasting is controlled by the government, which sometimes allows the airing of opposition views. There are a few independent publications, of which the best known is the weekly N’Djamena-Hebdo.
CRIME
†
Death penalty in use
/
Crime is rising
The judicial system is corrupt and controlled by the president. The easy availability of weapons for the past two decades has meant that local disputes often now lead to gun battles. Armed robbery, smuggling, and vandalism are widespread. Crime has worsened markedly in towns near the oil fields.
46%
Nigeria 5%
France extended its domination of the area now known as Chad after ousting the last Arab ruler in 1900.
TV ownership low
1 state-controlled service
Portugal 30% Germany 5%
CHRONOLOGY
1 per 33,333 people
There are 2 daily newspapers, Info-Tchad, a bulletin produced by the government news agency, and Le Progrès
EDUCATION
Cameroon 3%
0.02 tonnes per capita
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Germany 15%
IMPORTS
Sustainability rank: 96th
Daily newspaper circulation 0.2 per 1000 people
3883 prisoners
EXPORTS
†
President Déby’s government has made protection of the environment a priority, with antidesertification measures such as tree-planting campaigns and aid-funded irrigation schemes. There is concern that environmental damage may result from oil production and from the Chad–Cameroon oil pipeline.
WEAKNESSES Underdevelopment and poverty. Lack of transportation infrastructure. Political instability. Frequent droughts.
Electric power 29,000 kW
225,000 b/d (reserves 1bn barrels)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
†
Education 2.5% Health 2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Poverty is almost universal in Chad; the middle class is very small. There are few wealthy individuals. It remains to be seen whether new income from oil will affect most people’s daily lives.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
School leaving age: 11
5901 students
All schools are underfunded and suffer from a lack of trained teachers. Chad has the lowest ratio of female enrollment in schools in Africa. Overall, only 55% of children attend classes and barely a third of them are girls.
150th
193rd
162 180 $210
48 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
174 46%
167 181 117 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
181
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
C HILE
SOUTH AMERICA Bolivia
South America
Paraguay
CHILE
Uruguay Argentina
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Chile CAPITAL: Santiago POPULATION: 15.8 million CURRENCY: Chilean peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish
C
1818
1883
Sept 18
RCH
-4
.cl
+56
C
HILE EXTENDS IN A narrow ribbon 4350 km (2700 miles) down the Pacific coast of South America. Its extraordinary shape means that its physical geography ranges from the deserts of the High Andes in the north to fertile valleys in the center, while in the south are the fjords, lakes, and deep sea channels of the Southern Andes. In 1989, Chile returned to elected civilian rule, following a popular rejection of the Pinochet dictatorship. A collapse in copper prices, coupled with weaker export markets, has interrupted the high economic growth seen in the 1990s.
CLIMATE
†
Desert/mountain/ maritime
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:9.9
1.6m visitors
/
Up 13% in 2003
WEATHER CHART FOR SANTIAGO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
Argentina 36%
20/68
20/8
Peru 11%
10/50
10/4
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low 21/km2 (55/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
86%
USA 9%
14%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Ricardo Lagos was narrowly elected president in 2000.
Spanish, Amerindian languages
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
General Pinochet, a dictatorial president rejected by popular referendum in 1988.
Bolivia 8%
-10/14
Other and nonreligious 20%
Brazil 6%
-20/-4
Other 30%
Chile has an immensely varied climate. The north, which includes the world’s driest desert, the Atacama, is frequently cloudy and cool for its latitude. The central regions have an almost Mediterranean climate, with changeable winters and hot, dry summers. The higher reaches of the Andes have a typically alpine climate, with glaciers and year-round snow. The south is the wettest region.
TRANSPORTATION Comodoro Arturo Merino Benítez, Santiago 5.75m passengers
†
Drive on right
525 ships 879,600 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 15,921 km (9893 miles)
Pan-American Highway, 3455 km (2147 miles)
6958 km (4323 miles)
725 km (450 miles)
Chile’s shape dictates a north–south perspective for transportation links. Roads are the most important arteries; rail services have been largely neglected in recent decades. Chile has been given strong regional and international links by the 1999 open skies agreement with the US, its first with a South American country. Wellused routes servicing Santiago are a priority for upgrading. The IDB is partfunding a six-year Urban Transit Plan for the capital, which aims to improve services and cut pollution by 2006.
182
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
The Pinochet years saw a dramatic decline in tourists from the US and Europe, though the numbers from neighboring countries held up. Since 1989, visitors have returned, but over half of them still come from South America, mainly Argentina. Chile’s attractions include its stunning Andean scenery, its immensely long coastline, and a number of exceptional sites, such as Chuquicamata, the world’s largest copper mine, the Elqui Valley winegrowing region, and the spectacular glaciers and fjords of the south. Many tourists are specifically drawn to the wide range of adventure sports available. Easter Island in the Pacific, with its mysterious, massive stone statues, is another major attraction.
Roman Catholic 80% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Amerindian 10%
Mixed race and European 90%
One-third of the population live in Santiago, where there are large slums. Most people are of mixed Spanish– Amerindian descent; Chile has relatively few immigrants. There are some 80,000 Mapuche Amerindians around Temuco in the south, 20,000 Aymara in the High Andes, and 2000 Rapa Nui on Easter Island. Ethnic issues highlighted by a Commission for Historic Truth, set up in 2000, have yet to be addressed. Over 25% of working women are employed in domestic service. Divorce was legalized in 2004. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.8% 4.8% 10.2% 16.3% 18.4%
Peaks in the Paine range, southern Chile. Fjords, glaciers, and myriad islands typify Chile’s very wet, wild, and stormy south.
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.4% 3.8% 9.8% 16.4% 19.1%
% of population by age group
R
O
PE Arica
San Juan Bautista
I. Alejandro Selkirk
I. Robinson Crusoe 0
Iquique
100 km 100 miles
Atacam a
0
Terevaka Hanga Roa
L. House 2001/2005 U. House 2001/2005 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Chuquicamata Calama
10 miles
47% APC
52% CPD
1% Ind
CPD = Concertación – Coalition of Parties for Democracy (Christian Democratic Party–PDC, Party for Democracy–PPD, and Socialist Party of Chile–PS) APC = Alliance for Chile (Independent Democratic Union–UDI and National Renewal Party–RN) Ind = Independents App = Appointed SL = Senator-for-Life
D
Desert
10 km
0
President Ricardo Lagos Escobar
Chamber of Deputies 118 seats
Antofagasta 0
Multiparty elections
N
Easter I.
†
POLITICS
A V I L I
A
Juan Fernández Is
A
13% UDI
Senate 48 seats
Chañaral
6% PPD
Nevado Ojos
Copiapó del Salado 6880m
E
P
25% PDC
Vallenar
E l q ui
18% App
13% 13% RN Ind
10% PS
2% SL
There are 38 elected members and nine appointed senators. Former president Frei is a senator-for-life
R
A
La Serena Coquimbo
After 16 years of military rule under Gen. Augusto Pinochet, Chile returned to multiparty democracy in 1989.
Ovalle
S Illapel
C
PROFILE
G
Quilpué
Llolleo
San Bernardo
I
Chilean politics is still strongly affected by the legacy of the military dictatorship of 1973–1989, which began when Pinochet’s coup overthrew the elected Marxist government of Salvador Allende. The CIA backed the Pinochet coup, anxious to halt Allende’s program of nationalization of the largely US-owned copper mines. As a result, thousands of Chileans were killed by the military or “disappeared,” and a further 80,000 were taken as political prisoners. Pinochet’s nationalist politics drew on the example of Franco’s Spain, while his economic policy was one of the first experiments in the free-market Chicago School of monetarism. Chile’s business and middle classes prospered, while opposition, which was brutally suppressed by the DINA secret police, came most visibly from the Church and the urban poor. In 1988 Pinochet, attempting to secure a popular mandate for continuing his regime, was surprised when the population emphatically voted for democracy. Patricio Aylwin won presidential elections held in 1989, heading Concertación, a center-left coalition. Pinochet stepped down, but remained head of the army. Under Aylwin, politics became more stable, partly as a result of a cross-party consensus on economic policy. Continued growth and some progressive social measures attracted the support of the trade unions. These policies were continued under Eduardo Frei of the PS, who was elected president in 1993. When Pinochet retired as army chief in 1998, heated disagreements over his entry to the Senate as a senator-for-life
Los Andes
Viña del Mar Valparaíso
Curicó
SANTIAGO Puente Alto Rancagua Rengo
Talca
F
San Javier de Loncomilla
Linares Parral San Carlos
E
Talcahuano Concepción
Chillán Los Ángeles
CHILE
Bí
I
Mulchén
o
Traiguén
Victoria Lautaro
Temuco
Total Area : 756 950 sq. km (292 258 sq. miles)
POPULATION
N
C
Valdivia
A
o Bí
Curanilahue
La Union
N
over 1 000 000 over 100 000
Puerto Varas
over 50 000
Puerto Montt Isla de Chiloé
over 10 000
Castro
under 10 000
T
D
LAND HEIGHT
O
4000m/13124ft 2000m/6562ft Puerto Aisén
Coihaique
1000m/3281ft 200m/656ft
Chile Chico
Sea Level
E
C
Lago General Carrera
I N
E Isla Wellington
0
300 km
S 300 miles
N
A
0 Cerro Paine
ra
it
ge
l lan
Porvenir
of
N
St
Ma
Puerto Natales
Punta Arenas
A I. Picton I. Nueva I. Lennox
Beag le Channel
ake
Pass
pe Ca rn Ho
Dr
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHILE
B
U
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
ag
split Concertación along broadly left and right lines. Disagreements over Pinochet’s subsequent arrest and detention in Europe on human rights charges further complicated the picture. Judged too ill to face trial, however, he resigned from the Senate in 2002. Ricardo Lagos of the PS emerged as front-runner for the 1999 presidential elections, in which both the PS and the PDC presented themselves as the guarantors of peace and democracy. Right-wing opposition parties, however, also began to downplay their past links with Pinochet to broaden their electoral appeal. Lagos narrowly won a run-off poll in 2000. Facing a better organized opposition than hitherto, the ruling center-left Concertación performed reasonably well in the 2001 elections retaining its majority in the Chamber of Deputies but losing it in the Senate.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Future of the ruling alliance Corruption scandals involving officials of all the member parties of the ruling Concertación coalition have threatened to cause its dissolution or renegotiation. Despite bills on probity, transparency, and modernization promoted by the government of the still popular President Lagos, observers have suggested that Concertación has outlived its political usefulness now that democracy is maturing. A new understanding between the PDC and PS is one possible outcome, and fragmentation into right, center, and left parties, as before, is another. Reform of the military The resignation in 2002 of Gen. Patricio Ríos, the air force commander accused of covering up human rights abuses committed by some of his senior officers during military rule in the 1970s and 1980s, enhanced presidential authority and refocused attention on the efforts to reform the 1980 constitution drafted by the military.
CHRONOLOGY Spanish conquistadores were repelled by the fierce indigenous Araucanian people in 1536. Conquest began in 1540, and Santiago was founded in 1541. Chile was under Spanish rule until independence in 1818. 1817–1818 Bernardo O’Higgins leads republican Army of the Andes in victories against royalist forces. 1879–1883 War of the Pacific with Bolivia and Peru. Chile gains valuable nitrate regions. 1891–1924 Parliamentary republic ends with growing political chaos.
e
183
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
C
APEC
G15
NAM
OAS
Joined UN in 1945
RG
AID
†
No net receipts
Recipient
.
Loan repayments exceeded aid received in 2002
Foreign aid is small-scale and mostly from Japan and Germany. Projects focus on economic infrastructure.
184
Down 9% in 2002
CHILEAN ARMED FORCES 260 main battle tanks (200 Leopard 1, 60 AMX-30)
47,700 personnel
2 submarines, 3 destroyers, 3 frigates, and 27 patrol boats
19,000 personnel
79 combat aircraft (19 F-5, 34 Mirage, 14 A-37B, 12 A-36)
10,600 personnel
None
Most of the officers linked to human rights abuses under the 1973–1989
ECONOMICS $66.3bn
†
dictatorship are now retired, but dozens still face investigation and possible trial. The army now has a moderate chief, and in 2002, for the first time, a woman and a member of the PS – Michelle Bachelet – was appointed defense minister. The defense budget is supplemented by around $200 million each year from the copper industry under a rule from the era of military government. Despite pressure from the army high command, the government is prioritizing modernization of the air force and navy, though purchase of F-16 fighter aircraft has been held up by financing problems. The deal has also provoked concerns over the pressing need for greater social spending.
Inflation 7.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
636.3 Chilean pesos (700.8)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................43rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$4250 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$553m INFLATION ...........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT.......................................8% EXPORTS
Italy 5%
During the Allende period in the early 1970s, the US actively worked against the government, fearing that the spread of socialism would jeopardize its investments in Latin America. The subsequent Pinochet regime’s human rights record eventually became an embarrassment. In 1999, in response to Pinochet’s detention in the UK and planned extradition to Spain to stand trial on human rights charges, Chile argued that this amounted to an infringement of its sovereignty. Relations with Spain and the UK improved in 2000 following Pinochet’s return to Chile. A nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council in 2003, Chile expressed reservations over war in Iraq and came under strong diplomatic pressure from the US and UK governments before efforts to gain a second UN resolution authorizing action ceased. An associate member of Mercosur, Chile has free trade agreements with the EU, South Korea, and the US – its chief export market. Border disputes with Bolivia and Peru are ongoing.
.
Other 53%
Mexico 5% China 7% Japan 11%
USA 19% IMPORTS
Germany 4%
Other 48%
China 6% Brazil 9% USA 15%
Argentina 18%
STRENGTHS World’s largest copper producer. Fresh fruit exports. Strong investment inflows allowing steady economic growth. Highest level of credit rating due to fiscal and monetary stability and highly liquid financial system. Development of nontraditional industries such as wine and fresh and prepared fish.
WEAKNESSES Vulnerability of copper revenues (representing 30% of exports) and oil imports (94% of fuel consumed) to world price fluctuations. Dependence on US as single largest trading partner. Vulnerable peso.
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
†
$2.56bn
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
1936–1946 Communist, Radical, and Socialist parties form influential Popular Front coalition. 1943 Chile backs US in World War II. 1946–1964 Right-wing Chilean presidents follow US McCarthy policy and marginalize the left. 1970 Salvador Allende elected president. Socialist reforms provoke strong reaction from the right. 1973 Allende killed in army coup. Brutal dictatorship of Gen. Pinochet begins. 1988 Referendum votes “no” to Pinochet staying in power. 1989 Democracy peacefully restored; Pinochet steps down after Aylwin election victory. 1998 Pinochet detained in UK pending extradition to Spain on human rights charges. 2000 Ricardo Lagos (PS) sworn in as president. Pinochet, deemed unfit to face trial, returns to Chile, where charges are suspended in 2001.
WORLD AFFAIRS
†
DEFENSE
CHRONOLOGY continued
2002
sector. Pinochet introduced radical monetarist policies. The selling-off of state enterprises at below market value led to large profits for investors and speculators. Tough economic measures, irrespective of the social consequences, Iquique brought Chile’s inflation rate down from 400%. Chuquicamata The Aylwin and Frei governments continued with neoliberal policies, including privatizing the pension system. However, some 30 companies, Vina del Mar including the large Codelco copper company, Santiago remain in the state sector. Avoiding the worst of the Argentine crisis, Teniente domestic activity rose in 2003, but oil and Talcahuano copper prices remained a worry. Concepción CHILE : MAJOR BUSINESSES Oil Oil refining Copper mining
Punta Arenas
Manufacturing
PROFILE
Pharmaceuticals
Competing ideologies have battled over Chile’s economy. Allende’s socialism brought huge corporations into the state
Heavy engineering
Straits of Magellan
Fish processing
0
Agribusiness
0
300 km 300 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHILE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 8.7m kW
4.36m tonnes
5414 b/d (reserves 289m barrels)
18.5m turkeys, 4.1m sheep, 3.93m cattle, 80m chickens
Coal, copper, gold, silver, iron, lithium, molybdenum, iodine, natural gas, oil
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 52 daily newspapers, including El Mercurio, Las Ultimas Noticias, and the best-selling La Tercera
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 46% (19bn kWh)
1 state-owned service, many independent services
Combustion 54% (22bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
1 state-owned service, 1046 independent stations
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
A DESERT
CAM ATA
Chile is the world’s largest producer of copper, which accounts for almost 30% of its export revenues. There are important deposits of lithium, molybdenum, and especially of gold. Chile also has reserves of natural gas, oil, and coal, and plenty of hydroelectric potential. In addition, it is a leading producer of fishmeal, and has a flourishing wine industry.
A long-delayed liberalized press law was finally introduced in 2001. Military courts are no longer be able to try journalists, and political authorities can’t use the former special procedures to sue reporters for slander.
†
CRIME
/
Up 12% in 2000
Murders 5
per 100,000 population
12
per 100,000 population
707
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Pasture
The judiciary has been slow to pursue human rights cases from the Pinochet regime, despite the discoveries during the 1990s of mass graves of victims of the DINA (secret police). Mapuche leaders were among the “disappeared.” Levels of child abuse are exceptionally high, though now starting to fall.
Forest Desert High mountain regions Wheat Fruits - cash crop Sheep 300 km 300 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
19% (7% partially protected)
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
81 per 1000 population
230 per 1000 population
Defense 4.1% Education 3.9% Health 3.1% 0
Cropland
0
†
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
CRIME RATES
CHILE : LAND USE
0
Recent growth has meant increased public spending on health, but 2002 saw cuts. The public health service covers 80% of people, but is mostly found in urban areas. There is private care for the rich. Infant mortality has fallen below one-third of the 1980 level of 33 deaths per 1000.
Death penalty not used in practice
33,098 prisoners
Cancers, respiratory, cerebrovascular, and heart diseases
SPENDING
100
80
% of total generation by type
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 909 people
Daily newspaper circulation 98 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
Sustainability rank: 35th
3.9 tonnes per capita
†
EDUCATION 96%
School leaving age: 14
452,177 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Chile’s traditionally large middle class did well under Pinochet and the economic policies of the Chicago School. The wealthiest sections benefited considerably from the sale of state assets at 40–50% of their true market value. Five years into the regime, wealth had become highly concentrated, with just nine economic conglomerates controlling the assets of the top 250 businesses, 82% of banking, and 64% of all financial loans. The regime’s artificially high domestic interest rates enabled those with access to international finance to earn an estimated $800 million between 1977 and 1980, simply by borrowing abroad and lending at home. These groups have retained their position. The poor, by contrast, are over 15% worse off than in 1970, with millions of people living just above the UN poverty line and over 1.3 million below it. Poverty is concentrated among the native Amerindian community.
100
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Environmental concerns do not rank high on the political agenda. Severe smogs still cover Santiago, due in part to diesel fumes from the city’s tens of thousands of buses. The chief concern is logging in the south by Japanese and other foreign companies. The huge growth of the salmon industry, which fences off sea lakes, is resulting in dolphins losing their natural habitats. Overfishing of swordfish by the EU has led to friction, particularly with Spain.
% of each age group in education
Yes
WORLD RANKING 80
Position in World 1st
60
100% 85%
40
50th
20
38
37% 100th
0
56 $4250
Primary
Secondary
76 years
Tertiary
46 72
43
10 deaths
96% 150th
Economic growth has permitted public spending on education to increase substantially, but the sector suffers from budgetary cuts. Free primary education is officially compulsory for eight years. Human rights issues now appear in school curricula.
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
185
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHINA
Asia
ASIA Russian Fed. Kazakhstan Mongolia
Japan C HINA
India OFFICIAL NAME: People’s Republic of China CAPITAL: Beijing POPULATION: 1.3 billion CURRENCY: Renminbi (known as yuan) OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Mandarin
C
960
1999
Oct 1
VRC
+8
.cn
+86
C
OVERING A VAST AREA of eastern Asia and home to one-fifth of the world’s population, China is bordered by 14 countries. Two-thirds of China is uplands: the southwestern mountains include the Tibetan Plateau; in the northwest, the Tien Shan Mountains separate the Tarim and Dzungarian basins. Twothirds of the population live in the low-lying east. China was dominated by Chairman Mao Zedong from the founding in 1949 of the Communist People’s Republic until his death in 1976. Despite the major disasters of the 1950s Great Leap Forward and the 1960s Cultural Revolution, it became an industrial and nuclear power. Today, China is rapidly developing a market-oriented economy. The current leadership remains set on achieving this without political liberalization, instead enforcing single-party rule as was advocated by “elder statesman” Deng Xiaoping, who died in 1997.
†
Mountain/tropical/ continental/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR BEIJING
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
K
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
A
Ürümqi
S H A N
Hami
He im Tar
G
Korla
X IN JIAN G
UY GHUR
Lop Nur
Z IZ HIQU
T AJIK IST AN
Ruoqiang TAKLIMAKAN SHAMO
AFGHANISTAN
PAK
O
Karamay
E N T I
Kashi
IS
Hotan
TA
K2 8611m
N
K
U
A k sa i Chin
A
N
L
L
T
U
QI LI AN
A
H
S
N
U
Yumen
A N S H
N
N
Golmud
Q
N
Q I N G - Z A N G
D
G A O Y U A N H
I A
TA
X
I
Z
A
N
I
(
G T
Z I
B
I E
Z H T )
I
U
NG
GU
LA
N
SH
S al w e
N
NY
A
E
L
P
G
H
A
AN
en
QÊNTANGLHA SHAN Lhasa Baxoi
A
Y
E
N AN SH AN U D Mekong
INDIA B H U T A N
H
S I N D I A
LAND HEIGHT
POPULATION over 1 000 000
6000m/19686ft 4000m/13124ft
over 500 000
3000m/9843ft
over 100 000
2000m/6562ft
over 50 000
1000m/3281ft
over 10 000
500m/1640ft
Great Wall of China
200m/656ft
N
R M B U N ( M Y A
over 5 000 000
A
0
400 km
Baoshan
Y U
M
R
)
A
Sea Level -200m/650ft
I
G
L
AIN
put r a Mount Everest 8850m
A
A
CHINA Total Area : 9 596 960 sq. km (3 705 386 sq. miles)
Q
I
Nagqu
M Brah ma
SH AN Qinghai Hu
I
China is divided into two main climatic regions. The north and west are semiarid or arid, with extreme temperature variations. The south and east are warmer and more humid, with year-round rainfall. Winter temperatures vary with latitude and are warmest on the subtropical southeast coast, where they average about 16˚C (60˚F). Summer temperatures are more uniform, rising above 21˚C (70˚F) throughout China; on the southeast coast, the July average is about 30˚C (86˚F). In the north and west, temperate summers contrast with harsh winters. In northern Manchuria, rivers freeze for five months and temperatures can fall to –25˚C (–13˚F). In the deserts of Xinjiang province, temperatures range from –11˚C (12˚F) in winter to 33˚C (91˚F) in summer. Summer and autumn are China’s wettest seasons. Winds from the Pacific during the summer monsoon bring rains to most of the country. The south and east also have wet winters, but elsewhere the winter monsoon brings cold, dry air from Siberia. Floods are frequent and sometimes catastrophic, as in 1998. Droughts can be even more devastating: that of 1959–1961 contributed to a famine which killed millions.
K
A
Altay
N
0
-20/-4
Z
H
N
A
T
S
Yining
N TA ZS Y G KY R
-10/14
186
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
M
CLIMATE
Li River (Xi Jiang), Guangxi, China’s most beautiful region. Its spectacular scenery has encouraged large-scale tourist development.
0
400 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
TOURISM
.
33m visitors
Visitors : Population 1:40
TRANSPORTATION into Tibet, though access to Xinjiang in western China, and other areas, is sometimes impossible. The Forbidden City and Tiananmen Square in Beijing, the modern splendor of Shanghai and Hong Kong, the Great Wall, and the terracotta warriors at Xi’an remain among the top attractions. The number of Chinese able to travel abroad now exceeds ten million.
Down 10% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Japan 22% South Korea 16% Russia 9% USA 8%
Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong 26.8m passengers
†
Drive on right
3326 ships 17.3m gr t
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1.23m km (764,309 miles)
16,314 km (10,137 miles)
59,530 km (36,990 miles)
110,000 km (68,351 miles)
C
Road and railroad networks are being modernized and expanded to support the push for economic growth. The FE 0 50 40 10 20 30 60 planned 36-km (23-mile) Hangzhou Bay D % of total arrivals E bridge, which will be the world’s longest R A sea bridge, will slash transit times T The easing of restrictions between Ningbo and Shanghai when it is I Heihe since the 1980s led to the completed in 2009. The world’s first G rapid growth of all kinds commercial maglev (magnetic A N r Manzhouli u of tourism, from luxury train) route was opened in m L IN tours to budget packages Shanghai in 2002. Plans have been G Hulun Nur and backpacking. Most announced to connect the Tibetan Jiamusi of China is now open capital, Lhasa, to the railroad HE ILON GJIAN G Qiqihar to visitors, and system by extending the track A M A N C H U R I A Jixi tourists are from Golmud. If and when it is Harbin L. Khanka Baicheng allowed completed, it will be one of the I Mudanjiang world’s highest railroads. L Xilinhot Changchun Container shipping is growing O G Jilin fast. Shanghai handled one-third of U J I L I N Siping Q all Chinese container traffic before I SEA OF Shenyang the reversion of Hong Kong (which I H Tonghua B JAPAN Z Fushun is the world’s biggest container O I ( E A S T S E A ) port) to Chinese rule in 1997. The Z Fuxin L I A O N I N G Benxi H L T Anshan O inland waterway system, which R Hohhot Jinzhou Zhangjiakou NO N G Baotou M O was hitherto in a state of disrepair, is Dandong N E I Huan g He Korea being upgraded and now handles a BEIJING Bay Tangshan large share of internal freight. The (PEKING) Dalian Datong Liaodong B o Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) is navigable Baoding Tianjin Bandao Ha i by ships of over 1000 tonnes for more Shijiazhuang H E B E I Yantai Yinchuan Shandong than 1000 km (620 miles) from the coast. Bandao Taiyuan Zibo This capacity is planned to increase NINGXIA Weifang Jinan S H A N X I under the Three Gorges Dam project. Handan He Qingdao Y E L L O W ng SHANDONG Nine small airlines were consolidated Xining ua Lanzhou H SEA into three carriers in 2002. Hong Kong’s Luoyang Liangyungang Kaifeng new airport opened in 1999. Restrictions Xuzhou Baoji Zhengzhou Xi’an on direct flights between the US and G A N S U Hongze Hu H E N A N China were lifted in 2004. Air travel JIANGSU Bengbu Nanyang S HA A NX I is growing rapidly, like car ownership, Huainan Nanjing as individual wealth increases, but Wuxi Xinyang Guangyuan ANHUI Suzhou outside cities bicycles still form the main Tai Hu Hefei Shanghai Wuhu mode of personal transportation. S I C H U A N Malaysia 4%
R U S SI A N
Other 41%
XI
H
NG GAN L ING
AO
C hang
n Ji a
E
I
Hangzhou Ningbo
(Y
Dongting Hu
Poyang Hu
g
Z HE J IAN G
Nanchang Wenzhou
Changsha
Xiangtan
J I A N G X I U
N
A
N
Fuzhou
Hengyang
an
St
Quanzhou
G U I Z H O U Kunming
Xi Jian g Wuzhou
Liuzhou
G
U
A
N
G
X
I
GUANGDONG
Shantou
Guangzhou Macao (Aomen)
VIETNAM
Zhanjiang Leizhou Bandao
Gulf of Tongking
Haikou
HAINAN
Hong Kong (Xianggang)
H H C SOUT
Hainan Dao
T AIW AN
A
Nanning
Taiw
Shaoguan
N N A N
ra
FUJIAN
Panzhihua
L AOS
it
H
Guiyang
C H I N A
B
A S T
Chongqing
Zigong
U
E
H
C an han gt g J ze ia Ki ng an g)
S E A
K
O
RE
A
D
A
HI
A
Sun
g a ri
N
G
O
IN
Wuhan
Shashi Chengdu
IN
A
S
E
Li River (Xi Jiang) valley. Irrigation helps Chinese farmers to feed 20% of the world’s people, using only 7% of the world’s farmland.
187
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 140/km2 (362/mi2)
Mandarin, Wu, Cantonese, Hsiang, Min, Hakka, Kan THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
POLITICS 2003/2008
†
No multipar ty elections
President Hu Jintao
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National People's Congress 2979 seats
C 38%
62%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 2%
Buddhist 6% Other 13% Traditional beliefs 20%
Nonreligious 59% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Hui 1%
Zhuang 1% Other 6%
Han 92%
The Communist Party of China (CCP) is the only permitted party
China is a single-party state, dominated by the CCP, the world’s largest political party. The National People’s Congress, indirectly elected every five years, is theoretically the supreme organ of state power. It appoints the president and executive State Council, headed by the prime minister. The real focus of power, however, is the 22-member Politburo of the CCP and, in particular, its Standing Committee of seven.
PROFILE
The vast majority of China’s population is Han Chinese. The rest belong to one of 55 minority nationalities, or recognized ethnic groups. The minorities have disproportionate political significance because many, like the Mongolians, Tibetans, or Muslim Uyghurs, live in strategic border areas. The policy of resettling Han in these regions is bitterly resented. The 16 million Zhuang people, centered on the southeastern Guanxi Zhuang autonomous region form the largest single ethnic minority. There are more Mongolians in China than in Mongolia itself, though any thought of reuniting the populations has long been abandoned. A one-child policy was adopted in 1979. Most Han Chinese still face strict family-planning controls, though these are widely flouted. Cases of female infanticide have produced a serious demographic imbalance, and rules were relaxed for minorities after some small groups came near to extinction. Chinese society is patriarchal in practice, and generations tend to live together. However, economic change is putting pressure on family life, breaking down the social controls of the Mao era. Divorce and unemployment are rising; materialism has replaced the puritanism of the past. The Falun Gong spiritual movement, perceived as a rival to CCP authority, was banned in 1999.
The death in 1997 of Deng Xiaoping marked the passing of the dominance of the “Immortals” – those who took part with Mao in the 1934–1935 Long March. Deng, the architect of China’s economic reforms, had worked hard behind the scenes forming alliances to promote his ideas and followers. His successor Jiang Zemin consolidated his position as president and CCP general secretary after Deng’s death. A “fourth generation” leadership emerged at the 2002 party congress, with the new general secretary Hu Jintao appointed as China’s president in 2003.
Nanjing Donglu (Nanking Road), in central Shanghai, is one of China’s most famous shopping streets. A magnet for foreign investment, Shanghai is China’s largest city.
desire to privatize large areas of staterun industry. The transfer of much of the huge state economic system into private ownership has been a challenge to the CCP monopoly on power. The 22 provinces, particularly those in the southeast, are increasingly acting independently of Beijing. At a popular level, there is growing rural discontent over a widening wealth gap. However, the party has allowed no political opposition to surface.
Economic change and CCP authority After the death of Mao in 1976, China embarked on economic reform, while seeking to secure the dominance of the CCP and avoid political upheaval. The “great helmsman” of this process for two decades was Deng, China’s paramount leader even after he had relinquished all official posts. Advocating a fast-track move to a “socialist market economy,” he looked to South Korea and Taiwan as achieving high growth without political reform. At the 1997 party congress the reformers, led by Jiang, took their opportunity to realign formal party policy with their
Shifting balances in the top leadership The prodemocracy protests of 1989, culminating in the Tiananmen Square massacre, enabled conservatives within the party to gain the upper hand until Deng moved to restore the balance. His own longevity shifted the advantage toward his heir apparent, Jiang, who subsequently strengthened his own power base and international stature. A major overhaul of party ideology in 2001, under Jiang’s “Three Represents” doctrine, encouraged the promotion equally of business, culture, and the rural masses. Jiang and his prime minister Zhu Rongji stood down from the Politburo at the 2002 party congress, handing over to the new generation of leaders, headed by Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao (later premier). Jiang retains considerable influence, but constitutional changes approved in 2004 – including formal guarantees of private property and human rights – underlined Hu’s increasing authority.
Deng Xiaoping was China’s paramount leader until his death in 1997.
Wen Jiabao, premier of the State Council, appointed in 2003.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.6% 4.8% 10.7% 17.6% 14.8%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.4% 4.7% 11.5% 18.5% 16.4%
% of population by age group
188
Jiang Zemin, president until 2003, retains significant influence.
President Hu Jintao represents a “fourth generation” of leaders.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
THE CHINESE WILD WEST
H
ISTORIC CHINA IS CENTERED
around the lowland provinces south of Beijing, mostly inhabited by the country’s largest ethnic group, the Han. The surrounding territory has, nonetheless, stayed for the most part firmly within the Chinese sphere of influence. More contentious is Beijing’s control of the far west. The province of Xizang Zizhiqu (Tibet), often within the Chinese imperial orbit, was brought under direct Communist control under Chairman Mao Zedong following the 1949 revolution. Efforts within both Tibet and neighboring Xinjiang to restore autonomy or independence have been sternly repressed.
The Kumbum dagoba at the Palkhor Tschöde monastery, Gyangze (Chiang-tzu), Tibet. At the tip of this 15th-century structure is a Buddhist chapel.
TIBET Covering 1,221,600 sq. km (472,000 sq. miles) across the “roof of the world,” modern Tibet has China’s lowest population density, at only two inhabitants per sq. km (five per sq. mile). The ancient Buddhist city of Lhasa is its capital. Tibetans were officially recorded as making up 2.41 million of the province’s total population of 2.62 million at the 2000 census. An independent kingdom from the 7th century, Tibet was effectively subjugated by Chinese imperial leaders from 1254. The traditional territory of Tibet extended north and eastward across twice as much land as covered by the modern province. Following the first Chinese revolution in 1911, Tibet briefly enjoyed the status of a fully autonomous state under nominal Chinese control, until Chinese Communist forces invaded in 1950. Though the Chinese government insists that the “peaceful liberation” was warmly welcomed by the Tibetan
people, discontent erupted in a fullscale revolt in 1959. The rebellion, or “National Uprising,” was ruthlessly crushed; between 87,000 and 430,000 people were killed, and the Dalai Lama, spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism, fled to India amid an exodus of refugees. In 1964 Tibet was made an integral part of China, known as Xizang Zizhiqu; opponents of Chinese rule were imprisoned or executed and many Buddhist monasteries were damaged. The Dalai Lama established a government-in-exile based in Dharamsala, and has achieved considerable international support. Seeking a peaceful end to the dispute with China, he has recently come close to accepting Chinese rule – reestablishing direct relations with Beijing in 2002 after a nine-year break – in an effort to win greater real selfgovernment and cultural freedom for the Tibetan people. The Dalai Lama’s insistence on a nonviolent campaign has helped gain backing abroad, but has frustrated many within Tibet. In addition to its use of political violence, China’s control of Tibet has changed the landscape in other ways. Han Chinese colonists have been offered economic incentives to establish businesses in Tibet, drawing thousands to the wild west where the Communist authorities have been keen to “develop” the region with great architectural, infrastructure, and industrial projects. Tibetan activists accuse these developments of scarring the Buddhist face of Tibet and causing serious environmental damage. Culturally, the onslaught has included the official marginalization of Tibetan teaching in favor of secular Communist ideology. Religious practice is allowed to continue, but only under strict central control. Since 1995, the Chinese authorities have detained a young boy recognized by Tibetan Buddhists as the latest incarnation of their secondranking spiritual leader, the Panchen Lama, instead naming their own candidate to this office. Tibetans see this as an unwarranted interference in their religious life.
C
The Dalai Lama, heads a Tibetan government-in-exile from the northern Indian city of Dharamsala where he receives visits from many religious and political pilgrims.
Turkestan.” However, the migration of Han Chinese to the province means that Uyghurs are now in the minority of its population of 19.25 million. Xinjiang Uyghur Zizhiqu, to give the province its full name, has a total area of 1,646,900 sq. km (636,000 sq. miles), or nearly 18% of China’s total land mass. It consists largely of desert, but the regional capital, Urumqi, is an industrial city noted for iron and steel, oil, and chemicals. Divorced from Buddhism since embracing Islam in the 10th century, Uyghurs do not pursue their struggle for separatism under the same pacifist ideology that is dominant in Tibet. The main pro-independence group, the East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), has led a low-level campaign against the Chinese authorities in the province. The Communist government has responded with strict security measures, which were strengthened after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the US, when ETIM activists were designated “terrorists,” allowing the government to pursue a crackdown on the group and its supporters with tacit international approval.
XINJIANG (EAST TURKESTAN) The Muslim Uyghurs are a Turkic people who identify closely with the ethnic groups of neighboring central Asia. Uyghur separatists refer to Xinjiang (once more commonly known in the West as Sinkiang) as East Turkestan, promoting their connection with the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz of “West
Uyghur dancers in traditional dress. The styles closely resemble those of central Asia.
189
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHINA’S REGIONAL DISPARITIES
I
N EARLY 2004, the
Chinese government was praised by the international community for lifting 400 million Chinese out of poverty since liberal economic reforms were begun in 1978. China’s unprecedented economic growth in recent years, however, has failed to catch all the massive population in its net. China’s own
C
0
Nanchang Changsha
300 km
0
300 miles
JIANGXI
H U N A N
Fuzhou
Hengyang
Ganzhou
FUJIAN
Quanzhou Shaoguan GUANGXI
Xiamen
GUANGDONG
Wuzhou
Guangzhou
Xi Jiang
TAIWAN
Shantou
Shenzen
Haikou
A
A
TH
Hong Kong SOU
Zhanjiang
Macao
SE
CH
IN
Zhuhai
HAINAN Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
Special Administrative Regions (SARs)
Poverty Alleviation Office has now admitted an increase in the number of people living in “abject poverty”; 85 million Chinese struggle to survive on less than 637 yuan ($77) a year, or $0.20 a day – one-tenth of the UN’s international poverty rate of $2 a day.
CHINA’S CITIES The reabsorption of the former British colony of Hong Kong into China in 1997 brought one of the world’s most modern and successful capitalist cities into the Communist fold. Pledging to leave the local economy untouched as a special administrative region (SAR), and doing the same with Macao which rejoined China from Portuguese control in 1999, the government confirmed its commitment to striving for a “socialist market economy,” focused on modern, urban-based service industries. Massive domestic, and more recently foreign, investment has helped develop other cities such as Beijing and Shanghai. Life in these thoroughly modern metropolises bears no resemblance to the rural China known by Chairman Mao. Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shanghai were even listed among the 16 most expensive places in which to live in the world by Mercer Human Resource Consulting in 2004. Consumerism and the information revolution have been embraced wholeheartedly, while the outside world drools at the prospect of such
190
an enormous market for its high-tech goods. Mobile phone use has soared, with almost 300 million handsets ringing away, and Internet access has become increasingly popular, despite government efforts to maintain its tight control over information and ideas.
FOREIGN
INVESTMENT
Much of this success is based on foreign direct investment which after a dip in the 1990s reached $52.7 billion in 2002. In that year China overtook the US as the world’s strongest magnet for investment; most is in the coastal cities and the special economic zones (SEZs) around those in the south; 14 cities were picked in the mid-1980s for the dual role of “windows” (opening to the outside world) and “radiators” (spreading the development of an export-oriented economy). Foreign investors in Shanghai’s Pudong New Zone, on the east bank of the Huangpu River, enjoy more preferential conditions than in the SEZs, including the right to sell goods and financial services. Pudong has attracted major foreign companies keen to establish a foothold in the potentially massive Chinese market, including General Motors, NEC, Sharp, Hitachi, Siemens, Unilever, BASF, and Pilkington. Pudong also forms the “dragon head” for a chain of open cities, extending up the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), where foreign investment has been encouraged since 1990. A new set of open cities has been designated since 1992, this time in borderlands adjoining Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Burma, and Vietnam, to develop infrastructure and promote trade and the growth of export-oriented industries.
THE
IMPOVERISHED INTERIOR
In contrast, the rural areas which provided the base for the People’s Liberation Army during the revolution, and for which Mao formulated his version of agrarian Communism, have now been left far behind. It is here that
Hong Kong’s return to Chinese sovereignty, after 157 years of British rule, took place at midnight on June 30, 1997.
abject poverty is found. The Chinese Academy of Sciences calculated in early 2004 that average urban incomes now outstripped rural wages by a factor of three. Outmoded agricultural and heavy industrial practices are inefficient, and in some cases just plain dangerous. Investment is mostly taken up by grand industrial schemes such as the Three Gorges Dam, while governmentfunded drives to alleviate poverty have been hit by large-scale corruption; the National Audit Association claimed that as much as 10% of the 48.8 billion yuan spent on antipoverty schemes has been embezzled by local officials.
BLAMING
NATURE
While the high level of corruption is acknowledged by the government, it continues to blame the country’s inequalities mainly on natural disasters. Serious flooding and earthquakes have certainly taken their toll on the rural landscape, but their effects have been made much worse by the environmental degradation wrought by industrial projects and the waterhungry cities, while poor infrastructure in remote areas can only be blamed on a lack of successful investment. With the socialist ideal steadily weakening, the government has rightly become wary of the disparities in its regions. A “war” on poverty has been declared, but will prove logistically much harder to pursue than the “war” on corruption fought in recent years. Meanwhile, some analysts point out that wealth disparities between town and country, and high levels of bureaucratic corruption, have traditionally been at the root of revolution and chaos throughout Chinese history. Many wonder if the Communist dynasty will have to face more than unhappy statistics in the decades to come.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
IAEA
Joined UN in 1945
ADB
WTO
SCO
The push for economic modernization and concerns about regional stability dominate. Investment, technology, and trade considerations outweigh ideology. Despite lingering concerns over human rights, relations with the West have rebounded from the low of the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre. China was awarded Most Favored Nation trading status by the US in 2000 and entered the
†
AID
,
Little change in 2002
In the 1970s aid was an important part of Chinese diplomacy, going mostly to Africa, but other communist and southeast Asian states were also beneficiaries. Outward aid flows almost ceased in the late 1970s, as the economic reform process turned China itself into a major aid recipient. Japan is the biggest bilateral donor, but the potential of the Chinese market means that most developed states provide aid. A significant portion of funding is linked to donor countries’ interests in opportunities created by China’s huge infrastructure problems, and is used to finance high-tech imports.
ECONOMICS
†
DEFENSE
Recipient
$1.48bn (receipts)
WTO in 2001 (with Hong Kong retaining its separate membership). Despite initial tensions with the new US administration in 2001, the two countries had reached a “common understanding” by the end of the year on the issue of terrorism. Regionally, ties have been normalized with Vietnam, and Himalayan territorial disputes with India were shelved in 2003, enabling the reopening of lucrative crossborder routes. China has strengthened ties with South Korea while maintaining a paternalistic relationship with North
†
/
$48.4bn
Compulsor y militar y ser vice
intimately entwined with the one-party state. It was used in 1967 to restore order during the chaos of the Cultural Revolution, and in 1989 to suppress prodemocracy protests in Tiananmen Square, as well as to stamp out dissent in Tibet. From a 1990s peak of three million personnel it is now being cut back as part of a modernization process, reducing both its numbers and its involvement in the economy through army-run industries. China has a large weapons production and export industry, and has extended its nuclear weapons capability to include the neutron bomb. China put its first manned spacecraft into orbit in 2003, only the third country ever to do so.
Up 14% in 2002
CHINESE ARMED FORCES 7180 main battle tanks (T-59I/II, T-79, T-88B/C, T-98, T-96)
1.7m personnel
68 submarines, 21 destroyers, 42 frigates, and 368 patrol boats
250,000 personnel
1900 combat aircraft (300 Q-5, 350 J-6, 674 J-7, 184 J-8, 180 H-5/6, 90 Su-26)
400,000 personnel
ICBM (24 DF-5A, 8 DF-31), IRBM (20 DF-4, 32 DF-3A, 60 DF-21), SLBM (12 CSS-N-3) in 1 SSBN, SRBM (24 DF-15, 32 DF-11A)
The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) is the basis of CCP control and is
Inflation 6.2% p.a. (1990–2001) EXPORTS
$1234bn
8.2765 yuan (8.2775)
IMPORTS
Germany 3%
South Korea 5%
Germany 6%
Japan 15%
SCORE CARD
STRENGTHS Huge domestic market. Food selfsufficiency. Mineral reserves. Diversified industrial sector. Low wage costs. Rapid sustained growth. Growing export sector. Hong Kong as financial center. Heavy investment in communications and IT.
Consumer Price Index
140
120
120
USA 22%
PROFILE
Corruption. Huge underemployment, rising unemployment. Geographical and income disparities. Poor transportation. Unevenly distributed resources. CHINA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Ürümqi
Lanzhou Xi’an
Oil Textiles Chemicals 100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1998=100
Consumer price index 1998=100
140
Taiwan 13% Japan 18%
WEAKNESSES
GDP 160
Other 44%
Hong Kong 18%
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
160
USA 9% South Korea 10%
Other 37%
WORLD GNP RANKING ..............................6th GNP PER CAPITA..................................$960 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................$35.4bn INFLATION ..........................................–0.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ...........................2% (official)
1998
Korea. Relations with Russia have improved steadily on the basis of shared opposition to certain US policies. Closer cooperation with the EU was pledged in 2003. Taiwan remains a dark spot. Beijing strongly rejects any moves to recognize even de facto independence for the island. Closer links have been forged since 2000, with an increase in tourist traffic and direct trade, but ties are frequently damaged by displays of military might and repetitive threats.
Computers
Kunming
Electronics Iron & steel Engineering Consumer goods Research & development
China has shifted from a centrally planned to a market-oriented economy; liberalization has gone furthest in the south. In the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1996– 2000) the government retained strict controls, promoting Beijing intensive growth and boosting privatization of the huge stateowned sector. The Tenth FiveYear Plan (2001–2005) emphasizes rapid development, reforms, and improving competitiveness. The government Tianjin now runs a record deficit of almost $40 billion. GDP Shanghai growth passed 9% in 2003. Trade entered a new era in Wuhan 2000–2001. A substantial growth in imports followed a deal with the Guangzhou EU and the normalization of US trade relations, while a boost Hong Kong in exports has aided the high Chongqing growth rate in 2002. Even Taiwan has dropped its ban 0 1000 km on direct trade with the mainland. 0
1000 miles
* significant multinational ownership
191
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
C
Electric power 235m kW
44.1m tonnes
3.4m b/d (reser ves 23.7bn barrels)
660m ducks, 470m pigs, 228m geese, 3.98bn chickens
Coal, oil, natural gas, salt, iron, molybdenum, titanium, tungsten
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 17% (222bn kWh) Combustion 82% (1116bn kWh) Nuclear 1% (17bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
/
8% (2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 129th
2.2 tonnes per capita
TIE
H
I
M
HA N S
N
A L A Y A S
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Desert High mountain regions Sheep Tea Rice
MEDIA
0
200 km
0
†
200 miles
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 40 per 1000 people
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Climate and geology cause frequent natural disasters; their impact is often made worse by human actions. The economic policies of the 1950s turned drought into a devastating famine, while poor building standards pushed the death toll in the 1976 Tangshan earthquake to over 500,000. Widespread industrial pollution and environmental degradation increase as China’s leaders seek economic growth. However, the environment is a growing concern among educated Chinese. Becoming less suspicious of Western pressure, the government is taking steps to respond to acute problems of urban air pollution, deforestation, and water quality in particular. Nonetheless, grand schemes such as the Three Gorges Dam, and the diversion of Yangtze water to the parched north, continue to be pursued with devastating effects on existing ecosystems.
192
CHINA : LAND USE
ng Meko
The world’s biggest producer of steel and tungsten, with the world’s largest deposits of more than a dozen minerals, and commercial deposits of most others, China plays a dominant role in the world mineral trade. China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of coal, though it has only 12% of world reserves. Annual output (around one billion tonnes) considerably exceeds demand; this and appalling safety records are forcing the closure of many mines. Power provision was decentralized and opened to foreign investment in 2002. Nuclear power capacity in 2003 leapt to 5400 MW with the installation of new reactors, with planned major
CHRONOLOGY
expansion to 50,000 MW by 2020. The world’s largest HEP plant, the highly controversial Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, began generating power in June 2003. However, demand has increased 10% per month since September 2003, outstripping supply. Crude oil production has risen only slightly since reaching 160 million tonnes a year in 1997. Eastern oil fields are depleted, and hopes now center on enormous reserves in the Tarim basin in the far west. A 4000-km (2500-mile) pipeline is due to be on line by 2005.
There are 39 major daily newspapers. Renmin Ribao is the CCP daily; China Daily is published in English
1 state-owned service
2 state-owned services
China’s more open, market-oriented economy has created access to nonofficial sources of information. TV ownership is rising and those with satellite dishes can choose what to view, while growing Internet usage makes central control even more difficult. Since 2000, Internet sites have had to obtain official approval and have been held responsible for their content. Many Internet cafés were closed in 2001, and new rules in 2002 restricted the media’s use of Internet sources. The ideological influence of the hugecirculation party newspaper Renmin Ribao (People’s Daily) and the trade union Gongren Ribao (Workers’ Daily) is much diminished; unprofitable staterun newspapers have been closed. “Undesirable” papers also have their licenses removed, in periodic cleanups.
China’s recorded history began 4000 years ago with the Shang dynasty, founded in 1766 BCE; succeeding dynasties expanded its boundaries. The empire was reunified by the Sung dynasty in 960 CE after a period of dispersal, and reached its greatest extent under the Qing (Manchu) dynasty in the 18th century. For 3000 years China had been one of the world’s most advanced nations, but, having fallen behind the industrializing West, its resistance to European trade was broken in a series of wars in the 19th century. 1839–1860 Opium Wars with Britain. China defeated; forced to open ports to foreigners. 1850–1873 Internal rebellions against Qing dynasty, including the large-scale Taiping rebellion. 1895 Defeat by Japan in war over Korean peninsula. 1900 Boxer Rebellion to expel all foreigners suppressed. 1911 Qing dynasty overthrown by nationalists led by Sun Yat-sen. Republic of China declared. 1912 Sun Yat-sen forms National People’s Party (Guomindang). 1916 Nationalists factionalize. Sun Yat-sen sets up government in Guangdong. Rest of China under control of rival warlords. 1921 CCP founded in Shanghai. 1923 CCP joins Soviet-backed Guomindang to fight warlords. 1925 Chiang Kai-shek becomes Guomindang leader on death of Sun Yat-sen. 1927 Chiang turns on CCP. CCP leaders escape to rural south. 1930–1934 Mao Zedong formulates strategy of peasant-led revolution. 1931 Japan invades Manchuria. 1934 Chiang forces CCP out of its southern bases. Start of 12,000-km (7450-mile) Long March north. 1935 Long March ends. Mao becomes CCP leader. 1937–1945 War against Japan: CCP Red Army in north, Guomindang in south. Japan defeated. 1945–1949 War between Red Army and Guomindang. US-backed Guomindang retreats to Taiwan. 1949 October 1, Mao proclaims People’s Republic of China. 1950 Invasion of Tibet. Mutual assistance treaty with USSR. 1950–1958 Land reform; culminates in setting up of communes. First Five-Year Plan (1953–1957) fails. 1958 “Great Leap Forward” fails; contributes to millions of deaths during 1959–1961 famine. Mao resigns as CCP chairman; succeeded by Liu Shaoqi.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CHINA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
CHRONOLOGY continued
Death penalty in use
/
1.51m prisoners
Murders 2
per 100,000 population
3
per 100,000 population
188
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
China’s legal system is a mix of custom and statute. Judges have been required to hold law degrees only since 2002. A rise in corruption and violent crime has paralleled economic reform and social changes. In 2000 many party officials were convicted in the largest ever corruption trial. A crackdown on human trafficking followed the breaking up of rings smuggling Chinese into Europe. The death penalty is used extensively – at a peak in 2001 China carried out over 80% of the world’s executions. Since a clampdown on dissent after the 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre many detainees have been released, but many more remain incarcerated. School leaving age: 14
91%
15.1m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
80
60
100% 40
68% 20
13% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Despite the expansion of education since 1949, illiteracy and semiliteracy are still widespread. School attendance fell when fees at all levels were introduced in the 1980s, but now most children of secondary school age are in school – including those catching up with primary education. Selection for higher education is now based on academic rather than political criteria, though fees can be prohibitive. Internet-based distance learning degrees, first allowed in 1998, are increasingly popular. In May 2001, the government legalized private schools (which have been tacitly permitted since the early 1980s) in an effort to regulate and profit from them. About seven million pupils are thought to attend them.
Welfare state health benefits Cardiovascular and diarrheal diseases, cancers, tuberculosis
1 per 714 people
Primary health care combines Western and traditional medicine and extends to the remotest areas. For decades, free health care accompanied full state employment, and life expectancy was on a par with many richer countries. The change to a market-oriented economy, however, has produced a gaping divide between city and rural provision, and fees for treatment are rising. The UN estimated in 2002 that there would be over ten million HIV/ AIDS sufferers in China by 2010. The outbreak of acute pneumonia (SARS) strained facilities in 2003. Suicide is a leading cause of death among the young.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
7 per 1000 population
167 per 1000 population
Defense 4.1% Education 2.2% Health 2% 0
†
EDUCATION
†
HEALTH
Up 60% in 2000
CRIME RATES
% of each age group in education
1960 Sino-Soviet split. 1961–1965 More pragmatic economic approach led by Liu and Deng Xiaoping. 1966 Cultural Revolution initiated by Mao to restore his supreme power. Youthful Red Guards attack all authority. Mao rules, with Military Commission under Lin Biao and State Council under Zhou Enlai. 1967 Army intervenes to restore order amid countrywide chaos. Liu and Deng purged from party. 1969 Mao regains chair of CCP. Lin Biao designated his successor, but quickly attacked by Mao. 1971 Lin dies in plane crash. 1972 US president Nixon visits. More open foreign policy initiated. 1973 Mao’s wife Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, and other “Gang of Four” members elected to CCP Politburo. Deng Xiaoping rehabilitated. 1976 Zhou Enlai dies. Mao strips Deng of posts. September, Mao dies. October, Gang of Four arrested. 1977 Deng regains party posts, begins to extend power base. 1978 Decade of economic modernization launched. Open door policy to foreign investment; farmers allowed to farm for profit. 1980 Deng emerges as China’s paramount leader. Economic reform gathers pace, but hopes for political change suppressed. 1983–1984 Conservative elderly leaders attempt to slow reform. 1984 Industrial reforms announced. 1989 Prodemocracy demonstrations in Tiananmen Square crushed by army; 1000–5000 dead. 1992–1995 Trials of prodemocracy activists continue. Plans for market economy accelerated. 1993 Jiang Zemin president. 1997 February, Deng Xiaoping dies at 92. June 30, UK hands back Hong Kong. September, party congress confirms reformist policies. 1998 Severe flooding: 3000 killed. 1999 China develops neutron bomb. Friction with Taiwan. Clampdown on Falun Gong sect. December 19, Portugal hands back Macao. 2000 US normalizes trade relations. 2001 Major diplomatic incident over downed US spy plane. “Strike Hard” campaign against corruption. December, accession to WTO. 2002 Crackdown on Uyghur separatism. 2003 Hu Jintao president. SARS outbreak. June, Three Gorges Dam flooded. October, first manned spacecraft launched. 2004 Rising demand for electricity leads to brownouts.
†
CRIME
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Economic change has widened wealth disparities. Most Chinese are farmers, whose living standards compare unfavorably with urban dwellers. Many people have migrated to the cities in search of jobs. The number of people living in “abject poverty” actually rose in 2004; the government has pledged to remove agricultural taxes by 2009. The burgeoning small-business class and employees of foreign-funded companies have benefited most. They mainly live in the east where there are a number of dollar millionaires. One sign of increased wealth is the spread of mobile phones – more numerous than in the US by 2001 and by 2003 outnumbering landlines.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
81 71 years
150th
120 $960
97 91%
105
94
31 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
193
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
COLOMBIA
SOUTH AMERICA Panama
1819
1903
July 20
CO
-5
.co
+57
YING IN NORTHWEST South America, Colombia has coastlines on both the Caribbean and the Pacific. The east is densely forested and sparsely populated, and separated from the western coastal plains by the Andes mountains. The Andes divide into three ranges (cordilleras) in Colombia. The eastern range is divided from the two western ranges by the densely populated Magdalena River valley. The Colombian lowlands are very wet, hot, and fertile, supporting two harvests and allowing many crops to be planted at any time of year. A state plagued by instability and violence, Colombia is noted for its coffee, emeralds, gold, and narcotics trafficking.
†
Tropical/mountain
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR BOGOTÁ
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
620,600 visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16 30/12
USA 28%
20/68
20/8
Venezuela 12%
10/50
10/4
76%
†
Visitors : Population 1:71
/
Up 15% in 2003
ETHNIC MAKEUP
African– Amerindian 3%
White 20%
Other 41%
El Dorado, Bogotá 4.66m passengers
109 ships 67,800 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 15,818 km (9829 miles)
Caribbean Trunk Highway
3154 km (1960 miles)
18,140 km (11,272 miles)
Roads in the north are in reasonable condition. Those in the south and east tend to be rutted and badly affected by the frequent rains. Continuing instability means that roads are frequently blocked by the guerrillas and the military. Most of the railroad is closed. Rivers are an important means of transportation; the Magdalena, Orinoco, Atrato, and Amazon river systems are all extensively navigable. Colombia’s Avianca, the second-oldest airline in the world, is in financial trouble.
194
African 4% European– African 14%
Amerindian 1%
Mexico 4%
Drive on right
Roman Catholic 95%
Ecuador 10%
-20/-4
†
24% Other 5%
Spain 5%
TRANSPORTATION
43/km2 (110/mi2)
Mestizo 58%
-10/14
Most of Colombia is wet, and the hot Pacific coastal areas receive up to 500 cm (200 in) of rain a year. The Caribbean coast is a little drier. The Andes have three climatic regions: the tierra caliente (hot lowlands), tierra templada (temperate uplands), and tierra fría (cold highlands); the last has year-round springlike conditions such as those found in Bogotá. The equatorial east has two wet seasons.
Pop. density low
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
30/86
Brazil
Pe
Spanish, Wayuu, Páez, and other Amerindian languages
L
CLIMATE
ru
Ecuador
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Colombia CAPITAL: Bogotá POPULATION: 44.2 million CURRENCY: Colombian peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish
C
South America
Venezuela COLOMBIA
0
10
20
30
40
50
% of total arrivals
Tourism in Colombia is largely limited to the beaches of the Caribbean coast. Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Santa Marta are the main resorts. Cartagena has also been developed as a major Latin American conference center. The expansion of tourism has been limited by Colombia’s political instability and the prevalence of narcotics-related crime. The wellpublicized activities of drugs cartels in Medellín and Cali, and instances of kidnappings in Bogotá, are major deterrents for travelers. Limited infrastructure makes many regions of the country, particularly Amazonia to the east of the Andes, almost inaccessible. The Pacific coast is also barely exploited.
60
Most Colombians are of mixed blood. An estimated 450,000 indigenous Amerindians live mainly in Amazonia, the southwest, and the northernmost tip of the country. An underrepresented small black population lives along the coasts, particularly in the western Chocó region – Colombia’s poorest. Some progress has been made in giving Amerindians a greater political voice. Since 1991, two seats in the Senate have been reserved for indigenous representatives, and pressure groups are increasingly active. Harassment by landowners and narcotics traffickers continues in Amazonia, and very few investigations into suspected human rights violations against Amerindians have led to prosecutions. Women have a higher profile than in much of the rest of Latin America. Many are prominent in the professions, though few reach the top in politics. The traditional Roman Catholic extended family is still the norm. NGOs estimate that civil conflict has killed 300,000 Colombians, displaced three million, and seen two million emigrate since 1985. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.4% 3.1%
60–79
Male 0.3% 2.6%
8.1%
40–59
7.5%
17.3%
20–39
16.9%
21.6%
Simón Bolívar and Cristóbal Colón, twin peaks with a height of 5775 m (18,947 ft), are the highest in the Colombian Andes.
80+
0–19
22.2%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: COLOMBIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
L. House 2002/2006 U. House 2002/2006
AT THE LAST ELECTION
President Alvaro Uribe Velez
House of Representatives 166 seats
Colombia is a presidential democracy, with a bicameral Congress. 33% PL
PROFILE The two-party system which had held sway from the late 1950s appeared to have fractured by the 21st century. The dominance of the PCC and the PL, with few ideological differences, was undermined by electoral breakthroughs by new, smaller parties, culminating in the presidential victory of right-wing independent Alvaro Uribe Velez in 2002. Uribe is trying to amend the constitution to allow him to stand for reelection. Pervasive corruption and the violence associated with drugs cartels, guerrillas, paramilitaries, and the military have weakened confidence in the state and the government, and have deterred foreign investors.
13% 10% 4% 3% PCC C CR AL
C
37% Others
PL = Liberal Party PCC = Colombian Conservative Party C = Coalition CR = Radical Change AL = Liberal Opening MN = National Movement
6% MN
Senate 102 seats
27% PL
13% 6% PCC C
scale civil conflict against the left-wing Armed Revolutionary Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN). Uribe, accused by the FARC of having connections to right-wing militias, has continued the offensive with the aid of US military advisers. However, in 2004 Uribe offered to halt E A offensive operations against the ELN if it called a cease-fire.
A
V
S Elusive peace N Peace efforts were A abandoned in E February 2002 Ríohacha B Maicao Santa Marta as the country Reforms B Ciénaga I Barranquilla returned IMF-sponsored labor, Valledupar Soledad Sabanalarga R to fullpension, and tax reforms, which Pico Cristóbal Malambo Colón 5775m Cartagena were designed to reactivate the economy and increase investment, C El Carmen de Bolívar were pushed through Congress Magangué Sincelejo but failed to gain popular Montería Aguachica approval in a referendum N Ocaña in 2003, undermining C Uribe’s position. Cúcuta Villa Rosario E Apartadó Caucasia L
T
N
N
E
E
I
E
R
O
R
A
C
A R
D
E
E
L L
I I
San José del Guaviare
D
R O
Florencia
Vaupé s
Z P
E
over 50 000 over 10 000
A
ma yo
R
N
over 100 000
under 10 000
COLOMBIA
Caq ue t á
Pu
tu
POPULATION over 500 000
I
Ap ap or is
Mocoa
A D O R
over 1 000 000
L
Mitú
0 0
200 km
R 200 miles
Total Area : 1 138 910 sq. km (439 733 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
U
B
R C
G
L
L
D
N
I
C
Puerto Inírida
ida nír
A
C
A
S
T
O C C I D E N T A L
A
L E R
L
I D
O
O
R
U
Garzón
re via ua
A
Popayán
Orita
ada Vich
Villavicencio
gro Ne
C
BOGOTA
Girardot Espinal
Palmira Neiva
Pitalito
Pasto
e ta M
Yopal
L
Soacha Ibagué
Buga
Cali
Ipiales
Puerto Carreño
i noc o
Tuluá
Patía
Tunja Zipaquirá
Manizales
azon Am
ACS
AP
AmCC
†
Joined UN in 1945
500m/1640ft
OAS
RG
Good relations with the US are conditional on tough measures to fight the narcotics trade. A $1.3 billion military aid package, approved in 2000, provided training, intelligence, and hardware, ostensibly to assist the “Plan Colombia” antidrugs program. The boundary between this aim and the targeting of guerrilla groups was always blurred. The army’s invasion in 2002 of the demilitarized haven, granted to the FARC as part of peace efforts, was reportedly assisted by US military advisers. The US administration fought shy of describing events as a chapter in the US-led “war on terrorism,” however, insisting that it was operating within legal limits set down by the Congress. Colombia’s neighbors fear a “spillover” of violence and refugees.
AID
†
Recipient
$441m (receipts)
U
Or
O C E A N
Itagüí
Pereira Cartago Armenia
Buenaventura
Z Arauca
E
P A C I F I C
R A L
A
NA
MA
au ca
M agda l en a
E
ato
Equator
Quibdó
Nuquí
Tumaco
E
Pamplona Bucaramanga Barrancabermeja Girón Floridablanca Yarumal Zapátoca Bello Puerto Berrío Duitama Medellín Sogamoso
A tr
P
Andres Pastrana Arango launched “Plan Colombia” in 2000 while president.
WORLD AFFAIRS
48% Others
Two seats are reserved for special representatives of the Amerindian communities
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
Alvaro Uribe Velez, the right-leaning independent elected president in 2002.
/
Up 16% in 2002
US military “antinarcotics aid” forms some 75% of total US aid. The IMF approved a standby loan of $2.1 billion in 2003 to act as security for other loans from international institutions.
CHRONOLOGY In 1525, Spain began the conquest of Colombia, which became its chief source of gold. 1819 Simón Bolívar defeats the Spanish at Boyacá. Republic of Gran Colombia formed with Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. 1830 Venezuela and Ecuador split away during revolts and civil wars. 1849 The centralist Conservative and federalist Liberal parties are established. 1861–1886 Liberals hold monopoly on power. 1886–1930 Conservative rule. 1899–1903 Liberal “War of 1000 Days” revolt fails; 120,000 die.
Sea Level Leticia
195
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
C
,
No change in 2002
COLOMBIAN ARMED FORCES
12 light tanks (M-3A1)
178,000 personnel
4 submarines, 4 corvettes, 27 patrol boats
15,000 personnel
57 combat aircraft (10 Mirage 5, 12 Kfir)
7000 personnel
None
The military is powerful, but rarely intervenes directly in politics. Human
ECONOMICS $79.6bn
†
rights groups accuse the armed forces and their paramilitary allies of gross and systematic abuses, involving torture and murder, in their fight against guerrilla groups and the production of narcotics. Though restructured in 1998, the army high command remains suspicious of peace negotiations and supports a tougher stance against the rebels, successfully exploiting tensions to expand the army substantially under President Pastrana, with numbers set to rise still more. Orders were given in 2002 to retake the FARC “safe haven.” Colombia participates in the joint Latin American Defense Force. The US supplies most arms and training, especially through “Plan Colombia.”
Inflation 20% p.a. (1990–2001)
2693 Colombian pesos (2817)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................42nd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1820 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.58bn INFLATION .........................................6.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ..................................18%
EXPORTS
Germany 3% Peru 3%
Ecuador 7%
Other 33% IMPORTS
Mexico 5%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Venezuela 9%
USA 45%
Japan 5%
GDP
160
GDP 1998=100
196
$2.84bn
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
1903 Panama secedes, but is not recognized by Colombia until 1921. 1930 Liberal President Olaya Herrera elected by coalition in first peaceful change of power. 1946 Conservatives take over. 1948 Shooting of Liberal mayor of Bogotá and riot – El Bogotazo – spark civil war – La Violencia – lasting until 1957; 300,000 killed. 1953–1957 Military dictatorship of Rojas Pinilla. 1958 Conservatives and Liberals agree to alternate government in a National Front until 1974. Other parties banned. 1965 Left-wing guerrilla National Liberation Army and Maoist Popular Liberation Army founded. 1966 Pro-Soviet FARC guerrilla group formed. 1968 Constitutional reform allows new parties, but two-party parity continues. Guerrilla groups proliferate from now on. 1984 Minister of justice assassinated for attempting to enforce antinarcotics campaign. 1985 M-19 guerrillas blast their way into ministry of justice; 11 judges and 90 others killed. Patriotic Union (UP) party formed. 1986 Liberal Virgilio Barco Vargas wins presidential elections, ending power-sharing. UP wins ten seats in parliament. Right-wing paramilitary start murder campaign against UP politicians. Violence by both leftwing groups and death squads run by narcotics cartels continues. 1989 M-19 reaches peace deal with government, including full pardon. Becomes legal party. 1990 Presidential candidates of UP and PL murdered during campaign. Liberal César Gaviria elected on antidrugs platform. 1991 New constitution legalizes divorce, prohibits extradition of Colombian nationals. Indigenous peoples’ democratic rights guaranteed, but territorial claims are not addressed. 1992–1993 Medellín drugs cartel leader, Pablo Escobar, captured, escapes, and shot dead by police. 1995–1996 President Ernesto Samper cleared of charges of receiving drug funds for elections. 1999 Earthquake kills thousands. 2001 US-backed spraying of coca plantations and destruction of food crops by herbicides (“Plan Colombia”) provokes resentment. 2002 Peace talks abandoned. Renewed military offensive. Independent candidate Alvaro Uribe Velez elected president. 2004 ELN offered cease-fire.
†
DEFENSE
Brazil 6% Venezuela 7%
Other 44% USA 33%
STRENGTHS Substantial oil and coal deposits, well-developed hydroelectric power: Colombia almost energy self-sufficient. Diversified exports including coffee and flowers. Light manufactures. Highly successful, if illegal, narcotics trade injects cash into the economy.
Colombia has a successful private export sector. Reforms and austerity measures secured an IMF standby agreement in 2003 and $9 billion in multilateral pledges. Regional disparities remain marked. Most wealth is found in the Bogotá, Medellín, and Cali regions. Rural areas are largely underdeveloped. The main obstacle to growth is the instability caused by the narcotics business and protracted conflict. Given stability and investment, Colombia’s potential for growth is considerable. COLOMBIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Pulp and paper Narcotics Steel Chemicals
Barranquilla
Vehicle assembly Food processing Textiles
WEAKNESSES Foreign investors discouraged by narcotics-related violence, corruption, and political instability. Domestic industry uncompetitive. High unemployment. Coffee and oil subject to world price fluctuations.
Oil
Medellín Bogotá Cali
Ibagué
PROFILE Of all the Latin American economies, Colombia’s is probably the closest to the US model. The state has traditionally played a relatively minor role and
Orito 0
200 km
200 miles 0 * significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: COLOMBIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 12.7m kW
190,000 tonnes
564,000 b/d (reserves 1.5bn barrels)
25m cattle, 2.7m horses, 2.3m pigs, 118m chickens
Oil, coal, natural gas, silver, emeralds, gold, platinum
†
CRIME
.
54,034 prisoners
Down 6% in 2000
CRIME RATES
Murders
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
70
per 100,000 population
6
per 100,000 population
53
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Hydro 73% (32bn kWh) Combustion 27% (12bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
Thefts
Other 0% 0
No death penalty
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
School leaving age: 14
92%
934,085 students
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
43 per 1000 population
179 per 1000 population
D
E
†
EDUCATION
S
Colombia has substantial oil reserves but needs increasing investment to maintain production. Coal and gas are important, and it is COLOMBIA : a major LAND USE producer of gold, platinum, silver, and emeralds.
Colombia is one of the most violent countries in the world. Armed groups assassinated 20 mayoral candidates and 20 mayors, and kidnapped 200 other candidates in regional and local elections in 2000. The local monitoring group Fundación País Libre reported 2856 cases of kidnapping in 2001, mostly
by guerrillas and paramilitaries, the rest blamed on other criminal groups. In 2002 anonymous gunmen murdered the Archbishop of Cali. Homicide is the main cause of death among young men in cities; overall, it rates second in the mortality stakes. Much of the violence is narcoticsrelated; the army, police, paramilitaries, and guerrillas are all accused of being involved. Police were empowered in 2002 to create “zones of rehabilitation and consolidation” and, in conjunction with the US-backed “Plan Colombia,” coca production fell by 30% that year. The deplorable phenomenon of “social cleansing” involves the murder of street children and beggars by armed gangs, some in Bogotá funded by businesses. Frequent armed robberies and kidnappings make wealthy residents extremely security conscious.
100
N
Cropland
A
Forest High mountain regions Coffee - cash crop Cattle
0
200 km
0
200 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
10% (0.3% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 22nd
1.4 tonnes per capita
% of each age group in education
Pasture
Defense 3.7% Education 4.4%
80
Health 3.6% 0
60
40
65% 20
24% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
The government calculated in 2002 that 56% of the world’s cocaine is produced in former Colombian rainforest.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 26 per 1000 people
Education in Colombia is free and compulsory, and is a mix of French and US models, with a baccalauréatstyle examination taken at the end of secondary school. A voucher system grants half the cost of private school fees to poor pupils. Where provided, public and university education is generally of a high standard, but the resources available to public education have decreased due to budget cuts. The rich send their children to private schools and universities in the US.
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA 1 per 833 people There are 37 daily newspapers. El Tiempo and El Espectador have the largest circulations 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
589 stations: 31 state-owned, 558 independent
The independent press is very small. Journalists have been murdered by paramilitaries and held by guerrillas.
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
100%
†
There is little social mobility; the historically wealthy Spanish families are still dominant in political and business life, but the entry of narcoticsrelated money has created new elites in cities and among landowners. Drug money also finances the import of consumer goods such as TV sets, computers, and perfume. The wealthy go to the US for medical treatment and educate their children overseas. The rural poor are mostly landless. The inhabitants of shanty towns in Barranquilla, Buenaventura, Cali, and Cartagena form the poorest groups.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, murders, accidents, cancers
Health care reforms in 1993 aimed to provide universal access via a contributory system with subsidies for the poor. By 2003, however, only 54% of people were covered, and around half of those were being subsidized. Rural areas have little health provision. A polio vaccination campaign has largely eradicated the virus. By 2004 Colombia had the fourth-highest rate of landmine injuries in the world.
50th
100th
74
75 93 150th
$1820
72 years
91 92%
73
19 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
197
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
COMOROS
INDIAN OCEAN
Africa
M o z am b i q u e
COMOROS
Madagascar OFFICIAL NAME: Union of the Comoros CAPITAL: Moroni POPULATION: 768,000 CURRENCY: Comoros franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Arabic, French, and Comoran
C
1975
1975
July 6
COM
+3
.km
+269
T
HE ARCHIPELAGO republic of the Comoros lies off the east African coast, between Mozambique and Madagascar. It consists of three main islands and a number of islets. Most of the population are subsistence farmers. In 1975, the Comoros islands, except for Mayotte, became independent of France. Since then instability has plagued this poor country, with countless coups and countercoups, and repeated attempts at secession by smaller islands.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR MORONI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
Pop. density high
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
34%
Multiparty elections
President Assoumani Azali
2004/2009
66%
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Assembly of the Union 33 seats
Roman Catholic 1%
Other 1%
-10/14
†
POLITICS
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Moroni, the capital, on Grande Comore. The Comoros islands are fertile and heavily forested. Many are ringed by coral reefs.
344/km2 (892/mi2)
Arabic, Comoran, French
-20/-4
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 98%
The islands are tropical; it is hot and humid on the coasts and cooler higher up, notably on Mount Kartala.
TRANSPORTATION Moroni International Prince Said Ibrahim, Grande Comore 101,015 passengers
†
Drive on right
47 ships 407,206 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 678 km (421 miles)
None
None
None
The Comoros has absorbed Polynesians, Africans, Indonesians, Persians, and Arabs over time, as well as immigrants from Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and India. Each island is named in French and Comoran – a mix of Kiswahili and Arabic. Some communities retain their individual character: Mohéli is still primarily African. Ethnic tension is rare; a more potent divisive factor, especially on Anjouan, is regionalism.
Ferries travel between the islands and also compensate for poor roads on Mohéli. Each island has an airfield.
Ntsaouéni
Mbéni
N
G rande Com ore
Koimbani
(Njazidja)
D
.
18,936 visitors
I
†
TOURISM
Mitsamiouli
Visitors : Population 1:41
Itsandra
Down 2% in 2002
MORONI Pidjani
M
Mitsoudjé
COMOROS
O
N
Z
30
40
50
60
over 10 000
500m/1640ft
under 10 000
% of total arrivals
N
C
B
E
A
I
Plans for tourism to take advantage of the islands’ beautiful scenery, magnificent beaches, and fascinating history are fundamentally undermined by the country’s chronic instability. Some cruise ships have begun to visit.
Sea Level
O
M
20
Q
0
20 km
(Mwali) E
Hoani
N
Ouani Moutsamoudou
Mohéli
U 0
POPULATION
1000m/3281ft
A
Other 34%
Sima Fomboni
20 miles
Domoni
Anjouan (Nzwani)
Ndréméani
Moya
Itsamia
C
198
Total Area : 2170 sq. km (838 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
A
Foumbouni Dembéni
2000m/6562ft
South Africa 7%
10
Comoran politics is characterized by chaos. Coups and countercoups have plagued the islands since independence. The key issue is the balance of power between the islands and the overarching government based on Grande Comore. Unrest followed declarations of independence on Anjouan and Mohéli in 1997 and renewed violence in 1999 prompted Col. Assoumani Azali to assume power. In 2002 he forged a new loose “Union of the Comoros,” of which he was elected president unopposed. All the island governments contest Azali’s authoritarian use of his new constitutional powers, and the 2004 legislative elections showed an increase in support for regional parties.
Le Kartala 2361m
France 48%
0
18% 3% Supp Ind
App = Appointed by regional assemblies Opp = Opposition alliance of regional parties Supp = Supporters of President Azali Ind = Independent
I
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Réunion 11%
33% Opp
46% App
H
A
N
N
E
L
Mrémani
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: COMOROS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
OIC
Joined UN in 1975
COI
AU
FZ
France remains the main aid donor, though economic ties with South Africa are strong. The turbulent situation
†
AID
/
Up 19% in 2002
Foreign aid, mainly from France, the World Bank, the EU, and the UN, accounts for over 40% of GDP. Because of its Islamic links, the Comoros also gets aid from Arab states and OPEC. In 1998, major donors attacked the government for spending more than 70% on “political superstructure.”
DEFENSE $3m (estimate)
†
,
No compulsory military service
No significant change
France and South Africa finance the small presidential guard, the principal security force. Mauritian aid was also sought after clashes on Anjouan.
ECONOMICS $228m
†
Inflation 3.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
404.4 Comoros francs (454.3)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$32m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
on the war-torn islands forced a visiting OAU assessment team to flee Anjouan in 1999. An army of European mercenaries attempted to take over Mohéli in December 2001. The Comoros still claims sovereignty over Mayotte.
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................182nd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$390 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ........................–$1m INFLATION .........................................7.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................20%
Not an oil producer
12,180 tonnes 115,000 goats, 52,000 cattle, 490,000 chickens
None
There are few strategic resources. Most fuel for energy is imported, though there is potential for geothermal generation and HEP, and trials for the utilization of solar energy have begun.
/
None
EXPORTS
Netherlands 7%
Singapore 11%
France 32% Other 13%
Germany 19%
USA 18%
†
MEDIA
Other 36%
UAE 6% Japan 6% South Africa 12% France 34%
0.1 tonnes per capita
TV ownership low
200 prisoners
Though there are a good number of regional health centers, poor facilities deter potential patients.
Death penalty in use
56%
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
13 per 1000 population
Education 3.8% Health 1.9% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
A political and business elite controls most of the wealth. Bridegrooms win social status according to the size of their wedding. Government workers often suffer from wage arrears.
WORLD RANKING
Crime is rising
Position in World 1st
A climate of lawlessness has been created by the continuing power struggles between rival militias – particularly on the island of Anjouan since 1997.
EDUCATION
†
SPENDING
Defense No data
1 state-controlled service, some independent services
/
Malaria, infectious intestinal and bacterial diseases
13 per 1000 population
China helped to fund the islands’ first national TV station. There are several radio stations and newspapers which are critical of the government.
†
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
There are 2 weekly newspapers, the stateowned Al Watwan and the independent La Gazette des Comores
CRIME
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
1 state-owned service
C
1961 Internal self-government. 1975 Independence. 1978 Mercenaries restore Ahmed Abdallah to power. 1989 Abdallah assassinated. 1992 Chaotic first multiparty polls. 1997 Anjouan separatists beat off government troops. 1999 Col. Azali seizes power. Anjouan militias clash. 2000 Fomboni declaration signed with Anjouan. 2001 Successive coups on Anjouan. 2002 New constitution. Azali returned to office. 2004 Regional parties win majority in legislative elections.
There are no daily newspapers
IMPORTS
Kenya 6%
Not available
Comorans have become more aware of environmental issues, partly in response to international pressure. While tourism is promoted, the government recognizes the long-term commercial value of imposing environmental controls on new developments. It has also set up protection schemes for native fauna, including the rare coelocanth.
Main cash crops are vanilla, ylangylang, and cloves.
Subsistence-level farming. Most food requirements imported. Lack of basic infrastructure, notably electricity and transportation. Poor education provision. Alleged financial mismanagement. Political instability – hinders growth of tourism. Dependence on aid.
†
ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Electric power 6000 kW
The Comoros was ruled by matrilineally inherited sultanates until shortly before becoming a French protectorate in 1886.
†
School leaving age: 14
50th
100th
150th
714 students 193rd
The first university was inaugurated in 2003. Nearly all children attend elementary school, though the ratio of pupils to teachers is high. Many children also attend Koranic school.
136
142 155 $390
61 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
163
136
59 deaths
56%
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
199
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CONGO
WEST AFRICA O
1960
Aug 15
RCB
+1
S
TRADDLING THE EQUATOR in west central Africa, Congo achieved independence from France in 1960, soon falling under a Marxist-Leninist form of government which discouraged much foreign investment. Multiparty democracy was achieved in 1991, but was soon overshadowed by years of violence.
President Denis Sassou-Nguesso
AT THE LAST ELECTION
4% UDR
National Assembly 137 seats
6% 3% Vacant UPADS
61% PCT
Tropical equatorial
Rainfall
40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
85% PCT
The Loufoulakari Falls, near Brazzaville. The Congo River is a key transportation artery for the region.
0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
11/km2 (28/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
Maya Maya, Brazzaville 454,392 passengers
18 ships 3400 grt
Drive on right
67%
6% Others
Former Marxist dictator Denis SassouNguesso seized power in 1997, amid intense fighting which left thousands dead. Relative peace was secured in 1999. A new constitution giving greater power to the presidency was approved in 2002, and Sassou-Nguesso was easily elected. Fighting broke out again later that year, but legislative elections were eventually held and were won by Sassou-Nguesso’s supporters.
Pop. density low
Kongo, Teke, Lingala, French
TRANSPORTATION
33%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
AFRICAN AL BLIC TR N EPU E R
Mbochi 12%
Other 3%
C
1280 km (795 miles)
†
PEOPLE
In most years there is a dry season and a wet season with two peaks in Congo. The rainfall is heaviest in the coastal regions.
9% Vacant
Senate 66 seats
None
Bétou
Teke 17% Ib
N
O
Makoua
B
uyou Ko
N T 100 miles
o
C E
A
N
. M
o
E over 500 000
a un
over 100 000
o ng
TÉ
Ngabé
KÉ
Co
Kindamba
BA
Madingou Mindouli
Nkayi Mfouati
Pointe-Noire CABINDA (Angola)
O
0
100 km
IC
0
MadingoKayes
u uilo
Sibiti
Loudima
X
Djoué
Dolisie
A
The Marxist-Leninist regime did not seek to develop tourism, and visitors, mostly on safaris and business-related trips, are still rare.
Lac Tchibenda
Nzambi
L
N
U
Lo
enz a
a
ya ng
ou
60
K
50
Ngo Léfini
EA
40
POPULATION
AT
é
30
D
Mp
ék
é ti
Gamboma
L
Djambala
B
ng
Ali
Co
am
A
G
a
Lékana
PL
u Og oo
20
% of total arrivals
200
Monts de la Lékéti 1040m
Komono
i iar
10
N
AT
0
ssé L o ué
Other 53%
N
Mossendjo
Bambama
Loukoléla
Oyo Okoyo
Equator
Liranga
Kouy ou
Ewo
Mayoko
Total Area : 342 000 sq. km (132 046 sq. miles)
Angola 7%
Owando
o
aux Herbes la ua S angha
Etoumbi
a
CONGO
Democratic Republic of the Congo 9%
Pikounda
m
France 31%
Epéna Li k
Mbomo
Kéllé
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Ndoki
ué go
Down 27% in 2001
Impfondo
L en
.
19,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:195
Mam
ouala Lik
Dongou
Bomassa Ouésso
i bil
†
TOURISM
Djoua
ba
U ba
Ngoko
Sembé
Congo is one of the most tribally conscious countries in Africa. It is also one of the most urbanized in the region, most people living in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, and the area in between; to the north the country is dense jungle. Women have achieved considerable freedom since the 1950s.
ta
o
C A M E R O O N
Sangha 20%
Souanké
Pointe-Noire is a major port, used by the Central African Republic, Chad, and Cameroon. The Congo Ocean Railroad (to Brazzaville) reopened in 2000. There are plans for a second, and larger, international airport near Ewo.
M
Bakongo 48%
1120 km (696 miles)
1026 km (638 miles)
eng a
ngui
A
26% Others
PCT = Congolese Labor Party and allies UDR = Union for Democracy and the Republic UPADS = Pan-African Union for Social Democracy
WEATHER CHART FOR BRAZZAVILLE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
NG
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2008
Multiparty elections
P . C O N G O
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.cg
+242
E
1960
R
C
Dem.Rep. Congo
CO
Gabon
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of the Congo CAPITAL: Brazzaville POPULATION: 3.7 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French
Africa
CAR
Cameroon
Stanley Pool
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
BRAZZAVILLE
Kinkala
Loufoulakari falls
Boko
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CONGO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS BDEAC
CEMAC
Joined UN in 1960
NAM
FZ
ACP
Balancing relations with France and the US is a priority, since both seek to extend their stakes in the oil industry.
†
AID
/
Up 460% in 2002
Congo is chronically indebted and at odds with the IMF, which says that $102.3 million in oil earnings evaporated in 2003. It is often overlooked by donors in favor of its larger neighbor, the DRC.
DEFENSE $88m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 10% in 2002
A peace deal signed in 2003 provides for the demobilization, disarmament, and reintegration of “Ninja” rebels – the fittest – into the national army. The air force numbers 1200, and is equipped with 12 MiG-21s.
ECONOMICS $2.23bn
†
Inflation 8.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
SCORE CARD
†
Electric power 121,000 kW
RESOURCES
Recipient
$420m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
Congo has been susceptible in recent years to political instability and wars in neighboring countries. It has hosted refugees from Angola, the DRC, the CAR, Chad, and Rwanda. Angola has been a key regional ally for Sassou-Nguesso.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................138th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$610 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$34m INFLATION .........................................4.4% UNEMPLOYMENT .......Widespread underemployment
42,200 tonnes
243,000 b/d (reserves 1.5bn barrels)
294,200 goats, 122,370 cattle, 2m chickens
Oil, natural gas, zinc, gold, copper, potash, diamonds
Oil is by far the most important resource, the majority of which is exported. Known natural gas reserves are not exploited due to a lack of dedicated facilities. Congo is a net importer of electricity, mostly from the neighboring DRC, despite an estimated HEP potential of 3000 MW. Plans for several new dams are being considered; the Imboulou Dam, the largest so far, is being built on the Lefini River by a Chinese consortium.
ENVIRONMENT
.
7% (4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 40th
0.5 tonnes per capita
The 1999 Yaoundé Declaration should help control exploitation of tropical timber. Congo has been used in the past as a dumping ground for dangerous toxic waste from the West.
†
MEDIA
The kingdoms of Teke and Loango were incorporated as the Middle Congo (part of French Equatorial Africa) between 1880 and 1883.
C
1960 Independence. 1964 Marxist-Leninist National Revolution Movement (MNR) sole legal party. 1977 Yhompi-Opango head of state after President Ngoumbi’s murder. 1979 Col. Denis Sassou-Nguesso president. 1991 Multiparty democracy. 1992 Pascal Lissouba president. 1993 Elections: Lissouba’s UPADS party gains majority. 1997 Sassou-Nguesso ousts Lissouba. 1999 Cease-fire signed. 2001 IMF starts to clear debt. 2002 New constitution approved. Sassou-Nguesso wins elections.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Diarrheal, parasitic, and respiratory diseases, malaria
1 per 3333 people
The health service, set up by French military doctors at the start of the 20th century, has been devastated by civil war.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING TV ownership low
8 per 1000 population
7 per 1000 population
Daily newspaper circulation 8 per 1000 people
Defense 3.1% PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Education 0.1%
Increase in importance of oil, now providing 95% of export revenues. Significant timber supplies. Skilled and well-trained workforce helps sustain substantial industrial base in the capital and Pointe-Noire.
WEAKNESSES Massive debt burden. Top-heavy bureaucracy. Overdependence on oil. Political instability. Large refugee population.
There are 64 daily newspapers, including Mweti and Aujourd’hui
With only moderate media control, the press often takes an antigovernment stance. During World War II, Radio Brazzaville, still the official state radio, was vital to de Gaulle’s French forces.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Germany 8% USA 10%
†
918 prisoners
Other 31% China 11% South Korea 24%
Taiwan 16%
4 services: 2 state-controlled, 2 independent
1 state-controlled service
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Crime is rising
In 2003 the government launched a crackdown on crime in Brazzaville. Instability in neighboring countries means that guns are easily available.
Health 1.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth generated from oil extraction has sustained an active and confident middle class. French-label products are considered to be status symbols.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
IMPORTS
USA 5%
Belgium 6%
India 4% Italy 8% Other 55% France 22%
EDUCATION 83%
†
School leaving age: 15
13,403 students
Congo has one of the highest rates of literacy in Africa. There is one university, Marien Ngouabi, in Brazzaville.
122 193rd
138 $610
83%
144
155
156
52 years
81 deaths
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
201
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CONGO (DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC) 1960
1960
June 6
CGO
+1
Sudan
CAR
Congo
D E M . R E P. CONGO
Uganda
Tanzania
Angola
OFFICIAL NAME: Democratic Republic of the Congo CAPITAL: Kinshasa POPULATION: 52.8 million CURRENCY: Congolese franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French
C
Africa
CENTRAL AFRICA
Zambia
.zr
+243
L
YING IN EAST CENTRAL AFRICA, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), known as Zaire from 1971 to 1997, is Africa’s third-largest country. The rainforested basin of the Congo River occupies 60% of the land area. The notoriously corrupt Marshal Mobutu ruled from 1965 until his overthrow in 1997 by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. A rebellion launched in 1998 plunged the country into renewed chaos, and spiraled into regional conflict. Peace tentatively arrived two years after Joseph Kabila’s succession in January 2001.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical equatorial/ wet and dry
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR KINSHASA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
103,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
The Congo River is navigable for 1357 km (848 miles), and provides one of the most convenient ways of traveling in the country.
†
Visitors : Population 1:513
/
Up 94% in 2000
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
Congo 93%
20/68
20/8
Belgium 2%
10/50
10/4
France 2%
0
0/32
Italy 1% -10/14
Germany 1%
-20/-4
Other 1%
The climate is tropical and humid. Temperatures average 25˚C (77˚F) and vary little through the year. Annual rainfall is around 150–200 cm (60–80 in); mountainous areas are wetter. The equator passes through the north of the country, causing marked regional variations. To its south, welldifferentiated wet and dry seasons are October–May and June–September respectively. North of the equator, a short dry season lasts from December to February; the rest of the year is wet.
TRANSPORTATION N’Djili, Kinshasa 437,852 passengers
†
0
10
20
30
157,000 km (97,555 miles)
3641 km (2262 miles)
15,000 km (9321 miles)
The Congo River and its many tributaries provide the main means of communication. The size of the country and the fact that most of it is covered by dense rainforest have severely limited the development of road and rail networks. Many forest settlements are inaccessible except by air. Road maintenance, always poor, has virtually ceased outside the main towns since 1990, isolating even more settlements situated away from the main rivers.
202
60
70
80
†
90
100
Pop. density low 23/km2 (60/mi2)
Kiswahili, Tshiluba, Kikongo, Lingala, French THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
31%
69%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Roman Catholic 50%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 30 km (19 miles)
50
PEOPLE
Drive on right
20 ships 12,900 grt
40
% of total arrivals
Political turmoil and widespread anarchy since early 1997 ensure that the country remains off the itinerary for most tourists and businessmen. Potential tourist attractions consist mainly of scenery – mountains and lakes – and wildlife, but there are few facilities for tourists even in the capital. The Congo, 16 km (10 miles) wide in places, is Africa’s second-longest river after the Nile. Visitors were formerly also attracted by the vibrant music of Kinshasa’s many bands.
Traditional beliefs and other 10% Kimbanguist 10% Muslim 10% Protestant 20%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Bantu and Hamitic 45% Other 55%
The southern Shaba mining area and major urban centers are densely populated, while the rainforests are relatively empty. There is great ethnic diversity, with more than 12 main groups and around 190 smaller ones. The majority are of Bantu origin, but there are also large Hamitic and Nilotic populations, mainly in the north and northeast. The original inhabitants,
the forest pygmies, today form a tiny and marginalized group. War and consequent hunger, poverty, and disease have killed thousands of people. Much violence has an ethnic basis, exacerbated by Mobutu’s use of the nationality law. In 1994 a Hutu refugee influx from Rwanda caused serious tension among Tutsis in eastern areas; revenge killings became common. Regarded by Mobutu as foreigners, Tutsis were the backbone of the 1996–1997 insurgency that overthrew him, and then turned against rebel leader-turned-president Laurent Kabila. Severe violence between Hema and Lendu tribes broke out in the northeast after the withdrawal of Ugandan and Rwandan troops in 2003 and conflict continued in 2004, especially in the east. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Female
Age
Male
80+
Data Unavailable
60–79 40–59
Data Unavailable
20–39 0–19 % of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CONGO, DEM. REP.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Total Area : 2 345 410 sq. km (905 563 sq. miles)
POPULATION over 1 000 000
E
C
over 500 000
NT
AFRI
L RA
U
ba
Zongo
CA N R E P U B L I C
ngi
i
U Goma
B sai
Mangai
Ilebo
Sa nkuru
I S
T N
In transition
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
National Assembly 500 seats
The last legislative poll was in 1987 when members were chosen from Mobutu's Popular Revolutionary Movement (MPR). A bicameral interim legislature was appointed in July/August 2003 by political parties, rebel groups, and representatives of the government, superseding the 300-member Constituent Legislative Assembly appointed by Laurent Kabila in 2000.
Senate 120 seats
Laurent-Désiré Kabila’s regime has been liberalized only slightly by his son.
O
Rapides Johnson
M
Likasi
Lac de retenue de la Lufira
Kipushi
Lubumbashi
Z A M B I A
pu
a
President Joseph Kabila
Lake Mweru
Lu
L. House 1987/2005 U. House Not applicable/2005
†
Kolwezi
GU
la
Talks were slowed by continued fighting, but a UN peacekeeping force eventually arrived and cease-fires and troop withdrawals began. In 2003 a Final Act providing for a transitional power-sharing government was agreed and elections planned for 2005. Localized violence continued.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Identity and the struggle for resources Conflict is closely tied to issues of land and resources, with ethnicity being used to justify inclusion or exclusion. Army and political players all seek power in the transitional government. How to reclaim and distribute fairly the DRC’s rich mineral resources and potential wealth is a major challenge.
PROFILE The democratic credentials of Laurent Kabila, who in 1997 overthrew Mobutu’s 32-year dictatorial regime, came under question as he dissolved parliament and scrapped the constitution. A constituent assembly did not convene until 2000. Meanwhile, in 1998 Kabila’s ethnic Tutsi supporters, backed by Uganda and Rwanda, had risen against him. His murder in 2001 left a vacuum exposing the true extent of his grip on power. His son Joseph, the armed forces’ head, was rapidly appointed as his successor.
Joseph Kabila, who succeeded his father as president in 2001.
Civil war, which has devastated the country, has irrevocably muddied the DRC’s international relations. While the West grew frustrated with the slow pace of peace, neighboring countries were drawn into one of the continent’s largest conflicts. The vast potential wealth of the Congolese forests and mineral deposits saw civil war quickly spiral into regional war by 1998. Angola, Burundi, Chad, Namibia, Rwanda, Sudan, Uganda, and Zimbabwe all sent troops. Relations with Rwanda remain especially volatile. Fighting continued despite a 1999 cease-fire signed in Lusaka. Laurent Kabila attracted intense international criticism in 2000 for suspending the accords, for taking an autocratic approach to a new transitional assembly, and for obstructing the arrival of the UN peacekeeping mission, MONUC. The accession in 2001 of Kabila’s son Joseph reinvigorated the peace process; though fighting continued into 2002, with Rwanda and Uganda even reinforcing their troops, by the end of that year foreign forces had withdrawn to a significant extent. The vacuum created in the northeast by the departure of Ugandan forces was filled by intercommunal violence. French-led international forces spearheaded a limited peacekeeping mission there in 2003 amid rising concern about the worsening humanitarian situation. In 2004 the UN came under increasing criticism for failing to prevent widespread violence in the east and the capture by renegade soldiers of the town of Bukavu.
A
Lac Nzilo
Dilolo
UN
AU
I
A
AR
a
Kasai
Kamina
200 miles
POLITICS
M
G24
OIF
N
L ul u a
L
Moba
Manono
A
Mwene-Ditu
Kalemie
k yi an ng Ta
Kabinda Gandajika
o
O
200 km
L u a l ab a
Tshikapa
NZ T A
Demba
Kananga Mbuji-Mayi
ge Kwen
g an
a mb
Kw
EAN OC
Wa
IC NT LA AT
Lubao
Luebo
G
N
Kasongo
Mweka
Chute Yalala
N
Kama
Lodja
BURUNDI
U
Lukenie
Mbanza-Ngungu
A
M
Kindu Ka
Matadi
Bukavu
M
O
Fimi
Stanley Pool
RWANDA Lake Kivu
Kalima
Kikwit
0
Lake Edward
Lake
KINSHASA
ap a
Lac Mai-Ndombe Kwa
CABINDA (to Angola) Tshela
Ts hu
A
S
I
N G
Bandundu
C
Beni Butembo
T
N Co n
N
a
Lake Albert
Margherita Peak 5110m
ba
O
B u si r
O
TS ON
Bunia
L u al a
C
imi
Kisangani
am
200m/656ft
B
Boende
m
500m/1640ft
Lac Ntomba
go
i
Lo
1000m/3281ft
R uk
A
Equator
M
Lindi
Yangambi
Mbandaka
2000m/6562ft
a
Aruw
Z A M B I A
Ubang i
G
ng Lulo
Co ng o
LAND HEIGHT
Isiro
Bumba
S EU BL
COMESA
Joined UN in 1960
A N D A
O
Lisala
under 10 000
0
N
Watsa
Buta
Gemena
over 10 000
Boma
CEPGL
G
over 100 000
Sea Level
S U D A
Bomu
Uele
over 50 000
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Mobutu, the ousted dictator, held power from 1965 to 1997.
AID
†
Recipient
$807m (receipts)
/
Up 207% in 2002
The regime’s importance to the West during the Cold War brought in aid on a large scale. Between 1970 and 1989, it received $8.3 billion in economic aid and large-scale military assistance. By 1990, changing political priorities prompted the US to act on long-deferred problems of human rights abuses and misappropriation of aid. It suspended all but humanitarian aid; most other donors followed suit, and the IMF declared the government to be “noncooperative” over its foreign debt. Joseph Kabila’s accession in early 2001 improved the country’s international standing; aid was resumed and debt cancellations followed: $10 billion (80% of the total) was forgiven in 2003.
203
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY The modern Congo was the site of the Kongo and other powerful African kingdoms, and a focus of the slave trade. Belgium’s King Leopold II claimed most of the Congo basin after 1876 as his personal possession.
C
.
No compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
CONGOLESE ARMED FORCES
The military strongly backed Mobutu’s regime, but offered no real resistance when Laurent Kabila’s insurgents swept the country in 1996–1997. His troops, poorly paid and undisciplined, but supported by foreign allies, then fought rebels in the 1998–2003 civil war. The UN peacekeeping force, MONUC, was in 2002 doubled in size to 10,800 personnel. Rebel forces have largely been integrated into a new national army.
ECONOMICS $5.05bn
†
60 main battle tanks (20 PRC Type-59, 40 PRC Type-62)
95,000 personnel
2 patrol boats
1300 personnel
No combat aircraft
1500 personnel
None
Inflation 846% p.a. (1990–2001)
378 Congolese francs (421.5)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................115th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$100 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$159m INFLATION ..........................................32% UNEMPLOYMENT..............................Very high
EXPORTS
France 2%
Finland 5% Zimbabwe 7%
GDP
16000
16000
10700
10700
5400
5400
100
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
204
$946m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1885 Brutal colonization of Congo Free State (CFS) as Leopold’s private fief. 1908 Belgium takes over CFS after international outcry. 1960 Independence as Republic of Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1964). Katanga (Shaba) province secedes. UN intervenes. 1963 Katanga secession collapses. 1965 Marshal Joseph-Désiré Mobutu seizes power. 1970 Mobutu elected president; his MPR becomes sole legal party. 1971 Country renamed Zaire. 1977–1978 Two invasions by former Katanga separatists repulsed with Western help. 1982 Opposition parties set up Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). 1986–1990 Civil unrest and foreign criticism of human rights abuses. 1990 Belgium suspends aid after security forces kill prodemocracy demonstrators. Mobutu announces transition to multiparty rule. 1991 Opposition leader Etienne Tshisekedi heads short-lived “crisis government” formed by Mobutu. 1992–1993 Rival governments claim legitimacy. 1994 Combined High Council of the Republic–Transitional Parliament established. 1995 Regime demands international assistance to support a million Rwandan Hutu refugees. 1996 Major insurgency launched in east by Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of the Congo (AFDL) including Laurent Kabila’s Popular Revolutionary Party (PRP), with disaffected ethnic Tutsi Banyamulunge. 1997 Forces led by Kabila sweep south and west. Kabila takes power. Country renamed DRC. Mobutu dies in exile. 1998 Banyamulunge join Kabila’s opponents and launch rebellion in the east, backed by Rwanda and Uganda. Southern African states, give military backing to Kabila. 2000 UN approves peacekeeping mission; arrival stalled by Kabila. 2001 Kabila assassinated; succeeded by son Joseph. Peace talks restarted. 2003 April, Final Act peace accord signed. Hundreds massacred at Drodro in northeast during tribal conflict.
DEFENSE
2002
Other 9% USA 13% Belgium 64% IMPORTS
Germany 7%
France 9% Nigeria 10%
Other 47% South Africa 13% Belgium 14%
STRENGTHS Rich resource base. Minerals – notably copper, cobalt, diamonds – provide 85% of export earnings. 80% of debt canceled in 2003. Energy: oil; possibly Africa’s largest hydropower potential. Rich soil; much unutilized arable land.
most industry and closed many mines. Strikes and riots over plummeting living standards hastened the flight of foreign capital. Subsistence farming and petty trade keep most people going. Restructuring state-owned enterprises in 2001 was aimed at attracting back foreign investment. While espousing the desire for a freemarket economy, the Kabila regime has urgent need for aid and disaster relief in the east. It is seeking new partnerships to rejuvenate the neglected but considerable mining industry. However, any real recovery will require tackling outstanding debt, initiating reforms, and democratization. CONGO, DEM. REP. : MAJOR BUSINESSES Kisangani
WEAKNESSES Decades of mismanagement and corruption: inadequate, disintegrating infrastructure; not self-sufficient in food. Political instability. Hyperinflation. Loss of export income. Mineral resources plundered by foreign powers.
Mbandaka go
Con
Kinshasa
Bukavu
PROFILE Corruption, instability, long-term mismanagement, and civil war have brought what is potentially a leading African economy to a state of collapse. By the mid-1990s real GDP was falling by 10% or more each year. The government budget ran record deficits, and inflation spiraled virtually out of control from 1994 onward. Lack of spares and power cuts have halted
Boma Kananga Mbuji-Mayi Oil Textiles Copper mining Cobalt mining
Kolwezi Likasi
Lubumbashi
Food processing Industrial diamonds
0
Light engineering
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CONGO, DEM. REP.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 3.2m kW
Hydro 100% (5.4bn kWh)
Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
What should be a prosperous country, with its rich resources, is instead one of the world’s poorest states, exploited
ENVIRONMENT
.
5% (2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 109th
CRIME
0.1 tonnes per capita
†
The DRC does not publish prison figures
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Death penalty in use
/
Yes
Yes
Yes
All types of crime are on the increase in the DRC
Yes
Yes
No
Civil war and remaining insecurity exacerbate long-standing problems of corruption and human rights abuses. Extortion, robbery, rape, and murder are widespread and on the increase. Ethnic violence, suppressed after 1965, resurfaced in the south and between the Hema and Lendu tribes in the northeast, leading to some gruesome atrocities. Crimes committed during combat in the civil war were pardoned in 2003. Prison conditions are atrocious; deaths are frequent from disease and malnutrition.
MEDIA
†
†
EDUCATION
TV ownership low
63%
School leaving age: 14
60,341 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Daily newspaper circulation 3 per 1000 people 100
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
1 state-controlled service, some independent services
2 state-controlled services, some independent services
Fighting makes services less accessible outside the capital. Unlike the broadcast media, press outlets are privately owned, and many newspapers openly criticize the authorities, though self-preservation requires a degree of self-censorship. A ban on foreign radio broadcasts was lifted in 2001. MONUC operates the only countrywide radio station, Radio Okapi.
% of each age group in education
There are 9 daily newspapers, including Le Palmarès, Elima, Boyoma, and Mjumbe
o
C
Kas ai
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Cattle Coffee Palm oil – cash crop
200 km
0 0
†
HEALTH
200 miles
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, respiratory and diarrheal diseases
1 per 10,000 people
Violence and crime are rising rapidly
CRIME RATES
Rainforests cover over 60% of the country, representing almost 6% of the world’s and 50% of Africa’s remaining woodlands. They are home to several endangered species. The poor transportation network has so far prevented large-scale commercial exploitation of timber, but clearance for fuelwood is a problem. The collapse of many urban refuse and sewage disposal systems has led to major health and pollution problems. Environmental damage caused by the civil war is estimated at $320 million.
Co ng
ik a any ang L. T
Combustion 0%
a ngi
MBA
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Ub
TU
Copper, diamonds, oil, coltan, cobalt, zinc, uranium, manganese
CONGO, DEM. REP. : LAND USE
MO
4m goats, 953,100 pigs, 19.6m chickens
and mismanaged by its rulers for decades and plundered further by foreign forces during the civil war. In the 1980s, the country was the world’s largest cobalt exporter and second-largest industrial diamond exporter. Since 1990, copper and cobalt output have collapsed and diamond smuggling is booming. There are oil reserves and hydroelectric installations with sufficient potential capacity to export power, but instead lack of maintenance has shut down many turbines and most urban areas face power cuts. Despite rich soils and the fact that 60% of people are involved in farming, the DRC is not even selfsufficient in food.
TS
26,165 b/d (reserves 191m barrels)
ON
208,848 tonnes
M
†
RESOURCES
State services have now virtually collapsed. Disease and death rates are rising, especially in rural areas. A new health insurance plan was announced in 2001, designed to enable greater access to health care. As of December 2003, over one million people were estimated to be HIV/AIDS infected.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
4 per 1000 population
Under 0.5 per 1000 population
Defense 21.7% Education 0.1% Health 1.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Before his death in exile in 1997, exdictator Mobutu was one of the world’s richest men, worth an estimated $4 billion. Most of his former subjects live in poverty exacerbated by civil war.
WORLD RANKING
80
60
Position in World 1st
40
20
47%
50th
18% 0
Primary
Secondary
1% Tertiary
In 1997, just over 37% of secondary-age children were attending classes, but this figure dropped sharply during the civil war and has yet to recover. State provision, as with health care, is patchy and has faced sharp budget cuts since 1980. Most private schools are run by the Roman Catholic Church.
100th
150th
193rd
156 171 190 $100
45 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
168
63%
185 129 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
205
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
COSTA RICA
Nicaragua COSTA RICA Panama
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Costa Rica CAPITAL: San José POPULATION: 4.2 million CURRENCY: Costa Rican colón OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish
C
1838
1838
Sept 15
CR
-6
.cr
+506
S
PANNING THE CENTRAL AMERICAN isthmus and wedged between Nicaragua and Panama, Costa Rica was under Spanish rule until 1821 and gained full independence in 1838. From 1948 until the end of the 1980s, it had the most developed welfare state in Central America. Costa Rica is nominally a multiparty democracy, but two parties dominate. Its army was abolished in 1948; the 1949 constitution then forbade national armies.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical wet & dry
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:3.8
1.11m visitors
.
Down 2% in 2002
WEATHER CHART FOR SAN JOSÉ
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
USA 38%
20/68
20/8
Nicaragua 16%
10/50
10/4
Europe 15%
0
0/32
Other 31% -10/14 20
10
0
-20/-4
40
30
% of total arrivals
The Caribbean coast has heavy rainfall, while the Pacific coast is much drier. The central uplands are temperate.
†
TRANSPORTATION Juan Santamaría, San José 988,000 passengers
Tourism has brought in over $1 billion each year since 1999, and has expanded with the help of both domestic and foreign investment. The country’s tropical scenery and wildlife are promoted heavily for “eco-tourists.”
Drive on right
13 ships 4000 grt
†
PEOPLE
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 7894 km (4905 miles)
Pan-American Highway, 663 km (412 miles)
848 km (527 miles)
730 km (454 miles)
Pop. density medium 82/km2 (213/mi2)
Spanish, English Creole, Bribri, Cabecar THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
60%
A
Roman Catholic 76%
J uan
R
Upala
Sa n
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Legislative Assembly 57 seats
33% PUSC
30% PLN
25% PRC
l o rado
10% 2% ML PAC
PUSC = Social Christian Unity Party PLN = National Liberation Party PRC = Costa Rican Renewal Party ML = Liberty Movement PAC = Citizens' Action Party
Politics has long been dominated by the PUSC and PLN, both of which have close ties to major banana- and coffee-growing families. Historically the US has exercised a very powerful influence on politics. The PLN in 1994 promised reforms to its previous austerity policies, but soon came under pressure from international financial organizations to reduce the budget deficit. Harsh structural adjustment measures proved highly unpopular. In 1998 the PUSC regained power. President Miguel Angel Rodríguez launched a three-year plan to reduce inflation and poverty, create thousands of jobs, and stimulate foreign investment in state companies. His chosen successor, Abel Pacheco, needed an unprecedented second round to clinch the presidency in 2002, when voter turnout hit an all-time low.
†
Joined UN in 1945
Geplac
RG
OAS
San José
Trade ties with the US and protection of prices for coffee and bananas are priorities. Trade ties have also been agreed with Canada and Chile. Tensions with Nicaragua over their mutual border were resolved in 2000, but illegal immigrants remain an issue.
B
an
os Carl
Co
Bagaces
I
Most of the population is mestizo, of partly Spanish origin. One-third of Puerto Viejo people in the Limón area are black Filadelfia Tempi L. Arenal Quesada Cañas and often English-speaking. Santa Cruz Guápiles Guácimo Juntas Nicoya There are only about 5000 Zarcero Siquirres Hojancha San Ramón Heredia Matina Carmona indigenous Amerindians. Alajuela Limón SAN JOSÉ Puntarenas San Rafael
Liberia
President Abel Pacheco de la Espriella
2002/2006
ACS
Other (including Protestant) 24%
A
Los Chiles
Multiparty elections
40%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
C
N I C A R A G U
†
POLITICS
WORLD AFFAIRS
San José is the hub of a well-used bus network. Rail services have not recovered from an earthquake in 1991.
La Cruz
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA
B
Tilarán S
E
e squ
A
N
S
e Tárc o
d
le s Paquera Orotina e d Turrialba Cartago Paraíso n Península de ra G San Marcos Nicoya D A Bribrí Tel ire I Santa Maria LL Jaco Parrita ER Cerro Chirripó A Quepos D E Grande 3819m I
CO
P
E
R
COSTA RICA
A
Total Area : 51 100 sq. km (19 730 sq. miles)
San Isidro
F
Cortés Palmar Norte
C N
0 0
206
5 km 5 miles
O
LA
MA
Golfito
C
Península de Osa
E
NC
de Térr ab Gran
A
a
Isla del Coco
TA
Buenos Aires
San Vito Neily
P
I
A N A M A
C
A
N
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT
over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000
3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
under 10 000
500m/1640ft 0 0
50 km 50 miles
200m/656ft Sea level
Pineapple plantation in the south, crossed by the Pan-American Highway which runs for 663 km (412 miles) through Costa Rica.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: COSTA RICA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$5m (receipts)
/ Up 150% in 2002
During the 1980s Costa Rica was a large recipient of US aid designed to inoculate it against left-wing insurgencies such as those in El Salvador, Guatemala, and
DEFENSE $89m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 17% in 2002
Costa Rica emerged from the 1948 civil war as a neutral, demilitarized modern state. A 4400-strong Civil Guard is complemented by a largely militarytrained police force. Spending on
†
ECONOMICS
1948 Disputed elections lead to civil war; ended by Social Democratic Party (later the PLN) forming provisional government under José Ferrer. Army abolished. 1949 New constitution promulgated. 1987 Central American Peace Plan initiated by President Arias. 1998 PUSC returns to power.
†
EDUCATION Mexico 4%
UK 4% Netherlands 8%
Other 53% USA 29%
Coffee, beef, and bananas all vulnerable to falling prices. History of high inflation. Dependence on imported oil. Large
†
Electric power 1.7m kW
45,253 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 360 b/d
1.15m cattle, 500,000 pigs, 18.5m chickens
Bauxite, gold, silver, manganese, mercury
Costa Rica has large bauxite deposits in the south – aluminum smelting is an important industry. Small quantities of gold, silver, manganese, and mercury are also mined. Self-sufficiency in energy is being pursued through the development of hydroelectric power, which now provides almost all energy.
Costa Rica has the highest literacy rate in the isthmus, and is home to the University of Central America.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, respiratory diseases, accidents
1 per 1111 people
Japan 4% Mexico 4%
Venezuela 3%
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
61,654 students
IMPORTS
Israel 3%
Major coffee, beef, and banana exports. Expanding tourism also fueling construction. Strong inward investment. Favorable WTO ruling on access to EU market for bananas.
School leaving age: 15
EXPORTS
Germany 2%
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................75th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4070 BALANCE OF PAYMENTs....................–$946m INFLATION .........................................9.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
RESOURCES
Costa Rica, ruled since the 16th century by Spain, became an independent state in 1838.
96%
SCORE CARD
security as a percentage of GDP has long been the lowest in the isthmus. Lack of a common command structure hinders the influence of the security forces but also renders them less open to public control. Right-wing paramilitary groups are known to exist.
Inflation 16% p.a. (1990–2001)
437.7 Costa Rican colones (398.7)
$16.1bn
CHRONOLOGY neighboring Nicaragua. Peace in the region has led to a sharp decline in such aid, especially given the country’s relatively high per capita income. World Bank aid has helped to modernize Juan Santamaría international airport.
USA 31%
Other 55%
The public health system is one of the most developed in Latin America. Some private clinics offer cosmetic surgery vacations.
SPENDING domestic debt. Competitiveness hindered by insufficient investment in infrastructure. State monopolies have deterred investment in energy, telecommunications, and insurance sectors. Inefficient management.
MEDIA
†
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
87 per 1000 population
251 per 1000 population
Defense 0.6% Education 4.7%
TV ownership medium
Health 4.9% 0
Daily newspaper circulation 91 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 8 daily newspapers, including La Nación, La República, La Prensa Libre, and Diario Extra Around 35 state-owned and independent stations
18 stations: 1 state-owned, 17 independent
The media are free but dominated by conservative opinion. Entry into journalism is strictly licensed.
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Plantation-owners are the wealthiest group; over 20% of the population live in poverty. Nonetheless, Costa Rica has the region’s highest standard of living.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
ENVIRONMENT 23% (12% partially protected)
/
†
Sustainability rank: 9th
1.4 tonnes per capita
Despite good environmental regulation, reckless economic development has contributed to extensive deforestation. Forests now cover less than a third of the country. Pesticide abuse by agribusiness has poisoned rivers and threatened species. Urban sprawl has degraded the fertile central valley.
CRIME 8526 prisoners
†
16 78 years
No death penalty
/
100th
Up 3% in 1999
Costa Rica is the least violent Central American country. Attacks on and kidnappings of tourists are rare but have dented its image as a safe haven. Narcotics smuggling and money laundering are increasing problems, and Costa Rica cooperates closely with US law enforcement agencies in these areas.
60 $4070
44 70
45
9 deaths
96% 150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
207
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CROATIA
Europe
EUROPE Slovenia
Hungary & rb . Se
CROATIA
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Mon.
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Croatia CAPITAL: Zagreb POPULATION: 4.4 million CURRENCY: Kuna OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Croatian
C
1991
1991
May 30
HR
+1
.hr
+385
T
HOUGH IT WAS CONTROLLED by Hungary from medieval times and was a part of the Yugoslav state for much of the 20th century, Croatia still has a strong national identity. It includes the historic provinces of Slavonia, Istria, and Dalmatia (Dinara). Actively involved in the conflicts which broke up Yugoslavia in the early 1990s, Croatia only regained full control of Serb-occupied Eastern Slavonia, around Vukovar, in 1998.
†
CLIMATE
Mediterranean/ continental
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR ZAGREB
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
Pop. density medium 78/km2 (202/mi2)
Croatian
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
CE
59%
41%
Orthodox Christian 4%
Muslim 1%
-10/14 -20/-4
Other 7%
Northern Croatia has a temperate continental climate. Its Adriatic coast has a Mediterranean climate.
TRANSPORTATION Pleso International, Zagreb 1.31m passengers
†
Roman Catholic 88%
Drive on right
256 ships 834,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
23,808 km (14,794 miles)
410 km (255 miles)
2726 km (1694 miles)
785 km (488 miles)
Zagreb has recovered from the effects of war, and of sanctions against Yugoslavia, and is once again an important regional road and rail hub. The Adriatic Highway affords fantastic views along the Dalmatian coast.
†
TOURISM
/
7.4m visitors
War greatly altered the ethnic makeup. The Orthodox Christian Serb minority once constituted 12% of the population and had been based along the borders with Bosnia and Serbia. Alienated by Croatian nationalism, they established the Republic of Serbian Krajina in 1991. It was overrun by the Croatian army in 1995 and hundreds of thousands of Serbs were forced to flee east. Those who remained now make up just 4% of the population – not enough to warrant “minority rights” under the constitution. There was an influx of Croats and Bosniaks from Bosnia in the 1990s.
POLITICS
†
President Stipe Mesic
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 152 seats
7% 5% HSS EM
Up 7% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
43% HDZ
Germany 21%
Slovenia 13% Other 50% 0
10
20
30
40
50
% of total arrivals
The Adriatic coast is regaining its popularity as a tourist destination. There are also many historical sites.
208
24% SDP
7% 5% 9% HNS HSP Others
HDZ = Croatian Democratic Union SDP = Social Democratic Party HNS = Croatian People's Party HSS = Croatian Peasant Party HSP = Croatian Party of Rights EM = Ethnic minorities
Italy 16%
60
Joined UN in 1992
WTO
CEI
PfP
OSCE
The end of the Tudjman era cleared the way for a rapprochement with the international community and Croatia’s neighbors, but it took four years for the issue of the extradition of high-profile suspected war criminals to be resolved. A dispute with Montenegro over the Prevlaka Peninsula ended in 2002. Croatia applied in 2003 to join the EU.
AID
†
Recipient
$166m (receipts)
/
Up 47% in 2002
Aid has increased dramatically in recent years; the US is the largest donor.
DEFENSE $517m
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 2% in 2002
Under 2002 proposals the army will be reduced by half by 2005. Croatia sent troops to Iraq, and is well placed to join NATO in the next wave of expansion.
Multiparty elections
2003/2007 Visitors : Population 1.7:1
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Dubrovnik, Dalmatia. This historic city on the Adriatic coast was shelled and besieged by the Yugoslav federal army in 1991.
Four seats are reserved for representatives of Croats living abroad (all are currently held by the HDZ). Eight seats are reserved for ethnic minorities (one is held by the HSS)
The nationalist HDZ, which had been in power from independence, was left rudderless in 1999 by the death of President Franjo Tudjman. Mired
in corruption and spying scandals, the party was defeated in elections in 2000 by a center-left coalition headed by the SDP, whose candidate Stipe Mesic was elected president. The popularity of the SDP government, however, proved short-lived and it was defeated by a resurgent HDZ under Ivo Sanader in elections in 2003. Toning down its nationalist rhetoric, the HDZ pledged to continue Croatia’s pro-Western course. Croatia had been internationally isolated for Tudjman’s refusal to bring alleged war criminals to justice. The SDP government appeased the international community by making some arrests, but balked at extraditing the country’s most popular “war heroes.”
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS $20.3bn
Inflation 72% p.a. (1990–2001)
v
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................64th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4540 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.55bn INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................15%
22,316 b/d (reserves 49m barrels)
1.35m pigs, 710,000 turkeys, 11.8m chickens
Coal, bauxite, iron, oil, china clay, natural gas
Germany 13%
IMPORTS
Slovenia 8% Germany 16%
Media freedoms have gradually been improving since 2000. The independent Nova TV channel was licensed in 1999.
WEAKNESSES
2584 prisoners
Âakovec Varaªdin
Koprivnica
ZAGREB
Rijeka Pazin
ISTR
A
Ogulin
Crikvenica
na U
A
r ne
ar
Borovo Vukovar Vinkovci ·upanja
Sa va
116,434 students
The education system is well developed. There are four universities, at Zagreb, Rijeka, Osijek, and Split.
A
N
R I
500m/1640ft
L
200m/656ft
Solin
Split
P Braâ
265 per 1000 population
5
over 100 000
25
Wage rises in the mid-1990s and again in 1999 led to spending booms. Consumers’ high expectations were reined in by tighter wage policies.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
34 54 $4540
50
50
74 years
98%
7 deaths
48
150th
over 50 000 over 10 000
(Y
J
A
A
20
193rd
Makarska
Korâula
E
15
under 10 000
I
S
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
over 500 000
Sea Level
Metkoviá
C
417 per 1000 population
Health 7.4% 0
100th
S
Vis
50 km
GDP/cap. increase
Education 4.2%
POPULATION
N N TE ) & MO S E R B I A U G O S L A VIA
Hvar
A
†
SPENDING
50th
1000m/3281ft
Sinj
A
M
C
Dinara 1831m
ra
C
na
I
I
Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases
Most Croats are covered by a health insurance scheme. However, an extra strain on already scarce funds was created by the demands of refugees and disabled war veterans.
Total Area : 56 542 sq. km (21 831 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
i
Trogir
L
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 417 people
A D
‹ibenik
A
†
HEALTH
CROATIA
N
R D
50 miles
Osijek
HERZEGOVINA
Knin
Dugi Otok
T
98%
School leaving age: 15
Defense 2.4%
&
JI
i
D
Zadar
N
Y
BOSNIA
R
Gospiá
t
I
A
Pag
A
0
Slavonski Brod
K
Lo#inj
D
Kv
Cres
R
Virovitica Beli Manastir Slatina
a
Senj
b l e V e
Pula
A
va
Velika Gorica
Krk
Rovinj
0
Bjelovar
or
Pap Kutina u Sisak A k Slavonska Petrinja Sa V O N I Nova A Poªega va L S Glina Gradi#ka Ãakovo
Karlovac
†
EDUCATION
Up 44% in 2000–2002
ENEGRO MONT ) LAVIA IA & RB U G O S SE ( Y
Sesvete
/
e nub Da
a Kriªevci B i l apin o Kr G
G
a
L
1991 Independence. Rebel Croatian Serb republic of Krajina proclaimed. 1992 Franjo Tudjman president. Involvement in Bosnian civil war. 1995 Krajina and Western Slavonia recaptured. Dayton peace accord. 1998 Eastern Slavonia reintegrated. 1999 Death of Tudjman. 2000 SDP beats HDZ in elections. 2003 HDZ regains primacy in polls.
No death penalty
War crimes trials are not always unbiased; ethnic Serbs can be at a disadvantage. Narcotics trafficking and people U smuggling are growing problems. N Dr
S
†
CRIME
H
Golfo di Venezia
Between 1945 and 1991 Croatia was a republic of the Yugoslav federation.
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Slow privatization, until 2001. Lack of inward investment. War damage estimated at $50 billion. Persistent high unemployment.
Samobor
4 stations: 1 state-controlled, 3 independent
2 services: 1 state-controlled, 1 independent
Steady growth. Progress in reducing government overspending, backed by IMF. Recovery in tourism. Inflation brought under control.
O
TV ownership medium
There are 12 daily newspapers, published locally, including Vecernji List in Zagreb and Slobodna Dalmacija in Split
STRENGTHS
V
4.4 tonnes per capita
CHRONOLOGY
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Italy 17%
N
Sustainability rank: 12th
Daily newspaper circulation 114 per 1000 people
Other 45%
E
†
MEDIA
Russia 7%
I
†
Croatia was the first Yugoslav republic to create reserves in order to protect endangered and unique wetlands.
Bosnia & Herzegovina 14%
A
.
8% (5% partially protected)
Other 36%
Austria 7%
28,256 tonnes
ENVIRONMENT
Slovenia 8%
Italy 22%
Electric power 3.8m kW
Croatia generates just over half of its electricity from HEP and the remainder from combustion. It has very few minerals, though it does have oil and gas fields. The rich fishing grounds of the Adriatic are a major resource.
EXPORTS
Austria 7%
†
RESOURCES
6.036 kuna (6.531)
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CROATIA
Mljet
Dubrovnik
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
RO EG
209
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CUBA
North America
CARIBBEAN USA CUBA o
Haiti
Me
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Cuba CAPITAL: Havana POPULATION: 11.3 million CURRENCY: Cuban peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish
C
1902
1902
Jan 1
C
-5
xi
c
.cu
+53
T
HE CARIBBEAN’S LARGEST ISLAND, Cuba has widely cultivated lowlands which fall between three mountainous areas. The fertile soil of the lowlands supports the sugarcane, rice, and coffee plantations. Sugar, the country’s major export, suffers from underinvestment, low yields, and fluctuating world prices. A former Spanish colony, Cuba in 1959 became the only communist state in the Americas. In 1962, the deployment of Soviet nuclear missiles on the island shocked the US and brought the two superpowers close to war. Veteran president Fidel Castro is still very much in control, but, since the collapse of the USSR, the US sees Cuba as less of a threat.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR HAVANA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
José Martí, Havana 2.4m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on right
†
TOURISM
91 ships 103,000 grt
/
1.87m visitors
Visitors : Population 1:6 Up 13% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 29,820 km (18,529 miles)
638 km (396 miles)
4382 km (2723 miles)
240 km (149 miles)
Canada 21% Germany 9%
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
Tropical oceanic
Valle de Viñales, Pinar del Río province. Cuba’s undulating countryside is ideal for growing the main export crop, sugar.
Italy 9% Spain 8%
-10/14 -20/-4
Cuba’s subtropical climate is hot all year round and very hot in the summer. Rainfall is heaviest in the mountains, which receive up to 250 cm (98 in) a year. Generally, the north is wetter than the south; the Guantánamo area receives only 20 cm (8 in) of rainfall annually. In winter, the west is affected sometimes by cold air from the US, but only for a day or two at a time. a d ri o HAVANA Fl (La Habana)
GULF OF MEXICO
h
ip
i
a él
go
lo
s
lo Co
rado
s
Guanabo
Marianao
T
Matanzas Varadero Cárdenas
Guanajay
Consolación del Sur
Jovellanos Colón Perico Han á ba n
10
20
C a Cayo Romano
Chambas Morón
Cienfuegos
Esmeralda
of
rc
Cha
hi
nnel
pié lago
Pi
Santa Fé
Ciego de Ávila
Condado
Cayo Largo
de
Canar
los
C
Céspedes Florida
reos
A
R
I
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
ié
ip
B
Total Area : 110 860 sq. km (42 803 sq. miles)
ch
CUBA
B
go
LAND HEIGHT
de
l os
E N
1000m/3281ft
Ja r di n
es de la R ein
A
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
0
50 km
Puerto Padre
50 miles
a
Manzanillo
Niquero
Jesús Menéndez
Las Tunas Holguín Sal ad o
Santa Cruz del Sur
Golfo de
Guacanayabo
N
Sea Level 0
Camagüey
Guáimaro la
E
Nuevitas
Vertientes Crucero Contramaestre
Ar
Guanabo, 25 km (15 miles) east of Havana, is a low-key resort favored by Cubans. The most modern cars in Cuba are imported, along with computers, in exchange for sugar in a special trading deal with Japan.
210
gs
C
ey
y
Cabaiguán Taguasco Sancti Spíritus
gü
Ba
tan
A
ca
Isla de la Juventud
O
a
Juraguá
60
Tourism began to develop after 1977 (when the US briefly relaxed some travel restrictions), and Cuba is now among the Caribbean’s most popular tourist destinations. Tourism has supplanted sugar as the most important motor of the economy and a key generator of foreign exchange, but official estimates that the annual number of arrivals will exceed five million by 2010 appear A optimistic. The government seeks de N Sa to promote family tourism ba T na by cracking down I Sagua la Grande on prostitutes who Cifuentes Archipiél a C target Havana’s Santo Domingo Cayo go de main hotels. Caibarién Sabinal Santa Clara Placetas
Nueva Gerona
50
40
30
% of total arrivals
Golfo de
Batabanó
C. San Antonio
a
o
Other 45% 0
m
Pinar del Río
L
Archipiélag
Guanabacoa
Mariel
La Fé
Yu
A
Artemisa San Cristóbal
Minas de Matahambre
A
rc
t s a i S t r de
of
France 8%
Public transportation in Cuba has been extremely cheap, though fuel shortages have made it increasingly erratic and unreliable. Cubans rely mostly on traditional black bicycles, imported by the thousand from China. Havana owes much of its charm to the number of 50-year-old Chevrolets and Oldsmobiles still being driven around. This is another result of sanctions, but keeps the many inventive local spareparts workshops in business.
Bayamo
Cau
Cueto to
Jiguaní
Palma Soriano Bartolomé San Luis Masó MAESTRA A R R Pico Turquino Santiago SIE 1994 m
S
E
de Cuba
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CUBA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
102/km2 (264/mi2)
Spanish THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
76%
24%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 4% Protestant 1%
Atheist 6%
Nonreligious 49% Roman Catholic 40% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Black 12%
European– African 22%
Living standards in Cuba fell dramatically in the early 1990s after the collapse of the east European communist bloc, previously its main trading partner, and rationing for most basic foodstuffs was subsequently introduced. The “dollarization” of the economy in recent years has led to great divisions between those who survive on pesos and those who have access to dollars and thus a much wider range of goods. Since the early 1990s the number of those trying to leave, legally or otherwise, has risen markedly. An increasing number of women are playing a prominent role in politics, the professions, and the armed forces. Child-care facilities are widespread. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
White 66%
†
POLITICS
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly of the People's Power 609 seats
100% PCC PCC = Cuban Communist Party
Fidel Castro has led Cuba since 1959. The country’s one-party communist system, set out in the 1976 constitution, was designated “untouchable” in 2002.
PROFILE
e
ag
ss
Mayarí
The 1959 popular revolution, led by Castro, toppled the corrupt Batista dictatorship and launched a farreaching program of social, economic, and political reforms. In the 1990s the revolution seemed under siege in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union and tightened trade sanctions by the US. Supporters continue to see Cuba as living proof of the triumph of N socialist development over adversity, Moa but critics offer the view that Baracoa the Castro administration El Salvador Guantánamo is an intolerant dictatorship. a
Banes
GUANTÁNAMO BAY (to US) d
dw Win
P
0.5% 5.9% 11.1% 18% 14.3%
Male 0.4%
80+ 60–79 40–59
5.7% 10.9%
20–39 0–19
18.2% 15%
% of population by age group
ACP
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Prosecution of dissidents The communist regime does not tolerate dissent. The most recent crackdown on prodemocracy activists – the arrest and summary trial of 75 people in 2003 – attracted considerable international criticism. The US and the EU reacted by hardening diplomatic sanctions. The succession The aging Castro remains firmly in place, and debate about his successor is somewhat muted. While some predict that a younger, collective, and reform-minded leadership would normalize relations with the US and steer Cuba toward democracy, others warn of a period of unrest as reformers and communist hard-liners compete to fill the likely power vacuum.
Raúl Castro, brother of Fidel and the minister of defense.
Fidel Castro, Cuba’s charismatic communist leader since 1959.
SELA
IAEA
Joined UN in 1945
NAM
ACS
Since the 1959 revolution, and particularly after the 1962 standoff over Soviet missiles, the US has considered Cuba a danger. The US trade blockade, first imposed in 1961, has left Cuba economically isolated despite regular votes in the UN condemning sanctions. The end of Soviet aid in the 1990s was another serious blow to Castro’s embattled regime. The search for alternative sources of support led to better relations with the EU and Latin America, but Castro’s refusal to countenance reform has caused a recent deterioration of relations with both regions. Castro’s closest ally is the Chávez government in Venezuela. Ties to Russia have been weakened further, but relations with the US remain fraught, despite the arrival in 2001 of the first direct trade between the two countries’ governments, in the form of emergency aid. In 2002 the US included Cuba in its list of “axis of evil” terrorist-sponsoring states, and further sanctions were imposed in 2004 by the Bush administration.
AID
No multiparty elections
President Fidel Castro Ruz
2003/2008
A
Age
Female
Ethnic tension in Cuba is minimal. About 70% of Cubans are of Spanish descent, mainly from the settlers, but also from the more recent influx of exiles from Franco’s Spain. The black population is descended from the slaves and from migrants from neighboring states, in particular Jamaica.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
†
$61m (receipts)
Recipient
/
Up 13% in 2002
Spain, the EU, and UNICEF have given aid, and China loaned $400 million in 2001. The US offered $50,000 in aid after Hurricane Charley in 2004, but Cuba rejected it as hypocritical.
CHRONOLOGY Originally inhabited by the Arawak people, Cuba was claimed for Spain by Columbus in 1492. Development of the sugar industry from the 18th century, using imported slave labor, made Cuba the world’s third-largest producer by 1860. 1868 End of the slave trade. 1868–1878 Ten Years’ War for independence from Spain. 1895 Second war of independence. Thousands die in Spanish concentration camps. 1898 In support of Cuban rebels US declares war on Spain to protect strong American financial interests in Cuba. 1899 US takes Cuba and installs military interim government. 1901 US is granted intervention rights and military bases, including Guantánamo Bay naval base.
ar
211
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
C
.
Down 3% in 2002
CUBAN ARMED FORCES 900 main battle tanks (T-34, T-54/55, T-62)
35,000 personnel
5 patrol boats
3000 personnel
130 combat aircraft (MiG-21/23/29)
8000 personnel
None
From 1959 to the 1980s, Cuba’s efficient military, well represented in the Council
ECONOMICS
†
of Ministers and the Politburo, was one of the achievements of the revolution. Under Castro’s brother Raúl, it succeeded in repelling the US-sponsored Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, and saw effective action in Africa in the 1970s, preventing South Africa from taking control of Angola, and Somalia from occupying the Ogaden region in Ethiopia. Since the worldwide collapse of communist regimes, the Cuban army has lost much of its prestige. Russia is still the main source of arms. A siege mentality associated with the US economic embargo keeps the military on the alert for perceived internal and external threats.
Inflation 1.1% p.a. (1990–1999) ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
$18bn
1 Cuban peso (21) Consumer Price Index
GDP
SCORE CARD
160
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................71st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1600 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ...................In deficit INFLATION .........................................7.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
EXPORTS
China 7%
Spain 9%
140
120
100
80 1997
Other 33%
1998
1999
2000
GDP 1997=100
212
$1.04bn
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index unavailable
1902 Tomás Estrada Palma takes over as first Cuban president. US leaves Cuba, but intervenes in 1906–1909 and 1919–1924. 1909 Liberal presidency of José Miguel Goméz. Economy prospers; US investment in tourism, gambling, and sugar. 1925–1933 Dictatorship of President Gerardo Machado. 1933 Years of guerrilla activity end in revolution. Sgt. Fulgencio Batista takes over; military dictatorship. 1955 Fidel Castro exiled after two years’ imprisonment for subversion. 1956–1958 Castro returns to lead a guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra. 1959 Batista flees. Castro takes over. Wholesale nationalizations; Cuba reorganized on Soviet model. 1960 US breaks off relations. 1961 US-backed invasion of Bay of Pigs by anti-Castro Cubans fails. Cuba declares itself MarxistLeninist. US economic and political blockade. 1962 Missile crisis: Soviet deployment of nuclear weapons in Cuba leads to extreme Soviet–US tension; war averted by Khrushchev ordering withdrawal of weapons. 1965 One-party state formalized. 1972 Cuba joins COMECON (communist economic bloc). 1976 New socialist constitution. Cuban troops in Angola until 1991. 1977 Sends troops to Ethiopia. 1980 125,000 Cubans, including “undesirables,” flee to US. 1982 US tightens sanctions and bans flights and tourism to Cuba. 1983 US invasion of Grenada. Cuba involved in clashes with US forces. 1984 Agreement with US on Cuban emigration and repatriation of “undesirables” is short-lived. 1988 UN’s second veto of US attempt to accuse Cuba of human rights violations. Diplomatic relations established with the European Communities. 1989 Senior military executed for arms and narcotics smuggling. 1991 Preferential trade agreement with USSR ends. Severe rationing. 1992–1993 US tightens blockade. All former Soviet military leave. 1994–1995 Economic reforms to boost foreign trade and investment. 1996 US Helms-Burton Act tightens sanctions. 1998 Visit of Pope John Paul II. 1999 Leading moderate dissidents put on trial. 2001 Hurricane Michelle hits Cuba. 2002 Guantánamo Bay used as high-security prison for captives from US “war on terrorism.” 2003 Major crackdown on dissidents.
†
DEFENSE
2001
Canada 14%
Netherlands 19%
Russia 18%
IMPORTS
France 7%
Other 46%
Italy 9% China 11% Venezuela 11% Spain 16%
STRENGTHS Tourism remains major growth sector, though ambitious targets are not being met. Nickel and cigars. Biotechnologies and pharmaceuticals. Non-US foreign investment in oil and gas.
to a deep recession. A cautious adoption of some capitalist-style reforms in the mid-1990s, including the free use of the US dollar, stimulated the growth of a dollarized sector centered on tourism, which has attracted strong foreign investment. Tourism now dominates the economy, and benefits some 160,000 self-employed and small businesses. However, the once important sugar industry has collapsed, with the loss of around 100,000 jobs in recent years. Foreign companies are involved in joint ventures in banking and the oil and gas sectors. There is a very large informal sector. The government lost a significant source of revenue in 2001, when Russia terminated the lease on its information-gathering center.
WEAKNESSES Denied major market and investment capital by US trade embargo. Acute shortage of hard currency. Vulnerability of nickel to world price fluctuations. Collapse of sugar industry. Difficult terms of trade and weak legal framework deter investment. Infrastructure is deficient. Shortages of fuel, fertilizers, spare parts, and other inputs.
PROFILE The collapse of the USSR meant the loss of some $5 billion in annual aid and led
CUBA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Havana Matahambre
Cárdenas Bay Ciego de Ávila
Cienfuegos Pínar del Rio
Isla de la Juventud
Oil refining Manufacturing
Nickel mining
Sugarcane refining
Citrus fruits 0 Cigars
Pharmaceuticals
Oil
0
Santiago de Cuba 100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CUBA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 110,330 tonnes
54,035 b/d (reserves 118m barrels)
4.03m cattle, 3.12m sheep, 1.68m pigs, 23.2m chickens
Iron, nickel, cobalt, chromite, gold, manganese, oil
Cropland Pasture Forest Wetlands
CUBA : LAND USE
Sugarcane – cash crop
0
Cattle
0
100 km
†
HEALTH
Electric power 4.3m kW
The collapse of the USSR precipitated a steep decline in demand for sugar; production hit a 50-year low in 1998. Cuba seeks to expand nickel and cobalt production, traditionally its biggest merchandise exports, assisted by private mining ventures. Work at Juraguá on a Russian-built nuclear reactor was abandoned in December 2000. The government intends to expand crude oil production until Cuba is self-sufficient in energy. It currently imports Venezuelan oil.
CRIME
100 miles
†
33,000 prisoners ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases, pneumonia
1 per 189 people
Average life expectancy in Cuba is among the highest in Latin America, which is a reflection of its efficient, countrywide health service. The US trade embargo has led to shortages of hospital equipment and of raw materials for drugs, normally supplied by Havana’s sizable pharmaceuticals industry. Cuba’s advanced surgery techniques attract patients from overseas. The government’s AIDS program has helped keep the mortality of sufferers low and curtailed the spread of infection.
Death penalty in use
/
†
SPENDING Crime is rising
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
Hydro 1% (0.09bn kWh)
16 per 1000 population
Combustion 99% (15bn kWh)
Cuba does not publish official statistics for murders, rapes, or thefts
Nuclear 0%
Defense 3.9%
Other 0% 0
51 per 1000 population
Education 8.5%
20
60
40
100
80
Health 6.2%
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
.
69% (15% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 58th
2.8 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 118 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 18 regional daily newspapers. Granma, published by the government, has the biggest circulation
†
EDUCATION 97%
School leaving age: 14
192,000 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
At the time of the revolution in 1959, only 14% of the country’s forest cover remained, but a strong drive to replant has raised the tree cover level to over 20%. The intensive use of irrigation without adequate drainage has caused salinization and waterlogging. The government’s pro-environmental stance contrasts with that of the US.
Violent crime is officially viewed as a threat to national stability. In 1999 the death penalty was extended to certain narcotics offenses, robbery involving firearms, attacks on security officers, and sexual corruption of minors. In the biggest crackdown in a decade, 75 prodemocracy activists were arrested in March 2003 and summarily tried. Shortly afterward a de facto three-year moratorium on executions was ended by the execution of three ferry hijackers.
80
0
5
10
15
1 state-owned service
A catch-all anticrime law restricts and penalizes investigative reporting by independent journalists which is judged to be assisting the US foreign policy against Cuba.
25
Under Batista there were huge wealth disparities, and Cuba was a playground for the rich. The 1959 revolution succeeded in reducing the disparities, partly by taking over all businesses, from oil companies to barbershops, and partly by prescribing not only minimum but also maximum wages. Economic regulations have varied since then; for a brief period in 1985, different wage rates were allowed in an attempt to provide incentives for those who work hard, but this decision was reversed in 1986. Economic liberalization in the mid-1990s has created a large gulf between that section of the population with access to US dollars and those left in the peso economy who have to subsist on lower salaries.
60
WORLD RANKING
100% 89%
40
Position in World 1st
20
27% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
50th
29 1 state-owned service
20
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Education, which is universal and free at all levels, combines academic with manual work, in line with MarxistLeninist principles. The importance given to education under Castro, which is reflected in the high literacy rate, is now being promoted to attract foreign investment in high-tech industries, particularly biotechnology. There are three large universities and more than 40 smaller tertiary institutions.
34
77 years
100th
66
7 deaths
52
97% 150th
101 $1600
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
213
C
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
CYPRUS
MIDDLE EAST T u r k ey
Africa
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Cyprus CAPITAL: Nicosia POPULATION: 802,000 CURRENCY: Cyprus pound (Turkish lira in TRNC) OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Greek and Turkish
C
1960
1960
Oct 1
CY
+2
.cy
+357
HE ISLAND OF Cyprus, which rises from a central plateau to a high point at Mount Olympus, lies south of Turkey in the eastern Mediterranean. It was partitioned in 1974, following an invasion by Turkish troops. The south of the island is the Greek Cypriot Republic of Cyprus (Cyprus); the self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) is recognized only by Turkey.
†
PEOPLE
Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR NICOSIA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
Greek, Turkish
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
-10/14
Drive on left
1325 ships 23m grt
Larnaca 4.8m passengers THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 6959 km (4324 miles)
178 km (111 miles)
None
None
Cyprus views flights to the TRNC as illegal. People were allowed to cross the Green Line for the first time in 2003.
TOURISM 2.3m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 2.9:1
.
Down 5% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Greek 85%
Cyprus’s Greek majority are Orthodox Christian. The Turkish minority are Muslim. They first arrived on the island as settlers in the 16th century, under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Both Cypriot communities have suffered great upheavals: in 1974 the island was partitioned along what became the Green Line and 200,000 Greek Cypriots were forced to flee to the south, while 65,000 Turkish Cypriots fled in the other direction. Northern Cyprus is officially recognized as an independent entity only by Turkey. Over 100,000 mainland Turks have settled there and now outnumber indigenous Turkish Cypriots. Contract labor, mainly from eastern Europe, is brought in to staff hotels in the south, where wage levels are at least three times higher than in the north. Unemployment levels in the north, meanwhile, are rising.
UK 55%
Russia 5% Other 33% 10
20
30
40
50
60
214
The 24 seats reserved for Turkish Cypriots have not been occupied since December 1963
36% UBP
12% BDH
The UN-backed unification plan proposed two communities sharing several government functions. Greek Cypriots feared too much influence over their affairs by the small Turkish minority. From 2003, hard-line leaders Tassos Papadopoulos and Rauf Denktash refused to make progress, but with Cyprus’s EU accession imminent, the plan was put to a referendum. The Turkish Cypriot minority voted in favor, anxious to end their isolation and gain the benefits of EU membership, but the Greek Cypriots overwhelmingly rejected the plan. Without a “yes” from both sides, effectively only the Greek part of the island could accede in May 2004.
†
Joined UN in 1960
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
Comm
NAM
EU
OSCE
Over 1000 UN troops patrol the Green Line, though the opening of the border in 2003 saw large numbers of people cross in both directions. The Greek Cypriot rejection of a UN settlement in 2004 saw EU funds that had been set aside for reunification channeled instead to the impoverished Turkish zone.
†
Recipient
$50m (receipts)
The 2nd-century theater at Curium, 14 km (19 miles) west of Limassol. Curium was the site of a flourishing Mycenaean colony before 1100 BCE.
14% DP
CTP = Republican Turkish Party UBP = National Unity Party DP = Democrat Party BDH = Peace and Democracy Movement
AID
% of total arrivals
Tourists come for beaches, archaeology, or the abundant wildlife, notably on the Akamas peninsula and in the Troodos Mountains. A ten-year plan aims to double the number of visitors by 2010, though the industry was hit by a slump in 2002–2003.
11% 5% DIKO Others
TC = Reserved for Turkish Cypriots AKEL = Progressive Party of the Working People DISY = Democratic Rally DIKO = Democratic Party KISOS = Movement of Social Democrats
38% CTP
Germany 7%
0
24% DISY
29%
Turkish 12%
-20/-4
†
25% AKEL
30% TC
Other 3%
The climate is typically Mediterranean: summers are hot and dry, and winters mild, though there is mountain snow.
5% KISOS
House of Representatives 80 seats
Assembly (TRNC) 50 seats
71%
TRANSPORTATION
AT THE LAST ELECTION
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
Multiparty elections
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
40/16
30/86
†
President Tassos Papadopoulos (Cyprus) President Rauf Denktash (TRNC)
Cyprus 2001/2006 TRNC 2003/2008
Pop. density medium 87/km2 (225/mi2)
Lebanon
POLITICS
T
CLIMATE
Syr i a
CYPRUS
,
Little change in 2002
The TRNC’s exclusion from EU membership due to Greek Cypriot rejection of unification was followed by pledges of international funds to combat its isolation and dependence on Turkey.
Cape Apostolos Andreas
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
CYPRUS E I
D
T Lapta (Lapithos)
Ser s ra
(Morphou)
is kh
adh Liv
Lefka
NICOSIA
Ercan
(Lefke)
AS AM AK
Episkopi Episkopi Bay
DEFENSE $227m
so yi a
Yerma
ryllis Ga
s izo Pakhna ar hi
K ouri
Kouklia
D
Paphos
Mount Olympus 1952m
Dhali
$9.37bn
Athienou Dhekelia
Kophinou
(Famagusta)
Dherinia Paralimni Ayia Napa
1000m/3281ft
Xylophaghou Cape
200m/656ft
Athna
/
Compulsory military service
Up 2% in 2002
†
Inflation 3.4% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.4778 Cyprus pounds (0.5101)
Sea Level Cease-fire line
N 0
25 km
0
25 miles
Large tourism industry, accounting for over 20% of GDP. Integration with EU. Manufacturing sector and provision of services to Middle Eastern countries.
WEAKNESSES Pressure for tighter supervision of offshore finance. Slow pace of liberalization. TRNC starved of foreign investment for many years. EXPORTS
France 5% Greece 7%
Other 53% UK 27%
France 6% UK 6% Greece 7%
Other 58% Russia 17%
Electric power 997,000 kW
77,686 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 23,700 b/d
451,000 pigs, 450,000 goats, 3.5m chickens
Asbestos, gypsum, iron, bentonite, copper
Cyprus stopped supplying free electricity to the TRNC in 1994. The possibility of offshore oil and gas to the south has attracted interest. Water is precious; desalinization plants and new reservoirs have boosted supplies.
ENVIRONMENT
/
8% (7% partially protected)
†
Not available
8.4 tonnes per capita
Campaigners demand that the 155 sq. km (60 sq. miles) of the Akamas peninsula be fully protected from the threat of being sold for tourist development. Akamas is home to an unusual variety of plant and bird life, and contains breeding sites of the rare green turtle.
†
C
1974 President Makarios deposed by Greek military junta. Turkey invades. Partition. 1983 Self-proclamation of TRNC. 1993 Glafcos Clerides president. 2003 Tassos Papadopoulos elected president. Green Line opened. 2004 Referendum rejects plan for reunification. Cyprus joins EU.
†
EDUCATION 97%
School leaving age: 15
11,934 students
Education is free and enrollment is high. The University of Cyprus opened in 1992, but many Cypriots study abroad.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, accidents, cancers
1 per 381 people
Health care is more advanced in the south; sophisticated surgery is carried out at Lefkosia General Hospital.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
348 per 1000 population
688 per 1000 population
Defense 2.4% Education 5.7% Health 3.9%
TV ownership high 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP Daily newspaper circulation 111 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 9 daily newspapers. Fileleftheros has the largest circulation; others include Haravgi, Simerini, and Alithia 5 services: 1 state-controlled, 4 independent
6 services: 1 state-controlled, 5 independent
The media in Cyprus are lively and tend to be highly politicized. In the TRNC, independent papers have faced harassment from the authorities.
CRIME 345 prisoners
IMPORTS
†
RESOURCES
MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Germany 6%
500m/1640ft
Greco
Limassol
†
over 10 000
Gazimaêusa
(Düzce)
Mari
Akrotiri Bay Akrotiri (UK Airbase) Cape Gata
Cyprus was dominated, in turn, by Egypt, Greece, the Byzantines, the Ottomans, and the UK, before independence in 1960.
(Trikomo)
Larnaca Bay
Pano Lefkara Moni
CHRONOLOGY
POPULATION over 50 000
(Ayios Theodhoros)
Larnaca
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................88th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$12,320 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$517m INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................4%
Lebanon 4% Poland 4%
Çayirova
Iskele
Vatili Lysi Kouklia Res. (Vadili) (Akdoêan)
Aradhippou
SCORE CARD
R
under 10 000 (Lefkoniko) Yeniboêaziçi Famagusta (Ayios Seryios) Bay LAND HEIGHT
(UK Airbase)
In addition to two sovereign British bases and UN forces, there are 36,000 Turkish troops in northern Cyprus and 1250 Greek troops in the buffer zone. The 10,000-strong Greek Cypriot army and the 5000-strong Turkish Cypriot army both rely heavily on conscripts.
ECONOMICS
Tatlısu (Akanthou)
PENTAD AK T Y L OS RA N G E Deêirmenlik Geçitkale (Kythrea)
Klirou Evrykhou TRO ODOS MOUNTAINS Pano Kyperounda Panayia Pedhoulas Ayios Ioannis Pano Platres
KA
IA
over 100 000
(Ayios Amvrosios)
Girne
(Kyrenia)
Polis
Peyia
Ziyamet
(Leonarisso)
S PA
Esentepe
Cape Kormakiti
(Kokkina)
(Yialousa)
(recognized only by Turkey)
E Aloupo Morphou s MErenköy Bay Güzelyurt Ovgo Khrysokhou Cape Bay Arnaouti
Dipkarpaz (Rizokarpaso)
Yenierenköy
TURKISH REPUBLIC OF NORTHERN CYPRUS
Yiali as
Total Area : 9250 sq. km (3571 sq. miles)
R
A
E
S
N
A
E
N
A
R
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CYPRUS
†
Average per capita income in the south is greater than in Greece or Portugal, and over three times higher than in the Turkish Cypriot north.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
33 No death penalty
100th
$12,320
16
16
78 years
5 deaths
30
67
/
97%
Up 4% in 2001
Crime rates are low and violence is rare. The unruly and sometimes violent behavior of foreign forces has on occasion led Cypriots to object to their presence. The arrest of a Cypriot politician during protests at a UK military base in 2001 provoked riots.
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
215
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CZECH REPUBLIC
Ge r ma
EUROPE Poland CZECH REPUBLIC
OFFICIAL NAME: Czech Republic CAPITAL: Prague POPULATION: 10.2 million CURRENCY: Czech koruna OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Czech
C
1993
1993
Oct 28
CZ
+1
.cz
+420
L
ANDLOCKED IN CENTRAL Europe, the Czech Republic comprises the territories of Bohemia and Moravia, and for most of the 20th century it was part of Czechoslovakia. In 1989, the “Velvet Revolution” ended four decades of communist rule, and free elections followed in 1990. In 1993 the Czech Republic and Slovakia peacefully dissolved their federal union to become two independent states.
Europe
ny
Slovakia
Austria
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 129/km2 (335/mi2)
Czech, Slovak, Hungarian (Magyar) THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
75%
25%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
†
CLIMATE
TOURISM
Continental
WEATHER CHART FOR PRAGUE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
4.97m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
Germany 41%
20/68
20/8
Poland 21%
10/50
10/4
Slovakia 10%
0 0
-20/-4
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
10
518 km (322 miles)
9499 km (5902 miles)
303 km (188 miles)
40
30
20
50
60
CZECH REPUBLIC Total Area : 78 866 sq. km (30 450 sq. miles)
There are new expressways and rail links to Germany. Prague is a busy regional center for passenger air traffic.
LAND HEIGHT
Teplice
Karlovy Vary
Sokolov
Turnov
lbe
E R Ostrov
Trutnov
Ohü e
Jiâin
Mçlník
Mladá Boleslav
Hradec Králové
E
Beroun
e E lb Pardubice
Kolín
st
V
O
H
Klatovy
A
‹
Strakonice
E
M
Písek
I
NA
M
B
N
Bene#ov va lta
Püíbram Úh lav a
R
re B o he mia n F o
PRAGUE
unka Be ro
Plzeõ
Jaromçü
Havlíâkäv Brod
A
Tábor
U
N
Temelín
A
Y V
Âeské Budçjovice
H C VR Velké Meziüíâí
M
A
Âesky Krumlov
Znojmo
A
U
R
50 km 50 miles
O
Tüebíâ
a M o rav
M
ÂES K
Á Jihlava SK AV O MO R
S
T
R
I
A
President Vaclav Klaus
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Chamber of Deputies 200 seats
35% CSSD
29% ODS
21% KSCM
15% K
CSSD = Czech Social Democratic Party ODS = Civic Democratic Party KSCM = Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia K = Coalition of the Christian Democratic Union–Czech People's Party (KDU–CSL) and the Freedom Union (US)
4% KSCM
Senate 81 seats
38% K
32% ODS
14% 12% CSSD Others
The prodemocratic solidarity of 1989–1990, which saw the election of the Civic Forum and dissident playwright P E Vaclav Havel as president, soon gave way O to a two-party system. The right-of-center L ODS pursued market economics, and A oversaw the split with the Slovak Republic N in 1993. It then gave tacit support to the Krnov ‹umperk D social-democratic CSSD’s minority Opava government from 1998. The CSSD Svitavy Orlová under Vladimir Spidla was able to Ode Ostrava Karviná r form a slender majority government, Havíüov Olomouc Novy Boskovice Jiâín Tüinec without ODS backing, in 2002. FrÿdekProstêjov Püerov Místek NS Havel retired in 2003 with no A Vsetín I R V A AI T Zlín N obvious successor, eventually Brno Vy#kov U O Otrokovice M being replaced by former prime A N Uherské minister Vaclav Klaus. Spidla I IA Hradi#tç TH K resigned in 2004 amid turmoil within the A P A Hodonín CSSD. He was replaced by Stanislav Gross. V over 10 000
under 10 000
T
Kladno
Marlánské Láznç
D
L. House 2002/2006 U. House 2002/2004
Multiparty elections
over 50 000
150m/492ft
U Snçªk 1602m
VI
E
Cheb
Ústí nad Jablonec Labem nad Nisou E
Most Chomutov ·atec Louny
over 100 000
A
RGE
over 500 000
200m/656ft
O
G
BI ZG E
†
POLITICS
POPULATION
500m/1640ft
Liberec S
Czechs make up over 80% of the population; Moravians are the next largest group. Some 300,000 Slovaks were left in the country after partition, and dual citizenship is now permitted. Ethnic tensions are few, except that the Roma community faces serious discrimination. Divorce rates are high.
over 1 000 000
1000m/3281ft
Dçâín
S 216
Roman Catholic 39%
Revenue from tourism amounts to nearly $3 billion a year, and tourism is an invaluable source of foreign earnings for the Czech economy. Germans are the most numerous among the millions of visiting tourists, who are mainly from Europe. Prague, which rivals Paris as the most beautiful capital in Europe, is still the main destination for visitors, though a growing proportion now seek other attractions such as spa towns and skiing.
Has no fleet
127,728 km (79,366 miles)
Other 18%
Hussite 2%
Atheist 38%
C
Ruzyné, Prague 7.46m passengers
0
Up 5% in 2003
% of total arrivals
The Czech climate is more moderate than that of Slovakia, though easterly winds bring low temperatures in winter.
0
/
Other 28%
-10/14
N
Visitors : Population 1:2.1
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
0/32
Protestant 3%
†
L
O
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: CZECH REPUBLIC
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
EU
Joined UN in 1993
OECD
NATO
OSCE
The Czech Republic joined the EU as part of the organization’s major wave of expansion in 2004. It had already joined
†
AID
/
Up 25% in 2002
Aid for economic restructuring has been crucial to upgrading infrastructure such as telecommunications.
DEFENSE $1.4bn
†
/
Phasing out conscription
Up 21% in 2002
The split with Slovakia left an oversized, expensive army: professional soldiers with a communist past were the first to be demobilized. The last conscripts signed up in 2004. The country’s security was handed over to the US for the duration of a NATO summit in 2002. The Czech Republic is among the world’s 20 largest arms exporters.
ECONOMICS $56bn
†
Inflation 11% p.a. (1990–2001)
26.17 Czech koruny (27.5)
SCORE CARD
STRENGTHS Skilled industrial labor force. Good industrial base. Speed of privatization of state industries. Attractive to German investors. Draw of Prague for tourists.
WEAKNESSES
3509 b/d (reserves 88m barrels)
3.36m pigs, 1.47m cattle, 12.4m chickens
Oil, natural gas, copper, lead, zinc, coal, uranium
The Czech Republic now imports all metals. Brown coal is still exported. The government is aiming to phase out the worst-polluting coal-fired power plants. Opposition to a planned 2000 MW Soviet-designed nuclear power plant at Temelín delayed its completion until late 2000.
MEDIA
Sustainability rank: 64th
11.6 tonnes per capita
†
UK 6% Austria 6% Slovakia 8%
France 5% Italy 5%
Other 47% Germany 33%
CHRONOLOGY Once part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Czechoslovakia was established in 1918. 1968 “Prague Spring.” Invasion by Warsaw Pact countries. 1989 “Velvet Revolution.” 1990 Free elections won by Civic Forum; Vaclav Havel president. 1993 Split with Slovakia. 1998 Elections: CSSD forms minority government. 1999 Joins NATO. 2002 CSSD reelected. Serious floods. 2003 Vaclav Klaus president. 2004 Joins EU.
Government-influenced appointments of senior media officials provoked mass protests and a change in the law in 2001.
CRIME
†
No death penalty
.
Down 8% in 2001
Prostitution is becoming a growing problem, especially in regions bordering Austria and Germany.
†
99%
School leaving age: 15
242,687 students
Schooling has reverted to the pre-1945 system. Charles University in Prague was founded in the 13th century.
1 per 294 people
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
354 per 1000 population
1 state-owned service, over 70 independent services
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
†
SPENDING
There are 21 daily newspapers. Mladá Fronta Dnes has the largest circulation
HEALTH
IMPORTS
The Vltava River in Prague. Millions of tourists, mainly from Europe, visit the beautiful city of Prague every year.
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Germany 37%
Slovakia 5%
†
Pollution from the power, chemical, and cement industries and the new Temelín nuclear plant are key concerns.
EDUCATION
EXPORTS
China 5%
.
16% (15% partially protected)
17,360 prisoners
Lack of diversification. Limited restructuring, excessive bureaucracy. Pressure to cut government expenditure to reduce growing budget deficit. Rising unemployment.
Other 38%
24,744 tonnes
ENVIRONMENT
C
Electric power 15.2m kW
Daily newspaper circulation 254 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................45th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$5480 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$4.48bn INFLATION ...........................................1.8% UNEMPLOYMENT.......................................7%
Poland 5%
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$393m (receipts)
NATO in 1999, and was a founding member of the Visegrad Group, which works to promote regional ties. Austria and Germany strongly opposed the opening of the Temelín nuclear plant in 2000.
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases
Government spending is high, and only a few hospitals are entirely privately owned. Wealthy Czechs travel to Germany for complex surgery.
362 per 1000 population
Defense 2.1% Education 4.4% Health 6.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
An entrepreneurial class has emerged since 1989. Rapid privatization in the 1990s was achieved by offering ordinary Czechs coupons for shares.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
1
50th
100th
99%
51 $5480
42
5 4 deaths
32
75 years
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
217
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DENMARK
Sweden DENMARK
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Denmark CAPITAL: Copenhagen POPULATION: 5.4 million CURRENCY: Danish krone OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Danish 950
1944
April 16
DK
+1
.dk
+45
T
HE MOST SOUTHERLY COUNTRY in Scandinavia, Denmark occupies the Jutland (Jylland) peninsula, the islands of Sjælland, Fyn, Lolland, and Falster, and more than 400 smaller islands. Its terrain is among the flattest in the world. The Faeroe Islands and Greenland in the North Atlantic are self-governing associated territories. Politically, Denmark is stable, despite a preponderance of minority governments since 1945. It possesses a long liberal tradition and was one of the first countries to establish a welfare system, in the 1930s.
CLIMATE
†
Poland
Ger m an y
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:2.7
2.02m visitors
/
Up 1% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Sweden 27% Germany 18% Norway 17% UK 6% USA 4% Other 28%
Maritime
0
10
30
20
40
% of total arrivals
WEATHER CHART FOR COPENHAGEN
Principal attractions for tourists are Copenhagen (with its Tivoli Gardens and 18th-century architecture), Legoland, the countryside, and seaside resorts. Since 1959, only Danes have been allowed to own vacation homes.
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14
The island of Fyn, like the rest of Denmark, is flat and depends on coastal defenses to prevent flooding by the sea.
0
50 miles
N
k
S
Drive on right
a
g
e
r
a
r
POPULATION
Hirtshals
Hjørring
over 10 000 Brønderslev
er Ja m m Fjerritslev
Læs ø
857 ships 7.4m grt
Thisted
Sea Level
Limfjorden
K a t t e g a t Å lb o r g
Hobro
Lemvig
Randers
E
Rønne
Viborg
S
J
Y
L
L
A
Ikast
N
(continuation on same scale)
D
Silkeborg
Ebeltoft
Århus
e Th
Herning
Grenaa
Gudenå
Ringkøbing n
S k jer
Sejerø
Horsens
Hundested Hillerød Nykøbing Isefjord Hørsholm
Grindsted
Fredericia Middelfart
Odense
R
Brørup Årup
O
Ribe Taftlund
Rømø
Haderslev
Lill eb æ Aabenraa lt Tönder
Fyn
Kværndrup Faaborg
Als Gråsten Sønderborg
GERMA NY
Ringe
Ærø K i e l
B a y
Køge
Ringsted
Næstved
Præstø
Møn
Vordingborg Nakskov Maribo
Lol l a n d n,
Saltholm
to Malmö
Store Heddinge
Korsør
Svendborg
Vindeby
Taastrup
Sorø
Slagelse
nd
Esbjerg
Roskilde
Sjælland
Otterup
to Fe Ge hm rm ar an y
Kolding
COPENHAGEN
Holbæk
Kalundborg
Endelave
ela
T
Vejle Varde
F a l s t er
Sakskøbing NykøbingFalster Gedser
EN
H
Samsø
Give
ED
Brande
Skjern
to Helsingborg
SW
Yding Skovhøj 173m
d un So
Å
Helsingør
Holmsland Klit Ringkøbing Fjord
t æl eb or St
218
Bornholm t
Skive Struer Holstebro
There is an extensive, well-integrated transportation network of bus, rail, and ferry services. State-owned companies predominate, though privatization of some ferry and rail services has been mooted. Denmark wishes to reduce significant state transportation subsidies. A few private companies operate in the Faeroes and Greenland with state support. Major new construction projects focus on bridge and tunnel links, such as the Storebælt project connecting the islands of Fyn and Sjælland. A 16km (10-mile) Øresund road and rail link by bridge and tunnel, connecting Copenhagen with Malmö in Sweden, opened in July 2000. Copenhagen’s new Metro light rail system has now been completed.
Ferry link
g
A
Nissum Bredning
Bu
1010 km (628 miles)
417 km (259 miles)
LAND HEIGHT 175m/574ft
Aalborg
Mors
2273 km (1412 miles)
under 10 000
Aabybro
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 71,622 km (44,504 miles)
over 100 000
Frederikshavn
Løkken
bu
Hanstholm
over 1 000 000
ng
Kastrup, Copenhagen 17.6m passengers
†
k
50 km
La
TRANSPORTATION
DENMARK Total Area : 43 094 sq. km (16 639 sq. miles)
Skagen 0
en
Denmark’s temperate, damp climate is one of the keys to its agricultural success. The Faeroes are windy, foggy, and cool. Greenland’s climate ranges north–south from arctic to subarctic.
gt
-20/-4
S E A
A
B A L T I C
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
N
D
Europe
EUROPE
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: DENMARK
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 127/km2 (330/mi2)
Danish THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
POLITICS 2001/2005
H.M. Queen Margrethe II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament 179 seats 85%
Multiparty elections
12% 9% DFP KF
7% SF
15%
D
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Roman Catholic 1%
29% SD
31% V
Other 10%
9% 3% Other CL Other CR
V = Liberal Party (Venstre) SD = Social Democrats DFP = Danish People's Party KF = Conservative People's Party Other CL = Other Center Left SF = Socialist People's Party Other CR = Other Center Right Greenland and the Faeroe Islands send two members each to the Parliament
Evangelical Lutheran 89% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other (including Scandinavian and Turkish) 3%
Faeroese and Inuit 1%
Danish 96%
PROFILE
Danish society is homogeneous, but the small population of foreign citizens doubled between 1984 and 1999, and the current right-leaning government has pledged to curb immigration. The most visible minority groups are the Inuit, Greenland’s indigenous inhabitants, and the Turkish community. Rising unemployment has engendered some ethnic tension, though racially motivated attacks are still rare. Helped by Denmark’s extensive social and educational provision, almost all women now work in parttime or full-time jobs. Consequently, attendance at day nurseries is exceptionally high; 90% of three- to five-year-olds were enrolled in 2000. Danish living arrangements have changed dramatically since the 1960s. Divorce rates are high and fewer people now live in extended families, while single-person households are increasing. Marriage is becoming less common and occurring later in life. Cohabiting couples now have equivalent legal rights. However, couples tend to marry when they have children, and 75% of children are raised by both parents. In 1989, Denmark became the first country to offer homosexual couples registered partnerships, effectively granting them the same legal status as heterosexual couples, though few have taken advantage of this. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.6% 8.6% 13.4% 14.5% 11.5%
Denmark is a constitutional monarchy and a multiparty democracy. The associated territories of Greenland and the Faeroe Islands have home rule. The latter is divided over the issue of independence.
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 1.3% 7.2% 13.7% 15.2% 12%
% of population by age group
The intricate proportional electoral system ensures a truly representative Parliament, but also tends to lead to minority governments. After a decade of Conservative–Liberal rule, the SD from 1993 headed a center-left coalition under Poul Nyrup Rasmussen. The pendulum swung back with a victory in 2001 for the Liberals and Anders Fogh Rasmussen. The Danish Confederation of Trade Unions voted in 2003 to cut its historic ties to the SD, ending over 100 years of political and financial support. Major policy differences between the two main political groups are few; tax and immigration are important issues.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Relations with the EU Denmark is a somewhat reluctant member of the EU. Left-of-center parties have grown suspicious of further integration and voters have previously rejected the Maastricht
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
EU
NATO
OECD
OSCE
Relations with the rest of Europe are the major foreign policy concern, notably the issues of a common defense policy and monetary union. Denmark has decided against introducing the euro, but the krone is pegged to it and economic policies follow those of the participating states. Promoting economic ties with Norway, Sweden, and Finland is a priority, as is improving links with former Eastern bloc states, especially those on the Baltic – not least to assist pollution reduction, a serious concern. Denmark is also a strong supporter of Third World development, especially in Africa.
Anders Fogh Rasmussen, heads a right-wing, minority coalition.
Queen Margrethe II, who succeeded to the throne in 1972.
Treaty (1992) and membership of the eurozone (2000). Many voters are wary of monetary union, a common defense force, and local election voting rights for European citizens living in Denmark. Nonetheless, the Liberal government has championed Denmark’s commitment to the Union, and Prime Minister Rasmussen has suggested that another referendum on the euro should be held once the new EU constitution is ironed out. Denmark held the EU presidency from July to December 2003. Immigration Despite Danish liberal traditions, the position and integration into society of immigrants and refugees, who account for under 5% of the population, is a controversial issue. The election of a right-wing government in 2001 signaled support for an overtly restrictive policy and a greater emphasis on integration for those immigrants already there. The ruling coalition relies for support on the farright, anti-immigrant DFP, which almost doubled its representation in the 2001 election. Legislation passed in 2002 prevents the foreign (non-EU) spouse of a Danish citizen living in or emigrating to Denmark.
CHRONOLOGY Founded in the 10th century, Denmark’s monarchy is Europe’s oldest. It was the dominant Baltic power until the 17th century, when it was eclipsed by Sweden. 1815 Denmark forced to cede Norway to Swedish rule. 1849 Creation of first Danish democratic constitution. 1864 Denmark forced to cede provinces of Schleswig and Holstein after losing war with Prussia. 1914–1918 Denmark neutral in World War I. 1915 Universal adult suffrage introduced. Rise of SD. 1920 Northern Schleswig votes to return to Danish rule.
219
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
D
$2.56bn
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 4% in 2002
Apart from NATO commitments, defense has a low priority; spending consitituted 1.6% of GDP in 2002, well below the NATO average of 2%. Denmark provides troops for the NATOled forces in the former Yugoslavia and observers for other UN peacekeeping operations. One-quarter of its armed forces are conscripts, and its reserves include a Home Guard. Denmark has observer status at the WEU.
ECONOMICS $163bn
†
†
4000 personnel
68 combat aircraft (F-16A/B)
3500 personnel
None
6.109 Danish kroner (6.47)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................26th GNP PER CAPITA .........................$30,260 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ...................$4.92bn INFLATION ........................................2.4% UNEMPLOYMENT ...................................4%
EXPORTS
Norway 6%
USA 6%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
UK 10% Other 47% Sweden 12% Germany 19% IMPORTS
France 6%
Norway 7% UK 9%
Other 44% Sweden 12%
Germany 22%
STRENGTHS Low inflation; unemployment low, but rising. Substantial balance-of-payments surplus. Gas and oil reserves. Strong high-tech, high-profit manufacturing sector. Skilled workforce.
balance-of-payments deficit. Growth slowed in the early 1990s, but an economic upturn between 1993 and 2000 was first led by private consumption and then buoyed by exports and business investment. Growth slowed significantly in 2001, but had regained momentum by mid-2002. Voters have refused to accept EU monetary union, most recently in a “no” vote in 2000 in a referendum on the euro. However, Denmark meets the EU’s convergence criteria for monetary union, the krone is pegged to the euro, and economic policies follow those of the participating states. DENMARK : MAJOR BUSINESSES Hirtshals
Ålborg
Up 1% in 2002
During the 1990s, Denmark was the world’s leading aid donor in GNP terms, contributing on average 1% of national income. It supports both economic and social development projects and policy reforms. The Liberal government which came to power in 2001 has cut the foreign aid budget. Denmark provides aid to Asia and Latin America, but its closest ties are with Africa. Tanzania is the largest single aid recipient. Denmark has also provided considerable support to other southeast African states.
220
4 submarines, 3 corvettes, and 27 patrol boats
Heavy tax burden. Labor costs and historically strong currency affect competitiveness.
Donor
/
14,700 personnel
GDP 1998=100
$1.64bn (donations)
238 main battle tanks (220 Leopard 1A5, 18 Leopard 2A4)
Inflation 2.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
WEAKNESSES
AID
DANISH ARMED FORCES
Consumer price index 1998=100
1929 First full SD government, Thorvald Stauning prime minister. 1930s Implementation of advanced social welfare legislation and other liberal reforms under SD. 1939 Outbreak of World War II; Denmark reaffirms neutrality. 1940 Nazi occupation. National coalition government formed. 1943 Danish Resistance successes lead Nazis to take full control. 1944 Iceland declares independence from Denmark. 1945 Denmark recognizes Icelandic independence. After defeat of Nazi Germany, SD leads postwar coalition governments. 1948 Faeroes granted home rule. 1952 Founder member of the Nordic Council. 1953 Constitution reformed; single-chamber, proportionally elected parliament created. 1959 Denmark joins EFTA. 1972 Margrethe becomes queen. 1973 Denmark joins European Communities. 1979 Greenland granted home rule. 1975–1982 SD’s Anker Jorgensen heads series of coalitions. Final coalition collapses over economic policy differences. 1982 Poul Schlüter first Conservative prime minister since 1894, in coalition with Liberals. 1992 Referendum rejects Maastricht Treaty on European Union. 1993 Schlüter resigns over “Tamilgate” scandal. Center-left government led by Poul Nyrup Rasmussen of SD. Danish voters ratify revised Maastricht Treaty. 1994, 1998 Elections: Rasmussen heads SD-led minority coalition. 2000 Referendum rejects joining eurozone. 2001 Elections: Liberals regain power. Anders Fogh Rasmussen appointed prime minister.
DEFENSE
Århus
PROFILE Denmark’s mix of a large state sector and a private sector has been successful. GDP per capita is one of the highest among the OECD countries. However, total taxation, at about 50%, is also among the world’s highest. In 2001 the Liberal government promised to fund increased welfare spending and lower taxation by extending privatization and reducing development aid. In the 1980s the government stabilized the exchange rate and tightened budget controls in order to reduce inflation and reverse the
Copenhagen
Korsar
Esbjerg
Fredericia Odense Oil & gas Brewing Textiles
Light engineering
Chemicals
Fish processing
Trading center
Agribusiness Electronics Transportation services
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: DENMARK
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 1.55m tonnes
368,000 b/d (reserves 1.3bn barrels)
12.9m pigs, 1.72m cattle, 19.7m chickens
Natural gas, oil
power is expanding rapidly; Denmark is a world leader in this technology. Agriculture is highly efficient, and Denmark is the world’s biggest exporter of pork.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 0% Combustion 90% (39bn kWh)
J Y L L A N D rn
Nuclear 0% S kje
Other 10% (4.5bn kWh) 0
20
60
40
Sjælland
100
80
ENVIRONMENT
.
34% (31% partially protected)
DENMARK : LAND USE
Fyn
% of total generation by type
The expansion of North Sea oil and gas output has made Denmark a net exporter of energy. The use of wind
†
Sustainability rank: 31st
†
HEALTH
Electric power 13.6m kW
0
Cropland Forest Pasture Pigs Cereals
100 km
0
100 miles
†
CRIME
8.4 tonnes per capita
Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases, bronchitis
1 per 294 people
Denmark was one of the first countries to introduce a state social welfare system. The national health service, which still provides free treatment for almost everything, is the main reason for high taxes – in 2001 almost a quarter of government spending was allocated to social services. Any attempts to reduce expenditure will meet with strong opposition. Repeated surveys show that most Danes prefer their system to those based on private health insurance. In the early 1980s, Denmark had the highest incidence of AIDS in Europe, but after peaking in 1993, the rate has dropped markedly; drug therapies are freely available.
No death penalty
.
3439 prisoners
Welfare state health benefits
†
SPENDING Down 6% in 2001
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
350 per 1000 population
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
4
689 per 1000 population
per 100,000 population
Defense 1.6% Rapes 9
Education 8.3%
per 100,000 population
Health 6.9% Thefts
Denmark has some of the strictest regulations in Europe, including those aimed at reducing ozone-destroying emissions and water pollution, and met its 2000 recycling target – 54% of all waste – a year early. There was a marked change in policy under the incoming Liberal government of 2001. The bans on house-building in state forests and on the sale of beer in cans were lifted, three planned wind power plants were shelved, and the environment ministry’s budget was cut by one-third.
MEDIA
†
3404
0
per 100,000 population
The potential importing of Mafia-style organized crime from eastern Europe, computer hacking, and drug trafficking are problems. In 2001, stricter penalties for violence and rape were promised.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 16
191,645 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 36 daily newspapers, including BT, Politiken, Ekstra Bladet, and Berlingske Tidende 52 services: 1 state-owned, 1 publicly financed, and 50 independent
1 state-owned service, 250 independent local services
The media have a long history of political independence, and objectivity is prized. The tone of both TV and the press is serious; there is no scandalmongering tabloid press as found in the US, the UK, and Germany. Invasion of privacy laws are strict. Proposed legislation would extend competition in broadcasting and prepare for the privatization of TV2.
100
% of each age group in education
Daily newspaper circulation 283 per 1000 people
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
80
Denmark forms one of the world’s most egalitarian societies. Most Danes are comfortably off. Income distribution is the most even among Western countries and social mobility is high. Free higher education means that access to the professions is more a question of ability than wealth or connections. The generous social security system means that Danes suffer little from social deprivation. The SD government of 1994–2001 created more kindergarten places and increased time off for those with young children. Refugees and recent immigrants tend to be the most disadvantaged members of Danish society.
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
100%
40
59%
0
Position in World 1st
20
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
50th
The educational level is generally high, in part reflecting the need for a skilled workforce. Formal schooling begins at age seven and is mandatory for nine years. However, most children receive preschool education, and around 90% of pupils go on at the age of 16 to further academic or vocational training. There are five main universities and six specialist institutions. The University of Copenhagen was founded in 1479.
100th
1
7 $30,260
99%
29
5 4 deaths
17
77 years
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
221
D
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD EAST AFRICA
DJIBOUTI
Er i t
1977
June 27
DJI
+3
A
CITY WITH A DESERT HINTERLAND, Djibouti lies in northeast Africa on the strait linking the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Known from 1967 as the French Territory of the Afars and Issas, Djibouti became independent in 1977. Its economy relies on the main port, the railroad to Addis Ababa, and French aid. A guerrilla war which erupted in 1991 as a result of tension between the Issas in the south and the Afars in the north has largely been resolved.
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 65 seats
100% UMP UMP = Union for a Presidential Majority, composed of the Popular Rally for Progress (RPP), the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD), and two other parties
Hot desert
President Hassan Gouled Aptidon, an Issa, backed by France, dominated politics from independence in 1977 until his retirement in 1999. The Afar guerrilla group FRUD took control of much of the country in 1991. The French intervened militarily, and forced Gouled to hold multiparty elections in 1992. FRUD became a legal party after a 1994 peace deal. An alliance of the ruling RPP and FRUD won all seats in elections in 1997, and again within the UMP coalition in 2003, despite competition from recently unbanned opposition parties. Presidential elections in 1999 were won by Ismael Omar Guelleh, a former close aide of Gouled, amid opposition claims of electoral fraud.
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
Nomadic Djiboutian village. Nomads form the poorest group in society.
-10/14
Despite extremely low rainfall, the monsoon season is characterized by very humid conditions. Even locals find the heat in June–August hard to bear.
†
Drive on right
Pop. density low 30/km2 (79/mi2)
Somali, Afar, French, Arabic THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
11 ships 2691 grt
Djibouti 180,452 passengers
†
PEOPLE
84%
DJIBOUTI
16%
Total Area : 23 000 sq. km (8,880 sq. miles)
ETHNIC MAKEUP
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
Afar 35% None
A Issa 60%
Êssalo u
P
O
The main ethnic groups are the Afars and Issas; tension between these groups developed in 1991 into a guerrilla war. In 2003, 100,000 illegal immigrants were forced to leave. The small rural population Gâlâfi is mostly nomadic.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Sa d
I
Obock Randa
Lac ‘Assal G Yoboki
over 100 000
Ghoubbet el Kharâb
30
40
% of total arrivals
1000m/3281ft
Lake Abhe
Mouloud Guélîlé
500m/1640ft
Most visitors are passing through on their way to Ethiopia, or coming to see relatives working in Djibouti port.
222
200m/656ft Sea Level -200m/656ft
Koûta Boûyya
‘As ‘Êla Sankal
Dikhil
d
Damêrdjôg Loyada
Ouâhayyi
‘Ali Sabieh ‘Ali ‘Addé ‘Assâmo
OF ADEN
DJIBOUTI
Goubétto Holhol
ra
Îles Moucha
‘Arta
under 10 000 Doudoub Bololé
Ta
jou
L
20
de fe ol
O
10
GULF Tadjoura
LAND HEIGHT 0
Ouaddi
Balho
H
POPULATION
Djibouti does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
Gaherré
‘Assa Gaïla
Dorra
T
Little change in 1995–1998
Khôr ‘Angar
◊a√√a‘to
deb
,
21,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:33
Lâ‘assa
I
Man
†
TOURISM
Alaïli ◊a√√a‘ Moussa ‘Ali 2021m
aï
Djibouti’s port, created in the 19th century and now a modern container facility, is to be massively expanded. Landlocked Ethiopia’s vital link to the sea is the Addis Ababa–Djibouti railroad.
el
781 km (485 miles)
Moulhoulé
b
376 km (234 miles)
Ba
A R E I T Bissîdiro R E
Other 5%
A
30/12
20/68
I
40/16
30/86
N
A
50/20
M
50/122 40/104
TRANSPORTATION
Multiparty elections
President Ismael Omar Guelleh
2003/2008
WEATHER CHART FOR DJIBOUTI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
0
30 km
S
†
CLIMATE
en
Somalia
E th i op i a
POLITICS
.dj
+253
E
D
Africa
Yem
DJIBOUTI
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Djibouti CAPITAL: Djibouti POPULATION: 703,000 CURRENCY: Djibouti franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Arabic and French 1977
r ea
0
30 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: DJIBOUTI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
OIF
RESOURCES
OIC
350 tonnes
Not an oil producer
512,000 goats, 466,000 sheep, 297,000 cattle
Gypsum, mica, amethyst, sulfur, natural gas
AU
IGAD
Djibouti offers Ethiopia its main access to the sea. Links to Eritrea were restored in 2000. Djibouti is active in the Somali reconciliation process. It was quick to support the US “war on terrorism.” Ties to France remain important.
†
AID
Recipient
$78m (receipts)
/
Up 34% in 2002
Djibouti is reliant on international aid, of which almost half is provided by France. Recent antipoverty projects have been funded by the AfDB.
DEFENSE $21m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 5% in 2002
The size of the armed forces is a state secret, but is estimated at 9850 personnel. Up to 2000 US troops are stationed in the country, and there is a 2800-strong French garrison.
ECONOMICS $590m
†
/
0.4%
Important location on Red Sea; continuing upgrading of Djibouti and Tadjoura port facilities. Development of information technology infrastructure.
†
MEDIA
EXPORTS
Ethiopia 5% USA 1%
Pakistan 5% Other 5% Yemen 22%
Somalia 62%
Other 45%
France 9% USA 9% Ethiopia 11% Saudi Arabia 18%
The French set up a coaling station at Djibouti in the 1880s, to balance the British presence in Aden. 1917 Railroad from Addis Ababa reaches Djibouti port. 1977 Independence. 1981–1992 One-party state. 1989 Eruption of violence between Afars and Issas. 1991 FRUD launches insurrection against Issa-dominated government. 1994 Peace agreement with FRUD. 1999 Ismael Omar Guelleh becomes president. 2000 Unsuccessful coup attempt by police officers.
SPENDING 15 per 1000 population
1 state-controlled service
Djibouti is a member of the Arab Satellite Communications Organization. The media are largely state-controlled, but there is one opposition newspaper.
†
No death penalty
/
Up 74% in 1996–1998
The government’s human rights record is poor, while FRUD was accused of guerrilla war atrocities. Though narcotics smuggling and prostitution are rife, nonviolent petty crime is more common.
†
EDUCATION 66%
School leaving age: 11
496 students
Schooling is mostly in French, while there is a growing emphasis on Islamic teaching. In 2000–2001 higher education was reorganized, with the creation of the core of a future University of Djibouti in association with French universities.
†
15 per 1000 population
Education 3.5% Health 4.1% 0
CRIME
GDP/cap. decrease
Defense 3.8%
There are no daily newspapers. The weekly La Nation de Djibouti is published by the government
1 state-controlled service
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
1 per 10,000 people
China 8%
CHRONOLOGY
There are no daily newspapers
HEALTH
IMPORTS
0.6 tonnes per capita
TV ownership medium
WEAKNESSES High poverty and unemployment levels. Dependence on French and US aid and military bases. Regional instability. Stiff competition from other ports on Red Sea.
Not available
The concentration of business around Djibouti port means that inland desert areas are largely untouched. Pollution from container ships is of concern.
384 prisoners
STRENGTHS
†
ENVIRONMENT
175 Djibouti francs (175)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................167th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$850 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$13m INFLATION ............................................2% UNEMPLOYMENT ..................................50%
Electric power 88,000 kW
The few mineral resources are scarcely exploited. Geothermal energy is being developed and natural gas has recently been found. The guerrilla war delayed attempts to develop underground water supplies for agriculture.
Inflation 3.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
†
Joined UN in 1977
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
As happens in many African states, the wealth in Djibouti tends to be concentrated among those closest to government. Djiboutians working in the ports also do well, though much port labor is expatriate. The nomads of the interior are the poorest group. The deployment of US troops to Djibouti is beginning to make a difference: the two biggest employers after the government are the French and US garrisons. Trade in the mild narcotic qat, or “green gold,” which is grown in Ethiopia and shipped through Djibouti, is highly lucrative, to the extent that the state is now taking its share of the profits. In Djibouti, qat chewing is an age-old social ritual.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
Welfare state health benefits Respiratory and heart diseases
AIDS is a growing problem in Djibouti port, with its large prostitute population. At the end of 2003 the UN estimated that there were some 9100 HIV/AIDS sufferers. Small French-financed hospitals cater for the urban elite.
150th
125 193rd
$850
154
154 175 44 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
66%
167 100 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
223
D
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DOMINICA
Puerto Rico
1978
Nov 3
WD
-4
.dm
+1767
D
OMINICA IS RENOWNED as the Caribbean island that resisted European colonization until the 18th century, when it came under French control, passing to the UK in 1759. It is known as the “Nature Island” because of its spectacular, lush, and abundant flora and fauna, protected by extensive national parks. The most mountainous of the Lesser Antilles, Dominica is located between Guadeloupe and Martinique in the West Indian Windward Islands group. Its volcanic origin has given it very fertile soils and the second-largest boiling lake in the world.
D
†
CLIMATE
Canefield, Roseau 108,179 passengers
WEATHER CHART FOR ROSEAU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TRANSPORTATION
Tropical oceanic
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
None
None
None
0
0/32
72%
Drive on left
del
The majority of Dominicans are descendants of Africans brought over to work the banana plantations. The Carib Territory on the northeast of the island contains the only surviving Carib population in the Caribbean.
Both airports take only small propeller aircraft. Roads are well maintained. There is no speed limit in rural areas.
†
TOURISM
/
69,000 visitors
A
Vieille Case Thibaud Bense Calibishie Larieu Dos D’Ane Portsmouth Wesley Prince Rupert Glanvillia Bay
0
T
Nine senators are appointed to the House of Assembly by the head of state
10
20
30
40
50
60
A
N
TH
Me lv
N OR
A I
B
C T I
ER
R
B
E N
Canefield Airport
Roger
La Plaine
Boetica Charlotte Ville Giraudel Délices Bellevue Loubiere Chopin Pichelin Petite Pointe Savane Michel Fond St. Jean Soufrière Tête Berekua ge Morne sa
E A
Scotts Head Village
224
Morne Aux Frégates
Laudat Trafalgar
ROSEAU
S N
Morne Trois Pitons
O C E A N
A Massacre
Rosalie
Ma
rti
u niq
a e P
s
7% DFP
USA 22%
Saint Sauveur Petite Soufrière
Mahaut
30% App
DLP = Dominica Labour Party DUWP = Dominica United Workers' Party App = Appointed DFP = Dominica Freedom Party
L
C
St Joseph
30% DUWP
Caribbean 58%
% of total arrivals
ll
AT THE LAST ELECTION
33% DLP
The national parks, with their rare indigenous birds, hot springs, and sulfur pools, are a major attraction ill for tourists. However, the lack of Marigot Morne Dublanc Bataka Diablotins an airport able to take commercial N 1447m FO Salibia RE jetliners (visitors use connecting ST RESE R VE Gaulette flights from Barbados or Antigua) Colihaut Coulibistri has made Dominica less accessible Morne Castle Bruce Raquette to mass-market tourism than Salisbury you La its neighbors. Good Hope a eH
President Nicholas Liverpool
2000/2005
Up 4% in 2002
Other 12%
Guillet
Multipar ty elections
House of Assembly 30 seats
UK 8%
Peinville
Belmanier
†
Visitors : Population 1:1
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Passage oupe
Clifton
Roman Catholic 77%
POLITICS
Like the other Windward Islands in the eastern Caribbean, Dominica is subject to constant trade winds. The rainy season is in the summer, and tropical depressions and hurricanes are likely between June and November. Short, thundery showers in the late afternoon and evening are common throughout the year.
Gua
28% Other 8% Protestant 15%
-10/14 -20/-4
93/km2 (240/mi2)
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
8 ships 3994 gr t
390 km (242 miles)
Pop. density medium
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
S O N D cm/in 40/16
†
PEOPLE
French Creole, English
Rainfall A
Guadeloupe
DOMINICA Martinique
OFFICIAL NAME: Commonwealth of Dominica CAPITAL: Roseau POPULATION: 69,655 CURRENCY: Eastern Caribbean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1978
North America
CARIBBEAN
DOMINICA Total Area : 754 sq. km (291 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
Comm
Caricom
OAS
Joined UN in 1978
OECS
POPULATION
500m/1640ft
over 10 000
200m/656ft
under 10 000
Sea Level 0
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
1000m/3281ft
0
Politicians tend to come from the professional classes – usually young lawyers and doctors. The center-left DUWP narrowly won the 1995 elections, ending 15 years of rule by the right-wing DFP. A further swing to the left produced a DLP victory in 2000. Economic recession has led to a standby agreement with the IMF and subsequent austerity budgets: cutbacks in the public sector have provoked widespread political protest. Prime Minister Pierre Charles died suddenly in January 2004; Roosevelt Skerrit became the world’s youngest premier on taking office at the age of 31.
10 km 10 miles
Preferential access to EU markets for Caribbean bananas, crucial for Dominica’s economy, was lost after a successful protest to the WTO in 1999 by the US. Dominica maintains close links with France and the UK.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: DOMINICA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Electric power 13,000 kW
RESOURCES 1157 tonnes
Not an oil producer
13,400 cattle, 9700 goats, 7600 sheep, 190,000 chickens
None
Dominica has no natural resources. A hydroelectric power plant in the Morne Trois Pitons national park provides half the island’s power. Inshore fishing boats, which mostly supply the domestic market, on a typical beach.
†
AID
US$30m (receipts)
/
Up 50% in 2002
Dominica is increasingly aid-dependent. Japanese aid “buys” support for whaling, while Chinese aid followed diplomatic recognition in 2004.
DEFENSE Defense forces were officially disbanded in 1981
†
,
No compulsor y militar y ser vice
Not applicable
Dominica has no armed forces, but it does participate in the US-sponsored Regional Security System.
ECONOMICS US$216m
†
Inflation 2.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.7 Eastern Caribbean dollars (2.67)
SCORE CARD
/
23% (13% par tially protected)
Recipient
†
ENVIRONMENT
Not available
1.4 tonnes per capita
Increased agriculture and timber harvesting is threatening Dominica’s rainforest; already there is more land under cultivation than planned by the government. The current promotion of the rainforest as a tourist attraction poses a threat, as does a possible expansion in HEP generators. Two species of parrot – the imperial, or sisserou, and the red-necked – are threatened, despite conservation orders. Endangered hawksbill turtles, living on coral reefs off the island, are traditionally hunted.
†
MEDIA
CHRONOLOGY Colonized first by the French, Dominica came under British control in 1759. 1975 Morne Trois Pitons national park established. 1978 Independence from UK. Patrick John first prime minister. 1980 Eugenia Charles becomes Caribbean’s first woman prime minister. 1981 Two coup attempts, backed by Patrick John, foiled. 1995 Opposition DUWP defeats DFP. Dame Eugenia Charles retires after 27 years in politics. 1999 WTO ruling on preferential access for bananas to EU market. 2000 DLP wins elections.
†
HEALTH
D
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, hear t, cerebrovascular, and infectious diseases
1 per 2000 people
There are four hospitals, but surgery is carried out in only one. Difficult communications hamper emergency access in the interior.
TV ownership medium
†
SPENDING
There are no daily newspapers
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
119 per 1000 population
There are no daily newspapers. The dominant newspaper is the weekly Chronicle, which takes a center-left editorial stance
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................184th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$3000 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–US36m INFLATION .........................................0.2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................23%
Defense None 3 ser vices: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
No terrestrial TV ser vice
Education 5.1% Health 4.3% 0
STRENGTHS Bananas, though this sector has declined since the loss of EU preferential access. Growing services sector and “eco-tourism.” IMF standby credit approved in 2002.
WEAKNESSES Dependence on US and EU markets for its banana crop; access threatened by WTO ruling. Low productivity in public sector. Poor infrastructure. EXPORTS
Guyana 6%
Antigua & Barbuda 7% USA 8%
Two local franchises offer cable TV on a total of 12 channels with selected US programming. Broadcasts from other Caribbean states can also be received. There are four weekly newspapers.
CRIME
†
402 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
Up 13% in 2000
Burglary and armed robbery are the major concerns in Dominica; rates rose notably in 2002, and burglaries account for three-quarters of all crimes. Justice is based on British common law and administered by the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, which is based on the island of St. Lucia.
UK 37% Jamaica 16%
304 per 1000 population
EDUCATION
Other 26% 76%
†
5
15
20
25
Wealth disparities are not as marked in Dominica as they are on the larger Caribbean islands, but the alleviation of poverty has become a major plank of government policy. Measures taken include increased benefits and help for the country’s pensioners.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
29 77 years
100th
School leaving age: 17
461 students
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
54 13 deaths
73 $3000
95
150th
IMPORTS
UK 7% Other 25%
USA 24%
South Korea 8% Trinidad & Tobago 12%
China 24%
Education is partly based on the old British model, and retains the selective 11-plus exam for entrance into high school. Students go on to the University of the West Indies or, increasingly, to colleges in the US and the UK.
139
193rd
76%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
225
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
USA
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Cuba Haiti
OFFICIAL NAME: Dominican Republic CAPITAL: Santo Domingo POPULATION: 8.7 million CURRENCY: Dominican Republic peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1865
Feb 27
DOM
-4
Puerto Rico
.do
+1809
T
HE MOST POPULAR tourist destination in the Caribbean, the Dominican Republic lies 970 km (600 miles) southeast of Florida. Once ruled by Spain, it occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola and boasts both the region’s highest point (Pico Duarte, 3088 m – 10,131 ft) and its lowest (Lake Enriquillo, 44 m – 144 ft – below sea level). Spanishspeaking, it seeks closer ties with the anglophone West Indies. Tropical equatorial/ oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR SANTO DOMINGO
View south from Pico Duarte along the fertile banks of the Río Yaque del Norte.
Pop. density medium
†
POLITICS
180/km2 (466/mi2)
Spanish, French Creole
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
L. House 2002/2006 U. House 2002/2006
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
President Leonel Fernández
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
AT THE LAST ELECTION
20/68
20/8
Chamber of Deputies 150 seats
10/50
10/4
67%
33%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
Other and nonreligious 8%
-10/14 -20/-4
The trade winds blow all year round, providing relief from the tropical heat and humidity. The hurricane season runs from June until November.
TRANSPORTATION Punta Cana International, Higüey 2.58m passengers
†
Roman Catholic 92%
Drive on right
19 ships 9200 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 3174 km (1972 miles)
None
517 km (321 miles)
None
Urban and rural transportation is poor; railroads are mainly for transporting sugarcane and ores. An international consortium in 1999 won a 30-year concession to operate four airports.
The white population, primarily the descendants of Spanish settlers, still own most of the land. The mixed race majority – about 73% – controls much of the republic’s commerce, and forms the bulk of the professional middle classes. Blacks, the descendants of Africans, are mainly small-scale farmers and often the victims of latent racism, especially if of Haitian origin. Women in the black community work the farms; in the white and mixed race communities women are starting to make professional careers.
Monte Cristi
Puerto Plata
Yaq e d el
Up 18% in 2003
RD
Pedro Santana
á m Ca
CO
Canada 11%
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
I
Ample accommodation and excellent beaches attract many tourists each year, mainly from Europe and North America.
q
e
T
R
S. José de Ocoa
A
Oza
Villa Altagracia
L
San Cristóbal
Azua
Bajos de Haina
Vicente Noble
Isla Beata
over 50 000 over 10 000
E
Samaná
A
under 10 000
N
1000m/3281ft
Monte Plata
El Seibo
500m/1640ft
Hato Mayor
SANTO DOMINGO
San Pedro de Macorís
Intl Airport Las Américas
La Romana
I
B
Sea Level
Boca de Yuma
Baní
R
200m/656ft
Higüey
Isla Saona
A
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft
Barahona Pedernales
C
226
N
over 1 000 000 over 100 000
Sabana de la Mar
ma
10
Lago Enriquillo Jimaní Neiba
Malpasso
T
0
Constanza C Bonao E
San Juan
Y una
Cotuí
C
Nagua
San Francisco de Macorís
Pico Duarte
I
Other 55%
Salcedo
L E 3175m Jarabacoa RA
Comendador
France 9%
O
La Vega
IL
POPULATION
N
T I C
Moca
Santiago
A
USA 25%
A T L A N
Esperanza José E. Bisonó
N orte
Dajabón Mao Sabaneta
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Decades of conservative rule under Joaquín Balaguer ended in 1996 with the election of Leonel Fernández of the moderate PLD. Hipolito Mejía of the center-left PRD won the presidency in 2000, but his initial popularity was eroded by spiraling living costs, high unemployment, chronic electricity shortages, and major bank collapses. Internal disputes within the PRD, street protests over the terms of an IMF loan, and continuing allegations of corruption led to his defeat and the reelection of Fernández in 2004.
Total Area : 48 730 sq. km (18 815 sq. miles)
Visitors : Population 1:2.6
6% 3% PRSC PLD
91% PRD
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
H
/
3.32m visitors
24% PRSC
Senate 32 seats
u
†
TOURISM
27% PLD
49% PRD
PRD = Dominican Revolutionary Party PLD = Dominican Liberation Party PRSC = Christian Social Reform Party
sa
0/32
Multiparty elections
ge
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
as
†
CLIMATE
Ya u Su de r l
D
1865
North America
CARIBBEAN
B
E
A
N
S
E
A
Mo
na
P
0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Geplac
OAS
IBRD
SELA
Relations with Haiti, with which it shares the island of Hispaniola, are the dominant regional issue: there are some 300,000 Haitian illegal immigrants in the Dominican Republic.
†
AID
Recipient
$157m (receipts)
/
Up 45% in 2002
Japan and the US are the largest donors. The IMF reluctantly approved a $657 million loan package in 2004.
DEFENSE
†
.
$153m
No compulsory military service
Down 1% in 2002
The Dominican Republic military is the second-largest in the region after Cuba. It focuses on illegal immigration from Haiti and narcotics smuggling. The main arms supplier is the US.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 9.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
45 Dominican Republic pesos (30.6)
$20bn
15,864 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 37,300 b/d
2.16m cattle, 577,500 pigs, 46.5m chickens
Ferro-nickel, bauxite, copper, gold, silver
The Dominican Republic is a net energy importer: hydroelectric generators are the only domestic source of power, and electricity blackouts can be a major problem. Oil prospecting has been unsuccessful, and oil is imported from Mexico and Venezuela on preferential terms under the San José Agreement. The Dominican Republic’s quota from Venezuela was increased under the 2000 Caracas Accord.
BALANCE
†
MEDIA
The 1697 Franco-Spanish partition of Hispaniola left Spain with the eastern two-thirds of the island, now the Dominican Republic.
1865 Independence from Spain. 1930–1961 Gen. Trujillo dictator. 1965 Civil war. US intervention. 1966–1996 Conservative Joaquín Balaguer holds presidency. 1996 Leonel Fernández of moderate PLD succeeds Balaguer. 1998 Major hurricane damage. 2000 Hipolito Mejía of center-left PRD wins presidency. 2004 Fernández reelected.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
66 per 1000 population
110 per 1000 population
Defense 0.7% Education 2.4%
TV ownership medium
Health 2.2% 0
Daily newspaper circulation 27 per 1000 people
There are 11 daily newspapers, including Listín Diario, Ultima Hora, El Nacional, and El Caribe 7 services: 2 state-owned, 5 independent
PAYMENTS ........................–$875m
INFLATION .............................................5.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ......................................16%
STRENGTHS Sustained tourism growth. Mining – mainly of nickel and gold – and sugar major sectors. Hand-made cigars, which are biggest sellers in US. Large hidden economy based on transshipment of narcotics to US.
WEAKNESSES Peso falling in value. Massive bank fraud exposed in 2003 – $2.2 billion embezzled. Electricity shortages. Rising unemployment. Tourism vulnerable to global slumps. Netherlands 1% Haiti 1%
UK 2% Canada 2% Other 9%
Television broadcasts from both Mexico and the US can easily be received in the Dominican Republic.
CRIME
†
16,789 prisoners
No death penalty
/
†
EDUCATION
Spain 4% Mexico 5%
Other 33%
School leaving age: 17
176,995 students
State schools are badly underfunded. The state university in Santo Domingo is the oldest university in the Western Hemisphere; the rich send their children to study in the US and Spain.
HEALTH
IMPORTS
Narcotics-related crime is rising
The Dominican Republic is increasingly used by narcotics cartels as a transit point to the US. Narcotics trafficking and arms smuggling are linked to the high levels of violent crime.
USA 85%
Japan 4% Brazil 3%
131 services: 1 state-owned, 130 independent
84%
EXPORTS
USA 51%
3 tonnes per capita
CHRONOLOGY
Forests are threatened by destructive agricultural practices and also by the use of wood as fuel by rural communities. Deforestation has accelerated soil erosion, exacerbating floods in 2004.
CAPITA .................................$2320 OF
/
174% (154% partially protected) including marine areas
†
Sustainability rank: 79th
ENVIRONMENT
WORLD GNP RANKING..............................65th PER
Electric power 3.6m kW
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
SCORE CARD
GNP
†
RESOURCES
1 per 455 people
†
Great disparities exist between rich and poor. Black Dominicans, accounting for the major proportion of small farmers and unemployed, remain at the bottom of the economic and social ladder. Haitian immigrants are poorly paid, badly treated, and liable to be deported at short notice. Those of mixed race have shown most upward mobility in recent years, but, nevertheless, the old Spanish families still form the wealthiest section of society and retain their grip on valuable estates. In 2003 the collapse of three major banks, through widespread fraud, led the government to agree to a $5 billion bailout which crippled the economy and saw living standards plummet.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
81 $2320
Welfare state health benefits Heart attacks, infectious and parasitic diseases
Wealthy Dominicans fly to Cuba and the US for treatment. The poor rely on a basic public service, inadequately provided by over 120 state hospitals.
150th
116 193rd
67 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
113 84%
107
98
32 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
227
D
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
EAST TIMOR
SOUTHEAST ASIA Papua New Guinea
Malaysia I n d o n e s i a
EAST TIMOR
OFFICIAL NAME: Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste CAPITAL: Dili POPULATION: 778,000 CURRENCY: US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Tetum (Portuguese/Austronesian) and Portuguese 2002
2002
May 20
n/a
+8
L
YING NORTH OF Australia across the Timor Sea, the island of Timor has a narrow coastal plain giving way to forested highlands. Its mountainous backbone rises to 2963 m (9715 ft). The eastern half was colonized for over 400 years by Portugal, then occupied from 1975 by Indonesia, whose forces hunted down all resistance. A referendum in 1999 launched a turbulent transition to independence in May 2002.
†
CLIMATE
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
The climate is tropical, with heavy rain from December to March, then dry and increasingly hot weather for the rest of the year, especially in the north.
†
Not available
Comoro, Dili
Not available
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1414 km (879 miles)
None
None
None
Roads are of poor quality and public transportation beyond Dili is unreliable and sparse. There is no railroad.
TOURISM 3000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:259
.
Down in 1999–2000
East Timor is almost entirely Roman Catholic. The Timorese are a mix of Malay and Papuan peoples, and many indigenous Papuan tribes survive. There is an urban Chinese minority, and ethnic Indonesian settlers became numerous after annexation, constituting 20% of the population by 1999. Preindependence violence was politically rather than ethnically motivated. Women do not enjoy a high profile in public life. The incidence of domestic violence is notably high.
EAST TIMOR Total Area : 15,007 sq. km (5794 sq. miles)
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft
under 10 000
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
1000m/3281ft
N
O
D
0
10
20
30
% of total arrivals
The number of tourists fell dramatically after the preindependence violence in the region. The country is now trying to market itself as a tourist destination, but infrastructure and accommodation remain poor.
228
Kepulauan Solor
Pulau Pantar
Se
la
t
Sel
Pulau Kambing
40 O
Pante Makasar
m
b
at
Pulau Romang
Kepulauan Leti
r Weta
Tutuala
Manatuto
DILI
Lospalos
Pulau Moa
N
A S E
Maliana
(part of East Timor)
Timor
o
Pulau Wetar
E
Pulau Alor
i
I
N
la tR
g an
Kepulauan Alor
Se
m
S
Sea Level
A
I
500m/1640ft
East Timor does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
7% 15% ASDT Others
East Timor is an emerging multiparty democracy. The Fretilin movement was the leading voice in the long struggle for independence. Turnout at recent elections was high. After years of unrest and human rights abuses committed by the Indonesian army, the Indonesian government in 1999 conceded a referendum on East Timor’s future. Pro-Indonesian militias went on the rampage, murdering hundreds of people in indiscriminate attacks, and forcing thousands into the Indonesiancontrolled western half of the island. An Australian-led international peacekeeping force eventually secured relative calm and organized the promised vote on August 30, 1999. An overwhelming 80% of voters endorsed independence. The UN Mission in East Timor was given full power over the territory in October 1999. Fretilin emerged as the outright victor in elections in late 2001 to the new Constituent Assembly. Its popular leader, Xanana Gusmão, reversed his decision to retire from politics and was duly elected president in 2002. Independence took effect on May 20 that year. The new government, headed by Prime Minister Mari Alkatiri, pledged to concentrate spending on health and education.
53/km2 (138/mi2)
Roman Catholic 95%
over 10 000
8% PD
63% Fretilin
Other (including Muslim and Protestant) 5%
-20/-4
7% PSD
Fretilin = Revolutionary Front of an Independent East Timor PD = Democratic Party PSD = Social-Democratic Party ASDT = Timorese Social-Democratic Association
92%
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
National Parliament 88 seats
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
AT THE LAST ELECTION
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
8%
Multiparty elections
President Xanana Gusmão
2001/2006
Pop. density medium
Tetum (Portuguese/ Austronesian), Bahasa Indonesia, and Portuguese
WEATHER CHART FOR DILI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
a
E
†
POLITICS
.tp
+670
Australia
Suai
T
I M
O
R 0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: EAST TIMOR
Key to symbols and abbreviations on endpapers
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
ADB
Joined UN in 2002
CPLP
IBRD
†
Recipient
$220m (receipts)
/
Up 13% in 2002
International aid provides the backbone of East Timor’s GDP. Donors pledged $220 million in 2002. Australia and Portugal are by far the biggest donors.
DEFENSE Not available
†
,
$402m
Despite its young age, East Timor has a strong national identity, based largely on the domination of Roman Catholicism.
Not available
†
Electric power 14,400 kW
356 tonnes
Oil figures not available
345,000 pigs, 170,000 cattle, 1.3m chickens
Oil, natural gas, gold, manganese, marble
East Timor has few natural resources. Oil reserves in the Timor Sea are in part claimed by Australia, which has begun drilling in some disputed regions.
ENVIRONMENT
,
†
†
MEDIA
0.2 tonnes per capita
Not available
Life expectancy in East Timor has historically been lower than in the rest of the Indonesian archipelago. There is a shortage of doctors and midwives.
†
SPENDING
Not available
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
7 per 1000 population
Daily newspaper circulation figures are not available
Defense No data
There are 2 daily newspapers, the Timor Post and Suara Timor Lorosae. The UN Mission publishes the biweekly Tais Timor
Currency is US dollar
4 stations: 1 staterun, 1 run by the Catholic Church, 2 independent
1 state-controlled service
Official newsletters have the highest circulation. Two independent daily papers were established in 2000, the Timor Post and Suara Timor Lorosae, both partly run by staff of Suara Timor Timur, the main preindependence daily.
STRENGTHS
†
Potential from oil and natural gas reserves in Timor Sea. Traditional agricultural base; coffee exports.
CRIME
WEAKNESSES
Petty and violent crimes are common. Most of the perpetrators of violence in 1999 have yet to be brought to justice.
East Timor does not publish prison figures
EDUCATION
Education No data Health 5.8% 0 %
59%
10
15
20
25
Living standards, already relatively low for the region, were made worse by the events of 1999. Thousands were left homeless. Well-paid UN staff enjoyed a sharply contrasting lifestyle.
WORLD RANKING
No death penalty
/
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Position in World 1st
Crime is rising
†
50th
100th
Not available 150th
EXPORTS/IMPORTS
125
7500 students 193rd
Export and import figures are not available for East Timor. Indonesia is the main trading partner.
Not available
TV ownership low
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Infrastructure devastated by 1999 violence. Insecurity deterred investment. Questions over allocation of revenues from disputed Timor Sea.
†
HEALTH 1 per 40,000 people
Not available
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................173rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$520 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .......................$37m INFLATION .........................................0.2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................17%
1949 Dutch west Timor becomes part of Indonesia. 1975 Fretilin declares East Timor independent; Indonesia invades. 1991 Massacre of proindependence demonstrators in Dili. 1996 Timorese leaders receive Nobel Peace Prize, raising global awareness. 1999 Indonesian government agrees to hold referendum; resulting violence quelled by UN force. 2001 Elections to new Constituent Assembly; Fretilin wins majority. 2002 Xanana Gusmão elected president. Independence.
Not available
Unrestricted logging under Indonesian rule has greatly diminished important species and contributed to erosion of the country’s poor-quality soil.
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Not available No compulsory military service
The East Timorese Defense Force was established in 2001, formed from the remnants of proindependence militia. Its role in providing security is likely to expand with the gradual withdrawal of UN peacekeeping forces.
ECONOMICS
The Portuguese arrived in Timor in the 1520s. It was formally divided by Portugal and the Netherlands in 1859.
NAM
Relations with Indonesia remain strained over the issue of justice for past human rights abuses. Australia, one of the few Western countries to recognize Indonesia’s annexation of East Timor (while Portugal, the former colonial power, had opposed it), later swung vital support behind the cause of independence. While the Timor Sea Treaty, ratified by Australia in 2003, allows for a joint petroleum development area, the maritime boundary is hotly disputed. East Timor has joined the UN and the ADB, and has applied to join ASEAN.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
During Indonesian domination, classes were taught in Bahasa Indonesia. The number of students attending school and university has almost recovered from the sharp decline in 1999.
144 $520
65 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
161
161
59%
89 deaths
158
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
229
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ECUADOR
SOUTH AMERICA
Peru
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Ecuador CAPITAL: Quito POPULATION: 13 million CURRENCY: US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1830
1942
Aug 10
EC
-5
NCE PART OF THE INCA heartland, Ecuador lies on the western coast of South America. It was ruled by Spain from 1533, when the last Inca emperor was executed, until independence in 1830. Most Ecuadorians live either in the lowland coastal region or in the Andean Sierra. The Amerindian community is deeply involved in politics. Massive depreciation of the national currency, the sucre, forced the government to adopt the US dollar in 2000.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR QUITO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Congress 100 seats
36% Protestant, Jewish, and other 7%
-20/-4
Climate varies from hot equatorial in the Amazon forests, to dry heat in the south and “perpetual spring” in Quito.
†
TRANSPORTATION Mariscal Sucre, Quito 2.77m passengers
Drive on right
182 ships 313,100 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK Pan-American Highway
966 km (600 miles)
1500 km (932 miles)
Roman Catholic 93%
†
Joined UN Over half of the population is of WORLD AFFAIRS in 1945 Amerindian–Spanish extraction (mestizo). Black communities exist on OAS AP AmCC NAM RG the coast. The Amerindians, who make up about one-quarter of the population, Oil prices and access to US and EU are pressing for Ecuador to be described markets for bananas are major as a plurinational state, within which concerns. There are serious the different indigenous communities security problems on the are recognized as distinct border with Colombia. nationalities. The strong N O and largely unified San Lorenzo Amerindian movement L O is at the forefront Esmeraldas M B Tulcán of social protests. I A
E
A
C
8207 km (5100 miles)
36% Others
Attempts to rescue the economy through austerity reforms and dollarization since the late 1990s have provoked violent and widespread popular protests; Amerindian groups, headed by the National Indigenous Confederation (CONAIE), form the main opposition. In 2000 the army backed protestors, overthrowing the government. The coup leader, Col. Lucio Gutiérrez, went on to win the presidency in 2002. His market-friendly policies quickly faced opposition from the Congress and CONAIE.
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
13% 10% ID PRIAN
PSC = Social Christian Party PRE = Ecuadorian Roldosist Party ID = Democratic Left PRIAN = Institutional Renewal Party of Democratic Action
47/km2 (122/mi2)
64%
15% PRE
26% PSC
Pop. density low
Spanish, Quechua, other Amerindian languages
Multiparty elections
President Lucio Gutiérrez
2002/2006
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
Tropical/mountain
†
POLITICS
.ec
+593
O
I
Peru 13%
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
C
USA 23%
30
40
Guayaquil
Tourism is growing. Quito, once the capital of the Inca empire, has restored many of its Spanish colonial buildings, including 86 churches. Access to the unique wildlife on the Galapagos Islands is restricted to 60,000 visitors a year.
Machala Guayaquil
0 0
Puerto Cristóbal Baquerizo Moreno
100 km 100 miles
S
U
E
s t az
a
P LAND HEIGHT
Pasaje Santa Rosa
N
500m/1640ft Sea Level
Zamora
0
Macará
0
P
U
I. Española
E
4000m/13124ft 2000m/6562ft
Loja
I.San
I. Santa María
r ay
Macas
Sigsig
I. Santiago I. Santa Cruz
I. Isabela
Pa
Azogues
Cuenca
Isla Puná
of
I. Pinta I. Marchena I. Genovesa I. Fernandina
Puyo
Riobamba
Alausí
Eloy Alfaro
Gulf
I. Darwin I. Wolf
Baños
C u ra
Milagro
Salinas
Nuevo Rocafuerte
Tena
Ambato
N
20
Latacunga
Chimborazo Balzar 6310 m Jipijapa Guaranda Vinces Babahoyo Daule
A 10
% of total arrivals
Galapagos Islands
Cotopaxi
Velasco Ibarra
R
Portoviejo
La Libertad
Other 35%
Chone
Nap o
E
over 500 000 over 100 000
Colombia 29%
230
Caráquez
Manta Calceta
A g ua r i c o
QUITO
D
over 1 000 000
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
O
POPULATION
Santo Domingo de los Colorados
Puerto El Carmen de Putumayo
i gu el
Nueva Loja
A
Up 16% in 2003
Total Area : 283 560 sq. km (109 483 sq. miles)
San M
Ibarra Cayambe
Equator
D au le
/
ECUADOR C
†
Visitors : Population 1:17
I
759,950 visitors
Otavalo
F
TOURISM
C
The road network and railroad are grossly underfunded. Serious political unrest in 2000–2001 blocked roads.
P
E
South America
Colombia ECUADOR
R
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ECUADOR
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Electric power 3.5m kW
RESOURCES 654,539 tonnes
427,000 b/d (reserves 4.6bn barrels)
4.98m cattle, 3.01m pigs, 2.64m sheep, 142m chickens
Oil, natural gas, gold, silver, copper, zinc
The government is encouraging faster oil exploration and higher output. Ecuador left OPEC in 1992. Overfishing is threatening mackerel and squid stocks. Quito is the second-highest capital in the world, after La Paz in Bolivia. It lies in an Andean valley lined with 30 volcanoes.
†
AID
/
Up 25% in 2002
Aid from the US, Japan, Spain, and the IDB alleviates the heavy foreign debt burden. The Galapagos Islands receive generous grants from UNESCO.
DEFENSE $685m
†
/
Compulsory military service
$19.1bn
†
†
Sustainability rank: 41st
2 tonnes per capita
Oil drilling in new areas of Amazonia threatens indigenous tribes. Tourism, some of it illegal, has upset the delicate ecosystems of the Galapagos Islands; the land iguana is endangered, and black coral is stolen in quantity for souvenirs. The breaching of the Jessica oil tanker just offshore in 2001 raised concerns about shipping oil through ecologically sensitive areas.
Up 36% in 2002
The army kept out of politics from 1979 until its intervention in 2000. A subsequent change in budgetary processes means that the military is no longer funded directly from oil revenues.
ECONOMICS
/
46% (25% partially protected)
Recipient
$216m (receipts)
ENVIRONMENT
†
MEDIA
1941–1942 War with Peru. Loss of mineral-rich El Oro region. 1948–1960 Prosperity from bananas. 1972 Oil production starts. 1979 Return to democracy. 1992 Amerindians win land in Amazonia. 1996–1997 Abdalá Bucarám Ortíz removed from presidency on grounds of mental incapacity. 1998–1999 Economic crisis. 2000 Army sides with Amerindian protestors. Vice President Gustavo Noboa replaces president. 2002 Lucio Gutiérrez, leader of 2000 coup, elected president.
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................69th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1490 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.22bn INFLATION .......................................12.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
There are 29 daily newspapers. The leading papers include El Commercio and Hoy 321 stations: 1 state-owned, 320 independent
67 independent services
STRENGTHS Net oil exporter. World’s biggest banana producer. Fishing industry. US dollar offers stability, but removes control.
WEAKNESSES Oil accounts for 50% of exports. Energy crises. High inflation. Financial instability. Poor infrastructure and land productivity. EXPORTS
Germany 5% Italy 5%
South Korea 5% Colombia 6%
USA 40%
†
7716 prisoners
Other 39%
No death penalty
/
Up 1% in 1999
91%
†
School leaving age: 14
43 per 1000 population
Venezuela 6% Brazil 6% Other 41%
Japan 6% Colombia 14%
USA 27%
110 per 1000 population
Education 1.6% Health 2.3% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The US state aid agency estimates that as much as 70% of the population lives in poverty. Most of these people are concentrated in urban areas.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
88
206,541 students
The government has launched programs to combat high levels of adult illiteracy in rural areas of Ecuador. Secondary schools are badly underfunded. There are 54 universities, many of them private. Public universities have an open admissions policy.
GDP/cap. increase
Defense 3%
150th
IMPORTS
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
0
Right-wing paramilitaries, rumored to be supported by Colombians, were blamed for high-profile murders in the late 1990s. Unprecedented numbers of citizens are applying for arms permits, while the illegal arms trade is thriving. Ecuador’s 34 prisons are extremely overcrowded and conditions are poor; protests by prisoners are common. In 2004 prison guards went on strike.
EDUCATION
Cancers, accidents, heart and infectious diseases
SPENDING
The largely independent press is highly regionalized, based either in the Quito region or around Guayaquil on the coast, which is also a center for commercially run radio stations. There are ten cultural and ten religious radio stations.
CRIME
Welfare state health benefits
Health care is seriously underfunded. Some services exist in poor urban districts but are still unavailable in many rural areas. Severe budget cuts mean that any improvement will depend on more outside aid.
SCORE CARD
†
HEALTH
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Currency is US dollar
Alternating republican and military governments ruled Ecuador from independence in 1830 to 1979.
1 per 588 people
Daily newspaper circulation 96 per 1000 people
Inflation 37% p.a. (1990–2001)
CHRONOLOGY
103 $1490
70 years
95 91%
92 25 deaths
100
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
231
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
EGYPT
NORTH AFRICA
Africa
Israel
L ib ya EGYPT
OFFICIAL NAME: Arab Republic of Egypt CAPITAL: Cairo POPULATION: 71.9 million CURRENCY: Egyptian pound OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1936
1982
July 23
ET
+2
.eg
+20
O
†
CLIMATE
Hot desert/ Mediterranean
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TRANSPORTATION
WEATHER CHART FOR CAIRO
Cairo International 8.34m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Drive on right
361 ships 1.28m grt
18th-Dynasty Temple of Queen Hatshepsut dating from the Middle Kingdom, c.1480 BCE. It is at Deir el-Bahri on the west bank of the Nile opposite Thebes, Egypt’s capital at the time.
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
49,920 km (31,019 miles)
None
5150 km (3200 miles)
3500 km (2175 miles)
Visitors : Population 1:13 Up 17% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Germany 14% Italy 14%
-10/14 -20/-4
Cities are linked by adequate roads, but the Nile and railroads are the main transportation arteries. Trains are frequently overcrowded. The Suez Canal is a vital international shipping lane.
Summers are very hot, especially in the south, but winters are cooler. The only significant rain falls in winter along the Mediterranean coast.
UK 7% Russia 7% France 5% Other 53% 0
l e N i
IS
RA EL aba
o
of
E
Nile
R
ez
G
Su
Gebel Katherina 2637m
A
I
T
El Minya A N D
PLATEAU Asyût
SAUDI ARABIA
Hurghada
a
SAHARA EL
MAAZA W â di Qen
S
Mallawi
Gulf o f Aq
lf
El Faiyûm Beni Suef
JORDAN
I
Gu
L
El Mahalla el Kubra GAZA STRIP Dumyât Rashîd Kafr el Dauwâr Matrûh Port Said Disûq Alexandria El Man¢ûra El ‘Arîsh Damanhûr L I B Y A N Zagazig Ismâ‘ilîya Kafr el Sheikh Œanœâ LOWER Canal P L A T E A U Bilbeis Suez œœâ r a Shibîn el Kôm Bitter Lakes Qa Benha EGYPT el d Suez a Shubrâ el Kheima f CAIRO ha El Gîza nk Ìelwân A Sinnûris S I N Birket Qârûn
R
Akhmîm
E
A S E
B
SAHARA EL
GHARQÎYA
SHARQÎYA U P P E R Qena
Sohâg
EGYPT Total Area : 1 001 450 sq. km (386 660 sq. miles)
A
A
D
I E
B S
Y E
A R
N
POPULATION
Idfu
El Wâhât el Khârga
T
Aswân Dam
W
N âd
i el
Aswân
over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000
K h a rî œ
over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000
Buìeiret Nâ¢ir
over 10 000 rd
llâq i
bo
el ‘A
tiv ra ist Political border in m d A
under 10 000
e
PLATEAU
er
Wâ
di
GILF KEBIR
0 0
S
U
D
A
60
Egypt’s wealth of antiquities from its ancient civilizations have made it a key tourist destination since the 1880s. Today, it also offers Nile cruises and some of the world’s best scuba diving, notably on the coral reefs near Hurghada on the Red Sea. Visitor numbers have more than doubled since 1990, though annual trends fluctuated as militant Islamists began targeting Western tourists in the mid-1990s; in an attack in Luxor in November 1997, 58 tourists were killed. Heightened security measures allowed a brief recovery, but the September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US caused a brief contraction in the global tourism industry that affected Islamic countries in particular.
E
Luxor
Nile
L
50
40
S
Isna
30
D
Y
El Khârga
20
Qus
Deir el-Bahri
E G Y P T
10
% of total arrivals
A S E
M E D I T E R R A N E A N D e l t a Gulf of Sollum
232
/
5.74m visitors
0
0/32
†
TOURISM
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
40/16
30/86
M
E
CCUPYING THE NORTHEAST corner of Africa, Egypt is divided by the highly fertile Nile valley separating the arid western desert from the smaller semiarid eastern desert. Egypt’s 1979 peace treaty with Israel brought security, the return of the Sinai, and large injections of US aid. Its essentially pro-Western military-backed regime is now being challenged by an increasingly influential Islamic fundamentalist movement.
N
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level -200m/-656ft 200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: EGYPT
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 72/km2 (187/mi2)
Arabic, French, English, Berber THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
President Mohammed Hosni Mubarak
2000/2005 AT THE LAST ELECTION
2% 1% App Others
People's Assembly 454 seats
43%
57%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Coptic Christian and other 6% Muslim (mainly Sunni) 94%
86% NDP
8% 2% 1% Ind NWP NPU
NDP = National Democratic Party Ind = Independents App = Appointed NWP = New Wafd Party NPU = National Progressive Unionist Party Ten members are appointed by the head of state
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Nubian, Armenian, and Greek 10%
Egypt is a multiparty system in theory; the monolithic NDP, however, is backed by the military and the allpowerful presidency.
PROFILE Eastern Hamitic 90%
Most Egyptians speak Arabic, and many also have French or English as a second language. There is a long tradition of ethnic and religious tolerance, though the rise in Islamic fundamentalism has sparked sectarian clashes between Muslims and Copts (Coptic Christianity is one of the earliest branches of Christianity). Berber-speaking communities are found in the western oases; small colonies of Greeks and Armenians live in the larger towns. Many Jews left Egypt for Israel after 1948, but a small community remains in Cairo. Cairo is the second most populous city in Africa, and Egypt’s high birthrate has spawned profound social problems. In 1985 the government set up the National Population Council, which made birth control readily available. Since then, the birthrate has dropped from 39 to 24 per 1000 people, one of the lowest rates in Africa. Despite this decrease, the population is still predicted to reach almost 100 million by 2025. With the growing influence of Islamic fundamentalists, who oppose contraception, the birthrate may accelerate once more. Egyptian women have been among the most liberated in the Arab world; a 2000 law allows them to initiate divorce proceedings. Islamic fundamentalism may threaten their position, however, particularly in rural areas.
Egypt has had just three leaders since 1954, when Gemal Abdel Nasser, the power behind a military coup in 1952, assumed the presidency. In 1981 President Anwar Sadat was assassinated, but was immediately replaced by Hosni Mubarak, a man of the same mold. The NDP dominates the political process by means of the state of emergency. Elections in 2000 were more transparent than before and candidates associated with the Islamic opposition fared slightly better, though many independents later joined the NDP. While Nasser promoted Arab socialism along Soviet lines, Sadat and Mubarak (whose fourth six-year term began in 1999) encouraged private enterprise. There has been little parallel liberalization in politics.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Islamic fundamentalism Islamist terrorist groups have launched numerous attacks since 1994 on police and tourists, and in 1995 attempted to assassinate Mubarak. Fundamentalists attract both urban and rural poor with promises of improved conditions. Mosques are often the main providers of education and health services that parallel those of the state. Draconian measures are used by the government to counter the terrorist threat, and the only legal Islamic party, the Labor Party, was banned in 2000. Yet religious organizations, especially the long-
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.5% 2.6% 7.7% 14.3% 24%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
0.4%
7.8% 15.1% 25.3%
Hosni Mubarak, president since the assassination of Anwar Sadat in 1981.
Gemal Abdel Nasser, pan-Arab nationalist, president from 1954 to 1970.
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
Damasc
OAPEC
AU
OIC
Egypt has close relations with the West, particularly the US. Its crucial support for the 1991 Gulf War won it a massive economic reward from Saudi Arabia. It is also one of only two Arab countries technically at peace with Israel, for which it faces criticism from hard-line Muslims. Egypt still backs Palestinian autonomy and the US-led “roadmap” for peace, and has worked closely with liberals in the Palestinian National Authority; it brokered a brief cease-fire in 2003 and expects to oversee security in an Israeli-free Gaza from 2006. Israeli military action, however, caused Egypt to downgrade ties with Israel in 2002. Relations with Iran remain tense: Iran actively supports the Islamist groups operating against the NDP government, and characterizes Egypt as a corrupt state under US influence. Egypt expressed concern over international treatment of Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, Mubarak advocating a diplomatic solution. He has also urged restraint in the “war on terrorism.” Egypt’s diplomatic service is the Arab world’s largest, and many Egyptians have served on international bodies.
†
Recipient
$1.29bn (receipts)
2.3%
% of population by age group
The state of emergency In force since the assassination of Sadat by Islamist terrorists in 1981, the national state of emergency has been repeatedly extended by the NDP, most recently in 2003 for a further three years. Emergency laws have been invoked to justify the ban on religious parties, some human rights organizations, and groupings like the Muslim Brotherhood. Human rights groups claim that emergency powers are routinely applied to silence political opponents.
AID
Male
0–19
banned but relatively moderate Muslim Brotherhood, are still allowed to pursue social programs. A 1999 truce between the government and radicals from the Gamaat Islamiya and a wing of Islamic Jihad still holds, though other Egyptian Islamists have become more active in global terrorism, especially since the 2001 terrorist attacks on the US.
/
Up 2% in 2002
Egypt has received much US military aid since the late 1970s, and was the top recipient of US aid in 2001–2002, receiving almost twice as much as Israel. Aid was pledged in 2002 to make up for lost tourism revenue.
233
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
Egypt’s centuries-long Ottoman occupation ended in 1914 when it came under direct British rule. It became fully independent in 1936. Army officers led by Lt. Col. Gemal Abdel Nasser seized power in 1952.
E
,
Compulsory military service
No change in 2002
EGYPTIAN ARMED FORCES 3655 main battle tanks (T-54/55, M1A1 Abrams, Ramses II, T-62, M-60)
320,000 personnel
4 submarines, 1 destroyer, 10 frigates, and 47 patrol boats
20,000 personnel
579 combat aircraft (F-16, 30,000 Alpha Jet, PRC J-6/7, personnel F-4E, Mirage 5, MiG-21) None
Egypt’s armed forces, the largest in the Arab world, have not seen serious
ECONOMICS $97.6bn
†
action since the 1991 liberation of Kuwait. Egypt has made modest contributions to peacekeeping missions since then. More than 400,000 reservists augment the regular troops. After the 1978 Camp David framework agreements were reached with Israel, Egypt stopped buying Soviet weapons and aircraft, and turned instead to Western suppliers. Cooperation with the US has reaped dividends in the form of access to more sophisticated defense equipment and improved training. Egypt has a small arms industry and sells light weapons, notably its version of the Sovietdeveloped AK-47 assault rifle, to other developing countries.
Inflation 7.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
6.1899 Egyptian pounds (6.056)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................37th GNP per Capita ............................$1470 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$470m INFLATION .........................................2.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
EXPORTS
France 4%
Other 52%
India 4% UK 8% Italy 14%
USA 18% IMPORTS
Italy 6% China 5%
France 6% Germany 8%
Other 59%
USA 16%
STRENGTHS Oil and gas revenues. Well-developed tourist infrastructure. Agriculture, especially cotton. Overseas remittances. Light industry and manufacturing. Fiscal and structural reforms: inflation and deficit down, investment up. Planned gas pipeline to Lebanon.
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
234
$3.12bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1953 Political parties dissolved, monarchy abolished. Republic proclaimed with Gen. Mohammed Neguib as president. 1954 Nasser deposes Neguib to become president. 1956 Suez Crisis following nationalization of Suez Canal. Israeli, British, and French forces invade, but withdraw after pressure from UN and US. 1958 Egypt merges with Syria as United Arab Republic. 1960–1970 Aswan High Dam built. 1961 Syria breaks away from union with Egypt. 1967 Six-Day War with Israel; loss of Sinai. 1970 Nasser dies; succeeded by Anwar Sadat. 1971 Readopts the name Egypt. Islam becomes state religion. 1972 Soviet military advisers dismissed from Egypt. 1974–1975 US brokers partial Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. 1977 Sadat visits Jerusalem: first ever meeting between Egyptian president and Israeli prime minister. 1978 Camp David accords, brokered by US, signed by Egypt and Israel. 1979 Egypt and Israel sign peace treaty, alienating most Arab states. 1981 Sadat assassinated; succeeded by Lt. Gen. Hosni Mubarak. 1982 Last Israeli troops leave Sinai. 1986 President Mubarak meets Israeli prime minister Shimon Peres to discuss Middle East peace. 1989 After 12-year rift, Egypt and Syria resume diplomatic relations. 1990–1991 Egypt participates in UN operation to liberate Kuwait. 1991 Damascus Declaration provides for a defense pact between Egypt, Syria, and GCC countries against Iraq. 1994–1998 Islamist extremists begin campaign of terrorism, killing civilians and tourists. Government steps up countermeasures. 1999 Banned Gamaat Islamiya ends campaign to overthrow government. 2000 Egypt recalls ambassador to Israel because of escalating Israeli aggression against Palestinians. 2001 Heavy decline in tourist numbers following September 2001 attack on US. 2003 State of emergency extended for further three years.
DEFENSE
2002
joint ventures with foreign partners for the first time, though only business classes profited. Most Egyptians suffered from new austerity measures. Under President Mubarak, economic reform has quickened and there is more awareness of poverty and unemployment. Priorities now are to encourage manufacturing, sustain economic growth, and reduce the gap between rich and poor. EGYPT : MAJOR BUSINESSES Alexandria
Cairo
Suez Nile
CHRONOLOGY
Ìelwân
El Minya
WEAKNESSES Tourism hit by “war on terrorism.” Dependence on imported technology. Rural poverty. Currency devaluations.
Asyut
PROFILE The Soviet-inspired economic model pursued by Nasser was rigid and highly centralized. It gave Egypt one of the largest public sectors of all developing countries. Economic restrictions were first relaxed in 1974. President Sadat’s “open-door” policy (infitah) allowed
Aswân Cement Iron & steel Food processing Consumer goods Electronics
Heavy engineering Vehicle manufacture Chemicals Textiles 0
* significant multinational ownership
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: EGYPT
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Electric power 17.7m kW
RESOURCES 9.2m ducks, 9.1m geese, 4.7m sheep, 92m chickens
Natural gas, oil, phosphates, manganese, uranium
Hydro 22% (17bn kWh) Combustion 78% (59bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
†
CRIME
EGYPT : LAND USE
Suez Canal
le Ni
Cropland Pasture SINAI Wetlands Desert Goats Cotton – cash crop Citrus fruits
Death penalty in use
.
80,000 prisoners
Oil and gas are Egypt’s most valuable resources. Oil multinationals are involved in new explorations, but more competitive oil-rich countries, such as Algeria and Yemen, are more profitable; three-quarters of Egypt’s oil production is consumed locally. Most electricity is derived from gas and hydroelectric power. The Aswan High Dam, built between 1960 and 1970 and with a maximum output of 10 billion kWh, provides the bulk of hydroelectricity. Within four years, revenue from the dam had covered its construction costs. A contract to upgrade the turbines has been awarded to a Russian company.
2
per 100,000 population
0.03
per 100,000 population
60
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Terrorist attacks have tarnished Egypt’s reputation as a law-abiding country. Street crime and muggings, previously rare, are increasing. Intercommunity violence – in particular between Muslims and Christians – has become more common, as have attacks on Western tourists by Islamic extremists. Human rights groups have criticized the police for their abuse of current emergency laws, which results in the routine torture and/or death in police custody of scores of political prisoners.
†
EDUCATION 56%
School leaving age: 14
2.45m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 200 km
10% (0.7% partially protected)
/
†
2.2 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
100
% of each age group in education
ENVIRONMENT
200 miles
Sustainability rank: 74th
2 state-owned services
†
HEALTH
E Welfare state health benefits Digestive, respiratory, and heart diseases, perinatal deaths
1 per 625 people
Health care, though improved, remains basic – there is only one hospital bed for every 500 people. Islamic medical centers based on the mosque organization are spreading, and are replacing the state system. In 1996 the government banned Pharaonic circumcision (female infibulation), a move upheld in 1997 by the Supreme Constitutional Court after being overturned by a lower court.
Murders
LIBYAN
0
1 state-owned service
Down 5% in 1994
CRIME RATES
DESERT
0
There are 17 daily newspapers. The serious, prestigious Al Ahram and the more populist Al Akhbar have the highest circulations
Pressure from Islamists has resulted in more airtime for Islamic sermons. Nilesat 101 was the Arab world’s first satellite, and Egypt is now a center for satellite TV. A “free media zone” was launched in 2000 to attract foreign companies. Mubarak repealed harsh penalties against journalists in 2004.
% of total generation by type
elta le D Ni
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 31 per 1000 people
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
MEDIA
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
771,515 tonnes
750,000 b/d (reserves 3.6bn barrels)
80
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
25 per 1000 population
110 per 1000 population
Defense 3.9% Education 4.8% Health 1.9% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
A rapidly growing population and the introduction of market economics have combined to produce widespread poverty, particularly in the south, while concentrating wealth in the hands of a small urban elite. Poverty levels are highest in rural areas. Urban unemployment and internal migration have led to the creation of enormous slums around Cairo and other cities.
WORLD RANKING
60
97% 40
85%
Position in World 1st
39%
20
50th
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary 100th
Egypt suffers from a chronic lack of water. The Nile, the only perennial source, is increasingly saline because of its much-reduced flow, due to irrigation use and the Aswan High Dam. The main cities suffer heavy industrial pollution, and environmental controls are few. In Cairo a sewerage system has improved sanitary conditions.
Most Egyptians attend elementary school until the age of 11, but not many complete secondary education. Twothirds of men, but only a minority of women, are literate. A government initiative to improve girls’ primary education was launched in 2000. The quality of the education given by Egyptian universities is widely respected in the Arab world.
150th
104 $1470
101 114
69 years
35 deaths
193rd
120
164 56%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
235
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
EL SALVADOR
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA Guatemala
Honduras
EL SALVADOR
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of El Salvador CAPITAL: San Salvador POPULATION: 6.5 million CURRENCIES: Salvadorean colón & US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1841
1841
Sept 15
ES
-6
.sv
+503
T
E
HE SMALLEST AND MOST densely populated Central American republic, El Salvador won full independence in 1841. Located on the Pacific coast, it lies within a zone of seismic activity. Between 1981 and 1991, El Salvador was engulfed in a civil war between US-backed right-wing government forces and leftwing FMLN guerrillas. Since the UN-brokered peace agreement, the country has been concentrating on rebuilding its shattered economy.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR SAN SALVADOR
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
Pop. density high
314/km2 (812/mi2)
Spanish
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
ACS
62%
-10/14
Evangelical 18%
-20/-4
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
14 ships 5600 grt
San Salvador 1.4m passengers
Roman Catholic 80%
Salvadorans are largely mestizo (mixed race); there are few ethnic tensions. The civil war was fought over gross economic disparities, which still exist.
†
POLITICS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2003/2006
Pan-American Highway: 327 km (203 miles)
2006 km (1246 miles)
951,000 visitors
37% FMLN
†
Visitors : Population 1:6.8
/
Up 30% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Guatemala 40% USA 18% Honduras 14% Other 28% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Peace has brought visitors back to the unspoiled beach resorts, but crime, earthquakes, and high prices for rooms and air travel hinder tourist expansion.
236
President Antonio Saca
6% PDC
Legislative Assembly 84 seats
Earthquakes in 2001 further damaged the already war-ravaged road and rail networks. Reconstruction will take many years.
TOURISM
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Rio Lempa partly navigable
283 km (176 miles)
Joined UN in 1945
Geplac
OAS
IBRD
San José
38% Other 2%
The tropical coastal tierra caliente is very hot, with seasonal rains. The low hills are cooler at night; the higher tierra templada is drier and also cooler.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
View over the capital, San Salvador. It lies in a depression in the southern and higher of El Salvador’s two mountain ranges, which is punctuated by more than 20 volcanoes.
32% Arena
19% PCN
6% CDU
FMLN = Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front Arena = Nationalist Republican Alliance PCN = National Conciliation Party PDC = Christian Democratic Party CDU = United Democratic Center
El Salvador was dominated by the centrist PDC and right-wing Arena until the rise in the late 1990s of the FMLN, the leftist former guerrillas. In 1997 the FMLN won the mayorship of San Salvador and half the state capitals. In the 1999 presidential election a divided FMLN came a poor second to Arena’s Francisco Flores, who promised reduced poverty and the redistribution of income. With the economy in difficulties, Arena lost Assembly elections to the FMLN, but emerged victorious from the 2004 presidential poll, won by popular former sports commentator Tony Saca. Crime is a major issue as are the human rights abuses of the civil war.
El Salvador was an international pariah in the 1980s because of the human rights abuses committed by military death squads. Today it cooperates with its neighbors in pressing the US on key issues such as trade and immigration. It relied heavily on US aid in 2001 after three devastating earthquakes. In 2000 it cosigned a free trade treaty with Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico. Long-standing border disputes exist with Honduras, and El Salvador contests the sovereignty of islands in the Gulf of Fonseca.
AID
†
Recipient
$233m (receipts)
.
Down 2% in 2002
Post–civil-war aid focused on efforts to secure peace and achieve national reconciliation by funding rebuilding and refugee resettlement programs. The current emphasis is toward supporting growth. The UN received a slow international response in 2001 to its appeal for $34.8 million in emergency housing, medicine, and disaster prevention programs after El Salvador’s devastating earthquakes.
DEFENSE $155m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 5% in 2002
Between 1979 and 1991, the role of the US-backed military was to fight an unrestricted war against left-wing groups; governments that opposed the military were overthrown. US military aid dropped drastically in the 1990s before recovering after 2001. The armed forces are a quarter of the size they were in 1991, but are being drawn back into an internal security role.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: EL SALVADOR
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Inflation 6.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
ECONOMICS
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................79th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2110 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$384m INFLATION .........................................1.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
†
MEDIA
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 28 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Coffee. Foreign investment. Family remittances from US. Dollarization.
There are 8 daily newspapers. El Diario de Hoy has the highest circulation
WEAKNESSES
The media are constitutionally free, but are mainly owned by powerful groups such as the Dutriz family.
EXPORTS
Costa Rica 3%
Nicaragua 4% Honduras 7%
Mexico 6% Guatemala 10%
Other 38% USA 38%
80%
No significant resources. Several volcanoes facilitate abundant and relatively cheap geothermal energy. 0
A
T A
Paz
U
Chalchuapa
Lago de Coatepeque
pa L em
U
Santo Tomás
A
R Lem p
A
200m/656ft
50th
Sea Level
S
a
To r o
Sensuntepeque Ilobasco
100th
la
Perquín
85 $2110
San Rafael San Francisco
Lago de Cojutepeque Ilopango San Vicente Olocuilta
San Luis
500m/1640ft
over 10 000 under 10 000
150th
Santa Rosa de Lima
88 70 years
Mercedes Umaña Pasaquina Lolotique El Triunfo San Miguel Zacatecoluca
110 130
án
Nueva San Salvador Acajutla
25
WORLD RANKING
sc o r
SALVADOR
20
1st
Go a
103
33 deaths
80%
193rd
La Libertad a
C
I
Usulután
mp
P
Quezaltepeque San Apopa Martín SAN
15
Position in World
1000m/3281ft
over 50 000
Chalatenango
El Congo Ciudad Arce
Volcán de Santa Ana 2030m
Sonsonate
D
Embalse Cerrón Grande
10
Though there is a growing middle class, much of the country’s wealth is controlled by just a few hundred families. Land distribution remains highly skewed, and nearly half the population live in poverty.
2000m/6562ft
F
Jiquilisco
I
Puerto el Triunfo Chirilagua
Bahia de Jiquilisco
C
O
C
E
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
La Unión
Le
G
Ahuachapán
Santa Ana
LAND HEIGHT
over 100 000 l
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
over 500 000
N
S
E
POPULATION
N
Cerro El Pital 2730m
pu
103 per 1000 population
Health 3.7%
EL SALVADOR
O um
24 per 1000 population
0
25 miles
La Palma
GDP/cap. increase
118,491 students
25 km
0
San Ignacio
Metapán Lago de Güija
†
SPENDING CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
A
Intipucá G u lf
N
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
a
M
Health problems worsened after the 2001 earthquakes. Plans to privatize the health service are unpopular.
School leaving age: 15
Total Area : 21 040 sq. km (8124 sq. miles)
H
Heart disease, cancers, homicide, infectious diseases
Education 2.5%
Salt, limestone, gypsum
L A
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 909 people
Education is based on the US system and is limited in rural areas. During the civil war, state universities were closed, prompting the creation of private universities which continue to thrive despite their low standards. A 1995 reform bill tried to address the negative impact of deregulation.
Not an oil producer; refines 18,700 b/d
1m cattle, 153,480 pigs, 96,000 horses, 8.1m chickens
†
†
Defense 1.2%
Electric power 601,000 kW
18,142 tonnes
1932 Army crushes popular insurrection led by Farabundo Martí. 1944–1979 Army rules through PCN. 1979 Reformist officers overthrow PCN government. 1981 FMLN launches civil war. 1989 Arena wins presidency. 1991 UN-brokered peace. FMLN recognized as a political party. 2000, 2003 FMLN wins Assembly elections. 2001 Devastating earthquakes kill hundreds. Dollarization of economy. 2004 Arena retains presidency.
Down 43% in 2000–2001
EDUCATION
†
RESOURCES
.
El Salvador was a Spanish colony until 1821. Part of the United Provinces of Central America in 1823–1839, it became fully independent in 1841.
HEALTH
A corrupt judiciary and police force failed to stem a postwar crime wave fueled by readily available arms; armed robberies, kidnappings, and murders deter investment and tourism. Many gang members were deported from the US in the 1990s; the Mara Salvatrucha gang alone has 17,000 members.
IMPORTS
Costa Rica 4%
Death penalty not used in practice
10,278 prisoners
Guatemala 12%
France 4%
†
CRIME
Other 11%
USA 63%
150 stations: 1 state-owned, 149 independent
12 channels: 1 state-owned, 11 independent
Exports uncompetitive. High tax evasion. Low savings. Vast reconstruction needed after earthquakes in 2001. International concern over conditions in maquilas (assembly plants).
CHRONOLOGY
1.1 tonnes per capita
Deforestation has led to erosion and desertification – worsening landslides during the earthquakes of 2001. Overuse of pesticides is a major problem.
SCORE CARD
Sustainability rank: 75th
/
0.4% (0.2% partially protected)
8.752 Salvadorean colones (8.752)
$13.6bn
†
ENVIRONMENT
c of F o n s e
237
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
EQUATORIAL GUINEA
WEST AFRICA EQUATORIAL GUINEA
1968
Oct 12
GQ
+1
Congo
Gabon
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Equatorial Guinea CAPITAL: Malabo POPULATION: 494,000 CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Spanish and French 1968
Africa
Cameroon
.gq
+240
C
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR MALABO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
Pop. density low 18/km2 (46/mi2)
Spanish, Fang, Bubi
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
Bioko, formerly Fernando Po. Though the volcanic land is very fertile, cocoa production fell by 90% during the Macías years.
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
POLITICS
30/12
30/86 20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
50%
†
Multiparty elections
President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo
AT THE LAST ELECTION
0
0/32
2004/2009
50%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
House of Representatives of the People 100 seats
Other 10%
-10/14 -20/-4
The island of Bioko is extremely wet and humid, with an annual rainfall of 200 cm (80 in), while the mainland is only marginally drier and cooler.
None
None
None
There are six flights a week between Malabo and Bata. Mainland public transportation is restricted to minibuses. There is only one properly paved road, serving the president’s hometown. Not available
/
Tourism receipts totaled $2m in 1998
Bioko
Bococo ig
Numbers are increasing slowly
MALABO Baney
Pico de Basilé 3008m
Luba
Riaba
Ureca
B
†
TOURISM
EQUATORIAL G
ht
Punta Santiago of B iafra
10
20
30
40
Equatorial Guinea is only of interest to the adventurous, independent tourist, despite the potential attraction of its beaches and the island of Bioko’s spectacular mountain scenery.
238
of Guinea Cabo Dos Puntas
Bata
ol o
0
% of total arrivals
Gulf
U
Equatorial Guinea does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
N
O C E A N
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Senye
Mbini
Etembue Cabo San Juan
Isla de Corisco
N
508 km (316 miles)
Cogo
O
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
2% CPDS
The ruling PDGE was set up in 1987 by Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, nephew of the dictator Francisco Macías Nguema, whom he had overthrown in 1979. It replaced Macías’s National Workers’ Party (PUNT). The gradual movement toward multipartyism – which was initiated in 1988 following the first elections for 20 years – has been marked by instability. Opposition parties boycotted the 1993 elections, while Obiang Nguema was UINEA the only effective candidate in the 1996 and 2002 polls, Total Area : LAND HEIGHT 28 051 sq. km declared farcical by (10 830 sq. miles) 2000m/6562ft international observers. Dozens of opposition POPULATION 1000m/3281ft figures were detained 500m/1640ft over 10 000 in 2002–2003 over a 1997 200m/656ft under 10 000 plot to overthrow the Sea Level N government. Many others 0 50 km are still in exile. 0 50 miles A further coup plot C was thwarted in A M E R O O N tem early 2004 when Ayamiken a mercenary group Micomeseng Ebebiyin Ncue was intercepted in Nsoc-Nsomo Niefang Zimbabwe en route to Añisoc Malabo to install the government-in-exile R í o Mongomo Rio Nkumekie of Severo Moto Nsa. Uo lo Recent legislative M u n i elections were won Evinayong easily by the PDGE, Aconibe but again denounced le Nsoc by the opposition it M Acurnam and observers. Ri o
43 ships 28,546 grt
30% C
PDGE = Equatorial Guinea Democratic Party C = Coalition of the "democratic opposition" (allies of the PDGE) CPDS = Convergence for Social Democracy
e
Malabo International 187,474 passengers
Drive on right
Equatorial Guinea is the only Spanish-speaking country in Africa. The mainland has a majority of Fang, a people also found in Cameroon and north Gabon. The Fang dominated politically under the Macías dictatorship. Bioko is populated by a majority of Bubi and a minority of Creoles, known as Fernandinos. Tensions between the mainland and Bioko have been reignited since the discovery of oil reserves off Bioko. The extended family has maintained its importance.
em
†
TRANSPORTATION
68% PDGE
Roman Catholic 90%
N T I C A T L A
E
OMPRISING FIVE ISLANDS and the territory of Río Muni on the west coast of Africa, Equatorial Guinea lies just north of the equator. Mangrove swamps border the mainland coast. The republic gained its independence in 1968 after 190 years of Spanish rule. Multipartyism was accepted in 1991, but the fairness of subsequent general elections has been questioned.
G
A
B
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: EQUATORIAL GUINEA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1968
WORLD AFFAIRS BDEAC
ACP
NAM
FZ
AU
A maritime border dispute with Nigeria was settled in 2000, paving the way for the exploitation of large oil reserves in the Gulf of Guinea. Oil potential has stimulated US interest, quietened human rights concerns, and prompted the appointment of a UN mediator to resolve the dispute with Gabon over islands in Corisco Bay which may control undiscovered oil reserves. Oil production in Equatorial Guinea has now overtaken that of Gabon.
AID
†
Recipient
$20m (receipts)
/
Up 54% in 2002
Equatorial Guinea is poorly developed, but with the increase in oil revenues many aid programs have ceased altogether or are substantially reduced. Inefficiency, corruption, and a shortage of skilled people hinder the planning and implementation of projects. An IMF program was suspended in 1997 after the government failed to implement reforms. The World Bank originally severed its links with the country in 1993, but resumed lending in 2002.
DEFENSE $4m
†
,
No compulsory military service
No change in 2002
The main concern is internal security. Cuba and North Korea provided Macías with a presidential guard, while Obiang Nguema has been protected by Moroccan troops. A long-running dispute with Gabon over islands in Corisco Bay is unresolved. Spain has provided military training, as has the US.
ECONOMICS $327m
†
Electric power 18,000 kW
3500 tonnes
249,000 b/d (reserves 71m barrels)
37,600 sheep, 30,000 ducks, 320,000 chickens
Oil, natural gas, gold
Oil production levels are expected to double between 2002 and 2005. Obiang Nguema has pledged to use income from oil to promote development. The region around Bata is served by a 3.2 MW hydropower plant.
ENVIRONMENT
/
None
†
Not available
The government has failed to impose any serious measures to stop timber companies depleting the rainforest.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There is no regular daily press. The formerly daily newspaper Poto Poto now appears irregularly 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
1 state-owned service
The press remains tightly controlled, despite the state’s adoption of multipartyism. In 2003, state radio declared Obiang Nguema to be “like God in Heaven.”
CRIME Equatorial Guinea does not publish prison figures
†
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................177th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$700 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$344m INFLATION .......................................11.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................30%
,
Lasting effects of economic regression under Macías dictatorship. Maladministration and ideological
Canada 11%
USA 28% Other 14%
†
EDUCATION 84%
E
School leaving age: 11
1003 students
Education declined in the Macías years, when attendance rates fell from 90% to 55%. Though education is declared the state’s first priority, funding is poor.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Diarrheal and respiratory diseases, malaria
1 per 5000 people
Life expectancy – just 37 years in 1960 – has risen substantially. There are 20 doctors to every 100,000 people.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
4 per 1000 population
17 per 1000 population
Defense 0.2% Education 0.6% Health 1.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
What wealth there is in Equatorial Guinea tends to be concentrated in the ruling clan. There is also a remnant of the former Spanish plutocracy.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Spain 25%
China 17%
1st
IMPORTS
France 10%
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
1968 Independence. President Macías begins reign of terror. 1979 Coup puts nephew in power. 1991 Multiparty constitution. 2001 Corruption scandal. 2002 Obiang Nguema reelected in disputed vote. 2004 PDGE wins denounced poll. Coup attempt foiled.
Little change from year to year
EXPORTS
USA 28%
Fertile soils. Timber. Cocoa and coffee. Extensive territorial waters, with potential for fisheries. The economy is strengthening as oil and gas reserves are exploited.
Equatorial Guinea remained a backwater of Spanish colonialism until development began after 1939.
Death penalty in use
The level of recorded crime is relatively low, but many offenses are not reported. Many human rights abuses still occur.
France 5%
CHRONOLOGY
0.4 tonnes per capita
Inflation 17% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
50th
Norway 11% 100th
UK 14% Other 22%
Spain 15%
attacks on the educated have restricted growth; under Macías, cocoa production slumped by 90%. Government complaints that oil exploitation contracts favor foreign corporations. High unemployment.
150th
109
116 84%
134 193rd
$700
155 52 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
168 101 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
239
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ERITREA
Saudi Arabia Sudan
2002
May 24
ER
+3
YING ALONG THE SHORE of the Red Sea, Eritrea has a landscape of rugged mountains, bush, and desert. A former Italian colony later annexed by Ethiopia, Eritrea fought a long war to win independence in 1993. It is the only country successfully to have seceded in postcolonial Africa. Like its southern neighbor, Eritrea is prone to recurring droughts and the threat of famine. War with Ethiopia in 1998–2000 brought heavy losses on both sides.
†
CLIMATE
Hot desert/mountain
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
The National Assembly comprises 75 People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ) central committee members and 75 directly elected members, including 11 seats reserved for women. Elections expected in 1997 under the new constitution have not yet taken place
A former Italian colony, Eritrea was dominated by Ethiopia in a federation set up in 1952. Within ten years Ethiopia had reduced Eritrea to a province, prompting a long secessionist struggle. The Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF) and its Tigrean allies helped defeat the Ethiopian regime in 1991. In 1993 a referendum gave overwhelming support to independence. Pending elections, the country is run by a core leadership from the EPLF (now the PFDJ), with the National Assembly convening rarely. The 1997 constitution forbids parties based on religious or ethnic affiliations. President Issaias Afewerki, a Christian, has been careful to include Muslims in his cabinet. He lashed out at opponents in 2001 and faced unprecedented criticism, even from within the PFDJ.
35/km2 (90/mi2)
80%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 10%
-10/14 -20/-4
Muslim 45%
Eritrea’s harvest is dependent on midyear rainfall in the highlands. Lowland temperatures may exceed 50˚C (122˚F).
Asmara 122,115 passengers
†
Drive on right
12 ships 20,686 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 882 km (548 miles)
None
306 km (190 miles)
None
A
HAGAR NISH PLATEAU Nakfa 2576m Enghershatu
Saatta
R DAHL
AK
AR
C
D
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
at lk
E
Down 11% in 2002
Algena
M a ss a
.
Mersa Teklay
a An se b
Visitors : Population 1:41 Barak a
101,000 visitors
†
H
IP
E
L
a
U
S
70
80
90 100
E
240
H
I
POPULATION over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
O
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level -200m/-656ft
A
P
K
IL
Beylul
I
Aseb
N
A
There is currently very little tourism, but Eritrea has considerable long-term potential, especially along the Red Sea coast, with its underwater attractions, and in the spectacular Danakil depression. Guides are essential.
T
LAND HEIGHT
A
60
AU
E
50
NAM
IGAD
S
40
N
30
A
20
% of total arrivals
D
10
O
India 3% Other 88% 0
AG
Italy 3%
iAEA
Joined UN in 1993
Attracting Western and Arab aid for reconstruction is a priority. Relations between Eritrea and aid donors have been strained by accusations of political repression. A border conflict with Ethiopia erupted into open warfare in 1998. Under the UN-sponsored peace accord in 2000, a new border was to be established, but disputes over its physical demarcation have hindered the process and reawoken tensions; Ethiopia’s main concern is access to the sea.
Keren Dahlak I. Massawa Ch Akordat Saati anne Sedberat l Ginda Adi Tekelezan Howakil Nefasit Barentu ASMARA Bay Teseney Adi Keyih Mersa Fatma Dekemhare Anfile Bay Biyagundi Mendefera Senafe Soyra Dangal 3018m Adi Kwala e z Sitona Om Hajer eke Suwa T Ed w
Sudan 6%
COMESA
Total Area : 121 320 sq. km (46 842 sq. miles) Kerora
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
E
D
TOURISM
Tigrinya-speakers, mainly Orthodox Christians, form the largest of Eritrea’s nine main ethnic groups. A strong sense of nationhood has been forged by the three-decade struggle for independence. Women played an important role in the war; from 1973, 30,000 fought alongside men, some in positions of command. The nomadic peoples of the Danakil desert remain fiercely independent. Subsistence farmers account for 80% of the population. RITREA
N
All transportation infrastructure requires massive investment. Ethiopian access to Eritrea’s ports is a source of friction.
Christian 45%
Fa
TRANSPORTATION
President Issaias Afewerki
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
20%
No legislative elections
National Assembly 150 seats
Pop. density low
Tigrinya, English, Tigre, Afar, Arabic, Bilen, Kunama, Nara, Saho, Hadareb
WEATHER CHART FOR ASMARA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
†
Elections not yet held
L
E
Yemen
POLITICS
.er
+291
ERITREA
E th i op i a
OFFICIAL NAME: State of Eritrea CAPITAL: Asmara POPULATION: 4.1 million CURRENCY: Nakfa OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Tigrinya, English, and Arabic 1993
Africa
EAST AFRICA
DJIBOUTI 0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ERITREA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
$230m (receipts)
.
Down 18% in 2002
The economy is highly aid-dependent, and millions of Eritreans survive on food aid. This is an obvious and pressing need, given the country’s vulnerability to famine, but donors have been less generous with aid for the $2 billion cost of reconstruction. Emergency UN aid was requested in 2000 to assist over a million people displaced by the Ethiopian incursion. $100 million of food aid was needed in 2004.
DEFENSE $100m
†
Compulsory military service
. Down 42% in 2002
Defense expenditure is massive. Vast numbers of conscripts swell the 50,000strong permanent army. During the independence struggle a third of soldiers were women. Troops were being rehabilitated on “food for work” schemes until the latest war with Ethiopia, which inflicted heavy losses. Mass demobilization was restarted in 2002.
ECONOMICS $796m
†
Inflation 9% p.a. (1993–2001)
Not an oil producer; oil refinery at Assab
2.1m sheep, 1.93m cattle, 1.7m goats, 1.37m chickens
Copper, potash, gold, iron, silver, zinc, oil, silica, granite, marble
Eritrea has substantial copper reserves, and lesser ones of silver, zinc, and gold. Building materials are exported. Onshore and offshore oil deposits are believed to exist. There is potential for power generation from geothermal sources, though most now comes from a new diesel-powered plant in Massawa.
STRENGTHS Strategic Red Sea position: transportation and tourism potential. Asmara–Massawa railroad reopened in 2003. Potential for mining and oil industry. Commitment to cutting food aid dependence.
WEAKNESSES Destruction of infrastructure and equipment; port of Massawa heavily bombed. Dependent on aid. Most of population living at subsistence level. Susceptibility to drought and famine. Return of some 750,000 refugees. EXPORTS
Germany 3% Italy 8%
Sudan 49% Other 37%
/
4%
USA 5% UAE 15%
Other 41% Saudi Arabia 17% Italy 19%
†
MEDIA
Not available
TV ownership low
E
Seasonal river beds carry rain from the Ethiopian highlands into Eritrea, providing essential irrigation for agriculture.
CHRONOLOGY British military rule replaced Italian colonial authority in 1941.
0.1 tonnes per capita
Deforestation and soil erosion are major problems. During the struggle for independence, the Ethiopian army uprooted trees to destroy cover for Eritrean soldiers. Since 1991, around 70 million seedlings have been grown in a replanting scheme. The Red Sea coast is a conservation priority.
1952 Ethiopia absorbs Eritrea. 1961 Beginning of armed struggle. 1987 EPLF refuses offer of autonomy; fighting intensifies. 1991 EPLF takes Asmara. 1993 Formal independence. 1998 Border war with Ethiopia. 2000 OAU peace treaty signed. 2001 Ethiopia completes troop withdrawal. 2002 Border demarcation begins.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA New Eritrea, owned by the PFDJ, is published every 3 days in English, Tigrinya, and Arabic
2 per 1000 population
†
Eritrea does not publish prison figures
,
Crime levels remain low
Crime is not a major problem, but Islamist terrorist groups are active. The police answer to the PFDJ. There are several political prisoners.
†
EDUCATION 57%
School leaving age: 13
5505 students
Enrollment is recovering from low levels during the war. There is one university. In an attempt to reduce potential ethnic tension, all children above the age of 11 are taught in English or Arabic.
1 per 20,000 people
†
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, potential risk of famine
The risk of famine overrides normal health concerns. Eritreans built their own hospitals during the independence struggle. Health provision is basic.
9 per 1000 population
Defense 16% Education 2.7% Health 3.7% 0
Death penalty in use
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
The media are largely controlled by the PFDJ, which runs both the radio and TV services. Independent newspapers are not encouraged.
CRIME
†
SPENDING
2 state-controlled services
1 state-controlled service
HEALTH
IMPORTS
Netherlands 3%
†
ENVIRONMENT
There are no daily newspapers
13.55 nakfa (13.552)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................158th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$190 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$85m INFLATION .........................................1.1% UNEMPLOYMENT .........Widespread underemployment
Saudi Arabia 2% Netherlands 1%
Electric power 172,000 kW
8820 tonnes
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Some 80% of Eritrea’s population are subsistence farmers. A few of the many thousands of refugees who fled to Arab and Western countries have built up some personal savings.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
122 47 deaths
193rd
159 182
51 years
162
156
57%
$190
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
241
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ESTONIA
Finland ESTONIA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Estonia CAPITAL: Tallinn POPULATION: 1.3 million CURRENCY: Kroon OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Estonian
T
RADITIONALLY THE MOST Western-oriented of the Baltic states, Estonia is bordered by Latvia and the Russian Federation. Its terrain is flat, boggy, and partly wooded, and includes more than 1500 islands. Estonia formally regained its independence as a multiparty democracy in 1991. In contrast to the peoples of Latvia and Lithuania, Estonians are Finno-Ugric, speaking a language related to Finnish.
K = Center Party RP = Union for the Republic RE = Reform Party RL = Estonian People's Union I = Pro Patria Union M = Moderates
Coalitions have been the norm since the end of communist rule. The left-wing Center Party dominated parliament from 1999, but was initially kept from power. Instead Mart Laar, of the center-right Pro Patria Union, became prime minister. Though hindered by a slim majority, his efforts to pursue freemarket reforms became easier as the economy grew strongly from the beginning of 2000. However, cracks in his coalition led to its collapse in 2002, enabling the Center Party to enter the RE-led government. The 2003 elections resulted in a tie between the Center Party and the new right-wing RP, whose leader Juhan Parts became prime minister. He formed a new centerright coalition with the RE and the RL.
29/km2 (75/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
69%
31%
ETHNIC MAKEUP 0
Other 8%
-10/14 -20/-4
Estonian 62%
Russian 30%
Estonia’s coastal location gives it cool summers, and cold winters when the Baltic Sea freezes.
†
Drive on right
181 ships 357,400 grt
Tallinn 716,199 passengers THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 10,408 km (6467 miles)
94 km (58 miles)
967 km (601 miles)
320 km (199 miles)
Railroads have improved and buses are reliable. Baltic ferries link Tallinn with Finland, Sweden, and Germany. Visitors : Population 1:1
50 km
0
A
S E
Kuivastu
Vändra Pä
Virtsu
Saaremaa
Sindi
u
Kuressaare
Viljandi
Pärnu
Räpina
Põlva
La k
Mõisaküla
Tõrva
Otepää
Võ
Em
L
Valga
A
Antsla
Võru
Suur Munamägi 318m
T
V
v
of Riga
Elva
ko
Ruhnu
jõ Ema
Ps
Gulf
Tartu
e
Kihnu.
Kilingi-Nõmme
La k e P ei p u s
-
Sääre it Irbe Stra
Kallaste
d Pe
Suure-Jaani
t
Pärnu
rn
Põltsamaa
Väi k e
Estonia is particularly popular with Finns. Water sports, winter sports, folk and architectural heritage, and nature tours are the main attractions. Tallinn’s medieval center draws tourists on short visits and Baltic cruises.
da
60
P
Jõgeva Lihula
ar i
Narva Reservoir
Kun
50
IK
Mustvee
rv V õ rt sj ä
40
RE KÕRGUST
Türi
Märjamaa K as
i
ur Väin Su
30
ala
Haapsalu
am
20
% of total arrivals
Muhu Soela Väin
g Jä
V ä in
rk
Other 23%
242
Hiiumaa
er
Russia 9%
10
Ku
Latvia 12%
H a ri
Finland 56%
IVE ND P A Paide
y
Kiviõli
Rakvere Tapa
a a B
Aseri KohtlaJärve Sillamäe Narva
Maardu
Rapla
Hullo
Narv
Kunda
Loksa
Ke ila
Vormsi
over 10 000 under 10 000
F i n l a n d
Hara La h K o l g a La h t
Keila
Kärdla
over 50 000
Sea Level
TALLINN
Up 3% in 2002
over 100 000
200m/565ft
o f
l f
over 500 000
LAND HEIGHT
Paldiski
N
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
G
50 miles
u
POPULATION
Total Area : 45 226 sq. km (17 462 sq. miles)
Pirita
/
1.36m visitors
0
ESTONIA
t
†
TOURISM
After the decades of Soviet rule, the relationship between Estonians and the Russian minority was problematic. Rules on citizenship, introduced in 1992 and 1995, excluded many ethnic Russians who could not meet the Estonian language and minimum residency requirements. Over 100,000 took Russian rather than Estonian citizenship. A 2000 language law met international demands for an end to discrimination against the Russian-speaking minority. Estonians are predominantly Lutheran. Families are small; divorce rates are high.
Lah
TRANSPORTATION
US SIA N FEDERATION
10/4
0/32
6% M
va
20/8
10/50
13% RL
R
30/12
20/68
18% RE
Nar
30/86
28% RP
28% K
gi
40/16
7% I
Ahja
40/104
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament 101 seats
Pop. density low
Estonian, Russian
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
President Arnold Ruutel
u
WEATHER CHART FOR TALLINN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Continental
2003/2007
Multiparty elections
ha nd
†
CLIMATE
B A L T I C
E
†
POLITICS
.ee
+372
maa
+2
ja
EST
aj õ gi
Feb 24
ts a
1991
Russian Federation
Latvia
õl
1991
Europe
EUROPE
I
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ESTONIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CBSS
CE
Joined UN in 1991
OSCE
EU
NATO
Estonia’s trade with the West has been growing, and ties with other Baltic states and Scandinavia have been particularly emphasized. Integration with the EU and
†
AID
,
Little change in 2002
Though an aid recipient, since 1997 Estonia has also been an aid donor, mainly through technical assistance.
DEFENSE $93m
†
/
Compulsory military service
$5.69bn
Electric power 2.6m kW
105,634 tonnes
5000 b/d
340,800 pigs, 253,900 cattle, 2.1m chickens
Oil shale, coal, peat, phosphorite
†
Inflation 46% p.a. (1990–2001)
The historical center of Tallinn was restored after much of the city was destroyed during World War II.
CHRONOLOGY After Swedish and then Russian rule, Estonia briefly enjoyed independence from 1921 until its incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940.
The chief energy resource is oil shale. Phosphorite mining has been stopped. Half of all timber production is illegal.
Up 43% in 2002
The government agreed in 2000 to shorten compulsory military service from 12 to eight months. Initial US opposition to full membership of NATO eventually changed to support for the Baltic states’ entry into the organization, achieved in 2004.
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$69m (receipts)
NATO is the top priority; membership of NATO came in March 2004, while EU accession followed in May. Estonia has now accepted the de facto border with Russia, having effectively ceded a portion of its territory during the Soviet period.
.
12% (8% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 18th
ENVIRONMENT
11.7 tonnes per capita
Industrial pollution comes especially from power plants burning oil shale. Danger of radioactive leaks from former Soviet bases remains. Water supply and sewage treatment have improved.
†
MEDIA
12.86 krooni (13.62)
TV ownership high
1990 Unilateral declaration of independence; achieved in 1991. 1992 First multiparty elections: center-right government formed. 1992–2001 Lennart Meri president. 1999 Left-wing K wins elections, but center-right forms new coalition. 2001 Communist-era leader Arnold Ruutel elected president. 2002 K joins new ruling coalition. 2003 K and RP tie in elections. 2004 Joins NATO and EU.
Daily newspaper circulation 176 per 1000 people SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................109th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4190 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$802m INFLATION .........................................3.6% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
There are 17 daily newspapers. The main daily newspapers are Eesti Ekspress, Maaleht, and Postimees 3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
†
SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
286 per 1000 population
30 services: 1 state-owned, 29 independent
351 per 1000 population
Defense 1.6%
STRENGTHS Improved productivity and stable currency are pegged to the euro. Simplicity of tax regime. More advantage is being taken of natural resources, including timber and oil shale. Transportation infrastructure has been upgraded. Exports growing.
The mass media are not harassed, but tend to reflect the view of the government. Almost half of all households have cable TV, available in Finnish, Swedish, Russian, and Latvian.
CRIME
†
4874 prisoners
WEAKNESSES Poor raw materials base. Dependence on imported energy supplies.
No death penalty
/
Robbery and narcotics are the main crime problems. Generally, however, crime levels are still relatively low.
EXPORTS
Germany 8% Latvia 8% Other 42% Russia 10% Sweden 12% Finland 20%
Sweden 8%
99%
HEALTH 1 per 323 people
Russia 12% Finland 16%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Market reforms have led to increased prosperity. A few people have become very rich. Average wages are higher than in other Baltic states.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
63,625 students
†
Health 4.3% 0
School leaving age: 15
Education is becoming increasingly Westernized. There are six public universities; the oldest is in Tartu.
Germany 11% Other 49%
†
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Italy 4%
Up 1% in 2001
Education 7.4%
100th
99%
46 58 $4190
150th
Welfare state health benefits
1
50th
36
10 deaths
81 71 years
193rd
Ischemic heart and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers
The health system, improved since the collapse of communism, is better than in most other former Soviet republics.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
243
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ETHIOPIA
Eritrea
Sudan
2002
May 28
ETH
+3
.et
+251
T
E
HE FORMER EMPIRE OF Ethiopia, the only African country to escape colonization, is the cradle of an ancient civilization which adopted Orthodox Christianity in the 4th century. It has been landlocked since 1993, when Eritrea seceded. Ethiopia is mountainous except for desert lowlands in the northeast and southeast, and is prone to devastating drought and famine. A long civil war ended in 1991 with the defeat of the Stalinist military dictatorship that had ruled since 1974. A free-market, multiparty democratic system now provides substantial regional autonomy. War with Eritrea in 1998–2000 brought heavy losses on both sides before a peace agreement was signed in December 2000. Arbitrators began redefining the border in spring 2002.
lia
Djibouti
So
ETHIOPIA
ma
Kenya
OFFICIAL NAME: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia CAPITAL: Addis Ababa POPULATION: 70.7 million CURRENCY: Ethiopian birr OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Amharic 1896
Africa
EAST AFRICA
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium
Amharic, Tigrinya, Galla, Sidamo, Somali, English, Arabic
64/km2 (165/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
16%
84%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 5% Muslim 40%
Traditional beliefs 15%
Orthodox Christian 40%
CLIMATE
†
Mountain/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR ADDIS ABABA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TOURISM
/
174,560 visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
Other 14%
Djibouti 17%
Amhara 25%
USA 10% UK 4% Germany 3%
-10/14
Italy 3%
-20/-4
Other 63%
In general, the climate is moderate, except in the lowlands of the Danakil and the Ogaden deserts, which are hot all year round and can suffer severe drought. The highlands are temperate, with night frost in the mountains. The single rainy season in the west brings twice as much rain as do the two wet seasons in the east. During these cloudy periods, thunderstorms occur almost daily.
TRANSPORTATION Bole International, Addis Ababa 1.32m passengers
†
Drive on right
9 ships 81,933 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 3789 km (2354 miles)
Trans-East Africa Highway
681 km (423 miles)
None
Ethiopia’s main access to the sea by road has been through the Red Sea ports of Assab and Massawa, now part of an independent Eritrea. The single railroad linking Addis Ababa with Djibouti has grown in strategic importance due to tensions with Eritrea. Inland, pack mules and donkeys are widely used. Ethiopian Airlines has good services to much of Africa, and to major cities around the world.
244
Berta 6% Somali 6% Sidamo 9%
Oromo 40% Up 12% in 2003
0
0/32
ETHNIC MAKEUP
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10/4
10/50
Visitors : Population 1:405
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
% of total arrivals
Despite Ethiopia’s unique attractions, tourism is on a small scale, though since 1991 there has been a sizable increase in the number of visitors, mostly on organized tours. Several new hotels are being built. The Rift Valley lakes, Lake Tana, the Gonder castles, and the Blue Nile gorge, with its spectacular scenery, are popular destinations, but guides are essential. Ancient rock-hewn churches, and cities such as Aksum, the royal capital of the first Ethiopian kingdom, are now accessible. There are nine national parks.
Ethiopia has 76 ethnic nations, speaking 286 languages. Oromos (or Gallas) form the largest group, while less than 5% of the population are Tigreans, who dominate politics. Civil war was sparked by fighting between different ethnic groups, but they later united in opposition to the Mengistu regime. Ethnic tensions are still near the surface in spite of the post-1995 federal structure, and there have been reports of boundary disputes in several regions. The Oromos withdrew from the Tigreandominated government in 1992. Hostility to the government has also been voiced by disaffected Amharas, who had been dominant for several centuries, and by the Orthodox Church. The aspirations of ethnic Somalis in the southeast are another source of tension. Most of the small Jewish community, which had lived in Ethiopia for 2000 years, was evacuated to Israel in 1991. Israel pledged in 2004 to accept the remaining 20,000. The participation of women in rural organizations is increasing, reflecting the key role women played in the war. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0% 2.4% 6.4% 11.8%
Lalibela lies 120 km (75 miles) northwest of Desé in Ethiopia’s plateau region, and is famous for the rock-hewn churches created by King Lalibela of the Zagwe dynasty.
29.2%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
Male 0% 2.3% 5.9% 11.6%
0–19 % of population by age group
30.4%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ETHIOPIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps POPULATION
ETHIOPIA
R
Áksum
Himora
Teke
ze
Ádí Árk’ay
N
Total Area : 1 127 127 sq. km (435 184 sq. miles)
E
I
over 1 000 000
T
Adígrat
RED SEA
R
Ádwa
over 50 000 over 10 000
E
T I G R A Y Mek’elé
†
WORLD AFFAIRS COMESA
G24
IGAD
NAM
Joined UN in 1945
AU
under 10 000
A
Ras Dashen Terara 4620 m
over 100 000
Maych’ew
Landlocked since the secession of Eritrea, Ethiopia needs continued 4000m/13 124ft access to the Red Sea ports of Massawa Ádís Zemen I Desert T’ana Háyk’ 3000m/9843ft Labilea UT and Assab. Relations with Eritrea O Weldiya 2000m/6562ft Bahir Dar Debre remained cordial until a border dispute Debre Zebít Tendaho Tabor 1000m/3281ft Desé escalated into armed conflict in 1998. Dánglá Batí L. Abhe Kembolcha 500m/1640ft Áysha A peace accord reached two years Buré 200m/656ft later allowed for the demarcation of a ile N B l u e Debre Mark’os Y new boundary, but progress has been Sea Level S E Fiché hindered by disputes over border towns. -200m/656ft L Diré Dawa O Debre Birhan Gímbí L Mí’éso Addis Ababa is the headquarters Hágere ADDIS Jijiga Nek’emté M A Hárer Hiywet ABABA of the AU and of the UN Economic Dembí Dolo V A Ásbe Teferí Commission for Africa. Goré Ák’akí Besek’a Debre Zeyit L I Giyon H Nazrét A Ethiopia is active in O Metu A I Ágaro Ziway Háyk’ regional diplomacy, U Ásela H D Hosa’ina including numerous T Jíma E attempts at brokering Shashemené Bonga Áwasa Goba Werdér peace in Somalia, though n e z Yirga ‘Alem Sodo O G A D E N oW tension with Somali Wendo Om Díla Ábaya Háyk’ factions has escalated Árba Minch’ Kibre Mengist into armed intervention by Sh eb el i Ethiopia, provoking considerable A Negélé resentment in Somalia. I ELEMI The Ethiopian government’s Yabélo TRIANGLE Ch’ew Bahir L official policy is one of noninterference A Doolow K in the affairs of neighboring countries, N L. Turkana M though both Sudan and Somalia have O E S Moyalé accused Ethiopia of supporting rebels. N Links with other African states have 0 200 km Y A been strengthened, as have those 0 200 miles with the US, the EU, and Israel. Metema
Gonder
B
A wash
EA
EN
I
ob
R
Ak
G R E
é nal Ge
S
A
T
o
U
F
Pi
T
bo
r
P
IA
N
D
PL
AT
AD
DJ I
U
A
LAND HEIGHT
G U L F OF
Danakil
Ázezo
z en W
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
L. House 2000/2005 U. House 2000/2005
CHRONOLOGY President Girma Wolde Giorgis
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of People's 2% 8% Representatives 550 seats Vacant Ind
32% OPDO
24% ANDM
7% TPLF
27% Others
OPDO = Oromo People's Democratic Organization ANDM = Amhara National Democratic Movement TPLF = Tigre People's Liberation Front Ind = Independents The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) includes all the main parties and controls over 90% of the lower house
House of the Federation 108 seats
The upper house is elected indirectly on a nonparty basis
Tigrean People’s Liberation Front, the largest group within the EPRDF. There is growing opposition from the Oromos and Amharas to the dominance of Tigreans. The nine states are run by elected governments mainly headed by local liberation movements.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Interethnic and postwar reconciliation Achieving stability is a key priority. The 1995 constitution which provides a great deal of local autonomy was intended to appease the demands of the various ethnic groups, but tensions remain. Looking north, the administration is keen to keep the slow-paced peace process with Eritrea on track, albeit under strong UN pressure.
The transitional period which followed the collapse of the Mengistu military dictatorship in 1991 ended in 1995 with multiparty elections.
PROFILE The current government, first elected in 1995, succeeded that set up in 1991 by the EPRDF, the strongest of the groups that fought Mengistu’s Marxist regime and chiefly responsible for winning the civil war. Prime Minister Meles Zenawi is the leader of the
Prime Minister Meles Zenawi, leader of the EPRDF, which ousted the Mengistu regime.
Haile Selassie, emperor until 1974, revered by Rastafarians.
After repelling a devastating Muslim invasion in 1523, Ethiopia developed as an isolated empire until Egyptian and Sudanese incursions in the 1850s led to its renewed political power under Emperor Teodros. His successor, Menelik II, doubled the empire southward and eastward. 1896 Italian invasion of Tigre defeated. Europeans recognize Ethiopia’s independence. 1913 Menelik II dies. 1916 His son, Lij Iyasu, is deposed for his conversion to Islam and a proposed alliance with Turkey. Menelik’s daughter, Zauditu, becomes empress with Ras (Prince) Tafari as regent. 1923 Joins League of Nations. 1930 Zauditu dies. Ras Tafari crowned Emperor Haile Selassie. 1936 Italians occupy Ethiopia. League of Nations fails to react. 1941 British oust Italians and restore Haile Selassie, who sets up a constitution, parliament, and cabinet, but retains personal power and the feudal system. 1952 Eritrea, ruled by Italy until 1941, then under British mandate, federated with Ethiopia.
245
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
E
$1.31bn (receipts)
/
Up 17% in 2002
Aid plays an increasingly important role in the economy. The World Bank, the US, and the EU are the largest sources of assistance. The World Bank donated $3.6 billion in 2002 toward tackling poverty. However, emphasis
DEFENSE $442m
†
.
has shifted from infrastructure development back to straightforward food aid since recurring and prolonged droughts hit the country from 2000. Contributions have consistently fallen short of the country’s needs, and failed to prevent a new famine in early 2003, despite months of warnings.
No compulsory military service Down 23% in 2002
ETHIOPIAN ARMED FORCES
Ethiopia is one of the most heavily militarized states in Africa. Its sizable standing army is boosted by conscription at times of crisis. Heavy losses have been sustained in fighting with Eritrea, and a 12-month international arms embargo was imposed following the Ethiopian advance in 2000. The government is trying to gain control of the many ethnic and clan-based militias throughout the country.
ECONOMICS $6.52bn
†
270 main battle tanks (T-54/55, T-62)
160,000 personnel
None
50 combat aircraft (25 MiG-21MF, 15 MiG23BN, 4 Su-25, 6 Su-27)
2500 personnel
None
Inflation 6.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
8.6 Ethiopian birr (8.575)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................102nd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$100 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$150m INFLATION .........................................1.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
EXPORTS
Japan 7%
Italy 7%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
246
Recipient
Consumer price index 1998=100
1962 Unitary state created; Eritrea loses its autonomy despite demands of secessionists. 1972–1974 Famine kills 200,000. 1974 Strikes and army mutinies at Haile Selassie’s autocratic rule and country’s economic decline. Dergue (Military Committee) stages coup. 1975 Becomes socialist state: nationalizations, worker cooperatives, and health reforms. 1977 Col. Mengistu Haile Mariam takes over. Somali invasion of Ogaden defeated with Soviet and Cuban help. 1978–1979 Thousands of political opponents killed or imprisoned. 1984 Workers’ Party of Ethiopia (WPE) set up on Soviet model. One million die in famine after drought and years of war. Live Aid concert raises funds for relief. 1986 Eritrean rebels now control entire northeastern coast. 1987 Serious drought again threatens famine. 1988 Eritrean and Tigrean People’s Liberation Fronts (EPLF and TPLF) begin new offensives. Mengistu’s budget is for “Everything to the War Front.” Diplomatic relations with Somalia restored. 1989 Military coup attempt fails. TPLF controls most of Tigre. TPLF and Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Movement form alliance – EPRDF. 1990 Military gains by opponents of Mengistu regime. Moves toward market economy and restructuring of ruling party to include non-Marxists. Distribution of food aid for victims of new famine is hampered by government and rebel forces. 1991 Mengistu accepts military defeat and flees country. EPRDF enters Addis Ababa, sets up provisional government, promising representation for all ethnic groups. Outbreaks of fighting continue, between mainly Tigrean EPRDF and opposing groups. 1993 Eritrean independence recognized following referendum. 1995 Transitional rule ends. EPRDF wins landslide in multiparty elections, sets up first democratic government. New nine-state federation is formed. 1998–2000 Border war with Eritrea. 2000 OAU peace treaty signed. Haile Selassie’s remains buried in Trinity Cathedral, Addis Ababa. 2001 Ethiopia completes troop withdrawal from Eritrea. 2002 Over 120 human rights demonstrators killed by police.
†
AID
2002
Germany 8% Other 50% Djibouti 11% UK 17% IMPORTS
Switzerland 6% India 5%
China 6% Italy 6%
Other 49% Saudi Arabia 28%
STRENGTHS
market economy by encouraging foreign investment and reforming land tenure. Economic decline was reversed in 1993 as agricultural and industrial output grew, with foreign aid used to fund the purchase of parts and raw materials for manufacturing. These gains were undermined by war with Eritrea in 1998–2000 and the renewed danger of severe droughtrelated famine from 2000. ETHIOPIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Increased economic aid in 1990s. End of total state control. Coffee production.
Light engineering Coffee processing
Gonder
WEAKNESSES Overwhelming dependence on agriculture. Periodic serious droughts and famine. Massive displacement of population by war and drought. Steep projected growth in HIV/AIDS cases. War-damaged infrastructure. Small industrial base. Lack of skilled workers.
Food processing Publishing Textiles
Addis Ababa
Diré Dawa Nazrét
Jíma
PROFILE After the end of the civil war in 1991, Ethiopia began moving toward a
0 0
250 km 250 miles
Yirga ‘Alem
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ETHIOPIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 469,000 kW
15,390 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited; refines 12,300 b/d
35.5m cattle, 11.4m sheep, 9.62m goats, 39m chickens
Oil, gold, platinum, copper, potash, iron, natural gas
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 97% (1.6bn kWh) Combustion 3% (0.05bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
†
MEDIA
Daily newspaper circulation 0.4 per 1000 people
†
CRIME 13,585 prisoners
ETHIOPIA : LAND USE
LL GR
EA
T
RI
FT
VA
E
Y
0
250 km
0
ENVIRONMENT 17% (14% partially protected)
/
250 miles
†
Sustainability rank: 113th
0.1 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
/
Up 12% in 2000–2001
Murders 6
per 100,000 population
2
per 100,000 population
39
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
†
EDUCATION 42%
School leaving age: 13
87,431 students
1 state-owned service
4 services: 2 state-owned, 2 independent
E A number of human rights abuses by the transitional government have been documented by the independent Ethiopian Human Rights Council. These include detention without trial, “disappearances,” and extrajudicial killings. There is some concern over indiscipline among EPRDF forces, who provide a de facto police force in many regions. In rural areas the state system has yet to replace traditional forms of justice.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
1 per 1000 population
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
5 per 1000 population
Defense 8% Education 4.8%
80
Health 1.5% 0
60
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 40
62% 20
2%
17% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education is free, but classes are crowded and schooling has been severely disrupted by war. Only a small minority of children attend secondary school. Addis Ababa University, a center of political activity (usually antiEPRDF), suffers periodic closures and the dismissal of leading academics.
HEALTH The gathering of wood for fuel has caused deforestation and rapid soil erosion, particularly in the highlands. Forest cover has fallen from 40% in 1900 to only 5% today. Dung is being used for fuel, instead of as a fertilizer. Local projects include terracing hillsides to prevent soil and water run-off – 36,000 km (22,370 miles) of terraces were built in Tigre in 1992. Thousands of people invaded the Bale Mountains National Park in 2002 in search of water, threatening its delicate ecosystem.
There are 3 daily newspapers, including Addis Zemen and Ethiopian Herald published by the government
Death penalty in use
CRIME RATES
% of each age group in education
e
eN Blu il
Cropland Forest Pasture Cattle Coffee - cash crop Cereals
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
The independent press has become prolific and critical, though legal action has been taken to silence several publications. Circulations remain small. All main newspapers and the TV broadcasting station are governmentowned and operated. Private radio licenses are to be issued from 2005.
% of total generation by type
Manpower and financial constraints have prevented a systematic survey of mineral resources. Mining contributes barely 0.5% of GDP. Domestic reliance on fuelwood is causing slow massive deforestation and soil erosion; potential for expanding HEP could reduce fuel needs. Construction of the 300 MW Tekeze Dam began in 2002 and is expected to be completed by 2007. The potential for geothermal energy production along the Rift Valley is estimated at 700 MW. The Malaysian oil firm Petronas won exploration rights in western Ethiopia in 2003.
TV ownership low
1 per 33,333 people
†
Most Ethiopians are extremely poor, many of the country’s wealthier families having fled into exile in recent years. Ethiopian Christian culture places more value on maintaining traditional social structures than on realizing individual ambition. Living at subsistence level and a reliance on traditional agriculture remain the general expectation.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
No welfare state health benefits Diarrheal and respiratory diseases, tuberculosis, malaria
Starvation after severe drought is the principal concern. Malnutrition is increasingly widespread, causing growth problems and allowing the rapid spread of infectious diseases among the weakened. HIV affects 4.4% of adults – almost one and a half million people. Fewer than one in four Ethiopians have access to clean water. The use of traditional remedies is widespread.
50th
100th
150th
193rd
190 $100
181 42 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
177
177
42%
114 deaths
170
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
247
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
F IJI
SOUTH PACIFIC
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of the Fiji Islands CAPITAL: Suva POPULATION: 839,000 CURRENCY: Fiji dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English
New Caledonia
Tuvalu
Oct 10
FJI
+12
L. House 2001/2006 U. House 2001/2006
F
IJI IS A VOLCANIC archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean, comprising two main islands and nearly 900 smaller islands and islets. The Melanesian Fijian population was outnumbered in the post-1945 period by ethnic Indians, descended from workers brought over by the British in 1879–1916. Coups led by Fijian supremacists between 1987 and 2000 led to a mass exodus of Indo-Fijians, reversing the ethnic balance and seriously damaging the economy.
WEATHER CHART FOR SUVA
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
A
The Senate is appointed by the president
Muslim 8% Other 8% Roman Catholic 9%
Hindu 38%
Methodist 37%
Drive on left
51 ships 27,200 gr t
Nadi, Viti Levu 1.11m passengers THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1686 km (1048 miles)
None
597 km (371 miles)
203 km (126 miles)
A delicate ethnic balance was shattered by the exodus of Indo-Fijians in 1987–1989 and again in 2000–2001. The lawlessness accompanying the recent upheavals exaggerated ethnic tensions and brought racist rhetoric back to the political mainstream. A substantial population of Polynesians live on Rotuma and have a great degree of autonomy. Women are lobbying for more Rotuma rights. Navoalevu
U O R
G A
SA
Waya
Up 14% in 2002
Vanua Levu Savusavu Nabouwalu
Levuka Korovou Batiki
Tomanivi (Mt Victoria) 1323m
Nadi
Korolevu
Navua
40
0 0
50 km
K o r o
Lamiti
S e a
SUVA
Nayau
L
e ak
ssa
Moala
e
Moce Namuka-i-lau
Totoya
Kadavu Matuku
Kabara Fulaga
Ono-i-lau
50 miles Tuvana-i-colo Tuvana-i-ra Vatoa
248
g
Lakeba
Vuaqava
Ono
Vunisea
a
Oneata
Vanua Vatu
ge
P
ba
s as
P
Tourism – Fiji’s largest earner – is greatly affected by political instability: 7500 jobs were lost in 2000 alone. Recovery has been rapid.
Tavuki
Tuvuca
U
30
% of total arrivals
Pa
Munia
O
20
vu Kada
Sea Level Vanua Balavu
R
Vatulele
N
500m/1640ft
Mago
Cicia
Nairai
Gau
Beqa
Other 37%
1000m/3281ft
s
G
Sigatoka
USA 15%
10
Nausori
Lami
New Zealand 17%
Yacata Vatu Vara
Nasau
a
Taveuni P Naitaba u uk n Kanacea Na
Makogai Ovalau Wakaya
Viti Levu Australia 31%
Kanacea
Bouma
U
Lautoka Malolo
Qamea
Somosomo
Rakiraki Vatukoula
Mamanuca-i-ra Group
Buca
Koro Navaga
Tavua Ba
LAND HEIGHT
Rabi Kioa
Bligh Water
W
Viwa
YA
Visitors : Population 1:2.1
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
over 10 000 under 10 000
Nabavatu Yasawa Yadua Nacula Matacawa Levu Yaqeta Naviti
over 50 000
A
/
398,000 visitors
Vetauua
Yaqaga
P
POPULATION
Cikobia
L
†
FIJI Total Area : 18 270 sq. km (7054 sq. miles)
Labasa Naduri
On the axis of Australian–west coast US air routes, Fiji is well served by international flights. An international airport is proposed for Vanua Levu.
TOURISM
The Great Council of Chiefs emerged as the power broker after the 2000 coup, preventing the FLP from returning to power and upholding the ban on the multiethnic 1997 constitution. The new Fijian-nationalist SDL government, led by Laisenia Qarase, refused to let the FLP join the cabinet, despite its right to do so after winning over 10% of votes in new elections in 2001. Former FLP prime minister Mahendra Chaudhry rejected the role of opposition leader. The courts have backed the FLP, ruling in 2003 that it must be given cabinet seats.
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
-20/-4
†
Senate 32 seats
49%
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
8% 3% MV Ind
38% FLP
SDL = Fijian People's Party FLP = Fiji Labor Party MV = Conservative Alliance NLUP = New Labor Unity Party Ind = Independents
46/km2 (119/mi2)
51%
The eastern sides of the main islands are wettest, having more than twice the annual rainfall of the western flanks. Fiji lies in a cyclone path.
3% 3% NLUP Others
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
0/32
45% SDL
Pop. density low
Fijian, English, Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Telugu
40/104
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 71 seats
e
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
Multipar ty elections
President Ratu Josefa IIoilo
g
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.fj
+679
a
1970
Tonga
s
1970
F
Wallis & Fortuna
Vanuatu FIJI
Pacific Ocean
Yagasa Cluster Ogea Levu Ogea Driki
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: FIJI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
CP
Joined UN in 1970
PC
Comm
CHRONOLOGY The British decision to import Indian sugar workers in 1879–1916 dramatically changed Fijian society.
PIF
Fiji’s international reputation has been severely damaged by its discrimination against Indo-Fijians and the recent coups. Fiji has been intermittently suspended from the Commonwealth.
†
AID
Recipient
US$34m (receipts)
/
Up 31% in 2002
International reaction to the 2000 coup prompted drastic cuts in aid donations. EU aid was restored in 2003.
DEFENSE US$26m
†
,
No compulsor y militar y ser vice
No change in 2002
Of the almost entirely ethnic Fijian military, significant numbers – around 20% – are assigned to UN duties and have served in Lebanon and Egypt.
ECONOMICS US$1.75bn
†
Inflation 3.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.798 Fiji dollars (1.873)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................142nd GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$2130 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................US$13m INFLATION .........................................0.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................12%
Cane field on the west side of Viti Levu, between Nadi and Lautoka. Sugar accounts for just over a fifth of Fiji’s exports.
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 200,000 kW
44,689 tonnes
Not an oil producer
320,000 cattle, 248,000 goats, 3.8m chickens
Gold, silver
The varied terrain allows diversified agriculture. Gold and minerals are mined. A hydroelectric plant at Monasavu provides 79% of electricity.
ENVIRONMENT
.
1.1%
†
†
Not available
0.9 tonnes per capita
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
65 per 1000 population
119 per 1000 population
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
2000 coup caused dramatic contraction in economy – 12.5%. Migration of many Indo-Fijian professionals. Sugar crops vulnerable to drought. Major exports – sugar, copra, and gold – subject to large fluctuations in world prices.
There are 2 English-language dailies, Fiji Times and Fiji Daily Post. Nai Lalakai and Shanti Dut are Fijian and Indian weeklies 4 ser vices: 1 state-controlled, 3 independent
2 ser vices: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
Freedom of the press is championed by the government, and cases of corruption are often reported in the media. However, the police have blocked politically sensitive broadcasts.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Samoa 6%
†
897 prisoners
UK 11%
Australia 20%
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Japan 4% Singapore 16%
Australia 37% New Zealand 17%
93%
Education 5.2% Health 2.7% 0
5
.
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Ostentatious displays of wealth are rare in Fiji; prestige derives from family and landholdings. The professional middle class, traditionally dominated by IndoFijians, is becoming more mixed.
WORLD RANKING
Death penalty not used in practice
Position in World 1st
Down 30% in 2003
Usually theft and drink-related violence top the crime list. US$500 million of narcotics were seized near Suva in 2004.
USA 25%
Other 22%
Medical treatment is provided for all at a nominal charge. There is a shortfall of native health workers. Suicide is rising, particularly among ethnic Indians.
TV ownership medium
WEAKNESSES
China 4%
Cerebrovascular and hear t diseases, cancers, accidents
Daily newspaper circulation 52 per 1000 people
Diversification. Strong and resilient tourist infrastructure. Location on Pacific air routes. Remittances from overseas Fijians growing. Many NGOs located in Suva.
Other 32%
Welfare state health benefits
Defense 1.6%
STRENGTHS
Japan 6%
†
HEALTH 1 per 2974 people
Environmental awareness is high. Tourism is damaging coral reefs and fertilizers are overused. Fiji was downwind of French nuclear tests.
MEDIA
1970 Independence from Britain. 1987 Election win for Indo-Fijian coalition. Sitiveni Rabuka’s coups secure minority ethnic Fijian rule. Ejected from Commonwealth. 1989 Mass Indo-Fijian emigration. 1990 Constitution discriminating against Indo-Fijians introduced. 1992 Rabuka wins legislative polls. 1997 Census shows ethnic Fijians outnumber Indo-Fijians. Fiji rejoins Commonwealth. New constitution. 1999 General election won by FLP. First Indo-Fijian prime minister. 2000 Civilian-led coup; new ethnic Fijian government. 2001 Nationalists win elections.
†
School leaving age: 15
50th
100th
64 83
150th
$2130
88 70 years
82 93%
17 deaths
81
9208 students 193rd
Education, originally modeled on the British system, is now mostly run by local committees and is increasingly racially segregated. The use of the birch in schools was banned in 2002.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
249
F
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
FINLAND
Europe
EUROPE Sw ed en
Norway
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Finland CAPITAL: Helsinki POPULATION: 5.2 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Finnish and Swedish 1917
1947
Dec 6
FIN
+2
B
F
†
PEOPLE
.fi
+358
ORDERED TO THE north and west by Norway and Sweden and to the east by Russia, Finland is a lowlying country of forests and 187,888 lakes. Politics is based on consensus, and the country has been stable despite successive short-lived coalitions. Russia annexed Finland in 1809, ruling it until 1917. After two wars against the USSR, Finland accepted a close relationship with its eastern neighbor in exchange for peace. It joined the European Union in 1995 and, despite popular suspicion of Brussels bureaucracy, Finland was among the 12 EU states to adopt the euro from 2002.
FINLAND Russian Federation
Pop. density low 17/km2 (44/mi2)
Finnish, Swedish, Sámi THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
59%
41%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Orthodox Christian 1%
Roman Catholic 1%
Other 9%
CLIMATE
†
Subarctic/continental
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR HELSINKI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
2.88m visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Visitors : Population 1:1.8
/
Up 2% in 2002 ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other (including Sámi) 7%
Russia 33% Sweden 16% Germany 8%
Finnish 93%
Estonia 6%
-10/14
UK 6%
-20/-4
Other 31%
North of the Arctic Circle the climate is extreme. Temperatures fall to –30˚C (–22˚F) in the six-month winter and rise to 27˚C (81˚F) during the 73 days of summer midnight sun. In the south, summers are mild and short, winters are cold.
TRANSPORTATION Helsinki–Vantaa, 9.7m passengers
†
Drive on right
283 ships 1.55m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 50,635 km (31,463 miles)
591 km (367 miles)
5850 km (3635 miles)
6675 km (4148 miles)
The transportation system is well integrated. The railroad connects with the Swedish and Russian networks. There are frequent air services to most neighboring states, and links with Baltic states are being expanded. With one of the densest domestic networks in Europe, internal air travel is important, particularly north of the Arctic Circle. Finland has Europe’s largest inland waterway system, now used mainly for recreation. Its international ports handle around 80 million tonnes a year. Kotka is the chief export port. Helsinki’s specialized harbors handle most imports, but construction of a new harbor at Vuosaari is under way, and cargo traffic is due to move there in 2008.
250
Evangelical Lutheran 89%
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
†
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
The scenery of the southern lakes and the vast forests of its Arctic north are Finland’s main attractions. Helsinki, with many first-class restaurants, is an important cultural center; its opera house has an international reputation. Annual events such as the Helsinki arts festival, and the July wife-carrying championships, also attract visitors. Most tourists try a sauna – a Finnish tradition – and the local vodka, which is reputedly among the world’s finest. In 2001 Finland was ranked the seventh most popular European destination for employers offering vacations as an incentive to their workforce.
Most Finns are of Indo-European extraction. Finnish, part of the small Finno-Ugric linguistic group, is a legacy of the country’s early FinnoUgrian settlers. An influx of European peoples integrated with these tribes and adopted their distinct language. Sámi, also a Finno-Ugric language, is spoken by the small Sámi population which lives within the Arctic Circle. Swedish speakers make up around 6% of the population and mostly live in the southwest coastal regions and on the Åland Islands. More than half of Finns live in the five southernmost districts around Helsinki. Families tend to be closeknit, though divorce rates are high. The sauna is an integral part of everyday life; there are 1.5 million saunas among 5.2 million Finns. Finnish women have a long tradition of political and economic participation. They were the first in Europe to get the vote, in 1906, and the first in the world able to stand for parliament. In 2003 Finland became for a short time the only European country to have both a female president and prime minister. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.3% 9.2%
60–79
13.9%
40–59
13.5%
20–39
12.4%
A summer’s night at Kilpisjärvi, “The Way of the Four Winds,” which lies at the point where Finland, Sweden, and Norway meet.
80+
0–19
Male 0.9% 6.7% 14.2% 14% 12.9%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: FINLAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections AT THE LAST ELECTION
President Tarja Halonen
2003/2007
7% 5% G Others
Parliament 200 seats
Finland’s constitution combines parliamentary government with a strong presidency. The Swedishspeaking Åland Islands external territory is self-governing.
27% SDP
28% KESK
20% KOK
9% VL
4% SFP
KESK = Center Party SDP = Social Democratic Party KOK = National Coalition Party VL = Left-wing Alliance G = Greens SFP = Swedish People's Party
PROFILE Proportional representation has led to government by coalition, usually dominated by the SDP or KESK. The emphasis on consensus favors stability but slows decision-making. The KESK led a new coalition from 2003. KESK leader Anneli Jäätteenmäki became the country’s first female Y premier, but resigned A after only two
months in office, and was replaced by Matti Vanhanen.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
In
R
a r ijo ki
Te
no
EU membership Finland joined the EU in 1995. The small but influential farming community was hostile BARENTS SEA to membership, while others feared that W welfare cuts would R be more far-reaching O N if the economy was Haltiatunturi liberalized in line with EU 1328m Kilpisjärvi Inarijärvi expectations. In the event, after a dose of austerity, i ok S loj EU membership became Iva associated with greater D N L A A P L prosperity from the late 1990s. However, public opinion regarding the EU remains evenly divided Sodankylä between its supporters in and detractors. en Salla INLAND Finland’s decision Total Area : Kemijärvi to join the eurozone 337 030 sq. km Arctic (130 127 sq. miles) Rovaniemi was in contrast to the Circle nonmembership of its POPULATION O closest EU neighbor, L Kuusamo ki over 100 000 jo A V Sweden. Tornio over 50 000
A N S I U S
M
W
A
A
N
t
S
N
nionjoki Tor
I
K
K
Kem i
L
O N E R A T I F E D
E
Kemi
over 10 000
Iij
Pudasjärvi
Ä
L
i
Nuclear power In 2002 parliament narrowly approved Hailuoto Oulu 500m/1640ft the construction of a Ou 200m/656ft Raahe fifth nuclear reactor. o ki Sea Level A It will be the first Oulujärvi to be built in Kajaani Kuhmo Scandinavia or western Europe Kokkola Jakobstad since 1991 and the Nurmes Iisalmi first in Finland Vallgrund Lieksa Pielinen for 30 years. Vaasa The vote was N Kuopio Keitele divisive, and E Kallavesi Seinäjoki Joensuu M the Green Party, Närpes O a junior coalition U Varkaus Jyväskylä S partner, pulled Haukivesi out of the SDP-led Savonlinna KÄ government in Näsijärvi EL Jämsä S S Mikkeli protest. KESK U Tampere Päijänne A Pori P Prime Minister Nokia Lake Valkeakoski Saimaa Rauma Ladoga Vanhanen has Imatra Hämeenlinna Lahti Kuusankoski previously Lappeenranta äe Kymijoki N n j Forssa expressed ok Kouvola i Riihimäki Hyvinkää his opposition Åland Järvenpää Vantaa Turku to the plan. Kotka Mariehamn Kerava jo k ivo
LAND HEIGHT
o ki
Ä
SA
L
G u l f
o f
S
E
L
P
K
O
H
B o t h n i a
J
A
N
M
A
j lu
Ko ke m
Sa
ri
a
B
AL
TI
sto
Kimito
me
ri
C S EA
CE
EU
OECD
Espoo HELSINKI Hanko
G u l f
o f
d a n n l F i
0 0
100 km 100 miles
F
†
Joined UN in 1955
WORLD AFFAIRS OSCE
PfP
After carefully balancing its relations with the USSR and the West during the Cold War, Finland has now decided that its national interest lies with western Europe. In addition to joining the EU, it has observer status at the WEU. However, acknowledging historical and geographic realities, the government is also keen to maintain a special relationship with Russia.
AID
†
Donor
Ki
E
Ou n asjok i
D
iojoki uon M
E
F
Matti Vanhanen, former journalist appointed prime minister in 2003.
Tarja Halonen became Finland’s first female head of state in 2000.
$462m (donations)
/
Up 19% in 2002
Finland’s aid budget is half the UN target of 0.7% of GNP, despite vigorous campaigning. The recipients, spread across the globe, include the Balkans and southern Africa.
CHRONOLOGY Finland’s history has been closely linked with the competing interests of Sweden and Russia. 1323 Treaty of Pähkinäsaari. Finland part of Swedish Kingdom. 1809 Ceded to Russia; Finland becomes a Grand Duchy enjoying considerable autonomy. 1812 Helsinki becomes capital. 1863 Finnish becomes an official language alongside Swedish. 1865 Grand Duchy acquires its own monetary system. 1879 Conscription law lays the foundation for a Finnish army. 1899 Russification begins. Labor Party founded. 1900 Gradual imposition of Russian as the official language begins. 1901 Finnish army disbanded, Finns ordered into Russian units. Disobedience campaign prevents men being drafted into the army. 1903 Labor Party becomes SDP. 1905 National strike forces
251
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
F
/
Compulsory military service Up 39% in 2002
FINNISH ARMED FORCES
Finland is a neutral country. Its armed forces, the majority of whom are conscripts, are backed up by over 300,000 reservists and 3100 border guards. Russia’s relative instability in the 1990s reinforced concern about border security, the main defense issue. Finland participates in NATO’s Partnership for Peace program and has WEU observer status. Military service lasts for up to 12 months.
ECONOMICS $124bn
†
235 main battle tanks (74 T-55, 161 T-72)
19,200 personnel
9 patrol boats
5000 personnel
63 combat aircraft (F/A-18C/D)
2800 personnel
None
Inflation 1.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................29th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$23,890 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$9.89bn INFLATION .........................................1.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
EXPORTS
Russia 7%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
Sweden 9% USA 9% Other 53% UK 10% Germany 12% IMPORTS
France 4%
UK 6% Russia 10%
Other 54%
Sweden 11% Germany 15%
STRENGTHS Industry export- and quality-oriented. Large high-tech sector, especially Nokia mobile phones and Internet services. World leader in pulp and paper. Exports quick to recover from recession. Relatively low inflation. Improved foreign investment incentives. Gateway to Russian and Baltic economies. Membership of eurozone. Competitive economy.
GDP
160
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
252
$1.97bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
restoration of 1899 status quo. 1906 Parliamentary reform. Universal suffrage introduced. 1910 Responsibility for important legislation passed to Russian parliament. 1917 Russian revolution allows Finland to declare independence. 1918 Civil war between Bolsheviks and right-wing government. Gen. Gustav Mannerheim leads government to victory at Battle of Tampere. 1919 Finland becomes republic. Kaarlo Ståhlberg elected president with wide political powers. 1920 Treaty of Tartu: Russia recognizes Finland’s borders. 1921 London Convention. Åland Islands become part of Finland. 1939 August, Hitler–Stalin nonaggression pact gives USSR a free hand in Finland. November, Soviet invasion; strong Finnish resistance in ensuing Winter War. 1940 Treaty of Moscow. Finland cedes a tenth of national territory. 1941 Finnish troops join Germany in its invasion of USSR. 1944 June, Red Army invades. August, President Risto Ryti resigns. September, Finland, led by Marshal Mannerheim, signs armistice. 1946 President Mannerheim resigns, Juho Paasikivi president. 1948 Signs friendship treaty with USSR. Agrees to resist any attack on USSR made through Finland by Germany or its allies. 1952 Payment of $570 million in war reparations completed. 1956 Uhro Kekkonen, leader of the Agrarian Party, becomes president. 1956–1991 A series of coalition governments involving SDP and Agrarians (renamed KESK in 1965). 1981 President Kekkonen resigns. 1982 Mauno Koivisto president. 1989 USSR recognizes Finnish neutrality for first time. 1991 Non-SDP government elected. Austerity measures. 1992 Signs ten-year agreement with Russia which, for first time since World War II, involves no military agreement. 1994 SDP candidate Martti Ahtisaari elected president. 1995 Finland joins EU. General election returns SDP-led coalition under Paavo Lipponen (reelected in 1999). 2000 Tarja Halonen elected as first woman president. 2002 Euro fully adopted. Fifth nuclear power plant approved. 2003 KESK wins elections. Anneli Jäätteenmäki, first female prime minister, resigns after two months.
DEFENSE
2002
Soviet Union. Russia took only 7% of Finland’s exports in 2002, compared with over 25% to the Soviet Union before 1990. A rapid rise in unemployment and business failures after 1990 pushed up government spending. The floating of the markka in 1992 and austerity measures improved competitiveness, overturned substantial fiscal deficits, and allowed tax cuts in 2002. Though it has fallen, unemployment is still around 9%. Rapid growth in 2000 was followed by a slowdown in 2001. Finland fully adopted the euro in 2002, and in 2003 was named the world’s most competitive economy. FINLAND : MAJOR BUSINESSES Shipbuilding Electronics Light engineering Heavy engineering Electrometallurgy Pulp & paper
WEAKNESSES
Agribusiness
Slowdown in economy from 2001; telecommunications industry hit particularly badly by global slump. Rapidly aging population and low retirement age. High level of public and foreign debt. High unemployment. Small domestic market. Peripheral position in Europe. High taxation.
Ceramics Textiles
Vaasa
Retail
Tampere
Pori
Jyväskylä
Rauma
PROFILE Finland is a wealthy market economy. In the early 1990s it experienced the worst recession in 60 years, chiefly as a result of the collapse of the former
Oulu
Chemicals
Lappeenranta Lahti Turku
0 0
100 km 100 miles
Helsinki
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: FINLAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 16.5m kW
165,835 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 257,000 b/d
1.37m pigs, 1m cattle, 67,400 sheep, 6m chickens
Gold, copper, zinc, iron, lead, silver
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 200 daily newspapers. The most important are Helsingin Sanomat, Aamulehti, Ilta-Sanomat, Turun Sanomat, and Kaleva
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
Hydro 20% (15bn kWh) Combustion 50% (37bn kWh) Nuclear 30% (22bn kWh)
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
†
CRIME
0
LK
SE
N E
O
M
per 100,000 population
9
per 100,000 population
3441
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
†
99%
.
Yes
Yes
Yes
291,089 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
10.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
School leaving age: 16
Sustainability rank: 1st
Yes
Yes
Finland has strict laws on industrial emissions. Energy efficiency is a priority; nearly half of all homes are connected to district heating systems. Though there is opposition to the fifth nuclear plant, proponents argue that it will help the country meet its target emissions for greenhouse gases. The government is funding nuclear safety programs in Russia. Rising levels of pollution in the Baltic have given rise to concern.
% of each age group in education
9% (5% partially protected)
Education 5.9%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
2
EDUCATION
†
523 per 1000 population
Health 5.3%
100 km
ENVIRONMENT
422 per 1000 population
0
Murders
100 miles
GDP/cap. increase
Defense 1.4%
The jump in unemployment in the early 1990s was seen as one of the causes of rising crime. There is concern about links with organized crime in Russia.
Ä
0
SU
F
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Down 6% in 2001
Ä
Cropland Forest Pasture Reindeer Barley
†
SPENDING
CRIME RATES
NSELK
FINLAND : LAND USE
Heart diseases, cancers, cerebrovascular diseases
Of total government expenditure, around 20% is spent on Finland’s well-developed health system. Every Finn is legally guaranteed access to a local health center which is staffed by up to four doctors, as well as nurses and a midwife. Most nonhospital medical costs are covered by national health insurance; hospital fees are moderate. Diabetes and osteoporosis are increasing, and obesity is a growing health problem.
No death penalty
.
3617 prisoners
MAA
Finland’s trees are its prime natural resource. Commercial forests cover 65% of the land, and wood products account for over 20% of exports. Finland has no oil, but has significant hydroelectric resources. Oil import costs have risen since 1990, when the collapse of the USSR ended a 42-year agreement on the exchange of Finnish manufactured goods for Soviet oil. The high energy demands of industry are now met chiefly by combustion ND L APLA and nuclear power. A fifth nuclear power plant was approved in 2002.
Nine out of ten adult Finns read a daily newspaper, one of the world’s highest per capita ratios. The independent Helsingin Sanomat has the highest circulation. There is no censorship, but the press shows restraint in criticizing the government.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 323 people
Daily newspaper circulation 445 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
80
The economic boom and labor shortages of the 1980s helped living standards to soar. Personal consumption reached Swedish levels, and many families were able to take two vacations a year. Social security benefits were extended. During the deep recession which began in 1990, this improvement was reversed. Wealth disparities widened and expenditure cuts led to lower social security benefits for the jobless. Those in work had to accept lower pay rises and higher taxes. Average real disposable incomes dropped sharply. The situation started to improve in 2000, with a temporary downturn in 2001. Income disparities fell again and are now as low as in other Scandinavian countries. Ethnic Ingrian immigrants from the former USSR were the poorest group in Finnish society in the 1990s.
WORLD RANKING
60
100%
100% 85%
40
Position in World 1st
20 50th
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
1 13 $23,890
16 78 years
99%
5 4 deaths
13
100th
Compulsory education, introduced in 1921, lasts from seven to 16 years of age. The comprehensive system dates from the 1970s. Almost all children receive preschool education and also go on to three years of upper secondary education. Tough examinations mean that only around 40% of entrants qualify to attend one of the 20 universities. There are also 25 polytechnics.
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
253
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
FRANCE
an
FRANCE
Ge
rm
Switz.
Italy
OFFICIAL NAME: French Republic CAPITAL: Paris POPULATION: 60.1 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 987
Belgium Lux.
United Kingdom
y
EUROPE
1919
July 14
F
+1
Spain
.fr
+33
S
E Maritime/Mediterranean/ mountain/continental
WEATHER CHART FOR PARIS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
75m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Visitors : Population 1.2:1
.
Down 3% in 2003
Brest
B
R
T
G
A
St-Nazaire
Nantes
la Roche-sur-Yon
P O I
B ay o f B i s c ay
la Rochelle Île de Ré
Île d’Oléron
Saintes
S
E
POPULATION
OC
Total Area : 547 030 sq. km (211 208 sq. miles)
ME D
FRANCE
C
over 1 000 000
N
over 100 000
A
over 50 000
N
254
France is the world’s leading tourist destination, with about 75 million visitors a year. It ranks high as a destination for visitors from neighboring countries, particularly Germany and the UK. Most French people also prefer to take vacations in their own country, though many do visit Spain and Italy. Paris is the most visited city in Europe. Its attractions include the Eiffel Tower, Nôtre Dame cathedral, Eurodisney, the Pompidou Center, and the Louvre, the world’s most popular art museum. The Côte d’Azur in the southeast became a byword for fashionable tourism when royalty and other notables flocked to resorts such as Nice at the end of the 19th century. Today Cannes hosts the world’s leading film festival, and has a growing business convention trade. Other destinations throughout the country attract tourists for a variety of reasons such as wine production, historic and archaeological sites, and good beaches. There are resorts for skiing and hiking in the Alps and Pyrenees, and sailing off the varied coastline is also popular.
O
France led Europe in high-speed train technology in 1981 with the TGV (train à grande vitesse) from Paris to Lyon. TGV lines now link up with the Channel Tunnel, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the Mediterranean. Plans for a third airport for Paris at Chaulnes, 130 km (80 miles) to the north, have become a political football, while the collapse of part of the new terminal at Charles de Gaulle in 2004 has set back plans to make Paris the major transportation hub in Europe.
Île d’Yeu
C
14,932 km (9278 miles)
40
I
29,352 km (18,238 miles)
30
T
10,068 km (6256 miles)
20
N
894,000 km (555,505 miles)
10
% of total arrivals
A
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Île de Noirmoutier
L
707 ships 1.54m gr t
E
Belle Île
T
Charles de Gaulle, Paris 48.1m passengers
0
Redon
Vannes
Other 25%
Drive on right
N
Lorient
Netherlands 16%
Italy 10%
†
Rennes Laval
A
Quimper
UK & Ireland 19%
-20/-4
Avranches
Dinan
E
Iroise
Belgium & Luxembourg 11%
TRANSPORTATION
N
St-Malo St-Brieuc
Île d’Ousseant
Germany 19%
-10/14
France’s climate differs significantly from region to region. The northwest, in particular Brittany, is mild but damp. The east has hot summers and stormy winters, while in the south summers are dry and hot, and forest fires are a frequent occurrence.
St-Lo
Golfe de S t- M alo
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
†
TOURISM
Channel Is (to UK) Jersey
de
E
†
Cherbourg
Guernsey
D
CLIMATE
N
L
G
ie Ba
Le Plessis-Bourré, Loire Valley. The region is famous for its many chateaux, which attract thousands of H visitors every year. I S
L A
F
TRADDLING WESTERN EUROPE from the English Channel (la Manche) to the Mediterranean, France was Europe’s first modern republic, and possessed a colonial empire second only to that of the UK. Today, it is one of the world’s major industrial powers and its fourth-largest exporter. Industry is the leading economic sector, but the agricultural lobby remains powerful – French farmers will mount the barricades in defense of their interests. France’s focus is very much on Europe. Together with Germany it was a founder member of the European Economic Community (EEC), and has supported successive steps to build a more closely integrated European Union. Paris, the French capital, is generally considered to be one of the world’s most beautiful cities. Some of the most influential artists, writers, and filmmakers of the modern era have lived there.
over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
Bayonne Biarritz
3000m/9843ft
G A
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
N
S
Sea Level
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: FRANCE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
109/km2 (283/mi2)
French, Provençal, German, Breton, Catalan, Basque
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.7%
There is a strong sense of national identity, and compulsory use of French has traditionally been promoted as a unifying force. The cultural traditions of Bretons, Flemings, Alsatians, Basques,
Lens
O Abbeville Arras om m e Amiens
I
S
S
Dieppe
E G
Charles-de-Gaulle Airport
Pontoise Évreux Nanterre Bobigny Mantes-la-Jolie
P
Créteil Évry
Alençon
Melun
Nancy
A
I
A
H
Buddhist 1% Jewish 1%
R
Metz
Mo s
e S e in
Chartres
Bar-le-Duc
Troyes
N
0–19
15% 13.7%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Corsicans) 1% Breton 1%
N Y
PARIS
Versailles
A
Châlons-enChampagne
11.8%
20–39
F
Protestant 2% Muslim 8%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
E
Thionville
R
Maye nne
N
P I C A R D I E
7%
Roman Catholic 88%
G
M
A
Reims
60–79 40–59
% of population by age group
A
M
E
Laon
13.1%
M
R
CO L N O LIN E S DE RM A ND IE
I
e is
15%
LUXEMBOURG
R L O
O
D
O
e
Caen Lisieux
Beauvais
N
Rouen Se ine
s Me u
le Havre la S e ine
CharlevilleMézieres
E
T
I
Douai
C
Lille
G
S
L
Strasbourg
E
R
Boulognesur-Mer
A
E
11.8%
German (Alsace) 2% North African (mainly Algerian) 6%
French 90%
G
ra i
B
Calais
St
8.7%
Dunkerque
Tunnel
t
L
24%
Occitans, Catalans, and Corsicans are now also valued, but the Constitutional Court has struck down legislation on the use of regional language in government. The Roman Catholic Church is still dominant, but there are sizable Muslim, Protestant, Buddhist, and Jewish minorities. The secular state is a strong republican U principle which M is rigorously applied.
er ov DChannel
A
C
H
A
E
N
N
of
76%
Male 1.2%
80+
E
S
L
S
Épinal
Colmar
D
S
S W ITZE R
LA
N
IN
A
T
N
U
O
M
RA
Rh ône
B
O
e Vie nn
La
us
er Ch
C re
JU
re Ind
U R G O G N E Saô ne
Sar
V
A
e nn
O
Yo
Chaumont
e e ll
I N E
rne Ma
Wearing “overt religious symbols” in schools was banned le Mans in 2004, most controversially Orléans Mulhouse outlawing Muslim headscarves. the S R hine Loir O R L É A N A I Auxerre France encouraged e r Belfort Blois i Vesoul Lo immigration until the early 1970s, Montbéliard Angers Tours but laws have since become more Dijon Besançon Loire restrictive. The 1999 census recorded Bourges U O Nevers J A N 3.26 million resident foreigners (5.6% MORVAN of the population) and a similar Châteauroux Lons-lenumber of foreign-born immigrants Saunier e have been naturalized. Racist National Poitiers Moulins T O Front (FN) propaganda has periodically Ge ne va U Digoin ke whipped up anti-immigrant feeling, but Mâcon Niort Guéret M a strong current of youth solidarity BourgA R en-Bresse among “black, blanc, beur” (“black, C H Roanne Vichy Annecy E Limoges Mont Blanc white, Arab”), has been boosted by the Clermont-Ferrand L 4807m Cognac I M Lyon prevalence of black and Arab stars in O Chambéry U Angoulême S I N St-Chamond music and football, which are both important to youth culture. St-Étienne MASSIF Some two million unmarried S Grenoble Périgueux A U V E R G N E re Tulle sè couples of two or more years’ standing, P Is le le Puy including gay couples, gained legal Valence Aurillac L Dordogne status with social and tax rights under Bordeaux C E N T R A L ar 1998 legislation recognizing the civil A Privas Gap onn e Lot solidarity pact. Gay marriage is Mende Cahors Rodez n not recognized. yro Agen Digne Women did not get the vote E until 1944. Though there Avignon P R arn N C E V T O Montauban Du has been a woman prime Nîmes ran Albi Mont-de-Marsan ce minister, Edith Cresson MONACO Arles N Montpellier Ado Aix-enAuch u Ligurian Sea Antibes Nice (1991–1992), and women Salon-deA Provence Provence Toulouse S C O Cannes cabinet ministers are L G N Marseille Martigues Pau E not unusual, there have Toulon Béziers Ciotat Tarbes e t been no female leaders o Hyères C ô la SeyneNarbonne Carcassonne du Li n sur-Mer e re s of the main parties. lf P Foix Île s d’Hyè o Bastia Y G A “parity” law passed R E Perpignan in 2000 requires an N E E S equal number of Corse ANDORRA P male and female (Corsica) A M E D I T E R R A N E A N Ajaccio candidates on party I N S E A electoral lists. M A
C
I
I
C
O
R hône
D
N
E
E
V
É
G
C
U
Y
Ave
L
N
E
A
S
T
G
d’ Az
ur
r
B S trait of
o ac i onif
255
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY The French Revolution of 1789–1794 overthrew a monarchy that had lasted for more than 800 years. It ushered in successive periods of republicanism, Napoleonic imperialism, and monarchism. In 1870 the founding of the Third Republic established France firmly in the republican tradition.
F
1914–1918 1.4 million Frenchmen killed in World War I. 1918–1939 Economic recession and political instability: 20 prime ministers and 44 governments. 1940 Capitulation to Germany. Puppet Vichy regime. Abroad, Gen. de Gaulle leads “Free French.” 1944 Liberation of France. 1946–1958 Fourth Republic. Political instability: 26 governments. Nationalizations. France takes leading role in EEC formation. 1958 Fifth Republic. De Gaulle president with strong powers. 1960 Most French colonies gain independence. 1962 Algerian independence after bitter war with France. 1966 France withdraws from NATO military command. 1968 General strike and riots over education policy and low wages. National Assembly dissolved; Gaullist victory in June elections. 1969 De Gaulle resigns after defeat in referendum on regional reform; replaced by Georges Pompidou. 1974 Valéry Giscard d’Estaing president. Center-right coalition. 1981 Left wins elections; François Mitterrand president. 1983–1986 Government U-turn on economic policy. 1986 Cohabitation between socialist president and new right-wing government led by Jacques Chirac. Privatization program introduced. 1988 Mitterrand wins second term. PS-led coalition returns. 1993 Center right wins elections. Second period of cohabitation. 1995 Jacques Chirac president. 1995–1996 Controversial series of Pacific nuclear tests. 1996 Unpopular austerity measures to prepare for adopting euro. 1997 PS-led government takes office in reversed cohabitation. 1999 France introduces euro. 2000 35-hour week becomes law. 2002 January, euro fully adopted. April–June, center-right victory in presidential and legislative elections. 2003 Strikes over pension reform. Heatwave kills 15,000 people. 2004 Regional polls dent center-right ascendancy.
256
POLITICS L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2004/2007
†
Multipar ty elections President Jacques Chirac
AT THE LAST ELECTION
4% PCF
National Assembly 577 seats
62% UMP
24% PS
5% 5% UDF Others
UMP = Union for a Popular Movement (formerly the Union for a Presidential Majority, a coalition of the Rally for the Republic – RPR and Liberal Democracy – DL) PS = Socialist Party UDF = Union for French Democracy PCF = Communist Party of France UC = Centrist Union RCC = Republicans, Communists, and Citizens RDSE = European Democratic and Social Rally Ind = Independents G = Greens
7% RCC
Senate 331 seats
47% UMP
29% PS
1% Ind
10% 5% 1% UC RDSE G
France is a multiparty democracy. The constitution of the Fifth Republic, framed by Charles de Gaulle in 1958, ensures that the president has strong executive powers, but rules in tandem with a government and prime minister chosen by the National Assembly. Under changes agreed in 2000, the president and parliament are no longer elected according to separate timetables; the 2002 elections chose both for a five-year term. Traditionally the president focuses more on foreign policy and defense issues than on domestic and economic policy.
PROFILE Apart from François Mitterrand of the PS (1981–1995), French presidents of the Fifth Republic have all been rightof-center. Until the electoral reforms of 2000, French presidents were frequently encumbered with opposition-dominated parliaments, forcing periods of so-called cohabitation with an opposition cabinet. President Jacques Chirac was able to overcome this obstacle in 2002 when his reelection was backed by the UMP’s victory in parliamentary elections. Economic reforms introduced under Chirac and aimed at reversing the budget deficit have proved very unpopular. Crushing defeat for the UMP in the 2004 regional and European parliamentary polls weakened Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin who nonetheless retained the leadership of a reshuffled government. The opposition PS emerged much strengthened, recovering from defeat in 2002. The racist National Front (FN) shocked the world when its leader Jean-Marie Le Pen finished second in the first round of the 2002 presidential poll, though it failed to win any seats in that year’s legislative elections. Subsequent regional and local elections have seen the FN and other far-right parties winning some 16% of the vote.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Liberal economic reform The center right elected in 2002 promised immediate income tax cuts and probusiness measures. In 2003 a controversial cost-cutting pension reform, effectively delaying retirement by two years, was implemented despite a wave of protest strikes. Voters voiced their discontent in 2004, handing all but one of the 22 regional councils to the PS. Racism and “exclusion” Inner-city deprivation and “exclusion” of the unemployed and homeless are widely recognized as divisive, but they remain very difficult to tackle effectively. Exploiting concerns about crime, urban violence, and unemployment, the racist right has turned such fears to its political advantage on several occasions. Legislation on immigration has been tightened, and the centerright government, in power from 2002, has taken a particularly uncompromising line. European integration and globalization A current of opposition to European integration grew in the 1990s, fueled by fears that French sovereignty was compromised by it. Opponents of “globalization” tap into similar concerns that French jobs and culture are under threat. When France joined the eurozone, many saw giving up the franc as losing a symbolic part of their national identity. The most strident opponent of EU integration is the FN, but the center right is also a stout defender of French interests, notably over agricultural reform and in backing French economic interests abroad.
Jacques Chirac, president of France since 1995.
Jean-Marie Le Pen, leader of the far-right FN and presidential runner-up in 2002.
Jean-Pierre Raffarin was appointed prime minister by Chirac in 2002.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: FRANCE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS EU
G8
OECD
NATO
Joined UN in 1945
ECONOMICS $1362bn
OSCE
†
Inflation 1.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
Donor
$5.49bn (donations)
/
Up 31% in 2002
France’s motives as a major global donor are not simply commercial: it also wishes to maintain the influence of the French language, particularly in Africa, though its overseas territories remain main aid recipients. Médecins sans Frontières is part of a tradition of active involvement through NGOs.
DEFENSE
†
USA 8% Spain 9% Other 49%
Germany 15% IMPORTS
UK 7% Italy 9%
Other 49%
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Italy 9% UK 10%
Netherlands 7%
140
Belgium 9% Germany 19%
STRENGTHS Engineering, reflected in TGV and nuclear industries. Specializations: cars (Citroën, Peugeot, and Renault), water and other utility companies, and telecommunications. Major exporter: defense sector, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, food products. World’s leading tourist destination. Success in attracting inward investment. Strong technocratic traditions: unlike in US or UK, top graduates are attracted into engineering. Luxury goods, cosmetics, perfumes, and quality wines. Most agriculture well modernized; France is Europe’s leading agricultural producer.
WEAKNESSES High taxes, social charges, and labor costs. Persistent high unemployment. France has lost its positions in
traditional industries such as iron and steel, metallurgy, and textiles. Some major high-tech industries are run partly to further national pride rather than strictly on a commercial basis; France Telecom has faced major financial difficulties.
PROFILE Integration in western Europe, starting with coal and steel in the 1950s, placed France at the heart of the EU. It was one of the 12 EU countries to adopt the euro in 2002 (though it has ignored restrictions on the size of its budget deficit). France has a long tradition of state involvement in running the economy, but for the last 20 years both rightof-center and socialist governments have vigorously pursued privatization. Regional hubs are of growing economic significance. France is the EU’s largest agricultural producer; its farmers form a powerful political lobby. Unemployment is a major issue. Active trade unions lost a major battle over pension reform in 2003, while their earlier victory in securing a 35-hour week in 2000 is now widely challenged, with its critics complaining of an erosion in the competitiveness of French business. FRANCE : MAJOR BUSINESSES Lille Paris
Up 17% in 2002
614 main battle tanks (244 AMX-30B2, 370 Leclerc)
137,000 personnel
FRENCH ARMED FORCES
1 carrier, 6 submarines, 44,250 1 cruiser, 12 destroyers, 20 frigates, 35 patrol boats personnel 478 combat aircraft (340 Mirage F-1B/1CR/ 2000B/C/5F/N/D)
EXPORTS
160
No compulsor y militar y ser vice
/
$38bn
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................5th GNP PER CAPITA ...........................$22,240 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$25.7bn INFLATION .........................................1.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
GDP
160
GDP 1998=100
†
AID
Consumer price index 1998=100
There have been two strands to foreign policy since World War II – strong independence and furtherance of French interests in a united Europe. France’s role in the EU is seen as a way of combining them; many smaller EU states are angered by France’s disregard for EU constraints, particularly as regards its budget deficit. France maintains its influence over francophone Africa. A Franco–German alliance has long been a core element of the expanding EU, and there are plans to harmonize laws across the two states. Relations with the UK are more troublesome. Periodic friction arises over agricultural imports and the passage of immigrants across the Channel, but the central issue remains the UK’s closeness to the US. France has long been concerned with US dominance in both foreign affairs and culture. It maintained an independent nuclear deterrent throughout the Cold War. More recently, France vocally opposed war on Iraq in 2003, threatening to use its veto in the UN Security Council. France (and Germany) were dismissed by the US as “old Europe” over this issue, whereas most other European countries were more supportive of the US at the time.
64,000 personnel
64 SLBM in 4 SSBN
France was a founder member of NATO, but left its military command
in 1966 in opposition to US domination. It maintained an independent nuclear deterrent through the Cold War, but went through a rapprochement with NATO in the 1990s. Joint participation with Germany in European army units is partly symbolic of reconciliation, as well as an expression of the need for an EU defense structure. The influence of the army, which was once very strong, is now much diminished. Compulsory military service ended in 2001. France has one of the world’s largest and most export-oriented defense industries, producing its own tanks, jet fighter aircraft, and missiles.
Strasbourg
Lyon
Nantes
Grenoble
Bordeaux
Marseille Aerospace
Toulouse
Textiles Chemicals Electronics Engineering Wine Vehicle assembly
0 0
200 km 200 miles
257
F
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 117m kW
858,246 tonnes
28,451 b/d (reser ves 135m barrels)
42m turkeys, 25m ducks, 19.5m cattle, 220m chickens
Coal, oil, natural gas, iron, zinc
MILITANT ISLAM AND THE SECULAR TRADITION
L
WESTERN countries challenged by radical Islam both within and beyond their national borders, France is preoccupied with tackling the perceived threat of terrorism and with issues of multiculturalism and integration. IKE OTHER
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 13% (72bn kWh) Combustion 11% (59bn kWh)
OPERATION VIGIPIRATE
Nuclear 76% (415bn kWh) Other 0% 0
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
France is the world’s most committed user of nuclear energy, which provides around three-quarters of its electricity requirements. The policy reflects a desire for national energy self-sufficiency. Coal is still plentiful in the north and Lorraine, but the last coal mine closed in 2004. Gas fields off the southwest coast are also near exhaustion. FRANCE : LAND USE
Se in
MASSIF CENTRAL
Forest Pasture Cropland High mountain regions Cattle Sugarbeet Vineyards
ALPS
e Loir
CORSICA
0
200 km 200 miles
0
ENVIRONMENT
.
13% (9% par tially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 33rd
6.2 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Awareness of “green” issues has risen with a series of campaigns against major infrastructure projects. Nuclear power’s importance, however, puts the environmentalist lobby in perspective. Transportation of oil by sea poses the threat of pollution of the Atlantic coast. Brittany’s beaches and fisheries were badly affected by the wreck of the Erika in 1999. The severe storms, floods, droughts, and forest fires in recent years highlight vulnerability to global climate change.
258
The most visible antiterrorist response, the so-called “Operation Vigipirate,” was launched in 1995 after a spate of bombings on the Paris metro. Its main target has been militant Algerian groups who denounce French support for the regime in that country, a former French colony and source of the largest numbers of France’s minority of north African immigrant origin. Strengthened after the September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, Vigipirate has four levels of alert. It gives exceptional powers to police and heavily armed security forces, who are much in evidence in locations such as airports and main railways stations.
GHETTOIZATION
e
R h ô ne
F
20
The city suburbs, where the main concentrations of French citizens of north African ethnic origin live in high-density housing, have worse problems of unemployment, crime, and violence than the national average. Official crime statistics do not record racial information, but it is widely accepted – and played upon to political effect by the far-right National Front – that a disproportionate amount of crime is committed by young men of north African origin. Heavy-handed policing of the suburbs, ranging from frequent demands for identity documents to alleged brutality, has increased the sense of exclusion and alienation among young people in particular. Immigration from France’s ex-colonies in north Africa took place mainly in the 1960s and 1970s. The new arrivals generally kept a relatively low profile,
Headscarves, worn to symbolize Islamic identity, challenged the secular nature of French state schools.
Immigration can produce a multiethnic mix, but social exclusion is creating Islamic ghettos in many urban areas.
but in the 1980s a second (largely French-born) generation demanded equal rights. Many in the third generation, though now secure in their French citizenship, have real issues with social integration, and challenge mainstream French society to accept and respect their distinct identity. The government proposed in mid2004 a five-year plan to improve social cohesion, after a study of 630 city suburbs concluded that at least half had already become separate ethnic communities where young people were even turning against the French language. Islamic radicalization included condemnation of young Muslim women who wore Western clothing.
THE
HEADSCARVES ISSUE
A law banning Islamic headscarves and other religious symbols from state schools, with effect from the 2004/2005 school year, made this simmering issue a major point of confrontation. Opponents denounced the ban as an assault on the rights of young women to proclaim their Islamic values. Its advocates presented themselves as defenders of the secular principles of the French republic, and stressed that the law applied to all religious symbols, including Jewish skullcaps and Christian crucifixes. The 1905 law on separation of church and state prohibits proselytizing in public buildings. In 1989 a ban on religious symbols in schools was ruled illegal by the French courts, but it was accepted that a pupil could be expelled for wearing a sign that amounted to proselytizing. President Chirac supported the 2004 law as clarifying the position of school authorities wishing to act against “ostentatious” religious symbols – headscarves in particular being widely seen as symbolizing an intolerant version of Islam and the oppression of women.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: FRANCE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
†
CRIME 59,155 prisoners
Daily newspaper circulation 201 per 1000 people
No death penalty
/
Up 14% in 2000–2002
CRIME RATES
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 117 daily newspapers, including Le Monde, Libération, and Le Figaro. Ouest-France has the highest circulation
4
per 100,000 population
10 ser vices: 3 state-controlled, 7 independent
18
per 100,000 population
7 ser vices: 3 state-controlled, 4 independent
4225
per 100,000 population
Murders
Rapes
Thefts
TV and radio were freed from direct state influence in the 1980s. Two of the main TV channels are still stateowned, but TF1 was privatized in 1987. Canal Plus mixes pay-per-view and advertising-backed services. A Bretonlanguage station started up in 2000. Commercial channels have multiplied with the growth of satellite and cable. The once-innovative Minitel electronic communications system is now overshadowed by the Internet. Circulation of prestigious national newspapers has dwindled and regional papers too have suffered from a gradual shift to electronic media.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 16
2.03m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
80
60
100%
100%
40
54% 20
0
Primary
Secondary
The Code Napoléon, enacted in 1804, still forms the basis of French law. Criminal justice is based on inquisitorial rather than adversarial principles: the judge has considerable powers to examine witnesses and assess evidence. There are no sub judice restrictions on reporting trials. Political corruption cases, reaching into government, attract much attention. Public concern about rising petty crime and violence has encouraged tough policing. Harsh laws targeting beggars, prostitutes, and squatters were introduced in 2002, and have been held responsible for a sudden increase in the prison population.
Tertiary
Education is highly centralized, a situation which is slowly generating a desire for greater flexibility. The education ministry organizes the curriculum, sets examinations, and decides staffing issues. Roman Catholic schools, which take most of the 17% of privately educated children (but which are not fee paying and receive large state subsidies), are the exception. However, they are still obliged to follow the national curriculum. The focus in the classroom remains the acquisition of a broad range of knowledge. Pupils’ academic records are impressive, despite frequent staff strikes. France has more than 70 universities and higher education bodies, with 1.2
million students. The famous Sorbonne in Paris was split into 13 separate universities in 1971. Entry is not competitive, but based on passing the secondary-level exam, the baccalauréat. Most students attend the university nearest to home. The universities have been given neither the funds nor the staff to cope with the huge increase in student numbers in recent years. The Grandes Ecoles, the most influential tertiary institutions, are outside the university system, and each takes just a few hundred carefully selected students. They groom the future governing elite, opening the way for their successful graduates to gain the top civil service and professional jobs.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, hear t and cerebrovascular diseases, accidents
1 per 303 people
The French consume more medicines per capita than any other nation, and a significant number take medically approved, and prescribed, cures at health spas. Patients pay for treatment, and then get the majority of the cost reimbursed by an insurance company paid by the social services. The national health system is widely praised, but has been criticized as “profoundly disorganized” and faces mounting debt. Though health awareness has risen in recent years, drinking and smoking are ingrained in social behavior. Cirrhosis of the liver is not uncommon as a cause of death. In 2003 a major, controversial antismoking campaign was launched.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
473 per 1000 population
569 per 1000 population
Defense 2.5% Education 5.8% Health 7.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth and income disparities in France are higher than in most OECD states. The Socialists narrowed the gap a little in the 1980s with the introduction of the legal minimum wage (le SMIC). Most tax is indirect – a result of a long French tradition of income-tax evasion. Substantial tax cuts announced in 2000 aimed to redress the imbalance of income tax on the rich and poor. The wealthy take exotic vacations in the Himalayas, the Andes, and Polynesia. The French lagged behind their neighbors in taking up the Internet, but by 2003 this was changing, with highspeed connectivity widely available.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
7 20 $22,240
79 years
1 99%
5 4 deaths
16
100th
150th
193rd
Massif Central, Auvergne. The Massif’s lonely granite plateaus and extinct volcanoes are France’s oldest rock formations.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
259
F
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GABON
WEST AFRICA
Africa
Cameroon
Co
GABON
ng
o
Equatorial Guinea
OFFICIAL NAME: Gabonese Republic CAPITAL: Libreville POPULATION: 1.3 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1960
1960
Aug 17
G
+1
L. House 2001/2006 U. House 2003/2009
A
N EQUATORIAL COUNTRY on the west coast of Africa, Gabon has an economy based on the production of oil. Only a small area of Gabon is cultivated, and more than two-thirds of it constitutes one of the world’s finest virgin rainforests. Gabon became independent of France in 1960. A single-party state from 1968, it returned to multiparty democracy in 1990. Gabon’s population is small, and the government is encouraging its increase.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR LIBREVILLE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
French 2%
European and other African 9% Eshira 25%
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 30 km (19 miles)
731 km (454 miles)
1600 km (994 miles)
LIBREVILLE
T
Foulenzem
A
Middle East 2%
Omboué
T
Other 3% 30
40
50
60
70
80
I
20
% of total arrivals
C
Gamba
over 100 000
Mayumba
C
N
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft
N
200m/656ft Sea Level
O
G
Moulèngui Binza
Ndindi
A
over 10 000 under 10 000
Malinga
C E
260
Ndendé
Mabanda Tchibanga
nga N ya
O
Gabon’s tourist industry is growing, but is hampered by visa restrictions and high prices, especially in Libreville.
Moabi
Setté Cama
POPULATION
MASSIF D UC HA IL
Ng
ni é ou
N
Africa 25%
O
L
Europe 70%
Aboumi Okondja Onga Lastoursville Lékila LU Iboundji Akiéni Fougamou Mounana Ngouoni Koulamoutou Moanda Bongoville Mont Mimongo Lékoni Milondo Pana Mandji Mouila Mbigou 1020m Bakoumba Massoukou Guietsou Boumango Lébamba
Lambaréné Portoué Gentil Ogo
Total Area : 267 667 sq. km (103 346 sq. miles)
Equator
Ndjolé
Cap Lopez
GABON
Makokou Ovan
Kango
Booué
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
Mitzic
Ntoum
G
/
Up 25% in 2002
Médouneu
N
Visitors : Population 1:6.1
A
212,000 visitors
†
O
The Trans-Gabon Railroad from Owendo port near Libreville to Massoukou is the key transportation link. Air transportation is well developed, and most big companies have airstrips.
TOURISM
The largest ethnic group in Gabon is the Fang, who live mainly in the north. President Omar Bongo, from a subgroup of the Bateke in the southeast, has artfully united the common interests Joined UN of other ethnic groups to keep the Fang WORLD AFFAIRS in 1960 from government. The Myene group around Port-Gentil consider themselves OIC FZ G24 AU ACP the aristocrats of Gabonese society owing to their long-standing excolonial contacts. Oil wealth has Gabon remains influential regionally (the led to the growth of a distinct Gulf of Guinea Commission was launched bourgeoisie. Gabon is in Libreville in 2001), and relations one of Africa’s most further afield, particularly with urbanized OPEC, are also important. CAMEROON countries. Dwindling oil production Bitam Minvoul has led Gabon to look as C EQUATORIAL far as China to attract Oyem GUINEA investment for new Mékambo exploration. Cocobeach
†
44 ships 12,500 grt
846 km (526 miles)
Other Bantu 29%
nd o
†
Omar Bongo has been in power since 1967, running a single-party state from 1968 until a multiparty system was introduced in 1990. Elections since then have confirmed Bongo in power, along with the former sole ruling party, the PDG. The fairness of the polls has been widely disputed. The opposition accuses Bongo of attempting to prolong his term in office indefinitely; in 1997 presidential terms were extended to seven years, and the constitutional restriction on the permitted number of terms was dropped in 2003.
17%
Fang 35%
Libreville 854,776 passengers
0
Senate 91 seats 5/km2 (13/mi2)
The Senate is indirectly elected by regional councils
-20/-4
TRANSPORTATION
3% Others
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
The climate is heavily equatorial – hot all year round with a long rainy season from October to May. The cold Benguela current lowers coastal temperatures.
19% Vacant
71% PDG
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
5% 2% RNB PGP
PDG = Gabonese Democratic Party RNB = National Rally of Woodcutters PGP = Gabonese Progress Party
83%
0/32
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Pop. density low
Fang, French, Punu, Sira, Nzebi, Mpongwe
Rainfall A
†
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
Multiparty elections
President Omar Bongo
National Assembly 120 seats
Iv i
G
†
POLITICS
.ga
+241
O
N
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GABON
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$72m (receipts)
/
CHRONOLOGY Up 700% in 2002
France is by far the major aid donor, providing over two-thirds of total receipts. For a middle-income country with one of the highest GNPs per capita
DEFENSE $75m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 9% in 2002
Bongo’s background in the military is reflected in Gabon’s large defense budget and prestige weaponry, which includes French Mirage jets. France
ECONOMICS $4.03bn
†
Inflation 5.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................120th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3060 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$584m INFLATION .........................................5.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................21%
guarantees the country’s security and keeps a small garrison in Libreville. Gabon receives a small amount of military aid from the US. It led the 1998–2000 UN peacekeeping mission in the Central African Republic.
ENVIRONMENT
Oil and relatively small population: high per capita GNP. Abundant resources – including some of the world’s best tropical hardwoods.
Large debt burden incurred in the 1970s. Continuing dependence on French technical assistance. Existing oil reserves becoming depleted. High unemployment and levels of HIV. EXPORTS
Trinidad & Tobago 3% China 7% France 13%
USA 51%
Other 24%
†
UK 4% USA 6%
Other 32%
Gabon became a French colony in 1886, administered as part of French Equatorial Africa. 1960 Independence. Léon M’ba president. 1967 Albert-Bernard (later Omar) Bongo president. 1968 Single-party state instituted. 1990 Multiparty democracy. 1998 Bongo reelected president. 2001 Elections: ruling PDG retains majority.
†
EDUCATION
2.8 tonnes per capita
71%
7473 students
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Heart and diarrheal diseases, pneumonia, accidents, AIDS
1 per 5000 people
Oil revenues have allowed substantial investment in the health service, which is now among the best in Africa.
†
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
SPENDING 3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
†
Death penalty in use
/
Crime is rising
Gabon’s human rights record has improved in recent years, though urban crime rates are rising. The government launched a campaign to combat child trafficking in 2001.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
7 services: 2 state-controlled, 5 independent
The media are mostly governmentcontrolled. There was a crackdown in 1998 on independent media – which in the 1990s had become quite diverse – raising concerns about freedom of expression.
School leaving age: 16
Education follows the French system. Primary school enrollment is high. There are three universities, all public, which have a fair degree of autonomy.
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 30 per 1000 people
Gabon does not publish prison figures
IMPORTS
France 51%
Sustainability rank: 36th
The Trans-Gabon Railroad sliced through one of the world’s finest virgin rainforests. Gabon created a system of 13 national parks covering 10% of its land in 2002. An outbreak of the Ebola virus that year contributed to the loss of huge numbers of great apes.
CRIME
Italy 3%
†
There are 2 daily newspapers, L’Union and Gabon-Matin
WEAKNESSES
Netherlands 4%
.
10% partially protected
MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Singapore 2%
in the developing world, Gabon has benefited from considerable aid. Its indebtedness is the result of excessive borrowing, which was encouraged by Western banks in the 1970s. Much aid goes to servicing this debt.
22 per 1000 population
25 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7% Education 3.9% Health 1.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Oil wealth has created an affluent bourgeoisie. Immigrants take on lowincome and menial jobs. The cost of living in Libreville is surprisingly high.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
RESOURCES
†
Electric power 410,000 kW
40,559 tonnes
240,000 b/d (reserves 2.4bn barrels)
212,000 pigs, 195,000 sheep, 3.1m chickens
Oil, manganese, uranium, gold, iron, natural gas
100th
71 $3060 150th
Oil is the major export earner. Gabon also has large deposits of uranium and over 100 years’ reserves of manganese. The unexploited iron ore deposits at Bélinga are among the world’s largest.
122 193rd
152 53 years
Albert Schweitzer Hospital, Lambaréné, on the lower Ogooué River. Schweitzer won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
144 71%
137 60 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
261
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GAMBIA
WEST AFRICA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of the Gambia CAPITAL: Banjul POPULATION: 1.4 million CURRENCY: Dalasi OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1965
1965
Feb 18
WAG
0
.gm
+220
A
NARROW COUNTRY on the western coast of Africa, Gambia was renowned as a stable democracy until an army coup in 1994. Agriculture accounts for 65% of GDP, yet many Gambians are leaving rural areas for the towns, where average incomes are four times higher. Its position as an enclave within Senegal seems likely to endure, following the failure of an experiment in federation in the 1980s.
G
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR BANJUL
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
The subtropical and sunny dry season is punctuated by intermittent hot harmattan winds.
TRANSPORTATION Yundum International, Banjul 355,944 passengers
†
Drive on right
9 ships 2183 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 945 km (587 miles)
None
None
400 km (249 miles)
Roads, rather than the Gambia River, are now the primary means of inland transportation. The Trans-Gambia Highway and Kombo coastal roads are currently being upgraded.
TOURISM 79,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:18
/
Up 5% in 2002
140/km2 (363/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
32%
68%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Mandinka 42%
0
Pop. density medium
Mandinka, Fulani, Wolof, Jola, Soninke, English
Other 5%
0/32
†
Serahuli 9% Jola 10%
Wolof 16% Fulani 18%
The Mandinka have traditionally dominated politically. Potential resentment among the smaller ethnic groups was offset under the regime of President Sir Dawda Jawara by the distribution of political offices fairly according to ethnic origins. President Jammeh, a fervent Muslim, is from the minority Jola (or Diola) community, numerous across the border in Senegal, where they are active in a local rebellion. About 85% of Gambians follow Islam, though there is no official state religion. There is a yearly influx of migrants, who come from Senegal, Guinea, and Mali to trade in groundnuts, and a small UK expatriate community along the coast. Gambia is still a poor country, with 80% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Women are active as traders in an otherwise male-dominated society.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
UK 60% Netherlands 12%
Other 21% 0
10
30
40
50
60
“Eco-tourism” is being developed, but most of those enjoying the beaches and resort hotel life are Europeans escaping winter, including many single women.
Fishing village. Overfishing in the waters off Gambia and Senegal, mainly by foreign vessels, is a growing problem.
Multiparty elections
President Yahya Jammeh
2002/2007 AT THE LAST ELECTION
4% PDOIS
National Assembly 53 seats
85% APRC
9% 2% Nom NRP
APRC = Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction Nom = Nominated PDOIS = People's Democratic Organization for Independence and Socialism NRP = National Reconciliation Party
Sir Dawda Jawara ruled under the People’s Progressive Party (PPP) from 1962 until a coup in 1994, for most of which time Gambia was one of Africa’s few democracies. The coup leaders claimed that it had been initiated to end corruption and preserve democracy. Jawara went into exile in the UK, and several portfolios in the new government went to civil servants who had served previously. Military leader Yahya Jammeh was elected president in controversial elections in 1996, and the following January his APRC won a majority of seats in the legislative election. Though the ban on opposition parties was lifted in 2001, Jammeh and the APRC were reelected in 2001 and 2002 respectively. Opposition leader Lamine Waa Juwara, in and out of prison since 1994 and again facing trial, recently formed the National Democratic Action Movement and resigned from the main opposition United Democratic Party.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CILSS
Comm
ECOWAS
AU
Joined UN in 1965
OIC
International criticism of the 1994 coup which brought President Jammeh to power has softened in recent years, but an apparent crackdown on opponents following Jammeh’s reelection in 2001 reawakened concern. Relations with Senegal have been strained by the rebellion of the Jola community in the province of Casamance.
†
Recipient
$61m (receipts) 20
% of total arrivals
262
†
POLITICS
AID
Sweden 7%
Africa
Senegal Mali GAMBIA Guinea Bissau Guinea
/
Up 13% in 2002
Western aid flows, suspended after the 1994 coup, have largely resumed. International agencies are the major donors. 2002/2003 was officially declared a year of crop failure in an effort to attract emergency food aid.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GAMBIA
A
N
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Bakau
Fajara Serekunda Sukuta Brufut Yundum
Nja Kunda
BANJUL
Kerewan Essau Medina Lamin Seringe Mass
Brikama
Ga m b i
S
Katchang Mansa Konko Soma Kaiaf Jappeni
E
Bwiam
E
N
G
A
0
Kuntaur
$3m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 25% in 2002
The 800-strong Gambia National Army includes a small marine unit, with three patrol boats, and a presidential guard. Most arms are bought from the UK, though supplies are now increasingly coming from Nigeria too. The Gambian armed forces have taken part in peacekeeping missions to Liberia and elsewhere in the region.
ECONOMICS $375m
†
Bansang
N
L
Garowal Basse Santa Su Fatoto Alohungari Kabakama Mansajang Kunda Gambissara Sabi
LAND HEIGHT 100m/328ft
50 km
Inflation 4.1% p.a. (1990–2001) 29.75 dalasis (26)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................174th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$270 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$53m INFLATION .......................................16.9% UNEMPLOYMENT .......Widespread underemployment
STRENGTHS
POPULATION over 10 000 under 10 000
50 miles
†
Electric power 29,000 kW
RESOURCES 34,527 tonnes
Oil reserves not currently exploited
327,000 cattle, 262,000 goats, 600,000 chickens
Ilmenite, zirconium, rutile, kaolin, tin, oil
The Gambia River is one of Africa’s few good waterways, but it is underused owing to its separation from its natural hinterland by the Gambia–Senegal border. Irrigation is at present provided by a single dam; plans for further dams for power generation have met with opposition. Offshore oil deposits were discovered in 2004.
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
/
2% (0.4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 103rd
0.2 tonnes per capita
The impact of tourism and of overfishing in Gambian waters are major concerns, as are desertification and deforestation.
†
MEDIA
Small market inhibits investment. Smuggling. Lack of resources, little agricultural diversification; consequent overreliance on groundnuts. Decline of fish stocks. Major crop failure in 2002. EXPORTS
Italy 11% UK 19%
Other 30%
France 22%
450 prisoners
9 services: 1 state-owned, 8 independent
Brazil 6% UK 7% Senegal 9%
China 22%
General crime levels are low, but rising
Crime levels are relatively low in what is a peaceful society compared with many other states in the region.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Death penalty not used in practice
/
38%
†
Malaria, tuberculosis, parasitic diseases
Most people have access to basic medicines, but these are no longer free. Advanced medical care in the public sector is limited. An HIV/AIDS awareness campaign was launched in 2002.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
8 per 1000 population
28 per 1000 population
Defense 1% Education 2.7% Health 3.2%
The independent media are restricted. Radio news broadcasts are dominated by state-controlled Radio Gambia, and the government runs the only national television station.
†
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 25,000 people
0
There are 2 daily newspapers, the independent Daily Observer and the government-owned Gambia Daily 1 state-owned service
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
CRIME
Germany 7%
Other 51%
1888 British possession. 1959 Dawda Jawara founds PPP. 1965 Independence from Britain. 1970 Republic; Jawara president. 1982–1989 Federation with Senegal. 1994 Jawara ousted in army coup. 1996 Yahya Jammeh wins presidential election. 2000 Military coup foiled. 2001 $2 million antipoverty program launched by government. 2002 Jammeh’s party sweeps parliamentary elections.
TV ownership low
WEAKNESSES
Netherlands 5%
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people
Low tariffs promote regional trade. Natural deepwater harbor at Banjul, one of the finest on the west African coast. Well-managed economy, favorably viewed by donors. Agriculture, especially livestock. Tourism. Oil potential.
Malaysia 11%
Mandinka traders brought Islam in the 13th century and were the main influence until the 18th century. The 1700s and 1800s saw colonial rivalry between Britain and France.
Georgetown
Sea Level 0
DEFENSE
CHRONOLOGY
Total Area : 11 300 sq. km (4363 sq. miles)
Illiassa Farafenni
Salikene
B i ntan g
Bintang
ATL
Gunjur Kartung
Fass
GAMBIA
L
on ja Bol ani Ni bia Gam
Kau-Ur
a
ANTIC O C
E
S
A
G
E
N
E
Schooling is not compulsory
1702 students
5
15
20
25
Public service and the professions have created wealth and some people are comfortably off, but great wealth is not a feature of Gambian life. Unemployed young men in Banjul are regarded as the underclass.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
152 169
Efforts to increase enrollment have been successful. Levels are now over 80% for primary and over 35% for secondary. A university was established in 1998.
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
$270
53 years
162 186 38%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
155
91 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
263
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GEORGIA
Europe
EUROPE Russian Federation GEORGIA
Turkey OFFICIAL NAME: Georgia CAPITAL: Tbilisi POPULATION: 5.1 million CURRENCY: Lari OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Georgian; Abkhazian (in Abkhazia)
Armenia
1991
1991
May 26
GE
+4
.ge
+995
S
ANDWICHED BETWEEN the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Georgia is a mountainous country, with a Black Sea coastline running north–south from Abkhazia to Ajaria. Georgia was one of the first republics to demand independence from the Soviet Union. It has been plagued by civil war, ethnic disputes in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and, in 2004, by a defiant local chief in Ajaria. Georgia is a primarily agricultural country, and is noted for its wine.
†
PEOPLE
†
CLIMATE
Mountain/subtropical
WEATHER CHART FOR TBILISI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Tbilisi 270,505 passengers
Rainfall
40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
A
57%
43%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Azeri 6% Russian 6% Other 7%
Drive on right
Armenian 8%
261 ships 569,300 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
19,015 km (11,815 miles)
None
1565 km (972 miles)
None
-10/14 -20/-4
Georgia’s climate is continental inland and subtropical along the coast, where grapes, citrus fruit, and tea are grown.
Fragile relations with Russia affect transportation. An oil pipeline and rail link from Baku, Azerbaijan, to Georgia’s Black Sea ports was opened in 1999.
TOURISM 298,000 visitors
73/km2 (190/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Ossetian 3%
G
Pop. density medium
Georgian, Russian, Azeri, Armenian, Mingrelian, Ossetian, Abkhazian
†
Visitors : Population 1:17
.
Down 1% in 2002
Georgian 70%
Georgia was converted to (Orthodox) Christianity in 326 CE. Conflict with the Abkhaz and Ossets in the 1990s displaced over 300,000 people. The Muslim–Georgian Ajarians enjoyed a level of autonomy under Shevardnadze. The Armenians of Javakheti, in the south, are the poorest group.
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
President Mikhail Saakashvili
2004/2008 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament of Georgia 235 seats
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
CIS 59%
10% 4% 21% RO AD Others
65% NM–D
Turkey 19%
NM–D = National Movement – Democrats RO = Rightist Opposition AD = Abkhazian deputies
USA 2% Other 20%
Georgia has a strong presidency; party allegiances are fluid. President Eduard Shevardnadze, a former Soviet foreign The volatile political situation has minister, came to power amid civil war discouraged the growth of tourism. in 1992. His authoritarian manner drew Most tourists still come from increasing criticism, and attempts to R U S S former Soviet states. rig legislative elections in 2003 I A Gagra prompted a popular revolution, after N C F E which he fled to Russia. Opposition A D E leader Mikhail Saakashvili was elected R U ABKHAZIA A Mestia Mt'a Schara president with a massive majority in T Sokhumi En gu r i Tqvarch’eli C 5068m I January 2004. He has stated his O N A determination to see a united Ch’ikhareshi Och’amch’ire Qazbegi Oni Georgia, which threatens to S upset the armed stalemates in R io n i S OUT H Zugdidi U Tqibuli Âhiatura OSSETIA the self-declared republics K’ut’aisi S Tskhinvall of Abkhazia and South Samtredia P’ot’i Gori Kaspi Ossetia. Central Qvareli Khashuri Ozurget’i control over K T’elavi LES u ra SE Ajaria was R Ala Gurjaani N CA Bat’umi A JA RI A reimposed UC ani TBILISI AS in 2004. U Akhalts’ikhe Rust’avi
Tbilisi, Georgia’s capital since the 5th century. Its buildings rise in steep terraces from both banks of the Kura River.
GEORGIA Total Area : 69 700 sq. km (26 911 sq. miles)
B
POPULATION
over 10 000
264
0 0
50 km
S
T U R K E Y 50 miles
Marneuli
Ior
i
500m/1640ft Sea Level
z
1000m/3281ft 200m/656ft
60
Aragvi
A
2000m/6562ft
50
E
3000m/9843ft
40
30
S
LAND HEIGHT
20
K
under 10 000
10
% of total arrivals
C
over 50 000
A
over 100 000
L
over 1 000 000
0
Ninotsminda
ARME
NIA
K’vemo K’edi
Dedoplistsqaro
A A Z E R B A I J
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GEORGIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS BSEC
CIS
Joined UN in 1992
OSCE
CE
PfP
The US and Russia struggle for influence over Georgia. Saakashvili believes that Georgia will join both NATO and the EU.
†
AID
Recipient
$313m (receipts)
/
Up 4% in 2002
In 2001 aid rose sharply, and this level has been maintained. The US is the largest donor, trailed by the World Bank.
DEFENSE $236m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 10% in 2002
US concerns over the presence of Islamist terrorists prompted the arrival in 2002 of US forces to train the regular Georgian army; the security service is already CIA-trained. The security forces did not intervene when Shevardnadze was overthrown in 2003. Fighting broke out in South Ossetia in 2004.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 279% p.a. (1990–2001)
†
Electric power 4.6m kW
RESOURCES 1910 tonnes
2206 b/d (reserves 36m barrels)
1.22m cattle, 611,200 sheep, 9.95m chickens
Manganese, coal, oil, natural gas, zinc, copper
Known oil reserves are as yet barely developed. Georgia is dependent on Russia for much of its energy supply, though a new US–Georgian oil refinery was opened in eastern Georgia in 1998. Georgia is a predominantly agricultural country; food processing and wine and beer production continue to be the major industries. Manganese and small quantities of zinc, copper, and semiprecious stones are mined.
ENVIRONMENT
.
2%
†
Not available
1.2 tonnes per capita
Radiation from materials left by departing Russian soldiers is a growing problem, as is Black Sea pollution and ensuring protection of upland pastures.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
$3.36bn
2.12 lari (2.155)
There are 3 daily newspapers: Rezonansi published in Georgian; Georgian Messenger and Georgian Times published in English
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................130th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$650 BALANCE OF PAYMENT .....................–$258m INFLATION .........................................5.6% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
8 services: 1 state-controlled, 7 independent
WEAKNESSES Political instability deters investment. Large black economy and influential Mafia. Serious budget deficit problems. Negative trade balance. Netherlands 7% Greece 8% Other 41%
CRIME
Russia 11% Italy 11%
Germany 8%
Other 50%
†
7343 prisoners
/
USA 10% Turkey 10% Azerbaijan 12%
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
55 per 1000 population
131 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7%
Health 1.4% 0
Up 5% in 1999–2001
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 14
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
There is a wealthy and extravagant urban elite, but most depend on small incomes from agriculture. Wages and welfare payments are often in arrears.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
140,627 students
Since independence, education has stressed Georgian language and history. All levels of education are seriously underfunded. Tbilisi University was formerly of a high standard.
HEALTH Russia 10%
†
SPENDING
G
Education 2.5%
Organized crime under the control of Mafia-style groups has flourished since independence in 1991. The police force, accused of corruption and human rights abuses, was purged in 2002.
Turkey 22% IMPORTS
1921 Soviet Red Army invades. Effectively part of USSR. 1922–1936 Incorporated into Transcaucasian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (TSFSR). 1989 Proindependence riots. 1990 Declares sovereignty. 1991 Independence. Zviad Gamsakhurdia elected president. 1992 Gamsakhurdia flees Tbilisi. Shevardnadze elected chair of Supreme Soviet and State Council. 1992–1993 Abkhazia conflict. 1995 Shevardnadze narrowly survives assassination attempt, subsequently elected president. 1999 Opening of pipeline from Caspian to Black Sea. 2000 Shevardnadze reelected. Russian troop withdrawal begins. 2003 Shevardnadze ousted in “velvet revolution.” 2004 Mikhail Saakashvili president.
No death penalty
99%
EXPORTS
A Russian protectorate from 1763, Georgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in 1801. It was established as an independent state under a Menshevik socialist government in 1918.
Government newspapers are subsidized. The independent TV channel, Rustavi–2, was permitted to reopen in 1998, but faced harassment under Shevardnadze.
STRENGTHS Gateway to West for Azeri oil through pipelines to Black Sea and Mediterranean ports. Traditional and well-established wine industry providing exports, mainly to Russia. Healthy industrial and agricultural sectors.
12 services: 1 state-controlled, 11 independent
CHRONOLOGY
1 per 256 people
†
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, liver disease
The health system was limited under the control of the Soviet Union. Internal strife and a lack of resources have prevented any recent investment.
1st
1
50th
99%
100th
62 73 years
87 24 deaths
150th
97
135 193rd
$650
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
265
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GERMANY
EUROPE
GERMANY Total Area : 357 021 sq. km (137 846 sq. miles)
POPULATION
0
WEATHER CHART FOR BERLIN
18.4m visitors
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Netherlands 15% USA 10%
HOLSTEIN
Cuxhaven
Bremerhaven
Oldenburg
T S E U D D
R N O
NIEDERSACHSEN
Osnabrück
R
0
Hannover
Switzerland 6%
Hildesheim
H
T E
N
Dortmund
Duisburg
Essen Hagen RUHR Mülheim Wuppertal Mönchengladbach Solingen Düsseldorf Leverkusen Köln
RH
EI
NI
S
F E I
E
S
SC
H
F IE
os M
E
E RG
BI
RG
Marburg an der Lahn Fulda HESSEN
Frankfurt am Main Offenbach
Wiesbaden Mainz
Darmstadt
RHEINLAND-
Trier
E
Koblenz
L
el
IU M
Bonn E CH
Kassel
Siegen
Aachen
PFALZ
Mannheim Kaiserslautern Ne ckar SAARLAND Ludwigshafen Heidelberg Saarbrücken Heilbronn Karlsruhe
WÜRTTEMBERG Reutlingen e D ch is A äb W w Z h Sc R
L
W
A
C
H
S
The Stillach Valley, Allgäu Alps, Bavaria (Bayern). Alarm at acid rain damage to Germany’s forests sparked off the rise of the Greens, who joined the government in 1998.
Freiburg im Breisgau
B LA C K
N
Offenburg
F O R E S T
Rh ine
C
E
BADENBaden-Baden Stuttgart
A
Germany virtually invented the modern highway with the first Autobahnen in the 1930s. These have since become Europe’s most elaborate highway network; there are generally no tolls and few speed limits, despite protests from environmentalists. The efficient railroad system has been restructured as a first step toward privatization. Germany’s high-speed ICE railroad opened its main north–south routes in 1991 and has expanded greatly since then. Urban transportation systems are highly efficient.
Northerly beaches and a colder climate make Germany less of a tourist destination than France or Italy. Skiing in the Bavarian Alps, the historic castles of the Rhine valley, the Black Forest, and Germany’s excellent beer all attract visitors. Berlin, even before 1989, drew tourists with its rich cultural life and its Wall separating capitalist West and communist East. Now capital of the reunified Germany, and with a dynamic and vibrant atmosphere, it has undergone massive reconstruction.
NORDRHEINWESTFALEN Hamm Paderborn Herne Bochum
Gelsenkirchen Oberhausen
R
7500 km (4660 miles)
% of total arrivals
F
35,868 km (22,287 miles)
60
LUXEMBOUR G
11,786 km (7323 miles)
50
in Ma
649,515 km (403,589 miles)
40
Recklinghausen
ne R hi
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
30
B E LG
857 ships 6.55m gr t
20
r
Frankfurt/Main International 48.4m passengers
†
10
e
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
0
Rh in
Ems
se
Other 54%
Germany has a broad climatic range. The upper Rhine valley is very mild and suitable for wine making. The Bavarian Alps, the Harz Mountains, and the Black Forest are by contrast cold, with heavy falls of snow in winter.
Bielefeld
Münster
Italy 6%
-20/-4
We
E
-10/14
266
t ch Bu
Bremen
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
UK 9% 0/32
r de
Wilhelmshaven Emden
Ems
30/12
tf Os
D
40/16
30/86
Up 2% in 2003
SCHLESWIG-
t
h
g B i
n m a G e r Ins e ln c he s i s rie
R
O
H
T
E
Flensburg
Helgoland
200m/656ft Sea Level
N
40/104
/
D
rd f r
2000m/6562ft
A
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Visitors : Population 1:4.5
ie s is c h e I n s e ln
LAND HEIGHT
L
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
N
over 10 000
We s e r
TOURISM
50 miles
over 100 000
S
Continental/maritime
0
over 500 000
N
†
50 km
over 1 000 000
No
.de
+49
A
+1
He lgo lä n
D
Austria
E
Oct 3
ITH COASTLINES on both the Baltic and North Seas, Germany is bordered by nine countries. Plains and rolling hills in the north give way to more mountainous terrain in the south. Europe’s foremost industrial power, and its most populous country apart from Russia, Germany is the world’s secondbiggest exporter. Unified in the 1870s, it was divided after the defeat of the Nazi regime in 1945. The communist-ruled east was part of the Soviet bloc until the collapse of the East German regime in 1989, which paved the way for reunification in 1990. Tensions created by wealth differences between east and west were then exacerbated by record levels of unemployment. The government committed itself to European union and adopted the single currency, the euro, even though the stable deutsche mark had been a symbol of German pride.
CLIMATE
Czech Rep.
F r a n c e Switz.
S
1990
W
G
Poland GERMANY
Luxembourg
OFFICIAL NAME: Federal Republic of Germany CAPITAL: Berlin POPULATION: 82.5 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: German 1871
Europe Denmark
Netherlands Belgium
Konstanz Friedrichshafen
S WITZE R
Lake Constance
LA N D
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GERMANY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density high RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
236/km2 (611/mi2)
German, Turkish
Muslim 3% Other 30%
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Protestant 34% 88%
12%
Roman Catholic 33% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Turkish 2%
Other European 3% Other 3%
N
M
K
B
A
R Fe
ie l
hm
er Bu c ht
A
K a rn b
L
T
I C
S
e lt
German 92%
E
The majority of German-speakers live in Germany itself, though t Pomeranian ch u Austria and the greater part rB Greifswald c ke Bay e b Lü Rostock of Switzerland are Germanspeaking, as are parts of Lübeck MECKLENBURGWismar Stettiner Haff VORPOMMERN eastern France and northern Schweriner Schwerin Italy. Germans share a common See Neubrandenburg Hamburg language, but they speak it in Plauer Müritz See a variety of dialects, reflecting a strong sense of regionalism. A N D El L F be T I E The north is still largely E S Protestant, while the south C H BRANDENBURG and southwest, particularly O de r Bavaria (Bayern), have strong Catholic traditions. The large immigrant Wolfsburg BERLIN Brandenburg Frankfurt population now totals some an der Oder Potsdam Braunschweig 7.3 million, the 2.1 million Magdeburg Turks forming the largest Salzgitter SACHSEN-ANHALT single group. Gastarbeiter (guest workers) recruited Cottbus H Dessau from the mid-1950s to A R Z mid-1970s provided Nordhausen Göttingen part of the labor on e Halle which the former West Meissen Görlitz Leipzig Germany’s economic Dresden THÜRINGEN recovery was built. Erfurt TH SACHSEN ÜR Legislation in 1999 I Jena improved the rights Gera Chemnitz E C H G I Zwickau of their children to C IR B L E obtain German nationality. E B Z G E R Z Germany’s once liberal asylum laws U Hof C were tightened in 1993 in response to P E a new influx of migrants. Ethnic B R Germans enjoyed privileged access L Bayreuth A Bamberg ahead of others fleeing westward after E Würzburg the collapse of communism. Extreme Weiden Erlangen right-wing parties sought to exploit Nürnberg anti-immigrant feeling among disaffected groups including the young unemployed. The government F has made special provisions to O Regensburg BAYERN R allow immigration by skilled E S Ingolstadt T workers while concurrently Da nub e tightening the asylum e ub n Passau Da procedure. Landshut lb A Neu-Ulm Family ties in Germany are Augsburg n In Ulm little different from those in the US München or the UK. Millions of couples live together in common-law arrangements, Chiemsee Rosenheim though this is frowned on by the Roman I Catholic Church. In rural districts, Kempten N E A LP notably in Bavaria (Bayern), more C HE R S I R E Y BA traditional habits are still observed. Zugspitze Sassnitz
Fehmarn
A
Stralsund
Kiel
P
O
The birthrate is one of Europe’s lowest, and the population would have fallen were it not for the influx of immigrants since the 1950s. Germany has a tradition of strong feminism. Women have full rights under the law and play a bigger role in politics than in most other European countries. Over 30% of Bundestag (Federal Assembly) members elected in 2002 were women, and women ministers occupy several top cabinet posts. From 2001, women were permitted to take on combat roles in the armed forces. However, they are underrepresented in top jobs in business and industry. Abortion remains a charged issue. Women in the former East Germany had the right to abortion on demand, but the Constitutional Court, after strong Catholic lobbying, overruled a relatively liberal 1992 compromise law for the whole country. The current regulations, dating from mid-1995, allow abortions (but only after counseling) within three months of conception. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
L
A
N
D
le S aa
ale
Sa
G
ER
IS
B O
C
H
D WAL
F
IA
R
M
Ä
E
N
K
H
A
N
U
2.8% 10.1% 13.2% 14.7% 10.5%
Male
80+
1%
60–79
7.5% 13.5%
40–59 20–39 0–19
15.6% 11.1%
% of population by age group
re Sp
be El
N
2962m
A
Age
Female
CHRONOLOGY German unification in the 19th century brought together a mosaic of states with a common linguistic, but varied cultural, heritage. 1815 German Confederation under nominal Austrian leadership. 1834 Zollverein Customs Union of 18 states, including Prussia. 1862 Otto von Bismarck appointed Prussian chancellor. 1864–1870 Prussia defeats Austrians, Danes, and French; north German states under Prussian control. 1871 Southern states join Prussianled unified German Empire under Wilhelm I. 1870s Rapid industrialization. 1890 Kaiser Wilhelm II accedes, with aspirations to German world role. Bismarck sacked. 1914–1918 World War I. 1918 Germany signs armistice; Weimar Republic created. 1919 Treaty of Versailles: colonies lost and reparations paid. Rhineland demilitarized.
T
S
267
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued 1923 France occupies Ruhr; financial collapse, hyperinflation. 1933 Adolf Hitler chancellor after Nazis elected largest party. Oneparty rule; rearmament. 1935 Nuremberg Laws; official persecution of Jews begins. 1936 German entry into Rhineland. Axis alliance with Italy. 1938 Annexation of Austria and Sudetenland. 1939 Invasion of Poland starts World War II. 1940 France, Belgium, Netherlands, and Norway invaded. 1941 USSR invaded. 1942–1943 Germans defeated by Red Army at Stalingrad. 1945 German surrender; Allies control four occupation zones. 1949 Germany divided: communist East led by Walter Ulbricht 1951– 1971, Erich Honecker 1971–1989; liberal democratic West led by CDU’s Konrad Adenauer, 1949–1963. 1955 West Germany joins NATO. 1961 Berlin Wall built. 1966–1969 West German “grand coalition” of CDU and SPD. 1969–1982 SPD-led West German governments under Willy Brandt until 1974, then Helmut Schmidt. 1973 Both Germanies join UN. 1982 Helmut Kohl West German chancellor, CDU–FDP coalition. 1989 Fall of Berlin Wall. 1990 Reunification of Germany. First all-German elections since 1933; Kohl heads government. 1998 Gerhard Schröder heads coalition of SPD and Greens. 2000 Disgrace of Kohl in party funding scandal. 2001 Coalition of SPD and former communist PDS in city of Berlin. 2002 Euro fully adopted. SPD–Green coalition reelected. 2003 Economy enters recession. 2004 Horst Köhler of CDU elected president.
G
The Messeturm, Frankfurt, is the secondtallest office building in Europe. Frankfurt is Germany’s financial services center, and many leading companies are located there.
268
†
POLITICS L. House 2002/2006 U. House varying
Multipar ty elections
President Horst Köhler
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Federal Assembly 603 seats
42% SPD
41% CDU/CSU
7% FDP
9% 1% A/G PDS
SPD = Social Democratic Party of Germany CDU/CSU = Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union A/G = Alliance 90/Greens FDP = Free Democratic Party PDS = Party of Democratic Socialism
Federal Council 69 seats
Each of the 16 states (Länder) is represented by between three and six members in the Federal Council (Bundesrat), who are appointed after the elections in each Land
Germany is a federal democratic republic of 16 Länder (states). The government is led by the federal chancellor, elected by the Bundestag (Federal Assembly). The president’s role is largely ceremonial. The “Basic Law” of West Germany, drawn up in 1948, became the 1990 federal constitution of reunified Germany.
PROFILE Germany’s politics are now strongly democratic, with a long tradition of federative association. Before 1871, Germany was a mass of separate principalities, kingdoms, and citystates, a situation largely respected by Bismarck’s unification constitution. The 1933–1945 Nazi period, during which the federal system was abolished, was very much a hiatus. The Allies reestablished the federal system in West Germany in 1949; in the east, the Länder were restored after reunification in 1990. In many ways, the Länder are at the heart of German political life, each with its own elected parliament and largely controlling its finances. By general consensus the system delivers efficient and commercially astute government. There have been few major differences on domestic policy between the postwar ruling coalitions. All parties support the social market economy on which prosperity was built. Germany has enjoyed stable governments, with center-left and center-right coalitions each holding sway since the “grand coalition” of 1966–1969. In 1998 the electorate chose moderate SPD leader Gerhard Schröder in a vote for change, ousting longserving CDU chancellor Helmut Kohl. In opposition the CDU was beset by party-funding scandal. Kohl was disgraced. Edmund Stoiber, leader of the CDU’s Bavarian-based sister party, the CSU, challenged Schröder for the chancellorship in 2002, but he fell short of toppling the “red–green” coalition.
However, economic problems, high unemployment, and the “Agenda 2010” package that Schröder introduced in response caused him to lose popularity rapidly thereafter. He stepped down as SPD leader in 2004.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES The economy Recession was a shock to Germany, used to constant growth since the 1950s. Spending was reined in to meet targets for European monetary union in the late 1990s. Unrest ensued as unemployment topped four million. A brief return to growth enabled the SPD to start tackling pension reform, but economic weakness still dominates the political agenda. East and west Most Germans supported reunification after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, but feelings soured as the true cost became clear. Many billions of euros have been spent on reconstruction in the east, financed partly by a “solidarity surcharge” on income tax, but the tenth anniversary of reunification in 2000 was less a celebration than a reflection on past mistakes. The east remains poorer, and people moving west, still seen as “Ossis,” may find it hard to fit in. Support for the former communist PDS is strong in, but confined almost entirely to, the east. Far-right violence Unemployment and resentment of “foreigners” led to a rise in support for far-right parties. Foreign workers, particularly Turks, and asylum seekers have been subject to shocking attacks. The problem of racism, even if no worse than in many other European states, is particularly sensitive, given Germany’s history.
Horst Köhler, conservative elected president in 2004.
Gerhard Schröder, chancellor from 1998, reelected in 2002.
Joschka Fischer, leading Green politician and a popular foreign minister from 1998.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GERMANY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS EU
G8
NATO
Joined UN in 1973
OECD
OSCE
During the Cold War, a Germany divided since the end of World War II was inevitably forced to play a subservient role in international affairs. West Germany closely adhered to US interests,
†
AID
/
Up 7% in 2002
Unlike the US and France, Germany’s aid programs are not directly motivated by its desire for political influence in the world’s poorer regions. Most are multilateral, though there is also a strong tradition of direct aid. Much comes from church organizations such as the Protestant Brot für die Welt. Many German volunteers and missionaries work overseas on aid programs.
ECONOMICS $1876bn
†
DEFENSE
Donor
$5.32bn (donations)
while East Germany took its orders directly from the Soviet Union. After reunification in 1990 the emphasis changed, and Germany began to voice a foreign policy which reflects its position as the most powerful country in Europe. In 2001 Germany was given command of the NATO peacekeeping mission in
†
/
$31.5bn
Compulsor y militar y ser vice
The armed forces are being streamlined, to focus more on mobility and provide support to allied states; Germany backs the concept of an EU force. In 1994 the Constitutional Court ruled that military units could take part in collective defense activities abroad: participation in the 1999 NATO action against Serbia was a landmark. In 2002–2003 Germany led the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan.
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
Italy 7%
Other 67%
IMPORTS
Italy 6% Netherlands 8% USA 8% Other 63%
12 submarines, 1 destroyer, 12 frigates, and 20 patrol boats
25,650 personnel
376 combat aircraft (152 F-4, 262 Tornado, 3 MiG-21/23, 1 Su-22)
67,500 personnel
G
None
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
Hamburg Berlin Ruhr Valley
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
Dresden
Nürnberg
Frankfurt am Main
2002
UK 8% France 11%
UK 6%
191,350 personnel
GERMANY : MAJOR BUSINESSES Kiel
GDP
GDP 1998=100
EXPORTS
Consumer price index 1998=100
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................3rd GNP PER CAPITA...........................$22,740 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$46.6bn INFLATION .........................................1.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
USA 1%
2398 main battle tanks (670 Leopard 1A1/A3/ A4/A5, 1728 Leopard 2)
Inflation 1.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
Netherlands 6%
GERMAN ARMED FORCES
Up 18% in 2002
Consumer Price Index
Macedonia, and German troops were involved in the “war on terrorism” in Afghanistan. Extremely critical of the US-led assault on Iraq in 2003, Germany continues to champion EU enlargement, and, because of largescale investment, has considerable influence in eastern Europe.
France 9%
STRENGTHS Europe’s major industrial power. Cars, heavy engineering, electronics, and chemicals. Efficient industry benefits from low inflation. Strong work ethic.
WEAKNESSES Underestimation of costs of updating inefficient east German economy. High welfare costs and potentially crippling pension obligations (despite reforms in 2001) with an aging population. High unemployment. Relatively few small firms, short working week in terms of hours, poorly developed service sector.
München
PROFILE West Germany’s remarkable postwar recovery, to become the world’s thirdstrongest economy, was based on the concept of a social market economy, under which the state provided welfare and ensured workers’ rights, while the economy was largely in private hands. Major banks and businesses are privately owned, except for the partly stateowned Volkswagen. After reunification in 1990, massive investment went into the former East Germany, where state concerns were sold off. Germany was one of the 12 EU states to adopt the euro in 2002. The SPD-led government elected in 1998 undertook to tackle unemployment and to maintain growth, which reached a ten-year high of 3.1% in 2000. Major tax reforms aimed to balance the budget by 2006. The government received $46 billion from the sale of “third generation” mobile phone operators’ licenses in 2001, but global economic slowdown hit employment levels hard. The jobless figure rose again, exceeding four million in late 2002. Tax cuts were
Optics
Stuttgart
Shipbuilding Chemicals Electronics Engineering Research & development
0
Vehicle assembly
0
200 km 200 miles
brought forward in an attempt to boost consumer spending. The economy went into recession in 2003, and Germany narrowly escaped threatened EU sanctions over its rising budget deficit.
Potsdamer Platz, Berlin, was rapidly reconstructed after reunification and is once again the commercial center of the capital.
269
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES 264,691 tonnes
63,478 b/d (reser ves 209m barrels)
26.3m pigs, 13.7m cattle, 9m turkeys, 110m chickens
Coal, oil, natural gas, copper, salt, potash, tin, nickel
Hydro 5% (25bn kWh) Combustion 62% (338bn kWh) Nuclear 29% (158bn kWh) Other 4% (24bn kWh) 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
of energy consumption. West Germany invested less heavily than France in nuclear power, and Soviet-built plants in the east have been shut down. The “red–green” coalition government decided in mid-2000 to phase out nuclear power. Renewable resources, particularly wind, account for 4% of primary energy consumption (with a target of 50% by 2050); Germany is the world’s leading user of wind power. NO
32% (27% par tially protected)
.
†
Cropland Forest Pasture Vineyards Pigs Cattle
Sustainability rank: 50th 0
9.6 tonnes per capita
0
in e
ENVIRONMENT
GERMANY : LAND USE Rh
With relatively few natural resources, Germany imports over 60% of its energy needs, mainly oil and gas. Coal, the basis of industrialization, now accounts for under a quarter
BLACK FOREST
200 km 200 miles
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 300 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Germans are among the world’s most environmentally conscious people. Campaigns led by the Green Party, which emerged as a powerful political force in the 1980s, have influenced the policies of all major parties. The Greens are a significant force in the Bundestag; they joined the SPD-led federal government coalition in 1998, and are strongly represented in Land parliaments and local councils. Germany has some of the strictest pollution controls in the world, with ambitious targets for reducing carbon dioxide emissions, compelling businesses to become more energyefficient. Germans recycle around 80% of their waste paper and glass, and three-quarters of their used tires. The nuclear debate has been vigorously fought and won by the Greens; a gradual program of closing existing nuclear power plants was approved in 2001, though waste disposal is still an issue. Fears in the 1980s that up to 50% of trees were sick or dying because of car fumes and industrial pollution led to Germany becoming the first European country to insist that new cars be fitted with catalytic converters. The east had the highest per capita rate of sulfur emissions in the world, but these have been reduced by the closure of industrial plants and the elimination of the noxious Trabant cars.
270
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
80
60
100%
There are 375 daily newspapers, including the Frankfur ter Allgemeine Zeitung, the Süddeutsche Zeitung, and Die Welt 3 public ser vice and many independent commercial channels
3 public ser vice and many independent networks
TV is supervised by the political parties to ensure a balance of views. Satellite and cable TV have taken much of the audience once shared between the main public service channels, ARD and ZDF. Media conglomerates such as Bertelsmann are major international players. Newspapers are mostly regional and serious. An exception is Bild, a right-wing, sensationalist tabloid, which sells 4.4 million copies daily.
Neuschwanstein Castle, Bavaria (Bayern), one of Germany’s major tourist attractions. It was built for the eccentric King Ludwig II.
99%
40
46%
20
0
Primary
Elbe
G
RDDEU TSCHES TIEFLAND
School leaving age: 18
1.8m students
99%
% of each age group in education
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
†
EDUCATION
Electric power 119m kW
Secondary
Tertiary
Nearly one-tenth of total government expenditure goes on education, which is run by the Länder. They coordinate teaching policies, but have autonomy within their borders. The German approach to education stresses academic and vocational achievement. Sporting or cultural activities tend to be organized informally. Nearly all schools have Internet access. Young people wanting to leave school must continue studying at least part-time until 18. Those who wish to go to university attend the uppersecondary Gymnasien to prepare for the Abitur exam. Students were taking an average of seven years to complete degrees, until new legislation added shorter bachelor’s and master’s degrees as in other countries. Research is done as much by major companies as by the universities.
†
CRIME 81,176 prisoners
No death penalty
/
Up 3% in 2000–2002
CRIME RATES
Murders 3
per 100,000 population
10
per 100,000 population
3820
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Crime rates are lower than in most European countries, and reporting is high. This is largely the result of a genuine respect for the law, coupled with a strong police force. Recently, however, higher unemployment has led to an increase in petty theft and a wave of violence, notably against immigrants. German politicians, once with an enviably clean reputation, have suffered several corruption scandals. Civil service corruption remains rare. People convicted under environmental laws can face ten-year jail sentences.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GERMANY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
GERMANY, EUROPE, AND THE WORLD
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, hear t, cerebrovascular, and respirator y
1 per 303 people
S
of the European Coal and Steel Community and then the European Economic Community in the 1950s, Germany (at that time West Germany) has been at the heart of European integration. Backing enlargement of the Community and ever closer integration in what became the European Union, it has grown to become by some distance the most economically important member of the EU. It has put its weight behind monetary union, and in addition has achieved a growing military weight. INCE THE CREATION
RAPID
The German social security system, pioneered by Bismarck, is one of the most comprehensive in the world. Health insurance is compulsory, and employer and employee contributions are high. Though most hospitals are run by the Länder, some are still owned by Germany’s wealthy churches. Almost one-quarter of health spending is now private. Germans are increasingly healthconscious, paying great attention to diet. Nearly a million people go on cures every year to the country’s 200plus spas. In the east there is a higher incidence of lung diseases, the legacy of industrial pollution.
REACTION FORCE
One of the most striking aspects of Germany’s involvement in the EU in recent years has been its military rehabilitation under the auspices of the EU’s planned Rapid Reaction Force (ERRF). This was effectively agreed under the joint European foreign and defense policy at the inception of the EU at the Maastricht conference in 1991. The military staff of the ERRF finally became operational in June 2001. It is designed to provide security for Europe’s overseas interests and to protect the Union’s own borders, with a deployment time of just 60 days. In theory it is guided by the basic principles of the UN and defers operations in the first instance to NATO. The first chief of staff is a German officer, Lt. Gen. Rainer Schuwirth. Germany’s commitment to the ERRF is more comprehensive than that of any other EU member state. The government agreed in May 2003 to increase its contribution from 30,000 to 33,000 troops, thereby providing over half of the 60,000 permanent personnel. Though Germany provided just 70 soldiers to the EU’s first peacekeeping mission, the Concordia mission in Macedonia in 2003, that too was headed by a German
†
SPENDING The dome of the Reichstag, in Berlin, represents the economic and political strength of the united Germany.
officer, Adm. Rainer Feist. While the contributions and involvement in control of the EU’s military activities was a big step for Germany itself, it also represented a significant step for the EU.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
541 per 1000 population
651 per 1000 population
Defense 1.5% Education 4.5% Health 8.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
EUROPE
IN THE WORLD
The 2003 invasion of Iraq by the US, the UK, and their allies proved an important test of EU–US relations ahead of the EU’s expansion in 2004. Neither Germany nor France backed this action. In a much quoted remark in January 2003, US defense secretary Donald Rumsfeld stated that to think of Europe as France and Germany was to think of “old Europe.” The smaller EU nations and many of the ten new post2004 members were seen as more supportive of the US line, whereas these two countries were at the heart of attempts to strengthen a European position in the world that would not necessarily favor automatic recourse to the US. The French and German stance also placed added emphasis on the role of the UN. This was somewhat ironic for Germany; as the vanquished in World War II, it does not have a seat on the UN Security Council, though many argue that this is out of step with modern geopolitical realities.
The effects of the Nazi period, which discredited many of the ruling class, and the destruction of the property of millions of families in the war, explain the relatively classless nature of society. Status is now more closely linked to wealth than to birth. In the west, there are fewer disparities than in most of Europe; workers are generally well paid and social security is generous. Wages in the east, however, are 10% below western rates, and unemployment is higher. Proposals in 2004 to meanstest benefits led to street protests. Most Germans own a mobile phone, and over half had direct Internet access by 2003.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
1
50th
18
16
$22,740
78 years
99%
5 4 deaths
19
100th
150th
193rd
German troops board a transport plane bound for a tour of duty in Macedonia.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
271
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GHANA
WEST AFRICA
Africa
Burkina
Togo Ivory Coast
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Ghana CAPITAL: Accra POPULATION: 20.9 million CURRENCY: Cedi OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1957
1957
March 6
GH
0
T
HE HEARTLAND OF THE ancient Ashanti kingdom, modern Ghana is a union of the former British colony of the Gold Coast and the British-administered part of the UN Trust Territory of Togoland. Ghana gained independence in 1957, the first west African colony to do so. Multiparty democracy was embraced in 1992, and the handover of power to the main opposition party in 2000 confirmed the shift from a recent history of intermittent military rule.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical wet and dry/ equatorial
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
-20/-4
Traditional beliefs 9%
Christian 69%
Southern Ghana has two rainy seasons: from April to July and September to November. The drier north has just one, from April to September.
†
Kotoka, Accra 741,622 passengers
Drive on right
213 ships 126,200 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 8312 km (5165 miles)
30 km (19 miles)
953 km (592 miles)
1293 km (803 miles)
Muslim 16%
The largest ethnic group is the coastal Akan, who include the Ashanti and Fanti peoples. Other important groups are the Mole-Dagbani in the north, Ga-Adangbe around Accra, and Ewe in the southeast. Though the north is less developed than the south, ethnic tensions are relatively rare. I
K
R
U
B
Comm
Bolgatanga
Nigeria 14%
0
10
30
40
50
60
70
80
Tourism is now the third-biggest foreign currency earner. Good beaches and old coastal forts are among the attractions. “Eco-tourism” is growing rapidly.
La
W
Kintampo K
k
Wenchi
W
A
H Berekum U Sunyani
P Mampong L Ashanti A T Kumasi E Bekwai
Awaaso Enchi
A
U
Winneba Saltpond
l d
over 500 000 over 100 000
200m/656ft
Kotoka Airport Keta
Cape Coast Sekondi-Takoradi
A T Axim G o L A N T I C
V o l ta
Tema ACCRA
s
a o CG U L F
over 50 000
Sea Level
over 10 000
t
under 10 000 0
OF
GUINEA
O C E A N
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft
Akosombo Dam
Agona Swedru
Total Area : 239 460 sq. km (92 455 sq. miles)
N
Afadjado 885m
Ho
Koforidua Asamankese Nsawam
Tarkwa Elmina
AU
GHANA
Kpandu
Oda
Prestea Nsuta
Kete-Krachi
Obuasi
Dunkwa
Dixcove
272
O ti
D’IVOIRE)
ST 20
% of total arrivals
Salaga
IAEA
Good relations with the West, which provides the bulk of Ghana’s military and development aid, are a priority. Ghana has played a significant part in UN peacekeeping operations. It has also been the main contributor, after Nigeria, to ECOMOG, the ECOWAS peacekeeping forces, in war-torn Liberia and Ivory Coast. Ghana maintains good relations with its French-speaking neighbors, despite periods of strain with Togo.
O
USA 7% Other 70%
Damongo
lta
UK 9%
Yendi
G24
Vo
(C
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Tamale
e
ÔTE
/
Up 10% in 2002
te
ECOWAS
Joined UN in 1957
G
Visitors : Population 1:43
hi
O
483,000 visitors
†
Wa B la c k V o l t a
TOURISM
V o l ta
T
Transportation infrastructure, having deteriorated in the 1960s and 1970s, has largely been renewed; roads, rail, and airports are all in good condition.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
A
N
Bawku
2% 1% Ind PCP
Ghana’s return to multiparty rule in 1992 marked the legitimization of the military government of Jerry Rawlings. An air force flight-lieutenant of Ewe– Scottish descent and one of the great survivors of African politics, Rawlings staged coups in 1979 and 1981, and led the 1981–1992 Provisional National Defense Council (PNDC) military government. As the NDC candidate, Rawlings won 58% of the vote in the 1992 presidential election. Opposition parties boycotted the following parliamentary elections, which the NDC won easily. Elections in 1996 gave Rawlings a further and final term of office. In December 2000 the opposition NPP gained a historic victory when it stripped the NDC of its parliamentary majority and NPP candidate John Kufuor won the presidency.
63% Other 6%
46% NDC
NPP = New Patriotic Party NDC = National Democratic Congress Ind = Independents PNC = People's National Convention PCP = People's Convention Party
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
37%
1% PNC
50% NPP
91/km2 (235/mi2)
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament 200 seats
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Multiparty elections
President John Kufuor
2000/2004
Pop. density medium
Twi, Fanti, Ewe, Ga, Adangbe, Gurma, Dagomba (Dagbani)
WEATHER CHART FOR ACCRA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
IVORY CO A
G
†
POLITICS
.gh
+233
0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GHANA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$653m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
,
Ghana receives most of its aid from the World Bank, which has supported a largely successful economic recovery program which began in 1983. In 2004 it pledged $1 billion over the next four years. Aid is now channeled toward infrastructure development.
DEFENSE $30m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
Ghana has a history of coups and of military involvement in politics. The civilian component of the armed forces is being increased in order to bring the military more firmly under civil control, and membership of quasipolitical associations has been banned. The 5000-strong army has been deployed to assist in UN and ECOWAS operations.
ECONOMICS $5.5bn
In 1874 Kumasi, capital of the Ashanti kingdom, was sacked by a British force to create the Gold Coast colony.
Little change in 2002
†
Inflation 27% p.a. (1990–2001)
9020 cedis (8675)
Dixcove harbor, close to Ghana’s most southerly cape. The majority of Ghanaians lead a traditional subsistence existence.
†
RESOURCES 451,287 tonnes
241 b/d (reserves 15m barrels)
3.26m goats, 3.1m sheep, 1.35m cattle, 26.7m chickens
Gold, diamonds, oil, bauxite, manganese
Gold production has expanded strongly since the mid-1980s; by 1993, gold had overtaken cocoa as the major export. Diamonds, bauxite, and manganese are also exported. Hydropower from the Volta Dam is exported to Togo and Benin, but is hit by periodic droughts.
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................112th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$270 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$31m INFLATION .......................................14.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................20%
STRENGTHS Relatively well-developed industrial base. Second-largest gold producer in Africa – Ashanti Goldfields Company: multinational active in 12 African countries. Cocoa production accounts for around 14% of world total. Steady economic growth during 1990s.
/
6% (0.7% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Other 56%
Netherlands 15%
†
China 6%
Other 54%
Italy 6% USA 6% UK 7%
Nigeria 21%
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
23 per 1000 population
13 per 1000 population
Health 2.8%
1 state-controlled service, many independent stations
10
15
20
25
Political uncertainty brought few opportunities for advancement, and many Ghanaians emigrated, but the situation is now improving. The main economic disparity is still between the poorer rural north and the richer, more urban, south.
WORLD RANKING
Death penalty in use
/
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Position in World 1st
Up 61% in 2000–2001
Several former government ministers are being tried on corruption charges. Street crime can be a problem in Accra and at tourist attractions.
74%
†
SPENDING
Education 4.1%
There is an increasing degree of media freedom, and the many private weeklies and independent radio stations are often critical of government policy.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
In 2004 a government-subsidized health insurance scheme to provide care for the whole population was launched. Private health care is available.
Defense 0.5%
There are 2 daily newspapers, the Ghanaian Times and the Daily Graphic
CRIME
Malaria, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
11,624 prisoners
UK 10%
0.3 tonnes per capita
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
0
EXPORTS
Germany 6% USA 7%
Sustainability rank: 65th
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 14 per 1000 people
WEAKNESSES
France 6%
†
Cutting wood for fuel, timber, and farming has destroyed 70% of Ghana’s forests since 1981. Devastation caused by mining is now being tackled under a World Bank project.
3 services: 1 state-controlled, 2 independent
High budget deficits and debt repayments; the cedi has generally declined in value since devaluation in 1983. Foreign investment largely restricted to gold mining. High inflation levels. Underdevelopment in north. High unemployment.
Electric power 1.2m kW
1957 Independence under Kwame Nkrumah. 1964 Single-party state. 1966 Army coup. 1972–1979 “Kleptocracy” of Gen. Acheampong. Executed 1979. 1979 Flt. Lt. Jerry Rawlings leads coup. Civilian Hilla Limann wins elections. 1981 Rawlings takes power again. 1992, 1996 Rawlings and NDC win multiparty elections. 2000 Opposition NPP wins elections; John Kufuor wins presidency.
†
School leaving age: 14
64,098 students
50th
100th
150th
193rd
148 169
The “Vision 2020” program aims to improve access to education and to redress existing gender imbalances. There are five universities.
$270
55 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
142 74%
133
131
57 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
273
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GREECE
Europe
EUROPE Albania
Maced.
Bulgaria Turkey
GREECE
OFFICIAL NAME: Hellenic Republic CAPITAL: Athens POPULATION: 11 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Greek 1829
1947
March 25
GR
+2
.gr
+30
T
G
HE SOUTHERNMOST COUNTRY of the Balkans, Greece is embraced by the Aegean, Ionian, and Cretan Seas. Its mainly mountainous territory includes more than 2000 islands. Only one-third of the land is cultivated. There is a strong seafaring tradition, and some of the world’s biggest shipowners are Greek. Greece is rich in minerals – including chromium, whose occurrence is rare. Relations with Turkey, marked by conflict and territorial disputes, have improved in recent years. To the north, however, upheavals in Albania and the conflicts in former Yugoslavia have made for greater instability.
CLIMATE
†
WEATHER CHART FOR ATHENS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TOURISM
Mediterranean
/
14.2m visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
Visitors : Population 1.3:1
30/12
UK 20%
20/68
20/8
Germany 18%
10/50
10/4
Other 42%
1548 ships 28.8m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 107,640 km (66,884 miles)
470 km (292 miles)
2383 km (1481 miles)
80 km (50 miles)
The easiest and cheapest method of transportation between the islands and the mainland is by boat or hovercraft. A major ferry disaster in 2000 prompted government moves to improve standards. Greece has 444 ports, of which Piraeus is the main one, and 123 are large enough to handle passenger or freight traffic. A new airport at Spata, 30 km east of Athens, opened in 2001. Greece has a good, if increasingly congested, road network. Expressway routes have been upgraded and two lines have been added to the Athens metro with the help of EU funds. An interurban bus system and a fleet of air-conditioned tourist Pullmans offer an extensive service.
274
Other 1%
Muslim 1%
Orthodox Christian 98%
Greek 98%
France 5%
Athens International (Eliftherios Venizelos) 12.3m passengers
39%
Albania 9%
-20/-4
Drive on right
61% RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 2%
Italy 6%
†
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
ETHNIC MAKEUP
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
84/km2 (218/mi2)
Up 8% in 2001–2002
0
The climate varies from region to region. The northwest is alpine, while parts of Crete border on the subtropical. The large central plain experiences high summer temperatures. Water is a problem, particularly on the many barren Aegean islands.
Pop. density medium
Greek, Turkish, Macedonian, Albanian
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
30/86
0/32
†
PEOPLE
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Tourism is a mainstay of the Greek economy, with an annual turnover of almost $10 billion, and is a major source of foreign exchange. Until recently, the state gave grants for hotel development and many third-grade hotels were built, especially on Crete and Rhodes. Smaller islands often lack sufficient water supplies or sandy beaches. To offset falling visitor numbers in the mid-1990s the industry has been encouraged to move upmarket, and is also promoting yearround activity vacations and conference tourism. The 2004 Athens Olympics have been a stimulus to upgrade the city’s facilities. A museum is planned to house the Parthenon Marbles, currently held in the British Museum in London.
The Greeks were for many centuries a largely agrarian and seafaring nation. The German occupation during World War II, and the civil war that followed, destroyed much of the fabric of rural life and there was rapid urbanization from the 1950s. There was also extensive emigration in the 1950s and 1960s to northern Europe, Australia, the US, Canada, and southern Africa. However, many people returned to Greece in the 1980s, putting pressure on the labor market. The socialist PASOK governments of 1981–1989 spent large sums, mostly from EU sources, on developing the infrastructure and business life of the rural regions with a view to halting migration to the cities. The policy was partly successful, but a majority still lives in or near the capital, Athens, and Thessaloníki in the north. Some 98% of the population belong to the Greek Orthodox Church. Civil marriage and divorce only became legal in 1982. There are minorities of Muslims, Roman Catholics, and Jews, and a recent influx of illegal immigrants, mainly from Albania. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2% 9.8% 12.5% 14.7%
The theater at Dodona. Classical sites, such as this theater in northwestern Greece, have helped to make tourism one of the country’s most important industries.
11.7%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 1.4% 8.4% 12.2% 14.9% 12.4%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GREECE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Multiparty elections
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
President Costas Stephanopoulos
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament 300 seats
55% ND
Closer European union Greece joined the eurozone in 2001, but only after stringent austerity policies which evoked widespread protests. Greece supported EU enlargement, even though it was the poorest of the existing members and will lose funding to new members from 2007.
4% KKE
39% PASOK
2% Synaspismos
ND = New Democracy PASOK = Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement KKE = Communist Party of Greece Synaspismos = Coalition of the Left and Progress
Greece is a multiparty democracy. A military regime held power in 1967–1974.
PROFILE PASOK founder Andreas Papandreou headed the first socialist government in 1981–1989. When returned to power in 1993, PASOK adopted the economic policies of the outgoing conservatives. Power passed to Costas Simitis in 1996. The ND, headed by Costas Karamanlis, nephew of the former president, in 2004 campaigned on the deficient organization of the Olympic Games, defeating PASOK and its new leader George Papandreou, son of the former prime minister.
GREECE Total Area : 131 940 sq. km (50 942 sq. miles)
ED
O
N
dr
a
IA AN
L
Komotiní
Alexandroúpoli
Thásos
Ak tí
†
Samothráki
T HRA C IA N
AID
U
s
A
Kavála
SEA
iá on th
án
ntains
OECD
OSCE
Joined UN in 1945
CE
Donor
$276m (donations)
Límnos
/
Up 37% in 2002
ós
N
R
Áyios Evstratios
Vólos
ch
Deloos
O
Préveza
I
K
S
O
Lefkada Agrínio
I
N
Í
Kefallinía
E
S
Greece’s contribution to overseas development aid is the lowest per capita among major donors; it VOR EIOI totaled just $19 a head in 2001, SPORADES Lésvos but is growing. The vast majority Mytilíni Lamía Skyros of aid is channeled toward A E G E A N Évvoia neighboring Balkan countries. Antípsara Greece receives regional Chalkída Chíos development assistance from Leivádia Chios Kor in the EU, especially from the Acharnés Kó l thi ak S E A pos ós Chalándri Pátra EU’s structural and cohesion Peiraías PE ATHENS funds. Some of the money Kórinthos Ándros Sámos Isthmós Kalamáki Korinthou has been used to reverse Ikaría Tínos the decline of northeast Kéa Mykonos Greece, the country’s Trípoli Kythnos least developed Sérifos Spárti Páros region. Kalámata Kálymnos MIRTÓO D Náxos Sífnos In recent Kos E PE LAGOS S Amorgós years, emergency N Íos humanitarian aid Mílos I S Astipálaia Ródos has been given O Anáfi S Thíra to Turkey after Kythira Rodos natural disasters, most notably S E Antikythira A O after the severe F C R E T E Kárpathos earthquake near 100 km Chaniá N Armathia Istanbul in 1999. Lárisa
Tríkala
Kardítsa
N O
LO
I
SEA
Xánthi
NATO
G
Though part of the Western alliance, Greece has sympathies with Russians and Serbs, who share its Orthodox heritage. Friction with its northern neighbor over the use of the name “Macedonia” (also the name of a province in Greece) eased after Greece agreed in 1995 to recognize its neighbor’s sovereignty as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYRM). The current priority is Greece’s role within the EU, and the impact of the latter’s eastward expansion – and possible eventual inclusion of Turkey.
Orestiáda
Mou
Si
s
Ólympos 2917m
Pin ei
A
Chalkidikí K as
na
os Árachth
I Ó
Dodona
imón
Kalamariá
Thermaïkós Kólpos
Í
Kérkyra
IONIAN
S tr
Kateríni Kozáni
o km
B
Aliá
Kérkyra (Corfu)
Dráma Sérres
Kilkís
a
P
Ioánnina
Rh
é s t od o p os e
Thessaloníki Véroia
EU
T
Flórina
Bab
Lake Prespa
N
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
B U L G A R I A
.) ar V ad
.M C M A (F.Y.R
was implemented from 1998, which has resulted in the registration of 375,000 Albanians.
Albanian refugees Thousands of Albanians of Greek descent entered Greece illegally after 1990. Willing to work for very low wages, they swelled the thriving black economy. A legalization program
IA
President Costas Stephanopoulos, elected with rightand left-wing support.
Costas Karamanlis, prime minister since March 2004.
Turkey and Cyprus Greece has pursued rapprochement with Turkey since 1999, but progress has been uneven, particularly because of the unresolved Cyprus question. Greece’s aim that a reunified Cyprus should join the EU in 2004 was thwarted by the Greek Cypriot rejection of a UN settlement plan.
ar its a
2004/2008
M
†
POLITICS
PÓ
Zákynthos
D
Y
O
K
ISO
D
L
S
over 1 000 000
Y
K
NN
POPULATION
A
E
over 500 000
K
over 100 000 over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
N
E
2000m/6562ft
200m/656ft Sea Level
S
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
A
Á
over 50 000
0 0
Irákleio
100 miles
Kríti (Crete)
R R T E I M E D
A
N
E
A
275
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Greece was occupied by Nazi Germany between 1941 and 1944. After liberation by the Allies, communists and royalists fought a five-year civil war. This ended with communist defeat, and King Paul became the constitutional monarch.
G
/
Compulsory military service
Up 17% in 2002
GREEK ARMED FORCES 1723 main battle tanks (683 M-48, 628 M-60, 412 Leopard 1)
Greece spends a higher percentage of GDP on defense than any other NATO country except Turkey, whose perceived threat is its main concern, though tensions with that country are now less acute. In 1998 a law was passed on the conscription of women (for four days a year) for the defense of border regions. The security operation mounted for the 2004 Olympics was the biggest in the Games’ history.
ECONOMICS $124bn
†
114,000 personnel
8 submarines, 19,000 2 destroyers, 12 frigates, personnel and 40 patrol boats 418 combat aircraft 33,000 (A-7, F-5, F-4E, F-16, personnel Mirage F-1, Mirage 2000) None
Inflation 8.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................30th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$11,660 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$10.4bn INFLATION .........................................3.6% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
EXPORTS
Bulgaria 5%
USA 5% UK 6%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
276
$6.15bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1964 King Constantine succeeds his father, King Paul. 1967 Military coup. King in exile. Col. Giorgios Papadopoulos premier. 1973 Greece declared a republic, with Papadopoulos as president. Papadopoulos overthrown in military coup. Lt. Gen. Ghizikis becomes president, Adamantios Androutsopoulos prime minister. 1974 Greece leaves NATO in protest at Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. “Colonels’ regime” falls. Constantinos Karamanlis becomes premier; his ND wins elections. 1975 Konstantinos Tsatsou becomes president. 1977 Elections: ND reelected. 1980 Karamanlis president. Georgios Rallis prime minister. Greece rejoins NATO. 1981 PASOK wins elections. Andreas Papandreou first socialist premier. Greece joins European Communities. 1985 Proposals to limit power of president. Karamanlis resigns. Christos Sartzetakis president. Greece and Albania reopen borders, closed since 1940. 1985–1989 Civil unrest caused by economic austerity program. 1988 Cabinet implicated in financial scandal. Leading members resign. 1989 Defense agreement with US. Two inconclusive elections lead to formation of all-party coalition. 1990 Coalition government collapses. ND wins elections. Konstantinos Mitsotakis prime minister, Karamanlis president. 1990–1992 Strikes against economic reform. 1992 EU persuaded not to recognize independent Macedonia. 1993 PASOK wins election, Andreas Papandreou premier. 1995 Costas Stephanopoulos elected president; recognition of sovereignty of Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYRM). 1996 Andreas Papandreou resigns as prime minister; succeeded by Costas Simitis. 1999 Earthquakes in Greece and Turkey. Sympathetic response shows improvement in relations. 2001 Armed conflict in FYRM. 2002 Euro fully adopted. 2004 ND wins general election. Athens hosts centennial Olympics.
DEFENSE
2002
Italy 9% Other 65%
Germany 10%
IMPORTS
Netherlands 6%
South Korea 6% Russia 7% Italy 12%
Other 57% Germany 12%
STRENGTHS One of the major tourist destinations in Europe. Efficient agricultural exporter. Shipping: the world’s largest beneficially owned fleet.
Greece’s largest companies made substantial losses until the socialists’ controversial austerity program of 1986–1987 reined in labor costs. Greece failed in 1999 to meet the economic convergence criteria for introducing the euro. It then tackled the problems with determination, balancing the budget and bringing inflation under control, though publicsector debt remains high. In 2001 Greece became the 12th member of the eurozone. The Olympic Games caused a huge budget deficit in 2004. GREECE : MAJOR BUSINESSES Thessaloníki
WEAKNESSES High levels of public debt. Until recently, interest rates and bureaucratic banking system discouraged private initiative. State-owned sector, like black economy, remains large. Loss of jobs to low-wage ex-communist neighboring states.
Kavála Lárisa Vólos
PROFILE Greek recovery from World War II was slow; it was not until the 1960s that any substantial investment occurred. The Colonels’ dictatorship curbed inflationary pressures with a wage freeze. When civilian government was restored in 1974, a spate of high wage settlements and the oil price shocks of 1973 and 1979 drove inflation over 20%. EU membership from 1981 brought large subsidies to what was then the poorest member state.
Pátra Cement Textiles
Athens
Chemicals Electronics Beverages Iron & steel Shipbuilding
Irákleio
Pulp & paper Fruit processing Pharmaceuticals
0
Tobacco processing
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GREECE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 192,190 tonnes
5133 b/d (reserves 19m barrels)
9.1m sheep, 5m goats, 903,000 pigs, 28m chickens
Oil, gas, coal, iron, bauxite, marble, nickel, magnesite, chromium
GREECE : LAND USE RHODOPE M TS
N D O
S
Combustion 91% (45bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
AEGEAN
Other 1% (0.1bn kWh) 20
ISLANDS
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
There is an oil and gas field off the coast of the island of Thasos. There may also be exploitable reserves in eastern waters, whose ownership is contested by Turkey. Coal, iron, and other mining contribute less than 1% to GDP. Greece is a leading producer of marble.
ENVIRONMENT
/
4% (1% partially protected)
†
Cropland Forest Pasture High mountain regions Sheep Fruit
Sustainability rank: 60th
8.5 tonnes per capita
Yes
Yes
†
Defense 4.4%
per 100,000 population
An influx of migrants is blamed for an increase in violent crime. The terrorist group November 17, which had carried out high-profile assassinations, was finally tracked down in 2002.
18 services: 1 state-owned, 17 independent
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 14
478,205 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
There are 122 daily newspapers. Eleftherotypia has one of the highest circulation figures
per 100,000 population
97%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
Daily newspaper circulation 64 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Health 5.3% 0
Rapes
Yes
TV ownership high
491 per 1000 population
Education 3.8%
Yes
Local fishing interests have formed a successful antipollution organization, HELMEPA. Smog in Athens is irritating to the eyes and throat and highly damaging to ancient monuments: the Parthenon in Athens has suffered more erosion in the last two decades than in the previous two millennia. Forest fires regularly cause havoc, damaging flora and fauna.
MEDIA
313 per 1000 population
Up 19% in 2001
per 100,000 population
705
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING Death penalty not used in practice
Murders
2
†
SPENDING
100 miles
CRIME RATES
1 Yes
100 km
0
/
8500 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
0
†
CRIME
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers
The first PASOK government introduced a national health service and a national pharmaceuticals industry. Some 14% of government expenditure goes on health, and every Greek is entitled to sickness benefit. Greece now has one of the highest numbers of doctors per head of population in the EU. In the early 1990s the ND attempted to upgrade private medicine and to incorporate its activities with those in state hospitals. Overall, provision has improved greatly, but private clinics now offer better facilities than state-run centers.
PI
Hydro 8% (4.1bn kWh)
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 227 people
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
HEALTH
Electric power 11.1m kW
Greek society changed dramatically in the postwar period. Formerly a largely agricultural society living in isolated communities, it was rapidly urbanized in the 1950s. Former agricultural workers made fortunes, many by grabbing opportunities presented by the shipping industry. Among these were the now prominent Niarchos and Onassis families. The advent of the republic in 1973 reflected the social changes which had occurred since the war. New wealth and success became more admired than aristocratic birth or prestige. Greece is now a socially mobile society. Living standards have improved universally since the 1950s.
80
WORLD RANKING 60
97%
96%
Position in World 1st
40
61% 20
0
50th
Primary
Secondary
35
Tertiary 100th
$11,660
16
16
78 years
5 deaths
24
60 97%
After the state broadcasting monopoly ended in 1990, many private TV and radio networks emerged. Commercial broadcasting has made politicians more answerable to the public, and has also had a cultural impact, with the import of more foreign programs, particularly from the US. Many private radio and TV broadcasters are unlicensed.
Some 10% of total government spending is on education, which is free and officially compulsory for nine years. The use of informal Greek (demotiki) replaced the formal katharevoussa in Greek schools when it became the country’s official language in 1976. There are 18 universities and 74 other institutions of higher education.
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
277
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GRENADA
s le
il
Lesse
OFFICIAL NAME: Grenada CAPITAL: St. George’s POPULATION: 89,258 CURRENCY: Eastern Caribbean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1974
North America
CARIBBEAN
1974
Feb 7
WG
-4
n r A
t
Venezuela
GRENADA Trinidad & Tobago
.gd
+1473
T
HE MOST SOUTHERLY of the Windward Islands, Grenada also includes the southern Grenadine islands of Carriacou and Petite Martinique. It became a focus of international attention in 1983 when the US, with token backing from several Caribbean states, mounted an invasion to sever its growing links with Castro’s Cuba. It is the world’s second-largest nutmeg producer, but the crop was devastated by Hurricane Ivan in 2004.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR ST. GEORGE’S
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
L. House 2003/2008 U. House 2003/2008
263/km2 (681/mi2)
39%
61% 53% NNP
Other 15%
47% NDC
NNP = New National Party NDC = National Democratic Congress
-20/-4
Anglican 17%
Point Salines, St. George’s 441,808 passengers
Drive on left
6 ships 1009 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 634 km (394 miles)
None
None
None
Roman Catholic 68%
Most Grenadians are descendants of Africans brought over to work sugar plantations in the 16th to 19th centuries, though there are also a few East Indians and descendants of European settlers. As in other Caribbean states, extended families with absentee fathers are not uncommon. Around half of the population is under the age of 30.
Sir Eric Gairy dominated politics as prime minister until his overthrow in 1979. The charismatic Petit St Vincent I. socialist Petite Maurice Windward Martinique Bishop, who Carriacou Petite Hillsborough Dominique succeeded Mabouya I. Grand Bay him, was in L'Esterre turn deposed White I. and then RENADA Saline I. Frigate I. Total Area : executed in 340 sq. km (131 sq. miles) Large I. 1983. This latter coup was the POPULATION pretext for a over 10 000 US invasion, the under 10 000 Diamond I. primary motive of Les Tantes LAND HEIGHT which was to end Ronde I. The Sisters the perceived Cuban Caille I. 500m/1640ft influence in Grenada. 200m/656ft London Bridge Politics has since Sea Level been center right, and Sugar Loaf Green I. Sauteurs Sandy I. there is little to choose Bird I. ideologically between River Sallee Victoria Union the major parties. The Mt. Rose Hermitage Tivoli NNP, led by Keith Mitchell, Mt. St. Catherine Gouyave 840m gained power in 1995, and Grenada in 1999 took all 15 seats in Paradise Grand Roy Concord Grenville an unparalleled victory over a Birch Brizan divided opposition. in the 2003 Grove Willis Mt. Moritz elections, however, its majority Snug Corner Constantine Crochu Thebaide was reduced to a single seat. ST. GEORGE'S
G
A
Up 7% in 2002
C
E
S
/
N
Visitors : Population 1.5:1
O
A
132,000 visitors
†
E
TOURISM
E
Roads in the interior are poor. Catamarans provide the fastest link between Grenada and Carriacou.
The members of the Senate are appointed by the prime minister and the leader of the opposition
N
†
TRANSPORTATION
Senate 13 seats
A
Rainfall totals 150 cm (60 in) on the coast, and twice that in the mountains. Hurricanes occur in the rainy season.
B
USA 26%
C
B
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
I
UK 23%
R
I
Trinidad & Tobago 11%
20
30
40
N
10
% of total arrivals
A
T
Other 40%
A
L
St. David's Epping Forest Corinth
Point Salines Airport Glover I.
Lance aux Épines
Westerhall Point
N
T
Springs Grand Anse
A
Tourism has developed since the 1984 completion of the international airport, though there has been a concurrent decline in cruise ship arrivals. A ten-year development plan aims to increase hotel capacity to 2500 rooms by 2007.
278
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
House of Representatives 15 seats
-10/14
0
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
POLITICS
Pop. density high
English, English Creole
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
C
G
St. George’s harbor. The newest hotel developments are on the beaches to the south.
0 0
8 km 8 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GRENADA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Caricom
Joined UN in 1974
OAS
Comm
OECS
Key priorities are relations with the rest of the Windward Islands group, promoting Grenada as a tourist destination, and maintaining close links with the EU. Since 1983, Grenada has supported US policy, but it restored links with Cuba in 2002.
†
AID
.
Down 25% in 2002
Main aid sources are Japan and the Caribbean Development Bank. Humanitarian and reconstruction aid was promised after Hurricane Ivan in 2004.
DEFENSE Minimal expenditure
†
.
No compulsory military service
Defense spending is falling
The People’s Revolutionary Army, created by Maurice Bishop in the wake of his 1979 coup, was replaced in 1983 by a paramilitary defense unit trained by the US and the UK.
ECONOMICS US$361m
†
Not an oil producer
13,200 sheep, 7200 goats, 5850 pigs, 268,000 chickens
None
Grenada has no strategic resources and has to import most of its energy. The major asset is Grenadian nutmeg, which is highly prized for its quality, but production levels fluctuate.
†
MEDIA
STRENGTHS Second-largest producer of nutmeg after Indonesia. Other important sectors are tourism, cocoa, bananas, construction, and financial services.
EXPORTS
St. Lucia 7% Netherlands 9% Bangladesh 10% USA 14% Germany 15% IMPORTS
UK 4%
Barbados 4%
Japan 3% Other 32%
USA 30%
Trinidad & Tobago 27%
2.1 tonnes per capita
TV ownership high
There are no daily newspapers
There are no daily newspapers. The Grenadian Voice and the Grenada Guardian are published weekly 2 services: 1 partly state-owned, 1 independent
4 services: 1 partly state-owned, 3 independent
There are many weekly newspapers, often critical of government policy. The government owns a minority share in the Grenada Broadcasting Network.
CRIME
†
/
1885–1958 Grenada acts as administrative center for the Windward Islands. 1950 Eric Gairy founds Grenada United Labour Party. 1951 Universal suffrage introduced. 1967 Internal self-government. 1974 Full independence. Gairy prime minister. 1979 Coup. Maurice Bishop prime minister. Growing links with Cuba. 1983 After improving ties with US, Bishop is ousted and executed by former allies. US invasion establishes pro-US administration. 1995 Keith Mitchell of NNP becomes prime minister. 1999 NNP reelected, taking all 15 seats in House of Representatives. 2001–2002 Blacklisted as tax haven. 2002 Relations with Cuba restored. 2003 NNP reelected. 2004 Hurricane Ivan damages 90% of buildings.
94%
School leaving age: 16
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
196 per 1000 population
316 per 1000 population
Defense No data Education 4.2% Health 3.8% 0
†
EDUCATION
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth disparities in Grenada are less marked than in most Caribbean states, but poverty is growing. The wealthiest groups are those in control of the nutmeg trade.
WORLD RANKING
651 students
Education follows the former British selective 11-plus system. Many students go on to the University of the West Indies, or to college in the US.
1 per 2000 people
Sighted, and named, by Columbus in 1498, Grenada was a French colony from 1650. Captured by the British in 1762, it formally became a part of the British Empire in 1783.
Crime is rising
The doubling of poverty during the 1990s and high unemployment have contributed to a rising crime rate. Narcotics trafficking is also a growing problem. However, while there is street crime, the level of violence is low.
HEALTH
CHRONOLOGY
Death penalty not used in practice
WEAKNESSES Weak tax base, lack of diversification. Hurricane Ivan destroyed much infrastructure in 2004. Global nutmeg price fluctuates. High unemployment.
Not available
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
297 prisoners
Other 45%
†
Tourism threatens some key environmental sites, including a remnant of rainforest. Resort projects have caused serious beach erosion, in turn requiring costly coastal defenses. An environmental levy on visitors was opposed by cruise companies.
2.7 Eastern Caribbean dollars (2.67)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................175th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$3530 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$121m INFLATION .........................................4.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................13%
/
1.7% partially protected
Inflation 2.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
Electric power 27,000 kW
2247 tonnes
ENVIRONMENT
Recipient
US$9m (receipts)
†
RESOURCES
†
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers, nutritional disorders
After 1979, Cuban physicians provided a basic health care system. There are free weekly clinics in each district, and treatment in subsidized state hospitals now matches the Caribbean average. In 1999 Cuba began its promised expansion of the general hospital.
Position in World 1st
50th
100th
69 $3530
62 73 years
150th
78
78
94%
20 deaths
93
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
279
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GUATEMALA
Mexico
Belize
GUATEMALA
Honduras
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Guatemala CAPITAL: Guatemala City POPULATION: 12.3 million CURRENCY: Quetzal OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish -6
T
HE LARGEST AND MOST POPULOUS of the states of the Central American isthmus, Guatemala was home to the ancient Mayan civilization. Its fertile Pacific and Caribbean coastal lowlands give way to the highlands which dominate the country. Independent since 1838, Guatemala was governed by a military regime from 1954. Civilian rule was not restored until 1986, and civil war continued for another decade. Almost 40% of people live on less than $2 a day. Tropical equatorial/ wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR GUATEMALA CITY
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
The military government which came to power in 1954 with US backing brutally suppressed opposition and persecuted the highland Amerindians, until the return of democracy in 1986. Civil war effectively continued until President Arzú of the PAN concluded a peace agreement with the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG) guerrillas in 1996. The 36-year war had claimed 200,000 lives, mostly innocent civilians. Right-wing candidates have performed well in presidential elections since, with Alfonso Portillo of the FRG winning in 1999 and Oscar Berger, the conservative mayor of Guatemala City, in 2003. Efraín Ríos Montt, military ruler in 1982–1986, remains a force in politics, despite being investigated by a Spanish court on charges of genocide. He came a distant third, however, in the 2003 elections.
113/km2 (294/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
40%
60%
ETHNIC MAKEUP 0
Other 10% -10/14 -20/-4
Amerindian 60%
The climate varies with altitude: daytime temperatures average 28˚C (82˚F) in tropical coast areas and 20˚C (68˚F) in the more temperate central highlands.
,
Little change in 2003
GUATEMALA
Drive on right
11 ships 8900 grt
886 km (551 miles)
990 km (615 miles)
n P edro
Tikal Lago Petén Itzá
u
Flores
La Libertad
Total Area : 108 890 sq. km (42 042 sq. miles) Barillas
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000
Honduras 9%
over 50 000
Other 42%
over 10 000
Cobán Huehuetenango
Sa
n t a I s ab
el
E
fo
Bá h A mi a d e Sarstún atiqu e
Lívingston Santo Tomás de Castilla San Pedro Carchá bón Lago de C a ha
Mota
Izabal
P olochic
Panzós
20
30
40
50
60
LAND HEIGHT
N
10
280
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
O
3000m/9843ft
Tourism rapidly revived after the military excesses in the 1980s, but postwar crime, including an increase in mob violence, deters visitors. Mayan ruins are the top attractions.
P
a gu
S
Los Amates Gualán SIERR Salamá Rabinal A Totonicapán Chichicastenango Zacapa MAD RE El Progreso Quezaltenango Chiquimula Sololá Chimaltenango Jalapa N Lago de Atitlán Coatepeque Esquipulas Mazatenango GUATEMALA Antigua Retalhuleu Guatemala CITY Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa Cuilapa Asunción Mita Escuintla Pueblo Nuevo A Jutiapa Tiquisate R Chiquimulilla C Nueva 0 50 km DO I Concepción VA Moyuta F L A Puerto I C 0 S 50 miles San José L Volcán Tajumulco 4220m
H
0
SEA on
dur as Puerto Barrios
Morales
San Marcos
% of total arrivals
fH
U
USA 23%
y
CARIBBEAN
San Luis
D
El Salvador 26%
I x cán
E
X
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Dolores
Pasi ó n
880,464 visitors
Sa
Us
Good roads link the major towns. The railroad and two international airports are attracting foreign investment.
Z
74 km (46 miles)
I
4941 km (3070 miles)
C
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
l
Visitors : Population 1:14
La Aurora, Guatemala City 939,000 passengers
†
Gu
†
More than half of Guatemalans are Amerindians, descendants of the original Mayas. Culture and language distinguish them from ladino groups. Ladinos include a white elite, a large mixed-race group, and also Amerindians rejecting traditional dress and language to avoid discrimination. Political power and 65% of land are held by a few O ladino families. Amerindians mainly live in the highlands, by subsistence farming. In a 1999 plebiscite, ladinos rejected proposed reforms recognizing 23 Amerindian m languages and the right ac in ta of Amerindians to have judicial hearings in their own languages.
TRANSPORTATION
TOURISM
Mestizo 30%
I
0/32
9% 21% PAN Others
GANA = Grand National Alliance FRG = Guatemalan Republican Front UNE = National Union of Hope PAN = National Advancement Party
Pop. density medium
Quiché, Mam, Cakchiquel, Kekchí, Spanish
18% UNE
24% FRG
28% GANA
Chix o
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
PEOPLE
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Congress of the Republic 158 seats
B
†
CLIMATE
Multiparty elections
President Oscar Berger Perdomo
2003/2007
M
G
†
POLITICS
.gt
+502
A
GCA
R
Sept 15
E
1838
El Salvador
L
1838
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA
O C E A N
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GUATEMALA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Geplac
Joined UN in 1945
OAS
NAM
CHRONOLOGY The site of the Mayan civilization, Guatemala declared independence from Spain in 1821. It became a fully independent nation in 1838.
San José
Economic relations with the US and neighboring states are priorities. A UN mission was deployed for six months to oversee the 1996 peace accord. Guatemala lays claim to half of Belize.
†
AID
North Acropolis, Tikal, Petén. One of the largest lowland Mayan cities, Tikal was virtually abandoned by about 900 CE.
Recipient
$249m (receipts)
/
Up 10% in 2002
International aid in recent years has responded to the needs of postwar reconstruction and hurricane relief. In 2004 the government sought to focus donations on tackling the worst cases of malnutrition and poverty.
DEFENSE $181m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 2% in 2002
A damning “truth commission” report in 1999 found the armed forces and their allies guilty of 93% of human rights violations during the civil war. President Berger is cutting troop numbers by almost half, to 15,500.
ECONOMICS $21bn
†
Inflation 9.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
7.91 quetzales (7.93)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................62nd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1760 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.19bn INFLATION ............................................8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
†
Electric power 1.3m kW
RESOURCES 14,300 tonnes
20,752 b/d (reserves 197m barrels)
2.5m cattle, 780,000 pigs, 260,000 sheep, 27m chickens
Oil, antimony, lead, tungsten, nickel, copper
Agriculture provides over 20% of GDP and over 50% of export earnings. Cash crops such as coffee are prone to price fluctuations. Nearly four decades of civil war held back the development of oil reserves and hydroelectric potential.
†
Sustainability rank: 67th
ENVIRONMENT
/
20% (3% partially protected)
0.9 tonnes per capita
Forest cover has fallen dramatically since 1954 to 26%, due to intensive agriculture. The excessive use of pesticides, many banned in the US, threatens health. In rural areas indoor pollution from traditional wood-burning, open-fire stoves is a major concern.
†
MEDIA
1954 US-backed coup topples reformist government. 1966–1984 Counterinsurgency war; highlands “pacification.” 1986–1993 Return of civilian rule; President Jorge Serrano flees country after abortive “self-coup.” 1996 Peace deal with URNG guerrillas ends 36 years of civil war. 1998 Bishop Juan Gerardi, human rights campaigner, murdered. 1999 “Truth Commission” blames army for most human rights abuses. 2004 Oscar Berger takes office as president.
Exports affected by world price changes. Domestic market limited by inequality. Tax evasion. Shaky financial system. Natural disasters. Corruption.
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
52 per 1000 population
Nicaragua 3% Mexico 3%
USA 59%
Costa Rica 3% El Salvador 9%
Other 23%
China 4%
El Salvador 6% South Korea 8% Mexico 9%
Other 39% USA 34%
Moratorium on death penalty
/
Up 20% in 2000
Violence is high. The UN has been allowed to investigate organized crime and human rights abuses from 2004.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
Powerful groups own the media, but newspapers can be hard-hitting. The four independent TV stations are controlled by a single owner.
6974 prisoners
Education 1.7% Health 2.3%
†
School leaving age: 15
5
174,750 students
Education is only for the privileged. Guatemala has one of the lowest literacy rates in Latin America; only 62% of women are literate.
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Poverty in Guatemala has risen since 1980: over half the population now live below the national poverty line. The richest 10% control an estimated 46% of the national wealth.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
96 $1760
116
125 193rd
70%
71 per 1000 population
Defense 0.8%
5 services: 1 stateowned (currently off air), 4 independent
†
GDP/cap. increase
TV ownership medium
There are 7 daily newspapers, including Prensa Libre, Siglo Veintiuno, El Periódico, and the state Diario de Centroamérica
CRIME
EXPORTS
†
SPENDING
0
WEAKNESSES
Gastrointestinal infections, tuberculosis, heart disease, violence
Health spending is a budget priority as a result of pressure from the UN and multilateral lenders. Gastrointestinal and other infections directly linked to poverty remain the main causes of death.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Main exports are coffee, sugar, beef, bananas, and cardamom. Privatizations boost foreign investor confidence.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 1111 people
Daily newspaper circulation 33 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
†
HEALTH
65 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
145
36 deaths
121
70%
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
281
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
GUINEA
WEST AFRICA GuineaBissau
1958
1958
April 3
RG
0
.gn
+224
G
UINEA LIES ON the western coast of Africa. Central highlands, either densely forested or savanna covered, slope down to coastal plains and swamps; the north is semidesert. Military rule from 1984 ended with disputed elections in 1995. Neighboring civil wars have spilled over into domestic conflict in Guinea.
G
CLIMATE
†
Tropical monsoon
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR CONAKRY Conakry, Guinea's capital, receives particularly heavy rainfall, averaging 130cm (51 in) in July alone
43,000 visitors
130/51
†
Visitors : Population 1:198
/
Up 16% in 2002
Sierra Leone 14%
S O N D cm/in 90/35
Senegal 7%
80/31 70/28 60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
0
Dusty harmattan winds govern the dry season. A six-month rainy season begins in April.
TRANSPORTATION Conakry 299,555 passengers
†
Drive on right
35 ships 11,800 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 5185 km (3222 miles)
Other 63% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
% of total arrivals
Limited infrastructure means that Guinea struggles to exploit the tourist potential of its beaches, scenery, and rich culture.
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density low
35/km2 (90/mi2)
Fulani, Malinke, Soussou, French THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
28%
72%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Fulani 30%
Other 5% Kissi 10% Other tribes 10%
None
Soussou 15% 1115 km (693 miles)
1295 km (805 miles)
Guinea has no public transportation; most roads are underdeveloped. Trains no longer run; tracks are in disrepair. Domestic airlines use dirt landing strips.
A small mosque in Conakry. Muslims make up 85% of the population; 8% are Christian. The remainder follow traditional beliefs.
282
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
President Lansana Conté
2002/2007 AT THE LAST ELECTION
3% PDG
National Assembly 114 seats
17% 3% 3% UPR UPG Others
74% PUP
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Rainfall A
Ivory Coast
PUP = Party of Unity and Progress UPR = Union for Progress and Renewal UPG = Union for the Progress of Guinea PDG = Democratic Party of Guinea
France 16% Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
GUINEA
Sierra Leone
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Guinea CAPITAL: Conakry POPULATION: 8.5 million CURRENCY: Guinea franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French
Africa
Mali
Senegal
The transition to democracy following the death in 1984 of Marxist dictator Sekou Touré was postponed by the military until 1993. Serious violence broke out that year following the presidential election, amid accusations of vote rigging leveled at the incumbent junta, headed by Gen. Lansana Conté. A disputed victory for Conté’s PUP in the 1995 legislative elections was followed by his own reelection in 1998. Fighting escalated into civil war in 2000, with incursions from rebels based in Sierra Leone and Liberia. The PUP increased its majority in much-delayed legislative polls in July 2002. A prodemocracy conference was outlawed and Conté changed the constitution, enabling his reelection in 2003 in a poll boycotted by the opposition. The PUP is consistently accused of repression and the harassment of opposition politicians. Prime Minister François Fall resigned in 2004, claiming that Conté was blocking all attempts at reform.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Joined UN in 1958
Malinke 30%
Since the death of Marxist dictator Sekou Touré in 1984, traditional rivalries have reemerged between ethnic groups. The two largest groups are the Fulani, based in the highland region of Fouta Djallon, and the Malinke, who lost the power they had held under Touré, and have suffered reprisals. The extended family system survived the climate of suspicion generated by paid informers under Sekou Touré. Women acquired influence within his Marxist party, but a Muslim revival since 1984 has reversed this trend. Thousands of refugees, fleeing from conflicts in Liberia and Ivory Coast, are now caught up in fighting in the southern border region; armed Liberian rebels have exacerbated the crisis, along with growing tensions between the Malinke and Guerze ethnic groups.
ECOWAS
OIF
OIC
AU
OMVG
Guinea has been deeply involved in regional crises in neighboring Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast. Though relations were symbolically patched up in 2002, tensions remain over the region’s porous borders.
AID
†
Recipient
$250m (receipts)
.
Down 11% in 2002
In 1969, the World Bank funded the Boké bauxite project, then one of its most ambitious projects. Since 1986, Western aid has grown to finance over 85% of all development projects. The 1997–2000 World Bank/IMF structural reform program foresees an annual growth rate of 5%.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GUINEA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Up 14% in 2002
The 8500-strong army is the largest branch of the armed forces. Weaponry is supplied by France and the US; the US also operates a military training and assistance program. Guinea channeled arms from Iran to rebel forces in Liberia in 2002–2003.
ECONOMICS $3.15bn
†
Inflation 5.1% p.a. (1990–2001) 2055 Guinea francs (1990)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................131st GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$410 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$46m INFLATION .........................................2.4% UNEMPLOYMENT ..........Widespread underemployment
STRENGTHS Natural resources including bauxite, gold, and diamonds. Major iron ore deposits at Mount Nimba. Good soil and climate give high cash-crop yields.
n Bafi
r
an
Ma fo u
nd
Ni a
B
0
OA S
Yomou
Monts Nimba 1752m
E
100 km
R
100 miles
I A
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 197,000 kW
90,000 tonnes
Not an oil producer
3.28m cattle, 1.2m goats, 1m sheep, 13.5m chickens
Bauxite, diamonds, gold, iron
Bauxite provides the majority of export earnings, though gold production has increased significantly. Guinea, with 30% of the world’s known bauxite reserves, is the world’s largest producer after Australia. Demand for electricity for bauxite processing is high.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.7%
†
Chronic instability. Poor infrastructure. Conflict in Liberia has set back major joint projects. Refugee influx a drain on resources. Electricity shortages. Widespread corruption. Falling bauxite revenue and increasing food prices.
School leaving age: 12
G
8151 students
Access to education has improved since the late 1990s, especially for boys. There are two public universities.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, diarrheal and respiratory diseases, tuberculosis
1 per 10,000 people
Despite two decades of programs to improve health care, provision is still poor, especially in rural areas. HIV infection is low for sub-Saharan Africa.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
2 per 1000 population
3 per 1000 population
Defense 1.8% Education 1.9% Health 1.9%
TV ownership low
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There is 1 daily newspaper, the state-owned Horoya
1 state-owned service
41%
0.2 tonnes per capita
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people
WEAKNESSES
†
EDUCATION
Sustainability rank: 98th
Uncontrolled deforestation, particularly of large areas of rainforest, is the major long-term problem.
MEDIA
1958 Full independence under Sekou Touré. 1984 Touré dies. Army coup. 1993–1995 Disputed elections. 2000 Cross-border rebel attacks place Guinea in a state of civil war. 2002 PUP wins delayed elections. 2003 Conté reelected president.
YC
0
Lola
OR
Compulsory military service
Nzérékoré
IV
/
Beyla
FON Macenta
N
I
†
Koumandou
Konsankoro
L
$57m
n
M a k o na
AN
DEFENSE
o
Guékédou
E
Sea Level
M
Kérouané
Kissidougou
SIERRA LEONE
C
200m/656ft
Faranah
Coyah Forécariah
O
500m/1640ft
Kankan
T (CÔTE D’IVOIRE)
Îles de Los
IC
1000m/3281ft
Niantanina Mandiana
io
CONAKRY
i an
D
T
LAND HEIGHT
Kindia
Dubréka
N
Kouroussa ger Ni
ré
Boffa
A
DJALLON
Nige
Dinguiraye Sélouma
il
L
Pita
tala Fa
France colonized Guinea in 1890, strongly opposed by the Fulani Muslim empire of Fouta Djallon.
Siguiri
Tikin s s o
Dabola Télimélé Dalaba Fria K o n o u Mamou k
Boké
T
Ba fi
Ko
Lélouma n ta
Îles under 10 000 Tristao Kamsar
A
Koubia
Tougué FOUTA Labé ng
Kole (Gam nté bia )
og o
IN
gu Tin i
Doko
I
K
g
m bia
Gaoual
n
li
over 50 000 over 10 000
GU
over 500 000
CHRONOLOGY
Niagassola
u n t ou
EA
-
liba
Ga
POPULATION
A
Koundâra
U
SA
L
B
IS
o ul Ko iné T om
Total Area : 245 857 sq. km (94 925 sq. miles)
M
Sankar
GUINEA
S E N E G A L
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Private enterprise has brought with it a new business class and Guinea now has some wealthy exiles, but much of the country remains poor and underdeveloped; GNP is only just over $400 per capita.
WORLD RANKING 1 state-owned service
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
Cameroon 9% USA 9% Other 46% Belgium 9%
Guinea’s limited broadcast media are state-owned. Private newspapers can be critical of the government, but high printing costs deter publishing.
Spain 10% South Korea 17% IMPORTS
Belgium 7%
3070 prisoners
USA 8% Italy 9%
Other 47%
CRIME
Ivory Coast 11% France 18%
†
50th
100th
Death penalty in use
/
150th
Crime is rising
The death penalty was reintroduced in 2001 in an attempt to crack down on spiraling crime. Prison conditions are very poor. The unregulated mining industry facilitates money laundering.
193rd
154 $410
160
167 46 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
179 41%
175 109 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
283
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD WEST AFRICA
GUINEA-BISSAU
Mali GUINEABISSAU
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Guinea-Bissau CAPITAL: Bissau POPULATION: 1.5 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese 0
L
YING ON AFRICA’S west coast, impoverished GuineaBissau is a former Portuguese territory. Apart from savanna highlands in the northeast, the country is low-lying. The PAIGC initiated a process of transition to multiparty democracy in 1990, and elections were held in 1994. Since then, the democratic process has been interrupted by a series of army rebellions and military coups, the latest in 2003. Guinea-Bissau remains one of the world’s poorest countries.
WEATHER CHART FOR BISSAU
National People's Assembly 102 seats
44% PAIGC
PAIGC = African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde PRS = Party for Social Renewal PUSD = United Social Democratic Party
Pop. density medium
Twenty years of one-party rule ended in 1994 with the holding of multiparty elections. However, opposition groups disputed the ruling PAIGC’s victory. A period of instability led to an army rebellion in 1998 and eight months of fighting between those loyal to President João Bernardo Vieira and to the army chief, Gen. Ansumane Mane; about half the population was displaced as a result. ECOWAS troops intervened and a national unity government was formed, only to be overthrown by an army coup in 1999. Fresh elections were won by the PRS, and its candidate Kumba Yalla won the presidency in 2000. The erratic Yalla persistently postponed the next set of elections and was overthrown in a coup in 2003. The new military authorities appointed businessman Henrique Rosa interim president. Legislative elections held in 2004 were won by the PAIGC.
53/km2 (138/mi2)
Portuguese Creole, Balante, Fulani, Malinke, Portuguese THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
90/35 80/31 70/28 60/140
33%
Traditional beliefs 52%
0
TRANSPORTATION
†
Drive on right
24 ships 6459 grt
Bissalanca, Bissau THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 4440 km (2759 miles)
None
None
Scattered stretches important to coastal commerce
The many waterways and islands make water transportation as vital as the roads. Both are being improved.
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:188
8000 visitors
,
No significant change from year to year
C as am ance
L A
Other 53% 20
30
40
50
60
Ilha de Enu
AR
T
Ilha de Uno
Q
I
IP
U
C
The lack of tourist facilities means that the country remains a destination for only the most adventurous of travelers.
N
10
% of total arrivals
llha de
É Orango L AG O DO
O
284
Bubaque Ilha
Roxa
Uno
C
Ilha de Bubaque Ilha de Orangozinho
S B IJAG ÓS
E
A
bali om
N
OIC
Relations with neighboring states are extremely tense due to the activities of various rebel militias on the borders. There is mounting international concern over the lack of effective democracy and reports of repression.
G
i
o
Farim
G
A
L
Pirada
ci Ca Cacine
0 0
GUINEABISSAU Total Area : 36 120 sq. km (13 946 sq. miles)
POPULATION over 100 000
G
Bedanda
Catió
Ilha de Melo
Joined UN in 1974
AU
OIF
sa
Senegal 11% France 9%
cheu
C ja m de a n
CPLP
Sonaco Contuboel Mansabá Pitche R i Bissorã Gamamudo Gabú Cacheu Rio Ca m p o s Bula Mansôa Canchungo a ô Porto Gole Bafatá ns Ma Nhacra Caió o Ri ru Gêba Bambadinca Ilha de Jeta Ri Safim o Co R io Galomaro Quinhámel BISSAU Fulacunda 310m Prábis a Tite Ilha de Pecixe Xitole êb Boé Canal d o G Ilha Caravela Ilha de Bolamae de Buba B d u ba Bolama an Caravela Gr Ilha Quebo Ri o Empada Ilha de Carache Formosa São Domingos Susana
T
Portugal 27%
ECOWAS
E r ba
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
N
E
S
Bigene
A
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
The largest ethnic group is the southern Balante, which forms almost one-third of the population. Mixed-race mestiço and European minorities make up just 2% of the population. Though small in number, the mestiços – many of whom derive from Cape Verde, Portugal’s other former west African colony – still dominate the bureaucracy. Resentment at this, especially among the Balante, who provided most of the PAIGC troops in the independence war, was one cause of the 1980 coup. The majority of the population live and work on small family farms, grouped in self-contained villages. Most of the urban population live in the capital, Bissau, where they face economic hardship and increasing political instability.
50 km
over 10 000 under 10 000
U
The climate is tropical. The north is affected by the Sahel, the wetter south by the Atlantic. Droughts can occur.
Muslim 40%
b al
10/4
0/32
n
20/8
10/50
o
20/68
Christian 8%
Ri
30/12
Rio
40/16
30/86
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Rio T
50/20
40/104
0
67%
60/24
50/122
17% 5% PUSD Others
34% PRS
E
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
AT THE LAST ELECTION
N
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical monsoon
Multiparty elections
Interim President Henrique Rosa
2004/2008
I
†
CLIMATE
oC a
G
†
POLITICS
.gw
+245
A
GNB
a
Sept 24
êb
1974
Guinea
Ri
1974
Africa
Senegal
N
LAND HEIGHT 200m/656ft
50 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GUINEA-BISSAU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$59m (receipts)
,
CHRONOLOGY
After the EU, Portugal is the most important single aid donor. Balanceof-payments support is critical to the economy. Export earnings are small compared with the costs of imports and debt servicing. Donor support was frozen in 1991 because of the country’s World Bank arrears, but the government pushed ahead with economic reforms begun in the mid-1980s, and the World Bank and the IMF agreed a $790 million debt-relief package in 2001. Education, infrastructure, and health care are the main targets of project aid.
DEFENSE $3m
†
,
Compulsory military service
$186m
†
Inflation 29% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
SCORE CARD
Bafatá, the chief town in central GuineaBissau. It lies on the Gêba River and is also an important inland port.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................185th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$130 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$35m INFLATION .........................................0.9% UNEMPLOYMENT .......Widespread underemployment
Oil reserves not yet exploited
520,000 cattle, 360,000 pigs, 1.5m chickens
Bauxite, phosphates, oil
Fish and timber are the main natural resources, but local exploitation is only a tiny proportion of the sustainable levels. There is considerable potential for developing hydropower and for offshore oil production.
ENVIRONMENT
Instability. Lack of sufficiency in rice staple. Fish stocks depleted by poaching. Few exports, mainly cashew nuts, groundnuts. Minimal industry. High illiteracy. Poor state economic management. EXPORTS
Other 7% Thailand 19%
Uruguay 19% IMPORTS
China 4% India 15%
Sustainability rank: 127th
0.2 tonnes per capita
Drought and locust plagues are serious natural hazards. A small population and minimal industry mean that there are few serious environmental problems.
†
MEDIA
1974 Independence. PAIGC rules. 1980 Military coup. 1990 Multiparty politics accepted. 1994 Multiparty elections. 1998 Army rebellion led by Gen. Mane. ECOWAS intervention. 1999 Transitional government. May, army seizes power. November, PRS defeats PAIGC in elections. 2003 President Kumba Yalla overthrown in military coup. 2004 PAIGC returns to power. No welfare state health benefits Parasitic, diarrheal, and communicable diseases, malaria
1 per 5000 people
Guinea-Bissau’s health statistics are among the world’s worst, due partly to the minimal medical facilities. What had been available was severely affected by civil war, leading to outbreaks of diseases such as meningitis. In mid-2000 the AfDB provided $500,000 in funding for an emergency health program.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
TV ownership low
6 per 1000 population
9 per 1000 population
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people
Defense 1.6% Education 2.1%
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
1 state-owned service
Three independent newspapers publish intermittently due to high costs. There is one state-owned TV channel. The Portuguese-run RTP-Africa broadcasts two hours of programming a day.
CRIME
†
Guinea-Bissau does not publish prison figures
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Living conditions for the majority of Guinea-Bissau’s people are extremely poor; around 50% of the population are unable to meet their basic needs. The tiny elite is mainly mestiço.
WORLD RANKING
No death penalty
/
Position in World 1st
Crime is rising
Human rights abuses increased during the late 1990s, but reported crime levels are relatively low. Separatist conflict in neighboring Senegal makes the border region dangerous.
EDUCATION
Health 3.2% 0
†
50th
100th
150th
School leaving age: 12
193rd
171
463 students
188 Portugal 19%
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
40%
Other 38%
Senegal 20%
†
There is one daily newspaper, Nô Printcha, published by the government
WEAKNESSES
Thailand 4%
/
None
Minimal at present, but good potential in fisheries and timber, and for hydropower and offshore oil.
India 50%
Electric power 21,000 kW
5000 tonnes
STRENGTHS
Italy 3% Portugal 2%
†
RESOURCES
No change in 2002
There are around 9000 troops. The army led coups in 1980, 1999, and 2003, and suffered internal rebellions in 1998 and 2000, continuing a history of military interference in politics. ECOWAS soldiers have intervened to restore order on a number of occasions.
ECONOMICS
Explored by the Portuguese in the 15th century, Portuguese Guinea was established in 1879. A war for independence began in the 1960s.
Little change in 2002
War damaged schools and cut teacher numbers. Female education is a priority. The first universities opened in 2003.
$130
45 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
184
186
40%
130 dths
172
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
285
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD SOUTH AMERICA
GUYANA
GUYANA Suriname
OFFICIAL NAME: Cooperative Republic of Guyana CAPITAL: Georgetown POPULATION: 765,000 CURRENCY: Guyana dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1966
1966
Feb 23
GUY
-4
YING ON THE NORTHERN EDGE of South America, Guyana stretches 600 km (375 miles) from dense tropical rainforests, through broad savanna and mountains dotted with waterfalls, to the narrow Atlantic coastal plain where most of the population lives. A British colony from 1814 until independence in 1966, Guyana has closer ties with the mostly anglophone Caribbean than with its Spanish-, Portuguese-, and Dutch-speaking neighbors.
†
CLIMATE
Brazil
†
POLITICS
.gy
+592
L
Multiparty elections
President Bharrat Jagdeo
2001/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
3% 2% GAP–WPA TUF
National Assembly 65 seats
41% PNC
52% PPP–CIVIC
2% ROAR
PPP–CIVIC = People's Progressive Party–CIVIC PNC = People's National Congress GAP–WPA = Guyana Action Party–Working People's Alliance ROAR = Rise, Organize, and Rebuild TUF = The United Force
Tropical equatorial
WEATHER CHART FOR GEORGETOWN
The success of the PPP in 1992, in what was widely seen as the first fair poll since independence, ended PNC dominance. Politics since has been characterized by serious animosity between the two main parties. The PNC violently contested the succession of Janet Jagan as president in 1997 on the death of her husband, veteran PPP leader Cheddi; open hostility erupted once again in 2001 when Bharrat Jagdeo won the presidency. Tensions eased after the death of PNC leader and ex-president Desmond Hoyte in 2003, but significant divisions remain.
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16 30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Modest homes, Georgetown. Most buildings are made of wood. The cathedral is one of the world’s tallest freestanding wooden buildings.
0
-10/14 -20/-4
†
PEOPLE The lowlands are very humid, with a constant temperature. The highlands are a little cooler, especially at night.
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT Drive on left
59 ships 15,169 grt
0
37%
A T L A
63%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
European and Chinese 2%
Amerindian 4% Other 4%
5900 km (3666 miles)
Z
E
Mazarun i
i
M
e
u i bo
eq
N
E
N
E
A
ni
A
Up 10% in 2002
Essequibo Is
Cu Guyana is a complex GEORGETOWN Aurora yu Parika Mahaicony Village multiracial society. Tension Bartica Peters Mine exists between the AfroNew Amsterdam Rosignol Tumareng Guyanese, descended from Rose Hall aza r Linden Mara Rockstone slaves brought over in Kamarang Issano Corriverton PAK ARA rb the 17th to 19th centuries, IM AM Ituni OU s and the Indo-Guyanese, Es Kangaruma Kwakwani NT Mount A descendants of laborers Orealla Mahdia Roraima P o t ar Kaieteur 2810m brought from India in the tyne Falls an Epira (Venezuela claims 19th century. This is currently Kurupukari all of Guyana west displayed in the hostility of Essequibo River) existing between the PNC, I representing Afro-Guyanese, Apoteri and the PPP, traditionally Annai Kumaka representing the Indo-Guyanese. E
I
/
S
N NS
I
U
A
Cou r
R
H
Kw
ita r
o
un i
Ru
CA
I
L
ue
Ne w
Kassikaityu
RA
Biloku I M OUNTAINS
on
oq
i ni Or
200m/656ft Sea Level
K u yuw
ver Ri
E
500m/1640ft
Isherton
A
under 10 000
Shea
1000m/3281ft
Z
over 10 000
Dadanawa
e
over 50 000
LAND HEIGHT
M
over 100 000
A
POPULATION
tyn r an
Total Area : 214 970 sq. km (83 000 sq. miles)
The government promotes tourism, but the number of tourists is modest. “Guyana” means “Land of Many Waters”; the Kaieteur Falls are among the world’s most impressive. Old Dutch wooden architecture characterizes Georgetown.
a
A
p un
Lethem
Cou
GUYANA
N
60
I
50
o quib sse
40
Re w
30
R
20
% of total arrivals
D S A N H L
Other 11%
I G
B
g ren
Caribbean 27% Canada 14%
286
O
Suddie Spring Garden
C u y u ni
U
Visitors : Population 1:7.4
USA 48%
10
C
Baramita
U
Black African 38%
G
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
I
Baramanni Charity
East Indian 52%
Travel to the interior is best by air or river; most paved roads are coastal. There is only one international airport.
104,000 visitors
i
Ba
E
Matthews Ridge
TOURISM
T
ic
187 km (116 miles)
L
N
N
Be
None
Wa in
100 miles
C
558 km (347 miles)
0
Morawhanna
A
100 km
D e merara
Cheddi Jagan International, Georgetown 270,500 passengers
†
4/km2 (10/mi2)
un
TRANSPORTATION
Pop. density low
English Creole, Hindi, Tamil, Amerindian languages, English
a
0/32
m
30/86
ra
A
o
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
V
G
South America
Venezuela
(claimed by Suriname)
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: GUYANA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
OIC
Joined UN in 1966
Comm
Caricom
OAS
Guyana has long-standing territorial disputes with Venezuela and Suriname, both of which flared up in 1999–2000. Closer integration with the Caribbean is also a major concern.
†
AID
Recipient
US$65m (receipts)
.
Down 33% in 2002
Most aid comes from the IDB, the UK, and the US. Recent grants covered public health projects, business development, and protection of the rainforest.
DEFENSE US$5m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 17% in 2002
The security forces, which include a small land army, benefit from financial support and training provided by the US and UK governments.
ECONOMICS US$656m
†
Inflation 12% p.a. (1990–2001) 179 Guyana dollars (179)
Electric power 302,000 kW
54,013 tonnes
Minimal oil production
130,000 sheep, 110,000 cattle, 21.3m chickens
Gold, diamonds, bauxite, gemstones, oil, manganese, uranium
Gold, diamonds, bauxite, and timber are major resources. Despite oil prospecting and HEP potential, most energy comes from petroleum imports. The erratic power supply has improved, but the lossmaking privatized electricity firm was renationalized after four years in 2003.
ENVIRONMENT
†
Not available
/
0.3%
2.1 tonnes per capita
The state of disrepair of the 18thcentury sea defense system endangers the urbanized coastline that lies below sea level. Commercial logging threatens to deplete the rainforest. The pollution of rivers caused by mining activities is now a serious problem.
†
MEDIA
CHRONOLOGY During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch founded three colonies, Essequibo, Demerara, and Berbice, in the region. In 1814, these came under British control, and were later combined to form British Guiana. 1953 First universal elections won by PPP under Cheddi Jagan; parliament later suspended by UK. 1966 Independence from UK. 1973 PPP boycotts parliament, accusing PNC of electoral fraud. 1992 Fair elections won by PPP. Cheddi Jagan president. 1997–1998 Jagan dies in office; PNC rejects his widow’s election victory. Political crisis. 1999 Caricom-brokered peace deal. Janet Jagan resigns; Bharrat Jagdeo takes over as president. 2001 Jagdeo and PPP reelected. Political violence flares again.
TV ownership medium
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
13 per 1000 population
WEAKNESSES Political instability dents investor confidence. Bauxite industry weakened by departure of major US investor, Alcoa. Sugar exports threatened by end of preferential access to EU markets. High unemployment. Narcotics trade and rising crime.
1 state-owned service
Jamaica 5% Other 29%
Portugal 5% UK 13%
USA 22%
CRIME
†
1507 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
†
EDUCATION
UK 5%
USA 25%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Significant urban and rural poverty in Guyana has forced the government to make provision in the budget for poverty alleviation. Redundancies in the public sector exacerbate the problem. The poorest group in society are Amerindian subsistence farmers. There are a few very affluent urban families who derive their wealth not only from business but also from rural farming interests.
WORLD RANKING 1st
50th
100th
69 97%
1 per 5000 people
Trinidad & Tobago 16%
9100 students
Education is based on the former British system. Entry to high schools is by examination at 11 years. There is a state-financed university, though many students go to the US or the UK.
Italy 7% Netherlands Antilles 14%
School leaving age: 15
0
Position in World
HEALTH
Other 33%
Thefts increased in 2000–2001
The police are strongly criticized for corruption and ineffectiveness in the face of rising urban crime. Serious violence between PNC and PPP–CIVIC supporters erupted in 1998, 1999, and 2001.
Canada 26% IMPORTS
Education 4.1% Health 4.2%
The government owns a TV service and the sole radio station, and publishes a daily newspaper. Many private newspapers and TV channels exist.
97%
EXPORTS
92 per 1000 population
Defense 0.7%
16 services: 1 state-owned, 15 independent
STRENGTHS Diverse exports: gold, rice, sugar, diamonds, bauxite, and timber production. Debt reduction agreed with multilateral agencies.
GDP/cap. increase
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 2 daily newspapers. The Guyana Chronicle is published by the government
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................164th GNP PER CAPITA ...........................US$860 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$111m INFLATION .........................................5.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
†
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 75 per 1000 people
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
†
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, violence, accidents, cancers
Nearly all of the population have access to the mainly state-run health service, though this is hindered by poor transportation links.
104
150th
124 193rd
$860
137 62 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
129 54 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
287
G
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
H AITI
Cuba HAITI Dominican Republic
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Haiti CAPITAL: Port-au-Prince POPULATION: 8.3 million CURRENCY: Gourde OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French and French Creole Jan 1
RH
-5
L. House 2000/2005 U. House 2000/2005
H
AITI OCCUPIES the western third of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. A colony of Spain and then of France, in 1804 it was the first Caribbean state to become independent, and has been in a state of political chaos virtually ever since. Democracy did not materialize with the exile of the dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier in 1986. Since then, a series of coups, US military intervention, and popular uprisings have resulted in periodic anarchy and endemic poverty.
WEATHER CHART FOR PORT-AU-PRINCE
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
37%
Humidity is lower than the Caribbean average, as Haiti lies in the rain shadow of Hispaniola’s central mountains. Drive on right
5 ships 1300 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
100 km (62 miles)
TOURISM 142,000 visitors
e
Roads are poor, especially in the interior. Ferries provide the easiest access to the southern peninsula.
ag
40 km (25 miles)
HAITI
†
Visitors : Population 1:58
/
Up 1% in 2001
Total Area : 27 750 sq. km (10 714 sq. miles)
over 1 000 000
1000m/3281ft
over 500 000
500m/1640ft
over 10 000 under 10 000
USA 66%
200m/656ft
Other 18%
0
40
50
60
70
80
Ca
l
d
na
Corail Roseaux
R
on
Lac de Péligre
it e
Mirebalais
nn
Aquin
Bainet
el
Cayes
Jacmel
R
I
B
B
E
Lascahobas
Belle-Anse
Torbeck
A
D
Étang PORT-AU-PRINCE Saûmâtre PetitLéogâne Pétionville Goâve E LA SE Grand- M A S S I F D LL Pic la Selle Goâve E 2680m
H O T T E
Chardonnières
C
Anse-àGalets
l d e la G o n âv e Miragoâne
LA
ib
e
S
Pointe-à-Raquette
O
Maissade Petite-RivièreHinche de-l'Artibonite
St-Marc
na
N n ot
c
Ca
Anse-d'Hainault MAS SIF D E
Ca
ar
Cha
288
Gonâve
Jérémie
Grande-Rivièredu-Nord
U
Gonaïves Desdunes
FortLiberté
Trou-du-Nord
F Plaisance
Grande-Saline
Île de la Gonâve
DameMarie
I
Cap-Haïtien
Limbé
D
50 miles
a
Haiti’s location, history, and culture provided much of its attraction for tourists in the 1960s and 1970s. Political instability and violence since the 1980s, however, have led to the near collapse of the industry.
S
M
% of total arrivals
S
t-
30
Gros-Morne
A
Golfe de la
N
50 km
Jamaic
20
O C E A N
St-Louis-du-Nord
t Ar
Dominican Republic 5%
0
10
M
Anse-Rouge
Sea Level
Canada 11%
0
Port-de-Paix Môle-St-Nicolas
LAND HEIGHT
POPULATION
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
A T L A N T I C Île de la Tortue
ss
None
Most Haitians are of African descent; a few have European roots, primarily French. Haiti is the poorest country in the Americas. Social tensions run high, and political repression and a collapsing economy have led many to emigrate legally, or illegally, to North America or elsewhere in the Caribbean, particularly the Dominican Republic; one in eight Haitians lives abroad. As well as being Christians, a majority of Haitians practice voodoo, which was given the status of an official religion only in 2003.
Pa
998 km (620 miles)
Roman Catholic 80%
rd
c
A wealthy elite, backed by the military, supported the Duvalier dictatorships and regularly financed coups after “Baby Doc” Duvalier’s overthrow in 1986. Jean-Bertrand Aristide won the first democratic elections in 1990, but was overthrown by a coup in 1991. US forces intervened to restore him in 1994. His chief adviser René Préval, who held the presidency in 1996–2000, became mired in conflict with the legislature. Aristide’s reelection in 2000 was disputed by the opposition and a period of political stalemate ensued; mediation by the OAS and Caricom failed. Mounting protests in 2003 led to armed uprising in 2004; Aristide resigned the presidency and order was only restored by the arrival of a multinational force headed by the US and France. Gerard Latortue was appointed as interim prime minister and Boniface Alexandre as interim president.
Other (including Voodoo) 3% Protestant 16%
wa
†
4% Others
96% Lavalas coalition
63%
-20/-4
Mais Gaté, Port-au-Prince 991,912 passengers
Senate 27 seats
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Nonreligious 1%
2% 11% Vacant Others
87% Lavalas coalition
301/km2 (780/mi2)
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
AT THE LAST ELECTION
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Interim President Boniface Alexandre
Pop. density high
French Creole, French
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Multiparty elections
Chamber of Deputies 83 seats
nd
H
Tropical equatorial/ oceanic
Wi
†
†
POLITICS
.ht
+509
A
N
S
E
I C R E P U B L
1844
A
D O M I N I C A N
1804
CLIMATE
North America
CARIBBEAN
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: HAITI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
ACP
OAS
Caricom
CHRONOLOGY In 1697, Spain ceded the west of Hispaniola to France. Ex-slave Toussaint Louverture’s rebellion in 1791 led to independence in 1804.
WTO
A long history of political instability has led to Haiti’s isolation in world affairs. The US has intervened militarily on several occasions to impose order. UN peacekeepers arrived in June 2004.
AID
†
In remote villages in Haiti most houses are made of earth and do not have glass in their windows.
Recipient
$156m (receipts)
.
Down 9% in 2002
Initial donations for Haiti’s reconstruction were reluctant, but at a second donor conference in July 2004 pledges were dramatically increased to a total of $1.5 billion over the next two years.
DEFENSE $31m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 14% in 2002
The military frequently interfered in politics until it was disbanded following the return of democracy in 1994. A 5300-strong national police force, funded and trained by the US, was formed in its place. It offered little resistance to rebel forces in 2004.
ECONOMICS $3.61bn
†
Inflation 20% p.a. (1990–2001) 32.35 gourdes (39.15)
5000 tonnes
Not an oil producer Marble, limestone, clay, silver, gold, natural asphalt
Haiti has no strategic resources. Under prolonged economic sanctions, it had to find unofficial sources of oil; much was imported from Europe.
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.4% (0.1% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 137th
0.2 tonnes per capita
Forests now cover only 3.2% of land area; severe soil erosion exacerbated floods in 2004. The removal of 4000 tonnes of toxic waste, illegally dumped near Gonaïves in 1988, finally began in 1998.
†
MEDIA
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, other parasitic diseases, tuberculosis
Most Haitians cannot afford health care. In rural areas, help is often sought from voodoo priests.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
12 per 1000 population
16 per 1000 population
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 3 per 1000 people
WEAKNESSES Many. Poverty, political instability, dictatorship, and coups have destroyed investor confidence and held back infrastructural development. EXPORTS
Canada 2% Other 5% Dominican Republic 7%
USA 84%
Colombia 3% Dominican Republic 5% Other 34%
Health 2.7% 0
More than 250 services: 1 stateowned, the rest independent
Radio is the main broadcast medium, with more than 250 stations, though many studios were destroyed in the chaos of Aristide’s downfall in 2004.
CRIME
†
4152 prisoners
No death penalty
/
10
15
20
25
Haiti’s rigid class structure maintains extreme disparities of wealth between a few affluent families and the mass of the population, who live in slums without running water or proper sanitation. The World Bank has estimated that 80% of the rural population live below the poverty line.
WORLD RANKING
Crime is rising
Position in World 1st
Most of the 5300-strong police force fled during the 2004 revolt and the security situation remains extremely dangerous; many rebels have failed to disarm. Narcotics trafficking has slowed since Aristide’s departure.
52%
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
There are 2 daily newspapers, Le Nouvelliste and Le Matin
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Education 1.1%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
Few. Coffee exports. Remittances from Haitians living abroad. Large profits from transshipment of narcotics to US.
USA 52%
†
HEALTH 1 per 5000 people
STRENGTHS
Trinidad & Tobago 3% Netherlands Antilles 3%
H
Defense 1%
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................126th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$440 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$177m INFLATION .........................................9.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................70%
Germany 1% France 1%
Electric power 260,000 kW
1.94m goats, 1.46m cattle, 1m pigs, 5.65m chickens
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
1915–1934 US occupation. 1957–1971 François “Papa Doc” Duvalier’s brutal dictatorship. 1971–1986 His son Jean-Claude, “Baby Doc,” rules; eventually flees. 1986–1988 Military rule. 1990 Jean-Bertrand Aristide elected; exiled in 1991 coup. 1994–1995 US forces oust military. Aristide reinstated; elections. 1997–1999 Political deadlock. 2000 Lavalas and Aristide reelected. 2004 Aristide resigns and flees.
†
School leaving age: 11
6288 students
The 2004 uprising badly damaged what remained of the desperately underfunded education system: at least 50 schools were completely destroyed.
50th
100th
150th
193rd
150 $440
155 52 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
151 166 52%
153
79 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
289
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
t em
a la
HONDURAS
ua
HONDURAS G El Salvador Nicaragua
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Honduras CAPITAL: Tegucigalpa POPULATION: 6.9 million CURRENCY: Lempira OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish Sept 15
HN
-6
M
OST OF HONDURAS is mountainous terrain, with a small sheltered Pacific coast to the south and a broad Caribbean shoreline to the north, including part of the virtually uninhabited Mosquito Coast. After a succession of military governments it returned to full civilian rule in 1984. In 1998 Honduras was devastated by Hurricane Mitch, which resulted in the death of at least 5600 people and damage estimated at some $3 billion.
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
-10/14 -20/-4
Honduras’s Caribbean coastline is generally extremely hot. The rest of the country is much cooler.
Dr. Ramón Villeda Morales, San Pedro Sula 522,452 passengers
Drive on right
1155 ships 933,200 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2721 km (1691 miles)
None
699 km (434 miles)
465 km (289 miles)
Domestic air travel has blossomed in recent years, and is more convenient than the partly unpaved road system.
TOURISM 624,250 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:11
/
Up 14% in 2003
A M 10
TE 20
30
40
Nueva Ocotepeque
% of total arrivals
Caribbean coast resorts and the Bay Islands are popular, while exploring the remote region inland from the Mosquito Coast and jungle rafting appeal to the adventurous. The ruined Mayan temples of Copán are a major draw.
290
E N
0
Villanueva Yoro Antonio San Francisco de Cortés de la Paz Santa Represa Bárbara Lago de el Cajón Juticalpa Yojoa Siguatepeque Gracias
Co
SA
TEGUCIGALPA
LV
AD
100 km
OR
100 miles
PACI
FIC
EA
A U
G
Nacaome te lu ho
Choluteca Marcovia
N N
I
C
A
O
Puerto Lempira COA ST Co
co
HONDURAS
co
Danlí El Paraíso
Gulf of F ons eca
OC
Yuscarán
Laguna de Caratasca
IT
Catacamas
Teupasenti
La Paz
San Lorenzo 0
Gualaco
U
Dulce Nombre de Culmí
Comayagua
Cerro Las Minas 2865m
La Esperanza
L
Olanchito
lecó n me San ha
Q
Other 37%
Santa Rosa de Copán
Esparta
Limón
n uá Ag
El Progreso
Macuelizo
Florida
Trujillo
S
El Salvador 20%
San Pedro Sula
s
La Ceiba
O
USA 25%
L
A
Tela
M
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
4% 2% PDU PDCH
43% PLH
PNH = National Party of Honduras PLH = Liberal Party of Honduras PDU = Party of Democratic Unification PINU–SD = Innovation and Unity Party–Social Democracy PDCH = Honduran Christian Democratic Party
Isla
Puerto Cortés
Nicaragua 18%
48% PNH
The traditional power brokers have been the military, the US embassy, and the United Fruit Company (now THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT called Chiquita), the country’s biggest banana producer. The military held power intermittently from the mid55% 45% 1950s, until pressure from the US ETHNIC MAKEUP government forced it to restore civilian rule in 1984. During the 1980s, US Amerindian 4% White 1% military aid and political influence Black African 5% increased sharply. The armed forces retained a strong political hold. Attempts continue to bring human rights cases from the 1980s to trial. Mestizo 90% The PNH and PLH have few real As in most of Central America, very few ideological differences. Presidents, able pure indigenous groups remain. The to serve only one four-year term, have estimated 45,000 Miskito Amerindians, tended to be weak. The PLH introduced and the English-speaking garífuna unpopular austerity measures in 1994, (black) population on the Caribbean but also began reducing the autonomy of coast united in 1999 to oppose a the military by abolishing conscription. constitutional amendment allowing President Carlos Flores of the PLH, foreigners to buy land in coastal areas, elected in 1997, continued this traditionally their communal lands. “demilitarization” process by naming Poverty is at the root of social tension; a civilian defense minister in 1999. whites still have the best opportunities. The presidency was won back by Rural poverty and strong Roman the PNH when Ricardo Maduro Catholicism (97% are Roman Catholic) was elected in 2001. mean that the family is a powerful Reconstruction after the devastation unifying force. The status of Hurricane Mitch in 1998 of women is low; is a long-term B E A N B many work in undertaking. I Guanaja S Roatán R domestic ía E A ah B la service. A C de Ulúa
†
TRANSPORTATION
3% PINU–SD
National Congress 128 seats
62/km2 (160/mi2)
Spanish, Garífuna (Carib), English Creole
Goasco r á n
0/32
AT THE LAST ELECTION
ca
40/104
Multiparty elections
President Ricardo Maduro
2001/2005
Pop. density medium
C
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
GUA
H
†
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR TEGUCIGALPA
C
†
CLIMATE
Tropical equatorial
†
POLITICS
.hn
+504
Pa tuc a
1838
Si co
1838
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA
R
A
Total Area : 112 090 sq. km (43 278 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
2000m/6562ft
POPULATION over 500 000
1000m/3281ft
over 100 000
500m/1640ft
over 50 000
200m/656ft Sea Level
over 10 000 under 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: HONDURAS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
IAEA
OAS
NAM
Joined UN in 1945
CHRONOLOGY Honduras was a Spanish possession until 1821. In 1823, it formed the United Provinces of Central America with four neighboring nations.
San José
Relations with the US are key. In 2001 free trade was agreed with El Salvador, Guatemala, and Mexico. Border disputes exist with El Salvador and Nicaragua.
†
AID
A garífuna settlement on Honduras’s long Caribbean coast.
Recipient
$435m (receipts)
.
Down 36% in 2002
Most aid to Honduras comes from the US. Aid under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries’ Initiative was delayed in 2003 for failure to meet IMF goals.
DEFENSE $108m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 15% in 2002
Until 1994, the military operated with virtual impunity. The first civilian defense minister was appointed in 1999, consolidating the transition to civilian rule, though the military is still used to bolster internal security.
ECONOMICS $6.32bn
†
Inflation 18% p.a. (1990–2001)
18.2 lempiras (17.33)
Electric power 912,000 kW
16,451 tonnes
Not an oil producer
2.4m cattle, 478,000 pigs, 181,000 horses, 18.7m chickens
Lead, zinc, silver, gold, copper, iron, tin, coal
Coffee exports dropped dramatically in 2001, due to low world prices. Oil exploration is under way. Most energy is produced from hydroelectric power.
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 47th
0.7 tonnes per capita
Complete lack of regulation has led to ecological crisis. Coastal areas suffer the effects of shrimp farming.
†
MEDIA
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
1838 Declares full independence. 1890s US banana plantations set up. 1932–1949 Dictatorship of Gen. Tiburcio Carías Andino of PNH. 1954–1957 Elected PLH president Villeda Morales deposed, reelected. 1963 Military coup. 1969 13-day Soccer War with El Salvador. 1980–1983 PLH wins elections but Gen. Gustavo Alvarez holds real power. Trades unionists arrested; death squads operate. 1984 Return to democracy. 1988 12,000 Contra rebels forced out of Nicaragua into Honduras. 1995 Military defies human rights charges. 1998 Hurricane Mitch wreaks havoc. 1999 First civilian defense minister. 2002 Ricardo Maduro takes office as president.
41 per 1000 population
48 per 1000 population
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Defense 1.7%
There are 9 daily newspapers, including La Prensa, El Heraldo, and La Tribuna 1 state-owned service, over 280 independent stations
6 independent services
STRENGTHS Coffee, flowers, fruit. Economic boost due to hurricane reconstruction. Overseas remittances. Barely exploited mineral deposits. Hardwoods.
Self-censorship, dependence on US sources, corruption, and intimidation guarantee a largely compliant media.
WEAKNESSES
CRIME
Foreign debt. Coffee vulnerable to world price changes. Banana industry affected by hurricane damage. Lack of land reform. Crime deters investment. High underemployment. Corruption. Weak industrial base. Overreliance on HEP.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 55 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................104th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$930 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$266m INFLATION .........................................7.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................4%
†
SPENDING TV ownership medium
†
11,502 prisoners
No death penalty
/
Violent crime is rising
Overzealous security forces are frequently accused of murdering child members of violent street gangs.
Education 4% Health 3.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Honduran society is characterized by great inequalities: the richest 5% own two-thirds of the land. As many as 85% of the population were thrown into poverty in 1998 by Hurricane Mitch. Some 45% are still existing on less than $2 a day.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
EXPORTS
Guatemala 2% Germany 2%
Canada 2% El Salvador 3% Other 22%
USA 69% IMPORTS
South Korea 3% Costa Rica 2%
USA 53%
El Salvador 4% Mexico 4% Other 34%
†
EDUCATION
1st
School leaving age: 13 50th
80%
90,620 students
The drop-out rate of students is very high: one-third of all children do not complete primary school.
HEALTH 1 per 1250 people
†
100th
150th
Welfare state health benefits
193rd
107 122
122
$930
66 years
128 80%
32 deaths
115
Circulatory, infectious, and parasitic diseases, malaria
A third of Hondurans have no access to health services. Honduras has 60% of Central America’s AIDS cases.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
291
H
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
EUROPE
HUNGARY
Slovakia Austria HUNGARY
+1
TOURISM
.hu
+36
YING AT THE HEART of central Europe, Hungary is landlocked and has borders with seven states. Historically, Hungary has been a cosmopolitan cultural center, and during its years of market socialism was more prosperous than the other Eastern Bloc countries. Economic and political reforms in the post-1989 era brought it closer to the EU, which it joined in the major wave of enlargement in 2004; Hungary had already become a member of NATO in 1999. In foreign policy it is particularly sensitive about the treatment of Hungarian minorities in neighboring states.
WEATHER CHART FOR BUDAPEST
Budapest Ferihegy 5.01m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
7949 km (4939 miles)
1373 km (853 miles)
Slovakia 13% Serbia & Montenegro 12% Germany 9% Other 33%
Drive on right
0
O
n
IA
yó
C
E C S M E
Pécs
292
D
50 miles
T
ra
va
I A
I
r e tt
e Danub
EN Kaposvár
O
Ö
Kecskemét
N
ó tty re
rös Kö
Sió
Kiskunfélegyháza
R 50 km
os
A
o
Nagykörös
ág
sz Ti
S L OV
t
b ta or H
F
a
Békéscsaba Szentes
Gyula
Kiskunhalas
Hódmezövásárhely
Szeged Makó
K
Baja
O ENEGR ONT A) M I V A &
IA O S L RB U G SE ( Y
HUNGARY
Orosháza
L A
M
N
l a B a
A
Debrecen
O
O
Szekszárd
N
sz a
NY
Ip
Z SÖ
A
K
Dunaújváros
Y
Komló
0
Szolnok
Cegléd
Zalaegerszeg
am
E R
Veszprém
Nagykanizsa
0
Jászberény
L
M
VÉ
Ajka
A
Kisköreivíztároló
T
l
ca
Pápa
ar
U
BUDAPEST
Székesfehérvár
B
Sz
Nyíregyháza
Hajdúböszörmény Zag yv
a
R áb a
Szombathely
Gödöllö
Tatabánya
K
Eger
Gyöngyös
Vác
D A L F Ö L
Miskolc BÜ K
Kékes 1014m MÁTRA
R
PILIS
L I T T L E
S
Györ
BÖ
Esztergom
Danube
Salgótarján
IN
Ti
Rábca
Sopron
Balassagyarmat
oly
S
R
T
o Mosonmagyaróvár soni -D Neusiedler un a See
RA
a sz Ti
zn a Kras
I
S M
UK
E
A
Kazincbarcika
Ózd
L
40
A
I
K
A
V
30
20
Lake Balaton, the traditional summer vacation destination, was a magnet for east European visitors during the communist period. Since then, Hungary has invested heavily in its tourist facilities, and the number of travel agents and hotels has risen dramatically. Austrians and Romanians are most numerous among those who travel to Hungary, many on business. Budapest’s baths, some of which date from the Ottoman period, are a distinctive feature, and the capital also promotes itself as an international business convention center.
Freight travels mainly via the rail link from Budapest to the Austrian border. Most foreign investment is located along this corridor. A direct link to Slovenia opened in mid-2001. The Budapest–Vienna expressway was the first of four big EU-backed road projects to be completed.
Hungary has a continental climate, with wet springs, late summers, and cold, cloudy winters. There are no great differences of weather and climate within the country. Conditions in summer and winter may, however, differ greatly from one year to the next. The transition between seasons tends to be sudden.
10
% of total arrivals
-10/14 -20/-4
Up 4% in 2002
Austria 15%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 448 km (278 miles)
/
Romania 18%
1 ship 3784 grt
73,849 km (45,888 miles)
Visitors : Population 1.6:1
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Be
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
Continental
15.9m visitors
†
y - Be
†
CLIMATE
S & Mon.
A
H
ZE M HE PL GY ÉNISÉ G
Aug 20
Croatia
D
1947
L
H
Romania
Slovenia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Hungary CAPITAL: Budapest POPULATION: 9.9 million CURRENCY: Forint OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Hungarian (Magyar) 1918
Ukraine
Total Area : 93 030 sq. km (35 919 sq. miles)
R
POPULATION over 1 000 000
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft 80m/262ft
over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: HUNGARY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density medium 107/km2 (278/mi2)
Hungarian (Magyar) THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
65%
35%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Lutheran 3% Nonreligious 14% Other 15% Roman Catholic 52%
Calvinist 16%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
German 1%
Roma 2% Other 7%
Slovaks, and Croats. The government is greatly concerned about the treatment of more than three million Hungarians in Romanian Transylvania, Serbian Vojvodina, and Slovakia. New legislation gave them special status in Hungary from 2002, including the right to work there for three months a year. Prejudice against Roma is widespread, despite official drives to stamp it out. Over two-thirds of the prewar Jewish community were murdered by the Nazis; antisemitism has reemerged since 1989. Overall, religious adherence is falling and the 2001 census showed an increase in the numbers of the nonreligious. A new bourgeoisie has emerged, but for the unskilled and unemployed life is often tougher than under communism. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Magyar 90%
1.9%
Hungary’s population is shrinking, having reached a peak of just under 11 million in 1980. An almost ethnically homogeneous society means that tensions are rare. There are small minorities of Roma, Germans, Jews, Romanians, Serbs,
POLITICS 2002/2006
†
9.9%
Male 0.8%
80+ 60–79
14.2%
40–59
13.7%
20–39
12.5%
0–19
6.8% 13% 14.1% 13.1%
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections
President Ferenc Mádl
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 386 seats
the EU in 2004 but dispute over a reshuffle in August led to his resignation; business tycoon Ferenc Gyurcsany was nominated to replace him.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES 49% Fidesz–MPP–MDF
46% MSzP
5% SzDSz
Fidesz–MPP–MDF = Federation of Young Democrats– Hungarian Civic Party and Hungarian Democratic Forum MSzP = Hungarian Socialist Party SzDSz = Alliance of Free Democrats
Hungary has been a multiparty democracy since 1990.
PROFILE Since 1990, the electoral pendulum has swung at four-yearly intervals between relatively stable coalitions of right and left, though the distinction has lessened. Party splits and poor economic results increased apathy in the early 1990s against the Christian-democratic nationalist MDF; power shifted to the former communist MSzP in 1994. The right-of-center Fidesz–MPP coalition led by Viktor Orbán, which took office in 1998, drove the country further toward a market economy and approved the controversial Status Law covering Hungarian communities abroad. While the economy improved overall, disparities widened. Fidesz–MPP–MDF was narrowly defeated in 2002 by a coalition of the MSzP and the SzDSz. Prime Minister Peter Medgyessy steered the country into
Free-market economics Market-economy-oriented reforms have led to strong economic recovery in Budapest and the west. Widening income differentials between young, skilled workers in the private sector and those in education, health, and other state sectors have provoked protests and strikes. Status Law Legislation granting special rights to expatriate Hungarians was passed in 2001. Hungary’s neighbors have complained bitterly of interference and have warned of a link to expansionist sentiment among Hungary’s far right.
Ferenc Mádl, known as “Mr. Professor,” was elected president in 2000.
Peter Medgyessy oversaw EU accession while prime minister.
The majestic Danube River divides the modern city of Budapest, flowing between the ancient towns of Buda (foreground) and Pest.
†
Joined UN in 1955
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
EU
NATO
OECD
OSCE
H
Hungary gained WEU associate status in 1994. In a 1997 referendum 85% of voters endorsed joining NATO, and in 1999 Hungary became a full member. Joining the EU was a slower process, from an association agreement in 1994 to membership in 2004. Hungary has a cooperation and friendship treaty with Russia, but relations have been strained by Hungary’s open courting of the West. Difficult relations with Slovakia and Romania were eased by friendship treaties concluded in the mid-1990s, but were troubled again by the controversial Status Law which provides benefits to ethnic Hungarians resident abroad.
CHRONOLOGY The region today occupied by Hungary was first settled by the Finno-Ugrian Magyar peoples from the 8th century. In the 16th century, it was divided between Austria and the Ottoman Empire, and was controlled by Austria until 1867, when Austria-Hungary was formed. 1918 Hungarian Republic created as successor state to Austria-Hungary. 1919 Béla Kún leads a short-lived communist government. Romania intervenes militarily and hands power to Adm. Horthy. 1938–1941 Hungary gains territory from Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania in return for supporting Nazi Germany. 1941 Hungary drawn into World War II on Axis side when Hitler attacks Soviet Union. 1944 Nazi Germany preempts Soviet advance on Hungary by invading. Deportation of Hungarian Jews and Roma to extermination camps begins. Soviet Red Army enters in October. Horthy forced to resign. 1945 Liberated by Red Army. Sovietformed provisional government
293
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
H
294
$471m (receipts)
/
Up 13% in 2002
Hungary received substantial Western aid in 1990–1996, but by the end of the decade was considered able to attract
DEFENSE
†
/
$1.08bn
investment mainly on commercial terms. Assistance from the EU continued in the runup to accession. Main focuses are health infrastructure, education programs, and other social initiatives.
Phasing out conscription
Up 20% in 2002
HUNGARIAN ARMED FORCES
Troop numbers were more than halved and conventional arms and the military hierarchy were modernized in advance of NATO membership in 1999. The emphasis has switched toward more flexibility and rapid response. Almost immediately upon accession, Hungary permitted NATO to use its airspace to bomb Serbia. Military service, already shortened to six months, is to be phased out by 2006.
ECONOMICS $53.7bn
†
743 main battle tanks (505 T-55, 238 T-72)
23,330 personnel
50 patrol boats
270 personnel (part of army)
92 combat aircraft (27 MiG-29, 52 MiG-21, 4 MiG-23, 9 Su-22)
7700 personnel
None
Inflation 18% p.a. (1990–2001)
206.1 forint (231.9)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................48th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$5290 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$2.64bn INFLATION .........................................5.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
EXPORTS
UK 5% Other 40%
France 6% Italy 6% Austria 7%
Germany 36% IMPORTS
China 6%
Russia 6% Austria 7%
Other 49%
Italy 8%
Germany 24%
GDP
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
of trade toward western Europe; by 2002 three-quarters of exports went to EU countries. The economy did not recover to its pre-1989 level, however, until 1999. Privatization has reduced the state-owned share of the economy from 85% to 15%, and has helped to cut external debt. A move toward services has caused agriculture to suffer. HUNGARY : MAJOR BUSINESSES Budapest Székesfehérvár
STRENGTHS Openness to foreign direct investment. Favorable tax regime, streamlined bureaucracy. Strong export-led growth since late 1990s. High industrial production: new, state-of-the-art factories. Currency fully convertible from mid-2001. Inflation dropping.
Miskolc Györ
Debrecen
WEAKNESSES Low energy efficiency. Development bypassing rural eastern areas. Large budget deficit. Widening, though small, income differentials. Money laundering.
PROFILE The collapse of COMECON (communist economic bloc) caused a reorientation
GDP 1998=100
Recipient
Consumer price index 1998=100
installed. Imre Nagy introduces land reform. 1947 Communists emerge as largest party in second postwar election. 1948 Forcible merger of Social Democrats with communists; known as Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party (HSWP) from 1956. 1949 New constitution; formally becomes People’s Republic. 1950–1951 First Secretary Mátyás Rákosi uses authoritarian powers to collectivize agriculture and industrialize the economy. 1953 Nagy, Rákosi’s rival, becomes premier and reduces political terror. 1955 Nagy deposed by Rákosi. 1956 Rákosi out. Student demonstrations, demanding withdrawal of Soviet troops and Nagy’s return, become popular uprising. Nagy appointed premier and János Kádár First Secretary. Nagy announces Hungary will leave Warsaw Pact. Three days later, Soviet forces suppress protests. About 25,000 killed. Kádár becomes premier. 1958 Nagy executed. 1968 Kádár introduces New Economic Mechanism to bring market elements to socialism. 1986 Police suppress commemoration of 1956 uprising. Democratic opposition demands Kádár’s resignation. 1987 Party reformers establish MDF as a political movement. 1988 Kádár ousted. Protests force suspension of plans for Nagymaros Dam on the Danube. 1989 Parliament votes to allow independent parties. Posthumous rehabilitation of Nagy, who is given state funeral. Round table talks between HSWP and opposition. 1990 József Antall’s MDF wins multiparty elections decisively. Speed of economic reform hotly debated. Árpád Göncz president. 1991 Warsaw Pact dissolved. Last Soviet troops leave. 1994 Hungary joins NATO’s Partnership for Peace program. Former communist MSzP wins general election. Austerity program prompts protests. 1998 Elections: Viktor Orbán (Fidesz–MPP) forms rightof-center coalition. 1999 Joins NATO. Airspace used in NATO bombing of Serbia. 2000 Ferenc Mádl succeeds Göncz as president. 2002 Elections won by socialist and free democrat alliance. Peter Medgyessy prime minister. 2004 Joins EU. Medgyessy resigns.
†
AID
Szeged Szombathely
Pécs Metallurgy
0 0
100 km
Agribusiness Heavy engineering Light engineering
Electronics
Pharmaceuticals
Chemicals
Vehicle assembly Computer software
100 miles
Textiles
* significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: HUNGARY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
19,694 tonnes
22,777 b/d (reserves 58m barrels)
5.08m pigs, 3.44m ducks, 32.2m chickens
Bauxite, coal, oil, natural gas, lignite
HUNGARY : LAND USE
D
L
to n ube
la Ba
Hydro 1% (0.2bn kWh)
Forest Pasture Cropland Pigs Cereals Vineyards – cash crop
Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
0
100 km 100 miles
0
Hungary has bauxite, brown coal, lignite, oil, and natural gas reserves. It depends for about 40% of its electricity on
†
Sustainability rank: 11th
ENVIRONMENT
.
7% (5% partially protected)
nuclear energy from the Paks complex, north of Baja. Fertile farmlands provide grains, sugar beet, and potatoes. Wine production is also important.
Yes
†
CRIME
5.4 tonnes per capita
No death penalty
/
16,700 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Ö
D
Nuclear 40% (14bn kWh)
0
L
A
F
an
Combustion 59% (21bn kWh)
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases, accidents
1 per 345 people
Rá ba
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
†
HEALTH
Electric power 8.3m kW
Tis za
†
RESOURCES
Medical treatment has traditionally been free to all, though there is a contribution to prescription costs. State sickness benefits remain relatively generous. Spending on the health service has fallen in recent years in real terms; at around $840 per capita, it is the lowest in the OECD, and there is concern that Hungary’s health care sector is among the least developed of OECD countries. The ratio of doctors to patients is high, but there is a shortage of nurses. Family physician services are being privatized rapidly under a law passed in 2000.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING Up 3% in 2001
249 per 1000 population
CRIME RATES
361 per 1000 population
Murders
Yes
4
Defense 1.8%
per 100,000 population
Education 4.9% Yes
Yes
Rapes
Yes
3
A high sulfur content in Hungary’s fossil fuels exacerbates the serious air pollution in industrial zones. A “green card” system favors the use of cars with catalytic converters, reducing the serious levels of pollution from older vehicles. The ecologically sensitive wetlands and lake systems of the Tisza River were contaminated with cyanide by a factory in Romania in 2000. An EU-sponsored program now oversees the river’s management.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
2311
3 nationwide services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent 18 services: 1 state-owned, 17 independent
Newspapers and magazines are fiercely independent and critical of government policy. In 1994, the Constitutional Court declared that state interference in the media was unlawful, but allegations of interference persist. The boards controlling state TV and radio must have equal representation from government and opposition under a 1996 media law, but the Orbán government was accused of bending, if not ignoring, the rules.
per 100,000 population
An alarming trend in the late 1990s was the increase in murders of elderly people for financial gain. Organized crime, money laundering, and smuggling of illegal immigrants are rising.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 16
330,549 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
There are 40 daily newspapers, including Népszabadság and Népszava
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
Daily newspaper circulation 465 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Health 5.1%
per 100,000 population
80
Hungary enjoys one of the highest standards of living among the former communist countries and still has the most even distribution of wealth in the world. Mobile phone and Internet access is relatively high. Real wages, which fell by 15% in the mid-1990s, had largely regained ground by 2000. To earn enough to buy basic consumer goods, Hungarians still have to work longer hours than workers in western Europe. Public services pay has not kept pace with the rising cost of living, and there is a growing disparity with the private sector. The Roma minority suffers particularly over access to housing and has a life expectancy 10–15 years lower than the average.
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
98%
40
Position in World
40%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education is free and compulsory from the age of six to 16. Bilingual schools have been established in southern Hungary to promote the languages of the national minorities. In 1999–2000 a major transformation of the education system took place, as a result of which there are 30 universities and colleges run by the state and 26 run by the Roman Catholic Church; a further six colleges are run by various foundations.
1st
1
50th
99%
38 100th
52 $5290
150th
38
8 deaths
75 72 years
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
295
H
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ICELAND
Europe
EUROPE Greenland ICELAND
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Iceland CAPITAL: Reykjavík POPULATION: 290,000 CURRENCY: Icelandic króna OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Icelandic June 17
IS
0
E
UROPE’S WESTERNMOST country, Iceland has a strategic location in the North Atlantic, just south of the Arctic Circle. Its position, on the rift where the North American and European continental plates are pulling apart, accounts for its 200 volcanoes and its numerous geysers and solfataras. Previously a Danish possession, Iceland became fully independent in 1944. Most settlements are along the coast, where ports remain ice-free in winter.
WEATHER CHART FOR REYKJAVÍK
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
93%
7% Nonreligious 6%
-20/-4
Iceland sits in the Gulf Stream, making winters relatively mild. Summers are cool, with fine, long sunny days. Drive on right
1127 ships 233,126 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
Ice Cap af ló i
Breidhafjördhur
Visitors : Population 1:1
Ólafsvík
Hólmavík
Stykkishólmur
H e r ad h s
Hv
ít á
Grindavík
Other 55% % of total arrivals
S kjá
lf a
Vopnafjördhur Lögurinn
rs á Thjó ísl Kaldakv Thórisvatn
Hvolsvöllur
Bakkaflói
Grímsstadhir
jót
Hofsjökull
Thorlákshöfn
60
Mÿvatn
Langjökull
Selfoss
50
Thórshöfn Reykjahlídh
afl
REYKJAVÍK Kópavogur Hafnarfjördhur
Húsavík
Fn
tn
Njardhvík
UK 11%
Akureyri
vö
Akranes
France 13%
Raufarhöfn rdhur tilfjö This
r
Búdhardalur
NORWEGIAN SEA
hu
Hvammstangi
Faxaflói
40
Ólafsfjördhur Saudhárkrókur Dalvík
Blönduós
Down 8% in 2001–2002
Keflavík
30
Grímsey I.
Siglufjördhur
Skagaströnd
Borgarnes
20
200m/656ft Sea Level
Vatneyri
Germany 21%
10
500m/1640ft
under 10 000
Drangajökull
D
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
1000m/3281ft
over 10 000
ö rd Ö x a rf j
.
278,000 visitors
m
n
over 50 000
j úp
†
TOURISM
e
Bolungarvík Ísafjördhur
LAND HEIGHT
POPULATION
ar d
During winter Icelanders rely on internal flights to cross the country. Most freight moves by sea. The only main road circles the island.
Total Area : 103 000 sq. km (39 768 sq. miles)
Í s a f ja rd h
None
None
ICELAND
á
4029 km (2503 miles)
Descended from Norwegians and Celts, Icelanders are ethnically homogeneous. Almost all belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church. More than half the population live in or near Reykjavík. Living standards are high, and there are few social tensions. The Icelandic language has changed t little in 700 years, a i t r in part due to Ar S cti cC Iceland’s k irc r le isolation. a
sk
Keflavík International, Reykjavík 1.37m passengers
†
Evangelical Lutheran 93%
ún
TRANSPORTATION
8% 6% VG FF
Iceland has always been ruled by coalitions, but the traditional four-party system began to splinter in the 1980s. Arguments over whether or not to join the EU were defused in 1992 with the successful negotiation of the EEA, giving Iceland access to the key EU market. David Oddsson became leader of the Independence Party and prime minister in 1991. He switched in 1995 from a center-left to a center-right coalition, with the Progressive Party, and was reelected in 1999 and 2003. Oddsson, by then Europe’s longest-serving prime minister in office, successfully built on an economic recovery based on marketled reforms. As announced after the 2003 poll, he handed over to Foreign Minister Halldor Asgrimsson in late 2004.
3/km2 (7/mi2)
Other (mostly Christian) 1%
19% FSF
SSF = Independence Party SF = Alliance FSF = Progressive Party VG = Left–Green Alliance FF = Liberal Party
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
32% SF
35% SSF
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Parliament 63 seats
Pop. density low
Icelandic
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
AT THE LAST ELECTION
H
I
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Subarctic
Multiparty elections
President Olafur Ragnar Grimsson
2003/2007
nd
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.is
+354
H
1944
jó
1944
sá of
Borgarfjördhur Egilsstadhir
Seydhisfjördhur
A
Iceland is promoting itself, especially in Japan, as an upmarket destination with spectacular scenery – glaciers, green valleys, fjords, and hot springs – and whale-watching.
296
N
Neskaupstadhur
T
Vatnajökull
L 0 0
Eskifjördhur
Vestmannaeyjar Heimaey I.
Mÿrdalsjökull
Hafnarhreppur
A
50 km 50 miles
N
Djúpivogur
Hvannadalshnúkur 2119m
T
I
C
O
C
E
A
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ICELAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1946
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
NATO
OSCE
OECD
†
DEFENSE Coast guard is only military force
/
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
ECONOMICS
1.99m tonnes
Not an oil producer
470,000 sheep, 74,000 horses, 220,000 chickens
Diatomite
†
Inflation 3.4% p.a. (1990–2001) 72.64 Icelandic krónur (76.28)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................97th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$27,960 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$24m INFLATION .........................................5.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
Iceland has virtually no minerals. All energy needs are met by geothermal and hydroelectric sources. A project coming onstream in 2007 will double aluminum-smelting capacity.
ENVIRONMENT
†
MEDIA
†
HEALTH
8.7 tonnes per capita
I
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases
1 per 286 people Sustainability rank: 8th
Iceland has no nuclear or coal-fired power plants. In 2006 it intends to resume commercial whaling, despite the possible impact on the tourist whalewatching industry, believing that minke whales are abundant and eat valuable cod stocks. Of concern is the planned aluminum-smelting plant in the east.
The state health system is free to all Icelanders. Iceland has one of the lowest infant mortality rates and one of the highest longevity rates in the world.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
571 per 1000 population
TV ownership high
653 per 1000 population
Defense None Education 5.9%
Daily newspaper circulation 368 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
High-tech fishing industry with exclusive access to prime fishing grounds. Low inflation and unemployment. Very cheap HEP and geothermal power, potential for use of hydrogen for fuel.
WEAKNESSES Over half of export earnings from single source: the sea (fish and seafood). Stateowned banking sector restricts flexibility.
Netherlands 11%
Other 37% USA 11%
Germany 18% UK 18%
Iceland is renowned for having one of the highest per capita newspaper circulations in the world.
†
107 prisoners
USA 11% Germany 11%
99%
5
/
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The cost of living is high, but wealth distribution is fairly even, and there is ease of social mobility. Domestic heating, which comes from geothermal sources, is provided at very low cost.
WORLD RANKING
No death penalty
Position in World 1st
Crime rates are rising
Crime rates are comparatively low. Violent crime is rising, especially on weekends in Reykjavík.
EDUCATION Denmark 9%
17 services: 1 state-owned, 16 independent
11 services: 1 state-owned, 10 independent
IMPORTS
Norway 8%
0
There are 4 daily newspapers, including Dagbladid-Visir and Morgunbladid, which has the largest circulation
CRIME
EXPORTS
Other 54%
†
1940–1945 Occupied by UK and US. 1944 Independence as republic. 1949 Founder member of NATO. 1951 US air base built at Keflavík despite strong local opposition. 1972–1976 Extends fishing limits to 50 miles; two “cod wars” with UK. 1975 Sets 200-mile fishing limit. 1980 Vigdís Finnbogadóttir world’s first elected woman head of state. 1985 Declares nuclear-free status. 1991 David Oddsson prime minister. 1995 Center-right coalition formed: reelected in 1999 and 2003.
Health 7.6%
STRENGTHS
UK 7%
/
10% (8% partially protected)
Electric power 1.3m kW
Up 30% in 2002
Despite being a member of NATO, Iceland has no armed forces. The US is keen to reduce the presence of its forces.
Spain 5%
†
Donor
Aid donations are modest, and form a smaller proportion of the budget than in other Scandinavian states.
Lava towers, near Lake Mÿvatn in northern Iceland – an area of grassy lowlands. Iceland’s center consists of lava desert and glaciers.
RESOURCES
$13m (donations)
$7.94bn
Settled by Norwegians in the 9th century, Iceland was ruled by Denmark from 1380 to 1944, becoming fully self-governing in 1918.
EFTA
As a member of EFTA, Iceland has access to European markets through the EEA, undermining the need to join the EU. Dispute with the UK over Iceland’s enlargement of its fishing zone to 200 nautical miles, were resolved in 1976. Iceland’s desire to restart large-scale whaling provokes much international criticism.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
†
School leaving age: 16
50th
8 $27,960
4 80 years
1
1
99%
3 deaths
7
100th
150th
13,884 students 193rd
Icelanders buy more books per capita than any other nation. Education is state-run; some 46% of school students go on to one of the country’s four universities, or to a college abroad.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
297
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
INDIA
SOUTH ASIA Pakistan
Asia
Nepal
China Bhutan Bangladesh
INDIA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of India CAPITAL: New Delhi POPULATION: 1.07 billion CURRENCY: Indian rupee OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Hindi and English Jan 26
IND
+5.5
.in
+91
Line of c o n
tr
Aksai M RA KO s RA KA
Chin
Srínagar
JAMMU &
C
Ind u
H
N
Jammu
KASHMIR
T
A
Amritsar
Chandígarh
P UN J AB
S
R
D
A
WEATHER CHART FOR NEW DELHI
T
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 60/24
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
Mumbai 12.8m passengers
†
Drive on left
1010 ships 6.14m gr t
T
H
N
Á
G U J A R Á T Gulf of Kachch
n Vi Indore Vadodara Narmada
Ahmadábád
Jámnagar Rájkot
Súrat Diu
d
Chota Nagpur Ránchi Plateau
e R a n g Jabalpur M A D H Y A hya Bhopál
e n g R a
S a t p u r a
M ah an d í
Raipur
Nágpur
Pimpri
Gulf of Khambhát
Jamshedpur
P R A D E S H Biláspur
Tápi
Cuttack
O R I S S A
Amrávati
Náshik
Kalyán
S E A
INDIA
Godá veri
Nánded
E
C
s
Nizámábád
Mumbai (Bombay) Pune
D
C
A
N
t
Warangal
A N D H R A Hyderábád
Solápur
a
POPULATION
G
Rájahmundry
over 5 000 000
K ris h n a
Kurnool
n
GOA
hadra ab
T u Bellary
Hubli
Panaji
over 1 000 000
Anantapur
Guntúr
a
a
Bangalore
ANDAMAN ISLANDS
Chennai (Madras)
h
LAND HEIGHT
North Andaman
Cuddapah
G
over 100 000
Vijayawáda
P R A D E S H
Kolhápur
Visákhapatnam
h
KARNÁTAKA
Total Area : 3 287 590 sq. km (1 269 338 sq. miles)
Middle Andaman South Andaman
Vellore
Mangalore
Port Blair
t Coimbatore
R
LAKSHADWEEP (Laccadive Is)
Kavaratti I.
N Trivandrum
0
200 km
Nágercoil 200 miles
it ra St
Tuticorin
Minicoy I.
0
Tiruchchiráppalli
N Á D U
A
200m/656ft Sea Level
T A M I L
Madurai
Cochin
L
Kalpeni I.
500m/1640ft
Dindigal Trichúr
Pondicherry
A
1000m/3281ft
Salem
E
Amíndívi Is
3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft
K
Calicut
Little Andaman
Mysore
s
4000m/13 124ft
I N D I A N
Puri
Chilika Lake
MAHÁRÁSHTRA Tháne
A R A B I A N
5000m/16 405ft
298
Bhágalpur
Dhanbád
over 10 000
The state-owned railroad system, the largest in Asia, carries 14 million people a day and employs over 1.5 million. Strict controls on diesel emissions from cars and buses were enforced in 2001. Cycle and scooter rickshaws abound in urban centers. Kolkata (Calcutta), site of India’s first metro system, still has rickshaws pulled by hand.
Patna ges G an
B I H Á R
Rann of Kachch
33,500 km (20,816 miles)
16,180 km (10,054 miles)
Kánpur P R A D E S H Váránasi
over 500 000
63,140 km (39,233 miles)
mu na
Allahábád
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1.53m km (948,854 miles)
Ya
Gwalior
e r s t W e
TRANSPORTATION
S
Kota
0
Temperatures in the north vary between 5°C (41°F) and 40°C (104°F). Heavy monsoon rains break in June, bringing severe flooding, and peter out by October. The south has a less variable climate. Chennai (Madras) is always hot: average temperatures range from 24°C (75°F) in January to 32°C (90°F) in May and June. Annual heatwaves in the southeast can be unbearable: over 1400 people died in 2003.
A
L
Gorakhpur
e
30/86
J Jodhpur
t
40/16
Á
A
A
s
40/104
U T T A R Lucknow
Ágra
Jaipur
R
P
Farídábád
E
50/20
Bikaner
L
E
Bareilly
R
A
)
A
N
Pa lk
50/122
S
Delhi NEW DELHI
A
T
Nanda Devi 7816m
Meerut
ng
A
P
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 60/140
H
E
E
N
E
M
PRADESH
HARYÁNA
T
I B
HIMACHAL
Ludhiána
T
I
I
Jalandhar
I
†
K
CLIMATE
Tropical/subtropical/ deser t/mountain/monsoon
H
E
I
(
NG RA
EPARATED FROM the rest of Asia by the Himalaya mountain range, India forms the bulk of a subcontinent. As well as the Himalayas, there are two other main geographic regions, the Indo-Gangetic plain, which lies between the foothills of the Himalayas and the Vindhya Mountains, and the central– southern plateau. India is the world’s largest democracy and second most populous country after China. The birthrate has recently been falling, but even at its current level India’s population will probably overtake China’s by 2030. After years of protectionism, India is opening up its economy to the outside world in the hope that the free market will go some way to alleviating one of the country’s major problems – poverty.
ol
S
n
1947
r
1947
Gulf of Mannar
N O C E A
NICOBAR ISLANDS SRI LANKA
Great Nicobar (continuation on same scale)
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: INDIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density high
Hindi, English, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Bihari, Gujarati,
358/km2 (928/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
28%
72%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 1%
Sikh 2%
Buddhist 1%
Christian 2% Muslim 11%
A religious festival. Such festivals are a frequent occurrence and form an important part of Hindu culture. Hindu 83% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Mongoloid and other 3%
S A
Y
AR
BHUTAN
SIKKIM
U
N
ÁC
HA
RAD L P
ESH
Indo-Aryan 72%
Kangchenjunga 8598m
B r a hm
Shiliguri
ap
a utr
R M A N A M A R )
Darjiling
Guwáháti
A S S A M Imphál
B A NGLADESH
G
an
g es
U Y
WEST
B
Háora
M
BENGAL
(
Kolkata es (Calcutta) ng Ga e h t of Mouths
B A Y
O F
B E N G A L
TOURISM 2.75m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:388
/
Up 15% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Bangladesh 18% UK 16% USA 15% Sri Lanka 5% Canada 4% Other 42% 0
10
20
Dravidian 25%
30
40
50
60
India is the world’s second most populous country after China, officially passing the one-billion mark in 2000. Despite a major birth control program, the decrease in population growth has been marginal. Nationwide awareness campaigns aim to promote the idea of smaller families. India’s planners consider the rise in the population to be the most significant brake on development. Cultural and religious pressures encourage large families, however, and the extended family is seen as essential security for old age. The fertile rice-growing areas of the Gangetic plain and delta are very densely populated. The northern state of Uttar Pradesh has the largest population, followed by the western state of Maharashtra and the eastern state of Bihar. Maharashtra is also the most urbanized state, with more than half of its people living in towns or cities. Elsewhere, most Indians live in rural areas, though poverty continues to drive many to the swelling cities. The overwhelming majority of the population are Hindus, who belong to thousands of castes and subcastes, which largely determine status, occupation, and whom they marry. Tension between Hindus and Muslims has grown in recent years, and escalated sharply in 2002 during violent clashes in Gujarat.
% of total arrivals POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Tourism provides almost 8% of GDP. More luxury hotels are being built, and wildlife and adventure tourism are being promoted. India has only a small share of the world tourism market, however, and has suffered recently from security worries over the repercussions of the US-led “war on terrorism” and acute tensions with Pakistan, particularly over Kashmir.
Age
Female 0.3% 3.1%
80+ 60–79
7.9%
40–59
15%
20–39
22%
Male 0.2% 3.2% 8.9% 15.7%
0–19 % of population by age group
23.7%
CHRONOLOGY The origins of an Indus Valley civilization may be traced back to the third millennium BCE. By the 3rd century BCE, the Mauryan kingdom under Ashoka encompassed most of modern India. Following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, British rule – through the East India Company – was consolidated. 1885 Formation of Indian National Congress. 1919 Act of Parliament introduces “responsible government.” 1920–1922 Mahatma Gandhi’s first civil disobedience campaign. 1935 Government of India Act grants autonomy to provinces. 1936 First elections under new constitution. 1942–1943 “Quit India” movement. 1947 August, independence and partition into India and Pakistan. Jawarhalal Nehru becomes first prime minister. 1948 Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi. War with Pakistan over Kashmir. India becomes a republic. 1951–1952 First general election won by Congress party. 1957 Congress party reelected. First elected communist state government installed in Kerala. 1960 Bombay divided into states of Gujarat and Maharashtra. 1962 Congress party reelected. Border war with China. 1964 Death of Nehru. Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes prime minister. 1965 Second war with Pakistan over Kashmir. 1966 Shastri dies; Indira Gandhi (daughter of Jawarhalal Nehru) becomes prime minister. 1969 Congress party splits into two factions; larger faction led by Indira Gandhi. 1971 Indira Gandhi’s Congress party wins elections. Third war with Pakistan, over creation of Bangladesh. 1972 Simla (peace) Agreement signed with Pakistan. 1974 Explosion of first nuclear device in underground test. 1975–1977 State of emergency: Gandhi guilty of electoral fraud. 1977 Congress loses general election. People’s Party (JD) takes power at the center. 1978 New political group, Congress (Indira) – Congress (I) – formally established. 1980 Indira Gandhi’s C(I) wins general election. 1984 Indian troops storm Sikh Golden Temple in Amritsar. Assassination of Indira Gandhi
I
299
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
I
300
by Sikh bodyguard; her son Rajiv becomes prime minister and C(I) leader. Gas explosion at US-owned Union Carbide Corporation plant in Bhopal kills 2000 people in India’s worst industrial disaster. 1985 Peace accords with militant separatists in Assam and Punjab. 1987 Deployment of Indian peacekeeping force in Sri Lanka to combat Tamil Tigers. 1989 General election; National Front forms minority government with BJP support. C(I) implicated in Bofors scandal. 1990 Withdrawal of troops from Sri Lanka. 1991 Rajiv Gandhi assassinated. Narasimha Rao becomes prime minister of a C(I) minority government and initiates economic liberalization. 1992 Demolition of the Babri Masjid mosque at Ayodhya by Hindu extremists triggers widespread violence; 1200 people die. 1993 Resurgence of Hindu–Muslim riots. Bomb explosions in Bombay (Mumbai). Border troop agreement with China. 1994 Rupee made fully convertible. C(I) routed in key state elections amid increasing allegations of corruption in ruling party. 1995 Punjab chief minister assassinated by Sikh extremists. 1996 Corruption scandal triggers political crisis. C(I) suffers its worst electoral defeat. Leftist United Front coalition government takes office. 1997 Successive governments fall as C(I) withdraws support. 1998 General election; BJP led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee forms coalition government. Sonia Gandhi, widow of Rajiv Gandhi, becomes president of C(I). India and Pakistan test nuclear missiles. 1999 Vajpayee travels to Pakistan to inaugurate bus service between India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan engage in violent confrontation in Kashmir. BJP returned to power after elections triggered by vote of no confidence. 2001 Earthquake kills more than 25,000 in Gujarat. BJP government implicated in major bribery scandal. 2001–2002 Terrorist attacks by Kashmiri separatists precipitate crisis with Pakistan. 2002 More than 2000, mainly Muslims, killed in Gujarat following worst intercommunal riots since independence. 2003 Heatwave kills over 1400. 2004 C(I) wins elections; Manmohan Singh appointed prime minister.
POLITICS L. House 2004/2009 U. House Varying
†
Multipar ty elections
President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of the People (Lok Sabha) 545 seats
40% C(I)
34% NDA
11% 7% 8% LF SP Others
C(I) = Congress (I) and Allies NDA = National Democratic Alliance (Bharatiya Janata Party–BJP and Allies) LF = Left Front (Communist Party of India (Marxist)–CPI(M) and Allies) SP = Socialist Party Nom = Nominated Others include independents and two appointed seats reserved for Anglo-Indians
Council of States (Rajya Sabha) 243 seats
29% C(I)
20% 6% 4% BJP CPI(M) Nom
41% Others
234 members are elected to the Rajya Sabha by State Legislative Assemblies, and nine "distinguished citizens" are nominated by the head of state
India is a multiparty democracy. The Lok Sabha (lower house) is directly elected by universal adult suffrage, while the Rajya Sabha (upper house) is indirectly elected by the state assemblies. There are 28 selfgoverning states. Of the seven union territories, Delhi and Pondicherry have their own assemblies.
PROFILE C(I) was founded in 1978 as the successor to the historic Congress party which led India to independence in 1947. Its bold program in the early 1990s of economic liberalization broke with the party’s traditionally left-of-center policies. Allegations of corruption came to undermine it, resulting in heavy electoral defeats in 1996–1999. The 1998 election established the Hindu nationalist BJP with a strong enough mandate to form a coalition government under A. B. Vajpayee, relegating C(I) to an unprecedented period of opposition at union level. Elections held in 1999 confirmed the BJP-led coalition in power with an overall majority. Hopes for C(I)’s political revival rested on Sonia Gandhi, the Italian-born widow of the assassinated former prime minister Rajiv Gandhi. She restored the influence of the Nehru dynasty over the party, and led it to a surprise victory at the 2004 polls, but unexpectedly declined the post of prime minister and instead backed former finance minister Manmohan Singh.
constitution. Hindu nationalism was expressed in outbreaks of serious violence against Muslims and Christians. A campaign to rebuild a Hindu temple at Ayodhya on a sacred Muslim site symbolized this divisiveness. The BJP’s failure to embrace the rural poor in its economic policies, however, led to its shock defeat in the 2004 elections. Political corruption Allegations of political corruption have dominated Indian politics for decades. In 1989, C(I) prime minister Rajiv Gandhi was accused of accepting bribes from Bofors, a Swedish arms company. In 1996, corruption forced the resignations of several C(I) government ministers and the leader of the opposition BJP. The issue resurfaced in 2001, when the BJP government was implicated in the “Tehelka scandal” over arms sales, which led to the resignation of the defense minister. The free market The introduction of economic reforms was controversial. Critics argued that free trade would undermine local production; the BJP-led coalition was generally opposed to competition from foreign firms. In the 1990s most governments increased spending on rural development programs in order to soften the impact of economic liberalization, though not enough to prevent a rural backlash in the 2004 election and the surprise victory of C(I), seen as less biased toward the urban elite. The appointment of Prime Minister Singh, referred to as the father of economic reform, offset investors’ fears of the influence of leftist parties over the new government.
Manmohan Singh, the first Sikh prime minister (from 2004).
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, a Muslim nuclear scientist, elected president in 2002.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Hindu militancy The rise of the right-wing Hindu BJP, which emerged as a credible alternative to C(I) in the late 1990s and took office in 1998, raised fears about the future of India’s secular
Sonia Gandhi led Congress (I) to electoral victory in 2004, but declined the premiership.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: INDIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
G15
NAM
G24
Joined UN in 1945
ECONOMICS $495bn
SAARC
†
Inflation 7.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
45.98 Indian rupees (46.47)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
Recipient
$1.46bn (receipts)
$13.1bn
Down 15% in 2002
†
.
EXPORTS
Germany 4% China 4%
Other 60%
Hong Kong 5% UK 5% USA 22%
IMPORTS
Singapore 4% UK 4%
China 5% Belgium 7% USA 7%
Other 73%
STRENGTHS
.
India does not depend on aid. The US suspended donations following nuclear tests in 1998, but restored payments in late 2001. The World Bank and Japan are the largest donors. International relief aid helped victims of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake.
DEFENSE
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................11th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$470 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$4.66bn INFLATION .........................................4.4% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
No compulsor y militar y ser vice
Down 6% in 2002
INDIAN ARMED FORCES 3898 main battle tanks (700 T-55, 1900 T-72 M1, 1200 Vijayanta, 84 T-90S)
1.1m personnel
19 submarines, 1 carrier, 8 destroyers, 16 frigates, 4 corvettes, 45 patrol boats
55,000 personnel
744 combat aircraft (64 170,000 Jaguar S(I), 407 MiG-21/23/ personnel 27/29, 40 Mirage 2000H/TH) Capability undisclosed; weapons tested in 1998
India considers a nuclear deterrent to be vital, and publicly tested weapons in 1998. It has the world’s third-largest military, and produces its own hardware. In 2001 the Agni-II intermediate-range missile, which is able to carry a nuclear warhead anywhere in Pakistan, went into production, while the longdelayed Light Combat Aircraft began flight tests. Virtual nuclear tests became possible in 2003 with the construction of the Param Padma supercomputer. India aims to send its own probe to the Moon in 2008.
Massive home market of over one billion people. Cheap labor. Call centers outsourced from Western countries. Pool of highly skilled workers, encouraging high-tech industries such as software programming. Bollywood film industry. Highly efficient textile sector and garment manufacturers. Growing competitiveness in world market, reflected in strong export growth. Competition encouraging improvement in manufacturing standards. Despite strong objections from opposition parties, India ratified the GATT world trade agreement in 1995. Since the economy was opened up to foreign competition in 1991, foreign direct investment has risen massively. Much of this has gone into the power sector. Large multinationals, such as Coca-Cola and IBM, are expanding, despite some hostility while the BJP was in government to the growing presence of foreign businesses.
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
†
AID
Consumer price index 1998=100
Even without its burgeoning economy and its 1.3 million men under arms, India’s size, population, and strategic location would guarantee it a prominent voice in regional and world affairs. A traditional policy of nonalignment has allowed India to become a powerful and effective spokesman for developing countries within organizations such as the WTO. India wants a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, and is publicly supported in this ambition by the UK, the former colonial power. Slow but steady talks on a longrunning border dispute with China have averted a return to the dangerous tensions of the 1960s, and the main preoccupation of foreign policy has been the dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir. Pulling back from the brink of war in 2002, India and Pakistan have since opened high-level talks.
2002
large extent converted to a free-market economy and is entering the global marketplace. Wide-ranging reforms, from lowering trade barriers to attracting foreign investment, have been put in place. The United Front and BJP-led governments in power from 1996 to 2004 did not undo these reforms, though they were criticized for not being wholehearted about driving them forward. Meanwhile, in the rural economy millions of people grapple with the problems of subsistence farming. INDIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Delhi Ahmadábád
Ga ng es
Kolkata Mumbai Hyderábád
Chennai Textiles Chemicals
Bangalore
Electronics Engineering Film industry Consumer goods Pharmaceuticals
0 0
500 km
Military aerospace 500 miles
Computer software
WEAKNESSES A large budget deficit dogs the economy. Governments have found it politically difficult to move away from the old system of widespread subsidies. The value of the rupee has declined sharply. Poor communications systems and power shortages hinder growth. The prestige of Bollywood has been damaged by allegations of underworld connections.
PROFILE India has the fastest-growing economy in Asia after China. From a highly protectionist mixed economy, which succeeded in building the basis of a modern industrial state, India has to a
Hillside monastery in Ladakh, Kashmir, northern India. The Ladakhi Buddhists maintain their traditional farming existence and are known for their friendliness.
301
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 115m kW
5.97m tonnes
793,000 b/d (reser ves 5.6bn barrels)
226m cattle, 124m goats, 107m ducks, 842m chickens
Iron, diamonds, coal, limestone, zinc, lead, gems, natural gas, oil
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 14% (74bn kWh) Combustion 83% (450bn kWh) Nuclear 3% (17bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Sustainability rank: 116th
†
EDUCATION
H
School leaving age: 12
I
/
important. In addition, there are large coal reserves: India is the world’s thirdlargest coal producer. Despite this, and discoveries of new gas reserves, India is unable to meet its own domestic energy needs, and petroleum and coal dominate imports. Efforts to increase power production through a series of “mega projects” to construct large power plants have been hit by financial mismanagement and a lack of investor confidence. The government hopes to make over $1 billion from the part-privatization of the oil industry.
INDIA - LAND USE
†
ENVIRONMENT 5% (3% par tially protected)
Agriculture still dominates the economy, providing 25% of GDP and employing over 60% of the workforce. Tea, cotton, and rice are the principal cash crops, though agricultural products now only account for 12% of exports. Assam and Darjeeling are among India’s most noted teas; cotton and jute provide the raw material for the strong textile industry. Precious gems and jewelry, including cut diamonds, are the most valuable mineral exports, though iron ore is also
M
1.1 tonnes per capita
AN DI IN T ER S E G R DE
61% A
L
AT
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
A
Y
A
10.5m students
S
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Ganges
I
Yes
Yes
Yes
†
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Desert High mountain regions Cattle Tea – cash crop Cotton – cash crop Rice 0 500 km
Yes
Deforestation is one of India’s most pressing environmental problems. Industrial and agricultural pressures have felled almost 90% of original forest cover. This results in major soil erosion, the silting up of dams, and landslides. Unusually serious flooding in eastern states in 2000 was largely attributed to deforestation. On the other hand, dealing with water scarcities, such as the drought which affected much of the northwest in 2000, has become a major public policy issue.
MEDIA
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 28 per 1000 people
0
There are over 5000 daily newspapers. The Times of India, the Statesman, and the India Express publish nationally 1 state-owned ser vice, several private stations
1 state-owned ser vice, several music and educational stations
Audiences for the state-run Doordarshan TV channels have fallen since the arrival of satellite TV and private broadcasters. US news channel CNN pioneered India’s cable TV industry in 1991, and there are now over 50 million connections. Indian films, largely produced at “Bollywood” (Mumbai), are now a major part of the economy, with millions of devotees worldwide. There are thousands of newspapers; the Times of India has over two million readers. Private radio stations cannot broadcast news, and some journalists suffer harassment.
†
CRIME 304,893 prisoners
500 miles
Death penalty in use
.
Down 3% in 1999
CRIME RATES
Murders 4
per 100,000 population
2
per 100,000 population
27
per 100,000 population
Rapes
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
302
100
a da N ar m
Thefts
Interreligious violence is sporadic but serious. Attacks on Christians draw particular attention, but were overshadowed by Hindu–Muslim violence in Gujarat in 2002. Security forces gained increased powers that year under the Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance, passed in response to Kashmiri separatist attacks in Delhi and other cities. Violent crime is increasing, especially in the big cities. Gangs have made vast profits from smuggling, prostitution, narcotics, and protection and extortion rackets. Theft has risen as consumer spending increases. The first execution for 13 years was carried out in 2004. Dacoits still operate in large areas of central India. Modeled on the thugee gangs of the 19th century, they are outlaws who live by highway robbery and terrorizing small rural communities.
% of each age group in education
Yes
Yes
80
60
99% 40
48%
20
0
11% Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual state governments. There is now a primary school in every village across the subcontinent, but many children drop out of school to provide supplementary income for their families. There are more than 60 million students at secondary level, and an estimated 24 million graduates from more than 200 universities. Women make up around 40% of those enrolled in higher education, a good percentage for a low-income economy. Though the high level of illiteracy is a brake on development, India has one of the largest pools of science graduates anywhere in the world.
Terraced fields in central India. In addition to rice, wheat, sorghum, maize, millet, and barley are also important cereal crops.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: INDIA
TERRORISM, SECURITY, AND NUCLEAR DETERRENCE
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Respiratory, nutritional, and diarrheal diseases, malaria
1 per 1885 people
T
security in the face of terrorist threats is a sadly familiar problem for the world’s largest democracy. Communal and separatist passions have bedeviled its politics since independence in 1947, and indeed lay at the heart of the partition of what had been British India to form the separate states of India and Pakistan. HE SEARCH FOR
Malnutrition is extremely common, increasing infant mortality, much of it due to preventable diseases. Air pollution from the domestic use of solid fuel kills half a million children every year. HIV infection rates are rising and 5.1 million adults were living with HIV/AIDS by 2004, the second-highest number in the world. State governments are responsible for most health programs, but various national projects include a huge polio eradication program. Plans to subsidize health insurance for the poorest of the poor were announced in 2000.
HIGH-PROFILE ASSASSINATIONS The ensuing years brought frequent reminders of the many varieties of violent extremism to which India was vulnerable. Notable were the murder of Mahatma Gandhi by a Hindu extremist in 1948, the death of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi at the hands of militant Sikhs in her own bodyguard in 1984, and the 1991 assassination of her son Rajiv Gandhi, himself an ex-prime minister, by Tamil separatists from neighboring Sri Lanka.
THE KASHMIR
ISSUE
Throughout this period, India’s troubled relationship with Pakistan never overcame their mutual hostility over Kashmir. India has regarded the state of Jammu and Kashmir as an integral part of its territory since the maharajah’s decision to accede to the Union at the time of partition. Pakistan, however, points to the unfulfilled promise of a referendum on the matter among the state’s majority Muslim population. Pakistan has occupied one-third of Kashmiri territory since 1948 (north of the de facto border, the Line of Control, where the fighting ended in the first India–Pakistan war that year). The two sides fought a second war over Kashmir in 1965 and sporadic bombardments across the Line of Control are a commonplace matter. More recently, Pakistan has sponsored a guerrilla war in Jammu and Kashmir that has claimed 60,000 lives. Serious fighting amounting to undeclared war broke out following a Pakistani crossborder incursion in 1999.
Missile technology and nuclear weapons raise the stakes of conflict.
THE
BRINK OF NUCLEAR WAR
The brink of all-out conflict was again reached in 2002, in the wake of terrorist attacks which reached into the heart of India, including a dramatic shooting at the parliament in New Delhi the preceding December. India mobilized its whole army, a million troops faced each other across the Line of Control, and the threat of nuclear war grabbed the world’s attention. India had carried out its first nuclear test in 1974, and ended any ambiguity about its nuclear weapons status with further underground test explosions in Rajasthan in May 1998. Its declared policy of “no first use” gave little reassurance to Pakistan, which was developing its own nuclear capability in direct response to the “Indian threat”; it went public with its own tests (linked to the development of its missile program) a few weeks later.
DEFUSING
THE TENSION
The tension of 2002 has given way to a kind of rapprochement born out of fear, international pressure, and the crippling cost of escalating confrontation. In January 2004 the then Indian prime minister A. B. Vajpayee traveled to Pakistan for the first time in nearly five years to attend a south Asian regional summit. Travel and diplomatic links were restored, and a moratorium on further tests was confirmed by the two sides in June 2004 when a “hotline” was set up to defuse future tension. This agreement set the scene for a meeting of defense ministers in New Delhi in August, talks at foreign minister level in September, and even the prospect of a bilateral summit. Indian troops patrol the Line of Control in Kashmir.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
7 per 1000 population
I
40 per 1000 population
Defense 2.7% Education 4.1% Health 0.9% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
India has become steadily more wealthy since independence, but distribution of this wealth has been far from even. Officially almost 300 million people – just under a third of the population – live in poverty. However, under the UN’s $2-a-day guide the number is more like 800 million. Poverty is worse in the countryside, but more visible in the sprawling slums and on the crowded streets of the big cities. Perched above the poverty line are the increasingly affluent middle classes, making up the bulk of the remaining population. With access to the new economy, the richest enjoy a standard of living comparable to that in the West, and have high expectations for their children.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
127
133 193rd
146 $470
63 years
142 158 61%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
67 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
303
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
INDONESIA
SOUTHEAST ASIA Papua New Guinea
Malaysia
INDONESIA East Timor
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Indonesia CAPITAL: Jakarta POPULATION: 220 million CURRENCY: Rupiah OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Bahasa Indonesia 1949
Aug 17
1999
+7 to +9
RI
Australia
.id
+62
I
NDONESIA IS THE WORLD’S largest archipelago. Its 18,108 islands stretch 5000 km (3100 miles) from the Indian Ocean to New Guinea. Java, Kalimantan, Papua, Sulawesi, and Sumatra are mountainous, volcanic, and densely forested. Politics after independence was dominated by the military for over three decades, until the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998, when a partial “civilianization” began. In outlying regions, the forcibly suppressed demands for greater autonomy have flared up, bringing renewed violence. East Timor, which Indonesia invaded in 1975 and then annexed, voted for independence in 1999 and became a fully sovereign state in 2002.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR JAKARTA
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
TOURISM 4.44m visitors
203,200 km (126,262 miles)
200 km (124 miles)
Visitors : Population 1:50
.
Down 12% in 2003
6458 km (4013 miles)
21,579 km (13,409 miles)
Singapore 26% Japan 14% Malaysia 8% Taiwan 8%
-10/14
Australia 8%
For a multi-island state spread across three time zones, communications are an obvious government priority. Indonesia was an early entrant into satellite communications, providing an international satellite-based telephone system as early as 1976. Conditions vary greatly, however, in the different provinces. Road surfaces in Java and Sumatra are excellent. Rail services are restricted to these two islands. In contrast, roads in Kalimantan and Papua are poor, and most travel is by air or river.
at a
Pulau Belitung
La ut
asar
Pulau Laut
AN NG NU ES U L G AR
over 50 000
0
over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000 over 500 000
luku
K ep u la Sa ng uan ih e
Ma ut
Laut Halmahera
JAZ DOB IRAH ER AI
(Mo luc c as) Pulau Bacan L au t Se r a m
Pulau Misool
JA Z O M IR A H H B E RAI I
Seram Buru
Ambon
Pulau Butung Kepulauan Tukangbesi
Pulau Muna
T Flores
E
Kepulauan a Kai nd ar Ba A am R u an D L a u t A G ul a ait p r t e G K Pulau N gS
K epulauan Alor Pulau Alor
L a ut Sa w u
Pulau Wetar
Ro m
EAST TIMOR
Timor Pulau Roti
an
Kepulauan Leti
Kupang 500 miles
Pulau Waigeo
M A L U K U
Kepulauan Sula
Danau Towuti
e Bo n
over 100 000
POPULATION
Kepulauan Banggai
Teluk Tolo
I C
Halmahera
L
Sulawesi
Teluk
JAKARTA
Banjarmasin
Palu
Teluk Tomini
I F
T I MO R S E A
p a n ul i m aua ba n r
Samarinda
C
Pulau Morotai
a
am
A
B
rim
Sea Level
AN
Ka
500m/1640ft
IS
ak
Kalim antan
t
1000m/3281ft
R
B o r n e o
Pangkalpinang Palembang
Manado
Balikpapan
la
2000m/6562ft
Pulau Bangka
PU A S M O UNTAINS s p ua Ka PE M
n
Karawang Ja Tanjungkarangwa Ujungpandang Cirebon Telukbetung Tegal Pekalongan Serang L Sel at Sun da Semarang au Bogor Madura Kudus t Fl Sukabumi ores Surabaya Bandung Tasikmalaya N U S A Probolinggo Cilacap N Lombok Bali Sumbawa Java Magelang Jember Yogyakarta Malang Denpasar a umb Surakarta Kediri at S Sel Madiun 0 500 km Sumba
LAND HEIGHT
3000m/9843ft
Musi BA
N
Total Area : 1 919 440 sq. km (741 096 sq. miles)
4000m/13 124ft
ai
Ai
AN
w
A
AW
NG
ta
EN T
Jambi
M
Pontianak Se
en
NU
t M
E
M
Ha r i
GU
la
AN
PE
Se
C
AU UL
Pulau Siberut
KA
KEPULAUAN LINGGA
Sumatra
as
K a ya
Mak
Padang
Ser
S) A Ywak A L ( S ar a
Kepulauan Talaud
ah
Ka Indragiri
t S ela
an
P CEL EB ES SE A
M
Pakambaru
K
K EP
O
INDONESIA
n
Ro
YA
Pulau Rupat Pulau Tebingtinggi Kepulauan a Riau mp r
ka
Pulau Nias
Kepulauan Batu
A
I
N
A U LA
BA N
Kepulauan Anambas
YS
PU
N
Pematangsiantar
IA
at
Tebingtinggi
Pulau Simeulue Danau Toba
Pulau Natuna Besar
40
MALAYS IA (Sabah)
BRUNEI
KEPULAUAN NATUNA
30
20
Tourism took off during the 1980s. The number of tourists now exceeds four million, though political unrest and the rise of Islamist militancy have discouraged many visitors. Expansion has been encouraged by major investment in hotels and the opening of Bali to airlines other than the national carrier, Garuda Indonesia. Tourism on Bali recovered quickly from the 2002 bombing.
Sel
Medan
LA
AN G N O AY G
KE
Equator
cc a
UN UL UNG AN LE R
al a
G
M
10
% of total arrivals
ito
of
US UN AT U
M en d a w
tra it
A c e hP PEG
MA
I A I N D
A N DA M A N S EA S
Other 36% 0
Bar
Indonesia’s climate is predominantly tropical. Variations relate mainly to differences in latitude, but hilly areas are cooler overall. Rain falls throughout the year, often in thunderstorms, but there is a relatively dry season from June to September. December to March is the wettest period, except in the Moluccas, which receive the bulk of their rain between June and September.
PE QU
-20/-4
304
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
Drive on left
2628 ships 3.72m grt
Sukarno–Hatta, Jakarta 19.7m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
ai
I
Tropical equatorial/ monsoon
Rice terraces on Bali, one of Indonesia’s many islands and its most popular tourist destination. Rice is the staple food crop.
Yamdena
Ke
T
ARAFURA
PEOPLE
†
122/km2 (317/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
43%
57%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Buddhist 1%
Hindu 2% Roman Catholic 3%
Other 1%
Protestant 6% Sunni Muslim 87% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Madurese 8%
Coastal Malays 8% Sundanese 14%
Javanese 45%
vigorously opposed, especially by the Aceh of northern Sumatra, and the Papuans of New Guinea. Religious and interethnic hostility is increasing. Since 1998 there have been violent clashes between Muslims and Christians on Sulawesi, and in the Moluccas. Similar clashes occurred in Kalimantan in 1999 and 2001 between indigenous Dayaks and ethnic Madurese immigrants. Aceh introduced sharia (Islamic law) in 2000. Discrimination against ethnic Chinese has encouraged vicious attacks on their businesses, as in Jakarta in 1998. Gender equality is enshrined in law, and women are active in public life. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Other 25%
0.2%
The basic Melanesian–Malay ethnic division disguises a diverse society. The national language, Bahasa Indonesia, coexists with at least 250 other spoken languages or dialects. Attempts by the Javanese political elite to suppress local cultures have been
POLITICS
†
2004/2009 AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 550 seats
23% Gol
9% PAN
20% 11% 11% 9% PDI–P PPP DP PKB
9% Others
8% PKS
Gol = Golkar PDI–P = Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle PPP = United Development Party DP = Democrat Party PKB = National Awakening Party PAN = National Mandate Party PKS = Prosperous Justice Party 38 seats are reserved for the army
Indonesia is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE In 1998 Gen. Suharto was forced to resign amid widespread protest over corruption, economic mismanagement, and denial O of democratic rights. Elections were C won by the mainly Muslim PDI–P, E A N led by Megawati Sukarnoputri, Pulau Biak daughter of the first Pulau president, but she was Yapen Jayapura kept from presidential P apua office until 2001. Her (Irian Jaya) PE G U lackluster leadership in NUN GAN Danau Puncak MA addressing economic Paniai Jaya OK E 5030 m problems alienated Lo au Pul KEPULAUAN many voters, however, ARU Ne w Gu ine a and in 2004 she lost the l Dig u first direct presidential election to her former Pulau Yos Sudarso security minister, Gen. SEA (retd.) Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono of the DP. z
nt
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
re
3.6% 8.4% 17.5% 20.2%
Male 0.2%
80+ 60–79
3.2%
40–59
9%
20–39 0–19
APEC
ASEAN
G15
Joined UN in 1950
16.9% 20.8%
% of population by age group
OIC
OPEC
Indonesia pursues a largely proWestern foreign policy, though the government is under pressure to improve its human rights record, and it opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The scale and nature of the East Timor massacres in 1999 severely damaged its standing. Internal security in the farflung provinces tests regional relations. China remains a concern, despite the restoration of diplomatic ties in 1990. Indonesia and Australia have cooperated on security since 1995, but the movement of illegal immigrants through Indonesia and recent Islamist terrorism have caused tensions.
AID
†
Recipient
$1.31bn (receipts)
Multiparty elections
President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Bahasa Indonesia, Dutch
T el u k Cen derawasih
H I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: INDONESIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on endpapers
.
I Down 13% in 2002
Japan accounts for the bulk of bilateral aid. Multilateral aid comes above all from the World Bank, though it called for urgent reform in late 2001 before loaning more money. Aid has been notoriously subject to “leakage.”
CHRONOLOGY MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES The army Under Gen. Suharto (1966–1998), Golkar and the army were dominant, and the army remains heavily involved in politics. In early 2000, the influential Gen. Wiranto left the government, but the army refused to relinquish its 38-seat entitlement in the legislature before 2009. Golkar reclaimed its position as the largest party in the legislature at the 2004 election, but Wiranto came only third in the subsequent presidential poll. Separatist and Islamist unrest Separatism and religious violence threaten national unity. Though greater autonomy was granted to both Papua and Aceh in 2001, tensions persist. Since the late 1990s several groups have emerged which espoused radical Islamist agendas and were associated with violent incidents, most notably the Bali bombings of October 2002.
S. B. Yudhoyono, won the presidential election in 2004.
Megawati Sukarnoputri, president 2001-2004.
Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic interest preceded 16th-century European rivalries over valuable spices. The Dutch had won control by the 17th century, when colonization began on Java. By 1910, the Dutch East Indies encompassed present-day Indonesia. 1920 Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) formed; leads revolt in West Java (1926) and Sumatra (1927). 1927 Indonesian National Party formed under Dr. Sukarno. 1930s Dutch repress nationalists. 1942–1945 Japanese occupation. Autonomy within “Greater East Asia” state promised. Sukarno works with Japanese while promoting independence. 1945 Sukarno declares Indonesian independence. Dutch forces attempt to reassert control. 1945–1949 Nationalist guerrilla war. 1949 Dutch grant independence to federal-style United States of Indonesia under Sukarno as president. 1950 Union dissolved, Sukarno grows increasingly authoritarian. 1950s Moluccas declare independence: unsuccessful separatist war. 1957–1959 Sukarno introduces authoritarian Guided Democracy. 1959 Sukarno extends
305
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
I
Up 15% in 2002
INDONESIAN ARMED FORCES 365 light tanks (275 AMX-13, 30 PT-76, 60 Scorpion-90)
230,000 personnel
2 submarines, 17 frigates, and 36 patrol boats
45,000 personnel
90 combat aircraft (A-4, F-16, Hawk Mk 109 and 209)
27,000 personnel
None
Defense spending is rising, and the military has a high profile in public life; the constitution enshrines its political
†
ECONOMICS $150bn
role. The civilianization of political parties, the bureaucracy, and state companies has reduced its presence in these areas, if not its influence. The army is accused of human rights abuses and of involvement with militias, particularly in separatist regions. Seven special forces soldiers were convicted for the murder of a Papuan separatist leader in 2001 though their sentences were very short. No successful convictions have ensued from the violence in East Timor in 1999. Western arms sales are increasingly dependent on the improvement of Indonesia’s human rights record. There are tensions between the army and nonmilitary security forces.
Inflation 16% p.a. (1990–2001)
9403 rupiahs (8250)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................28th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$710 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$7.45bn INFLATION .......................................11.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
EXPORTS
China 5%
South Korea 7%
175
150
150
125
125
100
100
Singapore 9%
Japan 21% IMPORTS
China 8% USA 8%
Other 52%
Singapore 13% Japan 14%
STRENGTHS Varied resources, especially oil. Signs of recovery from Asian crisis. Debt successfully rescheduled. International credit rating improved.
WEAKNESSES High level of bureaucracy. Endemic corruption. Huge wealth disparities. Regional insecurity deters investment. High underemployment. Piracy.
2000
2001
2002
Under Suharto the economy grew rapidly, fueled largely by oil, until its collapse in the 1997–1998 Asian crisis. State-owned corporations, protected from foreign competition, had played a significant role in the expansion. Exports were diversified, but the debt burden used up a third of export earnings. Reform was delayed by conflict between “technologists” favoring industrialization over profit for state concerns and advocates of deregulation. Corruption remained rife, but by 2003 the country had achieved a measure of economic stability, consistent with developments in other emerging markets and the wider region. GDP and export growth lagged behind other Asian economies, however, reflecting weaknesses in taxation and regulation and comparative labor market inflexibility.
Medan
INDONESIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Balikpapan Banjarmasin
Rubber Heavy engineering
Kendari Sorong
Gas Chemicals Timber industries Oil Oil refining Electronics Vehicle assembly Aerospace industry
75 1999
PROFILE
USA 13%
South Korea 5%
75 1998
Other 45%
GDP
175
GDP 1998=100
306
/
$6.25bn
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
presidential powers. Civilian legislature replaced by military. Extreme nationalist and proChinese policies. 1962 Dutch relinquish Western New Guinea. 1965 Communist PKI alliance with military ends. Army led by Gen. Suharto crushes abortive coup and acts to eliminate the now banned PKI; up to one million killed. 1966 Sukarno hands over power to Gen. Suharto temporarily; becomes permanent in 1967. 1968 Suharto becomes president: declares “New order”; introduces pro-Western liberal economic policies while transferring real power to small group of officers. 1971 First elections for 16 years. Government-sponsored Golkar wins landslide. Opposition parties now passive partners of government. 1975 Invasion of East Timor; its incorporation in 1976 as 27th province is not recognized by UN. Fretilin movement declares East Timor independent. 1984 Muslim protestors clash with troops in Jakarta. Start of resurgence of Islamic protest. 1989 Growing discontent with authoritarian government; student protests, unrest in Java and Sumbawa. Demands for Suharto to retire. Low-key official response. 1991 Indonesian troops massacre proindependence demonstrators in East Timor. Prodemocracy organizations allowed to form in response to growing demands for “openness.” 1993 Suharto wins sixth term. 1996 Antigovernment demonstrations in Jakarta. 1997 Economic recession. Smog across region from forest fires. 1998 Suharto resigns amid unrest. 1999 Election victory for opposition led by Megawati Sukarnoputri. East Timor referendum backing independence triggers violent backlash. Abdurrahman Wahid of PKB elected president, Megawati named vice president. 2000 Aceh becomes first province to introduce sharia. Violence erupts again in Moluccas. 2001 Wahid removed, replaced by Megawati. 2002 January, autonomy officially granted to Papua. May, East Timor independent. October, terrorist attack in Bali kills over 200, mostly Western holidaymakers. 2003 Major offensive against Aceh separatists. 2004 Gen. Yudhoyono wins first direct presidential election.
†
DEFENSE
Palembang
Jakarta 0
0 * significant multinational ownership
500 km 500 miles
Bandung
Surabaya
Ujung Pandang
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: INDONESIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on endpapers
†
RESOURCES
48.1m ducks, 13.3m goats, 11.4m cattle, 1.29bn chickens ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 14% (14bn kWh) Combustion 83% (83bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 3% (2.6bn kWh) 0
20
60
40
% of total generation by type
INDONESIA : LAND USE Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Sumatra Rice Nutmeg - cash crop Cattle 0 0
Indonesia is rich in energy sources. The main export earners are liquefied natural gas (LNG), of which it is the Oil, natural gas, coal, bauxite, nickel, world’s largest exporter, and oil. copper, gold, tin However, oil output has been falling, and combined with rapid growth in domestic energy demand, this could turn Indonesia into an oil importer in the next decade. The government is therefore encouraging oil exploration in remote regions. It is also considering developing existing geothermal and 100 80 hydroelectric energy sources. Indonesia’s other main resources are coal, bauxite, and nickel, and agricultural products such as rubber and palm oil. Processed wood products PA are a significant export CI FI C commodity; the OC EA N Kalimantan rapid depletion Moluku Sulawesi of the rainforests Papua Laut Jaw a has given rise a d n Ba L au t to attempts to Java control timber Timor exports. 1.18m b/d (reserves 4.4bn barrels)
5.07m tonnes
500 km 500 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
21% (10% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 100th
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
†
CRIME
1.3 tonnes per capita
62,886 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
An extensive network of clinics, down to village level, means that access to health care is reasonable, and health indicators have improved significantly. The death rate declined from 2% in 1965 to 0.7% in 2000, thus helping to increase life expectancy, while infant mortality more than halved over this period. However, malnutrition and pollution-related health problems, which were estimated in 2003 to affect 30% of all children, remain a real problem. The World Bank has warned of massive poisoning from pollution. The rate of HIV infection among intravenous drug users, particularly in prisons, is rising.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
I
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
15 per 1000 population
37 per 1000 population
Defense 3.7% Education 1.3%
/
Health 0.6%
Up 17% in 1999 0
Murders 1
per 100,000 population
1
per 100,000 population
55
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
MEDIA
Lower respiratory and diarrheal diseases
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Yes
Environmental legislation is poorly enforced: the rich tropical forests suffer from excessive logging, and rare species, such as orangutans, are disappearing. The death penalty has been proposed to curb illegal logging. Smog from forest fires seriously contributes to global levels of greenhouse gases. The World Bank warned in 2003 of massive health problems from pollution, particularly in urban areas.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 6564 people
Death penalty in use
CRIME RATES
No
†
HEALTH
Electric power 25.4m kW
Suppression of secessionists is harsh. There is brutal ethnic and religious violence in the provinces. Piracy is rife.
†
EDUCATION 88%
School leaving age: 15
3.02m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Many Indonesians live in relative poverty and those on the peripheral islands in real poverty; large wealth disparities exist between the Javanese middle classes and the subsistence farmers and tribesmen of Papua and Kalimantan. This reflects both an accumulation of wealth in the hands of a limited number of key political and business figures, and a concentration of development and investment on the main islands, particularly Java. Since 1998 attempts have been made in the courts to tackle the issues of corruption and the concentration of wealth in the hands of close associates and relatives of former president Suharto and his political successors.
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 69 daily newspapers. Kompas and Pos Kota have the largest circulations 10 services: 1 state-owned, 9 independent
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
WORLD RANKING
100
% of each age group in education
Daily newspaper circulation 23 per 1000 people
80
Position in World 1st
60
100%
50th
40
58% 100th
20
15% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
103
150th
116 130
The 1999 press law prohibits censorship, but journalists can still be fined for violating “religious and moral norms.” Independent press and broadcasting have flourished since 1998.
Primary education is subsidized by the state, compulsory, and often provided by Islamic schools. In contrast, good secondary education is hard to find in rural areas. University students come predominantly from the richer elites.
193rd
$710
67 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
88%
110
111
33 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
307
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
IRAN
Asia
MIDDLE EAST Turkmenistan
Afghanistan
Iraq
1990
Feb 11
IR
+3.5
i st
an
Africa
ak
OFFICIAL NAME: Islamic Republic of Iran CAPITAL: Tehran POPULATION: 68.9 million CURRENCY: Iranian rial OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Farsi 1502
IRAN
Saudi Arabia
P
.ir
+98
T
URBULENT NEIGHBORS surround Iran; there are republics of the former Soviet Union to the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east, and Iraq and Turkey to the west. The south faces the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Since 1979, when a revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini deposed the shah, Iran has become the world’s largest theocracy and the leading center for militant Shi’a Islam. Iran’s active support for Islamic fundamentalist movements has led to strained relations with central Asian, Middle Eastern, and north African states, as well as with the US and Europe.
†
CLIMATE
Mountain/cold desert
WEATHER CHART FOR TEHRAN
I
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
Pop. density low
Farsi, Azeri, Luri, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Kurdish, Turkmen, Arabic, Baluchi
42/km2 (109/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
65%
35%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
PEOPLE
Other 1%
-10/14
Sunni Muslim 6%
-20/-4
The area bordering the Caspian Sea is Iran’s most temperate region. Most of the country has a desert climate.
†
TRANSPORTATION Mehrabad, Tehran 8.47m passengers
Shi'a Muslim 93% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Drive on right
380 ships 4.13m grt
Kurdish 8%
Persian 50%
Lur and Bakhtiari 8% Other 10%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 93,608 km (58,165 miles)
890 km (553 miles)
6151 km (3822 miles)
904 km (562 miles)
Azari 24%
The people of the north and center of Iran – about half of all Iranians – speak Farsi (Persian), while about a quarter speak related languages, including Kurdish in the west and Baluchi in the southeast. Another quarter of the population speaks Turkic languages, primarily the Azaris and the Turkmen in the northwest. Smaller groups,
Adequate roads link main towns, but rural areas are less well served. Most freight travels by rail. A ferry runs from Bandar-e Abbas to the UAE.
TOURISM 1.58m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:43
/
Up 13% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Azerbaijan 34% Turkey 14% Afghanistan 11% Pakistan 10% Kuwait 2% Other 29% 0
10
% of total arrivals
308
20
30
40
The Reshteh-ye Kuhhá-ye Alborz (Elburz Mountains). Their Caspian Sea slopes are rainy and forested; the southern slopes are dry.
Iran’s historical heritage, mosques, and bazaars formerly attracted sizable numbers of tourists. This flow was cut off by the 1979 revolution, which deterred visitors, especially from the West. In the 1990s, however, there was a rise in the number of business people visiting Iran. Procedures at Tehran’s Mehrabad airport have been simplified and the capital’s hotels refurbished. In late 1998 President Khatami’s more liberal regime welcomed a delegation of US tourists, despite opposition from conservative groups.
such as the Circassians and Georgians, are found in the northern provinces. Until the 16th century, much of Iran followed the Sunni interpretation of Islam, but since then the Shi’a sect has been dominant. Religious minorities, accounting for just 1% of the population, include followers of the Baha’i faith (who suffer discrimination), Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews. The regime has a remarkably liberal attitude to refugees of the Muslim faith. Nearly three million Afghan refugees were received at the height of the Afghan civil war in the 1980s–1990s, though many have since returned. In 2003, Afghan refugee numbers had fallen to 830,000; Iraqi refugees numbered around 150,000, mostly housed in camps along Iran’s western border. Many refugees are young, resulting in intense competition with Iranians for jobs and consequent ethnic tensions. One of the main consequences of the 1979 Islamic revolution was to reverse the policy of female emancipation. The revolution restricted the public role of women and enforced a strict dress code, obliging women to cover themselves from head to foot in the chador (veil). More liberal attitudes have gradually emerged. Reform of the divorce laws, so that the wife could initiate proceedings, is backed by the reformist parliament, but strongly opposed by the conservative judiciary as un-Islamic. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.3% 2.8%
25.2%
80+ 60–79
Male 0.3% 3.3%
6.4%
40–59
6.5%
14.5%
20–39
14.6%
0–19 % of population by age group
26.1%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: IRAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
President Mohammad Khatami
2004/2008 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shoura) 290 seats
68% C
17% 14% 1% IIPF Ind Vacant
C = Coalition of Followers of the Line of Imam (conservatives) IIPF = Islamic Iran Participation Front (reformists) Ind = Independents
Iran has been an Islamist theocracy since 1979. Accordingly, the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary may, in theory, be overruled by the religious leadership.
conservative majority in the Consultative Council in 1996. Leading reformist Mohammad Khatami, elected president in 1997, was reelected in 2001. The clergy remains powerful, nonetheless, cracking down on reformist politicians and newspapers. Khatami has been left sandwiched between the powerful religious right and the popular desire to institute real political and economic reform. His position became even more uncomfortable after the conservative election victory in the 2004 poll. The reformists had called for a boycott after the clergy had banned thousands of reformist candidates from the poll, and then claimed electoral irregularities.
PROFILE The mullahs, in power since the religious revolution, have seen both their political standing and their moral authority eroded in recent years as the perception has spread that they can address neither economic problems nor social malaise. An opposition reformist movement developed, overturning the AZERBAIJAN
AR
M
E
N
AZE RBA I J
AN
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Mosque versus secular state The power struggle between the clergy and the secular state is manifest in the ill-defined division of authority between the supreme religious leader and the secular, directly elected president. Since reformist President Khatami took office in 1997 the polarization has increased. He is opposed in his efforts to liberalize by the mullahs, for whom adherence to religious values is more important
Ayatollah Khamenei, who became spiritual leader after the death of Ayatollah Khomeini.
Mohammad Khatami, reformist president, in office since 1997.
than material welfare. The mullahs wield power through the Council of Guardians which controls the judiciary and electoral procedures. Ayatollah Khamenei, a former president, was appointed spiritual leader in 1989. Wary of Khatami’s popularity, he has struggled to rein in the aggression of the mullahs and their militant supporters.
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS ECO
G24
NAM
I
OIC
OPEC
KE
IA
Y
After the 1979 revolution Iran assumed international significance as the voice as Khvoy of militant Shi’a Islam. It is accused T U RKM C A S P I A N of backing Muslim extremists and of Tabríz EN Daryácheh-ye Ardabíl IS Orúmíyeh fostering unrest throughout the region. S E A Rúd-e A T tra Orúmíyeh k Under President Khatami, Iran A Qe Rasht N ze Marágheh has tried to convey a less lO H Qolleh-ye w T Gorgán za E Damávand confrontational image. n Zanján H 5671m Sárí Z Mashhad Qazvín - Y E Improved relations with Saudi OR Ámol K ash LB KU A a f Bíjár R ú d Sabzevár HH Á-YE Sháhrúd Arabia, troubled since Iran’s Tajrísh Karaj seizure of the islands of Abu TEHRÁN Sanandaj Rey Qareh Chá Musa and the Tunbs in 1970, y Hamadán resulted in the signing of a Qom Kavír-e Namak Daryácheh-ye Namak Bákhtarán Maláyer Gonábád pact in 2001. Relations with Borújerd DASHT-E KAVÍR Káshán Arák the US remain tense. In 2002 US president George W. Bush Deyhúk Khorramábád cast Iran, with Iraq and North G Múd R Khomeyníshahr Korea, as an international Dezfúl PLATEAU Najafábád E§fahán “axis of evil.” Though Iran Masjed-e Soleymán Yazd was forced to open its Daryácheh-ye Ahváz OF IRAN nuclear installations to Sístán inspection by the IAEA, Dasht-e Lút Khorramshahr cooperation has since Kermán Núrábád Ábádán been slow. US aid Záhedán sent in 2002 and 2003 Bam Síhján in the aftermath of Shíráz Halíl KUWAIT Bandar-e terrible earthquakes Rú Búshehr failed to signify a thaw in relations. RAN Hámún-e Jaz Múríán Kangán Iraq under the Total Area : 1 648 000 sq. km E ás regime of Saddam Íránshar h k el (636 293 sq. miles) Bandar-e ‘Abbás Hussein had been G Qeshm f H POPULATION U Iran’s main security LAND HEIGHT o o t i L a over 1 000 000 preoccupation; tr F N OMAN 3000m/9843ft following his removal over 500 000 2000m/6562ft in 2003, the resulting U.A.E. over 100 000 Konárak Mak 1000m/3281ft ran uncertainties thrown Coas over 50 000 t GU OMAN 500m/1640ft up by the US-led 0 200 km LF over 10 000 OF OMAN 200m/656ft occupation are cause under 10 000 0 200 miles Sea Level for continuing concern. TUR
Ar
R
E
S
I
E
N ISTA AN GH AF
-Y HÁ KUH
R
Z
Á
A
O
S
Kárún
Q
P
H
S
M
uz rm
I S T A N A K
d
T
I
309
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Persia was ruled by the shahs as an absolute monarchy until 1906, when the first constitution was approved. The Pahlavis took power in 1925 and changed the country’s name to Iran in 1935.
I
$116m (receipts)
.
Down 1% in 2002
As an oil exporter, Iran does not qualify for much aid, and hard-liners are opposed to money from the West. Iran receives some UN aid, however, for its thousands of refugees from Afghanistan
DEFENSE $4.87bn
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 56% in 2002
Iran has more than 500,000 men under arms, including the 125,000strong Revolutionary Guard Corps (Pasdaran Inqilab), and is regarded by neighboring states as a serious military threat. The testing of medium-range cruise and ballistic missiles has heightened concern over Iran’s possible military objectives: it can now theoretically strike as far as Israel. Iran has announced plans to launch its own satellite system by 2005. Before the 1979 revolution Iran was part of a pro-Western alliance structure.
ECONOMICS $113bn
and Iraq. Concern that Iran supports Islamist terrorism has affected aid programs. In 1994, the World Bank suspended loans. US sanctions imposed since 1995 have curtailed donations, but humanitarian assistance was provided after earthquakes in 2002 and 2003.
†
IRANIAN ARMED FORCES
8645 Iranian rials (8185)
EXPORTS
South Africa 5% Italy 7% China 9%
Other 55% Japan 19% IMPORTS
France 6% Italy 6%
3 submarines, 3 frigates, 56 patrol boats
18,000 personnel
None
The long war with Iraq in the 1980s diminished the military power of the revolutionary regime.
Inflation 26% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................33rd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1720 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$3.73bn INFLATION .......................................14.3% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................16%
South Korea 5%
350,000 personnel
306 combat aircraft (F-4D/ 52,000 E, F-5E/F, Su-24, F-14, personnel F-7, MiG-29, Mirage F-1E)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
1565 main battle tanks (M-47/48/60A1, Chieftain Mk3/5, T-54/55/62/72)
Switzerland 9%
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
PROFILE With few industries other than oil, US sanctions and fluctuations in oil prices made foreign earnings volatile; higher prices in recent years have held out the prospect of investing in diversification. IRAN : MAJOR BUSINESSES Tehran
UAE 9% Other 53%
GDP
250
GDP 1998=100
310
Recipient
Consumer price index 1998=100
1957 SAVAK, shah’s secret police, established to control opposition. 1964 Ayatollah Khomeini is exiled for criticizing secular state. 1971 Shah celebrates 2500th anniversary of Persian monarchy. 1975 Agreement with Iraq over Shatt al Arab waterway. 1977 Anti-shah demonstrations. 1978 Riots and strikes. 1979 Shah goes into exile. Ayatollah Khomeini returns, declares an Islamic republic. Students seize 63 hostages at US embassy in Tehran. 1980 Shah dies in exile. Start of eight-year Iran–Iraq war. 1981 US hostages released. Hojatoleslam Ali Khamenei elected president. 1985 Khamenei reelected. 1987 Around 275 Iranian pilgrims killed in riots in Mecca. 1988 USS Vincennes shoots down Iranian airliner; 290 killed. End of Iran–Iraq war. 1989 Khomeini issues fatwa condemning UK author Salman Rushdie to death for blasphemy. Khomeini dies. President Ali Khamenei appointed Supreme Religious Leader. Hashemi Rafsanjani elected president. 1990 Earthquake in northern Iran kills 45,000 people. 1992 Majlis elections. 1993 Rafsanjani reelected president. 1995 Imposition of US sanctions. 1996 Majlis elections. Society for Combatant Clergy loses ground to more liberal Servants of Iran’s Construction. 1997 Earthquake south of Mashhad kills 1500 people. Mohammad Khatami elected president. 1998 Khatami government dissociates itself from fatwa against Salman Rushdie. 1999 First nationwide local elections since 1979. President Khatami visits Italy: first Iranian leader to be welcomed by a Western government since 1979. 2000 Sweeping election victory for reformists. Crackdown on reformist newspapers. 2001 Khatami reelected, winning 77% of vote. 2003 Bam earthquake kills over 40,000. 2004 Conservatives win controversial election.
†
AID
Mashad
Tabríz
Germany 17%
STRENGTHS OPEC’s second-biggest oil producer. Second-largest natural gas reserves in the world. Potential for related industries and increased production of traditional exports: carpets, pistachio nuts, and caviar.
WEAKNESSES Theocratic authorities restrict contact with West and access to technology. High unemployment and inflation. Infrastructure damaged by earthquakes. Excessive foreign debts.
Qom E§fahán
Ahváz Kharg Island Shiráz Cement Textiles Oil refining
Bandar-e Abbás'
Kerman
Engineering Carpet weaving Food processing
0
Petrochemicals/chemicals
0
400 km 400 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: IRAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 30.6m kW
3.85m b/d (reserves 131bn barrels)
399,000 tonnes 53.9m sheep, 26m goats, 9m cattle, 280m chickens
Iron, copper, lead, oil, natural gas, zinc, salt, chromite, manganese, coal, gypsum, uranium
†
MEDIA
TV ownership medium
5 of the 33 daily newspapers are national. Kayhan and Ettela’at, controlled by the religious authorities, are the leaders
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 3% (3.7bn kWh) 1 state-controlled service
Combustion 97% (113bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
1 state-controlled service
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Iran has substantial oil and natural gas reserves, plus relatively undeveloped deposits of metal ores, coal, and salt. A Russian-built nuclear power plant is set to open in 2005, powered by uranium mined in Iran. There is international concern over the government’s aims. The agricultural sector is a major part of the economy. Principal crops are fruit, wheat, barley, rice, sugar, and pistachio nuts. The Caspian Sea fisheries are controlled by the state, which sells caviar for export. Iran was once an opium exporter, but its cultivation and use have since been banned. The vodka industry has also been closed down. IRAN : LAND USE
SH RE
TE
H-
YE
K U H H Á- Y E A L B
OR
Z
KU H HÁ
P L A TEA U
-Y
E
OF IRAN
Radio and TV are state-controlled. Satellite dishes are banned. Closures of reformist newspapers by the conservative Council of Guardians, and prosecutions of their editors, continue.
CRIME
†
Death penalty in use
,
163,526 prisoners
ZÁ
Revolutionary guards enforce order. More than 100 offenses carry the death sentence. Executions are common for political “crimes.” Murderers can avoid the death penalty by paying a $19,000 “blood price” – or half if the victim was female. Narcotics addiction, prostitution, and the violent abuse of women are rife. Iran is accused by Western governments of supporting Islamist terrorism.
GR OS
400 km
†
School leaving age: 11
1.68m students
/
5% (4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 104th
4.9 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
% of each age group in education
ENVIRONMENT
100
400 miles
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
14 per 1000 population
I
187 per 1000 population
Education 5% Health 2.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 0
GDP/cap. increase
Defense 4.6%
Iran does not publish crime statistics. However, general crime rates are relatively low.
77%
0
†
SPENDING
CRIME RATES
Sheep Wheat Tobacco
Heart and respiratory diseases, injuries, neonatal deaths
Though an adequate system of primary health care exists in the cities, conditions in rural areas are basic. Under Khomeini, having children became a political and religious duty, but the high birthrate has now forced the introduction of birth control programs, and sterilization and contraception are now officially promoted. Growing drug addiction has resulted in rehabilitation programs and antidrugs propaganda. AIDS is spreading; some 31,000 adults were estimated to be living with HIV/AIDS in 2003.
Little change from year to year
EDUCATION
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Desert
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 2625 people
Daily newspaper circulation 28 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
After the 1979 revolution, living standards in Iran declined markedly. A shortage of foreign exchange has stifled imports of consumer goods. Rationing, brought in during the war with Iraq, is still partly in force, and smuggling from the Arab Gulf states is rife. Unemployment is high, and few Iranians are able to gain access to modern technology such as telephones. Official figures for income per capita do not relate to conditions on the ground. In reality, oil wealth fails to reach the economically deprived. Private businesses have gradually emerged in Iran since the launch in 1994 of the country’s first private savings and loans associations.
80
WORLD RANKING 60
92% 40
Position in World
81%
1st
20
19% 0
Primary
Secondary
50th
Tertiary 100th
Yes
Yes
No
Environmental issues have been seriously neglected. The growing population, an overreliance on old cars, and the abundance of cheap gasoline have combined to destroy urban air quality. Pollution from oil exploration in the Caspian Sea is of major concern.
Primary education, which lasts for five years from the age of six, is free, as are universities. Most schools are singlesex. Since 2002, female students and staff in Tehran’s classrooms have been permitted to lower their veils. There are 37 universities; their students are strong supporters of liberalization and reform.
150th
98 $1720
101
101 69 years
193rd
114 134 77%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
35 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
311
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
IRAQ
Asia
MIDDLE EAST T u r k ey Syria IR A Q
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Iraq CAPITAL: Baghdad POPULATION: 25.2 million CURRENCY: New Iraqi dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Arabic and Kurdish 1932
1990
None
IRQ
+3
I r a n
Jordan Saudi Arabia
Africa Kuwait
.iq
+964
O
IL-RICH IRAQ is divided by the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. Mesopotamia, the region between them, saw the beginnings of writing and mathematics, and the invention of the wheel. While the river valleys are fertile, most of the country is inhospitable desert or mountains. The modern state encompasses Kurds in the north, Sunni Muslims largely in the center, and a Shi’a Muslim majority to the south. Saddam Hussein seized power in 1979 and maintained it through fear until his ouster in the rapid 2003 US-led invasion.
†
CLIMATE
The weather is dry and rainfall is low and unreliable, except in the north. Iraq experiences a wide range of temperatures. The south has a desert climate, with hot, dry summers and mild winters. In mountainous Iranian and Turkish border regions winters can be harsh, with frost and heavy falls of snow. In the Mesopotamian plain huge dust storms are a regular feature Y of the summer. K E
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
0
U R
T
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
A
Z
Za b
R A
am
P
rí
Na
n
Azerbaijan 1% Afghanistan 1%
Khánaqín
Al Muqdádíyah
T
Ba‘qúbah
0
A
O
Ar Ramádí
Other 1%
Al Kháli§
Al Fallújah Al Íabbáníyah
10
20
30
N
A
Al Musssayyib
M
JORD
I
AN
A
l Ubayyiç dí a Wá
A
a‘ íb
Í
isb
is igr
S LAND HEIGHT
U
2000m/6562ft
D
ra
1000m/3281ft
I
H
0
100 km
200m/656ft Sea Level
312
0
A
500m/1640ft
‘A al
N
100 miles
R
A
The Gu lf
3000m/9843ft
50
60
70
80
90
100
International isolation and war have prevented Iraq from making Karbalá’ the most of its spectacular tourist Buíayrat Al Hindíyah ‘Alí al Gharbí ar Razázah potential. Visitors used to be Al Kút Al Íillah attracted by Iraq’s wealth of Hawr as Sa‘díyah ‘Afak archaeological remains, in Al Kúfah particular the ruins of Babylon An Najaf Ad Díwáníyah Al ‘Amárah Ash Shámíyah and its fabled hanging gardens, T near Al Hillah. Despite the Ash Sha√rah E up hra security situation, Shi’a holy tes As Samáwah An Ná§iríyah shrines attracted thousands Sh A Hawr al Íammár Súq ash Shuyúkh L of pilgrims once again after Al Ba§rah Í the overthrow of Az Zubayr Sh a A √√ Abú al Kha§íb Saddam Hussein’s J A regime. Western R b governments continue to warn KUWAIT their nationals A against travel to Iraq. Al Maímúdíyah
D E S E R T
40
% of total arrivals
Mandalí
BAGHDAD
Buíayrat al Íabbáníyah
S Y R I A N
Pakistan 2%
Sámarrá’
H
w Ía dí
l Í
Í
Wá
n rá
ba
á
Ja
Up 63% in 2001
India 3%
Haòabja
y ál
Tikrít
Buíayrat ath Tharthár
S
/
Visitors : Population 1:198
Iran 92%
R
O
ris
A
Kirkúk Tuz Khurmátú
Tig
J
As Sulaymáníyah
ab
Di
I R
eZ
S
L
ates Euphr
t tl
I
Li
over 50 000
A
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
M
E
over 10 000
1015 km (631 miles)
Koi Sanjaq
Arbíl
Gr ea t
over 1 000 000
over 100 000
2339 km (1453 miles)
127,000 visitors
Al Maw§il
over 500 000
1264 km (785 miles)
TOURISM
Tall ‘Afar
POPULATION
38,262 km (23,775 miles)
Infrastructure was damaged during the 2003 invasion, though the rapid defeat of the Iraqi forces spared many key bridges and roads.
Kúh-e Íájí Ebráhím 3600m
Dahúk
hr
Total Area : 437 072 sq. km (168 753 sq. miles)
Drive on right
88 ships 188,200 grt
Baghdad
Zákhó
IRAQ
Y
I
†
TRANSPORTATION
Hot desert/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR BAGHDAD
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Golden Mosque at Sámarrá’ on the Tigris. Among the extensive remains of its ancient city are those of the Great Mosque built in 847 CE.
B
I
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: IRAQ
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
Arabic, Kurdish, Turkic languages, Armenian, Assyrian
58/km2 (149/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
68%
32%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Christian) 5% Sunni Muslim 33% Shi'a Muslim 62% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Turkmen 2%
Persian 3% Kurdish 16%
The Arab Muslims are divided between the Shi’a and Sunni sects; some of the holiest sites of Shi’a Islam are in Iraq. Religious tensions were violently suppressed by the Sunni-dominated regime of Saddam Hussein; the Shi’a Marsh Arabs were specifically targeted after an abortive uprising in 1991. The exploitation of religious feeling by extremists is undermining postwar Iraq. The Kurdish community, based in the north, was granted de facto self-rule under the protection of the no-fly zones after 1991, but was riven by internal conflict. The new interim constitution in 2004 did not include the promised Kurdish veto over key national decisions, but did make Kurdish an official language. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Arab 79%
0.3%
Carved out of remnants of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq is home to three distinct ethno-religious groups as well as smaller minorities, including Turkmen and Persians. There are several Christian sects, but all but a handful of Iraq’s Jews have emigrated to Israel.
POLITICS 2000/2005
†
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
2.3%
27.2%
80+
Male 0.3%
60–79
2.2%
5.4%
40–59
5.7%
13.4%
20–39
14.4%
0–19
28.8%
% of population by age group
AL
NAM
OAPEC
OIC
OPEC
Iraq’s strategic importance rests on its vast oil reserves. During the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq war, Saddam Hussein was armed by the West as an ally against Islamic fundamentalism. However, his invasion of Kuwait in 1990 was decried the world over. A US-led force, assisted by several Arab states, repelled Iraq in 1991. The US increased the pressure on Saddam Hussein after 2001, counting Iraq among the “axis of evil” states. France, Germany, and Russia were joined by most of Iraq’s neighbors in opposing the war launched, without UN backing, by the US and allies in 2003. Hopes that military involvement could be short-lived soon proved illusory, Coalition troops remaining in Iraq after the political handover in 2004. The new government called on its neighbors to fulfill promises to prevent foreign insurgents from crossing its borders. Iran and Syria, as well as Muslim extremists, are deeply suspicious of a potential US client state in their midst, while Turkey fears a resurgence of pan-Kurdish nationalism.
In transition
President Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly (suspended) 250 seats
The National Assembly was suspended in 2003. A 100member Interim National Council, with advisory powers, was chosen in 2004; a transitional National Assembly is due to be elected in 2005 and will draft a permanent constitution
Saddam Hussein held power through a brutal dictatorship after overthrowing his predecessor in 1979, until his dramatic removal by a US-led invasion in 2003.
PROFILE Saddam Hussein’s period in power was dominated by warfare and its consequences. The 1980–1988 war against Iran was followed by the 1990 invasion of Kuwait. A US-led alliance forced him to withdraw in 1991 and a harsh policy of international sanctions was imposed. Viciously crushing dissent, he retained his hold on power, and even drew support against the sanctions from previously hostile Arab neighbors. In March 2003, with UN weapons inspectors still failing to uncover his alleged arsenal of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), a US-led Coalition invaded Iraq and ousted Saddam Hussein within three weeks. While many welcomed his removal, few were happy at the prospect of a US-controlled regime; anti-Coalition
guerrilla action intensified as the civilian death toll mounted and discontent within the Shi’a community grew. The US handed power to a transitional Iraqi government in June 2004. In advance, the US-appointed Iraqi Governing Council had elected its head, Sunni tribal leader Ghazi al-Yawer, as interim president and former exiled Shi’a opposition figure Iyad Allawi as prime minister. The interim government has the right to decide on the fate of the captured Saddam Hussein. A national conference was convened in August to elect an advisory Interim National Council, pending elections in 2005.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Postwar reconstruction The standard of living had dropped dramatically under the UN sanctions in the 1990s, and this, coupled with the brutality of the Ba’athist regime, paved the way for the government’s rapid fall in 2003. The fact that companies from Coalition countries have been favored for reconstruction contracts has prompted accusations of a new economic imperialism. Ethnic and religious tensions Though the Ba’athist regime began by asserting its secularity, in reality much power was concentrated in the hands of the Sunni Muslim Tikriti tribe
Saddam Hussein, Iraq’s dictatorial leader in power from 1979 to 2003.
Ghazi al-Yawer, interim president from June 2004.
of Saddam Hussein. Domestic opposition was ruthlessly suppressed: chemical agents were used against the Kurds in the late 1980s and the habitat of the Shi’a Marsh Arabs was deliberately destroyed in the early 1990s. The 2003 invasion has reignited religious and ethnic tensions. An uprising in 2004 led by militant Shi’a cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in Najaf led to heavy fighting at some of Shi'a Islam’s holiest sites.
AID
†
Recipient
$116m (receipts)
.
Down 5% in 2002
Regime change in Iraq has led to a reassessment of relations with donors and debtors. The US and its allies have pledged to reconstruct Iraq, while many countries are cutting debts and reinvesting; Russia canceled $5 billion of Iraqi debt in 2004.
313
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Iraq became independent in 1932. In 1958, the Hashemite dynasty was overthrown when King Faisal died in a coup led by the military under Brig. Kassem. He was initially supported by the Iraqi Ba’ath Party.
I
,
No compulsory military service
Not available
IRAQI ARMED FORCES
To be recreated by 2006
No data
Disbanded
No data
Disbanded
No data
None
The military was intertwined with Saddam Hussein’s regime. After the 1991
ECONOMICS $14.8bn
†
war Iraq’s arsenal of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) were set to be destroyed under UN sanctions. The regime claimed to have complied but obstructed weapons inspectors, prompting the 2003 invasion. Iraqi troops melted away in the face of overwhelming force, but there is fierce resistance to occupying forces. No WMDs were found. A UN resolution in 2004 handed control of Iraqi forces to the interim government and encouraged consultation on Coalition operations. The new army is planned to number 40,000; the air force will be primarily for reconnaissance. Following a request from Prime Minister Allawi, NATO has agreed to provide training.
Not available
1456 new Iraqi dinars (0.311 old dinars)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
GDP
SCORE CARD
160
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................76th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$625 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................Not available INFLATION ..........................................70% UNEMPLOYMENT .........................Not available
EXPORTS
Netherlands 6% USA 38%
Jordan 7%
120
100
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
France 8% Canada 8%
Other 33% IMPORTS
Germany 7%
140
GDP 1998=100
314
Not available
†
Consumer price index unavailable
1961 Start of Kurdish rebellion. Iraq claims sovereignty over Kuwait on the eve of Kuwait’s independence. 1963 Kassem overthrown. Col. Abd as-Salem Muhammad Aref takes power. Kuwait’s sovereignty recognized. 1964 Ayatollah Khomeini, future leader of Iran, takes refuge in Iraq. 1966 Aref is succeeded by his brother, Abd ar-Rahman. 1968 Ba’athists under Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr take power. 1970 Revolutionary Command Council agrees manifesto on Kurdish autonomy. 1972 Nationalization of Western-controlled Iraq Petroleum Company. 1978 Iraq and Syria form economic and political union. 1979 Saddam Hussein replaces al-Bakr as president. 1980 Outbreak of Iran–Iraq war. 1982 Shi’a leader Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, exiled in Tehran, forms Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq. 1988 Iraq and Iran agree cease-fire. Iraqi chemical weapons attack on Kurdish village of Halabja. 1990 British journalist Farzad Bazoft hanged for spying. Iraq and Iran restore diplomatic relations. Iraq invades Kuwait. UN imposes trade sanctions. 1991 Gulf War. US-led military coalition defeats Iraq. Shi’a rebellion brutally suppressed. Northern no-fly zone enforced. 1992 Western powers proclaim air exclusion zone over south. 1994 Outbreak of Kurdish civil war. Iraq recognizes Kuwaiti sovereignty. 1995 Government minister Gen. Hussein Kamil defects to Jordan, and is murdered on his return to Iraq in January 1996. 1996 First legislative elections since 1989 won by ruling Ba’ath Party. UN supervises limited sales of Iraqi oil to purchase humanitarian supplies. 1998–1999 UN weapons inspection teams refused reentry into Iraq; US and UK mount punitive air strikes. 2002 Weapons inspectors return. 2003 Coalition forces invade. Saddam Hussein overthrown. 2004 Transitional constitution; handover to interim government.
DEFENSE
Vietnam 8% China 8% France 8%
Other 59% Jordan 10%
STRENGTHS Third-largest crude oil reserves in the world. Sizable natural gas reserves. US promises aid. Large labor force.
remains at a standstill. Harsh penalties, including the death sentence, failed to curb the black market or halt the sharp depreciation of the dinar. Efforts at recovery, such as the resumption of some informal economic links and the revision of UN sanctions in 2002, were undermined by the return of war in 2003. Hopes for the postwar economy will rest on the sale of oil and rebuilt infrastructure. New Saddam-less dinars came into circulation in October 2003. IRAQ : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Arbil
Al Maw§il
Kirkúk Baiji Tuz Khurmátú
WEAKNESSES Infrastructure devastated by war. Legacy of sanctions. War-ravaged agricultural sector.
Karbalá’
Khánaqín
Baghdad
PROFILE Before 1990, Iraq was the world’s thirdlargest oil supplier, but under sanctions oil was produced only for the domestic market. Limited exports under strict UN supervision were resumed in 1996, and in 2000 Iraq was permitted to buy parts and equipment for the oil industry. The denial of Western assistance after the 1991 Gulf War stifled Iraq’s economy. Agriculture, once thriving, was devastated. Manufacturing
Al Kúfah
Cement Textiles Salt mining
Al Ba§rah An Ná§iríyah Az Zubayr
Oil refining Iron & steel Food processing
0
Petrochemicals/fertilizers 0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: IRAQ
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 9.5m kW
22,800 tonnes
1.34m b/d (reserves 115bn barrels)
6.2m sheep, 1.65m goats, 1.4m cattle, 380,000 donkeys
Oil, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur, gypsum
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
100
80
/
None
†
†
CRIME
3.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No
No
No
No
7
Crime is rising
per 100,000 population
Rapes
War has led to massive environmental damage. As a specific legacy of the first Gulf War, hundreds of thousands of landmines remain in the south, and there is concern about the long-term effects of the depleted uranium shells used by the US and its allies. The north has been affected by chemical weapons, used by Saddam Hussein’s regime against the Kurds. In the southeast, an entire wetland ecosystem was largely destroyed by a politically motivated program to drain the marshes.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
Iraq does not publish rape statistics Thefts Thefts rose considerably in 2003
Looting was rife during the 2003 war. US troops were accused of serious abuses. Resistance to military occupation has given rise to widespread lawlessness and hostage-taking. The interim government has offered an amnesty to insurgents.
2 services: 1 state-controlled, 1 independent. The US also makes TV broadcasts
1 US-controlled service, 1 UK-controlled service, many independent stations
†
EDUCATION 40%
ri s
tes
A
200 km
0 0
200 miles
†
Welfare state health benefits Pneumonia, influenza, cancers, heart diseases
Deaths among children and the elderly had spiraled sharply before 2003, as UN sanctions led to shortages of medical supplies and equipment. Hospitals in major cities were damaged by looters in the aftermath of hostilities. Increases in birth defects since 1991 are attributed to the Allies’ use of depleted uranium shells during the first Gulf War.
†
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
36 per 1000 population
28 per 1000 population
Defense No data Education No data
School leaving age: 11
Health 1% 0
288,670 students
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The 2003 invasion has raised hopes among Iraqis of a more affluent future. The middle classes are likely to fare best, but all are currently affected by the appalling security situation.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
Many new newspapers have been launched since the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime
hra
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 19 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
AJ
1 per 1667 people
Murders No
Í
HEALTH
CRIME RATES
No
AL
Death penalty in use
/
Iraq does not publish prison figures
E up
H
ENVIRONMENT
Sustainability rank: 139th
T ig
RA
Iraq has huge reserves of oil and natural gas (the third-largest in the world). Total gas reserves, many of
DESERT
I A
60
40
SYRIAN
M
20
% of total generation by type
S
A
0
E
T
Other 0%
M
O
Nuclear 0%
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Desert Sheep Wheat Dates - cash crop
P
Combustion 98% (30bn kWh)
IRAQ : LAND USE
O
Hydro 2% (0.6bn kWh)
which are associated with oil, are proven to be 3.11 trillion cu. m (110 trillion cu. ft), with estimates of a further 4.25 trillion cu. m (150 trillion cu. ft). The capture of oil fields was a key priority for the invading Coalition forces in 2003, ostensibly to provide a firm economic future for a postwar Iraq. US companies are likely to be at the forefront of reconstruction. Before the 1990 invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent war, Iraq supplied 80% of the world’s trade in dates. After the imposition of sanctions, food was produced simply for domestic consumption, and Iraq achieved a degree of self-sufficiency in such crops as wheat, rice, and sugarcane.
80
WORLD RANKING
60
99% 40
Position in World 1st
38%
20
14% 0
Primary
Secondary
50th
Tertiary 100th
The media were strictly controlled under Saddam Hussein. During the 2003 war many journalists were “emedded” with invading troops. In the war’s aftermath a flurry of new newspapers emerged, most controlled by aspiring political and social groups. The interim government closed the Baghdad office of influential pan-Arab broadcaster al-Jazeera in mid-2004 for “inciting violence.”
The Ba’athist regime controlled the education system, using it to instill loyalty. University scientists worked closely with the regime on weapons research programs. Many priceless museum artefacts were stolen by looters in 2003, and the Baghdad Library lies in ashes. In postwar Iraq the reconstruction of the education system was not immediately prioritized.
150th
193rd
136 $625
133 63 years
183 40%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
172 107 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
315
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
IRELAND
Europe
EUROPE United Kingdom IRELAND
OFFICIAL NAME: Ireland CAPITAL: Dublin POPULATION: 4 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Irish and English 1922
1922
March 17
IRL
0
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2007
L
YING IN THE Atlantic Ocean, off the west coast of Great Britain, the Irish republic occupies about 85% of the island of Ireland. Low coastal ranges surround a central basin with lakes, hills, and peat bogs. Centuries of struggle against English domination led in 1922 to the formation of the Irish Free State and in 1937 to full sovereignty. Efforts to resolve the Northern Ireland conflict center on the 1998 Good Friday accord, under which Ireland gave up its territorial claim.
WEATHER CHART FOR DUBLIN
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
-10/14 -20/-4
Moderated by the Gulf Stream, the Irish climate is mild, equable, and wet. The mean annual temperature is 12˚C (54˚F).
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on left
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
50% FF
1919 km (1192 miles)
700 km (435 miles)
E C C
Achill Island Westport
Carrick Cavan on Shannon
Castlebar
I
Tuam
Lough Corrib
Athlone
A
n on
Sh
Lough Derg
L
T 50
60
70
80
Loop Head
M
U
N
Roscrea Carlow Kilkenny or e
Tipperary
S
T
E
1000m/3281ft
’s rg e St. Geo
a Ch
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
N
Sea Level
Cork
Bantry
C
LAND HEIGHT
Youghal
Lee
S T E L
S E A
Wexford
Dungarvan
I R I S H
Wicklow
Arklow
Waterford Bla c kwa ter
Kenmare
Bray
Enniscorthy
Suir
Mallow
under 10 000
DUBLIN Dún Laoghaire
New Ross
R
Clonmel
Dingle Bay Killarney Carrauntoohill 1041m Macgillicuddy's Macroom Reeks
Lucan Naas
Port Laoise
Limerick
Tralee
Ba
over 10 000 Swords
LEI NS TER
Nenagh
Shannon Airport n S han n o
Rathkeale
ay yB ntr
over 100 000
y ne Sla
40
Tullamore
an
N
30
Drogheda
n
Kilkoch
B ar row
20
Tourist numbers have increased steadily in recent years, exceeding six million a year. Vibrant Dublin attracts many on city breaks. Other draws are scenery, Ireland’s “clean” environmental image, and the relaxed lifestyle.
316
Loughrea
Ennis
% of total arrivals
over 500 000 over 50 000
Boy
Leixlip Oranmore
Galway Bay
Kilkee
Mullingar
Lough Ree
Oughterard
France 5% Other 21%
Ceanannus Mór
Dundalk Bay
Roscommon
Aran Is
USA 12%
POPULATION
Dundalk Ardee
CONNA UGHT Longford
Clifden
Total Area : 70 280 sq. km (27 135 sq. miles)
Monaghan
Manorhamilton
Ballina
Galway UK 62%
IRELAND
Bundoran
Sligo
Belmullet
Lough Mask
N
Up 2% in 2002
NORTHERN IRELAND
Donegal
Lough Conn
T
Visitors : Population 1.6:1
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
7% PD
40%
Donegal Bay
O
EU funds have improved road networks. A new tram system from 2004 is aimed at relieving Dublin’s notorious congestion.
0
8% LP
el
125 km (78 miles)
/
25% FG
Coalition governments have been the norm in recent decades, the taoiseach (prime minister) coming either from Anglican 3% FG or FF. The latter, once seen as the Other and nonreligious traditional party of government, has 9% dominated a coalition under Bertie Ahern since the 1997 elections. Roman Though it improved its position in Catholic 88% the April 2002 elections, Ahern’s FF remains just short of an The population is 93% ethnic Irish. outright majority of seats The influence of the Roman Malin Head in the legislature and Catholic Church is declining. Carndonagh Tory so continues to Ireland is now a country le Island y Fo Crossroads depend on its junior h of net immigration, g ou partner, the PD. against the trend Aran Letterkenny of the past Island N Lifford 150 years. Glenties 60%
A
86,950 km (54,028 miles)
6.48m visitors
8% 2% Ind Others
Senate 60 seats
nn
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
†
4% 8% GP Others
L
220 ships 279,560 grt
TOURISM
12% LP
FF = Fianna Fail FG = Fine Gael LP = Labour Party PD = Progressive Democrats GP = Green Party SF = Sinn Fein Ind = Independents
e
Dublin 15.9m passengers
5% 3% PD SF
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
19% FG
49% FF
58/km2 (150/mi2)
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
President Mary McAleese
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Pop. density medium
English, Irish Gaelic
A
I
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
PEOPLE
Maritime
Multiparty elections
House of Representatives 166 seats
W Mo icklo un t w ain s
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.ie
+353
I C
E
A
0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: IRELAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
ESA
Joined UN in 1955
OECD
EU
OSCE
Northern Ireland dominates relations with the UK. Ireland accepted the 2001 Treaty of Nice on EU enlargement only after a second referendum.
†
AID
/
417,244 tonnes 6.92m cattle, 4.83m sheep, 1.78m pigs, 11.3m chickens
Lead, zinc, natural gas, silver, coal, oil
Zinc and lead are the most important mineral resources and Ireland is one of the EU’s major producers.
ENVIRONMENT Up 39% in 2002
Ireland has gone from benefiting from EU aid to being a net contributor.
DEFENSE $718m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 11% in 2002
Ireland is determined to maintain its neutrality, despite EU moves to establish a common European defense policy. It has observer status at the WEU.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 3.7% p.a. (1990–2001)
/
2% (0.3% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 37th
11.1 tonnes per capita
The main environmental concerns are overexploitation of the country’s peat bogs for fuel and the recent expansion of conifer plantations, even though this increases forest cover. In 1994 stringent new laws increased pollution controls. Work began in 2003 on the world’s largest offshore wind farm, off the coast of Arklow.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
CHRONOLOGY English colonization, begun in 1167, was reinforced after 1558 by antiCatholic legislation and settlement of Scottish Protestants in the north. 1845–1855 Famine. One million die, 1.5 million emigrate. 1919–1921 Anglo-Irish war after Sinn Fein proclaims independence. 1922 Irish Free State established. 1973 FG/LP alliance wins elections, ending FF’s ascendancy since 1932. 1990 Mary Robinson elected first woman president. 1995 Referendum favors divorce. 1997 Bertie Ahern appointed taioseach (prime minister). 1998 Good Friday accord on Northern Ireland. 2002 Euro fully adopted.
I
0.822 euros (0.871)
STRENGTHS Size of economy doubled during EUbacked “Celtic tiger” growth phase up to 2001, achieving trade surplus and full employment. Efficient agriculture and food processing. Foreign investment in high-tech sector: electronics account for 25% of exports. Highly educated workforce. Offshore gas and oil exploration.
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
End of boom after 2001. Many key sectors owned by overseas multinationals. Housing shortages and strains on other infrastructure. Return of higher unemployment, and rising inflation.
3 national services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
The national Radio Telefis Éireann (RTE) dominates broadcasting. Radió na Gaeltachta and TG4 broadcast in Irish. Access to UK media is widespread.
CRIME
†
3366 prisoners
Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases
1 per 417 people
99%
Care is means-tested; about two-thirds of people pay to see a doctor. There is a modest charge for hospital care. Smoking in enclosed public areas and workplaces was banned in 2004.
/
School leaving age: 15
166,600 students
The Roman Catholic Church runs many schools. Increased education spending has resulted in a skilled workforce.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
349 per 1000 population
502 per 1000 population
Defense 0.6%
Up 41% in 2000–2001
†
†
SPENDING
No death penalty
Rural Ireland has one of the EU’s lowest crime rates. Urban crime and narcotics are a problem in Dublin and Cork.
EDUCATION
WEAKNESSES
Welfare state health benefits
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 6 daily newspapers. These include the Irish Times and the Irish Independent
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................38th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$23,030 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$925m INFLATION .........................................4.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................4%
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 150 per 1000 people
SCORE CARD
Electric power 4.7m kW
Oil reserves not yet exploited
Donor
$398m (donations)
$90.3bn
†
RESOURCES
Education 4.3% Health 4.9% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Ireland has one of the highest levels of living standards in the EU, and welfare benefits are relatively generous.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
France 5%
Germany 7%
1
50th
Other 33%
$23,030 100th
10
99%
16
Belgium 15%
29
28
77 years
6 deaths
USA 17% UK 23% 150th
IMPORTS
Netherlands 4% France 4%
193rd
Germany 7% USA 15%
UK 41%
Other 29%
Clew Bay in County Mayo, on the western coast of Connaught, viewed from the slopes of neighboring Croagh Patrick.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
317
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ISRAEL
Lebanon
Africa Jordan
1948
1994
May 12
IL
+2
.il
+972
T
HE CREATION OF ISRAEL in 1948 in what was then British mandate of Palestine fulfilled the Zionist ambition for a Jewish state. Subsequent military victories over its Arab neighbors enabled Israel to annex or occupy additional territory, some of which it returned to Egypt under the 1978 Camp David agreement. Hopes in the 1990s for a “land for peace” deal to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict became mired in a cycle of violence.
†
Hot desert/ Mediterranean
I
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR JERUSALEM
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
TRANSPORTATION Ben-Gurion International, Tel Aviv 7.19m passengers
†
8%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Druze and other 2% Muslim (mainly Sunni) 16%
Jewish 80% Drive on right
Other (mostly Arab) 20%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 56 km (35 miles)
676 km (420 miles)
None
Railroads are being extended. There are three commercial ports. Ben-Gurion international airport has been expanded.
862,300 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:7.4
.
Down 28% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
USA 24%
President Moshe Katzav
2003/2007 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament (Knesset) 120 seats
31% Lik
Multiparty elections
6% NU
16% 12% 9% 5% 21% Lab Shi Sha Mer Others
Israel is a multiparty democracy.
Governments alternate between rightwing Likud or left-of-center Labor leadership. Since neither can win an overall majority they must either join in a unity government, or bridge the religious–secular divide in fractious coalitions with smaller parties. Likud, under Prime Minister Ariel Sharon from 2001, doubled its presence in the Knesset in 2003. His right-wing coalition collapsed in 2004 over the proposed withdrawal from Gaza.
ETHNIC MAKEUP
50 ships 765,300 grt
16,521 km (10,266 miles)
†
POLITICS
PROFILE
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-20/-4
Summers are hot and dry. The wet season is between November and March, when the weather is mild.
315/km2 (815/mi2)
92%
Egypt
Lik = Likud Lab = Labor Shi = Shinui Sha = Shas NU = National Union Mer = Meretz
Pop. density high
Hebrew, Arabic, Yiddish, German, Russian, Polish, Romanian, Persian
Christian 2%
-10/14
TOURISM
Syria
ISRAEL
OFFICIAL NAME: State of Israel CAPITAL: Jerusalem (not internationally recognized) POPULATION: 6.4 million CURRENCY: Shekel OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Hebrew and Arabic
CLIMATE
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
Jewish 80%
Large numbers of Jewish immigrants settled in Palestine before Israel was founded. Sephardi Jews from the Middle East and Mediterranean are now probably in the majority, but Ashkenazi Jews, most of central European origin, still dominate society. Hundreds of thousands of Russian Jews have arrived since 1989. Israel’s non-Jewish minority population – mostly Arab and predominantly Muslim (with Christian and Druze minorities) – totals more than one million but remains largely sidelined in Israeli life. There are tensions between secular and Orthodox Jews, and between left and right over the pursuit of peace with the Palestinians.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Peace with the Palestinians The central question is whether Israel’s security should be based solely on armed strength, or on agreements with Palestinians and neighboring countries. Small but influential religious parties support Jewish settlement of the occupied territories, which hampers any “land for peace” deal. Sharon has insisted on a change in the Palestinian leadership and an end to violence before talks could even begin. The renewed intifada (uprising), with Palestinian terror attacks and suicide bombings of civilians, reinforced skepticism about prospects for peace. An Israeli “security barrier” erected in the West Bank to block suicide bombers is criticized as illegal and irredentist.
France 14% UK 11% Germany 5%
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Other 43%
Age
Female 1.3%
Russia 3%
5.9% 9.9% 14.5% 18.8%
Israel contains important sites for many faiths, but tourism has been damaged by the ongoing conflict.
318
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.9% 4.7% 9.4% 14.7% 19.9%
% of population by age group
Ariel Sharon, Israel’s hard-line prime minister elected in 2001.
Yasser Arafat, the militant-turnedmoderate leader of the PLO.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ISRAEL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS EBRD
IAEA
Joined UN in 1949
IDB
IBRD
†
/
Up 338% in 2002
Israel receives massive military and economic aid from the US. Large ad hoc donations are also received from Jewish NGOs.
ECONOMICS
B
over 100 000
E Qiryat L Shemona
over 50 000 over 10 000
Haré Meron 1208m
Nahariyya Mifra∞ ⁄efa
⁄efa
A R
R
Netanya
E
Ra‘ananna Herzliyya
D
T Tel Aviv-Yafo Bat Yam ⁄olon
H A SH A R O N
EA N
⁄adera
N
-200m/-656ft
Na∞erat ‘Illit Na∞erat ‘Afula
lQ ¡a
Sea Level
Na
500m/1640ft
is h
on
Jenin
W E S T
Peta¡ Tiqwa Ramat Gan B A N K Lod Ramla
Rishon Le fiiyyon Re¡ovot Ashdod
Ramallah
Jericho
Ki
Qiryat Gat
Bethlehem
Dead Sea
Hebron
n
D
(under Palestinian administration) Khán Yúnis Rafah
n Co ere n d t - Ne ui t g e v
Gaza GAZA STRIP
‘Arad
Be’ér Sheva‘ ⁄OLOT
Dimona
⁄ALUfiA
dí a
O
Consumer Price Index
Y J 50 km
160
140
140
50 miles
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................35th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$16,020 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$2.14bn INFLATION .........................................5.6% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
UK 4% Germany 3%
Hong Kong 5% Belgium 6%
Other 42% USA 40% IMPORTS
UK 7%
Other 52%
Belgium 9%
USA 19%
The Palestinian uprising since 2000 has led to recession and hit trade, tourism, and investment. Tough austerity measures have somewhat offset the trend. The military response has eaten into the Israeli budget and inflicted damage in the West Bank and Gaza Strip estimated at over $300 million. ISRAEL : MAJOR BUSINESSES ⁄efa Na∞erat
120
120
100
100
Ashqelon
Jerusalem
Be’ér Sheva‘
80
80 1998
0
GDP
160
1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1998=100
T
0
Consumer price index 1998=100
P N
Unofficial arsenal of up to 100 warheads. Delivery via Jericho 1 and Jericho 2 missiles
Tel Aviv-Yafo
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
Wá
G
l ‘A
rab ah
R
E H A N E G E V
35,000 personnel
Germany 7%
The government seeks ways to reduce massive state spending. The state owns most of the land and controls over 20% of all industries and services. Public companies are being privatized and there are plans to end restrictive labor practices. Agriculture, highly specialized and profitable, has been eclipsed by high-tech industries. The state aims to boost the service sector. Israel’s economy expanded in the 1990s, benefiting from mass immigration of Jews from the former USSR. Though unemployment rose, new skills and contacts helped the economy toward sustained export-led growth. Pockets of poverty remain in “development towns.”
A
JERUSALEM Bet Shemesh
Ashqelon
688 combat aircraft (50 F-4E-2000, 62 F-15, 203 F-16)
PROFILE
Náblus
Kefar Sava
7600 personnel
Switzerland 6%
Túlkarm
N
SEA
1000m/3281ft
HEIGHTS
Karmi ’él Lake Qiryat Ata Tiberias Shefar ‘am Teverya
3 submarines and 53 patrol boats
EXPORTS
Conflict. Large defense budget. Cost of settlement and integration of immigrants. Little trade with neighbors. Decline of tourism. Rising wealth disparities and unemployment; increasing labor unrest. Corruption.
GOLAN
fiefat
‘Akko
Qiryat Motzkin
125,000 personnel
SCORE CARD
WEAKNESSES
SY R I A
Jordan
LAND HEIGHT
200m/656ft
ON AN
3950 main battle tanks (Centurion, M-60A1/3, Magach 7, Merkava I–IV)
Inflation 9.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
Modern infrastructure. Trade with EU. Sophisticated agriculture, hightech industry, and manufacturing. Privatization initiatives. Educated population. Banking sector.
Total Area : 20 770 sq. km (8019 sq. miles)
E
†
STRENGTHS
POPULATION
M
ISRAELI ARMED FORCES
Down 4% in 2002
4.501 sheqalim (4.324)
$105bn
ISRAEL
I
Compulsory military service
Israel, the only known nuclear-armed power in the Middle East, has a small regular defense force, which can be boosted by over 350,000 reservists. Equipped with some of the latest US technology, it is vastly superior to the forces of its Arab neighbors in firepower and training. To counter the Palestinian intifada (uprising) it uses punitive strikes and counterinsurgency methods, including targeted assassinations.
Recipient
$754m (receipts)
.
$9.44bn
WTO
Israel is technically at war with all Arab states except Egypt and Jordan. In 2000 it withdrew from southern Lebanon. Aside from ties with the US and Turkey, Israel’s harsh response to Palestinian attacks leaves it increasingly isolated.
AID
†
DEFENSE
Textiles Chemicals Computers Food processing Pharmaceuticals
0
Consumer goods
0
50 km 50 miles
Elat
Gulf of Aqaba
319
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ISRAEL AND THE PALESTINIANS
T
THE PALESTINIANS Palestinians in the occupied territories suffer from high unemployment and limited economic or educational opportunities. Two and a half million live as refugees in Jordan, Syria, and
Jerusalem, a city divided by conflict.
GAZA STRIP Area/Town under Palestinian control
A
Qabátiya
Túlkarm
Náblus
Qalqílya
Jiftlik Post
Mas-ìa
’Aujá et Taìtá Ramallah Nu’eima Jericho Abu Dis Bethlehem
Dead (Israel retains 15%control)
Living in markedly superior conditions, Israelis see the existence of their country as an established fact and an inalienable right. Against the background of a Jewish history of persecution, the hostility of Palestinian militants and disaffected Muslims everywhere tends to harden Israeli resolve and the determination not to give way to “terrorism.”
WAR
AND PEACE
In recent years Palestinian militants have adopted suicide bombing as the main weapon against the Israelis, as well as ambushes on Jewish settlers and sporadic low-level actions against Israeli troops. In response, Israel’s tactics have ranged from closing borders, bulldozing the homes of suspected bombers, shooting individual stone-throwers, and, most recently, constructing a massive “security fence.” Targeted assassination – the murder of senior militants by Israeli forces using precision missiles – is a strategy condemned by most of the international community, though importantly not by the US.
0 0
Sea
Area/Town under Palestinian administration
Israeli settlement
Palestinian refugee camp
Other settlement
25 km 25 miles
weeks as neither side complied with even the basic principles of dismantling settlements and ending suicide bombings. The right-wing Israeli government of Ariel Sharon has increasingly moved toward a unilateral approach; the “security fence,” damned as illegal by the International Court of Justice in July 2004, is intended to act as a physical barrier around the West Bank to block suicide bombers. An agreement was reached within Sharon’s party in 2004 to withdraw Jewish settlements from Gaza by 2006. For its part, the PNA has become increasingly unable to control radical militants and is facing serious internal divisions; open violence between rival factions broke out in Gaza in 2004.
E
L
E
Jenin
N
Hebron
Under the 1993 Oslo Accords each side officially recognized the other, S and accepted the concept of “land Jabáliya Beit Layiha N Gaza for peace” as a means of advancing A E toward “final status” talks. The slow N A R progress of negotiations, however, R E and the heavy-handed response of Deir el Balaì T I Israel to low-level Palestinian violence, D E M undid this apparent progress. Efforts to resurrect the peace process have A Khán Yúnis involved various bold proposals by thirdR N party mediators, the Israeli state, or S unofficial Palestinian pressure groups. Rafah I The 2003 US “roadmap” outlined a timetable for establishing a full 0 10 km Palestinian state and an end to the 0 10 miles intifada. It was undermined within Israeli settlement
WEST BANK
n Jorda
I
Lebanon. These conditions foster disillusionment and anger, leading a minority to adopt the tactics of intifada, from throwing stones at Israeli soldiers to suicide bombings. The 1993 accords granted the Palestinians internal selfrule in the West Bank (5900 sq. km – 2300 sq. miles) and Gaza (1000 sq. km – 400 sq. miles) – inhabited by two million Palestinians (and 300,000 Jewish settlers) – under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA). The PNA is governed by an 88-member Legislative Council, led by Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) head Yasser Arafat, elected president in 1996. Secular groups such as Fatah (linked to the PLO) have now rejected violence against civilians, but others such as the religiously motivated Hamas and the al-Aqsa Martyrs’ Brigade embrace death as a legitimate means to an end.
J O R D A N
between Israel and the Palestinians is crucial to Middle East, and indeed global, politics. For Jews, the historic territory of Palestine is seen as the “promised land,” with the holy city of Jerusalem at its center; Jerusalem, however, is not only the spiritual home of Judaism but a revered site for the other major Abrahamic religions – Christianity and Islam. For the Arab people living in Palestine the territory was simply their home until the creation of the state of Israel in 1948. Supported by the West as reparation for the Holocaust and centuries of persecution in Europe, this effectively turned almost one million Arabs into refugees overnight. Some 300,000 more left territories occupied by Israel in 1967. The Palestinian goal is now a separate and viable Palestinian state, to include at least the territories occupied in 1967 and especially East Jerusalem as its capital. Their struggle (intifada) has attracted international support, from Islamists in particular, while being met by an increasingly hard-line response from Israel. HE CONFLICT
T E G Y P
320
Palestinian supporters display their opposition to the Israeli barrier.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ISRAEL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 9.1m kW
25,100 tonnes
80 b/d (reserves 7.3m barrels)
4.8m turkeys, 1.4m geese, 395,000 sheep, 30m chickens
Natural gas, oil, salt, potash, copper, gold, magnesium, bromine
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Jordan
Hydro 0% Combustion 100% (43bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 20
0
60
40
CHRONOLOGY
largest exporter), and other salts mined near the Dead Sea. Reserves of copper ore and gold were discovered in 1988. In the coastal plain, mixed farming, vineyards, and citrus groves are plentiful. Former desert areas now have extensive Dead irrigation systems Sea supporting specialized agriculture.
100
80
% of total generation by type
HANAGEV
Israel’s most critical resource is water. The water of the River Jordan is shared by Jordan and Israel, and Israel also buys water from Turkey. The country’s most valuable mineral deposits are potash salts, bromine (of which Israel is the world’s
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
16% partially protected
ISRAEL : LAND USE
†
10 tonnes per capita
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Violent crime rose in 2000–2001
CRIME RATES
Murders 3
50 miles
Yes
The vast majority of violent attacks are due to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Car theft is a rising concern.
Yes
Yes
Yes
†
EDUCATION 95%
School leaving age: 16
270,979 students
1967 Israeli victory in Six-Day War. 1973 Egypt and Syria attack Israel. 1978 Camp David accords with Egypt. 1979 Formal peace treaty, Sinai returned to Egypt. 1982 Israel invades Lebanon. 1987 Palestinians launch intifada. 1993 Oslo Accords. 1994 Palestinian autonomy begins in Gaza and Jericho. 1995 Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin assassinated. 1996 Palestinian elections. 1998 Government stalls on USbacked plan to revive peace process. 1999 Ehud Barak (Labor) prime minister. Renewed peace process with Palestinians and Syria. 2000 Israel withdraws from Lebanon. Intifada relaunched. 2001 Ariel Sharon (Likud) prime minister; forms unity government. 2002 Intifada and reprisals intensify. Unity government collapses. 2003 Likud wins elections. US peace “roadmap” published. 2004 Gaza withdrawal agreed.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
227 per 1000 population
100
467 per 1000 population
Defense 9.7% Education 7.3%
80
Health 6% 60
0
100%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
93%
40
53% 20
0
Primary
Secondary
HEALTH
†
Income per head is high, but taxation is heavy. In theory, those living in communes (kibbutzim) eschew personal material wealth.
Tertiary
A highly educated population has been the engine of Israel’s economic growth. State schools have religious (Jewish), secular, and Arab streams. Ultraorthodox and Sephardi Jews increasingly run their own private establishments. Welfare state health benefits
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
7 28
79 years
28
$16,020
22
6 deaths
100th
74 95%
Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases
150th
The ratio of doctors to the total population in Israel is one of the highest in the world. Primary health care reaches all Israeli communities. Its hospitals have pioneered many innovative treatments.
193rd
1 per 270 people
per 100,000 population
Yes
per 100,000 population
Thefts 3221
0
Yes
per 100,000 population
Rapes 10
50 km
% of each age group in education
2 state-owned services, many independent stations
The left-wing press favors the peace process. The number of private radio stations, many right-wing, is rising. Media freedom in Israel itself contrasts with severe restrictions in the occupied territories.
10,164 prisoners
0
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
There are 34 daily newspapers. The leading papers are the Hebrew Ha’aretz, and the English Jerusalem Post
†
Daily newspaper circulation 290 per 1000 people
CRIME
Sustainability rank: 63rd
TV ownership high
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
Cropland Forest Pasture Desert Sheep Citrus fruit – cash crop
Government environmental efforts focus on recycling and the cleanup of towns and rivers. In an effort to halt the depletion of the Dead Sea, water is to be piped from the Red Sea.
MEDIA
War with the neighboring Arab states followed immediately upon the creation of the state of Israel in 1948.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
321
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
ITALY
EUROPE Austria
Switz. France ITALY Tunisia
OFFICIAL NAME: Italian Republic CAPITAL: Rome POPULATION: 57.4 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Italian 1861
1947
June 2
I
+1
.it
+39
F
T
D L A N E R Z I T
Mont Blanc 4807m
L Lago Lake di Como Maggiore
A
Varese
Biella
A
Vercelli
i Tic
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
39.6m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Parma
Cueno
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
La Spezia
† .
Down 1% in 2003
Imperia San Remo
P o
To
Pisa Livorno
L I G U R I A N S E A
France 14%
Isola d’Elba Grosseto
go
Austria 12%
Corsica
Switzerland 8%
(FRANCE)
UK 7%
-20/-4
in
Pistoia Prato Arno Firenze
Viareggio
Germany 30%
-10/14
nn
Carrara Massa
Genova
MONACO
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
di
la
30/86
pe
Savona
pe
40/16
Reggio nell’ Emilia A Modena Bologna Ap Rapallo
ino Ligure pe nn Ap Genova
A rc i
40/104
V A L L E Y Mantova
Piacenza
Asti
E
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR ROME
O
Alessandria
C
Mediterranean/mountain
P
no
Torino
N
†
Verona
Milano
Novara
Tanaro
Lago di Garda
Brescia
Monza
Gran Paradiso 4061m
I CLIMATE
Trento Lecco Bergamo
Como
Gol f o Visitors : Population 1:1.4
S
P
Aosta
R
HE BOOT-SHAPED Italian peninsula stretches 800 km (500 miles) southward into the Mediterranean, while the Alps form a natural boundary to the north. Italy also includes Sicily, Sardinia, and several smaller islands. The south is an area of seismic activity, with two famous volcanoes, Vesuvius and Etna. Rival city-states flourished in Renaissance Italy, a unified country only in Roman times and since 1861. Fascist rule under Mussolini from 1922 ended with Italy’s defeat in World War II. The Christian Democrats (DC) then dominated Italy’s notoriously short-lived governments for decades, until in the 1990s the established parties and patronage systems were shaken up by corruption investigations. New groupings emerged, power alternating between a right-wing coalition and a broad center-left Olive Tree alliance.
W
S
U
A
Greece
T
os
ca
no
Other 29%
TRANSPORTATION Leonardo da Vinci (Fiumicino), Rome 26.3m passengers
†
Drive on right
1486 ships 9.6m gr t
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 479,688 km (298,064 miles)
6460 km (4014 miles)
16,307 km (10,133 miles)
2400 km (1491 miles)
Roads, which carry most of Italy’s trade via Switzerland and Austria, are badly congested. The autostrada (expressway) network lacks key links, and serious bottlenecks affect the main north– south artery. Rail services are extensive and cheap. Luxurious Pendolino trains link Rome and Milan, but the highspeed TAV (treno alta velocità) project is behind schedule and over budget.
322
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Italy has been a tourist destination since the 16th century. Roman popes consciously aimed to make their city the most beautiful in the world to attract travelers. In the 18th century, Italy was the focus of any Grand Tour. Today, its many unspoiled centers of Renaissance and ancient culture continue to make Italy one of the world’s major tourism destinations. The industry accounts for 2.5% of Italy’s GDP, and employs around a million people – 4% of the workforce. Most visitors travel to the northern half of Italy, to cities such as Venice and Florence, and to Rome. Tourists are also drawn to the northern lakes, while beach resorts such as Rimini attract a large, youthful crowd in summer. Italy is also growing in popularity as a skiing destination. In the south the breathtaking ruins of Roman Pompeii are a particular magnet for visitors. Fears have been expressed about the detrimental impact of tourism on Italy’s environment. The millions of day-trippers who flood into Venice every year increase waste in the city, while high-speed pleasure boats erode and pollute the canals.
Olbia
Porto Torres Sassari Alghero Macomer
Tir so
A Mediterranean climate in the south contrasts with more temperate conditions in the north. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the south; Sardinia and Sicily have highs of more than 30˚C (86˚F). The Adriatic coast suffers from cold winds such as the bora. Southern winters are mild; northern ones are cooler and wetter, with heavy snow in the mountains.
Nuoro Monti del Gennargentu
Oristano
Sardegna (S a rd i n i a) Arbatax
Iglesias Sant Antioco
Carbonia
Cagliari
ME DI T Tuscan landscape. Chianti wine is produced in this region, where many northern Europeans own holiday homes.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ITALY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
S
T
Total Area : 301 230 sq. km (116 305 sq. miles)
R A
Pop. density medium 195/km2 (506/mi2)
Italian, German, French, Rhaeto-Romanic, Sardinian
I
Brenner Pass
†
PEOPLE
ITALY
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
POPULATION over 1 000 000
lo
m
it
i
over 500 000
67%
over 100 000 Tagliame nto
o D Belluno ve P ia
Udine Is
on
z
o Monfalcone Trieste
Treviso Vicenza Padova
Venezia Adige
S L O V ENIA
Bolzano
over 50 000
Other and nonreligious 13%
Muslim 2%
over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft
Roman Catholic 85%
2000m/6562ft
Golfo di Venezia
Po Rovigo Ferrara
33%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
1000m/3281ft
ETHNIC MAKEUP
500m/1640ft
Sardinian 2%
200m/656ft
Other 4%
Sea Level Ravenna Imola Forlì Cesena
P E
m
ia
Arezzo
n E o
T I
Civitavecchia
Ascoli Piceno Ap p Ma e nn Teramo rc in Terni hig oUm ian b o roL’Aquila A pp en
N
Te ve re
A
Orvieto
Vasto
no ni
ri Li
San Severo
e
Lido di Ostia
Rodi Gargancio
I
Tivoli Avezzano
ze s ruz Ab
ROME VATICAN CITY
C
Pescara
Latina
Manfredonia Foggia
N
Campobasso
t an Of
o lturn Vo
Avellino
c Lu
Penisola Salentina
di
an o
Ta r ant o
Paola
Rossano Cosenza
La Sila
Crotone
Nicastro Catanzaro
I. Lupari
di e tto S tr e s s ina M
Iso l e E o l i e
I. de Ustica
Vulcano
I O N I A N
Messina
Palermo Barcellona
Trapani Alcamo
S i c i l i a
Isole Egadi
(Sicily)
Corleone
Marsala
Castelvetrano Sciacca
R
A
N
Enna Caltanissetta Caltagirone
Agrigento
E
Pantelleria
A
Licata
N
S
E
A
o S ime t
T E R
S E A
Ragusa
N
Acireale Catania
Siracusa Gela Vittoria
Locri Reggio di Calabria
Mt Etna Taormina 3323m
Augusta 0 0
15.3%
20–39 0–19
8.3% 12.6% 15.7% 10.6%
% of population by age group
CHRONOLOGY Previously a collection of independent city-states, dukedoms, and monarchies, Italy became a unified state in 1861.
T Y R R H E N I A N S E A
40–59
Male 1.4%
nto
o in Castrovillari
Go l f o
O t ra
Lecce
nn
Golfo di Salerno
Brindisi Taranto
pe
60–79
13%
10.1%
of
Ap
80+
it
Salerno
I. d’Ischia
S tr a
Mu rg e
Potenza
Castellamare di Stabia
Age
Female
10.3%
Bari Monopoii
La
O
G olfo d i Vesuvio G a eta Napoli Isloe Ponziane Torre del Greco Isola di Capri
Andria
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
2.7%
Barletta Benevento
Teracina
o
Viterbo
N
Lago Trasimeno
I
Fabriano Perugia Assisi
Siena
Italy is a remarkably homogeneous society. Most Italians are Roman Catholics and Italy has far fewer ethnic minorities, many of whom are Muslims, than its EU neighbors. Difficult economic conditions caused many Italians to emigrate in the 1950s and 1960s. There are now five million Italians living abroad. While many live in what are now other EU countries, a great number headed for the New World. The poorer south – S the Mezzogiorno – has E always been the source of most emigrants. A
R
il
Pesaro Fano SAN Sengallia MARINO Ancona
D
o-
Italian 94%
A
sc
Rimini
Within Italy, prejudice still exists in the north against southern Italians. A sharp rise in illegal immigration in the 1980s and 1990s, from north and west Africa, Turkey, and Albania, became a major election issue and a factor in the rise of the federalist Northern League. Stringent measures were introduced in 1995 against illegal immigrants. Immigration is, nevertheless, vital for preserving the economy, as without it the country’s population would be not only aging but decreasing in number. International sporting occasions – especially soccer matches – have an unusual ability to bring out a strong sense of national identity among Italians. Otherwise, with state institutions viewed as inefficient and corrupt, most people feel a stronger allegiance to the region, or the community, and above all to the family. The extended family remains Italy’s key social and economic support system. Most Italians live at home until marriage. Marriage rates are among the highest in Europe and divorce rates the lowest. Catholicism, however, has not stopped Italy having one of the lowest birthrates in the Western world. Italians tend to dress well. Their preoccupation with style reflects the traditional importance of bella figura – image, cutting a dash – in Italian life as much as the high living standards which most now enjoy.
100 km 100 miles
1922 Mussolini asked to form government by king. 1928 One-party rule by Fascists. 1929 Lateran Treaties with Vatican recognize sovereignty of Holy See. 1936–1937 Axis formed with Nazi Germany. Abyssinia (Ethiopia) conquered. 1939 Albania annexed. 1940 Italy enters World War II on German side. 1943 Invaded by Allies. Mussolini imprisoned by Victor Emmanuel III. Armistice with Allies. Italy declares war on Germany.
323
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
I
1945 Mussolini released; establishes puppet regime in north; executed by Italian partisans. 1946 Referendum votes in favor of Italy becoming a republic. 1947 Italy signs peace treaty, ceding border areas to France and Yugoslavia, Dodecanese to Greece, and giving up colonies. 1948 Elections: De Gaspieri of Christian Democrats (DC) heads coalition. 1949 Founder member of NATO. 1950 Agreement reached on US bases in Italy. 1951 Joins European Coal and Steel Community. 1957 Founder member of European Economic Community. Aided by funds from that organization and by Marshall Aid, industrial growth accelerates. 1964 DC government under Aldo Moro forms coalition with Socialist Party (PSI). 1969 Extreme left terrorist group, the Red Brigades, formed. 1972 Support for extreme right reaches postwar peak (9%). Rise in urban terrorism by both extreme left and right. 1976 Communist Party (PCI) support reaches a peak of 34% under Enrico Berlinguer’s Eurocommunist philosophy. 1978 Aldo Moro abducted and murdered by Red Brigades. 1980 Extreme right bombing of Bologna station kills 84, wounds 200. 1983–1987 Center-left coalition formed under Bettino Craxi. 1990 LN attacks immigration policies and subsidies for the south. 1992 Corruption scandal, involving bribes for public contracts, uncovered in Milan. Government members accused. 1994 General election: DC support collapses; coalition government formed between Silvio Berlusconi’s Forza Italia, LN, and “post-Fascists.” 1995–1996 Technocrat government tackles budget, pensions, media, and regional issues. 1996 Center-left Olive Tree alliance wins general election; Romano Prodi prime minister. 1998 May, Italy qualifies to join euro currency from January 1999. October, Prodi government falls, Massimo D’Alema prime minister. 1999 Carlo Ciampi president. 2000 D’Alema replaced by Giuliano Amato. 2001 May, Berlusconi victory in general election. 2002 Euro fully adopted. 2004 Berlusconi government becomes longest serving since 1945.
324
POLITICS
†
Multipar ty elections President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi
L. House 2001/2006 U. House 2001/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
1% U–SVP
Chamber of Deputies 630 seats
38% U
58% PdL
2% 1% PRC Others
PdL = Freedom Alliance (includes Forza Italia, National Alliance – AN, and Northern League – LN) U = Olive Tree alliance (includes Democrats of the Left – DS and Party of Italian Communists – PdCI) PRC = Communist Refoundation Party U–SVP = Olive Tree–South Tyrolese People's Party Nom = Nominated
1% 2% U–SVP Others
Senate of the Republic 324 seats
55% PdL
38% U
3% 1% Nom PRC
The Senate of the Republic comprises 315 elected members and several life senators
Italy is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE Italian politics is rightly renowned for its instability; the role of prime minister changed hands 35 times between 1953 and 2001. Strong regionalism and a popular passion for politics mean that coalitions are essential, with broad leftwing, right-wing, or even technocratic groupings, frequently swapping the baton of power. The return in 2001 of the charismatic right-wing leader Silvio Berlusconi after six years in opposition highlighted the importance of personalities. His government replaced the left-wing Olive Tree alliance, which had successfully steered the country into the European single currency. Berlusconi’s administration proved remarkably durable, becoming in May 2004 the longest-lasting government since World War II. His coalition
Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, elected president in 1999.
Umberto Bossi, leader of the controversial LN.
Silvio Berlusconi, conservative prime minister, elected for a second time in 2001.
The church of Santa Maria della Salute marks the entrance to Venice. The city-state managed to retain its independence until Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Italy.
includes some uneasy bedfellows, however: his own Forza Italia, Gianfranco Fini’s “post-Fascist” AN, and Umberto Bossi’s xenophobic, northern-based LN, among others. Tensions within the government over corruption, constitutional reforms, ministerial representation, and spending cuts have led to a number of near splits. Friction was exacerbated in mid-2004 by the government’s attempts to forge an emergency budget to bring Italy’s deficit back below the EU’s 3%-of-GDP maximum, and the simmering row over Berlusconi’s commercial–political conflict of interests.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Corruption Berlusconi’s return to power in 2001 brought the corruption issue back to the very heart of public life, as he pushed through reforms which gave him immunity as prime minister and meant that outstanding bribery-related charges against him could be quashed. Paradoxically, he himself had emerged as a leading figure in the country’s new political makeup in the wake of the 1990s mani pulite (clean hands) investigations, which revealed a nationwide network of corruption and destroyed the old political order. Institutional reform The old proportional representation (PR) electoral system, blamed for a lack of strong government, was much modified in the early 1990s, but the process then lost impetus. Twice, in 1999 and in 2000, referenda failed to abolish the 25% of seats still elected by PR, not because voters opposed this, but merely due to inadequate turnout. Berlusconi favors a system with greater presidential powers, akin to that in France (and has made explicit his desire to go on to be head of state under such a system). The LN is prominent in calling for greater regional autonomy, though it has long since abandoned its somewhat farcical call for the independence of northern Italy as “Padania.”
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ITALY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS EU
G8
Joined UN in 1955
OECD
NATO
ECONOMICS $1101bn
OSCE
†
Inflation 3.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
$24.2bn
Spain 6%
UK 7%
/
France 12% Germany 14% IMPORTS
USA 5%
Netherlands 6%
UK 5%
/
Germany 18%
Up 43% in 2002
†
Phasing out conscription
Up 12% in 2002
STRENGTHS Highly competitive, innovative smallto medium-size business sector. World leader in industrial and product design, textiles, and household appliances. Several highly innovative firms include Fiat (cars), Montedison (plastics), Olivetti (communications), and Benetton (clothes). Strong tourism and agriculture sectors, prestigious fashion houses.
WEAKNESSES
ITALIAN ARMED FORCES 1183 main battle tanks (619 Leopard 1, 378 Centauro B-1, 186 Ariete)
116,000 personnel
6 submarines, 1 carrier, 1 cruiser, 4 destroyers, 12 frigates, 19 patrol boats
36,000 personnel
316 combat aircraft (114 Tornado, 44 F-104, 100 AMX)
48,000 personnel
None
Public deficit and government debt remain high. Recession in 2003. Inefficient public sector undergoing major privatizations. Uneven wealth distribution: northern Italy far richer than the south, which suffers much more from unemployment. Poor record on tax collection, though now much improved. Relatively small companies facing foreign competition. Heavy dependence on imported energy.
PROFILE Since the ending of the Cold War, conflicts in former Yugoslavia have helped refocus defense priorities. A “New Model Defense” was announced in 1992, women soldiers have been allowed, and conscription will end by 2005. The envisaged professional army is to play a rapidintervention role on NATO’s southern flank, while the navy fulfills Mediterranean coastal functions rather than retaining ocean-going capabilities. Defense spending remains low, despite pressures to modernize weapons systems. In 2001, 2700 troops were sent to Afghanistan, while in 2003 another 3000 were deployed to Iraq.
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
USA 10% Other 51%
Other 55%
A relatively small aid program makes major use of international organizations. In 2002, $4 billion of developing country debt was canceled. The countries of the former Yugoslavia and Albania have received funding to stave off a feared influx of economic migrants.
DEFENSE
EXPORTS
France 11%
Donor
$2.33bn (donations)
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................7th GNP PER CAPITA...........................$19,080 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$6.74bn INFLATION .........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
160
GDP 1999=100
†
AID
Consumer price index 1999=100
Italy was one of the founders of the EU, but the return of a right-wing government in 2001 encouraged the opponents of further integration. Tasteless remarks by Berlusconi in 2003 caused a rift with Germany just as Italy began its six-month term holding the EU presidency. The NATO South European Command is based in Naples. Despite a pro-Western orientation, Italy often contributes to mediation efforts in eastern Europe and the Middle East. Major concerns in recent years have been upheaval in Albania, conflict in the former Yugoslavia, and involvement in the US-led “war on terrorism.” NATO used Italian bases for air strikes against Yugoslavia in 1999, and Italy has backed the US-led occupation of Iraq.
GDP
160
Since World War II, Italy has developed from a mainly agricultural society into a world industrial power. The economy is characterized by a large state sector, a mass of family-owned businesses, relatively high levels of protectionism, and strong regional differences. Italy also has relatively few multinationals compared with other G7 economies. The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI), a state-owned holding company dating from the Fascist era, progressively privatized its electronics, steel, engineering, shipbuilding, telecommunications, transportation, and aerospace companies, until closing down itself in
2000. The National Hydrocarbons Group (ENI), one of the world’s top players in the energy and chemicals sectors, has been privatized, as has Telecom Italia and the electricity corporation Enel. City and regional authorities own utilities, banks, and other businesses. Family-owned businesses, which are the backbone of the private sector, include Fiat, whose interests cover aero engines, telecommunications, and bioengineering, as well as cars. Similar businesses tend to congregate, encouraging local competition which has translated into national success. The Mezzogiorno remains an exception. State attempts to attract new investment have met with success in areas immediately south of Rome, but elsewhere organized crime has deterred investors and siphoned off state funds. Anger at the misuse of state funds in the south was a powerful factor in the growth of the LN, with its demands for autonomy; one-third of Italian tax revenue is generated in Italy’s industrial heartland of Milan. ITALY : MAJOR BUSINESSES Milano Torino
Venezia Bologna Firenze
Genova
Rome
Napoli
Palermo Textiles Chemicals Garments Electronics Pharmaceuticals Light engineering Defence industries Vehicle manufacture
0
Aerospace industries
0
200 km 200 miles
325
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ENVIRONMENT
.
8% (6% par tially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 84th
†
CRIME
7.4 tonnes per capita
No death penalty
.
56,574 prisoners
Down 2% in 2001
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
4
per 100,000 population
4
per 100,000 population
2258
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Remains of the Greek theater at Taormina, eastern Sicily. It was rebuilt by the Romans in the 2nd century CE. Today, the theater is the venue for an annual arts festival.
†
RESOURCES
107,000 b/d (reser ves 700m barrels) Coal, oil, lignite, pyrites, fluorite, bar ytes, bauxite, marble
528,666 tonnes 25m turkeys, 11m sheep, 9.11m pigs, 100m chickens
I
Electric power 85.1m kW
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 18% (51bn kWh) Combustion 80% (220bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 2% (5.3bn kWh) 20
0
60
40
80
100
% of total generation by type
S
P
Cropland Forest Pasture High mountain regions
A Po
A
Vineyards Citrus fruits Cattle
P P E N
N I
SARDEGNA
N
O
SICILIA
0 0
326
†
200 km 200 miles
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 16
1.81m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 104 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 78 daily newspapers. The leading nationals are Corriere della Serra and La Repubblica 5 ser vices: 1 publicly owned, 4 independent
1 publicly owned ser vice, over 2500 independent stations
ITALY : LAND USE
L
MEDIA
Over 25% of prisoners are foreigners, many held for narcotics offenses. There is a huge backlog of cases. Organized crime has been weakened by the anticorruption drive and a cleaned-up bureaucracy. The Sicilian Mafia was hit hard by arrests and trials in which former members provided key evidence. The Mafia, however, and its counterparts in Naples, Calabria, and Apulia – Camorra, ’ndrangheta, and Sacra Corona Unita – still control wholesale agricultural markets and much of the narcotics trade, bleed businesses of protection money, and manipulate public works contracts.
Mediaset, owned by Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, is the main commercial operator. The state-operated Rai TV channels were traditionally highly politicized; until reforms in the 1990s, Rai Uno was apportioned to the Christian Democrats, Rai Due to the Socialists, and Rai Tre to the Communists. Now they cover general programming, entertainment, and education respectively. News Corporation bought out Vivendi in 2002 to gain a near-monopoly of payTV. All the media reflect the Italian love of sport, especially soccer: La Gazzetta dello Sport has one of the largest circulations of the national dailies. The press is highly regionalized.
% of each age group in education
Italy has very few natural resources. Its mineral assets are small and the sector contributes little to national wealth. Italy produces less than 10% of its oil needs and is highly vulnerable to both fluctuations in world prices and political instability in its traditional north African suppliers. Keen to diversify in areas of dependence, it has switched increasingly to natural gas in the last 30 years, cutting its reliance on oil from 71% of its energy needs to around 50%. Nuclear power was rejected in a 1987 referendum, though there are plans to invest in overseas plants.
Italy has extensive environmental legislation, but has faced problems in enforcing directives. Wildlife successes include the return of the endangered lynx and brown bear, and growing numbers of wolves in the Appenines. The hunting of migrant birds, a popular sport in Italy, attracts international criticism. The use of drift nets, prone to catching dolphins and turtles as well as fish, has been made illegal under EU law. The right-wing government of the mid-1990s, returned to office in 2001, is suspicious of energy taxes and laws on waste recycling, not wanting to restrict business competitiveness. Green Party members in government in the Olive Tree alliance from 1996 to 2001 had insisted on a more active environmental stance. Pollution in cities such as Naples and Rome is a major concern. Bans on traffic for up to seven hours during windless days are not uncommon. Acid rain has damaged forests and historic buildings.
80
60
100%
96%
40
50%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Schooling is state-run, apart from a few religious and elite private institutions. The pupil–teacher ratio in Italian schools is one of the best in Europe. In 1993, the minimum school leaving age was raised from 14 to 16 years, bringing Italy into line with most of Europe. An educational credit system aims to tackle shortcomings in information technology training. Higher education is restricted to pupils who pass the esamo di Stato. There are almost 800 university-level institutions, including the University of Bologna – the oldest university in Europe, established in 1088. The government hopes to increase spending on research, which, at little more than 1% of GNP in recent years, has been less than half the European average.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ITALY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
ITALY, IMMIGRATION, AND FORTRESS EUROPE
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, hear t, and respirator y diseases
1 per 233 people
T
HE IMMIGRATION ISSUE set the Italian media ablaze in the heat of summer 2004. A German-based human rights group, Cap Anamur, had rescued 37 African migrants off the Libyan coast and promptly headed straight for the EU to present them as needy asylum seekers. Already rejected by the Maltese authorities, the ship was kept away from Italian ports by a hostile government which had only just seen its tough immigration legislation battered by the High Court. The Italian authorities rejected the claim that the migrants were from the embattled Darfur region of Sudan, and though they proved to be correct on this score, they came under such heavy pressure from the UN and the Roman Catholic Church that they finally acquiesced in allowing the ship to dock. The crew were arrested, however, and the migrants refused asylum and put straight into the repatriation process.
HOSTILITY With 7600 km (4750 miles) of coastline, some parts of which are barely 200 km (125 miles) from Africa and even closer to the Balkans, Italy has become a key point of entry for asylum seekers, genuine and otherwise, into Europe. As elsewhere, parts of Italian society treat immigrants, known as clandestini, with distrust and even hostility. The acceptance of inward migrants is not helped by a faltering economy, rising unemployment, and a climate of fear in a post-9/11 world. Neither is tolerance championed when the government includes such openly xenophobic parties as the Northern League, whose leader, Umberto Bossi, suggested firing on boats to deter would-be immigrants.
A EUROPE-WIDE
ISSUE
Despite a recognized need for a common policy on immigration, the issue is too contentious for individual EU states to be seen to be giving up control of their borders. Consequently, different national governments battle
Would-be immigrants arrive by the boatload along Italy’s extensive coast.
Italy’s aging population needs the rejuvenation that inward migration can bring.
with their own public to put forward humane approaches which will not result in an “influx” of migrants, such as the UK’s popular plan to remove the point of processing to the place of departure, establishing asylum centers in Africa and Asia rather than Europe. Even for successful asylum seekers there has been a notable move away from the principle of multiculturalism in favor of open integration. Language lessons, civic tests, and allegiance pledges have been spoken of widely. Even the Netherlands has admitted that its celebrated open society has led to conservative foreign ghettos. Hostility to the concept of immigration flies in the face of growing academic acceptance that only through opening its borders will Europe be spared economic decline. Italy is itself a prime example of the population problems identified starkly by the European Commission in 2003. Europe’s population is not only aging, but will begin to contract in size as soon as 2010 unless there is substantial immigration. A net loss of 14 million people by 2030 could cost the pre-2004 EU countries a 7% drop in GDP. Economies would miss the contribution of adequate numbers of able workers, while tax revenues would fall just as they were most needed to foot the growing bill of coping with the estimated 50% of people by then over 50 and heading for retirement. Nonetheless, a cultural tradition of intolerance of the “other,” and a common concept of immigration as only some sort of temporary stopgap to help plug holes in the economy, present major problems in Italy, and western Europe in general. The case for accepting, and indeed welcoming, a sustained inflow of non-European migrants is now being cautiously put by sectors of national governments as they emphasize their tax contribution, the small burden they tend to put on public services, and their hardworking and entrepreneurial characteristics.
Italy’s health care system was rated by WHO in 2000 as the second most efficient in the world. The state-run national health system was created in 1978, with authority based in the regions, and standards of care vary across the country. The system was further decentralized in 1999 in an effort to iron out irregularities. Charges are levied for some dental and prescription costs; patients also have to pay a daily hospital charge and a yearly health fee. AIDS patients are exempt.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
578 per 1000 population
481 per 1000 population
I
Defense 1.9% Education 4.6% Health 6.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Italians, particularly in the north, are today among the world’s wealthiest people in terms of disposable income. This is a result not only of economic growth, but also of the structure of Italian society. Many Italians (particularly in the south) have more than one job. The extended families in which most people still live often have access to more than one income. Few people have mortgages, and tax avoidance levels are high. The main exceptions to general prosperity are confined to the south. Though inward investment has been attracted to the Bari area, many people still live in poverty in other places, such as Naples and the Calabria region, where investment has been lowest, unemployment is highest, and even tourism is underdeveloped.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
1
50th
24 $19,080
16 78 years
99%
5 4 deaths
21
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
327
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
IVORY COAST
WEST AFRICA
CI
0
O
NE OF THE LARGER countries on the shores of west Africa, Ivory Coast – officially Côte d’Ivoire – is the world’s biggest cocoa producer. Its reputation as an island of stability in a continent of chaos was largely due to the pro-Western and long-term president Félix Houphouët-Boigny (1960–1993). This image was shattered in 1999 by a military coup which was in turn followed by a popular uprising in 2000 and outright civil conflict in 2002–2003.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR YAMOUSSOUKRO
60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
AT THE LAST ELECTION
43% FPI
Since the death of President HouphouëtBoigny in 1993, Ivorian politics has become increasingly polarized. Attempts by his successor, Henri Konan Bédié, to ban the Muslim northerner and RDR leader Alassane Ouattara from the 1999 election prompted a coup by Gen. Robert Guei, who in turn barred Ouattara from the 2000 election. Guei’s fraudulent attempt to claim victory in the vote led to an uprising which carried the poll’s actual victor, Laurent Gbagbo of the socialist FPI, to power and was followed by violent political clashes. Again Ouattara became the focus of the opposition. An uprising in September 2002 by disgruntled soldiers quickly escalated into civil war, with Guei a prominent early casualty. The conflict tapped the country’s latent ethnic tensions, with support divided between north and south, immigrants and Ivorians. A power-sharing government, formed in 2003 as part of peace initiatives, has proved unstable.
56%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Protestant 6% Other 6%
Muslim 38%
0
Traditional beliefs 25%
The south’s four seasons – two rainy and two dry – merge in the north into a single wet season with lower rainfall.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Abidjan 759,940 passengers
33 ships 8900 grt
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 5040 km (3132 miles)
None
639 km (397 miles)
980 km (609 miles)
The relatively good transportation system focuses on Abidjan, the premier port of francophone west Africa.
60
70
100 km
Nz
100 miles
ra nd
Sea Level
a
s
200m/656ft
s Sa
500m/1640ft
A
over 10 000
1000m/3281ft
I
over 50 000
R
over 100 000
LAND HEIGHT
E
over 1 000 000
Sassandra San Pedro
under 10 000 Tabou
328
y o r I v
A T L A N T I C
A
POPULATION
B
Ambitious plans for an “African Riviera” east of Abidjan and the opening of a hotel by the French Club Méditerranée have been undermined by recent instability. The giant Roman Catholic basilica at Yamoussoukro is an attraction.
0
oé om
% of total arrivals
N
Guiglo
80
v a ll y
50
Zuénoula i Lac de Kossou Bouaflé Daloa YAMOUSSOUKRO Abengourou Duékoué Bongouanou Sinfra Dimbokro K Toumodi Issia Oumé L. Ébrié Adzopé Gagnoa Agboville Ayamé Divo Soubré Reservoir Lakota
Ca
40
Bondoukou
Bouaké
N
30
Katiola
A
0
20
Man
Danané
I
10
Séguéla
L
Other 64% 0
Mount Nimba 1752m
Bouna
H
Total Area : 322 460 sq. km (124 502 sq. miles)
b
G
Burkina 6%
ra
Dabakala Mankono
e
IVORY COAST
USA 6%
Ferkéssédougou
g Rou
Biankouma
B U R K I N A
Korhogo Boundiali
a
France 24%
Touba
Tengréla
a B l ack Vo l t
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
I
L
a
Up 10% in 1998
There are more than 60 tribes in Ivory Coast, the key ones being the Baoulé in the center, the Agri in the east, the Senufo in the north, the Dioula in the northwest and west, the Bété in the center-west, and the Dan-Yacouba in the west. Migrants from other west African countries, mainly Malians, Burkinabés, and mixed Ivorians, account for up to 40% of the population. Their presence has stirred conflict in recent years, leading to a growth A M in “identity politics” and a dangerous form of xenophobic ethnonationalism. In addition, Christians in the south Odienné harbor resentment against non-Ivorian Muslims in the largely rebel-held north.
B a n da m
/
301,000 visitors
Roman Catholic 25%
Lé
†
TOURISM
Visitors : Population 1:55
2% 1% RDR Others
42% PDCI
FPI = Ivorian Popular Front PDCI = Democratic Party of Ivory Coast Ind = Independents RDR = Rally of the Republicans PIT = Ivorian Labor Party Vac = Vacant
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
44%
10% 1% 1% Ind PIT Vac
National Assembly 225 seats
52/km2 (135/mi2)
G U I N E A
I
Multiparty elections
President Laurent Gbagbo
2000/2005
Pop. density medium
Akan, French, Kru, Voltaic
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
†
POLITICS
.ci
+225
nda m a
Aug 7
G h a na
IVORY COAST
Ba
1960
Africa
na
Liberia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Côte d’Ivoire CAPITAL: Yamoussoukro POPULATION: 16.6 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1960
Mali Burki
Guinea
Abidjan Bingerville Aboisso
Dabou
Port-Bouët
Grand-Bassam
t C o a s GULF OF GUINEA
O C E A N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: IVORY COAST
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ECOWAS
FZ
OIC
G24
Joined UN in 1960
AU
Good relations with donors will be vital for reconstruction. Regional violence has fueled tensions in Ivory Coast, enabling
†
AID
/
Up 529% in 2002
France is by far the largest source of bilateral aid. Structural adjustment loans from the World Bank were particularly important in easing the acute burden of a debt accumulated on the strength of overinflated oil hopes.
DEFENSE
†
/
$136m
Compulsory military service
Up 11% in 2002
France trains officers for the Ivorian army and is the main supplier of equipment, though at the start of the 2002–2003 conflict the government purchased arms and equipment from Angola.
ECONOMICS
31,017 b/d (reserves 102m barrels)
1.52m sheep, 1.48m cattle, 1.19m goats, 33m chickens
Oil, gas, diamonds, cobalt, gold, iron, manganese, nickel
There are significant offshore oil and gas reserves. Most fuel is currently imported. Forest resources are badly depleted.
ENVIRONMENT
.
6% (0.3% partially protected)
†
Inflation 8.4% p.a. (1990–2001)
STRENGTHS Well-developed agriculture: major cocoa, coffee, and timber producer. Relatively good infrastructure. Expanding oil and gas industries, largely unaffected by conflict.
†
MEDIA
0.7 tonnes per capita
Instability. Failure to invest adequately in education and professional training. Overdependence on cocoa and coffee. Slave labor on plantations. EXPORTS
Germany 5% USA 7%
One of the great trading emporia of west Africa, the Ivory Coast was made a French colony in 1893. By 1918, the French had defeated the Malinke empire and the forest peoples of the interior. 1903–1935 Plantations developed. 1960 Independence. Félix Houphouët-Boigny president. 1990 First contested polls: Houphouët-Boigny and PDCI win. 1993 Houphouët-Boigny dies. 1998 Power of president increased. 1999 Military coup by Gen. Guei. 2000 Guei ousted after false election victory claim. Gbagbo president. 2002–2003 Military uprising turns into major rebellion. Guei killed. 2003 Peace agreement signed. 2004 Power-sharing deal falters.
There are 16 daily newspapers, including Fraternité Matin and Ivoir Soir, both published by the government 1 state-owned service, around 30 independent stations
1 state-owned service
†
50%
10,355 prisoners
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
7 per 1000 population
20 per 1000 population
Defense 1.4% Education 4.6%
96,681 students
†
Malaria, communicable diseases, neonatal deaths, AIDS
The incidence of HIV/AIDS is high, affecting around 7% of adults. In 2001 drugs companies agreed to cut the prices of treatments by 80–90%.
School leaving age: 15
Baccalauréat pass rates are low. Cuts in spending have triggered student protests. Primary education fees ended in 2001.
CRIME
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Media pressure has increased since the start of the 2002 conflict, and official harassment occurs. The UN launched a nationwide radio station in 2004.
EDUCATION
†
HEALTH
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
Other 58%
Sustainability rank: 108th
Daily newspaper circulation 16 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................86th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$620 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$767m INFLATION .........................................3.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................13%
Mali 4%
†
Deforestation remains a problem in the Ivory Coast, despite a 1995 government ban on unprocessed timber exports.
SCORE CARD
Electric power 1.2m kW
74,581 tonnes
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
$10.2bn
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$1.07bn (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
the movement of arms and troops across porous borders. ECOWAS and French troops mediated in the recent civil war; UN peacekeepers have replaced them. Ivory Coast has influence in international cocoa and coffee organizations.
Health 1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
A large bourgeoisie emerged after independence. Recent economic and security problems have eroded wealth generated through trade.
No death penalty
/
Up sharply in 1997–2002
Foreign immigrants are often blamed for the widespread crime in Abidjan. Human rights abuses are common.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
Netherlands 12% 100th
France 14% 150th
IMPORTS
Italy 4% Belgium 3%
China 8%
193rd
Nigeria 17% Other 45% France 23%
The basilica, Yamoussoukro. Built in the new capital, Houphouët-Boigny’s birthplace, it is modeled on St. Peter’s, Rome.
137 $620
171
169
169
45 years
50%
116 deaths
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
163
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
329
I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
JAMAICA
North America
CARIBBEAN Cuba
Haiti
Dominican Republic
JAMAICA
OFFICIAL NAME: Jamaica CAPITAL: Kingston POPULATION: 2.7 million CURRENCY: Jamaican dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1962
1962
Aug 5
JA
-5
.jm
+1876
F
IRST COLONIZED BY the Spanish and then, from 1655, by the English, Jamaica is located in the Caribbean, 145 km (90 miles) south of Cuba. It was the first of the Caribbean island countries to become independent in the postwar years, and remains an active force in regional politics. Jamaica is also influential on the world music scene: reggae, ska, and ragga (or dancehall) developed in the tough conditions of Kingston’s poor districts.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR KINGSTON
J
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Tropical and humid conditions at sea level give way to temperate weather in mountain areas. Rainfall is seasonal, with marked regional variations.
†
TRANSPORTATION Donald Sangster International, Montego Bay 3.23m passengers
Drive on left
11 ships 75,400 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 13,090 km (8134 miles)
None
272 km (169 miles)
None
Kingston’s harbor has been expanded and its airport improved. The road network is extensive. Private buses provide public transportation.
TOURISM 1.36m visitors
43% Anglican 7% Baptist 10%
-10/14 -20/-4
†
Visitors : Population 1:2
/
Up 7% in 2003
Other and nonreligious 45%
Church of God 18% Other Protestant 20%
Most Jamaicans are the descendants of Africans brought to the island between the 16th and 19th centuries, but there are small minorities of Europeans, East Indians, Chinese, and Arabs. Most social tension is the result of the marked disparities in wealth. Life in the ghettos of Kingston is often violent and based largely on gun law; the capital has one of the world’s highest murder rates. The Caribbean women’s rights movement originated in Jamaica, and today many Jamaican women hold senior positions in economic and political life. Jamaican music styles, including ska, ragga, and reggae, have become popular across the world. Reggae is particularly connected to Jamaica’s Rastafarians, followers of the former Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie.
UK 10%
In the late 1980s, the ideologies of the once socialist PNP and the conservative JLP converged toward a moderate freemarket economic approach. Violent disturbances in 1998 and 1999 were in response to the PNP government’s attempts to deal with economic recession and a large fiscal deficit. The unrest, which led to several deaths, gave new life to the internally troubled JLP, as it then identified itself with opposition to fuel tax increases. Politically motivated gang warfare broke out in Kingston in 2001. The JLP increased its representation in the 2002 election, but failed to unseat the PNP, which began a historic fourth consecutive term in office.
Other 9%
ACS
30
40
Geplac
Caricom
Joined UN in 1962
Comm
OAS
The main issue is Jamaica’s position as a major transshipment point for narcotics heading for the US and the UK.
AID
US$35m 20
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
†
DEFENSE
Canada 8%
50
60
70
80
% of total arrivals
Tourism is the major earner of foreign exchange. Most tourists stay in large, enclosed beach resorts; Jamaica originated the all-inclusive hotel.
330
Senate 21 seats
Recipient
.
Down 56% in 2002
Most aid comes from the EU, the US, and Canada. It includes both project loans and balance-of-payments support.
USA 73%
10
43% JLP
US$24m (receipts)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
57% PNP
The members of the Senate are appointed. Thirteen members are chosen by the prime minister and eight by the leader of the opposition
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 60 seats
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
57% 0/32
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
249/km2 (646/mi2)
40/16
30/86
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2007
Multiparty elections
PNP = People's National Party JLP = Jamaica Labour Party Pop. density high
English Creole, English
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
†
POLITICS
Bauxite mine and terminal, Runaway Bay. Bauxite – from which aluminum is extracted – is the main source of foreign income.
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 12% in 2002
Jamaica’s defense force is trained with the assistance of Canada, the UK, and the US. Its main role is combating narcotics smuggling and assisting the police in breaking up unrest, as in 1999 and 2001.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
I
R
A
C
Montego Bay
Lucea
B
B
E
A
N
Runaway Bay St. Ann’s Bay Browns Town Ocho Rios
B
B
Portland Bight
E
Total Area : 10 990 sq. km (4243 sq. miles) 0
A
N S
E
over 500 000
A
ECONOMICS US$7.08bn
200m/656ft
under 10 000
†
Inflation 22% p.a. (1990–2001)
60.54 Jamaican dollars (58.7)
SCORE CARD
500m/1640ft
over 10 000 40 miles
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................101st GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$2690 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..............–US$1.12bn INFLATION .........................................7.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................16%
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
over 50 000
40 km
0
LAND HEIGHT POPULATION
N
nnel
JAMAICA
Blue Mountain Peak 2256m
Cha
R I
Constant Spring
Chapelton
Spanish Town KINGSTON Bath Harbour View Portmore May Pen Port Norman Manley Port Morant Old Intl Airport Royal Morant Bay Harbour
Santa Cruz
Black River
A
Spaldings
Port Antonio
Ewarton
Mandeville
CHRONOLOGY Spain occupied the island in 1510, wiping out the indigenous Arawak population. Britain seized it in 1655.
ica
Christiana
SavannaLa-Mar
Annotto Bay Buff Bay
Highgate
Country
A ma
Cambridge Negril
E
Port Maria
Ja
The Cockpit
C
S
Falmouth D. Sanster Intl Airport
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: JAMAICA
1958–1961 West Indies Federation. 1962 Independence under JLP. 1972 PNP elected. Reforms fail; street violence begins. 1980 Unpopular IMF austerity measures lead to JLP election win. 1989–2002 PNP wins elections and austerity continues. 1999 Violent protests over fuel tax increases.
Sea Level
ENVIRONMENT
/
9% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 122nd
4.2 tonnes per capita
†
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, diabetes
1 per 714 people
Opencast bauxite mining has caused extensive deforestation. Jamaica set up 14 national parks in the 1990s, but has not provided funding to maintain them.
MEDIA
†
HEALTH
TV ownership high
The once-efficient state health service is now seriously underfunded. Hospitals generally have a shortage of drugs and there is only rudimentary medical equipment. The incidence of HIV is small but growing fast.
Daily newspaper circulation 62 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS Relatively diversified economy. Tourism. Mining and refining of bauxite for aluminum. Agriculture, including sugar, bananas, rum, and coffee. Light manufacturing.
There are 4 daily newspapers, the Daily Gleaner, the Daily Star, the Jamaica Observer, and the Jamaica Herald
55 per 1000 population
Television and radio services are diverse and predominantly commercial. The Jamaican press is one of the most influential in the Caribbean.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Norway 8% Netherlands 12% USA 28% UK 12%
Canada 14%
IMPORTS
Canada 3%
Japan 6% Trinidad & Tobago 9%
USA 44% Other 34%
RESOURCES 10,212 tonnes 440,000 goats, 430,000 cattle, 11m chickens
170 per 1000 population
7 independent services
3 independent services
Defense 0.5%
Banking and insurance sectors. Climbing debt burden, now around 150% of GDP, dominates budget. Financing of sugar production. Slow growth. High unemployment and crime.
Venezuela 4%
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
WEAKNESSES
Other 26%
†
SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
J
†
Electric power 1.4m kW
Not an oil producer; refines 20,400 b/d Bauxite, marble, gypsum, silica, clay
Jamaica is the world’s fourth-largest producer of bauxite. Sugar and bananas are major exports.
†
4744 prisoners
Death penalty in use
.
Down 31% in 1999–2001
Much of the world crack trade is controlled from Jamaica. Large areas of Kingston are ruled by violent gang leaders, and many murders are the result of armed robberies linked to narcotics gangs competing for territory. The police are also frequently accused of the arbitrary shooting of suspects. Death sentences are still being imposed, but the UK-based Privy Council blocks executions; the last hangings were in 1988. The creation of a Caribbean Court of Justice could increase the likelihood of these sentences being carried out.
EDUCATION 88%
†
Education 6.3% Health 2.9% 0
5
10
15
33,200 students
Education is based on the former British 11-plus selection system. Jamaica hosts the largest of the three campuses of the University of the West Indies.
25
Wealth disparities are very marked in Jamaica, though better education has seen an increase in the number of Afro-Jamaicans taking more lucrative, white-collar jobs. The poorest in Jamaica, mostly migrants from rural areas, live in the slums of Kingston.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
38 76 years
100th
64
77
17 deaths
$2690
School leaving age: 12
20
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
79
104
150th
88% 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
331
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
JAPAN
EAST ASIA
Asia
North Korea
OFFICIAL NAME: Japan CAPITAL: Tokyo POPULATION: 128 million CURRENCY: Yen OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Japanese 1590
1972
Dec 23
J
+9
Rebun-tó Rishiri-tó
JAPAN
South Korea
.jp
+81
A
CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY, with an emperor as ceremonial head of state, Japan is located off the east Asian coast in the north Pacific. It comprises four principal islands and more than 3000 smaller islands. Sovereignty over the most southerly and northerly islands is disputed with China and the Russian Federation respectively. The terrain is mostly mountainous, with fertile coastal plains; over two-thirds is woodland. The Pacific coast is vulnerable to tsunamis – tidal waves triggered by submarine earthquakes. Most cities are located by the sea; Tokyo, Kawasaki, and Yokohama together constitute the most populous and heavily industrialized area. Hokkaido is the most rural of the main islands. Japan’s power in the global economy, with annual trade surpluses exceeding $100 billion and massive overseas investments, is recovering from a series of bad debt crises, bankruptcies in the financial sector, and two recessions since the early 1990s.
1770 km (1100 miles)
N
A
LAND HEIGHT
Kitakami
1500m/4921ft 1000m/3281ft
-20/-4
500m/1640ft
Railroads are the most important means of transportation in Japan. The Shinkansen, known in the West as the bullet train, is the second-fastest in the world. It is renowned as much for its reliability – timed to the second – as for its speed. The Tokyo–Sapporo air route is said to be the busiest in the world.
S
Takefu
Hamada
úg
ok
nc u-sa
N
Maizuru
Fukuchiyama
hi
Tsuyama
Ayabe
Tsuruga Gifu Nakatsugawa Ógaki Iida Ichinomiya Kasugai
Fuji-san 3776m
Tenryú
N
Tottori
Yonago
ko
Matsue Izumo
w a-
100 miles
ku
Sukagawa
i-
sa
m
Funabashi TOKYO Kawasaki Chiba Yokohama Fujisawa
H
O
Himeji
Bi
Niimi
Okayama
Kyóto
Y
I
ó
C
A
P
Yatsushiro
Nobeoka
Hachijó-jima
KYÚSHÚ
TAIWAN
I
H
IM
Kanoya Ibusuki
332
Ósumi-shotó
P
A
A-
S
E
Miyako-jima SH OT Ó
C
I
F
I
I
Ok
Makurazaki
N
Iriomote-jima Ishigaki-jima
K
Kagoshima
S
A
C
in
-
S
T
O
H
Ósumi-shotó
Satunan-s Amami-Ó-shima Naze Tokuno-shima
Naha
Amami-shotó
a w a-shotó
O
Ó
C
E
A
N
Kazan-rettó
SA
Miyazaki Miyakonojó
Ibusuki
Senkaku-shotó
N
KYÚSHÚ
NakadóriSendai jima
otó
Amakusa -shotó
F Ogasaw ara-sh
SHIKOKU
G
I
ó ky
Ts
us
h
Miyoshi
Iwaki
S
Odawara Fuji Shimizu Yokosuka Ótsu Yokkaichi Nagoya Toyota Numazu Hagi Kóbe Toyonaka Izuhara t Okazaki Kurashiki Shizuoka Kakogawa rai Nara t Hiroshima Suzuka Toyohashi S Akashi Ósaka a Tsu Onomichi Yamaguchi Fukuyama Shimonoseki im Matsusaka Hamamatsu Kishiwada S himonoseki Kure Takamatsu -ka Ise Iki Kitakyúshú i Sakaide Ube Tokuyama Iwahuni Niihama Wakayama o n Naruto Fukuoka oshi Kainan Jizuka Matsuyama Tokushima Anan Nakatsu Karatsu Uku-jima Kurume Saga Yawatahama Tanabe Sasebo Nakadóri-jima Mugi Óita Kóchi Uwajima Ómuta Kijú-san Fukue Jsahaya Muroto 1791m Fukue e Saiki Arao - r Nagasaki Kumamoto ó Nakamura ot
Ch
Masuda
Tsushima
Sendai
Fukushima AizuWakamatsu Kóriyama
Hitachi i Ashikaya M Kiryú Ueda Utsunomiya Maebashi Matsumato Mito Oyama Okaya Takasaki Tsuchiura Kumagaya Kasumiga-ura Ómiya Kashiwa Kawagoe Ina
ku
0
n ku
Hi d a - s a m m y a
100 km
Nagano
Uozu Toyama
Shiogama
Inawashiro-ko
Sh
Arai
Fukui 0
Nagaoka Kashiwazaki
Takaoka
S
Dózen
T
F (
Shibata Niigata
A
E Nanao
Kanazawa Komatsu
E
Ishinomaki Tendó Yamagata Yonegama
Sado
O
Ichinoseki
Tsuruoka
Sea Level
A Oki
Sakata
S
-10/14
The Sea of Japan (East Sea) has a moderating influence on the climate. Winters are less cold than on the Asian mainland, and rainfall is much higher. Spring is perhaps the most pleasant season, with warm, sunny days without the sultry, oppressive heat and rainfall of the summer. Recent freak storms and heavy floods have raised concern over the implications of global climate change.
Ú
20,096 km (12,487 miles)
Morioka Akita
over 10 000
C
6851 km (4257 miles)
Ogata
)
over 50 000
0
0/32
over 100 000
ya
10/4
Noshiro
over 500 000
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
m
20/8
10/50
7458 ships 13.9m gr t
898,082 km (558,041 miles)
Aomori Towada Hachinohe Ódate
Hirosaki
over 1 000 000
A
20/68
Goshogawara
over 5 000 000
A
30/12
Total Area : 377 835 sq. km (145 882 sq. miles)
POPULATION
Drive on left
E
30/86
JAPAN
J
40/16
Hakodate
a no
40/104
Okushiri-tó
H
Haneda, Tokyo 63.2m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Muroran
P
WEATHER CHART FOR TOKYO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
Continental/subtropical
Noboribetsu
The Shinkansen bullet train is the second-fastest train in the world. Its speed is matched by its punctuality.
in
†
CLIMATE
Sapporo
tt
J
Otaru
0 0
hotó
N Sumisu-jima 100 km 100 miles
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: JAPAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Iturup
La-Perou Strait se
†
PEOPLE
E
AN
Kuril'sk
Pop. density high
P
AC
IF
IC
O
C
Wakkanai
0
50 miles
CHRONOLOGY Japan’s tendency to limit its contacts with the outside world ended in 1853, when a US naval squadron forced trading concessions from the last of the Tokugawa shoguns.
339/km2 (878/mi2)
Japanese, Korean, Chinese
0 50 km
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Kunashir
HOKKAIDÓ
79%
Asahikawa Takikawa
Kitami Kussharo-ko
K
Is h
Asahi-dake 2290m
Ebetsu
Obihiro
21%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION HABOMAI IS
ir ysh o
ik a
ri
KURILE IS
Other (including Christian) 8%
Buddhist 16%
Kushiro The Kurile islands are administered by the Russian Federation, but claimed by Japan
Chitose Horoshiri-dake 2051m
Tomakomai
P A C I F I C
Shinto and Buddhist 76% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other (mainly Korean) 1%
O C E A N
†
TOURISM
/
5.24m visitors
Visitors : Population 1:24 Up 10% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
N
South Korea 24% Taiwan 17%
Miyako
USA 14%
Kamaishi
A
China 9% Hong Kong 6%
Kesennuma
Other 30%
O
C
E
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Japan is expensive for foreign tourists, despite reductions in the yen exchange rate. An increasing number of tourists are now coming from China. The ancient imperial capital, Kyoto, and the temples and gardens of Nara are popular tourist destinations. Other attractions include Mount Fuji and the extraordinary variety of energetic hightech urban living in Tokyo and Osaka. Traditional agricultural life can be found in rural areas such as Tohoku in northern Honshu. Wilderness areas of Hokkaido attract mainly Japanese climbers and hikers.
Japanese 99%
Japan is racially one of the most homogeneous societies in the world, its sense of order reflected in the tradition of the lifetime employer. Many Japanese men define themselves by the company they work for rather than their job. An employer’s influence stretches into employees’ social time, and even to encouraging and approving marriages. Traditionally, women run the home and supervise the all-important education of their children. Many pursue careers until marriage, then continue to work part-time. However, some women are beginning to take on long-term careers, particularly in the medical and legal professions. Makiko Tanaka, the first-ever female foreign minister in 2001–2002, is still a very popular political figure. Social form remains extremely important in Japanese society. Respect for elders and for social and business superiors is strongly ingrained. There is little tradition of generation rebellion, but the youth market is powerful and current fashions are geared toward teenagers. Many may still follow their parents’ lifestyles, but established attitudes are being challenged. Working for the same company for life, and giving up evenings and weekends to entertain company clients, have become harder to justify amid economic turbulence. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.4% 11.1%
High Street, Ginza District, Tokyo. Japan’s well-policed cities are among the safest in the world.
1.2%
60–79
9.3%
14.1%
40–59
13.6%
20–39
9.9%
Male
80+
0–19
14% 14% 10.4%
% of population by age group
1868 Meiji Restoration; overthrow of Tokugawa regime and restoration of imperial power. 1872 Modernization along Western lines. Japan’s strong military tradition becomes state-directed. 1889 Constitution modeled on Bismarck’s Germany adopted. 1894–1895 War with China, ending in Japanese victory. 1904–1905 War with Russia, ending in Japanese victory. Formosa (Taiwan) and Korea later annexed. 1914 Joins World War I on Allied side. Sees limited naval action. 1919 Versailles peace conference gives Japan limited territorial gains in the Pacific. 1923 Yokohama earthquake kills 140,000. 1927 Japan enters period of radical nationalism, and introduces the notion of a “coprosperity sphere” in southeast Asia under Japanese control. Interpreted in the US as a threat to its Pacific interests. 1931 Chinese Manchuria invaded and renamed Manchukuo. 1937 Japan launches full-scale invasion of China proper. 1938 All political parties placed under one common banner; Japan effectively ruled by militarists. 1939 Undeclared border war with Soviet Union; Japan defeated. 1940 Fall of France in Europe; Japan occupies French Indo-China. 1941 US imposes total trade embargo, including oil, on Japan thereby threatening to stifle its military machine. Japan responds in December by launching attack on US fleet at Pearl Harbor and invading US, British, and Dutch possessions in the Pacific. 1942 Japan loses decisive naval battle of Midway. 1945 Huge US bombing campaign culminates in atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: over 200,000 die. Soviet Union declares war on Japan. Emperor Hirohito surrenders, gives up divine status. Japan placed under US military government with Gen. MacArthur as supreme commander. 1947 New US-style constitution: retains emperor in ceremonial role. 1950 Korean War. US army contracts lead to quick expansion of Japanese economy. 1952 Treaty of San Francisco. Japan regains independence.
333
J
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
J
334
Industrial production recovers to 15% above 1936 levels. 1955 Formation of LDP, which governs for next 38 years. 1964 Tokyo Olympics. Bullet train (Shinkansen) inaugurated. Japan admitted to OECD. 1973 Oil crisis. Economic growth falls. Government-led economic reassessment decides to concentrate on high-tech industries. 1976 LDP shaken by Lockheed bribery scandal; in subsequent election it remains in power but loses outright majority for first time. 1979 Second oil crisis. Growth continues at 6% per year. 1980 LDP regains overall majority. 1982 Honda establishes first car factory in US. 1988 Japan becomes world’s largest aid donor and overseas investor. 1989 Death of Emperor Hirohito. Accession of son, Akihito. Recruit–Cosmos bribery scandal leads to resignation of Prime Minister Noburo Takeshita; replaced by Sosuke Uno, in turn forced to resign over sex scandal. 1990 Tokyo stock market crash. 1991–1992 LDP torn by factional disputes, further financial scandals, and the issue of electoral reform. 1993 Reformists split from LDP and create new parties. Elections; LDP loses power. Morihiro Hosokawa becomes prime minister at head of seven-party coalition. 1994 Hosokawa resigns. Withdrawal of SDPJ causes collapse of coalition. New three-party coalition includes LDP and SDPJ. Opposition parties unified by creation of Shinshinto. Implementation of far-reaching political and electoral reforms designed to eradicate “money politics.” 1995 Kobe earthquake kills more than 5000 people. 1996 Elections: LDP minority government. Copper trader Yasuo Yamanaka sentenced to eight years in prison for incurring losses of $2.6 billion while acting for the Sumitomo Corporation. 1997 Severe economic recession. 1998 Crisis over reform of banking and financial system. 2000 Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi falls into coma, replaced by Yoshiro Mori. LDP loses overall majority in general election. 2001 LDP turns to populist right-winger Junichiro Koizumi as prime minister; five women appointed to cabinet. 2002 Japan cohosts soccer World Cup. 2003 LDP reelected.
POLITICS
†
L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2004/2007
Multipar ty elections Emperor Tsegu no Miya Akihito
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 480 seats
37% DPJ
49% LDP
2% 3% JCP Others
7% 1% 1% NK SDPJ NCP
LDP = Liberal Democratic Party DPJ = Democratic Party of Japan NK = New Komeito JCP = Japan Communist Party SDPJ = Social Democratic Party of Japan NCP = New Conservative Party
House of Councillors 242 seats
47% LDP
34% DPJ
10% 2% NK SDPJ
4% 3% JCP Others
Japan is a multiparty democracy. The emperor has a purely ceremonial role.
PROFILE The right-of-center LDP has dominated Japanese politics since its formation in 1955. For the first 21 years its parliamentary majority was untouched, but it has had to rely on occasionally shaky coalitions since 1976. In 1993 it lost power altogether, but recovered the following year and has remained in control ever since. The seven-party government which held power in 1993–1994 proved unworkable in the long run and the later Shinshinto coalition was unable to challenge the LDP despite the dire economic situation of the late 1990s. Indeed, the LDP’s position is threatened less by external opposition than by the machinations of its various internal factions. Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori led a lackluster campaign in a general election in 2000, from which the LDP emerged with a reduced
Junichiro Koizumi, populist premier who has promised economic reform.
Katsuya Okada has reinvigorated the opposition DPJ as leader from 2004.
Emperor Akihito. He acceded in 1989 on the death of his father, Hirohito.
Traditional paddy field in Hokkaido. Rice farming is among the most protected sectors of the Japanese economy.
representation but still as the largest party and the main force in government. Mori’s unpopularity finally led to his replacement as LDP leader (and prime minister) in 2001 by charismatic newcomer Junichiro Koizumi. With the economy stagnating, Koizumi took it upon himself to push a radical reformist agenda, making the most of his immense public popularity. However, though he promised much, he has delivered little in the way of significant change, especially in the political sphere. The inertia of the faction system and the fierce conservatism of the grassroots LDP have forced him to scale down his visions and settle into the familiar routine of gentle persuasion and appeasement. His popularity has consequently suffered, and the DPJ made inroads into the LDP’s majority in the 2003 elections.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Economic reform Efforts to restructure the way in which government money is spent have met stiff resistance. The achievements that Koizumi did make in 2001–2002 did little to offset the stagnation of the Japanese economy. He admitted in early 2003 that his reforms had been “derailed” and would take more time than had been anticipated. However, by 2004 exportled growth had begun to buoy up the domestic economy. The emergence of two-party politics The hegemony of the LDP, based on close links with big business and government bureaucracy, was first seriously challenged at the polls in 1993. Defeat prompted an overhaul of the electoral system, aimed at stamping out “money politics,” and ensured that the party would rise again soon after, easily outmaneuvering the Shinshinto alliance. In 2003 the DPJ emerged as the main opposition, challenging the LDP on its unconvincing record of reform. Postelectoral opinion polls suggest support for a stronger opposition.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: JAPAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
G8
Joined UN in 1956
WTO
IAEA
ECONOMICS $4324bn
OECD
†
Inflation –0.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
109.12 yen (120.08)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..................................2nd
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
$9.28bn (donations)
.
Down 6% in 2002
Japan’s official aid donations are the second-largest of any single country (they were formerly the largest, until overtaken by the US in 2001). Most aid goes to Asia and the Pacific, especially China. In the Pacific, aid supports the fishing industry. In 2001, Japan admitted to “buying” support for whaling.
DEFENSE $37.1bn
†
.
No compulsor y militar y ser vice Down 6% in 2002
JAPANESE ARMED FORCES 1020 main battle tanks (780 Type-74, 240 Type-90)
148,200 personnel
16 submarines, 44,400 45 destroyers, 9 frigates, personnel 7 patrol boats 270 combat aircraft (F-1, F-2, F-4EJ, F-15J)
45,600 personnel
None
The Japanese Self-Defense Forces (SDF) are among the best-funded in the world, but the constitution renounces war, and any military activity arouses fierce debate. Main concerns are North Korea and the threat of terrorism. Since 1999, force has been used to deter incursions by North Korean vessels. The construction of a missile defense system was agreed in 2003. The deployment in 2004 of an SDF contingent in Iraq in a humanitarian role, under legislation allowing noncombat assistance in the “war on terrorism,” was the first time Japanese forces had entered an overseas combat zone since 1945.
GNP PER CAPITA ..................................$34,010 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ............................$112bn
GDP 160
160
INFLATION ...............................................–0.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ............................................5%
140
140
120
120
EXPORTS
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
Hong Kong 6% GDP 1998=100
†
AID
Donor
Consumer Price Index
Consumer price index 1998=100
Having spent decades since World War II limiting its international role, Japan has recently become more assertive on many global issues. Its eventual aim is a seat on the UN’s Security Council, commensurate with its economic influence. In Asia, Japan remains burdened by the legacy of its wartime aggression, and has sometimes exacerbated the tension by moves such as revising its school history texts to downplay the crimes committed in its imperial expansion (especially in Korea) and in war. Relations with the West have been seriously strained over the issue of whaling, with Japan getting round an international moratorium by continuing to kill whales in the name of scientific monitoring.
SCORE CARD
Other 42%
Taiwan 6% South Korea 7% China 10%
USA 29%
2002
IMPORTS
STRENGTHS Established market leader in high-tech products and cars. Commitment to longterm research. Talent for capitalizing on imported ideas. Manufacturing plants already established in the West. Domestic economy heavily protected from outside competition.
WEAKNESSES Recent recession. Dependence on oil imports. Secretive and debt-ridden financial system. Falling industrial production, high-profile bankruptcies, and record unemployment levels. Lack of openness to foreign trade. Aging population and costly public pension scheme.
PROFILE
Indonesia 4% Australia 4%
South Korea 5% USA 17%
Other 52% China 18%
J
increase in government spending in favor of basic structural reform. Banks’ bad loans have been cleared and the system of privileged “special public institutions” has been overhauled. Despite these measures, traditional economic power brokers have put a brake on the pace of reform and the overall economy continues to underachieve. In 2004 Koizumi renewed his pledge to stimulate the recovering economy by pushing ahead with structural reforms, and plans were approved to open the country’s public road corporations to private investment.
Once among the world’s strongest performing economies, Japan’s strengths have been overshadowed JAPAN : MAJOR BUSINESSES for a decade by growing weaknesses. Research & development The 1990 crash of the Tokyo stock Vehicle manufacture market marked the end of a period of Heavy engineering remarkable growth. The government Consumer goods managed to spend its way out of Shipbuilding disaster, effectively delaying the Iron & steel full impact of the downturn. Japan Electronics entered a brief recession for the Chemicals second time in five years in 2001. Bilateral trade has been promoted and Japan entered its first free trade agreement – with Singapore from April 2002. In an attempt to appease Western Toyama discontent over a huge trade surplus, the government encouraged a move Kóbe away from a dependence on export revenues through stimulation of the Hiroshima domestic economy. However, the expanding economies of China and other Asian countries stimulated Kitakyúshu export-led growth again in 2004. The financial sector remains in need of reform. The prominent corporate collapses of 1997 were Nagasaki repeated in 2001, with record losses reported across the highOsaka tech industries in particular. 0 300 km Koizumi has promised radical change, rejecting the standard 0 300 miles
Brewing Textiles Computers Banking & Finance
Sapporo
Hitachi Tokyo Yokohama Nagoya
Kyóto
335
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES 5.52m tonnes
8040 b/d (reser ves 52m barrels)
9.72m pigs, 4.52m cattle, 34,000 goats, 284m chickens
Limestone, sulfur, coal, oil
Hydro 9% (96bn kWh) Combustion 61% (662bn kWh) Nuclear 30% (323bn kWh) Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
Ú
0
In an attempt to reduce dependence on imported fuels, Japan has developed alternative energy sources. It is now the world’s third-biggest generator of nuclear power. Nuclear safety issues, highlighted HOKKAIDÓ following a radiation leak at Tokaimura in 1999, were again under the spotlight after a deadly (but nonradioactive) accident at the Mihama plant in 2004.
ENVIRONMENT
/
7% (3% par tially protected)
J
†
Sustainability rank: 78th
C
C HI -SAN H KU GO Ú H
SHIKOKÚ
9.3 tonnes per capita
KYÚSHÚ
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
0
Yes
0
Yes
Yes
Yes
Japan supports moves to establish a global foundation to aid sustainable development in the Third World. In 1997 it played host to the Kyoto climate conference, though it only agreed to a modest cut in its “greenhouse gas” emissions. It faces strong criticism for its consumption of tropical timber, overfishing, and continuing to catch whale species under the aegis of “scientific research.” Traditional Japanese respect for nature has spawned a vigorous grassroots ecological movement, which prevented a second runway at Tokyo’s Narita airport, and opposes nuclear power expansion and waste processing. The most serious environmental disasters have been a nuclear accident at Tokaimura in 1999 and the breakup in early 1997 of a Russian oil tanker along Japan’s western shoreline.
Datsetsusan National Park, Hokkaido. Japan’s northerly island is the least populous of the main group.
336
100
80
60
100%
100%
40
48%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
N
Japan has few exploitable resources. The high cost of domestic coal extraction has made it the world’s largest importer.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
S
H
% of total generation by type
School leaving age: 15
3.11m students
99%
% of each age group in education
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
†
EDUCATION
Electric power 248m kW
MEDIA
O
JAPAN : LAND USE
Cropland Forest Pasture Sheep 300 km Fruits Rice 300 miles
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 574 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 122 daily newspapers. Asahi Shimbun, Mainichi Shimbun, and Yomiuri Shimbun are among the most popular 5 national ser vices: 1 publicly owned, 4 commercial
100 ser vices: 1 publicly owned, 99 commercial
The Japanese education system is highly pressurized and competitive. One of the key dividing lines is between university graduates, who get the most coveted whitecollar jobs, and nongraduates, who have difficulty reaching management level. Competition for university places is intense, and starts with the choice of kindergarten, which the Japanese attend from the age of four. Academic pressure diminishes once at university. Graduates from Tokyo, Kyoto, Waseda, and Keio, which are the most prestigious universities, have access to top civil service and business jobs. The system succeeds in producing a uniformly well-educated workforce. However, it has also been criticized for not fostering individual responsibility, flexibility, or entrepreneurship.
†
CRIME
Death penalty in use
67,255 prisoners
The Japanese are among the world’s most avid newspaper readers. Major papers are issued in simultaneous editions in the main urban centers. Most dailies are owned by large media groups who also have TV and cable interests. Weekly newspapers carry more tabloid journalism. Manga, Japanese comics, are massively popular, with their characteristic artwork influencing design and art across Japanese culture. They now account for 40% of all published material in Japan; the most popular title, Shonen Jump, sells over three million copies a week. Japanese technology has defined the world’s media. Along with the personal stereo, Japanese companies effectively created the huge international computer games market. Nintendo, a leading games company, is among the most profitable in Japan. Ironically, the Internet was slow to take off, though by 2001 Japan had the third-highest number of people “online.” That year also saw Japan launch the world’s first “thirdgeneration” mobile phone service.
/
Up 12% in 2001
CRIME RATE
Murders 1
per 100,000 population
2
per 100,000 population
1844
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Japan has one of the Western world’s lowest crime rates, despite petty crime levels being at a 50-year high. Cities are safe, with police kiosks at frequent intervals on street corners. However, crime is involving more young people, and narcotics abuse is increasing. Problems include fraud, human trafficking, and the activities of the kumi, organized Mafia-style syndicates. The authorities have been reluctant to challenge the kumi, seeking to contain rather than halt their activities. They are suspected of having connections with the political extreme right.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: JAPAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
HEALTH
JAPAN AT WAR
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, respirator y, cerebrovascular, and hear t diseases
1 per 496 people
J
isolationism over interaction for much of its history, with one striking exception. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 prompted a period of modernization and militarization, which culminated in the occupation of the Korean peninsula from 1910, growing imperial involvement in China (taking advantage of its internal chaos), and a rapid military advance across the Pacific Rim during World War II. Japan’s 20th-century military ambitions proved short-lived, however, ending with defeat and surrender in 1945. APAN REPEATEDLY CHOSE
The atrocities carried out in east Asia in the name of the Japanese emperor have not been forgotten and continue to engender anger in Korea and China. To banish all prospect of a militarily strong Japan, pacifism was written directly into the postwar constitution, whose celebrated Article 9 stipulates that “the Japanese people forever renounce ... the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes.” Instead of an army, navy, or air force, the constitution permitted the creation of Self-Defense Forces (SDF) to provide internal security. Politicians embraced Japan’s new role as an international champion of peace, with successive mayors of Hiroshima campaigning against the international development and testing of nuclear weaponry in particular. As Japan’s economic might grew, however, its nonmilitary status began to seem increasingly incongruous to some.
JAPAN
IN THE WORLD
Japan lies close to four of the world’s ten largest armies, those of China, North Korea, South Korea, and Russia. Perhaps the greatest argument for reexamining its pacifistic identity is the apparent threat from North Korea. Incursions into Japanese waters by North Korean “fishing vessels” and provocative missile tests frequently challenge Japan’s neutrality. In 1998 North Korea test-fired a ballistic missile right across northern Japan,
Nationalists broadcast their point of view from intimidating gaisensha (sound vans).
Members of the Self-Defense Forces prepare themselves for peacekeeping duty.
while since 1999 Japanese patrol boats have used force to repel intrusions, which in late 2001 included the sinking of a ship. Meanwhile Japan’s SDF have grown to almost 250,000 personnel.
Japan’s health care system, which has been ranked by WHO as the best in the world, delivers among the highest longevity and lowest infant mortality rates. The poorest in society receive free treatment; expensive high-tech hospital facilities can also offer the latest techniques. Contributory national health insurance is based on earningsrelated premiums, and the cost of medical care for the elderly and the self-employed is subsidized, though the rapidly aging population presents a major future funding challenge.
Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi has also pushed against pacifism. Especially infuriating to many are his regular visits to the Yasakuni war shrine, which commemorates convicted war criminals among the more worthy. Insisting that his visits are personal, and do not represent tacit support for Japan’s imperialist past, he continues, nonetheless, to sign the visitors’ book as “Prime Minister Koizumi.”
TROOPS
IN IRAQ
New legislation has broken a further taboo, allowing 600 SDF troops to fly to Iraq in February 2004, in the first SDF involvement in a “combat zone.” SDF officers had first joined an international peacekeeping mission a decade earlier as electoral monitors and civilian policemen in Cambodia in 1993. For many this confirmed Japanese maturity, working within the bounds of the international state system. For others it was a highly symbolic and disturbing sign of a growing Japanese confidence. The SDF troops in Iraq were stationed far from major flashpoints, with a strictly humanitarian brief. Their very presence, however, rang alarm bells, leaving many in east Asia to assume that the Japanese army was to be reborn in the 21st century.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
421 per 1000 population
NATIONALIST FEELING Right-wing political agitation in Japan has grown. Shintaro Ishihara, the flamboyant governor of Tokyo since 1999, openly courts nationalist feelings and plays on the widespread fear of foreigners, particularly Koreans (the only sizable ethnic minority in Japan).
†
SPENDING
558 per 1000 population
J
Defense 1% Education 3.6% Health 6.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Measured in consumer goods, the Japanese are wealthy; car ownership is only low because city parking is so restricted. Most households have substantial savings, enabling them to withstand economic recession. The country’s wealthiest men have seen their wealth decline markedly: the fortunes of the top ten averaged $4.5 billion in 2004, down from $7 billion in 2000. The richest, Nobutada Saji (and family), is worth $6.9 billion. Tokyo’s living costs are high, and most who work there live outside the city center, facing long, cramped commuter journeys to work and back. Girls and young women still living in their parents’ homes are one group with high disposable income.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
6 $34,010
2
1
1
82 years
99%
3 deaths
9
100th
150th
192nd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
337
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
JORDAN
MIDDLE EAST Lebanon Syria
1967
May 25
HKJ
+2
Hot desert/steppe/ Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR AMMAN
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Senate 55 seats
21%
King Abdullah II acceded in 1999. He enjoys the support of tribal leaders and the army. Multiparty elections in 1993 ended a period of martial law which had begun in 1967. Progovernment parties hold a majority, despite a strong Islamist opposition. Changes in prime minister in 2000 and 2003 marked a shift toward modernization. Clashes between police and Islamists in Ma’an in 2002 raised concern over the impact of regional tensions on the volatile populace.
Armenian 1%
-20/-4
Summers are hot and dry, winters cool. Areas below sea level are very hot in summer and warm in winter.
Queen Alia International, Amman 2.33m passengers
14 ships 68,700 grt
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
Jordan
R
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Al Mazra‘ah Adh Dhirá‘ A§ fláfí
Total Area : 92 300 sq. km (35 637 sq. miles)
Al Karak
Saudi Arabia 42%
W á dí B
A√ ◊afílah Ash Shawbak Wádí Músa‘ (Petra)
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Afl
Al Jafr
áy
ir
flA
W
W
ÁN
338
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Ma‘án
Qá‘ al Jafr
A
R
Ra’s an Naqb Al Quwayrah
Ramm Al ‘Aqabah Jabal 1754m
LAND HEIGHT
A
Tourists visit archaeological remains, such as the ancient city of Petra and the Roman city of Jerash, and resort facilities at Aqaba and the Dead Sea. Amman is developing as a center for Arab culture. Regional instability dents the industry.
POPULATION over 100 000
Báyir
S
30
I
20
H
SH
Other 41%
ÁH
Kuwait 7%
ARD
AR
S
Israel 10%
JORDAN
Al ‘Umarí
Al Qa§r
A
E
SEA
Wáíat al Azraq
I
Down 3% in 2003
A§ flafáwí
Az Zarqá’
B
.
Ar Ruwayshid
Wádí as Sír AMMAN Ná‘úr Al ‘Ál Íisbán Ma’dabá Natl DEAD Dhíbán
A
Visitors : Population 1:3.5
Bal‘amá As Sal√
A
1.57m visitors
†
Hawwárah Al Mafraq
Jarash
Q
TOURISM
10
S Y R I A N D E S E R T
A
A§ flaríí Kufrinjah Súf
Adequate roads link main cities. The only internal flights are between Amman and Aqaba. Rail services are limited.
0
A
I
L
None
Jordan is a predominantly Muslim country with Bedouin roots; there are Arab Christian and Muslim Circassian minorities. About half the population are Palestinian in origin. The monarchy’s power base lies among the rural tribes, which provide the backbone S R Y Saíam of the Íarímá Samar military. Irbid Ar Ramthá
R
292 km (181 miles)
Arab 98%
I
7200 km (4474 miles)
3% 19% OP Others
The members of the Senate are appointed by the king
79%
-10/14
†
15% IAF
56% Gov Ind
62/km2 (160/mi2)
Circassian 1%
TRANSPORTATION
7% Isl Ind
Gov Ind = Progovernment independents IAF = Islamic Action Front Isl Ind = Islamist independents OP = Other parties Nine seats are reserved for Christians, six for women, and three for Circassians
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
H.M. King Abdullah II
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
E G Y P T
J
40/104
Multiparty elections
House of Deputies 110 seats
Pop. density medium
Arabic
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
†
L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2003/2007
URROUNDED by the deserts of the Middle East, Jordan has just 26 km (16 miles) of maritime coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba. The vast majority of the population lives in the northwest, on the east bank of the River Jordan. Jordan ceded its claim to the West Bank of the river to the aspiring Palestinian state in 1988. Tourism, associated with important historical sites such as Petra, and phosphates are the mainstays of the economy.
†
Saudi Arabia
Egypt
POLITICS
.jo
+962
S
CLIMATE
Africa
JORDAN
OFFICIAL NAME: Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan CAPITAL: Amman POPULATION: 5.5 million CURRENCY: Jordanian dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1946
Iraq
Israel
S
A
U
D
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
I
Al Mudawwarah
Gulf of Aqaba
N
200m/656ft 0 0
50 km
Sea Level 50 miles
-200m/-656ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: JORDAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
AMF
Joined UN in 1955
NAM
WTO
OIC
Jordan’s position as a key player in Middle East politics is under question. It actively supports US peace moves, and is at peace with Israel. In 2004 it chided both Israeli and Palestinian
†
AID
/
Up 23% in 2002
The US is by far the biggest single donor, reflected in the government’s largely pro-US line in regional relations.
DEFENSE
†
/
$844m
No compulsory military service
Up 10% in 2002
The military is loyal to the monarchy. It has a reputation for thorough training and professionalism. The forces are dependent on Western support for credit for purchasing advanced arms and equipment, but Jordan, unlike many Arab neighbors, played no part in the 1991 Gulf War.
ECONOMICS $9.09bn
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$534m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
leaders for the lack of progress toward peace. The US signed a ten-year free trade agreement with Jordan in 2000. Jordan refused to join the anti-Iraq coalition formed by the Gulf states in 1991. Prior to the US invasion in 2003 it called for Iraq’s rehabilitation, and went on to condemn the invasion.
†
Inflation 2.9% p.a. (1990–2001 )
1060 tonnes
Electric power 1.7m kW
40 b/d (reserves 1m barrels)
1.48m sheep, 547,490 goats, 24m chickens
Jordan, previously the Britishmandated territory of Transjordan, became independent in 1946. 1953 Hussein becomes king. 1967 Israel seizes West Bank territories. 1970 Massive crackdown on PLO – Palestine Liberation Organization. 1988 Jordan cedes claims to West Bank to PLO. 1994 Peace treaty with Israel. 1999 Death of King Hussein; succession of King Abdullah II.
Phosphates, potash
Phosphates, livestock, and crops (wheat, tomatoes, olives) are the main resources. Rivers are drying up and groundwater is being pumped at unsustainable rates.
ENVIRONMENT
/
3% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 53rd
3.2 tonnes per capita
Conservation is a government priority. Rare animals are protected; the Arabian Oryx became extinct in the wild in the 1950s, but is being reintroduced into controlled environments.
†
MEDIA
0.709 Jordanian dinars (0.709)
J The King’s Highway, seen from the castle at Al Karak, a strategic fortress built by Crusader knights in the 12th century.
TV ownership medium
†
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 77 per 1000 people SCORE CARD
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................91st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1760 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$468m INFLATION .........................................1.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................13%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
62 per 1000 population
There are 8 daily newspapers, including Ad-Dustour and Ar-Rai
127 per 1000 population
Defense 9.3% 1 state-controlled service
2 state-controlled services
Education 4.6% Health 4.5%
STRENGTHS Major exporter of phosphates. Skilled workforce. US patronage. Port of Aqaba a special economic zone. Tourism.
CRIME
WEAKNESSES Lack of water. Unemployment. High foreign debt. Energy imported: loss of subsidized oil from Iraq. Poor exportto-import ratio. Tourism harmed by regional insecurity. Little arable land. EXPORTS
UAE 4%
Press and publications laws were tightened in 2001. However, Internet access is extensive and unrestricted.
Saudi Arabia 5% India 8%
Other 47% USA 15%
Iraq 21%
†
5448 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
Up 7% in 1999
Jordan is largely peaceful. Crime levels are generally low, though theft in urban areas is rising.
†
EDUCATION
0
5
France 4%
China 6% USA 8% Germany 9% Iraq 13%
20
25
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
School leaving age: 15 50th
91%
153,965 students
Women have equal access to education. Jordan has a large pool of graduates, who work all over the Middle East.
HEALTH 1 per 588 people
Other 60%
15
Poverty is relatively rare among Jordanians, but widespread among refugees; Jordan has the world’s highest proportion of refugees to population.
100th
75 150th
IMPORTS
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
†
Welfare state health benefits
96 $1760
72 years
97
96
91%
27 deaths
90
193rd
Heart, digestive, and respiratory diseases, accidents, cancers
Health care is subsidized by the government. Hospitals are well distributed throughout the country.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
339
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD ASIA
KAZAKHSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN China
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Kazakhstan CAPITAL: Astana POPULATION: 15.4 million CURRENCY: Tenge OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Kazakh 1991
1991
Asia
Russian Federation
Oct 25
KZ
+5 to +6
Kyrgyzstan
Uzbekistan
.kz
+7
T
HE SECOND-LARGEST of the former Soviet republics, Kazakhstan extends almost 3000 km (1900 miles) from the Caspian Sea in the west to the Altai Mountains in the east and 1600 km (1000 miles) north to south. It borders Russia to the north and China to the east. Kazakhstan was the last Soviet republic to declare its independence, in 1991. In 1999, elections confirmed the former communist Nursultan Nazarbayev and his supporters in power. Kazakhstan has considerable economic potential, and many Western companies seek to exploit its mineral resources.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR ASTANA
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
TOURISM
20 ships 11,845 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
2.83m visitors
77,680 km (48,268 miles)
None
13,597 km (8449 miles)
3900 km (2423 miles)
/
Up 53% in 2002
Uzbekistan 32% Russia 4%
-20/-4
Transportation networks focus on the north and east as the key economic areas. Most of the roads in Kazakhstan are in urgent need of repair. Ambitious plans envisage a rail link to carry freight between China and Iran via the Caspian, rivaling Russia’s transSiberian route. Helicopters are the main method of transportation for reaching remote destinations.
Kazakhstan has a continental climate with large temperature variations: average January temperatures range from –18˚C (0˚F) on the northern Kazakh steppe to –3˚C (27˚F) in the deserts 1600 km (1000 miles) to the south; July temperatures average 19˚C (66˚F) and 30˚C (86˚F) respectively. The northern Caspian Sea freezes for up to three months in winter.
A N S I
Yermak Ekibastuz
Ishim
Atbasar Ozero Tengiz
U ral
Emba E
Atyrau
ASTANA
Temirtau
Arkalyk
ba m
Satpayev
Karkaralinsk
N CH
Zhezkazgan
Ba
USTYURT PLATEAU Zhanaozen
U
O z e ro
Se a
Ayteke Bi Dzhusaly Syr Da rya
Kzylorda
Z
PESKI M OYY
NK
lkha
B
K I S T A N
S
Kentau Karatau Ayrs'
yr Darya
E
over 100 000 over 50 000
Ozero Alakol’
sh
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft
Ili
2000m/6562ft
Tekeli
1000m/3281ft
Panfilov
500m/1640ft
UM
200m/656ft
Almaty
Taraz
Shymkent
over 10 000 under 10 000
Taldykorgan
Shu Turkestan
over 500 000
Ozero Zaysan
IK
Balkhash
Aral’sk
A ra l S ea
60
POPULATION
Zyryanovsk Ust’-Kamenogorsk
O Ayaguz OP KOS MEL
KAZAKHSKIY Chelkar
Shar
Karaganda
Turgay
Fort-Shevchenko
50
Gora Belukha 4506m
Leninogorsk
Semipalatinsk
Saran’ Shakhtinsk
E
Beyneu
40
Pavlodar
Shchuchinsk
Zhitikara
Aksay
30
A
Kostanay
Rudnyy
Aktobe KIR GH IZ S T Alga Uil EP Temir P
20
Most visitors are business travelers. The post-1991 influx of foreigners, seeking to exploit the country’s rich natural resources, turned the former capital Almaty into central Asia’s most cosmopolitan city. Tourists are few, but F E D E R A T trekking in the Altai Mountains and I spurs of the Tien Shan range in O Petropavlovsk N the southeast is becoming ty sh more popular. Kokshetau
Kushmurun
Ural’sk
10
% of total arrivals
N
U
Other 7% 0
I
R
China 1%
Ir
Total Area : 2 717 300 sq. km (1 049 150 sq. miles)
S
Tajikistan 3%
H
KAZAKHSTAN
spi a n Ca
Visitors : Population 1:5.4
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
-10/14
Aktau
†
Kyrgyzstan 53%
0
0/32
Drive on right
KY
RG
YZ
C
K
Astana 403,428 passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
Cold desert/steppe
The Altai Mountains, eastern Kazakhstan. Subject to harsh continental winters, the Altai range is a cold, inhospitable place. Rivers carry meltwater down onto the vast steppe.
Sea Level
Khan Tengri Pik 6398m
-200m/-656ft
STAN N
0
200 km
TURKMENISTAN 0
340
200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KAZAKHSTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
6/km2 (15/mi2)
Kazakh, Russian, Ukrainian, Tatar, German, Uzbek, Uighur
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
0.8%
56%
44% Other 9%
6%
60–79 40–59
18.4%
Orthodox Christian 44%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
German 2%
Ukrainian 4% Other 9%
Tatar 2%
Russian 30%
Kazakh 53%
Kazakhstan’s ethnic diversity arose mainly from forced settlement of Tatars, Germans, and Russians during the Soviet era. By 1959, Kazakhs were outnumbered by ethnic Russians. This balance has been redressed by the immigration of ethnic Kazakhs from
†
POLITICS L. House 1999/2004 U. House 2002/2005
3.7% 9.6%
20–39 0–19
15.8% 18.9%
President Nursultan Nazarbayev
4% AP
14% CPK
neighboring states and the departure in the 1990s of some 1.5 million ethnic Russians. In addition, most ethnic Germans have opted to live in Germany, though in 2000 the government began a campaign to try to lure some back. In 1995, ethnic Russians criticized the country’s new constitution for preventing dual citizenship with Russia and replacing Russian with Kazakh as the sole official language. Central control over ethnic Russians has been reinforced by shifting the capital to Astana (formerly Akmola) in the north, where most ethnic Russians reside. Though few Kazakhs retain their traditional nomadic life, loyalty to the clan remains strong.
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Assembly 77 seats
31% Otan
0.3%
80+
% of population by age group
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 47%
47% Others
4% CP
Otan = Fatherland Republican Party of Kazakhstan CPK = Civil Party of Kazakhstan AP = Agrarian Party CP = Communist Party of Kazakhstan
Senate 39 seats
Two members are elected by each of 16 districts and seven are nominated by the president
Legislative authority is vested in the bicameral Parliament. The president has supreme executive power.
PROFILE Despite a democratic government, the president enjoys political dominance, and the patronage of the Kazakh clans is still important. Since coming to power in 1989, President Nursultan Nazarbayev has concentrated on market reforms and increasing his own powers at the expense of any political opposition. In 2000 the Assembly granted him special powers to advise future presidents after his term expires in 2006, and opposition parties were effectively neutered in 2002 by reform of the party registration process.
Joined UN in 1992
SCO
EAPC
OIC
OSCE
Male
10.8% 15.7%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
CIS
Age
Female
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density low
Opposition leaders are often the focus of corruption charges.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Presidential powers Critics accuse Nazarbayev of developing a personality cult. The 1995 constitution strengthened his powers, conferring the right to veto Constitutional Council decisions, and resulting in his being able to ride out a number of controversies. His reelection in early elections in 1999 was tarnished by accusations of voting irregularities and in 2002 he was able to shrug off the revelation that he had moved $1 billion of state oil revenues into a secret overseas bank account, without parliament’s knowledge. The sale of farmland Legislation allowing the sale of farmland, key to Nazarbayev’s economic liberalization, met stiff opposition in 2003. After its ultimately successful struggle to get it passed, the government resigned, to be largely reappointed.
President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who steered Kazakhstan to independence.
Relations with Russia are good but sometimes strained by concerns over Kazakhstan’s ethnic Russians. However, Kazakhstan’s earlier enthusiasm for greater integration of the former Soviet states has cooled. The country’s location, bridging Europe and Asia, has led to close relations with a variety of partners, and its rich mineral resources have attracted investors from Europe, the US, and Asia. Relations with China have improved, with agreements in 1998 and 1999 on border issues, and it joins China, Russia, and three other central Asian republics in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. However, it competes with Uzbekistan to be the acknowledged central Asian regional power. Kazakhstan’s southern borders were only officially delimited in 2003; its boundary with Russia remains disputed.
AID
†
K
Recipient
$188m (receipts)
/
Up 27% in 2002
Kazakhstan joined the IMF and the World Bank in 1992, and is also a member of the EBRD. Most multilateral and bilateral aid is aimed at supporting economic reform and improving health care, transportation, and communications.
CHRONOLOGY Once part of the Mongol empire, Kazakhstan was absorbed by the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Ethnic Russians began to settle on land used by nomadic Kazakhs. Russian settlement intensified after the 1917 Revolution, and Kazakhstan was subjected to intensive industrial and agricultural development. 1916 Rebellion against Russian rule brutally suppressed. 1917 Russian Revolution inspires civil war in Kazakhstan between Bolsheviks, anti-Bolsheviks, and Kazakh nationalists. 1918 Kazakh nationalists set up autonomous republic. 1920 Bolsheviks take control. Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) set up within Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. 1925 Kirghiz ASSR renamed Kazakh ASSR. 1936 Kazakhstan becomes full union republic of the USSR as Kazakh SSR.
341
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
/
Phasing out conscription
Up 8% in 2002
KAZAKH ARMED FORCES 930 main battle tanks (650 T-72, 280 T-62)
46,800 personnel
None
None
164 combat aircraft (MiG-29, Su-24/25/27)
19,000 personnel
None
Kazakhstan is a potential guarantor of peace and stability in the region. To
ECONOMICS
†
comply with nonproliferation treaties, it had by 1995 destroyed all its remaining nuclear warheads or had transferred them to Russia. A four-year restructuring of the armed forces was launched in 2001, including moves to end conscription, already shortened. Kazakhstan was the first central Asian state to offer military assistance in 2001 to the US as part of its “war on terrorism.” Since then military ties have become much closer. The US has loaned helicopters and armored vehicles to the Kazakh army, while US warplanes have been granted access to Kazakh airfields. Kazakh engineers were active in the US-led Coalition in Iraq from mid-2003.
Inflation 169% p.a. (1990–2001) ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
$22.6bn
135.9 tenge (147.5)
Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................60th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1520 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$596m INFLATION .........................................5.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
EXPORTS
Switzerland 8%
GDP
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1998
Italy 9%
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
342
$1.99bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
K
1930s Stalin’s collectivization program leads to increase in Russian settlement and deaths of an estimated one million Kazakhs. Large penal settlements established for victims of Stalinist purges. 1941–1945 Large-scale deportations from Russia of Germans, Jews, Crimean Tatars, and others to Kazakhstan. 1949–1989 Nuclear test site at Semipalatinsk carries out nearly 500 nuclear explosions. 1954–1960 Khrushchev’s policy to plow “Virgin Lands” for grain most vigorously followed in Kazakhstan. Russian settlement reaches peak. 1986 Riots in Almaty after ethnic Russian Gennadi Kolbin appointed head of Kazakhstan Communist Party (CPK) to replace Kazakh Dinmukhamed Kunyev. 1989 Kolbin replaced by Nursultan Nazarbayev, ethnic Kazakh and chair of Council of Ministers. Reform of political and administrative system. 1990 CPK wins elections to Supreme Soviet by overwhelming majority. Nazarbayev appointed first president of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan declares sovereignty. 1991 Kazakhstan votes to preserve USSR as union of sovereign states. USSR authorities hand over control of enterprises in Kazakhstan to Kazakh government. CPK ordered to cease activities in official bodies following abortive August coup in Moscow. CPK restructures itself as Socialist Party of Kazakhstan (SPK). Independence of Republic of Kazakhstan declared; joins CIS. Announcement of closure of Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. 1992 Opposition demonstrations against dominance of reformed communists in Supreme Soviet, now Supreme Kenges. Nationalist groups form Republican Party, Azat. 1993 Adoption of new constitution. Introduction of new currency, the tenge. 1994 Legislative elections annulled after proof of widespread voting irregularities. 1995 Adoption of new constitution broadening presidential powers; referendum extends Nazarbayev’s term of office. 1998 Legislature approves constitutional amendments, including early presidential election. 1999 Nazarbayev reelected president for seven more years. 2003 Sale of farmland legalized.
DEFENSE
2002
Other 36% China 11%
Russia 15% Bermuda 21% IMPORTS
UK 4%
China 5% USA 7% Germany 9%
Russia 39% Other 36%
STRENGTHS Mineral resources: oil, gas, bismuth, uranium, and cadmium (used in the electronics industry). Joint oil and gas ventures with Western companies: pipeline from Tengiz oil field opened in 2001. Privatization and liberalization. Baikonur space center.
and inflation, at one time rising sharply, has now been brought under control. Foreign direct investment focuses mainly on the energy sector. Outdated equipment and inadequate distribution networks mean that energy has to be imported, though Kazakhstan exports fossil fuel. An oil price boom set the tone for the country’s first “five-year plan” in 2000, part of President Nazarbayev’s “Kazakhstan 2030” program. The sale of agricultural land and property was legalized in 2003. KAZAKHSTAN : MAJOR BUSINESSES Petropavlovsk
Karaganda
Aktobe
Semipalatinsk
WEAKNESSES Collapse of former Soviet economic and trading system. Reliance on imported consumer goods. Overdependence on oil sector. Inefficient industrial plants.
Atyrau
Almaty Shymkent Oil
PROFILE Kazakhstan has moved faster than other former Soviet republics to establish a market economy. Prices have been freed, foreign trade deregulated, and the tax system reformed. Oil revenues have been the main engine of growth,
Steel Textiles
0 0
Chemicals
Food processing
Oil refining
Light engineering
Coal mining
Pharmaceuticals
500 km 500 miles
* significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KAZAKHSTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
1.11m b/d (reserves 9bn barrels)
31,071 tonnes 9.92m sheep, 4.56m cattle, 23.6m chickens
Oil, gas, uranium, gold, silver, coal, iron, tungsten, chromite, bismuth, cadmium
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
overseas companies from the US, Russia, and Japan. A pipeline connecting the western Tengiz oil field to the Black Sea via Russia was opened in 2001. There are also vast iron ore and gold reserves and the world’s second-largest uranium reserves after Canada.
Hydro 15% (8.1bn kWh) Combustion 85% (47bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
KAZAKH
20
60
40
S K I Y ME L KO S
OP O C
HNI
K
100
80
% of total generation by type
Syr Da r
†
ENVIRONMENT
.
3% (2% partially protected)
Sustainability rank: 88th
ya
Large oil and gas reserves were confirmed in the Caspian region in 2000, rewarding investments from
0
500 km
†
CRIME Yes
Yes
No
No
Kazakhstan’s ill-equipped and poorly funded health system has produced the lowest average life expectancy in central Asia. The health system is limited in terms of both facilities and coverage. Rural people have minimal access to clinics. The country’s size means that extending coverage and improving the quality of care will be costly. Attempts are therefore being made to attract foreign investment into the health sector. Many doctors have emigrated to Russia.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
64 per 1000 population
Up 9% in 2000–2001
130 per 1000 population
Defense 2% Education 4.4%
CRIME RATES
K
Health 1.9%
Murders 14
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, accidents, violence
1 per 278 people
Moratorium on death penalty
/
84,000 prisoners Yes
Welfare state health benefits
Cereals
500 miles
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No
Cropland Forest Pasture Desert Sheep
KAZAKHSTAN : LAND USE
0
8.1 tonnes per capita
†
HEALTH
Electric power 19m kW
0
per 100,000 population
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Rapes
Major environmental damage has been caused by intensive industrial and agricultural development. Eastern cities are heavily polluted and farmlands are being eroded. Half the country faces desertification. The northern Aral Sea is the focus for conservation efforts: the shallower southern sea will dry up completely by 2020. Environmental groups succeeded in ending nuclear testing at Semey (Semipalatinsk) and the green lobby is now pressing for tighter pollution controls.
MEDIA
†
10
per 100,000 population
Thefts 493
per 100,000 population
Narcotics smuggling is increasing. Corruption is rife. Political opponents are frequently jailed. Kazakhstan introduced life imprisonment as an alternative to the death penalty in 2004.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 17
597,500 students
TV ownership high THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Daily newspaper circulation 30 per 1000 people 100
There are 7 principal daily newspapers and over 900 other registered newspapers 2 state-owned services, several private services
1 state-owned service, several private stations
The state-owned media operate alongside independent publications and privately owned radio and television stations. Recent revisions to the Media Law have strengthened state control over broadcast outlets and Internet sites, and created more grounds for libel charges against editors and proprietors. Such state pressure has produced a drastic decline in the number of media outlets.
% of each age group in education
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
80
Life for the majority of Kazakhs has always been hard, and has grown even more difficult since 1989. Unemployment rose and living standards deteriorated as a result of the market-oriented reforms within Kazakhstan in the 1990s. In addition, the liberalization of the economy has had the effect of fueling sharp price rises for essential commodities. The rural population, the poorest group in Kazakhstan, has been badly affected. The small wealthy elite is made up mainly of former communist officials, many of whom have benefited from privatization or are members of President Nazarbayev’s clan.
WORLD RANKING
60
99% 1st
39%
20
0
Position in World
89%
40
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education remains based on the Soviet model. Since its adoption as the state language in 1995, Kazakh is gradually replacing Russian as the main instruction medium in schools, but there is a shortage of Kazakh textbooks and Kazakh-speaking teachers. There are a large number of higher-education institutions and medical schools.
1
50th
99%
100th
78 150th
102 $1520
193rd
137
138
62 years
61 deaths
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
343
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
KENYA
EAST AFRICA
Africa ia
Ethiopia
om
al
Sudan Uganda
S
KENYA
Tanzania OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Kenya CAPITAL: Nairobi POPULATION: 32 million CURRENCY: Kenya shilling OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Kiswahili and English
1963
1963
Dec 12
EAK
+3
.ke
+254
K
ENYA STRADDLES the equator on Africa’s east coast. Its central plateau is bisected by the Great Rift Valley. The land to the north is desert, while to the east lies a fertile coastal belt. After independence from the UK in 1963, politics was dominated by Jomo Kenyatta. He was succeeded as president in 1978 by Daniel arap Moi, whose divide-and-rule policies drew accusations of favoritism and of fomenting ethnic hatreds. After 40 years in power, his KANU was finally defeated in 2002. Economic mainstays are tourism and agriculture.
†
TOURISM
,
WEATHER CHART FOR NAIROBI 838,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
The coast and Great Rift Valley are hot and humid, the plateau interior is temperate, and the northeastern desert hot and dry. Rain generally falls from April to May and October to November.
Other 44% 10
0
20
T
H
I
(Lake Rudolf )
Grand
Voi
Gal a
na Lugards Falls
Ungama Bay
Taveta
Malindi
N
Kilifi
I A
Mombasa Kwale
344
I N
D
100 miles
A
0
PL AI N LI a Tan
100 km
U
T
EA
R
Oloitokitok
N
Pate Island Manda Island
AT
SE
Lamu
Garsen
PL
E
A 0
BE
i
D
A
TA
I
T
IR
Namanga
Z
200m/656ft Sea Level
A th
N N
N Y I K
YA
Magadi
A
2000m/6562ft 500m/1640ft
Kitui
Machakos NY
1000m/3281ft
Great Rift Valley, Kenya. This huge crack in the Earth’s crust runs from Jordan right through Africa to the Zambezi River.
RA
Thika
NAIROBI
Narok
LAND HEIGHT
Masinga Reservoir
GE
Lake Naivasha
Victoria
T
Garissa
Embu Falls
Murang'a
Naivasha
LOITA HILLS Lake Magadi
I
a al Elburgon
Equator
AN
Am
p
G
Kisii
Karungu Bay
Kirinyaga 5199m
Nakuru Njoro Nyeri
am
Tana
N
Homa Bay
Meru
L
Kisumu
Kabarnet Nyahururu Nanyuki Kapsabet Londiani
Winam Gulf Rusinga I. Kericho Mfanganu I.
3000m/9843ft
as o
G
w
Isiolo
Eldoret
Kakamega Busia
Lake
Chandlers Ew Falls
Lake Baringo
S
Tambach
Bungoma
BOJI PLAIN
an
under 10 000
ro Ngi
A
Maralal
ri
Kapenguria Kitale
Wajir
Lo
over 10 000
Milgis
M
over 50 000
O
over 100 000
S
Lake Victoria is navigable
or
2634 km (1637 miles)
BOKHOL PLAIN
Marsabit
hB
over 1 000 000 over 500 000
CHALBI DESERT
La g
None
al og
A N D A
POPULATION
7673 km (4768 miles)
Road conditions in Kenya vary greatly, though most are still unpaved. The main railroad connects Mombasa with the highland interior. There are over 200 airstrips across the country.
Lodwar
Mandera A PL AIN
Moyale B gh La
Total Area : 582 650 sq. km (224 961 sq. miles)
Daua AR
Sure gh La
KENYA Turkwel
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Lake Turkana
G
36 ships 19,100 grt
60
A
I
P
O
W
Y LE VAL
Drive on left
50
40
30
% of total arrivals
S
U
Jomo Kenyatta International, Nairobi 3.25m passengers
†
USA 7%
A
TRANSPORTATION
Uganda 7%
RIFT
K
Tanzania 11%
A
E C
20/68
UK 15%
O
30/12
A
30/86
Germany 16%
Tourism is vital to the economy and a key foreign exchange earner. After a boom in package safaris and beach vacations during the 1980s, Kenya has seen a general decline in visitor numbers since. World recession, reports of instability, the much-publicized murder of several tourists in the 1990s, and, more recently, a series of Islamist E terrorist attacks ELEMI TRIANGLE have been to blame. U Lokitaung
N
40/16
A
40/104
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS Little change in 2002
D
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Visitors : Population 1:38
I
Steppe/mountain/ tropical
RE AT
†
Kerio
CLIMATE
Kenyatta Conference Center, Nairobi. The modern skyline of the business center contrasts sharply with the slums on the city’s outskirts.
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KENYA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium
POLITICS
56/km2 (146/mi2)
Kiswahili, English, Kikuyu, Luo, Kalenjin, Kamba THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
Multiparty elections
2002/2007
President Mwai Kibaki
AT THE LAST ELECTION
7% FORD–P
National Assembly 224 seats 35%
65%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
59% NARC
Muslim 6%
Other 9% Traditional beliefs 25%
Christian 60% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Kamba 11% Other 30%
Kalenjin 11% Luo 13%
4% Others
NARC = National Rainbow Coalition (including the Liberal Democratic Party–LDP, the Democratic Party–DP, and FORD–Kenya) KANU = Kenya African National Union FORD–P = Forum for the Restoration of Democracy–People Others include FORD–Asili, Sisi Kwa Sisi, Safina, Shirikisho, and two ex officio members.
Daniel arap Moi, dictatorial president 1978–2002.
The National Assembly comprises 210 elected members, 12 nominated by the president, and two ex officio members
AID
KANU dominated Kenya for four decades, from independence in 1963 until its defeat in elections in 2002.
PROFILE
Luhya 14%
Kikuyu 21%
30% KANU
Kenya’s ethnic diversity, with about 70 different groups, reflects its past as a crossroads for population movements. Asians, Europeans, and Arabs form 1% of the population. The rural majority retains strong clan and extended family links, though these are being weakened by urban migration. Poverty, severe drought, and years of high population growth have created a land hunger which has fueled ethnic violence. Though gender equality is written into law, social tradition means that women suffer from social, economic, and sexual repression. Violence and abuse are widespread, including female genital mutilation, criminalized only in 2001. The incidence of both AIDS and illiteracy is higher among women.
International criticism of human rights abuses, and internal unrest in response to President Daniel arap Moi’s attempt to entrench KANU’s power, forced the introduction of multipartyism in 1992. Despite increasing unpopularity, KANU and Moi remained in power in the face of a divided opposition and amid widespread allegations of electoral irregularities. Under Moi’s presidency smaller ethnic groups had gained ascendancy in the ruling party and government, while the majority Kikuyu increasingly supported the opposition. Moi’s attempt to impose Uhuru, son of Jomo Kenyatta, Kenya’s first president, as KANU candidate for the 2002 elections alienated many senior party members. NARC heavily defeated KANU in legislative elections, and Mwai Kibaki was elected president.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Government corruption High-level corruption is entrenched in Kenyan politics and culture, and international donors pressed Moi to address the problem. In 2001 an anticorruption drive headed by former opposition figure Richard Leakey produced a “list of shame” which included senior government ministers. President Kibaki has promised to usher in a new corruption-free era, but will spare Moi himself from prosecution.
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.4% 2%
80+ 60–79
Male 0.4% 1.9%
5%
40–59
5%
13.5%
20–39
12.7%
0–19
29.4%
29.7%
% of population by age group
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
COMESA
EAC
IGAD
Joined UN in 1963
AU
Relations with neighboring states and with key Western donors are Kenya’s priorities. In 1991, human rights issues were partly responsible for a two-year suspension of aid. Kenya has become increasingly concerned about its apparent status as a “soft target” for terrorists seeking to
attack the US and its allies. When the US embassy was destroyed by a car bomb in 1998, 254 people were killed and over 5000 injured, and in 2002, 15 died when a hotel was bombed in Mombasa in an attack aimed at Israelis. Kenya is wary of the volatile security situations in neighboring states. It has recently sought to mediate in the many-sided conflict in Somalia, and hosted peace talks in 2002.
†
President Mwai Kibaki, opposition figure elected in 2002.
Recipient
$393m (receipts)
.
Down 15% in 2002
Kenya has been a major recipient of aid from the World Bank, the US, the EU, Japan, and the UK. Little, however, has trickled down to the majority of the population. This is partly because of the high proportion of aid tied to contracts for firms from donor countries, and partly because of mismanagement and corruption. In 1996 aid disbursements were linked to improvements in human rights, and in 2001 the IMF and the World Bank withheld all aid pending anticorruption reforms. A budget deficit of almost $1 billion prompted a call in 2003 for financial aid.
CHRONOLOGY From the 10th century, Arab coastal settlers mixed with indigenous peoples in the region. Britain’s need for a route to landlocked Uganda led to the formation in 1895 of the British East African Protectorate in the coastal region. 1900–1918 White settlement. 1920 Interior becomes UK colony. 1930 Jomo Kenyatta goes to UK; stays 14 years. 1944 Kenyan African Union (KAU) formed; Kenyatta returns to lead it. 1952–1956 Mau Mau, Kikuyu-led violent campaign to restore African lands. State of emergency; 13,000 people killed. 1953 KAU banned. Kenyatta jailed. 1960 State of emergency ends. Tom Mboya and Oginga Odinga form KANU. 1961 Kenyatta freed; takes up presidency of KANU. 1963 KANU wins elections. Kenyatta prime minister. Full independence declared. 1964 Republic of Kenya formed with Kenyatta as president and Odinga as vice president. 1966 Odinga defects from KANU to form Kenya People’s Union (KPU).
345
K
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
$11.2bn
†
Inflation 13% p.a. (1990–2001)
79.33 Kenya shillings (73.8)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................85th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$360 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .......................$84m INFLATION ............................................2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................40%
EXPORTS
Pakistan 5%
USA 8%
/
No compulsory military service
Up 14% in 2002
KENYAN ARMED FORCES 78 main battle tanks (Vickers Mk 3)
20,000 personnel
4 patrol boats
1620 personnel
29 combat aircraft (9 F-5E/F)
2500 personnel
None
The destabilization of the northeastern border by insecurity in Somalia is the main defense issue. The army has been deployed to suppress tribal fighting in the remote regions of the country. Military aid is provided by the UK and the US.
346
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
$348m
†
Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
2002
Netherlands 8% Other 48% UK 13% Uganda 18% IMPORTS
South Africa 7%
UK 7% USA 8%
Other 57%
Saudi Arabia 9% UAE 12%
STRENGTHS Tourism – largest foreign exchange earner. Broad agricultural base, especially cash crops such as coffee and tea. East Africa’s largest, most diversified manufacturing sector.
WEAKNESSES Fluctuating world prices for coffee and tea. Corruption. Poor recent GDP growth. High population growth in 1980s and 1990s. Land shortage means uneconomic small units. Country’s image problem affects tourism.
PROFILE
DEFENSE
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
Consumer price index 1998=100
K
1969 KANU sole party to contest elections (also 1974). Tom Mboya of KANU assassinated. Unrest. KPU banned and Odinga arrested. 1978 Kenyatta dies. Vice President Daniel arap Moi succeeds him. 1982 Kenya declared a one-party state. Opposition to Moi. Abortive air force coup. Odinga rearrested. 1986 Open “queue-voting” replaces secret ballot in first stage of general elections. Other measures to extend Moi’s powers stir up opposition. 1988 Moi wins third term and extends his control over judiciary. 1990 Government implicated in deaths of Foreign Minister Robert Ouko and Anglican archbishop. Riots. Odinga and others form FORD, outlawed by government. 1991 Arrest of FORD leaders, attempts to stop prodemocracy demonstrations. Donors suspend aid. Moi agrees to introduce multiparty system. Ethnic violence increases. 1992 FORD splits into factions. Opposition weakness helps Moi win elections. 1994 Odinga dies. 1997 Widely criticized elections. 1998 Bomb at US embassy kills 254. 1999 Moi appoints paleontologist Richard Leakey to lead government drive against corruption. 2000–2001 Worst drought since 1947 threatens millions with starvation. 2002 Thousands displaced by recurrence of major floods. Israeli tourists targeted in terrorist attacks. December, elections: KANU defeated by NARC and Mwai Kibaki elected president.
ECONOMICS
Kenya has been hailed as an example to the rest of Africa of the benefits of a mainly free-market economy. Government involvement has been relatively limited, and recently further reduced by privatization. Foreign investment has been encouraged, with some success. Tourism has become the leading foreign exchange earner over the past 20 years, despite suffering serious setbacks since the 1990s. Manufacturing now accounts for 20% of GDP, and is the most diversified sector in east Africa, but needs to expand rapidly in order to create more jobs. Economic growth was good by African standards during the 1980s, averaging over 4% a year. However, it was barely sufficient to compensate for one of the world’s highest population growth rates, at its peak around 4.2%. For the majority of Kenyans, farming ever-smaller landholdings or earning a living in the informal sector, life has become harsher. The situation was exacerbated in 2001 by a ban on all
trade with Somalia, which affected exports of the widely grown mild narcotic, qat. Severe drought from 2000 crippled the agricultural sector and put 20 million people at risk of starvation. By 2004, however, the population growth rate had almost halved. The rise in poverty-linked violence and political unrest hit tourism; earnings fell by 15% in the early 1990s, and the industry had yet to recover fully when a global downturn caused further problems in 2001. Other problems, including inflation, a heavy debt burden, and growing dependence on balance-ofpayments support had come to a head in the early 1990s, when economic growth gave way to recession. Real GDP growth fell to 0.4% in 1992. The government responded with some economic liberalization measures, including floating the Kenyan shilling and raising interest rates. GDP growth, however, remained low, or even negative. The Kibaki government has faced a formidable task, since taking office in 2002. Corruption has been met head on, allowing a slight boost in investor confidence; GDP growth even climbed, albeit to just 1.7%, in 2003. KENYA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Eldoret Nanyuki Kisumu Thika Lake Victoria
Nakuru Nairobi
Cement Tobacco Oil refining Electronics Steel Textiles
Mombasa
Vehicle assembly Food processing Agribusiness 0 Chemicals
* significant multinational ownership
0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KENYA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 1.1m kW
Oil reserves not yet exploited; refines 41,400 b/d
165,160 tonnes
Soda ash, fluorite, limestone, rubies, gold, vermiculite, oil, titaium
11.5m cattle, 11m goats, 7.7m sheep, 28m chickens
†
MEDIA
TV ownership low
There are 6 daily newspapers. The Daily Nation has the largest circulation
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 40% (1.6bn kWh)
6 services: 1 state-controlled, 5 independent
Combustion 51% (2bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
9 services: 1 state-controlled, 8 independent
Other 9% (0.4bn kWh) 20
0
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Agriculture is still a key sector of the economy. Kenya’s varied topography means that tropical, subtropical, and temperate crops may be grown. Coffee and tea, the main export crops, have been affected by falling world prices. Efforts to reduce dependence on these have led to the growth of a successful export-oriented horticultural industry. A deal to mine titanium was signed with a Canadian firm in 2004. Oil exploration has revealed deposits in Turkana District. Hydropower provides two-fifths of electricity, and other sources are being developed to reduce the adverse effects of droughts; dry spells caused power shortages in 2000 and 2001, leading to the imposition of daily power cuts.
Government intolerance of criticism is long-standing and includes plays and novels as well as the media. Ngugi wa Thiongo, Kenya’s most famous novelist, was exiled for his criticism of KANU.
†
CRIME 35,278 prisoners
Death penalty not used in practice
na Ta
Lake Victoria
0
100 km 100 miles
ENVIRONMENT 8% (2% partially protected)
/
†
Sustainability rank: 89th
0.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
8 per 1000 population
10 per 1000 population
Defense 3.2%
per 100,000 population
K
Education 6.3% Rapes 2
Health 1.7%
per 100,000 population
0
84
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts per 100,000 population
†
EDUCATION 84%
School leaving age: 14
98,583 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
80
Wealth disparities in Kenya are large and growing, exacerbated by land hunger and migration to the cities, where jobs are few and existence depends on the informal economy. More than half of all town dwellers live in slums, and the slum dwellers of Nairobi’s Amarthi Valley are among Africa’s poorest, worst-nourished people. Their lives contrast sharply with those of the country’s elite – top government officials with access to patronage; white Kenyans, who derive their wealth largely from agricultural estates; and the largely Asian business community. Landless peasants have pushed for a redistribution of land similar to that in Zimbabwe.
WORLD RANKING
60
96% 40
Position in World 1st
20
32%
4% 50th
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
No
The importance to tourism of wildlife conservation is recognized, and recent elephant protection schemes have been a success, but proposed national reserves compete with agriculture for land. Opposition to government plans to reallocate some national park land to squatters is growing.
GDP/cap. increase
Crime is rising
Murders
% of each age group in education
0
Cropland Forest Pasture G a la n a Desert Cattle Maize Coffee – cash crop
†
SPENDING
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
/
Nairobi’s high crime levels are spreading countrywide as a result of worsening poverty, ethnic violence, and rising banditry in the northeast. An increase in the use of guns underlies the rapid increase in violent crime. KENYA : LAND USE
Respiratory and diarrheal diseases, malaria, AIDS
The health system is a mixture of state and private facilities, the latter mainly run by charities and missions. Povertyrelated illness, particularly among women and children, is increasing. In 2004 the government began to provide free basic health care to the poorest third of the population. HIV and AIDS reached epidemic proportions in some areas in the 1990s, and the UN calculated that by 2004 there were 650,000 AIDS orphans. Estimates of the national level of infection with HIV were revised downward, however, to around 7% of adults.
CRIME RATES
6
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Daily newspaper circulation 8 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
100th
The education system is loosely based on the British model. Primary education, which lasts for eight years from the age of six, is free and compulsory. Attendance is over 90% of the age group, which contrasts sharply with the high drop-out rate in secondary schools. Many private higher education institutions are theological colleges.
150th
114 84%
193rd
159 $360
150 167 46 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
148
78 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
347
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
KIRIBATI
PACIFIC OCEAN KIRIBATI Tuvalu Tokelau
1979
July 12
KIR
+12
French Polynesia
Cook Is
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Kiribati CAPITAL: Bairiki (Tarawa Atoll) POPULATION: 98,549 CURRENCY: Australian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1979
Pacific Ocean
Marshall Is
.ki
+686
F
ORMERLY PART OF THE colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the Gilberts became independent from Britain in 1979 and took the name Kiribati (pronounced “Keer-ee-bus”). British interest in the Gilbert Islands rested solely on the exploitation of the phosphate deposits on Banaba; these ran out in 1980. In 1981, Kiribati won damages (but not the costs of litigation) from the British for decades of phosphate exploitation.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR BAIRIKI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
139/km2 (360/mi2)
English, Kiribati
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Banreaba Island, Tarawa Atoll. None of the atolls are more than 8 m (26 ft) high except Banaba, once the source of phosphates.
Pop. density medium
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT 2003/2007
President Anote Tong
AT THE LAST ELECTION
61%
House of Assembly 42 seats
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 0
0/32
K
39%
Nonparty elections
Other 8% -10/14 -20/-4
Kiribati Protestant Church 39%
Kiribati’s small land area in the vast Pacific means that some atolls can often go for months without rain. In 1999, a nationwide drought emergency was declared.
†
TRANSPORTATION Bonriki, Tarawa 51,000 passengers
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
None
5 km (3 miles)
Air Kiribati links most outer islands to Tarawa. Passenger ferries run between the smaller islands. Only Tarawa and Kiritimati have all-weather roads.
†
TOURISM
.
4288 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:23
KIRIBATI
Banaba
T U N
USA 29%
0
5 miles
0
Equator
P HO E N IX
Arorae
McKean I.
50
60
0
Kiritimati
S
under 100m
0
D
N LAND HEIGHT
Malden I.
IS LA N DS
POPULATION under 10 000
Tourism is small-scale. The recently renamed Millennium Island is the first place on Earth to see in each new year.
Starbuck I.
Manra
N
% of total arrivals
Orona
Kanton Enderbury I. Rawaki
A
40
Birnie I.
L
30
Kiritimati
N
E
Nikumaroro
20
I
20 km 20 miles
S
10
0
5 km
Tabuaeran
L
Beru Nikunau
Other 46% 0
0
Teraina
Bonriki
BAIRIKI
I
A
Nauru 9%
Tabiteuea Onotoa R U Tamana
Betio
Ooma
Marakei Tarawa Maiana Abemama Aranuka Nonouti
G
Banaba (Ocean I.)
Tarawa
Tapiwa
Abaiang
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
The traditional chiefs still effectively rule Kiribati. A period of political uncertainty followed the election victory of the opposition BTK in 2002. The party succeeded in ousting the incumbent president, and its candidate Anote Tong was elected president in 2003. In the meantime, however, the MTM had regained control of the House of Assembly in fresh elections. Overpopulation on Tarawa is a major issue, in part caused by the poverty and lack of opportunity on the outer islands; a resettlement program began in 1998. The economy’s overdependence on coconut products is also of concern.
(Ocean I.)
Total Area : 811 sq. km (313 sq. miles) Makin Butaritari
Australia 16%
The House of Assembly has one appointed member (for the Banaban community in Fiji) and one ex officio member
Almost all I-Kiribati (as the Gilbertese have been known since independence) are Micronesian, though the Banabans employed anthropologists to establish their racial distinctness. Tension with the Banabans is intense, though the majority now live on Rabi Island in Fiji; just 280 people remain on Banaba itself. Most I-Kiribati are poor, and many men leave the islands to work as merchant shipping crew. Those who stay at home go through a circular migration from the outlying islands to Tarawa, returning to see relatives. Women play a prominent role, especially on outlying islands, where they run most of the farms.
Down 11% in 2003
5% App
38% BTK
MTM = Protect the Maneaba BTK = Pillars of Truth App = Appointed
Roman Catholic 53%
8 ships 4198 grt
483 km (300 miles)
57% MTM
600 km London Paris
600 miles
Banana
Vostok I. Millennium I. Flint I.
0 0
348
20 km 20 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KIRIBATI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
Comm
Joined UN in 1999
PIF
PC
ADB
Kiribati has little international significance because of its tiny size and remote location, but is able to make its voice heard regionally through the Pacific Islands Forum. In 1986, Kiribati was a signatory to a deal between the US and
AID
†
/
Up 75% in 2002
Australia is the biggest donor. China withdrew funding from several projects in 2003 after Kiribati recognized Taiwan, which promptly made up the shortfall.
DEFENSE Kiribati has no defense budget
†
,
No compulsory military service
US$91m
†
Inflation 3.3% p.a. (1990–2001) 1.44 Australian dollars (1.491)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................189th GNP PER CAPITA ...........................US$960 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................US$2m INFLATION .........................................2.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
Electric power 2000 kW
32,393 tonnes
Not an oil producer
12,000 pigs, 450,000 chickens
None
Phosphate deposits on Banaba ran out in 1980. All energy supplies have to be imported. A scheme to farm seaweed is under development.
†
Not applicable
Australia and New Zealand provide de facto protection, with regular antisubmarine patrols.
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
US$21m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
a number of Pacific Island states that resulted in the US paying US$60 million in return for access to Pacific fishing grounds. In the Cold War era Kiribati played the USSR off against the US, extracting a high price for fishing leases, which allowed boats to spy on US nuclear testing on the neighboring Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands.
ENVIRONMENT
/
39% (including marine and semiprotected areas)
Not available
0.3 tonnes per capita
Rising sea levels cause coastal erosion and ultimately threaten Kiribati’s existence. Global warming is a critical issue both for this reason and because of its damaging effects on the coral reef which protects Tarawa from the sea and holds important inshore fish stocks in the lagoon. The coral has also suffered from pollution by untreated effluent.
†
MEDIA
In 1892, the British established the phosphate-producing colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. 1957 British nuclear tests take place near Kiritimati. 1979 Independence as two states, Kiribati and Tuvalu. 1981 Kiribati wins damages for phosphate mining from UK. 1986 Kiribati–US fishing deal. 1995 Dateline moved east to cover all atolls ahead of millennium. 1999 National drought emergency. 2003 Anote Tong of BTK president, despite MTM parliamentary majority.
Alcoholism is common and some 80% of adults smoke. More worrying is the increasing HIV infection rate, a consequence of the large number of I-Kiribati who work as merchant seamen.
Lack of resources. High levels of poverty. Isolation, and large distances between islands. Heavy dependence on international aid. Almost no economic potential. Lack of rain. EXPORTS
USA 4% Bangladesh 3%
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
5 per 1000 population
There is no domestic television
Defense None
Japan 56%
South Korea 13%
Thailand 17% IMPORTS
France 29%
64 prisoners
No death penalty
,
10
15
20
25
Crime is minimal
Crime, apart from brawls resulting from drunkenness, is minimal. The islands’ judicial system is based on the British model.
Life in Kiribati is modest. Most I-Kiribati live by subsistence farming and fishing. Civil servants in Bairiki form the wealthiest group. The cost of living on Tarawa is higher than that on the outlying islands due to the need to import food, though fish is abundant and cheap everywhere.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
1
50th
99%
100th
150th
Other 9% Japan 10% Poland 12%
Australia 27%
The independent Kiribati Newstar competes with the state-owned Te Uekera and the Protestant Church’s paper Butim’aea Manin te Euangkerio.
Other 7%
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
1 state-owned service
†
51 per 1000 population
Health 8.5%
There are no daily newspapers. The weekly newspapers are Butim’aea Manin te Euangkerio, Kiribati Newstar, and Te Uekera
CRIME
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
Education 11.4%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
Heart diseases, diabetes
TV ownership low
There are no daily newspapers
Subsistence economy; only Tarawa imports food. Coconuts provide some export income, mostly from the EU. Fisheries have some potential. Upgraded port facilities at Betio.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 3333 people
0
STRENGTHS
†
HEALTH
Fiji 13%
EDUCATION 99%
†
School leaving age: 15
120 $960 193rd
133 63 years
123 51 deaths
568 students
Education is British-inspired and compulsory from six to 15. The best students go on to university in Fiji.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
349
K
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
EAST ASIA
NORTH KOREA
C h in a
an
N. KOREA p
S. Korea
Ja
OFFICIAL NAME: Democratic People’s Republic of Korea CAPITAL: Pyongyang POPULATION: 22.7 million CURRENCY: North Korean won OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Korean 1948
1953
Sept 9
DRK
+9
.kp
+850
C
OMPRISING THE NORTHERN half of the Korean peninsula, North Korea is separated from the USbacked South by an armistice line straddling the 38th parallel. Much of the country is mountainous; the Chaeryong and Pyongyang plains in the southwest are the most fertile regions. An independent communist republic from 1948, it remains largely isolated. With its economy starved of capital, it now faces a food crisis requiring large-scale international assistance.
†
CLIMATE
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
K
-10/14
Paddy field. The hot, wet summers are ideal for rice growing. Most farms are run as cooperatives.
-20/-4
North Korea has a continental climate, but with wet summers. Recent droughts and floods have led to serious famine.
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
†
Pop. density medium
Korean, Chinese
61%
1872 km (1163 miles)
524 km (326 miles)
189/km2 (488/mi2)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Supreme People's Assembly 687 seats
100% KWP
The three million-strong KWP is the only legal party; membership is essential for individual advancement. State control is total. After almost 50 years as leader Kim Il Sung, subject of a lavish personality cult, died in 1994. Kim Jong Il, his son and chosen successor, lacks his father’s authority and has yet to seal the succession; in 1998 Kim Il Sung, by then four years dead, was declared “Eternal President.” Nonetheless, Kim Jong Il is officially known as “Dear Leader” and is guaranteed 100% of the vote in elections.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Joined UN in 1991
NAM
5214 km (3240 miles)
2253 km (1400 miles)
†
TOURISM
/
130,000 visitors
Korean 100%
Visitors : Population 1:175 Up 2% in 1995–1998
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
North Korea does not publish tourism figures by country of origin 20
30
39%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
The heavily used railroads were built by the occupying Japanese after 1910. Highways are open only to very limited, officially approved traffic. Improving relations with South Korea in 2000 led to projects for cross-border links.
40
% of total arrivals
Economic need has forced limited tourism. South Korean firms have developed resorts such as Mt. Kumgang.
350
PEOPLE
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
10
Eternal President Kim II Sung
2003/2008
225 ships 870,500 grt
Sunan, Pyongyang
0
No multiparty elections
KWP = Korean Workers' Party
Continental
WEATHER CHART FOR PYONGYANG
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
POLITICS
The Korean peninsula is unusual in having been inhabited by a single ethnic group for the last 2000 years. Chinese and Japanese minorities amount to only 0.2% of the population. Religions practiced under strict control are Buddhism, Christianity, and Chondogyo, a combination of Taoism, Confucianism, Buddhism, shamanism, and Christianity peculiar to the Koreas. North Koreans live highly regulated lives. Divorce is nonexistent and extramarital sex frowned upon. Women form more than 50% of the workforce, but are also expected to run the home; it is not uncommon for them to work a 15-hour day. From an early age, children are looked after by an extensive system of state-run crèches. The privileged lifestyle of the political elite – some 200,000 in number – is rumored to be a source of popular resentment.
China has been North Korea’s closest ally since the collapse in 1991 of Soviet communism. The key relationship is with South Korea, with which the North is still notionally at war. A breakthrough in relations in 2000 has since been undermined by mutual suspicion. There has also been a growing antagonism with the US administration, particularly over North Korea’s nuclear missile program. In 2002 the US designated North Korea part of an “axis of evil” and has intensified pressure ever since.
†
AID
Recipient
$267m (receipts)
/
Up 123% in 2002
Aid levels are insufficient to stave off starvation. Fuel aid was suspended from 2002 over the country’s nuclear program. In 2004 a devastating train explosion in Ryongchon triggered emergency aid.
DEFENSE $4.73bn
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 8% in 2002
North Korea has continued its nuclear missile program despite the 1994 agreement to freeze its research. It develops and sells missiles.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NORTH KOREA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps Onsông
NORTH KOREA 0
100 km
Musan en T u m Komusan
N 100 miles
N
Paektu-san 2744 m
Najin
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000
Ch'ôngjin
over 50 000
A
E
I
Kanggye Sup’ung-ho
M H A
Kusông
h 'ô
josôn Sôm - an
K O R E A
N
Tanch'ôn
Hûngnam
Tôkch'ôn Kunu Yongnûng Kowôn Sunch'ôn Munch'ôn
Sunan
Wônsan
Yangdôk
PYONGYANG
Nam
B A Y
Songnim
Namp'o
Kuûm
Kosan
Kosông
Haeju
Ongjin
E
L
L
A
Sariwôn Chaeryông Changyôn
Y
Kyôngg
O W
i-ma n
Kûmch'ôn
Kaesông
SOU
TH
KO
R
S E A
ECONOMICS $18.2bn
†
E A S T S E A
( S E A O F J A P A N )
E
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................70th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$760 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..........Closed economy; INFLATION ...........................does not publish UNEMPLOYMENT ...........................any figures
1000m/3281ft 200m/656ft
Not an oil producer; refines 53,000 b/d
4.61m ducks, 3.18m pigs, 2.72m goats, 20m chickens
Coal, iron, lead, gold, copper, zinc, tungsten, silver, tin, uranium
North Korea is rich in minerals. Electricity supply remains a major problem, with frequent blackouts. US suspicion that nuclear power plants were being used to make weapons-grade material was borne out when in 2003 the government admitted to having a nuclear arsenal.
.
†
Sustainability rank: 140th
†
Few strengths except minerals. Some economic reforms launched in 2002.
GNP has declined steadily since 1990. Isolation. Acute shortage of foreign capital and technology. Famine. EXPORTS
Thailand 4% Other 32%
Costa Rica 13%
There are 5 daily newspapers, including the leading Rodong Sinmun, the party newspaper, and Minju Choson
North Korea does not publish prison figures
Japan 20% China 24% IMPORTS
Germany 8% India 9% Other 37%
Thailand 9% Brazil 12%
China 25%
2 state-controlled services
TV consists mostly of musical shows praising Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il, and anti-American tirades directed against the Korean War.
†
Welfare state health benefits Heart disease, cancers, digestive diseases
1 per 333 people
Health care is free. Reasonable life expectancy is now threatened by malnutrition and outright starvation.
†
SPENDING
K
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
11 per 1000 population
21 per 1000 population
Defense 25% Education No data
Daily newspaper circulation 208 per 1000 people
CRIME
†
HEALTH
Health 1.8% 0
Brazil 7%
390,000 students
Learning English is compulsory from age 14. Malnutrition has contributed to a decline in school attendance.
TV ownership medium
1 state-controlled service
WEAKNESSES
School leaving age: 16
8.5 tonnes per capita
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
99%
Excessive use of fertilizers and unchecked pollution from heavy industry are the major problems.
MEDIA
†
EDUCATION
Electric power 9.5m kW
263,700 tonnes
3% (1% partially protected)
1950–1953 Korean War. 1994 Withdrawal from IAEA. Kim Il Sung dies; declared “Eternal President” four years later. 1997 Threat of famine worsens. Kim Jong Il becomes party leader. 2000 Historic North–South summit.
500m/1640ft
†
RESOURCES
ENVIRONMENT
900 North Korean won (2.2)
1500m/4920ft
Sea Level
Not available
SCORE CARD
Iwôn
Kimch'aek
Sinp'o Hongwôn
Hamhûng
C
Ô
Pukch'ông
Oro
Kujang Ta e
Pakch'ôn Chôngju Anju
Y
Kilchu
an
ng c
h'
Sinûiju
d on g
ôn
Hûich'ôn
G
G
n-m
Sakchu
LAND HEIGHT
-
Tongjosô
C
Myôngch'ôn
S
Manp'o
over 10 000
M
N
H
A
Ya
u
Hyesan
l
Annexed by Japan in 1910, the peninsula was divided in 1945 at the 38th parallel; North Korea was made an independent state in 1948.
Hoeryông
K
0
CHRONOLOGY
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Kyônghûng
A
Total Area : 120 540 sq. km (46 540 sq. miles)
5
10
20
25
Most people live in poverty. An elite within the KWP lives well, with access to specialist shops and high-tech consumer goods. Personal ownership of telephones, private cars, and, in many areas, bicycles, is forbidden.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Death penalty in use
1
50th
,
15
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
99%
Low level of violent street crime
At an individual level, crime is officially said hardly to exist. The criminal code is weighted to protect the state against “subversion,” rather than the rights of the individual. North Korea has a very poor human rights record and there is a gulag of more than 100,000 “subversives,” where whole families are sent along with those accused, and where torture is routine.
100th
150th
129 192nd
$760
121 137 62 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
42 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
351
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SOUTH KOREA
EAST ASIA Asia
North Korea SOUTH KOREA Japan
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Korea CAPITAL: Seoul POPULATION: 47.7 million CURRENCY: South Korean won OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Korean 1948
1953
Aug 15
ROK
+9
O
CCUPYING THE SOUTHERN half of the Korean peninsula in east Asia, nearly 70% of South Korea is mountainous and two-thirds is forested. The whole peninsula was annexed by Japan from 1910 to 1945, and the split between South Korea and the communist North originated with the arrival of rival US and Soviet armies in 1945. Though the two states have discussed reunification, the legacy of hostility arising from the 1950–1953 Korean War remains a major obstacle. South Korea is the world’s leading shipbuilder and a major force in high-tech industries.
CLIMATE
†
†
Visitors : Population 1:10
.
Down 11% in 2003
TOURISM
.kr
+82
4.75m visitors MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Japan 43% China 10% USA 9% Philippines 4% Hong Kong 3% Other 31% 0
Continental
10
20
40
30
50
60
% of total arrivals
WEATHER CHART FOR SEOUL
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
K
South Korea has four distinct seasons. Winters are dry and can be bitterly cold. Summers are hot and humid, especially during July and E A August. O R
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14
E
Overseas tourism to South Korea has increased tenfold since 1969. Most visitors are Japanese, who come for the golf and Seoul’s nightlife; Jeju-do (Cheju-do) is a favored honeymoon K destination. Whereas H T visiting relations of US T R army personnel once P’aro-ho ’ Sokch’o O A made up 13% of all N E tourists, today Soyang-ho Ch’unch’ôn Kangnûng Los AngelesÛijôngbu n based Korean– ha uk Kanghwa-do SEOUL Americans make Tonghae Puch’ôn up the greatest Sôngnam Inch’ôn Samch’ôk Wônju Anyang proportion Suwôn of US visitors. T ôk ch ôk-kundo Chech’ôn Despite the Asan Ch’ungju-ho -m P’yông˚aek publicity a Ch’ungju generated Ch’ônan Yôngju Sôsan by the Andong-ho 1988 Seoul Ch’ôngju Olympics Andong Kongju Sangju and the 2002 soccer Taejôn Nonsan World Cup, P’ohang Kimch’ôn Yôngch’ôn Kumi South Korea Iri Kunsan K is still not o E Taegu K ûmh A Kyôngju Kimje seen in the Chônju M N West as a A Chôngju -S Ulsan prime tourist EK Miryang A B Na kto ng destination. SO
-20/-4
A
P
an
H
M
K A E
A ( S E
Kyô
N
nggi-man
A
A S E
O F
E
Chinhae
Yôsu Namhae-do
Kohûng
Chin-do
Pusan
Samch’ônpô Ch’ungmu
Sunch’ôn
Mokp’o
Kimhae
a
Kûmsong
Posô ng
Imja-do
Masan
Kwangju
St ra it
L
L O W
Kûm
J A P A N )
Sômjin Chinju
Kôje-do
Tolsan-do
K
o
r
e
SOUTH KOREA Total Area : 98 480 sq. km (38 023 sq. miles)
Kôgûm-do
POPULATION over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000
N
C h e j u Cheju
i t S t r a
Cheju-do
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft
0
500m/1640ft
50 km
200m/656ft 0
Halla-san 1950m
352
Ch’angwôn
ng
Namwôn
ga mNa
The public transportation system is efficient and highly integrated. Buses, trains, boats, and airplanes are all included in one timetable, and have a reputation for punctuality. A toll-based nationwide expressway network links most major cities. Air travel has expanded rapidly as a convenient way to traverse the mountainous interior. A high-speed rail link will connect Y Seoul and Busan (Pusan) in 2010. Improving relations with North Korea in 2000 led to projects for cross-border rail and road links and connecting Hûk sa n-k undo flights. The first flights since 1953 took place in mid-2002, albeit limited to specific teams of construction workers in the nuclear industry, and the land border was opened for the first time in early 2003 for a South Korean tourist bus. Continuing political uncertainty has slowed the progress of other projects.
A S E
S
1609 km (1000 miles)
-
3129 km (1944 miles)
n
3060 km (1901 miles)
n Ha
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 70,146 km (43,587 miles)
K
2532 ships 7.05m grt
E
Drive on right
A
Incheon International, Seoul 19.9m passengers
†
S T
B
TRANSPORTATION
50 miles
Sea Level
over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SOUTH KOREA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density high 483/km2 (1251/mi2)
Korean THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
83%
17%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Confucianist 3%
Roman Catholic 11%
Other 1%
Mahayana Buddhist 47%
Protestant 38%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
extended family. Most Koreans can trace their ancestry back thousands of years. Regional origin is important in determining blood heritage, since there are only 270 Korean surnames and half the population is named Kim, Lee, Park, or Choi. Chondogyo, combining elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, shamanism, Taoism, and Christianity, is peculiar to the Koreas but has only a tiny following. Traditional values condition attitudes to women, and it is still not respectable for those who are married to have a job. Economic growth has attracted illegal immigrants from the poorer Asian countries, who take menial jobs that South Koreans now refuse to do. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Korean 100% Age
Female 0.7% 5.9%
Korean culture is strongly colored by its unusual racial homogeneity. Family life is a central and clearly defined part of society, though the nuclear family model is becoming the norm rather than the old-style household of the
POLITICS 2004/2008
†
12.3% 17.2% 13.5%
Male
AT THE LAST ELECTION
3% 1% MDP ULD
National Assembly 299 seats
60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
4.5% 12.5% 18.1% 15%
% of population by age group
he openly backed the UP, a splinter from the MDP. The UP performed well in the legislative elections the following month, becoming the first liberal party to win control of the National Assembly.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES 51% UP
41% GNP
3% 1% DLP Others
UP = Uri Party GNP = Grand National Party DLP = Democratic Labor Party MDP = Millennium Democratic Party ULD = United Liberal Democrats
Officially a democracy since its inception, South Korea was in practice ruled by military dictators until 1987, when direct presidential elections were introduced.
PROFILE In 1993, Kim Young Sam became the first nonmilitary leader in 30 years. He launched a popular anticorruption campaign, targeting former presidents, but was brought down by a steel scandal in 1997. Veteran opposition leader, Kim Dae Jung, was elected president later that year in the first peaceful power transfer to the opposition. His supporters (subsequently renamed the MDP) did not hold a legislative majority, however, and instability continued. Kim’s final year in office was marred by corruption scandals, but his chosen successor Roh Moo Hyun was elected president in 2002. In March 2004 Roh was suspended briefly on charges of violating his political neutrality when
The economy The Asian financial crisis of 1997–1998 was followed by global slowdown from 2001; efforts to recover in the intervening period by means of financial austerity and retrenchment were unsuccessful. Industrial action is frequent and effective. Relations with North Korea The sudden flowering of North–South relations in 2000 soon lost popularity. Expensive cross-border projects, and promises of aid, raised fears over rising costs, while erratic Northern diplomacy has done little to improve mutual trust.
Kim Dae Jung, president (1998–2003) and Nobel Peace Prize winner.
CP
IAEA
Joined UN in 1991
OECD
WTO
Since the division of Korea, relations with the North have dominated foreign policy. A historic summit meeting in 2000 in the North Korean capital, Pyongyang, opened a new phase, and cross-border diplomatic and economic cooperation briefly flourished. Reunification remains the ultimate goal of both Koreas, but with doubts about its social and economic costs. The border is still the most heavily defended in the world. Relations with China, the closest ally of North Korea, have improved. Japan is a major trading partner, though South Koreans continue to harbor resentment over the 1910–1945 Japanese annexation. Debate is fierce over South Korea’s increasing involvement in Iraq.
0.3%
80+
Multiparty elections
President Roh Moo Hyun
APEC
†
President Roh Moo Hyun was chastized in 2004 for breaching presidential neutrality.
AID
†
Donor
$279m (donations)
/
Up 5% in 2002
Once a massive recipient of US aid, and then of Japanese war reparations, South Korea emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as a major aid donor. The economic crisis in 1997–1998, however, forced it to seek international financial assistance to salvage key sectors of its threatened economy.
CHRONOLOGY The Yi dynasty, founded in Seoul in 1392, ruled the kingdom of Korea until 1910. Korea became a vassal state of China in 1644. 1860 Korea reacts to French and British occupation of Peking by preventing Western influence: becomes the “Hermit Kingdom.” 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War. Japan conquers Korea. 1910 Japan annexes Korea. 1919 Independence protests violently suppressed. 1945 US and Soviet armies arrive. Korea split at 38ºN. South comes under de facto US rule. 1948 Republic of South Korea created; Syngman Rhee becomes president at head of an increasingly authoritarian regime. 1950 Hostilities between North and South, each aspiring to rule a united Korea. North invades, sparking Korean War. US, with UN backing, enters on South’s side; China unofficially assists North. In 1951 fighting stabilizes near 38th parallel. 1953 Armistice; de facto border at cease-fire line, close to 38th parallel.
353
K
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
K
$12.6bn
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 14% in 2002
SOUTH KOREAN ARMED FORCES 2258 main battle tanks (Type 88, M-47, M-48, T-80U)
560,000 personnel
20 submarines, 63,000 6 destroyers, 9 frigates, personnel 24 corvettes, 84 patrol boats 538 combat aircraft (153 F-16C/D, 185 F-5E/F, 130 F-4D/E)
63,000 personnel
None
The military has retreated from politics since a major corruption investigation
ECONOMICS $473bn
†
in the mid-1990s. The main defense concern is North Korea. South Korea has fewer troops, tanks, artillery, and aircraft than the North, but claims parity through superior technology and the presence of thousands of US troops on its territory. The manufacture of missiles capable of striking any target in North Korea was legalized in 2001. Since the demilitarized zone (DMZ) is only 55 km (35 miles) from Seoul, however, the South’s ability to resist invasion by the North is questionable. Stumbling efforts at improving cross-border relations led to a commitment in 2002 to clear landmines from the DMZ to allow construction of transportation links, and in 2004 to the first radio contact between the navies.
Inflation 4.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
1156 South Korean won (1195)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................13th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$9930 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$6.09bn INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
EXPORTS
Taiwan 4% Other 43%
Hong Kong 8%
USA 18% IMPORTS
Germany 4%
Saudi Arabia 5% China 12%
Other 45%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
USA 14%
Japan 20%
STRENGTHS
High level of indebtedness and vulnerability to international capital movements. Increasingly militant workforce since 1997. State sector a burden on the economy. Strong competition from Japan.
2000
2001
2002
Seoul
SOUTH KOREA : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Inchôn Pohang Ulsan
Gunsan
Busan
PROFILE
Seoul, meaning “capital,” is overcrowded and dominates the country’s economy. A new capital is to be built north of Taejon by 2030.
354
South Korea’s economic miracle began with centralized planning. Chaebol (conglomerates) such as Samsung achieved impressive growth rates in strategic industries such as car manufacturing, shipbuilding, and semiconductors. Cheap state credit
2003
and a well-educated workforce gave South Korea a competitive edge. The government then encouraged foreign investment and an emphasis on smaller industries to maintain growth. In 1997, however, a major financial crisis and the threat of a debt implosion forced the government to turn to the IMF for a huge credit agreement. The central bank forecast economic growth of over 5% for 2004, signaling confidence that the economy was recovering from a short recession in the first half of 2003.
World’s most successful shipbuilder, with bulk of the market. Demand from China, particularly for cars. Welldeveloped high-tech industry.
WEAKNESSES
80 1999
Japan 9% China 18%
GDP
160
GDP 1999=100
Consumer price index 1999=100
1960 Syngman Rhee resigns in face of popular revolt. 1961 Military coup leads to authoritarian junta led by Park Chung Hee. 1963 Pressure for civilian government. Park elected as president (reelected in 1967 and 1971). Strong manufacturing base and exports drive massive economic development program. 1965 Links restored with Japan. 1966 45,000 troops engaged in South Vietnam. 1972 Martial law. New constitution with greater presidential powers. 1979 Park assassinated. Gen. Chun Doo Hwan, intelligence chief, leads coup. Kim Young Sam, opposition leader, expelled from parliament. 1980 Chun chosen as president. Kim Dae Jung and other opposition leaders arrested. 1986 Car exports start. 1987 Emergence of prodemocracy movement. Roh Tae Woo, Chun’s chosen successor, elected president. 1988 Sixth Republic offers genuine multiparty democracy. Restrictions on foreign travel lifted. 1990 Government party and two opposition parties, including Kim Young Sam’s, merge. 1991 South Korea joins UN. 1992 Diplomatic links with China established. Kim Young Sam elected president. 1996 Chun sentenced to death on charges of organizing 1979–1980 overthrow of government; Roh given a lengthy prison term. Both sentences were rescinded. 1997 Violent protests against new labor laws. Steel scandal brings down government. Economic crisis. 1998 Kim Dae Jung president. 2000 Historic North–South summit in Pyongyang. 2002 Roh Moo Hyun president. 2003 182 die in subway arson attack. 2004 Roh suspended for two months. UP wins elections. Loudspeakers in DMZ cease propaganda broadcasts.
DEFENSE
Garments
Changwôn Masan
Gwangju
Chemicals Electronics Iron & steel Shipbuilding
Fish processing 0 0
50 km 50 miles
Vehicle assembly Telecommunications
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SOUTH KOREA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 53.7m kW
100
80
ENVIRONMENT
/
7% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 135th
†
CRIME
9.1 tonnes per capita
60,721 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Death penalty in use
.
Down 52% in 2000–2001
Cropland Pasture Forest Poultry Rice Cereals
0
50 km
0
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
per 100,000 population
4
per 100,000 population
386
per 100,000 population
Thefts
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Violent crime is relatively uncommon in South Korea. Since 1987, the internal security forces’ operations have been restricted, though left-wing activists are still harassed. Striking workers and student demonstrators encounter – and prepare for – confrontational and forceful crowd control. Police brutality was highlighted by the death of a detained suspect in 2002.
98%
Daily newspaper circulation 393 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
5 services: 2 publicly owned, 3 independent
9 services: 2 publicly owned, 7 independent
South Korea’s media have been freed of most restrictions since the advent of full democracy. Criticisms of the armed forces and their role in society are still frowned upon, however, and are generally avoided. Caution also has to be exercised in reporting facts about North Korea. In the past, South Korean journalists who made favorable mention of the North Korean regime suffered harassment. Plans to break into the satellite industry by 2015 were boosted by the successful launch in 2003 of the first domestically built rocket.
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, cerebrovascular disease, senility, accidents
The health service has improved in line with economic growth. Most hospitals are equipped with modern facilities, and many offer advanced treatments comparable with those in the US and western Europe. Health indicators such as infant mortality and longevity have likewise improved.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
215 per 1000 population
489 per 1000 population
Defense 2.8% Education 3.6%
School leaving age: 15
Health 2.7% 0
3.02m students
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
An increase in credit-card spending had created massively bloated levels of private debt by 2002. Wealth is unevenly distributed; the Jolla (Cholla) region in the southwest remains the poorest.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 100
% of each age group in education
There are 10 major national daily newspapers. Chosun Ilbo has the highest circulation figure
†
EDUCATION
†
1 per 714 people
2
Rapes
Environmental groups remain hostile to South Korea’s nuclear power program. Rapid industrialization has resulted in environmental problems, especially pollution. The government only ratified the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, as late as November 2002. Steps have recently been taken to address the severe problem of air pollution in urban areas, particularly in Seoul. Rivers in rural areas have been polluted by fertilizers and chemicals.
Cheju-do
50 miles
HEALTH
CRIME RATES
Yes
ng-gan g
60
40
Nakto
20
% of total generation by type
SOUTH KOREA : LAND USE
A EK
Other 0% 0
NM
Nuclear 37% (109bn kWh)
-S A
Combustion 61% (181bn kWh)
EK
Hydro 2% (5.6bn kWh)
g
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Han -g
an
Coal, iron, lead, zinc, tungsten, gold, graphite, fluorite
BA
8.91m pigs, 6m ducks, 98m chickens
South Korea has few natural resources. It has to import all of its oil and has built a series of nuclear reactors for generating electricity. Under the terms of the 1994 agreement between North Korea and the US, South Korea is constructing two reactors in the North which, in the event of reunification, would be added to the national grid. Agriculture remains a highly protected sector of the economy. Plans to open up the rice market have in the past provoked massive demonstrations in Seoul.
AE
Not an oil producer; refines 2.4m b/d
T’
2.28m tonnes
80
WORLD RANKING
60
100%
94%
40
82%
Position in World 1st
20 50th
0
Primary
Secondary
16
Tertiary
39 100th
South Korea began a concentrated education program in the 1950s, and a well-educated workforce has been the foundation of impressive economic growth. Education is compulsory from age five to 15. The final three-year cycle of secondary school is voluntary but attendance is high. The rate of tertiary enrollment, at over 80%, is among the highest in the world.
$9930
50 74 years
5 deaths
28
55 98%
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
355
K
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
KUWAIT
Iraq
Africa
KUWAIT
OFFICIAL NAME: State of Kuwait CAPITAL: Kuwait City POPULATION: 2.5 million CURRENCY: Kuwaiti dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1961
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
1961
Feb 25
KWT
+3
Sau d i A r ab i a
.kw
+965
A
T THE NORTHWEST EXTREME of the Gulf, Kuwait is dwarfed by its neighbors. The flat, almost featureless landscape conceals huge oil and gas reserves which put Kuwait among the world’s first oil-rich states. In 1990 Iraq invaded, claiming it as its 19th province. A US-led alliance, under the aegis of the UN, expelled Iraqi forces following a short war in 1991 and restored the rule of the al-Sabah dynasty. Kuwait served as the launching point for the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR KUWAIT CITY
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Pop. density medium
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
2003/2007
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 50 seats 96%
4% Iranian 4% Other 7% South Asian 9%
-10/14 -20/-4
Other Arab 35%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 3605 km (2240 miles)
280 km (174 miles)
None
None
Kuwait has a system of radial expressways around the capital and good connecting roads to Saudi Arabia.
73,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:34
.
Down 8% in 2001
L JÁ
R
TOURISM MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Other 43% 0
10
SH
30
40
50
60
Ar Rawçatayn
IQ
AT
AL
LÍ
B
JÁ
√in al
Bá
I
QA
ád í
L
AZ
ZA
R W A§ flabíyah Al Baírah
Jún al Kuwayt
Faylakah KUWAIT CITY
Íawallí
As Salímíya
W
Al Fuíayííl
As Salimi
over 10 000
N
‘Abdalí Manáqísh
I
R
AY
Míná’ Sa‘úd
Q
25 miles
Míná’ ‘Abd Alláh A§ flubayííyah
Al Khírán
I
0
25 km
B
0
Míná’ al Aímadí
Shu‘aybah
UQ
LAND HEIGHT
Al Aímadí
SH
A
under 10 000
Sea Level
IY
Ad Dibdibah 271m
over 50 000
200m/656ft
Q
-L
Al Jahrah
S A U D
over 100 000
AL
ASH
A
356
Jazírat Búbíyán
A§ flabiríyah
ÁÍ
A
Ongoing insecurity in Iraq has had a knock-on effect on tourism in Kuwait. Western visitors have been targeted by terrorists. Seeing the success of Dubai’s expanded tourist sector, however, Kuwait is planning a major beach resort.
A bú
L F G U
% of total arrivals
Jazírat Warbah
rfá
Qalíb ash Shuyúkh
POPULATION 20
Sha‘íb
Ji al
E
Egpyt 12%
Q
Al Azimiyah
H
Total Area : 17 820 sq. km (6880 sq. miles)
India 13%
A
T
KUWAIT
Saudi Arabia 32%
R
I
n
201 ships 2.26m grt
In 1992 Amir Shaikh Jabir restored the National Assembly. Since 1999 nonparty elections have strengthened the amir’s Islamist opponents. Following elections in 2003, Crown Prince Shaikh Saad was replaced as prime minister after 25 years by the amir’s half brother Shaikh Sabah in the first separation of the roles of crown prince and premier.
Q
Drive on right
Kuwait is a conservative Sunni Muslim society (27% of the population is Shi’a). Women have considerable freedom, though the amir’s decree providing for female enfranchisement has been repeatedly rejected by the National Assembly. Kuwait’s oil wealth has drawn in thousands of workers from other Arab countries and south Asia. The Palestine Liberation Organization’s support for the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait led to most Palestinians, hitherto very numerous in Kuwait, being driven out. Native Kuwaitis are outnumbered by resident foreign nationals.
A
Kuwait International, Kuwait City 4.32m passengers
The electorate comprises civilian men over 21 years of age whose families have been resident in Kuwait since before 1921. Elections on July 5, 2003, were contested by independents: Islamists won just under half of the seats and government supporters won just over a quarter.
Kuwaiti 45%
Summer temperatures can soar to over 40˚C (104˚F), but winters can be cold, with frost at night.
†
Nonparty elections
Amir Shaikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
TRANSPORTATION
†
POLITICS
140/km2 (363/mi2)
Arabic, English
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
0/32
K
†
PEOPLE
Hot desert
Saffar Towers in the business center of Kuwait City. Rebuilding Kuwait’s postwar economy is estimated to have cost $25 billion.
Al Wafrá’
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KUWAIT
Key to symbols and abbreviations on endpapers
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
Damasc
OIC
GCC
Joined UN in 1963
OPEC
Strategically important as a major exporter of crude oil and natural gas, Kuwait has close links with the West.
†
AID
.
Down 73% in 2002
The Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development continued to give aid even during the invasion crisis.
DEFENSE $3.3bn
†
,
Compulsory military service
No change in 2002
In August 1990 Kuwait’s 11,000-strong, partly volunteer army was easily overrun by vastly superior Iraqi forces. Kuwait rearmed fast after liberation, and defense pacts were signed with the US, the UK, France, and Russia. Kuwaiti forces did not participate in the 2003 US-led invasion of Iraq.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 1.9% p.a. (1990–2000) 0.2948 Kuwaiti dinars (0.3003)
$38bn SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Donor
$20m (donations)
CHRONOLOGY
These were strengthened by the 1991 war which secured Iraq’s withdrawal from Kuwait after its invasion the previous year, and further bolstered in 2003 when Kuwait supported and facilitated the US advance into Iraq.
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................55th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$16,340 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$4.19bn INFLATION .........................................1.4% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................1%
Electric power 9.4m kW
6041 tonnes
2.24m b/d (reserves 96.5bn barrels)
850,000 sheep, 130,000 goats, 32.5m chickens
Oil, natural gas, salt
The oil industry is Kuwait’s most profitable sector, accounting for around 90% of export earnings. Though badly hit by the Gulf War, when a number of wells were deliberately fired, it was quickly rehabilitated. Kuwait also possesses valuable reserves of natural gas. Other resources are dates, fish, ammonia, and chemicals.
ENVIRONMENT
/
2% (1% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 142nd
21.9 tonnes per capita
The Iraqi invasion in 1990 and the subsequent war caused an ecological disaster. Though the effects of this did not prove as grave as some observers first feared, marine life was damaged and many thousands of hectares of cultivated land were obliterated. Millions of landmines were left strewn across border areas. Water is a scarce resource.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 374 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS Oil (fifth-largest reserves in world) and gas. Large overseas investments. Stable banking. Trade. Good communications.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 7 daily newspapers, including Al-Qabas and As-Seyassah
WEAKNESSES Overreliance on oil and gas. Adverse effects of 1990 Iraqi invasion, including debt to Western liberators. Strategic vulnerability deters investment. Reliance on imported skilled labor, food, and raw materials. Privatization package delayed.
1 state-controlled service
Radio and TV are state-controlled, but satellite TV is freely available. The press can be aggressively critical.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Netherlands 4%
Singapore 10%
†
1735 prisoners
Other 37%
USA 12% South Korea 13%
EDUCATION UK 6%
Other 54%
Saudi Arabia 6% Germany 10% Japan 11% USA 13%
83%
1961 Independence from UK. Iraq claims Kuwait. 1976 Amir suspends National Assembly. 1990 Iraqi invasion. 1991 Liberation following Gulf War. 1992 National Assembly elections. 1999, 2003 Elections: opposition Islamists win most seats.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers, car accidents, diabetes
1 per 526 people
Despite theft of equipment during the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait has restored its Western-standard health care service. Nationals receive free treatment.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
295 per 1000 population
204 per 1000 population
Defense 10.7% Education 6.1% Health 3.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Most Kuwaitis – not only the oil-rich elite – enjoy high incomes, and the government has repeatedly rescued citizens who have suffered stock market or other financial losses. School and university leavers are guaranteed jobs. Capital is easily transferred abroad and there are effectively no exchange controls.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Death penalty in use
/
Up 8% in 1996–1998
Women can be physically and verbally harassed. There have been occasional terrorist attacks on Western targets.
Japan 24% IMPORTS
1 state-controlled service
Kuwait traces its independence to 1710, but was under British rule from the late 18th century until 1961. The government denies any historical link with Iraq.
†
School leaving age: 14
32,320 students
Kuwaiti citizens receive free education from nursery to university. Since the liberation, more emphasis has been placed on technology in the curriculum.
1st
50th
100th
27
29
$16,340
77 years
44
44
9 deaths
150th
120 83% 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
357
K
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
KYRGYZSTAN
Kazakhstan KYRGYZSTAN Uzbekistan
OFFICIAL NAME: Kyrgyz Republic CAPITAL: Bishkek POPULATION: 5.1 million CURRENCY: Som OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Kyrgyz and Russian 1991
1991
Aug 31
KS
+6
.kg
+996
K
YRGYZSTAN IS A SMALL and very mountainous state in central Asia. It is one of the least urbanized of the former Soviet republics (the rural population is growing faster than that in the towns) and was among the last to develop its own cultural nationalism. Its increasingly autocratic government tries to steer between Kyrgyz nationalist pressures and ensuring that the Russian minority is not alienated, since it tends to possess the skills necessary to run a market-based economy.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Mountain
WEATHER CHART FOR BISHKEK
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
K
34%
Conditions vary from permanent snow and cold deserts at altitude to hot deserts in lower regions. Intermediate slopes and valleys receive some rain.
Bishkek Manas
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 16,835 km (10,461 miles)
140 km (87 miles)
417 km (259 miles)
600 km (373 miles)
Kyrgyzstan does not have the necessary finances to improve its poor mountain road network.
TOURISM 139,589 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:37
/
Up 102% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
66%
Other 7% Uzbek 13%
Russian 19% Kyrgyz 57%
The Kyrgyz are a Turkic-speaking people, closely related to the neighboring Kazakhs. They were forced to abandon their traditional nomadic way of life under Soviet rule, though many cultural practices linger, especially in rural areas. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan witnessed a major exodus of its ethnic Russian population, with more than 200,000 leaving between 1989 and 1998, reconfirming the majority status of the Kyrgyz. The government has attempted to stem the tide by making Russian an official language, with full equal status with Kyrgyz from 2000. Kyrgyz relations with the substantial Uzbek minority are largely stable despite cases of severe ethnic unrest in the past, most notably in the city of Osh in 1990. The south of Kyrgyzstan, around the Fergana Valley, has witnessed growing Islamization and Muslim radicalism.
CIS 42% USA 8% China 5% Other 45% 0
10
20
30
40
50
358
†
POLITICS L. House 2000/2005 U. House 2000/2005
Multiparty elections
President Askar Akayev
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Legislative Assembly 60 seats
Election results by party were announced only for the 15 national list seats. The other 45 seats are elected on a constituency basis. The Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan is the largest party and the Union of Democratic Forces the second-largest.
Assembly of People's Representatives 45 seats
The members represent Kyrgyzstan's different regional and ethnic communities
President Akayev’s administration has become increasingly autocratic, ending Kyrgyzstan’s reputation as one of the region’s most liberal societies. Already damaged democratic credentials were destroyed by accusations of fraud during the 2000 legislative and presidential elections. The main opposition leader, Felix Kulov, was imprisoned only weeks before the presidential poll (in which Akayev won his third term in office). In 2002, the death of protestors during demonstrations over the temporary imprisonment of Kulov’s successor ultimately forced the entire cabinet to resign. In 2003 constitutional changes were approved by 75% of voters in a hastily called referendum. Among them were the scrapping of the upper house at the next elections and, as a rebuff to Akayev’s opponents, a clause confirming that he should remain in power until the end of his current term.
CIS
SCO
OSCE
OIC
Joined UN in 1992
EAPC
Kyrgyzstan is working to reduce its dependence on Russia. Turkey is developing close links based on ethnic similarities and aimed at restraining Iranian influence. Relations with Uzbekistan, which allegedly supports some of the antigovernment forces in Kyrgyzstan, are tense, though in 2000 both countries joined with Tajikistan to combat Islamist militants in the region.
AID
†
Recipient
$186m (receipts)
Loess landscape, Naryn valley. Kyrgyzstan is dominated by the ice-capped Tien Shan mountains, but valleys are green and fertile.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
60
% of total arrivals
Tourism is undeveloped; most visitors are on business or aid workers. Tourism promotion centers on Kyrgyzstan’s position on the Silk Road and on its mountain scenery.
China
Tajikistan
26/km2 (67/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Tatar 2%
-20/-4
†
Pop. density low
Kyrgyz, Russian, Uzbek, Tatar, Ukrainian
Ukrainian 2%
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
†
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
Asia
CENTRAL ASIA
.
Down 2% in 2002
The ADB, the US, and the World Bank are the main donors. Japan is also an important source of financial assistance.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: KYRGYZSTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
A
Z
A K
Tokmak Kermin
Leninpol'
A
H
UZ
BE
KIRG
L T A
K
Ch u
Kara-Balta
Talas
HI
BISHKEK E Z RANG
E
I
T
ST
AN
Balykchy
O ze
u k-K ssy ro I
Gul’cha
O
Kyzyl-Kiya
T
A
J
DarootKorgon
I
K
0
I
S
T
Ky
0
over 100 000
3000m/9843ft
over 50 000
500m/1640ft
†
RESOURCES
$265m
†
/
Phasing out conscription
Up 5% in 2002
ECONOMICS $1.44bn
201 tonnes
1544 b/d (reserves 37m barrels)
3.1m sheep, 988,016 cattle, 3.65m chickens
Coal, antimony, gas, oil, tin, mercury, iron, uranium, zinc, gold
†
Inflation 95% p.a. (1990–2001)
42.50 soms (41.18)
Kyrgyzstan has large reserves of coal but lacks the investment needed to exploit them. It also has great hydroelectric power potential. Energy policy, which relies on Western aid and technology, is primarily aimed at developing these further in order to reduce dependence on supplies from Russia, and eventually to achieve self-sufficiency in energy.
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................147th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$290 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$35m INFLATION .........................................2.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
ENVIRONMENT
Agricultural self-sufficiency. Private land ownership since 2000. Gold and mercury exports. Hydropower potential.
WEAKNESSES Dominant state and collective farming mentality. Sharp economic decline since USSR’s breakup. History of high inflation. Increasing political instability. EXPORTS
Kazakhstan 10%
UAE 25% Russia 17%
MEDIA
Switzerland 20% Uzbekistan 5% Other 28%
USA 7% China 11%
Kazakhstan 24% Russia 25%
†
190,508 students
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, accidents
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 4 daily newspapers, including Kyrgyz Tuusu, Slovo Kyrgyzstana, and Vechernii Bishkek 1 state-owned service, several independent services
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
The Kyrgyz press is increasingly under pressure from the government’s efforts to silence opposition.
CRIME 19,500 prisoners
†
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
38 per 1000 population
77 per 1000 population
Defense 1.9%
0.9 tonnes per capita
Daily newspaper circulation 27 per 1000 people
Education 3.1% Health 1.9% 0
5
10
15
20
Around one-third of the population of Kyrgyzstan live below the UN poverty level of $2 a day. Extreme poverty in the south has led to labor migration.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
63 97%
150th
110
193rd
Down 4% in 2000
Ethnic tension fuels violence. The narcotics trade flourishes. Nearly 800 prisoners were amnestied in 2003 to relieve severe overcrowding of jails.
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Moratorium on death penalty
.
K
Infant mortality is high. The health care system is slowly being restructured with international help.
Sustainability rank: 56th
TV ownership low
School leaving age: 16
The role of the Russian language has been reappraised, and most schools in Bishkek now teach in both Russian and Kyrgyz. New private universities have opened, but vocational training is scarce.
†
The major problem is the salination of the soil caused by excessive irrigation of cotton crops. Kyrgyzstan has a poor record in limiting industrial pollution.
Other 24% IMPORTS
.
13% (2% partially protected)
STRENGTHS
China 4%
97%
1 per 385 people
In 2002 the US established an air base in Kyrgyzstan, and Russia has had one since 2003, manned by a new military alliance of six ex-Soviet states.
Electric power 3.7m kW
†
EDUCATION
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
100 miles
DEFENSE
1860s Expansion of Russian Empire into Kyrgyz lands. 1924–1991 Incorporated in USSR. 1995 New constitution adopted. 2000 Legislative and presidential elections; Askar Akayev reelected. 2002 Government resigns after police shoot demonstrators.
LAND HEIGHT 4000m/13 124ft
over 10 000 under 10 000
N
100 km
KYRGYZSTAN Total Area : 198 500 sq. km (76 641 sq. miles)
over 500 000
C
N
A
A
N
POPULATION
H Sulyukta
Kara-Say
U TA Naryn LA A H S K Chatyr-Tash
I
Irkeshtam GE RAN Sary-Tash AI L u A u zyl-S
The Kyrgyz first developed a recognizable ethnic consciousness in the late 18th century.
Kyzyl-Suu
Karakol
Kek-Art
Khaydarkan
CHRONOLOGY
Pik Pobedy 7439m
N aryn
At-Bashy
K
Karakol
N
A
H
bet Kh r e - T oo M o l d Dostuk Kant
l’
Dzhergalan
Kadzhi-Say
S
N
Tyup
- Ta u
Kochkorka
Naryn
Osh
Ku
a i Al nge
Orto-Tokoy
Toktogul C Min-Kush Kara-Kul’ Kazarman Terek-Say Mayli-Say Tash-Kumyr Kok-Yangak Uzgen Dzhalal-Abad
KI
N
A
T
S
H
K
125
125
65 years
52 deaths
166 $290
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
359
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LAOS
SOUTHEAST ASIA
LAOS
OFFICIAL NAME: Lao People’s Democratic Republic CAPITAL: Vientiane POPULATION: 5.7 million CURRENCY: New kip OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Lao 1953
1953
Dec 2
LAO
+7
HE MEKONG RIVER, Laos’s main thoroughfare, feeds the fertile lowlands of the Mekong valley. Two decades of civil war followed independence from France in 1953, and Laos was bombed heavily during the Vietnam War. The communist Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (LPRP) has held power since 1975. Market-oriented reforms began to be introduced in 1986, while power was handed to a younger generation within the LPRP in the 1990s.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR VIENTIANE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
80% Other (including animist) 15%
-10/14 -20/-4
The tropical southerly monsoon brings heavy rains from May to September.
TRANSPORTATION Wattay, Vientiane 165,000 passengers
Buddhist 85%
†
Drive on right
1 ship 2400 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
None
4587 km (2850 miles)
C
B (M U R YA N M M
a
Ou
Th
RANGE
BANG
G P RA
LU
T
on
AN
ek
40
50
60
gfa i
M
A
D
under 10 000
Kong
N
Tourists were first allowed into Laos in 1989; numbers have risen rapidly since then. Mass tourism is discouraged and preference given to small package tours. Hotels are few, and travel outside Vientiane is difficult.
A
30
N
20
% of total arrivals
L A I T H
Other 28%
360
E
M
Vietnam 10% USA 5%
10
I
ND
Thailand 57%
V
LA
Up 24% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
M
AI
/
215,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:27
TH
†
L
A
A major new Thailand–Vietnam road via Savannakhét is almost complete. Freight goes mainly by river, though roads have improved.
TOURISM
Though a new nomenklatura came to power in the 1990s, the established pillars of the military, the LPRP, and the executive branch remain closely intertwined. Party chairman Gen. Khamtay Siphandone became the country’s president in February 1998. Despite limited moves toward political reform, the LPRP, which is modeled on the Communist Party of Vietnam, continues to dominate political life at every level. The long-standing problem of corruption, sometimes at high levels, has become a matter of concern as Laos has opened up to foreign investors. Economic reform has not been accompanied by political liberalization. Tensions continue to be felt between the government A and the rural areas, where there is particular resistance to attempts to alter traditional V farming methods. I
There are more than 60 ethnic groups in Laos and this considerable diversity has hindered national integration. Society is broadly divided by geography, but by altitude N rather than by region. I The lowland Laotians (Lao Loum) make up E some 60% of the Phôngsali population. The T A ) Louang upland Laotians N Namtha AR Muang AOS Ban Na Môn (Lao Theung), Sing Muang Namo Total Area : 236 800 sq. km Sôp Xai who live in the (91 428 sq. miles) Viangphoukha Muang Xay Xam Nua hills above the Sop Hao Muang Ham Ban Houayxay valleys, account 0 100 km Louangphrabang for 30%. The M e kon g Ban Nasi 0 100 miles Xiang Ngeun small minority Nông Hèt Muang Xiangkhoang of highland P L AT Xaignabouri XI ANGEAU DE N KHO Laotians (Lao ANG Bia Ban Napha Phou 2820m Soung), among Ng Muang um Vangviang Muang Pakxan whom are included Phôn-Hông Ban the Hmong, Yao, and Pak Lay Ban Lakxao Thabôk Man groups, have VIENTIANE g resisted government Muang Hinboun Ban Talak efforts to introduce Muang Ban Phou Khammouan A Douk LAND HEIGHT substitutes for traditional B a n Muang Muang cash crops such as opium. Ban Kengkabao Phalan Xépôn 2000m/6562ft The government continues Savannakhét Banghiang Muang Phin 1000m/3281ft to face small pockets of 500m/1640ft Ban Nadou Hmong resistance. Saravan Muang 75m/246ft Two-thirds of Laotians Khôngxédôn Ban Phon Ban Munspeak Lao, and many tribal Houamuang POPULATION dialects are also spoken. Pakxé Attapu over 100 000 Buddhism is the main Champasak Ban Nongsim over 50 000 religion, but there are some Muang over 10 000 Christians and animists. Không H
9772 km (6072 miles)
1% Ind
99% LPRP
All candidates were approved by the LPRP 25/km2 (64/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
20%
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 109 seats
LPRP = Lao People's Revolutionary Party (the sole legal political party) Ind = Independent
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
No multiparty elections
President Khamtay Siphandone
2002/2007
Pop. density low
Lao, Mon-Khmer, Yao, Vietnamese, Chinese, French
Rainfall A
†
PEOPLE
Tropical monsoon
†
POLITICS
.la
+856
Vietnam Cambodia
Thailand
T
L
Asia
China
Burma (Myanmar)
Ban Xot
I A C A M B O D
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LAOS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ASEAN
CP
Mekong River
OIF
Joined UN in 1955
NAM
Vietnam was Laos’s most important ally from 1975 until the late 1980s, when the LPRP began to seek improved relations with Thailand and the West.
†
AID
/
Up 13% in 2002
Laos has one of the highest per capita aid inflows in south or east Asia, with Japan being the major donor.
DEFENSE $14m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 12% in 2002
The armed forces are estimated by the West to number around 29,000 personnel. This total is further swelled by a paramilitary militia. A minimum of 18 months’ military service is compulsory for all Laotian men.
ECONOMICS $1.71bn
†
Inflation 29% p.a. (1990–2001)
7882 new kips (7600)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$278m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
The change was mainly due to the need for foreign aid. In 1992, Laos acceded to the Treaty of Amity and Concord of ASEAN, marking the beginning of a new relationship with former adversaries. Laos was admitted to full membership of ASEAN in 1997. Electric power 256,000 kW
80,000 tonnes
Not an oil producer
3m ducks, 1.65m pigs, 1.2m cattle, 20m chickens
Tin, gypsum, iron, coal, copper, lead, antimony, gold, precious stones
Laos has significant hydroelectric power potential and exports electricity to Thailand. It also exports timber, coffee, gold, and precious stones.
ENVIRONMENT
/
13% (12% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 32nd
0.1 tonnes per capita
Bombing and the use of defoliants in the Vietnam War did serious ecological damage. Slash and burn farming and illegal logging are destroying forests.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 4 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................143rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$310 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$82m INFLATION .......................................10.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
In 1899, the three small Lao kingdoms were unified under the French. 1953 Independence. 1963 Left-wing armed struggle, overshadowed by Vietnam War. 1975 LPRP seizes power. 1986 Market-oriented reforms. 1997 Accession to ASEAN. 1999 Protests demanding greater political freedom. 2001 Prime minister resigns over economic mismanagement.
66%
Vietnam 17%
Thailand 21%
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Diarrheal, respiratory, and parasitic diseases, malaria, influenza
1 per 5000 people
Since 1975, public health care has developed steadily. HIV infection rates are among the lowest in the region.
†
SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
L
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING There is 1 daily newspaper, the government-published Vientiane Mai 2 services: 1 fully state-owned, 1 30% state-owned
3 per 1000 population
1 state-owned service
Newspapers are owned and controlled by the LPRP; one is published by the Lao People’s Army. Revelations of corruption by state officials are not uncommon, but criticism of the party and its leaders remains taboo.
CRIME
IMPORTS
China 8% Vietnam 10%
Thailand 60%
16,621 students
11 per 1000 population
Defense 0.8% Education 3.2%
Germany 6% France 9%
Other 44%
Singapore 4% Japan 3%
School leaving age: 10
Adult education is being expanded. Since 1990, private schools have been allowed, in order to help meet demand.
EXPORTS
Belgium 3%
†
EDUCATION
Other 15%
†
Laos does not publish prison figures
Death penalty in use
/
Rising overall, particularly corruption
Laos is the world’s third-largest opium producer. The US has provided funds to replace poppies with alternative cash crops in the northeast provinces.
STRENGTHS
Health 1.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
While a rapidly expanding group of entrepreneurs profits from the gradual liberalization of the country’s economy, many in highland and mountainous regions lead a subsistence existence.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
Rising levels of investment from overseas. Potential of garment manufacturing, timber plantations, mining, wood processing, tourism, banking, and aviation. Minerals and possible oil and gas deposits.
100th
150th
135
One of the world’s least developed countries. Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of GDP. Imbalance in sources of foreign investment – most is Thai. Primitive infrastructure.
148
193rd
WEAKNESSES
161 $310
Farm in northeastern Laos. The only lowlands are along the Mekong River. Threequarters of Laotians are subsistence farmers.
55 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
153 66%
160 87 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
361
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LATVIA
Europe
EUROPE Estonia
LATVIA Lithuania
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Latvia CAPITAL: Riga POPULATION: 2.3 million CURRENCY: Lats OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Latvian 1991
1991
Nov 18
LV
+2
L
ATVIA IS ONE of the three Baltic states (with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south) which regained independence from Soviet rule in 1991. It lies on a low plain, which nowhere rises above 300 m (975 ft). Almost one-third of the population lives in the capital, Riga. Defense-related industries and agriculture play an important role in the economy, though services now dominate. Only just over half of the population are ethnic Latvians.
Belarus
†
PEOPLE
.lv
+371
Russian Federation
Pop. density low 36/km2 (92/mi2)
Latvian, Russian THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
60%
40%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Ukrainian 3%
Polish 2%
†
CLIMATE
Continental
WEATHER CHART FOR RIGA
Russian 32%
Latvian 57% Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Latvians (who form the minority in Riga and are mostly Lutheran) have since 1991 been effectively favored by the state over the Orthodox Russian minority (which was boosted by Sovietera migrations). The naturalization process was simplified in 1998, but Latvian was proclaimed the only official language for state and private sectors in 2000 and will be used in all schools from 2004.
0
0/32 -10/14
Riga, the Latvian capital. The Russian Orthodox cathedral in the foreground was used as a planetarium during the Soviet era.
-20/-4
Latvia’s coastal position moderates its continental-type climate and summers are cool, but winters are cold.
TRANSPORTATION Spilve, Riga 712,451 passengers
†
TOURISM 848,000 visitors
Drive on right
†
Visitors : Population 1:2.7
/
Up 44% in 2002
POLITICS
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS 2002/2006
158 ships 88,700 grt
Lithuania 31%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
†
Multiparty elections
President Vaira Vike-Freiberga
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Estonia 26%
10% LPP
Parliament 100 seats
Russia 8%
28,559 km (17,746 miles)
None
2270 km (1411 miles)
300 km (186 miles)
Other 35%
Riga is well-served with trams, trolleys, and buses. The EU-backed Via Baltica highway, linking Poland and Finland, runs north–south through Latvia. An east–west link of a similar standard is a priority.
0
10
20
40
30
Riga is the main tourist destination, though the many medieval castles throughout the country also draw visitors.
25% PCTVL
26% JL
% of total arrivals
20% TP
12% ZZS
7% TB/LNNK
JL = New Era PCTVL = For Human Rights in a United Latvia (including the National Harmony Party–TSP) TP = People's Party ZZS = Green and Farmers' Union LPP = Latvia's First Party TB/LNNK = Fatherland and Freedom
Recent elections have boosted center-right parties, all in favor of EU membership and continuing market N reforms. Coalitions have been I A short-lived; there were four E A Burtnieku S Kolkasrags different governments between Salacgríva Ezers Mazirbe 1998 and 2002. Einars Repse, Ape Strenâi Valmiera ATVIA former state banker and Gulf of Roja Ventspils a Alúksne leader of the recently formed Total Area : Riga Césis Ugále Rauna 64 589 sq. km JL, became prime minister Engures Saulkrasti Talsi Usmas (24 938 sq. miles) Gulbene Stende Ezers Jaunpiebalga Lígatne Ezers at the head of a centeruja a G Sigulda RIGA right coalition after the V I D Z E M E POPULATION Tukums Júrmala Kuldíga Gaizina Pávilosta 2002 elections. Amid Madona over 500 000 Ogre Kalns 311m Olaine Lubánas We K U R Z E M E ste corruption allegations Ezers over 100 000 rn Skrunda Jelgava Dv Saldus Durbe in and criticisms of his over 50 000 a Dobele Grobiöa Iecava Rézekne authoritarian style, he a over 10 000 Liepája Jékabpils Zilupe Eleja was forced from power Bauska Réznas under 10 000 Ezers Líváni when the LPP withdrew LATGALE in January 2004. He was Rucava H U T A I LAND HEIGHT replaced in March by N N L U 0 50 km Indulis Emsis, the world’s I Daugavpils 200m/656ft R first Green prime minister. A A
E S T O
RATI EDE N F
L
j
IA
T
SS
Gau
I
U
C
R
L
B A
t
ON
Ven
S
L
Belarussian 4%
Other 2%
Sea Level
362
0
50 miles
L B E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LATVIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
CBSS
NATO
EU
Joined UN in 1991
OSCE
Latvia had strong US backing for its successful bid to join NATO in 2004. It was also one of ten countries that
†
AID
.
Down 19% in 2002
Latvia now receives direct EU funding and aid donations from other member states. Most is spent on improving the country’s infrastructure.
DEFENSE $141m
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 68% in 2002
Building up the military is a priority. Full membership of NATO, achieved in 2004, was preceded by collaboration with the Partnership for Peace program. In February 2000, Russian forces finished dismantling their last military installation in Latvia, the Skrunda radar station.
ECONOMICS $8.13bn
†
Inflation 42% p.a. (1990–2001) 0.5404 lats (0.5666)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$86m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
became full members of the EU in the same year. Discrimination against Russian-speakers, exemplified by laws passed in 2000 making Latvian the only official language, have strained relations with Russia.
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................95th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3480 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$659m INFLATION ............................................2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................16%
Electric power 2.1m kW
125,896 tonnes
Not an oil producer
453,200 pigs, 450,000 turkeys, 3.88m chickens
Amber, dolomite, gravel, gypsum, limestone, peat, sand
Latvia has limited resources, and is dependent on imports to meet most of its energy needs. Electricity comes chiefly from hydroelectric power and regular imports from Lithuania and Estonia. The Baltic port of Ventspils has lost significant trade as a regional oil terminal since the completion of the Russian port of Primorsk in 2002.
ENVIRONMENT
.
13% (12% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 10th
2.5 tonnes per capita
Peat extraction has damaged valuable bog habitat. Pollution of the Baltic Sea and air and water quality in industrial centers are also of concern. In 2001 Latvia committed to full enforcement of EU environmental directives by 2010.
†
MEDIA
Governed in turn by Teutons, Poles, and Swedes, Latvia was conquered by Russia in 1795.
Estonia 6%
Lithuania 8% Sweden 10%
The state-run system suffers shortages of medicines and equipment. Some improvements have been made, but it is still seriously underfunded.
Germany 15%
Sweden 6%
Finland 8% Russia 9%
Other 50%
Lithuania 10% Germany 17%
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
258 per 1000 population
301 per 1000 population
Education 5.9% Health 3.4% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
15 services: 1 state-owned, 14 independent
The press is now relatively free from state interference. Previously, the media were predominantly in Russian. Since 1991 the state, aiming to broaden the use of the official language, has actively promoted Latvian publications.
CRIME
†
8156 prisoners
The old bureaucracy has retained its privileged status and contacts, and remains the wealthiest group. Farmers are among the poorest.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Death penalty not used in practice
/
General crime levels are lower in Latvia than in Russia, but organized crime is a growing problem.
EDUCATION 99%
1
50th
99%
Up 2% in 2001
†
School leaving age: 15
50
100th
64
70 $3480 150th
IMPORTS
†
SPENDING
TV ownership high
There are 5 daily newspapers, including Diena and Neatkariga Rita Avize
Other 47% UK 14%
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, car accidents, suicide
1 per 345 people
Defense 1.8%
Thriving service sector: now provides over 70% of GDP. Buoyant manufacturing industries. Low inflation. Foreign investment.
EXPORTS
Welfare state health benefits
Daily newspaper circulation 135 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
Dependence on imports for energy. Lack of raw materials. Farming technically backward after dismantling of collective farms. Sizable current account deficit.
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
1917 Declares independence. 1918–1920 Latvia invaded. 1920 Gains independence. 1944 Incorporated into USSR. 1989 Popular Front wins elections; declares independence. 1991 Independence recognized. 1998 Naturalization procedure eased. 1998–2002 Four different premiers. 1999 Vaira Vike-Freiberga elected first woman president. 2002 JL wins elections. 2004 Indulis Emsis becomes world’s first Green prime minister. Latvia joins NATO and EU.
88
17 deaths
70 years
193rd
118,944 students
Latvian became the main language of instruction in 2004, prompting anger from the Russian-speaking minority.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
363
L
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LEBANON
Cyprus
Israel
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
90%
10%
-10/14
Christian 30%
-20/-4
Winters are mild and summers hot, with high humidity on the coast. Snow falls on high ground in the winter.
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Total Area : 10 400 sq. km (4015 sq. miles)
The redevelopment of Beirut could see it regain its position as one of the Middle East’s major entrepôts.
Batroûn
20 km
O
I
Tourists have gradually returned since the devastation of the civil war. The main attractions are Beirut, Tripoli, Crusader castles, the Roman remains and the festival at Baalbek, and the Phoenician city of Gubla (Byblos).
N
N
M
TS
A
O
B
E
-L TI
A
AN
A A
3000m/9843ft
B
Aanjar
I
L
Q
LAND HEIGHT
Rayak
2000m/6562ft
L
Saïda
Jezzine
1000m/3281ft
E
uk ro
E
Ba
R
80
B
Damoûr
J
70
Baalbek
Zahlé
E
A 60
% of total arrivals
Lac de Qaraoun
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
Y
Rachaïya
Sea Level
POPULATION Nabatîyé Litan i
Marjayoun El Khiyam
Soûr
S
over 1 000 000 over 100 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Tibnine En Nâqoûra Bent Jbaïl
364
RN
E
E N
Baabda Aaley Bhamdoun
R 50
QO
BEIRUT
I T
40
E
Other 69%
L
Joûnié
R
France 7%
30
Hermel
N Up 6% in 2003
Jordan 9%
20
Qartaba
Jbaïl
Saudi Arabia 15%
10
Bcharré
20 miles
N
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
Qornet es Saouda 3087m
A 0
Visitors : Population 1:3.6
/
1.02m visitors
0
Zgharta
Amioun
A
†
TOURISM
Tripoli
LEBANON
A
None
Qoubaïyât
E
401 km (249 miles)
R
A
None
32% Others
I
6205 km (3856 miles)
S
N
89 ships 229,300 grt
The Lebanese are fragmented in religious terms into subsects of Christians and Muslims, but retain a strong sense of national identity. There has been a large Palestinian refugee population since 1948. Islamic fundamentalism is influential among poorer Shi’a Muslims, the largest single group. Many expatriate Syrians live and work in Lebanon. El Mina
S
Beirut International, Khaldeh 2.84m passengers
Drive on right
B
†
TRANSPORTATION
Muslim 70%
M E D
L
14% 8% 6% D BH NS
The Arab-brokered 1989 Taif peace agreement ending the 14-year civil war redressed the constitutional balance between Christians and Muslims and formally guaranteed power-sharing. Syria remains the main power broker in Lebanon, especially following the withdrawal of Israeli troops in 2000. A once popular campaign for the removal of Syrian forces has abated. The first postwar legislative elections were held in 1992, and Rafiq al-Hariri, a Sunni Muslim, was appointed prime minister. He began a third term in 2000, after his supporters won three-quarters of the seats in the Assembly. However, an economic downturn led to clashes between Hariri and Gen. Emile Lahoud, president since 1998. Y
362/km2 (937/mi2)
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
16% Ind
RD = Resistance and Development List Ind = Independents D = Dignity BH = Baalbek–Hermel List NS = National Struggle List MLU = Mount Lebanon Unity
Pop. density high
Arabic, French, Armenian, Assyrian
6% MLU
DA
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 128 seats
OU
WEATHER CHART FOR BEIRUT
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
President Emile Lahoud
2000/2005
18% RD
Multiparty elections
SA
Mediterranean/ mountain
†
POLITICS
.lb
+961
ro nt es
+2
ES
RL
T
Nov 22
EBANON LIVES in the shadow of its powerful neighbors, Syria and Israel. The coastal strip is fertile and the hinterland mountainous. The minority Maronite Christians have traditionally dominated the government. Civil war between Muslim and Christian factions from 1975, complicated by an Israeli invasion in 1982, threatened a breakup of the state, until Saudi Arabia brokered a peace deal in 1989. Greater political stability and reconstruction have ensued.
†
Africa
Jordan
E
1941
L
CLIMATE
Syr ia LEBANON
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Lebanon CAPITAL: Beirut POPULATION: 3.7 million CURRENCY: Lebanese pound OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1941
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
I S R A E L
GOLAN HEIGHTS
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LEBANON
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
G24
Joined UN in 1945
NAM
OIF
OIC
The 1989 Taif Agreement gave Syria vast influence in Lebanese politics; its forces remain in central and eastern Lebanon. Anti-Israeli rhetoric is the political lingua
†
AID
/
Up 89% in 2002
The World Bank has become an increasingly important source of loans for improving Lebanon’s infrastructure.
DEFENSE $509m
†
.
Compulsory military service
$17.7bn
†
Inflation 15% p.a. (1990–2001)
1514 Lebanese pounds (1514)
3970 tonnes
Not an oil producer Lignite, iron ore
Wine, cotton, fruit, and vegetables are the main crops. Power plants are fueled by imported petroleum.
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.5%
†
Sustainability rank: 106th
3.5 tonnes per capita
Lack of central authority during the civil war allowed unregulated building, logging, and quarrying to flourish.
MEDIA
†
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................72nd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3990 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$5.64bn INFLATION .........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
WEAKNESSES
Death penalty in use
.
Lebanon has one of the highest literacy rates in the Arab world. Education was severely disrupted by the war.
†
HEALTH
Heart disease, infectious and parasitic diseases
An adequate system of primary health care exists. Hospital staffing is returning to prewar levels.
†
SPENDING
L
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
313 per 1000 population
199 per 1000 population
Defense 3.2% Education 2.9% Health 3.4% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
USA 6% Saudi Arabia 8%
Average income per capita statistics conceal the fact that a huge gulf exists between the poor and a small, massively rich elite.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
62 $3990
UAE 11% 150th
80
81 71 years
107 87%
IMPORTS
Syria 5%
Welfare state health benefits
Down 1% in 2000
Switzerland 9% Other 62%
School leaving age: 12
134,018 students
87%
0
Politically motivated violence has largely declined since the end of the civil war, though the risk of urban terrorism remains. Rural areas, which were untouched by the conflict, have maintained low levels of crime. Executions must be approved by the premier; they were restarted in 2004 after a six-year hiatus.
6382 prisoners
†
EDUCATION
Restrictions have been tightened on opposition media outlets. In 2003 the privately owned Murr TV was shut down.
CRIME
Turkey 4%
1975 Civil war erupts. 1982 Israeli invasion. 1989 Taif Agreement ends civil war. 1992 First election in 20 years. Rafiq al-Hariri prime minister. 1996 Israeli attack kills over 100 civilians at UN base in Qana. 1998 Emile Lahoud president. 2000 Israeli forces withdraw. Hariri reelected by a landslide.
1 state-owned service, several independent stations
5 services: 1 state-controlled, 4 independent
Financial services industry. Potential for wine and fruit production. Low inflation. Lifting of US financial restrictions.
EXPORTS
1 per 476 people
Daily newspaper circulation 74 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
Dependent on imported oil and gas. Agriculture below prewar levels. High public debt. Alleged Syrian “dumping” of cheap produce. Narcotics and corruption undermine investor confidence. Delayed privatization.
Under French mandate from 1920, Lebanon declared independence in 1941, achieving full autonomy in 1946.
TV ownership high
There are 41 daily newspapers, including Al-Anwar, An-Nahar, and its French companion, L’Orient-Le Jour
SCORE CARD
Electric power 2.3m kW
382,000 goats, 350,000 sheep, 35m chickens
Down 11% in 2002
The army has over 70,000 troops. Hezbollah guerrillas rapidly regained control of southern Lebanon after the Israeli withdrawal in 2000. There is a UN peacekeeping force on the Israeli border. Syrian forces, whose dominant security role had been formalized in 1991, withdrew from Beirut in 2001.
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$456m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
franca. Until Israel withdrew in 2000 the Hezbollah militia fought frequent skirmishes with the occupying forces (and their proxy militias). A UN force patrols the still-volatile border. In 2002 tensions rose after Israel accused Lebanon of diverting shared water sources.
98 28 deaths
193rd
USA 6% Germany 8% France 11%
Other 59% Italy 11%
The Corniche, Beirut, was rebuilt after the civil war by US consultant engineers and architects in a privately financed scheme.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
365
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LESOTHO
Africa
SOUTHERN AFRICA LESOTHO South Africa
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Lesotho CAPITAL: Maseru POPULATION: 1.8 million CURRENCY: Loti OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and Sesotho Oct 4
LS
+2
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2007
A
MOUNTAINOUS AND landlocked country entirely surrounded by South Africa, Lesotho is economically dependent on its larger neighbor. However, Lesotho is beginning to benefit from the export of energy from the recently completed megaproject, the Highlands Water Scheme (HWS). Elections in 1993 ended a period of military rule, but South Africa had to send in its troops when serious political unrest erupted in 1998.
10/4 0
-10/14 -20/-4
Drought is often followed by torrential rain storms. Snow is frequent in winter in the mountains.
†
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
3 km (2 miles)
None
Lesotho has to rely on South African road and rail outlets. New roads have been constructed to service the Highlands Water Scheme.
Pitseng Kolonyama Mamates Mapoteng Teyateyaneng
MASERU Roma
A
M
ed
S
l Ca
Mantsonyane
Marakabei
Mafeteng
40
50
60
70
80
% of total arrivals
366
Thabana Ntlenyana 3482m
LESOTHO Total Area : 30 355 sq. km (11 720 sq. miles)
POPULATION
Sehlabathebe
90 100 Patlong
e Riv er
Mohales Hoek
Mount Moorosi Cutting Camp Sebapala
Mphaki
Moyeni
T
over 100 000
Tsoelike
Or a ng
Tourists are attracted by the dramatic mountain scenery and watersports on artificially created lakes. Another draw is Thaba-Bosiu, King Moshoeshoe the Great’s mountain stronghold.
Mokhotlong
D
30
U
20
S O
10
Matsieng
ne
0
Linakeng
nq u nya Se
Asia 3% Other 12%
lib
Thaba Tseka
Europe 4% Morija
Tlokoeng Ma
L
at s o am
Matela's
on
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
South Africa 81%
Lejone
T
I
U
O
Down 47% in 2001–2002
A
.
123,571 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:15
C
†
TOURISM
The armed forces have played a key role in Lesotho since a bloodless coup Traditional beliefs in 1986. Direct military rule ended in 10% 1993, and a free and peaceful general election resulted in a sweeping victory for the Basotho Congress Party (BCP), though the army maintained Christian 90% its powers over national security. Tensions escalated in 1994, when The overwhelming majority of the mutinous troops killed the deputy population are Sotho, though there prime minister. King Moshoeshoe is a small community of European II was restored to the throne, origin, as well as south Asian and and was succeeded by his son Chinese minorities, which are Letsie III in 1996. active in the retail business. Ethnic Accusations of vote rigging and mass homogeneity and a strong sense of protests greeted a general election win national identity have tended to in 1998 by the LCD (a splinter of the minimize ethnic tension. BCP). After an attempted coup in The long-standing, though now September, the South African military declining, export of male contract labor intervened to restore democracy, to South African mines means that brokering an agreement between the women head many households; king and Lesotho’s 12 parties. they also run farming, When elections were A F regarded by men as finally held in 2002, R Ohobela Joel's Drift “women’s work.” the LCD, under Prime H Oxbow Minister Bethuel I Butha Buthe Mosisili, retained T Hlotse its majority. Corn Exchange Peka Mothae
A
1069 km (664 miles)
71%
R
Moshoeshoe International, Maseru 43,000 passengers
Drive on left
29%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
U
TRANSPORTATION
The Senate comprises 22 principal chiefs and 11 other members named by the king
B
10/50
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
S
20/8
0/32
L
Senate 33 seats
G
30/12
20/68
4% 10% NIP Others
R
30/86
18% BNP
64% LCD
59/km2 (154/mi2)
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
4% LPC
LCD = Lesotho Congress for Democracy BNP = Basotho National Party NIP = National Independent Party LPC = Lesotho People's Congress
Pop. density medium
English, Sesotho, isiZulu
A
H.M. King Letsie III
AT THE LAST ELECTION
N
WEATHER CHART FOR MASERU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
PEOPLE
Mountain
Multiparty elections
National Assembly 120 seats
E
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.ls
+266
E
1966
K
1966
A
H
0 0
F
C A R I
under 10 000
N
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft
50 km
2000m/6562ft 50 miles
1000m/3281ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LESOTHO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
ACP
Joined UN in 1966
AU
NAM
†
Recipient
$76m (receipts)
/
Up 36% in 2002
Aid has become less important as a proportion of GNP, and mostly comes from the EU and the World Bank. A national famine was formally declared in 2002 to encourage donations of emergency assistance.
DEFENSE
†
.
$21m
No compulsory military service
Down 12% in 2002
Lesotho’s 2000-strong army relied on South African assistance to quell political violence in 1998.
ECONOMICS $973m
†
Inflation 9.5% p.a. (1990–2001) 6.21 maloti (7.51)
SCORE CARD
As Basutoland, Lesotho became a British Crown colony in 1884.
SADC
Foreign policy is dominated by the nature of Lesotho’s relationship with South Africa. Lesotho currently has duty-free access to the EU for most manufactured goods, and also has preferential access to US and Scandinavian markets.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................154th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$550 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$119m INFLATION .......................................33.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................45%
Landscape near Mohales Hoek in Lesotho’s lowest lands – over 1300 m (4260 ft) above sea level.
†
Electric power: Included in South African total
RESOURCES 32 tonnes
Not an oil producer
850,000 sheep, 650,000 goats, 1.8m chickens
Diamonds
The Highlands Water hydroelectric scheme has the capacity to supply all of Lesotho’s energy requirements, as well as 62 cu. m (2200 cu. ft) of water per second for South African use. Diamonds are mined in the northeast.
ENVIRONMENT
,
0.2% partially protected
†
Not available
Negligible emissions per capita
†
HEALTH
AIDS, tuberculosis, parasitic diseases, nutritional disorders
Private health organizations and NGOs account for half of all health services. A government-operated flying doctor service covers the highlands. An estimated 2% of adults are HIV positive and life expectancy is falling. Food shortages in 2002 exacerbated the country’s health problems.
SPENDING
†
Defense 2.9%
MEDIA
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Climate and overgrazing have seriously eroded the land. The Highlands Water Scheme has flooded acres of peasant farmland. Supporters of this massive dam project stress encouragement for wildlife in reservoirs and on bird-friendly pylons.
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
6 per 1000 population
TV ownership low
13 per 1000 population
Education 10% Health 4.3%
Daily newspaper circulation 8 per 1000 people
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
STRENGTHS Textiles and other manufacturing. Educated workforce. Water: exports and HEP sales. SACU membership.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are no daily newspapers. Leselinyana la Lesotho is a popular religious periodical
WEAKNESSES Dependence on South Africa. Loss of workforce to South African mines. Weak agricultural sector. Sporadic disturbances in retail sector. Severe drought in 2003–2004. Spread of AIDS. EXPORTS
Other 1%
1966 Independent kingdom. 1986 Military coup. 1990 King Moshoeshoe II exiled. Son installed as Letsie III. 1993 Free elections. 1994 Return of Moshoeshoe II. 1996 Letsie III succeeds to throne. 1998 New LCD wins polls. South Africa intervenes after coup attempt. 2002 Food emergency follows successive poor harvests. LCD wins long-postponed elections. 2004 First stage of HWS inaugurated.
Canada 1%
1 state-owned service, several independent stations
1 state-owned service
In 1998 state-controlled media were used for political ends. The six independent weeklies often carry opposition views.
CRIME
†
3000 prisoners
SACU 41%
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Death penalty in use
/
Up sharply in 1998–1999
The return from South Africa of many unemployed miners has contributed to an increase in crime levels.
USA 57%
Social mobility is limited in Lesotho; the ruling elite keeps a tight hold on power and wealth. Around 66% of the population live below the UN poverty line and many are migrant laborers.
50th
100th
150th
IMPORTS
Canada 2%
Other 2% Other Asia 5%
EDUCATION 81%
†
School leaving age: 13
81%
141
139 64 deaths
$550
5005 students
145
189
Taiwan 6%
SACU 85%
125 193rd
Schools have very high enrollment levels, and Lesotho has one of the highest literacy rates in Africa.
38 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
367
L
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LIBERIA
WEST AFRICA Sierra Leone
Africa
Guinea
Ivory Coast
LIBERIA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Liberia CAPITAL: Monrovia POPULATION: 3.4 million CURRENCY: Liberian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1847
1847
July 26
LB
0
PEOPLE
.lr
+231
F
ACING THE ATLANTIC in equatorial west Africa, most of Liberia’s coastline is characterized by lagoons and mangrove swamps. Inland, a grassland plateau supports limited agriculture. Founded in 1847 by freed US slaves, Liberia today has largely been reduced to anarchy after renewed offensives by rebel factions opposed to the government of former coup leader Charles Taylor. Hundreds of civilians were killed in 2003 alone as fighting reached Monrovia.
†
CLIMATE
Roberts International, Monrovia 44,444 passengers
WEATHER CHART FOR MONROVIA
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
Tropical equatorial
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
L
0/32
There is one long rainy season from May to October, with a brief interlude in most of the country of about two weeks in August. Temperatures are consistently high. During the dry season, when the dust-laden harmattan wind blows, they rise even higher inland.
G
None
490 km (304 miles)
None
U
10
0
O
E
E
L
Zorzor
A
Kakata Bensonville Mount Barclay
Brewerville
T
Harbel
J
Bomi
A
n oh
Dolobil
Poabil Zwedru
os
st Ce
G
T
r
I
C
River Cess
Dodwekon
n
Greenville
O
50 km 50 miles
Juarzon
a
i
POLITICS 1997/2005
C
40
30
V
Ca
a
E
Kahnwia
Nyaake
Sasstown Grand Cess
o
C
†
In transition
National Transitional Government Chairman Gyude Bryant
National Transitional Legislative Assembly 76 seats
As a result of the continuing complete breakdown in public order, tourism, never significant in Liberia, is now nonexistent.
Zia Town
A 368
(
Buchanan
N
0
I
Tapeta
N
0
Mount Nimba 1752m
Sanniquellie Kahnple
Barclayville Marshall Hartford Edina
L
20
S T O AR E ) C I VO Y D’I R E O T valla Ô C
Pau l Benduma t. Ganta Bopolu S Gbarnga Tubmanburg Nyenyen Zienzu Salala Totota
Robertsport
Yekepa
Lo fa
A
St.
E
A
SI
R
,
A key distinction has been between Americo-Liberians, the descendants of those freed from slavery (known as “civilized persons”), and the majority indigenous “tribals.” The latter were long held in contempt by the Americos, but intermarriage and political assimilation since 1944 have softened attitudes. Intertribal tension is now a far more serious problem for Liberia. Christianity and Islam are practiced alongside traditional beliefs.
Little change from year to year
% of total arrivals
N Zelimai
54%
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
I
Kolahun
46% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Not available
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Voinjama
R
†
Tourists deterred by civil war
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Indigenous tribes (16 main groups) 95%
Liberia does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
Sielo
NE
636 km (395 miles)
TOURISM
35/km2 (91/mi2)
1535 ships 50.4m grt
Most roads are unpaved. The railroad was built to transport iron ore, but large parts have been dismantled and sold as scrap. Roberts airport was built by the US during World War II.
0
Kpelle, Vai, Bassa, Kru, Grebo, Kissi, Gola, Loma, English
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
70/28 60/140
Pop. density low
AmericoLiberians 5%
90/35 80/31
†
s
N
t
Plibo
Harper
LIBERIA
Total Area : 111 370 sq. km 43 000 sq. miles POPULATION over 100 000 over 10 000 under 10 000 LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
An appointed National Transitional Legislative Assembly was convened in October 2003, including representatives of the government, LURD, Model, political parties, civil society, and interest groups. It replaced the suspended bicameral legislature elected in 1997.
A chaotic, bloody, and many-sided conflict erupted in 1990 and continued despite elections in 1997 (won by warlord Charles Taylor and his NPP – National Patriotic Party). The rebel Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) and its splinter Movement for Democracy in Liberia (Model) took control of much of the country and had entered Monrovia when a peace deal was signed in August 2003 and Taylor stepped down. An interim authority took office in October, headed by businessman Gyude Bryant, but lives circumscribed by poverty and widespread availability of drugs have created a volatile climate where youths have a heightened sense of power and looting is the norm. Clashes between armed unemployed youths frequently escalate into bloody ethnic battles.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LIBERIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
ECOWAS
NAM
IAEA
†
Village near Gbarnga. The Kpelle, the largest of Liberia’s 16 indigenous ethnic groups, are concentrated in this part of Liberia.
†
Electric power 334,000 kW
RESOURCES Recipient
US$52m (receipts)
/
Up 33% in 2002
Regional and civil war have seriously disrupted aid flows. In 2004 international donors pledged US$500 million for reconstruction.
DEFENSE US$24m
†
,
No compulsory military service
ECONOMICS
11,300 tonnes
Not an oil producer
220,000 goats, 210,000 sheep, 6m chickens
Iron ore, diamonds, gold, barytes, kyanite, columbite, manganese
There are an estimated billion tonnes of iron ore reserves, but production is at a standstill. Spanish company Repsol was allowed to explore for oil from 2004.
No change in 2002
The government admitted in 2003 that it had contravened a UN weapons embargo in order to boost its defenses against the rebel LURD.
US$476m
Between 1816 and 1892, 22,000 liberated slaves, most from the US, settled in Liberia, established as a republic in 1847.
AU
The UN imposed sanctions in 2001, accusing Liberia of fomenting war in west Africa. Relations with neighboring states have been badly affected by these conflicts, and Liberian fighters have been directly implicated in hostilities in Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast. In 2003 international peacekeepers from the US, the UN, and ECOWAS were brought in to calm Liberia’s own civil war.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
†
Inflation 53% p.a. (1990–2001)
56 Liberian dollars (1)
SCORE CARD
ENVIRONMENT
.
2%
†
Sustainability rank: 130th
0.1 tonnes per capita
1980 Coup. President assassinated by Samuel Doe. 1990 Outbreak of civil war. 1991 Doe assassinated. 1996 Second peace agreement. 1997 Charles Taylor president. 2001 Conflict with rebels escalates. 2002 State of emergency declared. 2003 Rebels reach Monrovia. Taylor ousted. Transitional government.
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
5 per 1000 population
Severe instability. Internal population displacement. Little commercial activity and low business confidence. Diamond trade interrupted by conflict.
Education No data Health 3.3%
1 state-owned service, several independent stations
No domestic television service
Print media have grown since Taylor’s resignation, but TV and radio stations have been slower to recover from the depredations of years of war.
EXPORTS
China 5%
Denmark 5% Poland 7% France 8%
Germany 53% Other 22%
†
Liberia does not publish prison figures
Death penalty in use
/
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
There are 4 daily newspapers, including the independents The Analyst, The Inquirer, and News
CRIME
L 2 per 1000 population
Defense 4.5%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
GDP/cap. increase
TV ownership low
STRENGTHS Timber. Potential for reviving rubber and iron ore industries. Registration fees from flag-of-convenience fleet.
†
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 12 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................172nd GNP PER CAPITA ...........................US$140 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–US$52m INFLATION .......................................31.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................85%
Communicable, diarrheal, parasitic, and heart diseases
A large increase in the number of internally displaced persons (IDPs) within Liberia has had a detrimental effect on already low health standards.
0
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 20,000 people
Illegal logging has damaged forest cover and ecosystems. Electricity shortages mean that trees are also felled for fuel.
MEDIA
†
HEALTH
Crime is rampant. There are no enforcing agencies
The peace accord provides for a truth and reconciliation commission, but the transitional government, which includes former combatants and leaders of disarming rebel factions, has been in no hurry to set it up. Looting and rape occur in areas without UN peacekeepers.
By 1996, real GDP was as low as onetenth of its prewar level. Real income per capita remains at about one-third of prewar levels. Any increase will depend on the government carrying out major reforms of Liberia’s warravaged economy, including the encouragement of foreign investment. Most ordinary Liberians continue to live in rural poverty.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Singapore 8% South Korea 31%
Japan 20%
France 9% 56%
Other 16%
Germany 16%
†
School leaving age: 16
20,804 students
Originally based on the US model, the education system effectively collapsed during the civil war.
193rd
186 $140
164
165
47 years
56%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
190 157 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
369
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LIBYA
NORTH AFRICA Algeria
LIBYA
Niger Chad OFFICIAL NAME: Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah CAPITAL: Tripoli POPULATION: 5.6 million CURRENCY: Libyan dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic
1951
1951
Sept 1
LAR
+1
Africa
Egypt Sudan
.ly
+218
L
IBYA IS SITUATED in north Africa between Egypt and Algeria, with the Mediterranean to the north and Chad and Niger on its southern borders. Apart from the coastal strip and the mountains in the south, it is desert or semidesert. Libya’s strategic position in north Africa and its abundant oil and gas resources made it an important trading partner for European states. It has for many years been politically marginalized by the West for its links with terrorist groups, but UN sanctions were lifted in 2003, when it agreed to pay compensation for terrorist bombings in the 1980s.
CLIMATE
†
WEATHER CHART FOR TRIPOLI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
857,952 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
L
-10/14 -20/-4
The coastal region has a warm, temperate climate, with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Up 393% in 2001–2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Libya possesses a rich Roman and Greek heritage, centered on the ancient Roman coastal towns of Labdah (Leptis Magna) and Sabrata near Tripoli, and Shahhat (Cyrene) further east. There are fine beaches at Tripoli. The government is keen to invest in attracting tourists, in 2000 launching a $2–3 billion program. Western tourists have begun to return since sanctions were eased in 1999.
†
PEOPLE Drive on right
/
Visitors : Population 1:6.5
Egypt 41% Tunisia 38% Algeria 8% Morocco 2% Sudan 2% Other 9% 0
10
50
40
30
60
Pop. density low 3/km2 (8/mi2)
Arabic, Tuareg
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0.3% 1.6%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
20
% of total arrivals
140 ships 164,900 grt
Tripoli International
47,424 km (29,468 miles)
†
TOURISM
Hot desert
Roman theater, Sabrata. Libya’s impressive classical heritage testifies to its importance in ancient times.
5.2%
88%
12%
12.1%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
Male 0.3% 1.6% 5.5% 12.8%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 29.8%
Other 3%
0–19
30.8%
% of population by age group None
None
The National Coast Road runs 1825 km (1135 miles) between the Tunisian and Egyptian borders, linking the principal urban centers. There are no railroads, but some are planned. Since sanctions were suspended in 1999, international airlines have resumed flights to Libya.
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 97% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 5%
Arab and Berber 95%
Al Kufrah Oasis. As 90% of Libya is arid rock and sand, oases provide essential agricultural land, besides being tourist attractions.
370
Arabs and Berbers, split into many tribal groupings, form 95% of the population. They were artificially brought together when Libya was created in 1951 by the unification of three historic Ottoman provinces. The newly established proWestern monarchy then perpetuated the dominance of Cyrenaican tribes and the Sanusi religious order. The 1969 revolution brought to the fore Arab nationalist Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi, who embodied the character
and aspirations of the rural Sirtica tribes from Fazzan: fierce independence, deep Islamic convictions, belief in a communal lifestyle, and hatred for the urban rich. His revolution wiped out private enterprise and the middle class, banished European settlers and Jews, undermined the religious Muslim establishment, and imposed a form of popular democracy through the jamahiriyah (state of the masses). However, resentment of the regime grew as it became clear that power now lay mainly with the Sirtica tribes, especially Gaddafi’s own clan, the Qadhadhfa. Since the revolution, Libya has become a society where most are city dwellers. Jews have been invited to return as investors, and immigrants from subSaharan Africa have been drawn in to provide low-cost labor. However, clashes in 2000, in which 100 died, highlighted unresolved social issues.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LIBYA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
No multiparty elections
involve all citizens in policy making. The highest congress, the GPC, is theoretically responsible for introducing and passing laws. Gaddafi’s blatantly autocratic style of leadership has alienated many, even within his inner circle. He now relies on members of his own clan, particularly his five sons. The much-touted concept of African unity has proved unpopular with the wider populace.
Leader of the Revolution Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi
Not applicable
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
General People's Congress 750 seats
The constitution makes no provision for direct elections. Last renewal May 2003
Executive power is theoretically exercised by the General People’s Committee while the General People’s Congress (GPC) elects the head of state. In reality Libya is run as a military dictatorship.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Repression Political dissidents, including Islamist militants, have been violently suppressed. Libyan dissidents have been murdered abroad, allegedly by government agents. Political parties were banned in 1971, but opposition groups are active in Egypt and Sudan.
PROFILE Political power is concentrated in the hands of revolutionary leader Col. Muammar al-Gaddafi, the de facto head of state; he holds no official title but is known as the leader, or guide, of the revolution. Gaddafi’s unique political system is based on his own Green Book which draws on the ideology of Islam, socialism, and Bedouin tradition. In theory direct rule is practiced through 2000 People’s Congresses intended to
The regime’s public image In the past few years, the regime has made an effort to improve its image. Measures have included freeing political prisoners, welcoming back exiles, accepting legal responsibility for past acts of terrorism, and renouncing weapons of mass destruction. M E D I T E R R A N Janzúr E A N TRIPOLI Tájúrá’ S E Bin Ghashír A Shaííát Al Khums
W
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LAT RABYÁNAH
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A e s t i
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SARÍ R
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Al Jaghbúb
A
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LIBYA
Pic Bette 2286m
H
‘Ayn al Ghazál
Total Area : 1 759 540 sq. km (679 358 sq. miles)
A
LAND HEIGHT
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level -200m/-656ft
N
D
over 500 000
D
1000m/3281ft
over 100 000
U
2000m/6562ft
POPULATION
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
0
S
200 km
a 0
Joined UN in 1955
AL
AU
NAM
OIC
OPEC
Gaddafi has attempted to style himself the champion of African integration and regional stability. He was a chief architect of the AU, and has hosted various peace talks in the transSaharan area. This transformation has also involved a less confrontational stance toward the West, dropping key policies which had left Libya isolated in the past – support for various terrorist groups and strong opposition to Israel – and rooting out internal corruption. UN sanctions imposed in 1992 have been lifted, and relations with the UK were resumed in 1999. Gaddafi’s boldest move was his commitment in December 2003 to end his illegal weapons program; this was rewarded in 2004 by the resumption of relations with the US.
CHRONOLOGY m ím
GR
Awjilah Jálú
’
Musá'id
SE
R
dí a l Ía
H
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Italy occupied Libya and expelled the Turks in 1911. Britain and France agreed to a UN plan for an independent monarchy in 1951.
D
R
Á
Wá
Marada
a Al H
B
dá
A
Ex-king Idris was deposed by Col. Gaddafi in 1969.
N
AW
Ja b a Birák
aw
∏ubruq
B A R Q
Záwiyat al Mukhaylá
RÁ
S l as
al A
Ajdábiyá
W ád í
Ghadámis
yy
bír
l Al Jaba
Banghází j Su rt
T
Mizdah
alí
P
A
Kh
Baní Walíd
Jabal Nafú sah
S A H RA
Mi§rátah
Y
Yafran
Jádú
Al Baydá’ Al Qubbah Túkrah Darnah Al Marj çar Khalíj Bumbah Madínat al Abyár kh
Zlí√an
Tarhúnah
G
TU
NI
Al Jumayl J effa ra Plain Al ‘Azízíyah Gharyán Nálút
A N
SI
A
Az Záwiyah flurmán Zuwárah
Col. Gaddafi, Libya’s leader since 1969, shies from official titles.
1969 King Idris deposed in coup led by Col. Gaddafi. Revolution Command Council established. Tripoli Charter sets up revolutionary alliance with Egypt and Sudan. 1970 UK and US military ordered out. Property belonging to Italians and Jews confiscated. Western oil company assets nationalized, a process completed in 1973. 1973 Libya forms abortive union with Egypt. Libya occupies Aozou Strip in Chad. 1974 Libya proposes union of Libya and Tunisia. 1977 Official name changed to Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah. Revolution Command Council dissolved. Gaddafi elected Leader of the Revolution. Council of Ministers replaced by General People’s Committee.
200 miles
371
L
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
†
Down 45% in 2002
LIBYAN ARMED FORCES 2017 main battle tanks (1540 T-54/55, 162 T-62, 45,000 personnel 315 T-72) 1 submarine, 1 frigate, 9 patrol boats
8000 personnel
400 combat aircraft (MiG-21/23/25, Tu-22, Mirage 5/F-1, Su-20/22)
23,000 personnel
None
The armed forces suffered a blow in 1987 with the loss of thousands of men
ECONOMICS $31bn
†
and equipment worth $1.4 billion when Libya became embroiled in the Chad civil war; in 1994 it agreed to hand back to Chad the Aozou Strip, which it had first occupied in 1973. In 1988–1989 the armed forces were replaced by “the Armed People.” Conscription is selective, and can last up to two years. Reserves form a 40,000-strong People’s Militia. Attempts to depoliticize the army received a setback following confirmation of an abortive military coup in 1993. UN sanctions resulted in military hardware becoming outdated. Despite the removal of sanctions in 2003, fresh arms contracts would still be too controversial for most potential suppliers.
Not available
1.315 Libyan dinars (1.206)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................59th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$5540 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$2.14bn INFLATION ............................................1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................30%
EXPORTS
France 4%
Turkey 7%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
Spain 14% Italy 43% Germany 14% Other 18% IMPORTS
Tunisia 6%
Other 45%
South Korea 7% UK 7% Germany 10%
Western oil companies had close business ties with Libya until the imposition in 1992 of UN sanctions over the Lockerbie affair. Gaddafi’s 2003 offer of compensation for 1980s terrorist acts enabled UN sanctions to be lifted ; US sanctions were eased the following year, allowing oil companies, in particular, to reestablish links. WTO membership talks began in 2004.
Italy 25%
STRENGTHS
Recipient
$10m (receipts)
,
Little change in 2002
As an oil-exporting state, Libya fails to qualify for much international aid, despite being a developing country. During the 1970s, Col. Gaddafi aided several African liberation movements, notably the ANC in South Africa. He has backed factions during civil conflicts in neighboring countries, including Chad and the Central African Republic, and helped dissidents by training them in his Pan-African legion. He has also financed or supplied arms to the Palestine Liberation Organization in the Middle East, Irish republicans in Northern Ireland, the Moros in the southern Philippines, and Basques, Corsicans, and other separatist groups in Europe.
372
.
Compulsory military service
GDP 1996=100
AID
$531m
†
Consumer price index 1996=100
L
1981 US shoots down two Libyan aircraft over Gulf of Sirte. 1984 Gunman at Libyan embassy in UK kills British policewoman; UK severs diplomatic relations (until 1999). Oudja Accord signed with Morocco for Arab Africa Federation. 1985 30,000 foreign workers expelled. Tunisia severs links. 1986 US aircraft bomb Libya, killing 101 people and destroying Gaddafi’s residence. 1988 Pan-Am airliner explodes over Lockerbie, Scotland; allegations of Libyan complicity. 1989 Arab Maghreb Union established with Algeria, Morocco, Mauritania, and Tunisia. Cease-fire in Aozou Strip. 1990 Libya expels Palestinian splinter group led by Abu Abbas. 1991 Opening of first branch of Great Man-Made River project. 1992–1993 UN sanctions imposed as Libya fails to hand over Lockerbie suspects; sanctions made stricter. 1994 Religious leaders obtain right to issue religious decrees (fatwas) for first time since 1969. Return of Aozou Strip to Chad. 1996 US legislation imposes penalties on foreign companies investing in Libya’s energy sector. 1999 Lockerbie suspects handed over for trial in the Netherlands under Scottish law; UN sanctions suspended. 2001 Lockerbie trial verdict: one suspect convicted. 2002 US–Libya talks, but Libya added to “axis of evil.” 2003 Compensation agreed for 1980s terrorism; UN sanctions lifted. Weapons program ended. 2004 Relations restored with US.
DEFENSE
LIBYA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Mi§rátah
Oil and gas production. High levels of investment in downstream industries: petrochemicals, refineries, fertilizers, and aluminum smelting.
Surt Basin Al Burayqah Banghází Ras Lanuf
Tripoli
WEAKNESSES Single-resource economy: subject to oil-market fluctuations. Most food imported. Reliance on foreign labor. Lack of water for agriculture. History of international unreliability.
Idri Marada Sarir
Ghát
PROFILE An ambitious industrialization program was launched in the 1970s. Gaddafi’s most controversial economic project has been the Great Man-Made River. Started in 1984, it was designed to bring water from under the Sahara to the coast, but the pipes are already corroding, with water leaking into the sand.
Oil Oil refining Gas refining
0 0
Leather tanning
Steel
Petrochemicals Light engineering
Textiles
400 km 400 miles
Salt production
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LIBYA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 4.6m kW
33,339 tonnes
1.49m b/d (reserves 36bn barrels)
4.13m sheep, 1.26m goats, 25m chickens
Oil, natural gas, iron, potassium, sulfur, magnesium, gypsum
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 0% Combustion 100% (20bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Libya’s economy depends almost entirely on its oil and natural gas resources. It has considerable
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.1% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 124th
crude oil reserves and is likely to remain an oil-exporting country for many decades. Natural gas potential is more limited but, provided links are developed with other north African states, the future is assured. Libya also has reserves of iron ore, potassium, sulfur, magnesium, and gypsum, though these contribute little to the overall economy and most minerals are imported. The aging Great Man-Made River project means that the area of irrigated land has grown, but 90% of Libya is desert. Animal husbandry, particularly of sheep, is the basis of farming, but some cereal crops are grown, as well as tomatoes, watermelons, and olives.
†
CRIME
10.9 tonnes per capita
6750 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Death penalty in use
/
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Murders 2
per 100,000 population
5
per 100,000 population
MEDIA
†
1 state-controlled service
A
LIBYA : LAND USE Cropland Pasture Desert Sheep Dates
0
400 km 400 miles
0
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Pneumonia, diarrheal diseases, accidents, cancers
1 per 769 people
As part of rapprochement with the West, Gaddafi has pledged to crack down on torture and to open up the judicial system. His regime had been heavily criticized for human rights abuses.
†
EDUCATION 82%
School leaving age: 15
†
GDP/cap. decrease
159 per 1000 population
111 per 1000 population
Defense 3.8% Education 2.7% Health 1.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
287,172 students
There is widespread poverty after years of import constraints; UN sanctions worsened the situation. Gaddafi refuses to use oil revenues for basic expenses, such as salaries: wage levels have been frozen since the 1980s.
100
% of each age group in education
There are 3 daily newspapers, including Al-Fajr al-Jadid, published by the Jamahiriyah News Agency (JANA)
R
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
A
per 100,000 population
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 15 per 1000 people
H
SPENDING
Thefts 346
A
An adequate system of free primary health care exists except in remote areas, and there are two big hospitals, in Benghazi and Tripoli. Sanctions have led to a lack of equipment and a shortage of medical supplies.
Rapes
The UN Development Program has described Libya as more than 90% “wasteland.” Both nature and man have conspired against the environment. Apart from two coastal strips – the Jeffara Plain and the Jabal al Akhdar in Cyrenaica – together with the Fazzan Oasis, most of Libya is desert. Much of the irrigated area is saline because of unwise use of naturally occurring water from artesian wells. Near Tripoli, seawater has penetrated the water table as far as 20 km (12 miles) inland.
S
Up 10% in 1999
CRIME RATES
Yes
LIBYAN DESERT
80
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
100%
40
58% 20
0
Position in World 1st
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
50th
1 state-controlled service
Libya’s press and TV are a mouthpiece for the leadership. Satellite TV and the Internet are widely available, but heavily censored. The main daily newspaper is published in Arabic and has a circulation of 40,000 readers. The TV station broadcasts mostly in Arabic. Plans to start radio broadcasts in Kiswahili, Hausa, Fulani, and Amharic have been shelved.
Some 1.8 million Libyans are in formal education. It is compulsory for nine years from the age of six and rates of attendance are very high, but it varies in quality and can be rudimentary in rural areas. Secondary education, from the age of 15, lasts for three years. There are 13 universities, and several institutes for vocational training. The literacy rate has more than doubled from a level of 39% in 1970.
100th
50
60
$5540
150th
58
16 deaths
75 72 years
123 82% 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
373
L
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LIECHTENSTEIN
LIECHTENSTEIN
Aug 15
FL
+1
.li
+423
P
ERCHED IN THE ALPS, Liechtenstein is rare among small states in having both a thriving banking sector and a well-diversified manufacturing economy. It is closely allied to Switzerland, which handles its foreign relations and defense. Life in Liechtenstein is stable and conservative. The traditional secrecy surrounding the country’s financial industry, and low taxes, mean that many overseas trusts, banks, and investment companies are located there.
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR VADUZ
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density high 207/km2 (535/mi2)
German, Alemannish dialect, Italian THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
22%
Other 12%
None
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
19 km (12 miles)
26 km (16 miles)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
A U S
I
A
Mäls Vorder Grauspitz 2599m
0
R
R
Balzers
T
N O K I tal na T mi U Sa P S
Triesenberg Triesen
0
374
N
Ä
Alpine scenery attracts skiers and walkers. The whole country was made available to rent for conferences in 2003.
400m/1312ft
H
40
R
From 1938 to 1997 the VU and the FBP alternated as coalition leaders. Mario Frick formed a VU-only government in 1997, ending the partnership. In elections in 2001 the FBP under Otmar Hasler overtook the VU. In 2003 Prince Hans-Adam II threatened to emigrate if he did not gain greater political powers; in 2004 he handed control to his son Alois while remaining head of state.
44% VU
D
30
% of total arrivals
Mauren
Schaanwald Eschen Bendern Nendeln
N
Other 33% 20
FBP = Progressive Citizens' Party VU = Fatherland Union FL = Free List
A
Austria 5%
500m/1640ft Gamprin
VADUZ 4% FL
52% FBP
Switzerland 27%
1000m/3281ft
Schaan
L
Down 13% in 2002
1500m/4921ft
Ruggell Schellenberg
Planken
R
.
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft
E
†
Germany 35%
10
Prince Hans-Adam II von und zu Liechtenstein
Parliament 25 seats Visitors : Population 1.5:1
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
Multiparty elections
POPULATION under 10 000
Z
48,727 visitors
2001/2005
†
Not available
T
TOURISM
POLITICS
,
Total Area : 160 sq. km (62 sq. miles)
I
Public transportation in Liechtenstein is mostly by the postal bus network. The single-track railroad has few stops. Zürich, a two-hour drive away in Switzerland, is the nearest airport.
Donor
LIECHTENSTEIN
W
None
Liechtenstein’s role as a financial center accounts for the many foreign residents (over 35% of the population), of whom half are Swiss and the rest mostly German. Family life is highly traditional; women received the vote only in 1984, after much controversy. A proposal to enshrine equal rights for women in the constitution was rejected in a referendum in 1985 by a large majority and only finally passed in 1992. Abortion laws are restrictive but rarely enforced in practice.
S
250 km (155 miles)
Roman Catholic 81%
WTO
Though overseas aid donations are small and aid issues have little political importance, Liechtenstein has helped to fund shelter and reconstruction projects in the former Yugoslavia and local development projects in Bulgaria.
Rh
†
TRANSPORTATION
†
Donor, but does not publish figures
-20/-4
Climate varies with altitude. Excellent skiing conditions are the result of heavy settling snow from December to March. Summers are warm and wet.
OSCE
IAEA
Liechtenstein effectively gave up control of its external relations in 1924 when it signed a Customs Union Treaty with Switzerland. This agreement requires Swiss approval for any treaty arrangements between Liechtenstein and a third state. Liechtenstein became a member of the UN only in 1990. It joined EFTA and the EBRD in 1991, and has been a participant in the EEA since 1995. However, Swiss rejection of EU membership in 1992 effectively ended any prospect of Liechtenstein joining the EU in the foreseeable future.
AID
Protestant 7%
-10/14
L
EFTA
78%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
CE
ina
Mountain
Joined UN in 1990
Sam
†
CLIMATE
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
ine
1719
Austria
Swi tz er l an d
OFFICIAL NAME: Principality of Liechtenstein CAPITAL: Vaduz POPULATION: 33,145 CURRENCY: Swiss franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: German 1719
Europe
EUROPE
5 km 5 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LIECHTENSTEIN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Electric power: Included in Swiss total
RESOURCES None
Not an oil producer
6000 cattle, 3000 pigs, 2900 sheep, 280 goats
None
Liechtenstein has to import most of its energy. Almost all of its electricity comes from German power plants. Alpine scenery near Vaduz. The state budget includes 2% allocated to restoring mountain vegetation and coordinating land use.
DEFENSE No defense force
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
There has been no standing army since 1868, and there is only a small police force. De facto protection is provided by Switzerland. In theory, any male under 60 is liable for military service during a national emergency, though this law has never been invoked.
ECONOMICS $1.6bn
†
Inflation 2.9% p.a. (1985–1996) 1.252 Swiss francs (1.355)
SCORE CARD
ENVIRONMENT
/
38% partially protected
†
Not available
6.1 tonnes per capita
Protection of Liechtenstein’s alpine scenery is high enough on the political agenda for one of the five councillors, or ministers, to have responsibility for the environment. As in Switzerland, the greatest worry is the effect of high rates of car use and of through traffic. However, a 1988 trial in providing free public bus transportation proved a failure, as Liechtensteiners remained firmly wedded to their automobiles.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 602 per 1000 people
CHRONOLOGY In 1719 Liechtenstein became an independent principality of the Holy Roman Empire. 1924 Customs union with Switzerland. 1992 Women given equal rights. 1997 VU government ends VU–FBP coalition dominant since 1938. 2001 FBP wins majority in elections; Otmar Hasler premier. 2003 Prince wins greater powers. 2004 Prince hands control to son.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers
1 per 763 people
Though clinics and hospitals are few, the health system provides advanced care. Many Liechtensteiners have private health insurance arrangements, so that they have access to Swiss medical expertise and facilities as well as their own.
†
SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS Stability and customs union with Switzerland make Liechtenstein a favored tax haven; its lack of EU membership makes the banking sector less vulnerable to future changes in EU banking laws. The economy is well diversified: chemicals, furniture, coatings for the electro-optical industry, construction services, and precision instruments are all thriving sectors.
WEAKNESSES Lack of resources. Need to balance integration with other countries with safeguarding economic independence. EXPORTS
Switzerland 13%
No domestic TV service
†
17 prisoners
Other 38%
IMPORTS
With a limited domestic market, Liechtenstein’s industry is export-oriented. Liechtenstein has a customs union with Switzerland and does not publish separate import figures.
99%
583 per 1000 population
1 radio service
No death penalty
,
Crime does not pose any great problems
Crime is a minor problem, a result of the relatively even distribution of wealth and high average living standard. Liechtenstein has also taken great care to protect its taxhaven status by careful regulation of its financial sector. It has avoided major scandals, and took steps in 2000 to tighten precautions against the growing problem of money laundering.
EDUCATION
EU 49%
710 per 1000 population
The two daily newspapers, though free of formal state control, are both run by political parties: the Vaterland, with the larger circulation (over 10,000), by the VU, the Volksblatt by the FBP.
CRIME
L
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
There are 2 daily newspapers, Liechtensteiner Vaterland and Liechtensteiner Volksblatt
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................146th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$50,000 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.....Included in Swiss total INFLATION ............................................1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................1%
GDP/cap. increase
†
No data available
0
5
10
20
25
Unlike other tax havens, Liechtenstein displays a more conservative prosperity. Private deposit accounts are not a key part of its banking business, but an increase in money-laundering activities and the country’s appearance on a blacklist of financial centers led to a ban on anonymous accounts in mid-2000.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
School leaving age: 16
1 $50,000
7 79 years
1 99%
46
100th
10 deaths
Not available
Education, modeled on the German system, includes two types of school at secondary level – the more academic Gymnasium and the Realschule. Liechtenstein has no university; students go on to colleges in Austria, Switzerland, or Germany, or to business schools in the US.
15
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
375
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
LITHUANIA
L atvi a Russian Fed.
1991
Feb 16
LT
+2
YING ON THE EASTERN COAST of the Baltic Sea, Lithuania was the last European country formally to embrace Christianity, in about 1400. Its terrain is mostly flat, with many lakes, moors, and bogs. Now a multiparty democracy, Lithuania regained independence from the former USSR in 1991. Industrial production and agriculture are the mainstays of the economy. Russia finally withdrew all its troops from Lithuania in 1993.
†
WEATHER CHART FOR VILNIUS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Lithuania’s coastal position moderates an otherwise continental-type climate. Summers are cool.
†
TRANSPORTATION Vilnius 719,850 passengers
Drive on right
184 ships 435,300 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 69,681 km (43,298 miles)
417 km (259 miles)
1775 km (1103 miles)
600 km (373 miles)
Lithuania is crossed by international rail routes, and Klaipeda provides extensive connections to other Baltic ports.
/
Up 12% in 2002
Lithuanian 80%
With a mainly Catholic population, Lithuania has strong historical links with Poland, with which it was once united, though there is tension between ethnic Lithuanians and Poles. Relations with the Jewish minority are strained. More than 90% of nonethnic Lithuanians have been granted citizenship. Of all the Baltic states, Lithuania has the best relations with ethnic Russians, but they form a smaller minority there than in Estonia or Latvia.
LITHUANIA
Latvia 29%
Plungë
Klaipëda
Tel#iai ‹iauliai
·EMAIÂIÙ AUK‹TUMAS
Radvili#kis
Panevëªys
Kelmë
Ignalina
Raseiniai
Tauragë
Këdainiai
Ukmergë
LAND HEIGHT
over 50 000
under 10 000 0
50 miles
200m/656ft Sea Level
N
P O
Marijampolë
VILNIUS Juozapinës Kalnas 292m
Alytus
‹alâinikai Varëna
L
A
A
Druskininkai
L
N
0
50 km
Trakai
ON
over 10 000
Kauno Marios
I AT ER
over 100 000
The tourist industry boomed after independence. Vilnius is well preserved; its historic center survived German and Russian occupation. Trakai, the capital of the Grand Duchy in the 16th century, is also popular with visitors.
N
Kaunas
is
over 500 000
S
40
Jonava
Neman
U
30
Jurbarkas
FE D
er
20
% of total arrivals
D
376
A Pandëlys
a
Utena ‹ilutë
RUSS IAN
POPULATION 10
M ú#
B
E
R
Other 26% 0
Ve
B
Belarus 16%
Birªai
Naujoji Akmenë
Kur#ënai Kretinga
A
Russia 29%
V
I Maªeikiai Viek#niai
L T I C
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
T
A
L
Total Land Area : 65 200 sq. km (25 174 sq. miles)
S E A
1.43m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:2.4
Russian 9%
a nt
TOURISM
Though governments have proved somewhat shortlived in recent years and personalities dominate politics, Lithuania’s overall drive since independence in 1991 toward market reform and integration with the West has been unhindered. Former communist and conservative parties have led coalitions, with increasing levels of fractiousness – there were four different governments between 1999 and 2001. On the collapse in 2001 of a promarket coalition headed by Rolandas Paksas of the LLS, a new government was formed by Parliament’s largest bloc, the ABSD, headed by former president and reformed communist Algirdas Brazauskas. He promised to maintain the country’s economic reforms while pursuing more socially oriented policies. Paksas unexpectedly won presidential elections in 2003, but was removed from office in April 2004 because of his links with organized crime. Fresh elections were won by former president Valdas Adamkus.
Polish 7%
Other 2%
21% 6% 13% NS(SL) TS(LK) Others
ABSD = A. Brazauskas Social Democratic Coalition LLS = Lithuanian Liberal Union NS(SL) = New Union (Social Liberals) TS(LK) = Homeland Union (Lithuanian Conservatives)
31%
Belarussian 2%
24% LLS
36% ABSD
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-20/-4
President Valdas Adamkus
AT THE LAST ELECTION
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
Multiparty elections
Parliament 141 seats
52/km2 (135/mi2)
69%
†
2000/2004
Pop. density medium
Lithuanian, Russian
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
-10/14
L
†
PEOPLE
Continental
P ol an d
POLITICS
.lt
+370
L
CLIMATE
LITHUANIA Belarus
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Lithuania CAPITAL: Vilnius POPULATION: 3.4 million CURRENCY: Litas (euro is also legal tender) OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Lithuanian 1991
Europe
EUROPE
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LITHUANIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1991
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
CBSS
NATO
EU
CHRONOLOGY The commonwealth of Lithuania and Poland formed the largest state in Europe until Lithuania was annexed by Russia in 1795.
OSCE
Lithuania currently has the best relations with Russia of all the Baltic states. This is balanced with close ties to the West; in 2004 it joined NATO and the EU, in March and May respectively.
†
AID
Recipient
$147m (receipts)
/
Up 13% in 2002
Aid donations and, since 2004, direct EU funding promote infrastructure projects and private enterprise.
DEFENSE $233m
†
/
Compulsory military service
$12.7bn
†
Inflation 63% p.a. (1990–2001) 2.838 litai (3.007)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 6.6m kW
153,932 tonnes
6336 b/d (reserves 14m barrels)
1.06m pigs, 779,100 cattle, 6.85m chickens
Sand, gravel, clay, limestone, gypsum, oil, amber
Up 11% in 2002
A large National Guard patrols the country’s frontiers. Legislation was passed in 2003 to cut active troop numbers by 5000 within five years through a reduction in both the length of military service (from one year) and the size of the active reserve force.
ECONOMICS
One of Lithuania’s 3000 lakes. The entire country is low-lying. Its coast, fringed by dunes and pine forests, is famous for amber.
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................81st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3670 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$721m INFLATION .........................................0.3% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................14%
Lithuania has significant reserves of peat and of materials used in the construction industry. The Ignalina nuclear plant provides more than 75% of the country’s electricity. Oil is mostly imported from Russia.
ENVIRONMENT
.
10% (7% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 27th
3.4 tonnes per capita
Radioactive leaks and the risk of accident at the giant Chernobyl-type nuclear plant at Ignalina cause much concern. In 2002 the government agreed to decommission it by 2009, after pressure from the EU, which will share the $2.6 billion cost.
†
MEDIA
1915 Occupied by German troops. 1918 Independence declared. 1926 Military coup; one-party rule. 1940 Annexed by Soviet Union. 1941–1944 Nazi occupation. 1945 Incorporated into USSR. 1991 Achieves full independence. 1992 First multiparty elections. 1993 Russian troops withdraw. 1996 General election follows banking scandal; TS(LK) wins. 2000 Brief center-left coalition. 2001 Ex-president Brazauskas becomes prime minister. 2004 Joins NATO. President Paksas impeached. Joins EU.
The reorganization of the health service, begun in 1997, has replaced state funding with finance from insurance funds.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
319 per 1000 population
270 per 1000 population
TV ownership high
Defense 1.8% Education 6.4% Health 4.2%
STRENGTHS Successful transition to stable market economy. Increase in foreign investment. Low inflation. Litas pegged to euro (legal tender from 2002).
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Agriculture slow to recover from decollectivization. Exports dependent on health of Russian economy. Poor raw materials base. Widening external current account deficit.
10 services: 1 state-owned, 9 independent
Russia 12%
†
9217 prisoners
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Poland 5%
10
15
20
25
99%
High unemployment and weak consumption have held back growth. Since 1991 a large gap has opened between the incomes of rich and poor.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
No death penalty
.
Down 4% in 2001
Carjackings are increasingly common. Racially motivated attacks against foreigners have been reported.
UK 13% Denmark 13%
26 services: 1 state-owned, 25 independent
Mainstream media are mainly printed and broadcast in Lithuanian, having been in Russian under communism.
Latvia 10% Germany 10%
5
There are 9 daily newspapers, including Lietuvos Rytas and Respublika
CRIME
EXPORTS
0
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
WEAKNESSES
Italy 5%
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers, cerebrovascular diseases, accidents
1 per 250 people
Daily newspaper circulation 29 per 1000 people
Other 42%
†
HEALTH
†
School leaving age: 15
168,200 students
1st
1
50th
99%
38 100th
66 $3670
62
41
8 deaths
73 years
150th
193rd
UK 3% Germany 18% Other 47% Russia 22%
Teaching at all levels is in Lithuanian, making access to higher education harder for minorities. Half of all students go on to university.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
377
L
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
EUROPE
LUXEMBOURG
B el gi u m
Germany LUXEMBOURG
Fr an ce
OFFICIAL NAME: Grand Duchy of Luxembourg CAPITAL: Luxembourg-Ville POPULATION: 453,000 CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French, German, and Luxembourgish 1867
1867
June 23
L
+1
L. House 2004/2009
L
UXEMBOURG SHARES BORDERS with the industrial regions of Germany, France, and Belgium, and has the highest per capita income in the EU. The northern Ösling region is part of the plateau of the Ardennes, and is undulating and forested. Luxembourg’s prosperity was once based on steel; before World War II it produced more per capita than the US. Today, it is known as the headquarters of key EU institutions and as a banking center.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR LUXEMBOURG-VILLE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Maritime
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
Council of State 21 seats
The members of the Council of State are appointed for life by the grand duke
92%
8%
There is remarkable political consensus, and governments are characterized by coalitions and long-serving prime ministers; the grand duke’s role is mostly ceremonial. Main issues relate to European integration.
Protestant, Orthodox Christian, and Jewish 3%
-20/-4
TRANSPORTATION
†
Findel, Luxembourg-Ville 1.46m passengers
Has no fleet
Roman Catholic 97%
Drive on right
5189 km (3224 miles)
126 km (78 miles)
274 km (170 miles)
37 km (23 miles)
Benelux
Buurgplaatz 559m
N
N
R
E
M
Vianden
A D
Diekirch
N
S û re
R
I
Mersch
G
N
LUXEMBOURG Pétange Sanem
Esch-sur -Alzette
R
A
Dudelange
N
C
LAND HEIGHT
200m/656ft Remich
Bettembourg
Kayl
0 0
500m/1640ft
Hesperange
Differdange Schifflange
N
Grevenmacher
Findel Airport
Mamer
F
D Wasserbillig
Walferdange
Capellen
M
Key attractions are the hills and forests, 76 castles, and the Benedictine abbey at Echternach. Under a government initiative, foreign hotel workers learn about the history, language, and culture of the duchy.
T
U
A
L
le
% of total arrivals
LUXEMBOURG
el
40
OSCE
Total Area : 2586 sq. km (998 sq. miles)
U
30
Y
re Echternach
Mo s
Other 37%
OECD
NATO
A Redange
20
EU
Joined UN in 1945
Luxembourg has long supported integration within the EU. During its EU presidency the Maastricht agreement for closer European union was brokered, and Luxembourg was not only the first member state to meet all the economic, financial, and legal requirements of union under Maastricht, but did so a year early. It is a firm advocate of a strong EU common foreign and security policy and is critical of the proposed European constitution’s failure to scrap the right to veto in this field. This commitment to the EU reflects the tremendous benefits Luxembourg has gained from membership. It is home to both the Secretariat of the European Parliament and the Court of Justice.
Sû
G
Germany 13%
378
G
N
I
Ettelbrück
Belgium 21%
10
E
L
Lac de la Haute Sûre
Netherlands 29%
O ur
S
Ö
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
G
B Wiltz
Up 6% in 2002
L
/
876,000 visitors
Clervaux
Visitors : Population 1.9:1
E
†
TOURISM
E
There is an excellent road network, though congestion is a problem. Rail and bus services are integrated.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Nearly a third of its residents and half of Luxembourg’s workers are foreigners. Integration has been straightforward; most are fellow western Europeans and Roman Catholics, mainly from Italy and Portugal. Life in Luxembourg is comfortable. Salaries are high, unemployment very low, and social tensions few. S
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
8% ADR
CSV/PCS = Christian Social People's Party LSAP/POSL = Luxembourg Socialist Workers' Party DP/PD = Democratic Party G = Greens ADR = Action Committee for Democracy and Justice
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
The south, where vines grow, is the warmest area. Winter is cold and snowy, especially in the Ardennes.
12% G
23% 17% LSAP/POSL DP/PD
40% CSV/PCS
175/km2 (454/mi2)
-10/14
L
AT THE LAST ELECTION
0
0/32
Grand Duke Henri
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
10/4
10/50
Multiparty elections
Chamber of Deputies 60 seats
Pop. density medium
Luxembourgish, German, French
†
POLITICS
.lu
+352
E
Sea Level
10 km 10 miles
POPULATION over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: LUXEMBOURG
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 1.2m kW
None
Not an oil producer
197,257 cattle, 79,665 pigs, 9104 sheep
Iron
Luxembourg is a key processor of steel; the Arbed company was a founder in 2002 of the multinational Arcelor Group, the world’s largest steel company. Charlotte Bridge, Luxembourg. The modern road system provides excellent links with the rest of Europe.
†
AID
.
14% partially protected Donor
$147m (donations)
/
Up 6% in 2002
Aid equaled 0.77% of GNP in 2002; it is given to least developed countries or as specific economic aid.
DEFENSE
†
/
$193m
No compulsory military service
Up 24% in 2002
A few members of the 900-strong army assist in international peacekeeping missions. There is no navy or air force.
ECONOMICS $17.5bn
†
†
Not available
19.1 tonnes per capita
Acid rain from European industry has affected 20% of Luxembourg’s trees and, in the worst cases, 30% of trees in mature stands. Luxembourg is a member of an international committee on reducing pollution of the Rhine.
†
MEDIA
Until 1867, Luxembourg was ruled by a succession of neighboring European powers. 1890 Link with Dutch throne ends. 1921 Economic union with Belgium. End of German ties. 1940–1944 German occupation. 1948 Benelux treaty (1944) creating a customs union comes into effect. 1957 One of six signatories of Treaty of Rome, the principal foundation of what develops into the EU. 1995 Premier Jacques Santer is president of European Commission. 1999 Santer resigns amid corruption allegations. Socialist election losses. 2000 Grand Duke Jean abdicates in favor of his son, Henri. 2002 Euro fully adopted.
TV ownership high
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
641 per 1000 population
There are 5 daily newspapers. The leading newspaper, in terms of both circulation and influence, is the Luxemburger Wort
CRIME
†
No death penalty
.
Down 7% in 2000–2002
Location for some EU institutions. Banking secrecy and expertise make the capital home to around 1000 investment funds and over 200 banks – more than in any other city in the world.
Luxembourg’s banking secrecy rules have provoked international criticism, as they can provide a cover for both tax evasion and fraud. Violent crime remains uncommon.
WEAKNESSES
EDUCATION
EXPORTS
Italy 6%
UK 9%
Other 30% Belgium 11%
Germany 24%
France 20%
Netherlands 5% France 13%
Belgium 30% Germany 23% Other 25%
†
99%
School leaving age: 15
2533 students
Teaching is mainly in German at primary and French at secondary level. Higher education is limited and many students go to universities in other European countries. Training given by Luxembourg banks is reputed to be the best in Europe.
HEALTH
IMPORTS
USA 4%
L
Education 4.1% Health 5.4%
Broadcasting is dominated by RTL (Radio–Television Luxembourg), one of the largest media groups in Europe, which exports its programs in a variety of languages.
380 prisoners
International service industries account for 65% of GDP, making Luxembourg vulnerable to changing conditions overseas. Downturn in steel market.
797 per 1000 population
Defense 0.9% 11 independent services
0.822 euros (0.871)
STRENGTHS
GDP/cap. increase
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
2 independent services
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................73rd GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$39,470 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$1.64bn INFLATION .........................................2.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
†
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 325 per 1000 people
Inflation 2.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
ENVIRONMENT
CHRONOLOGY
1 per 400 people
†
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases, accidents
There are no private commercial hospitals in Luxembourg; they are run either by the state or by nuns. Patients’ fees are refunded from the state sickness fund.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
With the world’s second-highest per capita income, Luxembourgers enjoy a comfortable lifestyle. Recent strong economic performance has allowed them to benefit both from lower taxes and increased social security spending. Low unemployment has led to the recruitment of foreign workers, mainly from neighboring countries or from other EU countries such as Portugal and Italy, to take less well-paid jobs. As elsewhere in western Europe, financing care of the aging population is likely to be a burden in the future.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
1
2 $39,470
16 78 years
99%
16
15
5 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
379
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MACEDONIA
Europe
EUROPE Serbia & Montenegro
Bulgaria
A lba
MACEDONIA
nia
Greece OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Macedonia CAPITAL: Skopje POPULATION: 2.02 million CURRENCY: Macedonian denar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Macedonian and Albanian
1991
1991
Aug 2
MK
+1
.mk
+389
T
HE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC of Macedonia (FYRM) is landlocked in southeastern Europe. Despite the signing of an accord in 1995, Greece remains suspicious that it harbors ambitions about absorbing northern Greece – also called Macedonia – into a “Greater Macedonia.” A militant movement among ethnic Albanians erupted into violent conflict in March–September 2001, but a peace agreement was reached after the involvement of a NATO force.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR SKOPJE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Continental
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density medium 79/km2 (204/mi2)
Macedonian, Albanian, Serbo-Croat THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
60% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Roma 3%
Serb 2%
-10/14
Turkish 4%
Other 2%
-20/-4
Albanian 25%
Macedonia has a continental climate. Winter snow supports skiing.
M
TRANSPORTATION Skopje 500,012 passengers
†
Macedonian 64%
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
5558 km (3454 miles)
133 km (83 miles)
699 km (434 miles)
Only lakes navigable
An east–west road and rail route from Tirana in Albania through Macedonia to Sofia in Bulgaria is planned, to reduce reliance on routes through Serbia.
†
TOURISM
Visitors : Population 1:16
/ Up 24% in 2002
123,000 visitors
†
POLITICS
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Assembly 120 seats
6% 1% PDS PDK
Serbia & Montenegro 19% Greece 12% Bulgaria 10%
49% ZMZ
Other 59% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
The major attraction is the ecclesiastical center of Ohrid, situated on Europe’s deepest lake, with Roman and Byzantine ruins. Other lake resorts and skiing in the Sara mountains in the northwest have potential once stability is secured.
380
PfP
EAPC
Joined UN in 1993
OSCE
Macedonia hosted NATO troops in the 1999 Kosovo conflict, placing it firmly in the Western fold. NATO intervened in the 2001 conflict; the EU took charge of the force in 2003, leaving in December.
AID
†
Recipient
/
Up 12% in 2002
The EU, the US, and other Western countries are the main channels for economic development assistance. The EU and the US pledged $515 million for reconstruction in 2002. Regional security fears limit foreign investment.
DEFENSE $96m
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 33% in 2002
The army relies heavily on officer training in NATO countries. A major overhaul has been announced, with the aim being to tackle weaknesses revealed by the 2001 conflict.
Multiparty elections
President Branko Crvenkovski
2002/2006
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
WTO
$277m (receipts)
Slav Macedonians, speaking a language akin to Bulgarian, are in the majority. The Albanian minority, claiming to amount to over one-third of the population, maintains strong links with Albanians in neighboring states. Violent conflict erupted in 2001 as ethnic Albanian insurgents sought greater autonomy and equal rights. Macedonians are mostly Orthodox Christians, but there are a substantial number of Slavic Muslims (Pomaks), whose ancestors converted during the Ottoman occupation. Ethnic Albanians are mostly Muslim.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
40%
0
0/32
A fisherman’s hut on Lake Dojran. The lake lies on the border with Greece in southeastern Macedonia and is shared by the two countries.
13% 2% 1% 28% VMRO–DPMNE BDI PPD SPM
ZMZ = Together for Macedonia, headed by the Social Democratic Alliance of Macedonia (SDSM) VMRO–DPMNE = Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization–Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity BDI = Democratic Union for Integration PDS = Democratic Party of Albanians PPD = Party for Democratic Prosperity PDK = National Democratic Party SPM = Socialist Party of Macedonia
Political parties follow ethnic lines. The Social Democrats and the right-wing VMRO–DPMNE are predominantly Slav,
while Albanians vote mainly for the BDI, the PDS, and the smaller PPD. A fragile “national unity” government led by the VMRO–DPMNE signed a peace deal in 2001 to end an armed insurrection by the Albanian rebel National Liberation Army (UCK), ushering in a new constitution and guarantees on minority rights. The “unity” government subsequently fractured. At the 2002 polls the Social Democrat-led ZMZ alliance fell just short of a majority, and formed a coalition with the BDI. Pro-Western prime minister Branko Crvenkovski stepped up to the presidency in 2004, and Interior Minister Hari Kostov was appointed prime minister.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MACEDONIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Inflation 66% p.a. (1990–2001)
ECONOMICS
50.38 Macedonian denari (53.69)
$3.49bn SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................128th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1710 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$325m INFLATION .........................................0.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................32%
1181 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 19,000 b/d
1.2m sheep, 265,000 cattle, 3.35m chickens
Coal, copper, bauxite, iron, antimony, chromium, lead, zinc
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
7% (0.7% partially protected)
Croatia 6% USA 7%
Sustainability rank: 83rd
5.5 tonnes per capita
Industrial pollution affects water quality. The Titov Veles lead and zinc smelter is the worst culprit for toxic waste.
Italy 9%
Germany 20%
Serbia & Montenegro 28%
Electric power 1.5m kW
Minerals remain underexploited. South-facing fertile plains produce early fruit and vegetables for EU markets.
EXPORTS
Other 30%
†
RESOURCES
†
MEDIA
IMPORTS
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 53 per 1000 people
Bulgaria 7%
Serbia & Montenegro 9%
There are 8 daily newspapers, including the partially government-owned Nova Makedonija
Germany 13% Greece 18%
Growth in private sector and foreign investment. Mineral resources.
Newspaper sales have expanded rapidly. In 2001, two independent newspapers “voluntarily” ceased publication.
WEAKNESSES Among poorest of former Yugoslav republics. Trade hit in mid-1990s by sanctions on Yugoslavia and Greek embargo. Dependence on oil, gas, and machinery imports. Investors wary of ethnic unrest. High unemployment.
500m/1640ft
over 100 000
50m/164ft
E N T M O VIA) A L
over 50 000
GO
in
Pâ
SKOPJE
A
Sveti Nikole
Mavrovsko Ezero
B
Gradsko
dar
Kiâevo
E
100th
60
62
en
73 years 150th
Gevgelija
100 $1710
80 94%
84 22 deaths
PL
AN
IN
C
A
Bitola
Ba
E
b
a
193rd
N
E
C r na
A
I Lake Prespa
r a ªd
Strumica
rek a
SK
N
Ohrid Lake Resen Ohrid
Og a
L. Dojran
Prilep
Struga
50th
Kavadarci
a B u# e v a P lanin Kru#evo
N
ni Cr D r i m
A
AK
Berovo
Str u
Negotino
Incomes have fallen by more than twothirds since 1990, though smuggling and organized crime have made a few people conspicuously wealthy.
Position in World
P laâ kovic a
ic m
V ar
Debar
25
1st
Radovi#
Titov Veles
20
A
L
Gostivar
PL
c lni ega Br
‹tip
15
WORLD RANKING
I
Korab 2753m
10
R
G O VSKI PLANI NI OSO Kamenica Kratovo Zletovo Probi#tip Delâevo Koâani Vinica a
Tetovo
ja
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
A
Titov Vrh 2747m
Health 5.8% 0
Kumanovo
r a
271 per 1000 population
Education 3.7%
45,624 students
Kriva Palanka
GDP/cap. decrease
Defense 2.7%
U
S
†
146 per 1000 population
School leaving age: 14
G
‹
a
( YU
In theory, the state guarantees universal health care, but effective and speedy treatment is increasingly only available in the private sector.
L
E
S
&
Pulmonary, cerebrovascular, and heart diseases, cancers
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
A new university at Tetovo, teaching in Albanian as well as Macedonian, became a state institution O R G N E B in 2004.
1000m/3281ft
under 10 000
†
EDUCATION 94%
over 500 000
Down 18% in 1999–2002
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 455 people
Cigarette smuggling is dominated by criminal gangs also involved in the illegal arms trade and heroin trafficking.
2000m/6562ft
I A R B
.
†
HEALTH
SPENDING
No death penalty
1248 prisoners
LAND HEIGHT
over 10 000
†
CRIME
FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
POPULATION
1944 Yugoslav leader Tito establishes Macedonian republic. 1989–1990 Multiparty elections. 1991 Independence declared. 1998–1999 Right-wing VMRO– DPMNE coalition wins elections. 1999 Upheaval over Kosovo conflict. 2001 Conflict with ethnic Albanian militants. NATO intervenes. New, more egalitarian constitution. 2002 Left-of-center ZMZ alliance wins elections. 2004 Prime Minister Branko Crvenkovski elected president.
1 state-owned service, some independent stations
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
STRENGTHS
Total Area : 25 333 sq. km (9781 sq. miles)
The end of Ottoman rule saw historic Macedonia divided between Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece in 1912– 1913. Modern Macedonia was incorporated into Serbia.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Slovenia 8%
Other 45%
CHRONOLOGY
E
0 0
25 km 25 miles
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
R
A
G
381
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MADAGASCAR
Moza mb i
q
INDIAN OCEAN
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Madagascar CAPITAL: Antananarivo POPULATION: 17.4 million CURRENCY: Ariary OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French and Malagasy June 26
RM
+3
L
YING IN THE INDIAN Ocean, Madagascar is the world’s fourth-largest island. Its isolation means that there is a host of unique wildlife and plants. To the east, the large central plateau drops precipitously through forested cliffs to the coast; in the west, gentler gradients give way to fertile plains. After 18 years of radical socialism, it became a multiparty democracy in 1993. Internal conflict over disputed elections in 2002 seriously damaged the economy.
†
PEOPLE
Senate 90 seats
Antananarivo 561,320 passengers
†
Drive on right
103 ships 34,800 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 5979 km (3715 miles)
None
883 km (549 miles)
600 km (373 miles)
200 km
Réunion 5% 0
200 miles
Mauritius 5% Other 38% 10
POPULATION 20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
A
Morondava
Morombe
Manombo Atsimo Toliara
Tsiroanomandidy
Fenoarivo Atsinanana
Ambatondrazaka
Ambohidratrimo
Toamasina
ANTANANARIVO Moramanga
jilo Maha Tangorombohitr' Ankaratra Antsirabe M Fandriana a nia
Mahanoro
r' hit Itremo bo om ay Matsiatra or ak M i Fianarantsoa oky M an g M
Mananjary
Ambalavao Manakara
Ihosy
Ta
Farafangana
O n ilah y
Ivakoany Vangaindrano Manam by
ni ba Ri
Amboasary
382
Nosy Sainte Marie Farihy Alaotra
Ambositra
n' ba y lem l ba afa L e mM ah
Extensive tropical beaches and unique flora and fauna offer great tourism potential. Political stability after 1993 led to a marked increase in arrivals which was threatened by the chaos in 2002.
LAND HEIGHT
N
0
na m b
E
France 52%
B
Ta ng
N
Ma
Belo Tsiribihina
mba aja ah
Total Area : 587 040 sq. km (226 656 sq. miles)
Helodrano Antongila
Analamaitso
ka ibo ets
MADAGASCAR
Down 64% in 2002
Kôsin' i Kelifely
Man
Maintirano
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
M
Besalampy
Maroantsetra
Marovoay
Ikopa
.
61,674 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:282
Lembalemba Ambanin' Androna
Sofia
Mahajanga
o bah am
†
TOURISM
Madagascans are largely Malay– Indonesian in origin. Their ancestors migrated across the Indian Ocean from the 1st century CE. Later migrants from the African mainland intermixed. Arab traders added another ingredient to the racial blend. The main ethnic division is between the central plateau and côtier peoples. Of more pronounced Malay extraction, the plateau Merina were Madagascar’s historic rulers. They remain the social elite – to the resentment of the poorer côtiers, who were championed by former president Ratsiraka. The extended family remains the focus of social life for the rural majority.
M ahavavy
An extensive domestic air network – due for privatization – compensates for a very limited rail network and roads that are impassable during the rains.
Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 41%
C h a n n e l
TRANSPORTATION
Traditional beliefs 52%
M o z a m b i q u e
M
Tropical Madagascar often has cyclones. The coastal lowlands are humid, while the central plateau is cooler.
Tôlaùaro (Fort Dauphin)
I
D N
N
-20/-4
A
Muslim 7%
-10/14
From 1975 until 2002 politics was dominated by radical socialist Didier Ratsiraka. He refused to accept the election victory of business tycoon Marc Ravalomanana in 2001 and the resulting power struggle violently divided the island. Eventually support for Ravalomanana proved overwhelming and he was internationally recognized as president in June 2002. His TIM party decisively won legislative elections later that year, but he now faces growing opposition from former paramilitary Antsiraùana supporters. An ineffectual military coup was foiled Nosy Be Ambilobe Andoany in 2003. Ambanja Maromokotro A key issue is 2876m Sambava decentralization Tangorombohitr' i Tsaratanana Andapa Analalava of power. Antsohihy Antalaha
E
69%
C
31% RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
O
10/4
0/32
N
10/50
Two-thirds of Senate members are elected by regional governments; the remainder are nominated by the president
A
20/8
I
30/12
20/68
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
va
30/86
14% 2% Ind Arema
14% FP
30/km2 (77/mi2)
Malagasy, French
S O N D cm/in 40/16
64% TIM
o i I rom sa bo lo hitr '
A
3% 3% RPSD Others
TIM = I Love Madagascar FP = National Unity Ind = Independents RPSD = Rally for Socialism and Democracy Arema = Association for the rebirth of Madagascar
Pop. density low
Rainfall
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
President Marc Ravalomanana
AT THE LAST ELECTION
o Bongola
WEATHER CHART FOR ANTANANARIVO
Multiparty elections
National Assembly 160 seats
E
Tropical
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2001/2007
ng
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.mg
+261
MADAGASCAR
ol
1960
B
1960
Africa
ue
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MADAGASCAR
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS COMESA
OIF
Joined UN in 1960
COI
IAEA
†
/
Up 2% in 2002
International donors pledged $2.3 billion in July 2002 in a four-year emergency aid package to support the new government and fund reconstruction.
DEFENSE $45m
†
.
Compulsory military service
$3.84bn
†
Inflation 18% p.a. (1990–2001)
9305 ariary (5880 Malagasy francs)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................121st GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$230 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$270m INFLATION .......................................15.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
Oil reserves not yet exploited; refines 6400 b/d
10.5m cattle, 3.8m ducks, 3m geese, 24m chickens
Chromite, graphite, oil, mica, iron, bitumen, gemstones, marble, gas
Electricity is produced by waterpower. There are underexploited mineral reserves and offshore oil and gas. Highquality sapphires were found in 1998.
ENVIRONMENT
/
4% (1% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Even before the return of multiparty democracy in 1993, there was a flourishing opposition press. There are over 80 local radio stations.
CRIME
†
France 39%
USA 20%
Other 26% IMPORTS
South Africa 5%
Bahrain 11% Other 54% France 17%
Private health care was legalized in 1993. State care is free but inadequate. Malaria is at epidemic levels. There are outbreaks of bubonic plague.
EDUCATION
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
4 per 1000 population
4 per 1000 population
Education 2.5% Health 1.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Most of Madagascar’s people are terribly poor, though those who live on the central plateau are richer than the côtier farmers and fishermen.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Crime is rising
Urban crime levels are rising in Madagascar, with theft becoming a particular concern. Police broke up an illegal adoption ring in 2004.
67%
China 6% UAE 7%
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Malaria, enteric and respiratory diseases
Defense 1%
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 privately owned
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 11,111 people
There are 6 daily newspapers, including the Madagascar Tribune and Midi Madagasikara
20,109 prisoners
Japan 5% Germany 6%
TV ownership low
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
EXPORTS
Singapore 4%
0.1 tonnes per capita
1947–1948 French troops kill thousands in nationalist uprisings. 1960 Independence. 1975 Radical socialist Didier Ratsiraka takes power. 1991 Forces Vives (CFV) coalition set up, led by Albert Zafy. Mass strikes. 1992 Civilian rule restored. 1993 Zafy’s CFV defeats Ratsiraka’s coalition in free elections. 1996 Zafy impeached. 1997 Ratsiraka reelected president. 2002 Country divided after opposition leader Marc Ravalomanana claims victory in 2001 presidential election.
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people
Agricultural exports: vanilla, coffee, and cloves. Offshore oil and gas. Prawns. Literate workforce. Chromium. Fabrics.
Disruption caused by instability in 2002. Undercut by cheaper vanilla exporters. Vulnerability to drought and cyclones; storm damage in 2004. Not self-sufficient in rice, the food staple.
†
Sustainability rank: 128th
Madagascar’s environment is a unique resource; 80% of its plant species and many animal species, such as the lemur, are found nowhere else. Aid helps to combat deforestation and soil erosion.
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
Electric power 228,000 kW
143,332 tonnes
SCORE CARD
†
Down 4% in 2002
The army was briefly divided during the 2002 turmoil and was implicated in an abortive coup in 2003.
ECONOMICS
Tôlaùaro (also known as Fort Dauphin), a port on the southeast coast. This was the area first settled by the French in the 16th century.
RESOURCES
Recipient
$373m (receipts)
Increasing European contacts after the 16th century culminated in the 1895 French invasion. Madagascar became a French colony and the Merina monarchy was abolished.
AU
Once-close ties with Moscow and North Korea waned as Madagascar cemented relations with its main Western trading partners, especially France and the US. Since 1997 cooperation with the IMF has also improved. In 2003 the AU gave belated recognition to Ravalomanana’s government. Traditional links with francophone Africa remain strong.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
†
School leaving age: 14
1st
50th
100th
150th
31,386 students
148
193rd
Primary education will soon be based on French, not Malagasy. Attendance at secondary level is rising, as is the number of teachers; the government has increased spending in recent years.
177
55 years
$230
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
151 67%
159
150
84 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
383
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
M ALAWI
SOUTHERN AFRICA
1964
1964
July 6
MW
+2
.mw
+265
L
ANDLOCKED IN SOUTHEAST Africa, Malawi lies on the Great Rift Valley and is dominated by Lake Malawi (Nyasa), Africa’s third-largest lake. In the 1980s Malawi hosted large numbers of Mozambican refugees, at some cost to its fragile economy; food shortages are a recurrent and serious threat. Three decades of one-party rule under Hastings Banda followed independence from the UK. Democracy was established in 1994.
†
Tropical wet and dry
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR LILONGWE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density medium 129/km2 (333/mi2)
Chewa, Lomwe, Yao, Ngoni, English THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
15%
85%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
Traditional beliefs 5%
-10/14
Muslim 20%
-20/-4
M
The south is hot and humid. The rest of Malawi is warm and very sunny in the dry season, but cooler in the highlands.
†
TRANSPORTATION Lilongwe International 176,848 passengers
Drive on left
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 5396 km (3353 miles)
None
797 km (495 miles)
144 km (89 miles)
The Kamuzu Highway has been upgraded, and the Nacala Rail Corridor, a vital link to the distant sea, has attracted private investment.
TOURISM 285,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:42
/
Up 25% in 2001–2002
Protestant 55% Roman Catholic 20%
Ethnicity has not been exploited for political ends in Malawi as has been the case in neighboring states. Most Malawians share a common Bantu origin. Of the various groups, the Chewa are dominant in the central region, Nyanja in the south, Tumbuka in the north, the mostly Muslim Yao in the southeast, and the Ngoni, a Zulu offshoot, in the lowlands. Other groups include the Chieoka and Tonga. Northerners felt ignored by Banda and his MCP, but the UDF government has largely succeeded in reducing tensions. The election as president in 1994 of Bakili Muluzi, a member of Malawi’s Muslim minority, arguably signaled the failure of Banda’s plan to enforce Protestant domination in Malawi. Many Muslim Asians work in the retail sector. Society is strongly patriarchal. Women form the majority of farmers.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Zambia 16% Mozambique 12% UK & Ireland 11%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
384
Fruit and vegetable sellers offering their wares on the border with Mozambique. The south of Malawi is intensively cultivated.
b ique
oz M
Multiparty elections
President Bingu wa Mutharika
2004/2009 AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 193 seats
31% MCP
20% Ind
25% UDF
8% 16% RP Others
MCP = Malawi Congress Party UDF = United Democratic Front Ind = Independents RP = Republican Party
For 30 years from independence in 1964 Malawi was ruled by the autocratic Hastings Banda. His singleparty regime outlawed dissent; torture and imprisonment without trial were common. A referendum forced Banda to introduce multiparty politics in 1994, when the mainly southern-based UDF scored a dramatic victory. Its leader Bakili Muluzi won the presidency and shrewdly recruited several prominent MCP politicians to his team. He vowed to restore personal freedoms and to revive and liberalize the shattered economy. Muluzi was narrowly reelected in 1999, but the MCP contested the results, and violence against Muslims and UDF supporters erupted in the north. Muluzi failed to push through changes allowing himself a third term from 2004, but his chosen successor Bingu wa Mutharika won the hotly disputed presidential election. The MCP won the concurrent legislative polls, but independents joined the UDF to give Mutharika a majority.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
COMESA
NAM
AU
Joined UN in 1964
SADC
Relations with potential aid donors are key. The West backs the government’s reformist policies, but accuses it of mismanagement. Malawi also wants to preserve its close ties with South Africa. One in ten Mozambicans fled to Malawi as refugees in the 1980s. A 2002 ban on “foreign” ownership of land concerns investors and the Asian minority.
†
Recipient
$377m (receipts)
% of total arrivals
The national parks and Lake Malawi’s fishing and water sports are the main tourist attractions. The opening of international airports at Blantyre and Lilongwe has increased accessibility.
†
POLITICS
AID
Other 61%
am
MALAWI
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Malawi CAPITAL: Lilongwe POPULATION: 12.1 million CURRENCY: Malawi kwacha OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English
CLIMATE
Africa
Tanzania
Zambia
.
Down 7% in 2002
Nonhumanitarian aid resumed with the advent of democracy. However, the EU, the US, and the UK suspended aid in late 2001 in response to corruption and economic mismanagement. Emergency food aid was granted in May 2002.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
A
NYIKA PLATEAU Chilumba
No change in 2002
ut h
R
uru uk
So
Mzuzu Nkhata Bay
Chizumulu Likoma (to MALAWI)
Lake Nyasa
(L. Malawi)
a Bu
Kasungu
Nkhotakota
A
L i lo
we ng
LILONGWE
Monkey Bay
MALAWI
Y
Ntcheu
Machinga Lake SHIRE Chilwa Zomba Mwanza HIGHLANDS Chiradzulu Blantyre Limbe Sapitwa Chikwawa
1000m/3281ft
EXPORTS
Sea Level
Other 47%
South Africa 11%
USA 17% IMPORTS
India 4% USA 6% Zambia 13%
Nsanje
South Africa 44%
0
/
11% (4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 82nd
GDP/cap. increase
M
Drought, with its devastating effects on agriculture, eclipses all other problems. Ecological husbandry attracts tourism.
†
TV ownership low
7 per 1000 population
Defense 0.7% Education 4.1%
0.1 tonnes per capita
Daily newspaper circulation 3 per 1000 people
†
1 per 1000 population
100 miles
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
RESOURCES
†
SPENDING
100 km
0
Other 29% Electric power 196,000 kW
A cholera epidemic, exacerbated by malnutrition, killed 1000 people in 2002.
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
ENVIRONMENT
MEDIA
Infectious, parasitic, and respiratory diseases, AIDS
1 per 20,000 people
Marka
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
Welfare state health benefits
Chiromo
N
Egypt 6%
Germany 13%
UK 4%
2000m/6562ft
E
LAND HEIGHT
Agriculture vulnerable to drought and price fluctuations: severe famine in 2002. Small domestic market, few skilled workers.
†
3000m
Thyolo Mulanje S hir
under 10 000
Ruo
over 10 000
HEALTH
Liwonde
Balaka
e
WEAKNESSES
Lake Malombe
Primary-level education is widespread, with 69% of boys and 73% of girls attending school regularly.
Lake Chiuta
U
over 100 000
3179 students
Q
Mangochi
E
POPULATION
62%
School leaving age: 14
I
Chiponde
L
B
L
Dedza
Total Area : 118 480 sq. km (45 745 sq. miles)
†
EDUCATION
M
Mchinji
Salima
A
Tobacco. Tea and sugar production. Growing contribution of industry to GDP. Unexploited bauxite, asbestos, and coal reserves. Much tourism potential, especially around Lake Malawi.
Dowa
V
STRENGTHS
Japan 6%
Z
Z
Chintheche
O
A
Mzimba Embangweni Mqocha
M
M
Euthini
Ntchisi
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................144th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$160 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$201m INFLATION .......................................14.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................1%
1964 Independence under Hastings Banda. 1966 One-party state. 1992 Antigovernment riots. Illegal prodemocracy groups unite. 1993 Referendum for multipartyism. 1994 UDF wins multiparty polls. 2002 Severe cholera epidemic, exacerbated by food shortages.
A
B
Rumphi
SCORE CARD
I
Katumbi
T R I F
108.6 Malawi kwacha (89.5)
After strong Scottish missionary activity, Malawi came under British rule as Nyasaland in 1891.
Livingstonia
G R E A T
$1.7bn
†
Inflation 33% p.a. (1990–2001)
CHRONOLOGY
Karonga
Chisenga
In the last days of Banda’s rule, the military lost confidence in the ruling MCP, forcing the pace of democratization. Since then, women have been inducted into the defense force, and Malawian forces have taken part in peacekeeping missions.
ECONOMICS
Z
Chitipa
No compulsory military service
N
,
$12m
N A
†
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MALAWI
A
Songwe
I
DEFENSE
T
Health 2.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The ousted MCP elite grew wealthy, allegedly through embezzlement. However, 80% of Malawians remain mired in poverty, and are forced to survive on less than $2 a day.
WORLD RANKING
There are 3 daily newspapers, the Daily Times, the Nation, and the Malawi News
Position in World 41,187 tonnes 1.7m goats, 750,000 cattle, 15.2m chickens
5 services: 1 state-operated, 4 independent
Not an oil producer Coal, limestone, gemstones, bauxite, graphite, uranium
Hydropower plants on the Shire River account for nearly 85% of generating capacity, but only 3% of total energy use. Most people rely on fuelwood for their energy needs. Malawi now encourages privatization, crop diversification, improved irrigation, and regional economic integration via the SADC to exploit its naturally limited resources. A deep-seam coal mine is currently being worked at Rumphi.
1 state-operated service
1st
50th
Journalists on private newspapers have been threatened and physically attacked. Television was introduced in 1999.
CRIME 8566 prisoners
†
Death penalty in use
/
Crime is rising
Urban crime is on the increase. The proliferation of weapons, particularly guns, is contributing to a rise in cases of armed robbery.
100th
150th
193rd
157 185 $160
62%
189 38 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
165 177 113 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
385
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
MALAYSIA
SOUTHEAST ASIA Thailand Brunei M A L A Y S I A
I n d o n e s i a OFFICIAL NAME: Federation of Malaysia POPULATION: 24.4 million CURRENCY: Ringgit CAPITALS: Kuala Lumpur; Putrajaya (administrative) OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Bahasa Malaysia
1963
1965
Aug 31
MAL
+8
TOURISM
.my
+60
M
ALAYSIA COMPRISES the three territories of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, and Sabah, stretching over 2000 km (1240 miles) from the edge of the Indian Ocean to the northeastern end of the island of Borneo. A central mountain chain separates the coastal lowlands of Peninsular Malaysia; Sarawak and Sabah have swampy coastal plains rising to mountains on the border with Indonesia. Putrajaya, just south of Kuala Lumpur, is a high-tech new development intended as the home of government. The United Malays National Organization (UMNO) has dominated politics since independence.
†
CLIMATE
10.6m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:2.3
.
Down 20% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Singapore 57% Thailand 9% Indonesia 6% China 4% Japan 3% Other 21%
Tropical equatorial
0
10
20
30
50
40
60
% of total arrivals
WEATHER CHART FOR KUALA LUMPUR
Malaysia is southeast Asia’s major tourist destination. Most tourists come for the excellent tropical beaches on the peninsula’s east coast, to hike in the Cameron Highlands region, or to trek in the world’s oldest rainforests in Borneo. There has recently been an increase in the international business convention trade, and hotel capacity has been growing at 10% a year. By 1990, when the government ran the Visit Malaysia Year campaign, tourism had become Malaysia’s thirdbiggest foreign exchange earner. Two other such campaigns were launched in 1994 and 1998. However, the resurgence since 1999 of proIslamic parties, which favor stricter dress codes for women and a ban on alcohol, has deterred some Western tourists. In 2000 Malaysia backed an integrated tourism package with Thailand, Indonesia, and Singapore to enable tourists to visit the four countries under a common program.
Rainfall
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
Tea plantations and colonial-style houses and gardens make Cameron Highlands, in Peninsular Malaysia, one of Asia’s most popular mountain resorts.
The whole of Malaysia has an equatorial climate: very hot and very humid all year round. While there are two distinct rainy seasons, from March to May and from September to November, it is generally wet throughout the year: almost everywhere experiences some rain on between 150 and 200 days a year. Coastal areas are also subject to monsoon winds, which alternate in direction between the southwest and northeast.
Peringat
an
Butterworth Kulim Bukit Mertajam
Kuala Terengganu
ah
an
Chukai
7296 km (4534 miles)
Total Area : 329 750 sq. km (127 316 sq. miles)
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT
over 500 000
2000m/6562ft
over 100 000
1000m/3281ft
over 50 000
500m/1640ft
over 10 000
200m/656ft
under 10 000
Sea Level Miri
Kuantan
Y
Bentong Mentakap Temerluh
Petaling Jaya
KUALA LUMPUR
E
N
Klang Kajang Kuala Pilah PUTRAJAYA Seremban
Pulau Tioman
Port Dickson
I
Tangkak
Bintulu
Kepulauan Natuna
Pulau Beruit
(INDONESIA)
S O U T H
C H I N A el
at
Ser a
s an
a T eluk D
S E A
E
Bandar Sri Aman
(INDONESIA)
I
N
T
Sibu
tu
Kuching
Kepulauan Tambelan
SARAWAK
D
A
S
R a ja
an ung s un apua en en K v
ng
O
M
Pen u Ho nu
an ng se
A
b em
Mersing
Muar M Keluang Ayer Hitam Kulai Batu Pahat Pontian Kechil Johor Bahru SINGAPORE Sing apore Strait S
N
Melaka
S
L
Kepulauan Anambas (INDONESIA)
Segamat ng
P
Shah Alam
U
386
MALAYSIA
Transportation in Peninsular Malaysia is well developed. A major north–south highway connects the urban centers of the west coast. Roads in Sabah are also good, with an efficient bus network linking the towns. Travel in Sarawak, on the other hand, is hindered by poorly maintained roads and a lack of public transportation. East Malaysia is most effectively traversed by air.
g
A
Raub
e ro
L
M A LP A Y S I A
1636 km (1017 miles)
Dul it
A
Kuala Dungun
Cameron Highlands
Ipoh Batu Gajah Kampar Teluk Intan
1192 km (741 miles)
r an
Kuala Kangsar
P E N I N S U L A R
r
M
Tasek Kenyir
Sungai Siput
Taiping
55,933 km (34,755 miles)
n ja
Perai
915 ships 5.39m grt
Ba
Pulau Pinang
George Town
Kota Bharu
Kelant
Sungai Petani
Drive on left
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
D
Tumpat Pasir Mas
Alor Setar
Kuala Lumpur International, Sepang 17.5m passengers
†
Ka
pu
Bo P
Pulau Langkawi
TRANSPORTATION
S
T H A I L A Kangar N
ua
M
N
an
M o u ntains
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MALAYSIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 74/km2 (192/mi2)
Bahasa Malaysia, Malay, Chinese, Tamil, English
Traditional beliefs 2%
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
59%
The key distinction in Malaysian society is between the indigenous Malays, termed the Bumiputras (“sons of the soil”), and the Chinese. The Malays form the largest group, accounting for just under half of the population. However, the Chinese have traditionally controlled most business activity. The New Economic Policy (NEP), introduced in the 1970s, was designed to address this imbalance by offering positive opportunities to the Malays through the education system and by making jobs available to them in both the state
†
AT THE LAST ELECTION
5% 1% DAP PKR
House of Representatives 219 seats
3% 1% PAS Ind
90% BN
BN = National Front (dominated by the United Malays National Organization – UMNO) DAP = Democratic Action Party PAS = Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party PKR = People's Justice Party (Keadilan) Ind = Independent
Senate 70 seats
The Senate comprises 26 members indirectly elected by the State Legislative Assemblies, and 44 appointed by the head of state
Ba l
abac Strait Kudat
Pulau Banggi
S
U
B
am
L
A
A Sibu tu
SABAH
Banjaran Br assey
Telukan Lahad Datu
S
ar nj a b Ba a m T
EB C E L
A
NU NU NG AN
IR AN
B o r n e o 0 0
PE
Buddhist 19%
60–79
Other 5%
Chinese 29%
and private sectors. There are estimated to be more than one million Indonesian and Filipino immigrants in Malaysia, a dearth of employment in their own countries complementing Malaysia’s
9.4%
20–39
15.8%
16%
0–19
22.1%
% of population by age group
Indian 6% Indigenous tribes 12%
Malay 48%
2.9%
40–59
21.1%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Male 0.3%
80+
3.2%
demand for labor. In addition, nearly 255,000 Vietnamese refugees were offered temporary refuge in Malaysia between 1975 and 1997; most have now been resettled in third countries, but several thousand remain. Gender discrimination was only outlawed in 2001. Muslim women are encouraged to wear a veil.
Supreme power rests in theory with the monarch, acting on the advice of parliament. In practice, the prime minister wields executive authority. Opposition parties, while legal, are under tight control.
PROFILE Malaysia has been dominated by UMNO, part of the ruling BN coalition, since Malay independence in 1957. It controls a huge network of patronage. In 2002, Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamed tearfully announced that he would retire in 2003, after 22 years at the helm. He had appeared unassailable, though his authority had been shaken by the economic crisis of 1997–1998 and dissent within the ruling coalition. He was succeeded by his deputy Abdullah Badawi. The 2004 election was seen as a referendum on Badawi’s rule: the BN won a landslide victory, with the Islamic PAS dropping to third place.
Malay dominance of government Mahathir’s administration moved to end positive discrimination in favor of Malays, but the Chinese community accuses the government of corruption and uncompetitive practices, declaring
that Malays are still favored for government contracts. The Chinese are further alienated by the more restrictive nature of Islamic society. The prosecution of Anwar Ibrahim In 1998, Anwar Ibrahim, deputy prime minister and once Mahathir’s chosen successor, was dismissed after calling for political reform. Convicted in 1999 of corruption, his sentence was extended after his conviction for sodomy. The initial verdict sparked riots and gained support for the new opposition Keadilan (Justice) party headed by Anwar’s wife, Wan Azizah. His sodomy conviction was overturned in 2004 and he was released.
E
E
APEC
S
ASEAN
Comm
†
100 km 100 miles
Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi, appointed in 2003.
Mahathir Mohamed, prime minister from 1981 to 2003.
OIC
Recipient
$86m (receipts)
N
G15
Joined UN in 1957
Mahathir styled himself as one of the developing world’s leading voices. He maintained a strongly anti-US line in his public speeches and chastised the West for singling out Islamic countries in its campaign against international terrorism. Mahathir’s pro-Malay policies caused tensions with Singapore, exacerbated by the latter’s dependence on Malaysia for water.
AID
A
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Tawau
A
I
0.3%
8.9%
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES E
n
A
O N
Y
I
bo
J
S
A
S
Kinabat a n ga
Ba
A
N
R
i itt
U
Sandakan
La
E
R
Gunung Kinabalu 4094m Telukan Labuk buk
a o n nj a ra n Pen am
B ar
A
C
Brunei Bay
BRUNEI
Ban
R
Victoria
L
ssage Pa
Pulau Labuan
jar C an W
K
Kota Kinabalu
Age
Female
Multiparty elections
Raja Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin ibni al-Marhum Syed Putra Jamalullail
L. House 2004/2009 U. House Varying
Other 7% Christian 7% Chinese faiths 12%
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 53%
41%
POLITICS
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
/
Up 219% in 2002
Most Western aid to Malaysia was used until recently to finance large infrastructure projects. The economic crisis which affected southeast Asia in 1997–1998 forced Malaysia to seek foreign assistance to support an economic recovery program.
S 387
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY The former British protectorate of Malaya gained independence in 1957. The federation of Malaysia, incorporating Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah, was founded in 1963.
Up 1% in 2002
MALAYSIAN ARMED FORCES 26 light tanks (Scorpion)
80,000 personnel
4 frigates and 41 patrol boats
14,000 personnel
95 combat aircraft (25 Hawk, 15 MiG-29, 9 MB-339, 8 F/A-18D)
10,000 personnel
None
†
ECONOMICS $86.1bn
Malaysia’s armed forces are predominantly composed of Malays. Main defense concerns are Singapore, with its large and highly mechanized army, and more recently, though to a lesser extent, Indonesia. Also important to Malaysia is the growing Chinese influence in the South China Sea. Patrolling east and west Malaysia is a key function of the navy. Malaysia is an important market for international arms suppliers and has purchased equipment from all over the world, including over 200 armored vehicles bought from Turkey in 2000.
Inflation 3.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
3.8 ringgits (3.8)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................40th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3540 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$7.19bn INFLATION .........................................1.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
EXPORTS
China 6%
Hong Kong 6% Japan 11%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
2003
Other 40% Singapore 17% USA 20% IMPORTS
Taiwan 6%
WEAKNESSES High level of debt. Shortage of skilled labor. Corruption. High government budget spending. Rising regional competition. Low foreign investment.
China 8% Singapore 12%
Other 40% USA 16% Japan 18%
STRENGTHS Electronics, computer hardware, and electrical appliances. Tourism. Heavy industries such as steel. Palm oil. Latex, rubber, chemical products. Success of “national car,” the Proton. Ringgit pegged to US dollar. MALAYSIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Perai
PROFILE From 1987, for almost a decade, Malaysia expanded faster than any other southeast Asian nation, at an average yearly rate of 8%, with much of the growth state-directed. However, plans for full industrialization, named “Vision 2020,” were revised after the 1997 financial crisis. The construction of Putrajaya provided a renewed stimulus to growth at the end of the 1990s. A project for a Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), located south of Kuala Lumpur, had already attracted over 1000 companies, including 60 multinationals, by mid-2004.
Kuala Terengganu George Town Tanah Rata
Ipoh
Lutong
Maran
Kuala Lumpur
Palm oil Tin mining
Port Dickson
Electronics Oil refining
Melaka Johor Bahru
Petrochemicals Vehicle assembly
0 0
388
/
$3.26bn
No compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1999=100
M
1965 Singapore leaves federation, reducing Malaysian states to 13. 1970 Malay–Chinese ethnic tension forces resignation of Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman. New prime minister, Tun Abdul Razak, creates the BN coalition. 1976 Death of Tun Abdul Razak. 1976–1978 Guerrilla attacks by banned Communist Party of Malaya (CPM), based in southern Thailand. 1977 Unrest in Kelantan following expulsion of its chief minister from PAS. National emergency declared. PAS expelled from BN. 1978 Elections consolidate BN power. PAS marginalized. Government rejects plans for Chinese university. 1978–1989 Unrestricted asylum given to Vietnamese refugees. 1981 Mahathir Mohamed becomes prime minister. 1982 General election returns BN with increased majority. 1985 BN defeated by the Sabah United Party (PBS) in Sabah state elections. 1986 PBS joins BN coalition. Dispute between Mahathir and his deputy, Dakuk Musa, triggers general election, won by BN. 1987 Detention without trial of 106 politicians from all parties suspected of Chinese sympathies. Media censored. 1989 Disaffected UMNO members join PAS. Screening of Vietnamese refugees introduced. CPM signs peace agreement with Malaysian and Thai governments. 1990 General election. BN returned to power with reduced majority. 1993 Sultans lose powers, including legal immunity. 1995 BN wins landslide victory. 1997 Major financial crisis ends decade of spectacular economic growth. 1998–1999 Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim dismissed from office; launches Reformasi (Reform) movement; found guilty of corruption, later convicted of sodomy. His wife, Wan Azizah, forms Keadilan (renamed as PKR). 1999 UMNO loses ground in general election. 2002 Chinese university opened. 2003 Mahathir steps down after 22 years: Abdullah Badawi succeeds. 2004 BN wins landslide victory. Anwar Ibrahim released.
†
DEFENSE
200 km 200 miles
* significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MALAYSIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 13.8m kW
1.39m tonnes
875,000 b/d (reserves 4bn barrels)
13m ducks, 1.7m pigs, 170m chickens
Natural gas, oil, tin, bauxite, copper, iron, coal
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 10% (7bn kWh) Combustion 90% (62bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
†
Sustainability rank: 68th
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (2% partially protected)
Palm oil, of which Malaysia is the world’s largest producer, and petroleum are the key resources. Chemical products from both are now the major resource-based exports. Gas and petroleum PENINSULAR MALAYSIA reserves lie offshore from Sabah and Sarawak. The petroleum is high grade; most is exported, while crude imports are refined. Malaysia has the world’s second-largest proven tin reserves, but
†
CRIME
6.2 tonnes per capita
28,804 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Death penalty in use
/
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Cropland Forest Pigs Rubber Palm oil
per 100,000 population
6
per 100,000 population
581
per 100,000 population
SARAWAK
0
AN M
200 km 200 miles
0
low world prices hold back production. Timber, mostly from Sarawak, accounts for nearly half of world exports.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers
1 per 1474 people
There is growing disparity between the modern facilities available in cities and the traditional medicine practiced in rural and outlying areas. Traditional practices such as acupuncture and herbal medicine continue to be used by the Chinese community.
Murders 2
SABAH
KAP U
Up 21% in 1999–2002
CRIME RATES
Yes
MALAYSIA : LAND USE
TS
†
RESOURCES
Rapes
Thefts
Logging is the overwhelming concern. Some species of tree are near extinction, and indigenous forest communities are being destroyed. The government launched a program in 1997 to plant 20 million trees by 2020. 100,000 were planted simultaneously to draw attention to the scheme in 2000. Periodic forest fires in the region produce dramatic smog clouds covering whole countries. As well as damaging woodland, the smog poses very serious health problems. Traditional lifestyles are threatened by grandiose modernization schemes. The Bakun Dam project, shelved in 1997 due to a lack of investment confidence, was restarted in 2000.
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 112 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 38 daily newspapers. The most influential are the New Straits Times, Utusan Malaysia, and Sin Chew Jit Poh 1 state-controlled network, 3 independent services
1 state-controlled network, 17 independent services
Almost all newspapers, TV stations, and radio broadcasts are strictly controlled by the state and UMNO, which claim a need to protect the country from unIslamic influences. A series of laws passed in the 1980s regulate content. The Internet provides a medium for free reporting. One of the leading websites is Malaysiakini.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Migrants are blamed for rising crime. Those found working illegally can now be imprisoned or whipped. The death sentence for possession of narcotics is mandatory. The Internal Security Act allows arbitrary detention without trial. The police are accused of corruption.
†
EDUCATION 89%
School leaving age: 15
17 per 1000 population
190 per 1000 population
M
Defense 3.6% Education 7.9% Health 2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
549,205 students
The Chinese remain the wealthiest community in Malaysia. Following riots in 1970, however, the UMNO government embarked on a deliberate program of achieving 30% Malay ownership of the corporate sector. The “extremely rich” were barred from government service in 2001 in an effort to stamp out “money politics.”
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
MEDIA
†
SPENDING
80
60
95% 40
70%
WORLD RANKING
20
26% 0
Position in World 1st
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Racial integration in multiethnic schools is encouraged, but teaching is to remain in separate languages. At tertiary level a quota system gives Malays preference for places. The Chinese community has its own schools, and much-delayed plans for a private Chinese university were finally realized in 2002. Many students, particularly the Chinese, complete their studies in the UK or the US. Since 2002, university students and staff have had to swear allegiance to the state.
50th
38 100th
67 $3540
8 deaths
62
59
73 years
101
150th
89%
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
389
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MALDIVES
INDIAN OCEAN Asia
In d i a
MALDIVES
Sri Lanka
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Maldives CAPITAL: Male’ POPULATION: 318,000 CURRENCY: Rufiyaa OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Dhivehi 1965
1965
July 26
MV
+5
.mv
+960
A
N ISLAMIC SULTANATE until 1968, the Maldives is an archipelago of 1190 small coral islands or atolls (a word derived from the local Dhivehi language), set in the Indian Ocean southwest of India. The islands, most of which do not rise more than 1.5 m (5 ft) above sea level, are protected by encircling reefs or faros. Only 200 are inhabited. Tourism has grown in recent years, though vacation islands are separate from settled islands.
†
CLIMATE
Male’ International, Hulule Island 1.81m passengers
WEATHER CHART FOR MALE’
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on left
58,100 grt
Traditional Maldivian trading yacht. The 1190 coral islands are grouped in atolls, a word derived from the Dhivehi “atolu.”
POLITICS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1999/2004
10 km (6 miles)
None
†
Nonparty elections
President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
AT THE LAST ELECTION
People's Assembly 50 seats None
None
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
Tropical oceanic
-10/14 -20/-4
M
TOURISM 563,593 visitors
Germany 13% Other 46% 0
10
20
40
30
A N
MALE’
Felidhu Atoll
PEOPLE
†
1060/km2 (2741/mi2)
Dhivehi (Maldivian), Sinhala, Tamil, Arabic THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
over 10 000 under 10 000
E LAND HEIGHT
nel
N
South Huvadhu Atoll
el
390
Addu Atoll Gan
N
Sunni Muslim 100%
Equator
Fuammulah 2.4m
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Sea Level
North Huvadhu Atoll
ann Equatorial Ch
28%
100m/328ft
A
Chan O n e and Half Degree
60
0 0
100 km 100 miles
There are no political parties. 42 members of the Majlis (Assembly) are elected, and eight appointed by the president
Politics is the preserve of a small group of families. Most were already dominant under the sultanate. Formal parties with ideological objectives are virtually nonexistent, politics being organized around family and clan loyalties. Former president Ibrahim Nasir abolished the premiership in 1975 and strengthened the presidency. Maumoon Abdul Gayoom has been president since 1978. His brother-in-law, Ilyas Ibrahim, is regarded as his main rival. A young Westernized elite has increased the pressure for political reform. Under a constitution effective since 1998, rival candidates may seek to be parliament’s presidential nominee, though only one name goes forward to a referendum. A further constitutional review began in 2004, but a state of emergency was imposed following a crackdown on prodemocracy protestors.
Pop. density high
POPULATION
C
Kolhumadulu Atoll
MALDIVES Total Area : 300 sq. km (116 sq. miles)
O
Mulaku Atoll
Hadhdhunmathi Atoll
50
% of total arrivals
Tourism is the largest source of foreign exchange, accounting for almost 20% of GDP. The first resort was opened in 1972, and hotels financed by local and foreign capital have since been built on the uninhabited islands. From 2004, more islands are to be developed for tourism.
Ari Atoll
South Nilandhe Atoll
Up 16% in 2003
I
Male’ Atoll
North Nilandhe Atoll
/
Italy 24%
D
Atoll
Visitors : Population 1.8:1
UK 17%
N
South Maalhosmadulu Atoll Horsburgh Atoll Rasdu Atoll
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
I
The Maldives has a tropical climate, with abundant rainfall and high temperatures throughout the year. The northern islands are occasionally affected Eight Degree Cha nne l by violent Ihavandippolhu Atoll storms Thiladhunmathi Atoll caused North by tropical Makunudhoo Miladummadulu Atoll cyclones. Atoll Most rain South Miladummadulu falls in the North Atoll Maalhosmadulu southern Atoll islands. Faadhippolhu
It is possible to walk across Male’ island in 20 minutes. Interisland travel is mostly by ferry and traditional dhoni.
72%
It is believed that the islands were inhabited as early as 1500 BCE. Aryan immigrants arrived around 500 BCE. The islands were then discovered by Arab traders. The people, who are all Sunni Muslims, live on only 200 of the 1190 islands. About 25% of the total population live on the island capital of Male’. It is estimated that 12,000 guest workers from neighboring Sri Lanka and India work in the Maldives. The country’s newfound prosperity has seen the emergence of a commercial elite.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MALDIVES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
NAM
Joined UN in 1965
SAARC
OIC
WTO
The Maldives is a long-standing member of the Non-Aligned Movement. A strong Islamic lobby close to President Gayoom
†
AID
Recipient
$27m (receipts)
/
Up 8% in 2002
Aid has helped to finance the development of port and airport facilities. Japan is the most important
DEFENSE
†
/
$36m
No compulsory military service
Up 6% in 2002
Security is provided by the small National Security Service, created in 1970 from an elite royal militia. It is armed with mostly US weaponry. The Maldives has relied on Indian military assistance in times of political strife, most recently during a coup in 1988.
ECONOMICS $622m
†
Inflation 1.8% p.a. (1990–2000)
12.8 rufiyaa (12.8)
bilateral aid donor. The Maldives is classed by the UN as a Least Developed Country, granting it access to special financial programs, though it is preparing to graduate from this listing.
†
RESOURCES 125,814 tonnes
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................165th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2170 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$44m INFLATION .........................................0.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
STRENGTHS Boom in tourism. Thriving fishing industry, especially tuna. Shipping. Clothing. Coconut production. Economic reforms since 1989 have eased import restrictions and encouraged foreign investment.
WEAKNESSES Too dependent on fluctuating tourist industry. Growing trade deficit. Skilled labor shortage. Small manufacturing base. Cottage industries employ 25% of workforce; little scope for expansion.
Electric power 36,000 kW
31,000 cattle, 20,000 goats, 11,000 sheep
None
Natural resources include abundant stocks of fish, particularly tuna. Fishing, still carried out by the traditional pole and line method to help conserve stocks, employs over 10% of the working population. Coconut production is also important. All oil products and virtually all staple foods are imported.
/
None
†
1932 First written constitution. 1968 Sultanate abolished. Declared a republic. Ibrahim Nasir elected as first president. 1978 Gayoom becomes president. 1994 Nonparty legislative elections. 1998 New constitution. 2003 Gayoom wins sixth term.
†
97%
School leaving age: 12
Not available
Primary education has been improved. Secondary education is less developed in the outer islands; the first school outside Male’ was opened in 1992.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Infectious and parasitic diseases, tuberculosis, perinatal deaths
1 per 1049 people
There is a lack of general equipment and facilities. Health care is less developed on the outlying islands.
1.7 tonnes per capita
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 20 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 3 daily newspapers, including Haveeru Daily and Aafathis Daily News, published in Dhivehi and English
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
6 per 1000 population
102 per 1000 population
Defense 6.2% Education 3.9% Health 5.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Great disparities of wealth exist between the people who live in Male’ and those who live on the more distant outer islands.
WORLD RANKING
2 state-owned services
1 state-owned service
†
EDUCATION
Not available
Rising sea levels due to global warming and climate change threaten the islands, which have an average height of just 1.5 m (5 ft). A sea wall has been built around the capital island. Other environmental concerns are sewerage, waste disposal, and the mining of coral for building.
MEDIA
The Maldives was a British protectorate from 1887 and gained its independence in 1965.
Not an oil producer
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
CHRONOLOGY
favors closer ties with other Muslim countries, particularly in the Middle East. The Maldives’ international standing was enhanced in 1990, when it hosted the fifth SAARC summit meeting, held in Male’.
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
UK 5%
Japan 8% Thailand 9% Other 13%
There is a marked degree of press selfcensorship; in the past, journalists have been imprisoned. An Internet café opened in Male’ in 1998.
USA 52% Sri Lanka 13%
CRIME
IMPORTS
Other 32%
Malaysia 6% India 7% Sri Lanka 13%
UAE 15% Singapore 27%
6 prisoners
†
Death penalty not used in practice
/
50th
100th
$2170 150th
Up 34% in 1997
The Maldives is a strict Islamic society. Narcotics crimes are heavily punished. Political prisoners are banished to outer islands. The country was dropped from the OECD’s tax haven list in 2002.
62 97%
82
84
101 69 years
193rd
134 58 deaths
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
391
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MALI
WEST AFRICA
1960
Sept 22
RMM
0
ALI IS LANDLOCKED in the heart of west Africa. Its mostly flat terrain comprises virtually uninhabited Saharan plains in the north and more fertile savanna land in the south, where most of the population live. The Niger River irrigates the central and southwestern regions. Mali achieved independence from France in 1960. Multiparty democratic elections under a new constitution, in 1992 and then in 1997, provoked accusations of severe irregularities.
WEATHER CHART FOR BAMAKO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Hot desert/steppe
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
AT THE LAST ELECTION National Assembly 147 seats
68% Christian 1%
Other 1%
-10/14
Traditional beliefs 18%
-20/-4
In the south, intensely hot, dry weather precedes the westerly rains. Mali’s northern half is almost rainless.
TRANSPORTATION Bamako 423,460 passengers
†
Drive on right
Has no fleet
None
733 km (455 miles)
1815 km (1128 miles)
I
1812 km (1126 miles)
A
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 80%
Mali’s most significant ethnic group, the Bambara, is also politically dominant. The Bambara speak the lingua franca of the Niger River; other groups using it include the Malinke. The relationship between the Bambara–Malinke majority and the Tuareg nomads of the Saharan north is tense and sometimes violent. The extended family is a vital social security system and link between S the urban and rural poor. Though there are a few powerful women in Mali, in general women have little status.
A
France 23%
U
A
M
60
R L. Débo
I
in g
0
N
N
A
200 miles
IVORY COAST (CÔTE D’IVOIRE)
I
MALI Total Area : 1 240 000 sq. km (478 764 sq. miles)
POPULATION
R
E
U
I N
200 km
a
lé gou
0
Sélingué
B
G
B
392
N
A
Tourism is largely safari-oriented, though the historic cities of Djénné, Gao, and Mopti, lying on the banks of the Niger River, also attract visitors. A national domestic airline began operating in 1990.
Ménaka
Hombori Tondo 1155m
Mopti
af
% of total arrivals
Gao Ansongo
Sévaré Ténenkou Kamara Diéma Bandiagara Niono Kayes Ba Diafarabé Banamba ko Djenné Ségou y San e Kolokani Mahina Ba n i Toukoto Kita L. de Koulikoro Kati Manantali Koutiala Yorosso BAMAKO Dioïlo B Mahou Ouéléssébougou Bougouni Sikasso L. de U
AL
50
A
er
L. Niangay
K
Other 57%
Nig
Tombouctou Goundam
Fa l é m
S ENEG
Belgium & Luxembourg 9%
40
Adrar des Ifôghas
L. Faguibine
Se Nioro ne ga Diangountél
Italy 11%
30
I
Tessalit
Araouane
T
Up 8% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
20
R
A
R
A
H
A
I
/
96,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:135
R
†
TOURISM
N
Mali is linked by rail with the port of Dakar in Senegal, and by good roads to the port of Abidjan in Ivory Coast.
7% 4% ACC Ind
The successful transition to multiparty politics in 1992 followed the overthrow the previous year of Moussa Traoré, Mali’s dictator for 23 years. The army’s role was crucial in leading the coup, while Col. Amadou Toumani Touré, who acted as interim president, was responsible for the swift return to civilian rule in less than a year. For a decade the ADEMA government of President Alpha Oumar Konaré attempted to alleviate poverty while placating the opposition. However, its economic austerity measures eventually proved unpopular, and Touré was returned to power in the 2002 presidential elections. He was supported by all the main opposition parties, and in the legislative polls ADEMA saw its majority A disappear. Maintaining good L relations with the G Tuareg remains Taoudenni a key issue. E
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
35% ARD
Espoir 2002 = Hope 2002 (led by the Rally for Mali – RPM) ARD = Alliance for the Republic and Democracy (led by the Alliance for Democracy in Mali – ADEMA) ACC = Convergence for Rotation and Change Ind = Independents SADI = Party for African Solidarity, Democracy, and Integration
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 0/32
5% 4% Vacant SADI
45% Espoir 2002
11/km2 (28/mi2)
32%
President Amadou Toumani Touré
2002/2007
Pop. density low
Bambara, Fulani, Senufo, Soninke, French
Multiparty elections
E
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
.ml
+223
M
10
Niger
Burkina Guinea
G
1960
0
MALI
Senegal
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Mali CAPITAL: Bamako POPULATION: 13 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French
M
Africa
Algeria Mauritania
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft
over100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000
200m/656ft over 100m/328ft
under 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MALI
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1960
WORLD AFFAIRS ECOWAS
FZ
OIC
AU
†
/
DEFENSE
†
/
$68m
Compulsory military service
Up 10% in 2002
Mali’s 7350-strong armed forces have stayed out of politics since the overthrow of President Traoré in 1991.
ECONOMICS
†
Inflation 6.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................134th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$240 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$310m INFLATION ............................................5% UNEMPLOYMENT ...................................15%
Producer of high-quality cotton. Irrigation potential from the Niger and Senegal Rivers. Expansion of gold production. Tourism.
Gold, salt, marble, phosphates, tungsten, diamonds, oil
Gold deposits are now being mined, and prospecting is under way for tungsten, diamonds, and oil. Exploitation of natural resources is hampered by Mali’s poor infrastructure and landlocked situation. Electric power comes from the Selingue Dam on the Niger and the Manantali Dam on the Senegal. The latter produced its first electricity in 2001 – 13 years after it was completed.
/
†
0.1 tonnes per capita
Frequent droughts destroy herds and accelerate desertification. Tree-felling was banned in 2004 in an attempt to slow deforestation. The Selingue Dam seriously affects the level of the Niger.
†
Serious poverty and underdevelopment. Overdependence on cotton: falling world prices. Communications difficulties of vast landlocked country. Drought-prone climate. EXPORTS
Germany 5% India 8% Italy 10%
Other 58% Thailand 14%
Germany 4% Senegal 6% France 13%
Ivory Coast 17%
26%
37,635 students
Just over half of children go to primary school and only 15% to secondary school. A ten-year program to raise education levels for girls was launched in 2001.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, pneumonia, parasitic and diarrheal diseases
1 per 10,000 people
The government committed itself in late 2003 to tackling the widespread practice of female genital mutilation.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
2 per 1000 population
5 per 1000 population
Defense 2.3% Education 2.8% Health 1.7%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
1 state-owned service, about 100 private stations
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
Even before the 1991 coup, previously rigid controls were being relaxed. The 1992 constitution guarantees the freedom of the press, and Mali’s broadcast and print media are now among the freest in Africa.
†
School leaving age: 15
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 1 per 1000 people
CRIME
†
EDUCATION
0
4040 prisoners
IMPORTS
1960 Independence. 1968 Coup by Gen. Moussa Traoré. 1990 Prodemocracy demonstrations. 1991 Traoré arrested. 1992 Free multiparty elections. 1997 President Konaré and ADEMA party reelected in disputed polls. 2002 Elections: Col. Touré president; ADEMA loses majority.
Sustainability rank: 85th
There are 5 daily newspapers, including the progovernment L’Essor – La Voix du Peuple
WEAKNESSES
Other 58%
11.5m goats, 7.97m sheep, 7.31m cattle, 29m chickens
MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Belgium 2%
Oil reserves not yet exploited
ENVIRONMENT
Electric power 114,000 kW
100,035 tonnes
4% (3% partially protected)
SCORE CARD
Spain 5%
†
RESOURCES Up 33% in 2002
Mali is highly dependent on foreign aid, which principally comes from the World Bank, France, the US, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, and the EU.
Village near Bandiagara. The low, broken hills typical of the east and southeast of Mali are the homeland of the Dogon people.
Recipient
$472m (receipts)
$2.72bn
Mali was a major trans-Saharan trading empire. The French colonized the area between 1881 and 1895.
OIF
Apart from a brief war with Burkina in 1985, Mali has been on relatively peaceful terms with its neighbors. It concentrates on maintaining good relations with ECOWAS and northern neighbors such as Algeria. Relations with Libya, which is suspected of fomenting Tuareg revolt, are tense.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Crime is rising slowly
Crime is not particularly prevalent compared with some other countries in the region, owing at least in part to the relative lack of urbanization. In towns, robbery, juvenile delinquency, and smuggling are problems.
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Poverty is widespread, and wealth is limited to a very small group. Malians disapprove of flaunted wealth and public ostentation is rare.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
175 $240
185
190
41 years
26%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
183
174
122 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
393
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MALTA
Europe
EUROPE Italy Greece MALTA Tunisia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Malta CAPITAL: Valletta POPULATION: 394,000 CURRENCY: Maltese lira OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Maltese and English 1964
1964
Sept 21
M
+1
.mt
+356
T
HE MALTESE ISLAND group is strategically located, lying between Europe and north Africa. Controlled throughout its history by successive colonial powers, Malta finally gained independence from the UK in 1964. The islands are mainly low-lying, with rocky coastlines; only Malta, Gozo (Ghawdex), and Kemmuna are inhabited. Tourism is Malta’s chief source of income, with an influx of tourists each year of three times the islands’ population.
CLIMATE
†
TOURISM
Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR VALLETTA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
1.13m visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Visitors : Population 2.9:1
.
Down 1% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
UK 39% Germany 13% Italy 9%
0
0/32
Other 39%
-10/14 0
-20/-4
M
†
20
10
40
30
% of total arrivals
The climate is typical of the southern Mediterranean – with at least six hours of sunshine a day, even in winter.
TRANSPORTATION Luqa International, Valletta 2.67m passengers
†
Drive on left
1350 ships 26.3m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2186 km (1358 miles)
Tourism is vital to the economy and accounts for more than 30% of GDP, even though most visitors are budget vacationers. In addition to beaches and scenery, there are the historical attractions of Mdina and Valletta. Development on the quieter island of Gozo is limited to luxury-grade hotels.
†
PEOPLE
None
Pop. density high 1231/km2 (3177/mi2)
Maltese, English None
None
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
President Edward Fenech Adami
2003/2008 AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 65 seats
46% MLP
54% NP
NP = Nationalist Party MLP = Malta Labour Party
Politics is strongly adversarial and split evenly between the right-wing NP and the left-wing MLP. The latter was in power in the 1970s and most of the 1980s, ensuring state control of industry and pursuing a nonaligned foreign policy. The late 1980s and 1990s saw a switch to the NP. Prime Minister Edward Fenech Adami’s government moved toward ever closer ties with Europe, and favored a free-market approach to the economy. A modernized MLP ended the NP’s nine-year reign in 1996. Under Alfred Sant, it weakened traditional links with the unions and stalled Malta’s EU application. However, the MLP’s small parliamentary majority undermined the government, and the NP won early elections in 1998. Fenech Adami went on to secure Malta’s membership of the EU (from May 2004), and his party was reelected in 2003. He handed over the premiership to Lawrence Gonzi in March 2004, and was elected to the more ceremonial post of president.
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Malta Freeport at Birzebbuga exploits Malta’s strategic shipping location in the Mediterranean. In summer, a five-minute helicopter flight from the international airport links the islands of Malta and Gozo. There is a welldeveloped public transportation system, with ferry and hovercraft services and buses on both islands.
Traditionally painted luzzus in St. Julian’s harbor. The fish caught are now only for domestic and tourist consumption.
394
91%
9%
CE
Comm
EU
NAM
Joined UN in 1964
OSCE
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other and nonreligious 2%
Roman Catholic 98%
Malta’s population has been subject over the centuries to diverse Arab, Sicilian, Norman, Spanish, British, and Italian influences. Today, much of the younger Maltese population goes abroad to find work, especially to the US or Australia; opportunities for them on the islands are few. The Maltese are staunch Roman Catholics, on a percentage basis more so than virtually any other nation. The remainder are mainly Anglicans, who are included within the diocese of Gibraltar. Divorce is not allowed.
Malta has played on its location on the fringe of Europe, with a staunchly nonaligned foreign policy for many years. Ties are traditionally strong with the Arab world and north Africa, and relations with Libya remain good. There are also close commercial links with Russia and China. It is Malta’s relationship with Europe, however, that has dominated recent policy. The country’s formal application for EU membership, made in 1990, was derailed by the anti-EU MLP government in 1996. With the application frozen, Malta was initially denied a place in the “first wave” of potential EU members. However, the return to power of the pro-EU NP in 1998 restarted the bid, and Malta’s accession to the union took place in 2004.
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
M E D
G ÷awdex
I T
(Gozo) Victoria
fa ar M
MALTA
a e÷ lli
Wa
200m/656ft
under 10 000
0
N C
rd
e dg Ri
†
ija
Ri
d
Di ng li C
$25m
†
,
No compulsory military service
No change in 2002
The Maltese army, advised by the Libyans in the 1980s, now receives training and equipment from Italy, Germany, and the UK.
ECONOMICS $3.68bn
†
Inflation 2.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.350 Maltese liri (0.372)
n
e
S
l
E
A
St Julian's Sliema Èzira VALLETTA Grand Harbour Mosta Msida Vittoriosa Birkirkara Æabbar ¬amrun Cospicua Qormi Paola Marsa Mdina Æebbuè Tarxien Æejtun Luqa Sièèiewi Marsaxlokk Biræebbuèa
Ta’Dmejrek 253m
liffs
Marsaxlokk Bay
Æurrieq
†
RESOURCES
1964 Full independence from UK. 1971–1987 Dom Mintoff and MLP government push nonaligned status. 1987–1996 Ruling NP in EU talks. 1998 NP and Prime Minister Edward Fenech Adami reelected after brief MLP interlude. 2004 Lawrence Gonzi takes over as prime minister. Malta joins EU.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................124th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$9260 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$180m INFLATION .........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
STRENGTHS Tourism and naval dockyards. Schemes to attract foreign high-tech industry. Malta Freeport container distribution center. Offshore banking. Strategic position between Europe and Africa, on main Mediterranean shipping lines.
93%
Reserves under exploration
73,067 pigs, 17,940 cattle, 958,000 chickens
Stone, sand, oil
Malta is dependent on desalination plants for most of its water supply. All oil has to be imported, mostly from Libya. However, there are petroleum reserves currently under exploration in Maltese waters.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
Not available
7.1 tonnes per capita
The main environmental concern is linked to the tourist industry. A lack of planning controls in the 1970s was responsible for unsightly beach developments. These are now tightly controlled, particularly on Gozo.
MEDIA
†
†
EDUCATION Electric power 570,000 kW
2117 tonnes
0.6% partially protected
SCORE CARD
n
Malta has been dominated by a host of rulers: Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Norman Sicily, Spain, France, and, finally, the UK.
N
Up 450% in 2002
Prior to EU accession, Malta received assistance under a special agreement. Italy was its main source of bilateral aid.
DEFENSE
a
N
San Pawl il Ba÷ ar
ge
Dingli
Recipient
/
A
Malta
Sea Level
$11m (receipts)
h
5 miles
Bugibba
Rabat
AID
E
CHRONOLOGY
5 km
0
Bay
M e
LAND HEIGHT
over 10 000
R
Ri
Mellie÷a
Total Area : 316 sq. km (122 sq. miles)
POPULATION
E
R dex A aw M G÷ a ta’ l t u Kemmuna ieg l a F alta Ila’ M Kemmunett ut g e Fli e Mellie÷a Ildg
Xag÷ra Nadur
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MALTA
School leaving age: 16
7422 students
One-third of pupils attend non-state schools, including heavily subsidized church-run institutions. There is a state university in Valletta.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers, cerebrovascular and pulmonary diseases
1 per 345 people
Malta has five state-run and a couple of private hospitals. Diabetes is prevalent, as on other Mediterranean islands.
†
SPENDING
M GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
496 per 1000 population
529 per 1000 population
Defense 0.7% Education 4.9%
TV ownership high
Health 6% 0
Daily newspaper circulation 126 per 1000 people
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 4 daily newspapers, In-Nazzjon, L-Orizzont, The Times, and The Malta Independent
Remittances from Maltese working abroad are an important source of income for many island families.
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
WORLD RANKING
WEAKNESSES Cut-rate competition from Africa and Asia in traditional textile industry. Almost all material needs imported.
12 services: 1 state-owned, 11 independent
EXPORTS
France 7% UK 9% Other 47%
Germany 9% USA 11%
The Maltese press is largely party politically oriented. Two of the three main press groups are affiliated to the NP or MLP; one is independent.
Singapore 17%
CRIME
IMPORTS
Singapore 5%
UK 7%
283 prisoners
South Korea 11% Other 47% France 12% Italy 18%
†
Position in World 1st
50th
41 100th
16
16
78 years
5 deaths
31
$9260
85 No death penalty
/
Up 89% in 1997–2000
Crime rates are low compared with those on the European mainland. There has been an increase in narcotics transshipment and associated crimes.
93%
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
395
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MARSHALL ISLANDS
PACIFIC OCEAN
Pacific Ocean
Northern Marianas Islands MARSHALL ISLANDS M i cr on es i a
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of the Marshall Islands CAPITAL: Majuro POPULATION: 56,429 CURRENCY: US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and Marshallese 1986
1986
May 1
MH
+12
.mh
+692
T
HE MARSHALL ISLANDS comprises a group of 34 widely scattered atolls in the central Pacific Ocean, formerly under US rule as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. An agreement which granted internal sovereignty in free association with the US became operational in 1986, and the Trust was formally dissolved in 1990. The economy is almost entirely dependent on US aid and rent for the US missile base on Kwajalein Atoll.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR MAJURO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
312/km2 (806/mi2)
Marshallese, English, Japanese, German
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT L. House 2003/2007
66%
Multiparty elections
President Kessai Note
AT THE LAST ELECTION
34%
Parliament 33 seats
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
Ebeye District on Kwajalein Atoll. Population pressures on the island have led to the disappearance of most tree and grass cover.
Pop. density high
Other 3%
-10/14 -20/-4
61% UDP
M
The climate is tropical oceanic with little seasonal variation; temperatures average just under 30˚C (86˚F).
TRANSPORTATION
†
Drive on right
428 ships 14.7m grt
Majuro International THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 65 km (40 miles)
None
None
None
The transportation system is limited, though there is some interisland shipping. State carrier Air Marshalls has experienced economic difficulties.
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:9.4
6000 visitors
/
Up 20% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
USA 34%
39% K
UDP = United Democratic Party K = Pro-Kabua Grouping
Micronesian 97%
Council of Chiefs 12 seats
Of the 34 atolls making up the Marshall Islands, 24 are inhabited. Majuro, the capital and commercial center, is home to almost half of the population, many of whom live in its overcrowded slums. The other main center of population is Ebeye Island in the Kwajalein Atoll, where tensions are high due to poor living conditions. Most of Kwajalein Atoll’s inhabitants were forcibly relocated to Ebeye from 1947 to make way for US missile tests; many still travel daily to work at the base. Life on the outlying islands is still centered on subsistence agriculture and fishing. Society is traditionally matrilineal.
All 12 members are high chiefs
Politics is traditionally dominated by chiefs and groupings of their supporters. Amata Kabua, the islands’ high chief and first president until his death in 1996, was succeeded in early 1997 by his cousin Imata Kabua. The UDP has won elections since 1999, and its presidential candidate, commoner and former parliamentary speaker Kessai Note, was elected in 2000. Just over a year later Imata Kabua instigated an unsuccessful vote of no confidence in Note’s administration – only the second in the islands’ ARSHALL SLANDS Bokak history. The vote was motivated Total Area : 181 sq. km (70 sq. miles) by criticism of the government’s approach to the crucial LAND HEIGHT E A N C O renegotiation of the 100m/328ft F I C I Compact of Free Sea Level Bikar A C P Association with the Rongelap Bikini Rongerik Utirik US. The original treaty, Taka Enewetak Ailinginae which provided most Ailuk Mejit Jemo of the islands’ revenue Wotho Likiep and defense, expired Wotje Kwajalein Ujelang Ujae in 2001; a new Maloelap Erikub Lae 20-year treaty was Lib Aur Namu signed in 2003, and Jabat MAJURO Note was reelected Majuro Atoll Rongrong District the following C Ailinglaplap Arno Aeankan H District Majuro Jarej A January. District I District
M
I
R
A
Japan 15%
T
A
Taiwan 7%
K
R
Other 44%
A
10
20
30
40
50
60
K
A I N C H
I
% of total arrivals
L
0
In the late 1990s major resort complexes were established on Majuro and on Mili Atoll. Attractions include diving, game fishing, and exploring the sites and relics of World War II battles.
0 0
396
N
Arrak District
Woja District 10 km Ajeltake District 10 miles
Dalap District Rairok District
Namorik
Jaluit
Kili
Mili
Narikrik
N 0
200 km
Ebon
0
200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MARSHALL ISLANDS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1991
WORLD AFFAIRS IAEA
PIF
PC
ACP
ADB
The Compact of Free Association has made ties to the US of central importance. From 1986 the US has provided $1 billion for its continuing use of Kwajalein Atoll as a missile testing site and has determined the islands’ foreign and defense policies. A new Compact was signed in 2003. Taiwan has become a source of funding for development, provoking controversy over the issue of diplomatic recognition.
AID
†
Recipient
$62m (receipts)
.
Down 16% in 2002
US is responsible for defense
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
There is no defense force; all defense is provided by the US under the Compact of Free Association. The US does not have offensive weapons sited in the Marshalls, but its navy patrols regularly.
ECONOMICS $126m
†
Not available
37,098 tonnes
Not an oil producer
Not available
Phosphates
There are few known strategic resources. Exploratory tests have revealed some high-grade phosphate deposits, but not in economically viable quantities. Small diesel generators are used for electricity production.
†
ENVIRONMENT
,
None
US aid accounts for 60% of revenue. A trust fund was created under the 2003 Compact to provide aid after 2023.
DEFENSE
†
RESOURCES
Not available
Not available
Between 1946 and 1958, Bikini, Enewetak, and neighboring atolls were rendered uninhabitable by a series of US nuclear military tests. Enewetak residents were allowed to return in 1980, and Rongelap was declared habitable in 2001. A 1999 tribunal adopted stringent standards for further decontamination. The US has now paid out over $101 million to victims of nuclear testing. Nuclear waste imports were banned in 1999. The effects of rising sea levels are a major concern. Erosion affects beaches and soil is being lost and also contaminated by brackish water.
Inflation 5.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
†
MEDIA
Currency is US dollar
TV ownership low
CHRONOLOGY After a period under Spanish rule, the Marshall Islands became a German protectorate in 1885; Japan took possession at the start of World War I. The islands were transferred to US control in 1945. 1946 US nuclear testing begins. 1947 UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands established. 1961 Kwajalein developed as US army missile range. 1979 Constitution approved in referendum. Government set up. 1986 Compact of Free Association with US operational. 1990 Trust terminated by UN. 1997 President Amata Kabua dies: succeeded by his cousin, Imata. 2000 Kessai Note president after opposition election victory. 2003 New Compact agreed.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Respiratory, heart, and diarrheal diseases
1 per 2500 people
There are two oversubscribed hospitals in the urban centers of Majuro and Ebeye. Radiation fallout has left a legacy of cancers and birth defects.
†
SPENDING
M Not available
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
There are no daily newspapers SCORE CARD
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................188th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2380 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .......................$14m INFLATION .........................................1.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................30%
28 per 1000 population
There are no daily newspapers. The one weekly newspaper, the Marshall Islands Journal, is privately owned 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
Defense None
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
Education 16.6% Health 6.3% 0
STRENGTHS US guarantee against economic collapse to preserve strategic influence. Aid from the US. Huge tourism potential.
Radio is the major source of information in the Marshalls. The main TV service is subscription-only. The US personnel stationed on Kwajalein have their own TV and radio stations.
WEAKNESSES High unemployment. Dependence on aid and imports (nine times as large as exports). All fuel imported. Large state sector. Drop in world copra trade. EXPORTS
Other 29%
CRIME
†
23 prisoners
/
91%
5
Hong Kong 2% New Zealand 1%
Australia 2% Japan 5% Other 29%
USA 61%
15
20
25
Wealth disparities are small. Very few citizens can afford luxuries such as air-conditioning and cars.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
†
School leaving age: 14
50th
100th
80 $2380
251 students 150th
IMPORTS
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Crime levels are rising slightly
Crime levels are generally low; however, the rate is up in Ebeye. Outlying islands are crime-free.
EDUCATION USA 71%
No death penalty
77 per 1000 population
Education, compulsory between the ages of six and 14 years, is based on the US model. The number of secondary school graduates exceeds the availability of suitable employment in the Marshall Islands. Many go on to university in the US.
101 69 years
95 91%
129 54 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
397
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MAURITANIA
NORTH AFRICA Western Sahara
MAURITANIA
OFFICIAL NAME: Islamic Republic of Mauritania CAPITAL: Nouakchott POPULATION: 2.9 million CURRENCY: Ouguiya OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1960
1960
Nov 28
RIM
0
L. House 2001/2006 U. House 2004/2006
OCATED IN NORTHWEST AFRICA, Mauritania is a member of both the AU and the Arab League. Formerly a French colony, the country has taken a strongly Arab direction since 1964; today, it is the Maures who control political life and dominate the minority black population. The Sahara extends across two-thirds of Mauritania’s territory; the only productive land is that drained by the Senegal River in the south and southwest.
†
WEATHER CHART FOR NOUAKCHOTT
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
PRDS = Democratic and Social Republican Party AC = Action for Change Rep = Representatives of Mauritanians living abroad Ind = Independents
Senate 56 seats
3/km2 (7/mi2)
60%
The Senate is indirectly elected
40%
Mauritania adopted multiparty democracy in 1991, but elections since then have simply returned to power the incumbent military ruler, President Maaouya ould Sid Ahmed Taya. Amid accusations of electoral fraud, the opposition initially boycotted legislative polls, but increased their representation in 2001; the AC was subsequently banned. Taya’s Islamist opponent in the 2003 presidential poll, Mohamed Khouna ould Haidalla, was arrested in connection with an earlier coup plot and has been imprisoned. The blacks of the south support exiled parties, such as the Senegalbased African Liberation Forces of Mauritania (FLAM).
Sunni Muslim 100%
The dusty Saharan harmattan wind often aggravates the very hot, dry conditions. Some rain falls in the south.
Nouakchott 226,096 passengers
Drive on right
142 ships 47,600 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
717 km (446 miles)
Senegal River is navigable by small craft
A
S
POPULATION over 10 000 under 10 000
40
200m/656ft Sea Level
Tidjikja
C
NOUAKCHOTT Ouâd Nâga Moudjéria Magœa‘ ‘Laìjar Boutilimit Keur Massène
Rosso
Lac Rkîz Aleg
Bogué Bababé Mbagne
S E N E
Guérou
Kaédi
G
Mbout Kankossa
A
L
398
A
Sebkhet Te-n-Dghâmcha
l
200 miles
R
Chingueœœi
ga
0
200 km
A
Oujeft
ne
0
H
Tîchît
Boûmdeïd Tâmchekkeœ ‘Ayoûn el ‘Atroûs Kiffa
Oualâta
I
N
A
Aœâr Et Tîdra
Se
There are few tourists apart from desert safari enthusiasts. The more mountainous areas are especially dramatic, but access is difficult. Nouakchott has some hotels.
ANTI
30
Zouérat
S
Akjoujt
ATL
20
% of total arrivals
Fdérik Kediet ej Jill 915m
L
10
I
Sebkhet Oumm eé Érous Telli
Nouâdhibou
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft
0
R
Sebkhet Iguetti
A
Mauritania does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
E ‘Aïn Ben Tili
M
over 500 000
E
Total Area : 1 030 700 sq. km (397 953 sq. miles)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
G
E
Up 25% in 2000
R A
T
/
MAURITANIA
S
Visitors : Population 1:97
W
30,000 visitors
†
OCEAN
TOURISM
A
Bîr Mogreïn
R
The transportation system is limited and unevenly developed. There are two major roads, but shifting sands mean that they require constant maintenance.
H
L
None
The Maure majority is politically dominant. Ethnic tension centers on its oppression of the black minority, which comprises the Havalin, the Senegalese, and the Peulh, Tukolor, and Wolof groups. The old black bourgeoisie has now been superseded by a Maurish class; tens of thousands of blacks are estimated to be in slavery. The arrival of 200,000 Maures from Senegal in 1989 caused ethnic tension to come to a head: there were attacks on Senegalese in Mauritania and many fled or were deported to refugee camps along the Senegal River. Family solidarity among nomads N is particularly strong.
A
843 km (524 miles)
5% 5% Rep Others
88% PRDS
-20/-4
†
2% Ind
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
TRANSPORTATION
5% 16% AC Others
79% PRDS
-10/14
M
President Maaouya ould Sid Ahmed Taya
AT THE LAST ELECTION
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 0/32
Multiparty elections
National Assembly 81 seats
Pop. density low
Hassaniyah Arabic, Wolof, French
Rainfall A
†
PEOPLE
Hot desert
†
POLITICS
L
CLIMATE
Mali
Senegal
.mr
+222
Africa
Algeria
Néma
Δnωne
Timbédra Amourj Djiguéni Kobenni Bassikounou
Ould Yenjé Sélibabi
M
A
L
I
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MAURITANIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1961
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
AU
CILSS
OIF
†
Recipient
$355m (receipts)
/
$16m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 6% in 2002
The 15,000-strong army is a strain on Mauritania’s budget. Troops are used increasingly in public works projects. France is the main arms supplier.
ECONOMICS $791m
Mauritania’s extreme aridity means that only 1% of the land is arable. Two-thirds of the country are part of the Sahara Desert; sparse vegetation over the rest supports some livestock.
†
Up 32% in 2002
The EU, the World Bank, and Japan are the main donors. Most aid is used for development projects, such as the EUfunded Trans-Mauritanian Highway.
DEFENSE
Once part of the Islamic Almoravid state, Mauritania became a French colony in 1814.
OIC
Mauritania seeks to maintain a balance between sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world, but has had tense relations with all its neighbors. The border with Mali is notorious for smuggling and banditry. Mauritania maintains good relations with Israel and the West.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
†
Inflation 6.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
267.5 ouguiyas (266.7)
RESOURCES 83,596 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited (reserves 65m barrels)
8.7m sheep, 5.5m goats, 1.5m cattle, 4.2m chickens
Iron, gypsum, copper, gold, diamonds, oil, phosphates, silver
Mauritania has the world’s largest gypsum deposits. An upturn in iron ore prices has given new impetus to the industry. A new mine in the western desert will increase gold and silver production. Offshore oil is to come onstream in 2005. The national electricity company put the exploration of alternative energy sources on hold until after its privatization in 2004.
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................159th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$280 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$51m INFLATION .........................................3.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................21%
STRENGTHS Iron from the Cominor mine at Zouérat. Gypsum. Exports of oil, gold, and silver set to increase from 2005. Offshore fishing among the best in west Africa. Significant debt cancellations in 2002.
WEAKNESSES
Electric power 115,000 kW
/
2% (0.2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 126th
1.2 tonnes per capita
The chief environmental problem in Mauritania is that of the encroaching Sahara Desert, a situation worsened by the droughts of 1973 and 1983, which caused widespread loss of grazing land. The consequent exodus of people away from the land and into the towns has raised Nouakchott’s population from 20,000 in 1960 to over 600,000 today.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 0.5 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Poor land. Drought, locust attacks. Fluctuating commodity prices. Very hot, dry desert climate.
†
EDUCATION 41%
School leaving age: 14
9033 students
Though over half the population is still illiterate, primary school enrollment rates have increased from 49% in 1987 to 86% in 2002.
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Diarrheal and respiratory diseases, influenza, tuberculosis
1 per 10,000 people
Historic regional inequalities persist and the best facilities are in the capital. The overall level of care is on a par with neighboring states.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
4 per 1000 population
12 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7% Education 3.6% Health 2.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The small ruling Maurish elite forms the richest sector. Wealthy Maures travel to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, to perform the haj (Muslim pilgrimage).
WORLD RANKING
There is one daily newspaper, Chaab, published by the government
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
Belgium 10%
1 state-owned service
1 state-owned service
Germany 11% Other 39% Spain 12%
France 14%
1960 Independence; one-party state. 1972 Peace with Polisario in war waged over Western Sahara. 1984 Col. Maaouya Taya takes power in bloodless coup. 1992 First multiparty elections. 2003 Apparent coup fails.
Italy 14%
50th
The press is heavily censored, and the broadcast media are state-owned. Chaab, the government newspaper, is also published in French (Horizons).
100th
150th
IMPORTS
Germany 5%
Spain 6% China 7% Belgium 7%
Other 57%
France 18%
CRIME 1354 prisoners
†
Death penalty not used in practice
.
Down 45% in 1997–1999
Smuggling and robbery are rife in border areas. A growing number of children are abandoned in the cities.
193rd
168 $280
152
159 51 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
178 41%
182 120 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
399
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MAURITIUS
INDIAN OCEAN Madagascar MAURITIUS Réunion (Fr.)
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Mauritius CAPITAL: Port Louis POPULATION: 1.2 million CURRENCY: Mauritian rupee OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1968
1968
March 12
MS
+4
HE ISLANDS THAT MAKE UP Mauritius lie in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar. The main island, from which the country takes its name, is of volcanic origin and surrounded by coral reefs. Along with Rodrigues to the east, the country includes the Agalega Islands and the Cargados Carajos Shoals, 500 km (300 miles) to the north. Mauritius has enjoyed considerable economic success following recent industrial diversification and the expansion of tourism.
†
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Mauritius became a republic in 1992. Sir Anerood Jugnauth of the MSM had been prime minister for 13 years before losing elections in 1995 to the PTr. He was returned to power when corruption scandals led to early elections in 2000; under the coalition deal that he made with the MMM, Jugnauth stepped aside in favor of MMM leader Paul Bérenger in October 2003, and was then appointed president.
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
42%
58%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Protestant 2%
Other 3% Muslim 17%
TRANSPORTATION Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam International 1.98m passengers
†
Drive on left
45 ships 62,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 44 km (27 miles)
None
None
Hindu 52% Roman Catholic 26%
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Mauritius is one of the world’s most densely populated countries. Most Mauritians are descended from indentured laborers brought from India. Creoles, the descendants of African slaves, make up a third of the population. There is also a small Chinese minority. Clashes between the main Round Island ethnic groups no longer N occur, though Flat Island A Creoles complain Ilot Gabriel of discrimination.
Comm
COMESA
Joined UN in 1968
AU
COI
SADC
Mauritius hosted a francophone nations summit in 1995, and the first OAU human rights conference in 1999. Links with South Africa and India are important. Disputes persist over UK-administered Diego Garcia and the Frenchruled island of Tromelin.
E
1960 km (1218 miles)
3% OPR
83% MSM–MMM
MSM–MMM = Mauritian Socialist Movement–Mauritian Militant Movement PTr–PMXD = Labour Party–Mauritian Social Democratic Party of Xavier Duval OPR = Organization of the People of Rodrigues MR = Mouvement Rodriguais Rodrigues has its own legislature which exercises local power
-20/-4
The climate is subtropical and humid. December to March are the hottest and wettest months. Tropical cyclones are an occasional threat during this time.
11% 3% PTr–PMXD MR
National Assembly 70 seats
645/km2 (1671/mi2)
-10/14
Gunner's Quoin
O
River Cit Pamplemousses rons
Quartier Militaire Phoenix Floréal
10
20
30
40
50
% of total arrivals
R.
No i re
Nouvelle France v Ri
o le
s
Mahebourg
Rose Belle
LAND HEIGHT
ba c
Rivière des Anguilles Souillac
POPULATION over 100 000
500m/1640ft
over 50 000
200m/656ft
over 10 000
Sea Level
Sir Seewoosagwr Ramgoolam Intl
under 10 000
N 0
10 km
I I
400
E
E
C haux
ré
Ta
Surinam
lles ui ng
Bel Ombre
A
s
de
Chemin Chamouny Grenier
La
C
er
re
ie
Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire 828m Ile aux Bénitiers
Riv er v Ri
Tourism expanded rapidly in the 1990s. Spectacular beaches, water sports, and big game fishing are major attractions. Around 30% of visitors each year come from France.
60
River de s
C
0
Total Area : 2400 sq. km (788 sq. miles)
A
ande River S ou t h
Curepipe Gr
Tamarin
N
s
Vacoas
Other 44%
Ile aux Cerfs t
Pa pa ye
MAURITIUS
Ile de l’Est
as
Ri
N
UK 12%
ve
r
Quatre Bornes
(continuation on same scale)
Centre de Flacq
Beau Bassin Rose Hill
A
Réunion 14%
Petite Butte
Belle Vue Maurel Amaury Laventure
I
D
France 30%
Grand Montagne
N
PORT LOUIS
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Mont Limon 396m
O
Up 3% in 2003
Triolet
N
/
Port Mathurin
Goodlands Poudre d’Or Mapou
River du Tombe a u
702,000 visitors
†
RODRIGUES Grand Baie Ile d’Ambre
A
TOURISM
Visitors : Population 1:1.7
C
Roads are extensive, but often congested. Plans exist for a monorail link between Port Louis and Curepipe.
I
M
AT THE LAST ELECTION
0
0/32
Multiparty elections
President Sir Anerood Jugnauth
2000/2005
Pop. density high
French Creole, Hindi, Urdu, Tamil, Chinese, English, French
WEATHER CHART FOR PORT LOUIS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
†
POLITICS
.mu
+230
T
CLIMATE
Africa
N
D
0
10 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MAURITIUS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$24m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
/
Aid is predominantly bilateral, with the EU and France as the main donors. Mauritius also receives aid from Arab aid agencies and Japan, and from the UN and other international organizations. Aid levels are fairly low due to the strength of the Mauritian economy. The World Bank is helping to develop sewerage facilities to mitigate the effect of tourism on the environment.
DEFENSE
†
.
$7m
No compulsory military service
Down 22% in 2002
Mauritius has no standing defense forces. There is, however, a 1500strong special police mobile unit to ensure internal security. There is also a coast guard numbering 500.
ECONOMICS $4.68bn
†
Inflation 6.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
28.22 Mauritian rupees (29.15)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................116th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3860 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$259m INFLATION .........................................6.7% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
STRENGTHS Strong economic growth. Export processing zone (EPZ), especially for clothing manufacture. Sugar industry. Tourism. Highly educated workforce. Offshore financial services. Ranked by World Economic Forum in 2003 as third most competitive economy in Africa.
WEAKNESSES Vulnerability to droughts. Most food has to be imported: few crops other than sugar can be grown. Banking scandals have dented investor confidence. Enduring pockets of poverty. Lack of strategic resources. Remoteness. EXPORTS
Italy 4% UK 30%
Other 22%
Mauritius was colonized and ruled by the Dutch in the 17th century, the French (1710–1810), and the British.
Up 9% in 2002
Madagascar 4% USA 20%
France 20%
Villagers at a water source in the center of Mauritius Island. Mauritius’s main rivers are used for hydropower generation.
India 7% China 8%
Other 57%
France 11% South Africa 13%
Electric power 661,000 kW
10,753 tonnes
Not an oil producer
93,000 goats, 28,000 cattle, 9.8m chickens
None
ENVIRONMENT
/
8% (5% partially protected)
†
Not available
†
School leaving age: 12
12,481 students
Educational provision is good, and over 90% of Mauritians under the age of 30 are literate. The University of Mauritius has about 4000 students.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers
1 per 1111 people
In Mauritius free health care is universally available. There are 14 state hospitals and eight private clinics.
2.4 tonnes per capita
Rapid industrialization as well as unchecked hotel building have caused environmental problems. Coral reefs are under threat from both coral sand mining and the discharging of untreated sewage into the sea.
MEDIA
†
EDUCATION 84%
Mauritius has to import oil, so the government has invested heavily in alternative indigenous energy schemes, including HEP generation and power plants fueled by bagasse (a by-product of the sugar industry). An $800,000 solar energy project was launched in 2000 for street and government office lighting.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
85 per 1000 population
270 per 1000 population
Defense 0.1% TV ownership medium
Education 3.3% Health 2%
Daily newspaper circulation 119 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 10 daily newspapers. Le Quotidien, L’Express, and Le Mauricien have the largest circulations 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
1 independent service
Mauritius has an active press, which is subject to few regulations and has a wide readership. Newspapers are published in English, French, Creole, Hindi, Chinese, and Tamil. The creation of several “cybercities” is planned, with high-tech Internet and telecommunications facilities.
CRIME
IMPORTS
Australia 4%
†
RESOURCES
1968 Independence. Riots between Creoles and Muslims. 1982–1995 Sir Anerood Jugnauth prime minister; forms MSM. 2000 Elections won by MSM–MMM. Return of Jugnauth. 2003 Paul Bérenger of MMM takes over as prime minister.
2565 prisoners
†
0
5
10
Position in World 1st
50th
100th
64
62
64
73 years
150th
Crime rates on the main island are fairly low. There has been a small increase in thefts and narcotics smuggling. Outlying islands are virtually crime-free.
25
WORLD RANKING
$3860
Up 23% in 2000–2001
20
French-descended hotel and plantation owners are the country’s wealthiest social group. Mauritius has one of the highest incomes per capita in Africa.
No death penalty
/
15
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
64
17 deaths
114 84%
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
401
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MEXICO
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA USA
MEXICO Belize
OFFICIAL NAME: United Mexican States CAPITAL: Mexico City POPULATION: 104 million CURRENCY: Mexican peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1836
1848
Sept 16
MEX
-6
Guatemala
.mx
+52
I
NCREASINGLY CONSIDERED a part of North rather than Central America, Mexico separates the US from the rest of Latin America. Coastal plains along its Pacific and Caribbean seaboards rise into an arid central plateau, which includes the world’s second-biggest conurbation, Mexico City, built on the site of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán. Colonized by the Spanish for its silver mines, Mexico achieved independence in 1836. In the “Epic Revolution” of 1910–1920, in which 250,000 died, much of modern Mexico’s structure was established. In 1994, Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
†
CLIMATE
Tropical/mountain/ desert
WEATHER CHART FOR MEXICO CITY
Benito Juárez, Mexico City 21.7m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on right
658 ships 937,200 grt
The cathedral of Santa Prisca at Taxco near Cuernavaca. It was built in Spanish Churriguera style between 1748 and 1758.
TOURISM
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 108,746 km (67,572 miles)
6429 km (3995 miles)
26,656 km (16,563 miles)
2900 km (1802 miles)
18.7m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:5.5
.
Down 5% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
USA 94 %
-10/14
Europe 2%
-20/-4
A
N
MA
DR
Oaxaca E
DE
L S UR
Tuxtla ISTMO DE Gutiérrez TEHUANTEPEC SIE RR AM AD Golfo de RE Tehuantepec
su
m in
A
Tapachula
402
G
U
on
A
A
Villahermosa va
ta
200 miles
RR
Acapulco
Coatzacoalcos
Minatitlán
ac
E
Volcan Pico de Orizaba 5700m
U
0
200 km
IE
B al s a s
Campeche
Veracruz
C
S
C
over 100 000 0
Puebla
Cuernavaca
O
Jalapa
do
Toluca
PENÍNSULA DE YUCATÁN
Bahía de Campeche
H
N
over 500 000 over 50 000
MEXICO CITY
Morelia Uruapan
over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000
Poza Rica
Cancún
Mérida
IZ E
POPULATION
Yu ca t an Ch a n
O F
M E X I C O
Pachuca
Celaya
100
90
BE L
Lago de Salamanca Chapala
80
Tourism employs around 5% of the workforce and is a major source of foreign exchange. Attractions include excellent beach resorts such as Acapulco on the Pacific coast, and the new resorts of the Peninsula de Yucatán on the Caribbean coast. Impressive coastal scenery, volcanoes, the Sierra Madre, and archaeological remains of Aztec and Mayan civilizations, designated as World Heritage sites, are major draws, as are the many Spanish colonial cities, such as Morelia and Guadalajara, which have remained virtually intact since their construction after the conquest. G U L F
Tampico nuco Pá
Querétaro
Guadalajara Puerto Vallarta
70
A
L
a León a nde n ti a g o Irapuato
Islas Marías
C
Gr S de
Tepic
60
n
el
N San Luis Potosí Guanajuato
TA
Zacatecas Aguascalientes
50
Isla de Cozumel
RI BB EA N S EA
Ciudad Victoria
IE
ANA
L
OR
XIC
n
A
E
ME
r
T
Matamoros
Saltillo
DR
f o li
MA
IE
O
a
A
N
40
AL
A
IC
C
I
E
30
EM
N
E
e
N
Sea Level
Reynosa
Monterrey
20
T
A
R
d
R
200m/656ft
RR
L
D
O
C 500m/1640ft
ID
a
I
Total Area : 1 972 550 sq. km (761 602 sq. miles)
1000m/3281ft
SIE
A
F
M
f o o l
I
A
Durango
Mazatlán
MEXICO
2000m/6562ft
C
Nuevo Laredo
Monclova
Torreón
C
Culiacán
i
de
G
L
Gómez Palacio
F
3000m/9843ft
ra
A
P
Los Mochis
I
LAND HEIGHT
n
BOLSÓN DE MAPIMÍ AL T IP
chos on
10
% of total arrivals
G Rio
C
C
A
Chihuahua
Guasave
La Paz
Other 1% 0
e
A RR SIE
J
Ciudad Obregón
Latin America 1%
Grijal
A
Bahía Sebastían Vizcaíno
Canada 2%
d ra n oG Ri
B
Cedros
Y a qui
M
A privately financed $14 billion road network – some 6000 km (3730 miles) of toll roads – is seriously underused The plateau and high mountains are and a commercial failure. Regional warm for much of the year. The travel is mainly by bus; the unreliable Pacific coast has a tropical climate. railroad is largely for freight. Plans UNIT E to construct a new international D Mexicali STA Tijuana airport serving Mexico City were TE abandoned in 2002 as local S Ensenada Ciudad Juárez O farmers staged violent F protests against AM the implied Isla Ángel E de la R acquisition Guarda IC Isla del of their Tiburón A lands. Isla Hermosillo
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MEXICO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Spanish, Nahuatl, Mayan, Zapotec, Mixtec, Otomi, Totonac, Tzotzil, Tzeltal
54/km2 (140/mi2)
G15
Age 0.5% 2.9%
75%
25%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0.4%
80+
2.7%
7.4%
40–59
7.1%
16.7%
20–39
15.5%
0–19
23.6%
Other 7% % of population by age group
Roman Catholic 88% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 1%
European 9%
Amerindian 30% Mestizo 60%
While most Mexicans are mestizo (mixed race), it is Mexico’s Amerindian culture which is promoted by the state. This obscures the fact that rural Amerindians are largely segregated from Hispanic society, a situation that dates back to the Spanish colonial
POLITICS
†
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Chamber of Deputies 500 seats
45% PRI
31% PAN
19% PRD
5% Others
PRI = Institutional Revolutionary Party PAN = National Action Party PRD = Party of the Democratic Revolution PAN–PVEM = Alliance for Change (PAN and Green Party) PRD–PT = Alliance for Mexico (PRD and Labor Party)
Senate of the Republic 128 seats
45% PRI
period and which has only recently been seriously challenged. The 1994 Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) guerrilla uprising in Chiapas was on behalf of Amerindian rights, and in protest against the poverty of landless Amerindians. President Vicente Fox promised to act, but the Indigenous Rights and Culture Bill, watered down by a hostile Congress and enacted in 2001, was rejected by the EZLN and all the main indigenous groups. The small black community, which is concentrated along the eastern coast, is well integrated. As in much of Latin America, men retain their dominance in both the commercial and political spheres.
Multiparty elections
President Vicente Fox
L. House 2003/2006 U. House 2000/2006
42% PAN–PVEM
13% PRD–PT
Mexico was a multiparty democracy in name only until 1997; reforms culminated in a PAN presidency in 2000.
term (2000–2006) was uneven. His failure to consult and to build consensus, coupled with PRI opposition in Congress, resulted in key policy failures, notably in the areas of electricity, telecommunications, and fiscal reform. Promises on job creation went unmet but government accountability and transparency improved. An economic downturn was also seen off without the specter of hyperinflation. Fox’s position was made all the more difficult when the PRI emerged as the victors in the July 2003 congressional midterm elections. Future of the PRI Election defeats in the late 1990s left the PRI rudderless and faction-ridden. It turned to hard-liner Roberto Madrazo, party leader from 2002, to translate public disillusionment with the PAN into popular support for the PRI.
The PRI dominated Mexico from 1929. The strength of opposition parties grew during the 1990s, and, after grudging electoral reform, the PRI lost its monopoly on power in 1997. After the 2000 elections the PAN was the largest party in the Chamber of Deputies, but it lacked an overall majority and was overtaken once more by the PRI in the 2003 midterm poll.
President Fox’s administration The first half of President Fox’s six-year
OECD
Vicente Fox, elected president in 2000, ending 70 years of PRI dominance.
OAS
RG
NAFTA has bonded the economies of Mexico and the US. Progress on economic migrants remains stalled, but longrunning disputes with the US on tuna and trucking are all but resolved. Unable to compete against heavily subsidized US farmers, far poorer Mexican producers have staged border protests and demanded protection, especially since the lifting of most trade tariffs on agricultural products in 2003. The Mexican government has promised renegotiation, but the US and Canada remain strongly opposed. Tariffs on Mexican beans and corn are to be removed in 2008. Under Fox, traditional support for Cuba has diminished in favor of the US. Mexico has free trade agreements with 32 countries, as well as with the EU and EFTA, and competes with Brazil to play a leading negotiating role for Latin America in the formation of a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) due to be signed in 2005.
AID
†
Recipient
$136m (receipts)
PROFILE
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
NAFTA
Male
60–79
23.2%
Protestant 5%
Joined UN in 1945
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Female
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
Subcomandante Marcos, Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) leader.
/
Up 81% in 2002
In 2002 the IDB made its biggest loan – $1 billion – to support a six-year antipoverty project in Mexico. European and US NGOs provide assistance.
CHRONOLOGY The Aztec kingdom of Montezuma II was defeated in war by the Spaniard, Hernán Cortés, in 1521. By 1546, the Spaniards had discovered large silver mines at Zacatecas. Mexico, then known as New Spain, became a key part of the Spanish colonial empire. 1810 Fr. Miguel Hidalgo leads abortive rising against Spanish. 1821 Spanish viceroy forced to leave by Agustín de Iturbide. 1822 Federal Republic established. 1823 Texas opened to US immigration. 1829 Spanish military expedition fails to regain control. 1836 US is first country to recognize Mexico’s independence. Spain follows suit. Texas declares its independence from Mexico. 1846 War breaks out with US. 1848 Loses modern-day New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, California, and part of Colorado. 1858–1861 War of Reform won by anticlerical Liberals. 1862 France, Britain, and Spain launch military expedition.
403
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
404
.
Compulsory military service
Down 6% in 2002
The military has, on the whole, avoided direct interference in politics and has no ambitions beyond Mexico’s borders. The army mainly defends internal security; border control is handled by the police. The military is now closely involved in antinarcotics efforts. Most arms procurement is from the US. The Zapatista rebellion in Chiapas in 1994 elicited a brutal response from the army, acting on PRI orders. The increasing militarization of the small state over the next six years hindered the peace process and led to a proliferation of paramilitaries, with the tacit blessing of the local
ECONOMICS $597bn
†
MEXICAN ARMED FORCES No main battle tanks
144,000 personnel
3 destroyers, 8 frigates, and 109 patrol boats
37,000 personnel
107 combat aircraft (8 F-5E, 2 F-5F, 70 PC-7, 17 AT-33)
11,770 personnel
None
PRI, who were blamed by human rights groups for the massacre of Amerindians. The PAN government has withdrawn some forces from key areas.
Inflation 18% p.a. (1990–2001)
11.53 Mexican pesos (10.42)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................9th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$5920 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$14.1bn INFLATION ............................................5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
EXPORTS
Spain 1% Netherlands Antilles 1%
Germany 1%
USA 89% IMPORTS
China 4% Canada 3%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
Germany 4% Japan 6% Other 20%
USA 63%
STRENGTHS Global oil producer, with substantial reserves. Extensive mineral resources. Strong foreign direct investment. Diversification of exports. NAFTA membership. Low overheads.
80 1998
Canada 2% Other 6%
GDP
160
1999
2000
2001
2002
affected growth. Tighter fiscal management was rewarded by 2000, when investor confidence improved. The Fox government’s tight fiscal and monetary stance won approval from the IMF and major credit agencies. Social relief pledges, however, went unfulfilled as the export-led economy echoed the slowdown in the US from 2001. Proposals to extend sales tax to medicines and food, and talk of encouraging investment in the energy sector met stiff public opposition in 2003. MEXICO : MAJOR BUSINESSES Food processing
Petrochemicals
Vehicle assembly
Oil refining Computers
Tijuana Ciudad Juárez
WEAKNESSES
Silver mining Electronics
Debt burden. Vulnerable currency. Corruption. Affected by US slowdown. Oil price fluctuations. Weak tax system.
Brewing
Monterrey
Textiles
Reynosa
PROFILE While in power, the PRI effectively ran the economy. The debt crisis of the 1980s, however, forced privatizations. The 1994 peso crisis needed a US-led $20 billion international bailout and resulted in a severe slump. The Zedillo government launched tough reforms, but a global loss of confidence in emerging markets
GDP 1998=100
M
$5.32bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1863 French troops capture Mexico City. Maximilian of Austria established as Mexican emperor. 1867 Mexico recaptured by Benito Juárez. Maximilian shot. 1876 Porfirio Díaz president. Economic growth; rail system built. 1901 First year of oil production. 1910–1920 Epic Revolution provoked by excessive exploitation by foreign companies and desire for land reform. 250,000 killed. 1911 Díaz overthrown by Francisco Madero. Guerrilla war breaks out in north. Emilio Zapata leads peasant revolt in the south. 1913 Madero murdered. 1917 New constitution limits power of Roman Catholic Church. Minerals and subsoil rights reserved for the nation. 1926–1929 Cristero rebellion led by militant Catholic priests. 1929 National Revolutionary Party (later PRI) formed. 1934 Gen. Cárdenas president. Land reform accelerated, cooperative farms established, railroads nationalized, and US and UK oil companies expelled. 1940s US war effort helps Mexican economy to grow. 1970 Accelerating population growth reaches 3% a year. 1982 Mexico declares it cannot repay its foreign debt of over $800 billion. IMF insists on economic reforms to reschedule the debt. 1984 Government contravenes constitution by relaxing laws on foreign investment. 1985 Earthquake in Mexico City. Official death toll 7000. Economic cost estimated at $425 million. 1988 Carlos Salinas de Gortari, minister of planning during the earthquake, elected president. 1990 Privatization program begins. 1994–1995 Guerrilla rebellion in southern Chiapas state brutally suppressed by army: 100 dead. Mexico joins NAFTA. Luis Colosio, PRI presidential candidate, murdered. Ernesto Zedillo replaces him and is elected. Economic crisis. 1997–1999 PRI’s monopoly on power in Congress ended. Banks bailed out. 2000 July, PAN wins presidency and elections, ending 70 years of PRI rule. December, President Vicente Fox takes office. 2001 EZLN guerrillas and supporters make 16-day motorcade from Chiapas to Mexico City to push for indigenous rights law. 2002 Hard-liner Roberto Madrazo elected PRI leader. 2003 PRI gain in midterm elections.
DEFENSE
Tampico Minatitlán
Durango Guadalajara Salamanca 0 0
400 km
Mexico City
400 miles
* significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MEXICO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
30.8m cattle, 18.1m pigs, 9.5m goats, 540m chickens
Oil, gas, gold, silver, copper, coal, fluorite, mercury, antimony
MEXICO : LAND USE
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Desert Cotton – cash crop Wheat Cattle
RA
3.79m b/d (reserves 16bn barrels)
SIER
1.47m tonnes
E DR MA
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
C OC
Hydro 14% (33bn kWh)
D
I
Combustion 79% (182bn kWh)
EN
TA
L
Nuclear 4% (8.2bn kWh) Other 3% (5.9bn kWh) 0
20
0
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Mexico is one of the largest oil exporters outside OPEC. Most oil production comes from offshore drilling platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. The industry is state-owned and staterun by PEMEX, the world’s fifth-largest oil company, employing 120,000 people. Plans to privatize PEMEX have
ENVIRONMENT
/
10% (7% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 92nd
provoked serious social unrest, and proposed sell-offs and deregulation remain politically highly sensitive. Despite its oil reserves, Mexico has embarked on a nuclear power program and projects to modernize the national electricity grid and boost natural gas production to overcome an energy crisis.
†
CRIME 154,765 prisoners
/
Crime is rising
Murders Yes
Yes
14
per 100,000 population
Yes
Yes
Yes
13
per 100,000 population
100
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Northern Mexico is a major center for narcotics shipments to the US. Antidrugs police are specifically accused of collusion by the US; police corruption is a perennial issue. Guns are rife.
†
EDUCATION 91%
School leaving age: 14
2.15m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Daily newspaper circulation 94 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 295 daily newspapers. Excélsior is a prominent newspaper both within Mexico and the rest of Latin America
468 commercial stations
1142 commercial stations
There has been greater media freedom since 2000. The Televisa broadcasting empire faces growing competition.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
110 per 1000 population
147 per 1000 population
Defense 0.9% Education 4.4% Health 2.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Mexico has enormous wealth disparities. The World Bank estimates that 45 million Mexicans live in poverty, surviving on less than $2 a day, and a quarter of them struggle in extreme poverty, coping on half that amount. There is little social mobility; the old Spanish families retain their hold on institutions. In the past, the wealthy did not generally pay taxes and often benefited from the large state machine. Tax evasion remains a serious problem. Rural Amerindians are probably the most disadvantaged group. In the last decade, poverty has forced them into city slums to work in factories or maquiladoras, where conditions and pay are poor. The 1994 Chiapas rebellion was fed by demands for more land and more assistance in farming it. The flow of poor rural migrants to the US stems largely from the need to subsidize families back home.
WORLD RANKING
100
TV ownership medium
% of each age group in education
†
†
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Yes
MEDIA
The national health care system is basic and badly underfunded. A five-year reform program launched in 1995 focused more on management infrastructure and less on provision. Mexico has a good reputation for surgery and dentistry, but this is mostly in the private sector, which is itself fragmented. The rich also go to the US for treatment.
Death penalty not used in practice
CRIME RATES
Mexico City, largely unplanned, struggles to accommodate around 20 million inhabitants as the absence of environmental controls contributes to perhaps the world’s worst air quality and waste problems. PEMEX (the state petroleum company) stands accused of massive pollution. Maquiladoras – assembly plants on the Mexico–US border – have no effective environmental controls and are usually surrounded by slums. Environmentalists oppose the intense development of tourism along the coast and are concerned about high rates of deforestation.
Cancers, diabetes, heart and respiratory diseases, accidents
SPENDING
400 miles
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 667 people
400 km
0
4.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
HEALTH
Electric power 45.7m kW
80
Position in World 1st
60
100% 40
50th
73% 100th
20
20% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Public education, officially compulsory for the first six years, is underfunded and rural provision is poor. The system is a mixture of the French and US models. There is a well-developed public university system.
49
50
$5920
74 years
53 99
150th
91%
87 24 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
405
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MICRONESIA
PACIFIC OCEAN Northern Marianas Islands
MICRONESIA
OFFICIAL NAME: Federated States of Micronesia CAPITAL: Palikir (Pohnpei Island) POPULATION: 108,143 CURRENCY: US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1986
1986
May 10
+10 to +11
FSM
ITUATED IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) encompasses all the Caroline Islands except Palau. It is composed of four island cluster states: Pohnpei, Kosrae, Chuuk, and Yap. The FSM was formerly under US rule as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. An agreement which granted internal sovereignty in free association with the US became operational in 1986, and the Trust was formally dissolved in 1990. The islands continue to receive considerable aid from the US.
†
Kiribati
Pop. density medium
Trukese, Pohnpeian, Mortlockese, Kosraean, English
S
CLIMATE
†
PEOPLE
.fm
+691
Pacific Ocean
Marshall Islands
154/km2 (399/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
29%
71%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 2%
Roman Catholic 50%
Tropical oceanic
Protestant 48%
WEATHER CHART FOR PALIKIR
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 60/140
Rainfall A
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
M
The Micronesians are physically, linguistically, and culturally diverse. Melanesians live on Yap, and Polynesians occupy southwestern atolls in Pohnpei state. Most islanders live without electricity or running water, and many are effectively recipients of US welfare. Society is traditionally matrilineal.
S O N D cm/in 60/24
0
Micronesia, aerial view of rock islands. Like many Pacific states, Micronesia fears rising sea levels as a result of global warming.
The islands are humid and fairly hot all year round, and the daily temperature range is small. Rainfall is abundant.
†
TRANSPORTATION Pohnpei, Kolonia 58,029 passengers
†
TOURISM
Drive on right
19 ships 13,400 grt
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Congress 14 seats
Up 27% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
USA 43%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
There are no political parties. Ten senators are directly elected for a two-year term and four "at-large" senators (one from each state) are elected for a four-year term
Japan 21%
43 km (27 miles)
None
None
None
Australia 3%
The executive is drawn from the “atlarge” senators, but the power of the traditional chiefs remains very strong. The country’s relationship with the US is vital and the negotiation of the new Compact of Free Association – which was agreed in 2003 – dominated recent politics. The Faichuk islands, in the western corner of the Chuuk Lagoon, have pressed for the status of a full state, or even independence, complaining of long-term economic neglect.
Other 33% 0
10
20
40
30
60
50
% of total arrivals
Outlying islands remain untouched and unspoiled. Chuuk’s underwater war wreckage and Kosrae’s beaches attract visitors. Lack of infrastructure is hindering the growth of tourism.
The inauguration in 2000 of flights by a Boeing 737 opened the way for greater air traffic between the islands. Shipping is mainly used for bulk cargoes and copra. Some island roads are surfaced with coral.
S E A
N E P P I I L I P H Ulithi
MICRONESIA Total Area : 702 sq. km (271 sq. miles)
Fais
Yap
S
T
A
T Sorol
Ngulu
HALL I SL A
Gaferut
O
E
Y
F
Faraulep
POPULATION
West Fayu
Pikelot
Lamotrek
Ifalik
LAND HEIGHT 100m/328ft Sea Level
W E S T
N 0
200 km 200 miles
Minto Reef
C H U U K
Weno Chuuk
Puluwat
Kuop
P O H N P E I
Pakin
UPPER MORTLOCKS
Pulusuk
Namoluk
I S L A N D S
S T AT E
LOWER MORTLOCKS
POHNPEI
O F
S
PALIKIR
Pohnpei
Mokil Pingelap
Ngatik
P
A
Kosrae
E A S T
C
I
C A R O L I N E
Nukuoro
F
I
C
O
C
Kapingamarangi
406
I S L A N D
Oroluk Losap
Satawan
a 0
C A R O L I N E
O F
Nomwin
Satawal
Eauripik
ND S Murilo
East Fayu I.
S T A T E Pulap
Elato
Woleai
Namonuito
P
A
Olimarao
under 10 000
Nonparty elections
President Joseph J. Urusemal
2003/2005
Visitors : Population 1:5.7
/
19,000 visitors
†
POLITICS
E
KOSRAE STATE
I S L A N D S
A
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MICRONESIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ADB
PIF
Joined UN in 1991
PC
ACP
IBRD
Micronesia’s most important relationship is with the US, which administered the islands from 1947 as part of the UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Under the Compact of Free Association, the US has control
AID
†
.
Down 19% in 2002
The US is by far the biggest donor. In 2004 it approved federal disaster aid when Yap was devastated by a typhoon.
DEFENSE US is responsible for defense
†
,
No compulsory military service Not applicable
Defense is entirely in the hands of the US. Airstrips in the FSM were used by the US in the Vietnam War.
ECONOMICS $240m
†
Inflation 3% p.a. (1990–2001)
Currency is US dollar
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................181st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1970 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .........................$9m INFLATION .......................................–1.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
Access to US economy, especially for garment manufacture, through preferential trading rights. Large construction industry. Tourism, fishing, and copra production. US strategic interest in Micronesia, and US budget subsidies.
Not an oil producer
32,000 pigs, 13,900 cattle, 4000 goats, 185,000 chickens
None
The FSM is entirely dependent on external sources for its energy supply. Almost all electricity is produced by small diesel generators. The main resources are copra and valuable fish stocks, especially tuna.
,
None
†
Other 15%
1.3 tonnes per capita
Other 24%
Cerebrovascular, heart, and intestinal diseases
1 per 1667 people
Basic health care is accessible to all. WHO has warned of an obesity epidemic; in 2004, 80% of adults were overweight, and one in eight had diabetes.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
87 per 1000 population
Defense None
Health 5.6% PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP There are no daily newspapers. The National Union is a popular biweekly 3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
Press freedoms have not been infringed since the strongly criticized expulsion of a Canadian journalist in 1997.
†
39 prisoners
81%
Australia 20%
Welfare state health benefits
Education 5.5%
The gap between rich and poor is increasing as Micronesia’s businessmen and local officials exploit US aid donations.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
No death penalty
,
Little change from year to year
†
1st
50th
100th
78
89 School leaving age: 13
Japan 12%
USA 44%
†
HEALTH
There are no daily newspapers
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
1947 UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands established. 1986 Independence. Compact of Free Association with US operational. 1990 Official termination of trusteeship agreement. 1991 Joins UN. 2001 Submerged remains of USS Mississinewa causes oil leak in Yap. 2003 Joseph Urusemal elected president. New Compact agreed.
TV ownership low
Crime is rare and the outlying islands are crime-free. Some alcohol-related assault occurs on Chuuk. Japan 84%
The Caroline Islands were first colonized by the Spanish. Sold to Germany in 1899, the islands were occupied by Japan from 1914 and served as an important base in World War II. US control of the islands began in 1945.
Not available
The FSM does not face pollution on the scale of that in the neighboring Marshall Islands. However, an oil leak in 2001 from a World War II wreck endangered wildlife on Yap. Chuuk suffers serious droughts. The growth of marine-based tourism is monitored by the South Pacific Environment Program, which aims to promote sustainable development.
CRIME
EXPORTS
†
ENVIRONMENT
WEAKNESSES Lack of resources. Dependence on US for imports, especially for fuel. Heavy indebtedness. Acute shortage of water limits development potential. High levels of underemployment.
Not available
18,062 tonnes
MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Marshall Islands 1%
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$112m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
over the FSM’s foreign and defense policies. Alternative financial assistance is an increasing priority as the new 20-year Compact, which was agreed in May 2003, will not be renewed. Japan is also important, the Tokyo government providing aid, and the FSM has recently cultivated strong links with China.
1510 students
Education is compulsory (for seven years) from the age of six. Most university students are supported by US grants and a large number attend US colleges.
150th
$1970
20 deaths
101 69 years
126 81%
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
407
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
EUROPE M
MOLDOVA
VA DO OL
R om an i a
Uk r ai n e
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Moldova CAPITAL: Chisinau POPULATION: 4.3 million CURRENCY: Moldovan leu OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Moldovan 1991
1991
Aug 27
MD
+2
.md
+373
M
OSTLY UNDULATING steppe country, Moldova is the most densely populated of the former Soviet republics. Once a part of Romania, it was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940. Independence in 1991 brought with it the expectation that Moldova would be reunited with Romania. In a 1994 plebiscite, however, Moldovans voted against the proposal. Most of Moldova’s population is engaged in intensive agriculture.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR CHISINAU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
128/km2 (330/mi2)
Moldovan, Ukrainian, Russian
42%
Other 4% Russian 13%
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
1120 km (696 miles)
424 km (263 miles)
I
N
E
Co
gîl
30
40
50
I
A
Few tourists go to Moldova, though some visitors to Romania do combine the two. Hopes for the expansion of tourism focus on vineyards and underground wine vault “streets” as the main attractions.
60
80m/262ft
I a lpug
20
% of total arrivals
nic
N
Turkey 14% Other 52%
408
A
M
Russia 19% Ukraine 15%
10
te
M
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
Râ u
Up 17% in 2003
ut
/
11% PPCD
Moldova declared its independence in 1991. Reformist Petru Lucinschi was elected president in 1996 but faced stiff opposition from the increasingly powerful left: the revived CPM won most seats in the 1998 elections. Parliament ended direct presidential elections in 2000, but deadlock ensued over the appointment of Lucinschi’s K successor, forcing Parliament’s U R dissolution in 2001. The new Parliament, with a big CPM majority, A Soroca chose CPM leader Vladimir Voronin Edineπ Dni as president. However, the left’s Rî∞cani e Drochia Flore∞ti popularity has faltered, with R mass discontent over its Rîbniπa Rezina Bâlπi Sîngerei apparent eagerness to align Moldova with l Fâle∞ti Dubâsari Russia rather than Reservoir the West. Orhei Transdniestria (on Câlâra∞i Dubâsari Ungheny the eastern bank of the Dealul Strâ∞eni river Dniester) and Balanesti CHIfiINÂU 429m Nisporeni Gagauzia (in the B OLDOVA ûc Tiraspol south) declared Total Area : 33 843 sq. km Hînce∞ti Tighina themselves to be (13 067 sq. miles) Slobozia Dn republics in 1990, POPULATION i e st er Leova though Gagauzia Câu∞eni Cimi∞lia over 500 000 accepted autonomy over 100 000 in 1994. Tensions Basarabeasca over 50 000 flared in Comrat over 10 000 N 2004 when Ciadîr-Lunga under 10 000 Transdniestria closed schools LAND HEIGHT Taraclia that were using Cahul 0 50 km the Latin script. 200m/656ft Pr
Visitors : Population 1:182
Moldovans are ethnically identical to Romanians. There are 153,000 Gagauz (Orthodox Christian Turks) in the south, and a population of mixed Russian–Moldovan–Ukrainian parentage on the eastern bank of the Dniester.
O
23,598 visitors
†
19% BEAB
CPM = Communist Party of Moldova BEAB = Electoral Bloc Braghis Alliance PPCD = Christian-Democratic People's Party
r ste
The transportation infrastructure is to be part of a planned “Transport Corridor Europe–Caucasus–Asia” (TRACECA).
TOURISM
70% CPM
Moldovan 65%
Small Black Sea fleet
10,914 km (6782 miles)
Parliament 101 seats
Ukrainian 14%
Warm summers, mild winters, and moderate rainfall give Moldova an ideal climate for cultivation.
Chisinau International 339,485 passengers
AT THE LAST ELECTION
58%
Gagauz 4%
†
Multiparty elections
President Vladimir Voronin
2001/2005
-20/-4
TRANSPORTATION
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
M
Agricultural landscape. Warm summers and even rainfall are ideal for cereal and fruit farming. Moldova is famous for its wine.
Pop. density medium
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
Continental
0 Vulcâne∞ti
50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MOLDOVA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS BSEC
CE
Joined UN in 1992
EAPC
CIS
OSCE
Moldova has joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace program but retains close links to Russia. Ties with countries in
†
AID
/
Up 16% in 2002
The World Bank resumed lending in 2002, granting $30 million. The US, EU member states, and the IMF are also important sources of aid.
DEFENSE $151m
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 3% in 2002
In 1999 plans were announced to cut army personnel by 30%; military service has been reduced. In 2003 the Transdniestrian authorities finally permitted the full withdrawal of Russian forces.
ECONOMICS $1.68bn
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$142m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
†
Inflation 103% p.a. (1990–2001)
Electric power 1m kW
1576 tonnes
Oil and gas reserves not yet exploited
829,725 sheep, 508,345 pigs, 14.9m chickens
Lignite, phosphates, gypsum, oil, natural gas
Gas supplies, imported mostly from Russia, are vulnerable as pipelines are routed through separatist Transdniestria.
ENVIRONMENT
.
1.4% (0.9% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 39th
1.5 tonnes per capita
Overuse of agricultural chemicals and pesticides on tobacco farms is a problem, as is soil erosion. There is little spending on environmental improvement.
†
MEDIA
11.9 Moldovan lei (14.1)
1918 Bessarabia joins Romania. 1924 Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Republic formed within USSR. 1940 Romania cedes Bessarabia to Ukrainian and Moldovan SSRs. 1941–1945 Bessarabia again under Romanian control. 1945 Returns to Soviet control. 1990 Declares sovereignty. 1991 Independence. 1993–1994 Prounification parties’ election defeat; referendum rejects Romanian unification. Rejoins CIS. 1998 Elections: communist revival. 2001 CPM wins big majority. Vladimir Voronin becomes president. 2002 Mass protests over education plans.
TV ownership medium
†
SPENDING
Daily newspaper circulation 153 per 1000 people SCORE CARD
Modern Moldova corresponds roughly to the eastern part of the Romanian principality of Moldavia, which existed for 500 years from 1359. Most of it was annexed by Russia in 1812 as Bessarabia.
the Black Sea Economic Zone are being developed. The creation of a free economic zone near the mouth of the Danube is under discussion. The EU has imposed travel restrictions on Transdniestrian separatists.
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................145th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$460 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$109m INFLATION .........................................5.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
60 per 1000 population
There are 4 leading daily newspapers. Komsomol'skaya Pravda has the highest circulation 33 services: 1 state-controlled, 32 independent
M
161 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7%
25 services: 1 state-controlled, 24 independent
Education 4% Health 2.8% 0
STRENGTHS Agriculture (wine, tobacco, and cotton) and food processing. Signs of economic improvement. Remittances from overseas Moldovans.
WEAKNESSES
There are several television stations, though many broadcast repeats of Romanian or Russian schedules.
CRIME
†
10,903 prisoners
One of Europe’s poorest countries. Instability over Transdniestria deters investment. Dependent on Russia for raw materials and fuel, and as market for exports. Isolated; weak transportation network. Slow pace of reform. Strong black economy. Massive foreign debt eats into export earnings.
No death penalty
/
Economic decline has caused crime to increase. The unstable situation in Transdniestria has encouraged smuggling, particularly of Russian arms. The Council of Europe has accused the police of routinely using torture.
†
EDUCATION
EXPORTS
Romania 6% Russia 35%
Ukraine 7%
Other 31% IMPORTS
Other 31%
Ukraine 23%
99%
School leaving age: 16
Russia 8% Germany 11%
Romania 20%
10
HEALTH 1 per 370 people
†
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, liver disease
The centralized health service is poor by regional standards. There are serious shortages of medical supplies.
25
Position in World 1st
1 99%
100th
96
150th
Welfare state health benefits
20
WORLD RANKING
50th
Education has followed a Romanian (French-inspired) system since 1991. Mass protests met plans in 2002 to make Russian compulsory in schools.
15
Former communist officials have been well placed to benefit from the sale of state-owned businesses. Car ownership is low but rising. However, pensions and wages are often months in arrears. In 1998 the benefits for low-income families and veterans were scrapped. Ethnic Gagauz (Orthodox Christian Turks) are the poorest group.
114,939 students
Germany 9% Italy 12%
Italy 7%
Up 9% in 1999–2001
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
116 193rd
149
67 years
27 deaths
113
$460
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
409
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MONACO
Europe
EUROPE Italy France MONACO
OFFICIAL NAME: Principality of Monaco CAPITAL: Monaco-Ville POPULATION: 32,130 CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1861
1861
Nov 19
MC
+1
.mc
+377
M
ONACO IS A TINY ENCLAVE on the French Côte d’Azur. Its destiny changed radically in 1863, when Prince Charles III, after whom Monte Carlo is named, opened the casino there. Today, Monaco is a lucrative banking and services center, as well as a tourist destination. Prince Rainier’s marriage to film star Grace Kelly, and some astute management of the economy, successfully transformed Monaco into a center for the international jet set. In 1962, the prince’s absolute authority was abolished by a new, democratic constitution.
†
CLIMATE
TOURISM
Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR MONACO-VILLE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
263,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Visitors : Population 8.2:1
.
Down 3% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
Italy 23%
20/68
20/8
France 16%
10/50
10/4
UK 15%
0
0/32
†
Other 46%
-10/14 0 -20/-4
M
10
40
30
20
60
50
% of total arrivals
Summers are hot and dry; days with 12 hours of sunshine are not uncommon. Winters are mild and sunny.
†
TRANSPORTATION Héliport de Monaco, Fontvieille 120,151 passengers
Drive on right
8 ships
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 50 km (31 miles)
None
2 km (1 mile)
None
An underground railroad system opened in 1999, with the consequence that 2% of Monaco’s area could be reused. Part of the network of roads and tunnels is used for the Grand Prix each year. Air Monaco provides helicopter flights from N Nice airport.
Huge numbers of tourists, greatly outnumbering the inhabitants, are attracted to Monaco, most coming from Italy and France. Almost all are day-trippers drawn by the casinos and Monaco’s conspicuous high society. Around 75% of hotel rooms are classed as “four-star deluxe,” and the principality is a particular favorite of wealthy Italians. The Grimaldi Forum conference center, which opened in 2000, hopes to attract more business travelers. A number of social and sporting events attract particularly large crowds each spring, including the Rose Ball (March), the Tennis Open (April), and the Grand Prix (May).
E
C
Lycée de l'Annonciade
A
Musée National
R
Larvotto
F
Centre de la Culture et des Expositions
Gare de Monaco Casino
Hospitalier Grace
La Condamine
Monte-Carlo
Héliport
C
ô
t
e
u
z
Stade Louis II
Ministère d'Etat Port de Palais de Cathédrale MONACO Justice Fontvieille Musée Fontvieille Océanographique
r
Centre de Congrès
Port de Monaco
Palais Princier
410
Monte-Carlo Sporting Club d'Eté
d
'
A
N
MONACO Total Area : 1.95 sq. km (0.75 sq. miles) Places of Interest Parks and Gardens Grand Prix Circuit
0 0
500 m 1000 yds
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density high 16,477/km2 (42,840/mi2)
French, Italian, Monégasque, English THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
100% RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 5%
Protestant 6%
Roman Catholic 89%
Fewer than a fifth of Monaco’s residents are Monégasque. Around half are French, the rest Italian, American, British, and Belgian. Monégasques enjoy considerable privileges, including housing subsidies to protect them from Monaco’s high property prices, and the right of first refusal before a job can be offered to a foreigner. Women have equal status, but only acquired the vote in the constitutional changes of 1962.
†
POLITICS 2003/2008
Multiparty elections
H.S.H. Prince Rainier III
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Council 24 seats
12% UND
88% UPM UPM = Union for Monaco group UND = National and Democratic Union group There are no formal political parties
Prince Rainier III retains considerable power, appointing the government head from a list of French diplomats. The 2003 election, ending 40 years of UND rule, was seen as a vote of no confidence in UND leader Jean-Louis Campora, who was also president of the financially troubled AS Monaco soccer team, which plays in the French league.
WORLD AFFAIRS IWC
IAEA
OSCE
†
Joined UN in 1993
OIF
A key concern is to protect both banking secrecy and the liberal tax regime from EU regulation, though the principality has adopted the euro. France is particularly critical, and Monaco has banned French citizens from banking there since 1962.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MONACO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Electric power: Included within French total
RESOURCES 3 tonnes
Not an oil producer
None
None
Monaco has no strategic resources and imports all its energy from France. It has no agricultural land. Monte Carlo with its luxury hotels and yacht harbor. The only space for new development is on land reclaimed from the sea.
AID
†
,
Not applicable
Monaco neither receives nor gives aid, and the issue is not of concern to Monégasques.
DEFENSE France responsible for defense
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
Monaco has no armed forces and no defense budget. France, as the protecting power, bears responsibility for the defense of the principality.
ECONOMICS
Strong tourism sector. Strict banking confidentiality and low taxes attract billions of dollars of overseas deposits. Assets managed by Monaco banks increased by 18% a year in the late 1990s. Very low unemployment. No formal debt and reserves of over €2.3 billion. Main port expanded in 2002.
WEAKNESSES Continuing vulnerability to money laundering despite the 1994 accord with France obliging banks to furnish details of suspicious accounts. Subject to fluctuations of French and Italian economies. Dependence on VAT for bulk of revenues. Pressure from EU states to end privileged banking and tax laws. Lack of natural resources means total dependence on imports. EXPORTS/IMPORTS
Monaco has a full customs union with France
In 1297, the Grimaldis first seized control of the territory of which they became hereditary rulers. 1861 Independent under French protection. 1863 Monte Carlo casino opens. 1949 Rainier III accedes to throne. 1962 Constitution rewritten: end of absolute authority of the prince. 1963 Democratic legislative elections held for first time. 1982 Princess Grace dies following car accident. 2002 Euro introduced.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
680 per 1000 population
TV ownership high
1040 per 1000 population
Defense None Daily newspaper circulation 251 per 1000 people
Education No data PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Health 4.3%
There is 1 daily newspaper. Nice-Matin, a regional French newspaper, publishes a Monaco edition
0.822 euros (0.871)
STRENGTHS
†
MEDIA
†
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................156th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$27,500 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.....Included in French total INFLATION .....................Included in French total UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
4.1 tonnes per capita
Monaco has built the most extensive underground car parking facilities in the world to tackle congestion. The quality of the built environment around the harbor occasionally arouses local passions. Important populations of red coral are under threat from land reclamation and pollution.
Inflation 2.6% p.a. (1985–1996)
SCORE CARD
†
Not available
/
None Not applicable
Monaco has no aid receipts or donations
$870m
ENVIRONMENT
CHRONOLOGY
4 services: 1 part-owned by French state, 3 independent
2 services
In addition to its domestic radio and TV, Monaco receives all the mainstream French and Italian channels.
CRIME
†
13 prisoners
No death penalty
/
Up 35% in 2000–2001
Monaco was censured in 2002 by the OECD as one of seven “uncooperative tax havens” failing to respond to a campaign for greater financial transparency.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 15
1 per 152 people
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Monaco’s image abroad has changed dramatically since Prince Rainier acceded in 1949. From being considered simply as a gambling spot, it is now ranked as one of the world’s most glamorous international jet-set destinations. In part, this was the result of Prince Rainier’s marriage to Grace Kelly, then a leading Hollywood star, which brought Monaco to the attention of US high society. More important was the prince’s work in turning Monaco into a major tax haven and an upmarket resort, by making the most of its Mediterranean coastal location. Many celebrities are residents, among them Luciano Pavarotti, Ringo Starr, and racing drivers David Coulthard and Jenson Button.
Not available
The education system is essentially the same as that of France, with students studying for the baccalauréat exam. Most go on to university in France, but then return to claim good jobs in Monaco. The Catholic Church exerts considerable influence and is still responsible for primary schooling.
HEALTH
0
†
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers
Most medical care is provided by private health insurance. Doctors train in France. The Princess Grace Hospital can serve 60,000 people, also catering for patients from outside Monaco.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
9
7
$27,500
79 years
1 99%
5 4 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
411
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MONGOLIA
ASIA Russian Federation
OFFICIAL NAME: Mongolia CAPITAL: Ulan Bator POPULATION: 2.6 million CURRENCY: Tugrik (tögrög) OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Khalkha Mongolian 1924
1924
July 11
MGL
+8
.mn
+976
L
ANDLOCKED BETWEEN Siberia and China’s Mongolian provinces, Mongolia rises from the semiarid Gobi Desert to mountainous steppe. The traditionally nomadic Mongols were first unified by Genghis Khan in 1206. “Outer” Mongolia achieved independence from China as a communist state in 1924 and was officially aligned with the USSR from 1936. In 1990, it abandoned communist rule; widespread poverty ensued. Extremely harsh winters in 1999–2001 devastated the rural economy.
C h i n a
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density low
Khalkha Mongolian, Kazakh, Chinese, Russian
†
2/km2 (4/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
57%
43%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Chinese 2%
Russian 2%
CLIMATE
Asia
MONGOLIA
Kazakh 4%
Other 2% Mountain/cold desert/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR ULAN BATOR
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 30/86
Rainfall A
Mongol 90%
S O N D cm/in 30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Most Mongolians remain nomadic, but one-third live in Ulan Bator. Khalkh Mongols, who adhere to Tibetan Buddhism, are the main ethnic group. Turkic Kazakhs in the west form the largest minority, but many have emigrated since 1990. Family or clan names, banned under the communists, have been relegalized; Genghis Khan’s name, Borjigin, is immensely popular.
0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
Traditional gers in the Gobi Desert. Many Mongolians still choose to pursue a nomadic lifestyle, living in felt tents or gers.
-30/-22 -40/-40
Temperature variations are extreme. Dry summers combine with severe winters, known as zud, to devastate livestock, as happened in 1999 and 2000.
†
TRANSPORTATION Buyant Ukhaa, Ulan Bator
TOURISM 198,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:13
/
Up 3% in 2002
POLITICS 2004/2008
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS Drive on right
†
Multiparty elections
President Natsagyn Bagabandi
AT THE LAST ELECTION
China 39%
4% Ind
State Great Hural 76 seats
Russia 31%
Has no fleet
South Korea 6% THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Other 24%
1970 km (1224 miles)
None
1810 km (1125 miles)
400 km (249 miles)
20
10
0
30
49% MPRP
40
% of total arrivals
46% MDC
1% MRP
MPRP = Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party MDC = Motherland–Democratic Coalition Ind = Independents MRP = Mongolian Republican Party
Tourism has expanded since the easing of visa restrictions in 1991. Under communism, all travel was arranged through the state agency, Zhuuichin, but private companies have now entered the market.
A
The end of communism in 1990 revolutionized Mongolian politics. Lack of investment has left Mongolia’s The shock of economic reform led infrastructure to decay, increasing many Mongolians to regret the lost transportation and distribution costs. certainties of the communist era. The Links to China and the Pacific are failure of the former communist MPRP priorities. Gasoline shortages to revive the economy led to the victory have meant a large of a democratic coalition in 1996, though N A F I E S D S increase in from 1997 this was faced with E U R R A the use of cohabitation with MPRP Hövsgöl Uvs Nuur T Nuur I Ulaangom animals for President Natsagyn O Nayramadlin transportation. Bagabandi. 2000 N Orgil Ölgiy Hyargas Sünbaatar 4374m Mörön Nuur saw a sweeping S elenge H an Erdenet Darhan MPRP victory, Sharïn Gol g Hovd av a I y h Mönh Hayrhan an Dzüünharaa n Bulgan reducing the ONGOLIA M Uul 4362m Uliastay N O Choybalsan democrats to a ULAN BATOR u ulen r e r U K Baganuur Total Area : 1 565 000 sq. km Dzunnmod single seat, but N Altay Tsetserleg (604 247 sq. miles) Nalayh Öndörhaan T the election A Bayanhongor 0 400 km I Baruun-Urt Bogd N four years later S Arvayheer Khan 0 400 miles was neck and Mandalgovî I LAND HEIGHT POPULATION neck between B Saynshand the two parties, who over 500 000 O G 3000m/9843ft after much wrangling over 50 000 N Dalandzadgad 2000m/6562ft agreed to share power. over 10 000 L
T
D
z
A
M
Orhon
u
u
A
M
under 10 000
1000m/3281ft
C
above 500m
412
H
N I
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MONGOLIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS IAEA
IBRD
Joined UN in 1961
ADB
NAM
WTO
Closer relations with Japan and other east Asian states have failed to weaken Mongolia’s ties with Russia and China. There are residual tensions with China, since the majority of ethnic Mongols actually reside in the adjoining Chinese province of Inner Mongolia, but there is no longer a fear of Chinese designs on Mongolian sovereignty.
AID
†
Recipient
$208m (receipts)
.
$23m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 4% in 2002
The last Soviet forces left in 1992. However, ties are still strong, and under agreements reached in 2000 and 2001, Russia is helping to reform the greatly reduced and poorly equipped Mongolian forces.
ECONOMICS $1.06bn
†
Inflation 51% p.a. (1990–2001)
117 tonnes 11.8m sheep, 8.86m goats, 2.2m horses
Oil, coal, copper, lead, fluorite, tungsten, tin, gold, uranium
Under communism, Mongolia’s vast mineral resources were barely exploited. Mining and minerals-related industries are now rapidly growing sectors of the economy. A uraniummining joint venture with Russia has been established. Mongolia’s oil reserves are sufficient to meet future domestic needs; in 1999 an oil extraction agreement was signed with China.
ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS Copper and cashmere. Largely untapped coal and oil reserves. Traditional and efficient rural economy.
Harsh winters ravaged livestock between 1999 and 2001. Decaying infrastructure. Rising poverty. EXPORTS
Australia 3%
China 41%
South Korea 4% Russia 9% Other 11%
USA 32%
Germany 4%
South Korea 12% Russia 34%
China 20% Other 24%
CHRONOLOGY In the 17th century, the Manchus took control of Mongolia. It stayed in Chinese hands until 1911. 1919 China reoccupies Mongolia. 1924 Independent communist state. 1989–1990 Prodemocracy protests; first multiparty elections. 1992 New constitution. 1996 Democratic Union coalition wins general election. 1997 MPRP wins presidency. 1999–2001 Severe winters. 2000 Landslide victory for MPRP. 2004 Election leaves both MPRP and MDC just short of a majority.
Sustainability rank: 42nd
3.1 tonnes per capita
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart, parasitic, and respiratory diseases
1 per 366 people
Shortages of drugs and equipment have renewed interest in traditional Mongolian herbal medicine. As well as the state-run system, some Buddhist monasteries provide health care.
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 17 per 1000 people
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
M
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
18 per 1000 population
There are 4 daily newspapers, Önöödör, Zuuny Medee, Unen, and Ödriin Sonin 5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
53 per 1000 population
Defense 2.2%
9 services: 1 state-owned, 8 independent
Education 6.2% Health 4.6%
Slander and libel laws were abolished in 1990, and legislation enacted in 1999 eased curbs on the media. However, paper and fuel shortages have restricted the number of publications and their distribution. Several independent radio and TV stations compete with the state-owned service.
†
7256 prisoners
Death penalty in use
.
Down 1% in 2000–2001
Crime rose rapidly in the early 1990s, particularly organized crime and muggings by knife gangs. Ulan Bator is the most dangerous area, especially for foreigners; Russians, Chinese, and dollar-carrying US tourists are the main targets.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
Japan 6%
†
MEDIA
CRIME
WEAKNESSES
†
The air in Ulan Bator is heavily polluted as a result of burning soft coal in power plants and the nonenforcement of environmental laws. In 2001 efforts were renewed to preserve the Bogd Khan, the world’s oldest protected area, from air pollution, hunting, and illegal logging.
1174 tugriks (1126)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................153rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$430 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$105m INFLATION .......................................21.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
.
12%
SCORE CARD
Electric power 901,000 kW
200 b/d (reserves 1.5bn barrels)
Down 2% in 2002
A balance-of-payments deficit and severe weather make aid vital. The main donors are Japan and the ADB.
DEFENSE
†
RESOURCES
98%
†
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Economic liberalization has fueled great disparities in wealth. An estimated 50% of the population live below the poverty line; the poorest cannot even afford to buy bread. Starvation threatened after the severe winters of 1999–2001.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
56
100th
98%
School leaving age: 15
150th
125
98,400 students 193rd
Education is modeled on the former Soviet system. Most teachers are women on low salaries. Private universities and higher education institutions outnumber state-run facilities.
151
65 years
$430
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
117 134 58 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
413
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
MOROCCO
NORTH AFRICA MOROCCO
MA
0
TOURISM
.ma
+212
OROCCO IS SITUATED in north Africa, but at its northernmost point lies only 12 km (8 miles) from mainland Europe, across the Strait of Gibraltar. The northern regions have a Mediterranean climate, while the south comprises semiarid desert. The late King Hassan’s international prestige gave Morocco status out of proportion to its wealth. The main issues facing the country are the internal threat of Islamist militancy and the stalled political process in Western Sahara, the former Spanish colony occupied by Morocco since 1975. Key economic strengths are tourism, phosphates, and agriculture.
†
Hot desert/mountain/ Mediterranean
Mohammed V, Casablanca 3.4m passengers
WEATHER CHART FOR RABAT
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
481 km (299 miles)
1907 km (1185 miles)
None
Germany 4% UK 3% Italy 3% Other 65%
Drive on right
The public transportation network is good. A highway links Rabat and Casablanca, and plans for a new trans-Sahara highway from Tanger to Lagos, Nigeria, were announced in 2000. In rural areas, however, roads tend to peter out.
0
20
10
A
E
Tétouan Larache
C
I
O
Ksar el Kebir S
C
Al K hat t
I L Safi
Ou
N
T
550m
R
r R bi a
A
U
A
Tichla
0
Jebel Toubkal 4165m
100 km
M
Guerguerat
0
U
A
H
Taourirt
Taza
T
A
T
T
Moy Khénifra
L
L
A
en
At
la
s
A
S
S
M
O
U
Agadir
Tiznit
A
I N
S
Figuig
Er Rachidia
BoumaineDadès
A
N
T
I
-
A
T
L
S
A
I
Dr âa
R E
G Ouarkzi
over 1 000 000 over 500 000
A SAHARA
over 100 000 over 50 000
N 0 0
MOROCCO Total Area : 446 300 sq. km (172 316 sq. miles)
POPULATION
L
z
Tan-Tan
414
T
N
A
Ouarzazate
100 miles
WEST E R N
Jerada
Fès
Beni Mellal
Marrakech
Essaouira
Berkane
Sefrou
El Kelâa des Srarhna
Ten sift
N
TE RR AN EAN SEA Al Hoceima
Oued Zem me
Youssoufia
A I
Imilili
Tagarzimat Argoub Fucht
I
A
80
Oujda
Meknès
Khouribga
T Guelta Zemmur
70
ou
Azrou Settat
60
MELILLA Nador (to Spain)
Chaouèn F Ouazzane
Sidi Kacem
Salé
T N El Jadida
A
A
N A
E C
O
IC T
N T Ad Dakhla
Jdiriya ui a a l H am ra
Boukra
Sebaiera
A
Kénitra
RABAT Mohammedia Casablanca
Semara
L
A
S
Lemsid Boujdour
Al Haggounia
ag
50
ltar M Gibra E St ra it of D CEUTA I Tanger (to Spain)
R
Dawra
Laâyoune
A L G ER I A
M O R O C C O
40
Tourism is vital to the Moroccan economy. Good beaches abound; Agadir has 300 days of sunshine a year. Fès and Marrakech offer remarkable architecture and bustling markets, while the Atlas Mountains attract walkers and skiers. Desert safaris are offered in the Sahara. The threat of Islamist terrorist activity has deterred some Western visitors.
eb
WESTERN SAHARA
30
% of total arrivals
N
The climate ranges from warm and temperate in the north to semiarid in the south, but temperatures are cooler in the mountains, especially in the High (Haut) Atlas. During the summer, the effects of the sirocco and chergui, hot winds from the Sahara, are felt.
M
Down 1% in 2002
Spain 5%
-10/14 -20/-4
.
France 20%
483 ships 501,700 grt
32,311 km (20,077 miles)
Visitors : Population 1:7.3
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
4.19m visitors
†
ulo uya
July 30
Mauritania Mali
Mo
1969
M
CLIMATE
A l ger i a
WESTERN SAHARA
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Morocco CAPITAL: Rabat POPULATION: 30.6 million CURRENCY: Moroccan dirham OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1956
Africa
Spain
100 km
over 10 000 100 miles
under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MOROCCO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 69/km2 (178/mi2)
Arabic, Tamazight (Berber), French, Spanish THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
57%
43%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (mostly Christian) 1% Muslim (mainly Sunni) 99%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
European 1%
Berber 29%
live mainly in mountain villages, while the Arab majority inhabit the lowlands. Before independence from France, 450,000 Europeans lived in Morocco; numbers have since greatly diminished. Some 6000 Jews enjoy religious freedom and full civil rights – a position in society unique among Arab countries. Most people speak Arabic, and French is also spoken in urban areas. Sunni Islam is the religion of almost all of the population. The king is the spiritual leader through his position as Commander of the Faithful. Female emancipation was boosted by reforms in 2004, giving women equal responsibility in family matters and greatly restricting polygamy.
The town of Boumaine-Dadès lies in the southern foothills of the Atlas Mountains. The region’s outstanding scenery makes it one of Morocco’s major tourist attractions.
†
Joined UN in 1956
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
AMU
NAM
OIC
OIF
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Arab 70%
Morocco, the westernmost of the Maghreb states, is the main refuge for descendants of the original Berber inhabitants of northwest Africa. About 35% of Moroccans speak Berber languages, mainly Tamazight. They
POLITICS
†
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2003/2006
80+
3%
60–79
16.4%
0.7% 2.5%
40–59
6.4%
20–39
15.1%
0–19
24.4%
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections
H.M. King Mohammed VI
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 325 seats
15% 15% USFP I
0.8%
7.3%
23.4%
Male
13% 13% 8% 6% 5% 25% PJD RNI MP MNP UC Others
USFP = Socialist Union of Popular Forces I = Istiqlal (Independence) PJD = Justice and Development Party RNI = National Rally of Independents MP = Popular Movement MNP = National Popular Movement UC = Constitutional Union
House of Councillors 270 seats
An indirectly elected House of Councillors was formed in 1997
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature. The king appoints (and may dismiss) the prime minister and, on the prime minister’s recommendation, other members of the cabinet.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES The post-Hassan monarchy King Mohammed VI is seen as a less dominating figure than his father, Hassan II, and his accession in 1999 raised hopes for change. His marriage in 2002 to computer engineer Salma Bennani was presented as evidence of a more modern and open outlook. Mohammed has proved cautious, however, in his approach to reform. Islamist militancy There is now a more tolerant stance toward Islamist politics. In 2000, Abdessalam Yassine, spiritual leader of the banned Justice and Good Deeds movement, was released after ten years in prison without trial. Pro-Islamic rallies have far outnumbered those by supporters of greater rights for women. In 2003, suicide bombings in Casablanca were linked to al-Qaida, suggesting a widening of Islamic extremist activities.
PROFILE The formation of a socialist-led government after the elections in 1997 was seen as a breakthrough in terms of indicating the growing role of the party system. The ruling parties maintained their strength in the 2002 elections, with the USFP and Istiqlal gaining most seats, but support for Islamists (the PJD) rose dramatically. Independent Driss Jettou was appointed prime minister.
King Hassan II held an ambiguous position in global politics as both a supporter of the West and a leading figure in the Islamic community. A defender of Jewish minority rights, he was viewed by successive Israeli leaders in particular as an Arab moderate. In contrast, his son Mohammed VI has so far failed to make his mark in international Islamic politics or the Arab–Israeli conflict to any comparable extent. International concern has focused on Morocco’s occupation since 1975 of the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara. Resistance by Polisario Front guerrillas, who are fighting for an independent Western Sahara, began in 1983 and has continued, despite a 1991 UN-brokered peace plan. Since then, UN proposals have included a referendum on self-determination and autonomy for Western Sahara under Moroccan sovereignty. The process remains stalled, with the UN repeatedly extending its mandate. Relations with the EU are complicated by the production of cannabis in Morocco. Nonetheless, moves toward closer ties were advanced by the signing of an association agreement in late 1995, envisaging free trade in industrial goods within 12 years. In recognition of its role in the “war on terrorism” the US named Morocco a major non-NATO ally in 2004. Sovereignty disputes with Spain over rocky islets in the Mediterranean were at the heart of a high-profile confrontation in 2002.
AID
†
Recipient
$636m (receipts)
Prime Minister Driss Jettou, appointed in 2002.
King Mohammed VI, who succeeded his father, Hassan II.
/
Up 23% in 2002
The main donors of aid to Morocco are the EU, France, and other Arab countries. Many countries provided assistance after the 2004 earthquake.
415
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Independence from France in 1956 ended colonial rule over the oldest monarchy in the Arab world. The present Alaoui dynasty has ruled Morocco since 1666.
.
Compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
MOROCCAN ARMED FORCES 744 main battle tanks (224 M-48A5, 420 M-60, 100 T-72)
175,000 personnel
2 frigates and 27 patrol boats
7800 personnel
95 combat aircraft (39 F-5, 29 Mirage F-1, 4 0V-10, 23 Alpha Jet)
13,500 personnel
None
Morocco’s long struggle in Western Sahara against Polisario Front guerrillas earned its forces a formidable reputation. Moroccans have also fought as mercenaries in the Gulf. In the 1980s, sappers constructed a 2500-km (1550mile) defensive wall to cordon off
ECONOMICS $34.7bn
†
Western Sahara in an attempt to prevent incursions from Polisario guerrillas based in Algeria. Polisario forces themselves number some 3000–6000. Morocco’s pro-Western stance has allowed its forces access to sophisticated weapons and training from the West, particularly the US, which in 2004 named Morocco a major non-NATO ally. The air force was formed in 1956 and flies US and European aircraft, notably Mirage interceptors. The navy uses Western-supplied ships, but is insignificant in regional terms. In addition, there are 50,000 paramilitaries. Spending on defense as a percentage of gross national product is relatively high for a developing country. Conscription lasts for 18 months. In practice most enlisted personnel are volunteers.
Inflation 2.7% p.a. (1990–2001)
9.024 Moroccan dirhams (9.455)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................58th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1170 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$1.49bn INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................19%
EXPORTS
Italy 5%
Other 41%
Germany 6% UK 8% Spain 14%
France 26% IMPORTS
USA 5%
Other 49%
Italy 6% Germany 6% Spain 13%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
416
$1.31bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
M
1956 France recognizes Moroccan independence under Sultan Mohammed ibn Yousif. Morocco joins UN. Spain renounces control over most of its territories. 1957 Sultan Mohammed king. 1961 Hassan succeeds his father. 1967 Morocco backs Arab cause in Six-Day War with Israel. 1969 Spain returns Ifni to Morocco. 1972 King Hassan survives assassination attempt. 1975 International Court of Justice grants right of self-determination to Western Saharan people. Moroccan forces seize Saharan capital. 1976 Morocco and Mauritania partition Western Sahara. 1979 Mauritania renounces claim to part of Western Sahara, which is added to Morocco’s territory. 1984 King Hassan signs Oujda Treaty with Col. Gaddafi of Libya as first step toward Maghreb union. Morocco leaves OAU after criticism of its role in Western Sahara. 1986 Morocco abrogates Oujda Treaty. 1987 Defensive wall built around Western Sahara. 1989 Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) creates tariff-free zone between Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania. 1990 Morocco condemns Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. 1991 Morocco accepts UN plan for referendum in Western Sahara. 1992 New constitution grants majority party in parliament right to choose government. 1993 First general election for nine years. After major parties refuse his invitation, king appoints nonparty government. 1994 King Hassan replaces veteran prime minister Karim Lamrani with Abdellatif Filali. 1995 Islamist opposition leader Mohamed Basri returns after 28 years of exile. Severe drought. 1998 Socialists enter government under Abderrahmane el Youssoufi. 1999 Death of King Hassan. Mohammed VI enthroned. Liberalization program announced. 2002 Islamists gain in elections. 2003 Polisario accepts UN plan to grant Western Sahara autonomy within Morocco, though Moroccan government rejects it. 2004 Over 500 killed in earthquake.
DEFENSE
2002
Severe drought in 1995 made austerity measures necessary. Socialist-led governments have given social policy a higher priority. Expected revenue from oil reserves will be channeled into the development of rural areas. A free trade deal was signed with the US in 2004 – its first with an African country. MOROCCO : MAJOR BUSINESSES Tanger
France 21%
Fès
Casablanca
STRENGTHS Probusiness policies and abundant labor attract foreign investment. Key sectors are tourism, mining (particularly phosphates), agriculture, textiles, and leather. Discovery of oil and gas.
Khouribga Safi
Youssoufia
WEAKNESSES High unemployment and population growth. Overdependence on droughtprone agriculture. External debt restrains modernization.
Textiles
Marrakech
Chemicals Phosphates
Fish processing
PROFILE The privatization program, begun in 1992, was designed to attract investment, from Europe in particular.
Boudnib
Agadir
Tan-Tan 0 0
200 km 200 miles
Food processing Light engineering Heavy engineering Vehicle manufacture
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MOROCCO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 1.08m tonnes
261 b/d (reserves 659m barrels)
16.7m sheep, 5.21m goats, 137m chickens
Phosphates, oil, gas, coal, iron, barytes, lead, copper, zinc
in the northeastern desert in mid2000 could yield an annual revenue of $400 million. MOROCCO : LAND USE
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Cropland High mountain regions Sebou ya Pasture Forest Desert S IN Sheep TA UN Fruit O M AS Wheat ATL
Mo ulo u
Hydro 5% (0.7bn kWh) Combustion 95% (13bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Morocco possesses around a third of the world’s phosphate reserves. The discovery of large oil and gas deposits
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.7% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 73rd
0
†
CRIME 54,207 prisoners
200 miles
Death penalty in use
/
There is one hospital bed for every 1000 people. Despite recent progress, child mortality and nutritional standards for the poorest Moroccans remain substantially below the average. Outside the cities, access to primary health care is poor, with the result that people depend on traditional remedies for illnesses. All employees are required to contribute to a social welfare fund, which operates a system of benefits in the event of illness and occupational accidents, and during old age.
Yes
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Crime has risen sharply
42 per 1000 population
38 per 1000 population
CRIME RATES
Yes
2
Defense 3.6% Education 5%
per 100,000 population
Health 2%
Rapes Yes
Neonatal causes, cerebrovascular and heart diseases
1 per 2000 people
Murders Yes
Welfare state health benefits
200 km
0
1.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
†
HEALTH
Electric power 4m kW
Yes
3
per 100,000 population
235
per 100,000 population
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
Morocco’s wealth of plant and animal life has suffered severely from long periods of drought, most recently in the early 1980s and early 1990s. The unplanned development of tourist resorts is posing a threat to fragile coastal ecosystems.
MEDIA
†
Urban crime is increasing; tourists offer a soft target. Prisons are overcrowded, and conditions are poor. Civil occasions are used to pardon thousands of prisoners at a time.
TV ownership medium
†
EDUCATION
Daily newspaper circulation 28 per 1000 people 51%
School leaving age: 14
276,018 students
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA THE EDUCATION SYSTEM There are 15 daily newspapers, including Le Matin du Sahara et du Maghreb, Rissalat al-Oumma, al-Alam, and L'Opinion
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
The succession of Mohammed VI fueled hopes of a more liberal climate, but the media remain effectively controlled by pressure from the state. Self-censorship is commonplace, particularly over reporting of the Western Sahara issue and royal stories. In 2000, the outspoken French-language weekly Demain was banned. The sports pages, especially the soccer reports, are the most dynamic sections of the press. Radio broadcasts are in Arabic, Berber, French, Spanish, and English. International broadcasts are readily available to those who can afford satellite television.
% of each age group in education
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
100
80
60
Average income per head is much lower than in the neighboring countries of Algeria and Tunisia. Over 14% of Moroccans live below the UN poverty line of $2 a day, and the rural–urban gap in wealth is considerable; just under half of the population live in rural areas. A period of drought in the 1990s encouraged urban drift. Unrest has largely been avoided owing to the fact that Morocco has a thriving informal sector. This provides jobs in food processing, clothes manufacturing, goods transportation, and the hotel and building trades. In addition, there is work to be found in the illegal hashish trade and the smuggling of alcohol and Western goods.
WORLD RANKING
100% 40
Position in World
0
1st
41%
20
10% Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Literacy and elementary school net enrollment rates compare unfavorably with neighboring north African states; the widespread use of child labor is a cause for international concern. The Berber language Tamazight was used in primary schools for the first time in 2003 as part of a ten-year pledge to introduce it at all levels of education. Al-Qarawiyin University in Fès was reputedly founded in the 9th century.
50th
100th
150th
193rd
114
113
$1170
68 years
119 39 deaths
125
167 51%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
417
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD SOUTHERN AFRICA
MOZAMBIQUE
Malawi Zambia Zimbabwe
1975
1975
June 25
MOC
+2
.mz
+258
S
ITUATED ON THE SOUTHEAST African coast, Mozambique is bisected by the Zambezi River. South of the Zambezi lies a semiarid savanna lowland. The more fertile north-central delta provinces around Tete are home to most of Mozambique’s ethnically diverse population. Following independence from Portugal in 1975, Mozambique was torn apart by civil war between the (then Marxist) Frelimo government and the South African-backed Mozambique National Resistance (Renamo). The conflict finally ended in 1992 after UN arbitration. Multiparty elections in 1994 returned Frelimo to power. Hit by devastating floods in 2000 and 2001, Mozambique is now one of Africa’s top attractors of foreign investment.
CLIMATE
†
24/km2 (62/mi2)
Makua, Xitsonga, Sena, Lomwe, Portuguese THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
34%
66%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 14%
Christian 30%
Tropical wet and dry ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 3%
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Generally, Mozambique has a rainy season and a dry season; the coast at Beira and at Quelimane and the highlands west of Nampula are the wettest areas; the Zambezi valley is the hottest region. The country is prone, however, to weather extremes. In the 1980s, frequent failure of the rains contributed to two disastrous famines, while devastating floods occurred in 2000 and 2001, and drought returned in 2002.
TRANSPORTATION Maputo International 445,383 passengers
†
TOURISM 942,885 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:20
/
Up 95% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
South Africa 36% Zimbabwe 25% Malawi 24% Swaziland 4%
Drive on left
131 ships 37,200 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 5776 km (3589 miles)
None
2072 km (1287 miles)
3750 km (2330 miles)
The billion-dollar Maputo Corridor connects South African industrial centers with the Mozambican coast, and has facilitated port modernization since its completion in 1995. CFM, the state-owned railroad company, is cooperating with other neighboring states. The national airline is no longer state-owned and has faced difficulty in recent years. Landmines still hamper access, particularly in rural areas. Remote communities remain isolated.
Malawi 12%
Tsonga 23%
Tea picking. Other important cash crops are cashew nuts, cotton, sugar, copra, and citrus fruits. Agriculture employs 85% of workers.
-20/-4
Yao 4% Shona 11%
Makua Lomwe 47%
0
0/32 -10/14
418
Pop. density low
Traditional beliefs 56%
40/104
M
†
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR MAPUTO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Madagascar
S. Africa
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Mozambique CAPITAL: Maputo POPULATION: 18.9 million CURRENCY: Metical OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese
Africa
Tanzania MOZAMBIQUE
Portugal 2% Other 9% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Mozambique used to attract around 300,000 South Africans and Rhodesians a year in the 1970s. The tourist industry was destroyed by the civil war and is still being rebuilt. Landmines still render travel outside the capital hazardous, while food shortages, poor infrastructure, and costly international flights are added obstacles. The floods in 2000 and 2001 were the cause of further setbacks. Given political stability, though, Mozambique could yet exploit its excellent beaches and game reserves, which include the Gorongosa National Park. Some hotel groups are once more targeting Maputo as a luxury tourist and conference venue.
The very large black African majority is divided into numerous groups. There are tiny minorities of whites, mixedrace groups, and Asians. However, the predominant social tensions are regional: Renamo, strong in the north and the center, accuses the Frelimo government of consistently favoring the south. Antiwhite feelings are growing too, as “Africanists” claim that whites enjoy disproportionate political and economic influence. Society centers on the extended family. In some northern provinces this is matriarchal. Polygamy is fairly widespread among men who can support second wives. Frelimo emphasizes women’s rights. Many women served in Frelimo armies, and are now protected by divorce, childcustody, and husband-desertion laws. The Mozambican Women’s Organization encourages political participation. The death of almost a million people during 17 years of civil war has seriously affected the economy and society. The sheer loss of manpower is exacerbated by the parallel increase in the number of orphans, widows, and amputees. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.1% 2.1% 6.7% 14.2% 28.3%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
Male 0.1% 1.7% 6.1% 12.5%
0–19 % of population by age group
28.2%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MOZAMBIQUE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Multiparty elections
A
L E
Mueda
Mucojo The move to democracy nda ge lo Metangula Lu The country’s first democratic ss e M elections were held in 1994 Pemba Lichinga Marrupa Montepuez and returned Frelimo to I Lúrio power. However, o B Lúri Mandimba Nacala M support for A Cassacatiza Renamo was Cuamba Ulonguè Monapo Lumbo Ribáuè stronger Moçambique Vila do Cahora Lago de than had Nampula Zumbo Bassa Dam Zóbuè Alto Molócuè Cahora Bassa Songo been Milange Tete expected. Angoche Mandié Their leader Mocuba Afonso Dhlakama Mualama Changara polled strongly in the Vila de Sena Namacurra presidential elections U Caia Z am in both 1994 and 1999, Quelimane Q contesting Joaquim ng oè Gorgongosa I Manica National Park Chissano’s claim of Inchope Chimoio victory. In 2002 Frelimo Dondo INDIAN Monte Binga chose Armando Beira i 2436m Buz Guebeza as its Baía de O CEAN Espungabera Sofala candidate for the Machaze Machanga 2004 presidential OZAMBIQUE elections S a ve to replace Total Area : 801 590 sq. km (309 494 sq. miles) incumbent Chicualacuala Inhambane Chissano. POPULATION
N
A
L
47% Renamo
A
Frelimo = Front for the Liberation of Mozambique Renamo = Mozambique National Resistance
A
53% Frelimo
Negomane
N y a s a
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
I A Palma A N uma Mocímboa Z v da Praia T A N Ro
N
M
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Assembly of the Republic 250 seats
2000, and parliamentary defections between parties. There has been occasional violent rioting.
L a k e
President Joaquim Alberto Chissano
1999/2004
a
†
POLITICS
Z
C
E
E
W
B
M
gane an Ch
M
O
Z
Z
I
A
M
M
B
B
A
zi be
Pú
po po m Li
Changing international realities in 1990 at the end of the Cold War persuaded the previously Soviet-backed Frelimo government to adopt a democratic constitution. Its civil-war rival Renamo lost the support of South Africa after the fall of apartheid there in the same year, and today little distinguishes the two parties ideologically. Though Frelimo is the larger party in the Assembly, Renamo is clearly popular, and demands recognition for its 15 years of struggle. New groups, such as the antiwhite Palmo, Coinmo, and Unamo, have recently emerged; Frelimo is pushing ahead with plans to decentralize power. Fears for the future of Mozambican democracy have been rekindled since 1999 amid worsening disputes between Renamo and Frelimo. Contentious issues include provincial representation, the murder of a prominent journalist in
I
PROFILE
H
W
Mozambique held its first multiparty elections in 1994.
over 1 000 000
S O U T H
Funhalouro Reconstruction over 100 000 Mabalane The government over 50 000 is slowly Panda over 10 000 rebuilding a under 10 000 Chibuto country where Quissico Macia devastating LAND HEIGHT Xai-Xai floods in 2000 N Moamba 2000m/6562ft and 2001, and Namaacha MAPUTO Baía de Maputo 1000m/3281ft severe drought SWAZILAND Bela Vista in 2002, have 500m/1640ft Zitundo Catuane 0 200 km simply added to 200m/656ft the ravages of 0 200 miles Sea Level civil war. The C A fighting had left CHRONOLOGY 900,000 dead, one Joaquim Chissano, Afonso Dhlakama, The Portuguese tapped the local million refugees, and an estimated president since 1986, Renamo leader, trade in slaves, gold, and ivory in the 80% of the remaining population has pushed toward has turned from political pluralism. 16th century and made Mozambique militarism to politics. living below the national poverty line. a colony in 1752. Large areas were run by private companies until 1929. Joined UN in 1975 WORLD AFFAIRS
A F R I
†
Comm
CPLP
AU
OIC
SADC
Mozambique was a key Cold War battleground between Soviet-backed Marxism and capitalism sponsored by the US and South Africa. The resulting civil war devastated the country until peace in 1992. In the early 1980s, however, the Frelimo government’s position began to shift as Soviet aid became erratic. Responding to President Samora Machel’s overtures, the US lifted its ban on economic assistance in 1984. Britain agreed to train Frelimo’s
forces in 1987. South Africa continued tacitly to support Renamo until at least 1990. Zimbabwean troops helped Mozambique guard the strategically important Beira and Limpopo corridors, but left in 1993. In 1995, the UN withdrew its peacekeepers and a democratic Mozambique joined the Commonwealth, despite having no formal links with the old British Empire. President Chissano became deputy head of the SADC, but regional tensions persisted, with Mozambique accusing South Africans of gun-running, and Swaziland claiming Maputo Province as its own.
1964 Frelimo starts war of liberation. 1975 Independence. Frelimo leader Samora Machel is president. 1976 Rhodesians set up Renamo resistance movement inside Mozambique. 1976–1980 Mozambique closes Rhodesian border and supports Zimbabwean freedom fighters. Reprisals by Renamo. 1977 Frelimo constitutes itself as Marxist-Leninist party. 1980 South Africa takes over backing of Renamo.
419
M
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued 1982 Zimbabwean troops arrive to guard Mutare–Beira corridor. 1984 Nkomati Accord: South Africa agrees to stop support for Renamo, and Mozambique for ANC, but fighting continues. 1986 Renamo declares war on Zimbabwe. Tanzanian troops reinforce Frelimo. Machel dies in mysterious air crash in South Africa. Joaquim Chissano replaces him. 1988 Nkomati Accord reactivated. Mozambicans allowed back to work in South African mines. 1989 War and malnutrition said to claim one million lives. Frelimo drops Marxism-Leninism. 1990 Multipartyism and free-market economy in new constitution. Renamo breaches cease-fire. 1992 Chissano signs peace agreement with Renamo. 1994 Democratic elections return Frelimo to power. 1995 Joins Commonwealth. Economic reforms begun. 1999 G7 chooses Mozambique as flagship for international debt relief initiative. Renamo disputes results of December elections. 2000–2001 Thousands displaced by devastating floods.
M ECONOMICS $3.64bn
†
22,852 meticais (23,345)
South Africa 18%
IMPORTS
India 4%
†
DEFENSE
.
$76m
is worth nearly $3 billion. Debt servicing still accounted for almost 50% of aid in 2001–2002, but recent cancellations under the HIPC scheme have slashed hundreds of millions of dollars from the debt total. The main donor states are France, Italy, Germany, the US, and the UK.
Compulsory military service Down 12% in 2002
Since the civil war ended in 1992 the military’s once dominant role in society has greatly diminished. Military figures have been largely stripped of political influence and defense spending has been cut dramatically. Internal security is now a police issue. Mozambique’s new postwar, Britishtrained permanent army was formally inaugurated in 1994. Truly national in character, and only around 8000 strong, it contains both former government and Renamo troops. While there are some military aircraft, they are mostly nonoperational. One by-product of reorganization, however, was the demobilization of some 75,000 battle-hardened soldiers. Their severance pay ended in 1996, and it has not been easy to retrain them, or
reintegrate them into civilian life. Some have turned to banditry. The end of the civil war saw the departure of external forces, such as UN peacekeepers and also the Zimbabwean troops who once guarded strategic railroads against Renamo attack. MOZAMBICAN ARMED FORCES
USA 5% Portugal 6% South Africa 23%
STRENGTHS IMF-sponsored program of privatization, exchange-rate reforms, and trade liberalization have helped attract aid and investment and increase exports. Relative political stability. Massive rural development programs
420
7000 personnel
Some patrol boats
200 personnel
No combat aircraft
1000 personnel
None
Consumer Price Index
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
target agriculture, which employs 85% of the workforce. Fisheries industry has great potential. Improved transportation links with Maputo, Africa’s second-largest harbor, will help to service southern Africa’s landlocked regions.
Though Mozambique has enormous economic problems, the Chissano government in 1995 produced an optimistic plan, based on World Bank recommendations, to eradicate poverty and raise annual GDP growth to 8–9% by 2000. Despite the devastation resulting from the floods of 2000 and 2001, GDP growth soon recovered, averaging 9% in 2003–2004. The go-ahead for a new port at Dobela, in the south, was given in 2002. MOZAMBIQUE : MAJOR BUSINESSES Pemba
Nacala Tete
WEAKNESSES Other 58%
80 main battle tanks (T-54/55)
PROFILE
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
GDP 1998=100
Spain 5% Zimbabwe 6%
Other 25%
Australia 4%
Up 121% in 2002
Mozambique is one of the most aiddependent countries in the world; aid accounted for over half of GNP in 2002. In 1999, however, it became one of only four countries to benefit from the G7 debt-relief scheme for HIPCs, which
Consumer price index 1998=100
EXPORTS
Belgium 42%
/
Inflation 30% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................125th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$200 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$421m INFLATION .......................................16.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................21%
Portugal 4%
Recipient
$2.06bn (receipts)
SCORE CARD
†
AID
Overseas aid is essential to prevent at least half the population starving. Overdependence on foreign donors and companies is another long-term concern. The country is susceptible to drought, floods, and cyclones. Skilled workers often choose to work in other countries, impeding Mozambique’s return to normal economic activity. Increase in corruption.
Quelimane Beira
Maputo 0 0
Textiles Fertilizers Coal mining
Agribusiness Fish processing Food processing Manufacturing
200 km 200 miles
* significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: MOZAMBIQUE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 32,512 tonnes
Not an oil producer
1.32m cattle, 670,000 ducks, 28m chickens
Coal, iron, tantalite, uranium, gold, bauxite, titanium, copper, gas
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
The Mozal aluminum smelter opened in 2000 and has boosted export earnings. Gold production has also increased. Natural gas reserves are underexploited, but a pipeline to South Africa was opened in early 2004.
am
Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
Forest Pasture Cropland Cereals Cattle
Li
% of total generation by type
be
zi
Combustion 0%
/
8% (6% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 59th
0
200 km
0
200 miles
†
CRIME
0.1 tonnes per capita
o
ENVIRONMENT
po p m
MOZAMBIQUE : LAND USE
Shrimp and prawns are farmed and exported. On dry land, cotton vies with cashew nuts as the chief crop.
,
During Mozambique’s savage civil war thousands of people lost limbs from landmines or suffered other appalling injuries and psychological trauma. Health services have improved since the end of the war under a program of centralization. Some observers, however, fear that internationally supported moves toward privatization may affect quality. Many private clinics have been established since 1987. Cholera, a lingering by-product of the war, is still a serious issue in the far northern province of Cabo Delgado. An estimated 1.3 million Mozambicans have contracted HIV.
Little change from year to year
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Tuberculosis, gastroenteric infections, pneumonia, AIDS
SPENDING
No death penalty
8812 prisoners
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 50,000 people
Z
Hydro 100% (6.9bn kWh)
†
HEALTH
Electric power 2.1m kW
5 per 1000 population
5 per 1000 population
Murders No
Yes
Yes
4
per 100,000 population
Defense 2%
Rapes Yes
Yes
No
3
Education 2.4%
per 100,000 population
Health 4% 0
Thefts
Floods followed by droughts are often devastating. Floods in 2000 and 2001, resulting from a combination of cyclones and torrential rain, affected around one million people. Civil war had pushed people toward the cities and coasts, causing overcrowding, disease, pollution, and desertification of abandoned farms. The Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park opened in 2002. Straddling the border with South Africa and Zimbabwe and covering 35,000 sq. km (13,500 sq. miles), it is Africa’s largest reserve. Ecological concerns, however, are still low on the national agenda.
†
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 5 daily newspapers, including Notícias and Diário de Moçambique 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
5 services: 2 state-owned, 3 independent
The press, hitherto a Frelimo publicity machine, has enjoyed greater freedom in the 1990s. The killing in 2000 of a popular and outspoken editor, Carlos Cardoso, shocked the country. TV sets are still a rarity. The state-owned radio station broadcasts in Portuguese, English, and vernacular languages.
†
EDUCATION 47%
School leaving age: 12
9774 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 100
TV ownership low
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
per 100,000 population
Weapons are easily obtainable. In rural areas there are many bandits, often former soldiers; road travel is unsafe. Senior officials stand accused of misappropriating food aid money.
% of each age group in education
MEDIA
116
80
60
M
Mozambique is one of the world’s poorest countries, with around 80% of the people living below the national poverty line even before the floods of 2000 and 2001, which left thousands homeless. Measures adopted in the 1990s to attract Western aid made conditions tougher, raising the price of rice by 600%. The recent export boom has generally bypassed the traditional subsistence farmer. Only the higher echelons of Frelimo, Renamo, and other political parties have cars, air-conditioning, and brick-built apartments. Free-market reforms, however, are gradually increasing access to consumer goods.
WORLD RANKING
99% 40
Position in World 1st
20
13% 0
Primary
Secondary
1% 50th
Tertiary 100th
At independence, between 85% and 95% of the adult population were illiterate, while school closures during the civil war created a lost generation of uneducated people. In 2001, around two-thirds of youths (15–24) could read, thanks to a concerted literacy campaign. The government used World Bank/IMF debt relief to strengthen the education budget in 2001.
150th
193rd
181 $200
185 41 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
173 47%
184
171
128 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
421
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD SOUTHERN AFRICA
NAMIBIA
Angola
Zimbabwe
NAMIBIA Botswana
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Namibia CAPITAL: Windhoek POPULATION: 2 million CURRENCY: Namibian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1990
1994
March 21
NAM
+2
.na
+264
N
AMIBIA LIES IN SOUTHWEST Africa, the ecologically unique Namib Desert extending the length of its long coastline. After many years of guerrilla warfare, Namibia won independence from South Africa in 1990. Despite the move away from apartheid, Namibia’s economy remains reliant on the expertise of the small white population, a legacy of the previously poor education for blacks. Namibia is one of Africa’s leading mineral producers.
†
CLIMATE
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
President Sam Nujoma
AT THE LAST ELECTION
10% CoD
National Assembly 72 seats
3% UDF
10% DTA
76% SWAPO
1% MAG
Two members are elected by each of the 13 Regional Councils to the National Council
0
-10/14
Spitzkoppe, west of Karibib. Unique scenery such as this is attracting increasing numbers of tourists to Namibia.
-20/-4
Namibia is almost rainless. The coast is usually shrouded in thick, cold fog unless the hot, very dry berg blows.
†
TRANSPORTATION Windhoek International 506,077 passengers
PEOPLE
Drive on left
†
Pop. density low
Ovambo, Kavango, English, Bergdama, German, Afrikaans
2/km2 (6/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
126 ships 69,488 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
32%
8091 km (5028 miles)
None
2382 km (1480 miles)
None
861,000 visitors
Other tribes 16%
†
Visitors : Population 1:2.3
/
Up 40% in 1999–2001
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
South Africa 36% Angola 35% Germany 8% Other 21% 10
20
30
% of total arrivals
Tourists, mainly from neighboring countries and Germany, the former colonial power, make a very limited contribution to GDP. There are plans to limit tourists to 300,000 a year to preserve the fragile desert ecology.
40
Comm
COMESA
NAM
AU
Joined UN in 1990 SADC
Other 9% Kavango 9%
TOURISM
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Damara 8% Herero 8%
Ovambo 50%
Namibia became a multiparty democracy at independence in 1990. The centerleft SWAPO, the former guerrilla force, has dominated politics ever since. A 1998 constitutional amendment allowed President Sam Nujoma a third term in 1999, despite violence among separatists in the Caprivi Strip. Theo-Ben Gurirab, prime minister since 2002, has made redistribution of land a priority. SWAPO backed Lands Minister Hifikepunye Pohamba in the 2004 presidential election.
68%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Large-scale industry is well served by road and rail. Plans exist to build a new harbor at Walvis Bay.
422
L. House 1999/2004 U. House 1998/2004
Multiparty elections
National Council 26 seats
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
0
†
POLITICS
Rainfall A
0/32
N
South Africa
SWAPO = South West Africa People's Organization CoD = Congress of Democrats DTA = Democratic Turnhalle Alliance UDF = United Democratic Front MAG = Monitor Action Group Six additional nonvoting members may be appointed to the National Assembly by the president
Hot desert/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR WINDHOEK
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
Africa
Zambia
The largest ethnic group, the Ovambo, tend to live in the sparsely populated north. Smaller groups, such as the Herero and the Afrikaans-speaking Basters, are politically vocal. Whites – most of whom speak Afrikaans – are concentrated in Windhoek. The capital is also home to a wealthy century-old German community. Namibia’s original inhabitants, the San and Khoi (once called Bushmen) now constitute a tiny, marginalized minority. The ethnic strife predicted in 1990 has not materialized. Black Namibians are predominantly subsistence farmers. Many black women have six or more children. The constitution supports gender equality and discriminates in favor of women; few, however, have official jobs or own property. Homosexuality is not tolerated.
In 1994 South Africa relinquished control of Walvis Bay – Namibia’s only deepwater port. South Africa has also written off Namibia’s earlier debts. Remaining border disputes were settled in the late 1990s. Namibian troops withdrew from the war-torn Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2001.
AID
†
Recipient
US$135m (receipts)
/
Up 23% in 2002
The EU provides most aid; Germany is the main unilateral donor. Around 30% of aid is spent on education.
DEFENSE US$79m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 5% in 2002
Fishing grounds are patrolled to prevent raids by foreign trawlers. In 2003, Namibian soldiers performed a peacekeeping role in Liberia.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NAMIBIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
G
Za
N
A
ene K un
O O
N
m be z
A
kav a ngo
Z
i
A t
T
Hentiesbaai Walvis Bay
Gobabis
Usakos
D
I
Leonardville
E
C
Stampriet
S
Desert
E
O
Aranos Mariental Gochas
R
C
Koes
A
Keetmanshoop Aroab
Grünau Ariamsvlei Karasburg Oranjemund Warmbad v O i e I Noordoewer ra n g e R R Rosh Pinah
r
N
A
N
Bethanien Aus Seeheim Noord
T
E
Lüderitz
0
F SOUTH A
200 km
0
200 miles
ECONOMICS US$3.55bn
†
Inflation 8.5% p.a. (1990–2001)
6.21 Namibian dollars (7.51)
over 100 000
500m/1640ft
over 10 000 under 10 000
Sea Level
†
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................127th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$1790 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .................US$130m INFLATION .......................................11.3% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................34%
STRENGTHS Varied mineral resources. Rich fishing grounds. Potential of Walvis Bay as conduit for landlocked neighbors. Low external debt. Foreign investment.
WEAKNESSES
547,542 tonnes
Included in South African total
2.51m cattle, 2.37m sheep, 1.78m goats, 2.6m chickens
Uranium, lead, gold, cadmium, oil, copper, diamonds, zinc, silver,
Namibia has abundant uranium, lead, and cadmium resources. Large oil deposits were discovered in 2000. Hydroelectric power and offshore diamond mining have huge potential. The Okavango river system carries more water than all South Africa’s rivers combined.
ENVIRONMENT
/
Most goods imported. Fluctuations in mineral prices. Lack of skilled labor; high unemployment. Potential for disruption from land redistribution, favoring smaller farms over large white-owned estates. AIDS epidemic.
†
Sustainability rank: 26th
1 tonne per capita
Illegal poaching and the presence of anthrax threaten the unique Namibian desert-adapted elephant (fewer than 50 remain) and the black rhino. Vast expanses of the fragile, unspoiled Namib and Kalahari Desert ecosystems are protected. The government is generally sensitive to environmental issues (the annual seal cull to protect fish stocks is an exception) and wishes to attract “eco-tourists” rather than invest in mass-market developments.
†
MEDIA
1966 Apartheid laws imposed. SWAPO begins armed struggle. 1968 Renamed Namibia. 1973 UN recognizes SWAPO. 1990 Independence. 1994 South Africa relinquishes Walvis Bay. 1999 President Sam Nujoma wins third term, agrees not to stand again.
Electric power: Included in South African total
RESOURCES
14% (2% partially protected)
SCORE CARD
POPULATION
1000m/3281ft
Kalahari b sso No
Maltahöhe Gibeon
Total Area : 825 418 sq. km (318 694 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
200m/656ft
WINDHOEK Rehoboth
Hardap Dam
A W
Okahandja
Swakopmund
NAMIBIA
2000m/6562ft
Otjinene
T
B
as
N
Karibib
Walvis Bay
Okakarara
Omaruru
In 1915, South Africa took over the former German colony known as South West Africa.
ZIMBABWE
S
I Co
Otjiwarongo
O
n
A
Kalkfeld
Brandberg Uis 2573m Spitzkopje
Tsumkwe
Grootfontein
B
M
to
L
Otavi
Outjo
Khorixas
CHRONOLOGY
N
Tsumeb Kamanjab
C
T
ele
A
Namutoni
Etosha Pan
A M B I A
Katima S t r i p Mulilo r i v i C a p
Rundu
Fis h
Sk
A
Oshikango Ruacana Opuwo Oshakati Ondangwa
L
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 19 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
EDUCATION 83%
School leaving age: 16
9561 students
Most children attend primary school, but illiteracy among black adults remains a legacy of apartheid.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits AIDS, respiratory, heart, and intestinal diseases
1 per 3333 people
Preventive care and rural health care have top priority. Many areas lack safe water. AIDS is the leading cause of death.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
38 per 1000 population
N 65 per 1000 population
Defense 2.8% Education 8.1% Health 4.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Gross disparities in wealth persist throughout Namibia: the top 0.5% of households consumes as much as the poorest 57%.
WORLD RANKING
There are 4 daily newspapers, including The Namibian and Die Republikein
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
Belgium 6%
Spain 6% Japan 10%
UK 34%
Other 17% South Africa 27% IMPORTS
UK 1% Russia 1%
South Africa 84%
Germany 2% USA 4% Other 8%
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
7 services: 1 state-owned, 6 independent
An active press targets corrupt politicians, but foreign TV programs are banned. State radio transmits in 11 languages.
CRIME 4814 prisoners
†
50th
100th
94 150th
$1790
117
No death penalty
.
83%
Down 51% in 1999
Burglary and theft are rising, particularly in urban areas. Ostrich smuggling to the US has been a problem.
131
126
55 deaths
193rd
181 42 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
423
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD PACIFIC OCEAN
NAURU
Pacific Ocean
Micronesia
NAURU
Kiribati
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Nauru CAPITAL: None POPULATION: 12,570 CURRENCY: Australian dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Nauruan 1968
1968
Jan 31
NAU
+12
.nr
+674
T
HE WORLD’S SMALLEST REPUBLIC, Nauru lies in the Pacific Ocean, 4000 km (2480 miles) northeast of Australia. Once a British colony exploited for its phosphates by the UK, Australia, and New Zealand, it became independent in 1968. The phosphates industry made Nauruans among the wealthiest people in the world, but the imminent end of phosphate reserves, economic mismanagement, and bad investment decisions have left Nauru facing financial ruin.
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density high 599/km2 (1552/mi2)
Nauruan, Kiribati, Chinese, Tuvaluan, English THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Nauru is 100% semiurban
ETHNIC MAKEUP
European 5%
CLIMATE
†
Tropical oceanic
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR NAURU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Minimal tourist arrivals
Not available
,
Little variation from year to year
Other Pacific islanders 25%
Nauru does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
-10/14 0
-20/-4
20
40
30
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on left
3 ships 1000 grt
Nauru International THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 24 km (15 miles)
None
5 km (3 miles)
None
Even if Nauru had any conventional tourist attractions, the enormous cost of getting there would dissuade most people from making the journey. The main feature of interest is the bizarre lunar landscape created by over 90 years of phosphate extraction. Diving and fishing are potential activities. There are few beaches and only two hotels.
NAURU Total Area : 21 sq. km (8.1 sq. miles) 200m/565ft
POLITICS
Urban area
Sea Level
Phosphate mineworks
2003/2006
N
17% NA
I
F
C
I
A
C
President Ludwig Scotty
83% Others
NA = Nauru First Others includes independents
I
P
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
O C E A N
C
A
Nauru Secondary School Police Station
†
Parliament 18 seats
C
Nauru’s own airline has been cut to a 0 1 km single Boeing 737 flown by Australian 0 1 mile pilots which is frequently grounded by the Australian aviation authorities N A due to safety concerns. All external E travel is very expensive. Nauru C has no harbor: to load cargoes of O phosphates, ships had to dock, engines still running, with huge concrete caissons Nauru General Hospital floating out at sea. The circular ring road is PhosphateCompany often littered with Hospital PhosphateCompany Site Office abandoned cars, since it has been much cheaper for Phosphate Nauruans to import Buada Lagoon Company new vehicles than Works Broadcasting Transmitter to attempt to repair YAREN Post Office existing ones. The Nauru Civic Centre number of car Meneng Hotel accident fatalities Air Terminal Nauru International is one of the highest Airport State House F in the South Pacific. I
424
Indigenous Nauruans are a homogeneous blend of Melanesian, Micronesian, and Polynesian strands. They have traditionally held posts in government service, while a large imported workforce – mainly from Kiribati – mined the phosphates. A society of just over 12,000 people, Nauru is mostly self-regulating. There is some tension between younger Nauruans, who go to Australia to study but have little incentive to do well, and their parents, who fought hard for independence. As the phosphates run out, an increasing feeling of futility is gripping the young. Many see their future in Australia or New Zealand, but fear a drop in living standards and the loss of the luxury of sovereignty. These fears led Nauruans to reject the offer of resettlement on an island off the Queensland coast of Australia.
LAND HEIGHT
P
N
10
% of total arrivals
Nauru’s tiny size means that rain clouds often miss the island; years can pass without rain.
Nauruan 62%
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
†
Chinese and Vietnamese 8%
Parliament is based on the British model, but traditional leaders are the dominant figures. Politics revolves around personalities rather than ideologies, leading to conflict between the president and the legislature and a high turnover at the top. There have been 25 changes of president since independence in 1968 (though only ten different presidents), while two men – Bernard Dowiyogo and Rene Harris – alternated as president six times between 1999 and 2003. Harris was removed in 2004 in favor of Ludwig Scotty.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NAURU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
PC
Joined UN in 1999
ADB
PIF
ACP
The case for compensation for phosphate exploitation brought by Nauru against the UK government was rejected in 1992, after the longest suit in British legal history. However, an Australian settlement that year brought payments eventually totaling US$79 million. Nauru played a central role from 2001 in Australia’s “Pacific solution,” accepting asylum seekers in return for aid. Poor overseas investments have endangered the trust fund meant to support Nauruans when phosphate income runs out.
†
AID
Recipient
US$12m (receipts)
/
Up 71% in 2002
Nauru depends on Australian aid, partly in return for handling asylum seekers.
DEFENSE Australia responsible for defense
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
US$42m
†
Not an oil producer
2800 pigs, 5000 chickens
Guano (phosphates)
Nauru has been exploited for its valuable phosphate reserves by Germans, the British, Australians, and New Zealanders since 1906, and recently by Nauruans themselves. Extraction has destroyed four-fifths of the island, and the deposits are almost exhausted. Nauru has no other mineral resources. The island is entirely dependent on outside energy supplies, and the cost of oil is 50% higher than the Pacific average, since Nauru does not lie on any shipping routes. Most electricity is produced by small diesel generators.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
†
MEDIA
CHRONOLOGY Colonized by Germany in 1888, from 1919 the island was administered by the UK, Australia, and New Zealand. 1968 Independence. 1970 Gains phosphate control. 1992 Australia agrees compensation for phosphate extraction. 1998–2003 Rene Harris and Bernard Dowiyogo alternate presidency.
11.4 tonnes per capita
†
EDUCATION 95%
School leaving age: 16
Not available
Many Nauruans attend boarding school in Australia from a young age. Few go on to university.
†
HEALTH
Not available
Nauru is an environmental disaster area. Mining has destroyed 80% of its ecosystem and, like other Pacific islands, it faces the increasing threat of rising sea levels. Also of concern is contamination from the nearby former French nuclear test sites in the Pacific.
Not available
1.44 Australian dollars (1.491)
Electric power 10,000 kW
400 tonnes
None
Nauru has no defense force. Australia, under a de facto arrangement, is responsible for the island’s security.
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES
Welfare state health benefits Tuberculosis, vitamin deficiencies, diabetes
1 per 637 people
A diet largely of processed imported foods has led to widespread health problems. Over one-third of people are diabetic, while 77% of adults are obese – the highest rate in the world.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING TV ownership low
No data
148 per 1000 population
N
There are no daily newspapers SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................191st GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$3540 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................Not available INFLATION .......................................–3.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ............Minimal unemployment
STRENGTHS Very few. Strong Australian dollar.
Education No data There are no daily newspapers. The Nasero Bulletin is published biweekly
EXPORTS
Japan 7% New Zealand 31%
Health 6.7% 0
1 state-owned service
1 state-owned service
Nauru has one national TV broadcasting service and one radio station. Both are state-run.
WEAKNESSES Remaining phosphate reserves are economically unviable. Trust funds for post-phosphate era damaged by bad overseas investment decisions. High cost of rehabilitating land. Loss of offshore banking industry.
Defense None
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
CRIME
†
Nauru does not publish prison figures
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Crime levels are rising slightly
Theft is almost nonexistent. Assaults and dangerous driving as a result of drunkenness are the major problems.
Other 9%
5
10
15
25
A major economic adjustment program, funded by the ADB, is intended to allow Nauru to adjust to the loss of phosphate income as reserves run out. However, the country was brought to the brink of bankruptcy in 2004.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
South Korea 12%
48
100th
67 Australia 25%
20
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
76
$3540
Thailand 16%
25 deaths
95%
150th
IMPORTS
India 5% New Zealand 4% Australia 49%
193rd
Indonesia 8%
137 62 years
USA 17%
Other 17%
Nauru is almost circular, with a 16-km (10-mile) ring road. The overcrowded coastal strip is the sole habitable land.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
425
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NEPAL
SOUTH ASIA
Asia
China NE
PA
L
India
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Nepal CAPITAL: Kathmandu POPULATION: 25.2 million CURRENCY: Nepalese rupee OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Nepali 1769
1769
Dec 28
+5.75
NEP
†
POLITICS
.np
+977
L
YING ALONG the southern Himalayas, Nepal was an absolute monarchy until 1990, since when politics has become increasingly turbulent. The mainly agricultural economy depends heavily on the prompt arrival of the monsoon. Hopes for development have been invested in hydropower, despite the adverse impact of large dams. A Maoist insurgency, begun in 1999, threw the country into chaos in 2001.
L. House 1999/2002 U. House 2001/2003 (both postponed)
H.M. King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives (dissolved) 205 seats
35% 5% 6% CPN–UML NDP Others
54% NCP
CLIMATE
†
Mountain/subtropical
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR KATHMANDU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
275,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
Visitors : Population 1:92
NCP = Nepali Congress Party CPN–UML = Communist Party of Nepal–United Marxist-Leninist NDP = National Democratic Party App = Appointed by the king
.
Down 24% in 2002
The House of Representatives was dissolved prior to early elections in 2002, which have been repeatedly postponed
National Council 60 seats
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
India 24% Japan 8%
38% CPN–UML
UK 8%
0
0/32
Other 60% -10/14 0
-20/-4
N
10
20
40
30
50
60
% of total arrivals
The warm July to October monsoon affects the whole country, causing flooding in the hot Terai plain, but generally decreases northward and westward. The rest of the year is dry, sunny, and mild, except in the Himalayas, where valley temperatures in winter may average –10˚C (14˚F).
TRANSPORTATION Tribhuvan, Kathmandu 1.78m passengers
†
Drive on left
Has no fleet
The Maoist insurgency has devastated the country’s important and previously healthy tourism industry. A steady stream of backpackers from the West has dried up, though tourist numbers from neighboring India have actually increased. The wish to preserve the environment conflicts with the desire for tourist revenue. Child labor was banned in the tourism industry from 2000.
PEOPLE
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 4566 km (2837 miles)
†
Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri
None
13%
87%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Christian) 2%
426
WORLD AFFAIRS CP
†
Joined UN in 1955
Buddhist 5%
†
AID
WTO
Recipient
$365m (receipts)
Tensions are few among the diverse ethnic groups such as the Sherpas in the north, “Hill Hindu” Brahmins and Chhettris, Newars, and others in the Kathmandu valley, and Terai in the south. The Sherpa and other Buddhist women are less restricted than Hindus. Polygamy is practiced in the hills. Since 1990 many ethnic Nepali refugees from Bhutan have settled in Nepal.
SAARC
NAM
The NCP government revived relations with India, but there are tensions over India’s alleged links with Maoist rebels, some said to operate from over the border. Agreement has been reached with Bhutan over the issue of ethnic Nepali Bhutanese refugees in Nepal.
Muslim 3%
Hindu 90%
Himalayan harvest. Steep mountainsides and easily eroded soils mean that most fields are terraced. A majority of Nepalese are farmers.
Multipartyism, reinstated in 1990, produced a short-lived communist government in 1994, then unstable coalitions until the NCP won elections in 1999. In 2001 the royal family was murdered, and the Maoist rebel uprising intensified; a state of emergency was imposed. In 2002 unpopular new king Gyanendra dismissed the elected NCP government of Sher Bahadur Deuba and appointed an NDP administration. The prime minister resigned in 2004, prompting Deuba’s reinstatement.
ADB 184/km2 (477/mi2)
None
Domestic flights link the main towns. There are paved roads in the south and in the Kathmandu valley; only one runs north to China. Two short stretches of railroad cross into India.
17% 10% App Others
35% NCP
Pop. density medium
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT 59 km (37 miles)
Multiparty elections
.
Down 7% in 2002
Nepal’s strategic position has made it a focus for powerful donors. Insecurity caused aid agencies to withdraw from the west of the country in 2004.
DEFENSE $99m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 12% in 2002
The 63,000-strong army has no tanks or combat aircraft. Nepalese Gurkhas serve in the UK army. US military aid assists the war against Maoist insurgents.
I
Martadi Silgadhi
Dipayal i
Birendranagar
1000m/3281ft
I
Annapurna 8091m
Baglung
Koilabas
Butwal
0
S
Ramechhap Sun Ko shi
Terhathum
Bhojpur
T
Janakpur
E
R
Inflation 7.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
Rajbiraj
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................111th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$230 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$165m INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................47%
STRENGTHS Self-sufficiency in grain most years. Economic liberalization under NCP government. Potential for hydroelectric power generation. Low debt level.
WEAKNESSES Instability. Agricultural dependency: only 10% of GDP from manufacturing. Landlocked. Low savings rate. Absence of active entrepreneurial class.
I
/
9% (2% partially protected)
Other 13% India 48% USA 28% IMPORTS
Saudi Arabia 5%
Singapore 9%
†
MEDIA
China 13%
RESOURCES
†
Electric power 458,000 kW
33,270 tonnes
Not an oil producer
7m cattle, 6.65m goats, 4m buffaloes, 21.5m chickens
Mica, lignite, copper, cobalt, iron
The first privately owned power plant, situated near Ramechhap, opened in mid-2000. HEP is being developed.
1816–1923 Quasi-British protectorate. 1959 First multiparty constitution. 1960 Constitution suspended. 1962–1990 Panchayat nonparty system. 1991 NCP victory in elections. 1994–1995 Communist government. 1999 NCP election victory. Maoist insurgency in rural areas. 2001 King and family shot by crown prince; Gyanendra crowned amid unrest. Upsurge in Maoist violence; state of emergency declared. 2002 Gyanendra dismisses Sher Bahadur Deuba’s government. 2004 Deuba reinstated. Welfare state health benefits Respiratory and diarrheal diseases, maternal deaths
1 per 12,500 people
0.1 tonnes per capita
TV ownership low
†
HEALTH
There are about 100 dharmi-jhankri (faith healers) for every health worker. Maternal mortality is high, the result of harmful traditional birth practices; a reeducation program for midwives has been established.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
N
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
2 per 1000 population
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 12 daily newspapers, including the leading Gorkhapatra, Nepali Hindi Daily, and Rising Nepal
14 per 1000 population
Defense 1.9% Education 3.4%
1 state-owned service
Health 1.5% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The Nepal TV service began in 1986; under 25% of the population receives it. The press is mainly Kathmandu-based with low circulations. Press watchdogs warned of censorship under the state of emergency imposed in 2001.
CRIME
†
7132 prisoners
India 22%
Sustainability rank: 99th
Daily newspaper circulation 12 per 1000 people
UAE 11% Other 40%
†
Kathmandu has chronic traffic and pollution problems. Deforestation and soil erosion are serious. The native tiger is fast disappearing. Approval of the controversial Arun III hydroelectric project was granted in mid-2000.
EXPORTS
UK 2% Germany 7%
1 limited stateowned service
Italy 2%
Dhankuta Ilam Dharan
Biratnagar
A
A
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
)
Mt. Everest 8850m (Sagarmatha)
73.56 Nepalese rupees (75.65)
$5.54bn
A
T
KATHMANDU Chautara A Lalitpur Bhaktapur
I
†
E
Y
Sindhulimadi
D
N
Syaphrubesi
Hetauda
100 miles
ECONOMICS
A
50m/164ft
B
ni aya Bhimphedi ar N
N
100 km
I
I
Pokhara
Pyuthan K Tansen ali Gandaki Bhairahawa
0
200m/656ft
L
Tulsipur
N
500m/1640ft
T
Jomsom
Salyan Nepalganj
H
( A
Dailekh
Gulariya
2000m/6562ft
Dunai
Bh
The foundations of the Nepalese state were laid in 1769, when King Prithvi Narayan Shah conquered the region.
4000m/13 124ft
under 10 000
M
Dillikot
li
er
Karn a
CHRONOLOGY
6000m/19 686ft
over 10 000
C
Gamgadhi Jumla
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NEPAL
LAND HEIGHT
( S I K K I M )
S
Dadeldhura
et i
over 100 000
Total Area : 140 800 sq. km (54 363 sq. miles)
Chainpur
Baitadi
POPULATION
NEPAL
Simikot
Sa pt Ko a s hi
li ka ha
H
Ma
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
WORLD RANKING No death penalty
/
Position in World Up slightly in 2000
Petty theft and smuggling are the main problems. The legal provision for detention without trial is used, and police suppression of demonstrations is often brutal.
EDUCATION 44%
Nepal is one of the poorest countries in the world. Bonded labor was abolished in mid-2000, releasing 36,000 people.
†
School leaving age: 10
103,290 students
Around 70% of boys attend school in Nepal, but enrollment for girls is still barely half. Nepal’s literacy rate is among the lowest in the world.
1st
50th
100th
150th
141
143
193rd
66 deaths
60 years
177 $230
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
140
175 44%
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
427
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
EUROPE
NETHERLANDS
NETHERLANDS Ger m an y Belgium
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of the Netherlands POPULATION: 16.1 million CAPITALS: Amsterdam; The Hague (administrative) CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Dutch 1648
1839
April 30
NL
+1
.nl
+31
T
HE NETHERLANDS IS LOCATED at the delta of four major rivers in northwest Europe. The few hills in the eastern and southern part of the country descend to a flat coastal area, bordered by the North Sea to the north and west. This is protected by a giant infrastructure of dunes, dikes, and canals, since 27% of the coast is below sea level. The Netherlands became one of the world’s first confederative republics after Spain recognized its independence in 1648. Its highly successful economy has a long trading tradition, and Rotterdam is the world’s largest port.
†
CLIMATE
TRANSPORTATION
Maritime
WEATHER CHART FOR AMSTERDAM
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
†
Drive on right
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density high 475/km2 (1229/mi2)
Dutch, Frisian THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
10%
90% RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 3% Protestant 27%
Roman Catholic 36%
Other 34%
Schiphol, Amsterdam 40m passengers
1316 ships 5.66m grt ETHNIC MAKEUP
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 104,850 km (65,151 miles)
2274 km (1413 miles)
2806 km (1744 miles)
5046 km (3135 miles)
Surinamese 2%
Turkish 2% Other 12%
Moroccan 2%
Dutch 82%
-10/14 -20/-4
N
The Netherlands has a temperate climate, with mild winters which rarely fall much below freezing, and cool summers with a mean temperature of 20˚C (68˚F). The country’s coastal areas have the mildest climate, though northerly gales are fairly frequent, particularly in autumn and winter.
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:1.7
9.6m visitors
/
Up 1% in 2002
Rotterdam, the key transshipment port for northern Europe, is also the world’s busiest. Schiphol airport is one of the air transportation hubs of Europe. A high-speed passenger rail line is due to link Amsterdam and Rotterdam with Brussels (Belgium) and Paris (France) in 2005, and a highspeed freight line from Rotterdam to Germany should be completed in 2006.
district attracts millions every year. In the past decade, the city has become a center for the European gay community, with celebrations on April 30 (Queen’s Day – the monarch’s official birthday) and in August (Amsterdam Pride). A thriving club scene and liberal drug laws draw enthusiasts from neighboring countries. In spring and summer, the tulip fields and North Sea beaches attract large numbers of visitors.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Germany 29% UK 19% Belgium 7% France 5% Italy 4% Other 36% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Tourism is a major business in the Netherlands. Visitors go mainly to Amsterdam, though cities such as Groningen and Maastricht are growing in popularity. Amsterdam caters for a diverse tourism market. Its worldfamous museums include the Rijksmuseum, with its collection of Vermeers and Rembrandts, while its network of canals is popular. Amsterdam is also renowned for its liberal attitude to sex; its red-light
428
The Netherlands has a long history of welcoming those seeking religious and political asylum. Immigrants from former colonies settled during the 20th century, coming first from Indonesia, then from the Netherlands Antilles and Suriname. In the 1960s and 1970s Moroccan and Turkish “guestworkers” arrived. There is now concern at the apparent lack of integration among immigrant communities, especially Muslims. A tradition of tolerance is reflected in liberal attitudes to sexuality. In 2001, same-sex marriages were legalized, giving gay couples full equality, including the right of adoption (after three years of marriage). The state does not try to impose a particular morality on its citizens. The consumption of soft drugs is seen as a matter of personal choice. In 2001 the Netherlands became the first country in the world to legalize euthanasia, albeit under strict conditions. Women enjoy equal rights and hold 37% of seats in the Second Chamber of the States-General, but are not well represented in boardrooms. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.2% 8.1% 12.9% 15.6%
Windmill at Baambrugge, near Amsterdam. A century ago there were 10,000 in the country compared with today’s 1000. A protective ring of 900 mills kept Amsterdam from flooding.
11.9%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.9% 6.6% 13.3% 16.1% 12.4%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NETHERLANDS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2003/2007
Multiparty elections
poll and, coming from nowhere, the party finished second, playing on the themes of a failing asylum system and fears of immigrant crime and Islamic fundamentalism. Just as astonishing was the reemergence of the CDA as the country’s leading party. However, the resulting CDA–LPF–VVD coalition soon collapsed as a result of the LPF’s political inexperience. Fresh elections in 2003 were a neck-and-neck race between the CDA and a reborn PvdA. Punished by the electorate, the LPF was substituted in the new CDA-led coalition by the small D66.
H.M. Queen Beatrix
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Second Chamber of the States-General 150 seats
29% CDA
6% 5% 5% 8% SP GL LPF Others
19% VVD
28% PvdA
CDA = Christian Democratic Appeal PvdA = Labor Party VVD = People's Party for Freedom and Democracy SP = Socialist Party GL = Green Left LPF = Pim Fortuyn List D66 = Democrats 66
First Chamber of the States-General 75 seats
25% PvdA
31% CDA
Queen Beatrix, who acceded in 1980 and rebuilt support for the Dutch monarchy.
8% Others
CDA leader Jan Peter Balkenende was appointed prime minister in 2002.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
coalition, joining with either the leftof-center PvdA or the right-wing VVD. However, after the 1994 election the CDA was out of government for eight years, and the PvdA under Wim Kok ruled in coalition with the VVD and the left-liberal D66. The 2002 elections produced a shock. The populist LPF leader Pim Fortuyn was assassinated a few days before the
20% 7% 5% 4% VVD GL SP D66
The First Chamber of the States-General is indirectly elected
The Netherlands is a constitutional monarchy. Legislative power is vested in parliament, and the monarch has only nominal power.
The future of social welfare Despite cutbacks in the 1980s, the Dutch still have one of Europe’s most generous welfare systems. Most parties accepted that levels of welfare could not be maintained indefinitely. The debate thus centers on how much and in which areas cuts should be made.
PROFILE
Refugees and asylum seekers Asylum laws have been tightened since 1994 as the number of immigrants has risen. First- and second-generation immigrants made up 18% of the national population in 2002, but 40% (30% non-European) in Rotterdam, where support for the LPF was greatest. Concern focuses on asylum policies and the role of Islam in Dutch society. Y
WORLD AFFAIRS
†
Joined UN in 1945
N
N
W
O
a
W
d
A
R
D
s Em
Dutch politics shows a high degree A E of consensus. Since the early S 1980s, governments have N D E employed the “polder model,” L A N Schiermonnikoog H E I which focuses on a social Ameland N e e E Terschelling z compact, pay moderation, Delfzijl T D n job creation, economic e Groningen deregulation, and d Vlieland Leeuwarden generous social Hoogezand Sappemeer Harlingen protection. Texel The CDA Assen Stadskanaal has traditionally Den Helder Heerenveen led a two-party governing Emmen
Benelux
EU
NATO
OECD
OSCE
IJSSELMEER
IJss e l
Huizen Hilversum
Hengelo
Deventer
Apeldoorn
Enschede
Amersfoort
Maarssen Barneveld Alphen aan Utrecht (THE HAGUE) Zeist de Rijn Ede Rheden Zoetermeer Doetinchem Gouda Nieuwegein Delft Arnhem N ede Schiedam r- R i j n L ek Tiel Vlaardingen Rotterdam Spijkenisse Zwijndrecht Gr Goeree Nijmegen W a al eve Ridderkerk
’S-GRAVENHAGE S-GRAVENHAGE
lin g Overflakkee en Schouwen
as Ma
Oosterhout
Beveland Walcheren
Middelburg Vlissingen
Oss
Dordrecht
erschelde Oost Noord-
’s-Hertogenbosch
Breda
Tholen
Roosendaal
Goes
ZuidWest Beveland ers ch e e ld
Bergen op Zoom
POPULATION over 1 000 000
Helmond
Tilburg Eindhoven
Ma a
Venlo
Terneuzen
s
E
L
G
I
U
N 0 0
40 km 40 miles
M
over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000
Roermond
B
A
Almelo
Almere
AMSTERDAM
Leiden Nieuwkoop
M
Zwolle
R
Zaanstad
Amstelveen Aalsmeer Katwijk aan Zee
Lelystad
Purmerend
Beverwijk Velsen Haarlem
E
Total Area : 41 526 sq. km (16 033 sq. miles)
Hoorn
G
NETHERLANDS
Hoogeveen
Meppel
Enkhuizen Alkmaar
over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT Sittard Geleen Heerlen Kerkrade
Maastricht
100m/328ft Sea Level -100m/-328ft
The Dutch strongly support political and monetary integration within the EU; the euro was fully adopted in 2002. Traditionally, the Netherlands has favored EU enlargement, but recent CDA-led governments have expressed reservations. The Netherlands is also strongly Atlanticist; the CDA’s Jaap de Hoop Scheffer became NATO secretary-general in 2004. The International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and the International Criminal Court sit in The Hague.
AID $3.34bn (donations)
†
Donor
/
Up 5% in 2002
The Netherlands continues to be one of the few countries which exceeds the UN target of devoting 0.7% of GNP to development aid. The government actively pursues a policy of linking foreign aid and human rights. It also gives priority to projects which link longer-term development goals with efforts to manage and reduce intergroup conflict.
429
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Suppression of Protestantism by the ruling Spanish Habsburgs led to the revolt of the Netherlands and the declaration of independence of the northern provinces as a republic in 1581, recognized by Spain in 1648.
/
No compulsory military service Up 20% in 2002
DUTCH ARMED FORCES 283 main battle tanks (Leopard 1 and 2)
23,150 personnel
4 submarines, 6 destroyers, and 9 frigates
12,130 personnel
137 combat aircraft (F-16A/B)
11,050 personnel
None
The Dutch military has undergone major restructuring since the end of
ECONOMICS $378bn
†
the Cold War with the aim of making it a rapidly deployable, more flexible military force as befits a NATO member state. Compulsory military service was abolished in 1996 and personnel cut by 44%, with the number of army divisions reduced from three to two. In 1995, a joint Dutch–German, 28,000-strong army corps was inaugurated. The Dutch army was criticized for failing to prevent the massacre at Srebrenica, Bosnia, in 1995, but it has continued to play a role in other international peacekeeping efforts since. The Netherlands also has a large defense industry, which specializes in submarines, weapons systems, and aircraft.
Inflation 2.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................15th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$23,390 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$9.87bn INFLATION .........................................3.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
EXPORTS
Italy 6%
France 10%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
430
$7.33bn
†
Consumer price index 1999=100
N
1813 Dutch oust French after 18 years of French rule and choose to become a constitutional monarchy. 1815 United Kingdom of Netherlands formed to include Belgium and Luxembourg. 1839 Recognition of 1830 secession of Catholic southern provinces as Belgium. 1848 New constitution – ministers to be accountable to parliament. 1897–1901 Wide-ranging social legislation enacted. Development of strong trade unions. 1898 Wilhelmina succeeds to throne, ending Luxembourg union, where male hereditary Salic Law is in force. 1914–1918 Dutch neutrality respected in World War I. 1922 Women fully enfranchised. 1940 Dutch assert neutrality in World War II, but Germany invades. 1942 Japan invades Dutch East Indies. 1944–1945 “Winter of starvation” in German-occupied western provinces. 1945 Liberation. International Court of Justice set up in The Hague. 1946–1958 PvdA leads coalitions. 1948 Juliana becomes queen. 1949 Joins NATO. Most of East Indies colonies gain independence as Indonesia. 1957 Founder member of European Economic Community. 1960 Economic union with Belgium and Luxembourg comes into effect. 1973 PvdA wins power after 15 years spent mainly in opposition. Centerleft coalition until 1977. 1980 CDA alliance of the “confessional” parties forms a single party. Beatrix becomes queen. 1982–1994 CDA-led coalitions under Ruud Lubbers. 1990 20-year National Environment Policy (NEP) introduced. 1992 Licensed brothels legalized. 1994 Elections: Wim Kok of PvdA heads coalition with VVD and D66. 2001 Euthanasia and gay marriage legalized. 2002 January, euro fully adopted. April, government resigns after report blames Dutch military in Bosnia for failing to prevent Srebrenica massacre in 1995. May, populist politician Pim Fortuyn assassinated. Elections. October, CDA-led coalition collapses. 2003 CDA reelected; forms coalition with VVD and D66.
DEFENSE
2003
Other 35% UK 11% Belgium 13% Germany 25% IMPORTS
France 6%
UK 7% USA 9%
Other 50%
Belgium 10% Germany 18%
STRENGTHS Highly skilled, educated, multilingual workforce. Sophisticated infrastructure. Many blue-chip multinationals, including Philips and Shell. Harmony between employers and employees. Low inflation and unemployment. Tradition of high-tech innovation, including development of music cassette and CD.
Rotterdam, the world’s biggest port. As well as high-tech industries such as electronics, telecommunications, and chemicals, there is a successful and intensive agricultural sector. Dependence on trade makes the economy vulnerable to world economic fluctuations; high growth rates in 1997–2000 have been followed by a marked downturn and budgetary problems since 2001. NETHERLANDS : MAJOR BUSINESSES Groningen
Amsterdam
Utrecht
Enschede
’s-Gravenhage
Arnhem
WEAKNESSES Costly welfare system, resulting in high taxes and social insurance premiums; one-third of national income spent on social security. Aging population. High labor costs.
PROFILE Historically, trade has been central to the success of the economy of the Netherlands. Most goods travel through
Nijmegen Rotterdam Eindhoven Maastricht Electronics
Gas refining
Pharmaceuticals Light engineering
Oil refining
Heavy engineering Aerospace industry
Chemicals Textiles 0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NETHERLANDS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 570,226 tonnes
28,932 b/d (reserves 106m barrels)
11.2m pigs, 3.78m cattle, 98m chickens
Natural gas, oil
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Cattle Pigs Sugarbeet Bulbs & flowers
Hydro 0%
l Ijsse
Combustion 95% (87bn kWh) Nuclear 4% (3.9bn kWh)
20
60
40
Waal s
M aa
100
80
% of total generation by type
There are large natural gas reserves in the north. A 22.5 MW wind power station near Rotterdam began operation in 2002.
†
ENVIRONMENT
.
14% (10% partially protected)
Sustainability rank: 34th
Yes
Yes
50 km
0
50 miles
Yes
†
CRIME
8.7 tonnes per capita
†
SPENDING No death penalty
/
16,239 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
0
Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases
The quality of health care, largely state-funded and currently among the best in the world, is threatened by a rapidly aging population. The Netherlands was the first country to legalize abortion; it has one of the lowest rates of terminations in the world, but numbers are increasing steadily. Major health problems are similar to those in the rest of western Europe. Smoking was banned in most public places from January 2004 in a bid to reduce the prevalence of the habit among the Dutch.
Ijsselmeer
Other 1% (0.7bn kWh)
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 303 people
NETHERLANDS : LAND USE
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
HEALTH
Electric power 21m kW
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Up 4% in 2001
401 per 1000 population
618 per 1000 population
CRIME RATES
Defense 1.6%
Murders
Yes
2
per 100,000 population
10
per 100,000 population
4580
per 100,000 population
Education 4.8% Health 5.6%
Rapes
Yes
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
There is a strong environmental tradition, a legacy in part of living in one of the most densely populated states in the world. NGOs such as Greenpeace are well supported and the Green Left party is represented in parliament. The Dutch recycle domestic trash, have a good record on energy efficiency, and have developed innovative projects in housing and local transportation. An eco-tax on energy users was introduced in 1996 – the first of its kind in the West – though big businesses are exempt. Serious flooding of the rivers Maas and Waal (an arm of the Rhine) in 1993 and 1995 raised concern about the state of the country’s flood defenses and the use of floodplains for development.
MEDIA
97%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 7 national dailies. The conservative De Telegraaf has the largest circulation
3 services: 1 public, 2 independent
5 privately owned national stations, many regional and local stations
Newspaper circulation is high. While editorially independent, broadcasting is strongly regulated. Dutch law does not recognize a right of reply or a right to protect information sources.
School leaving age: 18
504,042 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 306 per 1000 people
†
EDUCATION
100
% of each age group in education
†
The Netherlands treats the use of hard drugs more as a medical and social issue than a criminal one. Other member states of Europe’s Schengen Convention, particularly France, fear that this makes Dutch ports a soft point of entry for narcotics. Possessing cannabis for personal use has been decriminalized – stopping short of actual legalization.
The Netherlands is, per capita, one of the richest countries in the world. Oil executives, stock market traders, and businessmen are among the wealthiest sector of the population. A progressive taxation system and extensive social welfare mean that wealth is reasonably evenly distributed. A small elite have considerable inherited wealth, but extravagant displays of affluence are rare. Class does not play a big part in Dutch society. Most citizens would consider themselves middle class. Immigrant communities are the exception; they often live on the edges of towns in deprived areas. The poorest group of all are the illegal immigrants.
WORLD RANKING 80
Position in World 60
1st
100%
100%
40
50th
55% 20
15
16
16
$23,390
78 years
5 deaths
5
100th
0
68 Primary
Secondary
97%
Tertiary 150th
Private schools take 65% of students; most of them are run by the various religious denominations. Both public and private institutions are state-funded. There are 13 universities in the Netherlands. Corporate funding plays an important part in research.
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640 431
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NEW ZEALAND
AUSTRALASIA
Pacific Ocean
Australia NEW ZEALAND
OFFICIAL NAME: New Zealand CAPITAL: Wellington POPULATION: 3.9 million CURRENCY: New Zealand dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and Maori 1947
1947
Feb 6
NZ
+12
.nz
+64
L
Y ING IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC, 1600 km (992 miles) southeast of Australia, New Zealand comprises the main North and South Islands, separated by the Cook Strait, and a number of smaller islands. South Island is the more mountainous; North Island contains hot springs and geysers, and the bulk of the population. The political tradition is liberal and egalitarian, and has been dominated by the National and Labour parties. Radical, and often unpopular, reforms since 1984 have restored economic growth, speeded up economic diversification, and strengthened New Zealand’s position within the Pacific Rim countries.
CLIMATE
†
Maritime/subtropical
WEATHER CHART FOR WELLINGTON
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
/
2.1m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
15/km2 (38/mi2)
English, Maori THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
86%
14%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Methodist 5%
Roman Catholic 15%
Anglican 24%
Nonreligious 16%
Visitors : Population 1:1.9
Other 22%
Presbyterian 18%
Up 3% in 2003 ETHNIC MAKEUP
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Pacific islanders 5%
Other immigrant 6% Maori 12%
Australia 31% UK 12% USA 10% European 77%
Japan 8%
-10/14
South Korea 5%
-20/-4
Other 34%
New Zealand’s climate is generally temperate and damp, with an average temperature of 12˚C (54˚F). There are differences between the islands, which extend north–south nearly 2000 km (1240 miles). The extreme north is almost subtropical; southern winters are cold. It is windy: Wellington, in particular, is known for bouts of blustery weather and occasional violent storms.
TRANSPORTATION Auckland International 9.83m passengers
†
Drive on left
173 ships 180,435 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 58,090 km (36,095 miles)
169 km (105 miles)
3898 km (2422 miles)
1609 km (1000 miles)
Though both the main islands are well provided with transportation services, the more populous North Island’s road and rail network is more extensive than the South’s. Air and ferry services complement the land networks and provide links between the North and South Islands, as well as with the numerous smaller islands. Cargo ferry services are particularly important for Antarctic bases in the Ross Dependency. Links with New Zealand’s other associated territories – the Cook Islands, Niue, and the atolls of Tokelau – are underdeveloped.
432
Pop. density low
0
0/32
N
†
PEOPLE
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
New Zealand’s prime attraction is its scenery. Unspoiled and, relative to the country’s size, the most varied in the world, it offers mountains, fiords and lakes, glaciers, rainforests, beaches, boiling mud pools, and geysers. Other attractions are the Maori culture and outdoor activities such as river rafting, fishing, skiing, whale watching, and bungee jumping – a local invention. Tourism is the largest single foreignexchange earner and it continues to grow, though the 1997–1998 Asian economic crisis saw the number of Asian tourists drop by 10%. An increase in visitor numbers has followed the huge global success of the three Lord of the Rings films: the whole series was shot in various locations across New Zealand.
New Zealand is a country of migrants. The first settlers, the Maoris, migrated from Polynesia about 1200 years ago. Today’s majority European population is mainly descended from British migrants who settled after 1840. Newer migrants include Asians from Hong Kong and Malaysia, and Polynesians. The government is keen to attract skilled South Americans, Russians, Chinese, and Africans to revitalize the economy. The living standards and unemployment rates of the Maoris compare adversely with those of the European-descended majority, and relations can be tense. The Waikato Raupatu Claims Settlement Act was signed in 1995 and an official apology to the Maoris was made. In 1998 the Waitangi Tribunal ordered the return of confiscated land. New Zealand became the first country in the world to give women the vote – in 1893. In 2001, the posts of prime minister, leader of the opposition, and governor-general were all held by women. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 1.9% 6.9%
Mount Egmont, an extinct volcano, is one of the numerous popular natural attractions of New Zealand’s North Island.
80+ 60–79
13%
40–59
14.7%
20–39
14.5%
0–19
Male 1% 6.2% 12.6% 13.9% 15.3%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NEW ZEALAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
POLITICS
†
2002/2005
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
8% GP
House of Representatives 120 seats
43% LP
22% NP
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Multiparty elections
Comm
APEC
Joined UN in 1945
PIF
OECD
†
AID
Donor
/
US$122m (donations)
PC
Up 9% in 2002
Around 75% of New Zealand’s overseas Many New Zealanders are strongly aid is bilateral. Particular areas of focus committed to the British monarchy are the Pacific states and Pacific-wide and the Commonwealth, but the organizations. New Zealand is a major UK’s EU involvement has supporter of the Pacific Islands Forum, forced New Zealand the University of the South Pacific, to reorient its trade and the Pacific Environment Great and foreign policy Program. It also offers Exhibition N Bay toward its Pacific Rim scholarships to overseas O neighbors, especially students for study R Kaitaia Australia, now New or training in T Zealand’s largest single New Zealand. H trading partner. Their 1983 Whangarei Closer Economic Relationship Dargaville I (CER) treaty was strengthened Little Great Barrier I. Barrier I. in 1996 by the signing of a Colvi Kaipara lle mutual recognition agreement. Ch a Harbour n nel Hauraki Relations with Asia are growing Great Mercury I. Gulf Waiheke I. Takapuna in importance. The 1997–1998 Coromandel Auckland Papatoetoe Asian economic crisis Manurewa Peninsula Manukau Harbour Papakura significantly affected Pukekohe Bay of Plenty W trade, particularly tourism. Mount White I. Maunganui Relations with the US Tauranga are improving after a low Cambridge Hamilton Whakatane L. Rotorua point when New Zealand’s Ruatoria Rotorua antinuclear stance led to Tokoroa its exclusion from the Murupara R Gisborne Taupo ANZUS pact. Official ties L. Waikaremoana L. Taupo rt h with France, cut in 1985 o N Taumarunui New Plymouth after French agents Mt Taranaki Wairoa (Mt Egmont) Mt Ruapehu Cape Mahia bombed Greenpeace’s Hawke 2797m 2518m Egmont Peninsula Bay Rainbow Warrior in Hawera Napier Auckland harbor, Hastings Ta were restored ra na Ra ki Wanganui in 1997. Big
2% PC
11% 8% 6% NZF ACT UFNZ
LP = Labour Party NP = National Party NZF = New Zealand First Party ACT = ACT New Zealand (Association of Consumers and Taxpayers) GP = Green Party UFNZ = United Future PC = Progressive Coalition
S
L
N
A
A
E
tai
an gi
Ta
ra
na
S
ki B ig
ki
ht
New Zealand is a parliamentary democracy. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing territories.
D
Jenny Shipley, the first woman prime minister (NP, 1997–1999).
at o aik
Helen Clark, LP leader and prime minister since 1999.
A
h
ka
Mot
am
ar
Wa
N R E HL. Pukaki T U L. Ohau Twizel O S L. Hawea L. Wanaka W ai Wanaka ta ki L. Wakatipu Queenstown
CA
I i
Pegasus Bay
Banks Peninsula
Ashburton yB
t igh
a
Foveaux S tra it
Halfmoon Bay
Balclutha
I
over 50 000 over 10 000
H U
200m/656ft
under 10 000
Sea Level
O
Invercargill
N 0
S
ataura M
O r e ti
W aiau
Gore
over 100 000
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
Dunedin
POPULATION over 500 000
2000m/6562ft
T
Taier i
C l uth
Otago Peninsula
Mosgiel
Total Area : 268 680 sq. km (103 737 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT Oamaru
Alexandra
ait Str Pitt I.
NEW ZEALAND
P
ur rb
Can t
e
Timaru
tt Pi
(continuation on same scale)
Christchurch
RY BU NS ER LAI T P N
Chatham I.
Petre Bay Waitangi
F
Rangiora
C
S
Chatham Is
C
i
A
P
ir
H
T
O
ea B ig h t
M S
A T D
N
L
tat a gi
U
r
A
ar
Rak
Ra n L. Tekapo
Te Anau
St
H urun u
ak im
3744m
E
C
t
Wa
L (MountAoraki Cook)
L. Te Anau
ai
Kaikoura
Hokitika
A
WELLINGTON
ce en ar
Greymouth
S
C o ok
u ira
Cl
N
L. Wairarapa
Lower Hutt
Nelson Blenheim
Reefton
ai a
O
ei
N
ut
Buller
Kapiti I.
Masterton Paraparaumu Upper Hutt Porirua
Tasman Bay
ue
K
I
Stewart Island
Fielding
Levin
Golden D'Urville Bay Island
Westport
A
S
So
ht
Palmerston North
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Electoral reform New Zealand shifted from a first-past-the-post electoral system to PR for the 1996 general election. The new German-style system strengthened the role of smaller parties. As predicted, the first election to use the system in 1996 produced a coalition Resolution I. government, led by the NP. Forced into opposition in 1998, the NP has, unsuccessfully, called for a review of PR.
anui an g W
Since 1984 the economy has undergone massive reforms; cuts to the welfare system and privatization of public assets have been unpopular. The NP and the LP dominated politics until 1996 and the first use of proportional representation (PR), a reform endorsed by referendum in 1993. Jenny Shipley of the NP became the country’s first woman prime minister in 1997 at the head of a coalition with the small NZF, and from 1998 led a minority administration when the NZF withdrew. A new minority coalition of the LP and the Alliance assumed power under LP leader Helen Clark in 1999. The LP remained in power after the 2002 elections, forming a minority coalition with the PC (renamed the Progress Party in 2003).
ng iti k
PROFILE
0
100 km 100 miles
433
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY A former British colony, New Zealand became a dominion in 1907, self-governing from 1926, and fully independent in 1947.
434
.
No compulsory military service
Down 4% in 2002
Military cuts announced in 2001 emphasized the aim to refocus defense policy on small-scale peacekeeping, protection against low-level economic threats, and terrorism. As part of cutbacks the combat wing of the air force was taken out of active service in 2002. The move put renewed stress on the historic security pact with Australia and the US (ANZUS). The 1984 decision to refuse access to nuclear warships (effective from 1985) damaged defense cooperation with the US and other Western powers for a decade, forcing New Zealand to seek closer links with Australia.
ECONOMICS US$52.2bn
†
NEW ZEALAND ARMED FORCES No main battle tanks
4430 personnel
3 frigates and 4 patrol boats
1980 personnel
6 combat aircraft (P-3K Orion)
2200 personnel
None
Senior-level contacts were resumed in 1994. Since then, the US and the UK have resumed naval visits, though not with nuclear-armed vessels.
Inflation 1.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.575 New Zealand dollars (1.708)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................49th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$13,260 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..............–US$1.95bn INFLATION .........................................2.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
UK 5%
China 5% Japan 11%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
N
US$630m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1962 Western Samoa (now Samoa) gains independence. 1965 Cook Islands gain autonomy. 1975 Conservative NP wins elections. Economic austerity program introduced. 1976 Immigration cut by over 80%. 1984 LP elected; David Lange prime minister. Auckland harbor headland restored to Maoris. 1985 New Zealand prohibits nuclear vessels from ports and waters. French agents sink Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior in Auckland harbor. 1986 US suspends military obligations under ANZUS Treaty. 1987 LP wins elections. Introduction of controversial privatization plan. Nuclear ban enshrined in legislation. 1990 LP defeated by NP in elections. James Bolger prime minister. 1991 Widespread protests at spending cuts. 1992 Maoris win South Island fishing rights. Majority vote for electoral reform in referendum. 1993 Docking of first French naval ship for eight years. NP returned with single-seat majority in election. Proportional representation introduced by referendum. 1994 Senior-level US contacts restored; agrees not to send nuclear-armed ships to New Zealand ports. Maoris reject government ten-year land claims settlement of US$660 million. 1995 Waitangi Day celebrations abandoned after Maori protests. Crown apologizes to Maoris and signs Waikato Raupatu Claims Act. UK warship visits resume. 1996 NP forms coalition to preserve overall legislative majority. First general election under new proportional representation system. 1997 NP forms coalition with New Zealand First (NZF) party. Bolger resigns. Jenny Shipley becomes first woman prime minister. 1998 Shipley sacks NZF leader Winston Peters as deputy prime minister. Waitangi Tribunal orders government to return to Maoris US$3.3 million of confiscated land. 1999 LP led by Helen Clark wins general election. 2001 Air New Zealand renationalized. 2002 Combat wing of air force taken out of service. July, elections: LP reelected.
DEFENSE
2002
Other 43% USA 16% Australia 20% IMPORTS
Germany 5%
China 8% Japan 12%
Other 39% USA 14% Australia 22%
government spending helped to restore growth and cut inflation to a minimum. Diversification into new markets and products recovered after the 1997–1998 Asian economic crisis. Prime Minister Clark dropped objections in 2001 to the idea of a unified Australia–New Zealand dollar. High public debt and poor levels of private investment remain a problem. NEW ZEALAND : MAJOR BUSINESSES
STRENGTHS Modern agricultural sector; one of the five biggest exporters of dairy products. Rapidly expanding tourist sector. Manufacturing, with emphasis on high-tech. One of world’s most open economies. Strong trade links within Pacific Rim.
Auckland
Napier
Nelson
Wellington
WEAKNESSES One of the highest levels of public debt outside developing world. Continuing reliance on imported manufactured goods and foreign investment.
Christchurch Brewing Chemicals Pulp & paper
PROFILE Since 1984, New Zealand has changed from being one of the most regulated to one of the most open economies in the world. Radical reforms and drastic cuts in social security and related
Dunedin
Meat packing Dairy products Fruit processing Wool processing
0 0
200 km 200 miles
Light engineering Telecommunications
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NEW ZEALAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 8.5m kW
637,134 tonnes
23,318 b/d (reserves 106m barrels)
39.3m sheep, 9.66m cattle, 18m chickens
Coal, oil, natural gas, iron, gold, silica sand
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 29 regional daily newspapers. The leading newspaper is the New Zealand Herald
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 63% (25bn kWh)
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
Combustion 30% (12bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
2 state-owned services, over 200 independent stations
Other 7% (2.9bn kWh) 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
New Zealand’s rich pastures, a result of even rainfall throughout the year, have traditionally been its key resource. The sheep, wool, and dairy products on which the country’s wealth was built are still important. Newer export industries include products such as fruit, vegetables, fish, cork, wood, wine, and textile fibers. New Zealand is well endowed with energy resources. It has coal, oil, and natural gas reserves, but most energy is generated by hydroelectric plants. NORTH
Deregulated in 1988, New Zealand television is one of the most liberal in the world. Maori-language radio broadcasts began in 1996, and a television channel followed in 2004.
5881 prisoners
2
A
N
ER
H
22
per 100,000 population
3313
per 100,000 population
†
8.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
5
15
20
25
School leaving age: 16
266,501 students
100
80
The years since 1984 have been very difficult for New Zealanders, who are used to affluence within a generous welfare state. A rash of economic and social reforms has held back wages, raised unemployment, and cut welfare benefits. Even so, average living standards are still high, and a strong egalitarian tradition means that wealth remains relatively evenly distributed. The quality of life in New Zealand is among the best in the world, in terms of access to basic necessities, and a pure, healthy, urban and rural environment. Social mobility is fairly high. Wealthier people tend to spend their money on houses close to the water. Yachts are a common status symbol.
60
99%
WORLD RANKING
100%
40
72% Position in World 1st
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
1
50th
16 31
New Zealand’s isolation, small population, and limited industry have helped to keep it one of the world’s most pollution-free countries. It was a leading opponent of French nuclear testing in the Pacific and has banned nuclear vessels from its ports. Ozone depletion over Antarctica, deforestation, and protection of native flora and fauna are major issues.
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
% of each age group in education
/
30% (6% partially protected)
448 per 1000 population
Health 6.4% 0
Rapes
200 miles
†
516 per 1000 population
Education 6.6%
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENT
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
per 100,000 population
200 km
Sustainability rank: 19th
GDP/cap. increase
Defense 1.2%
99%
0
†
SPENDING
Little change in 2001
EDUCATION
0
In 1936, New Zealand became the first country to introduce a full welfare state. Government efforts since 1991 to impose UK-style market systems on the health service have been very unpopular. While life expectancy continues to improve, the nation’s OECD health ranking has fallen. In comparison with other OECD countries, New Zealand has high mortality rates for heart diseases, respiratory disease, breast and bowel cancer, motor vehicle accidents, and suicide.
Murders
SOUTH ISLAND
UT
,
Crime rates in New Zealand’s urban areas have increased in recent years. Overall, however, the country remains one of the world’s safest and most peaceful places in which to live.
Cropland Forest Pasture High mountain regions Cattle Sheep PS L Cereals
SO
No death penalty
Cancers, respiratory, cerebrovascular, and heart diseases
CRIME RATES
ISLAND
NEW ZEALAND : LAND USE
†
CRIME
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 225 people
Daily newspaper circulation 362 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
Education is free, and compulsory between six and 16. A number of schools are composite, providing both primary and secondary education. New Zealand has one of the highest proportions of the population with tertiary qualifications in the OECD. Nearly all adults are literate, but the standard of literacy is not always very high: a government initiative, More than Words, was launched in 2000.
$13,260
78 years
100th
99%
18 28 6 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
435
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NICARAGUA
Honduras NICARAGUA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Nicaragua CAPITAL: Managua POPULATION: 5.5 million CURRENCY: Córdoba oro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1838
1838
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA
Sept 15
NIC
-6
Costa Rica
.ni
+505
B
OUNDED BY the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east, Nicaragua lies at the heart of Central America. After more than 40 years of dictatorship, the Sandinista revolution in 1978 led to social reforms, but also to a decade of civil war, which almost destroyed the economy. Right-wing parties have held power since the Sandinistas unexpectedly lost the 1990 elections. Despite the devastation of Hurricane Mitch in 1998, the economy is slowly strengthening.
AT THE LAST ELECTION
43%
National Assembly 92 seats Amerindian 5% Black 8%
Zambo 4%
-10/14 -20/-4
Augusto C. Sandino, Managua 913,534 passengers
Drive on right
26 ships 3600 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2094 km (1301 miles)
Pan-American Highway: 384 km (239 miles)
6 km (4 miles)
2220 km (1379 miles)
Nicaragua lacks a Caribbean deepwater port. There are three domestic airlines. Some areas are only accessible by boat.
†
TOURISM
/
518,250 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:11
USA 21%
POPULATION
P
over 50 000
% of total arrivals
40
A
C
over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
N
Siuna San José de Bocay
I
F
I
C
1000m/3281ft 0
100 km
Lago de Nicaragua
San Carlos
C O S T A
Sa
100 miles
N
0
Peñas Blancas
A
200m/656ft Sea Level
Rivas
E
500m/1640ft
n
J u an
R I C A
Cayos Miskitos
Puerto Cabezas
Alamikamba a Jinotega lp Mata g a Matagalpa de e Matiguás nd Sébaco ra G Muy Muy Laguna de Chinandega Chichigalpa Perlas Telica Corinto Lago de Boaco León Managua Nagarote El Rama Tipitapa San Lorenzo Islas Maíz Juigalpa Bluefields Villa Sandino Masatepe Masaya Diriamba Granada San Rafael del Sur Jinotepe Isla de Nandaime Ometepe Estelí
C
436
Waspam
Rosita
O
The civil war caused the near-collapse of the tourist industry, and its recovery was interrupted by the devastation caused by Hurricane Mitch in 1998. The 1999 “incentive law” encourages investment in tourist infrastructure.
Ocotal Somoto
Gulf of Fonseca Somotillo
over 100 000
Pico Mogotón 2103m
H
over 500 000
El Salvador 15% Other 40% 30
o Coc
D
O
NICARAGUA
Honduras 24%
20
U
S
A
R
Up 10% in 2003
Total Area : 129 494 sq. km (49 998 sq. miles)
10
Right-wing coalitions have held power since 1990. The PLC took office in 1997, promising to unite the country, but quickly became unpopular due to austerity measures and allegations of corruption. Recent two-party domination of politics, shared between the PLC and the FSLN, has strained democracy. Charges of corruption, backed by President Enrique Bolaños and leveled against former PLC president and party leader Arnoldo Alemán, polarized Congress and the party in 2003.
The Caribbean regions, which in 1987 achieved limited autonomy, are isolated from the more populous Pacific regions. The indigenous Miskito tribes and the descendants of Africans, brought over by Spanish colonists in the 18th century to work the plantations, are concentrated along the Caribbean coast, where English Creole is widely spoken. The Sandinista revolution improved the status of women through changes in the legal system and the incorporation of women into economic and political life. However, poverty and lack of permanent employment have since forced many women into prostitution.
N
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
PLC = Liberal Constitutionalist Party FSLN = Sandinista National Liberation Front PCN = Conservative Party of Nicaragua
Mestizo 69%
A
N
†
TRANSPORTATION
2% PCN
47% FSLN
51% PLC
White 14%
The climate is tropical and often violent, as evidenced by seasonal hurricanes, such as Hurricane Mitch in 1998.
A
0
0/32
57% ETHNIC MAKEUP
E
10/4
S
20/8
10/50
N
20/68
President Enrique Bolaños
2001/2006
E
30/12
Multiparty elections
B
30/86
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
B
40/16
I
40/104
46/km2 (120/mi2)
Spanish, English Creole, Miskito
R
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
C
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Oil refinery at Bluefields, on the Caribbean coast. Under the Sandinistas, most crude oil came from the Soviet Union, via Cuba.
Pop. density low
A
WEATHER CHART FOR MANAGUA
†
PEOPLE
C O A S T
Tropical equatorial/ wet and dry
M O S Q U I T O
†
CLIMATE
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NICARAGUA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Geplac
OAS
NAM
Joined UN in 1945
San José
Main issues are debt relief in the wake of Hurricane Mitch, cooperation with neighboring countries for increased US trade access, and the treatment of over
†
AID
Recipient
$517m (receipts)
.
Down 44% in 2002
Hurricane Mitch damage elicited new World Bank and IDB loans. Cuba, France, Finland, and Spain pardoned
DEFENSE $31m
†
/
ECONOMICS
Up 15% in 2002
†
Inflation 45% p.a. (1990–2000)
15.82 córdobas oro (15)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................122nd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$710 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$888m INFLATION ............................................4% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................12%
Coffee, sugar, and grain exports. Foreign aid and public and private reconstruction work after Hurricane Mitch will benefit tourism, energy, services, and construction. Large foreign debt cancellations.
Main exports subject to price fluctuations. High unemployment. Poor energy supply and infrastructure. Lack of investment and diversification. Weak banks. Delays in privatization. Skewed land ownership and protracted property disputes. Corruption. Frequent natural disasters. EXPORTS
USA 63%
Honduras 5% El Salvador 8% Other 18%
Not an oil producer; refines 16,200 b/d
3.5m cattle, 440,000 pigs, 16.2m chickens
Gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, tungsten, salt
Nicaragua has small quantities of gold and silver. New thermal generation projects are planned to overcome energy deficits. There is possible offshore oil.
/
18% (8% partially protected)
1978 FSLN, formed in 1961, ends 44year Somoza dictatorship; ensuing conflict between FSLN and Contras. 1984 Daniel Ortega, FSLN leader, elected president. 1990 End of civil war. Center-right National Opposition Union (UNO) unexpectedly wins elections. 1998 Hurricane Mitch causes havoc. 2002 Bolaños becomes president.
†
Nicaragua’s adult literacy rate is one of the lowest in Latin America; few students complete fifth grade.
Costa Rica 11% USA 25%
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
N
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
16 per 1000 population
32 per 1000 population
Defense 1.3% Education 5% Health 3.8% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP TV ownership medium
There are 8 daily newspapers, including La Prensa and El Nuevo Diario 62 stations: 1 state-owned, 61 independent
7 services: 1 state-owned, 6 independent
Since the civil war, radio, TV, and newspapers have tended to ally themselves with the government or the opposition; there is little room for political neutrality.
7198 prisoners
Cancers, heart diseases, perinatal causes, accidents
Nicaragua has 27 public hospitals. The government is in the process of reforming the health service.
0.7 tonnes per capita
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 1111 people
Just under half of Nicaragua’s population live below the national poverty line, rising to 69% in rural areas.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
101
150th
Guatemala 8%
†
HEALTH
Sustainability rank: 52nd
Daily newspaper circulation 30 per 1000 people
CRIME
School leaving age: 12
89,438 students
77%
0
†
†
EDUCATION
Deforestation over large areas and the widespread use of pesticides are serious environmental concerns.
Venezuela 8% Other 42%
Electric power 641,000 kW
28,520 tonnes
IMPORTS
El Salvador 6%
†
RESOURCES
MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
Canada 3%
retired in 1998. The army is to be involved in more communitybased roles focused on the defense of natural resources and mine clearance. Russia agreed in 2001 to help upgrade the military.
ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS
Costa Rica 3%
all or part of Nicaragua’s debt. Nicaragua was included in the Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative, and the World Bank and the IMF canceled over 80% of outstanding debt in 2004.
Nicaragua became an independent state in 1838. Guerrilla forces, led by Gen. Sandino, opposed the US marine presence in the early 1930s.
No compulsory military service
FSLN forces once formed the basis of the army, which was cut from a civil war peak of 134,000 to 10,000 by 1995. Senior Sandinistas were among officers
$3.82bn
CHRONOLOGY
300,000 Nicaraguan immigrants in Costa Rica. A free trade agreement with Mexico is important. A dispute over the common border with Costa Rica was resolved in 2000. Ongoing border and navigation rights disputes exist with Honduras and Colombia.
130
No death penalty 193rd
/
69 years
$710
107 137
32 deaths
118
77%
Up 23% in 1997–1998
Former combatants have menaced parts of central and northern regions. Violent crime is rising, as is drug trafficking.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
437
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NIGER
WEST AFRICA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Niger CAPITAL: Niamey POPULATION: 12 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1960
1960
Dec 18
RN
+1
.ne
+227
L
ANDLOCKED IN THE WEST of Africa, Niger is linked to the sea by the Niger River. Saharan conditions prevail in the northern regions, in the area around the Aïr Mountains, and, particularly, in the vast uninhabited northeast. Niger was ruled by one-party or military regimes until multiparty elections in 1993. A much-troubled democratic process was then disrupted by military coups in 1996 and 1999. Niger is one of the poorest countries in Africa.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Hot desert/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR NIAMEY
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
†
Pop. density low 9/km2 (25/mi2)
Hausa, Djerma, Fulani, Tuareg, Teda, French THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
22%
78%
ETHNIC MAKEUP 10/50
10/4
0/32
Other 6% Tuareg 9%
0
-10/14
Fulani 10%
The Saharan north is virtually rainless. The south, in the Sahel belt, has an unreliable rainy season, preceded by a period of extreme daytime heat.
N
†
TRANSPORTATION Niamey International 79,789 passengers
Drive on right
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 808 km (502 miles)
Trans-Sahara Highway: 428 km (266 miles)
None, but shares administration of Benin’s railroad
300 km (186 miles)
A very small proportion of Niger’s road network is paved. There are international airports at Niamey and Agadez. There is no railroad.
TOURISM 39,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:308
.
Down 25% in 2002
Hausa 54%
Djerma and Songhai 21%
Considerable tensions exist between the Tuareg in the north and the southern groups. The Tuareg’s sense of alienation from mainstream Nigerien politics has increased since the 1973 and 1984 droughts, which disrupted their nomadic way of life. A five-year rebellion ended in 1995 with a peace agreement. In eastern Niger, Toubou and Arab groups have also been in revolt. A more subtle antagonism exists between the Djerma and Hausa groups. The Djerma elite from the southwest dominated politics for many years until 1993, when control passed to the Hausa majority. Niger is an overwhelmingly Islamic society. Women have only limited rights and restricted access to education. The implementation of sharia (Islamic law) is fiercely resisted by President Tandja.
Burkina
Africa 67% France 15% North America 5%
20
30
40
50
60
70
†
Multiparty elections
President Mamadou Tandja
1999/2004 AT THE LAST ELECTION
5% ANDP
National Assembly 83 seats
20% CDS
46% MNSD
19% 10% PNDS RDP
MNSD = National Movement for the Development of Society CDS = Democratic and Social Convention PNDS = Niger Party for Democracy and Socialism RDP = Rally for Democracy and Progress ANDP = Niger Alliance for Democracy and Progress
Multiparty elections were held in 1993 after six years of demonstrations following the death of the military dictator Seyni Kountché. An ensuing power struggle between President Mahamane Ousmane and his political opponents led to a military coup in 1996. Gen. Ibrahim Barre Mainassara issued a new constitution and won an election condemned as fraudulent by the opposition. Mainassara was assassinated by his presidential guard in early 1999. Mamadou Tandja won the presidential poll later that year. His MNSD is allied to Ousmane’s CDS and the two dominate the National Assembly. The sacking as tourism minister and subsequent arrest of former Tuareg rebel leader Rhissa ag Boula in 2004 heightened tensions.
†
Joined UN in 1960
WORLD AFFAIRS CILSS
ECOWAS
AU
FZ
OIC
Relations with Libya and Algeria have improved since the end of the Tuareg rebellion in 1995. ECOWAS members and the OAU condemned the 1999 coup, as did all key donors, led by France.
AID
†
Recipient
$298m (receipts)
DEFENSE
80
% of total arrivals
The Aïr Mountains, southern Hausa cities, and Saharan Tuareg culture attract some tourists in spite of Niger’s limited infrastructure and its instability.
438
Chad
Nigeria
POLITICS
Other 13% 10
NIGER
/
Up 16% in 2002
The World Bank is the principal donor, followed by France and the EU. Most aid was frozen immediately following the 1999 coup, but in late 2000 the IMF approved a three-year loan under its Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
Africa
Libya
Algeria Mali
$33m
Testing boating poles in the market at Ayorou on the Niger River, the country’s only major permanent watercourse.
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 14% in 2002
Niger’s armed forces and paramilitary elements total 10,700. A brief army mutiny was quelled in August 2002.
L
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NIGER
I B Y A
A I R
NIGER G
A
LAND HEIGHT
L
A
H
I
200m/656ft
r ge Ni
A
K B U R
D a llol Bo sso
M Ayorou Ouallam
Di
lia
Ngourti
Tahoua
Keïta Dakoro Filingué Nguigmi Tougana BirniKonni Gouré Loga Dargol Maradi Zinder NIAMEY Say DossoDogondoutchi Tessaoua Guidimouni Djirataoua BirniDiffa MaïnéN 200 km Gaouré Magaria Soroa A La Tapoa E I 200 miles I Gaya
N
Téra
A
A Agadez
Tillabéri
Lake Chad
I
0 0
N
R
G
A
B ENIN
ECONOMICS $2.01bn
†
Inflation 5.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
ENVIRONMENT
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................139th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$180 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$170m INFLATION .........................................2.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
/
8% (7% partially protected)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
SCORE CARD
H
L
150m/492ft
e de llé Va uagh o za A ' L
C
under 10 000
Achénouma
Monts Bagzane 2022m
500m/1640ft
over 10 000
The powerful Islamic Sokoto empire dissolved as the French took over Niger between 1883 and 1901.
Assamaka
1000m/3281ft
over 50 000
CHRONOLOGY
Séguédine Iferouâne
over 100 000
A
R
A
Ï R
POPULATION
S
D
E
Total Area : 1 267 000 sq. km (489 188 sq. miles)
†
Sustainability rank: 123rd
†
0.1 tonnes per capita
Serious droughts intensify desertification. Hunting was banned in 2001, in an effort to preserve wildlife numbers.
MEDIA
1960 Independence. 1968 French open uranium mines. 1973 Drought; 60% of livestock die. 1974 Military coup. Gen. Seyni Kountché bans political parties. 1984 New drought; Niger River dries up. Uranium boom ends. 1987 Kountché dies. Gen. Ali Saibou begins transition to democracy. 1990–1995 Tuareg rebellion. 1992 Multiparty constitution. 1993 Democratic elections. 1996 Military coup. Staged elections. 1999 Gen. Mainassara assassinated. New constitution. Multiparty elections won by Mamadou Tandja. 2001 Hunting banned in effort to save wildlife.
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 0.2 per 1000 people
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, tuberculosis, meningitis, measles, malnutrition
1 per 25,000 people
Rural health care has improved, but progress in immunization, malaria control, and child nutrition is limited.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
There is 1 daily newspaper, Le Sahel, published by the government
Vast uranium deposits. Gold and oil discoveries in late 1990s revived hopes for economic viability.
WEAKNESSES Aid-dependent. Collapse of uranium prices in 1980s created large debt burden. Only 3% of land cultivable. Weak infrastructure. Frequent droughts. Political instability. Banditry.
CRIME
EXPORTS
Ghana 2%
Spain 4% Other 5% Japan 17%
France 39% Nigeria 33%
†
6000 prisoners
Nigeria 7% China 10%
EDUCATION 17%
Ivory Coast 15%
Other 46%
France 17%
RESOURCES
†
.
Down 36% in 1996–1998
Crime is at critical levels in urban areas, with carjackings, theft, and robbery rife. Rural banditry is common, and smuggling is a way of life in border areas.
IMPORTS
USA 5%
3 per 1000 population
The world’s lowest literacy levels mean that radio is the most important medium. The government controls most broadcasting. Death penalty not used in practice
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
1 state-owned service, several independent local stations
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
†
SPENDING
N 2 per 1000 population
Defense 1.6% Education 2.3% Health 1.4% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
A small circle of secretive trading families controls much of Niger’s wealth and tends to evade taxation. Over 870,000 people live in slavery.
WORLD RANKING
School leaving age: 12
Position in World 1st
13,400 students
Local languages receive greater emphasis than in most francophone states. Only onethird of children attend primary school.
50th
100th
Electric power 105,000 kW
20,821 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited
6.9m goats, 4.5m sheep, 2.26m cattle, 25m chickens
Uranium, tin, gypsum, coal, salt, tungsten, oil, iron, phosphates, gold
During the 1970s, Niger’s uranium mines boomed, but output collapsed in
150th
the 1980s when world prices slumped. Other mining is small-scale and oil reserves, discovered in the Lake Chad area, are not yet commercially viable. Salt has been mined and traded for centuries. Doum and palmyra palms are often used to make household products.
193rd
167 183 $180
46 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
193 17%
189
176
155 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
439
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NIGERIA
WEST AFRICA N i ger
1961
Oct 1
NGR
+1
on
Africa
Cam er o
NIGERIA
OFFICIAL NAME: Federal Republic of Nigeria CAPITAL: Abuja POPULATION: 124 million CURRENCY: Naira OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1960
C h ad
Benin
.ng
+234
A
FRICA’S MOST POPULOUS state, Nigeria gained its independence from the UK in 1960. Bordered by Benin, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, its terrain varies from tropical rainforest and swamps in the south to savanna in the north. Nigeria has been dominated by military governments since 1966. After many delays, a promised return to civilian rule came about in 1999, with the election as president of Olusegun Obasanjo, a former general who had been head of state from 1976 to 1979. Nigeria is a major OPEC oil producer, but it experienced a fall in living standards after the end of the 1970s oil boom.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR ABUJA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
/
2.04m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
0
Village beneath Tengele Peak in Bauchi State. A large proportion of Nigerians live by subsistence agriculture.
Visitors : Population 1:61 MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Up 114% in 2002
Nigeria is gradually developing its tourist industry. Year-round tropical humidity and poor infrastructure have limited its growth. The major deterrent to visitors, however, is crime. Travel can be hazardous, and Lagos has one of the world’s highest crime rates.
Niger 20% Benin 13% Ghana 7% Liberia 4% Cameroon 4% Other 52% 0
10
20
50
40
30
60
% of total arrivals
S
over 1 000 000 over 500 000
Kano
r Yelwa
Kaduna Kontagora
Kainji Reservoir
Bauchi
na
Sea Level Minna
N
Mokwa
8575 km (5328 miles)
Ni
Lafiagi
Oyo Iwo
Ibadan Abeokuta
B ig h t
A
Lokoja
Onitsha
B
e
Warri
n
N
Ikom
T
A
Owerri
i
Uyo
Aba
u
I
th
C
Oron
s o f the Niger
O
C
C Calabar
Port Harcourt
o
100 miles
A
Nko™fap
Cr
Sapele
M
0
Afikpo
n
L
Enugu
Benin City
of
Wukari
Makurdi
Idah
Owo
Ondo Ijebu-Ode
Dimlang 2042m
B enue
Oshogbo Ado-Ekiti Ikare Ilesha Akure Ikerre Ife
T 100 km
Ila
Ede
Lagos
0
Yelwa
Niger
Ikeja Mushin
Offa Ilobu
eau
Lafia
s
E
Ogbomosho
Kumo
g er
Ilorin
Iseyin
N
at
ABUJA
Bida
Jebba
Gombe
Jos
l Jos P
K
New Bussa
u ad
M
500m/1640ft
e
aa
Zaria
J am
2000m/6562ft
Ado-Odo
a
Potiskum
1000m/3281ft
1194 km (742 miles)
H
ia d ej
Hadejia Gusau
Jega
Shaki
440
Nguru
LAND HEIGHT
303 ships 410,600 grt
Nigeria relies almost entirely on road transportation. During the oil-boom years of the 1970s, new long-distance roads and stretches of freeway were built. The road network is now badly maintained and in urgent need of repair. The road accident rate is among the world’s highest and there is chronic traffic congestion in Lagos. In 2000, plans for a new trans-Sahara highway from Lagos to Tanger, Morocco, were announced. Work started in 2001 on a $40 million ports project to boost the development of the five southeastern states.
Katsina
over 100 000
200m/656ft
3505 km (2178 miles)
Sokoto
ok o t o
R
E
Argungu
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 60,262 km (37,445 miles)
G
os
Drive on right
I
POPULATION
N
Murtala Muhammad, Lagos 3.26m passengers
†
N
Total Area : 923 768 sq. km (356 667 sq. miles)
I
TRANSPORTATION
NIGERIA
B
N
The south is hot, rainy, and humid for most of the year. The arid north experiences only one, uncomfortably humid, rainy season from May to September. Its very hot dry season is marked by the harmattan wind. The Jos Plateau and the eastern highlands are cooler than the rest of Nigeria. Forcados, in the Niger Delta, gets most rain, with 380 cm (150 in) a year.
Bight of Bia
E
A
N
fr
a
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NIGERIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 136/km2 (353/mi2)
Hausa, English, Yoruba, Ibo
POLITICS L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2003/2007
†
Multiparty elections
President Olusegun Obasanjo
AT THE LAST ELECTION
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
House of Representatives 360 seats
46%
54%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Traditional beliefs 10%
27% ANPP
62% PDP
9% 2% AD Others
PDP = People's Democratic Party ANPP = All Nigeria People's Party AD = Alliance for Democracy
Senate 109 seats
Muslim 50% Christian 40%
70% PDP
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Fulani 11% Other 29% Ibo 18%
Hausa 21%
Yoruba 21%
C
Nigeria had been fairly successful in containing tensions caused by ethnic and religious diversity until fighting erupted between Hausas and Yorubas in the southwest in 1999. There is also rivalry between these two and the third main ethnic group, the Ibo. There are 245 smaller groups. Allegations of state repression on behalf of multinational interests cause Lake Chad unrest in the oilDamasak Baga rich Niger Delta. The northern Ngala a state of Zamfara was, in 1999, the first state to adopt Maiduguri sharia (Islamic law), and its introduction in other northern states has exacerbated Biu religious tensions. Rioting by both Christians and Muslims has caused hundreds of deaths and Numan thousands of people to be Yola displaced from their homes. Traditionally women have had independent economic status, especially in southern urban areas. Recent sharia rulings have exposed the severity of restrictions in the more conservative Islamic north.
H
R
O
O
N
Y ed s eram
D
N
g ad
d
A
E
25% ANPP
5% AD
Since May 1999 Nigeria has had a civilian constitution, after 16 years of military dictatorships. President Olusegun Obasanjo and his PDP promise national reconciliation.
PROFILE The sudden death of military ruler Sani Abacha in 1998, followed by that of the imprisoned Chief Moshood Abiola, the presumed winner of the annulled 1993 presidential elections, left Gen. Abdulsalam Aboubakar to usher in civilian rule. Olusegun Obasanjo, a popular general who was head of state in 1976–1979, won elections held in 1999 and 2003. His PDP won a contested majority in legislative elections in April 2003.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Corruption Corruption is a major cause of Nigeria’s debt levels. Accusations at all levels of government peaked in 2000 with the impeachment of the Senate president. Ethnic and religious tensions The Obasanjo regime faces difficulties in stemming rivalries between the Hausa, Yoruba, and Ibo, and between Christians and Muslims. The introduction of often brutal sharia punishments has heightened international concern over human rights, which had previously focused on the apparent repression of the local population in the southern delta region. Religious violence flares sporadically in the central and northern states.
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.5% 1.9%
27.3%
80+ 60–79
5.2%
40–59
15.1%
20–39
Male 0.5% 2.2% 6% 13.1%
0–19 % of population by age group
28.2%
Olusegun Obasanjo, elected president in 1999.
Gen. Sani Abacha, head of state from 1993 until 1998.
CHRONOLOGY Before formal colonization by the British, begun only in 1861, Nigeria was a collection of African states owing their considerable wealth to trans-Saharan and transatlantic trade. During the 18th century the principal commodity was slaves: over 15,000 people a year were exported from the Bight of Benin and another 15,000 from the Bight of Biafra. 1885 Royal Niger Company given official responsibility for British sphere of influence along Niger and Benue Rivers. British armed forces coerce local rulers into accepting British rule. 1897 West Africa Frontier Force (WAFF) established; subjugation of the north begins. 1900 British Protectorate of Northern Nigeria established. 1906 Lagos incorporated into the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. 1914 Protectorates of Northern and Southern Nigeria joined to form colony of Nigeria. 1960 Independence. Nigeria established as a federation. 1961 Northern part of UKadministered UN Trust Territory of the Cameroons incorporated as part of Nigeria’s Northern Region. 1966 January, first coup, led by Maj. Gen. Ironsi. July, countercoup. Thousands of Ibo in Northern Region massacred. Gen. Gowon in control of north and west. 1967–1970 Civil war. Lt. Col. Ojukwu calls for secession of oilrich east under the new name Biafra. Over one million Nigerians die before secessionists defeated by federal forces. 1970 Gen. Gowon in power. 1975 Gowon toppled in bloodless coup. Brig. Mohammed takes power. 1976 Mohammed murdered in abortive coup. Succeeded by Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo. 1978 Political parties legalized, on condition they represent national, not tribal, interests. 1979 Elections won by Alhaji Shehu Shagari and the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), marking return to civilian government. 1983 Military coup. Maj. Gen. Mohammed Buhari heads Supreme Military Council. 1985 Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida heads bloodless coup, promising a return to democracy. 1993 August, elections annulled; Babangida resigns; military sets up Interim National Government (ING). November, ING dissolved. Military, headed by Gen. Sani Abacha, takes over.
441
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DEFENSE
CHRONOLOGY continued
WORLD AFFAIRS
/
NIGERIAN ARMED FORCES Up 4% in 2002
Nigeria has contributed a significant number of forces to international peacekeeping missions under ECOWAS and UN coordination. Nigerian forces served in Liberia (for which the ECOWAS force ECOMOG was first created) in 1990–1999 and in 2003, and in Sierra Leone in 1993–2000 and from 2002. Since 2001 the armed forces have also been deployed to restore internal control after outbreaks of religious unrest in northern and central states, in which hundreds of civilians have been killed. Government troops themselves, however, were reported
ECONOMICS $39.5bn
†
OIC
AU
ECOWAS
AID
†
Recipient
$314m (receipts)
/
133.1 naira (130.1)
The 1981 drop in world oil prices turned Nigeria from an aid donor into a major receiver of World Bank assistance. Aid flows were interrupted in late 1995, but were resumed in 2000. Aid agreed at the G8 summit in 2002 was welcomed by President Obasanjo, one of the architects of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (Nepad) plan.
442
84 combat aircraft (15 Alpha Jet, 17 MiG-21, 15 Jaguar)
9500 personnel
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................54th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$300 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ........................$1bn INFLATION .......................................12.9% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
Indonesia 6% Brazil 6% Spain 7%
Other 42% USA 33% IMPORTS
Germany 7%
USA 9% China 9%
Other 57%
France 9% UK 9%
STRENGTHS One of world’s top oil producers. Vast reserves of natural gas, still only partly exploited. Soaring world oil prices from 2000 onward. Almost self-sufficient in food. Strong entrepreneurial class. Large population, provides workforce and domestic market.
WEAKNESSES Up 70% in 2002
7000 personnel
Inflation 27% p.a. (1990–2001)
OPEC
Nigeria sees itself as one of Africa’s leading voices alongside South Africa – a role commensurate with its large population. A strong supporter of the AU and ECOWAS, it has been the main contributor to regional peacekeeping forces, though it also granted asylum to Liberia’s Charles Taylor. It has played a key role in attempting to mediate in Zimbabwe. Marine oil reserves have been the cause of border tensions with Cameroon; a similar dispute with Equatorial Guinea was settled in 2001. Human rights abuses under the military regime (most notoriously the murder of human rights campaigner Ken Saro-Wiwa in 1995) led to Nigeria’s suspension from the Commonwealth. It rejoined after civilian rule was restored in 1999, but concerns remain.
1 frigate, 10 patrol boats
to have massacred some 200 villagers in the eastern state of Benue in 2001, in retaliation for the abduction of 19 members of the armed forces who had been deployed to quell unrest.
SCORE CARD
France 6%
N
62,000 personnel
None
EXPORTS Comm
250 main battle tanks (100 T-55, 150 Vickers Mk 3)
Overdependence on oil since the 1970s encourages massive state inefficiency. Ongoing conflict in the Delta disrupts production. Advantages of a large domestic market mitigated by low per capita purchasing power and high unit transportation costs. Entrepreneurs focus on trade rather than production. Of Nigeria’s traditional agricultural exports only cocoa remains. Endemic corruption and instability undermine investors’ confidence.
GDP
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
†
Joined UN in 1960
$546m
No compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
1994 Moshood Abiola arrested, opposition harassed. 1995 Ban on parties lifted. Obasanjo and 39 others convicted of plotting coup. Execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other Ogoni activists: EU sanctions, suspension of Commonwealth membership. 1998 Abacha dies; Abiola dies; return to civilian rule timetabled. 1999 Elections: presidency won by Obasanjo. Sanctions lifted, Commonwealth membership restored. Zamfara becomes first state to introduce sharia. 2000 Ethnic violence escalates, threatens national unity. 2001 700 killed in clashes between Muslims and Christians in Jos. 2002 1000 killed in Lagos munitions dump explosion and ensuing chaos. 2003 PDP majority and Obasanjo reelected in disputed elections. 2004 57,000 flee religious violence in Kano and Plateau State. Shell admits that its activities fueled corruption and poverty.
†
2002
PROFILE Massive government spending ran up huge debts which could not be serviced after the 1981 oil price fall. Led by the IMF, creditors want major cuts in subsidies and spending – especially on loss-making public-sector companies. Gasoline subsidies alone are estimated to have cost $2.4 billion a year, but tampering with the price of fuel in particular is politically fraught, leading to strikes in 2003–2004. Economic policy is likely to focus on building on recent limited gains. NIGERIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Kano
Kaduna
Lake Chad
Shagamu Oil Textiles
Lagos
Brewing
Benin City
Warri
Manufacturing Pharmaceuticals Oil refining
Port Harcourt
Chemicals Palm oil Cement
0 0
200 km 200 miles
* significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NIGERIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 5.9m kW
476,544 tonnes
2.18m b/d (reserves 34.3bn barrels)
27m goats, 22.5m sheep, 15.2m cattle, 138m chickens
Oil, natural gas, coal, tin, iron, bauxite, columbite, lead
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 37% (5.8bn kWh) Combustion 63% (10bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
†
MEDIA
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA Daily newspaper circulation 24 per 1000 people
†
CRIME
Lake Chad
Death penalty in use
/
39,368 prisoners
NIGERIA : LAND USE
Murders 94
R.
Be
n
ue
per 100,000 population
Rapes Nigeria does not publish rape statistics Thefts Nigeria does not publish theft statistics
Nigeria has one of the highest crime rates in the world. Murder often accompanies even minor burglaries. Rich Nigerians live in high-security compounds. Police in some states are empowered to “shoot on sight” violent criminals. Brutal sharia punishments are claimed to have reduced crime in northern states. Vigilante gangs are used to fight crime in the southeastern states.
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 12
0 0
Cacao – cash crop
200 km
Goats
200 miles
ENVIRONMENT 3% (1% partially protected)
.
†
Sustainability rank: 133rd
0.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Oil industry pollution in the Niger Delta, a major local concern, came to international attention in 1995; Shell has been particularly condemned. Before the discovery of a highly toxic cargo in 1988, Nigeria was a dumping ground for European chemical waste.
% of each age group in education
Forest Wetlands
Welfare state health benefits Yellow fever, malaria, trachoma, yaws
1 per 3704 people
The health service functions mainly in urban areas and has suffered from the crisis in government revenues. Around 3.6 million Nigerians were living with HIV/AIDS as at end-2003. Free generic versions of AIDS treatments became available in 2001 and the government supports a successful AIDS awareness strategy. An 11-month suspension in polio vaccinations in Kano from 2003 threatened to cause a regional epidemic.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
8 per 1000 population
6 per 1000 population
Defense 1.2%
N
Education 0.5% Health 0.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Nigerians with access to the rich pickings of political office spent on a massive scale during the country’s 1970s oil boom. Government loans financed much of it. Habits did not change with the fall in oil revenues: borrowing simply grew. Poverty levels rose in 1999–2003 as intercommunal violence displaced around 800,000.
80
60
96% 40
20
0
†
HEALTH
207,982 students
100 Pasture
2 state-controlled services, many independent stations
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Cropland
1 state-controlled service, many private stations
Crime is rising
CRIME RATES
67% R. N iger
There are 22 daily newspapers. The Daily Times, published by the government, has the highest circulation
The Nigerian press is traditionally one of Africa’s liveliest. Media freedom has improved since the return to civilian government. There are over 100 TV stations; the state-owned Nigerian Television Authority runs 67, having introduced digital channels in 2003.
% of total generation by type
Oil has been the main resource since the 1970s, and Nigeria is one of Africa’s largest producers. The state retains 60% control of the industry. Shell is the main foreign shareholder, but most oil multinationals are represented. Production is frequently interrupted by regional unrest. As much as 100,000 b/d is smuggled to neighboring countries. Nigeria’s vast gas deposits are still underexploited. Nigeria has sizable iron ore deposits. These are only slowly being utilized in the state-run steel industry; traditionally, imported ore is used instead. Bauxite deposits are beginning to be exploited by the fledgling aluminum industry. Nigeria also has deposits of coal and tin.
TV ownership medium
33% Primary
Secondary
4% Tertiary
Responsibility for education is shared between the federal and the state governments. Education has suffered from the government’s massive debt repayment burden. During the oilboom years, Nigeria concentrated on creating 31 universities with prestigious medical and scientific schools. Primary education did not receive the same level of investment and standards have fallen. In 2003 it was revealed that around six million children do not attend school at all, while another eight million work part-time to help fund their education.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
163 $300
151
152 171 45 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
67%
176 110 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
443
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NORWAY
Europe
S we
l an d F in
NORWAY
d en
EUROPE
Russian Federation
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Norway CAPITAL: Oslo POPULATION: 4.5 million CURRENCY: Norwegian krone OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Norwegian 1905
1905
May 17
N
+1
.no
+47
O
CCUPYING THE WESTERN PART of Scandinavia, Norway’s western coastline is characterized by numerous fjords and islands. Large oil and gas revenues have brought prosperity. Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway’s first woman prime minister, went on to take top UN posts. Despite the Europe-wide recession in the early 1990s, Norway was able to contain rising unemployment, which peaked at 6% in 1993. A constitutional requirement is that government creates conditions that enable every person to find work.
Po
Sørøya
N
10/50
10/4 V
es
0
0/32
le
n
Karasjok A
Senja
FI
Andfjorden
L
Harstad
A
O
-10/14 -20/-4
fo
L
Ve
P
Narvik
n en t e ord fj
N
C I
T
L
E
A
N
D Stjørdal Støren
E Røros
T
Oppdal
Glomma
W
n
Lillehammer Gjøvik Gol
Åkrehamn
S EA
Egersund
Mandal
444
a
Sandnes
Ot r
Sola
Eidsvoll Kongsvinger
OSLO Lillestrøm Drammen
Notodden Horten
Haugesund
Boknafjorden
Stavanger
Kongsberg
TRANSPORTATION
†
Drive on right
2299 ships 22.2m grt
Moss Oslofjorden
70,411 km (43,751 miles)
178 km (111 miles)
4077 km (2533 miles)
1577 km (980 miles)
It has been impossible to extend rail links further north than Bodø, inside the Arctic Circle. To reach the Lofotens or Narvik and beyond, the most common form of transportation is air. Norwegian merchant ships account for 10% of the world’s fleet, making Norway one of the world’s largest shipping nations.
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
POPULATION
Fredrikstad Sandefjord Tønsberg Arendal Vennesla
over 10 000
Kristiansand
100 miles
1000m/3281ft
over 100 000
k Ska gerra
100 km
2000m/6562ft
Sarpsborg Halden
Skien Porsgrunn Larvik
D
S
Be
Elverum Hamar Mjøsa Stange
Hønefoss Haukeligeand
N
LAND HEIGHT
Hermansverk
a
NORWAY Total Area : 324 220 sq. km (125 181 sq. miles)
D O V R E F J E L L
Glittertind Lå ge 2472m JOTUNHEIMEN
NORTH
N
Mosjøen
Verdal Steinkjer
Molde
gn
I
Oslo International (Gardermoen) 13.6m passengers
Overhalla Namsos
Ålesund
Bergen
F
N
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
S EA
Hardangerfjorden
R
0
Mo
N O R WEGIA N
Trondheim
Voss
A
MA
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
0
Kristiansund
Sognefjorden
L
NN
ID D K SV
st
Arctic Circle
Trondheimsfjorden
Ørsta
en rd fjo ger an Var
Bodø
Hitra
A
N
The whole of Norway’s west coast is kept ice-free by the warm Gulf Stream. It receives much more precipitation than the rest of the country; Bergen has a yearly average of 225 cm (89 in). Norway enjoys the highest mean temperatures in Scandinavia, but in winter the temperature in Oslo can fall as low as –25˚C (–13˚F).
o
Stamsund
A
Alta
Tromsø rå
SE
Kirkenes
Ringvassøya Kvaløya
E
Tana Bru
A
20/8
S
L
20/68
A
te
30/12
C
30/86
NT
N D
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
T a na
Hammerfest
WEATHER CHART FOR OSLO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
RE
Magerøya gen
A
R
BA
A N O C E
rsa n
†
CLIMATE
Maritime/subarctic
C
C T I
The village of Reine on Moskenesøya, deep inside the Arctic Circle in the Lofoten Islands. It is a popular destination for summer visitors.
over 50 000 under 10 000
The royal palace, Oslo. This is situated near the national theater, at one end of the Karl Johanisgate, the city’s main thoroughfare.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NORWAY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
TOURISM
/
3.11m visitors
Up 1% in 2002
Norway’s biggest attraction, to its mostly north European visitors, is its natural beauty. Many people venture beyond the Arctic Circle in search of the midnight sun in summer and Arctic wildlife all year round. The dramatic, and world famous, fjords of the west coast attract cruise ships. Oslo has a reputation for good classical music and jazz, while other, smaller cities, have a distinct Scandinavian charm. Skiing in the mountains is also very popular. The strength of the krone,
†
PEOPLE
WORLD AFFAIRS
Visitors : Population 1:1.4
Norwegian (Bokmål “book language” and Nynorsk “new Norsk”), Sámi
15/km2 (38/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
CE
Denmark 24% Sweden 18% UK 18% USA 11% Other 4% 0
10
30
20
40
% of total arrivals
however, and the high cost of living can deter budget travelers.
†
2001/2005
Multiparty elections
H.M. King Harald V
AT THE LAST ELECTION
6% 1% SP V
25%
75%
Other and nonreligious 10%
Roman Catholic 1%
NATO
OECD
OSCE
EFTA
Germany 25%
Parliament 165 seats
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Joined UN in 1945
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
POLITICS
Pop. density low
†
26% DNA
23% H
16% FrP
14% 13% SV KrF
1% Others
DNA = Norwegian Labor Party H = Hoeyre (Conservative Party) FrP = Progress Party SV = Socialist Left Party KrF = Christian Democratic Party SP = Center Party V = Venstre (Liberal Party)
A founder member of NATO, Norway continues to offer it strong support. The 1994 referendum rejecting EU membership means that the European Economic Area (EEA) offers Norway its main access to the European single market. As a Nordic Council member it is associated with the Schengen Convention on passport-free borders. In 2002 Prime Minister Bondevik stated that there would be no referendum on joining the EU, despite increased popular support for the idea, but an opinion poll in 2004 suggested that only a minority now favored membership. Norway has played peacemaker on a number of occasions, notably in attempting to mediate in the Israeli– Palestinian conflict during the mid1990s, and in Sri Lanka since 2002. The government has been unable to control the ecological effects of acid rain, which is destroying its forests. Representatives of 25 European countries and Canada met in Oslo in 1994 and signed a UN protocol on reducing sulfur emissions.
The Parliament (Storting) is elected as one body but divides itself for most legislative purposes into an upper chamber (Lagting, with 42 members) and a lower chamber (Odelsting, with 123 members)
Evangelical Lutheran 89% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Norway is a constitutional monarchy, with a king as head of state and an elected parliament.
Other 6%
Sámi 1%
N
PROFILE Norwegian 93%
Norway’s largest minority is formed by the 45,000 Sámi, traditionally nomadic reindeer hunters, who are concentrated in the far north of the country – the largest community in Scandinavia; the Nordic Sámi Council was founded in Norway in 1956. Norway also has a small but growing immigrant community, forming 5.6% of the population in 2001. Some refugees have been attacked by right-wing groups. The family is traditionally close and nuclear. Men are expected to help raise children. Women enjoy considerable power and freedom, and comprise over 40% of government ministers. More than half of marriages end in divorce. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.7% 8.6% 12.1% 14.6% 12.5%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 1.3% 7.2% 12.6% 15.2% 13.2%
% of population by age group
Political decisions are based on consensus building between the government, parliament, and the strong trade unions. In 1993, opposition to EU membership boosted support for the SP, but the DNA remained the largest party. In 1997 the DNA lost ground to the center right, which formed a coalition led by Kjell Magne Bondevik of the KrF. Returned to office in 2000, the DNA suffered heavy losses in the 2001 polls, and Bondevik, who had campaigned for using oil revenues to fund tax cuts and public service improvements, was reappointed prime minister. He heads a minority government, in coalition with the Conservatives and the Liberals.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE The rise of the far right The anti-immigration FrP, originally formed in 1973, grew in popularity during the 1990s as the number of asylum seekers rose. It emerged as the third-largest party in the 2001 election, and is now a significant force in parliamentary politics. The minority government was forced to rely on its support to pass the 2003 budget, promising further tax cuts in return for FrP backing.
King Harald V, who succeeded his father King Olav V in 1991.
Prime Minister Kjell Magne Bondevik, reelected in 2001.
CHRONOLOGY Norway gained independence from the Swedish crown in 1905 and elected its own king, Håkon VII. 1935 DNA forms government. 1940–1945 Nazi occupation. Puppet regime led by Vidkun Quisling. 1945 DNA resumes power. 1949 Founder member of NATO. 1957 King Håkon dies. Succeeded by son, Olav V. 1960 Becomes member of EFTA. 1962 Unsuccessfully applies to join European Communities (EC). 1965 DNA electoral defeat by SP coalition led by Per Borten. 1967 Second bid for EC membership. 1971 Borten resigns following disclosure of secret negotiations to join EC; DNA government, led by Trygve Bratteli.
445
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
AID
†
Donor
$1.7bn (donations)
/
Up 26% in 2002
Norway has granted more than the UN target of 0.7% of GNP in development aid every year since 1975. Though Norway’s ratio of aid to GNP has declined, to 0.89% in 2002, it remains one of the highest in the world. The vast majority of Norway’s bilateral aid goes to the least developed countries of sub-Saharan Africa, south and central Asia, and eastern Europe. In 2002 the largest single recipient of Norwegian aid was Afghanistan. The government also allocates funds to various multilateral assistance programs. The 1999 budget included a debt-relief program to help reduce developing country indebtedness.
446
/
Compulsory military service
Up 19% in 2002
NORWEGIAN ARMED FORCES
Plans have been announced to almost halve Norway’s conscript army, which traditionally has absorbed most of the defense budget. Norway joined NATO in 1949. The overriding defense issue is the stability of Russia and the security of their common border. Five Russian diplomats were expelled in 1998 after a double agent revealed that Russia had extensive information on Norway’s defenses and its oil industry.
†
ECONOMICS $176bn
170 main battle tanks (Leopard 1)
6 submarines, 3 frigates, 6100 personnel and 15 patrol boats
5000 personnel
61 combat aircraft (57 F-16A/B)
None
Inflation 3.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
6.932 Norwegian kroner (7.218)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
14,700 personnel
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................24th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$38,730 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$25.1bn INFLATION .........................................1.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
USA 9%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
Netherlands 9%
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
N
$3.43bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1972 EC membership rejected in popular referendum by 3% majority. Bratteli resigns. Center coalition government takes power. Lars Korvald prime minister. 1973 Elections. Bratteli returns to power as prime minister. 1976 Bratteli succeeded by Odvar Nordli. 1981 Nordli resigns owing to ill health. Gro Harlem Brundtland becomes first woman prime minister. Elections bring to power Conservative Party (H) government for first time in 53 years. Kare Willoch prime minister. 1983 Conservatives form coalition with SP and KrF. 1985 Election. Willoch’s H–SP–KrF coalition returned. Norway agrees to suspend commercial whaling. 1986 100,000 demonstrate for better working conditions. Brundtland forms minority DNA government. Currency devalued by 12%. 1989 Brundtland resigns. H–KrF coalition in power. USSR agrees exchange of information after fires break out on Soviet nuclear submarines off Norwegian coast. 1990 H–KrF coalition breaks up over closer ties with EU (formerly EC). Brundtland and DNA in power. 1991 Olav V dies; succeeded by son, Harald V. 1994 EEA comes into effect. Referendum rejects EU membership. 1996 Brundtland resigns; replaced by Thorbjørn Jagland (also DNA). 1997 Kjell Magne Bondevik forms center-right coalition. 2000 Jens Stoltenberg (DNA) heads three-party coalition. 2001 Right-wing victory in elections. Bondevik heads coalition government.
DEFENSE
2002
Other 39% France 12%
Germany 12% UK 19% IMPORTS
USA 6%
Other 50%
UK 7% Denmark 8% Germany 13% Sweden 16%
STRENGTHS Western Europe’s biggest producer and exporter of oil and natural gas. Mineral reserves. Hydroelectric power satisfies much of country’s energy demands, allowing most oil to be exported. Petroleum fund to ensure current profits provide for future generations. Large merchant shipping fleet. Low inflation and unemployment compared with rest of Europe.
Hydro conglomerate. In 2000 the state sold a 20% share in its oil and telecommunications companies. Norway’s immediate future prosperity is guaranteed by its offshore oil sector. There is a shortage of skilled labor, which has partly been eased by the arrival of workers from other Scandinavian countries, but has created upward pressure on wages. Continuing the strong regional policy of redirecting resources from the more prosperous south to the isolated north is likely to remain a priority, both for social and strategic reasons. NORWAY : MAJOR BUSINESSES Hammerfest Tromso Bodø
WEAKNESSES Overdependence on oil revenue. Small home market and relatively remote location. Shortage of skilled labor. Harsh climate limits agriculture.
Trondheim Aluminum smelting Electrometallurgy
PROFILE The state is interventionist by nature. In 1991, it stepped in to rescue most of the main commercial banks, which had been hit by bad loans. It began returning them to the private sector in 1994. The state also manages the distribution of offshore oil and gas licenses, and owns 45% of the Norsk
Pulp & paper Fish processing
Höyanger
Copper mining Shipbuilding
Bergen
Textiles Oil refining
Oslo Larvik
Stavanger Kristiansand
0 0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: NORWAY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 30m kW
3.2m tonnes
3.26m b/d (reserves 10.1bn barrels)
1.08m sheep, 922,500 cattle, 3.33m chickens
Oil, natural gas, iron, coal, copper, lead, zinc
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 61 daily newspapers, including Verdens Gang, Dagens Naeringsliv, Aftenposten, and Dagbladet
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 99% (142bn kWh)
4 services: 1 publicly owned, 3 independent
Combustion 1% (0.8bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
4 services: 1 publicly owned, 3 independent
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Though Norway is Europe’s largest oil producer and has sizable gas reserves, almost all of its electricity is produced by hydropower. In summer, the HEP surplus is exported. Fish and forestry are traditionally significant sectors – salmon farming, managed with particular efficiency, has grown rapidly – though together with agriculture they account for only 2% of GDP and 4% of the workforce. A 2002 report warned that cod stocks in the North Sea were under L A P L A ND threat from the waste products of oil-drilling.
EN
JO T
UN
HE
IM
NORWAY : LAND USE Cropland Pasture Forest High mountain regions Tundra Cereals Sheep 0
200 km
0
ENVIRONMENT
Yes
Yes
Yes
Down 2% in 2001
Yes
In 1986 northern Norway suffered radioactive contamination after the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Norway has a tax on carbon dioxide emissions and was instrumental in securing agreement on the 1997 Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions. In 1993, it lifted a ban on fishing minke whales, and in 2001 it allowed the export of whale products. It was also criticized in 2001 for a cull of (endangered) gray wolves and for plans to develop a coalfield on Svalbard.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
422 per 1000 population
734 per 1000 population
Murders 1
per 100,000 population
15
per 100,000 population
Defense 1.9% Education 6.8%
Rapes
Health 6.8% 0
Thefts 4677
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
per 100,000 population
Crime rates in Norway are very low. The increasing use of weapons in robberies is a worrying trend. Norway is a popular destination for asylum seekers; the Norwegian government is working to tackle people smuggling.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 16
197,614 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
Yes
Cancers, heart and respiratory diseases, accidental falls
The health system is ranked by WHO as the best in Scandinavia and 11th in the world. Infant mortality is among the world’s lowest, and life expectancy at birth is one of the highest. Healthcare spending is among the highest of OECD states. A new health plan announced in 2002 will place the high-spending hospitals under central control. Smoking in bars and restaurants was banned from 2004. Telemedicine (online remote audio and image diagnosis) allows remote northern hospitals to obtain specialist consultations without having to send patients to the regional hospital.
CRIME RATES
11.1 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
No death penalty
.
2662 prisoners
200 miles
Sustainability rank: 2nd
†
CRIME
% of each age group in education
/
7% (2% partially protected)
†
The state broadcaster NRK enjoys comparatively generous funding and attracts around a third of viewers. Norwegians are often rated as the most avid newspaper readers in the world.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 333 people
Daily newspaper circulation 569 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
80
WORLD RANKING
60
100%
100%
40
In terms of income distribution, the Scandinavian countries are among the most egalitarian in the world, and the richest 10% of Norway’s population owns much less of the country’s wealth than in other developed countries. The cost of living is high; Oslo is one of the world’s most expensive cities. Refugees from the 1990s Bosnian conflict are the most disadvantaged. The discrepancy between pay for men and women is greater than elsewhere in Scandinavia, though still much smaller than the European average. Social provision has been maintained even through economic recession. Benefits are generous.
Position in World
70% 1st
20 50th
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
3 $38,730
7 79 years
1 99%
5
1
4 deaths
100th
Compulsory schooling starts at six years of age and lasts for ten years. Most schools are run by municipalities. There are four universities; the University of Oslo, founded in 1811, is the largest and oldest. Specialized colleges include the Nordic College of Fisheries. Promotion of continuing education kept youth unemployment down during the early 1990s recession.
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
447
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
OMAN
Saudi Arabia UAE
OFFICIAL NAME: Sultanate of Oman CAPITAL: Muscat POPULATION: 2.9 million CURRENCY: Omani rial OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1951
1951
Nov 18
OM
+4
CCUPYING THE EASTERN corner of the Arabian peninsula, Oman commands a strategic position at the entrance to the Persian Gulf. It is the least developed of the Gulf states. The most densely populated areas are the northern coast and the southern Salalah plain. Oil exports have given Oman modest prosperity under a paternalistic sultan. A Marxist-led insurgency supported by southern Dhofaris was defeated in the 1970s.
†
Hot desert/monsoon
WEATHER CHART FOR MUSCAT
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
There are no political parties. The members of the Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shoura) were directly elected for the first time in 2000, and by universal suffrage from 2003.
Sultan Qaboos, ruler since 1970, is an authoritarian but paternalistic monarch. He is head of state, prime minister, and minister for foreign affairs, defense, and finance. Family members hold other key positions. Civil rights were enshrined in the 1996 constitution. The regime faces no serious challenge, though Qaboos keeps a careful eye on the religious right wing. Qaboos has no immediate heirs, raising concern for the succession. The Consultative Council was created in 1991, giving a semblance of democracy. Universal suffrage was introduced in 2003. Major political issues include the planned privatization of medium-sized government projects, and improving Oman’s selfdefense capability.
23%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 0
0/32
Other Muslim and Hindu 25%
-20/-4
In the north temperatures often climb above 45˚C (113˚F) in summer. The south has a monsoon climate.
†
TRANSPORTATION Seeb International, Muscat 2.8m passengers
Ibadi Muslim 75%
Drive on right
26 ships 19,200 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Native Omanis, who include Arab refugees who fled Zanzibar in the 1960s, make up three-quarters of the mostly young population. Baluchi, Strait of Horm from Pakistan, are the largest uz foreign grouping among large Musandam Al Kha§ab Peninsula MAN numbers of foreign workers u Ru’ús lf al Jibál Total Area : 212 460 sq. km employed in the building and ( 82 031 sq. miles) of service industries on two-year O ma contracts. A process of urban Al KhábúrahAs Síb n Shin᧠As Suwayq drift means that most Omanis Ma√raí Barká’ fluíár now live in cities. Oman has a As Síb á MUSCAT √i Al Buraymí na number of distinct minorities: Qurayyát h Al Qábil AL Maskin Ar Rustáq Fins the most numerous are the Çank Al Íadd AK Jabal ash Shám HÇ Ibrí Jebalis in Dhofar – nomadic A R 2980m Samá’il ◊íwí flúr n y ‘A l Bahlah Izkí herdsmen who speak a a Ibrá’ Al Kámil Nazwá Manaí RAMLA language resembling Amharic. WA H T AHL Al Ashkharah IB A H Adam Many Dhofaris supported the Marxist-led insurgents in the Umm as 1970s, but they are now Samím Dawwah A R A B I A N considered to be loyal. Jazírat Khalúf Most Omanis are Ibadi Ma§írah I SEA L Muslims who follow A Á Khalíj Ma§írah H an appointed K I Duqm D leader, known POPULATION A L U ‘ t as the imam. over 50 000 ay S AR U B Ibadism does Al Jawárah over 10 000 not oppose Suqrah Bay under 10 000 W freedom flawqirah E Ash Shi§ur for women, LAND HEIGHT ± U F Á R Khalíj al Íaláníyát C and a few ( D H O F A R ) N O 2000m/6562ft R A M A t J uz enjoy positions L Q u r a l Í a l á n íy á AL A Mirbá√ JAB 1000m/3281ft of authority; Raysút flalálah N 500m/1640ft suffrage was A 0 100 km 200m/656ft extended I 0 100 miles D to women Sea Level in 2002. I N
O
None
None
ARA B EM IRA TE S
G
550 km (342 miles)
Al
9840 km (6114 miles)
B
AL
JA
íA mi lí
UAE 12% India 10% Other 65% 20
30
40
50
60
70
80
E
N
448
M
Until the late 1980s, Oman was closed to all but business or official visitors. The number of visitors to the sultanate’s rich cultural heritage, fine beaches, and luxury hotels was badly affected by the 2003 war on Iraq.
Y E
10
% of total arrivals
N
UK 13%
A
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
B I A
A
Up 7% in 2002
R
/
602,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:4.8
i ‘Andám Wad
†
TOURISM
W
ád
í
L
UNITE D
BA
Northern cities are well served by good roads, but some places, in the south particularly, are best reached by air.
ád
O
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
Sultan Qaboos bin Said
Consultative Council 83 seats
14/km2 (35/mi2)
77%
No legislative elections
2003/2006
Pop. density low
Arabic, Baluchi, Farsi, Hindi, Punjabi
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Africa
†
POLITICS
.om
+968
OMAN
Yemen
O
CLIMATE
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
AMF
Joined UN in 1971
GCC
Damasc
†
/
Up sharply in 2002
Aid used to come mainly from the US, but Japanese aid is now of greater
DEFENSE $2.57bn
†
A watchtower above an oasis. Much of Oman is gravelly desert. The only large area of cultivation is the 20-km-wide Al Batinah plain.
.
ECONOMICS
significance. The UN is also a contributor. Oman makes occasional donations of its own to Arab and Muslim causes.
Down 9% in 2002
†
Inflation 1.8% p.a. (1990–2000)
0.385 Omani rials (0.385)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................66th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$7830 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$2.32bn INFLATION .......................................–0.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
their campaigns against Iraq. The government increased social spending at the expense of the defense budget in 2002, aware of the possible domestic repercussions of its support for the US.
†
RESOURCES
Oil industry, led by Royal Dutch/Shell: has benefited from staying out of OPEC and selling oil at spot prices without quotas. Exports from new pipeline and terminal. Stable agriculture. Potential for sizable fishing industry. Trend toward privatization, free markets.
128,544 tonnes 1m goats, 355,000 sheep, 3.4m chickens
Oil, natural gas, copper, chromite, marble, gypsum
Overdependence on oil (90% of GNP), with fewer than 20 years’ known reserves. Services sector could be better developed. Foreign workers needed in all economic sectors.
China 15%
Japan 22%
South Korea 20%
IMPORTS
Germany 5%
USA 7% UK 7%
Other 36% Japan 17%
UAE 28%
74%
Schooling is not compulsory
19,297 students
/
14%
†
8.2 tonnes per capita
Overpumping of groundwater causes seawater to seep into traditional irrigation areas. Nature reserves and antihunting laws protect rich wildlife.
†
TV ownership high
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, accidents
1 per 769 people
There is a policy of replacing expatriate medical staff with Omani nationals. Rural areas are served by clinics.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
134 per 1000 population
84 per 1000 population
Defense 13.4%
O
Education 3.9%
Sustainability rank: 120th
Health 2.4% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Omanis in urban areas enjoy the same high living standards that are to be found in other Gulf states. Hunting trips to Pakistan are popular among the rich Omani elite, and a khanjar, a curved dagger, is seen as a status symbol.
Daily newspaper circulation 29 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 6 daily newspapers, including AlWatan, Oman Daily Newspaper, and the English-language Oman Daily Observer
EXPORTS
Singapore 5% Thailand 13%
†
EDUCATION
The government invested $3 billion in 2003 in a number of projects to encourage diversification and cut down dependence on oil revenues.
MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
Electric power 2.4m kW
823,000 b/d (reserves 5.6bn barrels)
ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS
Other 25%
1932 Sultan bin Taimur in power. 1951 Sovereignty recognized by UK. 1970 Sultan Qaboos bin Said seizes power from his father. 1975 Suppression of Dhofar revolt. 1991 Consultative Council set up. 2003 Universal suffrage introduced for Consultative Council elections.
Education has improved, but rural illiteracy is still high. Between 1996 and 2000, over 200 new schools were built.
No compulsory military service
The UK is the main equipment supplier. Oman has provided communications and services to US and UK forces in
The present Albusaidi dynasty has ruled in Oman since 1749.
Recipient
$41m (receipts)
$19.9bn
CHRONOLOGY
OIC
Border disputes with the UAE were finally resolved in 2003. Relations with Israel were cut off after the outbreak of the Palestinian intifada in 2000. Oman has ties with Iran and called for easing sanctions against Iraq, but supported the US-led military actions in 1991 and 2003.
AID
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OMAN
1 state-controlled service
2 state-controlled services
Nothing critical of the government may be published in Oman, despite a 1984 law allowing for “freedom of opinion.”
CRIME 2020 prisoners
†
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
44 100th
$7830
50
49
74 years
11 deaths
74
150th
Death penalty in use
/
141
193rd
74%
Up 25% in 2000
Reckless driving by young Omani males is a problem. A “flying court” serves remote communities.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
449
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
PAKISTAN
ASIA
Asia
Iran PAKISTAN
OFFICIAL NAME: Islamic Republic of Pakistan CAPITAL: Islamabad POPULATION: 154 million CURRENCY: Pakistani rupee OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Urdu 1947
China
Afghanistan
1971
March 23
PK
+5
India
.pk
+92
O
NCE A PART OF BRITISH INDIA, Pakistan was created in 1947 in response to the demand for an independent and predominantly Muslim Indian state. Initially the new nation included East Pakistan, present-day Bangladesh, which seceded from Pakistan in 1971. Eastern and southern Pakistan, the floodplain of the Indus River, is highly fertile and produces cotton, the basis of the large textile industry.
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0.3% 2.2%
34%
Christian 1%
-10/14 -20/-4
Temperatures can soar to 50˚C (122˚F) in Sindh and Baluchistan and fall to –20˚C (–4˚F) in the northern mountains.
†
TRANSPORTATION Quaid-e-Azam, Karachi 4.15m passengers
49 ships 247,400 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
P
152,033 km (94,469 miles)
339 km (211 miles)
7791 km (4841 miles)
None
Buses are the most effective way of traveling across Pakistan; routes are comprehensive but poorly organized.
†
TOURISM
,
498,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:308 Little change in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
UK 30% Afghanistan 20% USA 14% Canada 4% Germany 2% Other 30% 0
10
20
30
% of total arrivals
Relatively few tourists visit Pakistan, despite its rich cultural heritage and unspoiled natural beauty.
450
6.4%
66%
13.3% 25.8%
Hindu 2% Shi'a Muslim 20%
Sunni Muslim 77% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Drive on left
40
Age
Female
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Baluchi 4%
Other 4% Mohajir 7% Sindhi 14%
Punjabi 56%
Pathan (Pashtun) 15%
Punjabis account for over 50% of the population; Sindhis, Pathans (Pashtuns), and Baluchi make up most of the rest. Mohajirs – Urdu-speaking immigrants from prepartition India – predominate in Karachi and Hyderabad. Punjabi political and military dominance of the centralized state has spawned many separatist and autonomy movements. Pathans have frequently threatened to establish a homeland with ethnic kin in Afghanistan. Tensions between the Baluchi and Pashtun refugees from Afghanistan sporadically erupt into violence, as do those between native Sindhis and immigrant mohajirs. The gap between rich and poor, for example between the feudal landowning class and their serfs, is considerable. There is an expanding middle class of small-scale traders and manufacturers. Recent years have witnessed a marked increase in Islamist militancy, accompanied by sectarian conflict between Sunnis and Shi’as and by growing discrimination against religious minorities. After the 1999 coup, the Musharraf regime trod a fine
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
Male 0.2% 2.7% 7% 14.1%
0–19
28%
% of population by age group
line in trying to avoid conflict with Islamist militants, both over issues such as the strict application of sharia (Islamic law) and over foreign policy. The extended family is an enduring institution, and ties between family members are strong, reflected in the dynastic and nepotistic nature of the political system. Though some women hold prominent positions, and Benazir Bhutto has twice been prime minister, relatively few are allowed to work by their religiously conservative menfolk. Pakistan has one of the world’s lowest ratios of females to males, implying widespread neglect and some female infanticide. G Amnesty International F A has criticized Hámún-i-Lora CH Pakistan for its S ÁGAI HILL failure to give women’s rights Hámún-i Máshkel RT sufficient SE SANDY DE protection. BALUCHIS Women’s rights E G N RA groups are mainly N n M SIÁHÁ hshá based in cities, Rak ÁN and have made KR A M AL little headway CENTR nationally. Turbat H in go
40/104
199/km2 (516/mi2)
Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtu, Urdu, Baluchi, Brahui
h kel
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
ás
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Pop. density medium
N
WEATHER CHART FOR ISLAMABAD
†
A
PEOPLE
R
Mountain/steppe/ hot desert
I
†
CLIMATE
Barren landscape in Kachhi, Baluchistan. This area of Pakistan has some of the highest May–September temperatures in the world.
ur sht K a Da
Gwádar
A R A B I A N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PAKISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
Sharif, indicated the loss of respect for the country’s much-abused democratic institutions. In 2001, coup leader Gen. Musharraf appointed himself president. The 2002 elections were won by the pro-Musharraf PML(Q), which outmaneuvered the PPP and the Islamist MMA to secure the appointment of their candidate as prime minister. Controversial constitutional changes enlarging Musharraf’s powers were eventually passed in late 2003, after he had pledged to relinquish control of the army within a year. Tensions were reignited in 2004 by the peremptory manner of his installation of technocrat Shaukat Aziz as prime minister.
President Pervez Musharraf
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2003/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 342 seats
22% PML(Q)
4% 3% 7% PML(N) N-M Others
18% PPP
13% 8% 4% 3% MMA Ind NA MQM
18% W
PML(Q) = Pakistan Muslim League (Quaid-e-Azam) PPP = Pakistan People's Party (Parliamentarians) W = Women MMA = Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal Ind = Independents PML(N) = Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) NA = National Alliance N-M = Non-Muslim minorities MQM = Muttahida Qaumi Movement
Senate 100 seats
Benazir Bhutto, PPP leader and former prime minister.
C
Militant Islam Pressure to curb the ambitions Multiparty democracy was suspended of Islamists in Kashmir is balanced from 1999 to 2002. The militaryby the popularity in domestic dominated National Security politics of militant Islam, Council advises the president. which has a powerful grip on the poor. In 2002 N A T S I PROFILE the MMA became the IK J A In the 1990s fragile third-largest party T coalitions had to rule in parliament, I H S N in cooperation with and in KU Gi U l A git D R the president and 2003 its IN A Mt Godwen Austen (K2) H M 8611m the army. Popular North R A Indus N support for the West G E 1999 coup, which Frontier Mingáora removed PML Province IR M SH Tarbela Prime government KA Reservoir D Ka JAMMU AN bul Minister imposed sharia Khyber Pass Mardán Wáh Pesháwar Nawaz (Islamic law).
H
KA
R
A
K
T
Jhelum
A
N
O
Ku
S
m r ra
I
s
Gu
A
ob
Zh
j Be
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
ÁN
Ind us
S
Chishtián Mandi ej utl
Baháwalpur
Khánpur Rahímyár Khán Sádiqábád
Sea Level 0 0
over 1 000 000 over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000
200 km 200 miles
R
T
POPULATION over 5 000 000
N
A
Ahmadpur East
Shikárpur
E
Sukkur
I
N
D
H
Tando Ádam
Ná ra
In du s
ni iá y
Karáchi Mo ut
o
th
RA
hs f
e I nd
A
N
N
OF
KU
TCH
N
GE
Nawábsháh
S
I
D
AN R R
b Ha
E
S
Khairpur
D
Lárkána Kambar
E
3000m/9843ft
Kasúr
Mandi Búrewála
Multán
U
Hyderábád
S
R
Shorkot Okára Sáhíwál Kamália Pákpattan Khánewál Chícháwatni
T H A R
E
A
S
Jacobábád Sháhdádkot
Son m Ba
P U N J A B
6000m/19 686ft
Lahore 4000m/13 124ft
Muzaffargarh
IM
BRÁ HU RANGE I
Nál
G
Sibi K A C H H I
i áv
Jhang
Leiah
Dera Gházi Khán
KÍRTHA
N
CENTRAL
Kálat
A
Shekhúpura
Total Area : 803 940 sq. km (310 401 sq. miles)
I
BA
hi
O
GE RANG E
RAN
Quetta
R
Khusháb Sargodha Chiniot
Dera Ismáíl Khán
Chaman Á K A R K
LAND HEIGHT
Gujránwála
Faisalábád
T
TAN
ma l
PAKISTAN
New Mírpur Jhelum Khárián Lála Músa Gujrát Siálkot Wazírábád Daska
L
H
Ind u
N
ISLÁMÁBÁD Ráwalpindi
Nowshera Kohát POTWAR
Miánwáli
Joined UN in 1947
ECO
NAM
OIC
SAARC
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE
The Senate is indirectly elected. Seventeen seats are reserved for women
Chakwál
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
PLATEAU
Pervez Musharraf, self-appointed president.
Paddy fields, with monsoon rains threatening from the Himalaya mountains. Rice is the second most valuable agricultural export after cotton.
The last of three wars with India was more than three decades ago, but their dispute over Kashmir has repeatedly stoked tensions. In 1998, Pakistan carried out a series of nuclear tests in response to Indian tests, provoking international condemnation and a tightening of US sanctions (to 2001). In 2004 Pakistan faced international condemnation over its role in nuclear proliferation, following the arrest and subsequent pardon of Abdul Qadeer Khan, the “father of the bomb,” for selling classified information abroad. Since the fall of the taliban in Afghanistan, Pakistan has courted the US-installed interim regime. A major army offensive in 2004 against Islamist militants in the north coincided with the US naming Pakistan as a key nonNATO ally. It was also readmitted to the Commonwealth in 2004, having been suspended following the 1999 coup.
CHRONOLOGY From the 8th to the 16th centuries, Islamic rule extended to northwest and northeast India. Punjab and Sindh, annexed by the British East India Company in the 1850s, were ceded to the British Raj in 1857. 1906 Muslim League founded as organ of Indian Muslim separatism. 1947 Partition of India. Pakistan divided by 1600 km (1000 miles) of Indian territory into East and West Pakistan. Millions displaced by large-scale migration. Muhammad Ali Jinnah first governor-general. 1948 First India–Pakistan war over Kashmir. 1949 New Awami League (AL) demands East Pakistan’s autonomy. 1956 Constitution establishes Pakistan as an Islamic republic. 1958 Martial law. Gen. Muhammad Ayub Khan takes over; elected president two years later.
us
451
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
$2.54bn
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 5% in 2002
Pakistan is an important regional arms trader and established itself as a nuclear power with successful nuclear tests in 1998; leading scientists in the program were later accused of selling secrets to Iran, Libya, and North Korea. Defense spending accounts for about a quarter of government expenditure; troop numbers were cut for the first time in 2004. The US, once a key arms supplier, imposed sanctions in 1990–2001 and most military hardware is now produced domestically; the Shaheen surface-tosurface missile was tested in 2004. The army has been heavily involved in politics, even at times when
ECONOMICS $60.9bn
†
58.14 Pakistani rupees (57.86)
EXPORTS
Germany 5% UK 7% UAE 8%
Other 51% USA 24% IMPORTS
China 6%
†
Recipient
$2.14bn (receipts)
/
Up 10% in 2002
Pakistan is heavily dependent on aid, though the government has a long history of misdirecting aid payments. Aid intended for major projects has regularly been used to fund the current-account deficit. In 1998 the IMF agreed to help Pakistan meet its international debt obligations after the US and other Western aid donors cut off aid in protest against Pakistan’s nuclear tests. The US subsequently agreed to resume aid, and boosted its support in late 2001 to reward the regime for supporting the “war on terrorism.” Japan and the World Bank are among other main bilateral donors.
452
10 submarines, 8 frigates, 9 patrol boats
25,000 personnel
374 combat aircraft (52 Mirage 5, 41 Q-5)
45,000 personnel
a military regime was not actually in power. The National Security Council assures it a formal role in civilian decision-making.
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
USA 6% Kuwait 7% Saudi Arabia 12%
Other 57% UAE 12%
Gas, water, coal, oil. Substantial untapped natural resources. Low labor costs. Potentially huge market. One of the world’s leading producers of cotton and a major exporter of rice.
WEAKNESSES Production of cotton and rice vulnerable to weather conditions. Weak and overstretched infrastructure. History of inefficient and haphazard government economic policies. Terrorism threat inhibits foreign investment.
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
been stifled by the rules of a massive bureaucracy. There is some foreign investment in previously state-only sectors such as water, other utilities, and banking. Efforts by the military government to tackle endemic corruption and widespread poverty were praised by the World Bank in 2001. Pakistan has benefited from its role as a frontline state in the “war on terrorism” through international aid and the rescheduling of debt. Defense spending remains high. PAKISTAN : MAJOR BUSINESSES Light engineering Chemicals Vehicle assembly Shipbuilding Food processing Tobacco Steel
Carpet weaving Electronics Textiles Leather tanning
Peshawar Islamabad Lahore
Quetta
Faisalabad
PROFILE Pakistan has yet to show progress in tackling its considerable economic problems. Though successive governments have reversed the nationalization policies instituted in the 1970s, private enterprise has
GDP
160
GDP 1998=100
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................44th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$420 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$3.87bn INFLATION .........................................3.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
Hong Kong 5%
550,000 personnel
Capability undisclosed; weapons tested in 1998
SCORE CARD
2317 main battle tanks (PRC Type-59/69/85, M-48A5, T-54/55/80)
Inflation 9.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
STRENGTHS
AID
PAKISTANI ARMED FORCES
Consumer price index 1998=100
P
1965 Second India–Pakistan war over Kashmir. 1970 Ayub Khan resigns. Gen. Agha Yahya Khan takes over. First direct elections won by AL; West Pakistani parties reject results. War with India over East Pakistan. 1971 East Pakistan secedes as Bangladesh. PPP leader Zulfikar Ali Bhutto president. 1972 Simla (peace) Agreement with India. 1973 Bhutto, now prime minister, initiates Islamic socialism. 1977 General election. Riots over allegations of vote rigging. Gen. Zia ul-Haq stages military coup. 1979 Bhutto executed. 1986 Bhutto’s daughter Benazir returns from exile to lead PPP. 1988 Zia killed in air crash. PPP wins general election. 1990 Ethnic violence in Sindh. President dismisses Benazir Bhutto. Nawaz Sharif of PML premier. 1991 Islamic sharia incorporated in legal code. 1992 Violence between Sindhis and mohajirs escalates in Sindh. 1993 President Khan and Prime Minister Sharif resign. Elections; Bhutto returns to power. 1996 President dismisses Bhutto. 1997 PML wins landslide election victory; Sharif prime minister. 1998 Nuclear tests. 1999–2000 Military coup. Sharif found guilty of treason. 2001 Parliament suspended, Gen. Musharraf appoints himself president. Pakistan key ally in US-led “war on terrorism.” 2002 US and French nationals killed in terrorist attacks. Threat of war with India over Kashmir. October, PML(Q) wins elections. 2004 Musharraf chooses Shaukat Aziz to become prime minister.
DEFENSE
Multan Hyderabad Karachi
0 0
* significant multinational ownership
500 km 500 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PAKISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 17.4m kW
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 25% (17bn kWh) Combustion 72% (49bn kWh) Nuclear 3% (2bn kWh) Other 0% 20
0
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
/
5% (4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 112th
0.8 tonnes per capita
44%
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Illegal logging and urban pollution are major problems. The stranding of the Tasman Spirit oil tanker in 2003 caused widespread devastation near Karachi. TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 40 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 264 daily newspapers. The best-selling paper is Daily Jang, published in Urdu 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 state-controlled
3 services: 2 state-owned, 1 independent
Private broadcasts were licensed in 2003. Journalists who challenge official views are systematically harassed.
†
CRIME 87,000 prisoners
60
73%
24% 0
Primary
Down 27% in 2000
CRIME RATES
Murders 7
per 100,000 population
2
per 100,000 population
20
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Compared with similar Islamic states, rates of murder, kidnapping, narcotics trafficking, and rape are high, though offical reporting of crime is low.
500 km 500 miles
us nd
†
HEALTH
u Kush ind
ert
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, tuberculosis, diarrheal diseases
1 per 1436 people
20
Secondary
3% Tertiary
Though universal free primary education is a constitutional right, it is not compulsory. Literacy rates are among the lowest in the world. The education system is heavily Islamized, and weighted toward educating males: a large majority of children enrolled in primary schools are boys. There are 26 universities, 853 arts and sciences colleges, and 308 professional colleges, all of which have a heavy preponderance of arts students. Wealthy parents frequently choose to send their children abroad for higher education, mainly to colleges in the UK or the US.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
6 per 1000 population
25 per 1000 population
Defense 3.9% Education 1.8% Health 1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Members of the bureaucratic and political elite tend to be extremely rich, as are some of the top military. Despite Pakistan’s considerable economic potential, two-thirds of the population live below the poverty line.
WORLD RANKING
Death penalty in use
.
0 0
Availability of doctors and hospital beds is low, and there is a shortage of equipment and medicines. Uncontrolled counterfeit drugs are common. A specialized cancer hospital in Lahore, opened in 1995, offers modern facilities and advanced treatment. Pakistan has a high incidence of heroin addicts, due largely to its proximity to Afghanistan.
80
40
Cropland Pasture Forest Desert Wetlands High mountain regions Sugarcane Wheat Cattle
1.11m students
100
% of each age group in education
Yes
†
Schooling is not compulsory
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
MEDIA
†
EDUCATION
PAKISTAN : LAND USE
H
Oil, natural gas, coal, limestone, salt, gypsum, silica sand
52.8m goats, 24.8m buffaloes, 155m chickens
Apart from cotton and rice, Pakistan’s major resources are oil, coal, gas, and water. Oil-refining capacity is well below present demand. The French firm Total was awarded a $3 billion contract in 2003 to explore for offshore oil and gas. Power theft is a problem, constituting a sizable proportion of the overall 30% power loss rate, and army units were assigned to investigate illegal connections in 1999. China agreed in 2003 to help build a second nuclear reactor at the existing Chashma plant.
I
56,701 b/d (reserves 220m barrels)
623,425 tonnes
Thar D es
†
RESOURCES
Corruption and the abuse of women are major causes for concern; reports of deaths or death threats for refusing to accept arranged marriages are rising. Torture and rape of prisoners and deaths in custody are frequent. The most dangerous area is Sindh: Karachi is terrorized by severe factional violence. Militant sectarian groups are also blamed for a recent rise in crime in Punjab. Special partmilitary courts were established in 2002 to combat terrorism and other “serious” crimes. The MMA provincial government of North West Frontier Province fulfilled its electoral promise to impose sharia (Islamic law) in 2003.
Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
131 193rd
153
142
64 years
$420
158 175 44%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
83 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
453
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
PALAU 1994
1994
Oct 1
PAL
+9
.pw
+680
T
HE REPUBLIC OF PALAU (locally known as Belau) is situated in the western Pacific and comprises more than 300 islands in the Caroline Islands archipelago, only nine of which are inhabited. Formerly a part of the US-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Palau became independent in association with the US in 1994, but remains economically and militarily dependent.
†
PALAU
S O N D cm/in 60/24
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
The islands are humid, with fairly constant temperatures and heavy rainfall all year round. The mean temperature is 27˚C (81˚F).
TRANSPORTATION Koror Babelthuap
†
Drive on right
Has no fleet
36 km (22 miles)
None
None
None
The locally owned Palau Micronesia Air was launched in 2004. A circular highway is being constructed around Babelthuap.
69%
The 14 senators represent geographical districts, according to population
31%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Modekngei 34%
†
Visitors : Population 3:1
/
Up 9% in 2002
Palau was first colonized by southeast Asian peoples some 3000 years ago. There has also been mixing with other Melanesian and Polynesian peoples. The recent influx of migrants from Asia has raised tensions. Low-skilled Filipinos now make up over 16% of the population. Immigration from south Asia was explicitly banned in 2001. Around 70% of Palauans live on the island city of Koror (a new capital is being constructed on neighboring Babelthuap). The thinly scattered remaining population are linguistically diverse, with distinct languages in the south. Cultural influence from the US and Japan has been strong, though traditional culture has been maintained on the more remote islands. Society remains largely matrilineal. The indigenous Modekngei religion is a blend of traditional beliefs and Christianity.
Japan 41% Taiwan 27% USA 8% Other 24% 20
30
40
50
Tourism is very important, though there are concerns about its impact on traditional culture. A golf course is being built, and some islands have battle sites from the Pacific War.
Palau’s independence was delayed until 1994, after a 1993 referendum had finally accepted the transit and storage of US nuclear materials as stipulated under the Compact of Free Association with the US. Vice President Tommy Remengesau was elected president in 2000. He has clashed with the legislature over control of the budget. Overcrowding in Koror and immigration are main issues.
ACP
ADB
Joined UN in 1994
PC
IWC
PIF
The US has exclusive control over Palau’s foreign affairs and defense policies under the conditions of the 1994 Compact of Free Association. Cordial relations with the Pacific Islands Forum were restored in 1999 after tensions caused by Palau’s bid to give Japan the right to veto the establishment of a whale sanctuary in the South Pacific.
AID
†
Recipient
$31m (receipts)
.
Down 9% in 2002
Palau is heavily dependent on aid, which accounts for around 30% of GDP. Under the 15-year Compact of Free Association with the US, effective from 1994, Palau is set to receive up to $700 million in return for the use of military facilities. Japan is also a key donor, and funded the new Babelthuap– Koror bridge which opened in 2002.
DEFENSE There are no armed forces
Palau’s islands have many idyllic beaches, but a lack of resources means that tourism remains underdeveloped.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
60
% of total arrivals
454
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Delegates 16 seats
Senate 14 seats
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
President Tommy Remengesau
39/km2 (101/mi2)
Christian 66%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
L. House 2000/2004 U. House 2000/2004
Nonparty elections
One member is elected to the House of Delegates to represent each of the 16 states
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
59,000 visitors
†
POLITICS
Rainfall A
50/20
TOURISM
Indonesia
Pop. density low
Palauan, English, Japanese, Angaur, Tobi, Sonsorolese
50/122
P
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR KOROR
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 60/140
Yap
Philippines
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Palau CAPITAL: Koror POPULATION: 19,717 CURRENCY: US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Palauan and English
CLIMATE
Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
Under the 1994 Compact of Free Association, the US is responsible for Palau’s defense.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PALAU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS
Inflation 2.8% p.a. (1994–2001)
CHRONOLOGY The Caroline Islands were colonized in turn by Spain, Germany, and Japan, coming under US control in 1945.
EXPORTS $136m
Currency is US dollar
SCORE CARD
Palau does not publish export figures by country
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................187th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$6820 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$16m INFLATION ............................................3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
IMPORTS
South Korea 6%
Singapore 8% Japan 10%
USA 39%
STRENGTHS Relationship with aid donors – US and Japan – provides economic stability and access to lucrative markets. Tourism industry growing. Transportation infrastructure improving. Fishing and copra production important. Increasing regional trade. Trust funds established from Compact money.
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 62,000 kW
2002 tonnes
Not an oil producer
Not available
Gold
On some islands the soil is highly fertile, though the terrain of the larger islands makes farming difficult. Some islands are densely forested. Palau has copra and some gold deposits. There is also the possibility of exploitation of reserves of minerals on the seabed. Palau has a small fishing industry with the potential for development.
PALAU
WEAKNESSES Heavy dependence on aid. Remote location. Underemployment. Poor transportation links between islands and to other countries. Few resources.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
8% (6% partially protected)
Not available
12.1 tonnes per capita
Palau suffers from inadequate facilities for the disposal of solid waste. Sand and coral dredging, and illegal fishing practices, pose a significant threat to the marine ecosystem. Palau and its surrounding waters are Micronesia’s richest habitat; in 2004 Palau moved to protect the diversity of fish in its waters by culling thousands of the voracious tilapia. Typhoons sometimes cause severe damage to infrastructure.
†
MEDIA
†
SPENDING
Not available
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
19 per 1000 population
Education 11% Health 8.5% 0
nds
4 stations: 1 governmentowned, 3 private
No terrestrial broadcaster
au
Kayangol Islands
al
The country’s TV and radio stations tend to broadcast material which is largely derived from the US.
P 0
Palau has three private clinics and a newly built public hospital. The government spends more on health than most Pacific island nations; immunization programs are the priority. An epidemic of mosquitoborne dengue fever hit Palau in 2000.
Defense None
Ngaruangl
400 km 400 miles
Konrei 0
Cerebrovascular, heart, and intestinal diseases
1 per 909 people
TV ownership high
There are no daily newspapers. Tia Belau is published biweekly in English and Palauan
Ngaruangl
Babelthuap Angaur
Sonsorol Is Pulo Anna Merir Tobi Helen
0
Welfare state health benefits
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
OCEAN
0
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Isla
I C
PA
F
Other 23%
There are no daily newspapers
Total Area : 458 sq. km (177 sq. miles)
IC
Guam 14%
1947 UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands established. 1982 Compact of Free Association with US provisionally signed. 1993 Compact finally approved. 1994 Independence in free association with US. 2001 Tommy Remengesau takes office as president.
20 km
CRIME
Ngardmau
Palau does not publish prison figures
20 miles Babelthuap
N
Melekeiok Palau Airport
KOROR Airai Urukthapel Eil Malk
†
98%
,
Position in World 1st
Little change from year to year
†
School leaving age: 14
50th
100th
150th
45
51
$6820
98%
88
87
70 years
24 deaths
480 students 193rd
Peleliu
Angaur
WORLD RANKING
No death penalty
There is a little alcohol-related crime, but much of the country, particularly the outlying islands, is crime-free.
EDUCATION
The gap between rich and poor is growing steadily, as entrepreneurs and government officials exploit aid and develop the tourist industry. In 2001, a program providing cheap rental housing for low-income families received a US grant of $200,000.
Elementary education is compulsory between the ages of six and 14. The Micronesian Occupational College, based in Palau, provides two-year training programs.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
455
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
PANAMA
Costa Rica PANAMA
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Panama CAPITAL: Panama City POPULATION: 3.1 million CURRENCY: Balboa OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1903
North America
CENTRAL AMERICA
1903
Nov 3
PA
-5
Colombia
.pa
+507
P
ANAMA IS THE SOUTHERNMOST of the seven countries occupying the isthmus that joins North and South America. The rainforests of the southeastern Darien region are some of the most pristine left in the Americas. Elected governments have held power since the US invasion of 1989. Panama’s traditional economic strength is its banking sector. The US returned control of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama on December 31, 1999.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical wet and dry
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
57%
Multiparty elections
President Martin Torrijos
2004/2009 AT THE LAST ELECTION
43%
Legislative Assembly 78 seats
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Asian 4%
Amerindian 8%
Other 2%
-20/-4
Panama has a humid tropical climate; rainfall is twice as heavy on the Caribbean coast as on the Pacific coast.
3990 km (2479 miles)
Pan-American Highway: 30 km (19 miles)
355 km (221 miles)
882 km (548 miles)
The 80-km (50-mile) Panama Canal cuts around two weeks off the voyage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Boats form the most convenient means of transportation for the coastal regions. Many roads are in disrepair.
/
534,000 visitors
Total Area : 78 200 sq. km (30 193 sq. miles)
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT
over 500 000
2000m/6562ft
over 100 000
1000m/3281ft
over 50 000 Visitors : Population 1:5.8
500m/1640ft
over 10 000
Up 3% in 2002
C
Changuinola
Sea Level
A
R
I
E
B
B
CO
Arraiján PANAMA CITY La Chorrera Balboa Guadalupe e P a na má El Copé B ahí a d Punta Penonomé Chame San Miguel
A
C
I
F
I
d
C
Yaviza T
Go lfo de Panamá
Tonosí
Arenas
o
La Palma
Golfo de San Miguel
e
IÉN
P
Isla Cébaco
S
AR LD
Isla de Coiba
I s t m
Ar c hi pe l ago de l as Isla del Rey P e r l as
DE AZUERO
Ailigandí
BL A
DE
El Tigre de San Lorenzo
N
Balsa s
Portobelo and Panama City have old Spanish colonial buildings. In 2000, new cruise-ship facilities opened in Colón.
A RÁ
Santa Fé Aguadulce Bahía de Santiago Parita Divisa Monagrillo Chitré Las Tablas Pocrí PENÍNSULA
SA
Lago Bayano
ra ui
Soná
Golfo de Chiriquí
Tocumen
ÍA
Pedregal Puerto Guabalá Armuelles
60
San Miguelito
50 miles
N
AN
50
Chepo
AD E
ue aq cu n
40
% of total arrivals
Díaz
a
C O RDI L L E R
50 km
0
RR
30
SE R R A N ÍA DE T ABAS
David
m
A
SE
Volcán Boquete La Concepción
San Pablo
20
Lago Gatún
0
E
El Porvenir Narganá
C hu
Costa Rica 12% Other 47%
S
N Portobelo
Colón Cristóbal Alcalde
Bocas del Toro Almirante
Laguna de Golfo de los Volcán Chiriquí Mosquitos Barú Río Sereno 3475m Chiriquí Grande
Colombia 18%
A
na l Paana C
USA 23%
In 1989, the US invaded Panama and arrested its ruler, Gen. Manuel Noriega, for narcotics smuggling. US forces installed the compliant Endara government, criticized for corruption. The 1994 presidential and legislative elections were won by the PRD, Noriega’s old party, but the new government was largely pro-US and its economic reforms attracted widespread discontent. In May 1999 Mireya Moscoso of the PA was elected Panama’s first woman president. Lacking a congressional majority until mid-2002, she struggled to address economic problems and meet promises to help the poor. In May 2004 the PRD regained the ascendancy with the election of Martin Torrijos, son of the country’s former military leader, as president.
200m/656ft
under 10 000
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
PANAMA
STA RIC A
†
TOURISM
The northwest coast has a large black community, mostly descended from African immigrants who worked the plantations. The majority speak English Creole rather than Spanish. About 8% of the population are Amerindians mainly from the Guaymies, Chocoes, Kunas, and Ngobe-Buglé tribes. Roman Catholicism and the extended family remain strong, though the Canal and the former US military bases have given society a cosmopolitan outlook.
B I A
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
White 14% Mestizo 60%
M
6247 ships 125m grt
11% 14% PS Others
22% PA
53% PRD
PRD = Democratic Revolutionary Party PA = Arnulfist Party PS = Solidarity Party
O
Tocumen, Panama City 898,000 passengers
†
Drive on right
Black 12%
L
TRANSPORTATION
456
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
0
41/km2 (106/mi2)
0
0/32
P
Cruise liner on the Panama Canal. The Canal shortens the sea route between the east coast of the US and Japan by 4800 km (3000 miles).
Pop. density low
English Creole, Spanish, Amerindian languages, Chibchan languages
WEATHER CHART FOR PANAMA CITY
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
P
a
O
n
C
a
C
m a
E
A
N
O
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PANAMA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS RG
Geplac
OAS
NAM
Joined UN in 1945
San José
The Canal Zone reverted to Panama on December 31, 1999, and US forces vacated their 14 military bases there.
AID
†
/
Up 25% in 2002
The IDB pledged $3.3 million in 2000 to rehabilitate a former US base; Japan has loaned $1 million for the project.
DEFENSE $131m
†
,
No compulsory military service
No change in 2002
The National Guard and defense forces were disbanded in 1990 following the 1989 US invasion. They were replaced by the Panamanian Public Force, numbering some 11,800 and comprising the National Police, the National Air Service, and the National Maritime Service.
ECONOMICS $11.8bn
†
Inflation 1.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
1 Balboa (1)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................83rd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4020 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$154m INFLATION ............................................1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................13%
Colón Free Trade Zone: second-largest free port in the world. Income from Canal. Financial services. Banana, shrimp exports. Merchant shipping payments for sailing under the Panamanian flag. Tourism potential.
Not an oil producer; refines 41,600 b/d
1.55m cattle, 305,000 pigs, 14m chickens
Copper, coal, gold, silver, manganese, salt, clay
The Petaquilla area, west of the Canal, has great copper and gold potential. To reduce the country’s dependence on oil imports, the government has stepped up hydroelectric production; four state energy plants were privatized in 1999. Tropical hardwoods are being cut down at an alarming rate.
ENVIRONMENT
/
22% (2% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Belgium–Luxembourg 4%
Costa Rica 5% Sweden 6%
USA 46% Other 35% IMPORTS
Costa Rica 4% Venezuela 4%
Japan 5% Colombia 6%
Other 47% USA 34%
Sustainability rank: 17th
On independence from Spain in 1821, Panama was incorporated into Gran Colombia. Panama gained independence from Colombia with US support in 1903. 1903 US buys Canal concession. 1914–1939 Canal opens to traffic. US protectorate status ended. 1968–1981 Rule of Col. Torrijos Herrera. 1989 Indicted narcotics trafficker Gen. Noriega annuls elections to retain power. US invasion. 1994 PRD wins presidency and is largest party in parliament. 1999 PA’s Mireya Moscoso elected first woman president. Canal Zone reverts to Panama. 2004 Martin Torrijos of the PRD elected president.
2.2 tonnes per capita
There are 8 daily newspapers, including La Prensa and La Estrella de Panamá 1 state-owned service, over 200 independent stations
A more independent press has flourished since Noriega’s overthrow. Radio reaches the greatest number.
10,630 prisoners
The US provides about 80% of medical equipment. In 1998 the government embarked on a project to reform health care with the help of World Bank funds.
92%
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
108 per 1000 population
122 per 1000 population
Defense 1.3%
P
Health 4.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth disparities are large. Almost 30% of the population are estimated to live below the poverty line – clustered in the cities rather than in rural areas.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
No death penalty
/
Crime is rising
Panama City and Colón have high crime levels. Money laundering, narcotics trafficking, and corruption are rife.
EDUCATION
Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and infectious diseases, accidents
Education 4.3%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 588 people
Daily newspaper circulation 62 per 1000 people
CRIME
†
HEALTH
TV ownership medium
7 independent services
EXPORTS
†
The destruction of rainforests is proceeding at an increasingly rapid rate, resulting in widespread soil erosion. Large numbers of rare bird and animal species are threatened. Sewage from Panama City and Colón is discharged directly into coastal waters, canals, and ditches. Stretches of mangrove swamps are cut down for urban development, shrimp farms, and resorts.
WEAKNESSES History of political instability and corruption. Large foreign debt. High unemployment, underemployment. Poor infrastructure.
Electric power 1.3m kW
237,394 tonnes
STRENGTHS
Honduras 4%
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$35m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
Spillover from the Colombian civil war is a major concern. Border incidents have increased since 1999, and Panama is accused of involvement in arms and narcotics smuggling, and forced repatriations of Colombian refugees.
†
50th
42 100th
61
75 years
90 92%
150th
School leaving age: 11
74
$4020
61
19 deaths
193rd
89,352 students
Schooling is based on the US model; the system is free. The first of the four universities was founded in 1935.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
457
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
Asia
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
SOUTHEAST ASIA Indonesia Solomon Islands
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
OFFICIAL NAME: Independent State of Papua New Guinea CAPITAL: Port Moresby POPULATION: 5.7 million CURRENCY: Kina OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1975
1975
Sept 16
PNG
+10
PEOPLE
.pg
+675
†
Pop. density low
Pidgin English, Papuan, English, Motu, 750 (est.) native languages
T
HE MOST LINGUISTICALLY diverse country in the world, with approximately 750 languages, Papua New Guinea (PNG) achieved independence from Australia in 1975. It occupies the eastern end of New Guinea, the world’s third-largest island, and several other groups of islands. Much of the country is still isolated, and in rural areas living conditions are often basic. Bougainville has been promised autonomy.
13/km2 (33/mi2)
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
18%
82%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 3%
†
CLIMATE
Tropical equatorial/monsoon
Roman Catholic 37%
WEATHER CHART FOR PORT MORESBY
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall
40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
A
Protestant 60%
PNG has an extraordinary diversity of peoples, with around 750 different languages and even more tribes. The key distinction is between lowlanders, who have frequent contact with the outside world, and the very isolated highlanders. Highland tribes see all strangers as potentially hostile. Vendettas can last for generations and tribal battles are not infrequent. A majority of people are nominally Christian, but indigenous beliefs and practices are widespread.
0
0/32 -10/14
Papua New Guinea’s 600 or so outer islands are mainly mountainous and volcanic, with lush vegetation and fringing coral reefs.
-20/-4
Unvaryingly hot lowlands contrast with snow on Mount Victoria. Severe weather followed El Niño of 1997–1998.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Jacksons, Port Moresby 745,000 passengers
111 ships 72,400 grt
TOURISM 54,000 visitors
Drive on left
Highlands Highway
None
10,940 km (6798 miles)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Parliament 109 seats 10
20
IFI
C
H
IP
E
L
AG
r i c k l and
O
t
St
IS
AN
Ba R e e rrier f
eat
Gr
458
PAC
ST
200 km 200 miles
5% PAP
16% 11% 7% 6% 6% Ind PDM PPP V PP
32% Others
The many parties lack clear ideological foundations, creating long-term political Manus I. OC l Lorengau instability. The patronage required to anne h E C BISM b el AN AR Ysa maintain coalitions breeds corruption. A ADMIRALTY Kavieng CK Vanimo ISLANDS A PDM-led government worked to overhaul Aitape R C the system, and claimed the first simple Lumi Wewak BIS MA R CK New Ireland Namatanai majority in 2001. However, the party Angoram S ep i k S EA Rabaul was overshadowed in the 2002 Karkar I. New Guinea elections by the NAP. Veteran CENTR A L R New Britain Madang ANG E GREEN IS Wabag Buka I. Arop I. Umboi NAP leader Sir Michael Somare Ok Tedi Mt Wilhelm Pomio Vit 4509m Sologomik Porgera iaz returned as prime minister. St Kimbe Kundiawa ra Mount Bougainville SOLOMON IS Kiunga i Mendi Hagen A ten-year insurgency by Arawa Goroka Lae Kandrian Island Kik ori u ra separatists on Bougainville Panguna Kieta Bulolo Huon Lake Buin Murray ended with a 1998 cease-fire. Wau Gulf Fl ON y SOLOMON SEA Autonomy has been promised, Balimo OM L O S Kerema along with a future referendum Morehead Gulf of Mt Victoria KIRIWINA on independence. Elsewhere, Popondetta Papua ISLANDS Daru LE PORT strong local traditions and Goodenough I. Murua Y Tor Island RA MORESBY res Strait NG Fergusson I. communications problems E Esa’ala D'ENTRECASTEAUX IS have made centralization difficult. N Kupiano Alotau Normanby I. Mussau I.
EN
Sea Level 0
NORTH
OW
200m/656ft
0
17% NAP
ri
500m/1640ft
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
NAP = National Alliance Party Ind = Independents PDM = People's Democratic Movement PPP = People's Progress Party V = Vacant PP = Pangu Pati PAP = People's Action Party
P
1000m/3281ft
Multiparty elections
60
50
Ra mu
(PAPUA)
3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft
I N D O N E S I A
LAND HEIGHT
40
30
Tourism has great potential, but is hampered by lack of infrastructure and high rates of poverty-related violent crime, particularly in urban centers.
Hermit Is
over 10 000
†
% of total arrivals
Ninigo Group
under 10 000
2002/2007
Japan 7%
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
over 100 000
POLITICS
Other 33%
Flood damage in 2004 to the poorly maintained Highlands Highway cut off fuel deliveries to several regions.
over 50 000
Little change in 2002
Australia 49%
0
POPULATION
,
USA 11%
784 km (487 miles)
Total Area : 462 840 sq. km (178 703 sq. miles)
Visitors : Population 1:106
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
P
†
Samarai
CORAL SEA
LOU
ISI ADE A R CHIP
Tagula I.
EL
AG
O
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1975
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
Comm
PC
NAM
PIF
Australia provides help to fight crime and corruption in PNG, a focus of its regional economic and security interests. Allegations of PNG support for separatists in Papua, the neighboring Indonesian province, have strained relations.
AID
†
Recipient
$203m (receipts)
,
Little change in 2002
Australia is the major aid donor. The World Bank has suspended several projects over allegations of corruption.
DEFENSE $13m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 50% in 2002
The army has expressed its doubts over political and economic reforms, most recently in a mutiny in March 2001.
ECONOMICS $2.84bn
†
Copper, gold, silver, natural gas, nickel, chromite, cobalt, oil
PNG is rich in minerals. The Ok Tedi gold/copper mine in the Star Mountains is the most productive in the country; the Porgera gold mine is one of the world’s largest, though tensions over land ownership could endanger its future. Prospecting has revealed extensive oil and natural gas reserves.
ENVIRONMENT
.
2% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 51st
0.5 tonnes per capita
Deforestation and heavy-metal pollution are major issues. Cyanide poisoning from an Australian-owned mine in 2000 caused serious water pollution. Subduction of continental plates has forced the relocation of thousands of people from the more low-lying islands.
†
WEAKNESSES
China 5% Japan 9%
Australia 24%
In 2003, the government shelved a bill that would have led to restrictions on the freedom of journalists to criticize the government.
CRIME
†
Death penalty not used in practice
.
Japan 4% Singapore 19%
Australia 49% Other 21%
Down 6% in 2000
Violent crime by gangs of “Rascals” is very common. A cultural tradition of vendettas persists in rural communities.
†
EDUCATION
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
7 per 1000 population
3 services: 2 state- or partly state-owned, 1 independent
1 independent service
Schooling is not compulsory
12 per 1000 population
Defense 0.5% Education 2.3% Health 3.9% 0
5
10
15
20
25
P
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
There is a growing gap between rich and poor, particularly in urban areas. Spending on education and health was cut in 1998, when the kina dropped in value, but it was increased again in 2000, and the 2002 budget proposed the reintroduction of free schooling.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
9859 students
Education is not compulsory. Equipment charges and fees have been introduced. Universities are suffering funding cuts.
HEALTH 1 per 10,000 people
IMPORTS
1904 Australia takes over British sector; renamed Papua in 1906. 1914 German sector occupied by Australia. 1942–1945 Japanese occupation. 1964 National Parliament created. 1971 Renamed Papua New Guinea. 1975 Independence under Michael Somare, leader since 1972. 1988 Bougainville Revolutionary Army begins guerrilla campaign. 1997 El Niño causes severe drought and tsunamis. Prime Minister Julius Chan resigns over use of Westernled mercenaries in Bougainville. 2000 Loloata Understanding promises autonomy for Bougainville. 2001 PDM claims parliamentary majority. Final peace accord with Bougainville ratified after threeyear cease-fire. 2002 NAP wins elections. Somare returns as prime minister.
There are 2 daily newspapers, the National and the Papua New Guinea Post-Courier
65%
EXPORTS
The British annexed the southeast and the Germans the northeast of the island of New Guinea in 1884.
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
3302 prisoners
Agricultural production and mining prone to disruption from occasional drought. High spending: government close to bankruptcy in 2002. Poor transportation and banking infrastructures. Political instability. Foreign exploitation of resources.
CHRONOLOGY
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 14 per 1000 people
Significant copper, gold, nickel, cobalt, oil, and natural gas reserves. Proposed gas pipeline between highlands and Australia expected to net $219 million a year. Agriculture sustains population.
Malaysia 3%
1.8m pigs, 90,000 cattle, 3.9m chickens
MEDIA
STRENGTHS
New Zealand 4%
122,434 tonnes
3.170 kina (3.497)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................133rd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$530 BALANCE OF PAYMENTs.........................$286m INFLATION .......................................11.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
Other 56%
Electric power 543,000 kW
49,000 b/d (reserves 400m barrels)
Inflation 7.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
Germany 3% USA 3%
†
RESOURCES
†
Welfare state health benefits Malaria, pneumonia, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis
The health system has suffered from recent cuts. HIV and tuberculosis co-infections are at crisis level. Life expectancy rates are among the lowest in the Pacific. Access to clean water and sanitation are major issues.
1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
143
145
$530
57 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
143 155 65%
133
70 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
459
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
PARAGUAY
SOUTH AMERICA PA R
U
May 14
PY
-4
L. House 2003/2008 U. House 2003/2008
ANDLOCKED IN SOUTH America and a Spanish possession until 1811, Paraguay gained large tracts of land from Bolivia in 1938. The Paraguay River divides the eastern hills and fertile plains, where 90% of people live, from the almost uninhabited Chaco in the west. Paraguay’s economy is largely agricultural. Periods of anarchy and military rule followed until the overthrow in 1989 of Gen. Alfredo Stroessner, South America’s longest-ruling dictator.
†
Tropical/subtropical
WEATHER CHART FOR ASUNCIÓN
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
-20/-4
Paraguay is subtropical, with all parts experiencing floods and droughts, but the Chaco is generally drier and hotter.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Silvio Pettirossi, Asunción 465,664 passengers
46 ships 47,500 grt
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 15,045 km (9349 miles)
Pan-American Highway: 700 km (435 miles)
441 km (274 miles)
3100 km (1926 miles)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
13% UNACE
13% MPQ
26% PLRA
46% ANR–PC
2% PPS
ANR–PC = National Republican Association–Colorado Party PLRA = Authentic Radical Liberal Party MPQ = Beloved Fatherland Movement UNACE = National Union of Ethical Citizens PPS = Party of a United Country PEN = National Encounter Party
15/km2 (38/mi2)
4% PPS
Senate 45 seats
57%
36% ANR–PC
43%
16% 16% 2% MPQ UNACE PEN
26% PLRA
Gen. Stroessner, dictator since 1954, was overthrown in a 1989 coup. In 1993, his PC won the first free elections in 60 years, but with continued reliance on the military. Former army chief Gen. Lino Oviedo was pivotal to the country’s instability, leading three failed coups Mestizo 90% between 1993 and 2000. He went into Most Paraguayans are of combined exile in 1999 after the assassination of Spanish and native Guaraní origin. his main opponent in the PC, Vice The majority are bilingual, though President Luis Argaña. President Luis outside the large cities Guaraní is Gonzalez Macchi’s personal unpopularity spoken almost exclusively. Rural failed to undermine the PC, whose Guaraní, deprived of ancestral candidate Nicanor Duarte Frutos won lands, have been forced the presidency in 2003. V into marginal labor Oviedo returned to I I and prostitution. Paraguay in 2004, A Capitán While most intending to clear Pablo Lagerenza L immigrants his name in order Puerto historically to stand in the Cerro León Bahía Negra 1000m B General have been 2008 presidential Eugenio A. Garay European, election, and Fuerte Olimpo recent was arrested arrivals on arrival. G R A N have Mariscal also Estigarribia Doctor San Lázaro come Pedro P. Peña from Puerto Casado Japan, C H A C O Pedro Juan Caballero Puerto Pinasco Riac h Korea, o S an Carlos Loreto Puerto Cooper and South Capitán Bado Pozo Colorado Concepción Africa. Fortín General Díaz Horqueta
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 8%
O
P
President Nicanor Duarte Frutos
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Amerindian 2%
-10/14
Multiparty elections
Chamber of Deputies 80 seats
Pop. density low
Guaraní, Spanish, German
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
†
POLITICS
.py
+595
AY
1938
L
CLIMATE
B r a z i l
AG
A r gen ti n a
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Paraguay CAPITAL: Asunción POPULATION: 5.9 million CURRENCY: Guaraní OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1811
South America
Bolivia
Visitors : Population 1:22
/
Up 7% in 2003
B
A
Z
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Argentina 64%
PARAGUAY Total Area : 406 750 sq. km (157 046 sq. miles) 30
40
50
60
70
80
N
0
Ygatimí San Pedro Rosario Curuguaty San Estanislao
ay o
100 km
POPULATION over 100 000 over 50 000 under 10 000
San Juan Bautista
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
Coronel Oviedo Caaguazú Villarrica
Alberdi
1000m/3281ft
Te b icuary
N
over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
Luque ASUNCIÓN Caacupé Fernando de la Mora Lambaré Paraguarí
Pilar Humaitá
T 460
Salto del Guairá
Represa Itaipú
Villa Hayes
100 miles
E
Tourist numbers are small. Most visitors are cross-border day-trippers from Brazil and Argentina, who flock to Ciudad del Este to buy cheap, mainly Far Eastern, electrical goods. The Chaco attracts tourists for safaris.
0
om
L
20
P
10
% of total arrivals
i lc
I
USA 4% Other 15%
G
0
Montelindo
R
Brazil 17%
ua y Pa rag
267,750 visitors
†
A
TOURISM
R
Roads serving the main cities are in good condition. Rail services are largely provided by elderly steam trains.
San Ignacio Para ná
Caazapá Yuty
Coronel Bogado Encarnación
I
Hernandarias Ciudad del Este Iguaçu Falls
N
A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PARAGUAY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS IBRD
IAEA
Mercosr
Geplac
CHRONOLOGY Paraguay was controlled by Spain from 1536 until 1811.
RG
The main aims are fairer integration in the Mercosur common market and good relations with the US.
†
AID
Recipient
$57m (receipts)
.
Down 7% in 2002
Japan offers most development aid; the IMF provides conditional loans. NGOs run small programs in rural areas.
DEFENSE $54m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 29% in 2002
Under Stroessner, the military controlled political and economic life. In 1994–1995, Congress tried to limit its powers, but President Juan Carlos Wasmosy endorsed its political and institutional role. The pact between the military and the PC, in power since 1947, has been weakened by factionalism.
ECONOMICS $6.43bn
†
Inflation 12% p.a. (1990–2001)
5920 guaraníes (6200)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................103rd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1170 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$294m INFLATION .......................................10.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................16%
The Iguaçu Falls, on the border with Brazil and Argentina, comprise over 20 cataracts, separated by rocks and tree-covered islands.
†
RESOURCES 25,110 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 2000 b/d
8.81m cattle, 3.25m pigs, 725,000 ducks, 15.6m chickens
Gypsum, marble, clay, kaolin, iron, manganese, uranium
The joint Paraguay–Brazil Itaipú hydroelectric dam is the world’s second-largest. The massive Yacyretá Dam is operated with Argentina.
ENVIRONMENT
/
4% (0.1% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Overreliance on agriculture and shaky Brazilian and Argentinian markets. No hydrocarbons produced. Weak banking and financial sectors. High unemployment. Political instability deters foreign investment.
Argentina 18%
The media, historically sponsored by political parties, flourished after the fall of Stroessner, publishing details of corruption and abuses of human rights. The constitution in theory protects the rights of columnists to air their views.
CRIME
†
Brazil 29%
USA 23%
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
14 per 1000 population
47 per 1000 population
Defense 1%
3373 prisoners
/
Uruguay 5% 92%
P
Education 4.7% Health 3.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Income inequality is great and rural poverty serious. Senior military officers, business leaders, and the country’s landed elite control wealth.
WORLD RANKING
No death penalty
Position in World 1st
Up 10% in 2000–2001
Paraguay is the contraband capital of Latin America, with trade in everything from cars to cocaine. Jungle airstrips near Brazil provide a route for narcotics.
EDUCATION
IMPORTS
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
4 independent services
Brazil 30%
Hong Kong 4%
TV ownership medium
The current government has pledged to address health care provision, which is fragmented and often expensive.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
EXPORTS
Netherlands 4% Chile 6%
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, infectious diseases
0.7 tonnes per capita
There are 7 daily newspapers, including ABC Color, Noticias, Popular, and Ultima Hora
WEAKNESSES
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 909 people
Daily newspaper circulation 43 per 1000 people
Electricity exporter – earnings obtain foreign exchange. Self-sufficiency in wheat and other staple foodstuffs. Oilseeds, notably soybeans, and cotton.
Other 38%
†
†
HEALTH
Sustainability rank: 25th
Apart from the destruction of forests for farming and for dams, a major ecological worry is the smuggling abroad of endangered species.
STRENGTHS
Bermuda 4%
Electric power 8.1m kW
1864–1870 War of Triple Alliance against Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil kills over half the population. 1928–1935 Two Chaco Wars against Bolivia over disputed territory. 1938 Boundary with Bolivia fixed; Paraguay awarded large tracts. 1954–1989 Rule of Gen. Stroessner: repressive military regime. 1993 First democratic elections. 1993–2000 Three coup attempts by Gen. Lino Oviedo. 1998–1999 Raúl Cubas elected president; resigns after assassination of vice president; Cubas and Oviedo leave country. 2003 Nicanor Duarte Frutos of PC wins presidency.
†
School leaving age: 15
83,041 students
50th
100th
81 150th
71 years
114
94
94
92%
26 deaths
89
$1170 193rd
Argentina 18%
Other 21%
The state-run National University of Asunción has 25,000 students; there are many private universities. Since 1994, teaching Guaraní has been mandatory.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
461
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
PERU
SOUTH AMERICA PE R
1941
July 28
PE
-5
L
YING JUST SOUTH of the equator, on the Pacific coast of South America, Peru became independent of Spain in 1824. It rises from an arid coastal strip to the Andes, dominated in the south by volcanoes, then descending into the Amazon Basin. About half of Peru’s population live in mountain regions. Peru’s border with Bolivia to the south runs through Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world. Alejandro Toledo became the first Amerindian president in 2001, but his popularity fell rapidly.
CLIMATE
†
Pop. density low 21/km2 (55/mi2)
Spanish, Quechua, Aymara THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
73%
27%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 5%
Roman Catholic 95% Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
ETHNIC MAKEUP
White 7%
Other 3%
0
0/32
Mestizo 40%
-10/14
Spanish colonial church near the Urubamba River. This area was known to the Incas as the Sacred Valley.
-20/-4
Peru has several distinct climatic regions. The arid or desert coastal region experiences the garúa, persistent low cloud and fog, giving Lima cool winters even though it is close to the equator. The temperate slopes of the Andes have large daily temperature ranges and a rainy season in December–March, while parts of the Amazon Basin receive rain all year.
TRANSPORTATION
†
†
TOURISM
/
933,550 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:29 Up 8% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
USA 23% Colombia 11% Bolivia 7%
Drive on right
Ecuador 7% UK 5%
Jorge Chávez International, Lima 4.54m passengers
719 ships 240,300 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Other 47% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals 9477 km (5889 miles)
Pan-American Highway: 2495 km (1550 miles)
2123 km (1319 miles)
8808 km (5473 miles)
Most roads remain unpaved. Work on a transcontinental highway from Ilo, a Pacific free port, via Puerto Suárez in Bolivia, to the port of Portos in Brazil is ongoing. The two rail networks, the Central and Southern, are as yet unconnected. The La Oroya–Huancayo line is the world’s highest standardgauge track. River transportation is important in Amazonia. Jorge Chávez airport is a major regional hub. There are also more than 200 small airstrips across the country. The largest airline, Aero Continente, was briefly grounded in 2004 after its owners were linked to the narcotics trade.
462
†
ia
Tropical/mountain/ desert
WEATHER CHART FOR LIMA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
l iv
Chile
PEOPLE
.pe
+51
Bo
1824
P
Brazil
U
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Peru CAPITAL: Lima POPULATION: 27.2 million CURRENCY: New sol OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Spanish and Quechua
South America
Colombia
Ecuador
Tourism is gradually recovering after being plunged into crisis in the early 1990s by guerrilla activity, high crime rates, and outbreaks of cholera. The heavily indebted industry has been unable to take full advantage of new investment opportunities, but privatization programs have seen the sale of state hotels. Visitors come to see incomparable sites such as the Inca ruins at Machu Picchu in the Andes. The Nazca lines, patterns and drawings in the desert made by the Nazca people (200 BCE to 700 CE), are also a major attraction. Tourism to the Amazon is growing, but environmentalists are concerned about the impact on indigenous peoples. The Spanish colonial architecture of Lima and the floating Uros Islands, made of reed, on Lake Titicaca are other draws.
Amerindian 50%
Most Peruvians are Amerindian or mestizo (mixed race). A small elite of European descent retains a strong hold on the economy, power, and social standing. A few Chinese and Japanese live in the northern cities. Previously remote Andean Amerindians are increasingly informed of events in Lima and the coastal strip by radio and by relatives in cities. This has compensated for problems associated with the marginalization of their native Quechua and Aymara languages in a Spanish-speaking culture. A further 250,000 Amazonian Amerindians live in the eastern lowlands. Together with the small community of Africans (descendants of plantation workers), they tend to suffer the worst discrimination in towns. The extended family, part of traditional native Amerindian culture, remains strong; its role as a social bond is reinforced by Roman Catholicism. In recent years, economic difficulties have raised its profile as the key social support system for most Peruvians. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.4% 3.2% 7.9% 16% 22.8%
80+ 60–79
Male 0.3% 2.9%
40–59
7.5%
20–39
15.5%
0–19
% of population by age group
23.5%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PERU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections AT THE LAST ELECTION
President Alejandro Toledo
2001/2006
9% 3% FIM SP
Congress of the Republic 120 seats
38% PP
23% APRA
5% 8% UPP Others
14% NU
PP = Peru Posible APRA = American Popular Revolutionary Alliance NU = National Unity FIM = Independent Moralizing Front UPP = Union for Peru SP = Somos Peru
President Alejandro Toledo, Peru’s first Amerindian head of state, elected in 2001.
Peru is a multiparty democracy in which the president holds executive power.
PROFILE The long tradition of large parties dominating politics ended with Alberto Fujimori’s election as president in 1990. His “self-coup” created a compliant legislature and judiciary, and approval of a new C constitution permitted his reelection in 1995. Equator O His popularity was L Pu greatly boosted by tu m successes against hyperinflation N Arica a
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
o
D
po
A Ti
e
Amazon
Iquitos
Pa
n Ma r a ñó
R
Moyobamba
o r
a
ll
Pucallpa
d
a ag
Z
Hu
A
i
F
I
l
Nevado Huascarán 6768m
C
Chimbote
L
l
o
Huaraz
I r
U
a
Cerro de Pasco
mba ba ru
i
N
l
d
a rím
re
e
Urubamba Machu Picchu c
Ayacucho
s
d
i
Ap
c
Abancay
c
n
de D ios
t
a
l
Cusco
d e
Ica
n
t
Nazca
over 50 000
E
a
Juliaca
l
San Juán
under 50 000
Puno
O
LAND HEIGHT
2000m/6562ft Sea Level
Lake Titicaca
S
C
N
Socabaya
Arequipa
4000m/13124ft
500m/1640ft
Puerto Maldonado
i
over 100 000
D
O
over 500 000
Chincha Alta Pisco
ra
Ma
r
Huancayo Callao u Chaclacayo LIMA Huancavelica a
over 1 000 000
Huaral Comas
la s Pi e
O
Tarma
La Oroya
r
POPULATION
e
Total Area : 1 285 200 sq. km (496 223 sq. miles)
l
Huacho
A
d
C
PERU
e
r Huánuco
I
I
Trujillo
A
C
Cajamarca
San Pedro de Lloc
i al ay Uc
C
Chachapoyas
Saña
Chiclayo
Tarapoto
I
A
Piura
Catacaos Sechura Bernal
V
Sullana Chulucanas
B
P
Talara
L
E
a
C
staz
Tumbes
gr
U
Guayaquil
Disenchantment with Toledo B President I A Toledo promised reforms, but his low ratings in opinion polls suggested public impatience. Respondents expressed disappointment that he had failed to fulfill election promises, especially on job creation, as the government committed itself to IMF goals on structural reform and fiscal restraint.
O
Gulf of
Castilla
M
ay
O
R
O
E
B
Alberto Fujimori, president 1990–2000, ran an increasingly autocratic regime.
and the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) guerrillas. It faded in the late 1990s as he tightened his personal control of the government, and appeared increasingly reliant on the army. Few checks on the executive remained, and Fujimori was able to obtain his third term in 2000. However, blatant electoral fraud and abuse of power were exposed when his security service chief Vladimiro Montesinos was videoed bribing opposition legislators. Fujimori’s position was irrevocably damaged, and he resigned in November, having fled to Japan. Fresh elections in April 2001 were won by populist Alejandro Toledo and his Peru Posible (PP) party.
Moquegua
Matarani
0
200 km
Ilo
A
N
0
Tacna
IL CH
E
200 miles
Toledo’s popularity keeps falling, in spite of positive macroeconomic indicators, due to his perceived inadequate handling of domestic issues, though he is given credit for more direct speaking and his perceived tough stance on corruption and terrorism. Newly created regional governments threaten to increase pressure on his still weak government, with a possible negative impact on fiscal stability. The resurgence of APRA APRA won 12 of the new regional presidencies in 2002, compared with 11 won by independents and one each by PP and SP. APRA leader Alan García, who had presided over a bankrupt country in the 1980s, used the result to increase pressure on Toledo for more budgetary clout for regional government, but did not press for a PP–APRA coalition. Distancing himself from a potentially unpopular government will improve his chances in the 2006 presidential elections.
CHRONOLOGY Francisco Pízarro’s arrival in 1532 during a war of succession between two Inca rulers marked the start of the Spanish colonization of Peru and the end of the Inca empire. 1821 Independence proclaimed in Lima after its capture by Argentine liberator, José de San Martín, who had just freed Chile. 1824 Spain defeated at battles of Junín and Ayacucho by Simón Bolívar and Gen. Sucre, liberators of Venezuela and Colombia. 1836–1839 Peru and Bolivia joined in short-lived confederation. 1866 Peruvian–Spanish War. 1879–1884 War of the Pacific. Chile defeats Peru and Bolivia. Peru loses territory in south. 1908 Augusto Leguía y Salcedo’s dictatorial rule begins. 1924 Dr. Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre founds nationalist APRA in exile in Mexico. 1930 Leguía ousted. APRA moves to Peru as first political party. 1931–1945 APRA banned. 1939–1945 Moderate, pro-US civilian government. 1948 Gen. Manuel Odría takes power. APRA banned again. 1956 Civilian government restored. 1962–1963 Two military coups. 1963 Election of Fernando Belaúnde Terry. Land reform, but military used to suppress communistinspired insurgency. 1968 Military junta takes over.
463
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DEFENSE
CHRONOLOGY continued
.
Down 3% in 2002
The military, in power from 1968 to 1980, supported President Fujimori’s 1992 “self-coup.” A quarter of national territory remained under states of emergency until early 2000, despite the apparent defeat of the Sendero Luminoso guerrillas. Fujimori’s control over promotions and the National Intelligence Service (SIN) guaranteed the loyalty of senior military officers. After his resignation and the dissolution of the SIN in 2000, the new government cut back military influence. Guerrillas were widely blamed for bomb attacks in Lima in 2002 prior to the visit of US president Bush, but a theory studied by the
ECONOMICS $54bn
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AP
AmCC
NAM
†
3.473 new soles (3.472)
OAS
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................46th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2020 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.21bn INFLATION .........................................0.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
EXPORTS
Japan 5%
Switzerland 7% China 8%
Other 42%
UK 12%
Brazil 5%
Colombia 5% Chile 8% Spain 8%
Other 47%
AID
†
Recipient
$491m (receipts)
/
Up 8% in 2002
Aid from the US is mostly directed at antinarcotics activity. Loans worth some $1.3 billion in recent years from the IDB, the World Bank, and Japan were conditional on Peru’s meeting specific health and educational targets and on making progress on privatizations.
464
116 combat aircraft (Canberra, Su-22/25, MiG-29, Mirage)
15,000 personnel
None
interior ministry was that elements in the military, intelligence, or police still sympathetic to ousted security service chief Montesinos were responsible.
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
RG
Cooperation with the US, which is the main source of aid, extends to the war on cocaine, though Peru remains one of the world’s largest coca producers. Security along the Colombian border is a key issue; there have been reported incursions by paramilitaries and narcotics traffickers. Peru signed a deal in 2004 to process and export Bolivian natural gas, even though the route is longer than the Chilean alternative.
25,000 6 submarines, 1 cruiser, 4 frigates, 10 patrol boats personnel
SCORE CARD
IMPORTS Joined UN in 1945
60,000 personnel
275 main battle tanks (T-54/55)
Inflation 23% p.a. (1990–2001)
USA 26%
P
PERUVIAN ARMED FORCES
USA 27%
STRENGTHS Abundant mineral resources, including natural gas. Rich fish stocks. Climatic variation allows diverse and productive agriculture, especially cotton and coffee. Well-developed textile industry.
WEAKNESSES Overdependence on metals and commodities whose fluctuating prices undermine trade and investment. Stalled privatization. Corruption and poor infrastructure deterring investment. Social instability.
PROFILE Wealth and economic activity are largely confined to the cities of the coastal plain. The inhabitants of the Andean uplands are subsistence farmers or coca producers. Peru’s strict fiscal and monetary policy continued
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
$865m
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
Attempts to alleviate poverty. Large-scale nationalizations. 1975–1978 New right-wing junta. 1980 Belaúnde reelected. Maoist Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) begins armed struggle. 1982 Deaths and “disappearances” start to escalate as army cracks down on guerrillas and narcotics. 1985 Electoral win for left-wing APRA under Alan García Pérez. 1987 Peru bankrupt. Plans to nationalize banks blocked by new Libertad movement led by writer Mario Vargas Llosa. 1990 Over 3000 political murders. Alberto Fujimori, an independent, elected president on anticorruption platform. Severe austerity program. 1992–95 Fujimori “self-coup.” New constitution. Fujimori reelected. 1995–1998 Final border war with Ecuador over access to the Amazon; the key Cordillera del Cóndor had been awarded to Peru in 1942 leading to a series of clashes. 1996–1997 Left-wing Tupac Amarú guerrillas seize hundreds of hostages at Japanese ambassador’s residence in four-month siege. 2000 November, Fujimori seeks refuge in Japan and resigns amid corruption scandal despite having won controversial third term in May. 2001 Fresh presidential elections: Alejandro Toledo defeats García. 2003 Beatriz Merino appointed first female prime minister.
†
2002
under Fujimori. Growth was hit hard in 1998 by the disruption of fishing by El Niño-generated storms, the Asian economic crises, turmoil in emerging markets following Russia’s economic troubles, and depressed world commodity prices. In 1999 the IMF granted a three-year loan package, extended in 2002, to support comprehensive structural reform and fiscal restraint. Strong growth in 2002, led by mining, construction, and manufacturing, aided recovery. PERU : MAJOR BUSINESSES Arica Talara
Sechura Pucallpa
Trujillo
Cerro de Pasco Lima Oil Oil refining Textiles Mining Fish processing Food processing Vehicle assembly
Ica Arequipa 0 0
* significant multinational ownership
400 km 400 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PERU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 6.1m kW
8m tonnes
92,000 b/d (reserves 1bn barrels)
14.1m sheep, 4.99m cattle, 2.86m pigs, 95m chickens
Oil, natural gas, coal, lead, zinc, silver, iron, gold, copper
†
MEDIA
TV ownership medium
There are 74 daily newspapers. These include the conservative El Comercio and Expreso, and the left-wing La República 11 services: 1 state-owned, 10 independent
Combustion 19% (3.7bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
3 state-owned services, over 1400 independent stations
Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
Peru is a key exporter of copper and lead. The huge Antamina copper, zinc, and silver deposit began production in 2001. Peru is attempting to reduce its dependence on hydroelectric power because inconsistent rainfall patterns cause output to fluctuate. The new Camisea gas project will make Peru a net energy exporter by 2007.
Main cities have their own newspapers; Lima’s papers cater to diverse political readerships. State TV is not popular.
†
CRIME
Death penalty not used in practice
,
27,493 prisoners
Urban crime levels are high
CRIME RATES
The poor public health system almost collapsed in the 1980s. In many areas primary care is nonexistent. Advanced treatment is available only to private patients in city clinics. Goiter, a thyroid abnormality, is widespread, especially in mountain areas. Infant mortality is high in remote areas due to social deprivation, diarrheal diseases, and tuberculosis. Cholera reached epidemic proportions in 1994, and malaria is again widespread. Thousands of poor women were forcibly sterilized in the late 1990s as part of a government program to lower the birthrate. Social welfare is compulsory, and benefits cover sickness, disability, and old age.
per 100,000 population
5
per 100,000 population
67
per 100,000 population
28 per 1000 population
Education 3.3%
A
Health 2.6% N
Pasture Forest
D
Desert High mountain regions
E
S
Sugarcane - cash crop Sheep 400 km 400 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (3% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 29th
1.1 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Kidnappings, murders, armed robberies, and narcotics-related crime remain serious problems, especially in Lima. Corruption is deep-seated in the police and security forces, and was a major political issue throughout the 1990s. Despite the near-destruction of the Sendero Luminoso and Tupac Amarú guerrilla groups, main cities frequently have curfews. There is international pressure to halt coca production, but chewing coca is traditional in the Andes for its medicinal properties.
†
EDUCATION
Yes
School leaving age: 16
Yes 85%
Yes
66 per 1000 population
Defense 1.6%
Cropland
0
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
3
Rapes
PERU : LAND USE
†
SPENDING Murders
Thefts
0
Cancers, pneumonia, accidents, infectious diseases
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Hydro 81% (16bn kWh)
% of total generation by type
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 1111 people
Daily newspaper circulation 4 per 1000 people
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
HEALTH
Yes
1.5m students
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Most wealth and power in Peru is still retained by old Spanish families. Indigenous peoples remain excluded from both. The rich live in a state of siege; the number of armed guards and security cameras protecting family property has become a status symbol. Overpopulation and rural migration accentuate poverty in Lima, where some 2.7 million people live in shanty towns, many of them lacking such basic utilities as running water and electricity. The UN estimates that around 40% of the population live below the poverty line.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
WORLD RANKING % of each age group in education
Environmentalists have long been concerned about coastal industrial pollution and the activities of the fishing industry. Overfishing of anchovies almost resulted in their extinction in the 1970s. Today, attention has switched to the rising number of dolphins being caught in drift nets. Unchecked urban and industrial pollution, especially in Lima, is a serious concern. Environmentalists fear that the policy of using powerful air-sprayed herbicides to destroy coca crops is adding to river pollution in the Andes, where mining also causes severe environmental problems.
100
Position in World 1st
80
60
50th
100% 81%
40
100th
20
29% 150th
0
Primary
Secondary
86
88
$2020
70 years
85 112 85%
Tertiary
101 30 deaths
193rd
Education is based on the US system; spending has declined. The provision of state education, especially for the poor, remains a serious challenge.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
465
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
PHILIPPINES
SOUTHEAST ASIA Asia
Taiwan
China
PHILIPPINES Malaysia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of the Philippines CAPITAL: Manila POPULATION: 80 million CURRENCY: Philippine peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and Filipino 1946
1946
June 12
RP
+8
.ph
+63
L
YING ON THE WESTERN RIM of the Pacific Ocean, the Philippines is the world’s second-largest archipelago-state. Of its 7107 islands, 4600 are named and 1000 inhabited. There are three main island groupings: Luzon, Visayan, and the Mindanao and Sulu islands. Located on the Pacific “ring of fire,” it is subject to frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. Economic growth outstripped population increase in the 1990s, until the 1997–1998 Asian crisis, but efforts to build a stable democracy have been compromised by highlevel corruption, leading to the ouster of President Estrada in 2001.
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
A
Hong Kong 8%
Other 34% 0
30
20
40
N
There is less tourism in the Philippines than in other regional NICs. Dubious images conveyed by sex tourism have Baguio Dagupan become a liability. International San Carlos Luzon pressure to end this abuse has Tarlac Cabanatuan City Angeles intensified. Muslim secessionists San Fernando Malolos Polillo Is have seized tourists on nearby Olongapo Subic Bay San Juan del Monte Malaysian islands as hostages. S Calagua Is MANILA Laguna de Bay E Muntinglupa The tiny island of Boracay, A Lucena San Pablo off Panay, is a popular resort, Batangas Lipa Lubang I. Catanduanes I. and Palawan retains most Naga Marinduque M of its tropical rainforest in Legaspi I. Burias I. do Mindoro and coral lagoons, r Sibuyan Sea Sibuyan I. though coral reefs Busuanga I. Tablas I. Calbayog Calamian elsewhere are badly Masbate Group Jinto Semirara Is Cha tolo Culion I. damaged. The rice nne Biliran I. l Quiniluban Samar Visayan Group terraces of northern Sea Panay Ormoc Tacloban Luzon are another Silay Cadiz Cuyo Is Leyte Sagay Iloilo Gulf attraction. Toledo Palawan Leyte Bacolod at ag M
Si
Lingayen Gulf
I
H
3219 km (2000 miles)
10
% of total arrivals
N
897 km (557 miles)
South Korea 15%
I
None
Japan 18%
P
42,419 km (26,358 miles)
Up 8% in 2002
P L I P H I
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
/
USA 20%
C hannel
n
1686 ships 5.32m grt
Ninoy Aquino, Manila 12.9m passengers
y an
C a ga y a
†
Drive on right
Visitors : Population 1:41
Taiwan 5% bu
Cordille ra Ce ntral
TRANSPORTATION
Ba
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Babuyan Is
Abra
0/32
S
A
E
60/140
1.93m visitors
The Philippines is warm and humid all year. The rainy season lasts from June to October. Humidity falls from 85% in September Batan Is to 71% in March. A
WEATHER CHART FOR MANILA
r a Madre
†
TOURISM Tropical monsoon/equatorial
er
CLIMATE
Bohol Island has over 1000 of these famous mounds, known as “the chocolate hills.”
st P a
Ea
o
Cu
ge
S
O
West P ass a
ssa g e
C uy o
U
it ra St
T
o
Cebu
Cebu
Siargao I.
PHILIPPINES
Bohol
Negros
Total Area : 300 000 sq. km (115 830 sq. miles)
iu
Ag
ntains Mou ata n m gu sa
Bohol Butuan Sea Cagayan de Oro
D
Cagayan Is
Dinagat I.
Mandaue
Bago Panay Gulf
San Carlos City
Puerto Princesa
it
U
Iligan
S
E
Lake Lanao
A
i
Davao Moro Gulf
Zamboanga Pilas Group
Pangutaran Group
R
N
Tapul Group
E
O )
Tawi-Tawi Group
A R
C
E
C
L
Al
Basilan I.
Tapiantana Group Samales Group Jolo Group
Jolo I.
Tawi-Tawi
POPULATION
Mindanao T Pulang
ra
L
H
I P
E
E
L
A
G
S B E
General Santos
over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000
Mount Apo 2954m Davao Gulf
LAND HEIGHT
N
0
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
Sarangani I.
O
S E A
over 1 000 000
a
St
U
u
S
L U S U
466
y
ah
Basic infrastructure lacks investment and many main roads are in desperate need of repair. Chronic traffic congestion in Manila holds back economic growth. Air travel is the only means of getting around the islands quickly. Philippines Airlines, privatized in 1992, has invested heavily in new aircraft and in expanding its regional route network. Work on a new 28-gate terminal at Ninoy Aquino international airport ran into financial difficulties in 2002. Subic Bay, a massive Balabac I. US naval base until 1992, c ba is now being exploited as B ala a commercial asset, thanks to its prime location. Opening on to the South (B China Sea, its deep natural O harbor has been developed as a free port and enterprise zone. The Taiwanese are the biggest investors in this project.
H
C
E
P
500m/1640ft
200 km
200m/656ft 0
200 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PHILIPPINES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density high
Filipino, English, Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, many other local languages
268/km2 (695/mi2)
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Buddhist) 3%
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Muslim 5% Protestant 9%
Age
Female 0.3% 2.6%
60%
The Philippines encompasses more than 100 distinct ethnic groups, many of Malay origin. The national language, Filipino, is based on Tagalog, spoken by the largest of the various groups. Other groups include Cebuano, Ilocan, Longgo, Bicolano, Waray, Pampangan, and Pangasinan. They are concentrated on the main island, Luzon, and are also a majority on Mindanao. Most Muslims live on Mindanao, but many are also found in the Sulu archipelago. The Chinese minority, which was well established by 1603, has remained significant in business and trade. More than 120 Chinese schools have ensured that it has retained a distinct identity. There are also a number of cultural minorities who practice animist
POLITICS
†
L. House 2004/2007 U. House 2004/2007
60–79
2.3%
7.2%
40–59
7.3%
15.4%
20–39
15.5%
Roman Catholic 83%
40%
Male 0.2%
80+
0–19
24.1%
25.1%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
% of population by age group
Chinese 2% Other 3%
Malay 95%
religions. They include the Ifugaos, Bontocks, Kalingas, and Ibalois on Luzon, the Manobo and Bukidnon on Mindanao, and the Mangyans on Palawan. Many of these groups speak Malayo-Polynesian dialects. Limited intermarriage with other peoples has meant that groups in the more remote regions have managed to retain their traditional ways of life.
The Philippines is one of only two Christian states in Asia. Over 80% of Filipinos are Roman Catholics, and the Church is the dominant cultural force. It opposes state-sponsored preventive family planning programs aimed at curbing accelerating population growth. Abortion is illegal but widespread. Women have traditionally played a prominent part in Philippine public and professional life. Inheritance laws give them equal rights to men. Many go into politics, banking, and business, and in several professional sectors they form a majority.
Multiparty elections
President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 236 seats
Estrada, was appointed to replace him. The May 2004 presidential election was a tight race, Arroyo just beating movie star Fernando Poe Jr. after a lengthy count.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES 42% Lakas–CMD
21% NPC
13% 4% LP LDP
20% Others
Lakas–CMD = Lakas -– Christian Muslim Democrats NPC = Nationalist People's Coalition LP = Liberal Party LDP = Fight of Democratic Filipinos K4 = K4 coalition (led by Lakas and including the NPC and the LP) KNP = Coalition of United Filipinos (led by the LDP) Ind = Independent
Senate 24 seats
50% K4
46% KNP
4% Ind
The Philippines is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE By 1986, the 21-year dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos had no popular backing. A massive “people power” movement supported his opponent Corazon Aquino, declared the true winner of the presidential elections. Losing US support, Marcos was forced into exile. Former film star Joseph Estrada was elected president in 1998. Accusations that he was involved in a gambling syndicate led to impeachment proceedings and he relinquished power in 2001. Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo of opposition party Lakas, who had led the united political challenge to
Political stability After the downfall of the Marcos regime, the subsequent two presidents passed on power smoothly to an elected successor, but Estrada was quickly mired in corruption scandals. Moves for his impeachment were overtaken by mass rallies in Manila. Out of office he retains widespread support among the rural poor, who question the legitimacy of Arroyo’s appointment. She has since faced popular discontent, a failed military rebellion in July 2003, and a serious electoral challenge in May 2004. Insurgency and separatism Communists and Muslim separatists have been fighting government forces for over 30 years, with more than 10,000 armed confrontations with rebels recorded by the army. Support for secession has been fueled by government failure to alleviate poverty. The communist New People’s Army (NPA), once regarded as a heroic army of the oppressed and as an alternative to traditional politics, has declined in significance, but launched new offensives in 2000. Of greater importance is the Muslim insurrection on Mindanao and other southern islands. The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) signed a peace agreement in 1996.
Joseph Estrada, filmstar-turned-president, ousted in 2001.
Gloria Arroyo, president after a popular uprising.
P
The splinter Muslim Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) continued fighting, but joined the peace process in mid-2001. Nonetheless, the government launched a major offensive against MILF headquarters in 2003. The smaller, but internationally backed, Abu Sayyaf continues low-level fighting in the Sulu region. Alleged links with Islamist terrorists have brought full military assistance from the US in its “war on terrorism.” The presence of US troops on Philippine soil has provoked controversy.
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
ASEAN
G24
NAM
WTO
Regionally, there are sporadic frictions with Malaysia, while sovereignty of the Spratly Islands is hotly contested by China. President Arroyo quickly pledged support for the US-led “war on terrorism” in 2001. The 50 soldiers sent to Iraq were withdrawn after militants kidnapped a Filipino civilian in 2004.
467
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DEFENSE
CHRONOLOGY Ceded to the US by Spain in 1898, the Philippines became self-governing in 1935, and an independent republic in 1946.
/
No compulsory military service
Up 35% in 2002
PHILIPPINE ARMED FORCES
The military retains political influence. An abortive army mutiny called for President Arroyo’s resignation in 2003. The historic tie to the US has been translated in modern times into a close strategic relationship; US forces were deployed to help the government combat Muslim rebels in the south from 2001. Modernization of the armed forces is being undertaken with US assistance.
ECONOMICS $82.4bn
†
Recipient
$560m (receipts)
.
Down 3% in 2002
The Philippines’ main bilateral aid donors are Japan and, to a lesser extent, the US. Many NGOs operate in the outlying islands. Large remittances are sent home by Filipinos working overseas: funds received from these hundreds of thousands of emigrant workers exceeded $7 billion in 2003.
468
1 frigate and 58 patrol boats
24,000 personnel
44 combat aircraft (14 F-5A/B)
16,000 personnel
56.16 Philippine pesos (53.45)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................41st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1030 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS......................$4.2bn INFLATION .........................................3.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
EXPORTS
Taiwan 7%
Singapore 7%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
Other 37%
2000
2001
2002
2003
Netherlands 9% Japan 15%
USA 25% IMPORTS
Taiwan 5%
GDP
160
GDP 1999=100
†
66,000 personnel
Inflation 8.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
Singapore 7% South Korea 8%
Other 39% Japan 20% USA 21%
STRENGTHS Now fully open to outside investment. Agricultural productivity rising. Strong pineapple and banana export industries. Remittances from Filipinos overseas.
effectively nullified by the crippling 1997–1998 Asian economic and financial crises. The government of Joseph Estrada failed to shore up the economy and ran up a crippling budget deficit, and investor confidence vanished amid political scandals. His successor, President Arroyo, has done much to regain the approval of the IMF and the international community, mainly through further deregulation and privatization. Growth is back on track, thanks mainly to increased agricultural production, but many public works projects have simply been put on hold. PHILIPPINES : MAJOR BUSINESSES Brewing
WEAKNESSES Power failures limit scope for expansion. Rudimentary infrastructure. Large disparities in income, ownership of assets, and geographical concentration of activity.
Once one of Asia’s strongest economies, the Philippines has now fallen behind previously much poorer countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, and South Korea. Around half of the population live below the UN poverty line, on less than $2 a day, fueling many of the secessionist movements that have undermined the stability of successive governments. The financial successes of the early 1990s – opening up to foreign investment, cutting back private monopolies – were
Baguio
Garments Chemicals Electronics
San Fernando
Copper mining Food processing Vehicle assembly
Manila
Pharmaceuticals Telecommunications
PROFILE
AID
65 light tanks (Scorpion)
None
Consumer price index 1999=100
P
1965 Ferdinand Marcos president. 1972 Marcos declares martial law. Opposition leaders arrested, parliament suspended, press censored. 1977 Ex-Liberal Party leader Benigno Aquino sentenced to death. Criticism forces Marcos to delay execution. 1978 Elections won by Marcos’s New Society (KBL). He is named president and prime minister. 1980 Aquino allowed to travel to US for medical treatment. 1981 Martial law ends. Marcos reelected president by referendum. 1983 Aquino shot dead on return from US. Inquiry blames military conspiracy. 1986 US compels presidential election. Result disputed. Army rebels led by Gen. Fidel Ramos, and public demonstrations, bring Aquino’s widow, Corazon, to power. Marcos exiled to US. 1987 New constitution. Aquino-led coalition wins Congress elections. 1988 Marcos and wife Imelda indicted for massive racketeering. 1989 Marcos dies in US. 1990 Imelda Marcos acquitted of fraud charges in US. Earthquake in Baguio city leaves 1600 dead. 1991 Mt. Pinatubo erupts. US leaves Clark Air Base. 1992 Ramos wins presidency. US withdraws from Subic Bay base. 1996 Peace agreement with Muslim MNLF secessionists. 1998 Joseph Estrada president. 1999 First execution in 22 years. 2000 Tourists kidnapped by Islamic extremists. 2001 Estrada overthrown by popular protest. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo assumes presidency. August, Muslim MILF joins peace process. 2002 Local elections, described as “peaceful” despite 86 deaths. 2004 Arroyo reelected.
$1.51bn
†
Legaspi
Cebu Cagayan de Oro
Davao 0 0
200 km 200 miles
Lupon
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PHILIPPINES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 12.3m kW
12.6m ducks, 12.4m pigs, 6.3m goats, 128m chickens
Coal, copper, nickel, chromium, silver, gas, manganese, gold, oil
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 17% (7.8bn kWh) Combustion 57% (26bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 26% (12bn kWh) 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (3% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 117th
The Philippines is the world’s biggest supplier of refractory chrome. Copper is also a significant export. Substantial gold reserves have been mined since 1996. Falling global prices for minerals have seen a rapid decline in the Philippine mining industry. Oil production off Palawan began in 1979. A major natural gas discovery in the Malampaya field, officially inaugurated in 2001, could prove to have a significant impact. Though timber exports were halted in 1989, illegal logging continues to cause deforestation.
24,400 prisoners
1 tonne per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
CRIME
Yes
Cropland Forest Pigs Sugarcane Coconuts 0
200 km
0
200 miles
.
MINDANAO
Down 5% in 2000
CRIME RATES Yes
8
†
HEALTH
per 100,000 population
No welfare state health benefits Pneumonia, tuberculosis, violence, accidents, typhoid
1 per 2599 people
Rapes Yes
Yes
Yes
4
per 100,000 population
Thefts
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 63 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 66 daily newspapers. The Philippine Daily Inquirer and Philippine Star have the largest circulations 7 services: 1 state-owned, 6 independent
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
Censorship was lifted under the 1987 constitution, but harassment of journalists still occurs. As well as the lively national press, there are more than 250 regional newspapers in local dialects. State TV and radio broadcast in English and Filipino. Powerful families control many independent outlets.
10
per 100,000 population
President Arroyo has been forced to take a hard line against a series of highprofile kidnappings, ending in 2004 a five-year moratorium on executions.
†
EDUCATION 93%
Most general hospitals are privately run. Malaria, which was once a major problem, has been eradicated in all but remote areas. Poor sanitation and disease are common in the sprawling slums around Manila.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING School leaving age: 12
9 per 1000 population
42 per 1000 population
2.43m students
Defense 2.1%
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Education 3.2% 100
% of each age group in education
The environment has become a major issue. Most of the tropical rainforest has been destroyed, except for pockets such as the island of Palawan. Unique coral habitats have been dynamited, and fishermen continue to use cyanide and muro-ami (reef-hunting) techniques to increase the size of their catches. The government recognizes the costs of environmental damage, as soil runoff silts rivers and reduces the power generated by hydroelectric dams, and fast-depleting coral habitats reduce the attraction of the Philippines for tourists. Enforcement of a ban on logging is difficult; many loggers have their own private armies. In addition, continued use of slash-and-burn farming has contributed to deforestation.
MEDIA
LUZON
Death penalty in use
Murders Yes
PHILIPPINES : LAND USE AM A DRE
1103 b/d (reserves 205m barrels)
RR
2.38m tonnes
SI E
†
RESOURCES
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
80
60
100% 82%
40
20
0
P
Health 1.5% 0
30% Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
The Philippines has a relatively high literacy rate for a developing country. The education system is based on the US model, but with a higher proportion of private schools. The main teaching languages are English and Filipino/Tagalog. Though there is a national curriculum up to age 15, sectarianism is common; the Chinese community has its own schools. Most colleges and universities are also run privately. The universities of San Carlos in Cebu and Santo Tomas in Manila are Spanish colonial foundations, dating from 1595 and 1611 respectively.
The contrast between extremes of wealth and poverty is particularly marked. Wealth remains highly concentrated in a few select business families which are based in Manila.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
88 150th
118
70 years
$1030
83
85 93%
99 29 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
469
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
POLAND
Belarus Germany
1945
May 3
PL
+1
.pl
+48
L
†
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
127/km2 (328/mi2)
Polish THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
63%
37%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other and nonreligious 5%
Orthodox Christian 2%
Silesian 1%
Other 2%
0
Polish 97%
-10/14 -20/-4
Most of the country has the same climate. Summers are hot, with heavy rainfall often accompanied by thunder. Winters are severe, with snow covering the ground on the southern mountains, for as much as 60–70 days in the east.
TRANSPORTATION Okecie, Warsaw 5.17m passengers
†
Drive on right
The medieval administrative center of Lublin lies in Poland’s southeastern agricultural heartland.
TOURISM 14m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:2.8
.
Down 7% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Germany 47%
383 ships 585,600 grt
Czech Republic 16% Ukraine 12%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Belarus 8% 247,994 km (154,096 miles)
405 km (252 miles)
20,223 km (12,566 miles)
3812 km (2369 miles)
Slovakia 4% Other 13%
The national airline LOT has increased its charter business as more middleclass Poles vacation abroad. Russian aircraft have all been replaced with Western models. A 15-year roads expansion program was begun in 1997. “Fast tram” systems for cities and longdistance high-speed rail links need major investment. The government backs the streamlining of the rail workforce and the commercialization and part-privatization of the Polish State Railways (PKP). The advent of mobile phones has affected telecommunications, as has the privatization of Telekomunikacja Polska and the end of its monopoly on long-distance calls.
470
Pop. density medium
ETHNIC MAKEUP
S O N D cm/in 40/16
0/32
P
†
PEOPLE
Roman Catholic 93% Rainfall
A
Ukraine Slovakia
Continental
WEATHER CHART FOR WARSAW
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
P OL A N D
Czech Republic
OCATED IN THE HEART of Europe, Poland’s lowlying plains extend from the Baltic shore in the north to the Tatra Mountains on its southern border with Slovakia. Since the collapse of communism, Poland has undergone massive social, economic, and political change. Opting for a radical form of economic “shock therapy” in the early 1990s to kick-start the switch to a market economy, it experienced rapid growth. One of the ten countries that joined the EU in the 2004 enlargement, Poland had already been accepted as a member of NATO five years earlier.
CLIMATE
Lithuania
Russian Fed.
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Poland CAPITAL: Warsaw POPULATION: 38.6 million CURRENCY: Zloty OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Polish 1918
Europe
EUROPE
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Despite environmental problems, Poland is renowned for its skiing and hiking, especially in the Tatra Mountains. Kraków’s medieval core has been preserved, while Toruú has restored its historic German Hanseatic buildings. Warsaw’s historic center has been reconstructed following the destruction of 80% of it by the German army in 1944. More hotels and restaurants are being opened. Poznaú has exploited its location between Warsaw and Berlin to create an international exhibition and business convention industry. Airlines have increased their flights from the West to take advantage of the country’s tourist potential.
Poland has a strongly Roman Catholic population, and in addition there is little ethnic diversity. The Church believes that stronger links with the West, especially through joining the EU, will weaken its influence. Abortion is still a major issue, and attempts to liberalize the law in 1996 were overturned by the Constitutional Tribunal. Some small ethnic groups have opened schools and cultural and religious centers. Others, particularly ethnic Germans and German-dialect speakers in Silesia, are becoming more assertive. Jews are still resentful of past discrimination, and there is some evidence of residual antisemitism at a high level. Disputes over the special significance of the site of the Auschwitz concentration camp, near Kraków, have caused conflict between Jews and Catholics. Wealth disparities are small, though the growing wealth of the entrepreneurial class is causing tension. The major political parties on left and right agree on continuing economic reform. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 1.4% 8.1% 12.7%
80+ 60–79 40–59
14.2%
20–39
14.9%
0–19
Male 0.6% 5.8% 12.1% 14.6% 15.6%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: POLAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS L. House 2001/2005 U. House 2001/2005
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
10% PiS
Diet 460 seats
14% 11% S PO
47% SLD–UP
2000. More right-wing groups held sway for the 1997–2001 parliamentary term, with Jerzy Buzek as prime minister. His Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) alliance, a right-wing grouping with vocal Catholic and nationalist elements, formed a coalition with the liberal Freedom Union (UW), but remained in office as a minority government after the UW withdrew in 2000. In 2001 the Solidarity trade union wing voted to withdraw from politics, and the AWS lost all its seats in the elections that September. A new left-ofcenter coalition was brought together under former communist Leszek Miller of the SLD. After dismissing the PSL from his coalition in March 2003, Miller also headed a minority government. He resigned on May 2, 2004, the day after Poland joined the EU; he was succeeded by his chosen replacement, Finance Minister Marek Belka.
President Aleksander Kwasniewski
8% LPR
9% PSL
1% GM
SLD–UP = Democratic Left Alliance–Labor Union PO = Civic Platform S = Self-defense PiS = Law and Justice PSL = Polish Peasant Party LPR = League of Polish Families GM = German Minority of Lower Silesia Bloc = Senate 2001 Bloc Ind = Independents
4% 2% PSL Ind
Senate 100 seats
75% SLD–UP
15% 2% 2% Bloc LPR S
Since 1989, Poland has been a multiparty parliamentary democracy.
PROFILE The reformed communists of the SLD and the PSL pursued a policy of market reforms in successive governments from 1993 until 1997. Aleksander Kwasniewski of the SLD was elected president in 1995, and reelected in
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Minority rule A superfluity of political parties has meant that fractious coalitions are the norm. Both Buzek and Miller were forced to lead minority governments after the loss of quarrelsome partners, leaving them reliant on parliamentary
POLAND Total Area : 312 685 sq. km (120 728 sq. miles)
Gulf of Danzig
Sîupsk
Gdynia Gdaúsk
Koszalin
Elblàg
Oderhaff
A
Z
M
E ew
Bydgoszcz
R
N
Toruú
Noteá
O
M
r de
Warta Gorzów Wielkopolski
Biaîystok
ar
Piîa
Wîocîawek Pîock W is îa
Poznaú
Bug
A
WARSAW
A R U S E L
Wisîa
Olsztyn
Y
R
U
B
G Grudziàdz
Szczecin
Kalisz Oder
Lublin
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000
P U
Dàbrowa Górnicza
Gliwice Sosnowiec Zabrze Rybnik Tychy Wodzisîaw ⁄làski Jastrzèbie Zdrój Ruda Sîàska Kraków
W
is
îa
Bielsko -Biaïa
B L I C
CAR
S
1000m/3281ft
200m/656ft Sea Level
I Przemy¡l
Nowy Sàcz
PATHIAN MOUNT
AIN
S
Tatra Mts
LAND HEIGHT
500m/1640ft
Rzeszów Tarnów
R
E
M a îop o ls k a
Katowice
n Sa
R
Chorzów Bytom
a
N
H
Opole
i
E
E
N
Rysy 2499 m
K
T
s
Z
E
Ostrowiec ⁄wiètokrzyski Wyæ yna Lu belska
Kielce Czèstochowa
er
e
D
Waîbrzych
L O V A K I A 0 0
E
Od
l
C C
Wrocïaw
i U
N
S
A
Y
Radom
Legnica
100 km
EU
NATO
† OECD
Joined UN in 1945
OSCE
Poland was the second country in Europe to have a written constitution. In 1795, it was partitioned between Austria-Hungary, Prussia, and Russia.
Îód¶
U
N
Zielona Góra
Jelenia GóraS
WORLD AFFAIRS
CHRONOLOGY
W a r ta
Gîogów
Church–state relations A heated dialogue over the proper role of the Church has been fueled by the Church’s outspoken views in debates over abortion, worship in schools, and values in the media, and against membership of the EU – despite Pope John Paul II’s open backing of Poland’s accession. However, the eclipse of Solidarity and the AWS has left the Church without its voice in parliament.
Poland is keen to integrate with the West, though eastern ties remain important. It was admitted to NATO in 1999 and joined the EU in 2004. Membership of the latter rested on negotiating restrictions on the sale of Polish land to foreigners and the migration of Poles westward. Poland was an active partner in the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 and was given control over one of the military commands established there.
LITH UA A NI
Pomeranian Bay
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Vistula Lagoon
President Aleksander Kwasniewski of the SLD, elected in 1995.
maneuvering to ensure the day-to-day survival of their governments.
CE
A S E
C T I B A L
Marek Belka succeeded Leszek Miller as prime minister in 2004.
1918 Polish state recreated. 1921 Democratic constitution. 1926–1935 Marshal Jozef Pilsudski heads military coup. Nine years of authoritarian rule. 1939 Germany invades and divides Poland with Russia. 1941 First concentration camps built on Polish soil. 1944 Warsaw Uprising. 1945 Potsdam and Yalta Conferences set present borders and determine political allegiance to Soviet Union. 1947 Communists manipulate elections to gain power.
100 miles
471
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
†
Recipient
$1.16bn (receipts)
/
Down 1% in 2002
POLISH ARMED FORCES
Poland joined NATO in 1999. Its standing army is among the largest in Europe, and additional paramilitary units include over 14,000 border guards. A 15-year program to modernize the armed forces was introduced in 1997. A civilian alternative to military service was first offered in 1998, and military service, already cut from 18 months to a year in 1999, is being gradually reduced to nine months by 2006.
ECONOMICS $177bn
†
947 main battle tanks (586 T-72, 233 PT-91, 128 Leopard 2)
104,050 personnel
4 submarines, 1 destroyer, 3 frigates, and 23 patrol boats
14,300 personnel
224 combat aircraft (81 MiG-21, 45 MiG-29, 98 Su-22)
36,450 personnel
None
Inflation 21% p.a. (1990–2001)
3.697 zlotys (3.904)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................23rd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4570 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$5.01bn INFLATION .........................................1.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................20%
EXPORTS
Netherlands 4%
UK 5% Italy 6% France 6%
Other 47% Germany 32% IMPORTS
UK 4%
Other 49%
France 7% Italy 8% Russia 8%
Germany 24%
STRENGTHS Restructuring of coal industry, electricity supply, and oil refining. Successful privatizations accelerated again in late 1990s. High rates of foreign investment reflect status as largest market in central Europe. Booming construction industry.
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
creditors agreed to cancel half of the country’s foreign debt in 1994. Poland now attracts the most foreign capital in central and eastern Europe. There are still large-scale heavy industrial plants left over from the communist era, but some have been converted or reorganized successfully. Many state farms have been liquidated, but agricultural efficiency is improving only slowly. Some 24% of the workforce is employed in farming. Economic growth slowed at the end of the 1990s, but was back to 4% in 2000. Inflation has fallen since the 1990s, but unemployment has hit a postcommunist record level, exceeding 20% in 2003. POLAND : MAJOR BUSINESSES Warsaw
Gdaúsk
WEAKNESSES High and rising unemployment. Agriculture suffers from overmanning, tiny farms, and lack of investment. Compensation for communist-era property expropriations unresolved. Heavy industries not competitive.
Szczecin
Biaîystok
Poznaú
Up 20% in 2002
Large-scale aid for economic transformation was a phenomenon of the early 1990s. The IMF, the EBRD, and the EU all supported Poland’s stabilization and reform program. EU funding now focuses on debt-servicing and helping Poland to reach the environmental standards required of it as an EU member.
472
.
Compulsory military service
GDP 1998=100
AID
$3.4bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
P
1956 More than 50 killed in rioting in Poznaú. 1970 Food price increases lead to strikes and riots in the Baltic port cities. Hundreds are killed. 1979 Cardinal Karol Wojtyla of Kraków is elected pope (John Paul II). 1980 Strikes force government to negotiate with Solidarity union. Resulting Gdaúsk Accords grant right to strike and to form free trade unions. 1981 Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski becomes prime minister. 1981–1983 Martial law. Solidarity forced into underground existence. Many of its leaders, including Lech Walesa, interned. 1983 Walesa awarded Nobel Peace Prize. 1986 Amnesty for political prisoners. 1987 Referendum rejects government austerity program. 1988 Renewed industrial unrest. 1989 Ruling party holds talks with Solidarity, which is relegalized. Partially free elections held. First postwar noncommunist government formed. 1990 Launch of market reforms. Walesa elected president. 1991 Free elections lead to fragmented parliament. 1992 Last Russian troops leave. 1993 Elections: new coalition headed by reformed communists. 1994 Launch of mass privatization. 1995 Aleksander Kwasniewski, leader of reformed communists, elected president. 1996 Historic Gdaúsk shipyard declared bankrupt and closed down. 1997 Parliament finally adopts new postcommunist constitution. Legislative elections end former communist majority with big swing to right-wing AWS coalition. 1999 Joins NATO. 2001 Elections: AWS routed, left-of-center coalition formed under Leszek Miller. 2004 Joins EU. Miller resigns. Marek Belka appointed prime minister.
DEFENSE
PROFILE After a decade of economic crisis, the postcommunist government in 1990 drove through the most determined plan in the whole region to make the transition to a market economy. Most prices were freed, trade was opened, and the zloty was made convertible. Foreign investment and economic growth soared, especially after Western
Wrocïaw
Îód¶ Kraków
Iron & steel Coal mining
Optics
Shipbuilding
Vehicle assembly
Electronics
Pharmaceuticals
Textiles Engineering
0
Chemicals
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: POLAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 30.6m kW
261,376 tonnes
13,093 b/d (reserves 38m barrels)
18.6m pigs, 5.49m cattle, 3.59m ducks, 48.4m chickens
Coal, copper, silver, sulfur, natural gas, lead, salt, iron, oil
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 3% (4.2bn kWh) Combustion 97% (141bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
†
MEDIA
Daily newspaper circulation 102 per 1000 people
†
CRIME
0
T CARPA HIAN MTS
200 km
0
Murders
6
per 100,000 population
1849
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
†
1.8m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM Sustainability rank: 87th 100
7.8 tonnes per capita
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Pollution problems are serious, but lessening. Upper Silesia and the Kraków area are still badly affected, but industry there only emits a third of the pollutants it emitted in 1990. Now that much heavy industry has been cleaned up or closed down, there is more concern about small factories, domestic coal fires, and the increased use of private cars. Water pollution, mainly from untreated sewage and industrial discharges, is a major problem. Rivers flowing into the Baltic are badly affected by nitrates and phosphates used in farming. Polish standards, themselves widely disregarded, need to be raised to meet EU minimum requirements.
% of each age group in education
.
†
School leaving age: 16
.
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
per 100,000 population
99%
12% (9% partially protected)
Yes
4
EDUCATION
80
60
100%
3 services: 1 publicly owned, 2 independent
5 services: 1 publicly owned, 4 independent
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases
1 per 455 people
Fundamental reforms introduced in 1999 created a “market” health system, giving patients the right to choose where to go for treatment. Intended to be decentralized and less bureaucratic, the new system was confusing for some patients, with hospitals and doctors competing for business. Medical care is free for most people, but there are now a number of private health clinics.
CRIME RATES
200 miles
ENVIRONMENT
There are 16 national daily newspapers, including Gazeta Wyborcza, Rzeczpospolita, Nasz Dziennik, and Trybuna
Up 10% in 2001
Smuggling is the most significant problem, and Warsaw is a main center for this. Narcotics are transferred westward to Germany and expensive cars eastward to Russia. A National Remembrance Institute was set up in 2000 to investigate and prosecute the Nazi- and communist-era crimes of 1939–1989.
Wis îa
Oder
Cropland Pasture Forest Pigs Cattle Cereals
No death penalty
/
83,113 prisoners
POLAND : LAND USE
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
The constitution guarantees media freedom. Gazeta Wyborcza, set up by Solidarity in 1989, is still the leading daily, and its owners are expanding into other media. In 2003 the government ordered the bugging of all telecommunications, including e-mail, citing security concerns.
% of total generation by type
Poland has significant quantities of coal, copper, silver, sulfur, natural gas, lead, and salt. The government’s aim is to achieve self-sufficiency in energy resources and eventually to be able to export them; plans are in place to privatize the fuel and energy industries. The government also intends to reduce dependence on coal and to generate more electricity from natural gas.
TV ownership high
100%
40
55%
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
289 per 1000 population
307 per 1000 population
Defense 1.9% Education 5% Health 4.4% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Market reforms have led to some structural unemployment, and the inevitable hardship that this represents. More restructuring of heavy industry is planned. Pensioners have enjoyed benefits amounting to a higher percentage of GDP than in most countries, but state cutbacks are making private pensions more necessary.
P
20
WORLD RANKING 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Position in World 1st
Primary education lasts from the age of seven to 13; lower secondary level follows until 16. At upper secondary level, exam-based selection separates the academic, technical, and vocational schools. A standard curriculum is followed in all schools. Despite the high official literacy figures, a relatively large proportion of school-leavers still lack basic skills. Public spending on education fell in real terms in the 1990s. Since 1989 the Roman Catholic Church has been allowed to operate schools. Most of the higher education institutions offer business-related courses.
1
50th
99%
38 100th
53 $4570
50 74 years
37
8 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
473
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
PORTUGAL
EUROPE Fr an ce PORTUGAL Spain
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Portugal CAPITAL: Lisbon POPULATION: 10.1 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese 1139
1640
June 10
P
0
.pt
+351
P
ORTUGAL, WITH ITS long Atlantic coast, lies on the western side of the Iberian peninsula. The River Tagus divides the more mountainous north from the lower, undulating terrain to the south. In 1974, a bloodless military coup overthrew a long-standing conservative dictatorship. A constituent assembly was elected in 1975 and the armed forces withdrew from politics thereafter. Portugal then began a substantial program of economic modernization and accompanying social change. Membership of the EU has helped underpin this process.
.
11.6m visitors
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
Spain 49%
nho Mi
UK 16% Viana do Castelo
France 7%
0
0/32
Total Area : 92 391 sq. km (35 672 sq. miles)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10/4
10/50
PORTUGAL
Down 4% in 2002
Germany 7%
-10/14 -20/-4
Póvoa de Varzim Vila do Conde Matosinhos
Netherlands 4%
Porto Vila Nova de Gaia
Other 17%
Drive on right
449 ships 1.1m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
2881 km (1790 miles)
820 km (510 miles)
Road links with Spain remain limited, despite modernization schemes and the new southern Guadiana bridge. The Lisbon–Madrid expressway was finally completed in 1999, the year after the 17-km Vasco da Gama bridge in Lisbon opened. Poor road construction, heavy traffic, and dangerous driving mean that Portugal has one of Europe’s highest rates of road deaths. Lisbon’s small, efficient metro complements its trams, but Porto’s metro remains unfinished. A high-speed rail link with Spain is due for completion in 2008.
474
50
40
Gondomar
60
% of total arrivals
Viseu
Aveiro
o
Estrela eg From the 1960s, Portugal’s popularity nd 1991m Mo as a tourist destination has been linked Coimbra Covilhã Figueira in part to qualities which reflected its da Foz e er z relatively poor economic development, Zê such as low prices and little crime. Castelo Branco Thus some of the consequences Tagus Fátima Tomar Caldas da Rainha of its substantial economic growth Peniche may have eroded part of Portugal’s Portalegre Santarém appeal, but since it now has a Amadora healthy number of visitors each year, Queluz Sacavém tourism remains a major incomeSintra O LISBON Elvas Estoril E earner. The most popular destination D Montijo Almada RA R S E Barreiro is the Algarve, the southernmost Évora Setúbal province, followed by the western Troía Peninsula Alcácer do Sal Bahía de resorts of Figueira da Foz and the Tróia Setúbal Peninsula. Visitors are also attracted Beja by Portugal’s architecture, notably Sines that dating from the Manueline period (1490–1520), by its wine and port, and by its handicrafts, such as ceramics, lace, and tapestries. In addition, A L G A R V E Portugal is noted for being the location Lagos of some of Europe’s finest golf courses. Gulf of Portimão na
1441 km (895 miles)
30
G u a di a
59,110 km (36,729 miles)
20
ro
P
Portela de Sacavém, Lisbon 9.64m passengers
†
10
Do u
Vila Real
SA
TRANSPORTATION
0
Guimarães
S
P
Portugal has a mild, Mediterranean climate, which is moderated by the influence of the Atlantic. Summers can be hot and sultry, while winters are relatively mild. Inland areas have more variable weather than coastal regions. Rainfall is generally higher in the mountainous north, while the central areas are more temperate. The southern Algarve region is predominantly dry and sunny.
Bragança Chaves
Braga
N
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
I
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
Santa Marta de Penaguiao, a small village in the heart of Portugal’s wine-producing region, which is centered on the Douro valley.
A
†
WEATHER CHART FOR LISBON
Visitors : Population 1.2:1
S
CLIMATE
Mediterranean/ maritime
Faro
Azores
Ponta do Pico 2351m
Corvo Flores
São Jorge
Porto Santo Madeira
Funchal
Faial
lhas Desertas
São Miguel
200 km 200 miles
over 100 000 over 50 000
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
Santa Maria
0
POPULATION over 500 000
over 10 000
Ponta Delgada
0
Cadiz
Madeira Is
Graciosa Terceira
Pico
Olhão
0 0
Ilhas Selvagens 100 km 100 miles
N 0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PORTUGAL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
110/km2 (284/mi2)
Portuguese THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
67%
33%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Protestant 1%
Other 2%
Roman Catholic 97% ETHNIC MAKEUP
African and other 2%
by falling birthrates and more liberal attitudes to abortion, divorce, and unmarried mothers (almost one in five children are born outside marriage). Apart from urban areas, the north is still devoutly Catholic. Family ties remain all-important. Ethnic and religious tensions are limited. Immigration increased after 1974, and foreigners now constitute 2% of the population. Early arrivals came from the former African colonies, but recently there has been an influx of east European workers. Women got the vote only in 1976; now 60% of university students are women, and 63% of women of working age have jobs. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Portuguese society, once regarded as rather inward-looking, has become much more egalitarian since the 1974 revolution. It is increasingly integrated into the rest of western Europe. The Roman Catholic Church has lost some of its social influence, as shown
POLITICS 2002/2006
†
1%
80+
9.7%
60–79
12.6% 15.4%
40–59 20–39
12.3%
0–19
7.6% 11.5% 15.2% 12.8%
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections
President Jorge Sampãio
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Assembly of the Republic 230 seats
46% PSD
Male
1.9%
42% PS
5% CDU
6% 1% PP BE
PSD = Social Democratic Party PS = Socialist Party PP = People's Party CDU = United Democratic Coalition BE = Left Bloc
Portugal is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE A decade of center-right government ended in the 1995 elections, when the PSD lost to the PS, under António Guterres. His government gave priority to fiscal control. Despite a privatization program, however, the size of the public sector actually increased in 1995–1999. The PS was reelected in 1999, but soon lost popularity, and was ousted by the PSD in early elections in 2002. Lacking an overall majority, the PSD allied with the right-wing PP. The new government pledged to cut public spending and speed privatization. Prime Minister José Manuel Durão Barroso resigned in July 2004 to head the European Commission, and Pedro Santana Lopes replaced him.
CE
NATO
Joined UN in 1955
OECD
OSCE
Foreign relations are now based on Portugal’s membership of the EU and NATO. Government support for the USled invasion of Iraq in 2003 continues Portugal’s traditional cooperation with the US on Middle East affairs. Support for East Timor’s struggle for independence, the smooth return of Macao to China in 1999, and bilateral ties with Brazil and a number of African countries are reminders of Portugal’s past position as the first preeminent colonial power.
AID
†
Donor
/
Up 21% in 2002
Portugal is a major beneficiary of EU aid from the so-called structural funds. It currently earmarks around 0.27% of its GNP for aid to developing countries. More than 50% goes to former colonies in Africa, especially Mozambique, where Portuguese funding helped rebuild the massive war-damaged Cahora Bassa Dam and power plant.
CHRONOLOGY by opposing parties, a situation which encouraged conflict and obstruction. A succession of PS presidents and minority governments then followed. Former PS leader Jorge Sampãio, who succeeded Mário Soares as president in 1996, was reelected comfortably in early 2001, but was to see a PSD government take office a year later, returning the executive to an uneasy “cohabitation.” Portugal and Spain Since both Portugal and Spain joined the EU in 1986, Portugal’s global position has been undermined by its larger neighbor. Multinational companies sometimes view Portugal just as a province of Spain and a division of Spanish operations. Events such as Expo ’98 and the 2004 European Cup soccer competition have been used to promote Portugal’s cultural identity and economic potential.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Presidency and parliament For ten years up to 1995, the presidency and the government were controlled
EU
$323m (donations)
Age
Female
Portuguese 98%
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
President Jorge Sampãio, socialist president since 1996.
Pedro Santana Lopes, PSD prime minister since 2004.
Portugal has existed as a nation state since 1139, though it was frequently challenged by Spain. It reached its zenith in the 16th century, before being annexed by Spain in 1580. 1640 Independence from Spain. 1755 Earthquake destroys Lisbon. 1793 Joins coalition against revolutionary France. 1807 France invades; royal family flees to Brazil. 1808 British troops arrive under Wellington. Start of Peninsular War. 1810 French leave Portugal. 1820 Liberal revolution. 1822 King João VI returns and accepts first Portuguese constitution. His son Dom Pedro declares independence of Brazil. 1834 Dom Pedro returns to Portugal to end civil war and installs his daughter as Queen Maria II. 1875–1876 Republican and Socialist parties founded. 1891 Republican uprising in Porto. 1908 Assassination of King Carlos I and heir to the throne. 1910 Abdication of Manuel II and proclamation of the Republic. Church and state separated. 1916 Portugal joins Allies in World War I. 1917–1918 New Republic led by Sidónio Pais.
475
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
476
/
No compulsory military service
Up 29% in 2002
PORTUGUESE ARMED FORCES 187 main battle tanks (86 M-48A5, 101 M-60)
Portugal has been a member of NATO since 1949. It has a small but relatively modern navy, while army and air force equipment is less up-to-date. Compulsory military service (with a civilian alternative) was substantially cut to just four months – the shortest in the world – before being abolished completely in 2004. The US, which is the major arms supplier, has a strategic air base in the Azores.
†
ECONOMICS $109bn
26,700 personnel
2 submarines, 6 frigates, 10,950 and 28 patrol boats personnel 50 combat aircraft (25 Alpha Jet, 6 P-3P, 19 F-16A/B)
7250 personnel
None
Inflation 5.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................34th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$10,720 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$9.12bn INFLATION .........................................3.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
USA 6% Other 32%
Spain 20%
Germany 18%
IMPORTS
UK 5%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
UK 11% France 13%
Italy 7% France 10%
Other 35% Germany 15% Spain 28%
STRENGTHS Flexible labor market. High domestic and direct foreign investment. Strong banking sector. Tourism, now earning 6% of GDP – highest percentage in EU. Clothing and shoe manufacturing now joined by cars (notably Volkswagens) and machinery as major exports. Fast-track improvement of transportation infrastructure. Good deepwater port at Lisbon. Wine, especially port. Tomatoes, citrus fruit, cork, sardines.
GDP
160
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
P
$2.95bn
†
Consumer price index 1999=100
1926 Army overturns republic. 1928 António Salazar joins government as finance minister. Economy improves significantly. 1932 Salazar prime minister. 1933 Promulgation of the constitution of the “New State,” instituting right-wing dictatorship. 1936–1939 Salazar assists Franco in Spanish Civil War. 1939–1945 Portugal neutral during World War II, but lets UK use air bases in Azores. 1949 Founder member of NATO. 1958 Américo Thómas appointed president, following fraudulent defeat of Gen. Humberto Delgado. 1961 India annexes Goa. Guerrilla warfare breaks out in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea. 1970 Death of Salazar, incapacitated since 1968; succeeded by Marcelo Caetano. 1971 Caetano attempts liberalization. 1974 “Carnation Revolution” – left-wing Armed Forces Movement overthrows Caetano. 1974–1975 African possessions attain independence. Some 750,000 expatriates return to Portugal. 1975 Communist takeover foiled by moderates and Mário Soares’s PS. Indonesia seizes former Portuguese East Timor unopposed. 1976 Gen. António Eanes elected president. New constitution. Soares appointed prime minister. 1978 Period of nonparty technocratic government instituted. 1980 Center-right wins elections. Gen. Eanes reelected. 1982 Full civilian government formally restored. 1983 Soares caretaker prime minister, PS majority party. 1985 Anibal Cavaco Silva prime minister, minority PSD government. 1986 Soares elected president. Portugal joins EU, which funds major infrastructure and construction projects. 1987 Cavaco Silva wins absolute majority in parliament. 1991 Soares reelected president. 1995 PS wins elections; António Guterres prime minister. 1996 Former PS leader Jorge Sampãio elected president. 1999 PS strengthens its position in general election. December, Macao returned to China. 2001 Sampãio reelected. 2002 Euro fully adopted. PSD wins early elections, forms coalition with PP. José Manuel Durão Barroso prime minister. 2004 Hosts Euro 2004 soccer cup. Durão Barroso resigns to head European Commission.
DEFENSE
2003
PROFILE Since entering the EU in 1986, Portugal has experienced significant foreign investment and economic growth. Early economic priorities were modernizing agriculture and industry, and the creation of an effective anti-inflationary policy in the face of growing wages. Though unemployment is among the lowest in the EU, meeting the criteria for entry into the eurozone proved a major challenge. Since full adoption of the euro in 2002, Portugal has had difficulty keeping its budget deficit under the permitted limit of 3% of GDP. New measures to streamline the public sector were introduced by the PSD-led government in 2003. Braga Matosinhos Porto Aveiro
WEAKNESSES High dependence on imported oil. Few natural resources. Public sector remains overstaffed, underproductive, and a drain on resources. Large agricultural sector (4% of GDP, 13% of workforce) is inefficient; product prices undercut by Spain. Concern over Spanish control of industries, banking in particular. Rising labor costs: manufacturers moving to eastern Europe. EU sanctions in 2002 when budget deficit passed 3%-of-GDP limit.
Lisbon PORTUGAL : MAJOR BUSINESSES Steel Wine Textiles Cement
Setúbal
Ceramics Chemicals Vehicle manufacture Light engineering
0
100 km
Faro 0
100 miles
Fish processing Shipbuilding
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: PORTUGAL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 199,038 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 247,000 b/d
7m turkeys, 5.5m sheep, 2.34m pigs, 35m chickens
Coal, limestone, granite, marble, tin, copper, tungsten
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 24% (12bn kWh)
notably for tungsten, copper, and tin. The last coal mine closed in the mid-1990s. The fish catch, once central to the economy, has been declining in Rio Douro recent years. A
Combustion 75% (35bn kWh) PORTUGAL : LAND USE
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Portugal is disadvantaged by a lack of natural resources, including water. Mining has historically been important,
ENVIRONMENT
/
7% (6% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 28th
EL
SA
Tagus
S ERR
AD
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, cerebrovascular, respiratory, and heart diseases
1 per 312 people
Of total government expenditure nearly 10% is spent on health. Portugal has had a publicly funded, free national health service since 1979. Spending on health has increased markedly in recent years, but care remains below the EU average. There are strong regional differences in facilities. Larger urban hospitals are modern and well equipped. Private health care schemes, which are allowed to coexist, are both affordable and good value for money; a large proportion of the population use the private system.
100 km
0
†
CRIME
†
SPENDING
100 miles
0
5.9 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
TR ES
OS
Other 1% (0.2bn kWh) 0
SE
Cropland Pasture Forest Vineyards Cereals Sheep
E AD RR
E
Nuclear 0%
†
HEALTH
Electric power 10.9m kW
No death penalty
/
14,300 prisoners
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Up sharply in 2000–2002
525 per 1000 population
421 per 1000 population
CRIME RATES
Defense 2.3% Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
3
Education 5.8%
per 100,000 population
Health 6.3% Rapes
0
4
per 100,000 population
1875
per 100,000 population
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
The unrestricted development of tourist resorts in the Algarve and major infrastructure projects are having a detrimental effect on natural habitats. EU membership has led to efforts to raise environmental standards, though EU agricultural grants for projects such as draining meadows, and monoculture afforestation, notably of eucalyptus and pine, are degrading biodiversity. Concerns include air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions, and water pollution in coastal areas.
MEDIA
†
Thefts have increased in recent years, raising the low crime rate. Possession and consumption of small quantities of narcotics were decriminalized in 2000 and legalized a year later.
†
EDUCATION 93%
School leaving age: 15
387,703 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 31 daily newspapers. The most prestigious is the Diário de Notícias, but the weekly Expresso has a wider circulation 1 state-owned service, several independent services 1 state-owned service, several independent national and regional services
Most newspapers have only regional distribution. TV is the dominant medium. The Roman Catholic TVI was sold in 1998 to Media Capital, one of four groups that control most of the press and broadcasting. In 2002, the government strengthened its control over the state-owned RTP, raising fears for its political independence.
100
% of each age group in education
Daily newspaper circulation 73 per 1000 people
80
Wealth differentials in Portugal are smaller than in most west European countries. The 1976 constitution committed Portugal to making the transition to socialism, and since then governments have introduced limited wealth redistribution measures. Internal investment is directed chiefly through the property market, and there was a surge of purchases in the late 1990s. External investment goes to the EU and Brazil. In 2000, 14.5% of the population held shares directly. Average incomes have risen significantly since the mid-1980s, coming closer in the early 2000s to the levels of its European neighbors. Portugal pioneered prepayment systems for mobile phones, which are widely owned.
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
100%
40
0
Position in World
50%
20
1st
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Portuguese is the sixth most widely spoken language in the world. Free state education is available to all pupils between the ages of three and 15. Nursery provision has been greatly expanded, though the preschool stage is not compulsory. Middle-class parents rely heavily on the private sector. State universities have been expanded to ease the pressure on places. There are several prestigious private universities.
50th
100th
16 36
38
$10,720
76 years
5 deaths
26
88 93%
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
477
P
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
QATAR
Bahrain
1971
1971
Sept 3
Q
+3
.qa
+974
ROJECTING NORTH FROM the Arabian peninsula into the Gulf, Qatar is mostly flat, semiarid desert. Oil production began in the late 1940s and quickly transformed Qatar from an impoverished pearl producer into a prosperous shaikhdom and a founder member of OPEC. Plentiful oil and gas reserves have made it one of the wealthiest states in the region. Politics is being democratized gradually under the ruling al-Thani clan.
†
WEATHER CHART FOR DOHA
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Indian 18%
Drive on right
Doha International 3.41m passengers
67 ships 622,893 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1107 km (688 miles)
None
None
None
Other 14%
Pakistani 18%
†
TRANSPORTATION
7% Iranian 10%
The climate is hot and sultry, with midsummer temperatures reaching 44˚C (111˚F). Rainfall is infrequent.
A 45-km “Friendship Bridge,” the world’s longest fixed link, is planned to connect Qatar to Bahrain.
75,760 visitors
55/km2 (144/mi2)
93%
-20/-4
TOURISM
Qatar is an absolute monarchy. The amir rules with the assistance of the Council of Ministers and the Advisory Council. A partially elected 45-member parliament is to be created, with elections expected by 2005.
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Arab 40%
†
Visitors : Population 1:8.1
.
Down 83% in 1999–2001
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Only one in five inhabitants is nativeborn. Most are guest workers from the Indian subcontinent, Iran, and north African countries. Western expatriates enjoy a high standard of living and take no part in politics. Most Qataris follow the Wahhabi interpretation of Sunni Islam and espouse conservative religious views. However, women are not obliged to wear a veil and can hold a driving license. Expatriate Christians may worship freely but may not promote Christianity. Since the advent of oil wealth, the Qataris, who were formerly nomadic Bedouin, have become a nation of city dwellers who enjoy high life expectancy and literacy. Almost 90% of the population now inhabit the capital Doha and its suburbs. As a result, northern Qatar is dotted with depopulated and abandoned villages.
India 23% Iran 6% Pakistan 6% Other 65% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
478
Qatar is a traditional emirate. The government and religious establishment are dominated by the amir, Shaikh Hamad, who ousted his father, Shaikh Khalifa, in 1995. A failed coup against Hamad in early 1996 suggested efforts by Khalifa to regain power. The prodemocracy movement has called for reform of the 35-member Advisory Council. Shaikh Hamad responded by authorizing Qatar’s first elections, to a new 29-member municipal council for Doha, in 1999. All adults were able to vote and stand as candidates. The creation of a partially elected 45-seat legislature was approved overwhelmingly in a 2003 referendum.
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
OIC
GCC
AID
†
$2m (receipts)
Doha, the capital. Though desert covers the whole country, Qatar now grows most of its own vegetables by tapping groundwater.
†
Joined UN in 1971
OAPEC
OPEC
Though Qatar was a founder member of the GCC, Shaikh Hamad has adopted a lukewarm stance toward it. However, Qatar entered into the region’s first mutual defense pact, under the aegis of the GCC, in 2000. In 2001 Qatar reached an agreement on the border with Saudi Arabia, but lost its claim to the Hawar Islands when the International Court of Justice ruled in Bahrain’s favor. Qatar supplied liquefied natural gas (LNG) to Israel in the late 1990s, but relations, previously the most cordial of the Gulf states, have suffered greatly since the new Palestinian intifada in 2000. The amir had criticized previous US and UK air strikes on Iraq, but allowed the country to be used as a base for the US Central Command during the 2003 invasion.
80
% of total arrivals
A government drive to improve Qatar’s image as a tourist destination aims to net more than 1.5 million tourists a year by 2010. Attractions include unspoiled beaches, dutyfree shopping, and modern hotels.
Amir Shaikh Hamad bin Khalifa al-Thani
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
0/32 -10/14
In transition
Advisory Council 35 seats
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
†
POLITICS
Pop. density medium
Arabic
30/86
Q
†
PEOPLE
Hot desert
UAE
Not applicable/ 2005
P
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
Africa
QATAR Saudi Arabia
OFFICIAL NAME: State of Qatar CAPITAL: Doha POPULATION: 610,000 CURRENCY: Qatar riyal OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic
CLIMATE
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
Recipient
/
Up 100% in 2002
Qatar was an aid donor in the 1970s and early 1980s. Now it receives small amounts of aid, mainly from France; around 70% is allocated to education.
Ar Ruways
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps Al Gháríyah
Al Khuwayr
B a h r a i n
E T H
Madínat al Ka‘bán
Al Ghuwayríyah Al Bu§ayyir
Al Khawr Al Jumaylíyah
o f
Dawíat al Íu§ayn
Ar Rufayq
Ash Shaíaníyah Al Gharráfah Ar Rayyán
G U L F
G u l f
Abú Thaylah Umm flalál ‘Alí Umm flalál Muíammad
Dukhán
†
RESOURCES
Al. Fuwayri√
Hawar (to Bahrain)
DOHA
Al Wukayr
Al Wakrah
L B A J A
at a wí Da
Umm Sa‘íd Al Kir’ánah
l wá
D U
s Sa
Al Kharrárah
Electric power 1.9m kW
8607 tonnes
917,000 b/d (reserves 15.2bn barrels)
200,000 sheep, 180,000 goats, 4m chickens
Oil, natural gas
Qatar has the third-smallest reserves of crude oil within OPEC but abundant reserves of gas (the third-largest in the world), including the world’s largest field of gas unassociated with oil.
Madínat Khalífah
Umm Báb
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.1% partially protected
The al-Thanis, related to the Khalifa family of Bahrain, took control of the Qatar peninsula in the 18th century.
1971 Sovereignty recognized by UK. 1972 Accession of Amir Khalifa. 1995 Shaikh Hamad takes power. 1999 First ever (municipal) polls. 2003 Referendum approves creation of partially elected legislature.
†
Not available
66.7 tonnes per capita
The desert hinterland supports little plant or animal life, though Qatar is an important staging point for migrating birds. Oil pollution has damaged marine life. There are salt flats in the south.
Mazra‘at Turayná
H
MEDIA
Á
103m
N
SA U
Khawr al ‘Udayd
†
TV ownership high
D
I
A
RA
82%
POPULATION
Total Area : 11 437 sq. km (4416 sq. miles)
over 100 000 under 10 000
N
LAND HEIGHT
20 km
0
9915 students
Education is free from primary to university level. The government finances students to study overseas.
Sea Level
DEFENSE $1.74bn
†
/
No compulsory military service
ECONOMICS $8.4bn
†
Al-Jazeera TV offers the leading Arab perspective internationally, especially since the events of 2001, though it is careful not to criticize Qatar itself.
CRIME 570 prisoners
†
,
WEAKNESSES Dependence on foreign workforce. Oil price fluctuations. All other raw materials imported. Virtually all water
289 per 1000 population
Defense 10.6% Education 3.6%
USA 4% Singapore 8%
Health 2.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Q Qataris have a high per capita income. There is no income tax, public services are free, and the government guarantees jobs for school-leavers. There are no exchange controls.
WORLD RANKING
South Korea 17% Position in World 1st
Japan 41% Other 27%
50th
IMPORTS
Germany 8% UK 8%
STRENGTHS Steady supply of crude oil and increased exploitation of gas reserves, plus related industries. Modern infrastructure. Budget surplus.
GDP/cap. increase
343 per 1000 population
Little change in 2000
EXPORTS
Thailand 3%
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Death penalty in use
Traditional Islamic punishments have deterred crime. However, narcotics trafficking is on the increase. The incidence of street crime is low.
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................94th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$12,000 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$4.38bn INFLATION ............................................1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
Heart, circulatory, and infectious diseases, cancers
1 per 769 people
SPENDING
1 state-controlled service
Inflation 2.5% p.a. (1990–2000)
3.640 Qatar riyals (3.639)
Welfare state health benefits
2 services: 1 state-controlled, 1 independent
Up 7% in 2002
The armed forces are too small – at an estimated 12,400 – to play a significant role in Qatari affairs, even in the event of political turmoil. A defense agreement with the US, extended in 2002, provides for joint exercises, stockpiling of US equipment, and US access to bases.
†
HEALTH
There are 6 daily newspapers, including Ar-Rayah and its English-language companion Gulf Times, Al-’Arab, and Ash-Sharq
200m/1640ft 20 miles
School leaving age: 11
Primary health care is free to Qataris. Hospitals operate to Western standards of care and the government also funds treatment abroad.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
BIA
†
EDUCATION
Daily newspaper circulation 175 per 1000 people
QATAR
CHRONOLOGY
K
As Salwá
0
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: QATAR
Madínat ash Shamál
34 100th
USA 9%
$12,000
42
49
75 years
47
11 deaths
Other 47% Japan 10%
150th
123 France 18%
has to be desalinated. Large foreign reserves, but new industries depend on cementing agreements with foreign partners. Regional security threats deter investment.
82% 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
479
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ROMANIA
Ukraine Moldova
Hungary R OM A N IA
Serb & Mon. Bulgaria
OFFICIAL NAME: Romania CAPITAL: Bucharest POPULATION: 22.3 million CURRENCY: Romanian leu OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Romanian 1878
Europe
EUROPE
1947
Dec 1
RO
+2
.ro
+40
R
OMANIA LIES ON THE Black Sea coast, with the Danube as its southern border. The Carpathian Mountains form an arc across the country, curving around the upland basin of Transylvania. Long dominated by Poles, Hungarians, and Ottomans, Romania became an independent monarchy in 1878. After World War II, this was supplanted by a communist People’s Republic, headed from 1965 by Nicolae Ceau§escu. A coup in 1989 resulted in his execution and a limited democracy under Ion Iliescu. Defeated in elections in 1996, Iliescu was returned to office in 2000.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR BUCHAREST
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
Continental
Otopeni, Bucharest 2.35m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on right
237 ships 622,000 grt
TOURISM
†
Visitors : Population 1:7
3.2m visitors
.
Down 3% in 2002
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 99,302 km (61,703 miles)
113 km (70 miles)
11,364 km (7061 miles)
1724 km (1071 miles)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Hungary 24%
0
0/32
Village in northeastern Romania, in the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, close to the border with Ukraine. Corn and wheat are Romania’s main crops.
Moldova 18%
-10/14
Bulgaria 8%
The road network is inadequate, and traffic levels are rising. EBRD, EU, World Bank, and Japanese funding has focused on the expressway from Bucharest to Hungary, and on improving major roads. Modernization of the port of Constanπa to include a container port and new barge terminal is also under way.
Brâila
Buzâu
Târgovi§te
be
Tulcea Lacul Razim
Ploie§ti
I H C BUCHAREST
POPULATION Da nu
I
L
TA
EN
D
OC ◊I I PA
CAR
Jiu
Caracal
50 km
Ialo
m i√ a
Slobozia
Lacul Sinoie
Mo u
t
hs
Câlâra§i
Constan√a
L
over 50 000
LAND HEIGHT
500m/1640ft
B L A C K
Giurgiu
D an u be
U
over 100 000
2000m/6562ft
G
A
R
I
A
200m/656ft Sea Level
Mangalia
50 miles
over 1 000 000
1000m/3281ft Ro§iori de Vede
Alexandria
B 480
UKRAINE Gala√i
Râmnicu Sârat
Slatina
Craiova
e
0
A
Total Area: 237 500 sq. km (91 699 sq. miles)
th e
Y G
U
CI
L
A
ROMANIA
Prut
Râmnicu Vâlcea
W
A
ub
0
t
D an
O
Bra§ov
A LI M E R I DI O N
Pite§ti
GR
Bârlad Tecuci
S
Petrosani
Vaslui
Foc§ani Vârful Moldoveanu 2543m
Târgu-Jiu
Drobeta-Turnu Severin
Sfântu Gheorghe
Sibiu
C A R P A ◊I I
Re§i√a
N AI
Fâgâras
The Black Sea and the Carpathian Mountains are the primary natural attractions, while Transylvania has a rich historical heritage. A proposal to build a theme park to exploit the Dracula legend was shelved in 2002 after an international outcry over its proposed location in a historic town. Under Ceau§escu, the need for foreign currency meant that tourist facilities were prioritized over housing. Today, privatization of property and an acute housing shortage have reduced the accommodation available to visitors.
T
Deva
Caransebe§
E
MiercureaCiuc
Sighi§oara
Bacâu
Alba Iulia
Olt
E T N O M IA) V D AN SLA BIA (YUGO
N
Lugoj
A
N
SER
Timi§oara Timi§
A N I Târgu Mure§
S ire
Turda
U
H
S
40
V
N
Piatra-Neam√
O
Arad Mure §
N
A
Reghin
M
R
ClujNapoca Y L V
N
N
Bistri√a
30
20
O
Dej
IA
T
Ia§i
H
Zalâu
Oradea
D
T
R
A
A
P
L
R
R
Boto§ani
Suceava
A Baia Mare
O
et ir
C
Som e§
10
% of total arrivals
t
S
Satu Mare
Other 37% 0
E
N
I
A
P ru
R
Ukraine 6%
M
Romania has a continental climate. Rainfall is generally moderate, with most rain falling in spring and early summer. Very heavy spring rains occasionally destroy new crops. Snow is frequent in the bitterly cold winters, and can linger on U higher ground K until May.
Germany 7%
of
-20/-4
S E A
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ROMANIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
97/km2 (251/mi2)
Romanian, Hungarian (Magyar), Romani, German THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
55%
45%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Greek Catholic (Uniate) 1%
Other 2% Protestant 4%
Greek Orthodox 1%
Roman Catholic 5%
Romanian Orthodox 87% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Magyar 7%
Roma 3% Other 1%
Romanian 89%
Since 1989, Romanian nationalism has increased, aggravated by economic austerity measures. The incidence of ethnic violence has also risen, toward Roma and Hungarians in particular. Ethnic Hungarians, or Magyar, who form the largest minority group, are partly protected by the influence of Hungary, whereas the Roma do not have any similar support and tend to suffer greater discrimination.
†
POLITICS L. House 2000/2004 U. House 2000/2004
President Ion Iliescu
AT THE LAST ELECTION
9% PNL
24% PRM
The population is currently shrinking, due to rising emigration since 1989, mainly for economic reasons, and to a falling birthrate since the early 1990s. The latter trend is in sharp contrast to the 1980s, when the Ceau§escu regime enforced a “pronatalist” policy, banning abortion and contraception; the birthrate rose, but the population as a whole did not grow significantly due to an increase in the mortality rate. Abortion was legalized in 1989 and maternal death rates have since declined. Adoptions by foreigners, spurred partly by shocking conditions in orphanages, were in 2001 suspended amid concerns over a “trade in children,” and banned in 2004. The last country in Europe to lift its ban on homosexuality, the law was repealed only in 2001; public prejudice against homosexuals remains high. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Male
9% PD
5% Min
8% UDMR
PDSR = Social Democratic Pole of Romania (led by the Social Democracy Party of Romania) PRM = Greater Romania Party PD = Democratic Party PNL = National Liberal Party UDMR = Hungarian Democratic Union of Romania Min = Minority representatives: 18 seats in the House of Deputies are reserved for national minorities
Senate 140 seats
8.8% 12.5%
80+
†
40–59
6.9% 11.9%
14.5%
20–39
14.9%
13.9%
0–19
14.6%
% of population by age group
NATO
OSCE
Recipient
0.7%
60–79
Iliescu, now a declared social democrat, won the presidential vote, retaining the support of such conservative groups as miners and rural workers. In mid2001 the PDSR electoral coalition was formalized in a merger of its two main constituent parties to form the Social Democrat Party (PSD), which is headed by Prime Minister Adrian Nastase. A new opposition grouping, formed by the consolidation of the PD and the PNL, is gaining in popularity.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
PROFILE The 1989 “revolution” left an old communist elite in power, under President Ion Iliescu, with no group ready to introduce reform. Only the center-right victory in 1996 brought more far-reaching change and a democrat as president. In 2000 these parties came a poor third, however, behind Iliescu’s PDSR and the extreme nationalist PRM;
Ethnic tensions The economic difficulties of the 1990s saw far-right political gains and increased nationalism. Roma have been victims of violent, racially motivated attacks. Benefits given to ethnic Magyars by the Hungarian government have provoked an outcry in Romania.
27% PRM
CEFTA
$701m (receipts) 1.3%
The pace of liberalization The success of the left in 2000 was based on a commitment to promote social concerns alongside economic reform. However, amid pressure from the IMF and other lending bodies, the government has been forced to maintain and even increase the pace of economic liberalization, creating serious tensions within government.
46% PDSR
CE
Joined UN in 1955
Romania’s priority is building closer links with western Europe. In 1993, it signed an association agreement with the EU, and in 1995 formally applied for membership; this is expected in 2007. Romania is also a member of the Stability Pact for South East Europe, created after the 1999 Kosovo conflict. Relations with Hungary remain tense over the treatment of the Magyar minority in Transylvania. Romania’s relations with ethnically related Moldova are important and Russia’s influence there is eyed with mistrust. Improving ties with Ukraine are hampered by a lingering territorial dispute over Serpents’ Island in the Black Sea, which has potentially rich offshore oil deposits.
AID
Age
Female
BSEC
†
/
Up 8% in 2002
Western aid declined after the mid1990s, reflecting uncertainty about the implementation of reform. In October 2001 the World Bank announced that it would loan $1 billion between 2002 and 2004 for a series of social and environmental projects.
Multiparty elections
House of Deputies 345 seats
45% PDSR
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
9% 9% 9% PD PNL UDMR
Romania is a multiparty democracy led by a directly elected president.
Ion Iliescu, Romania’s first postcommunist president, reelected in 2000.
R
Adrian Nastase,
prime minister since December 2000.
CHRONOLOGY Dominated by Hungary and the Ottoman Empire for centuries, the Romanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia were united for the first time in 1859, forming the basis of the modern Romanian state. 1878 Independence, but at cost of losing eastern Moldavia to Russia. 1916–1918 Enters World War I on Allied side. At end of war gains substantial territory, including Transylvania from Hungary. 1924 Communists banned in unstable political arena. Rise
481
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
/
Phasing out conscription
Up 4% in 2002
ROMANIAN ARMED FORCES
The military received limited funding under the Ceau§escu regime, and troops were routinely deployed as cheap labor. Romania was the first country to join NATO’s Partnership for Peace program in 1994, and was among the seven eastern European and former Soviet-bloc countries to gain full NATO membership in 2004. Romanian troops were deployed in the US-led “war on terrorism’’ in Afghanistan from 2002.
ECONOMICS $41.7bn
†
33,407 Romanian lei (32,788)
EXPORTS
Other 41%
UK 6% France 8% Germany 16%
Italy 25% IMPORTS
UK 4%
Other 47%
1 frigate, 6 corvettes, and 38 patrol boats
7200 personnel
162 combat aircraft (106 MiG-21, 38 MiG-23, 18 MiG-29)
14,000 personnel
Inflation 91% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................53rd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1870 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.57bn INFLATION .......................................22.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................8%
USA 4%
66,000 personnel
None
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
1258 main battle tanks (717 T-55, 314 TR-85 M1, 227 TR-580)
France 6% Russia 7% Germany 15%
Italy 21%
STRENGTHS Oil reserves. Tourism potential. Exportled recovery from 2000. Progress with privatization.
WEAKNESSES High inflation. Growing trade deficit. Slow transition to market economy. Delays in economic reform. Low foreign investment confidence.
PROFILE Despite being the first east European country to allow foreign investment, Romania was relatively slow to launch economic reforms, and suffered severe recession for most of the 1990s. Priority industries for structural overhaul and liberalization are food, petrochemicals, chemicals, metals, and transportation. Efforts from 1996 to curb inflation and the budget deficit had little impact. Output fell sharply, and trade was disrupted by the 1999 Kosovo conflict. From 1990, 100% foreign ownership of ventures was permitted. Joint ventures, while now numerous, are small in
GDP
430
430
320
320
210
210
100
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
482
$999m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
R
of fascist “Iron Guard.” 1938 King Carol sets up autocracy. 1940 Territory forcibly ceded to Soviet Union, Bulgaria, and Hungary. Coup by Iron Guard. King Carol abdicates in favor of son, Michael. Tripartite Pact with Germany. 1941 Enters war on Axis side, hoping to recover Moldavian lands. 1944 Romania switches sides as Soviet troops reach border. 1945 Soviet-backed regime installed. Romanian Communist Party plays an increasing role. 1946–1947 Romania regains Transylvania. Eastern Moldavia reverts to USSR, which also demands huge reparations. Communist-led National Democratic Front wins majority in disputed elections. 1947 Michael forced to abdicate. 1948–1953 Centrally planned economy put in place. 1953 Leaders of Jewish community prosecuted for Zionism. 1958 Soviet troops withdraw. 1964 Prime Minister Gheorghiu-Dej declares national sovereignty. Proposes joint planning by all communist countries to lessen Soviet economic control. 1965 Ceau§escu party secretary after death of Gheorghiu-Dej. 1968–1980 Condemns Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia; courts US and European Communities. 1982 Ceau§escu vows to pay off foreign debt. 1989 Demonstrations; many killed by military. Armed forces join with opposition in National Salvation Front (NSF) to form government. Ion Iliescu declared president. Ceau§escu summarily tried and shot. 1990 NSF election victory. Political prisoners freed. 1991 New constitution, providing for market reform, approved. 1992 Second free elections. NSF splits. Nicolae Vacaroiu forms minority government. 1994 General strike demands faster economic reform. Referendum in Moldova rejects reunification with Romania. 1996 Reconciliation treaty with Hungary. Center right wins elections, breaking with communist past; Emil Constantinescu president. 2000 Ion Iliescu and social democrats win elections. Adrian Nastase prime minister. 2001 Repeal of Article 200: Romania becomes last country in Europe to decriminalize homosexuality. 2004 Joins NATO.
DEFENSE
2002
scale; larger investors are put off by bureaucracy and doubts about stability. Privatization, a priority for government since 1996, was delayed by problems in the sale of larger companies, but by 2000 the private sector accounted for over 60% of GDP and a renewed drive to privatize was begun in 2001. 2000 saw an export-led recovery after three straight years of recession, though since then consumer spending has fueled a growth in the trade deficit. Most farmland has been restored to private hands. Agriculture, highly undermechanized, still employs over 40% of the workforce. The worst drought for 50 years severely affected production in 2000. ROMANIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Cluj- Napoca
Bra§ov
Timi∞oara Gala√i
Hunedoara Craiova
Constan√a
Ploie§ti Bucharest Gas Oil refining Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals
Metallurgy
Heavy engineering
Iron & steel Textiles
Vehicle manufacture
Electronics
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ROMANIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 21.9m kW
7.45m sheep, 5.15m pigs, 4m geese, 76.6m chickens
Oil, coal, salt, natural gas, methane, bauxite, iron, copper, lead, zinc
0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Romania has large reserves of oil, but there is little left of proven gas reserves. Oil and gas production from onshore
ENVIRONMENT
.
5% (0.2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 66th
3.8 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
CRIME
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Down 4% in 2001
Murders 3
per 100,000 population
8
per 100,000 population
Rapes
MEDIA
†
1028
per 100,000 population
5 services: 2 state-owned, 3 independent 1 state-owned service, many independent stations
Newspapers proliferated after 1989, but have since struggled to retain readers. The government-controlled national TV service faces a strong challenge from commercial channels Pro TV and Antena Independenta. Pro TV dominates urban viewing, and cable TV is common in the capital. The first exclusively Hungarian-language radio station began broadcasting in 1999.
Welfare state health benefits Heart, respiratory, and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers
Average life expectancy is among the lowest in Europe; in the worst-polluted parts of Transylvania it is as low as 61 years. The incidence of tuberculosis is the highest in Europe. After years of chronic state underfunding, there was a shift in 1999–2001 toward an insurance-based system.
†
GDP/cap. decrease
144 per 1000 population
194 per 1000 population
Defense 2.3% Education 3.5% Health 5.1%
†
EDUCATION 97%
School leaving age: 14
582,221 students
100
% of each age group in education
There are 95 daily newspapers, including Evenimentul Zilei, Adevârul, România Liberâ, Jurnalul National, and Ziua
†
HEALTH
The black economy is the main source of income for a third of the population. Levels of tax evasion are extremely high. Romania is a source and transit country for people trafficking.
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
100 miles
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Daily newspaper circulation 300 per 1000 people
0
SPENDING
Thefts
Saddled with the disastrous legacy of its communist-era industry, Romania needs help with a major cleanup. Air pollution, mainly from emissions from cement and power plants but also from exhaust fumes and low-quality coal, is most serious in the south. Cyanide and heavy metal leaked from a gold mine in Baia Mare in 2000, creating a transborder pollution catastrophe in the Tisza River in Hungary. The Danube delta, despite serious pollution, was designated a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 1998.
be
100 km
1 per 526 people
CRIME RATES
Yes
Danu
0
No death penalty
.
43,489 prisoners
S AIN NT OU M
Nuclear 11% (5.5bn kWh) Other 0%
N
Combustion 61% (32bn kWh)
CA R
Cropland Pasture Forest Wetlands Potatoes Cereals Sheep
IA
Hydro 28% (15bn kWh)
ROMANIA : LAND USE
TH
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
fields has fallen since 1976, and the country is a net oil importer. Since the mid-1990s efforts have been focused on developing offshore reserves in the Black Sea, opening up exploration and processing to foreign investors. Deposits of other minerals are small and contribute little to export earnings. Many coal mines have been shut down. The electricity industry is outdated but does produce a surplus for export. An agreement in 2000 connected the national grid with that of Bulgaria. A series of blackouts prompted the government to commit in 2003 to expanding nuclear and hydroelectric power production and also to improving infrastructure.
et S ir
123,000 b/d (reserves 900m barrels)
PA
18,455 tonnes
80
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Real income was hit hard by a decade of economic decline: 20% of people live below the UN poverty line (less than $2 a day). Most families own their own homes (often overcrowded); many have small plots of land. Few rural homes have running water or sewerage.
60
WORLD RANKING
99% 82%
40
Position in World 1st
20
27% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Attendance at secondary schools is below the European average. As university enrollment is no longer restricted, the number of tertiary students has risen rapidly. The government increased education expenditure in early 2000, pledging further increases in future years and going some way to meet criticisms over the chronic underfunding of the school system.
50th
100th
60 97%
92 150th
$1870
88 70 years
74
69
19 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
483
R
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
EUROPE/ASIA
Asia
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
OFFICIAL NAME: Russian Federation CAPITAL: Moscow POPULATION: 143 million CURRENCY: Russian rouble OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Russian 1480
1991
June 12
+1 to +11
RUS
.ru
+7
B
OUNDED BY THE ARCTIC and Pacific Oceans to the north and east, Russia extends over 17 million sq. km (6.6 million sq. miles). By far the world’s largest state, it is almost twice as big as either the US or China. With the modern borders of the Russian federative state established in 1954, the sovereign status of the Russian Federation itself dates from 1991 – the dissolution of the USSR. Within the CIS it maintains a traditionally dominant role in central Asia and the Caucasus. Ethnic Russians make up 82% of the population, but there are around 150 smaller ethnic groups, many with their own national territories within Russia’s borders. Regionalism and separatism are major political issues. The situation is complicated by the fact that many of these territories are rich in key resources such as oil, gas, gold, and diamonds.
†
NORWAY
Subarctic/continental/ mountain/steppe
D BARENT S
N
Murmansk
ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA
0
F
10/4
D
10/50
Kaliningrad
AN
20/68
20/8
Gulf of Finland
POL
30/12
N
A
I
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
0/32
L
Rainfall A
A K Sankt Peterburg
Pskov
-10/14
R
E
L
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KOL’SKIY POLUOSTROV
BE
Petrozavodsk
LO
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Arkhangel’sk
Onezhskoye Ozero Seve rna ya Dvina
BELARUS
Ostrov Kolguyev
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Ladozhskoye Ozero
Novgorod
Novaya Zemlya
SEA
Apatity
-20/-4 Cherepovets
Smolensk
Nar’yan-Mar
N
T
UK
A
I
N
RAIN
S
E
Pecho ra
Rybinskoye Russia has a cold continental climate, Tver’ Vorkuta Vdkhr. K O M I characterized by two widely divergent Vologda M OSCOW Yaroslavl’ main seasons. Spring and autumn are Salekhard Kotlas Bryansk Kostroma very brief periods of transition between Syktyvkar Tula Ivanovo .. warm summers and freezing winters. Vladimir Orel Ryazan’ Nadym Kursk The country is open to the influences of Nizhniy Novgorod Z A P A D N O the Arctic and Atlantic to the north and Kirov MARIY EL Belgorod Tambov west. Mountains to the south and east, Lipetsk Berezniki CHAVASH Kazan’ Voronezh however, prevent any warming effects MORDOVIYA UDMURTSKAYA Serov Kuybyshevskoye from the Indian and Pacific Oceans Penza Izhevsk SEA OF S I B I R S K A Y A Vdkhr. Ul’yanovsk AZOV Perm’ filtering across. Severe winters affect TATARSTAN Khanty-Mansiysk Mikhaylovka Saratov Naberezhnyye Rostov-na-Donu Tol’yatti most regions. Winter temperatures Chelny Krasnodar Balakovo Samara Nizhnevartovsk vary surprisingly little from north BLACK BASHKORTOSTAN Yekaterinburg Volgograd R A V N I N A to south, but fall sharply in Tyumen’ SEA Maykop Ufa Tobol’sk Sterlitamak ADYGEYA eastern regions. The January Sochi Stavropol’ Chelyabinsk R Orenburg Elista temperature of –70˚C (–94˚F) KARACHAYEVOKurgan U CHERKESSKAYA KALMYKIYA recorded at Verkhoyansk in KABARDINOMagnitogorsk K INGUSHSKAYA BALKARSKAYA Siberia is the world record Astrakhan’ SEVERNAYA Nal’chik OSETIYA-ALANIYA low outside Antarctica. Vladikavkaz Orsk Vo
L
M
O
U
Don
A
lga
C
A
Ir
sh
al
C
Ur
ty
U
A
S
U
GEORGIA Groznyy
S
CHECHENSKAYA DAGESTAN
AZERBAIJAN
S
Makhachkala
P
N IA
SEA
A
Omsk
Z
A
CA
R
A
Zemlya Georga
WEATHER CHART FOR MOSCOW
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
ZE M L Y
POLUOSTR OV YAM AL
CLIMATE
Tundra in Russia’s far east. Russia has some of the largest uninhabited tracts of land in the world.
K
H
RUSSIAN FEDERATION Total Area : 17 075 200 sq. km (6 592 735 sq. miles)
POPULATION
Housing in Moscow. Living conditions in major cities can be cramped, with families often sharing their small apartments.
LAND HEIGHT
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
over 100 000 over 10 000
N
3000m/9843ft
over 1 000 000
over 50 000
484
T
over 5 000 000 over 500 000
Rubtsovsk
S
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level -200m/-656ft
0 0
500 km 500 miles
A
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
in the world. In rural areas, car ownership is low and the population relies on an extensive bus service. About 20% of the railroad track should be renewed annually owing to frost and other damage. Shortage of funds means that this is no longer done. The railroads are heavily used but seriously overburdened and liable to accidents and delays. New track has been laid for the Sokol (Falcon) highspeed rail link between Moscow and St. Petersburg; the first trains to use it in 2000 cut over an hour off the previous minimum journey time and further dramatic reductions are expected.
I
C
A
E
C
O
MORE R
N
A
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O
SI
BI
RS
A
Ostrov Bol’shevik
KOLYMSKAYA
MORE
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AN G
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Ko
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ST’ ENNO SEVERO-SIBIRSKAYA NIZM
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Olen ëk
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K
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Olëkminsk
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Shantarskiye Ostrova
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Aleksandrovsk-Sakhalinskiy
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Tynda
Komsomol’skna-Amure
Bratsk
S
O
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RE
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B
M
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Ulan-Ude
T Y V A
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I
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KH
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Kyzyl
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Khabarovsk
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A
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Vdkhr.
Novokuznetsk
U
Novosibirsk
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk
A
Bratskoye
Argun’
Kemerovo
BE
Krasnoyarsk
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Ostrov Sakhalin
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Bodaybo
SEA OF
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NAGOR ’YE ALDANSK OYE
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Yakutsk
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CHINA
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Ostrov Oktyabr’skoy Revolyutsii
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Anadyrskiy Zaliv
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Ostrov Komsomolets
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Zemlya Vil’cheka
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Russia has a comprehensive transportation network, though since 1991 all systems have seen some decline due to lack of funding. Cities are still served by good trolley and bus systems and Moscow has one of the most impressive subway systems
OST ROVA
95,900 km (59,589 miles)
KIYE
85,542 km (53,153 miles)
OYE NAGOR’YE
Not available
KORYAKSK
351,976 km (218,707 miles)
le
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Roads in major cities are deteriorating, as are interurban highways. Crime is a problem on railroads – notably the Trans-Siberian – and roads. The former Aeroflot monopoly of air transportation has been broken up. Aeroflot now competes as Aeroflot Russian Airlines, but hundreds of regional “babyflot” airlines run mainly domestic routes, some with alarming accident records.
KO L OMS KOYE NAGO R’Y
4943 ships 10.4m gr t
Ci rc
Sheremetyevo, Moscow 11.5m passengers
Drive on right
Ar cti c
†
TRANSPORTATION
I
N
A
JA PA N
Ozero Khanka
Ussuriysk
A
K
(E A S T S E A ) Nakhodka Vladivostok
NORTH KOREA
485
R
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
TOURISM
62% in . Down 2001–2002
7.94m visitors MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Ukraine 35% Kazakhstan 13% Finland 5% Poland 5% Lithuania 4% Other 38% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
The breakup of the previous monopoly tourist agency, Intourist, has led to a vast expansion of tourism opportunities: each region is keen to earn hard currency and to attract rich visitors. Russia now ranks seventh in the world as a tourist destination. Moscow and St. Petersburg remain favorite destinations, where hotels tend either to be for the well-off or of a basic standard. Near St. Petersburg, Novgorod
†
PEOPLE
8/km2 (22/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
27%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 10% Other 15%
Orthodox Christian 75% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Ukrainian 3% Chavash 1%
R
Tatar 4% Other 10%
Russian 82%
Within the Russian Federation there are 57 “nationalities” with their own republic or territory, and a further 95 (who make up just 6% of the population) without a territory. The boundaries of the republics, and Soviet-era persecution, ensure that ethnic Russians are dominant almost everywhere. The minorities include Turkic speakers, Finno-Ugrians, Muslims, Buddhists, indigenous Arctic peoples, and the various peoples of the Caucasus. Russians form by far the largest single group, and the dominance of Russian culture and Orthodox Christianity is supported by the federal state. The forced use of Cyrillic script is one of a number of points of conflict between the republics and Moscow. Since the breakup of the Soviet Union,
486
has many fine churches, and the Pskov area is celebrated as the setting for many of Pushkin’s works, including Eugene Onegin and Boris Godunov. At the luxury end of the market, trips from St. Petersburg to Tashkent on former president Brezhnev’s official train are now available. River trips down the Volga and visits to medieval monasteries are increasingly popular. Tourists can also explore forests or fish for salmon in the Kola Peninsula. The defense sector has opened up to tourism and now offers flights in MiG jets, or rides in Russian T-80 tanks. Even the space industry has begun to court tourists. Many parts of Russia remain inaccessible to most travelers. The Communist-era ban on foreigners visiting the Urals has been lifted, but the area still has very few facilities. Resorts such as the subtropical Sochi on the Black Sea, where powerful Russians have dachas (country houses), have experienced a building boom.
Pop. density low
Russian, Tatar, Ukrainian, Chavash, various other national languages
73%
POLITICS
Visitors : Population 1:18
Russia’s quest for a renewed national identity has led to a rise in right-wing extremist groups. Violence has been targeted at people from the north Caucasus, central Asia, and the darkskinned in general. Antisemitism is also increasing. The collapse of the Soviet Union has also been followed by a marked increase in materialism and a greater expression of sexuality and of politics and Russian Orthodoxy. The expensive rebuilding of Moscow’s Church of Christ the Savior symbolized this change. The strong revival of Orthodox Christianity is boosted by legal recognition of its “special role” in Russia’s history. Many small minority faiths have been unable to meet strict new registration requirements. Though the fall of communism has brought more opportunities in business and politics for some women, for others it has meant resorting to very badly paid menial work. Domestic abuse has increased. Most Russians have very modest living standards and were further impoverished by the economic turmoil of the 1990s.
L. House 2003/2007 U. House Varying
†
Multipar ty elections
President Vladimir Putin
AT THE LAST ELECTION
8% 1% M Y
State Duma 450 seats
49% UR
15% 12% 8% 4% 3% Ind CP LDP PP Others
U = United Russia Ind = Independents CP = Communist Party LDP = Liberal Democratic Party M = Motherland PP = People's Party Y = Yabloko
Council of the Federation 178 seats
Each of 89 regions is represented in the Council of the Federation (Soviet Federatsii) by two members chosen by the regional legislature
The government is responsible to the Duma, but executive power lies firmly with the president.
PROFILE President Boris Yeltsin’s second term (from 1996) was overshadowed by his health problems, economic crisis, and corruption. Under his rule a number of so-called “oligarchs” gained considerable power, snapping up control of the liberalizing economy. Dramatic changes of government personnel were another characteristic of this period, as Yeltsin confronted the Duma in both 1998 and 1999 over his choice of prime minister. Vladimir Putin, a little-known former head of the Federal Security Service (FSB), was unexpectedly nominated prime minister in 1999 and was made heir apparent to Yeltsin. He took over in an acting capacity on New Year’s Eve 1999 and was resoundingly elected as president a few months later. He has greatly consolidated his position since, tackling the power of the business “oligarchs,” and of Russia’s 89 regional governors, with his program of centralization. The conflict in Chechnya, though internationally damaging to Putin’s image, has by contrast been a key element in his domestic appeal as a strong leader. His popularity was shaken by criticism of his handling of the Kursk submarine disaster in 2000, in which 118 sailors
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 1.5% 10.5%
80+ 60–79
13.8%
40–59
14.4%
20–39
12.9%
0–19
Male 0.4% 6% 12.3% 14.7% 13.5%
% of population by age group
Former president Boris Yeltsin, renowned for his erratic behavior, stepped down in 1999.
Mikhail Gorbachev, whose restructuring ultimately led to the breakup of the Soviet Union.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
POLITICS continued died. However, the marked improvement in the economy during his first year in office stood greatly to his credit in popular opinion, as it also did to that of Putin’s first prime minister, Mikhail Kasyanov (2000–2004). Putin’s support within the Duma was consolidated by the sweeping election victory in 2003 of the UR party, which pushed the once mighty Communists into a distant second place not far ahead of the ultranationalist LDP. Many pro-market center-right parties failed even to break the minimum 5% support barrier for representation in the Duma. Observers in the West were wary of the blatant bias in the all-powerful staterun media in favor of UR. Similar criticisms were made of the presidential poll in 2004, in which Putin won over 70% of the vote. Two weeks before the election he appointed civil servant Mikhail Fradkov as prime minister.
Crime and corruption Crime levels rose alarmingly under the post-Soviet regime. Widespread bureaucratic corruption was countered by the power acquired by business tycoons, the so-called “oligarchs,” who snapped up privatized industries at bargain prices. Putin launched a crusade against them, highlighted by the arrest and imprisonment of oil magnate Mikhail Khodorkovsky in 2003 and the punitive tax demands against his oil conglomerate Yukos in 2004.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
WORLD AFFAIRS
Centralization versus regionalism Nation-based separatism is brutally suppressed. Nowhere has this been made clearer than by the ferocious military campaign in Chechnya. Begun under Yeltsin in 1994, the conflict there has dragged on despite declarations of an end to the war in 2000 and 2002. The installation of a pro-federal government and constitution in Chechnya in 2003 has transformed the battle into a civil conflict. The Turkic republic of Tatarstan has theoretically buried its own secessionist desires, signing a new federation treaty in 1994. Nonetheless, regional autonomy remains a powerful issue, and many of the 21 republics continue to have laws which are out of synch with the central Russian constitution. Influence accumulated under Yeltsin by Russia’s 89 regional governors was reversed by Putin’s efforts to concentrate power in the presidency. Control of police and taxation has been centralized in seven huge federal districts, and the governors have been stripped of their seats in the upper house. Separatist terrorism has encouraged further sweeping centralist reforms.
Vladimir Putin was handed power by Yeltsin in 1999, and was elected president in 2000.
Mikhail Fradkov, relatively unknown diplomat appointed prime minister in 2004.
Political violence A number of high-profile murders of Duma members and regional administrators has rocked Russian politics in recent years. Always blamed immediately on contract killings, the assassinations attest to the apparent links between organized crime and the political mainstream.
CE
CIS
IAEA
† G8
Joined UN in 1945
The Rodina (Motherland) statue, Volgograd, stands 52 m (171 ft) high. Russia is littered with enormous Communist-era monuments.
†
AID
Recipient
$1.3bn (receipts)
/
Up 17% in 2002
Russia has received billions of dollars in aid from Western countries on several occasions to stave off government debt and to promote economic restructuring. Largescale IMF credits were obtained during the economic crises of the mid- and late 1990s.
OSCE
The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the US laid the foundations for a massive change in Russia’s relations with the US and the wider international community. President Putin pledged immediate support to the US-led “war on terrorism,” securing in return unqualified backing for the Chechnya campaign which was recast as a legitimate battle against “terrorism.” Russia and NATO also appeared to bury their grievances; in 2002 a new NATO–Russia Council was established. Russia is uneasy, however, over the growth of US influence in central Asia and the Caucasus, particularly in the form of military bases. A key point of contention is US activity in Georgia where a new pro-Western president has cosied up to the US administration, while volubly protesting Russia’s involvement in the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Many of the other successor states of the USSR, the “near abroad,” retain close links with Russia and are still viewed, at least domestically, as Russia’s sphere of influence. A “joint economic space” comprising Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine was announced in 2003. Belarus has pushed for full reunification, but plans for monetary and political union have stalled in recent years. Relations with the Baltic states are the least cordial, but are improving after tension over discrimination against ethnic Russians there. Special transit passes for the people of Kaliningrad came into force when the EU expanded up to Russia’s border in 2004.
DEFENSE $48bn
†
/
Phasing out conscription
Up 7% in 2002
RUSSIAN ARMED FORCES 21,870 main battle tanks (T-34, T-55, T-62, T-64, T-72, T-80, T-90)
321,000 personnel
53 submarines, 1 carrier, 14 destroyers, 7 cruisers, 10 frigates, 88 patrol boats
155,000 personnel
2434 combat aircraft (MiG-25/29/31, Su-24/25/27, Tu-22)
184,600 personnel
735 ICBM, 13 SSBN, 100 ABM
The loss of the 118-man Kursk nuclear submarine in 2000 symbolized the long-term decline in Russia’s military might. Maintaining and using the enormous former-communist war machine has proved too expensive. Reforms aimed to cut troop numbers by hundreds of thousands by 2004, while the proportion of professional units is rising. Public anger at conditions has led to pay increases. Spending on nuclear forces is limited to the physical protection of warheads. In 2002, Russia agreed to cut its nuclear arsenal further, slashing the number of warheads by 60%. It also dropped previous objections to the proposed US national missile defense system. The Northern and Pacific navy fleets are inactive and deteriorating fast. A major naval exercise attended by President Putin in the run-up to the 2004 presidential election was marred when missiles failed to fire.
487
R
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
RUSSIA IN THE POST-9/11 WORLD
ESTONIA LATVIA LITHUANIA RUSS. FED. EAST GERMANY
POLAND
C
ZE
CH
OS LO VA K
R US S I A N
opportunity to give his backing to the US “war on terrorism,” and the US responded by agreeing to reform the NATO–Russia system. In May 2002 the NATO–Russia Council (NRC) was established, nominally bringing Russia into the NATO decision-making process as an equal partner and formalizing the relationship propounded by NATO’s 1997 Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation, and Security.
FEDER ATION
BELORUSSIA
IA
KAZAKHSTAN
UKRAINE
HUNGARY ROMANIA
KYRGYSZTAN ALBANIA
BULGARIA
UZBEKISTAN
MOLDAVIA GEORGIA
TAJIKISTAN
ARMENIA
TURKMENISTAN
The new reality, however, of a “single ultrapower” world in which the US dominates global relations and expands its sphere of influence at will, has left a bitter taste in Russian mouths. In 2004 Russia had no choice but to accept the extension of the NATO alliance right up to its borders.
AZERBAIJAN
Russian Federation Ex-Soviet countries Former Warsaw Pact countries
A
S THE WORLD’S LARGEST country, Russia inevitably has a significant geopolitical role. Its massive resource base, coupled with a modernized culture, have made it a key economic power. The nearly 700,000-strong military machine is equipped with high-tech weaponry that gave it superpower status. As the first Communist state it was a political inspiration to the world. Between 1991 and 2001 the Western world was consciously dealing with a crippled Russia which had only just shrugged off more than seven decades of Communist rule, revealing the deep wounds beneath the red banner. Relations had begun to change with the ascendancy of Vladimir Putin in 2000. A program of reform and centralization saw a resurgence of Russia’s place in the global political system. Tensions once again increased over Russia’s relations with the ex-Soviet states and the Arab–Muslim world, over its nuclear inheritance, and particularly over the Muslim insurgency in Chechnya.
R
Cold War informed the political situation in every sovereign state, with the superpowers taking an active role in internal conflicts across the globe. For Russia, a state of constant readiness for a third world war against the West prompted the creation of a mighty armory (the cost of which ultimately proved crippling), and a military-based economy embracing self-sufficiency as far as possible. Its sphere of influence consisted of bordering countries and those African, Asian, and Latin American countries which embraced some form of socialist government. After 1991, though the obvious antagonism of the Cold War vanished, some of the structures of the Cold War persisted, most notably the Western military alliance NATO. September 11, 2001, provided the impetus for the overhaul of the framework of Russian–Western relations. President Putin took the
The Islamist terrorist attacks on the US on September 11, 2001, served as a catalyst in the sweeping away of the old perceptions of the West’s rivalry with Russia, but at the same time encouraged other tensions to develop.
RUSSIA
AND THE
US
From 1945 to 1991 the world had been divided between two superpowers. The US and its allies stood on one side, Soviet Russia and its allies on the other. The
488
President Vladimir Putin and the then secretary-general of NATO, Lord Robertson, at the first NATO–Russia summit in 2002.
Meanwhile, on the disarmament front, Putin tacitly accepted US president George W. Bush’s decision to withdraw from the 1972 Antiballistic Missile (ABM) treaty as part of his plans to establish a National Missile Defense system (NMD). Putin also agreed to the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT). Though this SORT agreement went further in terms of cutting warhead deployment than the now abandoned “START III” treaty, many observers regarded it as strategically more favorable to the US in that it spoke of nondeployment rather than decommissioning of nuclear missiles, leaving the US with a larger arsenal.
WAR
ON TERRORISM
Russian support for the US concept of a “war on terrorism” has been put to the test since it was declared in 2001. The first act in the “war” was the defeat of the taliban in Afghanistan in October–December 2001. US military bases established in the central Asian states to the north of Afghanistan have since been made an integral part of the US strategy against Islamists, bringing US troops onto the very territory of the former Soviet Union. While Russia approved of the Afghan offensive, it has been deeply irritated by the retention of this central Asian foothold. As with the attack on Afghanistan, so with the US-led invasion of Iraq, the “war on terrorism” has in practice seen the extension of US sway in regions where Russia once held great influence. As the rival of the US, Russia had always maintained close ties with those Middle Eastern states opposed to the West, promoting the Arab socialist movement in Syria and notably in Iraq, as well as being highly critical of Israel.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................16th GNP PER CAPITA..............................$2130 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$31.1bn INFLATION .......................................15.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
EXPORTS
China 6%
USA 6% Netherlands 7%
Germany 7%
IMPORTS
USA 6% Ukraine 7%
AND
EUROPE
Germany 14%
STRENGTHS Huge natural resources, in particular hydrocarbons, precious metals, fuel, timber. Potential from future international oil pipelines. Enormous engineering and scientific base. Massive arms export industry: world’s largest in 2002. Government revenue increased by tax reforms. Lucrative privatizations. Recognized as a market economy in 2002, encouraging foreign investment.
Crumbling infrastructure. Attempts by government to exert control over commercial sector, particularly oil. Privatized companies asset-stripped by former managers. Organized crime controls huge areas of the economy. Regional investment hindered by uneven implementation of federal laws. Tax evasion and corruption RUSSIAN FEDERATION : MAJOR BUSINESSES
100
30
30 2000
2001
2002
2003
Krasnoyarsk
Kazan’
Sankt Peterburg
100
West Siberian Plain
Nizhniy Novgorod
Moscow Textiles
Ye ni s e
Rostov-na-Donu ’ Ob
One notable feature of the international alignment over the US-led invasion of Iraq is that Russia found itself standing alongside Germany and France, or what the US chose to call “old Europe.” Throughout its history, the Russian state has seen repeated shifts of emphasis between a European identity and a more eastward-facing orientation. The current more European emphasis is identified with Putin’s leadership. It would be ironic if its continuation should coincide with Russia becoming an increasingly isolated exception to the trend toward increasing EU membership, possibly even extending to former Soviet states like Georgia and Ukraine. On the other hand the pendulum could swing east again should Russia’s economy strengthen.
170
Chemicals Metallurgy Le na
RUSSIA
170
The few gains made in the early postcommunist era were swept aside in the 1998 economic crisis. Powerful financial “oligarchs” emerged, and organized crime moved into most areas of the economy. However, the devaluation of the rouble ironically served to promote a miniboom in the last years of the 20th century. Real wages fell, encouraging small enterprises to expand, while the devaluation made imports too expensive for the average consumer – promoting local production. Industrial production increased and GDP grew by 7.6% in 2000. Putin has moved to dismantle the power of the economic elites. The private sale of land was permitted from 2001, and a new 13% flat rate of income tax promised to help reduce widespread tax evasion. However, while the economy weathered the 2001 global slowdown, the rise in real wages and the strengthening of the rouble have begun to offset the previous years’ gains. Some 50% of the economy is conducted on the black market.
WEAKNESSES
In September 2004, Chechen separatists took over a school in Beslan, in neighboring North Ossetia. Video footage was shot by the terrorists during the 3-day siege, which ended in carnage with some 300 dead, mainly children.
240
PROFILE
Belarus 9% Other 59%
240
remain widespread. Oil giant Yukos in crisis. Rising wages and strengthening rouble have promoted boom in imports, narrowing trade gap, harming local production, and stifling small enterprises.
Other 67%
China 5%
310
1999
Italy 7%
GDP
310
GDP 1999=100
The most obvious trade-off for Putin from Russia’s closer relations with the West has been tolerance of military and security force action against Islamist separatists in Chechnya. Heightened security measures adopted elsewhere to protect against would-be Islamist bombers have been implemented in Russia with the specific intention of cracking down on Chechen activists; for Russia the “war on terrorism” was already being fought from 1994 around the Chechen capital Grozny. Hostage crises – at a Moscow theater in 2002, killing over 100, and a school in Beslan in 2004, causing the deaths of hundreds of children – have further stifled criticism of Russia’s heavyhanded approach to the breakaway republic.
29.07 Russian roubles (official rate) (30.35)
$307bn
Consumer price index 1999=100
In the buildup to the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, it was thus not surprising that Russia supported an emphasis on UN weapons inspections rather than military intervention. In the scramble for oil and reconstruction contracts which followed the formal ending of hostilities in Iraq, Russia has been keenly aware of the US advantage being forged.
Inflation 140% p.a. (1990–2001)
Computers Electronics
Volgograd
Engineering Vehicle assembly
Samara Perm’ Ufa
Defense industry Oil refining Oil & gas
Novosibirsk Vladivostok
Yekaterinburg
Chelyabinsk
Irkutsk
0 0
1000 km 1000 miles
489
R
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
RESOURCES
The first Russian state (Rus) was in present-day Ukraine. Occupation by the Tatars (1240–1480) marked the Russian language and character. From the 17th century, the Romanovs ruled an expanding empire.
Russia is a major producer of oil, natural gas, and electricity, among other resources. Confirmed reserves 26.5m cattle, 17.3m Coal, oil, gas, gold, pigs, 13.7m sheep, make Russia the world’s leading country diamonds, iron, 337m chickens aluminum, manganese in terms of hydrocarbons, gold, other ELECTRICITY GENERATION precious metals, diamonds, and timber. Russia has been slow to open up Hydro 19% (165bn kWh) its mineral sector to foreign concerns, but is starting to realize the potential Combustion 66% (582bn kWh) of its vast resources. In 2003 foreign Nuclear 15% (131bn kWh) firms invested in a mammoth $10 Other 0% billion liquefied natural gas plant in 20 60 100 0 40 80 Sakhalin – set to be the world’s largest % of total generation by type integrated oil and gas project. However, RUSSIAN FEDERATION : LAND USE geographic remoteness has held back exploitation, while the fact that some of the richest S deposits are IN A T SREDNE located in national SIBIRSKOYE Cropland territories such L PLOSKOGOR'YE A Forest UR as Tatarstan and Pasture Sakha (Yakutia) in Wetlands Siberia has turned Tundra the ownership High mountain regions Cattle of these resources 0 1000 km Cereals into a delicate Potatoes 0 1000 miles political issue.
490
8.54m b/d (reser ves 69.1bn barrels)
M
O
U
N
3.72m tonnes
'
1904–1905 Russian war against Japan; ends in defeat for Russia. 1905 “Bloody Sunday” revolution. 1909–1914 Rapid economic expansion. 1914 Enters World War I against Germany. 1917 February Revolution; abdication of Nicholas II. October Revolution; Bolsheviks take over with Lenin as leader. 1918 Nicholas II and family shot. 1918–1920 Civil war. 1921 New Economic Policy; retreat from socialism. 1922 USSR established. 1924 Lenin dies. Leadership struggle eventually won by Stalin. 1928 First Five-Year Plan: forced industrialization and collectivization. 1936–1938 Show trials and campaigns against actual and suspected members of opposition. Millions sent to gulags in Siberia and elsewhere. Purges widespread. 1939 Hitler–Stalin pact gives USSR Baltic states, eastern Poland, and Bessarabia (Moldova). 1941 Germany attacks USSR. 1943 February, tide of war turns with lifting of siege of Stalingrad. 1944–1945 Soviet offensive penetrates Balkans. 1945 Germany defeated. Under Yalta and Potsdam agreements eastern and southeastern Europe are Soviet zone of influence. 1947 Cold War begins; Stalin on defensive and fears penetration of Western capitalist values. 1953 Stalin dies. 1956 Hungarian uprising crushed. Krushchev’s “secret speech” attacking Stalin at party congress. 1957 Krushchev consolidates power. Sputnik launched. 1961 Yuri Gagarin first man in space. 1962 Cuban missile crisis. 1964 Krushchev ousted in coup, replaced by Leonid Brezhnev. 1975 Helsinki Final Act; confirms European frontiers as at end of World War II. Soviets agree human rights are concern of international community. 1979 Soviets invade Afghanistan. New intensification of Cold War. 1982 Brezhnev dies. 1985 Gorbachev in power. Start of perestroika, “restructuring.” First of three US–USSR summits, resulting in arms
Electric power 213m kW
Ob
R
†
CHRONOLOGY
ENVIRONMENT
.
8% (0.8% par tially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 72nd
9.9 tonnes per capita
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 105 per 1000 people
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Yes
Yes
Yes
There are 285 daily newspapers, including Izvestiya, Komsomolskaya Pravda, and Trud
Yes
No
No
2 main national and regional ser vices, par tly state-owned, several localized independent channels
Though awareness of environmental problems has risen sharply, resources, political will, and know-how to tackle them are still lacking. In 2004 the government agreed to ratify the Kyoto Protocol on greenhouse gas emissions, but an active green movement has yet to win significant electoral support. Each region has its own particular problems. The northwest risks contamination from the neglected Soviet-era nuclear submarine fleet and from nuclear waste containers dumped in the Barents Sea. Thousands of tonnes of chemical weapons have been dumped in the Baltic, though their exact location has not been revealed. In the Urals and the cities of European Russia, many chemical and heavy industrial plants do not treat their effluents at all. Several fish species are now extinct in the Volga River in central Russia. In 2001 parliament approved a bill to allow the atomic energy ministry Minatom to earn $2 billion a year from storing and reprocessing foreign nuclear waste.
1 main state-run ser vice, broadcasting 2 channels, 1 foreign broadcasting ser vice, several independent stations
There is growing concern over state control of the media. Bias in TV reporting, rife under Yeltsin, continues under Putin. Reporting on Chechnya is subject to particular pressure. The NTV network, flagship of exiled magnate Vladimir Gusinsky, was taken over in 2001 by the state-run gas company Gazprom, while the remaining independent national broadcaster, TVS, was shut down due to poor finances in 2003. Critical editorial staff have been dismissed from the daily Sevodnya and weekly Itogi. Many Russians have satellite dishes and tune in to CNN and other Western channels. Argumenty i Fakty is the best-selling weekly paper, with a circulation of nearly three million. Trud is the biggest-selling daily. The Soviet state organ Izvestiya is now independent. Overall, 9% of the population have access to the Internet, but use is concentrated among Muscovites.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
CHRONOLOGY continued
A golomo (winter dwelling) of the Evenk people from Yakutia, northeastern Siberia. Russia is home to 152 different nationalities.
Death penalty not used in practice
.
864,590 prisoners
Murders 22
per 100,000 population
6
per 100,000 population
793
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Policing cannot keep pace with the formidable levels of crime in Russia. Intergang violence accounts for a recent rise in the murder rate. Street crime has also increased in the larger cities. Corruption is rife, particularly in the regions. The Russian mafia profits from protection rackets, prostitution, smuggling operations, and narcotics, and is also active in western Europe. Public fear resulting from the level of crime and high-profile attacks by separatists has contributed to a rise in popularity for authoritarian political platforms. Overcrowding, poor conditions, and disease are major problems in prisons.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 15
5.43m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
80
60
100%
92%
40
68%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Schooling is free, and is compulsory for nine years up to age 15. Attempts to change the Soviet-based curriculum, still widely in use, are hampered by lack of funds. Hundreds of private lycées, such as those run by the Orthodox Church, offer courses in west European languages. German in particular has made a comeback as a key language for international commerce. The state-subsidized higher education system is seriously underfunded, and some institutions have begun charging students. Prestigious institutions such as the Academy of Sciences have been forced to cut staff and research. Most academics have to rely on extramural earnings.
†
HEALTH
Down 14% in 2000–2002
CRIME RATES
% of each age group in education
reduction treaties. Nationality conflicts surface. 1988 Law of State Enterprises gives more power to enterprises; inflation and dislocation of economy. 1990 Gorbachev becomes Soviet president. First partly freely elected parliament (Supreme Soviet) meets. 1991 Boris Yeltsin elected president of Russia. Yeltsin and Muscovites resist hard-line communist coup. Gorbachev sidelined. CIS established; demise of USSR. 1992 Economic shock therapy. 1993 Yeltsin decrees dissolution of Supreme Soviet and uses force to disband parliament. Elections return conservative State Duma. 1994 First Russian military offensive against Chechnya. 1995 Communists win elections. 1996 Yeltsin reelected despite strong Communist challenge. Peace accord in Chechnya. 1998 Economic turmoil forces devaluation of rouble. Severe recession, rampant inflation. 1998–1999 Yeltsin repeatedly changes prime minister in successive political crises. 1999 Yeltsin resigns; Prime Minister Putin is acting president. 1999–2000 Terrorist violence blamed on Islamic separatists in Dagestan and Chechnya. Military offensive against Chechnya; fall of Grozny. 2000 Putin elected president. Attack on “oligarchs” in big business. Improvement in economy. Kursk nuclear submarine disaster. 2001 Party mergers: Putin’s Unity party largest grouping in parliament. Russian–Chinese friendship treaty. 2002 May, Cam Ranh Bay base in Vietnam, last Russian outpost beyond former USSR, closed. October, Moscow theater hostage crisis: Chechen separatists and 128 hostages killed during rescue. 2003 Pro-Putin UR wins elections. 2004 Putin reelected. Militants seize hostages in Beslan school; hundreds killed, mainly children.
†
CRIME
Limited welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and hear t diseases, accidents, cancers
1 per 238 people
The health care system is in crisis and medicines are often in short supply. Nearly two-thirds of children are deemed “unhealthy.” Until 1991, state enterprises provided considerable health care for employees. Employers should now make payments through the Medical Insurance Fund, but many privatized concerns seek to cut costs. Bribing medical staff to obtain treatment is commonplace, and there is a lack of pharmaceutical products and drugs. Alcoholism is increasing as a cause of death.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
147 per 1000 population
242 per 1000 population
Defense 4.8% Education 3.1% Health 3.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth disparities have increased sharply. A small minority made huge profits from the dismantling of the old Soviet command economy, while 20% of the population live below the government’s “subsistence minimum.” The replacement of benefits, such as free health care and transportation, by cash payments is likely to impoverish veterans and pensioners further. A growing number of dollar millionaires flaunt their wealth, especially in Moscow. Organized crime bosses are Russian society’s wealthiest group. Russia is now the biggest buyer of Rolls Royces. There are thousands of Russian offshore bank accounts; the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus has been a favorite location.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
1
50th
99%
57
100th
73 18 deaths
83 150th
$2130
122 193rd
66 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
491
R
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
RWANDA
CENTRAL AFRICA
RWANDA Burundi
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Rwanda CAPITAL: Kigali POPULATION: 8.4 million CURRENCY: Rwanda franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French, English, and Kinyarwanda 1962
1962
July 1
RWA
+2
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR KIGALI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
50% FPR
Senate 26 seats
6%
The Senate comprises representatives from provinces, historically marginalized communities, the political parties' forum, and universities. Ex-presidents can also request seats
94%
A peace accord in 1993 ended a threeyear rebellion by the Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front (FPR). In 1994, however, the predominantly Hutu supporters of the old regime massacred almost a million of their mainly, but not exclusively, Tutsi opponents. The FPR eventually gained control in the conflict and offered Hutu key posts in a new government. The 2003 constitution includes safeguards against ethnic hatred and one-party dominance, but allows the curtailment of free speech. Paul Kagame, a Tutsi who had succeeded as president in 2000, was convincingly reelected in August 2003 while his FPR won legislative polls.
Tutsi 9%
-20/-4
Rwanda’s climate is tropical, tempered by altitude. Two wet seasons allow for two harvests each year.
Lake Kivu navigable by small craft
O C
.
P R E
N ya
Kanazi
Cyangugu
Gikongoro
Karaba
Bugumya zi
Ru
hw
Bugarama
Cy
ud aS oh oh
Nyabisindu
Rwesero
Kirehe Lac
A k a n yaru
U
D
Kigembe
Munini
R
U
N
Lac Rweru
N
I
Butare Busoro
Rusumo Ak a ge
ra
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft
Gisagara a
Lac Mpanga
Kibungo
Ruhango
Kaduha
B 492
Gitarama
Rwamatamu
Lac Nasho Lac Cyambwe
Lac Mugesera
Gishyita Birambo
Ru si
Tourism effectively ceased as a result of civil war. Wealthy wildlife enthusiasts are a potential market. The presence of international NGO staff has raised prices for hotels and food, making it comparatively expensive for tourists.
KIGALI Kanombe
Ak
% of total arrivals
Lac Ihema
Rwamagana
Kiyumba
A
40
n go
Lac Kivumba
Lac Muhazi
I
30
a ro
bugogo
N
20
Lac Hago
A
Other 24% 10
Ngororero
Kibuye
Tanzania 17%
0
ab
under 10 000
Z
Democratic Republic of the Congo 25%
Byumba
Murambi
Ny
Uganda 34%
Ngarama
Kirambo Lac Ruhondo
Rushashi
Kabaya
La c Kivu
Lac Rwanyakizinga
Busengo Kinihira Nyarutovu
Gisenyi
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Lac Burera
Ruhengeri
over 10 000
N
Up sharply in 1999–2001
Volcan Karisimbi 4507m
POPULATION over 100 000
a
r
N
T ge
/
113,000 visitors
G
Total Area : 26 338 sq. km (10 169 sq. miles)
A
†
TOURISM
Visitors : Population 1:74
N
RWANDA
A
D
Aka
The road network is well developed, and Rwanda has access by road to the Tanzanian railroad system.
Ny a
None
a n y aru
None
D E M .
R
960 km (597 miles)
Mukungwa
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Hutu 90%
Hutu and Tutsi are the main groups; few of the Twa pygmies, the original inhabitants, remain. For more than 500 years, the cattle-owning Tutsi were politically dominant, oppressing the landowning Hutu majority. In 1959, violent revolt led to a reversal. The two groups have since been waging a spasmodic war. Around 800,000 people were killed in the violence of the mid1990s, the majority of them Tutsi victims massacred by Hutus. Complicity by Christian A clergy in the genocide G has led many people U to convert to Islam. Kidaho O
b a ro n go
Kigali International 113,375 passengers
Drive on right
9% 7% PSD PL
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
†
34% Reserved
FPR = Rwandan Patriotic Front and allies Reserved = 24 for women, elected by provinces, two youth representatives, and one representative of the disabled PSD = Social Democratic Party PL = Liberal Party
337/km2 (872/mi2)
Other (including Twa) 1%
TRANSPORTATION
President Paul Kagame
Chamber of Deputies 80 seats
Pop. density high
Kinyarwanda, French, Kiswahili, English
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
†
L. House 2003/2008 U. House 2003/2011
ANDLOCKED RWANDA lies just south of the equator in east central Africa. Since independence in 1962, ethnic tensions have dominated politics. In 1994, the violent death of the president led to appalling political and ethnic violence. Over half of the surviving population were displaced. The perpetrators of the genocide held sway in desperately overcrowded refugee camps in adjacent countries, greatly complicating the process of eventual repatriation and reintegration.
†
Tanzania
POLITICS
.rw
+250
L
CLIMATE
Africa
D e m . R e p . Uganda Congo
1000m/3281ft 0 0
40 km 40 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: RWANDA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS COMESA
CEPGL
Joined UN in 1962
NAM
OIF
CHRONOLOGY The Hutu majority began to arrive in the 14th century, the warrior Tutsi in the 15th. From 1890, German and then Belgian colonizers acted to reinforce Tutsi dominance.
AU
Rwanda is accused of supporting rebel groups in the east of the DRC; relations are tense. Elements involved in the 1994 genocide operate near the borders and continue to threaten stability, as does ethnic strife in neighboring Burundi.
†
AID
Terraced hillside. Before the war, Rwanda was the most densely populated country in Africa and its land was intensively cultivated.
Recipient
$356m (receipts)
/
Up 19% in 2002
The country continues to be heavily dependent on foreign aid. Donors have been able to use this as a lever to curb the government’s activities in neighboring conflict zones. The UK is the biggest bilateral donor.
DEFENSE
†
/
$68m
No compulsory military service
Up 3% in 2002
The Rwandan Defense Force takes a disproportionate share of the national budget. In 2002, plans were announced for a smaller, more professional force.
ECONOMICS $1.85bn
†
Inflation 13% p.a. (1990–2001)
562.8 Rwanda francs (525.1)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................140th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$230 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$126m INFLATION .........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT .........Few have formal employment
Not an oil producer
815,000 cattle, 760,000 goats, 1.2m chickens
Tin, tungsten, gold, columbo-tantalite, methane gas
There are plans to extract natural gas from Lake Kivu: the reserves could potentially supply Rwanda’s current electricity needs for 400 years.
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (5% partially protected)
WEAKNESSES Economic activity completely disrupted by 1994 violence. Distance to nearest ports raises transportation costs. Few resources. Border instability. Refugees. EXPORTS
Kazakhstan 3%
China 3% Hong Kong 6% Germany 15%
Other 41%
Indonesia 32%
†
0.1 tonnes per capita
†
MEDIA
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Malaria, measles, diarrheal diseases, violence
1 per 20,000 people
Sustainability rank: 119th
Apart from the effects of war, soil erosion and forest loss are the major environmental problems. The tourist industry underpinned the preservation of the mountain gorilla.
Rwanda has a network of 34 hospitals and 300 health centers. At the end of 2003 over 5% of the adult population was estimated to be HIV-positive.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING TV ownership low
1 per 1000 population
3 per 1000 population
Daily newspaper circulation 0.1 per 1000 people
Defense 4.1%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Education 2.8%
There is 1 daily newspaper. The monthly Inkingi and La Relève are published in Kinyarwanda and French respectively
STRENGTHS Currently few. With stability, Rwanda can produce tea (the main export) and coffee. Possible oil and gas reserves. Tourism potential. Mining.
Electric power 43,000 kW
7263 tonnes
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
1962 Independence. Hutu-led government. 1960s Tutsi revolt; massacres by Hutu; thousands of Tutsis in exile. 1973 Coup by Gen. Habyarimana. 1994 Habyarimana dies in plane crash. Genocidal violence unleashed by Hutu extremist regime, ousted by Tutsi-led FPR. Hutu refugee exodus. 1995 Start of war crimes tribunal. 1997 Refugees forcibly repatriated. 2000 Prominent Hutus leave office. 2003 New constitution. Paul Kagame and FPR reelected.
1 state-owned service, several independent services
1 state-controlled service
Radio broadcasts initiated and fueled the genocide in 1994. The first new private station since then went on air in 2004.
CRIME
†
112,000 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth is limited to the country’s political elite and representatives of international NGOs. Most Rwandans are poor farmers.
R
WORLD RANKING
Crime is rising
Position in World 1st
Rehabilitation centers have opened for those who have admitted to taking part in the genocide and who are being released from prison, reeducated, and sent back to their communities.
EDUCATION
Health 3.1% 0
†
School leaving age: 12
50th
100th
150th
IMPORTS
USA 4% France 4%
Other 53%
69%
12,802 students
Germany 9%
Kenya 22%
147
193rd
Belgium 8%
The state and Christian missions run schools. Primary schooling is compulsory; almost all children were enrolled in 2002, up from 66% a decade earlier. Just 12% go on to secondary school.
69%
177 $230
187 40 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
165
159
96 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
493
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ST. KITTS & NEVIS
North America
CARIBBEAN Antigua & Barbuda
Puerto Rico ST. KITTS & NEVIS
Dominica
OFFICIAL NAME: Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis CAPITAL: Basseterre POPULATION: 38,763 CURRENCY: Eastern Caribbean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1983
1983
Sept 19
KN
-4
O
NE OF THE CARIBBEAN’S most popular tourist destinations, St. Kitts and Nevis, a former British colony, lies at the northern end of the Leeward Islands chain. St. Kitts is of volcanic origin; Mount Liamuiga, a dormant volcano with a crater 227 m (745 ft) deep, is the highest point on the island. Nevis, separated from St. Kitts by a channel 3 km (2 miles) wide, is the lusher but less developed of the two islands. In the 18th century, its famed hot and cold springs gained Nevis the title “the Spa of the Caribbean.”
CLIMATE
†
Tropical oceanic
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR BASSETERRE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
Visitors : Population 1.8:1
.
Down 4% in 2002
68,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
Caribbean 42%
20/68
20/8
USA 41%
10/50
10/4
Other 9% 0
40
30
20
34%
66%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Roman Catholic 7% Moravian 9%
Anglican 33%
60
50
% of total arrivals
A combination of high temperatures, trade breezes, and moderate rainfall in summer constitute St. Kitts’s typically Caribbean climate.
TRANSPORTATION Robert Llewellyn Bradshaw, Basseterre
†
Drive on left
1 ship 600 dwt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
S
10
THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Most of the population is descended from Africans brought over as slaves in the 17th century. There are small numbers of Europeans and south Asians, and a community of Lebanese. Levels of emigration are high; remittances from abroad provide an important source of revenue.
-10/14 -20/-4
138 km (86 miles)
None
50 km (31 miles)
None
T
Airport
Challengers Boyd's
I
B
B
E
O
A
N
Nevis
0 0
Charlestown Bath
5 km
Nevis Peak 985m
Fig Tree
5 miles Brown Hill
Zion Market Shop
N
200m/656ft
e
Cotton Ground
under 10 000
500m/1640ft
Sea Level
N
h
A
A
over 10 000
T
ws ro a r Newcastle N
E
E
POPULATION
1000m/3281ft
C
Great Salt Pond
S
Total Area : 261 sq. km (101 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
C
R
I
A
Kit Stoddart's Kittitian Village
ST. KITTS & NEVIS
494
Multiparty elections
N
St. Peter's
C
The southeastern peninsula of St. Kitts, looking across to Nevis in the background, on a typical December evening.
†
POLITICS
St. Kitts has long targeted the mass US tourist market. Improvements to boost 2000/2005 H.M. Queen Elizabeth II tourism include the opening up of the St. Kitts southern peninsula to large-scale AT THE LAST ELECTION tourist developments, and the expansion National Assembly 15 seats of the main port to accommodate two cruise ships simultaneously. Most visitors come for sand, sun, and the Caribbean 13% 7% 27% 53% mood, though in recent years safaris CCM NRP App SKLP inland to see local wildlife and mineral SKLP = St. Kitts Labour Party CCM = Concerned Citizens' springs have become more popular. On Movement NRP = Nevis Reformation Party App = Appointed St. Kitts, the old Brimstone Hill fortress Nevis has its own executive and legislature, the Nevis Island has been converted into a museum, as Assembly, which exercise local power has the Nevis birthplace of Fifteen years of rule by the People’s Dieppe Bay Alexander Action Movement ended in 1995 Town Parson's Ground Hamilton, amid concerns over narcotics A St. Paul's Sadlers one of the trafficking. The center-left SKLP Newton Tabernacle T Ground architects has held power since, and in Mansion Mt Liamuiga L Molineux 1156m of the US the 2000 election won all the Lodge Phillips constitution. Sandy Point seats contested on St. Kitts Cayon Town Brinstone itself. The secessionist Hill St. Kitts movement on Nevis Middle Island Upper Conaree Parry's Old Town Road is energetic. Golden Rock
A
Most roads on the islands follow the coast; a few cross the interior. Access to the remote southeastern peninsula of St. Kitts has been improved. The airport on St. Kitts takes large jets; the runway at Nevis airport has been extended so that larger planes can land. Regular ferries connect the islands.
108/km2 (279/mi2)
English, English Creole
Methodist 29%
UK 8%
0
0/32
Pop. density medium
Other 22%
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
†
PEOPLE
.kn
+1869
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ST. KITTS & NEVIS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Comm
OECS
596 tonnes
Not an oil producer
14,400 goats, 14,000 sheep, 60,000 chickens
None
St. Kitts’ financial system was rebuked by G7 in 2000 for enabling money laundering. It is an active member of the OECS, and Basseterre hosts the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank.
†
AID
Recipient
US$29m (receipts)
/
Up 164% in 2002
International aid in 1999 supported an economic recovery and relief program, following hurricanes Georges and Lenny, which significantly damaged buildings and infrastructure. About 50% of aid is through the CDB.
DEFENSE Not available
†
,
No compulsory military service
Little change from year to year
An army existed for six years before it was disbanded to cut government spending in 1981. In 1997 the National Assembly approved the reestablishment of a full-time defense force; it has around 200 personnel, plus reserves.
ECONOMICS US$301m
†
Inflation 3% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.7 Eastern Caribbean dollars (2.67)
St. Kitts has no strategic resources. Almost all energy has to be imported (mainly oil from Venezuela and Mexico). The government is attempting to close down the loss-making sugar industry, retrain the workforce, and diversify, including growing Sea Island cotton.
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................178th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$6540 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$116m INFLATION .........................................3.7% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
10%
Not available
2.4 tonnes per capita
Hurricanes are the greatest environmental threat. Hurricane Georges alone caused damage in 1998 estimated at US$400 million. It was followed in 1999 by Hurricane Lenny. As in the rest of the Caribbean, benefits from encouraging tourism must be set against potential ecological damage. The government has shown sensitivity, with strict preservation orders on the remaining rainforest and on indigenous monkeys.
†
MEDIA
Portugal 6% Canada 7% UK 8% Other 10%
USA 66%
USA 39%
Canada 9% Trinidad & Tobago 15% Other 24%
The government-run health service now provides rudimentary care on both St. Kitts and Nevis. The EU and France provided EC$8 million in 1998 for repairs to the main hospital at Basseterre, which was badly damaged by Hurricane Georges.
†
181 per 1000 population
GDP/cap. increase
500 per 1000 population
Defense No data
8 services: 1 state-owned, 7 independent
1 state-owned service
Education 3% Health 3.2%
†
135 prisoners
Death penalty in use
.
98%
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Native professionals and civil servants have replaced expatriates over the years since independence. They are now the best-paid group, but there are no great extremes of income.
S
Down 31% in 1999
The judicial system is based on British common law. Hanging was resumed in 1998, and plans agreed in 2001 to replace the role of the UK Privy Council with a Caribbean Court of Justice raised fears of more executions being carried out. Money laundering and narcotics-related crime are increasing.
EDUCATION UK 7%
Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers
1 per 833 people
There are no daily newspapers. The two main newspapers are the weekly The Democrat and the twice-weekly Labour Spokesman
IMPORTS
Denmark 6%
Welfare state health benefits
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME
Germany 3%
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
EXPORTS
1932 Proindependence St. Kitts– Nevis–Anguilla Labour Party set up. 1967 Internal self-government. 1980 Anguilla formally separates from St. Kitts and Nevis. 1983 Independence. 1995 Opposition SKLP wins election. 1998 Nevis referendum narrowly rejects secession. 2000 Prime Minister Denzil Douglas and SKLP reelected. Blacklisted by G7 for financial dealings.
SPENDING
Tourism industry. Growth in light manufacturing and financial services.
Tourism sector vulnerable to downturns in key US market. Islands prone to hurricane damage. Sugar industry in steep decline, may soon be phased out entirely.
A British colony since 1783, the islands were a part of the Leeward Islands Federation until 1956.
TV ownership medium
Opposition parties have difficulty broadcasting their views on state-owned TV and radio. However, dissent is expressed in the printed press. The two main papers are run by political parties.
STRENGTHS
CHRONOLOGY
There are no daily newspapers
SCORE CARD
Electric power 20,000 kW
RESOURCES
OAS
Caricom
†
Joined UN in 1983
†
School leaving age: 17
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
39
48
56
$6540
98%
81 150th
71 years
78 20 deaths
1235 students 193rd
Education is free, and the government is keen to promote information technology subjects. Students attend the regional University of the West Indies, or go on to colleges in the US and the UK.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
495
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ST. LUCIA
North America
CARIBBEAN Dominica ST. LUCIA
Barbados
St. Vincent & The Grenadines
OFFICIAL NAME: Saint Lucia CAPITAL: Castries POPULATION: 162,157 CURRENCY: Eastern Caribbean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1979
1979
Feb 22
WL
-4
.lc
+1758
S
T. LUCIA IS ONE OF THE MOST beautiful islands of the Windward group of the Antilles. The twin Pitons, south of Soufrière, are among the most striking natural features in the Caribbean. Ruled by the French and the British at different times in its past, St. Lucia retains the character of both. A multiparty democracy, it has an economy based on bananas and tourism, with enticing beaches and a rich variety of wildlife in the rainforest.
†
POLITICS L. House 2001/2006 U. House 2001/2006
Multiparty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Assembly 18 seats
17% 5% UWP App
78% SLP
CLIMATE
†
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR CASTRIES
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TOURISM
/
276,530 visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16 30/12
USA 37%
20/68
20/8
UK 25%
10/50
10/4
Senate 11 seats
Up 9% in 2003
Six Senate members are nominated by the government, three by the opposition, and two by the governor-general on a nonparty basis
Barbados 7%
0
Other 31%
-10/14 10
0
-20/-4
20
40
30
% of total arrivals
The dry season, from January to April, brings intense heat to sheltered parts of St. Lucia. During the rainy season, short warm showers can be expected daily. Rainfall is highest in the mountains.
TRANSPORTATION George F. L. Charles, Castries 488,693 passengers
†
Drive on left
3 ships 911 grt
Tropical beaches and typical Caribbean towns make St. Lucia a favorite destination for cruise ships and stay-over tourists. The number of hotel rooms continues to rise. The pristine rainforest has become the focus of nature tourism, with tours often organized by the National Trust.
PEOPLE
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 61 km (38 miles)
†
266/km2 (687/mi2)
English, French Creole None
None
38%
S
Roads are confined to the west and southeast coasts; only half are paved. Flights arrive from major European and North American cities, and other Caribbean locations. Direct passage to South America is largely by sea.
62%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 10%
Roman Catholic 90%
One of the twin Pitons south of Soufrière, marking the entrance to the Jalousie Plantation harbor.
496
St. Lucian politics was long dominated by personalities, particularly John Compton of the conservative UWP. The election victory in 1997 of the SLP, led by Kenny Anthony, ending 15 years of UWP government, saw a shift in the political climate. Divided and factionalized, the UWP was unable to prevent the SLP’s reelection in 2001.
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Comm
†
Joined UN in 1979
OECS
Caricom
OAS
Pop. density high
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT None
SLP = St. Lucia Labour Party UWP = United Workers' Party App = Appointed
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
30/86
0/32
Visitors : Population 1.7:1
St. Lucia has a rich, tension-free racial mix of descendants of Africans, Caribs, and European settlers. Despite relaxed attitudes, family life is central to most St. Lucians, many of whom are practicing Roman Catholics. As in much of the Caribbean, absentee fathers are fairly common in rural districts, where women run many of the farms. In recent years, women have had greater access to higher education and have moved into professions. A bill to permit the occasional use of Creole in parliament was passed in 1998.
St. Lucia took a leading role in 1999 in the unsuccessful campaign to preserve preferential access to the EU market for bananas from the Windward Islands. Good relations with the UK and EU remain central, but it is feared that from 2006 the Caribbean will be unable to compete with cheaper fruit from US-owned growers in Latin America. St. Lucia is active in the OECS and hosts the regional secretariat. Prime Minister Kenny Anthony has emerged as an important spokesman for regional affairs.
AID
†
Recipient
US$34m (receipts)
/
Up 113% in 2002
The EU, Japan, and the CDB are the main donors. China has also given aid and grant loans in recent years.
DEFENSE US$5m
†
,
No compulsory military service
Little change from year to year
The police force is supported by a small paramilitary unit. Training is provided by the US and the UK.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ST. LUCIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
ST. LUCIA
†
RESOURCES
Total Area : 620 sq. km (239 sq. miles)
POPULATION
Sa i n
A
over 10 000
ha n n e l t Lu c i a C
under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
200m/656ft
Dennery
C
A
E S
N
seau
Canaries
I
Ro
Dernière Rivière La Ressource Riche Fond La Caye
T
Vanard
Bexon Grande Rivière
N
Balata Babonneau Bocage Desbarra Guesneau Forestière
CASTRIES
Ciceron La Croix Maingot
Anse La Raye
Grande Rivière
A
Sea Level
Monchy Marisule Estate
L
500m/1640ft
T
Gros Islet
A
Millet
E
Bouton Praslin Mamiku
B
Patience
B Gros Piton
Micoud Blanchard Desruisseaux Anse Ger
R
E
Saltibus Belle Vue
Mongouge
I
La Pointe
Jalousie
C
Petit Piton
Mon Repos
O
Mt Gimie 951m
Soufrière
A
Laborie
Derrière Morne
0
5 km
0
La Resource
Hewanorra Intl
Vieux Fort
N
N
C
Piaye
A
Augier
Choiseul
5 miles
ECONOMICS US$600m
†
Inflation 2.7% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.7 Eastern Caribbean dollars (2.67)
SCORE CARD
Electric power 66,000 kW
1984 tonnes
Not an oil producer
14,950 pigs, 12,500 sheep, 240,000 chickens
None
St. Lucia has no mineral resources and imports most of its energy. Plans exist to develop geothermal energy from the hot springs in the volcanic interior.
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
16% partially protected
Not available
2.2 tonnes per capita
St. Lucians are proud of their island, and environmental questions arouse fierce debate. In recent years the greatest controversy surrounded the decision to allow a luxury hotel development on the ecologically important Jalousie Plantation, which encompasses the extraordinary twin Pitons and includes an important Amerindian archaeological site. The issue illustrates a key problem in St. Lucia, where business pressures to develop tourism can outweigh vital environmental concerns. One notable conservation success has been the St. Lucia parrot. In 1978, there were 150 birds; strict laws against the trade in parrots ensured that by 2000 numbers had risen to 500.
†
MEDIA
The National Insurance Scheme provides free medical cover for all. Work on a new general hospital began in 2001.
Other 9% UK 49% USA 28%
Other 19%
USA 19%
GDP/cap. increase
320 per 1000 population
Education 5.8% There are no daily newspapers. The Star and The Mirror are published weekly
Health 2.9% 0
5 services: 1 state-owned, 4 independent
5 independent services
†
365 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
EDUCATION 95%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The island’s large-scale banana growers and hotel owners form the richest section of society. Nearly one-fifth of households are considered to be poor.
S
WORLD RANKING
Crime is rising
Position in World 1st
Murder is rare, but narcotics-related deaths are increasing, as is violence in schools. The government has strengthened the police force to combat rising urban crime.
IMPORTS
UK 3% Trinidad & Tobago 10%
†
SPENDING
Defense No data
CRIME
Antigua & Barbuda 3% Barbados 8%
Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers
1 per 2000 people
142 per 1000 population
WEAKNESSES
EXPORTS
Welfare state health benefits
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Banana industry (privatized in 1998). Tourism and services.
Preferential banana trade with EU to be phased out. Global slumps affect tourism.
†
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Brazil 46%
1958 Joins West Indies Federation. 1964 Sugar growing ceases. 1979 Gains independence and joins Commonwealth. 1990 Establishes body with Dominica, Grenada, and St. Vincent to discuss forming a Windward Islands Federation. 1997 Hitherto ruling UWP reduced to one seat in general election. 2000 Blacklisted by OECD as international tax haven.
TV ownership medium
The privately owned press is free from government intervention. It is possible to receive TV programs from US, Mexican, and some Caribbean stations.
Venezuela 3%
An excellent naval raiding base in the Caribbean in the 17th and 18th centuries, St. Lucia was fought over by France and Britain. Ownership alternated before it was finally ceded to Britain in 1814. French influence survives in St. Lucian patois and the local cuisine.
There are no daily newspapers
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................166th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$3750 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–US$56m INFLATION .........................................1.6% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................17%
Dominica 3%
CHRONOLOGY
†
School leaving age: 16
50th
100th
50 65 $3750
74 years
76 95%
64 17 deaths
71
150th
3881 students 193rd
Education is based on the British system. Nobel prizewinners Sir Arthur Lewis (economics) and Derek Walcott (literature) give St. Lucia the world’s highest per capita ratio of laureates.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
497
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ST. VINCENT &
THE
GRENADINES
WV
-4
.vc
+1784
ART OF THE WINDWARD ISLANDS group, and bounded by submerged coral reefs, St. Vincent and the Grenadines is the Caribbean playground of the international celebrity circuit. Tourism and bananas are the economic mainstays; St. Vincent is also the world’s largest arrowroot producer. It is mostly volcanic; the one remaining active volcano, La Soufrière, last erupted in 1979. The Grenadines are flat, mainly bare, coral islands.
†
Tropical oceanic
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR KINGSTOWN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
78,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
USA 29%
20/68
20/8
UK 15%
10/50
10/4
-10/14
†
Visitors : Population 1:1.5
/
Up 9% in 2002
10
20
30
40
50
None
None
PEOPLE
†
1000m/3281ft
KINGSTOWN
200m/656ft Sea Level
344/km2 (892/mi2)
S 43%
Battowia
Isle à Quatre
A
57%
E
Lovell Village
B
Roman Catholic 13%
All Awash I.
The Pillories
B
Mustique
O Rabbit I.
Petit Mustique
C
I
Anglican 47%
Church Cay
Baliceaux
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 12%
Bequia
Derrick
Methodist 28%
R
Savan I.
A
A
C
Canouan Charlestown
N Catholic I.
Mayreau
Tobago Cays
Sail Rock
Union I. Ashton Frigate I.
Clifton Prune I. Petite St Vincent
0 0
10 km 10 miles
N
498
Petit Canouan
E
Aerial view of Union Island in the Grenadines chain. The government is developing the island as a major yachting center.
The majority of people are descendants of Africans brought over in the 18th century. Racial tensions are few, and intermarriage has meant that the original communities of descendants of African slaves, Europeans, and the few indigenous Caribs can no longer be distinguished. St. Vincent has a high rate of emigration, partly due to the level of unemployment; population growth is very low.
C
N
Port Elizabeth
I
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
S
Biabou Union Adelphi Mesopotamia Evesham
Stubbs Calliaqua
Amos Vale Airport
500m/1640ft
English, English Creole
Access by air is via neighboring islands. Only one-third of roads are paved; there are few roads in the interior. Port improvements have been completed in recent years. A proposed runway extension for Arnos Vale airport on St. Vincent was put on hold in 2000.
d
Pembroke Layou Questelles Camden Park
LAND HEIGHT
Pop. density high
m b er l an
St. Vincent North
T
None
u
over 10 000 Barrouallie under 10 000
Georgetown
N
322 km (200 miles)
POPULATION
Richmond Vale Chateaubelair Westwood
A
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Rose Bank Troumaka
Owia New Sandy Bay Village
L
1304 ships 6.58m grt
Total Area : 389 sq. km (150 sq. miles)
La Soufrière 1234m
T
Drive on left
ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
A
E. T. Joshua, Kingstown
†
Tourism is targeted at celebrities and cruise ships rather than the mass market, and is concentrated on the Grenadines. Mustique, long associated with the UK’s Princess Margaret, has a rock music clientele. Union Island draws the yachting rich, and luxury villas, apartments, a golf course, and a casino have been built on Canouan. Layou, on St. Vincent, is the site of preColumbian Amerindian petroglyphs.
C
TRANSPORTATION
ULP = Unity Labour Party App = Appointed NDP = New Democratic Party Six senators are appointed to the House of Assembly by the governor-general
60
% of total arrivals
Constant trade winds moderate St. Vincent’s tropical climate. Rainfall is heaviest during the summer months. Deep depressions and hurricanes are likely between June and November.
14% NDP
In 2001, 17 years of NDP rule ended with a crushing electoral defeat. The leader of the long-term opposition ULP, Ralph Gonsalves, became prime minister. He has launched initiatives to modernize the government and economy and restructure the banana industry, and strongly advocates closer integration among east Caribbean states.
Other 43% 0
-20/-4
29% App
57% ULP
Barbados 13%
0
0/32
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Assembly 21 seats
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
Multiparty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
2001/2006
P
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS
A
Oct 27
Barbados Grenada
E
1979
St. Lucia
ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
OFFICIAL NAME: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines CAPITAL: Kingstown POPULATION: 116,812 CURRENCY: Eastern Caribbean dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1979
North America
CARIBBEAN
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ST. VINCENT &
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1980
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Comm
OAS
Caricom
OECS
The most important links are with the EU and the UK. The government promotes regional integration and has played a leading role in Caribbean affairs. The successful US bid to end EU preferential treatment of Caribbean banana imports has strained relations.
†
AID
.
Down 44% in 2002
The Caribbean Development Bank and the EU are the major sources of development aid. Significant funds also come from Japan and France.
DEFENSE US$3m (estimate)
†
,
No compulsory military service
No significant change from year to year
St. Vincent has no army. Its small police force, trained by the US and the UK, is part of the Windward and Leeward Islands’ Regional Security System.
ECONOMICS US$330m
†
Inflation 2.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.7 Eastern Caribbean dollars (2.67)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................176th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$2820 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS...................–US$43m INFLATION .........................................0.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................22%
Not an oil producer
12,000 sheep, 9150 pigs, 125,000 chickens
None
There is a hydroelectric plant on the Cumberland River. Virtually all other energy requirements have to be imported. Some of the Grenadines have no fresh water sources.
EXPORTS
USA 7% UK 9% Spain 16%
Other 24%
†
MEDIA
Greece 19%
1.4 tonnes per capita
CHRONOLOGY In 1795, the local Carib population staged a revolt against the British, who deported them, leaving a largely black African population. 1951 Universal suffrage. 1969 Internal self-government. 1972 James Mitchell premier; holds balance of power between People’s Political Party (PPP) and St. Vincent Labour Party (SVLP). 1974 PPP–SVLP coalition. 1979 Full independence under Milton Cato of SVLP. La Soufrière volcano erupts. 1984 NDP, founded by Mitchell in 1975, wins first of four terms. 2000 Mitchell resigns premiership. 2001 ULP wins landslide victory. Ralph Gonsalves prime minister.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart and respiratory diseases, cancers
1 per 1111 people
Doctors train at the University of the West Indies. The system is a mixture of state and private hospitals and clinics; facilities are scarcer on the Grenadines.
†
SPENDING TV ownership medium
84 per 1000 population
There is 1 daily newspaper, The Herald. The main weekly newspaper is the independent The Vincentian 4 services: 2 state-owned, 2 independent
234 per 1000 population
Defense No data Education 9.3% Health 3.9% 0
5
10
15
France 33%
Singapore 10% Trinidad & Tobago 10% USA 11%
Other 28%
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Of the many periodicals, three are published by the political parties; the rest are independent. Freedom of the press is written into the constitution.
CRIME
†
302 prisoners
Death penalty in use
,
Little change from year to year
The incidence of rape and robbery causes most concern, though on the outlying islands both crimes are very rare. St. Vincent is used for narcotics transshipment to the US.
EDUCATION
†
School leaving age: 15
Jet-set wealth in the islands coexists with the low wages paid to most local workers. Union Island and Mustique in particular attract the wealthy, with their motor yachts and jeeps.
Position in World 1st
50th
100th
62 76 $2820
904 students
The school curriculum has been modified in recent years; pupils now study Caribbean literature and history, and more vocational training is offered. The University of the West Indies in Jamaica is popular, though increasing numbers are studying in the US and the UK.
S
WORLD RANKING
73 years
84
150th
Spain 8%
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
83%
IMPORTS
Not available
GRENADINES
Daily newspaper circulation 0.5 per 1000 people
WEAKNESSES Little diversification. Development of financial services hit by OECD blacklisting for money laundering. Vulnerable to hurricane damage.
†
Hurricanes are the main environmental threat, sometimes destroying as much as 70% of the banana crop. The former inaccessibility of St. Vincent and the Grenadines meant that tourism was a minor environmental threat, and the untouched, idyllic landscape of islands such as Mustique was their attraction. Mustique is reasonably well protected – building has been restricted and further development is limited since fresh water has to be shipped in. On Bequia, the new airport and consequent increase in visitors are seen as a mixed blessing. Some development schemes on Canouan have been opposed by locals.
STRENGTHS
France 25%
/
21% partially protected
1 state-owned service
Bananas, but preferential access to EU markets will end in 2006. Top producer of arrowroot starch. Tourist potential. Improving infrastructure.
Electric power 16,000 kW
45,778 tonnes
ENVIRONMENT
Recipient
US$5m (receipts)
†
RESOURCES
THE
118
87
22 deaths
83% 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
499
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SAMOA
SAMOA
1962
1962
June 1
WS
-11
S
AMOA, LYING IN THE HEART of the South Pacific, 2400 km (1500 miles) north of New Zealand, comprises nine volcanic islands. Four are inhabited – Apolima, Manono, Savai’i, and Upolu (where 72% of the population live). Rainforests cloak the mountains; vegetable gardens and coconut plantations thrive around the coasts. A relative boom in the economy in recent years has not lifted Samoa from the ranks of the UN’s Least Developed Countries.
†
WEATHER CHART FOR APIA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
TRANSPORTATION Faleolo, Apia 176,831 passengers
Drive on right
8 ships 10,000 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 332 km (206 miles)
None
None
None
Apia port has been improved with Japanese aid. International links are mainly by air. Ferries provide interisland connections.
†
TOURISM
/
92,300 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:1.9
77%
Euronesian 9%
Polynesian 90%
Ethnic Samoans form the world’s secondlargest Polynesian group. Euronesians, making up 9% of the population, are those of mixed European/Polynesian descent. The fa’a Samoa – Samoan way of life – is communal and conservative. Extended family groups, in which most people live, own 80% of the land and cannot sell it. Each is headed by a matai, or elected chief, who looks after its social and political interests. Conflict between the fa’a Samoa and modern life is strongest among the young, who have a high suicide rate. Almost 100% of Samoans are nominally Christian.
ACP
Falealupo Cape Mulin‘u-
P
Fagamalo -
Sataua
A‘opo
Falelima
Mount‘ Silisili 1858m
New Zealand 27%
S a v a i ‘ i
Australia 13%
Sala‘ilua
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Tourism is a rapidly growing industry. Small-scale village-based tourism is encouraged. Tourists are attracted by the climate and the easygoing fa’a Samoa (Samoan way of life).
†
Recipient
.
under 10 000
Palauli Bay
N
LAND HEIGHT
Saleimoa it ra Mulifanua St a Apolima Leulumoega m i ol Faleolo Manono Ap International Airport
200m/656ft Sea Level
-
E
A
APIA
‘U p o l u
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
Down 12% in 2002
O C
- Taga Cape Asuisui
0 0
Matautu
15 km 15 miles
PIF
Japan, Australia, and the EU are Samoa’s main donors. Import A costs are many times higher C than export earnings and there is a heavy debt I Pu‘apu‘a burden, so that aid is F vital to the survival I C Tuasivi of the economy.
POPULATION over 10 000
PC
IBRD
Joined UN in 1976
Australia is Samoa’s main trading partner. The US, New Zealand, Fiji, Indonesia, Japan, and American Samoa are also important. Relations with China are well established. Samoa has trade links with the Cook Islands, and supports a Polynesian free trade agreement.
Salelologa
Other 24% 10
Comm
$38m (receipts)
Asau
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Total Area : 2944 sq. km (1137 sq. miles)
Cape Pua‘a
American Samoa 36%
The conservatism of the fa’a Samoa and the Church underpins Samoa’s political stability. Allegiance to the two main parties is quite fluid. Until 1990, only the 1800 elected chiefs, or matai, could vote for the 47 ethnic Samoan seats in the Assembly; the other two seats are elected by non-Samoans. Universal suffrage was introduced at the 1991 elections. Tofilau Eti Alesana of the HRPP, prime minister twice since 1988, resigned in 1998 amid widespread protest against the government’s autocratic style. His successor, Tuilaepa Sailele Malielegaoi, also of the HRPP, was reappointed in 2001.
AID
SAMOA
26% Ind
HRPP = Human Rights Protection Party SNDP = Samoan National Development Party Ind = Independents
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 1%
27% SNDP
47% HRPP
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Up 4% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
500
Legislative Assembly 49 seats
0
The climate is humid and temperatures rarely drop below 25˚C (77˚F). December to March is the hurricane season.
0
AT THE LAST ELECTION
63/km2 (163/mi2)
23%
Multiparty elections
H.H. Susuga Malietoa Tanumafili II
2001/2006
Pop. density medium
Samoan, English
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
0/32
S
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
†
POLITICS
.ws
+685
American Samoa
Wallis & Fortuna
OFFICIAL NAME: Independent State of Samoa CAPITAL: Apia POPULATION: 178,000 CURRENCY: Tala OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Samoan and English
CLIMATE
Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN
N Fagaloa Bay
Ti‘avea
Lotofaga Poutasi Salani
Lepa-
Cape Tapaga
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SAMOA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
DEFENSE Samoa has no army and few police
†
,
No compulsory military service
CHRONOLOGY Polynesians settled Samoa in about 1000 BCE. Western rivalry after 1830 led to the 1899 division of the islands into German Western and American Eastern Samoa.
Not applicable
New Zealand looks after defense under a 1962 treaty. Internal order is mostly maintained by the matai (chiefs).
ECONOMICS $251m
†
Inflation 3.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.845 tala (2.892)
Apia, the capital, on Upolu, Samoa’s secondlargest island. It has a central volcanic range of mountains and many rivers.
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................180th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1430 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .........................$9m INFLATION .........................................8.1% UNEMPLOYMENT .......Widespread underemployment
STRENGTHS Light manufacturing expanding, attracting foreign, especially Japanese, firms. Tourism growing rapidly with improved infrastructure. Services expanding rapidly since 1989 launch of offshore banking. Tropical agriculture: taro, coconut products (cream, oil, copra) main exports. Large fishing potential.
ENVIRONMENT
/
4% (3% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Other 13%
Australia 61%
New Zealand 24%
USA 4% Japan 13% Australia 16%
Other 22%
RESOURCES
Fiji 21%
†
Electric power 20,000 kW
12,966 tonnes
Not an oil producer
201,000 pigs, 29,000 cattle, 450,000 chickens
None
With no minerals, Samoa’s main resources are its forests and tropical agriculture. The rainforests in lowerlying areas are increasingly exploited for timber. Mahogany and teak plantations are being developed. The volcanic soils, particularly on Upolu, support a wide range of staple and export crops. Two-thirds of the population work in agriculture.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
12 per 1000 population
TV ownership medium
57 per 1000 population
Defense None Education 4.2% Health 4.8%
There are 2 daily newspapers, the Samoa Times and the Samoa Observer 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
1 state-owned service
The independent media generally report the news freely, though there has been government harassment.
CRIME
IMPORTS
†
SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Germany 3% USA 9% China 11%
0.8 tonnes per capita
Daily newspaper circulation figures are not available
EXPORTS
Japan 3%
Not available
Strict logging regulations have been introduced to halt irreparable damage to the environment; over 80% of forests have been replaced by plantations. Overhunting and loss of habitat have endangered rare species of fruit bat and pigeon. Samoa is concerned about its marine resources and has taken a firm stance against driftnet fishing.
WEAKNESSES Development adversely affected by cyclones. Fluctuating international markets for coconut products. Dependence on aid and expatriate remittances.
†
1914 New Zealand occupies Western Samoa. 1962 Becomes first independent Polynesian nation. 1990 Cyclone Ofa leaves 10,000 people homeless. 1991 HRPP retains power in first election under universal adult suffrage. 1996, 2001 HRPP returned to power in elections. 1997 Country’s name changed from Western Samoa to Samoa.
†
281 prisoners
No death penalty
/
Crime is rising slowly
Crime levels are low, though alcoholrelated violence is a problem at weekends and theft is increasing in towns. The death penalty was abolished in 2004.
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 14
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Most of the population depend on subsistence farming and the remittances of relatives for their livelihood. Samoa is classified by the UN as a Least Developed Country. Two-thirds of those with a permanent job work for the government. The prospect of earning higher wages by working in other, wealthier countries in the Pacific region, notably in the tuna canneries of American Samoa, the neighboring US dependency, leads thousands of young Samoans to emigrate every year.
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World
99%
1874 students
Education is based on the New Zealand system. School attendance is universal. A university was established in Samoa in 1988. There is widespread use of corporal punishment.
HEALTH 1 per 3333 people
†
No welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, pneumonia, suicide
The Samoan preference for being big went well with traditional diets. Diabetes and heart disease are rising as people change to Western-style foods.
1st
1
50th
99%
100th
78 150th
107 $1430
101
75
20 deaths
69 years
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
501
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SAN MARINO
I
a
l
Sept 3
RSM
+1
y
1631
SAN MARINO
t
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of San Marino CAPITAL: San Marino POPULATION: 28,119 CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Italian 1631
Europe
EUROPE
.sm
+378
P
ERCHED AROUND the slopes of Monte Titano in the Italian Appennines, tiny San Marino is the world’s oldest republic and claims a lineage dating back to the 4th century. The territory is divided into nine castles, or districts. One-third of Sammarinesi live in the northern town of Serravalle. Today San Marino makes its living through agriculture, tourism, philately, and limited industry. Italy effectively controls most of its affairs.
WEATHER CHART FOR SAN MARINO
None
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
PEOPLE
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
461/km2 (1172/mi2)
Not available THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
2 km (1 mile)
None
91%
-10/14
San Marino’s Mediterranean climate is moderated by cool sea breezes and its height above sea level. In summer, temperatures can reach 27˚C (81˚F), while in winter they fall to 2˚C (35˚F). There is rarely any snow.
45,000 visitors
S
† .
Visitors : Population 1.6:1 Down 8% in 2002
Italy 73% Other 27% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Other and nonreligious 7%
Roman Catholic 93%
Citizenship requires 30 years’ residence; it is no longer transmissible by marriage. Women gained the vote in 1960, but could not stand for public office until 1973. Some Sammarinesi speak a distinct regional dialect. Around 20,000 live abroad, mainly in Italy.
% of total arrivals
SAN MARINO Total Area : 61 sq. km (23.6 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
POPULATION
Falciano
under 10 000 500m/1640ft
Dogana
200m/656ft
Serravalle
above 175m/574ft
Gualdicciolo Acquaviva Borgo Maggiore
Fiorina Ventoso Cailungo Domagnano
A
SAN MARINO
L
Y
are the main attractions, along with the medieval city of San Marino itself. Many visitors to San Marino are daytrippers from Italy, though tourism is also boosted by the close proximity of the international airport at Rimini. The San Marino tourist bureau also attracts thousands of sports enthusiasts to the republic by hosting a series of top international sporting events. In March, both the Rimini–San Marino marathon and the Mille Miglia veteran car meeting are held. May heralds the San Marino Grand Prix, when thousands of Formula 1 fans descend on the country. June, meanwhile, attracts more motor-racing fans for the World Motocross Championships. A renowned crossbow competition is held to mark San Marino’s national day, September 3. Efforts have been made to attract business meetings and conferences by means of extensive publicity in the Italian media.
T
Religious procession. The official state religion of San Marino is Roman Catholicism, in contrast to Italy, which has no state religion.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
9%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
I
Tourism is the mainstay of San Marino’s economy, contributing about 60% of government revenue and employment for almost 20% of the workforce. Earnings from tourism are the largest share of GDP. Every year around three million visitors pass through San Marino, though most do not stay overnight. They are drawn by its mild climate and contrasting scenery, and come to sample its folklore and museums. The fortresses of Monte Titano – la Rocca, la Cesta, and Montale – built during the Middle Ages, command superb views and
502
The 24-km (15-mile) highway to Rimini, which has the nearest airport, is San Marino’s most important link. Congestion is a major problem, especially during the annual Mille Miglia car rally. A funicular railroad climbs the east side of Monte Titano. The railroad to Rimini has been closed since World War II.
Y
-20/-4
TOURISM
Pop. density high
Italian 220 km (137 miles)
0
0/32
Has no fleet
L
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
San Marino’s second fortress, la Cesta, built in the 13th century, dominates the republic from its pinnacle, 755 m (2477 ft) above sea level.
A P P E
N
Monte Titano 755 m
N
I
Murata
N Chiesanuova
0 0
N
E
Faetano
S
T
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
Drive on right
Montegiardino
4 km 4 miles
A
†
TRANSPORTATION
Mediterranean
I
CLIMATE
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SAN MARINO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
†
Joined UN in 1992
CE
OSCE
IMF
IBRD
†
DEFENSE
None
Not an oil producer
Not available
None
San Marino has to import all its energy from Italy. It has no exploitable mineral resources now that the stone quarry on Monte Titano has been exhausted.
No compulsory military service
Little change from year to year
San Marino has a small territorial army and fortification guards. There is no compulsory military service, but males aged 16–55 may be called up in a national emergency.
ECONOMICS
,
None
†
,
$1m
†
0.822 euros (0.871)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................170th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$19,000 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .......................$11m INFLATION .........................................3.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
†
MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
There are 4 daily newspapers. Regional Italian newspapers, especially Il Resto del Carlino, include coverage of San Marino
In 1993, a local TV station, San Marino RTV, began broadcasting. Sammarinesi can also receive Italian TV.
CRIME
†
Prisoners are held in Italy
No death penalty
,
Little change from year to year
San Marino has a low crime rate. Justice is mainly administered in Italy. Until mid-1997 homosexuality was illegal.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 14
950 students
All teachers are trained abroad, mostly in Italy. Secondary school pupils can go on to Italian universities.
HEALTH
†
GDP/cap. increase
No data
Welfare state health benefits Circulatory system diseases, cancers
Health care is free and available to all. There is a hospital, but those requiring difficult operations normally go to Rimini for treatment.
763 per 1000 population
Defense No data
2 services: 1 state-run, 1 independent
1 state-run service
†
SPENDING CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
1 per 397 people
San Marino does not publish independent trade statistics; trade movements are included in the Italian totals.
Not available
Daily newspaper circulation 70 per 1000 people
All raw materials need to be imported. EXPORTS/IMPORTS
Not available
1797 San Marino rejects expansion offered by Napoléon I. 1861 Refuses to join unified Italy. 1914–1918 Fights for Italy in World War I. 1940 Supports Axis powers and declares war on Allies. 1943 Declares neutrality shortly before Italy surrenders. 1960 Women obtain vote. 1978 Coalition of San Marino Communist Party (PCS) and PSS: sole communist-led government in Western Europe. 1986 Financial scandals lead to new PDCS–PCS government. 1988 Joins Council of Europe. 1992 Joins UN. Collapse of communism in Europe: reformed PCS ousted from ruling coalition. 2001 Reformed communists form new party: PdD. 2002 Adoption of euro.
TV ownership high
STRENGTHS Tourism, providing over 50% of GDP. Light industry, notably mechanical engineering and clothing, with emphasis on sportswear and highquality prestige lines. Philately.
†
Monte Titano is a unique limestone outcrop in the surrounding Italian plain. It thus has a very localized ecosystem.
Inflation 5.9% p.a. (1985–1996)
SCORE CARD
Electric power: Included in Italian total
Not applicable
San Marino does not receive aid. However, annual subsidies from Italy and free access to the Italian market are essential to the economy.
$520m
†
RESOURCES
ENVIRONMENT
,
3% RC
PDCS = San Marino Christian Democratic Party PSS = Socialist Party of San Marino PdD = Party of Democrats APDS = Popular Democratic Alliance RC = Communist Refoundation AN = National Alliance
Neither
Neither an aid donor nor receiver
20% PdD
IWC
Foreign affairs are effectively decided by Italy, on which San Marino is entirely dependent. In 1992, San Marino acquired a seat at the UN.
AID
25% PSS
42% PDCS
Traditionally held to have been founded in the 4th century, the Republic of San Marino, one of many medieval Italian city-states, was recognized by the papacy in 1631.
8% 2% APDS AN
Great and General Council 60 seats
San Marino is a parliamentary democracy headed by two captainsregent elected every six months. Though the PDCS is the largest single party, it is not guaranteed a place in the ever-shifting ruling coalition. Plans have been discussed to restructure the system to strengthen coalitions.
WORLD AFFAIRS
CHRONOLOGY AT THE LAST ELECTION
Captains-Regent Paolo Bollini and Marino Riccardi
2001/2006
Education No data Health 5.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Living standards are similar to those of northern Italy, while the unemployment rate is well below the Italian average.
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
3
50th
25
81 years
$19,000
1 99%
5 4 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
503
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE
WEST AFRICA Príncipe
OFFICIAL NAME: Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe CAPITAL: São Tomé POPULATION: 175,883 CURRENCY: Dobra OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Portuguese 1975
1975
July 12
STP
0
+239
.st
C
OMPOSED OF TWO main islands and their surrounding islets, São Tomé and Príncipe is situated off the west coast of Africa. In 1975, a classic Marxist single-party regime was established following independence from Portugal, but a referendum in 1990 resulted in a 72% vote in favor of democracy. São Tomé’s main concerns are relations with Portugal and seeking closer ties with the EU and the US.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical equatorial
WEATHER CHART FOR SÃO TOMÉ
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Pop. density medium 183/km2 (474/mi2)
Portuguese Creole, Portuguese THE URBAN/RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
48%
52%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
0
0/32
†
Portuguese and Creole 10%
-10/14 -20/-4
The humid islands straddle the equator. The southwest of São Tomé is much wetter than the northern lowlands.
TRANSPORTATION São Tomé International 23,000 passengers
†
Drive on right
49 ships 86,116 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 218 km (135 miles)
None
None
None
Public transportation is woefully underdeveloped. On Príncipe it consists of a solitary minibus.
S
TOURISM 7569 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:23
/
Up 51% in 1999–2001
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Black 90%
The population is entirely descended from immigrants, since the islands were uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived in 1470. As the Portuguese settled, they imported Africans as slaves to work the sugar and cocoa plantations. The abolition of slavery in the 19th century, and the departure of 4000 Portuguese at independence, has resulted in a population which is 10% Portuguese and Creole and 90% black African, though Portuguese culture predominates. Blacks run the political parties. Society is well integrated and free of racial tensions. The main conflicts relate to class or differing ideologies. The extended family still offers the best, if not the only, form of social security. Women have a higher status than in most other African states; in 2002, Maria das Neves de Souza became the first female prime minister.
Portugal 25% France 16%
Other 50% 0
10
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Despite recent foreign investment, the islands attract relatively few tourists annually, mainly wealthy Africans and Europeans. Attractions include snorkeling, scenery, and wildlife. The first modern hotel opened in 1986.
504
†
Lush vegetation on São Tomé. The tropical climate is slightly moderated by the cool Benguela current.
Multiparty elections
President Fradique de Menezes
2002/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 55 seats
14% UK
42% MDFM–PCD
44% MLSTP–PSD
MLSTP–PSD = São Tomé and Príncipe Liberation Movement –Social Democratic Party MDFM–PCD = Force for Change Democratic Movement–Democratic Convergence Party UK = Ue Kedadji coalition
In 1990, a new multiparty constitution was introduced, ending the Marxist single-party state that had existed since independence in 1975. The opposition PCD was swept to victory in 1991, and later that year Miguel Trovoada returned from 11 years’ exile to be elected as an independent to the presidency. Early elections in 1994 saw the return to power of the MLSTP as the renamed MLSTP–PSD. In the 2001 presidential elections, businessman Fradique de Menezes defeated former Marxist president Manuel Pinto da Costa. However, de Menezes was forced to negotiate the formation of a coalition government with the MLSTP–PSD after the party won elections in 2002. Conflict with the legislature developed over the president’s power to control policy, especially in relation to the undersea oil reserves. A brief army takeover in 2003 forced de Menezes to promise greater cooperation with parliament.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CPLP
ACP
NAM
OIF
Joined UN in 1975
AU
São Tomé has achieved rapprochement with Portugal and seeks to maintain links with other former Portuguese colonies, notably Angola. It has always had close ties with Gabon and, while not dropping its ex-communist links, seeks closer relations with other central African states, France, and the US.
†
Recipient
$26m (receipts) 20
Gabon
São Tomé
POLITICS
AID
Angola 9%
Africa
Equatorial Guinea
SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE
.
Down 32% in 2002
São Tomé has one of the highest aid-to-population ratios in Africa. The government was granted $200 million in debt relief in 2001 by the World Bank Group’s International Development Fund and the International Monetary Fund under the Initiative for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
DEFENSE
,
$400,000
No compulsory military service Little change
Since independence, the armed forces have figured prominently in national life. There have been a number of attempted coups, notably in 1978 (after which 2000 Angolan troops plus Soviet and Cuban advisers were invited in), 1988, and 1995. The most recent, in 2003, saw the brief establishment of a military junta. The national armed forces are believed to number 2000. With the collapse of the Eastern bloc, São Tomé now receives military assistance from the West.
†
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 6000 kW
3500 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited
30,000 ducks, 4850 goats, 350,000 chickens
Oil
An offshore oil exploration agreement with Nigeria was signed in 2001: deposits are expected to come onstream by 2007. There are no other mineral resources. São Tomé is very fertile; cocoa estates are finally back to pre-1975 productivity, and diversification of crops is now a priority. Príncipe has better ports, but its wild scenery makes it more suitable for tourism than farming.
CHRONOLOGY The entire preindependence history of the islands was as a Portuguese colony exploited by plantation owners. 1972–1973 Strikes by plantation workers. 1975 Independence as Marxist state. Plantations nationalized. 1990 New democratic constitution. 1991–2000 Miguel Trovoada president for two terms. 1995 Príncipe granted autonomy. 2001 De Menezes wins presidency. 2003 Brief military takeover.
†
EDUCATION
Inflation 47% p.a. (1990–2001)
School leaving age: 14
IMPORTS $46m
8700 dobras (8700)
UK 8%
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................190th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$300 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$23m INFLATION .........................................6.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ...................................50%
EXPORTS
Belgium 7% Portugal 8% Germany 8%
Netherlands 35%
Canada 11% Other 31%
SÃO TOMÉ & PRÍNCIPE Total Area : 1001 sq. km (386 sq. miles) Ilha Bombom
Príncipe
over 10 000
Germany 10%
Portugal 51%
Other 21%
under 10 000
Santo António
1000m/3281ft
Ilha Caroço
500m/1640ft
WEAKNESSES Cocoa accounts for 90% of export earnings. Skillful diplomacy has attracted high levels of aid, but mismanagement of these funds has resulted in severe debt. Weak currency.
ENVIRONMENT
/
Sea Level
Tinhosa Pequena
10 km
0
Tinhosa Grande (continuation on same scale)
10 miles
N Ilha das Cabras SÃO TOMÉ Pico de São Tomé 2024m
TV ownership medium
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
31 per 1000 population
41 per 1000 population
Defense 1% Education No data
0.6 tonnes per capita
Santana
São Tomé
There is 1 daily newspaper, the indedependent Téla Nón Diário de São Tomé e Príncipe
1 state-controlled service
G ulf Porto Alegre
of
G uinea
1 state-controlled service
Freedom of expression is respected. The state controls radio and TV stations. Radio ownership is high for Africa.
Santa Cruz
Ilha das Rôlas
†
†
SPENDING
Not available
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
CRIME
Equator
Malaria, other parasitic diseases, respiratory and diarrheal diseases
Health 1.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Wealth disparities are not conspicuous, though there is a growing business class. Cocoa plantation workers form the country’s poorest group.
Daily newspaper circulation not available
200m/656ft
0
No welfare state health benefits
Health care is not free, but São Tomé has a better system of basic care than other African countries.
†
Fish conservation, deforestation for fuelwood, and potential tourism expansion are the major issues.
MEDIA
†
HEALTH 1 per 2000 people
Legacy of Portuguese-built infrastructure. Potential for development of fisheries, agriculture, tourism, and oil. Able to attract substantial aid.
LAND HEIGHT Infante Dom Henrique
Education is officially compulsory only for a four-year period between the ages of six and 14.
STRENGTHS
None
POPULATION
181 students
83%
Belgium 6%
Netherlands 4%
130 prisoners
†
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
122
No death penalty
,
66 years
193rd
Little change in 1999
Crime levels are fairly low owing to the tight-knit nature of communities. Robbery is a problem in urban areas.
163
118
123
83%
145 75 deaths
$300
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
505
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SAUDI ARABIA 1932
Kuwait Eg y p t
Sept 23
SA
+3
†
TRANSPORTATION
Hot desert
Africa
Sudan
King Abd al-Aziz International, Jiddah 11.4m passengers
WEATHER CHART FOR RIYADH
Yemen
TOURISM
.sa
+966
CCUPYING MOST OF THE Arabian peninsula, Saudi Arabia covers an area as large as western Europe. Over 95% of its land is desert, with the most arid part, known as the Empty Quarter or Rub al Khali, being in the southeast. Saudi Arabia has the world’s largest oil reserves. It includes Islam’s holiest cities, Medina and Mecca, visited each year by two million Muslims performing the pilgrimage known as the haj. The al-Sa’ud family have been Saudi Arabia’s absolutist rulers since 1932. In theory, Islamic sharia underpins the constitution.
†
SAUDI UAE ARABIA
Oman
O
CLIMATE
Iraq
Jordan
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia CAPITAL: Riyadh; Jiddah (administrative) POPULATION: 24.2 million CURRENCY: Saudi riyal OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1932
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
7.51m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:3.2
/
Up 19% in 2001–2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Egypt 14% Kuwait 13% Syria 8% Pakistan 7% Indonesia 6% Other 52%
Drive on right
0
10
20
50
40
30
60
% of total arrivals
280 ships 1.47m grt
Foreign tourism is discouraged. Until a limited relaxation in 2000, only Muslim 60/24 60/140 pilgrims, business people, and foreign Trans-Arabian workers were permitted entry. Non45,613 km 50/122 50/20 Highway (28,343 miles) Muslims are banned from the holy cities 40/16 40/104 of Mecca and Medina. Though strict 30/12 30/86 1078 km quotas have been imposed to avoid None 20/8 20/68 (670 miles) overcrowding, stampedes of haj pilgrims 10/4 10/50 in 1990, 1997, and 2001 killed or injured 0/32 0 A modern transportation infrastructure thousands. Also popular is the umra, or links the main population centers to the little pilgrimage, since it can be made The kingdom’s only reliable rainfall is Gulf states and Jordan. Saudi Arabia has at any time of year. An estimated $2.5 in the southern Asir province, making the only rail system in the billion has been spent on improving agriculture viable there. The central Arabian peninsula. haj facilities in recent years. I N plateau requires deep artesian wells Jizan on the Red Sea offers superb A to water crops. Inland, summer scuba diving. The Hejaz railroad and D R temperatures often soar ◊urayf the Nabatean ruins at Medain above 48˚C (118˚F), but in Salih are of historical interest. A winter, especially in the To escape the summer heat, Q Sakákah northwest, they may the government relocates Al Jawf KUWAIT fall to freezing point. to mountainous Taif, Rafíá’ used as a resort Tabúk A N N A F Ú D T h by the Saudis. Íafar al Bá√in Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
á√ in
ád ía lB
Ad
Al Mubarraz JA
Al Hufúf
QATAR RIYADH
BA L
Íaraç
◊U
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
WA
D
f
’
l
Á
Al Majma‘ah
J
Al Madínah (Medina)
YQ
Z
N
±alim Laylá
A
h
As Sulayyil
R
Tathlíth
E
R U B
D
Jabal Sawdá' 3133m
Al Birk
A L
‘
Á L K H
Í
M
Qal ‘at Bíshah
Wá dí Bí sh a
Makkah (Mecca) Aà ׇ'if
JIDDAH
O
Khamís-Mushay√
N
Abhá ±ahrán Jízán
S
Najrán
N Wuday ‘ah
E
Y
A
506
Al Jubayl Ras Tannúrah Dammán A≠ ±ahran Al Khubar BAHRAIN
Shaqrá’
Rábigh
Network of modern road junctions spread out across the landscape near Mecca.
G N
Az Zilfí
‘Unayzah
A
Yanbu‘ al Baír
Sea Level
D A H
u
ma Ri
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
Buraydah h
N
under 10 000
Wádí a lÍ ç
over 10 000
2000m/6562ft
Wád ía r
Al ‘Ulá
Á
over 50 000
3000m/9843ft
A D
Íá‘il
am
over 100 000
Al Wajh
J
over 500 000
LAND HEIGHT
I
over 1 000 000
S
Taymá’
Í
Total Area : 1 960 582 sq. km (756 981 sq. miles)
POPULATION
e
W
SAUDI ARABIA
EG YPT
J O
R
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
E
M
0
200 km
E 0
200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SAUDI ARABIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
11/km2 (30/mi2)
Arabic THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
87%
13%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Shi'a Muslim 15%
Sunni Muslim 85% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Afro-Asian 10%
law). The politically dominant Nejdi tribes from the central plateau around Riyadh are Bedouin in origin. The more cosmopolitan, mercantile Hejazi tribes, from the south and west, take little part in politics. In the eastern oil fields of AlHasa province there is a Shi’a minority of some 500,000. Women wear the veil, cannot hold a driving license, play little part in public life, and are effectively barred from work except as teachers and nurses. In 2000, however, Saudi Arabia signed the UN convention on women’s rights – provided it did not contradict sharia – and in 2004 there were moves toward giving women the vote. The population is young and literate, though expatriates do much of the work. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Female
Arab 90%
Age
Male
80+
The Saudis, who take their name from the ruling al-Sa’ud family, were united by conquest between 1902 and 1932 by King Abd al-Aziz al-Sa’ud. The vast majority are Sunni Muslims who follow a puritanical Wahhabi interpretation of Islam and embrace sharia (Islamic
POLITICS
†
Not applicable
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density low
Data Unavailable
60–79 40–59
Data Unavailable
20–39 0–19 % of population by age group
No legislative elections
H.M. King Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
Consultative Council 120 seats
Saudi life. The 5000-strong mutawa (religious police) enforce the five-timesa-day call to prayer, when businesses must close. During Ramadan the mutawa are especially active.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. The king rules with the assistance of an appointed Council of Ministers and the Consultative Council
Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. Since 1993 the king has appointed a Consultative Council (Majlis alShoura). The Majlis gained powers to initiate legislation in 2003.
PROFILE The royal family, the House of Sa’ud, rules by manipulating appointments in all sectors of government. Frequent changes of personnel within the armed forces ensure that officers do not build personal followings. All influential cabinet portfolios, apart from those of oil and religious affairs, are held by members of the royal family. Absolutist rule means that domestic politics is virtually nonexistent. The regime retains feudal elements: at weekly majalis, or councils, citizens can present petitions or grievances to leading royals. The first nationwide local elections are to be held in 2005. The legitimacy of the regime is built on its adherence to Islamic values, and the backing of the ulema (scholars). Emphasis on Islam strongly colors
Questioning the ruling family Following the 1991 Gulf War, a civil rights campaign challenged the authority of the ruling family, demanding closer adherence to Islamic values. Dissidents objected to the presence of US troops on Saudi territory and the consequent exposure to “corrupt” Western culture. The alSa’uds quashed the protest but exiled opponents have continued their activities using faxes and e-mail. The most vociferous denunciations of the royal family come from terrorist mastermind Osama bin Laden, who was formerly a member of the inner circle, operating from bases abroad. Unprecedented public protest in 2003 led to mass arrests. The succession issue The question of succession and the possibility of a future power struggle, rooted in rivalries endemic to the House of Sa’ud, emerged in 1996, when King Fahd suffered a stroke. The management of day-to-day affairs passed briefly to his half-brother, Crown Prince Abdullah, who remains in effective control.
AL
Damasc
OIC
GCC
OPEC
Saudi Arabia’s strategic importance is derived from its oil reserves and the presence of the holy sites of Mecca and Medina. Relations with the US, though close, have been frayed by the recent US-led campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq. After Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, the kingdom helped to lead the Arab coalition against Iraq, sheltering the Kuwaiti royal family, providing military bases to the Western allies, and supplying more troops than any other Arab state. The continued presence of US training personnel angers Saudi Islamist militants. Most of those who carried out the September 11, 2001, attacks on the US were Saudi, as is alQaida leader Osama bin Laden. The US pledged to withdraw troops after the invasion of Iraq, but attacks continued, with suicide bombings of Westerners in Riyadh in 2003 and further attacks in 2004. A pact signed with Yemen in 2000 ended a simmering border dispute. In 2002 Crown Prince Abdullah’s peace plan for Israel/Palestine won praise from Arabs and the West – and hinted at a major change in Saudi policy.
AID
†
Donor
$2.48bn (donations)
/
Up 406% in 2002
Generous loans and grants from the Saudi Fund for Development are made to other Arab and developing countries, mainly for infrastructure projects. Saudi Arabia promotes Islam through charitable foundations, especially in Africa, Asia, and the former Soviet Union. The royal purse also supports scientific and medical research. Since the liberation of Kuwait in 1991, Saudi Arabia has given large sums to countries that supported the US-led alliance, notably Egypt, Syria, Morocco, and Turkey. In addition, the Saudi government substantially reimbursed the US and the UK for the cost of their expeditionary forces, as well as favoring companies from the allied countries for reconstruction contracts.
King Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz acceded to the Saudi throne in 1982.
Crown Prince Abdullah, effectively in control of the country.
507
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY The unification of Saudi Arabia under King Abd al-Aziz (ibn Sa’ud) was achieved in 1932. The kingdom remains the only country in the world which is named after its royal family.
.
$21bn
No compulsory military service SAUDI ARABIAN ARMED FORCES Down 13% in 2002
Saudi Arabia's substantial military contribution to the 1991 Gulf War, at a cost of $55 billion, enhanced its image as a major regional power. Military equipment is purchased mostly from the US, the UK, France, and Canada. Weapons systems are advanced and include Patriot missiles and AWACS early warning radar. US personnel provide training, but the thousands of US combat troops once stationed in Saudi Arabia were deployed elsewhere in mid-2003. The air force is the elite branch of the military. It had one brief period of politicization in 1969 when officers
ECONOMICS $187bn
†
1055 main battle tanks (315 M-1A2 Abrams, 290 AMX-30, 450 M60A3)
75,000 personnel
4 frigates, 4 corvettes, and 26 patrol boats
15,500 personnel
294 combat aircraft (29 F-5, 158 F-15, 85 Tornado IDS, 22 Tornado ADV)
16,000 personnel
None
attempted a coup. The paramilitary National Guard is drawn from tribal supporters of the al-Sa’ud regime. Its commander-in-chief is the crown prince rather than the defense minister.
Inflation 3.7% p.a. (1990–2001)
3.7503 Saudi riyals (3.7502)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................22nd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$8530 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$11.7bn INFLATION .......................................–0.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................25%
EXPORTS
China 5%
Singapore 5% South Korea 10%
Other 45% Japan 16% USA 19% IMPORTS
France 5%
UK 5% Germany 7% Japan 9%
Other 63%
USA 11%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
508
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
S
1937 Oil reserves discovered near Riyadh. 1939 Ceremonial start of oil production at Az Zahran. 1953 King Sa’ud succeeds on the death of his father Abd al-Aziz. 1964 King Sa’ud abdicates in favor of his brother Faisal. 1973 Saudi Arabia imposes oil embargo on Western supporters of Israel. 1975 King Faisal assassinated by a deranged nephew; succeeded by his brother Khalid. 1979 Muslim fundamentalists led by Juhaiman ibn Seif al-Otaibi seize Grand Mosque in Mecca, proclaim a mahdi (savior) on first day of Islamic year 1400. 1981 Formation of GCC, with its secretariat in Riyadh. 1982 King Fahd succeeds on the death of his brother King Khalid. Promises to create consultative assembly. 1986 Opening of King Fahd Causeway to Bahrain. Shaikh Yamani sacked as oil minister. 1987 Diplomatic relations with Iran deteriorate after 402 people die in riots involving Islamic fundamentalists at Mecca during the haj (pilgrimage). 1989 Saudi Arabia signs nonaggression pact with Iraq. Saudi Arabia brokers political settlement to Lebanese civil war. 1990 Kuwaiti royal family seeks sanctuary in Taif after Iraqi invasion. Many allegedly pro-Iraqi Jordanians and Yemenis expelled. 1990–1991 US, UK, French, Egyptian, and Syrian forces assemble in Saudi Arabia for Operation Desert Storm. Public executions are halted. 1991 Iraqis seize border town of Al Khafji, but are repulsed by Saudi, US, and Qatari forces. 1993 King Fahd appoints Consultative Council (Majlis al-Shoura). 1996 King Fahd briefly relinquishes control to Crown Prince Abdullah. Bomb attack at US military complex in Az Zahran kills 19 US citizens. 1997, 2001 Consultative Council expanded, first to 90 then to 120 members. 2002 Crown Prince Abdullah unveils Middle East peace plan; endorsed by AL summit in Beirut.
DEFENSE
2002
aims to control oil prices through OPEC in an effort to buoy up industrialized countries while dampening demand for alternative energy. In 2004 it boosted production in an attempt to lower global oil prices. Approved foreigners have been allowed complete ownership of Saudi businesses and rights to property since 2000. Large sums have been spent on creating an infrastructure for a manufacturing economy. A drive for privatization was announced in 2002.
STRENGTHS Vast oil and gas reserves. World-class associated industries. Accumulated surpluses and steady current income. Large earnings from pilgrims to Mecca. Influence in Muslim world.
SAUDI ARABIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Al Jubayl
Buraydah
Ras Tanúrah Ad Dammán
WEAKNESSES Heavily subsidized food production. Most consumer items and industrial raw materials imported. High youth unemployment. Large national debt. National wealth concentrated within royal family. Dependence on foreign workers, who fear terror attacks.
Al Madinah Al Hufúf Yanbu‘ al Baír Rabigh Íaraç Jiddah Riyadh
Makkah
PROFILE Great efforts have been made to reduce dependence on oil exports and to provide employment for young Saudis as opposed to foreign workers, with limited success so far. Saudi Arabia
Cement
Oil
Steel Food processing
Oil refining Gas refining
Light engineering
0
Petrochemicals/fertilizers
0
400 km 400 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SAUDI ARABIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 57,385 tonnes
9.82m b/d (reserves 263bn barrels)
8.29m sheep, 2.7m goats, 135m chickens
Oil, natural gas, gold, limestone, gypsum, marble, clay, salt
SAUDI ARABIA : LAND USE
Cropland Desert Pasture Wheat Dates Sheep
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 0% Combustion 100% (126bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
RU
100
80
H ALI AL K B '
% of total generation by type 0
With the world’s biggest oil reserves and sizable gas deposits, Saudi Arabia has a key role in the global economy. Attempts
ENVIRONMENT
/
38% (33% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 138th
400 km
0
400 miles
at diversification have not altered heavy dependency on the oil markets.
†
CRIME
18.1 tonnes per capita
Death penalty in use
/
23,720 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
HEALTH
Electric power 23.8m kW
Welfare state health benefits Diarrheal, respiratory, heart, metabolic, and parasitic diseases
1 per 588 people
Infant mortality has dropped and endemic disease has been nearly eradicted. Health care outside major centers such as Riyadh and Jiddah still remains relatively undeveloped, given Saudi Arabia’s huge economic resources. However, large sums have been spent on employing Western expertise. Many Saudis are still sent overseas by the government for treatment, especially for transplant operations, which pose some ethical problems for religious leaders. The private sector has also been encouraged.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Up sharply in 1999–2000
339 per 1000 population
144 per 1000 population
CRIME RATES
Defense 12%
Murders No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
0.7
Education 8.3%
per 100,000 population
Health 3.4%
Rapes
0
0.1
per 100,000 population
162
per 100,000 population
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
Pollution in the Gulf and Red Sea has threatened some wildlife and their habitats, as have hunters using highvelocity rifles and off-road vehicles. The government has taken steps to confine manufacturing to industrial estates. Environmental legislation is, nevertheless, poorly developed, though planning controls apply in the major cities.
MEDIA
†
Strict Islamic punishments – stoning, amputation, and beheading – are enforced. Amid rising criticism of human rights abuses, the National Human Rights Association was set up in 2004.
†
School leaving age: 11
EDUCATION 78%
TV ownership medium
404,094 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Daily newspaper circulation 326 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
2 state-owned services
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 owned by a private oil company
The government imposes total press censorship and insists on strict morality. In 1994, private citizens were banned from owning satellite dishes, but the authorities turn a blind eye to their use. No allowance is made for Arab satellite broadcasts, which have been criticized for covering antiIslamic views. The international Asharq Al-Awsat is a leading Arabic daily. In 2001 the government announced strict rules regarding references to the state and religion on the Internet.
100
% of each age group in education
There are 10 daily newspapers, in Arabic and English. The leading papers are Ar-Riyadh, Al-Watan, and Arab News
80
Members of the Saudi elite are among the most wealthy people in the world. Non-Saudi citizens, especially guest workers from the Indian subcontinent and the Philippines, are much poorer. The al-Sa’uds have used their wealth to create a cradle-to-grave welfare system. Ownership of telephones, TVs, VCRs, and other consumer goods is high. The distribution of wealth is carefully controlled by the royal family through the majlis system. There is no stock market, though shares in public companies are traded privately. Many Saudis refuse for religious reasons to accept interest on deposits with banks, but Islamic banks offer profit-sharing investment schemes as an alternative.
S
60
WORLD RANKING 40
67%
69% Position in World 1st
20
22% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
The growing number of Westerneducated Saudis has intensified pressure for social and political change. In the 1950s, the religious establishment was persuaded to give women equal opportunities in education. Analysts have criticized universities for turning out many graduates in Islamic theology, but not enough engineers and technocrats; a high percentage of graduates struggle to find work.
50th
43 100th
$8530
62 77
73 years
86 23 deaths
150th
132 78%
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
509
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SENEGAL
WEST AFRICA
SN
0
ENEGAL’S CAPITAL, Dakar, lies on the westernmost cape of Africa. The country is mostly low-lying, with open savanna and semidesert in the north and thicker savanna in the south. After independence from France in 1960, Senegal was ruled until 1981 by President Léopold Senghor. He was succeeded by his prime minister, Abdou Diouf, who held power for almost 20 years until his election defeat in 2000.
†
WEATHER CHART FOR DAKAR
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
The coastal regions, which project into the path of the northern trade winds, are remarkably cool given their latitude.
†
Leopold Sedar Senghor, Dakar 1.26m passengers
190 ships 46,600 grt
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 7 km (4 miles)
906 km (563 miles)
897 km (557 miles)
Dakar is a major west African port. The rail link to Mali was built in the 1920s. The 2002 Joola ferry disaster highlighted the overloading of the navy-run service between Ziguinchor and Dakar.
Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 5%
/
Up 10% in 2001–2002
Tivaouane
50
60
Sine
M boun
er
lo
100 miles
Bakel
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000
ri
over 50 000
GUIN
EA-BI
SSAU
Ni o k Ga mb
LAND HEIGHT
ia
581m
under 10 000
I
Ziguinchor
Médina Gounas
L
E A N C Kolda C A S A MSédhiou
over 10 000
a
Vélingara
ig o Bignona ar
Kob lo
é lém Fa
de Baïla
Casam a n c e
Cap Roxo
100 km
Tambacounda
GAMBIA
OCEAN
0 0
Ni é
ntou ulou Ko
510
de
Tiaroye Guinguinéo Salou m Rufisque Fatick Bargny Kaffrine Joal-Fadiout Kaolack Koungheul Nioro du Rip
% of total arrivals
In addition to French package tours to coastal resorts, tours for African-Americans to Gorée, a former slave island, are increasingly popular.
V
A
40
Se
Va llé
M
30
Matam
Linguère
l ga
20
Dara Mékhé Darou Mousti Touba Bambey Mbaké Diourbel Mbour
A
10
Total Area : 196 190 sq. km ( 75 749 sq. miles)
N
ne
Other 21% 0
A
F
Gorée I.
OMVG
SENEGAL
T
du
DAKAR
OIC
FZ
e
Cape Vert Yoff
Spain 5%
I
e lé al
Pikine
ECOWAS
I
Pout Sébikhoutane
Africa 20%
R
Louga
Thiès
Joined UN in 1960
Preserving good relations with France, Senegal’s main ally and aid donor, is the most important foreign affairs concern. Senegal maintains cordial relations with neighbors including Gambia and Guinea-Bissau, and hosts some 20,000 mostly integrated Mauritanian refugees.
Seneg a l Do ué Dagana Lac de Guier
ATLANTIC
France 54%
U
CILSS
Richard Toll
Saint-Louis
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
A
M
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
N
427,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:24
National identity is fairly well developed, and intermarriage has reduced ethnic tensions. Groups can still be identified regionally, however. Dakar is a Wolof area, the Senegal River is dominated by the Toucouleur, the Malinke mostly live in the east, and the Diola (Jola) in Casamance, where the feeling of the Diola that they are excluded from politics has led to a long-running rebellion. A large Senegalese diaspora has increased global awareness of the country’s culture, particularly its music. The 2001 constitution gave women property rights for the first time.
t
TOURISM
Senegal has been a multiparty democracy since 1981, when, under the then new president Abdou Diouf, the constitution was amended to allow more than four political parties. However, the PS held power from the 1950s until 2000, and its influence has been pervasive. Presidential elections in 2000 marked a political watershed. Diouf was defeated by Abdoulaye Wade of the liberal democratic PDS, the dominant party in the “Sopi” (Change) coalition which went on to win a landslide victory in the 2001 legislative elections. A new constitution, approved in 2001 by referendum, abolished the Senate and restricts the president to two terms.
Sunni Muslim 90%
M
S
4227 km (2627 miles)
SC = Sopi (Change) coalition (led by the Senegalese Democratic Party – PDS) AFP = Alliance of Progressive Forces PS = Senegalese Socialist Party URD = Union for Democratic Renewal AJ–PADS = And Jëf – African Party for Democracy and Socialism
51%
-20/-4
9% 3% 4% AFP URD Others
74% SC
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
49%
8% 2% PS AJ–PADS
National Assembly 120 seats
52/km2 (136/mi2)
Traditional beliefs 5%
-10/14
TRANSPORTATION
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Pop. density medium
Wolof, Pulaar, Serer, Diola, Mandinka, Malinke, Soninke, French
Multiparty elections
President Abdoulaye Wade
2001/2006
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
Steppe/tropical
†
POLITICS
.sn
+221
Guinea
Ko
April 4
Guinea-Bissau
o
1960
S
CLIMATE
Mali
Gambia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Senegal CAPITAL: Dakar POPULATION: 10.1 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French 1960
Africa
Mauritania SENEGAL
Kédougou
G U I N E A
200m/656ft Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SENEGAL
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$449m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
/
Senegal is one of the highest recipients of aid per capita in Africa, mostly from France, the World Bank, and Japan. Aid is used to import 400,000 tonnes of rice annually, but also helps finance a sizable civil service, now being cut back. The IMF approved a three-year, $33 million poverty reduction and growth facility program in April 2003 to support economic reform.
DEFENSE $65m
†
.
Down 6% in 2002
†
politics. Senegalese troops took part in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, and intervened in conflicts in Liberia, Rwanda, and the Central African Republic. They also helped to quell revolts in Gambia and Guinea-Bissau.
Inflation 4.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
$4.6bn
The mosque in Touba, religious capital of the Muslim Mouride sect, which was founded in 1887 in Senegal’s groundnut-growing district.
Italy 4%
39%
France 13% India 21%
Illiteracy is Senegal’s major educational challenge. There are universities at Dakar and St.-Louis.
USA 5% Thailand 7%
Germany 5%
STRENGTHS Good infrastructure. Relatively strong industrial sector. Agricultural boom. Revenue from sale of fishing rights. Dakar port an important west African entrepôt. Tourism potential.
WEAKNESSES Many natural resources underexploited.
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 237,000 kW
405,560 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited; refines 19,900 b/d
4.61m sheep, 3.97m goats, 45m chickens
Phosphates, bauxite, salt, natural gas, oil, marble, iron, copper
Senegal’s electricity capacity is largely dependent on imported fuel; cheaper supplies are expected to become available soon from the Manantali Dam in Mali. Initial explorations suggest that oil reserves may exist off Casamance.
ENVIRONMENT
/
†
Sustainability rank: 81st
0.4 tonnes per capita
Senegal, under pressure from neighboring Mauritania, abandoned plans to build a controversial dam on the Senegal River in 2000. The scheme caused concern that traditional farming practices, which rely on seasonal floods, might be disrupted.
†
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Malaria, diarrheal diseases
The state health system is rudimentary. A successful education campaign helps to contain the incidence of HIV/AIDS.
†
SPENDING
IMPORTS
School leaving age: 12
29,303 students
Greece 8%
Other 45%
†
EDUCATION
Mali 9%
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................117th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$470 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$478m INFLATION .........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ...................................48%
12% (6% partially protected)
1885 Gambia split off from Senegal. 1960 Independence under Senghor. 1966–1976 One-party state. 1981 Full multipartyism restored. 2000 Presidency won by Abdoulaye Wade in first ever defeat for PS. 2001 New constitution. 2002 1800 die in ferry disaster.
HEALTH
EXPORTS
SCORE CARD
Compulsory military service
France maintains an important naval base at Dakar. The armed forces total 13,620, plus a paramilitary force of 5000, but the military has never intervened in
ECONOMICS
Senegal, a major entrepôt from the 15th century, was colonized by France in 1890. Dakar was the capital of French West Africa.
Up 9% in 2002
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Nigeria 9% 11 per 1000 population
Other 48% France 26%
22 per 1000 population
Defense 1.3% Education 6.5%
Access to oil potential of Casamance region hampered by rebellion and poor transportation links.
†
MEDIA
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 16 daily newspapers, including Le Soleil, Wal Fadjiri, and Sud Quotidien 3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
8 services: 1 state-owned, 7 independent
The independent media flourished with multipartyism. Senegal had the first satirical journal in Africa with the founding of Le Politicien in 1978.
5360 prisoners
†
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 5 per 1000 people
CRIME
Health 2.8% 0
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Up 21% in 2000–2001
Crime rates are low in rural areas of Senegal, but Dakar and its surrounding shanty towns have become notorious for gang-related crime.
Wealth disparities are considerable in Senegal, and poverty is widespread. Members of the former ruling PS are the wealthiest group.
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
146 $470
151
155 52 years
185
79 deaths
157
39%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
511
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
SERBIA & MONTENEGRO
EUROPE Croatia
SERBIA & MONTENEGRO Bulgaria Maced. Albania
OFFICIAL NAME: Serbia and Montenegro CAPITAL: Belgrade POPULATION: 10.5 million CURRENCY: Dinar (Serbia); euro (Montenegro) OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Serbo-Croat 1992
1992
Nov 29
YU
+1
DOPTING A NEW CONSTITUTION in 2003, Serbia and Montenegro redefined their relationship after their emergence from the wreckage of Yugoslavia. Aid is vital to the recovery of the economy after years of isolation. Serbia, forming the bulk of the country, has a troubled history as a would-be regional power. The machinations of former leader Slobodan Milosevic hastened the end of the former Yugoslavia and precipitated bloody conflicts in 1991–1995 and 1999. Montenegro, the “black mountain” republic, has few resources save for its access to the Adriatic, but is keen to pursue its dream of independence.
†
†
TOURISM
.yu
+381
A
CLIMATE
R om an i a
B-H
/
448,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:23 Up 28% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Bosnia & Herzegovina 14% Czech Republic & Slovakia 9% Slovenia 7% Germany 7% Macedonia 7% Other 56% 0
Continental
10
20
50
40
30
60
% of total arrivals
WEATHER CHART FOR BELGRADE S O N D cm/in 40/16
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
Montenegro’s stunning scenery is a potential draw for tourists.
-20/-4
sza
ub
e
Novi Sad
IA
6 ships 4800 grt
over 1 000 000
A
over 100 000
N
Vr#ac
over 50 000
Ruma
I
Sa va
INA RZE
Gornji Milanovac
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
A
200m/656ft Sea Level
Svetozarevo
Âaâak Kraljevo
Priboj
Zlatarsko Jezero
Pljevlja
r
IA
Sinj a
SN
Ib a
Bijelo Polje
North Albanian Alps
r ok
dn
a M orav a
Aleksinac
Kru#evac Ni# Leskovac
ora aG
K
O
S
Peá
Podgorica
Pirot
a Mora
Kosovska Mitrovica
va
a
Zajeâar
Paraáin
J u ªn
Piv
ra Ta
Pivsko Jezero
pa
ik on pa Ko
& H E
Za
Ãeravica 2656m
R
I
Kragujevac
Uªice
Nik#iá
D
B
Velika Plana
Dr i
MONTENEGRO
A
R
2000m/6562ft
a
GOV
E
na vi
BO
S
Velika Mor a v
587 km (365 miles)
Loznica
LAND HEIGHT
A
Panâevo D BELGRADE an ub e Smederevo
‹abac
560 km (348 miles)
na
512
M
Ti
an
POPULATION
Zrenjanin
D
Drive on right
About one-third of railroads are electrified. The rail link to Greece via Macedonia is one of Serbia’s main trading routes, and lines through Serbia remain the best link between Budapest and Sofia. For internal travel, trains are cheaper, but slower, than buses. Several daily flights link Belgrade with the airports in Montenegro. Bridges and railroads were specifically targeted during the NATO bombing in 1999. The bombing of bridges over the Danube at Novi Sad closed the river as a major regional trading artery; with much international assistance it was finally cleared of debris in 2003, but traffic is unlikely to return to former levels.
Total Area : 102 350 sq. km (39 517 sq. miles)
V O J V O D I N A
AT
3809 km (2367 miles)
(YUGOSLAVIA)
Baâka Topola
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 27,896 km (17,334 miles)
SERBIA & MONTENEGRO O
Sombor
Kanjiªa
RO
Surcin, Belgrade 1.86m passengers
†
Subotica
C
TRANSPORTATION
U
H
R Y G A
N
R
There are three climate zones. The northern plains are characteristically continental: rainy springs, warm summers, and cold winters. While the southern highlands have colder winters with heavy snowfalls, the Adriatic coast boasts hot summers and milder winters.
M
-10/14
O V O Pri#tina Vranje
Ãakovica
L G A R I A
30/12
20/68
U
30/86
0/32
S
Instability, the impact of UN sanctions, and the Kosovo conflict meant that foreign tourism ceased in the 1990s. Serbia has never been a center for tourism, whereas the Montenegrin coast has renowned beaches. In the 1990s they were monopolized by Serbians, particularly by political and criminal elements of the Serbian elite. Hyperinflation and recession kept the average vacationer away.
Rainfall A
B
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
N
Uro#evac
IA
T
IC
Bar
S
E
Lake Scutari
A
ALBANIA
Prizren
M
A
C
I A O N E D 0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SERBIA & MONTENEGRO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
PEOPLE
†
103/km2 (266/mi2)
Serbo-Croat, Albanian, Hungarian (Magyar) THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
52%
48%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Protestant 1%
Roman Catholic 4% Other 11% Muslim 19%
Orthodox Christian 65% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Magyar 3%
Montenegrin 5% Other 10%
Bosniak 3%
Kosovan Albanians have a different culture and heritage. Attempts by Milosevic to suppress Kosovan calls for autonomy directly prompted the 1999 NATO bombing; large migrations of refugees occurred. Albanian nationalism there has alienated the province’s dwindling minority Serb population. The Magyar (Hungarian) minority, mainly Roman Catholic, is concentrated in the relatively prosperous northern province of Vojvodina. Limited autonomy was restored in 2002, after economically motivated pressure from within the region. The Muslim Bosniak population has renewed calls for autonomy for their communities in the Sandzak region (shared by Serbia and Montenegro). POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Albanian 17%
Serb 62%
Age
Female 1.1%
Society was severely shaken in the 1990s by the conflict following the collapse of Socialist Yugoslavia. The wars were fueled by ethnic divisions: while Serbs and Montenegrins share a language and a common religion (Orthodox Christianity), the mostly Muslim
POLITICS 2003/2005
†
AT THE LAST ELECTION
6% Assembly of Serbia and Montenegro 126 seats SPO–NS
24% SRS
8.8% 12.4%
Male 0.8%
80+ 60–79 40–59
13.9%
20–39
14.3%
0–19
7.2% 12.2% 14.3% 15%
16% 15% 11% 10% 10% 6% 2% DSS DLECG ZZP DS G17+ SPS Others
SRS = Serbian Radical Party DSS = Democratic Party of Serbia DLECG = Democratic List for European Montenegro (led by the Democratic Party of Socialists–DPS) ZZP = Together for Changes (led by the Socialist People's Party–SNP) DS = Democratic Party G17+ = G 17 Plus SPS = Socialist Party of Serbia SPO–NS = Serbian Renewal Movement – New Serbia
Serbia and Montenegro agreed to a new confederal union in 2003. The separate republican governments maintain real power with control over domestic policy, while a small confederal authority governs overall foreign affairs and defense. Both republics will have the option for independence in 2006.
CEI
IAEA
†
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Kosovo The withdrawal from Kosovo of the Yugoslav (effectively Serbian) army ended the NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999, and the region came under UN administration. A separate Kosovo assembly was elected in 2001. The ethnic Albanian majority awaits a promised referendum on its future, but local Serbs are wary of Albanian calls for independence. Unresolved tensions flared into violent clashes in 2004.
Milo Djukanovic hopes to lead Montenegro to independence.
Vojislav Kostunica, the last president of Yugoslavia and Serb premier from 2004.
IBRD
OSCE
Recipient
$1.93bn (receipts)
level corruption and the nonappearance of the promised economic recovery. In Serbia, the assassination of Djindjic in 2003 prompted a crackdown on corruption and organized crime. By year’s end, however, the public had seen few real results: electoral victory went to nationalists. Kostunica returned to power as Serbian prime minister in 2004.
Joined UN in 1945
In 1995, mutual recognition among the countries which had constituted the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia paved the way for the normalization of relations. The pariah status of the Milosevic regime in the late 1990s was underlined by his indictment by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in 1999 and the military action by NATO forces over “ethnic cleansing” in Kosovo. Russia, long an ally of Serbia, shares its Orthodox Christianity and its Slavic ethnicity, and strongly opposed the NATO military action, but backed the settlement proposals required to end it. The inauguration of the new democratic government was welcomed enthusiastically by the West and Russia, and the new regime was quickly invited to take the vacant seat in the UN. The electoral victory three years later of the far right in Serbia, however, spells trouble for future relations.
AID
PROFILE The overthrow in 2000 of Serbian nationalist Slobodan Milosevic marked the transition to full democracy. The Democratic Opposition headed by Zoran Djindjic was swept to power in Serbia and Vojislav Kostunica was elected federal president, but relations between the two soon soured. The Montenegrin government, headed by Milo Djukanovic of the DPS, meanwhile distanced itself from Serbia as much as possible. The public remains disillusioned by high-
CE
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections President Svetozar Marovic
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
/
Up 48% in 2002
Milosevic’s removal was an explicit condition of large-scale Western aid, urgently needed to rebuild the damaged economy. The country rejoined the World Bank in May 2001 and received pledges of $1.3 billion in aid immediately on the extradition of Milosevic.
CHRONOLOGY The Serbs were defeated by the Turks at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Parts of the region were later ruled by the AustroHungarian Empire. 1878 Independence gained by Serbia and Montenegro at Congress of Berlin. 1918 Joint Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes created. 1929 King Alexander of Serbia assumes absolute powers over state, which changes name to Yugoslavia. 1941 Germans launch surprise attack. Rival resistance groups: Chetniks (Serb royalist) and Partisans (communist, under Tito). 1945 Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia founded with Tito as prime minister (and president from 1953). 1948 Tito breaks with Stalin. 1951 Farmers permitted to sell produce on free market. 1955 Yugoslav–Soviet détente.
513
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
/
Compulsory military service
Up 17% in 2002
SERBIA & MONTENEGRO ARMED FORCES 931 main battle tanks 62,400 (663 T-55, 206 M-84, 62 personnel T-72) 4 submarines, 3 frigates, 3800 personnel and 31 patrol boats 103 combat aircraft (MiG-21, MiG-29, Orao 2, 8000 personnel Super Galeb G-4)
None
Military capability was specifically targeted for “degrading” by the NATO
ECONOMICS $11.6bn
†
air strikes in 1999. However, the impact on antiaircraft defenses, heavy weaponry, logistics capacity, and infrastructure was less severe than had first been claimed. The Serbian military had played a major role in the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia in the early 1990s. Traditionally the center of Yugoslav armaments manufacture, Serbia was able to arm itself – though the need to create money to pay for domestically produced weapons was a major factor in the crippling hyperinflation of that era. In 2002 the country made its first (modest) contribution to a UN peacekeeping force, in East Timor.
Not available
53.50 dinars (56.48); 0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................84th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1400 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.38bn INFLATION .......................................25.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................30%
EXPORTS
France 5%
Austria 6% Greece 7%
GDP
610
610
440
440
270
270
100
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
514
$706m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
S
1963 Third postwar constitution adopts name Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). 1973 Economic cooperation agreement with West Germany. Noninterference accord with USSR. 1974 New constitution decentralizes government. Vojvodina and Kosovo given greater autonomy. 1980 Tito dies. Collective presidency. 1981 Unrest among Kosovo Albanians; state of emergency. 1985 Serbian intellectuals publish memorandum listing Serb grievances within Yugoslavia. 1986 Slobodan Milosevic becomes leader of Communist (later Socialist) Party of Serbia. 1987 Wage freeze to combat inflation. Banking system crisis. 1988 Belgrade protests against economic austerity. Government brought down over budget failure. 1989 600th anniversary of Battle of Kosovo. Kosovo Albanians protest against Serb police unit; crackdown ends Kosovo’s autonomy. Milosevic elected president of Serbia. 1990 SPS wins elections in Serbia. Communists win presidency and dominate Montenegro elections. 1992 EU recognizes breakaway republics of Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnian war begins. UN sanctions imposed. Ibrahim Rugova elected president of self-declared republic of Kosovo. Milosevic reelected president of Serbia, but SPS loses majority. 1995 Bosnian peace accord. 1996 UN sanctions formally lifted. 1997 Milosevic becomes federal president. 1998 Conflict in Kosovo escalates. 1999 March, “ethnic cleansing” in Kosovo precipitates mass exodus. NATO aerial bombing. June, withdrawal of Serbian forces and police from Kosovo, and entry of international force, KFOR. 2000 Milosevic refuses to accept defeat in presidential election. Opposition candidate Vojislav Kostunica swept to power. Democratic Opposition of Serbia dominates elections in Serbia. 2001 Arrest of Milosevic, who is subsequently extradited to face war crimes tribunal in The Hague. 2002–2003 Low turnouts invalidate republican presidential elections. 2003 February, new state of Serbia and Montenegro. March, Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Djindjic shot dead. December, far-right SRS wins polls in Serbia. 2004 Kostunica becomes Serbian prime minister. Resurgence of ethnic violence in Kosovo.
DEFENSE
2002
Italy 32% Germany 20% Other 30% IMPORTS
France 4%
Other 45%
Slovenia 6% Austria 8% Italy 18% Germany 19%
STRENGTHS Return of international aid and investment in 2000–2001. Economic potential of Danube.
much as 50% of all economic activity goes on within the resilient informal sector. NATO bombing in 1999 caused extensive infrastructure damage; the EBRD estimated reconstruction costs at $20 billion over three years. Sanctions were lifted shortly after Milosevic’s downfall in 2000, and investment prospects were boosted by his extradition and initial cooperation with the ICTY. SERBIA & MONTENEGRO : MAJOR BUSINESSES Novi Sad
Panâevo
WEAKNESSES Severe damage caused by sanctions and 1999 bombings. Low hard-currency reserves. Outflow of skilled professionals. High unemployment.
Belgrade Kragujevac Paraáin
PROFILE Yugoslavia’s living standards were among the highest of the socialist countries. The 1990s conflicts effectively stalled much-needed economic reform. Sanctions, maintained until 1996 and reimposed more fully in 1999, stifled trade and decimated both the emerging private and the state sectors. Hyperinflation had already pushed the economy to virtual collapse. Now, as
Kru#evac
Ni#
Pharmaceuticals
Light engineering
Textiles
Heavy engineering
Chemicals
Food processing
Metallurgy Electronics
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SERBIA & MONTENEGRO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 3557 tonnes
16,341 b/d (reserves 78m barrels)
3.66m pigs, 1.76m sheep, 1.34m cattle, 21.1m chickens
Coal, bauxite, iron, lead, copper, zinc, oil
of total demand, but was badly hit by NATO bombing in March–June 1999. Cropland Forest Pasture High mountain regions Pigs Cereals Dan ub e
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 38% (12bn kWh) Combustion 62% (20bn kWh)
SERBIA & MONTENEGRO : LAND USE
Dr i
na
Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type NORTH ALBANIAN ALPS
Coal production has fallen, prompting imports of natural gas. Vojvodina’s oil industry could cater for one-third
ENVIRONMENT
/
3% (2% partially protected)
†
Not available
0
CRIME
Isolation in the 1990s affected the health service, despite the exemption of medicines and medical supplies from sanctions. Death rates among infants and the elderly have risen dramatically. Health problems can be aggravated by bitingly cold winters. Social insurance is obligatory for those in employment, but medicines are scarce and costly. Montenegro unexpectedly banned public smoking in 2004.
100 km
Yes
Yes
No
No
Ecological awareness peaked in the late 1980s, when the Ecological Forum was active. NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999 caused extensive pollution of the Danube and raised fears of contamination from dioxins. Depleted uranium from NATO munitions has also aroused serious concerns both in Kosovo and Serbia proper.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
†
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
150 per 1000 population
Education 5.1% Health 6.5%
3 state-controlled services, several independent services
Strict censorship and government control vanished with the ouster of Milosevic in 2000. In Montenegro, broadcasters and the press had already begun to express independent viewpoints, and their Serbian counterparts quickly followed suit; self-censorship is now the norm. The B92 radio station had been a beacon of independent reporting and remains confrontational. In Kosovo, however, intimidation by criminal gangs and paramilitaries has hampered the appearance of a free press.
†
EDUCATION 98%
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Organized crime was rife under Milosevic and continues to be a problem and a cause for public concern. The elite “red beret” police were implicated in the assassination of Serbian Prime Minister Zoran Djindjic in 2003. Domestic war crimes trials had begun in Serbia in 2002, but in 2004 full cooperation with the ICTY faltered. School leaving age: 14
208,689 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
2 state-controlled services, several independent services
233 per 1000 population
Defense 5.3%
High crime levels
Serbia & Montenegro does not publish statistics for murder, rape, and theft
There are 18 daily newspapers. Vecernje Novosti and Blic have the largest circulation.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No death penalty
,
7241 prisoners
Daily newspaper circulation 107 per 1000 people
†
100 miles
0
Yes
Heart diseases, cancers, cerebrovascular and respiratory diseases
1 per 476 people
CRIME RATES
Yes
Welfare state health benefits
SPENDING 0
3.7 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
HEALTH
Electric power 11.8m kW
80
Living standards in the rump state of Yugoslavia were badly affected by years of sanctions and the 1999 NATO bombing. Even before 1999, two-thirds of the population were living below subsistence levels. Bank collapses and hyperinflation had effectively wiped out domestic savings. Only those involved in illegal sanctions-busting imports made any gains in this period. Moving toward democracy opened up channels of aid and investment which have helped boost the standard of living across the country, though troubled relations with the West threaten these gains. The illegal economy still thrives, and those in power or with the right connections remain the wealthiest members of society. Apart from the desperate situation of refugees and internally displaced families, unsupported pensioners fare worst.
WORLD RANKING
60
99%
Position in World
89%
1st
40
20
0
36%
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Schooling was totally disrupted by the Kosovo conflict in 1999, leaving the education system in crisis; the wealthy go abroad for their education. Literacy rates in Kosovo, where ethnic Albanian schools were closed in 1990, were low even before the conflict. Rebuilding the basic education system is key to reconstruction and reconciliation.
50th
100th
62 73 years
150th
51 98%
64 17 deaths
108 $1400
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
515
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SEYCHELLES
INDIAN OCEAN SEYCHELLES Tanzania
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Seychelles CAPITAL: Victoria POPULATION: 80,469 CURRENCY: Seychelles rupee OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French Creole, English, and French 1976
1976
June 18
SY
+4
HE 115 ISLANDS of the Seychelles, lying in the Indian Ocean, support unique flora and fauna, including the giant tortoise and the world’s largest seed, the coco-de-mer. Formerly a UK colony and then under one-party rule for 14 years, the Seychelles became a multiparty democracy in 1993. The economy relies on tourism.
†
WEATHER CHART FOR VICTORIA A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
SPPF = Seychelles People's Progressive Front SNP = Seychelles National Party
France Albert René seized power soon after independence. Multiparty elections were held in 1993 after 14 years of oneparty socialist rule; opposition divisions allowed him to retain the presidency. His SPPF kept its majority in the 1998 poll, abandoned its leftist ideology, and adopted a plan to develop the Seychelles as an International Trading Zone, with free-port facilities and new industry. René faced a stiff electoral challenge in 2001, while the opposition SNP gained in legislative polls in 2002. He retired in 2004, handing over power to his deputy, James Michel.
35%
Other (including Muslim) 2%
Anglican 8%
-20/-4
The islands have a tropical oceanic climate, with only small temperature variations throughout the year.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Seychelles International, Mahé 155,000 passengers
31 ships 64,673 grt
Roman Catholic 90%
Drive on left
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 317 km (197 miles)
None
None
None
There are airstrips on the larger islands. Buses and roads are being renewed. Victoria’s deep-sea harbor is one of the best run in the region.
TOURISM 132,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1.6:1
/
Up 2% in 2002
The Seychelles islands were uninhabited before French settlers arrived in the 1770s. Today, the population is markedly homogeneous as a result of intermarriage between different ethnic groups. The Creoles are descendants of French settlers and Africans who were settled on the islands by British administrators. There are small Chinese and Indian minorities. Almost 90% of Seychellois live on Mahé. Population growth has been very low, as about 1000 people emigrate every year. It is conceivable that the transition to democracy could reverse this trend.
OIF
INNER ISLANDS
Mahé
500m/1640ft
Frégate
Ïle Desroches
Île Platte
S
Poivre Atoll
D
UK 14% 0
Other 50% 20
30
40
50
60
I N D I A N
100 km
0
Since the international airport was opened at Mahé in 1971, tourism has become the mainstay of the economy, and employs 20% of the workforce. New hotels must comply with laws to protect the islands’ beauty and unique wildlife. There is substantial foreign investment.
I
Aldabra Atoll
Grande Terre Assomption
ALDABRA GROUP
A
Coëtivy Alphonse Group
L
100 miles
% of total arrivals
516
La Digue
Inset area
AMIRANTE ISLANDS
Italy 15%
10
Île Aride
Grand’Anse
Sea Level
N
Île aux Vaches Île Denis
Praslin Silhouette
200m/656ft
France 21%
AU
The Seychelles is an active member of the Alliance of Small Island States and also of the Commonwealth. It disputes ownership of the UK-ruled Chagos Islands. It has trade accords with Indian Ocean states.
LAND HEIGHT
over 10 000 under 10 000
Joined UN in 1976
NAM
COI
Total Area : 455 sq. km (176 sq. miles)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
Comm
SEYCHELLES POPULATION
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
N
S
32% SNP
68% SPPF
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
President James Michel
AT THE LAST ELECTION
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
-10/14
Multiparty elections
National Assembly 34 seats
298/km2 (774/mi2)
65%
†
2002/2007
Pop. density high
French Creole, English, French
Rainfall
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
Mozambique
POLITICS
.sc
+248
T
CLIMATE
Africa
Kenya
S
O C E A N
Mahé Anse Étoile
E R O U T Cosmolédo Atoll Astove
Bel Ombre Morne Seychellois 905m St. Pierre
F A RQ UHA R GRO UP Farquhar Atoll
VICTORIA Cascade
Anse Boileau
Providence Atoll
Anse Royale 0 0
50 km Takamaka Quatre Bornes 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SEYCHELLES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID
Recipient
$8m (receipts)
.
CHRONOLOGY
Multilateral agencies, notably the EU and the Arab Development Fund, support a range of development projects. Recent aid has focused on protecting the environment, transportation links, and refurbishing Victoria Market, on Mahé. Bilateral aid comes from Japan, France, and other Western donors.
DEFENSE $11m
†
,
No compulsory military service No change in 2002
The Seychelles has a 200-strong army, and a paramilitary guard. The latter includes the coast guard, which is made up of air and sea forces. The army, set up in 1977, was initially trained by Tanzania, and Tanzanian troops were brought in for three years after a coup attempt in 1981. North Korea provided advisers until 1989.
ECONOMICS $569m
†
Inflation 3.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
5.521 Seychelles rupees (5.618)
One of the Inner Islands, which are home to most of the population. Unlike any other mid-ocean islands, all but two are granitic.
†
RESOURCES
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................169th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$6780 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$124m INFLATION .........................................0.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
Electric power 28,000 kW
47,832 tonnes
Not an oil producer
18,500 pigs, 5150 goats, 520,000 chickens
Phosphates (guano), salt, granite, natural gas
Mineral resources are very limited. All fuel is imported; only three islands have electricity. Offshore discoveries of natural gas have spurred a search for oil. Natural habitat and the free trade environment are great assets.
ENVIRONMENT
/
111% partially protected (including marine areas)
SCORE CARD
The French claimed the islands in 1756. Franco-British rivalry for control ended when France ceded them to Britain in 1815.
Down 43% in 2002
†
Not available
2.7 tonnes per capita
1952 Political parties formed, led by F. A. René (proindependence) and James Mancham (pro-UK rule). 1965 UK returns Desroches, Aldabra, and Farquhar islands, which are leased to US until 1976. 1976 Independence. Coalition: Mancham president, René premier. 1977 René takes over in coup. 1979 One-party socialist state. 1979–1987 Several coup attempts. 1993 Democratic elections. 2002 Opposition gain in elections. 2004 René retires; succeeded by Vice President James Michel.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers
1 per 769 people
State health care is free, and the system is one of the best in the region. Private medicine has been allowed under new social legislation.
The Seychelles has been praised for its commitment to conservation. It has two natural World Heritage sites, and helped promote the idea of whale sanctuaries.
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
†
82 per 1000 population
MEDIA
†
SPENDING
TV ownership medium
GDP/cap. increase
269 per 1000 population
STRENGTHS Tourism. Fish exports, especially shrimp and tuna. Profitable reexport trade. International Trading Zone attracting foreign industrial interest. Copra, cinnamon, tea.
Daily newspaper circulation 39 per 1000 people
UK 26%
USA 8% Italy 8% Mauritius 9%
France 18%
IMPORTS
South Africa 8%
Other 44%
2 state-owned services
3 state-owned services
Broadcasting services are state-owned, as private licenses are too costly. The government has sued the opposition weekly Regar ten times in six years.
CRIME
†
France 13%
10
15
20
25
157 prisoners
EDUCATION
Living standards are the highest among AU states. There are no slums in the Seychelles, and the state welfare system caters for all.
/
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Up slightly in 2000–2002
†
School leaving age: 15
50th
35 100th
46 $6780
51
62 73 years
150th
12 deaths
93 92%
1652 students 193rd
Italy 10%
Saudi Arabia 15%
5
No death penalty
Violent crime is rare in the Seychelles. The main concern is the increasing rate of petty theft.
92%
Spain 10%
Health 4.1% 0
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
EXPORTS
Other 31%
Education 7.6%
There is 1 daily newspaper, the state-run Seychelles Nation
WEAKNESSES High debt-servicing costs. Need for food imports, especially for tourist industry. Copra production declining. Reliance on expatriate labor. Foreign exchange shortage. Corruption. Growing deficits in early 1990s, caused by drop in tourism, spending on hosting 1993 Indian Ocean Games, and cost of four elections.
Defense 1.7%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
The 1995–2008 Educational and Training Plan places special emphasis on increasing levels of female enrollment. National Youth Service is mandatory for entry to higher education.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
517
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SIERRA L EONE
WEST AFRICA SIERRA LEONE
Li a ri be
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Sierra Leone CAPITAL: Freetown POPULATION: 5 million CURRENCY: Leone OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1961
1961
April 27
WAL
0
Tropical equatorial/ monsoon
WEATHER CHART FOR FREETOWN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
/
28,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
38%
70/28
Europe 26%
60/24
Americas 13%
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
0
30/86
30/12
% of total arrivals
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
TRANSPORTATION Lungi, Freetown 84,547 passengers
S
†
Drive on right
43 ships 22,733 grt
Visitors : Population 1:179
Other 21%
Up 17% in 2002
Temne 32%
800 km (497 miles)
20
30
40
60
50
†
POLITICS
Sierra Leone has never attracted much tourism, and years of civil war have prevented its development. Among the chief potential attractions are the beaches along the Freetown peninsula, at present virtually undeveloped. China is investing $270 million in hotel infrastructure.
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament 124 seats
67% SLPP
SIERRA LEONE Total Area : 71 740 sq. km (27 698 sq. miles)
22% APC
over 100 000 over 10 000
A rebellion by the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in 1991 500m/1640ft sparked a decade of savage U N 200m/656ft civil war. President Ahmad Sea Level Kabbah was elected in G Falaba 1996 and briefly ousted N Kabala in 1997 by a military Kamakwie coup. A peace and Fadugu power-sharing a Bintimani Ka b Kambia 1948m Bendugu agreement, signed Kurubonla in 1999, collapsed Mange Bumbuna in 2000, but a Makeni Binkolo Port Loko large UN and Marampa l Magburaka Lungi British force ke Lunsar o Pepel Koidu R Njaiama secured a Yonibana Koindu FREETOWN Wellington Yele new ceaseKailahun Hastings fire later that Waterloo Panguma Rotifunk year. The RUF Taiama Boajibu Banana Is Moyamba Pendembu failed to gain Daru a single seat in Sembehun Mano Bo Kenema Blama elections in 2002, Gbangbatok Koribundu Kabbah and his a Turtle Is Bonthe Sumbuya SLPP winning a no a Sherbro I. Potoru M convincing victory. e 0 50 km Postwar reconstruction Pujehun Zimmi is the main issue. 0 50 miles under 10 000
1000m/3281ft
I
L
O
A
I
B
S
w
C
a
E
Mo
I
R
T
I
T a ia
N
518
A
A major road resurfacing project is under way in Freetown. The 300-km (190-mile) narrow-gauge railroad was abandoned in 1971 as uneconomic, though 84 km (52 miles) of track still run to the closed iron ore mines at Marampa. Sierra National Airlines does not provide domestic flights, but private planes may be chartered. There are catamaran and helicopter links between Freetown and the airport at Lungi, as well as taxis and buses.
10% 1% App PLP
SLPP = Sierra Leone People's Party APC = All People's Congress App = Appointed: 12 paramount chiefs are indirectly elected to represent each province PLP = Peace and Liberation Party
POPULATION
LAND HEIGHT
Multiparty elections
President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah
2002/2007
A
84 km (52 miles)
10
T
None
Other 14%
Freetown was founded as a settlement for people freed from slavery. There is a strongly Anglicized Creole culture in the capital compared with the underdeveloped and rural interior. An estimated two million people were displaced by the civil war.
A
906 km (563 miles)
Kuranko 4% Limba 8%
Mende 35%
E
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
62%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Africa 47%
60/140
Coastal rainfall can be as high as 500 cm (197 in) a year, making Sierra Leone one of the wettest places in coastal west Africa. Humidity is consistently high – about 80% – during the rainy season. The dusty, northeasterly harmattan wind often blows during the hotter dry season from November to April. The northeastern savannas are drier, with 190–250 cm (75–98 in) of rain, and are one of the hottest areas.
70/km2 (181/mi2)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
80/31
0
Pop. density medium
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
90/35
0/32
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)
Mende, Temne, Krio, English
HE WEST AFRICAN state of Sierra Leone was founded by the British in 1787 for Africans freed from slavery. The terrain rises from coastal lowlands to mountains in the northeast. A democratic government took office in 1996 against a background of bloody rebellion. Sierra Leone soon plunged back into a savage civil war. Though a 1999 peace agreement was short-lived, an ECOWAS-brokered accord signed in late 2000 seems to be holding.
†
†
PEOPLE
.sl
+232
T
CLIMATE
Africa
Guinea
C
E
L
A
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SIERRA LEONE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Joined UN in 1961
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
ECOWAS
AU
MRU
OIC
UN peacekeepers and British forces turned the tide in the civil war. There are ongoing border tensions.
†
AID
Recipient
$353m (receipts)
/
†
/
$17m
No compulsory military service
Up 42% in 2002
Not an oil producer; refines 4450 b/d
400,000 cattle, 375,000 sheep, 7.5m chickens
Diamonds, rutile, bauxite, gold, titanium
Exploiting the large diamond deposits needs fresh investment as areas currently being mined become exhausted. The southeast is the most fertile region.
ENVIRONMENT
$723m
†
Inflation 29% p.a. (1990–2001)
2455 leones (2370)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................161st GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$140 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$79m INFLATION .......................................–3.3% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................70%
STRENGTHS Diamonds, though much of the output smuggled. Freetown port. Some bauxite and rutile production. Palm products.
WEAKNESSES Legacy of war: disruption to diamond trade, agriculture, and mining sector. Traumatized and untrained youth population. High unemployment. Institutional corruption. Refugees and internally displaced population. EXPORTS
Italy 3% Belgium 42%
USA 4% UK 4% Other 19%
Germany 28%
Ivory Coast 5%
Other 45%
USA 6% Netherlands 8% UK 11%
Germany 25%
†
Sustainability rank: 134th
The main street, Kabala. Sierra Leone is consistently at the bottom of the UN’s human development index.
0.1 tonnes per capita
CHRONOLOGY
Population pressures and the neglect resulting from years of civil war have depleted the land’s productivity.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 4 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA Many local daily newspapers, especially in Freetown 1 state-controlled service, many independent stations
1 state-controlled service
A broad range of periodicals is available. Press freedom has improved since the end of the civil war, though there is still some censorship.
CRIME
†
Sierra Leone does not publish prison figures
1961 Independence. 1978 Single-party republic. 1991 RUF rebellion starts. 1996 Civilian rule restored after 1992 army coup; Kabbah president. 1997 Coup ousts Kabbah for a year. 1999–2000 Power-sharing attempt. 2001 RUF ends insurgency. 2002 Government and UN agree to set up war crimes court. Kabbah and SLPP reelected.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
/
36%
Schooling is not compulsory
8795 students
Freetown has a long tradition of education, and its university, Fourahbay College, became affiliated with Durham University in the UK in 1876. In recent times, its students have often been active in political dissent. Educational provision has inevitably deteriorated over the past decade.
†
5 per 1000 population
Crime is rising
†
EDUCATION
1 per 10,000 people
Freetown was founded in 1787 and became a British colony in 1808; the interior was annexed in 1896.
Death penalty in use
Savage atrocities and mass looting of resources occurred during the civil war. As a consequence, the UN initiated the setting up of a war crimes tribunal; the first trials began in 2004. International restrictions were imposed on trade in diamonds from war-torn areas, but illegal diamond mining and smuggling remain lucrative crimes.
HEALTH
IMPORTS
/
2% partially protected
The UK has been retraining the army since 2000 and has established a new police force. Both sides in the civil war exploited child fighters.
ECONOMICS
Electric power 130,000 kW
75,240 tonnes
Up 2% in 2002
The IMF and the World Bank agreed in 2002 to drop 80% of Sierra Leone’s debt in return for key reforms. Aid funds efforts to cope with the humanitarian needs of refugees from Liberia, internal migrants displaced by the civil war, and the near-collapse of public services.
DEFENSE
†
RESOURCES
No welfare state health benefits Communicable diseases, malaria, malnutrition
Foreign aid agencies have set up clinics and hospitals outside the capital. WHO has ranked Sierra Leone’s health indicators as the worst in the world.
5 per 1000 population
Defense 2.2% Education 1% Health 2.6% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
In terms of quality of life, the UN has repeatedly ranked Sierra Leoneans as the world’s poorest people. Any wealth is associated with political power.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
186 $140
192 37 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
187 36%
177 191 165 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
519
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Asia
S INGAPORE
SOUTHEAST ASIA M a l a y s i a SINGAPORE
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Singapore CAPITAL: Singapore POPULATION: 4.3 million CURRENCY: Singapore dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Malay, English, Mandarin, and Tamil 1965
1965
Aug 9
SGP
+8
.sg
+65
A
N ISLAND STATE now linked to the southernmost tip of the Malay Peninsula by a causeway, Singapore (“lion city”) was largely uninhabited until the 19th century. In 1819, an official of the British East India Company, Sir Stamford Raffles, recognized the island’s strategic position on key trade routes, and established a trading settlement. Today, Singapore remains one of the most important entrepôts in Asia.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical equatorial
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR SINGAPORE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
6.13m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
Indonesia 18%
20/68
20/8
Japan 10%
10/50
10/4
Other 63% 0
-20/-4
Down 12% in 2003
China 9%
0
-10/14
.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
0/32
†
Visitors : Population 1.4:1
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
% of total arrivals
The only variations in the hot, wet, and humid climate are the airless months of September and March, when the trade winds change direction.
TRANSPORTATION Changi 24.7m passengers
†
Drive on left
1768 ships 21.1m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 3066 km (1905 miles)
150 km (93 miles)
39 km (24 miles)
None
The buildings of Chinatown, recognized as a picturesque tourist asset, are being restored. A Singaporean consortium was involved in developing a resort on Indonesia’s Bintan island, some 45 km (28 miles) across the Strait of Singapore.
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density high 7049/km2 (18,220/mi2)
Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
S
The financial center. More than a quarter of Singapore’s GDP is generated by financial and business services.
520
Other 1%
2001/2006
Multiparty elections
President S. R. Nathan
AT THE LAST ELECTION
1% 1% SPP WP
Parliament 94 seats
10% 1% Nom NC
87% PAP
PAP = People's Action Party Nom = Nominated SPP = Singapore People's Party NC = Nonconstituency member WP = Workers' Party In addition to the 84 elected members, up to six "nonconstituency" members may be nominated from the losers with the most votes and nine members may be nominated to ensure a wider representation in Parliament
Singapore is a multiparty democracy, though the ruling PAP effectively controls all parts of the political process and much of the economy. There are plans to create a national ideology (“shared values”) based on Confucian traditions. Lee Kuan Yew, prime minister for more than 30 years until 1990, still exercises great influence. Lee’s successor, Goh Chok Tong, failed to fully stamp his authority on politics. He stepped down in 2004 in favor of Lee’s son, Lee Hsien Loong, part of the upcoming “third generation.” The PAP retains its grip on power, having given Singapore one of the highest living standards in the world, based on a free-market economy. The first antigovernment rally was permitted in 2001, but the PAP was sure of reelection in November even before the ballot, since fewer than half of the seats were contested.
†
Joined UN in 1965
WORLD AFFAIRS
100% ETHNIC MAKEUP
The Mass Rapid Transit System (subway), completed in 1991, is among the world’s most efficient. Space for new roads has run out and monthly auctions are held to sell certificates entitling people to buy from a quota of new cars. The massive port at Pasir Panjang is being expanded on reclaimed land.
†
POLITICS
APEC
ASEAN
NAM
Comm
WTO
Indian 8% Malay 14%
Chinese 77%
Singapore is dominated by the Chinese – the old-established English-speaking Straits Chinese and newer Mandarin speakers – who make up almost 80% of the community. Indigenous Malays are generally the poorest group, but today there is little overt ethnic tension. There is also a significant foreign workforce in Singapore. Long-term plans to stabilize the population structure include cash bonuses for families with more than one child and extensions to maternity leave. Society is highly regulated and government campaigns to improve public behavior are frequent.
Singapore has established diplomatic relations with China, while continuing to maintain close economic ties with Taiwan. It became the beneficiary in 2001 of Japan’s first free trade agreement.
AID
†
Recipient
US$7m (receipts)
/
Up 600% in 2002
Aid is not an important issue in Singapore. France and Japan are the most significant bilateral donors.
DEFENSE US$4.33bn
†
/
Compulsory military service
Up 2% in 2002
Despite Singapore’s small size, its armed forces have a total strength of over 70,000.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SINGAPORE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS
Inflation 0.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
US$86.2bn
CHRONOLOGY China 5%
Japan 7%
SCORE CARD
Hong Kong 9% Other 47%
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................39th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$20,690 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ...............US$18.7bn INFLATION .......................................–0.4% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
USA 15% Malaysia 17% IMPORTS
Japan 13%
STRENGTHS
Other 42%
Massive accumulated wealth derived from success as entrepôt and as center of high-tech industries. Major producer of computer disk drives. Huge state enterprises, such as TAMESEK, with over 450 companies, highly flexible in responding to market conditions. World leader in new biotechnologies.
†
RESOURCES
Dependent on Malaysia for water. Rigid education system stifles entrepreneurial system. Specialization in electronics makes economy highly sensitive to world market fluctuations. Lack of land.
Electric power 5.7m kW
600,000 ducks, 250,000 pigs, 300 goats, 2m chickens
None
Cancers, respiratory, heart, and cerebrovascular diseases
M
.
Down 10% in 2000–2001
94 per 1000 population
463 per 1000 population
Defense 5.2%
Health 1.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The 2001 “Singapore Share” scheme promises to give Singaporeans a stake in the country’s economy.
S
WORLD RANKING
I
A
Sembawang
Causeway
Position in World
Sarimbun Res.
o Joh
Sungai Seletar Res.
Lim
Murai Res. Chu Kranji Res.
Seletar Res.
Kang
Bukit Panjang
Bukit Panjang Bukit Timah
Jurong Lake
Serangoon
Kall Upper an Peirce Res. MacRitchie Res.
ait
of
Pulau Sakra
Si ng
la Se
an and t P Pulau
ap
or
Busing Pulau Hantu Pulau Sudong
Pulau Bukum
e
Pulau Semakau Pulau Senang
Sentosa
1
50th
21 Pulau Tekong
Changi International Airport
16
3 deaths
78 years
25
100th
88 93%
150th
re
Pandan Res. Queenstown City Ge Sin g Pulau Pasir a p or e Merlimau Panjang Pulau Telok Seraya Pulau Retan Laut Blangah Keppel Harbour Pulau Ayer Merbau Pulau Brani
Pulau Pawai
Pulau Tekong Res.
1st
$20,690
Changi
Bedok Res.
yla
Str
Pulau Pesek Pulau Pesek Kechil Pulau Ayer Chawan
Pulau Tekong our Kechil
ng
Jurong Town
Jurong Industrial Estate
oon H arb
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Bukit Timah 163m
Jurong
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Katong
po
Chu Kang
rait re St
Pulau Ubin Punggol S e
ga
Poyan Res. Choa
Jo h
S
GDP/cap. increase
Education 3.7%
Crime levels are low and punishment can be severe, but incidents of violent crime are rising. The main concern is intellectual piracy.
ore Strai t Joh
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Death penalty in use
16,310 prisoners
Y
Singapore has an efficient modern health system. There are incentives to ensure the continuation of the extended family, so that the elderly are cared for at home.
SPENDING
†
CRIME
A
L
A
5 km
t
Welfare state health benefits
4 independent services
The government is very sensitive to any criticism. Nevertheless, the media sector was partially liberalized in 2000, though new entrants found it difficult to make a profit. Foreigners may not own newspapers or broadcasting stations.
14.7 tonnes per capita
Total Area : 693 sq. km (267 sq. miles)
Str ai
†
HEALTH
3 independent services
SINGAPORE
e
Schooling is not compulsory, but attendance is high. Education is seen as the key to a good salary, especially among the Chinese community.
TV ownership high
There are 8 daily newspapers, including the Straits Times and Lianhe Zaobao in English and Chinese respectively
Schooling is not compulsory
132,297 students
1 per 698 people
Not available
There is a small green belt around the causeway. The streets are largely litterfree – due to instant heavy fines. Chewing gum is now available on prescription after a ten-year outright ban was lifted in 2002.
or
93%
Daily newspaper circulation 298 per 1000 people
†
/
5% partially protected
Tengeh Res.
†
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
ENVIRONMENT
5 miles
†
MEDIA
Singapore has no strategic resources and has to import almost all the energy and food it needs. Its main resources, on which its wealth as a center of commerce has been built, are its strategic position and its people.
N
1959 First elections: won by PAP. 1963 Included in Malay federation. 1965 Independence. 1990 Lee Kuan Yew resigns. 1993 Ong Teng Cheong first directly elected president. 2004 Lee’s son Lee Hsien Loong becomes prime minister.
EDUCATION
WEAKNESSES
Not an oil producer; refines 700,000 b/d
0
USA 14% Malaysia 18%
8704 tonnes
0
China 8%
Thailand 5%
in
In 1819, Sir Stamford Raffles set up a trading post in the village of Singapore; by 1826 it was Britain’s colonial center in southeast Asia.
EXPORTS
1.722 Singapore dollars (1.761)
r St
Pulau Tembakul Pulau Sakijang Pelepah Pulau Sakijang Bendera Pulau Sebarok
ai
t
of
S
SOUTH
193rd
C HINA SEA Urban Areas Open Areas
Nature Reserve
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
521
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
SLOVAKIA
EUROPE
1993
Oct 1
SK
+1
Uk
ra in
e
Aus tr
ia
SLOVAKIA
OFFICAL NAME: Slovak Republic CAPITAL: Bratislava POPULATION: 5.4 million CURRENCY: Slovak koruna OFFICAL LANGUAGE: Slovak 1993
P ol an d
Czech Republic
Hungary
.sk
+421
D
OMINATED FOR 900 YEARS by neighboring Hungary, Slovakia spent much of the 20th century as the less developed half of communist Czechoslovakia. An independent democracy since 1993, Slovakia has struggled to create a modern market-led economy, but was among the ten countries which joined the EU in its major eastward expansion in 2004.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR BRATISLAVA
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
†
PEOPLE
Continental
Pop. density medium 110/km2 (285/mi2)
Slovak, Hungarian (Magyar), Czech THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
58%
42%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Orthodox Christian 4%
-10/14
Protestant 8% Atheist 10%
-20/-4
Slovakia has a continental climate. Snowfalls are heavy in winter, while summers are moderately warm.
†
TRANSPORTATION Milan Rastislav Stefánik, Bratislava 366,907 passengers
Drive on right
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
President Ivan Gasparovic
2002/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
S
3657 km (2272 miles)
172 km (107 miles)
24% HZDS
1.4m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:3.9
/
Up 15% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Czech Republic 32% Poland 19% Germany 13% Other 36% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
The High Tatras, one of the smallest high-mountain ranges in the world, and the Vrátna valley in the Little Tatras draw hikers and skiers. Tourists also visit Bratislava’s castle and old city, and the many thermal-spring health spas.
522
17% Smer
13% 10% 10% 7% SMK KDH ANO KSS
HZDS = Movement for a Democratic Slovakia SDKU = Slovak Democratic and Christian Union Smer = Direction SMK = Hungarian Coalition Party KDH = Christian Democratic Movement ANO = New Civic Alliance KSS = Slovak Communist Party
The River Danube is a vital artery. Trains are cheap and efficient. Buses and trams are the mainstay of urban transportation.
TOURISM
19% SDKU
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
National Council of the Slovak Republic 150 seats 296 km (184 miles)
Slovaks dominate society, but 11% of the population is Magyar, and there is a significant Roma minority which faces discrimination. The Magyar community, backed by Hungary, seeks protection for its language and culture. Tensions lessened in 1998 when its main political voice, the Hungarian Coalition Party, joined the government. There were 300,000 Slovaks living in Czech lands in 1993. Dual citizenship is now permitted.
Other 18% Roman Catholic 60%
Has no fleet
37,372 km (23,222 miles)
Levoââ a, in northeastern Slovakia, dates from the 13th century and still retains its medieval street plan and town walls.
The political ambitions of Slovak leader Vladimir Meciar were a major factor in the separation of Czechoslovakia in 1993. The populist Meciar was prime minister and dominated Slovak politics until 1998, but clashed repeatedly with President Michal Kovac, both of the HZDS. The HZDS remained the largest party in the National Council after the 1998 elections, but was unable to form a government. Instead Mikulas Dzurinda of the Democratic Coalition (now the SDKU) led a broad center-right coalition. The SDKU formed a new four-party coalition after the 2002 election, despite a strong showing again by the HZDS and by the new populist Smer party. Direct presidential elections were introduced in 1999; Meciar, by then out of office, lost that year to the pro-Western Rudolf Schuster, and in 2004 to former ally Ivan Gasparovic.
CE
EU
Joined UN in 1993
OECD
NATO
OSCE
Slovakia adopted a distinctly pro-Russian stance under Meciar. Since his defeat in 1998 it has turned increasingly to the West. It joined the OECD in 2000, NATO in March 2004, and the EU in May of the same year.
†
AID
Recipient
$189m (receipts)
/
Up 15% in 2002
Foreign aid fell after the mid-1990s, but EU programs helped the country to prepare for membership in 2004.
DEFENSE $439m
†
/
Phasing out conscription
Up 15% in 2002
Conscription has been cut from nine months to six from January 2004 and is to be phased out by 2006. Prime Minister Dzurinda, in office since 1998, reversed Meciar’s pro-Russian defense policies.
RESOURCES
†
Electric power 8.2m kW
2530 tonnes
1183 b/d (reserves 7.3m barrels)
5.8m turkeys, 1.6m ducks, 1.44m pigs, 5.6m chickens
Coal, lignite, gas, oil, antimony, copper, iron, mercury, zinc
Slovakia’s two nuclear plants, Mochovce and Jaslovske Bohunice, generated almost 60% of electricity in 2001.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SLOVAKIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Mo
Nitra
ra va
Sereå Pezinok
Dunajská Streda
S IN
To
Keªmarok To
MTS.
ry sa Levoâa
Liptovskÿ Mikulá# Hron
Poprad Spi#ská Nová Ves Brezno
Banská Bystrica
R SLOVENSKÉ
O OH UD
Ho
RI
E
pñ
a
Pre#ov
rn ád
Ko#ice
Michalovce Trebi#ov
Roªõava
Rimavská Sobota
Luâenec
Zlaté Moravce
N
0
50 km
0
50 miles
D
LAND HEIGHT u be
Komárno
H
U
‹túrovo
G
N
A
R
Y POPULATION
500m/1640ft
ECONOMICS $21.3bn
†
32.75 Slovak koruny (36.21)
SCORE CARD
Expansion of manufacturing, especially in Bratislava and surrounding area. Increase in foreign investment and relative success of privatization program. Growth in exports to EU and promise of stability through membership. Potential for tourism, particularly skiing in the Tatra Mountains.
WEAKNESSES High foreign indebtedness. High unemployment. Dependence on foreign trade makes the economy vulnerable to global recession. Heavy industry struggles with poor productivity. Much poorer eastern region. Collapse of “pyramid” investor schemes in 2002. EXPORTS
Other 35%
Austria 8% Italy 11% Czech Republic 15%
IMPORTS
Italy 7% Russia 13%
Other 38% Czech Republic 15% Germany 23%
.
†
Sustainability rank: 14th
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
†
8829 prisoners
/
Up 5% in 2001
Organized crime has increased rapidly in recent years, as has “white collar crime” such as business fraud. A new law to control money laundering took effect in 2001. A former economics minister accused of embezzlement was murdered in 1999.
99%
†
School leaving age: 15
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
246 per 1000 population
268 per 1000 population
Defense 2%
1 state-controlled service and many privately owned stations
No death penalty
†
SPENDING
Education 4.1% Health 5.1% 0
CRIME
Heart diseases, cancers, cerebrovascular disease
Rising demand and costs are straining the health service severely. Restoring viability is now a government priority.
There are 11 daily newspapers. Novÿ Âas and Pravda have the highest circulation figures
The state news agency TASR, accused of lacking objectivity and depending on government funding, resisted the emergence of independent rival SITA.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 278 people
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
3 services: 1 state-controlled, 2 independent
†
HEALTH
6.6 tonnes per capita
The Gabcikovo Dam and the Bohunice nuclear reactors, now scheduled for partial closure, have provoked criticism.
EDUCATION
Germany 26%
Austria 4%
ENVIRONMENT
Daily newspaper circulation 131 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
Hungary 5%
Sea Level
23%
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................61st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$3970 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.94bn INFLATION .........................................3.3% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................19%
1939–1945 Separate Slovak state under pro-Nazi Jozef Tiso. 1945 Czechoslovak state restored. 1947 Communists seize power. 1968 “Prague Spring” ended by Warsaw pact invasion. 1989 “Velvet Revolution.” 1993 January 1, separate Slovak and Czech states established. 1994 HZDS election victory. 1998 Broad-based coalition under Dzurinda wins general election. 2002 Dzurinda coalition reelected. 2004 Slovakia joins NATO and EU. June, Ivan Gasparovic sworn in as president.
200m/656ft
over 10 000
Inflation 10% p.a. (1990–2001)
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
over 100 000 over 50 000
Humenné Vranov nad Topñou
Zvolen
Levice ‹urany Nové Zámky
‹aña Váh
BRATISLAVA an
Prievidza
Hr on
Trnava
ra Nit
I A A U S T R
Malacky
Ruªomberok
Partizánske ·iar nad Hronom Pie#˚any Topoñâany Hlohovec
Senica
oprad Gerlachovskÿ ‹tít P 2655m TRA
Martin
Bánovce nad Bebravou
Nové Mesto nad Váhom
TA
h Vá Nová Dubnica
D
Bardejov
Ip eñ
C
Skalica
KID M
Once part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Slovakia and the Czech Lands formed the Republic of Czechoslovakia in 1918.
N
TA
UKR
Trenâín
CHRONOLOGY
A
rec
E
C
BE S
N OU
·ilina
Povaªská Bystrica Dubnica nad Váhom
L
Labo
Z
H
PU
O
va da On
E
R
I C B L Âadca
E
P
Total Area : 48 845 sq. km (18 859 sq. miles)
AIN
SLOVAKIA
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
A new elite is increasing demand for Western goods. Rural workers, Roma, and those living in the east are the poorest.
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
1
50th
99%
38 100th
63
62
$3970
73 years
8 deaths
42
150th
139,036 students 193rd
Schooling now draws on pre-1939 Slovak traditions but it is not adequately resourced, especially in rural areas. There is a modern university in Bratislava.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
523
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
SLOVENIA
EUROPE Austria Ital y
Croatia
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Slovenia CAPITAL: Ljubljana POPULATION: 2 million CURRENCY: Tolar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Slovene 1991
June 25
SLO
+1
L. House 2004/2008 U. House 2002/2007
O
F ALL THE FORMER Yugoslav republics, Slovenia has the closest links with western Europe. Located at the northeastern end of the Adriatic Sea, this small, Alpine country controls some of Europe’s major transit routes. Slovenia’s transition to independence in 1991 avoided the violence of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The most prosperous of the former communist European states, it was the only former Yugoslav republic to join the EU and NATO in 2004.
†
CLIMATE
Continental/ Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR LJUBLJANA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
51% Croat 2% Other 12%
Serb 2% -20/-4
Slovenia’s interior has a continental climate. Its small coastal region has a mild Mediterranean climate.
Slovene 83%
11 ships 2251 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 20,236 km (12,574 miles)
456 km (283 miles)
1229 km (764 miles)
None
Total Area : 20 253 sq. km (7820 sq. miles)
AN
A Idrija
30
40
50
a
Kr#ko Trebnje
60 Postojna
% of total arrivals G
Koper Piran
POPULATION over 100 000 over 50 000
Breªice
over 10 000 under 10 000
Novo Mesto
Ribnica
Seªana Gulf of Trieste
ice SE en fV IC fo AT ul A D R I
A revival in tourism has been helped by Slovenia’s political stability. Particular attractions include skiing in the Julian Alps, picturesque Ljubljana, and the wine-growing region around Ptuj.
Sa v
Roga#ka Slatina
Nova Gorica
Y
20
Ptuj
Kamnik Celje Trbovlje
LJUBLJANA
L
Austria 15% Other 46%
A
524
Kranj
N
Koâevje Ilirska Bistrica
Ko
lpa
O
0 0
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft
Ârnomelj
R C
Y
va
Velenje
PS
Tolmin
Germany 18%
10
LI
Triglav a 2863m
oâ
T
Italy 21%
S
AL
Bovec
Mu ra
R
I
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Maribor
Ravne na Koro#kem Jesenice Trªiâ
a
JU
Murska Sobota
A
A
Up 5% in 2003
T
S
U
A
I
R
Dr
/
1.37m visitors
SLOVENIA
G
†
TOURISM
Visitors : Population 1:1.5
N HU
Slovenia is strategically situated at some of Europe’s major crossroads. In addition, its Adriatic ports provide Austria with its main maritime outlet.
Slovenes are ethnically very similar to the neighboring Croats and, like them, are predominantly Roman Catholic. However, Slovenia’s long historical association with western Europe, and particularly with Austria, created a distinct Slovene identity, enabling a smooth transition to independence in 1991. The major non-Slavic minorities are small communities of Hungarians in the east and Italians in the southwestern Istrian region; tensions are few. Women are not particularly disadvantaged in Slovenian society.
A
Drive on right
2% 11% MR Others
Slovenia has been strikingly stable since independence, but fragmented party politics makes coalition governments essential. Milan Kucan was elected president in 1990 and 1997, and Janez Drnovsek, leader of the center-left LDS, was prime minister almost continuously from 1992 until he was elected to replace Kucan in December 2002, with Finance Minister Anton Rop appointed prime minister in his stead. In 2004 the center-right SDS won a surprise election victory on the back of a general desire for change rather than major policy differences. A smooth integration into the Western international community is the main political issue, while reform of the pension system and controlling inflation are also of concern.
T
Brnik, Ljubljana 921,335 passengers
†
10% NSi
26% LDS
A
TRANSPORTATION
8% SLS/SKD
11% ZLSD
22 members of the National Council, which has an advisory role, are indirectly elected, and 18 are chosen by an electoral college to represent various interests
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Bosniak 1%
President Janez Drnovsek
National Council 40 seats
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
49%
Multiparty elections
SDS = Social Democratic Party of Slovenia LDS = Liberal Democracy of Slovenia ZLSD = United List of Social Democrats NSi = New Slovenia – Christian People's Party SLS/SKD = Slovene People's Party/Christian Democrats of Slovenia MR = Two seats are reserved for Italian and Hungarian minority representatives
0
0/32
0
32% SDS
99/km2 (256/mi2)
-10/14
S
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 90 seats
Pop. density medium
Slovene, Serbo-Croat
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
†
POLITICS
.si
+386
I
1991
Hungary
SLOVENIA
500m/1640ft
25 km
200m/656ft 25 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SLOVENIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
CEFTA
Joined UN in 1992
NATO
EU
CHRONOLOGY Slovenia was part of the AustroHungarian Empire until 1918, when it joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia).
OSCE
Slovenia has close ties to the West and was the only former Yugoslav state to be included in the 2004 rounds of enlargement of both the EU and NATO.
†
AID
Recipient
$171m (receipts)
/
Up 36% in 2002
Post-1991 aid came overwhelmingly from the EU, increasing markedly in preparation for membership in 2004. A key focus is on improving education.
DEFENSE $311m
†
/
No compulsory military service
Up 13% in 2002
Troops staved off Yugoslav forces after secession in 1991. Compulsory military service was phased out in 2003 and replaced by a voluntary option.
ECONOMICS $20.4bn
†
Inflation 18% p.a. (1993–2001)
197.2 tolars (203.7)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................63rd GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$10,370 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$375m INFLATION .........................................7.5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
Lake Bled in the Julian Alps, which lie astride the Slovenian–Italian border. The lake is a popular tourist destination.
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 2.5m kW
3089 tonnes
20 b/d
655,665 pigs, 473,242 cattle, 4.98m chickens
Coal, lignite, lead, zinc, uranium, silver, mercury, oil
Slovenia has come under pressure from Austria to close the nuclear plant at Kr#ko, which provides one-third of Slovenia’s power. There are deposits of brown coal and lignite, but they are difficult to extract and of poor quality.
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (2% partially protected)
†
7.3 tonnes per capita
†
†
HEALTH
Sustainability rank: 23rd
Protecting the country’s alpine ecology is a priority. Pollution comes mainly from smelting, the chemicals industry, and burning brown coal and lignite.
MEDIA
1948 Tito’s break with Moscow. 1989 Parliament confirms right to secede. Calls multiparty elections. 1990 Control over army asserted, referendum approves secession. 1991 Independence declared; first republic to secede. Yugoslav federal army repelled. 1992 First multiparty elections. Milan Kucan president, Janez Drnovsek prime minister. 1993 Joins IMF and World Bank. 2002 Drnovsek elected president; Anton Rop prime minister. 2004 Joins NATO and EU. SDS wins elections.
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases
1 per 455 people
National health care in Slovenia uses health centers and outpatient clinics to increase accessibility for patients.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING TV ownership high
445 per 1000 population
Daily newspaper circulation 169 per 1000 people
506 per 1000 population
EXPORTS
France 7% Other 40%
Austria 7%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Defense 1.5%
Italy 12%
4 services: 1 state-controlled, 3 independent
4 services and many regional stations
Germany 25% IMPORTS
Croatia 4%
Austria 8% France 10%
Other 41% Italy 18%
A free and critical press has developed. State broadcasters have a new ethical code, protecting journalists’ sources. POP TV is a commercial success.
CRIME
†
Germany 19%
STRENGTHS Stability. Competitive manufacturing industry. Healthy exports. Prospects of increased trade from EU membership. Revoz car plant: produces Renault Clios. Competitive port at Koper. Free trade pact with Bosnia from 2001. Least indebted of central and eastern European states.
Education 5.8%
There are 6 daily newspapers. The Delo has the largest circulation
Croatia 9%
1120 prisoners
99%
5
10
15
20
25
Slovenia has the highest standard of living of all the central and eastern European states of the former Soviet bloc.
S
WORLD RANKING No death penalty
/
Position in World Up 11% in 2001
Slovenia’s prison population is proportionately among the lowest in Europe. Smuggling people into western Europe is overtaking narcotics smuggling as the focus of organized crime.
EDUCATION
Health 6.3% 0
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
†
School leaving age: 14
91,494 students
1st
50th
100th
38
38
$10,370
76 years
1
5
99%
4 deaths
27
150th
193rd
WEAKNESSES Foreign investment slow to take off despite market reforms. Sluggish privatization, particularly of banking sector. Inflation high, but falling.
Primary schooling now begins at the age of six, lowered from seven. Preschooling is available. Ljubljana and Maribor have universities.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
525
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN Papua New Guinea
Nauru SOLOMON ISLANDS Tuvalu
OFFICIAL NAME: Solomon Islands CAPITAL: Honiara POPULATION: 477,000 CURRENCY: Solomon Islands dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1978
1978
July 7
SLB
+11
PEOPLE
.sb
+677
CATTERED OVER 645,000 sq. km (250,000 sq. miles), the Solomons archipelago has several hundred islands, but most people live on the six largest – Guadalcanal, Malaita, New Georgia, Makira, Santa Isabel, and Choiseul. The Solomons have been settled since at least 1000 BCE; the Spanish arrived in 1568. Since 1998 ethnic conflict between rival islanders has destabilized the country. Most of the Solomons are coral reefs. Just 1% of the land area is cultivable.
†
Pop. density low
17/km2 (44/mi2)
English, Pidgin English, Melanesian Pidgin
S
CLIMATE
†
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
21%
79%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Church of Melanesia (Anglican) 34%
Tropical equatorial
Other 9%
Seventh-day Adventist 10% Methodist 11%
WEATHER CHART FOR HONIARA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
Rainfall
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Unloading seed coconuts near Munda on New Georgia in the Solomons’ northern chain of islands. Coconuts are by far the largest and most commercially important crop.
-10/14 -20/-4
There is little temperature variation in the humid climate, but ferocious cyclones can occur in the rainy season.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Henderson Field, Honiara 22,000 passengers
28 ships 8400 grt
TOURISM 21,000 visitors
Drive on left
41 km (25 miles)
O T
GUINEA
P
A
POPULATION
C
N
Santa Isabel Kolombangara Dai I. Ranongga Gizo New Georgia Buala
GUADALCANAL
Munda
G I Rendova A Tetepare
0
AN
DS
over 10 000
I
F
Vangunu Malaita San Jorge Nggatokae Auki Florida Is Pavuvu Tulaghi Russell Is Maramasike
Guadalcanal
HONIARA
30 km
30 miles 0 Visale HONIARA Aruliho Tenavatu Ruavatu Maravovo Rere Lambi Aola Mount Popomanaseu Manikaraku Tangarare 2330m Mbalo Nduindui Inakona Avuavu
42% PAP
LAND HEIGHT
Sea Level
O
C
E
SANTA CRUZ
A
N
Duff Is
Nupani Swallow Is
San Cristobal
Nendö
ISLANDS
Lata
Utupua Rennell
N 0
200 km
Vanikolo Tikopia
200 miles
26% Ind
24% 6% 2% SIACC PPP LP
PAP = People's Alliance Party Ind = Independents SIACC = Solomon Islands Alliance for Change Coalition PPP = People's Progressive Party LP = Labour Party
500m/1640ft
C
Uki I.
Kirakira
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
National Parliament 50 seats
1000m/3280ft
under 10 000
I
Ulawa I.
0
526
60
50
SOLOMON ISLANDS Kia
IS L
40
30
Total Area : 28 450 sq. km (10 985 sq. miles)
Choiseul
Shortland Is Shortland I. Treasury Is Vella Lavella
20
The importance of Guadalcanal during World War II and the tranquility of the outer islands used to attract tourists. However, ethnic conflict all but destroyed tourism in 1998 and again when fighting intensified in 2000. Lack of funding hampers recovery.
H
(Bougainville I.)
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
10
Ontong Java Atoll
U
SOLOMON SEA
2001/2005
% of total arrivals
S
PAPUA NEW
†
POLITICS
Other 60%
International flights from the principal airport, 13 km (8 miles) outside Honiara, were resumed in late 2000 after the ending of open hostilities.
OR
Down in 2000
USA 7%
None
GE
.
Australia 23%
None
None
W
Visitors : Population 1:23
Philippines 10%
0
E
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
S
Almost all Solomon Islanders are Melanesian; relations between islands are tense. During the 1998–2000 conflict, 20,000 Malaitans were forced from their homes on Guadalcanal by native (Isatabu) militias. Authorities in outlying islands have pressed for greater autonomy. There are small communities of Micronesians who are descended from I-Kiribati temporarily relocated in 1957. More than 50 dialects are spoken. Though the islanders are nominally Christian, animist beliefs are widespread.
0
0/32
South Seas Evangelical Church 17%
Roman Catholic 19%
S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
The government was briefly ousted during civil conflict on Guadalcanal in 2000. Though a new devolved “state system” provided a semblance of stability, with greater regional autonomy, militias maintained effective control. “Compensation” claims from the conflict quickly outstripped aid funds, and the government is frequently close to bankruptcy. Prime Minister Allan Kamakeza and his PAP government (elected in 2001) called for the intervention of an Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission which arrived in 2003 to restore Anuta order and reform the Fatutaka country’s finances.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SOLOMON ISLANDS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
Comm
IBRD
PC
Joined UN in 1978
PIF
The intensification of violence in 2000 caused great concern around the Pacific, and heightened international mediation
†
AID
.
Down 56% in 2002
Aid has focused very specifically on restoring stability and rebuilding infrastructure after years of brutal conflict. Regional powers Australia, New Zealand, and Taiwan are key in aiding recovery. Australia has taken on most responsibility in the reconstruction efforts through its commanding role in the Regional Assistance Mission.
†
ECONOMICS
,
Australia responsible for defense
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................179th GNP PER CAPITA ...........................US$580 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ...................US$21m INFLATION .........................................9.4% UNEMPLOYMENT............Some underemployment
Thailand 7%
Singapore 4%
Philippines 10% Other 40% China 18% Japan 21%
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 12,000 kW
30,090 tonnes
Not an oil producer
68,000 pigs, 13,000 cattle, 220,000 chickens
Gold, copper, bauxite, lead, zinc, silver, cobalt, phosphates
Bauxite deposits have been discovered on Rennell Island, and there are traces of gold and copper on Guadalcanal. Electricity was rationed in Honiara in 2004, since there was only enough fuel to run one generator.
ENVIRONMENT
/
†
Not available
0.4 tonnes per capita
The environmental movement is strong. Depletion of forest and marine resources are a major concern. In 1998 a sustainable forest-harvesting policy was introduced, but the need to restore the economy puts pressure on environmentally sensitive areas.
Settled since before 1000 BCE by Melanesian peoples, the Solomons became a British colony in 1893. 1942–1943 Japanese occupation. 1978 Independence from UK. 1983 Diplomatic relations with Taiwan established. 1998–2000 Civil conflict between Guadalcanal and Malaita islanders. 2003 International peacekeeping force arrives.
†
EDUCATION 77%
Education is modeled on the British system. Tertiary students go to the University of the South Pacific in Fiji.
†
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
IMPORTS
Papua New Guinea 5%
Fiji 5% New Zealand 5%
Other 33%
Singapore 20%
Not available
There is one hospital in Honiara; during the recent crisis, smaller clinics were damaged and staff fled. The return of security has allowed services to recover.
Australia 32%
†
SPENDING STRENGTHS
MEDIA
5 per 1000 population
†
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 16 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There is 1 daily newspaper, The Solomon Star
Defense None Education 3.6% Health 4.7% 0
5
20
25
WORLD RANKING
50th
100th
78
No death penalty 193rd
/
15
Solomon Islanders in government jobs are the wealthiest group. Inhabitants of the outlying islands are extremely poor.
20 deaths
101
150th
134 prisoners
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Position in World
Australia has donated technical equipment to the national broadcaster and has sponsored peace programs.
†
15 per 1000 population
1st
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
No terrestrial service
CRIME
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
WEAKNESSES Economy near collapse after ethnic conflict. Destruction of infrastructure. Key gold mine shut by militias. Grossly inflated compensation claims from conflict. Revenue from copra, gold, fish, and palm oil dried up. Lack of social stability deters investment.
School leaving age: 14
Not available
HEALTH
Good mineral and agricultural resources. Influx of international aid.
EXPORTS
0.3% partially protected
Not applicable
The Australian-led Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI) was invited by the Solomons government in 2003 amid continuing insecurity. RAMSI brought a robust military presence, and the militias’ control over outlying islands was quickly broken. A gun amnesty netted nearly 4000 weapons.
SCORE CARD
No compulsory military service
Inflation 8.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
7.435 Solomon Islands dollars (7.521)
US$256m
†
DEFENSE
Recipient
US$26m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
efforts, in which Australia in particular was involved. The Solomons government was increasingly eager to secure direct intervention in order to restore law and order. In 2003, Australia agreed to lead a regional peacekeeping force.
69 years
140 $580
124 138 77%
Crime is rising
The Australian-led peacekeeping force is providing security while the criminal justice system is completely overhauled.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
527
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SOMALIA
EAST AFRICA
AL M
1960
Oct 21
SO
+3
Kenya
CCUPYING THE HORN of Africa, Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland joined in 1960 to form an independent Somalia. Except in the more fertile south, the land is semiarid. Years of clan-based civil war have resulted in the collapse of central government, the frustration of US and UN intervention initiatives aimed at easing a huge refugee crisis, and mass starvation.
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly (suspended)
There has been no prospect of organizing new elections since the overthrow of Siad Barre. A transitional assembly was formed in 2004 on a nonparty basis.
Hot desert/steppe
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
-10/14
Baydhabo market. Subsistence farming supports most people, despite chaos created by the fighting.
-20/-4
Somalia is very dry. The northern coast is very hot and humid, the eastern less so. The interior has some of the world’s highest mean yearly temperatures.
†
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on left
17 ships 6300 grt
Mogadishu
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low 16/km2 (41/mi2)
Somali, Arabic, English, Italian THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
28%
72%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK RELIGIOUS PERSUASION None
None
None
Christian 2%
Sunni Muslim 98%
10,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:990
,
No change from year to year
S i l il
Saylac
en G u l f o f A dBoosaaso Shimbiris 2407m
Ceel Gaal r
Berbera Ceerigaabo
Bereeda
aa
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Raas Caseyr
PUNTLAND (self proclaimed) J ac eel
di Lu u d
Raas Xaafuun
Laas Dawaco du The clan system is D ur SOMALILAND REPUBLIC D (self proclaimed) Hargeysa fundamental. Shifting u do Qardho Bender Burco allegiances characterize its Beyla Nugaal structure – a tendency stifled by Garoowe Siad Barre’s dictatorship but revived Eyl after his fall in 1991. Barre’s Jirriiban undermining of the elders – the traditional brokers of justice – Gaalkacyo OMALIA contributed to the power vacuum Total Area : O Dhuusa that resulted in civil war. His 637 657 sq. km I Marreeb Hobyo H (246 199 sq. miles) persecution of the Issaqs E T Beledweyne led to Somaliland’s POPULATION Ceelbuur Xuddur declaration of over 1 000 000 Luuq Ceeldheere Buulobarde secession in 1991. Mareeq over 100 000 Garbahaarrey Baydhabo However, most people over 50 000 Jawhar are ethnic Somali, Baardheere Buurhakaba over 10 000 Wanlaweyn Afgooye and national identity Qoryooley MOGADISHU under 10 000 i remains strong, with Marka A el Bu’aale eb LAND HEIGHT La Sh both Somaliland and Baraawe D I Puntland recognizing N Jilib 2000m/6562ft reintegration as an Jamaame Equator D 1000m/3281ft Kismaayo acceptable end 500m/1640ft N to peace talks. 0 200 km
C
I A
†
TI
S
P
TOURISM
D
U
hu
About 50% of Somalis are nomads for whom the donkey is the principal means of transportation. In 1990, the IDA agreed to repair the road network, but work on the seven-year project has not yet begun.
J
O IB
W
S he
be
li
20
30
40
ba Ju
10
E
0
aq
N
% of total arrivals
K
Somalia does not publish tourism figures by country of origin
N
S
2652 km (1648 miles)
A
40/16
30/86
E
40/104
he
e er
Y
A
Aid workers and foreign journalists are the only visitors. Landmines are a widespread hazard.
I
200m/656ft 0
528
N
Somalia has remained in anarchy since former dictator Siad Barre fled in 1991. The unified state dissolved amid conflict in the south and separatism in the north. Throughout the 1990s rival warlords, including the powerful Gen. Aideed, vied for control, undermining a US-led peacekeeping force in 1992. After many false starts at reinstating a political system, a conference of businessmen, clan leaders, and power brokers met in Kenya in 2004 and established an interim assembly with a broad base of support. This time around the peace process was backed by all Somalia’s neighbors and donors, and the 275 members of the assembly included, crucially, most of the regional warlords and the leaders of the semiautonomous region of Puntland. In October a speaker was chosen, and Col. Ahmed Abdullahi Yusuf, military ruler of Puntland, was elected as interim federal president of Somalia.
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
0/32
No legislative elections
Interim President Ahmed Abdullahi Yusuf
1984/Uncertain
WEATHER CHART FOR MOGADISHU
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
O
†
SO
POLITICS
.so
+252
O
CLIMATE
IA
Ethiopia
OFFICIAL NAME: Somalia CAPITAL: Mogadishu POPULATION: 9.9 million CURRENCY: Somali shilling OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Somali and Arabic 1960
Africa
Djibouti
200 miles
Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SOMALIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
IGAD
Joined UN in 1960
AU
NAM
OIC
After a UN force withdrew in 1995, the international community appeared to have abandoned Somalia until it gave support to the transitional assembly in
†
AID
/
Up 29% in 2002
Mass starvation among the Somali population in 1991 finally prompted the UN to launch a large-scale humanitarian aid effort which was fairly effective. The UNDP and the World Bank returned to Somalia in 2002, having withdrawn due to internal insecurity.
DEFENSE
†
.
$38m
No compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
The demobilization of thousands of militia is key to ensuring stability; there has so far been little progress.
ECONOMICS $1.21bn
†
Electric power 80,000 kW
20,200 tonnes
Not an oil producer
13.2m sheep, 12.5m goats, 6.2m camels
Salt, tin, zinc, copper, gypsum, manganese, uranium, iron
Commercially exploitable minerals remain untapped. An oil exploration agreement was signed with a French oil group in 2001.
ENVIRONMENT
.
0.8% partially protected
†
Sustainability rank: 132nd
2620 Somali shillings (2620)
Human deprivation and starvation caused by the effects of drought and war on land and livestock outweigh all ecological considerations.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation 1 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................151st GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$120 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$157m INFLATION .................................Over 100% UNEMPLOYMENT ..........Widespread underemployment
STRENGTHS Very few. Export of livestock to Arabian peninsula resumed in the north. Inflow of money from Somalis abroad. CocaCola bottling plant opened in 2004.
EXPORTS
India 3%
UAE 39%
Kuwait 4% Oman 11% Other 16%
8 daily newspapers serve Mogadishu and the breakaway republics. Xog-ogaal has the highest circulation in Mogadishu
Mogadishu has a number of factionrun radio stations. Somali Television Network, an independent multichannel, multilingual service, began broadcasting in 1999. Independent newspapers also serve the self-proclaimed areas.
CRIME
†
Somalia does not publish prison figures
Other 36%
Djibouti 30%
Thailand 5% Brazil 11% Kenya 14%
Death penalty in use
/
Widespread breakdown of law and order since 1991
Armed clan factions (some, in remoter regions, engaged in family feuds rather than civil war) and bandits rule large areas. In Mogadishu a “national” police force has been established, and possession of firearms outlawed. Sharia (Islamic law), now the de facto system, is run in a makeshift fashion by elders.
EDUCATION UK 4%
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Diarrheal, communicable, and parasitic diseases
1 per 20,000 people
The state-run system has collapsed. Mogadishu’s main hospital reopened in 2004, funded by wealthy Somalis.
†
SPENDING
24%
†
School leaving age: 14
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
1 per 1000 population
11 stations: mostly political or religious
2 services: limited to the Mogadishu area
Yemen 27% IMPORTS
1964–1987 Conflict with Ethiopia over Somali-inhabited Ogaden. 1969 Gen. Siad Barre takes power. 1991 Siad Barre ousted. Civil war and clan chaos. Mass starvation. Somaliland declares secession. 1992 Abortive US intervention. 1995 UN force withdrawn. 1997 Accord signed by 26 clans. 2000 National reconciliation conference appoints government; warlords dispute its authority. 2001 Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council set up in south. 2004 New transitional assembly sworn in.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES Every commodity, except arms, in extremely short supply. Little economic potential in the south. Livestock destroyed by drought. Banditry, extortion, and kidnapping hamper aid agencies.
The lands of the Somalis became British and Italian colonies in the 1880s. Most were unified as Somalia at independence in 1960.
0.003 tonnes per capita
Not available
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$194m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
2000. Somalia accuses Ethiopia of sending troops to assist opposition warlords. The US belief in the existence of terrorist training camps in Somalia has eroded relations since September 11, 2001. Kenya and the UAE stopped issuing visas to Somalis in 2004.
10 per 1000 population
Defense 4% Education No data Health 1.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Bandits and warlords have gained rich pickings. Money sent by relatives living overseas is the main income for some people.
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
10,400 students 193rd
The education system has collapsed. Primary school enrollment is still below the prewar level of just 17%. Somali has been a written language only since 1972.
164 189 $120
47 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
192 24%
187 133 dths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
529
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SOUTH AFRICA
Africa
SOUTHERN AFRICA Namibia Botswana Swaziland SOUTH AFRICA
Lesotho
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of South Africa CAPITALS: Pretoria; Cape Town; Bloemfontein POPULATION: 45 million CURRENCY: Rand OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Afrikaans, English, and 9 African languages 1934
1994
April 27
ZA
+2
.za
+27
R
ICH IN NATURAL RESOURCES, South Africa comprises a central plateau, or veld, bordered to the south and east by the Drakensberg Mountains. After eight decades of white minority rule, with racial segregation under the apartheid policy since 1948, South Africa from 1990 underwent a social and political revolution. The first multiracial elections were held in 1994 and the African National Congress (ANC), under Nelson Mandela and his successor Thabo Mbeki, has been the leading political movement ever since. Poverty and the spread of crime and HIV/AIDS are major problems.
CLIMATE
†
Desert/subtropical/ Mediterranean
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR PRETORIA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
6.55m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
Visitors : Population 1:6.9
/
Up 11% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Lesotho 18% Swaziland 12% Botswana 12%
0
0/32
Zimbabwe 9%
-10/14
Mozambique 9%
-20/-4
Other 40%
Despite the moderating effects of oceans on three sides, the warm temperate climate is dry; 65% of the country has less than 50 cm (20 in) of rain a year. Drought is a periodic hazard.
TRANSPORTATION Johannesburg International 13.5m passengers
†
Drive on left
196 ships 144,500 grt
0
10
30
20
40
% of total arrivals
†
PEOPLE
2032 km (1263 miles)
English, isiZulu, isiXhosa, Afrikaans, Sepedi, Setswana, Sesotho, Xitsonga, siSwati, Tshivenda, isiNdebele
37/km2 (95/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
58%
42%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 20,041 km (12,453 miles)
S
Hindu 1%
Muslim 2%
None
Priorities include expanding port capacity and cross-border rail networks. Public transportation is limited and expensive, but there is an extensive informal network of minibuses and taxis.
Traditional beliefs and animist 29% Christian 68%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Asian 2%
South Africa has huge tourist potential, with attractions ranging from beaches to mountains, and from prizewinning vineyards to world-renowned wildlife reserves. The enormous Kruger National Park boasts 137 mammal species and 450 bird species. Visitor numbers increased throughout the 1990s, but tourism was slow to recover from the country’s isolation during the apartheid era. Today, the key constraint on growth is rising crime. Studies suggest that by 2005 tourism could create an additional 450,000 jobs and contribute 10% toward GDP (compared with 4% in 1995).
Pop. density low
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 72,420 km (45,000 miles)
Colored 9% White 10%
Black 79%
politics, whites still control the economy. The traditional African extended family has been undermined by the need for men to migrate to towns for work. Once enforced by the state, this remains as an economic necessity. A small black middle class has developed, but most blacks are underemployed. There is considerable resentment over wealth disparities in the many townships. The expected postapartheid ethnic conflict failed to materialize. Racebased movements such as Inkatha have not made a national impact. An area of the Kalahari Desert was returned to a Khomani San tribe in 1999. The constitution enshrines equality of the sexes; many women are now prominent in public life. South Africa has led the way in Africa in providing homosexuals with legal rights. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Cape Town, set on a peninsula ending at the Cape of Good Hope, where the Indian and Atlantic Oceans meet.
530
Thabo Mbeki, elected president in 1999 to succeed Mandela.
Nelson Mandela, who became president of South Africa in April 1994.
Under apartheid, people were divided into racial categories: Whites (Afrikaners and English speakers), with the most privileges, and three black groups – Coloreds (people whose descent was deemed mixed), Asians (mainly Indians), and Africans, by far the largest single group. While blacks now dominate
0.6% 3.9%
60–79
9%
40–59
16.9% 21.7%
80+
20–39 0–19
Male 0.3% 2.5% 7.9% 15.7% 21.5%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SOUTH AFRICA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
elections. The former white-rule NNP disbanded in 2004, many of its members joining the ANC.
President Thabo Mbeki
AT THE LAST ELECTION
1% 13% 2% DA UDM ACDP
National Assembly 400 seats
Comm
Truth and reconciliation The creation of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in 1996 to investigate and air the horrors of apartheid was a truly innovative step and one since replicated in other countries emerging from conflict. Two years of painful and often controversial hearings culminated in a final report in 1998. Initial praise has been modified by allegations of corruption. In 2003 the government agreed to pay $3800 to each victim of apartheid – a figure derided by many as too little.
7% 2% 5% IFP NNP Others
ANC = African National Congress DA = Democratic Alliance IFP = Inkatha Freedom Party UDM = United Democratic Movement NNP = New National Party ACDP = African Christian Democratic Party
National Council of Provinces 90 seats
10 members are elected to the National Council of Provinces by each of the nine provincial legislatures
South Africa became a multiracial democracy following elections in 1994.
SOUTH AFRICA Total Area : 1 219 912 sq. km (471 008 sq. miles)
B
I
Molopo
A
Johannesburg PRETORIA
Rustenburg
Volksrust
Kroonstad
A
Grootvloer
N
G Harrismith
ge an
E
FREE STATE BLOEMFONTEIN
Prieska
K A R O O
led
Aliwal North
Durban Kokstad
D
Graaff-Reinet
G R E A T
Margate Umtata
R
Queenstown
K A R O O
O
EASTERN CAPE
Cape Town - legislative Bloemfontein - judicial
Groo
WESTERN CAPE Worcester CAPE Paarl TOWN Bellville Swellendam Cape of Good Hope
George
t-Vis Mdantsane
Uitenhage
Port Elizabeth
D
N
Prince Edward I.
over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
N
A
I I
East London
Port Alfred
Mosselbaai
over 100 000 over 50 000
Prince Edward Is
THREE CAPITALS
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 500 000
Cradock
SOUTH AFRICA's Pretoria - administrative
E.CAPE
A Middelburg
S
Richard's Bay
E
Colesberg
Lake St Lucia
Giants Castle 3312m
C
A N
C T I
E
Ca
Beaufort West
KWA ZULUNATAL
Pietermaritzburg Pinetown
LESOTHO
De Aar
St Helena Bay
Vryheid
Dundee
Estcourt
K
C
N O R T H E R N
Kimberley
on
L
O
NORTHERN CAPE
Virginia Bethlehem
S
T
Or
Odendaalsrus Welkom
al
Va
B
Ka
P
to
N
A
Orange
ap
la
R
Upington
E
M N A
I
Mokopane (Potgieterus)
Middelburg Krugersdorp Nelspruit Roodepoort- G A U T E N G Witbank Benoni Lichtenburg Maraisburg Springs Carletonville Boksburg Soweto Germiston NORTH WEST Ermelo SWAZILAND Potchefstroom MPUMALANGA Vryburg Vereeniging Vaal Klerksdorp Sasolburg Piet Retief Schweizer Reneke Vanderbijlpark
200 miles
N
Nodimolle (Nylstroom)
Mmabatho
DES ERT
KA LAH ARI
200 km
0
O
B
W
S
T
SADC
MBIQUE MOZA
The 1994 elections ended 45 years of apartheid and saw political power transferred to the ANC, with veteran ANC activist Nelson Mandela as president. In 1999 the party increased its majority, while Thabo Mbeki succeeded as president. Its dominance has enabled the introduction of reform but has stifled debate. Parliamentary defections gave the ANC a two-thirds majority, which it retained in the 2004
M O U N T A I N S M B O B O k nal Par L E N a tio g er K ru
Coping with AIDS South Africa is home to more than five million of the world’s 40 million AIDS sufferers. The cost to the economy of health care, as well as coping with losses in the workforce, is debilitating and set to rise. The provision of treatments has been held up by ZIMBAB controversy over international WE patents for drugs and even by Musina (Messina) President Mbeki’s unorthodox stance on the nature of the A Louis Trichardt infection itself. Public LIMPOPO (NORTHERN) N ignorance permeates Polokwane Phalaborwa A national attitudes. (Pietersburg)
PROFILE
0
AU
G24
After several decades of political isolation and economic sanctions, South Africa has been welcomed back into the international fold, rejoining the UN and Commonwealth. It is a key member of the SADC and also leads continental opinion on regional issues; it was in Durban that the AU was founded in 2002. Former president Mandela often intervened to help resolve foreign conflicts, and passed the role of main mediator in Burundi to Mbeki’s deputy Jacob Zuma in 2000. Mandela prompted some criticism from the West for his relations with apartheid-era supporters Libya and Cuba. Mbeki has pushed for peace in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but has been criticized internationally for tacitly supporting Robert Mugabe’s regime in neighboring Zimbabwe, and for his controversial opinions about HIV/AIDS.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
70% ANC
WTO
Joined UN in 1945
N
L. House 2004/2009 U. House 2004/2009
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Multiparty elections
A
†
POLITICS
Marion I. 0 0
Swart Peak 1230m 5 km Cape 5 miles Hooker
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft Sea Level
531
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
AID
†
$657m (receipts)
/
Up 54% in 2002
Apartheid-era South Africa was denied aid, particularly from the World Bank and the IMF. It now seeks financial assistance for massive reconstruction programs. As part of Nepad – Africa’s “Marshall Plan” launched in 2002 – President Mbeki stressed the importance of ending reliance on foreign aid.
Until 1652, what is now South Africa was peopled by Bantu-speaking groups and San nomads. Then Dutch settlers arrived. British colonizers followed in the 18th century.
Down 6% in 2002
SOUTH AFRICAN ARMED FORCES 168 main battle tanks (Olifant 1A/B)
36,000 personnel
2 submarines and 8 patrol boats
4500 personnel
84 combat aircraft (47 Impala Mk1/2, 37 Cheetah C/D)
9250 personnel
None
The creation by postapartheid South Africa of a truly national defense force seems almost miraculous, as it fuses
ECONOMICS $113bn
†
together once bitter enemies: soldiers from the old white-run army, and guerrillas from the liberation groups. However, doubts have been raised over the army’s ability to operate effectively. A recruitment freeze since 1994 has raised the average age and created a glut of higher-ranking officers, while the incidence of AIDS increases. A large arms procurement program has failed to overcome the effects of previous swingeing cuts in spending. Few tanks are operational and the air force tends to run out of fuel toward the end of each financial year. A full strategic defense review was announced in 2004. A major arms industry is the legacy of years of sanctions.
Inflation 9.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
6.212 rand (7.51)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................32nd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2500 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$290m INFLATION .........................................8.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................28%
EXPORTS
Italy 6% Japan 9%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
532
No compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1999=100
1910 Union of South Africa set up as British dominion; white monopoly of power formalized. 1912 ANC formed. 1934 Independence. 1948 National Party takes power; apartheid segregationist policy introduced. 1958–1966 Hendrik Verwoerd prime minister. “Grand Apartheid” policy implemented. 1959 Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC) formed. 1960 Sharpeville massacre. ANC, PAC banned. 1961 South Africa becomes republic; leaves Commonwealth. 1964 Senior ANC leader Nelson Mandela jailed. 1976 Soweto uprisings by black students; hundreds killed. 1978 P. W. Botha in office. 1984 New constitution: Indians and Coloreds get some representation. Growing black opposition. 1985 State of emergency. Sanctions. 1989 F. W. De Klerk replaces Botha as president. 1990 De Klerk legalizes ANC and PAC; frees Nelson Mandela. 1990–1993 International sanctions gradually withdrawn. 1991 Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) starts work. 1993 Mandela and De Klerk win Nobel Peace Prize. 1994 Multiracial elections won by ANC; Mandela president. 1996 TRC begins work. 1997 New constitution takes effect. 1998 TRC report condemns both apartheid crimes and ANC excesses. 1999 ANC election victory; Thabo Mbeki succeeds Mandela. 2001–2002 Rand goes from record low to record high. 2002 World summit on sustainable development held in Johannesburg. 2004 Elections: ANC wins over two-thirds of vote.
.
$1.7bn
CHRONOLOGY
S
†
DEFENSE
Recipient
2003
Germany 9% Other 50% USA 13% UK 13% IMPORTS
Saudi Arabia 5%
Japan 6% UK 9%
Other 56%
USA 9%
state-control necessitated by apartheidera sanctions. The ANC cooperates with big business in an effort to revivify the economy and develop the townships, but a report in 2003 showed that wealth disparities between the wealthy white elite and the majority black community are widening. SOUTH AFRICA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Johannesburg Pretoria
Germany 15% Potchefstroom
STRENGTHS Africa’s largest and most developed economy; highly diversified with modern infrastructure. Strong financial sector for mobilizing investment. Growing manufacturing sector. Varied resource base.
Kroonstad Kimberley
Port Nolloth
WEAKNESSES Security fears deter investment. Growth too low to overcome deprivation among blacks; black unemployment growing by 2.5% a year. Cost of AIDS treatments. Population boom. Fluctuations in rand and gold prices undermine many sectors. Emigration of skilled workers.
Durban Cape Town Port Elizabeth
Food processing
Banking & finance
Fish processing
Light engineering
Publishing
Heavy engineering
PROFILE
Oil refining
Vehicle manufacture
South Africa has a large and diverse private sector, much of it controlled by multinationals. Privatizations have gone some way to reverse the strong
Gold mining
Hi-tech
Diamond mining
Textiles 0
* significant multinational ownership
0
500 km 500 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SOUTH AFRICA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 39.6m kW
164,871 b/d (reserves 60m barrels)
759,522 tonnes
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 19 daily newspapers. The Sowetan, The Star, Daily Sun, and Beeld have the highest circulation figures
Hydro 3% (5.5bn kWh)
3 services: 1 state-owned, 2 independent
Combustion 91% (195bn kWh) Nuclear 6% (13bn kWh)
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
South Africa has some of the continent’s richest natural resources, in particular minerals. Its dominance of the world market in gold and diamonds helped it survive sanctions during apartheid. The falling price of gold in 2000 meant that for the first time sales of platinum group metals outstripped those of gold. South Africa is the largest single producer of manganese, chrome ore, and vermiciline. It also produces uranium, vanadium, and nickel. With little oil, South Africa pioneered the transformation of coal into oil, and otherwise uses its huge coal reserves to generate electricity. Almost 15 million black South Africans are without electricity, and nongrid options are being considered, including developing solar energy.
Or
E
g an
S N
DR
A
K
ENVIRONMENT 6% (2% partially protected)
/
†
Sustainability rank: 77th
7.4 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Floods and drought are familiar hazards. The world’s largest game park, straddling the borders with Zimbabwe and Mozambique, was opened in 2002. The littering of flimsy plastic bags was so severe that they were banned in 2003.
AIDS, accidents, violence, infectious and respiratory diseases
1 per 1667 people
Health services were desegregated formally in 1990, but equal access to care is still a distant goal. Statistics on medical provision hide a strong bias toward whites and urban areas, where the vast majority of doctors work; infant mortality rates are increasing sharply among the poorly provisioned rural communities, most of whom are black. South Africa has over five million HIV sufferers, more than any other country. The government has won the right to buy cheaper generic drugs for HIV/AIDS sufferers and has increased spending – with a fourfold rise in the AIDS budget for 2004.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Murders 115
per 100,000 population
121
per 100,000 population
92 per 1000 population
Rapes
107 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7% Education 5.7%
Thefts 3566
Health 3.6%
per 100,000 population
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
South Africa is a dangerous country, and crime rates are rising: murders occur with extreme frequency, and rape, armed robberies, and muggings are rife. Vigilantism is a huge problem in the Cape. The death penalty was abolished in 1997. New gun control laws came into force in 2004.
†
E
Cropland Forest Pasture Desert High mountain regions Sheep 500 km Corn Fruit - cash crop 500 miles
Up 14% in 2000–2001
CRIME RATES
School leaving age: 15
644,763 students
86% THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
0
/
180,952 prisoners
Welfare state health benefits
No death penalty
EDUCATION
B
e
0
†
CRIME
RG
SOUTH AFRICA : LAND USE
A drive to combat racial stereotyping in the media was launched following a report on the subject to the Human Rights Commission in early 2000.
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 29 per 1000 people
Gold, coal, vanadium, vermiciline, diamonds, chromium, uranium, manganese, nickel, oil
29.1m sheep, 13.6m cattle, 120m chickens
†
MEDIA
Wealth disparities are marked and widening. At the top, the white elite enjoys living standards similar to those of Californians. In contrast, living conditions for the poorest group, the majority black community, are among Africa’s lowest; more than 40% of black adults are unemployed. In between are the mixed-race and Asian communities, who enjoyed more privileges under apartheid’s strict racial hierarchy. However, a small black middle class is growing slowly, with some black-owned firms doing well on the stock market. In 2003, the government offered $3800 each to victims of apartheid.
80
WORLD RANKING 60
100%
Position in World
86%
40
1st
20
50th
15% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education reform is a central task of the postapartheid government. Progress has been made in improving national literacy, and access to education has been widened through the Tirisano (working together) education program, launched in 2000. Long-established universities continue to be white-dominated.
100th
78 $2500 150th
110 86%
125
119
52 deaths
193rd
167 46 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
533
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
SPAIN
EUROPE Fr an ce
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Spain CAPITAL: Madrid POPULATION: 41.1 million CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Spanish, Galician, Basque, and Catalan 1492
1713
Oct 12
E
+1
Andorra
SPAIN
Portugal Morocco
.es
+34
T
HE MAJOR PART of the Iberian peninsula in southwest Europe, Spain has both an Atlantic and a Mediterranean coast, and is dominated by a central plateau. After the death of Gen. Franco in 1975, the country managed a rapid and relatively peaceful transition to democracy under the supervision of King Juan Carlos I. Since EU membership in 1986, there has been an increasing devolution of power to the regions. The socialists were returned to power in 2004 when the public turned against the two-term center-right regime following the Madrid train bombings.
†
CLIMATE
Mediterranean/ maritime/mountain
WEATHER CHART FOR MADRID
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
Pop. density medium 82/km2 (213/mi2)
Spanish, Catalan, Galician, Basque
22%
9.8%
60–79 40–59
11.3%
Other 4%
80+
11.8% 15.9%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
Age 2.3%
10/4
0/32
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Female
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
78% 10/50
Alcaudete, Jaén Province, in the Andalusian mountains between the Guadalquivir River and Granada. The ruined castle is Moorish.
20–39 0–19
Male 1.2% 8% 11.5% 16.3% 11.9%
-10/14
% of population by age group
-20/-4
N
The AVE high-speed train links Madrid and Seville; more routes are planned. The state-run rail company RENFE is to be privatized gradually.
TOURISM 52.5m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1.3:1
,
Little change in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
UK 28% Germany 20% France 16% Netherlands 5% Italy 5%
10
% of total arrivals
534
20
30
40
iñ o M
Embalse de Torrejón
Cáceres EXTREMADURA
Mérida
Badajoz
Zafra
SIERRA
Sevilla
A N
Huelva Co
st a
Golfo de Cádiz
Jerez de la Frontera
de
Cádiz
z Lu
0
Plasencia Embalse de Alcántara
la
Other 26%
Tourism earnings in 2003 topped $41 billion. Long dominant in the vacation-package sector, Spain has recently adopted marketing strategies to boost additional cultural, historical, and environmental tourism. Several areas began levying an environmental tax on tourist arrivals in 2001. The cut-price package industry benefited from political turbulence in competitor countries in the Mediterranean but is facing long-term decline. The four Balearic Islands attract large numbers of visitors.
Salamanca
L
1045 km (649 miles)
Embalse de Esla Embalse de Villalcampo Embalse de Zamora Almendra
A
13,856 km (8610 miles)
Spain under Franco was isolated and socially conservative. It was dominated by the army, the Roman Catholic Church, and the fascist party. Since the 1970s, Spanish society, at least in urban areas, has become increasingly socially liberal and culturally sophisticated, symbolized by the success of the Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, which turned an
G
10,317 km (6411 miles)
Ourense (Orense)
U
S
657,157 km (408,338 miles)
Mieres del Camino LLERA RDI O León C Ponferrada
G ALI C I A
T
Castilian Spanish 72%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Gu ad ian a
1568 ships 2.37m grt
A S T U R I A S
Lugo
R
Galician 6%
O
Basque 2%
Gijón (Xixón) Avilés Oviedo
Ferrol
P
Roma 1%
Catalan 17% Barajas, Madrid 35.7m passengers
Costa
EA
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 2% Drive on right
industrial wasteland into a place of cultural pilgrimage. Divorce rates A Coruña remain low and (La Coruña) close family Santiago de ties are still Compostela important, but the influence Pontevedra Vigo of the Church on personal behavior and attitudes to sexual issues has lessened among younger generations. Spanish women are increasingly emancipated and influential in public life, constituting almost a third of members of parliament and heading around the same proportion of businesses. A vigorous regionalism, suppressed under Franco, now flourishes. In the Basque region, the ETA separatists’ campaign of terror remains a national concern. Migration from rural regions to the coast since the 1970s has been associated with the arrival of immigrants from Latin America and north Africa. A rise in racial tensions and racism has resulted. NTIC O C
†
TRANSPORTATION
Roman Catholic 96%
ATLA
The central plateau, or meseta, endures an extreme climate. Coastal areas are milder, and are wetter in the north than in the south.
Algeciras
Gibraltar (UK)
Punta de Tarifa
Ceuta (SPAIN)
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SPAIN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
stance agains the Basque separatists ETA. Aznar’s support for the 2003 US invasion of Iraq, however, was deeply unpopular. Promising to withdraw troops from the quagmire, the PSOE under José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero won the 2004 election with the support of smaller parties.
H.M. King Juan Carlos I de Borbón
AT THE LAST ELECTION
3% 2% 1% CiU PNV IU
Congress of Deputies 350 seats
2% 3% ERC Others
42% PP
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Increasing regionalism Spain’s 17 autonomous regions all vie for greater funds or independence from Madrid. Many have bypassed central government to borrow funds on international money markets. In 1996 the PP government approved a fresh model of financing for the regions which gave them new powers for raising tax revenue. The Basque country, Catalonia, and Galicia each use their own language alongside Castilian Spanish. Spain has championed regionalism inside the EU and has supported the establishment of an EU Committee of the Regions.
PSOE = Spanish Socialist Workers' Party PP = Popular Party CiU = Convergence and Union ERC = Republican Left of Catalonia PNV = Basque Nationalist Party IU = United Left App = Appointed ECP = Alliance of Catalonian Parties CC = Canarian Coalition
5% 2% ECP CiU
Senate 259 seats
2% 1% PNV CC
20% App
208 members are directly elected to the Senate, and 51 appointed by autonomous communities
Since 1978, Spain has been a semifederal multiparty parliamentary monarchy. Each region has a legislative assembly.
PROFILE
e
Santander Torrelavega
F
Bilbao
R
Irún DonostiaCANTABRIA PAIS San Sebastian VASCO CÁNTABRI C A Miranda Pamplona Vitoria de Ebro (Iruña)P NAVARRA Burgos Logroño LA RIOJA Palencia Baracaldo
S
GU
Segovia
Cuenca
Paterna
C A S T I L L A -
Valencia Júcar
Albacete
Gandía
M A N C H A
Écija
Alcaudete
MURCIA
T BÉ
IC
M Melilla (SPAIN)
MOROCCO
ha
B
O Lorca
E
Cartagena a lid Ca
D
I
T
E
l
a
e
a
r
Benidorm Alicante Cieza ca an Elche Murcia
D A L U C Í A I N Granada P ECerro de Antequera Mulhacén MA E Almería 3481m ST SI Málaga Motril S o l del Marbella C o s t a Strait of Gibraltar
Palma
l a I s
e
r
A
R
A
1000m/3281ft
A
N
E R
2000m/6562ft
s
500m/1640ft
E
Sea Level
0
100 km
N
S
s
Bl
Linares
ir alquiv Jaén Guad
over 10 000
Mallorca
Golfo de Valencia Eivissa
King Juan Carlos, who became head of state on the death of Franco in 1975.
José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, the surprise victor in elections in 2004.
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
NATO
OECD
† OSCE
Joined UN in 1955
EU
Inside the EU, Spain has tried to play a leading role in the evolving Common Security and Foreign Policy. Support for the 2003 Iraq war was partly motivated by a desire to increase Spain’s status as a European power, but ran contrary to public opinion. Regionally, Spain has played a key role in the Barcelona Process which promotes Mediterranean– EU relations. There are tensions with Morocco over illegal immigrants, sovereignty over rocky islets, and the exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla. There is also a long-standing dispute with the UK over Gibraltar; intergovernmental negotiations continue, but the colony itself resists a change of status.
CHRONOLOGY United under Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, Spain became a dominant force. A long period of economic and political decline followed, however, and by the mid-19th century, Spain lagged behind many other European countries in stability and prosperity.
over 50 000
Menorca
ta
ENA
Andújar
over 100 000
LAND HEIGHT
Formentera
Elda
Segura
Córdoba
a
Co s
MOR
L A
Co sta
Puertolland
over 500 000
Tarragona Reus a ad r u Da
a Az
Ciudad Real
POPULATION over 1 000 000
3000m/9843ft
el
PAIS
Embalse de Valdecañas
Figueres Girona (Gerona)
Barcelona
Castellón de la Plana
C o st a d
Toledo
S
Terrassa L Mataró A Sabadell Badalona
A
Teruel
O IC
Fuenlabrada
T
R
Leganés
Alcalá de Henares Getafe
E
U
Tortosa
É
Avila MADRID
Tagus
Total Area : 504 782 sq. km (194 896 sq. miles)
ANDORRA
E
A
Lleida
A R A G Ó N
IB
E
DE
AM A ADARR
SPAIN
E
Ñ
Zaragoza
A
SI
A RR
ero
M
Du
N
C
Huesca
E
Valladolid
E
Eb ro
Soria
T
R
N
C
I
Y
VALE NC IA NO
S
A
Co st
B a y
Verd
Terrorism The Basque separatist movement ETA has, with intermittent cease-fire announcements, waged a protracted violent struggle for independence, prompting large-scale demonstrations against violence. Its political wing, Batasuna, was banned in 2003. ETA was initially blamed for the devastating Madrid train bombings in March 2004, but evidence quickly pointed to a revenge attack by al-Qaida for Spain’s involvement in the occupation of Iraq.
During the PSOE’s long period in power (1982–1996), voters were increasingly alienated by high levels of corruption and the failure of the Cortes (parliament) to check executive power. The PP government of 1996–2004, led by José María Aznar, was credited with good management of the economy and taking an o f Bis c a y unequivocal
va
31% PSOE
B ra
39% PP
ta
47% PSOE
os
L. House 2004/2008 U. House 2004/2008
Multiparty elections
C
POLITICS
0
100 miles
N Islas Canarias Lanzarote
La Palma
La Laguna
Santa Cruz de Tenerife Las Palmas
Gomera
Fuerteventura
Tenerife Hierro
Gran Canaria
0 0
100 km
1874 Constitutional monarchy restored under Alfonso XII. 1879 PSOE founded. 1881 Trade unions legalized. 1885 Death of Alfonso XII. 1898 Defeat in war with US results in loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines. 1914–1918 Spain neutral in World War I. 1921 Spanish army routed by Berbers in Spanish Morocco. 1923 Coup by Gen. Primo de Rivera accepted by King Alfonso XIII. Military dictatorship. 1930 Primo de Rivera dismissed by monarchy. 1931 Second Republic proclaimed. Alfonso XIII flees Spain. 1933 Center-right coalition wins general election.
S
100 miles
535
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
AID $1.71bn (donations)
†
Donor
.
Up 18% in 2002
SPANISH ARMED FORCES
A substantial, largely state-owned, and commercially nonviable defense industry is subsidized for strategic reasons. Full integration of NATO military structures was approved in 1997. A trend of falling defense spending was halted in 2002. National service has been abolished. Spanish troops assisted in the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, but the new government in 2004 fulfilled its election pledge to withdraw them.
ECONOMICS $596bn
†
95,600 personnel
6 submarines, 1 carrier, 16 frigates, and 37 patrol boats
22,900 personnel
186 combat aircraft (F-5B, EF/A-18 A/B, Mirage F-1)
22,750 personnel
None
Inflation 3.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
0.822 euros (0.871)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
552 main battle tanks (AMX-30, M-48, M-60, Leopard 2 A4)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................10th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$14,580 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$15.9bn INFLATION .........................................3.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
EXPORTS
Italy 9% UK 10%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
Other 41%
1999
2000
2001
2002
Portugal 10% Germany 11% France 19% IMPORTS
Netherlands 5%
Other 48%
UK 6% Italy 8% Germany 16%
France 17%
STRENGTHS One of the fastest-growing OECD economies. Well-qualified labor force with relatively low labor costs. Privatization has introduced greater competition into gas, oil-refining, electricity, and telecommunications sectors.
By 1991, GDP per capita stood at almost 80% of the EU average. Recession in the early 1990s was turned around in mid-decade, and growth averaged 4% over 1997–2000, with public debt brought below 60% of GDP by 2001. The economy slowed markedly through 2001, and the annualized growth rate dropped to around 2%. Spain succeeded in meeting the economic convergence criteria necessary for European economic and monetary union and was among the 12 EU countries to adopt the euro fully in January 2002. SPAIN : MAJOR BUSINESSES La Coruña
Bilbao
Zaragoza Barcelona
WEAKNESSES Foreign ownership of companies, amounting to 50% of production: few homegrown multinationals. Low investment in research and development, concentration in declining industries, and low productivity – notably in agriculture. Persistent high unemployment. Recent major investments in Latin American market undermined by Argentine crisis.
Vigo Madrid
Valencia
Huelva
Sevilla
Cartagena Málaga
Down 1% in 2002
Spain has taken steps to increase grant aid after criticism that Spanish aid was of poor quality and tied to the acquisition of goods and services. Aid in 2002 represented 0.26% of GNP.
536
/
No compulsory military service
GDP 1998=100
S
$8.25bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1934 Asturias uprising quashed by army. Failure of attempt to form Catalan state. 1936–1939 Popular Front wins elections. Gen. Francisco Franco becomes leader of right-wing military uprising. Ensuing civil war, won by Nationalists under Franco, claims 300,000 lives. 1940 Franco meets Hitler, but does not enter World War II. 1946 UN condemns Franco regime. 1948 Spain excluded from the Marshall Plan. 1950 UN lifts veto. 1953 Concordat with Vatican. Spain grants US military bases. 1959 Stabilization Plan is basis for 1960s rapid economic growth. 1962 Franco government applies for eventual membership of EEC. 1969 Franco names Juan Carlos, grandson of Alfonso XIII, his successor. 1973 Basque separatists assassinate Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco; replaced by Carlos Arias Navarro. 1975 Death of Franco. Proclamation of King Juan Carlos I. 1976 King appoints Adolfo Suárez as prime minister. 1977 First democratic elections since 1936 won by Suárez’s Democratic Center Union. 1978 New constitution declares Spain a parliamentary monarchy. 1981 Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo replaces Suárez. King foils military coup. Calvo takes Spain into NATO. 1982 Felipe González wins landslide victory for PSOE. 1986 Joins European Communities. González wins referendum on keeping Spain in NATO. 1992 Olympic Games held in Barcelona, Expo ’92 in Seville. 1996 PSOE loses election; José María Aznar of PP prime minister. 1998 Former PSOE minister found guilty of involvement in Basque kidnappings. September, ETA ceasefire; holds until December 1999. 2002 Euro fully adopted. Sunken oil tanker Prestige pollutes Galicia. 2004 March 11, Madrid train bombings kill 201 people. PSOE wins election; José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero becomes prime minister.
DEFENSE
PROFILE Real convergence with the major European economies first became a realistic objective in the late 1980s, as Spain posted the highest investmentled output growth in the OECD.
Textiles
Heavy engineering
Agribusiness
Light engineering
Chemicals
Fish processing
Shipbuilding Vehicle manufacture
0
* significant multinational ownership 0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SPAIN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 52.9m kW
1.4m tonnes
4551 b/d (reserves 6.6m barrels)
23.8m sheep, 23.5m pigs, 128m chickens
Coal, oil, iron, uranium, mercury, fluorite, gypsum
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 155 daily newspapers. ABC, El País, and El Mundo are national
4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
Combustion 56% (126bn kWh) Nuclear 28% (62bn kWh)
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
Other 2% (4.7bn kWh) 20
60
40
100
80
Spain lacks natural resources, especially water, and is heavily dependent on imported oil and gas. Coal, mined mainly to generate industry, is a declining but still subsidized sector, concentrated in the Asturias region. Spain has one of the world’s largest fishing fleets, but EU restrictions have forced cuts in catches since the 1990s.
Despite the large number of daily newspapers, readership is among the lowest in Europe. Both public and private TV services are popular. Radio is of a generally high standard.
†
CRIME
Río Duero
Defense 1.2%
Health 5.4%
per 100,000 population
0
Citrus fruits Vineyards
ENVIRONMENT 9% (8% partially protected)
/
10
15
20
25
Rapes
Wetlands High mountain regions Sheep Olives - cash crop 200 miles
5
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
3
200 km
506 per 1000 population
Education 4.5%
EES
per 100,000 population
1941
Forest Pasture Cropland
0
444 per 1000 population
Up 10% in 2001
Thefts
0
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Murders 3
†
SPENDING
No death penalty
/
56,140 prisoners
Public health care is of high quality and readily available. Public hospitals, though widely considered to be superior, are outnumbered by private ones. In spite of very high tobacco and alcohol consumption, Spain has a healthy population, possibly due to its Mediterranean diet. The incidence of AIDS has risen alarmingly, however, to become one of the highest in western Europe.
CRIME RATES
SPAIN : LAND USE
PYREN
Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and respiratory diseases
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Hydro 14% (32bn kWh)
% of total generation by type
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 303 people
Daily newspaper circulation 100 per 1000 people
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
HEALTH
†
Sustainability rank: 44th
per 100,000 population
Spain is a major crossroads in the world narcotics trade, and drugs-related crime is rising. Illegal immigration has soared, with authorities in the south unable to cope with the influx.
†
EDUCATION 98%
7 tonnes per capita
School leaving age: 16
1.57m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Public awareness of environmental matters is increasing. Renewable energy, though still tiny in extent, is becoming more visible, particularly with the growth of wind farms. The benefits of a national tree-planting scheme to reduce soil erosion have been offset by increasingly frequent intentional forest fires. More land has national park status than in any other country in Europe. A project to bring water from the Ebro River to counter desertification in the south was canceled in 2004 by the new government, though the alternatives of dams, canals, and desalinization plants are also unpopular. Oil from the Prestige oil tanker which sank off Galicia in 2002 caused extensive pollution.
100
% of each age group in education
Yes
80
In the late 1980s, it became fashionable in Spain to compete openly, make money, and acquire consumer goods. Rapid economic growth at this time greatly enriched the professional and managerial classes. The latter became the best-paid, in real terms, in Europe, and Spain quickly became an important market for luxury cars and yachts. In the early 1990s this ostentatious affluence waned in the face of recession and an unemployment rate which soared to become one of the highest in Europe. The boom of 1997–2000 boosted the number of jobs, but also gave rise to anxiety over inflation. By 2001 this boom too had subsided, and there was less financial security, with about one-third of employees on only temporary contracts.
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
100%
40
57%
0
Position in World 1st
20
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
16 30
The school leaving age has risen since 1990 from 14 to 16. The latest secondary education reforms, announced in 2000, offer a number of additional subjects, improvements in mathematics, philosophy, and languages, and greater attention to information technology. Autonomous regions regulate by decree the teaching of languages other than Castilian Spanish, such as Basque or Catalan.
5
50th
$14,580
5 deaths
78 years
100th
20
58 98%
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
537
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SRI LANKA
SOUTH ASIA
Asia
In d i a
SRI LANKA
OFFICIAL NAME: Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka CAPITAL: Colombo POPULATION: 19.1 million CURRENCY: Sri Lanka rupee OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Sinhala and Tamil 1948
1948
Feb 4
CL
+5.5
T
HE TEARDROP-SHAPED island of Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait. Rugged central uplands give way to fertile plains in the north. The majority Sinhalese, an Indo-Aryan people originating in northern India, have a Buddhism-based identity. Independent since 1948, Sri Lanka suffered from 1983 from a protracted civil war involving the attempted secession of the minority (and mainly Hindu) Tamils in the north and east.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical monsoon/ equatorial
WEATHER CHART FOR COLOMBO
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
The climate is tropical, with afternoon breezes on the coast and cooler air in the highlands. The northeast is driest.
Bandaranaike, Katunayake 3.23m passengers
†
Drive on left
2004/2010 AT THE LAST ELECTION
4% 2% JHU SLMC
Parliament 225 seats
36% UNP
47% UPFA
1% 10% ITAK Others
UPFA = United People's Freedom Alliance, dominated by the Sri Lanka Freedom Party – SLFP UNP = United National Party ITAK = Tamil State of Lanka Party JHU = National Sinhala Heritage SLMC = Sri Lanka Muslim Congress
Pop. density high 295/km2 (764/mi2)
Sinhala, Tamil, Sinhala-Tamil, English
Politics has been indelibly colored by the 19-year civil war, which claimed more than 50,000 lives. Breakthrough came in 2001 when the left-wing SLFPled government was soundly beaten in 23% 77% legislative elections by the right-ofcenter UNP, which sought to bring a ETHNIC MAKEUP swift end to the conflict. A permanent Burgher, Malay, Moor 7% cease-fire was agreed in 2002, and the and Veddha 1% Tamil 18% separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE or Tamil Tigers) have since agreed in principle to settle for autonomy. The negotiations caused Sinhalese 74% serious divisions between President Kumaratunga, of the UPFA, and the UNP prime minister. Kumaratunga Ethnic tensions focus called snap legislative on the 19-year conflict elections for April between the minority, it 2004, won by Hindu, Tamils and Kankesanturai a Mannar I. Bay o f her UPFA. majority, Buddhist, Kayts Jaffna Sinhalese. Favored Punkudutivu Bengal Jaffna Delft by the British Lagoon Pooneryn Nanthi Kadal Lagoon administration, Kilinochchi the Tamils were Mullaittivu subject to attempts Karaitivu Mankulam Adam's by the Sinhalese to Bridge Talladi Mannar redress the balance after Vavuniya Gulf independence. The Tamil Tigers seek a homeland in of Horowupotana Trincomalee the north. A tentative peace Medawachchiya Koddiyar Bay Mannar was reached in 2002 and Anuradhapura talks have continued since. Upaar Puttalam The Moors are the Muslim Lagoon Lagoon Habarana Puttalam descendants of Arab traders. Polonnaruwa A few indigenous forest-dwelling Dambulla Mundal Lagoon Chenkaladi Veddhas survive in the remote dura De Batticaloa east of the island. THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
I
TRANSPORTATION
Multiparty elections
President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga
A
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
†
POLITICS
.lk
+94
tr
D
66 ships 80,900 grt
None
1508 km (937 miles)
430 km (267 miles)
500,642 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:38
/
Up 27% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Chilaw
Matale
India 18%
SRI LANKA Total Area : 65 610 sq. km (25 332 sq. miles)
Germany 14%
POPULATION
Other 51% 0
10
20
30
40
50
over 500 000
60
% of total arrivals
over 100 000 over 50 000
Stunning scenery and the Buddhist cultural heritage have made Sri Lanka a popular destination, despite years of civil war. High-profile attacks in Colombo did affect tourism, but peace has paved the way for a recovery.
538
Kurunegala
over 10 000 under 10 000
Kegalla Gampaha
LAND HEIGHT
COLOMBO Dehiwala2000m/6562ft Mount Lavinia Moratuwa 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
Mahiyangana Ampara
Senanayake Samudra Pidurutalagala 2524m Badulla
Kandy
Talawakele
Namunukula Nuwara Eliya Monaragala
Kalu
Kalutara
Beragala Ratnapura Pelmadulla
Pottuvil
Wellawaya
200m/656ft Elpitiya
Sea Level Ambalangoda
Hambantota
100 km
Galle 0
Akkaraipattu
Sri Jayawardenapura
Panadura
N 0
Negombo
N
UK 17%
100 miles
Weligama
A
TOURISM
Mahaweli Ganga
S
Main roads are crowded and slow. Routes to the Tamil-dominated north and east have been reopened.
Yan
I
Pa
10,970 km (6816 miles)
lk
N
S
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Matara
I N D I A N
O
C
E
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SRI LANKA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
G24
Joined UN in 1955
SAARC
NAM
†
/
DEFENSE $504m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 35% in 2002
Recent drives to recruit 5000 more soldiers have shown a marked shift in policy, from simply enlarging the army to modernizing it.
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES Up 10% in 2002
International donors offered a four-year $4.5 billion aid package in 2003 in return for progress in the peace process.
†
Inflation 9.1% p.a. (1990–2001)
102.4 Sri Lanka rupees (97.16)
SCORE CARD
Adam’s Peak in mountainous central Sri Lanka is a famous religious site with a Buddhist shrine at the summit.
Recipient
$344m (receipts)
$16.1bn
Tamils and Sinhalese have inhabited Sri Lanka since before the 6th century. Named Ceylon by the British, it became independent in 1948.
WTO
Relations with India are paramount. However, India’s role as peacemaker under the 1987 Indo-Sri Lankan accords was fiercely resisted by the Tamil Tigers, and India was forced to withdraw its peacekeeping troops. In recent years Norway has taken on the role of mediator in the conflict.
AID
CHRONOLOGY
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................74th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$850 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$264m INFLATION .........................................9.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................9%
Electric power 2.1m kW
288,010 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 47,000 b/d
1.14m cattle, 635,000 buffaloes, 9.77m chickens
Gemstones, graphite, iron, monazite, clay, uranium, ilmenite
Sri Lanka has to import all its oil. Hydropower is the main source of electricity; droughts are frequent and supplies can be erratic. Sri Lanka is keen to diversify power sources and is turning to coal-powered generation.
ENVIRONMENT
/
14% (5% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 55th
0.6 tonnes per capita
Sri Lanka has successfully promoted national parks. Their development is opposed by the Veddha people, who have traditionally occupied such land.
†
MEDIA
1956 SLFP wins election. 1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike becomes world’s first woman prime minister. 1972 Renamed Sri Lanka. 1983 Tamil Tigers begin civil war. 1993 President Premadasa killed. 1994 Left-wing alliance takes power; Chandrika Kumaratunga president. 1995–1996 Collapse of peace talks. 1999 Kumaratunga reelected. 2001 Opposition UNP wins election. 2002 Comprehensive cease-fire. 2003 Over 200 die in worst flooding for 50 years. 2004 UPFA wins election.
Years of high spending on health have resulted in an accessible, fee-free system. Ayurvedic medicine is popular.
Germany 4% India 4%
UK 13% USA 38% Other 35%
18 per 1000 population
South Korea 5%
Japan 6% Singapore 7%
47 per 1000 population
Defense 3.2%
7 services: 1 state-owned, 6 independent
In 2002, the government permitted Tamil Tigers openly to broadcast from their previously clandestine Voice of Tigers radio station in the north.
CRIME
†
Education 1.3% Health 1.8% 0
5
92%
20
25
S
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
Crime is rising
Extrajudicial killings and other human rights abuses increased the toll of deaths and disappearances during the civil war. New laws have been introduced to combat sex tourism.
EDUCATION
15
Economic growth has created a new class of wealthy Sinhalese. Tamil tea workers are the poorest group.
Death penalty not used in practice
/
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
50th
50
100th
†
School leaving age: 13
64
74 years
91 92%
150th
IMPORTS
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
8 services: 2 state-run, 6 independent
17,485 prisoners
Belgium– Luxembourg 6%
†
SPENDING
TV ownership medium
There are 9 daily newspapers, including the Daily News, Evening Observer, and Dinamina
World’s largest tea exporter. Foreign investment attracted by privatization, despite left-wing stance of President Kumaratunga.
EXPORTS
Heart attacks, cancers, pneumonia, strokes
Daily newspaper circulation 29 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
Civil war has severely drained government funds, and lingering tensions continue to deter investors and many tourists. High unemployment.
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 2319 people
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
WEAKNESSES
†
HEALTH
17 deaths
96
125 193rd
$850
48,667 students
Hong Kong 8% Other 60% India 14%
The ADB approved a $50 million loan in 2000 to modernize and expand the secondary education system.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
539
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SUDAN
EAST AFRICA Egypt
Libya Chad
Africa
Eritrea
SUDAN
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of the Sudan CAPITAL: Khartoum POPULATION: 33.6 million CURRENCY: Sudanese pound or dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1956
1956
Jan 1
SUD
+2
Ethiopia
CAR
.sd
+249
B
ORDERED ON THE EAST by the Red Sea, Sudan is the largest country in Africa. Its landscape changes from desert in the north to lush tropical in the south, with grassy plains and swamps in the center. Since independence from British and Egyptian rule in 1956, tensions between the Arab north and African south have led to two civil wars. In 1989, an army coup installed a military Islamic fundamentalist regime headed by Gen. Omar al-Bashir.
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
13/km2 (35/mi2)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
National Assembly 400 seats
38%
62%
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Other 1%
NC = National Congress supporters Vac = Vacant Ind = Independents
Traditional beliefs 20%
17 ships 33,287 grt
Khartoum THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
4578 km (2845 miles)
5310 km (3299 miles)
D
A
R
F U R
H C
A RI
A
D over 100 000
500m/1640ft
over 50 000
200m/656ft
over 10 000
Sea Level
under 10 000
AN
Po
C
ng
RI
o
AF
RE P
S
Wau
U
Rumbek BL
Whit eN
D
ba t
D
S
IC
EM
So
ue
D
U
E T H I O
over 500 000
Kurmuk
Malakal Jonglei Canal
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
azal Gh
Lol
L
Ongoing violence means that Sudan has very few tourists. Visitors are mostly aid workers or on business.
40
Kadugli Arab
P
ile
l
30
POPULATION
RA
20
400 miles
NT
Other 34%
LAND HEIGHT
E
E
T Khartoum North Kassala R E A KHARTOUM Halfa el Gadida Sodiri El Hasaheisa Khashm el Girba Wad Medani Gedaref Ed Dueim Sennar Suki Qala‘ en Nahl El Fasher El Obeid Kosti Er Rahad Singa Nyala Umm Ruwaba e Dilling Ed Damazin Omdurman
CE
Asia 20%
0
% of total arrivals
540
S
400 km
Tokar
ls
Geneina Zalingei
il a H
0
Europe 21%
N
Port Sudan
i Blue N
Total Area : 2 505 810 sq. km (967 493 sq. miles)
BAYUDHA Atbara DESERT Ed Damer A e Ni l Shendi
D R E
SUDAN
e d S
Up 4% in 2002
Middle East 25%
10
Argo Dongola
Plateau
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
NUBIAN DESERT
a ar tb
/
52,000 visitors
Visitors : Population 1:646
T
P
Y
Wadi Halfa
e
†
TOURISM
G
N il
The Port Sudan–Khartoum railroad and road are Sudan’s most important links. There are few other roads, but Iran is financing a north–south highway. Civil war has interrupted all Nile shipping.
Re
S
4284 km (2662 miles)
Sudan has a large number of ethnic and linguistic groups. About two million Sudanese are nomads. The major social division, however, is between the Arabized Muslims in the north and the mostly African, largely animist or Christian population in the south. Attempts to impose Arab and Islamic values throughout Sudan have been the root cause of the civil war that has ravaged the south since 1983. Women not wearing Islamic dress can suffer harassment or even public flogging. There are E some non-Arab groups in the north and in the LI densely populated Darfur region. The Janjaweed Arab militia targeted LIBYAN black Africans in Darfur D ESERT for “ethnic cleansing” in 2004. Teiga A
Drive on right
Elections in 2000, boycotted by the opposition, returned Gen. Omar al-Bashir and his NC bloc to power. “Political associations” have been allowed since 1999, and in 2002 pre-1989 parties were unbanned. An end may be in sight to two decades of war between Muslim north and Christian south, after provisional peace accords were signed in 2004 with the southern Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA). The government is accused of backing Arab militias committing atrocities in the Darfur region from late 2003, causing thousands to flee and an acute humanitarian crisis.
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 70%
BY
†
TRANSPORTATION
10% 1% Vac Ind
89% NC
Christian 9%
0
Sudan’s northern half is hot arid desert with constant dry winds. The rest has a rainy season varying from two months in the center to eight in the south.
Multiparty elections
President Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir
2000/2004
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0/32
†
POLITICS
Pop. density low
Arabic, Dinka, Nuer, Nubian, Beja, Zande, Bari, Fur, Shilluk, Lotuko
WEATHER CHART FOR KHARTOUM
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
A
Hot desert/steppe/ tropical
I
†
CLIMATE
Camel caravan in the dry north. Periodic drought coupled with war disruption mean that Sudan requires large amounts of food aid.
Juba
Yambio
.R EP
.C O
Im
NG
O
n at o
o u n t a i ns gM Kinyeti 3187m
U GAND A
KE
NYA
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SUDAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
OIC
COMESA
Joined UN in 1956
IGAD
AU
Only Iran, Yemen, and Libya maintain friendly ties, though relations with Uganda have recently improved. In mid-2004 the UN threatened sanctions if the Arab millitias in the western region of Darfur were not reined in.
†
AID
Recipient
$351m (receipts)
/
$629m
†
/
Compulsory military service Up 11% in 2002
The NC controls the military and police and has its own paramilitary militia. Sudan’s 100,000-strong army was for many years engaged in fighting the two southern factions – the SPLA and the Sudan People’s Democratic Front.
ECONOMICS $12.2bn
†
Inflation 58% p.a. (1990–2001)
59,000 tonnes 47m sheep, 40m goats, 38.3m cattle, 38.5m chickens
Oil, gas, gold, copper, gypsum, marble, mica, silver, chromium, zinc
Large oil and gas reserves were found in the south in the 1980s; oil exports started in 1999. The half-thermal, half-hydroelectric generating capacity is insufficient, and weeklong power cuts are frequent. Gold mining has the potential for expansion.
ENVIRONMENT
/
5% (2% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Oil, gas, cotton, gum arabic, sesame, sugar. Some gold mining.
WEAKNESSES Low industrialization. Lack of foreign exchange for importing energy and spare parts for industry. Drought. Little transportation infrastructure. Huge distances between towns. Civil war delayed exploitation of oil reserves. Alienation of Arab donors and investors. EXPORTS
Egypt 3%
South Korea 4% Saudi Arabia 5% Japan 13%
China 53% Other 22% IMPORTS
UK 5%
India 6% Germany 6% Saudi Arabia 7%
Other 56% China 20%
0.2 tonnes per capita
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
CHRONOLOGY Northern Sudan was taken by Egypt in 1821, the south by Britain in 1877. 1882 British invade Egypt. 1883–1898 Muslim revolt led by Muhammad Ahmed, the Mahdi. 1954 Becomes self-governing. 1955 Rebellion in south starts 17 years of civil war. 1956 Independence as republic. 1958–1964 Military rule. 1965 Civilian revolution, elections. 1969 Coup led by Col. Jaafar Nimeiri. 1972 South gets limited autonomy. 1973 Socialist Union sole party. 1983 Southern rebellion resumes. Sharia (Islamic law) imposed. 1984 Devastating drought. 1986 Army coup. 1989 Gen. Bashir takes over. 1991 Sharia penal code instituted. Pro-Iraq stance in Gulf War. 2000 Bashir ousts fundamentalist Turabi from leadership of NC. 2002 SPLA signs cease-fire. Fighting increases between rival factions over southern oil reserves. 2004 Ethnic violence in Darfur escalates into humanitarian crisis.
There are 8 daily newspapers, including Al-Anbaa, Ar-Rai al-Amm, and Al-Nasr 2 services: 1 state-controlled, 1 rebel-controlled
1 state-controlled service
STRENGTHS
Sustainability rank: 102nd
Daily newspaper circulation 26 per 1000 people
259.5 Sudanese dinars (258.7)
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................82nd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$370 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$960m INFLATION .........................................0.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................19%
†
The Jonglei canal project, halted by rebel attacks when only 70% complete, could still devastate the Sudd, the world’s largest swamp and a rich wetland habitat, fed by the White Nile.
SCORE CARD
Electric power 757,000 kW
255,000 b/d (reserves 700m barrels)
Up 90% in 2002
The US is the largest bilateral aid donor, followed by the Netherlands. Most aid is spent on emergency food supplies.
DEFENSE
†
RESOURCES
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
President Bashir promised in 2003 to lift restrictions on the media as part of peace negotiations.
CRIME
†
12,000 prisoners
/
60%
Education 3.7% Health 0.7%
Crime is rising
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 14
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
There are large disparities between rich and poor. Wealth is limited to the NC and southern rebel elites. Most of the population struggles to survive.
S
WORLD RANKING
200,538 students
In 1991, measures were introduced to Islamize education. Primary school children must have two years of Islamic religious instruction, and men wishing to enter university must first serve for a year in the People’s Militia.
1 per 10,000 people
21 per 1000 population
Defense 4.9% Death penalty in use
Antigovernment dissent is often suppressed by violence, and torture by the security forces is widespread. The UN has condemned Sudan’s poor human rights record.
HEALTH
1 per 1000 population
†
Welfare state health benefits Infectious and parasitic diseases, malnutrition
Health service standards in rural areas are basic. Civil war has led to an increase in communicable diseases and malnutrition. The parasitic infection leishmaniasis is prevalent.
Position in World 1st
50th
100th
150th
193rd
139
144 158 $370
58 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
159
139
64 deaths
60%
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
541
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SURINAME
SOUTH AMERICA
SURINAME
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Suriname CAPITAL: Paramaribo POPULATION: 436,000 CURRENCY: Suriname dollar (guilder until 2004) OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Dutch 1975
South America
French Guiana
Guyana
1975
Nov 25
SME
-3
Brazil
.sr
+597
B
OUNDED EAST AND WEST by rivers, Suriname sits on the north coast of South America in the center of the “Guyana Plateau.” The interior is rainforested highlands; most people live near the coast. In 1975, after over 300 years of Dutch rule, Suriname became independent. The Netherlands is still its main aid supplier, and is home to one-third of Surinamese. Multiparty democracy was restored in 1991, after almost 11 years of military rule.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical equatorial
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
Congested street in Paramaribo. It boasts 18th- and 19th-century Dutch architecture. The large mosque is next to a Jewish synagogue.
Pop. density low
Sranan (Creole), Dutch, Javanese, Sarnami Hindi, Saramaccan, Chinese, Carib
WEATHER CHART FOR PARAMARIBO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
3/km2 (7/mi2)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
75%
National Assembly 51 seats
25%
-20/-4
Johann Adolf Pengel, Paramaribo 250,000 passengers
Drive on left
12 ships 5021 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
65% NF
None
166 km (103 miles)
1200 km (746 miles)
Suriname comprises people with origins in Africa, India, Indonesia, and Europe, and also native Amerindians. Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam are the dominant religions. About 250,000 Surinamese have emigrated since 1975. Of those who remain, 90% live near the coast, while the rest live in scattered rainforest communities. Bosnegers are the descendants of runaway slaves, long established in the rainforest as a tribalized society of four clans.
ke Nic
ri e
ijn e
Cop p
ijn
A
Netherlands 83%
Asidonhopo
Zu i
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
N
Li t
0
50 km
Sipa liw
50 miles
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft Sea Level
B
542
Total Area : 163 270 sq. km (63 039 sq. miles)
i
0
SURINAME
200m/1640ft
Appikalo
in
Tourism is undeveloped. Travelers outside Paramaribo are advised to carry their own hammock and food.
Intelewa
a ni
% of total arrivals
Teboe Top d
F R E N C H
30
na Ta
eni ero Co
20
ie
A
Other 8%
Cottica
pa
L uc
China 3%
an Gr
Juliana Top 1230m
Lawa
N
Guyana 6%
10
ho n y
K
o
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
G U IA N A
w
Down 8% in 2000
Ma ro
.
e
Visitors : Population 1:7.5
Y
58,000 visitors
†
U
TOURISM
A coalition government representing Creoles, south Asians, and Javanese took power under Ronald Venetiaan in 1991. Five years later it was defeated by the NDP, controlled by Desi Bouterse, the military dictator from 1980 to 1988, and behind the 1990 coup which ended Suriname’s first attempt at a return to democracy. Between 1996 and 2000 President Jules Wijdenbosch of the NDP withstood the efforts of opponents A T in the National L A N Assembly to T I C O C E A N replace him. In Groningen Nieuw PARAMARIBO Calcutta the 2000 legislative Totness Nickerie Nieuw Boskamp elections, however, Amsterdam Galibi Wageningen Jenny Lelydorp Moengo the NDP was Albina Paranam Onverwacht Pilgrimkondre Republiek massively defeated Joden Savanne Apoera Kwakoegron Zanderij by the opposition Bitagron Berg en Dal Brokopondo NF. The new Kaaimanston Brownsweg Afobaka Assembly went Njoeng Langatabbetje ena m Jacobkondre W.J. van on to reelect Blommesteinmeer Pokigron NF leader Stoelmanseiland eb Ladoewani Venetiaan al Boti-Pasi ab as president. Poeketi
G
Rivers provide the main north–south links, and the interior relies on water or air transportation. The road network runs east–west and focuses on the coast and its immediate hinterland.
6% DNP 2000
NF = New Front for Democracy and Development (includes the Suriname National Party, the Progressive Reform Party, the Suriname Labor Party, and Pertjajah Luhur) MC = Millennium Combination (includes the National Democratic Party (NDP), the Democratic Alternative, and the Party for Unity and Harmony) DNP 2000 = Democratic National Platform 2000
Creole 34%
Cor an t
S
1168 km (726 miles)
10% Others
Other 5% Black 9% Javanese 18%
†
19% MC
ETHNIC MAKEUP
South Asian 34%
TRANSPORTATION
Multiparty elections
President Ronald Venetiaan
2000/2005
-10/14
Suriname’s tropical climate is cooled by the trade winds. Annual rainfall varies from 150 to 300 cm (60 to 120 in) between coast and interior.
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
R
A
Z
I
L
POPULATION over 100 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SURINAME
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
AmCC
Caricom
Joined UN in 1975
OAS
OIC
Relations with the Netherlands and the US, the key aid and trading partners, have been weakened over charges of
†
AID
.
Down 48% in 2002
The Netherlands is the largest donor, but it has on occasion suspended aid amid deteriorating relations. The IDB and European Investment Bank have granted loans for agricultural and industrial development.
DEFENSE US$8m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 11% in 2002
The army was politically dominant in the 1980s under Lt. Col. Desi Bouterse. A six-year war with Bosneger rebels ended in 1992. Aid and training have been provided in recent years by both the US and China.
ECONOMICS US$841m
†
Inflation 83% p.a. (1990–2001)
2.74 Suriname dollars (2515 guilders)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................157th GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$1940 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$131m INFLATION .......................................24.1% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................14%
12,070 b/d (reserves 88m barrels)
137,000 cattle, 66,000 ducks, 3.8m chickens
Bauxite, iron, gold, manganese, copper, nickel, platinum, oil
The bauxite deposits are among the richest in the world, and Suriname is a major exporter of aluminum. Cheap hydroelectric power is a big advantage. Gold mining is largely unregulated, though international corporations have begun to move in. More oil production may also be possible. Rice and fruit are Suriname’s key agricultural products.
ENVIRONMENT
/
10% partially protected
†
MEDIA
Chronic economic mismanagement, leading to low, or negative, growth and difficulty in utilizing Dutch aid. High inflation. High-cost, inefficient public sector. Net food importer. EXPORTS
Trinidad & Tobago 7% France 8%
Norway 21%
Other 30% China 12%
USA 23%
1.9 tonnes per capita
Netherlands 16%
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart attacks, cancers, malaria, malnutrition, tuberculosis
1 per 3333 people
Urban medical facilities in Suriname are relatively good; Paramaribo has several hospitals. However, provision in the interior is basic.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
TV ownership medium
144 per 1000 population
164 per 1000 population
Defense 5%
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Education 3.5% Health 5.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 10 services: 1 state-owned, 9 independent
2 state-owned services
There are radio broadcasts in a number of languages. Dutch is used by the daily newspapers and for most TV programs.
CRIME
†
786 prisoners
Death penalty not used in practice
/
Relatively high crime levels
Human rights abuses associated with the former military regime have largely ended. Rival armed factions remain in some regions in the interior. Narcotics trafficking and money laundering are a problem, as is urban street crime.
EDUCATION Trinidad & Tobago 11%
1975 Independence. 1980 Coup. Rule by Lt. Col. Desi Bouterse. 1982 Opponents executed. Dutch suspend aid for six years. 1986–1992 War with Bosneger rebels. 1988–1991 Elections, coup, and new elections. Ronald Venetiaan elected president. 1992 Bouterse quits as army head. 1996 Pro-Bouterse NDP wins polls. 2000 NF defeats NDP. Venetiaan again elected president.
Daily newspaper circulation 68 per 1000 people
USA 26% IMPORTS
Dutch rule began in 1667, after an Anglo-Dutch treaty whose terms included Britain ceding its colony in Suriname to the Dutch but gaining Nieuw Amsterdam (New York).
Not available
There are 2 daily newspapers, De Ware Tijd and De West
WEAKNESSES
France 8%
†
In 1998 the government declared some 16,000 sq. km (6150 sq. miles) of rainforest – almost 10% of the country – to be a natural reserve barred to logging, but its exploitation for economic gain is still of real concern to environmentalists.
Bauxite. Gold. Timber potential. Oil. Food exports: rice, bananas, citrus fruits, shrimp. Surinamese dollar replaced weak guilder in 2004.
Other 32%
Electric power 425,000 kW
19,337 tonnes
STRENGTHS
Iceland 6%
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
US$12m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
official connivance in narcotics trafficking. Suriname claims the southeastern corner of Guyana in a border dispute. Relations were damaged further when Suriname took action against oil prospectors in 2000.
†
Living standards have fallen since 1982, due to the effects of civil war and to aid and loan suspension. Urban Creoles dominate the rich elite. Amerindians and Bosnegers are the poorest groups.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
67 90
School leaving age: 12
150th
$1940
88 70 years
79 94%
105 31 deaths
193rd
94%
4400 students
Education is free and includes adult literacy programs. There is a long tradition of higher education, but most graduates now live in the Netherlands.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
543
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SWAZILAND
SOUTHERN AFRICA
Africa
Mozambique
South Africa SWAZILAND
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Swaziland CAPITAL: Mbabane POPULATION: 1.1 million CURRENCY: Lilangeni OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and siSwati 1968
1968
Sept 6
SD
+2
.sz
+268
T
HE LANDLOCKED southern African kingdom of Swaziland, bordered on three sides by South Africa and to the east by Mozambique, comprises mainly upland plateaus and mountains. Governed by a strong hereditary monarchy, Swaziland is a country in which tradition is being challenged by demands for modern multiparty government. King Mswati III, crowned in 1986, has overhauled the electoral process but is unwilling to legalize party politics.
†
CLIMATE
†
POLITICS L. House 2003/2008 U. House 2003/2008
Nonparty elections
H.M. King Mswati III
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Assembly 65 seats
There are no political parties. Ten members of the House of Assembly are appointed by the king
Senate 30 seats Subtropical
WEATHER CHART FOR MBABANE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
Rainfall A
Twenty members of the Senate are appointed by the king and ten elected by the House of Assembly
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32 -10/14
The outskirts of Mbabane. It lies on the high veld, where traditional cattle farming has become more difficult owing to overgrazing.
-20/-4
Swaziland is temperate. Temperatures rise and rainfall declines as the land descends eastward, from high to low veld. The low veld is prone to drought.
TRANSPORTATION Matsapha, Manzini 93,000 passengers
†
Drive on left
PEOPLE
†
Pop. density medium 64/km2 (166/mi2)
English, siSwati, isiZulu, Xitsonga
SWAZILAND
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Total Area : 17 363 sq. km (6704 sq. miles)
Has no fleet
POPULATION 27%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1064 km (661 miles)
None
301 km (187 miles)
None
King Mswati III, one of the world’s last absolute monarchs, dominates politics. Political parties are banned, but opposition, led by the trade union movement, is vocal. Particular points of contention are the suppression of parties, nepotism favoring the ruling Dlamini clan, and even the king’s personal life. After mounting pressure from 2000, a new constitution was issued in 2003 guaranteeing human rights but maintaining the ban on parties.
LAND HEIGHT
over 50 000
73%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
1000m/3281ft
over 10 000
Traditional beliefs 40%
N
500m/1640ft
under 10 000
200m/656ft Sea Level 0 0
Christian 60%
20
30
40
50
60
Mk h
T
10
% of total arrivals
S
U
Other 34% 0
IN
O
Mozambique 7% UK 2%
N TA
S
South Africa 57%
MOU
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
uz
Down 9% in 2001–2002
ul
.
OMBO
Visitors : Population 1:4.3
LEB
256,000 visitors
†
K A N G A L I N A
TOURISM
25 miles
Emlembe 1862m
Over 95% of the population belong to the Bulembu Bordergate Rocklands Kuthuleni Lomahasha Swazi ethnic group, making Swaziland Piggs Tshaneni Peak Mhlume one of Africa’s most homogeneous Kom a t i Madlangampisi M buluz states. It is also very conservative, i i Mhlumeni Mnjoli but is now facing pressure from Dam Simunye Mb urban-based modernizers. The Motjane powerful monarchy dominates MBABANE politics. Ancient traditions, Ezulwini Lonhlupheko such as incwala, the rainy Mhlambanyatsi Siteki Nkanini Ngogolo season’s annual movable Nkundla Manzini Bhunya feast, remain popular. Society Matsapha Lu su t fu is patriarchal and focused Sidvokodvo Siphofaneni around the clan. Chiefs own Mankayane em much “national land,” and Ngw p isi Mayaluka Lu dvo su wield authority through local tfu Big Bend on consultations, or tindkhundla. Sitobela Sicunusa Polygamy is tolerated. Women Salem Gege Maloma are openly discriminated against, Nsoko Hlathikulu even though the Queen Mother, Lukhalweni Mbulungwane the “Great She Elephant,” ruled Mahamba Nhlangano Nggwa vum as regent during the mid-1980s. Mhlosheni A In an effort to combat the spread F Lavumisa of AIDS, the king encourages chastity. Salitje
544
a
H
Swaziland’s attractions are its game reserves, mountain scenery, and, particularly for the numerous South African tourists, its casinos.
R
I
C
A
Jozini Dam
MBIQUE MOZA
S
The road system is largely well maintained, except out in the bush. The railroad, running to Mozambique and South Africa, mainly carries freight.
25 km
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SWAZILAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
Comm
AU
NAM
Joined UN in 1968
SADC
Swaziland’s membership of the SACU reinforces its traditional dependence on its giant neighbor, South Africa. Having
†
AID
Recipient
$25m (receipts)
.
Down 14% in 2002
Aid helps the balance of payments, and has funded the development of roads, the Matsapha industrial estate, and
DEFENSE $23m
†
/
ECONOMICS
Up 15% in 2000
142 tonnes
Not an oil producer
580,000 cattle, 422,000 goats, 3.2m chickens
Coal, diamonds, gold, asbestos, cassiterite, iron, tin
†
Inflation 12% p.a. (1990–2001)
6.21 emalangeni (7.51)
STRENGTHS Economy quite diversified and buoyant. Manufacturing. Investment rules attractive. Sugar. Wood pulp. Debt service low. Renewed regional stability has reduced risk to exports.
Swaziland’s main exports are sugarcane, wood pulp, and coal. Asbestos mining ceased in 2000. The development of hydroelectric power plants has cut energy imports from South Africa.
.
4% partially protected
†
†
MEDIA
Other 9% EU 12%
0.4 tonnes per capita
AIDS, diarrheal and respiratory diseases
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
106 per 1000 population
TV ownership low
34 per 1000 population
Defense 1.5% Education 5.5% Health 2.3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
1 state-owned service
Laws on press freedoms have come under pressure, notably over the stateowned Swazi Observer, which was banned for a period in 2001.
†
3400 prisoners
UK 3% 81%
About two-thirds of Swazis live below the poverty line. The royal Dlamini clan enjoys Western luxuries and travel.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
Death penalty in use
/
Up 28% in 2000
The crime rate is generally low. Serial killer David Mhlanga was charged in 2001 with 34 murders.
EDUCATION
†
School leaving age: 12
4198 students
1st
50th
100th
150th
112 127
$1240
Primary enrollment is almost 100% despite fees paid for all except orphans and “vulnerable children.” Drop-out rates at secondary level are high.
137
81%
193rd
175
South Africa 94%
No welfare state health benefits
Health facilities are rudimentary. Nearly 40% of adults are HIV-positive, the highest infection rate in the world.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
South Africa 74% IMPORTS
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 26 per 1000 people
CRIME
EXPORTS
1968 Independence. 1973 King bans political activity, repeals constitution. 1978 New constitution confirms king’s executive, legislative control. 1982 King Sobhuza dies. Queen Mother becomes regent for Prince Makhosetive. Power struggle between modernists and traditionalists in royal Dlamini clan. 1986 Makhosetive crowned King Mswati III at the age of 18. 1992 Limited electoral reforms; parties still banned. 1993 Elections under new system. 2000 Mass prodemocracy protests. 2003 New constitution offers human rights but parties still banned.
1 per 5000 people
The Times and the state-owned Swazi Observer are dailies
Severe drought. Sugar vulnerable to price fluctuations. Dependence on South Africa for jobs, revenue, investment, electricity, and imported goods. Small plots of land and lack of land title hinder farm modernization. High population growth: increase in dependent children. AIDS: loss of workforce, cost of medical care.
Swaziland became a British protectorate in 1903.
Not available
Swaziland’s natural resources are well managed, and after a 70-year absence rhinos have been reintroduced. Factories have been closed for polluting rivers.
WEAKNESSES
Other 3%
Electric power: Included in South African total
ENVIRONMENT
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................148th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1240 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$46m INFLATION ..........................................12% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................34%
Mozambique 5%
†
RESOURCES
SCORE CARD
social projects. Aid has recently focused on mitigating the effects of HIV/ AIDS, including food insecurity and a growing number of orphans. Donors include the EU, Japan, the UK, and the AfDB.
No compulsory military service
The Swaziland Defense Force numbers just 3000 troops. Though it does not play an overt political role, its loyalty is to the monarch and the status quo.
$1.35bn
CHRONOLOGY
welcomed the election of an ANC-led government there, King Mswati has objected to its support for Swazi prodemocracy campaigners. Peace in Mozambique has meant the return there of 134,000 refugees.
44 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
171 106 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
545
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SWEDEN
N
1921
June 6
S
+1
.se
+46
S
ITUATED ON THE SCANDINAVIAN peninsula with Norway to its west, Sweden is a densely forested country with numerous lakes. The north of Sweden falls within the Arctic Circle; much of the south is fertile and widely cultivated. Sweden has one of the most extensive welfare systems in the world, and is among the world’s leading proponents of equal rights for women. It is home to global companies including high-tech firm Ericsson and notable car manufacturers Volvo and Saab. Unlike neighboring Norway, it is an EU member, having joined in 1995.
CLIMATE
†
Subarctic/continental
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR STOCKHOLM
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
571 ships 3.18m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
S
168,239 km (104,539 miles)
1507 km (936 miles)
9857 km (6125 miles)
2052 km (1275 miles)
Transportation links are of prime concern in what is Europe’s fifthlargest country. Swedish governments have traditionally spent large sums on maintaining and improving infrastructure, as a way of boosting the economy as a whole. A high-speed rail link between Arlanda airport and Stockholm opened in 1999. The 16-km (10-mile) Øresund road and rail link by bridge and tunnel connecting Malmö with Copenhagen opened in 2000, providing Sweden with better communications with Denmark and the rest of Europe. By law, cars must travel with their headlights on at all times, and there are very strict laws against drink-driving.
546
Muslim 2% Other 13%
Evangelical Lutheran 82%
Down 1% in 2003 ETHNIC MAKEUP
Finnish and Sámi 2%
Foreign-born or first-generation immigrant 10%
Finland 11% Swedish 88%
Other 33%
Arlanda, Stockholm 15.2m passengers
Roman Catholic 2%
Denmark 18%
-20/-4
Drive on right
17%
Orthodox Christian 1%
UK 7%
†
22/km2 (56/mi2)
83%
Norway 8%
TRANSPORTATION
Pop. density low
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Germany 23%
-10/14
Sweden has a largely continental climate. The Baltic Sea often freezes in winter, making the east coast much colder than western regions. Summers are mild everywhere, with temperatures varying surprisingly little between northern and southern regions.
†
PEOPLE
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
Finland
Denmark
Swedish, Finnish, Sámi
Visitors : Population 1:1.2
.
7.38m visitors
SWEDE
Norway
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Sweden CAPITAL: Stockholm POPULATION: 8.9 million CURRENCY: Swedish krona OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Swedish 1523
Europe
EUROPE
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Sweden expanded rapidly as a tourist destination in the 1970s and 1980s. Stockholm is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its Old Town, and the Vasa, a magnificent 17th-century warship raised from the harbor bed in the 1960s. Sweden has fewer lakes than Finland, and lacks Norway’s dramatic scenery, but it has many natural attractions. The mountains of the midnight sun lie north of the Arctic Circle, while the southern coast has many white sandy beaches. The vast tracts of deserted landscape and the simple country communal living also attract visitors, but the cost of travel to Sweden and living expenses mean that affluent north Europeans top the list of visitors.
The nuclear family forms the basis of society. The birthrate is low with, on average, fewer than two children per family. Cohabitation is common, and the marriage rate is declining. Swedish society has an egalitarian tradition. The role of the state is seen as providing conditions allowing each person to gain economic independence through employment. The welfare system is one of the most extensive in the world. However, in the early 1990s, recession reduced benefits; mothers in particular face problems with the closure of child-care facilities. Women make up nearly half the workforce. Over 45% of MPs are women, the highest percentage in the world. In 1999 the Swedish cabinet became the first in the world to have a majority of women ministers. A 15,000-strong minority of Sámi live in the north, their traditional way of life protected. Sweden’s generous asylum laws cause popular concern, but parliament rejected moves to prevent immigration from the expanded EU. The Evangelical Lutheran Church was disestablished in 2000. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 3.1% 9.3%
A crofter’s holding in Dalarna, central Sweden, an area which is still mainly forested. The timber and paper industries play a major role in Sweden’s economy.
80+ 60–79
13%
40–59
13.3%
20–39
11.9%
0–19
Male 1.7% 7.9% 13.3% 13.9% 12.6%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SWEDEN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
H.M. King Carl XVI Gustaf
2002/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament (Riksdag) 349 seats
41% SAP
14% 9% 9% 6% 5% FP Kd VP CP MpG
16% M
The high cost of the welfare state The cost of the welfare system contributed to enormous budget deficits in the late 1980s and early 1990s. While this has been brought under control, and unemployment has been reduced, the growing number of pensioners means that social security pressures remain.
SAP = Social Democratic Labor Party M = Moderate Party FP = Liberal Party Kd = Christian Democratic Party VP = Left Party CP = Center Party MpG = Green Party
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament under the leadership of the prime minister.
EU
o
N
ve
n
E
Kiruna
rneälv To lv Kalixä
Y
L
Gällivare L
A
K
Ö
lv eä ul
Arctic Circle
D
N
A
L
P
A
L
A N D N L
äl
I
v äl
ni
Kebnekaise 2111m
F
Mu on io
L ai
Politics has traditionally been split between the SAP and trade unions on the left, and a host of moderate center and right-wing parties. Since the 1930s, the SAP has governed every term, except in 1976–1982 and 1991–1994. A shift to the right in 1991 was reversed in the 1994 elections. Ingvar Carlsson, SAP leader, formed a minority government but resigned in 1996 and was replaced by Göran Persson. The SAP lost ground in elections in 1998, increasing its dependence on Left Party and Green support. A further shift in the 2002 elections left the Greens holding the balance of power.
Luleå
W
U
m
eä
ell
Piteå
eft eä lv
Skellefteå
lv
n lven
Vänern
M
100 km
rn tte Vä
Västervik Visby
C Gotland Borgholm
Växjö
I
Kattegat
Kalmar
Halmstad
R
Lund
Malmö Th
K
e
So
un d
Kristianstad Hanöbukten
T
Öland
Karlskrona
Helsingborg
A
100 miles
Jönköping
Kungsbacka
N D E
0
Norrköping Linköping
Mölndal
Sea Level
0
Borås
N A
STOCKHOLM
Nyköping Skövde
Trollhättan k Skagerra Göteborg
Täby
Södertälje
over 10 000 Mellerud
OSCE
$1.99bn (donations)
†
Donor
/
Up 20% in 2002
Sweden is one of the few countries to exceed the UN target of 0.7% of GNP in development aid, donating 0.83% in 2002 to a variety of recipients.
Sweden’s history has been closely linked to the control of the Baltic Sea and its highly profitable trade routes. Under the house of Vasa, Sweden became a major power, controlling much of the Baltic region. By the 18th century, however, Sweden’s position had been eroded by its regional rivals, particularly Russia.
S
Eskilstuna
E
Örebro
Hjälmaren
LAND HEIGHT
N
L
Uppsala
Mälaren
S
Karlstad
over 50 000
200m/656ft
D
h lä
Västerås
A
Da
lven arä Kl
Borlänge
Arvika
over 100 000
Gävle
Falun
OECD
NC
CHRONOLOGY
N Malung
over 1 000 000
500m/1640ft
F I N
f o Sundsvall
gan
G u l f
O
Ljun
Lj us na n
POPULATION
1000m/3281ft
t
B
R
Örnsköldsvik
Ånge
Total Area : 449 964 sq. km (173 731 sq. miles)
Joined UN in 1946
Sweden’s main recent foreign policy concern has been its adjustment to membership of the EU, which it joined in 1995. In 1998 it voted to join the Schengen passport-free zone, but has not adopted the euro. In the 1980s, Sweden was a vociferous critic of the antagonistic policy pursued by the US toward the USSR. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, and more recently the September 11, 2001, attack on the US, it has altered its traditionally neutral stance. Sweden has WEU observer status, and participates in NATO exercises and several UN peacekeeping operations.
AID
o
Umeå
Östersund
CE
i
Lycksele
a
Sk
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
SWEDEN
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
PROFILE
EU membership Sweden joined the EU in 1995. Like the UK and Denmark it opted out of introducing the euro, the idea again being rejected in a referendum in September 2003. It supports expansion of the EU.
Göran Persson of the SAP became prime minister in 1996.
Carl XVI Gustaf, ascended the throne in 1973. His role is purely ceremonial.
L A
1814–1815 Congress of Vienna. Sweden cedes territory to Russia and Denmark. Prolonged period of peace begins. 1865–1866 Riksdag (parliament) reformed into a bicameral structure. 1905 Norway gains independence from Sweden. 1911 First Liberal government comes to power. 1914 Government resigns over defense policy.
B 547
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
548
/
Compulsory military service
Up 2% in 2002
SWEDISH ARMED FORCES 280 main battle tanks (160 Strv-121, 120 Strv-122)
13,800 personnel
7 submarines and 36 patrol boats
7900 personnel
207 combat aircraft (16 Saab AJSH-37/AJSF-37, 135 Saab JAS-39, 47 Saab JA-37)
5900 personnel
None
Sweden’s sophisticated and powerful military force is supplied with
ECONOMICS $232bn
†
weaponry manufactured by its advanced home defense industry, including Saab fighter jets and Bofors antiaircraft guns. However, with the ending of the Cold War, strategic priorities have changed. Sweden feels less bound to maintain its neutral stance: it has participated in NATO’s Partnership for Peace program since 1994 and has WEU observer status. In 1999 spending cuts were announced, foreshadowing halving the size of the armed forces, because of the reduced military threat in the Scandinavian and Baltic region. A ten-year reform program began in 2001, offering personnel regular office hours and canceling large-scale exercises.
Inflation 2% p.a. (1990–2001)
7.533 Swedish kronor (8.005)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................20th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$25,970 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$10.6bn INFLATION .........................................2.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
Denmark 6%
UK 8%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
S
$3.95bn
†
Consumer price index 1999=100
1914–1917 Neutral during World War I, but supplies Germany. Allied blockade. 1917 Food shortages. Conservative government falls. Nils Edén forms a Liberal government: limits exports contributing to German war effort. 1919 Universal adult suffrage. 1921 Finland gains Åland Islands as retribution for Sweden’s war role. 1932 Severe recession. Social Democrat government under Per Albin Hansson elected. 1939–1945 Sweden neutral. Grants transit rights to German forces. 1945–1976 Continuing Social Democratic rule under Tage Erlander establishes Sweden as world’s most advanced welfare state, and one of the most affluent. 1950 Gustav VI Adolf becomes king. 1953 Joins Nordic Council. 1959 Founder member of EFTA. 1969 Erlander succeeded by Olof Palme as prime minister. 1973 Carl XVI Gustaf on throne. 1975 Major constitutional reform. Riksdag (parliament) becomes unicameral. Role of monarchy greatly reduced. 1976 Nonsocialist coalition led by Thorbjörn Fälldin replaces SAP government. 1978 Fälldin resigns over issue of nuclear power. Ola Ullsten prime minister. 1979 Fälldin prime minister again. 1982 Elections. SAP forms minority government. Palme returns as prime minister. 1986 Palme shot dead. His deputy, Ingvar Carlsson, succeeds him. Police fail to find killer. 1990 Carlsson introduces moderate austerity package, cuts government spending, raises indirect taxes. 1991 Sweden applies to join EU. SAP wins election but is unable to form government; Carlsson resigns. Moderate Party leader Carl Bildt forms coalition of nonsocialist parties amid serious recession. 1992 Austerity measures succeed in reducing inflation but SAP refuses to support further spending cuts. 1994 EU membership terms agreed. Elections: SAP returns to power. 1995 Joins EU. 1996 Carlsson resigns; replaced by Göran Persson. 1998 Persson remains in office, despite SAP losses in elections; dependent on Left and Greens. 2001 Defense reform program. 2002 Elections: SAP still largest party but lacking majority. 2003 Foreign Minister Anna Lindh stabbed to death. Euro rejected in referendum.
DEFENSE
2003
Norway 9% Other 55%
Germany 10% USA 12%
IMPORTS
Netherlands 7%
Norway 8% Denmark 9%
Other 48%
UK 9% Germany 19%
STRENGTHS Companies of global importance, including Saab, Volvo, Electrolux, and SKF, the world’s biggest roller bearing manufacturer. Highly developed and constantly updated infrastructure. Sophisticated technology. Skilled labor force virtually bilingual in English.
private-sector companies. Though the early 1990s saw a shift in economic policy to favor business, greater growth did not follow, and unemployment and welfare costs drove up the budget deficit to one of the OECD’s highest in 1994. Growth has now been resumed, unemployment halved, and the deficit cut back, but inflation has started to rise. The world downturn in 2001 brought the krona under pressure. Sweden opted not to adopt the euro from 1999; the ruling SAP took a pro-euro stance in 2000, but a national referendum in 2003 again rejected joining the eurozone. SWEDEN : MAJOR BUSINESSES Kiruna
Vehicle manufacture Telecommunications
Gällivare
Electrometallurgy Iron ore mining Electronics
WEAKNESSES Labor costs remain uncompetitive. One of the highest rates of taxation in the OECD, accounting for almost 35% of GDP. Peripheral location, raising costs for producers and exporters. Major losses by Ericsson, giant telecoms company.
Pulp & paper
Umeå
Engineering Chemicals Textiles 0 0
200 km
Gävle Västerås
200 miles
Stockholm
PROFILE The state plays a significant role in the economy, particularly the services sector and infrastructure. Sweden’s industrial giants have mostly been
Göteborg
Malmö
Norrköping Linköping
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SWEDEN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES 318,589 tonnes
Low levels of oil production; refines 432,000 b/d
1.9m pigs, 1.61m cattle, 5.75m chickens
Iron, uranium, copper, lead, zinc, silver
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 54% (79bn kWh) Combustion 7% (11bn kWh) Nuclear 39% (57bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Sweden is rich in minerals including iron, copper, and silver. While mining and quarrying account for only 0.2% of GDP, they underpin other industrial sectors. In a referendum in 1980 Sweden decided, on environmental grounds, to
ENVIRONMENT
.
9% (4% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 3rd
abandon nuclear power by 2010. However, problems in securing SWEDEN : LAND USE High mountain regions sufficient new Forest energy supplies Pasture and in cutting Cropland consumption LAPLAND Pigs meant that, by Barley mid-2004, only one of the 12 nuclear reactors had been closed down and nuclear power still accounted for nearly half of electricity generation. 0
†
CRIME
No death penalty
.
6506 prisoners
Sweden’s health care system is comprehensive and of a universally high standard. Spending fell by an average of 2% in real terms in the 1990s, but the trend has since reversed. Savings have been made by increasing outpatient care, reducing the number of hospital beds, and cutting jobs. Since 1994 individuals have had the right to choose their own doctor. In 1999 the government agreed to compensate more than 60,000 people subjected to enforced sterilization in 1935– 1975. Smoking was banned in public places from 2004.
459 per 1000 population
Down 2% in 2001
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
10
GDP/cap. increase
736 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7% Murders
Yes
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
Yes
Cancers, heart, cerebrovascular, and pulmonary diseases
SPENDING
200 miles
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 333 people
200 km
0
5.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
HEALTH
Electric power 32.8m kW
Education 7.7%
per 100,000 population
Health 7.4% Rapes
0
23
per 100,000 population
7484
per 100,000 population
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Thefts
Since Sweden’s pioneering Environment Protection Act in 1969, it has invested heavily in environmental protection measures. It blames acid rain damage to forests and lakes on airborne sulfur dioxide from factories in western Europe. Swedish nuclear reactors are said to be very safe, with filtered venting systems designed to retain 90% of all radioactivity released if there were a core meltdown. Nonetheless, all reactors are due to be phased out.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Crime rates are much higher than in Norway or Denmark, and the high reporting rate puts them above the European average. Violent crime is increasing, especially in the cities.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 16
358,020 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are over 100 dailies; the most influential are Expressen, Dagens Nyheter, Aftonbladet, and Svenska Dagbladet 2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
5 services: 1 publicly owned, 4 independent
Press freedom is entrenched, though radical views are rarely expressed. The influence of the major daily newspapers is largely confined to Stockholm: the provinces have their own strong press. Six companies control most of Sweden’s magazines. Two-thirds of the population have cable or satellite TV.
% of each age group in education
Daily newspaper circulation 410 per 1000 people
Sweden has small income differentials, and Swedish executives are paid less than some of their European counterparts. Compared with other European states or the US, social competition and a sense of hierarchy are limited. Despite some cuts in services, the welfare system still rates highly in Europe. Swedes are keen overseas property buyers, particularly of villas in Italy and France. Net overseas per capita investment remains among the highest in the world and about two-thirds of households own shares. PC ownership is high, and over 50% of Swedes have access to the Internet.
WORLD RANKING
80
60
Position in World
100%
1st
100%
40
70% 50th
20
0
10 $25,970
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education spending (public and private) is among the OECD’s highest as a percentage of GDP. Coeducational comprehensive schools are the norm. The higher education system is freely available to most of the population, and many adults return to college to do further courses.
4 80 years
1
1
99%
3 deaths
2
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
549
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
SWITZERLAND
EUROPE Ger m an y France
A u s tr i a
SWITZERLAND Liechtenstein
I t a l y
OFFICIAL NAME: Swiss Confederation CAPITAL: Bern POPULATION: 7.2 million CURRENCY: Swiss franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: French, German, and Italian 1291
1857
Aug 1
CH
+1
.ch
+41
S
WITZERLAND LIES at the center of western Europe geographically, but outside it politically. Sometimes called Europe’s water tower, it is the source of all four of the region’s major river systems: the Po, the Rhône, the Rhine, and the Inn–Danube. Switzerland has built one of the world’s most prosperous economies, aided by the fact that it has retained its neutral status through every major European conflict since 1815. The process of European integration has been the latest and strongest challenge to Swiss neutralism, but it remains outside the EU.
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CLIMATE WEATHER CHART FOR BERN
Kloten, Zürich 17m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on right
TOURISM
24 ships 559,100 grt
10m visitors
71,011 km (44,124 miles)
1305 km (811 miles)
3222 km (2002 miles)
1214 km (754 miles)
France 7%
Rhine
La
ke
F
Monthey
Genève
e r O b
A
Montreux
Sion
N
e r rn B e Sierre
Martigny 30 km P
n ni e n
e
p
n a
A lps
i
tine
l
Passo del San Gottardo
San Bernardino Tunnel
St. Moritz
Passo del Bernina
Simplon Tunnel
s A lp
I
over 100 000
Y Lugano
30 miles Great St. Bernard Pass
POPULATION
Bellinzona Locarno Lake Maggiore
Dufourspitze 4634m
T
A
SWITZERLAND Total Area : 41 290 sq. km (15 942 sq. miles)
Brig Simplon Pass
ône Rh
pon
A
Flüelapass
R
R
Nyon
L land
Le
Davos e in e rrh ord
t
Eiger 3970m
Vevey
V
P
Interlaken
Lausanne
S
e
N A
Spiez
Pully G e ne va
Brienzer See
Thuner See
a
Steffisburg
h
E
Do ub s
C
P s i s Thun S w
Renens Morges
40
T
J
30
20
Tourism is Switzerland’s third-largest foreign exchange earner. It accounts for around 3% of GDP, though receipts have fallen in recent years. The Alps are the main attraction, drawing winter M R A and summer tourists from around the E N world, and Chillon Castle on Lake Y G Geneva continues to be the Lak e C Schaffhausen on country’s most popular tourist Kreuzlingen st R hine an c site. In recent years, warmer Frauenfeld Baden winters have shortened the Liestal Rorschach Winterthur Arbon Kloten skiing season. “Suicide Aarau Wil Sankt Gallen Herisau Olten Uster tourism,” as a recent Zürich Zürichsee development has Horgen Stäfa Jona Langenthal Wädenswil been termed, has seen Baar Rapperswil Zug terminally ill people R LIECHTENSTEIN Burgdorf Luzern taking advantage Einsiedeln Bieler See I Bolligen Schwyz of less stringent A Viervaldstätter BERN Muri u See a Swiss laws on e Köniz t euthanasia. l a Chur s
Fribourg
Yverdon
10
% of total arrivals
S
e cd La
l te hâ uc Ne
Other 40% 0
A U
U
Italy 6%
e
R
Neuchâtel
550
Down 7% in 2002
UK 9%
Switzerland is a major freight transit route. Pollution and safety are major concerns: 11 people died in a fire in 2001 in the Gotthard road tunnel. High-speed trains operated by Cisalpino connect Basel, Geneva, and Zürich with Stuttgart, Milan, Florence, and Venice. Swissair, bankrupted in 2001, has been replaced by a new airline, named simply “Swiss.”
Temperature and weather fluctuate enormously, not only seasonally but because of the huge variations in altitude and the country’s location in central Europe. On the plateau north of the Alps, where most of the population lives, summers are warm and winters dry, cool, and often foggy. South of the Alps, it is warmer and sunnier. Strong southerly winds, or föhn, can bring summerlike weather even Basel in winter. Avalanches Delémont have been A Solothurn a problem Grenchen in recent e Biel La Chaux A ar years. -de-Fonds
0
.
USA 10%
-20/-4
0
Visitors : Population 1.4:1
Germany 28%
-10/14
S
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MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
Mountain/continental
The Eiger in the Berner Oberland. In 1994, a referendum voted to ban all truck transit traffic from the Swiss Alps from 2004.
L
over 50 000 over 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SWITZERLAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
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PEOPLE
181/km2 (469/mi2)
German, Swiss-German, French, Italian, Romansch THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
67%
33%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 2%
Other and nonreligious 12%
Roman Catholic 46%
Protestant 40%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 6% Italian 10%
Romansch 1%
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
French 18%
most outsiders. In recent years, the three groups have grown further apart. The French-Swiss, in favor of joining the EU, are opposed by the GermanSwiss. In Italian-speaking Ticino, a political party has emerged to champion Italian-Swiss interests. Despite tensions between Swiss and immigrant workers, referenda proposing strict limits on numbers of foreigners and the restriction of asylum were heavily defeated in 2000 and 2002 respectively. Society retains strong conservative elements. Two half-cantons granted women the vote at regional level only in 1989 and 1990. The marriage rate is high and the divorce rate lower than the European average. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
German 65%
2.8%
The Swiss comprise distinct GermanSwiss, French-Swiss, and Italian-Swiss linguistic groups. About 40,000 people in the eastern canton of Grisons speak Romansch. The German-Swiss, in the majority, are a tightly knit community, with a dialect that is impenetrable to
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POLITICS L. House 2003/2007 U. House 2003/2007
President Joseph Deiss
AT THE LAST ELECTION
26% SP/ PS
8% Others
18% FDP/ PRD
14% 6% CVP/ GPS/ PDC PES
SVP/UDC = Swiss People's Party SP/PS = Social Democratic Party FDP/PRD = Radical Democratic Party CVP/PDC = Christian Democratic People's Party GPS/PES = Green Party of Switzerland
Council of States 46 seats
33% CVP/ PDC
30% FDP/ PRD
15.1% 11.1%
Male 1.4%
60–79
7.1% 13.4%
40–59 20–39 0–19
15.2% 11.8%
% of population by age group
G10
EFTA
Joined UN in 2002
OSCE
PfP
The basis of Swiss foreign policy remains its neutrality. Geneva is a center for many international organizations, including the ICRC and the European headquarters of the UN (though Switzerland only voted to join the UN in 2002). The city has often hosted diplomatic negotiations: those for the START nuclear arms reduction treaties and peace talks for the former Yugoslavia took place there. A member of EFTA, Switzerland has so far not joined the process of closer European integration. In 1992 voters rejected EEA membership, widely seen as a precursor of EU membership. Many advocates of joining the EU believe the economy will suffer without closer integration. Others argue Switzerland’s isolation will enhance its role as a tax haven. In 2001 a proposal in favor of EU membership was overwhelmingly rejected. A series of bilateral cooperation agreements with the EU entered into force in 2002; a second set of accords are under negotiation.
Multiparty elections
National Council 200 seats
28% SVP/ UDC
8.8% 13.3%
80+
CE
†
20% SP/ PS
17% SVP/ UDC
Switzerland is a federal democratic republic with 26 autonomous cantons. The presidency rotates every year.
PROFILE The same four-party coalition has been in power in Switzerland since 1959. Domestic and foreign policies have changed little. Politics has recently become more contentious, however, with voting patterns becoming more polarized. Divisive issues are those of narcotics and of membership of the EU. The right-wing SVP/UDC in particular capitalized on growing hostility to immigration to perform strongly in the 1999 and 2003 elections. It was
rewarded with an extra seat in the cabinet in December 2003, upsetting the 44-year-old “magic formula.” Switzerland’s political system is unique in Europe, in that important decisions depend on the results of referenda. A petition of more than 100,000 signatures can force a referendum on any issue.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES European integration Almost all politicians and business leaders favor joining the EU, or at least the EEA, but voters remain sharply divided. Decisions taken in Brussels nevertheless affect Swiss economic policy and the government is negotiating further bilateral accords with the EU. Many Swiss fear that their decentralized style of government would be lost within the EU. Switzerland and World War II In 2002 the Bergier report criticized Swiss refusal to admit many Jewish refugees during World War II, but found that the banking system was not built on the assets of Holocaust victims. In 1998 the two largest Swiss banks had agreed to pay $1.25 billion to 31,500 victims and their families in return for agreement that there would be no future claims against Swiss banks or the government. A government Fund for Needy Holocaust Victims was wound up in 2002 after paying $179 million to 309,000 survivors.
Joseph Deiss of the CVP/PDC, who held the one-year presidency in 2004.
Samuel Schmid of the far-right SVP/UDC, vice president in 2004.
CHRONOLOGY The autonomy of the Swiss cantons was curtailed by the Habsburgs in the 11th century. In 1291, the three cantons of Unterwalden, Schwyz, and Uri set up the Perpetual League to pursue Swiss liberty. Joined by other cantons, they succeeded in 1499 in gaining virtual independence. The Habsburgs retained a titular role.
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1648 Peace of Westphalia recognizes full Swiss independence. 1798 Invaded by French. 1815 Congress of Vienna after Napoléon’s defeat confirms Swiss independence and establishes its neutrality. Geneva and Valais join Swiss Confederation. 1848 New constitution after brief civil war (1847) – central
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THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
S
AID
†
Donor
$939m (donations)
/
Up 3% in 2002
With total disbursements amounting to 0.32% of GNP in 2002, Switzerland ranks above the (OECD) average of 0.23% as an aid donor, though the level of assistance remains below its target of 0.4% of GNP, set in 1994. The focus of aid has in recent years moved to central Asia.
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Compulsory military service
/
Up 1% in 2002
556 main battle tanks (370 Pz-87, 186 Pz-68/88)
3300 personnel
$2.85bn SWISS ARMED FORCES
None
123 combat aircraft (70 Tiger II/F-5E, 26 F/A-18)
Part of army
None
The army is, in one sense, among the largest in Europe as it is organized so
ECONOMICS $264bn
†
that almost 400,000 conscripts can be called up and armed in a few hours; it still uses skis and horses to protect the Alps. Bridges and tunnels are mined in accordance with a defense strategy drafted in the early 1900s. Military service and further training at intervals are compulsory for males up to the age of 42. An air wing is included as part of the army. Force numbers are being cut in response to the end of the Cold War. In 1995, legislation allowing civilian service in place of military service was passed. Voters approved in 2001 a referendum proposal allowing Swiss soldiers to bear arms when on international peacekeeping operations.
Inflation 1.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.252 Swiss francs (1.355)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................18th GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$36,170 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS.......................$26bn INFLATION .........................................0.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
EXPORTS
UK 5%
Italy 8%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
government given more powers, but cantons’ powers guaranteed. 1857 Neuchâtel joins confederation. 1863 Henri Dunant founds ICRC in Geneva. 1874 Referendum established as important decision-making tool. 1914–1918 Plays humanitarian role in World War I. 1919 Proportional representation ensures future political stability. 1920 Joins League of Nations. 1939–1945 Neutral in World War II. 1945 Refuses to join UN. 1959 Founder member of EFTA. Present four-party coalition comes to power, taking over FDP/PRD dominance of government. 1967 Right-wing groups make electoral gains, campaigning to restrict entry of foreign workers. 1971 Most women granted right to vote in federal elections. 1984 Parliament approves application for UN membership. Elisabeth Kopp is first woman minister (justice portfolio). 1986 Referendum opposes joining UN. Immigrant numbers restricted. 1988 Kopp resigns over allegedly violating secrecy of information laws. 1990 Kopp acquitted. Case revealed public prosecutor’s office held secret files on 200,000 people. Violent protests. State security laws amended. 1991 Large increase in attacks on asylum seekers’ hostels. 1992 Joins IMF and World Bank. Referendum vetoes joining EEA. 1994 Referendum approves new antiracism law and tighter laws against narcotics traffickers and illegal immigrants. 1998 $1.25 billion compensation for Holocaust victims whose funds were deposited in Swiss banks. 1999 Ruth Dreifuss first woman president. 2002 Third referendum on joining UN gives approval. Legalization of abortions as currently carried out also approved by referendum. 2003 SVP/UDC becomes largest party.
DEFENSE
2002
France 9% Other 46% USA 12% Germany 20% IMPORTS
Netherlands 5%
USA 7% Italy 10%
Other 38%
France 10%
Germany 30%
world’s offshore private wealth. There was limited growth during the 1990s, and an economic downturn since 2001 has resulted in job losses in such sectors as banking and civil aviation. There is pressure to cater for the needs of an aging population, and in 2003 plans were announced to raise the retirement age from 65 to 67. SWITZERLAND : MAJOR BUSINESSES Zürich
STRENGTHS Highly skilled workforce. Reliable service provider. Major machine tool and precision engineering industries. Powerful chemical, pharmaceutical, and banking multinationals. Banking secrecy laws attract foreign capital; banking sector contributes 9% of GNP. Ability to innovate to capture mass markets, typified by Swatch watch and Swatch-designed Smart car.
WEAKNESSES Protected cartels result in many overpriced goods. Highly subsidized agricultural sector.
PROFILE The economy is widely diversified. There are several large multinational enterprises and a large banking sector managing around one-third of the
Basel
Winterthur Sankt Gallen
Biel Bern
Lugano
Genève Luzern Lausanne Textiles Chemicals
Light engineering
Electronics
Research & development
Watch making
Banking & finance
Pharmaceuticals Consumer goods * significant multinational ownership
0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SWITZERLAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
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RESOURCES
Electric power 18m kW
2850 tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 93,000 b/d
1.56m cattle, 1.53m pigs, 7.44m chickens
Rock salt, marble, gypsum
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 58% (40bn kWh) Combustion 4% (2.7bn kWh) Nuclear 38% (26bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
.
30% (18% partially protected)
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Sustainability rank: 5th
Switzerland is poor in natural resources, having no valuable minerals in commercially exploitable quantities. Over half of its electricity comes from hydropower, while five nuclear plants supply most of the rest, so that spending on imported oil and coal is kept to a minimum – they account for less than 5% of the total import bill. Large-scale antinuclear power demonstrations in the 1980s led to the cancellation of plans for a new nuclear power plant, but a referendum approved continued use of existing plants.
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CRIME
5.4 tonnes per capita
/
4987 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No death penalty
SWITZERLAND : LAND USE Cropland Forest Pasture High mountain regions R hine Cattle Vineyards A R U J
S P
Lake Geneva
Rh
A e
L
ôn
50 km
0 0
50 miles
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HEALTH
Up 2% in 2001
Welfare state health benefits Heart diseases, cancers, cerebrovascular and respiratory diseases
1 per 286 people
CRIME RATES
The health system is among the most efficient and pioneering in the world, and is ranked by WHO second, after Japan, for attainment. High treatment costs are covered by compulsory insurance schemes.
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
2
per 100,000 population
6
per 100,000 population
3347
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
The Swiss are among the most environmentally conscious people in the world and are willing to back their convictions with money. The Basel–Milan link, designed to carry trucks by rail through a tunnel instead of having them cross the Alps by road, was approved by referendum, despite the estimated $13.3bn cost. The ultimate aim is a total ban on carrying freight by road through Switzerland; this ban may not be necessary if major time savings make the tunnel sufficiently attractive. The Swiss are keen recyclers and taxation is used to encourage this.
MEDIA
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 84 daily newspapers. The largest circulations are held by Tages Anzeiger and the Zürich-based tabloid Blick 1 state-owned service broadcasting in German, Romansch, French, and Italian, 2 independent services 1 state-owned service, many independent stations broadcasting in German, Romansch, French, and Italian
The Swiss media are organized broadly along regional lines, and reflect the country’s linguistic divisions. The German-, Romansch-, French-, and Italian-language TV and radio stations tend to focus on the interests of their specific communities. German, Italian, and French satellite TV is widely available. Almost no Swiss newspapers are distributed throughout the country. Papers from France and Italy are widely read.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
494 per 1000 population
744 per 1000 population
Defense 1.1% Education 5.5%
School leaving age: 16
Health 6.3% 0
163,373 students
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 376 per 1000 people
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99%
Immigrant workers do most low-paid and menial jobs. Wages in office jobs are relatively high, though the cost of living is also well above the European average. Many workers choose to live in France and commute across the border. The property market is highly regulated.
100
% of each age group in education
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Crime rates are low by international standards. Muggings and burglaries are on the increase and are often related to narcotics. More cases of banking secrecy laws attracting laundered funds are coming to light.
EDUCATION
†
SPENDING
80
60
100%
100%
40
42%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
State spending on education is high. Primary and secondary education are controlled by the cantons, so that there are 26 different systems in operation. In some German-speaking cantons, including Zürich, children begin learning English before French or Italian. Revelations of poor literacy levels among Swiss schoolchildren prompted an action plan, unveiled in mid-2003, which proposed lowering the school entry age from seven to five and providing extra help to foreign children.
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WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
4
4
$36,170
80 years
1 99%
16
11
5 deaths
100th
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
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THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
SYRIA
Asia
MIDDLE EAST Tu r k ey SYRIA
Africa
Lebanon Israel
OFFICIAL NAME: Syrian Arab Republic CAPITAL: Damascus POPULATION: 17.8 million CURRENCY: Syrian pound OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1941
1967
April 17
SYR
+2
.sy
+963
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YRIA IS REGARDED by many of its people as an artificial creation left over from the era of Frenchmandated rule (1920–1941). They identify instead with a Greater Syria, successor to the medieval Ummayad caliphate encompassing Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. Since independence, Syria’s foreign relations have been turbulent, but the authoritarian Ba’athist regime under the Assads has brought a measure of internal stability.
Ir aq Jordan
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PEOPLE
Pop. density medium
Arabic, French, Kurdish, Armenian, Circassian, Turkic languages, Assyrian, Aramaic
97/km2 (250/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
52%
48%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Christian 10%
†
CLIMATE
Steppe/hot desert/ Mediterranean
WEATHER CHART FOR DAMASCUS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Damascus 1.5m passengers
Rainfall
40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
A
†
190 ships 472,100 grt
Other Muslim 16% Sunni Muslim 74%
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK ETHNIC MAKEUP 9361 km (5817 miles)
2450 km (1522 miles)
0
0/32
TRANSPORTATION
Drive on right
877 km (545 miles)
Other 3%
Armenian, Turkmen, and Circassian 2%
Kurdish 6%
870 km (541 miles)
-10/14 -20/-4
The coastal climate is Mediterranean, with mild, wet winters and dry, hot summers. Most of the country gets fewer than 25 cm (10 in) of rainfall a year. Away from the coast, rainfall is very unpredictable and the country becomes increasingly arid, with some desert areas. In the mountains, snow is common in winter.
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TOURISM
/
1.66m visitors
Visitors : Population 1:11
Up 26% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Saudi Arabia 17% Iran 17%
S
Lebanon 11% Jordan 10% Iraq 10% Other 35% 0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Years of political turbulence, allegations of human rights abuses committed under Hafez al-Assad’s regime, and strict, complex travel regulations retarded the development of tourism. However, just before the 1991 Gulf War, Syria began to compete with other Middle Eastern states as a tourist destination. Modern hotels were built in most cities and facilities improved to cater for growing numbers of Western visitors. Tourist numbers have slumped following the al-Qaida attacks on the US in 2001 and
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The road network is unreliable in rural areas, especially during the winter after rain. Bus services operate to most towns from Damascus and Aleppo. Roads are integrated with the railroads, which carry over four million passengers a year and are vital to freight transportation. The rail link from Aleppo to Mosul, in Iraq, reopened in mid-2000. Damascus is the main international airport and Latakia the main port.
the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Syria’s main attractions are its antiquities, such as the ruined desert city of Palmyra; and historic cities, with their souks, baths, and mosques – Damascus, said to be the oldest inhabited city in the world, and Aleppo, with its citadel. Syria has a wealth of castles dating back to the Crusades and sites associated with the advent of Islam. In addition, there are as many as 3500 as yet unexcavated archaeological sites. Syria’s coastline on the Mediterranean has fine beaches, and there are mountain resorts near Latakia.
Arab 89%
Most Syrians live in the west, where the largest cities are sited. About 90% are Muslim. They include the politically dominant Alawis, a heterodox offshoot of Shi’a, comprising 12% of the population, based in Latakia and Tartous provinces. There is also a sizable Christian minority; there are three villages where Aramaic is spoken. In the west and north a mosaic of groups includes Kurds, Turkic speakers, and urban-based Armenians. In addition, some 300,000 Palestinian refugees have settled in Syria. Violent demonstrations by Kurds in the northeast testify to unresolved ethnic tensions. Minorities were initially attracted to the ruling Ba’ath Party because of its emphasis on the state over sectarian interests. However, disputes between factions led to the Alawis taking control, creating resentment among the Sunni Muslim majority. The emancipation of women, promoted initially in the late 1960s, was carried forward under President Hafez al-Assad, whose first woman cabinet minister was appointed in 1976. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0% 2.4%
27.7%
The ancient city of Palmyra, in Syria’s central region, was once the capital of the kingdom of Queen Zenobia.
80+ 60–79
Male 0% 2.6%
5.4%
40–59
5.7%
13.8%
20–39
13.8%
0–19 % of population by age group
28.6%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SYRIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
N
es
Q
bd l ‘A Ja ba zíz a l ‘A
N
As Sukhnah
ont
Íim§
Tudmur (Palmyra)
Abú Kamál
Sabkhat al Mú
T
An Nabk
B
Al Qu√ayfah
E
L
E
B
E
T
I-
Dúmá DAMASCUS
GOLAN HEIGHTS
E
J
R
I
A
N
LAND HEIGHT 2000m/6562ft
As Suwaydá’ JABAL AD DURÚZ
O
POLITICS 2003/2007
N
D
R
A
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
†
POPULATION over 500 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
No multiparty elections
President Bashar al-Assad
AT THE LAST ELECTION
People's Assembly 250 seats
67% Ba'ath Party
Total Area : 185 180 sq. km (71 498 sq. miles)
D
S Y
Salkhad
SYRIA
S
Hermon Al Qunay√irah Mt. 2814m
Dar‘á
I
R
A
A
N
O
N
N
O
N
ERR
DIT L
N
Al Maná§if
es
ANEA
Al Mayádín Salamíyah
33% Other Ba'ath
Ba'ath Party = Members of the National Progressive Front (allies of the Ba'ath Party) Other Ba'ath = Parties allied to the Ba'ath Party
Syria is in effect a single-party state. Its leader from 1970 to 2000 was Hafez al-Assad, a lifelong Ba’ath Party militant. His personal dominance ensured the succession of his son Bashar after his death in June 2000.
PROFILE The Ba’athist military swept to power in 1963 with a vision of uniting all Arab nations under a single Syrian-dominated socialist system. To this end, Assad consolidated the Ba’ath Party as the major political force in Syria and focused on foreign affairs, bidding to make Syria a major power; plans to unite with fellow Ba’athist Iraq ended in 1981, however, amid mutual recriminations. The transition of power to Bashar alAssad in 2000 raised hopes of political reform. Initial tentative changes – such
Damasc
NAM
G24
Joined UN in 1945
OIC
Tall Fadghámí
t ra ph
ME
Íamáh
AH
A
AL
As Sabkhah Madínat ath Thawrah At Tibní
ishrí al BDayr az Zawr Jab
Al Qu§ayr
ISRAEL
Ar Raqqah
Eu
∏arπús
◊abaqah
Abú aç Çuhúr Ma‘arrat an Nu‘mán
Y L JABAL A AYRÍ NUfi
Jablah Bániyás
†
WORLD AFFAIRS
Ash Shadádah
Buíayratal al-Asad
Sabkhat al-Jabbúl
R
SEA
Maskanah
Idlib
Al Ládhiqíyah (Latakia)
100 miles
Al Íasakah
Íalab (Aleppo)
Jisr ash Shughúr
100 km
0
At Tall al Abyaç
Manbij
Or
Íárim
0
Ra’s al ‘Ayn
Jarábulus A‘záz
Al Málikíyah
Al Qámishlí
A
T
Y
E
K
R
U
as the spread of “discussion clubs” and the release of some jailed dissidents – were later curtailed and crackdowns have occurred once again. The destruction of Saddam Hussein’s Ba’athist regime in Iraq in 2003 has led to fears for the durability of the Syrian regime.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Human rights Martial law has not been rescinded since 1963, but the regime has improved its human rights record in recent years. Political prisoners are released under occasional amnesties, and in 1994 all Jews were granted visas to travel abroad. Political pluralism Hafez al-Assad dominated politics for 30 years. His military-backed regime, drawn mainly from his Alawi minority, kept a tight hold on power, though in his last decade Sunnis gained high political posts. Despite international pressure Assad never permitted genuine multipartyism. The modernizing Mohammed Miro was made prime minister in early 2000, and Bashar was hastily appointed party leader soon after his father’s death, but there has been little real progress in political liberalization.
Syria sees itself as the major barrier to Israel’s perceived dominance. It has considerable control over Lebanon, hosts radical Palestinian factions, and has forged alliances with north African states. Pressure in Lebanon for the removal of Syrian troops, especially after the Israeli withdrawal in 2000, has recently abated. The biggest issue with Israel remains the strategically vital Golan Heights, seized by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967. Peace negotiations foundered when Ariel Sharon came to power in Israel in 2001. President Bashar al-Assad has worked to end traditional enmity with Turkey over attitudes to Israel and to Turkish Kurdish guerrillas, access to water, and Syria’s former coastal Alexandretta Province. In 2004 he made the first state visit to Turkey. Syria, alone among Arab states, backed Iran in the 1980s Iran–Iraq War. Hafez al-Assad joined the US-led allies in the 1991 Gulf War, legitimizing the action in Arab eyes. In 2000, however, Syria openly defied UN sanctions against Iraq. The US has since accused it of aiding resistance there, and of pursuing the development of weapons of mass destruction, in 2004 imposing economic sanctions. Traditionally, Syria has better ties with Europe than with the US.
AID
†
Recipient
$81m (receipts)
.
Down 48% in 2002
Syria has historically received little aid, owing partly to its human rights record and partly to its self-sufficiency in oil. In 1997, the Syrian government settled its debt of $526 million to the World Bank. Arab countries and Germany are the main aid donors; assistance also comes from Japan, the UN, and France.
Hafez al-Assad ruled for three decades until his death in 2000.
Bashar al-Assad succeeded his father as president.
555
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Under French mandate from 1920, Syria declared independence in 1941, and achieved full autonomy in 1946. From 1958 to 1961 Syria merged with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic.
.
Compulsory military service
Down 3% in 2002
Syria sees its extensive military capability as a significant deterrent to Israel’s territorial expansion. It has fought four wars against Israel since 1948, and is the Arab world’s strongest military power after Egypt. Most of its military equipment was obtained from the former Soviet Union. Its defense spending as a percentage of GDP is among the highest in the world. Throughout 2000, increasing numbers of Lebanese protested against the continuing presence of Syrian troops on their soil – in apparent contravention of the 1989 Taif Accords – and in 2001, Syrian
ECONOMICS $19.1bn
†
SYRIAN ARMED FORCES 4500 main battle tanks (T-55/MV, T-62M/K, T-72/72M)
215,000 personnel
2 frigates, and 18 patrol boats
4000 personnel
548 combat aircraft (Su-22/24, MiG-21/23/25/29)
40,000 personnel
None
troops were withdrawn from Beirut. In May 2002 a US State Department official accused Syria of harboring weapons of mass destruction.
Inflation 7.4% p.a. (1990–2001)
48.57 Syrian pounds (46)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................68th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1130 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$1.08bn INFLATION .........................................2.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................12%
EXPORTS
Turkey 7% Saudi Arabia 7% Other 46%
Germany 17% IMPORTS
South Korea 5%
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
France 7% Italy 16%
France 4%
160
GDP 1998=100
GDP
160
China 6% Germany 7% Italy 8%
Other 70%
STRENGTHS Crude oil exports – production increasing. Manufacturing base has grown. Thriving agricultural sector. Low inflation. Private banks recently opened.
rather than poorer land, boosted agricultural output. Yet long-term economic prospects remain uncertain. The public sector employs 20% of the workforce, and state controls inhibit private enterprise and investment, and have created a booming black market. Businessmen often channel funds through the freer Lebanese economy. An economic reform package in 2000 created a stock exchange and permitted private banks. Holding foreign currency has been allowed since late 2002. SYRIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Íamáh Íalab Al Ládhiqíyah
WEAKNESSES High defense spending. Corruption. Domination of inefficient state-run companies. Lack of foreign investment. High population growth, unemployment. Vulnerable water supply. Demise of cross-border trade with Iraq, and US sanctions from 2004.
Bániyás
Tartús Íim§
Dayr az Zawr Damascus
PROFILE Billions of dollars flowed into the economy from the West and the Gulf states after the 1991 Gulf War. Along with increased oil revenue, this led to rapid growth. Diversion of water from the Euphrates toward fertile plains,
tes ra ph Eu
556
$1.82bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
S
1963 Ba’athist military junta seizes power. Maj. Gen. Amin al-Hafez president. 1966 Hafez ousted by military coup supported by radical Ba’ath Party members. 1967 Israel overruns Syrian positions above Lake Tiberias, seizes Golan Heights, and occupies Quneitra. Syria boycotts Arab summit and rejects compromise with Israel. 1970 Hafez al-Assad seizes power in “corrective coup.” 1971–1999 Assad elected president; reelected four times. 1973 New constitution confirms dominance of Ba’ath Party. War launched with Egypt against Israel to regain territory lost in 1967. More territory temporarily lost to Israel. 1976 With peacekeeping mandate from Arab League, Syria intervenes to quell fighting in Lebanon. 1977 Relations broken off with Egypt after Egyptian president Sadat’s visit to Jerusalem. 1978 National charter signed with Iraq for union. 1980 Membership of Muslim Brotherhood made capital offense. Treaty of Friendship with USSR. 1981 Israel formally annexes Golan Heights. Charter with Iraq collapses. 1982 Islamic extremist uprising in Hamah crushed. Israel invades Lebanon; Syrian missiles in Bekaa Valley destroyed. 1985 US claims Syrian links to Rome and Vienna airport bombings. 1986 Alleged Syrian complicity in planting of bomb on Israeli airliner in London. EU states, except Greece, impose sanctions and arms embargo. 1989 Diplomatic relations reestablished with Egypt. 1990–1991 Syrian forces crush renegade Gen. Aoun in Beirut. Steers Taif Accords over Lebanon. 1991 Troops take part in Operation Desert Storm. Damascus Declaration aid and defense pact signed with Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. 1995 Inconclusive talks with Israel. 2000 Forced resignation after 13 years and subsequent suicide of prime minister, Mahmoud az-Zoubi. Death of Hafez al-Assad; succession of son Bashar. 2003 Israel bombs “terrorist camps” in Syria.
DEFENSE
Adra
Cement Textiles Chemicals Metallurgy
0 0
100 km 100 miles
Oil refining Food processing
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: SYRIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 6m kW
14,171 tonnes
594,000 b/d (reserves 2.3bn barrels)
13.5m sheep, 1m goats, 30m chickens
Phosphates, oil, natural gas, iron
Combustion 68% (15bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 60
40
100
80
†
CRIME
% of total generation by type
Syria has reversed a trend of declining oil production in the late 1990s through intensifying oil and natural gas exploration efforts, and effecting a switch from oil- to natural-gas-fired electric power plants. Hydroelectric power is providing a growing share of electricity-generating capacity; known exploitable potential hydroelectric energy is 4500 MW. Manufacturing is largely limited to oil-derived industries, textiles, and food products. Cotton is the main cash crop; fruit and vegetables are also grown. Livestock, especially sheep and goats, support the rural economy. SYRIA : LAND USE
p Eu T
es at hr
SYR
IA
N
D
E
R
Cropland Pasture Desert Sheep Cotton Fruits - cash crop
1 state-controlled service, some independent music stations
1
per 100,000 population
0.3
per 100,000 population
25
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Most politicians imprisoned by President Hafez al-Assad in the 1970s have been released. In 1997 Syria was removed from the US government’s list of major narcotics-distributing countries, following a joint eradication program with Lebanon. There are continued reports of torture in custody.
†
EDUCATION 83%
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Heart, respiratory, digestive, infectious, and parasitic diseases
1 per 769 people
An adequate system of primary health care has been set up since the Ba’ath Party came to power. Treatment is free for those unable to pay. However, hospitals often lack modern equipment and medical services are in need of further investment. Rural areas in particular need assistance to combat the spread of heart, respiratory, and infectious diseases.
Murders
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
11 per 1000 population
123 per 1000 population
Defense 10.3% Education 4.1%
School leaving age: 11
94,110 students
†
SPENDING
Health 1.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
/
†
100 miles
Sustainability rank: 107th
3.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Syria is far from the equitable society that early Ba’ath Party thinkers envisioned. The gulf between Syria’s rich and poor is widening. The political elite, many of whom live in the West Malki suburb of Damascus, is more numerous and richer than ever before. Palestinian refugees and the urban unemployed make up the poorest groups.
100
% of each age group in education
ENVIRONMENT
Yes
1 state-controlled service
Up sharply in 1995–1999
CRIME RATES
100 km
0
Yes
There are 10 daily newspapers, including Al-Ba’ath, Ath-Thawra, and Tishrin
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM 0
None
Death penalty in use
/
14,000 prisoners
SE
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Information became freer after Jordanian papers were again allowed into Syria in 1999, and with the advent of satellite TV. Bashar al-Assad encourages Internet use, albeit highly regulated, and in 2001 he allowed independent publications, including Ad-domari, the first satirical journal in 38 years.
Hydro 32% (7.2bn kWh)
20
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 20 per 1000 people
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
MEDIA
80
60
100% 40
45%
20
0
6% Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
WORLD RANKING
No
The Assad regime’s most expensive and controversial environmental project has been the Euphrates Dam, power plant, and irrigation network at Tabaqah. The dam’s vast man-made reservoir, Buhayrat al-Assad, engulfed some 300 villages and destroyed 25,000 hectares (62,000 acres) of fertile farmland. A giant cement factory at Tartus, built by former East Germany in the mid1970s, has increased pollution along a stretch of Syria’s Mediterranean coastline. However, the interior of the country remains relatively unspoiled.
A modern and universally accessible system of education remains an important objective. Free and compulsory primary education for all was a priority of the Ba’ath Party when it came to power. Coeducation began in the cities and spread to rural areas under the Assad regime. There are seven state universities, notably at Damascus, Aleppo, Tishrin, and Homs (Hims). Private universities were allowed from 2001. Education ranks second in government expenditure, though is far behind defense. UK and US politicians protest at incitement to racism in Syrian school textbooks.
Position in World 1st
50th
100th
86
88 150th
116
70 years
$1130
23 deaths
106
120 83%
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
557
S
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TAIWAN
SOUTHEAST ASIA
Asia
China TAIWAN
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of China (ROC) CAPITAL: Taipei POPULATION: 22.6 million CURRENCY: Taiwan dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Mandarin Chinese 1949
1949
Oct 10
RC
+8
.tw
+886
T
HE ISLAND OF TAIWAN, formerly known as Formosa, lies off the southeast coast of mainland China. Mountains running north to south cover twothirds of the island. The lowlands are highly fertile, planted mostly with rice, and densely populated. In 1949, when the Chinese Communists ousted Chiang Kai-shek’s nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) from power on the mainland, he established the Republic of China government on the island. De facto military rule has been democratized progressively since 1986. Mainland China still considers Taiwan to be a renegade province, and only a few countries now give official recognition to the regime on the island.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical monsoon
WEATHER CHART FOR TAIPEI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
2.25m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Visitors : Population 1:10
.
Down 25% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Japan 43% USA 15% Hong Kong 11%
0
0/32
†
TOURISM
Singapore 5%
-10/14 -20/-4
South Korea 3% Other 23%
Taiwan has a tropical monsoon climate similar to that of the southern Chinese mainland. Typhoons from the South China Sea bring the heaviest rains between June and September.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Chiang Kai-shek International, T'aoyüan 15.5m passengers
649 ships 4.29m grt
Drive on right
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
†
PEOPLE
Sun Yat-sen Highway; 608 km (378 miles)
1097 km (682 miles)
None
701/km2 (1815/mi2)
Amoy Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, Hakka Chinese THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
69%
T
A railroad encircles the island, and a US$16 billion high-speed rail link along the west coast, linking Taipei to Kaohsiung, is under construction with the help of the Japanese Shinkansen Corporation; it is due for completion in 2005. Car ownership has risen dramatically in the last 30 years. The bicycle is not as popular as in mainland China, and exports of Taiwanese cycles, mostly to Europe and the US, have declined in recent years. Access to mainland China has increased as relations slowly improve. By boat, passengers have to travel from the tiny offshore islands of Matsu and Quemoy. The number of visitors is limited both ways by yearly quotas.
558
31%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other 2%
Christian 5%
Buddhist, Confucianist, and Taoist 93% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Aboriginal 2%
Taiwan is not a major tourist destination, but it has successfully targeted vacationers from the US and Japan in recent years. Restrictions on Chinese tourists are being eased. Successive Six-Year Plans focus on upgrading hotels and improving tourist facilities at international airports. The major attraction is the Palace Museum in Taipei, which includes the massive treasure looted by the nationalists from Beijing. Only 2% can be shown at any one time. Sex tourism is an important business in Taipei. Sex establishments often masquerade as barbershops.
Pop. density high
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 31,583 km (19,625 miles)
Wen Wu Temple, on the shores of Sun Moon Lake in the mountains of central Taiwan – a region famous for its many temples. Nearly the whole population is Buddhist.
Han 14% (20th-century migration)
Han 84% (pre-20thcentury migration)
This caused resentment among the local inhabitants, but as the generation elected on the mainland in 1947 passed on, local Taiwanese entered the political process. Indigenous minorities who live in the eastern hills suffer considerable discrimination. Housing shortages are a major issue. The trend is toward European-style nuclear families, though the extended family is still important and provides a social security net for the elderly. Cultural Westernization challenges traditional values; in 2004 a law ordered that official documents be written only from left to right. Women are less well represented in politics than in business and the civil service. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Female
Age
Male
80+
Most Taiwanese are Han Chinese, descendants of the 1644 migration of the Ming dynasty from mainland China. The 100,000 nationalists who arrived in 1949 established themselves as a ruling class and monopolized the most prestigious jobs in the civil service.
Data Unavailable
60–79 40–59
Data Unavailable
20–39 0–19 % of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TAIWAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
martial law. Gen. Chiang Ching-kuo, Chiang Kai-shek’s son and successor, held the first free multiparty elections in 1986. Ten years later, Lee Teng-hui became the country’s first directly elected president. Though the KMT retained power in the 1998 legislative elections, winning an absolute majority of seats, its 50year political monopoly came to an end with the 2000 presidential elections. The KMT candidate came a poor third, and Chen Shui-bian of the proindependence DPP took office. The KMT went on to lose support in the 2001 legislative elections, when the DPP became the largest party in the Yuan, though it did not achieve a majority. Chen was shot and wounded during the 2004 presidential election campaign. In the disputed poll two days later, he
President Chen Shui-bian
2001/2004 AT THE LAST ELECTION
6% 4% TSU Ind
Legislative Yuan 225 seats
39% DPP
20% PFP
30% KMT
1% Others
DPP = Democratic Progressive Party KMT = National Party of China (Kuomintang) PFP = People First Party TSU = Taiwan Solidarity Union Ind = Independents
Taiwan has been a multiparty democracy since 1986, though electoral domination by the KMT only ended in 2000. The government is headed by the president, who is answerable to the National Assembly, a body which is convened only when matters of constitutional significance arise.
PROFILE
I N A For nearly four decades from the C H T Tanshui establishment of the Republic of China S government on Taiwan in 1949, Chiang A Sanch'ung T'AIPEI E Kai-shek’s KMT monopolized Hsinchuang Chiang Kai Shek Intl Chungho political power and ruled by strict Chungli P'ingchen T
T'oufen Chunan
T a chia
n
Chunghsinghsints'un
m n a
Putai
N
Ch
A O
C
F
H
U
an
H UT S O
Peinan
sh
ü Y
T'ainan
'in g
Sh
an
Nanhsi Shanhua
Juishui
Liukuei
C
Ch'ishan
H
IN
Fangliao
S 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft
E
A
0
Liuch'iu Yü
0 Ch'ech'eng
1000m/3281ft Lan Yü
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
N
Tungkang
A
LAND HEIGHT
Lü Tao
Fengshan Ch'aochou
P
C
Kaohsiung
A
T'aitung P'ingtung
Oluanpi Nan Wan Oluan Pi Bash
i Chann
40 km 40 miles
Chen Shui-bian, the first non-KMT president since 1949.
won by less than 1% from KMT candidate Lien Chan, prompting a lengthy recount.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Relations with China The DPP has advocated independence from China, despite Chinese threats of military action. Adopting a more prudent stance after his election victory, President Chen promised to make no independence declaration during his term of office. The KMT, officially committed to eventual reunification with China, now favors a more flexible arrangement that presupposes the recognition of a separate Taiwanese national identity. Political stability The eclipse of the KMT in elections in 2000 ended over 50 years of enforced stability. Taiwanese politics has had to come to terms with the idea of consensus politics, since the victory of Chen and the DPP was based as much on the divisions of the right as on the strength of their own popularity.
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
N
m
A
Hsinying
n we
Ka op
Tsen g
Pa
o
li
ch ao T ao P'engh u L i
Yü Shan 3997m
Sh
o
ta eh
Chiai
Fenglin
C
o
K'ouhu
Chiali
Hualien
h ui
Tounan
Yenshui
Tachoshui
I
a
T
C ho s
Peikang
Suao
I
w
i
Nant'ou Yüanlin
G Y A N G
a
Changhua Lukang Erhlin
o
Hsüeh Shan
T'aichung
T'aihsi
AN
N
E
under 10 000
P'enghu Tao
SH
A
Tungshih 3884m Fengyüan
Ch'ingshui
S
over 10 000
EH
SH
ui sh
S H A N M O
i
r
a
HSÜ
t
over 50 000
Makung
Lotung
M
t
over 1 000 000
over 100 000
T'ouch'eng
Ilan
O
POPULATION over 500 000
A
Tansh ui Kang
Total Area : 35 980 sq. km (13 892 sq. miles)
T'aoyüan Pate Hsintien
Yangmei
en h 'i uc 'o
Hsinchu
E
Chilung
C
TAIWAN
S
Chiang Kai-shek, who established the ROC in Taiwan in 1949.
ADB
†
Not a UN member
WTO
Relations with China dominate. Reunification has long been the ultimate goal, though the idea of pursuing de facto independence has gained strength among younger Taiwanese; China insists on the “one country, two systems” approach pioneered in Hong Kong. Mention of Taiwanese statehood provokes a fierce reaction from Beijing, and military posturing on both sides is common. Both countries are acutely aware of their economic interdependence; Taiwan is a major foreign investor in China. Physical and economic links have been developed in recent years despite the rhetoric. Taiwan lost its place at the UN to China in 1971. It is forced to conduct overseas relations via trade delegations. Aid plays a vital role in securing smaller states’ support. There are strong bilateral ties with the US and Japan, and the US unofficially guarantees Taiwan’s security.
el
559
T
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
AID US$500m (donations)
†
DEFENSE
Donor
/
Up in 2001
Taiwan has a large aid fund devoted to those states which have granted it diplomatic recognition. These include Pacific islands and countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and Central America. In return, aid recipients promote Taiwan’s interests in the UN. Taiwan also receives a small amount of aid from Germany and France, and is granted international assistance in the aftermath of natural disasters.
CHRONOLOGY
560
Down 5% in 2002
TAIWANESE ARMED FORCES
China remains the main defense threat, given the recurring tensions over the issue of independence or reunification. Taiwan has the tenth-largest navy in the world and a sizable army, in order to face a possible Chinese invasion: there are over 1.6 million reservists, but military service was reduced to 20 months from January 2004. The US is by far the largest supplier of arms and military hardware.
ECONOMICS US$287bn
†
926 main battle tanks (100 M-48A5, 450 M-48H, 376 M-60A3)
200,000 personnel
4 submarines, 11 destroyers, 21 frigates, 59 patrol boats
45,000 personnel
479 combat aircraft (F-5, Ching-kuo, Mirage 2000-5, F-16A/B, AT-3)
45,000 personnel
None
Inflation 5% p.a. (1985–1996)
33.64 Taiwan dollars (34.61)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................17th GNP PER CAPITA ......................US$12,920 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ...............US$25.7bn INFLATION .......................................–0.2% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
Singapore 3%
China 8% Japan 9%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
T
1971 People’s Republic of China replaces Taiwan at UN, including on UN Security Council. 1973 Taipei’s KMT regime rejects Beijing’s offer of secret talks on reunification of China. 1975 President Chiang Kai-shek dies. His son Gen. Chiang Chingkuo becomes KMT leader. Yen Chia-kan succeeds as president. 1978 Chiang Ching-kuo elected president. 1979 US severs relations with Taiwan and formally recognizes People’s Republic of China. 1984 President Chiang reelected. 1986 Political reforms: KMT allows multiparty democracy, ends martial law, and permits visits to Chinese mainland for “humanitarian” purposes for first time in 38 years. From 1988, mainland Chinese can visit Taiwan on same basis. 1988 Lee Teng-hui president. 1990 KMT formally ends state of war with People’s Republic of China. 1991 DPP draft constitution for an independent Taiwan opposed by ruling KMT and Beijing. KMT reelected with large majority. 1995–1996 Legislative elections. KMT majority reduced. 1996 Lee Teng-hui wins first direct presidential elections. 1998 KMT secures absolute majority in elections to Legislative Yuan. 1999 Chinese threats over reference to “separate states” status. Thousands die in earthquake. 2000 Chen Shui-bian of DPP wins presidency; ends KMT dominance. 2001 Elections: DPP largest single party. Taiwan admitted to WTO. 2004 Chen narrowly reelected.
.
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
Following the 1949 communist revolution in China, Gen. Chiang Kai-shek’s nationalist KMT party sought refuge in the island province of Taiwan. The KMT saw the revolution as illegal and itself as the sole rightful Chinese government.
US$7.48bn
†
2002
Other 36% USA 20% Hong Kong 24% IMPORTS
Germany 4%
China 7% South Korea 7%
Other 42%
USA 16%
Japan 24%
STRENGTHS Highly educated and ambitious workforce, many US-trained and educated, with an inside knowledge of the US market. Manufacturing economy based on small companies which have proved extremely adaptable to changing market conditions. Track record of capturing major markets. Successively the world’s biggest TV, watch, PC, and track shoe manufacturer. Economy in strong surplus, allowing it to invest in other Asian economies.
WEAKNESSES Small economic units lack the muscle of Western multinationals, and are unable to follow predatory pricing policies. Weak research and development: economy has no tradition of generating new products or creating new markets. Unresponsive banking system.
Taiwan emerged relatively unscathed, and global downturn caused only a brief recession in 2001. Competition from underdeveloped countries with low production costs is dictating a difficult transition toward service industries. This will entail moving from labor-intensive to capitaland technology-intensive industries. Comprehensive Six-Year Plans reflect a strong element of state direction. Heavy investment abroad includes over 60% of inward investment into China since 1990. Taiwan was admitted to the WTO, along with China, in 2001. TAIWAN : MAJOR BUSINESSES T'ao-yüan
Hsin-chuang
Taipei
Chung-li Hsin-chu T'ai-chung
Yüan-lin
Textiles Garments Chemicals Computers
T'ai-nan
Electronics Fish processing
PROFILE Taiwan’s economy has proved resilient. Double-digit growth ended with the Asian financial crisis of 1997–1998, but
Kao-hsiung
Consumer goods 0 0
50 km 50 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TAIWAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Not available
1.29m tonnes
Not an oil producer; refines 543,500 b/d
10.1m ducks, 6.79m pigs, 2.54m geese, 119m chickens
Coal, copper, marble, dolomite, gold, silver
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
There are 35 daily newspapers. The China Times and the United Daily News have the largest circulations
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
1 state-owned service, 4 independent terrestrial services, many cable and satellite stations
Hydro 6% (8.8bn kWh) Combustion 72% (110bn kWh) Nuclear 22% (33bn kWh)
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
CH
UN
G-A
i Hs
NG S HAN-MO
Taiwan has few strategic resources and its minerals industry is not a major foreign exchange earner. Oil is imported. Taiwan is a major buyer of South African uranium, but proposals to increase reliance on nuclear power have met strong opposition on safety and waste disposal grounds. Combustion, however, is a controversial option, and hydroelectric power has already been largely exploited. Fishing is an extremely successful sector of the economy, and Taiwan is a major supplier to the huge Japanese market. The fleet is often accused of plundering Atlantic stocks. Cho-shu i
CRIME
†
56,225 prisoners
,
Most Taiwanese are highly conscious of crime. Rates are low by US or European standards.
Since the end of martial law in 1986, most political prisoners have been released. Taiwan does not suffer from organized crime to the extent found in Hong Kong or Japan. Multimedia pirating is a seroius problem.
9.8 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No
No
No
No
No
No
The dash for growth meant the absence of city planning or pollution laws. There is growing opposition to a fourth nuclear power plant, set for completion in 2006, and concern over coal-fired thermal power. Taiwan’s fishing industry has been criticized for using longline techniques which trap dolphins, and for plundering other countries’ fishing grounds without regard to stock levels.
% of each age group in education
/
11%
Not available
Education 5.5% Health No data
†
School leaving age: 15
1.24m students
100
†
581 per 1000 population
Defense 2.7%
0
50 km
ENVIRONMENT
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
50 miles
†
SPENDING
Little change from year to year
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
0
Most health provision in Taiwan is in the private sector. Taiwanese take out elaborate health insurance schemes and it is essential to prove cover before treatment is provided. Health facilities are on a par with the best in the world, and the Taiwanese enjoy a high life expectancy, similar to that in the US. The incidence of AIDS is low, but the rate of new infections is increasing. The 2003 outbreak of acute pneumonia (SARS) affected over 350 Taiwanese, killing more than 50 people.
221 per 1000 population
96%
0
Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, hypertension
Death penalty in use
EDUCATION
TAIWAN : LAND USE Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Pigs Rice
The rigid state control which used to exist over the media has been relaxed. Opposition parties now have access to the state media. Before the 1990s, print with simplified Chinese characters was banned, thus excluding all publications from the mainland. Taiwan has a large domestic TV and film industry.
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 714 people
Daily newspaper circulation figures not available PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
HEALTH
80
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Export-led growth over a long period enabled Taiwan to build up large cash reserves. The Taiwanese people share much of the benefit of this success, and average living standards are among the highest in Asia. Inequalities of income distribution are comparatively small, and a high degree of social cohesion has been achieved. In part, this is the result of the land reforms of the 1950s, which gave agricultural workers control of the land while compensating landowners and encouraging them to set up in business in the cities. Today, the great majority of Taiwanese would describe themselves as middle class. Consumer goods are widely available, and conspicuous consumption is celebrated.
60
100%
WORLD RANKING
99%
40
T
68% Position in World 1st
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Since 2000, government funding has given less priority to higher education and more to reforming and improving the antiquated school system, which is rigid and heavily exam-oriented. Free schooling is available from the age of six to 15 and there are also a number of private schools. Enrollment levels at tertiary and vocational institutions are among the highest in the world.
50th
100th
32
29
$12,920
77 years
34 7 deaths
70 96% 150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
561
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TAJIKISTAN
Kyrgyzstan Uzbekistan
China
TAJIKISTAN
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Tajikistan CAPITAL: Dushanbe POPULATION: 6.2 million CURRENCY: Somoni OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Tajik 1991
Asia
CENTRAL ASIA
1991
Sept 9
TJ
+5
Afghanistan
.tj
+992
T
AJIKISTAN LIES ON the western slopes of the Pamirs in central Asia. Language and traditions are similar to those of Iran rather than those of its northern Turkic neighbors. Tajikistan decided on independence only when neighboring Soviet republics declared theirs in late 1991. Fighting between communist government forces and Islamist rebels, which erupted shortly afterward, has been contained since 1997 by a fragile peace agreement.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR DUSHANBE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Mountain
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
A
L. House 2000/2005 U. House 2000/2005
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
3% 3% IRP Others
Assembly of Representatives 63 seats 72%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Shi'a Muslim 5%
71% PDPT
Other 15%
-20/-4
E
over 500 000
Z er av s h a n
over 100 000
Panjakent
% of total arrivals
4000m/13 124ft 3000m/9843ft
P an
Qurghonteppa Kolkhozobod
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
A
1000m/3281ft
m
u
h hs
0 0
Dustí Panji
ya Poyon
r Da
Farkhor Panj
100 km
AF 100 miles
N
I R
Rushon Gu n d
Qizilrabot
S
Dzhelandy P a nj
Shahrtuz
2000m/6562ft
Tourism is virtually nonexistent, and poverty and a history of instability make it unlikely to be developed soon.
Moskva
Vakhsh
M
KO
Khorugh
Ishkoshim
P
A
m Pa
K
ir
N T A I S
A
60
g an rt
Murghob Kudara
N
50
Norak Yovon Danghara Kalininobod Kulob
SARI
A
Qal’aikhum
NGE
40
Qullai Kommunizm 7495m
RA
30
to Qa
H
L
20
C ˘ Qarokul
I
Tursunzoda
Other 41%
b kho Sur i D ar v oz rkuh
Gharm
Hisor
LAND HEIGHT
hsu Mu g
Jirgatol
Kofarnihon
DUSHANBE
France 11%
N
Qarokul ˘
Ayní Zarafshon
P
USA 12%
A
ESTAN RANGE TURK
Navobod GIS S AR RANGE
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Russia 36%
Nov Ura-Tyube
Ba
POPULATION
T Z S Y K Y R G
Khujand
ST
.
Down 99% in 1999–2001
a
D
Konibodom Isfara
NI
Total Area : 143 100 sq. km (55 251 sq. miles)
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
10
G
E
†
Visitors : Population 1:1550
N RA a
HA
4000 visitors
TAJIKISTAN
A
N
TOURISM
AM K UR Obanbori Qayrokkum
A
Tajikistan has good cross-border roads and well-maintained airfields, the result of its use by Soviet and US forces during conflicts in neighboring Afghanistan. The best way to reach the mountainous interior is by air.
Fe V a rgan ll e y
200 km (124 miles)
Peace has consolidated the regime of former communists led by President Rakhmanov. Under the 1997 peace accord the Islamist United Tajik Opposition (UTO) joined the government in 1998. The pro-Rakhmanov PDPT headed polls in 2000, claiming some support from former UTO members. Rakhmanov has been accused by human rights groups of using the international “war on terrorism” to crack down on political opponents. In 2003 a referendum endorsed two possible further terms for him. r a Sy ry
G
617 km (383 miles)
B
None
Z
11,288 km (7014 miles)
Five deputies are elected by each regional assembly, and a further eight deputies are appointed by the president
AN
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
Unlike the other former Soviet -stans, Tajikistan is dominated by a people of Persian (Iranian), rather than Turkic, origin; ethnic Tajiks make up around 65% of the population. Uzbeks constitute the second-largest group – around 25%. Tajikistan’s brutal, clanbased civil war (1992–1997) had a devastating effect on the country’s demographics. In addition to claiming approximately 60,000 lives, the war displaced more than half a million Tajiks, and prompted two-thirds of the 600,000 ethnic Russians to leave the country. Another 60,000 I S T Tajiks fled to neighboring K Afghanistan.
j
Drive on right
U
Dushanbe
†
National Assembly 33 seats
Sunni Muslim 80%
Vak
TRANSPORTATION
2% 21% CPT Vacant
PDPT = People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan and allies CPT = Communist Party of Tajikistan IRP = Islamic Revival Party
Rainfall is low in the valleys. Winter temperatures can fall below –45˚C (–49˚F) in mountainous areas.
562
President Imomali Rakhmanov
AT THE LAST ELECTION
28%
-10/14
0
Multiparty elections
0
0/32
T
†
POLITICS
43/km2 (112/mi2)
Tajik, Uzbek, Russian
40/104
A herd of goats in the Varzob Gorge, north of Dushanbe. Livestock drives the rural economy.
Pop. density low
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TAJIKISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CIS
SCO
OIC
PfP
Joined UN in 1992
OSCE
The introduction in 1995 of its own currency enabled Tajikistan to wrest economic control from Russia, though it remains heavily dependent on its former master, particularly for economic and military assistance. A joint operation
AID
†
.
Down 1% in 2002
The US, the World Bank, and the EU are the main donors. Aid worth $900 million over three years was pledged in 2003.
DEFENSE $123m
†
.
Compulsory military service
Down 2% in 2002
The army numbers only about 6000. Around 12,000 Russian border guards patrol the Afghan border, while a further 7800 Russian soldiers are stationed in Tajikistan. The civil war left almost 20,000 landmines across the country.
ECONOMICS $1.12bn
†
Inflation 202% p.a. (1990–2001)
3.01 somoni (2.7804)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................152nd GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$180 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$66m INFLATION .......................................21.6% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................40%
236 tonnes
361 b/d (reserves 15m barrels)
1.59m sheep, 1.14m cattle, 1.54m chickens
Uranium, gold, iron, coal, lead, mercury, tin, oil
Tajikistan has one key resource – uranium – which accounted for 30% of the USSR’s total production before 1990. The end of the nuclear arms race has reduced its value, however. Most of Tajikistan is bare mountain, and just 6% of the land can be used for agriculture. Industry is concentrated in the Fergana Valley, close to the Uzbek border.
ENVIRONMENT
†
Sustainability rank: 110th
†
MEDIA
Formal economy precarious; dependence on barter economy. No central planning. Little diversification in agriculture; only 6% of land is arable. Exodus of skilled Russians. High levels of inflation and poverty. Production in all sectors in decline.
Turkey 16%
IMPORTS
Turkmenistan 7% Kazakhstan 10%
5 services: 2 state-controlled, 3 independent
†
10,000 prisoners
Uzbekistan 18%
For years, medical services have had to be paid for, and in 2003 the nominal free health care system was finally abolished amid a package of reforms.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
19 per 1000 population
37 per 1000 population
Defense 1.7%
3 state-controlled services
Moratorium on death penalty
.
Health 1% 5
Down 3% in 1997
†
10
15
20
25
Over half of the population of Tajikistan lives below the UN poverty line; the war against the Islamist rebels worsened conditions. The former communist bureaucrats continue to be the wealthiest group.
WORLD RANKING
School leaving age: 16
84,400 students
Russian was made compulsory in schools again from 2003. English lessons are also compulsory.
T
Position in World 1st
1
50th
99%
100th
150th
99%
Heart, respiratory, and infectious diseases, atherosclerosis
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Only remote areas escape the violence perpetrated by armed gangs. Narcotics smuggling along the border with Afghanistan is a key international issue.
EDUCATION
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 476 people
0
The underdeveloped media are prone to self-censorship and progovernment reporting. Foreign broadcasts may not be retransmitted.
CRIME
†
HEALTH
Education 2.4%
Ukraine 11%
Russia 23%
1925 Soviets take over Tajikistan. 1940 Cyrillic script introduced. 1989 Tajik becomes official language. 1991 Independence from Moscow. 1992 Islamists capture Dushanbe. Imomali Rakhmanov president. 1995 Tajik rouble introduced; replaced by somoni in 2000. 1997–1998 Peace accord with rebels; UTO joins government. 2000 Pro-Rakhmanov PDPT wins legislative elections.
TV ownership high
Weekly newspapers dominate. Kurer Tajikistana and the Russian-language Biznes i Politika have the highest circulations
Uzbekistan 10% Russia 12%
Daily newspaper circulation 20 per 1000 people
EXPORTS
Switzerland 9%
In the 19th century, Tajikistan was a collection of semi-independent principalities, some under Russian control, others under the influence of the Emirate of Bukhara.
0.6 tonnes per capita
Landslides, particularly on the lower slopes of the Pamirs, are a serious problem. They are caused as much by the natural geography and by earthquakes as by human activity.
WEAKNESSES
Other 31%
.
4% (3.5% partially protected)
Few. Uranium. Overseas remittances. Hydroelectric potential. Carpet making. International donors’ favorable attitude.
Other 24%
Electric power 4.4m kW
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
STRENGTHS
Netherlands 29%
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$168m (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
with Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan was launched in 2000 to combat the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, based in northern Tajikistan. Tajik airfields were crucial during the US-led action in Afghanistan in 2001, and in 2002 Tajikistan became the last of the former Soviet Union countries to join NATO’s Partnership for Peace program.
116 67 years
193rd
116 128 53 deaths
183 $180
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
563
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TANZANIA
EAST AFRICA Rwanda
Africa
Kenya
Burundi
Congo Dem. Rep. TANZANIA Mozambique
OFFICIAL NAME: United Republic of Tanzania CAPITAL: Dodoma POPULATION: 37 million CURRENCY: Tanzanian shilling OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and Kiswahili Zambia
1964
1964
April 26
EAT
+3
.tz
+255
T
ANZANIA LIES BETWEEN Kenya and Mozambique on the east African coast. Formed by the union of Tanganyika and the Zanzibar islands, Tanzania comprises a coastal lowland, volcanic highlands, and the Great Rift Valley. It includes Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa’s highest peak. Tanzania was led by the socialist Julius Nyerere from 1962 until 1985. His Revolutionary Party of Tanzania (CCM) has won multiparty elections held in 1995 and 2000.
†
CLIMATE
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
42/km2 (108/mi2)
†
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
34%
Multiparty elections
President Benjamin Mkapa
2000/2005 AT THE LAST ELECTION
66%
7% CUF
National Assembly 296 seats
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Arusha National Park. Lying within the Ngurdoto volcanic crater, the park has herds of buffalo, rhino, elephant, and giraffe.
Pop. density low
Kiswahili, Sukuma, Chagga, Nyamwezi, Hehe, Makonde, Yao, Sandawe, English
WEATHER CHART FOR DODOMA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical/mountain
Other 4%
-10/14
Muslim 33%
-20/-4
Traditional beliefs 30% 2% 2% TLP Chadema
82% CCM
The coast and Zanzibar are tropical. The central plateau is semiarid and the highlands are semitemperate.
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
4460 km (2771 miles)
Lakes Tanganyika, Victoria, and Nyasa are navigable
K
3528 km (2192 miles)
Equator
UG
The port of Dar es Salaam handles 75% of Tanzania’s trade and has good road and rail links. A fourth international airport is being built at Mwanza.
AN
D
A
Lake Victoria Bukoba
Tarime Musoma
Ukerewe
RWANDA
Nansio
Ngara
Mwanza
Nyalikungu
†
TOURISM
60
70
% of total arrivals
Rungwa
Z
A
M
I
G
Chunya F T Mbeya K ip e e Vwawa V ngere Rang Njombe A Tukuyu
B
200 km 200 miles
I A
L
Kilosa R ub e ho
Bagamoyo
Zanzibar
Morogoro
Dar es Salaam
M ts
a re Iringa
Rufi j i
Mahenge
Mafia
Kilwa Masoko
L
Lindi
Y L. Nya LAWI sa
564
ha ua tR
E
0
L. Rukwa
Sumbawanga
MA
0
Mpwapwa
Mpanda
Songea Mbinga
Nachingwea Tunduru
Mtwara
Masasi a m vu Newala R u
U E M O Z A M B I Q
N O C E A
N
One-third of Tanzania is national park or game reserve. The Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti Plain are top attractions. Tourist numbers increased dramatically in the 1990s.
DODOMA
Manyoni
80
Tanga
I N D I A N
50
i
40
an
30
Total Area : 945 087 sq. km ( 364 898 sq. miles)
Wete Pemba Chake Korogwe Chake Pangani Zanzibar
STEPPE
R
20
TANZANIA
Handeni
M a ragar a z
T A E ka i G R
O
10
A
Same
MASAI
ny
NG
Other 66%
Moshi
Arusha L. Manyara
Kondoa
Singida
Tabora
ga
USA 7%
0
Kasulu
CO
UK 8%
T Geita E G N L. Eyasi Shinyanga RE E Kibondo Mbulu S Kahama Nzega
Kigoma
n e Ta
Kenya 19%
Y
Kilimanjaro 5895m
Ngorongoro Crater
ng Pa
Up 3% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
L ak
EP. DEM. R
/
552,120 visitors
BURUNDI
Visitors : Population 1:67
I
i
T
Julius Nyerere was the dominant force in Tanzanian politics for over two decades. He founded the ruling party, the CCM, and his philosophy of African socialism guided Tanzania’s development. Ali Hassan Mwinyi succeeded Nyerere as president in 1985, introducing a transition to multiparty democracy. Mwinyi stood down in 1995, and Benjamin Mkapa E was elected president. Separatism in Zanzibar is a key issue; there N were violent protests in 2001, and disaffection remains. L. Natron
N
58 ships 47,100 grt
For many Tanzanians the family is the focus of traditional rural life. About 99% belong to one of 120 small ethnic Bantu groups. The remainder comprise Arab, Asian, and European minorities. The use of Kiswahili as a lingua franca has helped make ethnic rivalries almost nonexistent.
AI
Drive on left
L
Dar es Salaam International 816,263 passengers
CCM = Revolutionary Party of Tanzania CUF = Civic United Front TLP = Tanzania Labor Party Chadema = Party for Democracy and Progress Others include five members chosen by the Zanzibar House of Representatives, ten appointed by the president, and the attorney general who has a seat ex officio
Christian 33%
P
†
TRANSPORTATION
7% Others
POPULATION over 1 000 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TANZANIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
ACP
AU
EAC
Joined UN in 1961
SADC
The instability of Tanzania’s central African neighbors is a concern. Over half a million Rwandan and Burundian
AID
†
.
Down 3% in 2002
Tanzania is heavily dependent on aid to help offset a severe balance-ofpayments deficit. The UK is the largest donor; 75% of its contribution goes directly into the government budget. Most aid is now linked to an IMFbacked economic reform program.
DEFENSE $127m
†
.
Compulsory military service Down 9% in 2002
The Tanzanian armed forces, which number 27,000, are closely linked with the ruling CCM. There is an 80,000strong citizens’ reserve force.
ECONOMICS $9.67bn
†
Inflation 20% p.a. (1990–2001)
1109 Tanzanian shillings (1039)
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Recipient
$1.23bn (receipts)
CHRONOLOGY
refugees arrived in the 1990s. By 2001, official numbers were almost unchanged; unofficial estimates added at least 300,000. Improved relations with Uganda and Kenya led to the rebirth in 2001 of the East African Community.
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................87th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$290 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$251m INFLATION .........................................4.6% UNEMPLOYMENT .........................Not available
Electric power 543,000 kW
336,200 tonnes
Oil reserves not yet exploited; refines 9600 b/d
17.7m cattle, 12.6m goats, 3.52m sheep, 30m chickens
Natural gas, oil, iron, diamonds, gold, salt, phosphates, coal
Agriculture accounts for almost half of GDP and 80% of employment. Forests cover 50% of Tanzania; wood and charcoal meet over 90% of fuel demand. Hydropower provides 84% of electricity, but droughts have led to blackouts. Oil imports take 40% of export earnings, but offshore gas is being exploited; oil has been found off Pemba Island. The opening of a gold mine near Mwanza makes Tanzania Africa’s fourth-largest gold producer.
The mainland became the German colony of Tanganyika in 1884. The Sultanate of Zanzibar became a British protectorate in 1890. 1918 Tanganyika under British mandate after World War I. 1961 Tanganyika independent. 1962 Nyerere becomes president. 1963 Zanzibar independent. 1964 Zanzibar signs union with Tanganyika to form Tanzania. 1985 President Mwinyi begins relaxation of socialist policies. 1992 Political parties allowed. 1995 Multiparty elections. Benjamin Mkapa becomes president. 1999 Death of Nyerere. 2000 Mkapa reelected. 2001 Increasing unrest among Zanzibari separatists.
†
HEALTH
ENVIRONMENT
/
30% (24% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 80th
0.1 tonnes per capita
The demand for fuelwood is a threat to forests. Tourism’s demands have to be carefully balanced with those of fragile wildlife environments such as the Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti.
†
MEDIA
An immunization program for undertwos was introduced in 2001. There is a national campaign against HIV/AIDS, which affects 8.8% of adults.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
1 per 1000 population
TV ownership low
5 per 1000 population
Defense 1.5% Education 2.2%
Coffee, cotton, sisal, tea, cashew nuts. Zanzibar a major producer of cloves. Diamonds, gold. State commitment to effective reforms. Expansion in nontraditional exports. Rise in inward investment. Return to positive growth.
WEAKNESSES Growth still too low to increase per capita income. Shortage of foreign exchange. Poor credit and equipment limit agricultural development.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Health 2.1% There are 12 daily newspapers, including the Daily News, Uhuru, and Kipanga
Netherlands 6% India 7% Japan 10% Other 44%
The media have grown rapidly since the launch of the first TV station in 1994. Zanzibar is less liberal.
CRIME
†
44,063 prisoners
EDUCATION
0
.
5
10
India 6% UAE 6% Japan 8% South Africa 11%
20
25
The majority of Tanzanians are subsistence farmers. The small wealthy elite is composed mainly of Asian and Arab business families.
WORLD RANKING
T
Position in World 1st
Down 4% in 2000
†
School leaving age: 14
50th
100th
150th
IMPORTS 77%
15
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Death penalty in use
Crime levels are low, though theft in Dar es Salaam has risen. Tanzania’s human rights record is good.
France 16% UK 17%
3 state-owned services, many independent stations
5 services: 2 state-owned, 3 independent
EXPORTS
Other 64%
Diarrheal and respiratory diseases, malaria, AIDS
1 per 25,000 people
Daily newspaper circulation 4 per 1000 people
STRENGTHS
Kenya 5%
Welfare state health benefits
134
21,960 students
77%
193rd
Primary education, which begins at seven and lasts for seven years, is free; secondary students pay fees. Enrollment is 63% at primary level, but only 6% for secondary education.
166 $290
177 43 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
170
162
104 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
565
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
THAILAND
SOUTHEAST ASIA Burma (Myanmar)
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Thailand CAPITAL: Bangkok POPULATION: 62.8 million CURRENCY: Baht OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Thai 1238
1907
Dec 5
T
+7
Cambodia
HAILAND LIES IN THE HEART of southeast Asia. The north, the border with Burma, and the long Isthmus of Kra between the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand are mountainous. The central plain is the most fertile and densely populated area, while the low northeastern plateau is the poorest region. Thailand, formerly Siam, has been an independent kingdom for most of its history, and since 1932 a constitutional monarchy, though with frequent periods of military government. Continuing rapid industrialization results in congestion in Bangkok and depletion of natural resources.
†
Tropical equatorial/ monsoon
WEATHER CHART FOR BANGKOK
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
†
TOURISM
/
10.9m visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
†
PEOPLE
.th
+66
T
CLIMATE
Asia
Laos THAILAND
Pop. density medium 123/km2 (318/mi2)
Thai, Chinese, Malay, Khmer, Mon, Karen, Miao THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
20%
80%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Christian) 1% Muslim 4%
Visitors : Population 1:5.8
Buddhist 95%
Up 7% in 2002 ETHNIC MAKEUP
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Malay 3% Chinese 12%
Khmer and other 2%
Malaysia 12% Japan 11% China 7%
0
0/32
Thai 83%
South Korea 6%
-10/14
UK 6%
-20/-4
Other 58%
Thailand’s tropical monsoon climate has three seasons – a hot sultry period, rains from May to October, and a dry, cooler season from November to March.
TRANSPORTATION Don Muang, Bangkok 30.2m passengers
†
Drive on left
629 ships 1.88m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
T
52,652 km (32,716 miles)
None
4071 km (2530 miles)
4000 km (2485 miles)
Bangkok has huge traffic jams. Its first mass transit system became operational in 1999, including the elevated Sky Train, and the first phase of the subway opened in 2004. A road corridor through Laos into Vietnam was agreed in 2001.
Island in the Andaman Sea. Overdevelopment at Thailand’s best-known resorts is pushing tourism into new, remoter locations.
566
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Tourism is an important contributor to the Thai economy. Tourist numbers fell in the early 1990s as a result of both the worldwide recession and local overdevelopment during the 1980s boom. Though the number of arrivals has since recovered, visitors are tending to seek the less developed resorts. Bangkok’s hotel occupancy rates continue to fall as yet more hotels are built. Pattaya beach resort, opposite Phetchaburi, has seen such uncontrolled development that sea pollution is now a serious problem, while opposition to the intrusion of large numbers of tourists is growing among northern hill tribes. Though prostitution is illegal, Bangkok and Pattaya are centers for sex tourism, which thrives despite the state’s embarrassment at its effect on Thailand’s image. Japanese and German men are among the main clients, while Burmese girls are increasingly recruited as prostitutes. The child sex trade is a serious social problem. There has been a boom in golf tourism, especially among the Japanese. The large number of new golf courses have made Thailand one of the best golf destinations in Asia. The vast amounts of water needed to maintain the courses is aggravating Thailand’s serious water shortage.
There is little ethnic tension in Thailand, and Buddhism is a great binding force. The majority of Thais follow Theravada Buddhism, though the reformist Asoke Santi Buddhist sect, which advocates a new moral austerity, is gaining influence. Its principles have been championed by political parties in a bid to clean up politics. The far north and northeast hills are home to about 600,000 tribespeople with their own languages. Up to 300,000 Hmong fled to Thailand from Laos in 1975; most have been integrated, 14,000 are being resettled in the US. The large Chinese community is the most assimilated in southeast Asia. Sino-Thais are particularly dominant in agricultural marketing. Most of the one million Muslim Malays live in southern Thailand, close to Malaysia. They feel stronger affinity with Muslims in Malaysia than with Thai culture, and this has given rise to a secessionist movement and a sharp increase in violence in the south in 2004. Women are important in business, but have limited involvement in politics. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.6% 4.6% 11.4% 18% 16.1%
80+ 60–79 40–59
Male 0.4% 3.9% 10.8%
20–39
17.3%
0–19
16.9%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: THAILAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
L. House 2001/2005 U. House 2000/2006
Thailand is a multiparty parliamentary democracy. Despite his position as a constitutional monarch, the king has immense personal prestige, and criticism of the monarchy is not tolerated.
H.M. King Bhumibol Adulyadej (Rama IX)
AT THE LAST ELECTION
8% CT
House of Representatives 500 seats
49% TRT
6% CP
7% NAP
26% DP
4% Others
PROFILE
The Thai political process, which was dominated by the military for decades until the 1990s, is highly personalized. Parties seldom have strong ideologies. Senate 200 seats Coalitions are often unstable, while the lack of coordination between coalition partners has been a recurring problem. The NAP was the largest party in the Under the 1997 constitution, parliament elected in 1996, but its the members of the Senate leader Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth was are directly elected on a nonparty basis. prime minister for only a year. His government, which was blamed for mismanaging an economic crisis, L was then ousted in favor of another A coalition under the DP, which, despite the volatility of coalition O politics, succeeded in staying Nan S Chiang Mai in office for four years. Doi Inthanon 2594m However, in the 2001 Lampang elections the new Phrae populist TRT Nong Khai Nakhon Uttaradit triumphed, Loei Udon Phanom Thani Sakon winning just Nakhon Tak Phitsanulok short of a Lom Sak majority of Kalasin Khon Kaen ng seats. TRT Maha K O Sarakham R A leader T P L Roi Et A T Chaiyaphum Thaksin Nakhon Sawan E A U Ubon Shinawatra, Ratchathani Buriram the country’s Surin Nakhon richest man Lop Buri Ratchasima D a n g R a e k and a former Sara Buri om han P Ayutthaya Thon Buri deputy I A D BANGKOK O Nakhon Pathom prime B Bilauktaung Chachoengsao Samut Sakhon Samut Prakan M minister, Ratchaburi formed a Chon Buri Ao Range Phetchaburi Krung three-party government. The NAP Thep and TRT merged in 2002. Thaksin Ban Rayong Hua Hin has pledged to tackle poverty and Chanthaburi fight the narcotics trade. Ko Chang Mae N a m Pin g
TRT = Thais Love Thais DP = Democrat Party CT = Thai Nation NAP = New Aspiration Party CP = National Development
we
L
en
N T A
S al
B
E
(
A
A
R
N
M
M
ek
G
U
O
o
E
Y
S
A
R
ya Phra ao Ch
N
M
M
R
CA
A
A
)
A
N
G u l f
Chumphon
Isthm
M
us Of
A
Kra
D
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
o f
Ko Phangan
A
Ko Samui
T h a i l a n d
Surat Thani
N
Congestion in Bangkok The concentration of industry and commerce in the Bangkok area causes problems. Uncontrolled development has left the city with traffic congestion which is not only among the world’s worst but is also a serious hindrance to economic activity. A
Nakhon Si Thammarat
THAILAND
Phuket
Total Area : 514 000 sq. km (198 455 sq. miles)
AL
S
Trang
M
Ko Phuket
LAND HEIGHT
E
AY
Songkhla Pattani
Hat Yai
2000m/6562ft
P Yala
E
N
A
N
Narathiwat
1000m/3281ft
I
N
0 0
S
U
500m/1640ft
LA
A S I M A L A Y
200 km
200m/656ft Sea Level
POPULATION over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000 over 100 000 over 50 000 over 10 000
King Bhumibol. On the throne since 1946, he is the world’s longest-serving ruler.
Thaksin Shinawatra, a controversial billionaire, elected premier in 2001.
mass transit system is under construction, with a subway and an elevated railroad now in use. Since 1993, the government has offered incentives for relocating industry to the provinces. This is also intended to help distribute wealth more evenly – up to 60% of GDP is generated in the Bangkok area. Narcotics smuggling The flow of narcotics through Thailand is of serious concern. It badly damages international relations, takes money out of the legitimate economy, and has led to a rise in violent crime. In the south of the country narcotics smugglers have even targeted the police directly. Prime Minister Thaksin launched a concerted campaign against narcotics in February 2003, noting that some 700 government officials were in some way connected to the trade. By the end of March over 1300 people had been killed during police raids, 42,000 had been arrested, and $12 million worth of assets had been seized.
WORLD AFFAIRS APEC
ASEAN
Mekong River
† NAM
Joined UN in 1946
WTO
Thailand has friendly relations with China. However, relations with neighboring Burma have been strained over Burma’s alleged support for Thai ethnic guerrillas operating along the Thai–Burmese border. Many Thai logging companies, often run by the military, have been active in Burma since Thailand’s 1988 logging ban at home. Relations with Vietnam are now cordial, though Thailand had been opposed to the Vietnamese regime in Cambodia in the 1980s. Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia have liberalized trade to promote development in each country in regions which are distant from their respective capitals. Thailand maintains close relations with the US, despite some tension over intellectual property rights and minor trade issues, but no longer has any US military bases on its territory.
200 miles
567
T
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
AID
†
DEFENSE
Recipient
$296m (receipts)
/
Up 5% in 2002
Japan is by far the largest single aid donor. Thailand has imposed a ceiling on foreign borrowing to try to slow the growth of debt.
$1.73bn
Thailand emerged as a kingdom in the 13th century, and by the late 17th century its then capital, Ayutthya, was the largest city in southeast Asia. In 1782, the present Chakri dynasty and a new capital, Bangkok, were founded.
333 main battle tanks (50 PRC Type-69, 105 M-48A5, 178 M-60)
190,000 personnel
1 carrier, 12 frigates, and 115 patrol boats
79,200 personnel
194 combat aircraft 45,000 (13 F-5A/B, 50 F-16A/B, 36 F-5E/F, 34 L-39ZA/MP) personnel
None
The military either ruled Thailand, or played a prominent role in politics, for
ECONOMICS $123bn
†
over half a century from 1932. In 1996, its role in the appointed Senate – hitherto a military stronghold – was reduced. Retired military figures are, however, prominent in the major political parties. Since 1986, defense spending has tended to focus on the navy and the air force. The US is the principal supplier of hardware, while naval vessels have also been bought from Italy, and aircraft from Germany and Israel. Thailand’s main defense concerns are border disputes with Cambodia, Burma, and Laos; the Muslim secessionist movement in the south; and piracy and fishing disputes in the South China Sea.
Inflation 3.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
40.89 baht (42.04)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................31st GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2000 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$7.65bn INFLATION .........................................0.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
EXPORTS
China 5%
Other 47%
Hong Kong 5% Singapore 8% Japan 15%
USA 20% IMPORTS
Singapore 4%
Other 49%
Malaysia 6% China 8% USA 10%
Japan 23%
STRENGTHS
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
Concentration of economic activity in congested Bangkok area. Inadequate water storage facilities. Rapid growth of foreign debt. Low-profit farming.
2000
2001
2002
2003
a big producer of electronics goods. In 1997 mounting foreign debt and the sharp depreciation of the baht made necessary an IMF-led rescue package. Retrenchment and stringent austerity measures followed. By 2000 the IMF had ended its direct involvement and in 2003 Thailand repaid the last of its debt for the 1997 bailout. GDP grew by 6.7% in 2003 and was expected to improve on the back of strong exports. THAILAND : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Success of export-based and importsubstituting manufacturing. Rapid economic growth. Natural gas. Tourism. Major world exporter of rice and rubber.
WEAKNESSES
GDP
160
Khon Kaen Nakhon Ratchasima
Northanburi Samut Prakan Thon Buri Chon Buri Bangkok
Si Racha
PROFILE Until the late 1990s, the economy grew at over 9% a year for a decade, driven by a rise in manufacturing and huge overseas investments, especially from Japan. However, as domestic wages rose, Thailand faced stiff competition from China and Vietnam. Thailand also lacked a skilled labor force to develop high-tech production, though it is
GDP 1999=100
568
Down 7% in 2002
Consumer price index 1999=100
T
.
Compulsory military service
THAI ARMED FORCES
CHRONOLOGY
1855 King Mongut signs Bowring trade treaty with British – Thailand never colonized by Europeans. 1868–1910 King Chulalongkorn westernizes Thailand. 1907 Thailand cedes western Khmer (Cambodia) to France. 1925 King Prajadhipok begins absolute rule. 1932 Bloodless military–civilian coup. Constitutional monarchy. 1933 Military takes control. 1941 Japanese invade. Government collaborates. 1944 Pro-Japanese prime minister and prewar military dictator Phibun voted out of office. 1945 Exiled King Ananda returns. 1946 Ananda assassinated. King Bhumibol accedes. 1947 Military coup. Phibun back. 1957 Military coup. Constitution abolished. 1965 Thailand allows US to use Thai bases in Vietnam War. 1969 New constitution endorses elected parliament. 1971 Army suspends constitution. 1973–1976 Student riots lead to interlude of democracy. 1976 Military takeover. 1980–1988 Gen. Prem Tinsulanond prime minister. Partial democracy. 1988 Elections. Gen. Chatichai Choonhaven, right-wing CT leader, named prime minister. 1991 Military coup. Civilian Anand Panyarachun caretaker premier. 1992 Elections. Gen. Suchinda named premier. Demonstrations. King forces Suchinda to step down and reinstalls Anand. Moderates win new elections. 1995 CT wins general election. 1996 Early elections; Chaovalit Yongchaiyuth of NAP becomes prime minister. 1997 Financial and economic crisis; Chaovalit government falls; DP’s Chuan Leekpai prime minister. 2001 TRT, led by Thaksin Shinawatra, wins elections.
†
Pran Buri
Gulf of Thailand Gas Textiles Computers Oil refining Petrochemicals Food processing
0 0
200 km 200 miles
Consumer goods Vehicle manufacture
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: THAILAND
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
Electric power 27.6m kW
RESOURCES 3.61m tonnes
217,000 b/d (reserves 700m barrels)
20m ducks, 7.06m pigs, 5.05m cattle, 177m chickens
Tin, lignite, gas, gems, oil, tungsten, lead, zinc, antimony, gold, copper
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 34 daily newspapers, including Matichon, Siam Rath, Sing Sian Yit Pao, Bangkok Post, and Nation 6 services: 4 state-owned, 2 run by army
Hydro 6% (6bn kWh) Combustion 94% (96bn kWh) Nuclear 0%
2 state-controlled services, 1 run by army; many independent stations
Other 0% 20
TV ownership medium
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
†
CRIME 258,076 prisoners
Death penalty in use
.
Down 12% in 1996–2000
CRIME RATES
Murders 8
per 100,000 population
6
per 100,000 population
TA
Thailand has minimal crude oil and has rejected the nuclear option in favor of speeding up development of its large natural gas fields. It also has significant lignite deposits for power generation. World demand for its tin has declined, but recent gold and copper finds offer new potential. Thailand has valuable gemstone deposits. It is the world’s fourth-largest producer of prawns and Mek o shrimp.
The media enjoy free political reporting but may be censored on military, royal, and other sensitive matters. Two TV services are run by the military. Most radio stations are in or near Bangkok.
ng
R NE
Cropland Forest Pasture Cattle Rubber - cash crop Rice
High-quality health care is heavily concentrated in Bangkok. Most of the rural population has access to primary health care, and a new scheme to provide care for the poor for just $1 per person was launched in 2001. Trained personnel are aided by village health volunteers, monks, teachers, and traditional healers. However, estimates suggest that only 30% of users can afford to pay. The poorest people can apply annually for a certificate entitling them to free health care. High-profile family planning programs are slowing population growth. An effective AIDS prevention campaign has helped reduce the number of new infections, though the government has been in conflict with international drug companies over the production of cheaper generic drugs for AIDS sufferers. Prostitutes have benefited from an extensive sex education program.
90
†
SPENDING
Thefts
MA
LA Y
PE
0
Heart diseases, gastroenteritis
1 per 3427 people
IN
200 km
SU
LA
200 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
14% (5% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 54th
Political imprisonment is now extremely rare. There have been reports of some police abuse, including extrajudicial killings and ill-treatment of prisoners in detention. The king has encouraged an opium-substitution crop program. In the south, drug addiction is a major problem and crime is rising. Almost 2000 people were killed during a crackdown on narcotics in 2003.
†
EDUCATION
3.3 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
93%
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
School leaving age: 14
2.1m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
105 per 1000 population
Defense 1.5% Education 5% Health 2.1% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The government is trying to disperse to the provinces some of the people and wealth currently concentrated to a very great extent in the capital, Bangkok. The northeast in particular is very poor. Housing initiatives saw the rate of home ownership rise significantly during the 1990s.
WORLD RANKING
100
% of each age group in education
Deforestation, especially of the watersheds in the north, has led to the increasing severity of both floods and droughts. Particularly serious flooding in the south resulted in a total logging ban in 1988. Illegal logging continues, however. Reafforestation projects are often criticized for using quick-growing species. Intensive inland prawn farming leaves a legacy of salination. Mass tourism has brought pollution problems to resorts, while backpackers lead the way in exposing remoter locations.
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
per 100,000 population
46 per 1000 population
N
0
Welfare state health benefits
Rapes
hraya ao P Ch
GE AN
THAILAND : LAND USE
†
HEALTH
Daily newspaper circulation 64 per 1000 people
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
0
†
MEDIA
80
T
Position in World 1st
60
98%
50th
83%
40
37%
20
100th
85
87 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
A poorly developed education system has led to a shortage of skills needed for the expansion of high-tech industries. Efforts to improve adult literacy are ongoing. Over half of the 20 state universities are in Bangkok.
150th
$2000
101 69 years
93%
76 87 24 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
569
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TOGO
Burkina Benin TOGO
1960
1960
April 27
TG
0
.tg
+228
T
OGO IS SANDWICHED between Ghana and Benin in west Africa. A central forested region is bounded by savanna lands to the north and south. The port of Lomé is an important entrepôt for west African trade. Togo’s president, Gen. Gnassingbé Eyadéma, has been in power since 1967.
†
Tropical equatorial/ wet and dry
PEOPLE
WEATHER CHART FOR LOMÉ
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
34%
66%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Muslim 15%
-10/14 -20/-4
Traditional beliefs 50%
Togo has a typical Gulf of Guinea climate – very hot and humid on the coast, and drier inland.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Christian 35%
Drive on right
17 ships 13,300 grt
Lomé 215,663 passengers THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 2406 km (1495 miles)
None
525 km (326 miles)
50 km (31 miles)
Improving the already good road network and Lomé’s port facilities are priorities, given Togo’s role as an entrepôt. Air and rail links to the interior, however, are limited.
TOURISM
T
90/km2 (233/mi2)
0
0/32
57,539 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:85
/
Up 1% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
A bitter divide has existed between north and south since before independence. Most southern resentment is directed toward a northern minority, the Kabye people from the Kabye plateau, because of their domination of the military. The Kabye and other northerners in turn resent their own underdevelopment in contrast to the high development, especially educational, of southerners. The dominant southern group is the Ewe, who make up more than 40% of the total population. As elsewhere in Africa, the extended family is important and tribalism and nepotism are key factors in everyday life. Some Togolese ethnic groups, such as the Mina, have matriarchal societies. The “Nana Benz,” the market-women of Lomé, control the retail trade and have considerable private money. Politics, however, remains a male preserve.
France 22% Burkina 10% Benin 9% Other 59% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
570
AT THE LAST ELECTION
4% RSDD
National Assembly 81 seats
89% RPT
7% Others
RPT = Rally of the Togolese People RSDD = Rally for Democracy and Development
Politics is dominated by Africa’s longest-serving leader, Gen. Gnassingbé Eyadéma, in power since 1967. A democracy movement has been gathering momentum since 1990. Multiparty presidential elections held in 1993 were won by Eyadéma, some opposition candidates boycotting the poll. Eyadéma claimed victory again in presidential elections in 1998, amid accusations of malpractice and of the killing of hundreds of opposition supporters immediately afterward in the run-up to the 1999 Assembly election. (Serious human rights violations were later confirmed in a UN/OAU report.) The opposition accepted the election results in subsequent negotiations. Eyadéma’s RPT retained its huge majority in 2002 after the repeatedly postponed poll was boycotted by the main opposition parties. The constitution was then amended, paving the way for Eyadéma’s thirdterm victory in June 2003; exiled opposition leader Gilchrist Olympio was barred from contesting the election. The EU has made the resumption of financial aid dependent on talks with opposition groups.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ECOWAS
OIC
AU
FZ
Joined UN in 1960
UEMOA
Togo places priority on maintaining traditional links, especially with France. While President Eyadéma was chair of ECOWAS in 1989–1999, he acted as mediator in the Guinea-Bissau conflict and hosted talks on Sierra Leone. Regional relations are very good.
†
Recipient
$51m (receipts)
Kabye cultivation near Kara, in northern Togo. The main food crops grown are cassava, yams, and maize.
Multiparty elections
President Gnassingbé Eyadéma
2002/2007
AID
% of total arrivals
With sandy beaches and lively nightlife, Togo was one of west Africa’s most popular destinations until the political uncertainty of the early 1990s. The hotels remain, but tourist numbers are only slowly recovering.
†
POLITICS
Pop. density medium
Ewe, Kabye, Gurma, French
40/104
A
†
Nigeria
Ghana
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Togo CAPITAL: Lomé POPULATION: 4.9 million CURRENCY: CFA franc OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: French
CLIMATE
Africa
WEST AFRICA
/
Up 16% in 2002
Development projects and the health of the economy overall have suffered as a result of aid suspensions in the 1990s by donors including the US and the EU.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TOGO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
B U R K I N A Dapaong
TOGO Total Area : 56 785 sq. km (21 924 sq. miles)
Ot i
Mandouri
Oti
over 100 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Kandé
G
Pagouda
Niamtougou
LAND HEIGHT
KABYE Kara Kabou PLATEAU Bafilo
500m/1640ft
Bassar
200m/656ft
H
Sea Level
Tchamba
Sotouboua
A
E
Yégué
Langabou
N
Retenue de Nangbéto
Amlamé
I
A
Mo
0.4 tonnes per capita
Ecologists have been critical of the transformation of nature reserves into hunting grounds for the military elite. Other problems include coastal erosion around Aneho and desertification.
†
MEDIA
After colonization by Germany in 1894, Togoland was divided between France and the UK in 1922. 1960 French sector independent as Togo (UK part joined to Ghana). 1967 Eyadéma takes power. 1991–1992 General strike; repression. 1993 Eyadéma elected president. 1998, 1999 Disputed elections. 2002, 2003 RPT, Eyadéma reelected.
Sustainability rank: 105th
TV ownership medium
LOMÉ
100 miles
DEFENSE $23m
L
Vogan Aného AST CO
VE
f ht o Big
A
AT
N LA
†
/
There is one daily newspaper, Togo Presse, published by the government
Benin
AN OCE TIC
Compulsory military service
†
1 state-owned service, 11 private stations
1 state-owned service
60%
CRIME 2043 prisoners
†
/
†
HEALTH
No welfare state health benefits Malaria, diarrheal, infectious, and parasitic diseases
1 per 10,000 people
Health care suffers from a lack of resources and funding. Around 4% of adults were HIV positive by 2003.
†
SPENDING
8 per 1000 population
GDP/cap. increase
10 per 1000 population
Defense 1.8% Education 4.8% Health 1.4%
Crime is rising 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Considerable wealth disparities exist between those who work the land and the country’s political and business classes. However, the urban class was hit by an economic downturn in the late 1990s.
EXPORTS
Niger 4%
Taiwan 7% Burkina 8%
Other 50%
WORLD RANKING
Benin 13%
T
Position in World 1st
Ghana 18% 50th
IMPORTS
Hong Kong 5% Netherlands 6% Germany 5%
100th
China 16%
STRENGTHS Efficient civil service. Ideal location for role as entrepôt, based on Lomé port. Resourceful entrepreneurs, notably market-women. Proceeds of widespread smuggling. Phosphate deposits have the world’s highest mineral content. Self-sufficient in basic foodstuffs.
15,171 students
Schooling is based on the French model. Unpaid grants provoked unrest at the University of Lomé in 2001.
Death penalty not used in practice
Togo is normally relatively peaceable, but urban crime generally increased during the 1990s, particularly during periods of political unrest in the capital.
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................149th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$270 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$169m INFLATION .........................................3.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ..........................Not available
School leaving age: 15
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Inflation 6.6% p.a. (1990–2001)
539.2 CFA francs (571.2)
†
EDUCATION
Press freedom is improving, but newspapers are regularly confiscated and reporters harassed and arrested.
Up 10% in 2002
The military has an important role in Togo, and spending on defense is quite high. The army’s senior ranks are dominated by loyalists from President Eyadéma’s northern Kabye tribe. France guarantees Togo’s security through a defense accord, and supplies most military equipment and training.
ECONOMICS
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
no
o Ha h
Kévé
S
N
Tabligbo
100 km
/
†
CHRONOLOGY
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people
Tsévié
$1.28bn
Phosphates are Togo’s most important resource. Offshore oil and gas deposits were found in 1999. The Nangbeto Dam, opened in 1988, has reduced dependence on Ghana for energy. Coffee, cocoa, and cotton are important cash crops.
Tohoun
Mt Agou 986m Notsé
0
Phosphates, iron, oil, marble, chromite, gas, bauxite, dolomite
Ountivou
Kpalimé Agou Gadzepe
0
N
Anié Atakpamé
DanyiApéyémé
N
1.8m sheep, 1.47m goats, 310,000 pigs, 8.5m chickens
8% (1% partially protected)
Og ou
Blitta
Badou
Oil reserves not yet exploited
ENVIRONMENT
B
Mon
D S T N AO O Z M FA
o
U
Electric power 38,000 kW
23,283 tonnes
POPULATION
Sansanné-Mango
GuérinKouka
†
RESOURCES
150th
Other 48% France 20% 193rd
WEAKNESSES
169
Political pariah status led to aid reductions in the 1990s. Low world prices for phosphates. Hydropower generation is vulnerable to drought.
$270
161
160
50 years
60%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
151
143
79 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
571
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TONGA
Wallis & Fortuna
American Samoa
1970
1970
June 4
TO
+12
.to
+676
L
OCATED IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC 1600 km (1000 miles) northeast of New Zealand, Tonga is an archipelago of 170 islands. These are divided into three main groups, Vava’u, Ha’apai, and Tongatapu. Tonga’s easterly islands are generally low and fertile. Those in the west are higher and volcanic in origin. Tonga’s economy is based on agriculture, especially coconut, cassava, and passion fruit production. Politics is effectively controlled by the king.
†
Samoa
TONGA Fi j i
OFFICIAL NAME: Kingdom of Tonga CAPITAL: Nuku’alofa POPULATION: 108,141 CURRENCY: Pa’anga (Tongan dollar) OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English and Tongan
CLIMATE
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 150/km2 (389/mi2)
English, Tongan THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
33%
67%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Free Wesleyan 41%
Tropical oceanic
Niue
Free Church of Tonga 12% Church of Jesus Christ of Latter -day Saints 14%
WEATHER CHART FOR NUKU’ALOFA
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Mountainous scenery typical of the westerly islands. Tonga’s 170 islands are scattered over a wide expanse of the South Pacific. Only 45 are inhabited.
0
0/32 -10/14 -20/-4
Tonga has a tropical oceanic climate, with year-round temperatures ranging between 17˚C (63˚F) and 30˚C (86˚F).
Fua’amotu International, Tongatabu 67,000 passengers
Drive on left
151 ships 290,500 grt
Niuafo'ou
Tafahi
Niuatoputapu
TONGA Total Area : 748 sq. km (289 sq. miles)
N A
POPULATION over 10 000
None
None
Fonualei
O
under 10 000 None
POLITICS
C
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 184 km (114 miles)
LAND HEIGHT
2002/2005
Toku
200m/656ft
C
‘Uta Vava‘u
T
/
37,000 visitors
F
Vava‘u Group
I
Late
Holonga
C
Up 14% in 2002 Kao
H
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Pangai Uoleva
Nomuka Fonuafo‘ou
Australia 17%
Nomuka Group
O
Other 28%
Ha‘ano Foa Lifuka ‘Uiha
Kotu Group
U
USA 20%
Kao 1014m
Tofua
T
New Zealand 35%
Ha‘apai Group
Otu Tolu Group
10
20
30
40
S
Hunga Tonga
0
Hunga Ha‘apai
% of total arrivals
N Tongatabu
Ton
a
t Ata
572
NUKU‘ ALOFA
Mu‘a Fua'amotu Intl ‘Ohonua 0
Pea
ga
Tonga’s main attractions are its tropical beaches. Flagging tourism has been boosted by political insecurity in the Solomon Islands and Fiji. Fears have been expressed that too many visitors may erode traditional Tongan culture.
pu
H.M. King Taufa’ahau Tupou IV
Legislative Assembly 30 seats
The Legislative Assembly comprises the king, the 11 members of the Privy Council, nine members indirectly elected by nobles, and nine directly elected members. There are no political parties: of those elected in 2002, seven were part of the Human Rights and Democracy Movement.
A
Visitors : Population 1:2.9
Nonparty elections
Neiafu
P
†
†
AT THE LAST ELECTION
I
Sea Level
Royal Tongan Airlines stranded 1800 passengers when its only international aircraft was repossessed in 2004.
TOURISM
Tonga has strong ethnic ties with eastern Fiji, and there has traditionally been considerable movement between the two states. Tongans see themselves as unique among Pacific islanders, retaining their monarchy and never having been fully colonized. Respect for traditional institutions and values remains high. Tongans are strong churchgoers; churches often fund education. A new generation of Westerneducated Tongans queries some traditional attitudes. Apparent ethnic tensions and a drive to improve native employment prompted the government to ban unskilled immigrants in 2001.
E
†
TRANSPORTATION
Roman Catholic 16%
Other 17%
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN
‘Eua
Gro
up
0
50 km 50 miles
The main power brokers in Tongan politics are the king, the noble establishment, and the landowners. King Taufa’ahau, on the throne since 1965, frequently exercises kingly powers. His resistance to growing calls for democracy was typified in 2000 by his appointing his conservative third son, Prince Ulukalala Lavaka Ata, as premier for life, overlooking his reformist eldest son. There is an increasingly vocal opposition which was roused to anger in 2003 when the king, in an effort to silence permanently the independent Taimi ’o Tonga newspaper, demanded a revision of the constitution to prevent the courts from questioning his decrees.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TONGA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
Comm
Joined UN in 1999
PIF
PC
ADB
In 1998 Tonga broke off ties with Taiwan and instead forged links with China. The discovery of arms bound for Palestine aboard a Tongan-registered vessel in 2002 raised international concern over the security of its flagof-convenience registration system.
†
AID
/
DEFENSE $2m (estimate)
81,000 pigs, 12,500 goats, 300,000 chickens
None
Tonga has no strategic or mineral resources. Electricity is generated entirely from imported fuel. Recent exploration has failed to identify any oil reserves. Tongan waters contain large numbers of tuna.
ENVIRONMENT
†
,
ECONOMICS
/
5% (4.6% partially protected)
No significant change
†
Agriculture: contributes largest percentage of GDP. Tourism main source of hard currency earnings.
WEAKNESSES Off main shipping routes. Aiddependent. Importer of food. High youth unemployment. Corruption scandal in royal court in 2001.
1.2 tonnes per capita
TV ownership medium
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There is no daily newspaper. Weeklies include the Tonga Chronicle 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
In 2004, the king took over control of media licensing, raising concerns over freedom of speech. The independent Taimi 'o Tonga has been banned.
CRIME
†
110 prisoners
STRENGTHS
Not available
Daily newspaper circulation 72 per 1000 people
2.001 pa'anga (1.491)
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................186th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1440 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .......................$10m INFLATION .......................................10.4% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................13%
†
MEDIA
Inflation 2.2% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
†
Many beaches in populated areas are affected by sand quarrying, and giant clams are under threat. Coral reefs are often poisoned and damaged in the search for fish. An increase in tourism could further disrupt the ecosystem.
No compulsory military service
Tonga has a small defense force, which includes both regulars and reserves. Tongan police assisted in security efforts in the Solomon Islands in 2000.
Not an oil producer
Up 10% in 2002
Aid finances major infrastructure projects; Japan, Australia, and New Zealand are primary donors. Japan mainly funds projects involving fisheries and the environment, while Australia concentrates on security.
Electric power 8000 kW
4673 tonnes
Recipient
$22m (receipts)
$146m
†
RESOURCES
CHRONOLOGY Originally discovered by the Polynesians, Tonga was visited by the Dutch in the 17th century and Capt. Cook in the 18th century. In the latter half of the 19th century, during the reign of King George Tupou I, the islands became a unified state after a period of civil war. 1875 First constitution established. 1900 Concern over German ambitions in region; Treaty of Friendship and Protection with UK. 1918–1965 Reign of Queen Salote Tupou III. 1958 Greater autonomy from UK enshrined in Friendship Treaty. 1965 King Taufa’ahau Tupou IV accedes on his mother’s death. 1970 Full independence within British Commonwealth. 1988 Treaty allows US nuclear warships right of transit. 2000 King appoints third son as prime minister for life. 2001 Court jester steals US$20 million of state funds. 2002 Election sees strong showing by prodemocracy candidates, as in 1996 and 1999.
108 per 1000 population
Education 5.3%
†
99%
113 per 1000 population
Defense No data
Crime is risng
Offenses such as breaking and entering have increased among young Tongans, along with unemployment. The practice of stranding young offenders on an uninhabited island has been questioned in parliament.
EDUCATION
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Death penalty not used in practice
/
†
SPENDING
School leaving age: 14
Health 3.4% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Tongans indulge in few ostentatious displays of wealth. The well-off provide financial support for relatives.
WORLD RANKING
364 students
T
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
New Zealand 3% Lithuania 3%
Japan 42%
Greece 4% Other 9%
USA 39%
Plans for a new national university were approved in 2000 following violence in Fiji, where Tongan students attend the University of the South Pacific. Scholarship schemes enable students to go abroad for higher education.
HEALTH
IMPORTS
New Zealand 31%
China 6% Australia 13% USA 14%
Fiji 21%
Other 15%
1 per 2273 people
†
No welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular, heart, and diarrheal diseases
Tonga has some modern health care facilities. However, patients have to be flown out to Australia or New Zealand for sophisticated surgery.
1
50th
99%
60
100th
81 150th
106
16 deaths
63
71 years
$1440 193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
573
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD North America
CARIBBEAN
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
Grenada TRINIDAD & TOBAGO Venezuela
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Trinidad and Tobago CAPITAL: Port-of-Spain POPULATION: 1.3 million CURRENCY: Trinidad and Tobago dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1962
1962
Aug 31
TT
-4
T
HE TWO ISLANDS OF Trinidad and Tobago are the most southerly of the Caribbean Windward Islands and lie just 15 km (9 miles) off the Venezuelan coast. They gained joint independence from Britain in 1962, and Tobago was given internal autonomy in 1987. The spectacular mountain ranges and large swamps are rich in tropical flora and fauna. Pitch Lake in Trinidad is the world’s largest natural reservoir of asphalt.
†
CLIMATE
TOURISM
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR PORT-OF-SPAIN
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
384,000 visitors
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
20/68
20/8
UK 13%
10/50
10/4
Canada 11%
† ,
Little change in 2002
0
-20/-4
10
40
30
20
60
50
% of total arrivals
The islands are a little warmer than others in the Caribbean and escape the hurricanes, which pass by to the north.
Oil revenue meant that Trinidad was one of the last Caribbean states to develop tourism. Most is centered on Tobago (said to be the model for the island in Robinson Crusoe), famous for its huge variety of South American wildlife, including 210 species of tropical bird.
Drive on left
69 ships 26,800 grt
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
Small sections
None
E
Charlotteville
Dragon
's
Chacachacare
C
N
A
LAND HEIGHT 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
Matelot Redhead
Blanchisseuse
Monos Carenage
Chaguaramas Four Roads
Morvant
PORT-OF-SPAIN
Valsayn
Caroni Swamp
Salibea
Arima
Tunapuna Curepe
Guaico
Sangre Grande
C ar on i
The
Chaguanas
Gulf of Couva
Trinidad Tabaquite
Paria
Rio Claro St. Joseph
San Fernando La Brea Pitch Lake
p er The S
Point Fortin
Princes Town
Orto ir
e
Siparia Moruga
Fullarton
e
n
t'
574
s
Mou th
Columbus
Channel
A
0
†
L. House 2002/2007 U. House 2002/2007
Multiparty elections President Maxwell Richards
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 36 seats
44% UNC
N Senators are appointed by the president, including 16 nominated by the prime minister and six by the leader of the opposition
C POPULATION over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Sea Level 0
Mount Aripo 940m
Cantaro
E
O
A T L A N T I C
M
ou
th
I
R
A
Scarborough
POLITICS
N
Tobago Roxborough
Plymouth
The road network is well developed; there are taxis or minibuses for set routes. National carrier BWIA and Air Caribbean operate E Trinidad–Tobago B flights. BWIA also B flies to the US.
Trinidad’s south Asian community is the largest in the Caribbean and holds on to its Muslim and Hindu inheritance. Ethnic tensions with the predominantly Christian black Trinidadians continue to exist but are muted. Blacks form the majority on Tobago.
Senate 31 seats
Little Tobago
S
s
Mixed race 19%
PNM = People's National Movement UNC = United National Congress
St. Giles Is
T
25%
56% PNM
Total Area : 5128 sq. km (1980 sq. miles)
A
4243 km (2636 miles)
75% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Black 40%
Other 41% 0
Piarco International, Port-of-Spain 2.16m passengers
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
East Indian 40%
-10/14
†
253/km2 (656/mi2)
English Creole, English, Hindi, French, Spanish
White and Chinese 1% Visitors : Population 1:3.4
USA 35%
30/12
TRANSPORTATION
Pop. density high
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
30/86
0/32
†
PEOPLE
.tt
+1868
30 km 30 miles
Politics is mainly polarized by race. The largely black-based PNM dominated politics from independence in 1962 to the 1990s, leading to political fragmentation. In 1990 an attempted coup was mounted by Muslim extremists. The UNC’s Basdeo Panday, the first ethnic Asian prime minister, was elected in 1995. In elections six years later, the UNC’s outright majority was reduced to a tie with the PNM. The political stalemate led to new elections being called in 2002, which were decisively won by the PNM, with Patrick Manning remaining in office as prime minister. Tobago’s white sand beaches, verdant landscape, and natural anchorages have enabled it to develop a thriving tourist industry.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
Caricom
Comm
Joined UN in 1962
NAM
OAS
Foreign policy aims for maximum advantage from the booming oil and gas industry and rapidly growing industrial and financial sectors. There are close economic ties with the US and good relations with the EU. Trinidad strongly favors regional integration. Marine territory disputes with Venezuela and Barbados relate to fishing and oil rights.
†
AID
11,415 tonnes 75,686 pigs, 28,980 cattle, 27.5m chickens
Oil, natural gas, asphalt, iron
Oil and gas are major resources. The country is the world’s fifth-largest exporter of liquefied natural gas, and supplies over 65% of US imports.
ENVIRONMENT
/
6% (4% partially protected)
,
Loan repayments exceeded aid received in 2002
Aid is modest. Japan controversially offers fisheries aid in return for support on whaling issues.
DEFENSE US$64m
†
.
No compulsory military service Down 4% in 2002
Defense forces comprise a land army and a coast guard (with air wing), used to patrol fishing grounds.
ECONOMICS US$8.8bn
†
†
MEDIA
Oil, which accounts for 70% of export earnings. Gas increasingly exploited to support new industries. Methanol, ammonia, iron, and steel exports. Tourism, especially on Tobago. Strong commercial and financial sectors.
WEAKNESSES
EXPORTS
France 4% Venezuela 3% USA 54%
Barbados 4% Jamaica 7%
Other 28%
There are 3 daily newspapers, including the Trinidad and Tobago Express and the Trinidad Guardian
Japan 4%
Brazil 5% Venezuela 13%
Other 38% USA 36%
Britain seized Trinidad from Spain in 1797 and Tobago from France in 1802. They were unified in 1888. 1956 Eric Williams founds PNM and wins general election, mainly with support from blacks. 1958–1961 Member of West Indian Federation. 1962 Independence. 1970 Black Power demonstrations. 1980 Tobago gets own House of Assembly; internal autonomy 1987. 1990–1991 Premier taken hostage in failed fundamentalist coup. PNM returned to power. 1995 UNC’s Basdeo Panday is first ethnic Asian prime minister. 1998–1999 Trinidad withdraws from international human rights bodies over death sentences. 2001 Elections result in tie. 2002 PNM wins fresh elections.
The government generally respects press freedom and the media are lively. Television schedules are dominated by US programs, particularly soap operas.
CRIME
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
179 per 1000 population
250 per 1000 population
Defense 0.7% Education 4% Health 1.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP Death penalty in use
/
Up 3% in 1999–2001
Narcotics-related crime increases the murder rate. The country was party to the decision taken in 2001 to replace the authority of the UK’s Privy Council with a Caribbean Court of Justice.
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 11
Rural poverty in the interior of Trinidad, particularly among south Asian Trinidadian farmers, is a serious problem. Wealth disparities are particularly marked between them and the affluent oil-rich business elite, many of whom are expatriate. Service workers in Tobago’s high-value tourism sector are poorly paid.
8614 students
Education is based on the former British system. Most students go on to the University of the West Indies; Trinidad hosts the St. Augustine campus. Wealthy Trinidadians, however, go to universities in the US.
HEALTH
†
SPENDING
8 services: 1 state-owned, 7 independent
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
1 per 1250 people IMPORTS
UK 4%
TV ownership high
99%
High dependence on oil and gas. Failing sugar industry. High kidnapping and murder rates discourage investment.
20.5 tonnes per capita
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
4794 prisoners
STRENGTHS
Sustainability rank: 121st
CHRONOLOGY
Daily newspaper circulation 123 per 1000 people
6.15 Trinidad and Tobago dollars (6.14)
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................92nd GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$6750 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .................US$416m INFLATION .........................................4.2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
†
Spillages from oil tankers threaten coastal conservation areas such as the Caroni Swamp, with its many species of butterflies. Forest fires due to periodic drought, and traffic-related pollution and congestion are serious concerns.
Inflation 5.4% p.a. (1990–2001)
SCORE CARD
Electric power 1.5m kW
163,000 b/d (reserves 1.9bn barrels)
Recipient
No net receipts
†
RESOURCES
†
Welfare state health benefits Heart disease, cancers, diabetes, accidents, violence
Oil wealth has given Trinidad a better public health service than most Caribbean states and more private clinics, mainly serving the expatriate community. However, treatment delays are a problem. The spread of HIV/AIDS is of particular concern on Tobago.
WORLD RANKING
T
Position in World 1st
1
50th
100th
150th
99%
47 $6750
75 72 years
64
54
17 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
575
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD NORTH AFRICA
TUNISIA
Algeria
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Tunisia CAPITAL: Tunis POPULATION: 9.8 million CURRENCY: Tunisian dinar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1956
Africa
Italy TUNISIA
1956
March 20
TN
+1
.tn
+216
N
ORTH AFRICA’S SMALLEST country, Tunisia lies sandwiched between Libya and Algeria. The populous north is mountainous and fertile in places and has a long Mediterranean coastline. The south is largely desert. Habib Bourguiba ruled the country from independence in 1956 until a bloodless coup in 1987. Under President Ben Ali, the government has slowly moved toward multiparty democracy, but is challenged by Islamic fundamentalism. Ties with the EU, whose members include Tunisia’s main trading partners, were strengthened through the first Euro-Mediterranean conference held in 1995. Manufacturing and tourism are expanding.
Libya
TOURISM 5.16m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:1.9
/
Up 2% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Libya 25% France 17% Algeria 14% Germany 12% Italy 7% Other 25%
†
CLIMATE
Mediterranean/ hot desert
WEATHER CHART FOR TUNIS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
TRANSPORTATION Skanes, Monastir 3.06 passengers
†
Drive on right
75 ships 185,500 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 12,348 km (7673 miles)
142 km (88 miles)
1909 km (1186 miles)
None
-10/14 -20/-4
Tunisia is hot in summer. The north can be wet and windy in winter. The far south is arid. The spring brings the dry, dusty chili wind from the Sahara.
PEOPLE
†
63/km2 (163/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
67%
33%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Jewish 1%
T Muslim (mainly Sunni) 98% ETHNIC MAKEUP
European 1%
Jewish 1%
Arab and Berber 98%
The population is almost entirely Muslim, of Arab and Berber descent, though there are Jewish and Christian minorities. Many Tunisians still live in extended family groups, in which three or four generations are represented.
576
10
30
20
40
% of total arrivals
Tourists have flocked to Tunisia since the 1960s, attracted by its winter sunshine, beaches, desert, and archaeological remains. One of the Mediterranean’s cheapest package destinations, Tunisia attracts almost three million European visitors a year, though some tourists are deterred by the fear of attacks by Islamists. In 2002, 14 German tourists were killed by a suicide bombing on the island of Jerba. Tourism employs more than 200,000 people and is a focus of investment. However, concern about its environmental impact is growing.
Pop. density medium
Arabic, French
Christian 1%
Tunisia has six international airports. The transportation network is modern, efficient, and extensive. Tunis has both a modern light metro system and a suburban railroad line. The mostly uninhabited south has few roads.
0
Socially at least, Tunisia is one of the most liberal Arab states. The 1956 Personal Statutes Code gave women fuller rights than in any other Arab country. Contraception and family planning were made freely available in the 1960s. Since the 1980s a wideranging social modernization program has promoted education and women’s rights while legislation has given women the right to custody of children in divorce cases, made domestic violence punishable by law, and helped divorced women to get alimony. Women make up 31% of the total workforce and 35% of the industrial workforce. Female literacy, however, is still 20% lower than male, and politics remains a mostly male preserve. These freedoms are threatened by the growth in recent years of Islamic fundamentalism, which also worries the mainly French-speaking political and business elite who wish to strengthen links with Europe. The Ben Ali regime has been criticized for its actions against Islamist activists. Despite continuing condemnation of its human rights record, the government’s efforts to foster democracy were
praised in 2002 when it received the “Mediterranean Award,” given by European human rights leagues. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.5% 3.5%
80+ 60–79
Male 0.5% 3.8%
7.4%
40–59
7.2%
15.9%
20–39
15.8%
22.2%
0–19
23.2%
% of population by age group
Roman remains in the western Tozeur region. Diverse archaeological remains can be found throughout Tunisia.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TUNISIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
WORLD AFFAIRS
Multiparty elections
President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali
1999/2004 AT THE LAST ELECTION
AL
4% 3% PUP MR
Chamber of Deputies 182 seats
7% 4% 1% MDS UDU SLP
81% RCD
RCD = Constitutional Democratic Rally MDS = Movement of Social Democrats PUP = Popular Unity Party UDU = Unionist Democratic Union MR = Movement for Renewal SLP = Social Liberal Party
Formally a multiparty democracy since 1988, Tunisia is effectively dominated by the RCD and President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali.
IT ED
PROFILE
Mohammed Ghannouchi, prime minister since 1999.
President Ben Ali became head of state in 1987.
ERRA
NEAN
SEA
TUNISIA
Bizerte
L
M
ell
DIT
E
èg u
e
ME
Rass Jebel M Taking over from the Total Area : Menzel Bourguiba Lac de Golfe de 163 610 sq. km 31-year presidency of Bizerte Tunis (63 169 sq. miles) Habib Bourguiba in D A Ariana Carthage Airport Tabarka JE R La Marsa ME Bardo 1987, President Ben Ali LA La Goulette Menzel Temime DE TUNIS inherited a modernizing S Béja Hammam Lif T Ben N O Arous a and robust economy. M Nabeul e rd M ej Hammamet Though he has turned Jendouba Zaghouan his attention to a Golfe de Hammamet program of social Le Kef Sebkhet Siliana Kelbia Kalaa Kebira development and Monastir A Sousse education, Ben Ali has Skanes Airport M'Saken Kesra S done little to liberalize Kairouan Jemmel Moknine R the political system. Mahdia Sebkhet de d ou O r Sidi el Hani The RCD won Ze D El Jem overwhelmingly Sebkhet Jebel Chambi el Gherra 1544m in the 1994 and ah Île Kasserine en rk Chergui 1999 elections and Sidi Bouzid Oue d the abolishment Sfax Île Gharbi of the life presidency was Gafsa Sebkhet undermined in en Noual Gulf of 2002 when a Chott el Gabès Gharsa j Houmt Souk constitutional C ja Tozeur hott el Fe Gabès Île de Nefta referendum gave Jerba GA A Golfe de Chot JE B E L TEB t e Ben Ali a mandate Bou Grara l Je Kebili Zarzis r to stand for a i Bahiret Sebkhet el Bibane further two terms. el Melah Médenine
ERR
ANEA
Île sK e
N
A
SEA
Melah el
L
G
d
J
E
F
E
F
Tataouine
R A P
L A I N
D A
R
Fundamentalism With the failure GRAND ERG of political dialogue, ORIENTAL Ben Ali has attempted instead to neutralize any Islamic fundamentalist opposition; the al-Nahda (Renewal Party) has been outlawed. An attack in 2002 on a synagogue in Jerba was claimed by the Islamic Army for the Liberation of Holy Places, the same group responsible for attacks in Kenya and Tanzania in 1998.
A
H A
R
A
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
I
Y
REM
POPULATION
EL
EL
OI
B
AB
over 100 000 over 50 000
D
over 10 000 under 10 000
I
A
over 500 000
LAND HEIGHT 1000m/3281ft
L
Human rights The RCD has been under increasing attack over its human rights record, despite its commitment to women’s rights. The activities of the Tunisia League of Human Rights were suspended in 2001, while journalists practice heavy self-censorship.
N
500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
0 0
AMU
OIF
† NAM
Joined UN in 1956
OIC
Economic and political relations with the EU are the top priority, though for many years Tunisia pursued a foreign policy which alienated it from the West. From the early 1980s until 1994, Tunis was host to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), President Ben Ali supported Iraq in the 1991 Gulf War, and the Tunisian government turned a blind eye to “sanctions-busters” supplying Libya. While these policies have been rendered meaningless by world events, concern remains over the government’s human rights record. Liberal economic and social policies, however, have done much to counteract questionable diplomacy in Western eyes. In particular, the government’s effective struggle against Islamic extremists has enamored it to the US, which now sees Tunisia as a close military and intelligence ally in the “war on terrorism.”
CHRONOLOGY Tunisia has been home to the Zenata Berbers since earliest times and its history is linked to the rise and fall of the Mediterraneancentered empires. Carthage (near present-day Tunis), founded by the Phoenicians in the 9th century BCE, became the hub of the 1000-year Carthaginian empire which linked European and African trading networks. Tunisia was then ruled by the Romans, Byzantines, Egyptians, Ottomans, and, finally, the French. 1883 La Marsa Treaty makes Tunisia a French protectorate, ending its semi-independence. Bey of Tunis remains monarch. 1900 Influx of French and Italians. 1920 Destour (Constitution) Party formed; calls for self-government. 1935 Habib Bourguiba forms NeoDestour (New Constitution) Party. 1943 Defeat of Axis powers by British troops restores French rule. 1955 Internal autonomy. Bourguiba returns from exile. 1956 Independence. Bourguiba elected prime minister. Personal Statutes Code gives rights to women. Family planning introduced. 1957 Bey is deposed. Tunisia becomes republic with Bourguiba as first president. 1964 Neo-Destour made sole legal party; renamed Destour Socialist Party (PSD). Moderate socialist economic program is introduced. 1969 Agricultural collectivization program, begun 1964, abandoned.
100 km 100 miles
577
T
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
AID
†
Recipient
$475m (receipts)
/
Up 26% in 2002
The EU and France are the two major international donors, providing over half of all bilateral aid. Japan, Germany, Arab countries, and Italy are other important sources of assistance. As a result of strong economic growth, the ratios of external debt to GNP and of debt service to exports receipts have improved markedly since the early 1990s; Tunisia’s total external debt is now estimated to be around two-thirds of GNP.
578
/
Compulsory military service
Up 22% in 2002
TUNISIAN ARMED FORCES
Despite the military’s small size – 35,000 troops, of which around two-thirds are conscripts – it is a major political force. Its weaponry comes mainly from the US, and officer training is carried out in the US and France, as well as in Tunisia. Border security with Algeria was tightened in 1995 after Algerian Islamists attacked Tunisian border guards in protest against Tunisian support for Algerian security forces.
ECONOMICS $19.5bn
†
84 main battle tanks (54 M-60A3, 30 M-60A1)
27,000 personnel
19 patrol boats
4500 personnel
29 combat aircraft (12 F-5E/F, 12 L-59, 5 MB-326K/L)
3500 personnel
None
Inflation 4.3% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.261 Tunisian dinars (1.275)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................67th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1990 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$746m INFLATION .........................................2.7% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................14%
EXPORTS
Spain 5%
Libya 5%
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
Germany 11%
GDP
160
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
T
$383m
†
Consumer price index 1999=100
1974 Bourguiba elected presidentfor-life by National Assembly. 1974–1976 Hundreds imprisoned for belonging to “illegal organizations.” 1978 Trade union movement, UGTT, holds 24-hour general strike; more than 50 killed in clashes. UGTT leadership replaced with PSD loyalists. 1980 New prime minister Muhammed Mazli ushers in greater political tolerance. 1981 Elections. Opposition groups allege electoral malpractice. 1984 Widespread riots after food price increases. 1986 Gen. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali becomes interior minister. Four Islamic fundamentalists sentenced to death. 1987 Fundamentalist leader Rachid Ghannouchi arrested. Ben Ali becomes prime minister; takes over presidency after doctors certify Bourguiba senile. PSD renamed RCD. 1988 Most political prisoners released. Constitutional reforms introduce multiparty system and abolish life presidency. Two opposition parties legalized. 1989 Elections: RCD wins all seats, Ben Ali president. Fundamentalists take 13% of vote. 1990 Tunisia backs Iraq over invasion of Kuwait. Clampdown on fundamentalists intensifies. 1991 Abortive coup blamed on al-Nahda; over 500 arrests. 1993 Multiparty agreement on electoral reform. 1994 Presidential and legislative elections. Ben Ali, sole candidate, is reelected. 1996 MDS leader Mohammed Moada imprisoned. 1999 Ben Ali and RCD win elections. 2002 Referendum allows Ben Ali to stand for office after 2004. Suicide bomb attack in Jerba kills 14 German tourists.
DEFENSE
2003
France 31%
Italy 22% Other 26% IMPORTS
USA 3%
Other 38%
Spain 5% Germany 9% Italy 19%
France 26%
STRENGTHS Well-diversified economy, despite limited resources. Tourism. Oil and gas exports, also traditional agricultural exports: olive oil, olives, citrus fruit, dates. Manufacturing sectors strong. Key products are textiles, construction materials, machinery, chemicals. European investment. Ranked as most competitive economy in Africa in World Economic Forum’s 2000–2001 report.
and market-oriented. Real GDP growth has averaged 5% since 1987. Prices have been freed, some state companies privatized, and import barriers reduced. There have been numerous attempts to modernize the agricultural sector. The balance of payments relies on fluctuating tourism receipts to offset a trade deficit. The government must also balance growth with better social provisions. Tunisia has committed itself to a free trade area with the EU by 2010; there is concern that the potential influx of European imports will harm local producers. TUNISIA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Tunis Bizerte Sousse Douleb
WEAKNESSES
Sfax
Kasserine
Agricultural sector largely unproductive and prone to drought. Growing domestic energy demand on oil and gas resources: net energy importer. Regional instability negatively affects tourism and investment. High unemployment and trade deficit.
Gabès
Metlaoul
Ezzaouia Gafsa Bir Aouin
El Borma
PROFILE Since it began a process of structural adjustment in 1988, supported by the IMF and the World Bank, Tunisia’s economy has become increasingly open
Kairouan
0 0
100 km 100 miles
* significant multinational ownership
Oil Wine Chemicals Phosphates Textiles Consumer goods Leather tanning Vehicle assembly
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TUNISIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
TUNISIA : LAND USE
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 1% (0.07bn kWh) 0
Nuclear 0%
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Tunisia is a leading producer of phosphates for fertilizers, mainly from mines near Gafsa. Oil and gas
†
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.3%
E L O
100 km 100 miles
0
Other 0% 0
D
Sheep
Combustion 99% (10bn kWh)
Sustainability rank: 61st
are important exports, but growing domestic energy demands mean that Tunisia is now a net oil importer. Power plants are mainly gas- and oilfired, with some hydropower.
†
CRIME
1.9 tonnes per capita
23,165 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Heart and cerebrovascular diseases
Well-developed family-planning facilities have almost halved Tunisia’s birthrate over the past 30 years. The population growth rate has dropped from 3.2% to around 1% – the lowest in the region. The mortality rate has been reduced, to six per 1000 people, reflecting the extension of free medical services to over 70% of the population. While services lack sophistication, an umbrella of primary care facilities covers all but the most isolated rural communities. Regional committees organize care for the old, the needy, and the orphaned.
A
Phosphates, iron, zinc, lead, salt, oil, natural gas
6.85m sheep, 4.4m turkeys, 72m chickens
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 1429 people
Cropland Forest Pasture Wetlands Desert Olives - cash crop Fruits
S
66,000 b/d (reserves 500m barrels)
100,350 tonnes
†
HEALTH
Electric power 2.3m kW
R
†
RESOURCES
Death penalty not used in practice
.
Down 8% in 2000–2002
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
CRIME RATES
58 per 1000 population
117 per 1000 population
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
1
per 100,000 population
Defense 1.8%
Rapes Yes
Yes
Yes
3
Education 6.8%
per 100,000 population
Health 4.8% 0
Thefts
Desertification is a serious problem in the largely arid central and southern regions. However, the dominant environmental issue is the rapid expansion of tourism since the 1980s. Large, insensitively designed hotel and resort developments, which do not fit in with the local architecture, are spoiling coastal areas such as the island of Jerba and Hammamet (though building height restrictions are applied here). Tourism is also making an impact on the fragile desert ecology of the south.
MEDIA
†
257
Street crime is unusual. However, Tunisia’s poor human rights record has prompted criticism of its maltreatment of political and other detainees. Arbitrary arrests and torture while in police custody, especially of suspected Islamist activists, are routine.
†
EDUCATION 73%
School leaving age: 16
262,502 students
TV ownership medium THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Daily newspaper circulation 23 per 1000 people 100
There are 8 daily newspapers, including al-Amal, La Presse de Tunisie, and As-Sabah
2 state-owned services
2 services: 1 state-owned, 1 independent
% of each age group in education
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
5
15
20
25
Around 10% of Tunisians are estimated to live below the UN poverty line. The poorest in the community tend to live in the urban shanty towns, or bidonvilles. The Western-oriented elite has links with government or business. Unemployment benefits from the National Social Security Fund are limited to nonagricultural workers and are only provided for three months. The government is concerned that the lack of jobs is encouraging the spread of Islamic fundamentalism; economic growth is its medium-term solution to the problem. Special projects are being set up in the most deprived urban areas to offset the worst effects of poverty.
80
WORLD RANKING
T
60
100%
Position in World 1st
79%
40
20
23% 0
Primary
Secondary
50th
Tertiary 100th
Reforms since the late 1980s have in theory increased press freedom in Tunisia, traditionally considered a source of liberal ideas in the Arab world. In practice, government restrictions remain. The foreign press is also occasionally banned. Only the arrival of satellite TV from Europe has enabled people to receive a wide range of programs. The Internet is heavily censored.
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
per 100,000 population
Education is compulsory in Tunisia from the age of six, with secondary education beginning at 12. Arabic is the first language in schools, but French is also taught and is used almost exclusively in higher education. There are eight universities (one is private); student enrollment has doubled since 1995.
62 88
150th
73 years
83 21 deaths
$1990
92
143
193rd
73%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
579
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TURKEY
Bulgaria
Greece
Georgia
TUR KEY
1939
Oct 29
TR
+2
Armenia
Syria
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Turkey CAPITAL: Ankara POPULATION: 71.3 million CURRENCY: Turkish lira OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Turkish 1923
Europe
ASIA/EUROPE
Iraq
Iran
.tr
+90
T
HOUGH ITS TERRITORY lies mainly in western Asia, Turkey also includes the region of Eastern Thrace in Europe. It thus controls the entrance to the Black Sea, which is straddled by Turkey’s largest city, Istanbul. Most Turks live in the western half of the country. The eastern and southeastern reaches of the Anatolia Plateau are Kurdish regions. Turkey’s location gives it great strategic influence in the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. Turkey lies on a major earthquake fault line, so that many towns are vulnerable to earthquakes such as that which devastated Izmit in 1999.
CLIMATE
†
Mountain/ Mediterranean
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Pop. density medium
Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic, Circassian, Armenian, Greek, Georgian, Ladino
WEATHER CHART FOR ANKARA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
The Church of the Holy Cross, on Akdamar Island in Lake Van, was built in the 10th century when Christianity was dominant in the region.
93/km2 (240/mi2)
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Male
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
40/104
40/16
0.3%
30/86
30/12
4%
60–79
20/68
20/8
9.2%
40–59
10/50
10/4
67% 0
0/32
33%
3.5% 9.4%
20–39
16.5%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0.2%
80+
17.1%
0–19
19.5%
20.3%
Other 1%
-10/14
% of population by age group
-20/-4
Coastal regions have a Mediterranean climate. The interior has cold, snowy winters and hot, dry summers.
TRANSPORTATION Atatürk International, Istanbul 14m passengers
†
political and even family life. In 2002 women gained the right to an equal portion in the case of divorce. With population growth at 2%, Turkey is projected to have a larger population than any EU country by 2020.
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 99% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Drive on right
Other 8%
Arab 2%
Kurdish 20%
1147 ships 5.66m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1773 km (1102 miles)
1200 km (746 miles)
8671 km (5388 miles)
TOURISM 13.3m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:5.4 Up 4% in 2003
Visitors are attracted by fine beaches, classical sites such as Ephesus and Troy, and archaeological remains from the prehistoric to the Ottoman periods. Attacks on foreigners by Kurdish militants in 1994 hit the tourist trade, but business then recovered, and in 2001 tourists spent $8 billion. Visitor numbers dropped after the September 2001 attacks on the US, but bounced back in 2002.
580
LG
ARIA
Kâgıthane
Tekirdaê
Marmara Denizi Yalova Çanakkale
ƒzmit
Adapazarı Bolu
Bursa
Bilecik Sakarya
Balıkesir Eski§ehir Kütahya
Polatlı
N
A
T
L
A
T
Afyon
U§ak
Turgutlu
P
Nazilli
Büyükmenderes
Denizli Milas Bodrum
A
Akhisar
Manisa
ƒzmir
Söke
Burdur
ƒsparta
T A U
Muêla Antalya
UK 7%
Marmaris Fethiye
Netherlands 7%
Finike
Bulgaria 7%
10
% of total arrivals
Antalya Körfezi
Ka§
Other 45% 0
Zonguldak
Bandırma
lle s e ne Dard
Aydın
Russia 7%
ƒ
oêazi ul B nb sta
ƒstanbul
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Germany 27%
L
B
Kırklareli
Edirne
GREECE
A S E
/
The Turks are racially diverse. Many are the descendants of refugees, often from the Balkans, but a strong sense of national identity is rooted in a shared language and religion. Most are Sunni Muslim, though a Shi’a community, including the heterodox Alawite sect, is growing fast. The largest minority are the Kurds, and there are some 500,000 Arabic speakers. While women have equal rights in law, men dominate
A N A E G E
T
Recent rail projects include a high-speed link between Istanbul and Ankara, a light rail system in Istanbul, and a tunnel beneath the Bosphorus Straits. An extensive network of ports and harbors includes Istanbul and Izmir.
B
Turkish 70% 127,574 km (79,271 miles)
U
20
30
40
50
60
M E D I T E R R A N E A N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TURKEY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
Party (RP) became the largest party, forming the government in 1996. Ousted by the army in mid-1997, it was banned in 1998. Many of its members took refuge in its successor, the Virtue Party, which in turn was banned in 2001. The succeeding AK scored a comprehensive victory in 2002. It has asserted that it does not wish to impose a theocracy, but the army remains wary.
President Ahmet Necdet Sezer
2002/2007 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Turkish Grand National Assembly 550 seats
66% AK
32% CHP
2% Ind
AK = Justice and Development Party CHP = Republican People's Party Ind = Independents
Turkey is a multiparty republic. The president, who serves a seven-year term, appoints the prime minister.
Kurdish separatism From 1984 a bitter civil war was fought in southeast Turkey, killing thousands of people over the next two decades. In 1999 Abdullah Ocalan, leader of the secessionist Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK),was sentenced to death, his sentence commuted in 2002 to life imprisonment. Meanwhile, the PKK disbanded and regrouped as a political organization committed to seeking equal rights for Kurds within Turkey, under Ocalan’s leadership. Turkey’s treatment of the Kurds has been widely criticized internationally, and pressure from the EU in particular has led to constitutional amendments lifting the harsh ban on broadcasting and education in Kurdish.
PROFILE The main ideological division in politics is Islamic–secular. In 2002 the powers of the National Security Council were restricted and its membership altered to give civilian dominance. From 2000 on, the coalition government of Bulent Ecevit clashed with independent president Ahmet Necdet Sezer. Fresh elections in 2002 produced a stunning victory for the Islamist-dominated AK, while Ecevit’s party, and many others, failed to gain any seats in the legislature. AK leader Recep Tayyip Erdogan, banned from the 2002 election for previous militant remarks, succeeded his deputy as prime minister in March 2003.
TURKEY Total Area : 780 580 sq. km (301 382 sq. miles)
LAND HEIGHT
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Islamist advances The popularity of Islamist parties has challenged Turkey’s cherished identity as a secular state. In 1995 the Welfare
POPULATION
3000m/9843ft
over 5 000 000
2000m/6562ft
over 1 000 000
1000m/3281ft
over 500 000
500m/1640ft
over 100 000 over 50 000
200m/656ft
C
A
K
S
Sinop
D A ÊL A R I
RE KÜ Kastamonu
Ca ak
ni k D Samsun aêl a ri
Rize I RI Giresun LA AÊ ÊU K D Z I ARADEN Gümü§hane Erzurum
Kır§ehir
Bingöl
A
T
U M O Kozan
Tarsus Mersin
Adana
f ör
e
nK eru ƒ skend Antakya
S E A TURKISH REPUBLIC OF NORTHERN CYPRUS
an
Gaziantep
Ceyhan zi
Karaman
yh Se
S
Nusaybin
Osmaniye Kilis ƒskenderun Kırıkhan
R
I
A
I
R
A Q
N
Y
S
0 0
Ahmet Necdet Sezer, an independent, elected president in 2000.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CE
NATO
OECD
AID
†
OIC
Joined UN in 1945
OSCE
Recipient
$636m (receipts)
s
R U S
N
N
K
Ereêli
I
N
Niêde
Van Gölü
Van Tatvan A R Bitlis S L R O O Malatya T Diyarbakır U N Elbistan O Ê T A Siirt Y D E I S N Adıyaman Ü D Batman G R Silverek Kahramanmara§ U Tig ri Siverek Vıran§ehir Mardin flanlıurfa
Recep Tayyip Erdogan, AK leader and prime minister since 2003.
Turkey has strategic significance as the only Muslim member of NATO. Its support for the US in the 1991 Gulf War was maintained in 2003, but less strongly: it refused passage to US troops for the invasion of Iraq. The presence in north Iraq of an autonomous Kurdish region is of great concern. Turkey retains close ties to Israel and the more moderate Muslim states. It has developed links with many former communist states, especially with the Turkic-speaking central Asian countries, and is a member of the BSEC. In 2002 it held the leadership of the peacekeeping force in Afghanistan. The quest to join the EU, aided by improving relations with Greece, has been impeded by EU concerns over human rights abuses. Turkey’s AZERpresence in northern Cyprus is also BAIJAN problematic, though its 2004 backing of a UN settlement plan for the island (rejected by Greek Cypriots) raised its European and international standing.
A
Kayseri
Aksaray
Konya
Mu§
Elâzıê
Nev§ehir
U
s rate
R
A
Karakose
Erzincan
I
E
IA
A
Aras
Büyükaêrı Daêı 5165m
h E up
Tuz Gölü
Kars
Yozgat Sivas
I
N
Tokat
Kırıkkale
L
Artvin
Trabzon Ordu DO
IA
E
Amasya Çorum
ANKARA
O
GEORG
M
m l Ir
under 10 000
A
AR
K ı rı
E
Bafra
Karabük
Çanikırı
over 10 000
Sea Level
European aspirations Turkey’s human rights record has long frustrated its European ambitions, but recent reforms have sought to meet EU standards. Civil liberties have been improved, and the government agreed in 2004 to abolish executions entirely. In September it pushed through a revised penal code, and days later the European Commission finally recommended that Turkey begin EU accession talks.
200 km 200 miles
/
Up 281% in 2002
Turkey’s diplomatic support for the Coalition in the 2003 war on Iraq boosted aid levels. The US, which had suspended aid in 1994 in protest at the treatment of Kurds, pledged $8.5 billion in 2003 in compensation for damage to the Turkish economy. Greece, a traditional enemy, offered humanitarian aid after the 1999 Izmit earthquake.
CYPRUS
581
T
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey’s defeat in World War I, nationalist Mustafa Kemal Atatürk deposed the ruling sultan in 1922, declaring Turkey a republic in 1923.
T
582
/
Compulsory military service
Up 24% in 2002
TURKISH ARMED FORCES 4205 main battle tanks (2876 M-48, 932 M-60, 397 Leopard)
402,000 personnel
13 submarines, 19 52,750 frigates, 21 missile craft, personnel and 28 patrol boats 483 combat aircraft (224 F-16C/D, 87 F/NF5A/B, 172 F-4E)
60,100 personnel
None
Turkey’s armed forces are the secondlargest in NATO, which it joined in
ECONOMICS $173bn
†
1952. Turkey is a sizable military power, and it spends a higher percentage of GDP on defense than any other NATO country. NATO membership gives Turkey easy access to Western arms suppliers, though sales to Turkey are opposed on human rights grounds. Israel is an important source of arms. Campaigning against Kurdish separatists in southeast Turkey and Iraq has been scaled back in light of Turkey’s bid for EU membership and the fall of Saddam Hussein in Iraq in 2003. The great majority of Turkey’s armed forces are conscripts, though military service has been cut from 18 months to 15 months, with university graduates only serving for a year.
Inflation 74% p.a. (1990–2001)
1.484m Turkish lira (1.418m)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................25th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$2490 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$1.79bn INFLATION ..........................................45% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
EXPORTS
Italy 6%
France 6%
610
440
440
270
270
100
100
1998
UK 9% USA 9% Other 53% Germany 17% IMPORTS
France 6%
USA 6% Italy 8% Russia 8%
Other 58% Germany 14%
STRENGTHS Liberalized economy: strong growth since 2002. Near self-sufficiency in agriculture. Textiles, manufacturing, and construction sectors competitive in world markets. Tourism industry. Dynamic private sector economy. Skilled labor force. Customs union with EU.
GDP
610
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
$8.73bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
1924 Religious courts abolished. 1928 Islam no longer state religion. 1934 Women given the vote. 1938 President Atatürk dies. Succeeded by Ismet Inönü. 1945 Turkey declares war on Germany. Joins UN. 1952 Joins CE and NATO. 1960 Military coup; National Assembly suspended. 1961 New constitution. 1963 Association agreement with European Economic Community. 1974 Invades northern Cyprus. 1980 Military coup; martial law. 1982 New constitution. 1983 Election won by Turgut Özal's Motherland Party (ANAP). 1984 Turkey recognizes “Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.” Kurdish separatist PKK launches guerrilla war in southeast Turkey. 1991 US-led coalition launches air strikes on Iraq from Turkish bases. True Path Party (DYP) wins polls. Süleyman Demirel premier. 1992 Joins Black Sea alliance. 1993 Demirel elected president. Tansu Çiller DYP leader, heads coalition. 1995 Major anti-Kurdish offensive. Voting age lowered to 18. Çiller coalition collapses. Pro-Islamic RP wins election, but center-right DYP–ANAP coalition takes office. Customs union with EU. 1996–1997 RP leader Necmettin Erbakan heads first pro-Islamic government since 1923. 1997 Mesut Yilmaz reappointed to head minority ANAP government. 1998 RP banned. Yilmaz resigns, replaced by Bulent Ecevit of Democratic Left Party. 1999 Ecevit heads coalition after elections. Kurdish leader Abdullah Ocalan sentenced to death. Izmit earthquake kills 14,000. 2000 Demirel denied second term: Ahmet Necdet Sezer president. 2001 Acute financial crisis. Hunger strikes in high-security prisons. Virtue Party banned. 2002 Constitutional prodemocracy and human rights amendments, with goal of EU membership. April, PKK renounces violence and disbands. November, early elections won by Islamist AK. 2003 Recep Tayyip Erdogan becomes prime minister after by-election. Spate of bombings in Istanbul.
DEFENSE
2002
inflation. Despite structural reforms the economy reached crisis point in early 2001, with a collapse of the banking system and the loss of over 500,000 jobs. This was compounded by the global effect of the 2001 attack on the US. Three IMF rescue packages were agreed in the course of the year in return for the privatization of debtladen state companies and banking reform, and growth returned in 2002. TURKEY : MAJOR BUSINESSES Istanbul
Ankara Kırıkkale
Bursa ƒzmit
Erzurum Sivas
WEAKNESSES Persistently high inflation. Unsound public finances. Large government bureaucracy. Uneven privatization program. Ailing banking sector. Influence of organized crime. High cost of military action against Kurds.
PROFILE Turkey has one of the oldest and most advanced of the emerging market economies. In the 1990s it grew strongly, but continued to suffer from high
Adana
ƒsparta ƒzmir
Diyarbakır
Mersin
Cement
Oil refining
Textiles
Iron & steel
Chemicals
Food processing
Electronics
Vehicle manufacture 0
* significant multinational ownership
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TURKEY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 27.3m kW
27m sheep, 10.4m cattle, 7m goats, 217m chickens
Chromium, oil, copper, borax, coal, gas, bauxite, iron
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Combustion 80% (99bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
/
2% (1% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 62nd
†
CRIME
3.3 tonnes per capita
/
64,051 prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Death penalty not used in practice
TURKEY : LAND USE ak rm
TAU
RUS MOU
E up
NT
NS
Sheep
200 miles
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular, heart, respiratory, and digestive diseases
1 per 769 people
Up 4% in 2000–2002
Turkey possesses an adequate national system of primary health care, though by Western standards hospitals are underequipped. There are fewer doctors per head than in Albania, which has the worst level in Europe.
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
4
per 100,000 population
2
per 100,000 population
217
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Turkey’s program of dam-building on the Tigris and Euphrates has met with condemnation, particularly from Syria and Iraq, whose rivers will suffer reduced flow rates. Plans for the Ilisu Dam were shelved in 2001. Concern has also been expressed at proposals to build a nuclear power plant. There has been uncontrolled tourist development along the western coast.
†
Tigri
CRIME RATES
Yes
MEDIA
t
Cropland Pasture Forest High mountain regions Wheat Tobacco - cash crop
200 km
0 0
AI
hr a
s
Hydro 20% (24bn kWh)
Under the controversial Southeastern Anatolian Project (GAP) launched in the mid-1980s, Turkey is building 22 dams on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In 1999 controversy focused on the Ilisu Dam on the Tigris, which would flood a large number of towns and villages, and in 2001 on the Birecik Dam on the Euphrates, which has engulfed the ancient Roman town of Zeugma. Turkey produces oil around Raman, on the Tigris. Eastern provinces are rich in minerals, such as chromium, of which Turkey is a leading producer.
es
51,148 b/d (reserves 243m barrels)
lI
594,971 tonnes
Kizi
†
RESOURCES
TV ownership high
The routine use of torture and rape by the police and the deaths of prisoners in custody cause widespread concern among human rights groups. The death penalty was in 2002 limited to “times of war” and terrorism; the government agreed in 2004 to phase it out entirely.
1 state-controlled service with 5 national channels, 300 private stations
1 state-controlled national service and over 1000 local stations
The Turkish press is diverse, vigorous, and largely privately owned. Almost all Istanbul newspapers are also printed in Ankara and Izmir on the same day. Foreign satellite or cable broadcasts are available, as well as the five national channels of the state Turkish Radio and Television Corporation. Censorship laws have been amended to ease restrictions on non-Turkish-language broadcasting, and, after pressure from the EU, 30 minutes a day of Kurdish programming was allowed from 2002. A particularly high number of journalists are imprisoned, and state control over Internet content was even increased in 2002.
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
There are 35 daily newspapers. The leaders are Sabah and the sensationalist Hürriyet
80
60
94% 40
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
66 per 1000 population
281 per 1000 population
Defense 5.1% Education 3.7% Health 3.6%
School leaving age: 14
1.61m students
87%
Daily newspaper circulation 64 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
†
EDUCATION
†
SPENDING
76%
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The economic expansion of the 1980s created a new class of wealthy entrepreneurs. Urban/rural differences remain pronounced. High inflation in the 1990s eroded earnings of those on fixed incomes, and income inequality has grown. Many Turks take jobs as Gastarbeiter (guest workers) in Germany and the Netherlands.
WORLD RANKING
T
20
25% 0
Position in World 1st
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
State schools are coeducational and free. Engineering is usually the strongest faculty in Turkey’s many universities. In 1997, compulsory education was extended from five to eight years, raising the age for entry into Islamic schools from 11 to 14, in a move seen as designed to reduce attendance at such schools. Educational reforms by the Islamist AK government in 2004 plan to widen university access for pupils of Islamic schools.
50th
100th
79 $2490 150th
88 70 years
88 107 87%
116 36 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
583
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TURKMENISTAN
Kazakhstan Uzb
ek
ist an TURKMENISTAN
I r a n
OFFICIAL NAME: Turkmenistan CAPITAL: Ashgabat POPULATION: 4.9 million CURRENCY: Manat OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Turkmen 1991
1991
Oct 27
TM
+5
.tm
+993
O
NCE THE POOREST of the former Soviet republics, Turkmenistan has adjusted better than most to independence, exploiting the market value of its abundant natural gas supplies. A largely Sunni Muslim country, Turkmenistan is part of the former Turkestan, the last expanse of central Asia incorporated into czarist Russia. Much of life is still based on tribal relationships. Turkmenistan is isolated – telephones are relatively rare and other communications limited.
†
CLIMATE
Asia
CENTRAL ASIA
Afghanistan
†
POLITICS L. House 1999/2004 U. House 2003/2008
No multiparty elections President Saparmurad Niyazov
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament 50 seats
In elections to the Parliament in 1999 all of the seats were won by supporters of the ruling Democratic Party of Turkmenistan (DPT) – the only registered party
People's Council 2507 seats
Desert/steppe
WEATHER CHART FOR ASHGABAT
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall
40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
A
0
0/32 -10/14
Karakum Canal zone: salt flats and the Kopetdag Mountains. The Karakumy Desert forms a large part of Turkmenistan’s interior.
-20/-4
Most of Turkmenistan is arid desert, so that only 2% of the total land area is suitable for agriculture.
TRANSPORTATION Turkmenistan International, Ashgabat
†
PEOPLE
Drive on right
None
2523 km (1568 miles)
Amu-Darya River
†
Visitors : Population 1:16
/
Up 26% in 1998
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Iran 51% Turkey 19% Uzbekistan 10% Other 20% 10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Most visitors are businessmen attracted by Turkmenistan’s stability under President Niyazov. Turkmenistan may become a popular tourist destination in future; traditional Turkmen Muslim monuments are slowly being restored.
584
55%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Trains are cramped and chaotic, and buses unreliable. The border with Iran is officially closed to “foreigners.”
0
10/km2 (26/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Other 2%
300,000 visitors
Pop. density low
Turkmen, Uzbek, Russian, Kazakh, Tatar
45%
19,440 km (12,079 miles)
TOURISM
†
41 ships 45,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
T
The People's Council includes the president, Council of Ministers, members of Parliament, and regional and ethnic representatives
Orthodox Christian 11%
Sunni Muslim 87%
Before czarist Russia annexed Turkmenistan in 1884, the Turkmen were a largely nomadic tribal people. The tribal unit remains strong – the largest tribes are the Tekke in the center, the Ersary on the eastern Afghan border, and the Yomud in the west. The majority of people live in the Karakumy Desert region which dominates the country. Since 1989, Turkmenistan has been rehabilitating its traditional language and culture, as well as reassessing its history. Relations with the Uzbek minority have become tense in recent years as a result of the “Turkmenization” of government, education, and religion. There has also been a resurgence of Islam, and Sufi brotherhoods continue to exercise a powerful influence over the Turkmen. Russian is widely spoken and remains an important language in urban areas.
Officially, Turkmenistan became a multiparty democracy at independence, but President Saparmurad Niyazov has banned the formation of new parties. As in some other ex-Soviet states, former communists (regrouped here as the DPT) still dominate the political process, harboring the traditional communist suspicion of Islamic fundamentalism. A main political concern is to prevent the social and nationalistic conflicts that have blighted other former Soviet republics. President Niyazov has encouraged an elaborate personality cult, adopting the title of Turkmenbashi (father of all Turkmen), and there are golden statues of him throughout Ashgabat. His spiritual guide to living, Ruhnama, has been adopted as a national code, and the days of the week and months have been officially changed to reflect key national symbols; January is now Turkmenbashi, and September, Ruhnama.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS CIS
ECO
EAPC
OIC
Joined UN in 1992
OSCE
Turkmenistan’s key relations are with Iran and Turkey. It needs investment from both, but is wary of Islamic fundamentalism. President Niyazov opposes economic union with the CIS and political union among Turkicspeaking states. Relations with Russia were soured in 2003 by the ending of dual citizenship for ethnic Russians.
AID
†
Recipient
$41m (receipts)
.
Down 43% in 2002
The World Bank has halted new loans in the light of Turkmenistan’s failure to report its external debt.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TURKMENISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
U
T AN
Türkmenabat
Bäherden Gökdepe Büzmeÿin S
H
I
AflGABAT
Ga
Änew
Mary
S E A
Total Area : 488 100 sq. km (188 455 sq. miles)
N 200 km
DEFENSE
$5.88bn
.
†
Compulsory military sevice
Down 3% in 2002
†
Inflation 328% p.a. (1990–2001)
5200 manats (5200.7)
YZ
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................107th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1200 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$74m INFLATION ..........................................12% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................3%
Galaÿmor
I
210,000 b/d (reserves 500m barrels)
6m sheep, 860,000 cattle, 4.8m chickens
Oil, natural gas, potassium, sulfur, sodium sulfate
Under a ten-year program, Turkmenistan aims to raise its oil production to nearly one million barrels per day by 2010.
WEAKNESSES Cotton monoculture has forced rising food imports. Thriving black market threatens value of manat.
/
4% (2% partially protected)
†
Welfare state health benefits Heart, respiratory, pulmonary, and infectious diseases
1 per 382 people
In 2004, military conscripts replaced regular health workers. Health indicators are among the worst in the region.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
†
Sustainability rank: 131st
No data
77 per 1000 population
7.5 tonnes per capita
Defense 0.8%
The building of the Karakum Canal has reduced the flow of water to the Aral Sea by 35%. Plans were announced in 2000 for the construction of a large artificial lake in the Karakumy Desert.
†
School leaving age: 17
76,000 students
HEALTH Electric power 3.9m kW
12,792 tonnes
MEDIA
†
EDUCATION
University students must know the life and works of President Niyazov. They now have to work for two years after their first two years of study.
S
†
RESOURCES
STRENGTHS Cotton and gas. Decision to abolish collective farms gradually encouraging private initiative and enterprise.
Gowurdak
98%
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
TH
Atamyrat Köÿtendag
Sandykgaçy IL GARAB IG I L BELENT Tagtabazar
N A F G H A
Russia provides security; Pakistan trains pilots. A navy was formed in 2003.
ECONOMICS
BA
Amyderÿa
Serhetabat 200 miles
$284m
M urg a p
TURKMENISTAN
Sarahs T e je n
N
ÿa
ŸY BO
Baÿramaly Ÿolöten
Murgap
Kaka
Saÿat KE LI F
m Kanaly
UZ
Tejen
ragu
N
ER
A
0
-200m/-656ft
1924 Creation of Turkmenistan. 1991 Independence from USSR. Niyazov retains power, becoming president. 1994 Former communists win first elections. 1999 Niyazov’s term extended indefinitely by parliament.
er
A N C A S P I
G
R
0
Sea Level
Seÿdi Galkyny§
Reza Dagy 2942m
I
200m/656ft
yd
k
M
Am
re
500m/1640ft
N
Et
1000m/1640ft
rya
AG
Garrygala
u Da Am
TD
U
LAND HEIGHT
Lebap
A
PE
Ekerem
Esenguly
G
Serdar
KÖ
Gazojak
RAN WLA ND
Birata
G A R A
Bereket
Türkmen Gumdag Aylagy
LO
Darwaza
A N AK
Balkanabat Hazar
over 10 000 under 10 000
T
Gyzylgaÿa
D· H
Gubadag
TU
The nomadic peoples of western Turkestan came under Russian imperial control from the 1850s.
over 50 000
S
Jebel
I
Da§oguz
R GY A Õ SY PL O GA LAT P
Àagyl
CHRONOLOGY
over 100 000
Boldumsaz Akdepe Ÿylanly
Türkmenba§y
POPULATION
K
Köneürgenç
Garabogaz Aylagy
Türkmenba§y Aylagy
E
A
Bekda§ Garabogaz Bogazy
B
Z
S
T
KAZAKH
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 7 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 2 daily newspapers, Neitralnyi Turkmenistan and Turkmenistan, both published in Turkmen
Education 4.5% Health 3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The wealthiest group is connected to the government. Transition to a liberal economy has attracted high spending.
WORLD RANKING
T
Position in World 1st
EXPORTS
Cyprus 3%
Ukraine 50%
Turkey 6% Other 10% Iran 13%
Italy 18% IMPORTS
Other 36%
USA 8% UAE 10%
Turkey 13%
1 state-controlled service
Iranian and Afghan radio stations, beaming in Islamic programs, are popular. TV is only available in cities.
CRIME 22,000 prisoners
Ukraine 13%
Russia 20%
1 state-controlled service
†
50th
98%
86 150th
113 $1200
No death penalty 193rd
/
51
100th
125 65 years
Increasing levels of theft
Levels of crime are generally low. The death penalty was finally abolished in December 1999.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
146 76 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
585
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TUVALU
Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN Kiribati Solomon Is T UV A L U
Tokelau
OFFICIAL NAME: Tuvalu CAPITAL: Fongafale, on Funafuti Atoll POPULATION: 11,305 CURRENCIES: Australian dollar and Tuvaluan dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1978
1978
Oct 1
TUV
+12
.tv
+688
O
NE OF THE WORLD’S smallest, most isolated states, Tuvalu lies around 2000 km (1250 miles) north of Fiji in the Pacific. A chain of nine coral atolls, it has a land area of just 26 sq. km (10 sq. miles). As the Ellice Islands, it was linked to the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati) as a British colony until independence in 1978. Politically and socially conservative, Tuvaluans live by subsistence farming and fishing.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR FONGAFALE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 60/140
60/24
50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
The climate is pleasantly warm, though average humidity exceeds 90%. The October–March hurricane season brings many violent storms. High “king” tides can swamp the atolls.
†
Drive on right
9 ships 38,200 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
None
None
None
A ferry links the atolls. There are air links with Kiribati and Fiji. Funafuti and Nukufetau have deepwater berths.
TOURISM
T
1313 visitors
435/km2 (1130/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
45%
†
Visitors : Population 1:8.6
.
Down 53% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
55%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Baha'i 1% Other 1%
0
There is an airstrip on Funafuti Atoll
Pop. density high
Tuvaluan, Kiribati, English
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
TRANSPORTATION
†
Seventh-day Adventist 1%
Church of Tuvalu 97%
Around 95% of Tuvaluans are ethnically Polynesian. Their ancestors came from Tonga and Samoa 2000 years ago. Nui Atoll has Micronesian influences. There is an I-Kiribati community on Funafuti; many Tuvaluans who worked in Kiribati took local wives. Over 40% of the population now live on Funafuti, pushing its population density to almost 1600 per sq. km (4100 per sq. mile). Life is still communal, traditional, and hard. Droughts are common and fresh water is precious. Around two-thirds of people depend on subsistence farming, digging special pits out of the coral to grow most of the islands’ limited range of crops. Fishing is also important, and Tuvaluans have a reputation as excellent sailors; many work as merchant seamen. Nauru’s 2004 economic collapse stranded some 300 Tuvaluan phosphate miners without pay.
Fiji 26% Australia 14% New Zealand 13% Other 47% 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2002/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
Parliament of Tuvalu 15 seats
There are no political parties. All members are independent candidates
The 15 MPs, elected every four years, are independents who form loose political associations. The prime minister, an MP elected by parliament, works with a cabinet of up to four other MPs. Dayto-day administration lies in the hands of an elected council on each of Tuvalu’s islands. From independence until 1998 politics was dominated by Tomasi Puapua and Bikenibeu Paeniu. Parliamentary defections are common, and brought down the government of Prime Minister Faimalaga Luka (now governor-general) in 2001, and in 2004 that of Saufatu Sopoanga, appointed prime minister after elections in 2002.
586
†
WORLD AFFAIRS ACP
Comm
Joined UN in 2000
PIF
PC
ADB
Tuvalu was admitted as a full member of both the UN and the Commonwealth in 2000 in recognition of its regional importance. Agreements exist with Taiwan, South Korea, and the US, whose vessels may exploit Tuvalu’s fish-rich territorial waters. Calls for cutting constitutional ties to the British monarchy have been revived by Prime Minister Saufatu Sopoanga.
AID
†
Recipient
US$12m (receipts)
/
Up 20% in 2002
Tuvalu has a visible trade deficit, and aid is crucial. Most importantly, in 1987 a trust fund was set up, with US$29 million in grants from Australia, New Zealand, and the UK. While support from the UK has shrunk, aid from Taiwan and Japan grows. Tuvalu plans to reduce its reliance on aid through public-sector reform and privatization.
DEFENSE There are no armed forces
Tuvalu’s soil is porous, but sufficiently fertile to support coconut palms, pandanus, and salttolerant plants. Freshwater supply is limited.
Nonparty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
% of total arrivals
Unspoiled and lapped by some of the world’s warmest waters, the remote islands of Tuvalu have surprisingly few visitors. The islands’ only paved airstrip and sole hotel are to be found on Funafuti.
†
POLITICS
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
Tuvalu has no military. Internal security is the responsibility of the small police force.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: TUVALU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
ECONOMICS
Not available
1.436 Australian dollars (1.491)
US$21m
WORLD GNP RANKING .......................192nd GNP PER CAPITA .........................US$1930 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................Not available INFLATION ............................................5% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................Low
STRENGTHS Sustainable subsistence economy. EEZ: source of jobs and income. Revenue from trust fund and multimillion-dollar Internet deal for use of “.tv” suffix.
WEAKNESSES World’s smallest sovereign economy. Physical isolation. Few exports: copra,
†
RESOURCES 500 tonnes
Not available
Not an oil producer
13,200 pigs, 10,000 ducks, 40,000 chickens
None
Tuvalu’s resource potential lies in the waters of its 8.3 million sq. km (3.2 million sq. mile) EEZ. Its rich fish stocks are exploited mainly by foreign boats in return for licensing fees. The salination of soil is increasing, leaving less and less cultivable land. Solar energy is reducing dependence on gasoline for power generation. Fuel accounts for about 14% of import costs. Tuvalu has leased its “.tv” Internet suffix to a Californian media company for US$50 million over 12 years, plus 20% of profits.
0
Germany 17% IMPORTS
Australia 3% New Zealand 1% Germany 1%
stamps, garments. Dependence on imports and aid. Poor soil. Remittances from overseas workers falling as Nauru’s phosphate reserves run out.
Teafuafou
va P
FONGAFALE
ua P
Telele
F
I
FONGAFALE
C
A
N 100 miles
Niulakita
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
63 per 1000 population
Education No data Health 2.9% 0
1 state-owned service
Tuvalu Echoes and its Tuvaluan version, Sikuleo o Tuvalu, are published by the government.
5
10
15
20
25
†
Though living standards are very low, traditional social support systems mean that extreme poverty is rare. Most people rely on subsistence agriculture and fishing, supplemented by remittances from expatriate Tuvaluans.
WORLD RANKING
T
Position in World
No death penalty 1st
,
Little change from year to year 50th
Crime is minimal and the result mainly of alcohol-related violence, particularly at the weekend.
98%
E
100 km
Concerted efforts since independence to improve health care facilities and programs have cut the incidence of communicable diseases. Serious cases of illness or injury are referred to better-equipped hospitals in Australia or New Zealand.
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Nukulaelae
C N
Malaria, diarrheal, infectious, and parasitic diseases
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
EDUCATION
O
100m/328ft
No welfare state health benefits
1 per 3333 people
TV ownership low
There are no daily newspapers
Funafuti
under 10 000
0
†
MEDIA
CRIME
Nukufetau
I
†
HEALTH
Defense None
6 prisoners
C
0
0.5 tonnes per capita
Efforts to protect the environmentally fragile atolls include reafforestation and solar energy projects. On Funafuti, population pressure is leading to overfishing in the atoll lagoon. The “greenhouse effect” is a major concern, since climate changes attributed to it are blamed for a steep rise in cyclone frequency. Any rise in sea levels induced by global warming would quickly submerge the low-lying atolls.
Vaitupu
A
Sea Level
Not available
Amatuku
Fatato uaFunangongo Falefatu Funafara
Te A
Nui
LAND HEIGHT
,
132% partially protected (including marine areas)
No TV service
Funafuti Atoll
Fuafatu Vasafua Fuagea Tefala
POPULATION
†
ENVIRONMENT
There are no daily newspapers. The English-language Tuvalu Echoes is published biweekly
Fongafale
1974 Ellice Islanders vote to separate from Gilbertese. 1978 Independence as Tuvalu. 1987 Tuvalu Trust Fund set up. 1998 Internet deal for “.tv” suffix. 2000 Joins UN as 189th member. Full member of Commonwealth. 2002 Saufatu Sopoanga appointed prime minister.
Other 69%
5 miles
Tepuka Fualopa
Nanumaga
Japan 13% Fiji 13%
a
Fualifeke
Niutao
Italy 17%
5 km
0
Nanumea
P
Fiji 9%
UK 49%
TUVALU Total Area : 26 sq. km (10 sq. miles)
The former Ellice Islands, together with the Gilbert Islands, were annexed by the UK in 1892.
Denmark 6% Other 2%
SCORE CARD
CHRONOLOGY EXPORTS
†
School leaving age: 14
Not available
Each island has a primary school. A secondary school and a marine training school are based on Funafuti. Students who attend the University of the South Pacific in Fiji are state-funded.
51
100th
98%
91 150th
193rd
$1930
116
118
67 years
38 deaths
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
587
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
UGANDA
EAST AFRICA
Africa
Dem. Rep.
Congo Rwanda
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Uganda CAPITAL: Kampala POPULATION: 25.8 million CURRENCY: New Uganda shilling OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1962
1962
Oct 9
EAU
+3
UG AN DA
Sudan
Kenya
.ug
+256
A
N EAST AFRICAN COUNTRY of fertile upland plateaus and mountains, Uganda has outlets to the sea through Kenya and Tanzania. Its history from independence in 1962 until 1986 was one of ethnic strife. Since 1986, under President Museveni, peace has been restored and steps have been taken to rebuild the economy and democracy.
†
CLIMATE
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
129/km2 (335/mi2)
†
POLITICS
Nonparty elections
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
President Yoweri Kaguta Museveni
2001/2006
15%
AT THE LAST ELECTION
85%
Parliament 276 members RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
Kampala, Uganda’s capital. Only a tiny proportion of the city’s households are supplied with running water.
Pop. density medium
Luganda, Nkole, Chiga, Lango, Acholi, Teso, Lugbara, English
WEATHER CHART FOR KAMPALA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Tropical wet and dry
Muslim (mainly Sunni) 8%
-10/14
Other 8%
-20/-4
Roman Catholic 38%
Altitude and the influence of Lake Victoria moderate Uganda’s climate. March–May is the wettest period. Drive on left
2 ships 5900 dwt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK None
259 km (161 miles)
Lake Victoria and other lakes are navigable
UGANDA Moyo
Visitors : Population 1:102
Yumbe Arua
CO
RE 40
e
k
Butiaba
L
Hoima
Lake Kwania
Kaf u
Vi
Nakasongola
NZO
Lake George
WE
Ntusi Masaka
Iganga
over 100 000
Mt Elgon 4321m
Tororo
over 50 000 over 10 000 under 10 000
Jinja
KAMPALA Entebbe
Bukakata
LAND HEIGHT
Buvuma I.
Kome I.
3000m/9843ft
N
2000m/6562ft
Bukasa I.
Mbarara Rukungiri Kag e r a
Kisoro
Kaliro
Owen Falls Dam
POPULATION
Kapchorwa Mbale
Bombo Mpigi
ga Katon
R
Lake Edward
Mubende
Kasese
U
Equator
Kyoga
A
Margherita Peak 5110m
Kabarole
Lake Bisina
Kaberamaido Lake Soroti Masindi
N k us i
ki
Kabale
R WAND A
588
rt
S
% of total arrivals
Major attractions are Uganda’s lakes and mountains, notably the rugged Ruwenzori range – the Mountains of the Moon. The brutal murder of eight foreign tourists by Rwandan fighters at the Bwindi national park in 1999 was a severe setback for Uganda’s recovery as a tourist destination.
e
li
30
a
DE 20
R I em
10
lb
le a Ni
0
A
ri cto
Other 38%
Lira
Y
Tanzania 9%
a
Pakwach
M.
Rwanda 21%
Gulu h w
N
Kenya 32%
U
Rhino Camp
P.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
E
Up 24% in 2002
Kitgum Atiak Ac
/
254,000 visitors
N
A
D
U
S NGO
†
TOURISM
Total Area : 236 040 sq. km (91 135 sq. miles)
K
The government is rebuilding the transportation infrastructure with the help of international aid.
P
1890 km (1174 miles)
Since 1986, President Museveni has run a “no-party democracy,” with political parties represented in a broadly based government, but banned from campaigning. Continuing to overcome ethnic tension is the main issue after its catastrophic effects in the 1970s and 1980s, when rebel insurgencies in the north and west led to the deaths, kidnapping, and displacement of tens of thousands of people, and destroyed the economy. In 2001, Museveni won another term in office with 69% of the vote, and in legislative elections his supporters retained a clear majority. Despite the endorsement of the r age Kaabong “no-party” system in Loyoro a referendum in 2000, Museveni has made Kotido a commitment to multipartyism and Moroto promised a new Amudat referendum in 2005.
The predominantly rural population comprises 13 main ethnic groups; traditional animosities were manipulated by ex-rulers Amin and Obote. Since 1986 President Museveni has worked hard for reconciliation, with a visible improvement in the country’s human rights record, but a noticeable north–south divide persists, with development focused on the south.
ert Ni le
Entebbe International 493,976 passengers
Elections to the Parliament took place on a "no-party" basis in June 2001
Protestant 33%
A lb
†
TRANSPORTATION
Traditional beliefs 13%
TANZANIA
1000m/3281ft
Bugala I. ds S e se Islan
L a k e V i c t o r i a
500m/1640ft 0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UGANDA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
COMESA
Joined UN in 1962
EAC
IGAD
OIC
Conflicts in Sudan, the DRC (where Uganda was one of the protagonists), and Rwanda have caused a large influx
†
AID
Recipient
$638m (receipts)
.
Down 20% in 2002
Aid, mainly from the World Bank and the UK, has risen, its donors encouraged by Uganda’s adoption of economic
DEFENSE $158m
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 19% in 2002
The pre-1986 army was responsible for many atrocities under Amin’s rule. In the 1990s, Uganda was preoccupied with conflicts in neighboring countries, particularly the DRC, where it supported antigovernment rebels. The army has also been deployed to suppress internal rebellions, notably that of the Lord’s Resistance Army.
ECONOMICS $5.93bn
CHRONOLOGY
of refugees into Uganda. Relations with Sudan have improved since 1999: each has dropped support for cross-border rebels and Sudan has allowed Ugandan forces to pursue Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) fighters into its territory.
†
Inflation 11% p.a. (1990–2001) 1785 new Uganda shillings (2001)
liberalization and private-sector investment policies. Aid has focused on balance-of-payments support, the rehabilitation of the key transportation sector, and the fight against AIDS.
†
RESOURCES 223,086 tonnes
Not an oil producer
6.85m goats, 6.1m cattle, 1.71m pigs, 33m chickens
Copper, cobalt, tin, apatite, magnetite, tungsten, gold
Mineral resources are varied but barely exploited. Uganda has sizable copper deposits; the mines, closed under Obote, are now being reopened. Gold and cobalt mining are also due to resume and oil exploration is under way. Hydroelectric output is being expanded, notably at Owen Falls, with the aim of replacing 50% of oil imports.
ENVIRONMENT
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................106th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$240 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$353m INFLATION .......................................–0.3% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................7%
STRENGTHS Agriculture. Coffee brings in most of export earnings. Potential for more export crops. Road system is being repaired. Proinvestment policies.
WEAKNESSES Lack of skilled workforce. Regional instability affects confidence. Unsustainable foreign debt. World coffee price fluctuations. EXPORTS
USA 5%
Other 50%
Spain 6% Germany 8% Netherlands 14%
UK 6% India 6% South Africa 7%
Kenya 46% Other 32%
†
Sustainability rank: 76th
0.1 tonnes per capita
1962–1971 Milton Obote in power. 1971–1986 Ethnic strife, economic collapse under Idi Amin and, from 1980, under Obote once more. 1986 President Museveni in power, establishes the “no-party” system. 1996 Museveni wins first presidential elections. 2004 Commitment to multipartyism.
MEDIA
†
69%
Daily newspaper circulation 2 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 6 daily newspapers, including New Vision, The Star, and The Monitor 1 state-controlled service, many independent stations
3 services: 1 state-controlled, 2 independent
The 13 daily and weekly papers cover the political and religious spectrum; eight are published in English. Only New Vision is government-controlled.
21,900 prisoners
†
Schooling is not compulsory
63,165 students
All schools charge fees. Only 12% of pupils go on to secondary school and just 3% to tertiary education.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Malaria, respiratory, and diarrheal diseases, measles
1 per 20,000 people
A successful education and prevention campaign has reduced the prevalence of HIV/AIDS to about 4% of adults, from a peak of 14% in the early 1990s.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
2 per 1000 population
2 per 1000 population
Defense 2.7% Education 2.5% Health 3.4% 0
TV ownership low
†
EDUCATION
Uganda’s priority is economic reconstruction, but ecological issues are not ignored. The construction of a huge hydroelectric power plant at the Kabalega (Murchison) Falls, above Lake Albert, was canceled following widespread environmental objections.
CRIME France 3%
/
25% (17% partially protected)
Belgium 17% IMPORTS
Electric power 264,000 kW
Uganda’s ancient kingdoms were ruled under a British protectorate from 1893 until independence in 1962.
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Uganda has a small but growing middle class. Those close to the government form the wealthiest group. 96% of the population live below the poverty line.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
U
50th
100th
Death penalty in use 150th
.
Down 41% in 2000–2002
Torture is allegedly used to deter political opposition. Theft is rising in Kampala. In 2000, the bodies of 780 followers of the cult of the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God were found.
148
193rd
69%
175
177
$240
43 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
146 157 82 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
589
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
UKRAINE
Europe
EUROPE Russian Fed. UKRAINE
Poland
Romania
OFFICIAL NAME: Ukraine CAPITAL: Kiev POPULATION: 47.7 million CURRENCY: Hryvna OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Ukrainian 1991
1991
Aug 24
UA
+2
Moldova
.ua
+380
I
TS NAME TRANSLATED literally as “on the border,” Ukraine was long considered merely to be the edge of the Russian Empire. It is now the second-largest country in Europe, after Russia. An independent Ukrainian state was established in 1918, but was overrun the following year by Russian forces from the east and Polish forces from the west. In 1991, Ukraine again became independent. The country is divided between the nationally conscious and Ukrainianspeaking west (including areas which were part of Poland until World War II) and the east, which has a large ethnic Russian population.
†
CLIMATE
Continental/steppe/ Mediterranean
Boryspil International, Kiev 2.36m passengers
WEATHER CHART FOR KIEV
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Drive on right
828 ships 1.35m grt
Up 9% in 2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
164,541 km (102,241 miles)
1770 km (1100 miles)
22,079 km (13,719 miles)
4499 km (2796 miles)
Russia 45% Moldova 19% Hungary 10% Belarus 9%
Shostka
vd en ny y H Bu YN g
A
Mykolayiv
LAND HEIGHT
Kherson
A
over 1 000 000
Odesa
2000m/6562ft
over 500 000
500m/1640ft
over 50 000
N Ozero Yalpuh
200m/656ft
over 10 000
Sea Level 0 0
k ts’ ini rk Ka
e nub Da
A Melitopol’
SOCHYNA S’KA VY AZOV Mariupol’ PRY Berdyans’k Gu
Nova Kakhovka
er iep Dn
Dnistrovs’kyy Lyman
1000m/3281ft
over 100 000
k ato aZ
Zatok a
KR (CR YM IMEA )
Sevastopol’
100 miles
B
L
A
C
K
ga
R
Yalta
S
Ta
nr o
Kerch
Yevpatoriya
a
of lf
g
Sea of Azov
Syv ash
Simferopol’
100 km
Luhans’k
Alchevs’k Yenakiyeve Horlivka Krasnyy Luch Makiyivka
Dnipropetrovs’k Donets’k Zaporizhzhya
Kakhovs’ke Vdskh.
A
I
Nikopol’
g Bu yy
N
nets
Kryvyy Rih
PR Y C HO R N OM O R S’K A NYZ O V YN
OV
Total Area : 603 700 sq. km (223 089 sq. miles)
LD
A
Dniprodzerzhyns’k P nn
O
M
Kirovohrad
C
Pavlohrad
E
A
RA
SO
Do
Slov”yans’k
DE
VY
t er
e ts
FE
A
M
Y
O
Dniprodzerzhyns’ke Vdskh. Ozero Oleksandriya imeni Lenina
Uman'
es
on
Kremenchuk
de iv
AR NG
ni
Chernivtsi Hoverla 2061m
Kup"yans'k
A
Poltava
Smila
Pi
Prut
S’K
N
AN
IL’
YN
Kremenchuts’ke Vdskh.
Cherkasy
NA
TIO
Kharkiv
SI
POD
HY
A N YZ OV Lubny
S
OC
Vorsk la
A SLOV AKI A
VYS
Vinnytsya
D
HU
I Mukacheve A I A N N S
POPULATION
’KA
RA
S’K
D
Dn
T A RP N CA OU M
r Khmel ’nyts’kyy Ivano-Frankivs’k
Kam”yanets’Podil’s’kyy
Kanivs’ke Vdskh.
Bila Tserkva
OVS
ste
H
R
NIPR
ROV
60
N
sn a
PRYD
Ternopil’
PRYDNIP
Fastiv
Zhytomyr
L’viv
P
O
L
KIEV
ie
UKRAINE
DE
Rivne
Luts’k
T
Konotop Nezhyn
De
Kyyivs’ke Vdskh.
50
40
30
TIO
Chornobyl’
20
Among potential tourist attractions are the resorts along the warm south coast, notably in Crimea, and the Carpathian Mountains. A highly regulated system of managing tourism has been maintained, and S bureaucratic hurdles have S IA held up the development N of Western-style FE hotels. Sumy
Chernihiv
Korosten’
Uzhhorod
S
10
% of total arrivals
U
D
U
R
A
PRIPET M ARS HES Kovel'
B ug
N
L
Other 11% 0
R
E
Desn a
Ukraine has a continental climate, with the exception of the southern coast of Crimea, which has a Mediterranean climate. There are four distinct seasons.
B
Poland 6%
There are Soviet-style subways and trolley networks in the major cities. The rail network connects most towns. Road conditions across the country are poor. Part of a former submarine port at Sevastopol has been opened to commercial shipping.
U
-20/-4
590
Visitors : Population 1:7.5
/
6.33m visitors
-10/14
U
†
TOURISM
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
†
TRANSPORTATION
View toward the Cathedral of the Assumption in Kharkiv. Many Ukrainian cities are equipped with elaborate trolley networks.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UKRAINE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density medium 79/km2 (205/mi2)
Ukrainian, Russian, Tatar THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
68%
32%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Jewish 1% Other 4%
Christian (mainly Orthodox) 95%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Other 4%
Jewish 1%
Russian 22%
industrialization and of more recent migration in the Soviet era. At independence in 1991, most Russians accepted Ukrainian sovereignty, though tensions remain. The central government is wary of separatist tendencies in Crimea, however, where Russians make up twothirds of the population. The Crimea’s other main minority, besides ethnic Ukrainians, is the Turkic-speaking Tatar people. Deported en masse to the eastern USSR in 1944 under Stalin, the Tatars have been returning to Crimea since 1990 and now make up 12% of its population. There is a Romanianspeaking minority in the southern Odessa region.
Leonid Kuchma, who became president in 1994.
Viktor Yanukovych, close ally of Kuchma, appointed prime minister in 2002.
†
Joined UN in 1945
WORLD AFFAIRS BSEC
CE
CIS
IAEA
OSCE
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Ukrainian 73%
2%
In the cities and countryside of western Ukraine, Ukrainians make up the vast majority of the population. However, in several of the large cities of the east and south, ethnic Russians form a majority and Russian is spoken by 60% of Ukrainians – a legacy of 19th-century
POLITICS
†
AT THE LAST ELECTION
15% 5% 5% CPU SPU YT
Supreme Council 450 seats
25% OU
23% FUU
21% Ind
80+ 60–79
0.6% 5.7% 11.8%
13.6%
40–59
14.4%
20–39
14.3%
0–19
14.1%
13.5%
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections
President Leonid Kuchma
2002/2006
10%
Male
5% 1% SDPU–O Others
OU = Our Ukraine (Viktor Yushchenko bloc) FUU = For United Ukraine Ind = Independents CPU = Communist Party SPU = Socialist Party of Ukraine SDPU–O = United Social-Democratic Party of Ukraine YT = Yulia Timoshenko Election Bloc
Ukraine introduced a multiparty system in 1991.
PROFILE Ex-premier Leonid Kuchma, who had defeated Ukrainian nationalist Leonid Kravchuk in the 1994 presidential elections, then gained increased powers under constitutional changes in 1996. Multiparty legislative elections were first held in 1994, and the strong position of the communists and allied pro-Kuchma groups was confirmed four years later. Kuchma’s own reelection in 1999 was fiercely contested, his opponents claiming fraud and violent confrontations taking place in parliament and on the streets. The boost which Kuchma gained in early 2000 from a referendum backing electoral changes, and Western enthusiasm for his new proreform government, was dissipated by a
scandal linking him with the murder of a journalist later that year, and the uncovering of massive financial frauds. The ranks of his opponents included growing numbers of discarded former ministers, and the pro-Kuchma For United Ukraine was pushed into second place by the opposition Our Ukraine bloc in legislative elections in 2002.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUE Presidential integrity Thousands of protestors gather regularly across Ukraine calling for President Kuchma’s resignation, offering a litany of complaints. The principal accusation is that he personally authorized the murder of outspoken Internet journalist Georgy Gongadze in 2000. Though the case was officially “solved” in 2001, the prosecutor-general announced in 2003 that it had been a politically motivated killing, and many believe that responsibility lies at least as high as the interior ministry. Kuchma is also heavily criticized for the sale in 2000 of a Kolchuga early warning system to Iraq, in breach of international sanctions then in place, and for corruption in general. He has failed notably to appease his opponents, despite offering in 2003 to water down the constitutional powers of the presidency, which he had himself increased and had approved by a dubious referendum in 2000.
The unqualified backing given by the West to Ukraine at its independence from the Soviet Union has been eroded by the West’s improving relations with Russia and by distrust of President Kuchma. Conversely, Ukraine’s ties with Russia, initially seen as a potential aggressor, have been strengthened under Kuchma. In 1995, Ukraine signed a trade agreement with the EU and was admitted to the Council of Europe, but it has since been censured for the slow pace of reform and for authoritarianism. Despite an ongoing territorial dispute with Romania over the potentially oilrich Serpents’ Island, a friendship treaty was signed in 1997. Ukraine participates actively in global affairs, sending troops to support the invasion of Iraq in 2003 and to bolster peacekeeping efforts in Liberia in 2004. It has been criticized, however, for dealing with “rogue” states, including military deals with pre-invasion Iraq.
CHRONOLOGY In 1240, Kiev was conquered by the Mongols. The Ukrainian Cossacks later came under the domination of Lithuania, Poland, and Russia. 1918 Independent Ukrainian state after collapse of Russian and AustroHungarian empires. 1920 After two years of civil war, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) established. 1921 Treaty of Riga ends Soviet– Polish war: western Ukraine lost. 1922 USSR formed, Ukrainian SSR a founding member. 1922–1930 Cultural revival under Lenin’s “Ukrainianization” policy to pacify national sentiment. 1932–1933 “Ukrainianization” policy reversed. Stalin uses famine to eliminate Ukraine as source of opposition; seven million die.
591
U
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
$4.73bn
†
.
Phasing out conscription
Down 3% in 2002
UKRAINIAN ARMED FORCES 3784 main battle tanks (112 T-55, 2215 T-64, 1180 T-72, 271 T-80)
148,000 personnel
Black Sea fleet: 1 submarine, 1 cruiser, 2 frigates, 8 patrol boats
13,500 personnel
499 combat aircraft (Tu-22M, MiG-29, Su-24/25/27)
49,100 personnel
None
Ukraine was a center for arms manufacture under the old Soviet system, and now has a major weapons export trade. A member of the CIS, Ukraine finally resolved in 1997 its long-smoldering dispute with Russia
ECONOMICS $37.9bn
†
over control of the Black Sea fleet, with agreement on its division and a 20-year Russian lease on port facilities in Sevastopol. Meanwhile, the Ukrainian parliament had ratified the START-I nuclear disarmament treaty, and Ukraine’s nuclear warheads were transferred to Russia under a trilateral weapons dismantling accord also involving substantial US aid. In 2000 it was decided that compulsory military service, which lasts a minimum of 18 months, should be ended by 2015. The armed forces have been slimmed down, with further cuts planned to result in a total strength of 100,000 (including paramilitary forces) by 2015. Ukraine joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace program in 1995, signed a security pact with the alliance in 1997, and announced in 2002 its intention to apply for full NATO membership.
Inflation 221% p.a. (1990–2001)
5.318 hryvnas (5.333)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................56th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$780 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................$3.17bn INFLATION .........................................3.4% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................11%
EXPORTS
Germany 4%
China 4% Italy 5% Turkey 7% Russia 18%
Other 62%
IMPORTS
Poland 3%
Russia 38%
USA 3% Germany 10%
GDP
190
190
160
160
130
130
100
100
70
70 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
Consumer price index 1999=100
U
1939 Soviet Union invades Poland and incorporates its ethnic Ukrainian territories into the Ukrainian SSR. 1941 Germany invades USSR; 7.5 million Ukrainians die by 1945. 1942 Nationalists form Ukrainian Insurgent Army which wages war against both Germans and Soviets. 1954 Crimea ceded to Ukrainian SSR. 1972 Widespread arrests of intellectuals and dissidents by Soviet state. Vladimir Shcherbitsky, a Brezhnevite, replaces moderate reformer Petr Shelest as head of Communist Party of Ukraine (CPU). 1986 World’s worst nuclear disaster at Chernobyl power plant. 1989 First major coalminers’ strike in Donbass. Pro-Gorbachev Volodymyr Ivashko heads CPU. 1990 Ukrainian parliament declares Ukrainian SSR a sovereign state. Leonid Kravchuk replaces Ivashko. 1991 Full independence declared, conditional on approval by referendum, supported by 90% of voters. CPU banned. Crimea becomes an autonomous republic within Ukrainian SSR. 1993 Major strike in Donbass results in costly settlement, which exacerbates budget deficit and stimulates hyperinflation. CPU reestablished at Donetsk congress. 1994 Crimea elects Yuri Meshkov as its first president. Leonid Kuchma defeats Kravchuk to become first democratically elected president of Ukraine. 1996 Hryvna replaces karbovanets as national currency. New constitution comes into force. 1997 Friendship treaty signed with Russia. Accord on Black Sea fleet. 1998 Ten-year cooperation agreement with Russia. CPU wins largest number of seats in election. 1999 Reelection of Kuchma. Opposition claims of fraud. Kuchma appoints proreform government. 2000 Chernobyl site closed. 2001 Kuchma linked with murder of journalist. Reformist government replaced after parliamentary defeat. 2002 Opposition parties make large gains in legislative elections.
DEFENSE
2003
large enterprises has barely begun, and bureaucracy stifles private enterprise and investment. Lack of land reform holds back agriculture in the “bread basket” of Europe. Controversial legislation passed in 2001 paved the way for the sale of farmland after 2004.
Turkey 11% UKRAINE : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Other 35%
Kiev
Kharkiv
STRENGTHS Well-educated workforce. Potential for grain and food export. Mineral reserves. Strategic position bordering the EU. Technological potential, especially in aerospace and computers.
L’viv
Donets Basin
WEAKNESSES
AID
†
Recipient
$484m (receipts)
.
Down 7% in 2002
In the 1990s US assistance was the world’s fourth-largest aid program, and EU assistance totaled $3.5 billion. Some US aid was held up in 2002 over Ukraine’s alleged dealings with Iraq.
592
Failure to reform centrally planned economy. Low foreign investment. Weak currency. Huge debt. Antireform political elites. Inefficient, subsidized manufacturing industries. Corruption.
PROFILE Real growth was recorded at last in 2000, the economy having contracted by over half over ten years. Privatization of
Odesa
Dnipropetrovs’k Kherson Kryvyy Rih
Iron & steel Coal mining
Chemicals
Engineering
Electronics Textiles Aerospace industry
Iron ore mining Consumer goods Food processing Vehicle manufacture
0 0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UKRAINE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 53.9m kW
76,070 b/d (reserves 1.6bn barrels)
382,297 tonnes 20m ducks, 9.2m pigs, 9.11m cattle, 148m chickens
Coal, iron, titanium, oil, gas, manganese, lignite, peat, mercury, uranium, nickel, gold
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Nuclear 45% (77bn kWh) Other 0% 0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Ukraine imports 75% of its oil and 70% of its gas, mostly from Russia. Some gas is in lieu of transit fees for pipelines
ENVIRONMENT
.
4% (0.3% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 136th
†
CRIME
6.9 tonnes per capita
No death penalty
.
198,858 prisoners
D on
Cropland Forest Pasture Cattle Wheat - cash crop Sugar beet
0
et s
200 km
0
200 miles
†
HEALTH
Down 16% in 2000–2002
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, accidents
1 per 333 people
Health care, supposedly free to all, has declined significantly in the postSoviet period. A $2 million UN program provides treatment and preventive care for people affected by the Chernobyl disaster. By 2004, 1.4% of the population was HIV positive.
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
9
per 100,000 population
Yes
Yes
Yes
2
per 100,000 population
408
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
As a result of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986 – the world’s worst nuclear accident – over three million Ukrainians live in dangerously radioactive areas and 12% of arable land is contaminated. The last working reactor at Chernobyl closed at the end of 2000, under agreements in which Western countries provided large-scale financial assistance. However, nuclear production continues elsewhere because of the cost of Russian oil and gas imports. Coal-fired power plants are old-fashioned, highly polluting, and inefficient. Industrial pollution is widespread, especially from steel and chemical works in the Donbass region, contributing to the acute problem of low air quality in eight major cities.
Street crime, robberies, violence, and carjackings have increased sharply. Ukraine is a major source of peopletrafficking to the West. Corruption is rampant across the economy. Political killings make headlines, as did the murder in 2000 of journalist Georgy Gongadze. The death penalty was abolished in 2000.
†
EDUCATION 99%
School leaving age: 15
2.27m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Daily newspaper circulation 175 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 44 daily newspapers, including Holos Ukrainy, which has the highest circulation figures 6 services: 1 state-controlled, 5 independent
108 per 1000 population
Mass-circulation newspapers are mainly in Russian. TV stations reflect regional differences. Journalists fear repression and extrajudicial violence.
216 per 1000 population
Defense 2.2% Education 4.2% Health 2.9% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Just under half the population live below the UN poverty line. Wage arrears – and massive hidden unemployment – are major problems.
WORLD RANKING
80
Position in World 1st
60
90%
U
97%
40
1
50th
99%
57% 20 100th
0
Primary
Secondary
60 16 deaths
Tertiary 150th
3 services: 2 state-controlled, 1 independent
GDP/cap. decrease
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
0
100
TV ownership high
†
SPENDING
% of each age group in education
†
Dn ies ter P M AT T S HI AN
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
MEDIA
PRIPET MARSHES
R
Combustion 48% (83bn kWh)
UKRAINE : LAND USE
CA
Hydro 7% (11bn kWh)
carrying Russian gas, but it often misses payments for imports. Yet Ukraine has oil and gas reserves of its own. Coal is mined, in poor safety conditions, in the Donbass–Donetsk region. Just under half of electricity is nuclear-generated. Ukraine has 5% of global mineral reserves, including the largest titanium reserves, the third-largest deposits of iron ore, and 30% of global manganese ore. There are also deposits of mercury, uranium, nickel, and some gold. In 2000, Ukraine exported $6 billion-worth of metal products, which accounted for 40% of export earnings. The steel industry has begun to grow again after several years of decline.
Using Ukrainian in schools is the main element in the drive to promote the once-banned language. Some schools in the west no longer teach Russian. Most university teaching is in Russian in eastern regions, and in Ukrainian in those in the west.
113 128
193rd
70
$780
68 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
593
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Qatar
Africa Saudi Arabia
OFFICIAL NAME: United Arab Emirates CAPITAL: Abu Dhabi POPULATION: 3 million CURRENCY: UAE dirham OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic 1971
1972
Dec 2
UAE
+4
T
HE UNITED ARAB EMIRATES (UAE), created in 1971, is the Arab world’s only working federation. Six of its seven emirates cluster around the northeastern corner of the country, while Abu Dhabi has a larger hinterland of semiarid desert relieved by occasional oases. The cities, watered by extensive irrigation systems, have lavish greenery. Prosperity once relied on pearls, but the UAE is now a sizable gas and oil exporter, and has a growing services sector.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR ABU DHABI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
S O N D cm/in 40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
Federal National Council 40 seats
There are no political parties. The method of appointment of members of the Federal National Council is determined individually by each of the seven members of the federation.
The UAE’s seven emirates – Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras al Khaimah, Ajman, Umm al Qaiwain, and Fujairah – are dominated by their ruling families. The main personalities are the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Shaikh Zayed, who holds the UAE presidency, and the four al-Maktoum brothers who control Dubai. The eldest, Shaikh Maktoum al-Maktoum, is ruler of Dubai as well as vice president and prime minister of the UAE. President Zayed has relaunched the advisory Federal National Council in response to criticism of the lack of democracy, but parties remain banned. The growth of Islamic fundamentalism is a concern. The freedoms granted to Westerners have aroused some anger but, for economic reasons, they are unlikely to be withdrawn.
36/km2 (93/mi2)
88%
12%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
European 3% Other Arab 12%
-10/14 -20/-4
Asian 60%
Though rainfall is minimal, summers are humid. Sand-laden shamal winds often blow in winter and spring.
†
Drive on right
TRANSPORTATION Dubai International 18.1m passengers
356 ships 703,300 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 1088 km (676 miles)
253 km (157 miles)
None
None
Up 39% in 2001–2002
POPULATION over 100 000
ait of Hormu z Str
under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
OMAN
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft
Ar Rams Marid Ras al Khaymah 1934m Dibá Umm al Qaiwain Al Kha√√, Çadnah Al Íamríyah
Sea Level
Sharjah Ajman Nabgha Dubai Dayrah
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
l f G u
T h e
QATAR
Míná' Jabal 'Alí
Mafut
40
50
60
70
Ghuwayfát
80
◊aríf
N
A Ç
T
R
U
C
I
0
L
Ç A F R A H AL MANÁDIR
50 km
‘Arádah
U
0
◊
A
Íabshán
A
594
Ghayathi
S
Tourism was minimal until the mid1980s. Since then, Dubai in particular has redefined itself as a tourist haven of sun, sand, safari, sailing, and shopping; attractions include an underwater hotel and an indoor ski center.
A◊
BAYNÚNAH
Suwayhán Al Buraymí Al 'Ayn
M
30
% of total arrivals
O
50 miles
D
O
20
Al Maq√a‘
N
Jabal a≠ ±annah,
Mafraq Maráwií Aç Çab ‘íyah Musaffah wr al Bazm Abú al F Abyaç Ar Ruways C AF
K ha
A
Other 80%
ABU DHABI flír Baní Yás
AL LIWÁ’
I
A
R
A
B
I
A
Khawr Fakkán
Fujairah Kalbá
Íattá
S
Dalmá
Khawr Duwayhin
Iran 5%
A
India 6%
10
Al Faq‘ Al Khabb
T
UK 9%
0
Adh Dhayd Al Haba
Jumayrah
Oman lf of
/
Total Area : 82 880 sq. km (32 000 sq. miles)
AR A L G H AR B I
U
Visitors : Population 1.8:1
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
HA J
5.44m visitors
†
UAE nationals are largely city dwellers, with Abu Dhabi and Dubai the main centers. They are greatly outnumbered by expatriates who arrived in the 1970s during the oil boom, and the Western expatriate community is permitted a virtually unrestricted lifestyle. Most UAE nationals are conservative Sunni Muslims of Bedouin descent, though there is a Shi’a community in Dubai with links to Iran. Islamic fundamentalism is a growing force among the young. Poverty is rare in the UAE, where the government remains the biggest employer. Women in theory enjoy equal rights with men. A Presidential Marriage Fund discourages UAE men from taking foreign wives.
AL
TOURISM
Emirian 25%
Gu
The roads are good. Five of the seven emirates have international airports, of which the busiest is Dubai International.
No legislative elections
President Shaikh Zayed bin Sultan al-Nahyan
Not applicable
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
0
0/32
†
Om an
Pop. density low
Arabic, Farsi, Indian and Pakistani languages, English
Rainfall A
†
PEOPLE
Hot desert
UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
POLITICS
.ae
+971
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED ARAB EMIRATES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS AL
OIC
Joined UN in 1971
OAPEC
GCC
OPEC
The West sees the UAE as a moderate Arab state. It maintains especially close links with the UK and the US. In 1992,
†
AID
/
Up 23% in 2002
The UAE gives substantial humanitarian and development assistance, largely to Arab and Muslim countries.
DEFENSE $2.71bn
†
.
No compulsory military sevice Down 3% in 2002
The training of UAE forces is limited, and personnel are mainly drawn from other Arab states and the Indian subcontinent. US air bases in the UAE supply refueling craft and have been used consistently in regional conflicts, including the 2001 war in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The countries of the GCC signed their first defense pact in 2000.
ECONOMICS $49.2bn
†
Inflation 2.3% p.a. (1990–1999)
3.673 UAE dirhams (3.673)
Electric power 5.8m kW
110,000 tonnes
2.52m b/d (reserves 97.8bn barrels)
1.45m goats, 560,000 sheep, 12.7m chickens
Oil, natural gas
The UAE is a major exporter of crude oil and natural gas; oil production accounts for a great part of export revenue. More than 200 factories operate at Mina Jabal Ali in Dubai, the world’s largest manmade port. The Dubai International Finance Center aims to challenge Bahrain as the region’s financial hub.
ENVIRONMENT
/
None
†
Sustainability rank: 141st
21 tonnes per capita
Despite the harsh desert climate, there is a rich variety of plants and animals. Shaikh Zayed champions conservation parks to avert the threat from hunting.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership medium
The UAE was influenced by the Portuguese and the Ottomans, but the British became dominant in the 19th century. 1971 The UK withdraws as protecting power and UAE federation is formed. 1991 UAE offers bases to Western forces after Kuwait is invaded. 2000 GCC defense pact signed.
†
EDUCATION 77%
School leaving age: 11
56,401 students
UAE citizens enjoy completely free education. Zayed University was set up in three emirates in 1998.
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Circulatory and respiratory diseases, cancers
1 per 556 people
A high-quality system of primary health care is in place for all UAE citizens, with hospitals able to carry out most operations.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
SCORE CARD
†
RESOURCES
Donor
$156m (donations)
CHRONOLOGY
conflict flared when Iran seized three disputed islands: negotiations continue. The UAE signed a crucial boundary agreement with Oman in 2003. Also in that year, it urged Iraqi president Saddam Hussein to resign to avoid war.
Daily newspaper circulation 156 per 1000 people
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................51st GNP PER CAPITA ..........................$18,060 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$10.8bn INFLATION .........................................2.8% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................2%
There are 7 daily newspapers. The leading Arabic newspaper is Al-Khaleej. Gulf News is its English-language counterpart 2 state-owned, several independent services
1 state-owned service, many independent stations
STRENGTHS Satellite TV is unrestricted. Dubai Media City, opened in 2001, promotes greater press freedom.
CRIME
WEAKNESSES Lack of skilled labor. Most raw materials and food imported. Water scarce, concentrated in Abu Dhabi. Fears for stability after Shaikh Zayed dies. EXPORTS
Oman 4%
314 per 1000 population
Defense 4% Education 1.9% Health 2.7% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Oil and gas reserves. Development of service industries and manufacturing sector. Improving education system. Regional tax-free base for e-commerce.
Singapore 4%
82 per 1000 population
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
6000 prisoners
†
Death penalty in use
/
UAE nationals enjoy one of the highest per capita incomes in the Arab world. There is no income tax, and oil revenues subsidize public services. Entrepreneurship is encouraged.
Up 2% in 2000
Street crime and muggings are rare. Dubai is reputed to be a transit point for the smuggling of narcotics and caviar.
Iran 4% South Korea 10%
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
U
50th
26 $18,060
Other 51% 100th
Japan 27%
38
42
8 deaths
75 years
49
150th
IMPORTS
UK 7%
133
Germany 7%
77%
193rd
China 8% USA 8% Other 61%
Japan 9%
An oasis village, inland from Fujairah, now accessible by means of a welldeveloped network of new roads.
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
595
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
UNITED KINGDOM
UNITED KINGDOM Netherlands
Ireland
OFFICIAL NAME: United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland CAPITAL: London POPULATION: 59.3 million CURRENCY: Pound sterling OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: English, Welsh (in Wales) 1707
1922
None
GB
0
.uk
+44
L
YING IN NORTHWESTERN Europe, the United Kingdom (UK) occupies the major portion of the British Isles. It includes the countries of England, Scotland, and Wales, the constitutionally distinct region of Northern Ireland, and several outlying islands. Its only land border is with the Irish republic. The UK is separated from the European mainland by the English Channel and the North Sea. To the west lies the Atlantic Ocean. The most densely populated region is the southeast, while Scotland is the wildest region, with the Highlands less populated today than in the 18th century. The UK joined the European Communities (EC – later the EU) in 1973, and most of its trade is now with its European partners. Leadership of the Commonwealth and permanent membership of the UN Security Council give the UK a prominent role in international politics.
CLIMATE
†
TOURISM
Maritime
WEATHER CHART FOR LONDON
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
24.8m visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
† /
Up 3% in 2003
France 13% Germany 11%
Other 45%
Heathrow, London 63.5m passengers
1525 ships 8.05m gr t
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
U
371,913 km (231,096 miles)
3453 km (2146 miles)
17,052 km (10,596 miles)
5700 km (3542 miles)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
90%
10%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Methodist 2%
Muslim 3% Presbyterian 4% Roman Catholic 9%
Hindu 1%
Anglican 45%
Other and nonreligious 36%
West Indian, Asian, and other 5%
Northern Irish 3%
Scottish 9%
Welsh 3%
Netherlands 6%
Drive on left
245/km2 (636/mi2)
English, Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Irish Gaelic
ETHNIC MAKEUP Visitors : Population 1:2.4
Ireland 10%
†
Pop. density high
English 80%
-20/-4
TRANSPORTATION
†
PEOPLE
USA 15%
-10/14
The UK has a generally mild, temperate, and highly changeable climate. Rain, regarded as synonymous with Britain’s weather, is fairly well distributed throughout the year, but recently unusually long dry or wet spells have caused water shortages in some areas, and flooding in others. The west is generally wetter than the east, and the south warmer than the north.
Belgium France
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
Europe
EUROPE
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
The UK ranks sixth in the world as a tourist destination. Tourism is among its most important industries and is a growing source of employment. Heritage is the principal selling point, North Americans, French, and Germans are the main visitors, and London, with its art galleries, theaters, and historic buildings, remains the major destination. Visitors also head for Stonehenge, the Roman splendors of Bath, the medieval buildings of Oxford, Cambridge, and York, Shakespeare’s Stratfordupon-Avon, and Scotland, where the Highlands are a particular attraction.
The Scottish and Welsh nations remain recognizably distinct, despite forming part of a unified state. Scotland retains its own legal and educational systems, and recent steps in devolution have given both countries greater autonomy. Britain’s ethnic minorities account for 5% of the total population; over 50% of their members were born in Britain. Ethnic minority communities are generally concentrated in the inner cities, where they face problems of deprivation and social stress, and may also suffer from isolation, particularly women. Though there is not much support for overtly racist politics, multiethnic recruitment has made little progress in key areas such as policing, and prejudices persist. The level of institutionalized racism was criticized by the UN in 2000. Two-fifths of all births occur outside marriage, compared with 12% in 1980, but most of these are to cohabiting couples. Single-parent households account for one-fifth of all families with children under 18. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
The government has not fulfilled its 1997 campaign promise of a more integrated policy, faced with congestion, pollution, and motorists’ resentment of high fuel taxes. The rail system, after the rushed privatization of the 1990s, suffers from underinvestment, maintenance problems, and fragmented services. In 2003, central London introduced a “congestion charge” for road use.
596
Age
Female 2.8% 8.9% 12.3% 14.6%
Oxford, home to the oldest university in the UK. Teaching began in 1096; the first college was founded in 1249. One of the city’s finest buildings is the 17th-century semi-oval Sheldonian Theatre.
12.3%
80+ 60–79 40–59
Male 1.2% 7.5% 12.2%
20–39
15.2%
0–19
13%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED KINGDOM
IS LA N DS
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
CHRONOLOGY
ND
Mainland
LA
Lerwick
N
A
D
S
Fair I.
1906 Reformist Liberal government. 1914 World War I begins. 1918 Armistice signals end of war. Cost to Britain: 750,000 dead. 1922 Irish Free State given dominion status. 1926 General Strike. 1929 World stock market crash. Widespread unemployment. 1931 UK leaves gold standard and devalues pound. 1936 Edward VIII abdicates over marriage to Wallis Simpson. 1938 Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain meets Hitler in Munich over Czech crisis, says threat of war with Germany averted. 1939 Germany invades Poland. UK declares war on Germany. 1940 Winston Churchill prime minister. Battle of Britain. 1944 June 6, D-Day invasion of German-occupied France. 1945 End of World War II, costing 330,000 British lives. Labour government elected on social welfare platform. 1946 Nationalization of Bank of England, railroads, coal, utilities. 1947 Indian independence.
IS
L
SH ET
Great Britain began the 20th century as one of the world’s most advanced economies, backed by a massive trading empire.
OR KN E
Y
Black Mount, Rannoch Moor, in the Scottish Highlands. The Highlands are one of the UK’s wildest regions.
Kirkwall Mainland
Thurso
in c
S ND
GH
T
HI
ST WE TH
NO R
Ben Nevis 1343m
IA
N
M
M
Fort William
P
Li t t le
M i
LA
he
Loch Ness
O
U
N
TA
IN
S
Aberdeen Dee
A R
G
Dundee
S C O T L A N D
Isle of Mull
Firth of Tay
Perth
Oban
Loch Lomond
orn of L Firth
Stirling
Dunfermline h of Forth Firt
Forth
Falkirk
Greenock
Jura
T
E R I N N
ey Sp
R
A T L A N T I C
Peterhead Inverness
O
O U T E R
Isle of Skye
Rhum
Sea of the Hebrides
irth ray F Mo Elgin
y Ta
O C E A N
South Uist
Dornoch Firth
N
North Uist
Ullapool
h nc
H E B R I D E S
B
Isle of Lewis
H E
St Kilda
Wick
M
Stornoway
R
I
D
E
h
S
John o'Groats
Glasgow
Edinburgh Airdrie Berwick-upon-Tweed Hamilton Motherwell D S d Kilmarnock A N Twe e L P U Isle of Ayr No N Hawick S Arran rth R ILL E C TH H h Lough T VIO E U Coleraine Foyle CH O Londonderry Dumfries S ANTRIM Newcastle upon Tyne Lower Tyne Stranraer Ballymena Bann Sunderland NORTHERN MOUNTAINS Carlisle Durham U L S T E R Newtownabbey h Te e irt s Middlesbrough F Omagh yle Lough Bangor Penrith ay Neagh S olw Belfast Lower Darlington Stockton-on-Tees CUMBRIAN Lough Erne IRELAND Lisburn Enniskillen MOUNTAINS Upper Scarborough Isle of Bann Armagh BarrowUpper Man Newry in-Furness Lough Erne Douglas Lancaster O us e York Bradford Blackpool I R I S H Kingston upon Hull Firth of
Islay
H
Clyde
l ne an
S
E
P Ede n
Fo
UNITED KINGDOM
N
Total Area : 244 820 sq. km (94 525 sq. miles)
I
R ibble
E
N
over 500 000 over 100 000
A
N
REPUBLIC OF IRELAND
POPULATION over 5 000 000
Leeds
over 50 000
E
Preston Blackburn Huddersfield Humber Grimsby S E A Bolton Scunthorpe Liverpool Manchester Anglesey Doncaster Birkenhead Holyhead e rs Warrington Bangor e Lincoln
Nottingham
Stratfordupon-Avon
Bridgwater Taunton
r Tama
C TI
DARTMOOR
Exeter
Swindon
Yeovil Bournemouth Lyme Bay
Watford
Reading
Poole Weymouth
O C
Truro
Stansted Airport
Colchester
Thame s
Ramsgate Canterbury
LONDON
Winchester Southampton
Brighton
h
a
n
Folkestone
n
e
E
Channel Tunnel
C
N
Hastings
Isle of Wight
C
Dover
Ashford Crawley
Portsmouth
E
h l i s E n g
U
Ipswich
Southend-on-Sea
Gatwick Airport
St Austell Plymouth Penzance
Sea Level
Luton Airport
Torquay
Isles of Scilly
200m/656ft
Cambridge
Milton Keynes Luton
SALISBURY PLAIN
Salisbury
Exe
N LA A T
Bath
MENDIP HILLS
Northampton
Heathrow Airport
Newport
Bris tol Channe l
500m/1640ft
Coventry
Oxford
Pontypridd
THE FENS
N
A
Gloucester
Norwich Great Yarmouth
l
R
Hereford
Us k
1000m/3280ft
King's Lynn
Peterborough
Worcester
Bristol
Cromer
F
WALES
LAND HEIGHT
The Wash
D
Gre at O us e
N MT S
N
Leicester
Walsall
Birmingham
Cardiff
S E A
A
Wolverhampton
R IA
MB
CA
G
Stoke-on-Trent
Shrewsbury
Swansea Port Talbot
Barnstaple
L
e Se v rn
S
t
De e
Merthyr Tydfil
C E L T I C
G Derby
ye
Carmarthen
N
CO TS HI WO LL LD S
nne l
C ha
e 's
rg
Bay
Sheffield
E
W
eo
Aberystwyth
Tre nt
S
M
Cardigan
Fishguard
y
Chester Wrexham
Caernarfon
over 10 000 under 10 000
0 0
100 km 100 miles
A
597
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
U
1948 NHS established. 1949 Founder member of NATO. 1956 Suez crisis: UK intervenes in Canal Zone, withdraws under US pressure. 1957 US nuclear missiles accepted on UK soil. 1961 UK application to join the EEC rejected by French president Charles de Gaulle. 1968 Abortion and homosexuality are legalized. 1969 British troops sent into Northern Ireland. 1973 Joins EEC under Conservative Edward Heath. Oil crisis. Industry on three-day week following strikes by power workers and miners. 1974 Labour government, under Harold Wilson, concedes miners’ demands. High inflation. 1975 Referendum ratifies EC membership. First North Sea oil pipeline in operation. 1979–1997 Conservative rule, until 1990 under Margaret Thatcher. 1980 Anti-US Cruise missile protests. Rising unemployment. Inner-city riots. 1981 Privatization program begun. 1982 Argentina invades Falklands. Islands retaken by UK task force. 1983 Tax-cutting policies. 1986 Financial services market deregularized (“Big Bang”). 1990 John Major replaces Thatcher. 1991 UK in Gulf War. 1992 Conservatives win fourth term. 1996 Dunblane primary school massacre; tightening of gun control laws. Health crisis linking “mad cow” disease (BSE) with fatal variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD). 1997 Landslide election victory for Labour under Tony Blair. Diana, Princess of Wales, killed in car crash in Paris. Scottish and Welsh referenda approve creation of own assemblies. 1998–1999 Good Friday agreement on political settlement in Northern Ireland, endorsed by referendum but held up by disputes over decommissioning weapons. 1999 Involvement in NATO air war with Yugoslavia over Kosovo crisis. Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly elected, inaugurated. Devolution to power-sharing executive in Northern Ireland. 2001 Foot-and-mouth epidemic and mass livestock culling. June, Labour reelected by huge majority. October, military participation in US-led “war on terrorism” in Afghanistan. 2002 50th anniversary of accession to throne of Queen Elizabeth II. 2003 UK troops invade Iraq alongside US forces.
598
POLITICS L. House 2001/2006
†
Multipar ty elections
H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Commons 659 seats
63% Lab
1% 1% UU Others
25% 8% 1% 1% Con LD SNP PC
Lab = Labour Party Con = Conservative and Unionist Party LD = Liberal Democrats UU = Ulster Unionist parties – (official) Ulster Unionist Party, Democratic Unionist Party, UK Unionist SNP = Scottish National Party PC = Plaid Cymru
House of Lords 679 seats
Queen Elizabeth II, head of state since 1952 and head of the Commonwealth.
Tony Blair, prime minister since 1997, and leader of the Labour Party.
Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown, known as the “Iron Chancellor.”
Baroness Thatcher, the country’s only female prime minister (1979–1990).
The House of Lords is an unelected body of just under 100 hereditary peers, 26 spiritual peers (bishops), and over 500 life peers (including lords of appeal – judges), appointed by the monarch
The UK is a multiparty democracy. The monarch’s power is largely ceremonial.
PROFILE Tony Blair’s “New Labour” government, occupying the political center, won power in 1997 after almost 18 years of Conservative rule, and retained a massive majority in the 2001 election. In opposition, the Conservatives have struggled to build a credible challenge.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Europe The government ruled in 2003 that the UK was not yet ready to join the eurozone. It has agreed, reluctantly, to hold an eventual referendum on new EU constitutional proposals; opinion polls show little public support. The Conservatives have become increasingly “eurosceptic,” believing that EU membership erodes national sovereignty. Constitutional change Major changes were made to the UK’s system of government in the late 1990s. A Scottish Parliament, with substantial devolved powers, was elected in 1999, as was a Welsh Assembly. The House of Lords was considerably changed by the abolition of voting rights for nearly all hereditary peers, pending its complete overhaul. London gained greater autonomy in 2000 with the election of its own assembly and mayor. In Northern Ireland, the 1998 Good Friday agreement brought unionists and Irish republicans into a power-sharing government. Internal disagreements and distrust, however, have caused the joint executive formed in 1999 to be suspended on occasion and direct rule reimposed. The economy Fundamental alternatives on running the economy are no longer argued within mainstream politics. “New
Labour” is wary of increasing taxes. Far from seeking to reverse the privatization of industry, it now advocates using private finance and management within publicly owned services too. This has alienated some traditional Labour supporters. Elite “foundation hospitals,” with substantial financial independence from the National Health Service (NHS), and variable university tuition fees are especially controversial. The war on Iraq Blair committed the UK to war in Iraq in 2003 without an explicit UN mandate, based on “evidence” of an arsenal of weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The war aroused strong public opposition and huge demonstrations. Though an inquiry cleared Blair of deliberate deception, the failure to find any WMD hurt his credibility. However, with a general election looming in 2005, voters’ attention turned from Iraq to focus on domestic issues.
London’s City Hall, designed by the world famous architect Sir Norman Foster. It has been home to the London Assembly since 2002.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED KINGDOM
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
EU
Joined UN in 1945
NATO
G8
OECD
In 2002 Prime Minister Blair claimed that the UK, if no longer a “great power,” could still play a “pivotal role” in world affairs. It holds a permanent seat on the
†
AID $4.92bn (donations)
ECONOMICS
Donor
/
Up 8% in 2002
†
/
No compulsor y militar y ser vice
Consumer Price Index
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................4th GNP PER CAPITA...........................$25,510 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ..................–$14.4bn INFLATION .........................................1.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................5%
EXPORTS
Netherlands 7%
Ireland 8%
116,670 personnel
15 submarines, 3 carriers, 42,370 11 destroyers, 20 frigates, personnel and 23 patrol boats 53,620 personnel
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 2000
2001
2002
2003
France 9%
and-mouth epidemic in 2001, while the wider economy suffered in 2001–2002 after the US economic downturn and the collapse of the Internet “dotcom” boom. Interest rates were cut to try to boost domestic spending, while the government in 2002 massively increased its own spending on education, health, and defense. Economic growth at 2.3% exceeded forecasts in 2003, and in 2004 unemployment reached a 29-year low. Mortgage borrowing continues to grow, raising fears of a house price “bubble.”
Other 49% Germany 11% USA 16% IMPORTS
Netherlands 6% Belgium 5%
France 8% USA 12%
Other 56% Germany 13%
World leader in financial services. Important pharmaceutical and defense industries. Strong multinationals. Precision engineering and high-tech industries, including telecommunications and biotechnology. Innovative in computer software development. Flexible working practices. Success in controlling inflationary tendencies. Low unemployment.
UNITED KINGDOM : MAJOR BUSINESSES Oil & gas Electronics Computers Engineering Vehicle manufacture Banking & finance Iron & steel
Aberdeen
WEAKNESSES Decline of manufacturing sector since 1970s. Need to plan for eventual end of North Sea oil and gas. Quick-return mentality behind many investment decisions. Nonparticipation in euro threatens former status as EU’s largest recipient of inward investment; has prompted closure of UK factories.
Aerospace industry
Inverness
58 SLBM in 4 SSBN
Despite significant post-Cold War cuts in army and navy personnel and equipment orders, defense spending is high and has risen in recent years, focusing on developing rapid reaction capabilities. The UK’s independent nuclear deterrent has been scaled down. UK forces were prominent in peacekeeping in the Balkans and Sierra Leone and have been engaged in full conflicts over Kosovo in 1999 and in Iraq in 2003. Troops remain stationed in Northern Ireland; it was revealed in 2003 that army agents had colluded in terrorist activity while gathering intelligence there. The UK is a leading arms exporter. Major buyers include Middle Eastern and southeast Asian countries.
GDP
160
1999
STRENGTHS
UK ARMED FORCES
415 combat aircraft (254 Tornado, 62 Jaguar, 79 Harrier, 115 Hawk)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
0.551 pounds sterling (0.606)
SCORE CARD
Up 4% in 2002
543 main battle tanks (386 Challenger 2, 156 Challenger, 1 Chieftain)
Inflation 2.8% p.a. (1990–2001)
GDP 1999=100
DEFENSE
$1511bn
†
to establish a new coalition in Europe as a counterweight to the Franco-German axis. Cherishing the UK–US “special relationship,” the New Labour government strongly backed the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Consumer price index 1999=100
UK foreign aid fell between 1980 and 1997 to below the European average, and well below the nominal target of 0.7% of GNP for industrialized states. After 1997 the government moved to end the decline, though the figure in 2002 was only 0.31% of GNP. More significant was its concentration on the poorest countries and on partnership with NGOs, building on a change of emphasis already introduced in 1996: over half of bilateral aid goes to the poorest states of sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. The “trade for aid” provision, tying much of the aid budget to contracts for British firms, has been abolished. The aid program’s aims include encouraging good government, widening opportunities for women, and protecting the environment.
$35.2bn
UN Security Council, and being the head of the Commonwealth offers a means of maintaining diplomatic and economic links with the UK’s former possessions. The UK joined the EEC late, and resists the concept of full European integration. Lately, it has been seeking
Chemicals Textiles Whisky
Edinburgh
Glasgow
Media
Newcastle upon Tyne
U
Middlesbrough Belfast
PROFILE Manufacturing has been in longterm decline, while sectors such as financial services have expanded rapidly. After sharp recession in 1991, revival was sluggish, but by the late 1990s growth in the UK was faster than that of its European competitors. The rural economy was hit hard by a foot-
Liverpool
Manchester Bacton
Birmingham
Derby Swansea Cambridge Cardiff London Bristol Oxford 0 0
200 km 200 miles
599
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 79.5m kW
911,622 tonnes
2.24m b/d (reser ves 4.5bn barrels)
35.7m sheep, 10.5m cattle, 8m turkeys, 167m chickens
Coal, oil, limestone, natural gas
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
ENVIRONMENT
.
21% (20% par tially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 91st
†
CRIME
9.6 tonnes per capita
CRIME RATES
Murders Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Combustion 75% (283bn kWh)
3
per 100,000 population
16
per 100,000 population
5533
per 100,000 population
Thefts
Nuclear 23% (85bn kWh) Other 0% 20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
UNITED KINGDOM : LAND USE
Cropland Pasture Forest High mountain regions Sheep
G
U
Cattle
S MT
Fruit
Concerns range from the level of greenhouse gas emissions to the adverse effects on rural environments of road building and the need for largescale house-building programs. Other main issues are health-related, and urban air pollution caused by traffic is a key subject, as are aspects of nuclear safety. Opposition to genetically modified (GM) foods is widespread and GM crop trials have been disrupted; however, in 2004 the government approved the first commercial planting of GM maize.
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 329 per 1000 people
0
99% There are 99 daily newspapers, including The Times, Financial Times, Daily Telegraph, Independent, and Guardian
1 publicly financed network, many independent networks
Newspapers are owned mostly by large media corporations. Many publish Internet editions. Criticized for invasions of privacy, the press presents self-regulation as preferable to legislation. Publications deemed contrary to “national interests” may be banned. Satellite TV and digital terrestrial broadcasting have increased competition with the BBC. The BBC’s World Service, despite cutbacks, remains an influential news source internationally.
200 km
P
E
200 miles
N
N
I N E S Severn
THE FENS T hames
The Welsh coal industry has virtually disappeared. Wales now has the highest percentage of small business start-ups, relative to the population, of any part of the UK.
600
School leaving age: 16
2.29m students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
4 networks: 1 publicly financed, 3 independent
H u mbe r
CAMBRIAN MTS
†
EDUCATION
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Wheat
0
Violent crime and domestic abuse are growing problems. Inner-city violence is partly fueled by narcotics dependency and trafficking. The government has maintained a “tough on crime” stance, but sentencing policies place the penal system under serious strain. Cannabis is increasingly tolerated in order to focus on “harder” narcotics. In 2001 “antiterrorism” laws gave police extra powers. Public fear of pedophilia fueled a reform of outdated sex laws in 2002.
% of each age group in education
The UK has the largest energy resources of any EU state, with substantial oil and gas reserves offshore on the continental shelf in the North Sea, and fresh fields in the north Atlantic. Drilled under difficult conditions, North Sea oil is of a high grade. Revenues from taxes on oil companies have been a major contributor to government finances, averaging around $12 billion a year. Sizable coal reserves are economically unexploitable. Privatization of the electricity industry, and pressure to cut pollution, encouraged the switch from coal- to gas-fired power plants, prompting efforts to boost the role of “cleaner coal” technology. The UK is also developing wind power and other renewable energy sources. The UK produces few other minerals in significant quantities. Cornwall’s last tin mines teeter between closure and rescue. Some very small-scale gold mining survives in Wales and Scotland.
AN PI M RA
Down 4% in 1999–2001
Rapes
Hydro 2% (7.8bn kWh)
0
.
82,241prisoners
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No death penalty
80
60
100%
100%
40
59% 20
0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
The state system is used by 94% of children. Fee-paying private schools include the traditional elite institutions confusingly known as public schools. There is now a new enthusiasm in government for “faith-based” schools. From the 1960s onward, a two-tier state school system based on academic selection at age 11 was to a great extent replaced by mixed ability comprehensive schools. The 1988 education reforms introduced a national curriculum and weakened the role of local education authorities. The Labour government has focused on testing, assessing teaching standards, and tackling “failing” schools. Public spending targets in 2002 promised significantly increased education expenditure within four years, to 5.6% of GDP. More colleges were given university status in the 1990s, but established centers, particularly Oxford and Cambridge, continue to be the most prestigious and best resourced.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED KINGDOM
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
FACING UP TO CLIMATE CHANGE
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, hear t, cerebrovascular, and respirator y diseases
1 per 500 people
M
decade after the 1992 UN Convention on Climate Change, the UK is slowly waking up to the urgent need for action. Prime Minister Tony Blair proclaimed in 2004 that the world faces no greater threat; chief scientific adviser Sir David King pointedly called it a greater danger than international terrorism. On this the UK government disagrees with the skeptical US administration, which remains hostile to having to modify its economic and oil-based energy policies. ORE THAN A
IMPLEMENTING KYOTO The 1997 Kyoto agreement, of which the UK was a leading advocate, seeks to control the output of “greenhouse gases” – principally carbon dioxide, given off by burning fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas. Scientific consensus (now overwhelming) is that a “greenhouse effect” – the slowing of the dissipation of heat from the sun, aggravates a cycle of global warming; that the impact on world climate is already significant; and that worldwide catastrophe this century is possible. Kyoto sets greenhouse gas emissions limits for industrialized countries in an initial period (by 2010–2012), the EU’s target being an 8% overall reduction compared with a 1990 baseline; more far-reaching cuts will then be crucial. While the US has refused to sign up, the Blair government has adopted somewhat more ambitious UK targets – though it has backed away from politically sensitive fuel tax increases. It still expects to achieve a 10% cut in carbon dioxide output by 2010, despite real problems restricting motor vehicle emissions. Its longer-term goal is to cut emissions by 60% by 2050.
CHANGING
THE ENERGY MIX
Attempts to integrate this into a sustainable development policy are most evident in efforts to cut energy wastage (for example by raising insulation standards in buildings) and promote zero-emission renewable energy technologies. Wind power is the most developed of these (others
Extreme weather events appear to be occurring more frequently.
Britain’s largest offshore wind farm at North Hoyle, in north Wales.
include solar, wave, and tidal power and biomass conversion). Land-based turbines can meet opposition as visually intrusive; offshore wind farms, though more expensive, raise fewer planning and consent issues. UK energy policy envisages generating 10% of all electricity from renewables by 2010 and 20% by 2020. The nuclear industry, currently limited by a moratorium on all new development, seeks to revive its claim to be the best option for generating zero-carbon power, while hopes for the future include the possibility of an energy economy based on hydrogen fuel cell technology.
ATTITUDES
AND REALITY
Some still lightheartedly see “global warming” as bringing welcome improvements to British weather, evoking notions of Mediterranean lifestyles and urban café culture. “Extreme weather events,” notably the widespread flooding of October– November 2000, periodically disrupt such complacency, while scientists warn that global warming could cause a “big chill” in the UK’s moderate maritime climate by disrupting the Gulf Stream – the Atlantic’s ocean current conveyor system carrying warm water to its shores. Even the recent warmer, drier summers have had negative impacts, with record highs – the hottest day ever registered was part of the August 2003 heatwave – causing discomfort to many and health damage to some. Suburban gardens, so dear to “middle Britain,” wilt depressingly during unpopular summertime bans on hosepipes and sprinklers. More seriously, periods of drought hurt agricultural productivity and the natural environment, and increase subsidence damage to buildings. With the growing risk and cost of flood damage at other times of year, this has brought dire warnings from the Association of British Insurers about householders’ building insurance premiums.
The National Health Service (NHS) offers universal free health care, but financial pressures have led to shortages, hospital closures, and charges in some sectors. In response, the government in 2002 announced record levels of investment over a five-year period, aiming to match the European average (8% of GDP) by 2004. Recent crises have focused on food safety, from E. coli outbreaks to fatal brain disease attributed to eating beef from cattle with “mad cow” disease. Asthma affects over 25% of people.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
416 per 1000 population
591 per 1000 population
Defense 2.4% Education 4.4% Health 6.2% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Income inequality is greater than in 1884, when records began. In 2002, the income of 13.4% of the population was half the average or less, with poverty rates higher among some ethnic minorities. Average wages for manufacturing workers in 2001 were $29,000 a year, only 4% of the average received by chief executives in large companies. Under Conservative governments in the 1980s and early 1990s, taxation for higher earners was cut, whereas the value of state benefits and pensions fell. Since the mid-1990s, economic growth has helped to bring unemployment down. Labour’s 1997 election promises precluded raising income tax. This limited the scope for redistributive action, leaving antipoverty strategies dependent on better targeting of welfare benefits.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
U 11 $25,510
100th
1 99%
29 77 years
16
12
5 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
601
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD North America
UNITED STATES
NORTH AMERICA Russian Federation
1776
1959
July 4
USA
-5 to -11
+1
C an ad a
UNITED STATES Mexico
OFFICIAL NAME: United States of America CAPITAL: Washington D.C. POPULATION: 294 million CURRENCY: US dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English n/a
T
HE WORLD’S THIRD-LARGEST country, the United States is neither overpopulated (like China) nor in the main subject to extremes of climate (like much of Russia and Canada). Its main landmass, bounded by Canada and Mexico, contains 48 of its 50 states. The two others, Alaska at the northwest tip of the Americas and Hawaii in the Pacific, became states in 1959. The US was not built on ethnic identity but on a concept of nationhood intimately bound up with the 18th-century founding fathers’ ideas of democracy and liberty – still powerful touchstones in both a political and an economic sense. Since the breakup of the Soviet Union, the US holds a unique position – but arouses extreme hatreds – as the sole global superpower.
P
C E
A
G WASHINGTON Spokane
na
ke
E
ES
D
Lake Powell
Grand C Junction
O L
T
A
Las Vegas G Lake r a n d C a n y o n Mead
A
a do
I
lor Co
A R I Z O N A
San Diego
Farmington
Santa Fe
N Albuquerque
Phoenix
S
Spanning a continent and extending far into the Pacific Ocean, the US displays a wide range of climatic conditions. Mean annual temperatures range from 29˚C (84˚F) in Florida to –13˚C (9˚F) in Alaska. Except for New England, Alaska, and the Pacific northwest, summer temperatures are higher than in Europe. Southern summers are humid; in the southwest they are dry. Winters are particularly severe in the western mountains and plains and in the Midwest – where the Great Lakes can freeze. The northeast can have heavy snow from November
N
-20/-4
U T A H
R
-10/14
N E V A D A
N E W
M E X I C O
N
0
Orem Provo
Mount Whitney 4418m
T
10/4
Rock Springs
U
AS
10/50
Casper
Salt Lake City
B A S I N
Los Angeles
A
20/8
W Y O M I
Ogden
G R E A T
CALIFOR N IA A N GE S
E
30/12
20/68
Great Salt Lake
O
CO
C
30/86
Pocatello Twin Falls
ADA NEV RRA SIE
O
Rainfall S O N D cm/in 40/16
A
to April. The weather is frequently dramatic, with tornadoes, cyclones, thunderstorms, hurricanes, floods, and droughts. Since 1990, weather-related damage has risen, a trend linked with global climate change.
Sheridan
Idaho Falls
M
C
D A
Oakland San Francisco
Y
I
A
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Boise
Carson City
Sacramento
Billings
I D A H O
Nampa
Reno
Continental/subtropical/mountain/deser t/maritime
40/104
602
N
†
Great Falls
M O N T A Helena
S
OR E GON
Medford
A
Ketchikan
Missoula
Lewiston
Eugene
C
N
N
WEATHER CHART FOR WASHINGTON D.C.
U
F
A
Juneau
500 miles
CLIMATE
0/32
Fairbanks
Kodiak Cordova
O C E A N
NG
I
N D S
500 km
0
s R ang e
Alaska R an ge Anchorage Valdez
I F I C
a ALASKA 0
Mount McKinley 6194m
A
Prudhoe bay
ok
C olu mbia
K
T
C
ro
RA
B
U
A
L
Corvallis
I
E
P
S
Salem
O C E A N
Trans-Alaska pipeline
I
Portland
A R C T I C
C
it
S
ra
COAS T C A
St
C
A L B
i er
ng
O
C
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
R
A
Olympia
R
N
A
Seattle Tacoma
M
The Chippendale Block, New York, a notable example of postmodern architecture by the influential US architect Philip Johnson.
Tucson
Las Cruces
E
El Paso
X
Kauai
PAC IF IC
I N
O
Lihue Niihau
Wahiawa Honolulu
C
Oahu Kaneohe
0
N
Maui
HAWAII 200 km
A
Molokai
Wailuku
0
E
Hilo
Hawaii 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED STATES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
TRANSPORTATION Hartsfield–Jackson, Atlanta, Georgia 79.1m passengers
Drive on right
neglected for years, mainly carry freight, though modern high-speed trains are starting to attract passengers back. Americans have been wedded to the car since Henry Ford began mass production in 1908. By 1919 there were nine million cars in the US. Today the total tops 210 million, including pickups and the ubiquitous “sports utes” (SUVs). Americans make more than half of the world’s car journeys. Cheap gasoline underpinned the rise of the car; despite problems of congestion and pollution, and the environmental costs of ever more oil production, its centrality in society is rarely questioned.
443 ships 15m dwt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 371,913 km (231,096 miles)
74,807 km (46,483 miles)
235,071 km (146,066 miles)
41,009 km (25,482 miles)
Arterial river systems provided the first transportation networks in the US. Today, the US has the world’s cheapest, most extensive internal air network and a good system of interstate highways. Railroads, comparatively
Malls, a typical feature of the suburban landscape, are losing popularity to speedier online shopping.
N A D
Madison
ri
P
Topeka
L I
C
ARKANSAS
N
S
Pine Bluff
Greenville
Dallas
S
d
Jackson
ra do
Houston
New York NEW JERSEY
S
Annapolis WASHINGTON DC
ATLANTIC
Richmond
V I R G I N I A
Newport News Norfolk
OCEAN
WinstonSalem Greensboro
Raleigh
NORTH
CAROLINA
Charlotte Spartanburg Greenville
UNITED STATES
Macon
Total Area : 9 626 091 sq. km (3 717 792 sq. miles)
Charleston
POPULATION
ALABAMA G E O R G I A Savannah Meridian Montgomery
over 5 000 000 over 1 000 000
U
over 500 000 Jacksonville
Mobile Biloxi New Orleans
RHODE I.
Hartford
Trenton
Hattiesburg
Baton Rouge
Providence
JFK
SOUT H Columbia C AR OLIN A Atlanta
Birmingham Tuscaloosa Columbus
LOUISIANA
Austin Ri
over 100 000
Tallahassee
over 50 000
FLORIDA
over 10 000 under 10 000
San Antonio
ra oG
C
i s s is
A
Chattanooga
Boston
Worcester
New Haven
M ISSISSIPPI
M
X
C o lo
Re
E
Memphis Huntsville
Little Rock
Hot Springs
P A
Fort Smith Arkans a s
Shreveport
T os
Nashville T E N N E S S E E
Manchester Lowell
MASS.
Springfield CONN.
M
Knoxville
Roswell
Pec
Lexington
Oh i o
Springfield Fayetteville
Lawton
Fort Worth
Huntington
Frankfort
K E N T U C K Y
Tulsa
Oklahoma City Norman
Evansville
M I S S O U R I
A OKLAHOMA n an a d i a
Louisville
Concord
Philadelphia Wilmington MARYLAND Dover Baltimore DEL.
Dayton
Cincinnati
Jefferson St Louis City
Wichita
Columbus WEST VIRGINIA Charleston
Indianapolis
Springfield
Kansas City
K A N S A S
O H I O
A
o
u
N
I L L I N O I S Fort Wayne INDI AN A Peoria
I
ss Mi
Lincoln
South Bend
Gary
Albany
H
T Grand Island
Chicago
Davenport
Omaha
Denver O R A D O Colorado Springs Pueblo
Rockford
Des Moines
Syracuse
rie .E Detroit L Erie PENNSYLVANIA Ann Arbor Allentown Cleveland Harrisburg Toledo Akron Pittsburgh
Racine Lansing
C
N E B R A S K A
Fort Collins Greeley Longmont Boulder
A
Buffalo
A
Cheyenne
W
Cedar Rapids
Augusta Lewiston Portland
NEW HAMP.
A
O
Flint
L
I
A e
Ontario L. Rochester
P
E att
MICHIGAN
Grand Rapids
Milwaukee
Sioux Falls
Montpelier NEW YORK
Lake Huron
T
R
Rochester
VERM.
Burlington
an
Green Bay
Sioux City
Pl
Bangor
H u d so n
G
Minneapolis
Rapid City
N.
nc e
M ICHIGAN
WISCONSIN St Paul
Aberdeen
MAINE
re S
Duluth
MINNESOTA
SOUTH DAKOTA Pierre N G
A
uperio ke S r
tL
La
N O R T H D A K O T A Bismarck Fargo
aw
Grand Forks
e
ig
o st
Lake Mich
Ye
w llo
si p p i
N A
n
Minot
Tampa
nd
St Petersburg
e
O
G
F U L
M E X I C O
O F N 0 0
BAHAMAS L. Okeechobee
400 km 400 miles
Fort Lauderdale Miami
LAND HEIGHT 3000m/9843ft 2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
603
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
TOURISM 40.4m visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:7.3
.
Down 4% in 2003
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Canada 31% Mexico 23% Japan 9% UK 9% Germany 3% Other 25% 0
10
30
20
40
% of total arrivals
The US as a destination for international tourism benefited greatly from the deregulation of air fares. Domestic tourism expanded just as rapidly, along with the rise in real incomes. The impact of the 2001 terrorist attacks was complex. While confidence in air travel took time to be rebuilt, the fact that US tourists put safety first meant that over 80% vacationed within the US in 2002.
†
PEOPLE
32/km2 (83/mi2)
22%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Jewish 2%
Protestant 52%
Other and nonreligious 19%
Roman Catholic 25%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Native American 1%
Asian 4% Black American/ African 13% Hispanic 13%
White 69%
U
The demographic, economic, and cultural dominance of the white community is firmly entrenched after almost 400 years of settlement. However, the balance of ethnicity is rapidly shifting. An immigration boom peaked in the early 1990s, with many new arrivals from Latin America and Asia. The birthrate is particularly high in the Hispanic community, now the largest single minority in the US. The Census Bureau projects that in the year 2050 almost 25% of the population will be Hispanic, 14% black, and 9% Asians and Pacific islanders. More than two-thirds of the Hispanic, or Latino, population originated in Mexico, and thousands of Mexicans
604
†
Multipar ty elections President George W. Bush
L. House 2004/2006 U. House 2004/2006 AT THE LAST ELECTION
House of Representatives 435 seats
53% Rep
46% Dem
1% Ind
Rep = Republican Party Dem = Democratic Party Ind = Independents
Senate 100 seats
55% Rep
44% Dem
1% Ind
Presidential elections take place every four years, House elections every two years. One-third of the senators are elected every two years for six-year terms.
The US is a democracy with a federal system of government. Many issues are dealt with by the 50 individual states. Each state sends two senators and a number of representatives, according to population size, to Congress.
PROFILE
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Muslim 2%
All the states have their attractions, and most court tourists. Top tourist destinations include Florida’s Disney World and Disneyland in California, Niagara Falls, Las Vegas, New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Hollywood, the Grand Canyon, Death Valley, New Orleans, Atlantic City, and Washington D.C. Tourism’s rapid expansion has also brought some problems. The parks and sites run by the National Parks Service (NPS) have been particular casualties; visitor numbers rocketed in the three decades after 1970. To try to reduce pressure on the most popular areas, there has been a significant expansion in the area of protected land under NPS management since the mid-1970s. Even so, Yellowstone Park has a continuing traffic management crisis, bumper-tobumper cars plague other high-profile attractions, and those wanting to take a raft ride down the Grand Canyon are likely to spend many months on a waiting list.
Pop. density low
English, Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Tagalog, Vietnamese, Italian, Korean, Russian, Polish
78%
POLITICS
risk their lives crossing the border every year. Despite its growing size, the Hispanic community still struggles to compete politically and economically with the better established, and more politically sensitive, black population. Within the black community, their ancestors infamously brought to the New World as slaves, an African– American business leadership class has grown up, but only two black people – media moguls Oprah Winfrey and Robert L. Johnson – make the list of the 400 richest Americans. The country’s original inhabitants, the Native Americans, or Amerindians, were dispossessed in the 19th century and now make up little more than 1% of the population. Some of the worst poverty and deprivation in the US can be found in their reservations. The separation of state and religion is guaranteed by the constitution, but Christian values dominate. Many evangelical churches, particularly well established in the south, forcefully oppose abortion, the teaching of evolution, and the social acceptance of homosexuality.
US politics is dominated by two main parties. With few major differences between them, the right-wing Republicans and the right-of-center Democrats regularly trade position in control of the White House and Congress. Presidential elections are based largely on personalities, with televised debates, inaugurated in the 1960s, playing a significant role. Election campaigns are lengthy and increasingly expensive affairs; Republican candidates are traditionally better funded. Republican George W. Bush won the presidency in 2000. His predecessors, whether Democrat or Republican, had struggled to get major initiatives enacted by a hostile Congress, but in midterm elections in 2002 Republicans gained firm control of the House and the Senate, giving Bush a complete congressional majority, which he retained in 2004.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES The prestige of the presidency George W. Bush faced questions of legitimacy even before he took the
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 2.1% 7.4% 12.7%
80+
Male 1.1%
60–79
6%
40–59
12.2%
14.8%
20–39
14%
0–19
15% 14.7%
% of population by age group
George W. Bush, took office in 2001 after a controversial presidential election.
Gen. Colin Powell, who became the first African–American Secretary of State.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED STATES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
POLITICS
continued
oath of office in January 2001. The contentious manner of his election (with fewer popular votes than his rival Al Gore), concern over voting procedures in Florida, his “big business” affiliation, and controversial policies (notably on energy), were added to a string of verbal gaffes and an embarrassing lack of current affairs knowledge to divide popular opinion. He gained overwhelming support, however, when a wave of patriotic emotion generated by the al-Qaida attacks on New York and Washington D.C. on September 11 rallied the nation behind him and his declaration of a “war on terrorism.” By the end of his four-year term, Bush’s popularity had been battered again, this time by the quagmire of Iraqi occupation, the debate over the reliability of the intelligence that had suggested the existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, and revelations of controversial personal ties to the Enron financial scandal. His administration was struggling with a record deficit, which peaked at $300 billion in 2003. The most potentially damaging moment in 2004 was the publication of the 9/11 Commission’s report, which cast doubt on the government’s assertion of a link between al-Qaida and Iraq, discrediting the invasion’s justification; some left-wing critics were openly calling Bush corrupt. Nonetheless, with security dominating the agenda of heartland America, Bush capitalized on his warpresident image to beat off a serious challenge from Democrat John Kerry to win the 2004 presidential election. The limits of government The US has a strong tradition of resisting the extension of government powers. The vigorous defense of constitutional liberties and the rights of citizens, such as freedom of speech or the right to bear arms, is sometimes taken to lengths which appear extreme to other societies. States resist the arrogation of powers by the federal authorities. In areas such as health care and education, conservatives oppose as interference what others see as the proper concern of government
Hillary Clinton, senator for New York and wife of former president Bill Clinton.
Senator John Kerry, Democrat challenger against President Bush in 2004.
with social welfare. “Big government” is also denounced in the economic sphere. Opponents of environmental controls portray them as obstructing free enterprise and wealth creation. Under Bush, social issues such as homosexual unions have taken on a particularly high-profile role in the battle between federal and state control. Energy and the environment Bush advocated some controversial energy policies in 2001, amid a pressing crisis over electricity shortages in California. Conservation activists were appalled by plans to allow further oil exploration in Alaska, and the Senate excised funding for the search from the 2004 budget. The expansion of nuclear power was also revived under the energy plan, while the US chose to repudiate the international Kyoto agreement on cutting carbon dioxide emissions, suggesting it could harm the economy. To offset criticism, Bush has earmarked $1.2 billion for research into hydrogen fuel cells.
WORLD AFFAIRS G8
NATO
NAFTA
† OAS
The Mittens, Monument Valley, Arizona. These striking natural rock formations are created by erosion of red sandstone. The valley is in the Navajo National Monument.
Welfare State support for the unemployed, poor families, college students, and the elderly provides a rare ideological divide between the main parties. The Republican Party favors cuts and the intervention of private groups, while Democrats call for a repeal of recent tax cuts in order to bankroll a broader funding program. Reform of the system, held back by strong state control, remains a key political issue.
Joined UN in 1945
OECD
Isolated by two great oceans, the US has been able for much of its history to choose the extent of its participation in world affairs. Only reluctantly drawn into the two world wars, after 1945 it swapped isolationism for involvement. The US took its seat on the Security Council of the new UN, founded in San Francisco and now based in New York, and helped to set up NATO. For the US the Cold War was most immediate – and costly – in the Korean and Vietnam wars. The death toll and shock of defeat in Vietnam in the 1970s kept the US out of direct military involvement overseas for over a decade. Instead, it focused on diplomacy, and on supporting the opponents of leftwing regimes in developing countries including Nicaragua, Cuba, and Angola. Since the collapse of the Eastern bloc after 1989 the US has had to redetermine the scope of its foreign responsibilities as the only remaining superpower. Until 2001 policy remained cautious. It had led the intervention in the 1991 Gulf War, but a fiasco in Somalia and a lack of clear objectives in Bosnia & Herzegovina and Haiti showed its uncertainty about a role as world policeman. The September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks provoked the Bush regime into reclaiming the international initiative. Bush is
inspired in part by the right-wing doctrine of the “new American century,” which advocates making use of unrivaled US power to shape world affairs to the country’s benefit. The first act to follow the adoption of this new approach was the declaration of a “war on terrorism,” which seeks to build a global, US-led consensus in the fight against nonstate combatants. The “successful” war in Afghanistan in late 2001 raised concerns in the Islamic world that Muslims were being unfairly targeted, while global tensions increased in 2002 when Bush declared Iran, Iraq, and North Korea to be an “axis of evil” states which sponsored terrorists. Threats against Iraq culminated in the 2003 invasion. Many people, particularly in “old” Europe, saw the war as an attempt to settle old scores and seize the riches of Iraq’s vast oil reserves, and were concerned when the US did not allow international relations, and specifically the diplomatic wrangling of the UN, to stand in the way of realizing its foreign policy aims. As a result, global opinion toward the US has grown increasingly negative, potentially fueling the ranks of anti-US terrorist groups: an opposition backed by a popular grassroots movement in the developed world which identifies US military and economic hegemony, as well as its dominant culture, with the perceived evils of globalization.
605
U
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
THE “WAR ON TERRORISM”
B
Y LAUNCHING THE coordinated attacks on September 11, 2001, which destroyed the World Trade Center in New York, seriously damaged the US Pentagon military headquarters in Washington D.C., and killed almost 3000 people, the Islamist al-Qaida terrorist network provided the casus belli for a US administration eager to reshape the world and confront its enemies. Within three weeks President George W. Bush unveiled his strategy for responding to the 9/11 attacks. In the “Bush doctrine,” the countries of the world were either “with us ... or with the terrorists.” His promised “war on terrorism” began with the overthrow of Afghanistan’s Islamist taliban regime, known to be sheltering al-Qaida leader Osama bin Laden. Its focus then shifted to Iraq.
AFGHANISTAN
AND IRAQ
US forces provided air support to the opposition Northern Alliance in Afghanistan from October 2001, allowing them to push their offensive against the taliban; they reached the capital Kabul in November. A new proUS government was installed while US troops arrived to flush out al-Qaida and taliban remnants; those taken prisoner while fighting against the US now await trial, held at the US base in Cuba, at Guantánamo Bay. By classifying them as “illegal combatants,” the US has avoided the application of Geneva Convention III on the treatment of prisoners of war. The Afghan conflict was widely accepted as morally sound, with the taliban’s treatment of women and destruction of culturally significant monuments raising anger across the world. Even the legally ambiguous incarcerations at Guantánamo have been largely left alone by governments, apart from concern for their own nationals held there. Negative opinion was much more openly expressed, however, over the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
U
Responses to the destruction of the World Trade Center have varied from vociferous patriotism to a fervent desire for peace.
606
particular the increased scrutiny of visitors to the US arriving from Muslim countries. Men arriving from Iran, Iraq, Libya, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria, or Yemen are now officially registered, photographed, and fingerprinted. There has also been a crackdown on immigrants from the Middle East and north Africa, hundreds having been detained after complying with new rules under antiterrorist legislation demanding registration. The “Tribute in Light” marked the site of the fallen World Trade Center in 2002.
Citing ill-defined links between alQaida and the Ba’ath Arab socialist regime of Saddam Hussein, and the fear that Iraq had not destroyed its arsenal of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), US forces opened hostilities in March 2003. The Iraqi regime was toppled by early April. International concern over the motives for the war and the subsequent lengthy and bloody process of reconstructing Iraq in the face of significant local hostility have prompted growing criticism from within the US. Of particular concern was the intelligence used to justify the attacks in the first place. In July 2004 a congressional commission concluded that there had been no link whatsoever between al-Qaida and Iraq.
HOMELAND
SECURITY
The commission did praise the Bush administration for increasing security through the war on Afghanistan and the reform of “homeland security” institutions. In the immediate aftermath of the 2001 attacks, a new cabinet-level position was announced to cover homeland security. A full department, created the following year with Tom Ridge as its first secretary, combines 22 previously disparate agencies in an effort to coordinate the response to future attacks. It has the assistance of a reformed Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which has been reoriented to pay special attention to international terrorism, with a new post of national intelligence director created in August 2004. While the commission criticized the CIA for failing to act on available information which might have prevented the 9/11 attacks, of all those involved in the intelligence community and in preparing the case for war against Iraq, CIA director George Tenet is the only high-profile person to have resigned, albeit for “personal reasons.” Human rights campaigners have expressed concern over some of the security measures adopted, in
Culturally, there has been an increase in public patriotism, as well as acts of protest and defiance: public figures have been vilified for expressing disapproval of the government. Campaigns by celebrities and opposition politicians against the “war” have been muted, and bounded by caveats asserting patriotism alongside a desire for the respect of human rights. The filmmaker Michael Moore was a noticeable exception with his polemical Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004).
WINNING
THE WAR
Immediately the “war” began it was pointed out that little was being done to address the motivation of the 9/11 attackers – whose actions, as proclaimed by bin Laden, were directed at US cultural hegemony and in particular its historic support for Israel in the conflict with the Palestinians. US efforts in the Middle East have fallen by the wayside, while the Bush administration has remained almost unequivocally supportive of the Israeli government. Anti-US sentiment has noticeably grown across the Muslim world, as well as among the public in former allied states. A chaotic Iraq has emerged from the invasion, where US soldiers and foreign civilians have been murdered with impunity by Islamist groups, and where al-Qaida can now more easily operate and recruit. The chances of a swift end to the “war on terrorism” now seem very unlikely.
Suspected terrorists and taliban fighters held in the Camp Delta facility of the US base at Guantánamo Bay in Cuba.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED STATES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
AID $13.3bn (donations)
/
Up 16% in 2002
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR
No compulsor y militar y ser vice
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ............................1st GNP PER CAPITA ...........................$35,400 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ...................–$481bn INFLATION .........................................1.6% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................6%
EXPORTS
UK 5% Japan 7%
Germany 4% Up 10% in 2002
Mexico 14% US ARMED FORCES
Other 47%
7620 main battle tanks (Abrams M-1)
485,000 personnel
70 submarines, 12 carriers, 27 cruisers, 49 destroyers, 30 frigates, 21 patrol boats
400,000 personnel
Canada 23% IMPORTS
Germany 5%
Japan 10% Mexico 11%
3716 combat aircraft 367,600 (B-52H, B-1B, F-4, F-15, F-16, personnel F-111, F-117, OA-10A)
Other 45% China 11% Canada 18%
432 SLBM in 18 SSBN, 550 ICBM
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1999
2000
2001
2002
GDP 1999=100
/
Currency is US dollar
Consumer price index 1999=100
$330bn
†
$10,207bn
Inflation 2% p.a. (1990–2001)
Consumer Price Index
The US gives only 0.13% of GNP in foreign aid, and aid allocations are often stalled in Congress. Egypt, Russia, and Israel are the major recipients. The US is keen to further its strategic aims with some high-profile pledges, including a $15 billion AIDS campaign and $5 billion to tackle poverty.
DEFENSE
†
ECONOMICS
Donor
2003
WEAKNESSES Dramatic fall in manufacturing employment as jobs lost to lowerwage economies. Competition from Asia and EU in leading-edge technologies. Volatile market values driven by speculation. Accusations of short-termism. Recent major corporate collapses. Increase in imports despite relatively weak dollar: competition from euro as global currency. Major budget deficit.
STRENGTHS Even before the 9/11 attacks, emphasis in defense policy had been shifting away from strategic nuclear deterrence and large warships to “smart” missile systems and long-range power projection, with rapid intervention capabilities built around air power. Despite setbacks in early tests, the first “interceptor” missiles of the national missile defense “shield” system were scheduled for deployment in late 2004. The enormous US military–industrial complex dates only from the close of World War II. In the 1990s, the end of the Cold War and the need to cut the budget deficit combined to slash defense funds to their lowest level in real terms since 1945. Nuclear weapons tests were superseded by computerized “virtual” tests after the creation of the powerful ASCI White computer. However, the Bush administration has steadily increased defense spending. The 2004 budget saw a return to Cold War levels, passing $400 billion – amounting to more than the combined defense budgets of the world’s next 12 largest military spenders. The Bush government also hinted that it was considering developing small and “precision” nuclear weapons as part of its expanding arsenal. Fearing that its troops could be prosecuted for political reasons, the US opposed the establishment of the International Criminal Court. This stance threatens to undermine overseas peacekeeping missions, and has led to cuts in military aid to countries which have not agreed to protect US soldiers from prosecution.
World’s largest economy. Wealth of natural resources: energy, raw materials, and food. Strong high-tech base; world-leading research and development. Global leader in computer software. World-class multinationals. Sophisticated service sector; advanced and competitive manufacturing industry. Entrepreneurial business ethic. High-quality postgraduate education, especially in high-tech business. Global dominance of US culture major boost to US manufacturers. Subsidized crops and favorable tariffs for domestic industries. UNITED STATES : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Denver
Anchorage
Computers
PROFILE In 2001 a record nine-year boom came to an end. The downturn greatly affected big business. The collapse of WorldCom in 2002, the largest ever bankruptcy, threatened confidence in business values, while media-giant AOL Time Warner posted historic losses of $98.7 billion for 2002. Unemployment has increased as companies tighten their budgets, reaching a nine-year high of 6.4% in June 2003. Recovery efforts have focused on promoting consumer spending, and President Bush touted a $2000 billion package of tax cuts – though, in the event, the cuts were greatly watered down by Congress. Interest rates have been systematically cut and reached just 1% in June 2003, a 45-year low. However, government spending has increased, notably on defense: the war on Iraq in 2003 cost $48 billion. The budget and trade accounts have both Chicago fallen into record St Louis deficits. Detroit
Seattle
Oil & gas Oil refining Electronics Chemicals Engineering
'Silicon Valley'
New York
Film industry Food processing Defense industry Banking & finance Vehicle manufacture Research & development Aerospace industry (civil)
Phoenix
Atlanta Houston
0 0
500 km
Los Angeles
Dallas
Miami
500 miles
607
U
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
Electric power 799m kW
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
UNITED STATES : LAND USE
AL
Colo
500 miles
MEDIA
†
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Yes
Yes
No
There are 1480 daily newspapers, including the New York Times, the Washington Post, and the Wall Street Journal
No
Yes
No
10 major independent networks, many commercial stations
The US lags far behind other Western countries on environmental issues. The international commitment made at the 1997 Kyoto conference on cutting carbon dioxide emissions was scrapped by President Bush in 2001. The Rockies are a battleground between those who want to maintain their beauty, and those who advocate “wise use” – in practice this often means giving ranchers and miners free rein. In 2002, Congress approved plans to dump nuclear waste in Mt. Yucca, Nevada. Similar issues surround the arguments over extending oil drilling in the Alaskan wilderness. The US is leading the field in genetically modified (GM) food. Huge acreages have been planted with GM cereals, and by 2004 over 80% of soybean production was GM. A consumer backlash, especially in Europe, has worried many farmers.
608
500 km
Daily newspaper circulation 201 per 1000 people
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
U
0 0
do ra
AINS
19.8 tonnes per capita
O Y M
Sustainability rank: 45th
CK
/
26% (14% par tially protected)
†
RO
ENVIRONMENT
Cattle Cotton Cereals Tobacco Citrus fruits
Cropland Pasture Forest High mountain regions Wetland Desert/tundra
UNT
The US has an abundance BR OOK of natural S RA NG E resources, including oil. RANGE KA The 2001 AS energy plan aimed to step up oil exploration and output, reducing the need for imports. There are massive deposits of coal in the western states – where almost all mining is opencast – and substantial mineral deposits in the mountains and intramontane basins. Nuclear power is becoming increasingly important as an energy source with 28% of it generated from just three states: Illinois, Pennsylvania,
S
0
MT
Nuclear 18% (754bn kWh) Other 1% (19bn kWh)
N
Combustion 74% (3075bn kWh)
IA
Hydro 7% (275bn kWh)
CH
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
LA
Phosphates, gypsum, oil, coal, sulfur, lead, zinc, copper, gold
PA
96.1m cattle, 86.5m turkeys, 59.5m pigs, 1.95bn chickens
CHRONOLOGY
and South Carolina. The timber industry, forced to retreat by conservationists in the Pacific northwest, especially Washington State, has moved to the south, where great stands of pine are harvested as if they were fields of wheat. Hydropower dominates the domestic sources of renewable energy. Other sources are small-scale but growing. In comparison with western Europe, the US is not intensively farmed. The huge size of farms in the Midwest and west has allowed both arable and livestock farming to be based on a low-input for low-output model.
AP
5.41m tonnes
7.45m b/d (reser ves 30.7bn barrels)
Mississ ip p i
†
RESOURCES
7 major networks, many licensed commercial stations
Mass media as a phenomenon was born in the US. No other society has ever had anything quite like US network TV, or moved so easily into the world of multichannel TV; homes with 50 or more channels are commonplace. The Internet, the most recent in the series of nationwide communication revolutions, is now used regularly by the majority of the population. Newspapers, mostly local rather than national, tend to have very low cover prices, and gain most of their revenue from advertising. They are under increasing threat from cable TV and other outlets. Radio broadcasts remain popular, with outspoken disc jockeys, often expressing views firmly on the firm right-wing end of the political spectrum.
The original 13 colonies, first established by British settlers on the eastern seaboard in the 17th century, joined to wage a war for independence (1775–1781), which Britain recognized in 1783. The 1776 Declaration of Independence was followed by the writing of the world’s first constitution. A century of westward expansion began. Following the victory of the northern states in the 1861–1865 Civil War, slavery was ended throughout the US, but Native Americans were dispossessed of their land in a series of conflicts. 1917 US enters World War I. 1929 New York stock market collapse; economic depression. 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor; US enters World War II. 1950–1953 Korean War. 1950–1954 Senator Joe McCarthy investigates supposed communist sympathizers in witch hunt. 1954 Supreme Court rules racial segregation in schools to be unconstitutional. Blacks, seeking constitutional rights, start campaign of civil disobedience. 1959 Alaska, Hawaii become states. 1961 John F. Kennedy president. Promises aid to South Vietnam. US-backed invasion of Cuba defeated at Bay of Pigs. 1962 Soviet missile bases found on Cuba; resulting threat of nuclear war narrowly averted. 1963 Kennedy assassinated. Lyndon Baines Johnson president. 1964 US involvement in Vietnam stepped up. Civil Rights Act gives blacks constitutional equality. 1968 Civil rights leader Martin Luther King is assassinated. 1969 Republican Richard Nixon takes office as president. Growing public opposition to Vietnam War. 1972 Nixon reelected. Makes historic visit to China. 1973 Withdrawal of US troops from Vietnam; 58,000 US troops dead by end of war. 1974 August, Nixon resigns following Watergate scandal over break-in to Democrat headquarters. Gerald Ford president. 1976 Democrat Jimmy Carter elected president. 1979 Seizure of US hostages in Iran. 1980 Ronald Reagan wins elections for Republicans. Adopts tough anticommunist foreign policy. 1983 Military invasion of Grenada. 1985 Air strikes against Libyan cities. Relations with USSR improve; first of three summits held. 1986 Iran–Contra affair revealed.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UNITED STATES
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
CHRONOLOGY continued
Bison in Yellowstone National Park. The park’s ecosystem is under severe strain due to the number of visitors it attracts.
Death penalty in use
2.08m prisoners
Murders 6
per 100,000 population
32
per 100,000 population
3805
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Violent crime – especially murder – is much more common than in other developed countries, even in relatively well-off areas. However, the murder rate has fallen, and by 2001 was at its lowest for over 30 years. Mass shootings have made gun control a major issue, but a powerful lobby opposes restrictions, basing its arguments on the constitution and the defense of individual liberties. Imprisonment for narcotics crimes in the US is much more widespread than in most Western countries. Capital punishment has increased since the 1980s, especially in the south. Texas carries out most executions. There are around two million people in prison in the US, almost a quarter of the world total.
†
EDUCATION 99%
†
HEALTH
Limited welfare state health benefits Cancers, hear t, cerebrovascular, and respirator y diseases
1 per 370 people
Up 2% in 2001
CRIME RATES
US researchers lead in pioneering new treatments. Sophisticated techniques are available to those with insurance (which they typically receive, at least in part, from their employer); the Texas Medical Center has a budget equivalent to that of some small countries. On the other hand, costs have skyrocketed, and state medical care facilities are woefully underfunded. Infant mortality rates in some areas are at levels more commonly found in developing countries. Notable health campaigns have focused on smoking, which is now banned in public places in many major cities. Around 30% of the population is clinically obese; obesity kills nearly as many people as smoking. Abortion is a highly sensitive issue; unborn fetuses were covered as separate individuals under new legislation in 2004.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
770 per 1000 population
646 per 1000 population
Defense 3.3%
School leaving age: 17
Education 4.9% Health 6.2%
15.3m students
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
100
% of each age group in education
1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty signed by US and USSR. 1988 Republican George Bush Sr. wins presidency. 1989 US overthrows Panama’s Gen. Noriega, then arrests him on narcotics charges. 1991 January–February, Gulf War against Iraq. US and USSR sign START arms reduction treaty. 1992 Black youths riot in Los Angeles and other cities. Bush–Yeltsin summit agrees further arms reductions. Democrat Bill Clinton defeats Bush in presidential election. 1994 Midterm elections: Republican majorities in both houses of Congress. 1995 Oklahoma bombing by Timothy McVeigh: over 160 die. 1998 Scandal over Clinton’s affair with White House intern leads to impeachment proceedings. August, bombing of US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania; revenge air strikes on Sudan and Afghanistan. December, air strikes against Iraq. 1999 February, Clinton acquitted in Senate impeachment trial. April, Columbine High School shootings. March–June, NATO intervenes in Kosovo conflict, bombardment of Yugoslavia. 2000 Democrat Al Gore concedes tightest presidential election ever to Republican George W. Bush. 2001 January, President Bush takes office. September 11, world’s worst terrorist attack kills thousands as hijacked planes destroy World Trade Center, damage Pentagon. October, US-led military action in “war on terrorism” begins with intensive aerial bombing campaign in Afghanistan. 2002 July, WorldCom bankruptcy is biggest ever corporate collapse. 2003 Bush launches war on Iraq, despite lack of UN backing. 2004 Bush defeats Democrat John Kerry in presidential election.
†
CRIME
80
60
100%
94%
40
71%
20
0
Primary
Secondary
Between 1945 and 1973, most Americans got richer. Since then, however, living standards have gone on rising only among those who finish high school. This “education effect” has led to noticeable class divisions, despite the long economic boom of the 1990s. The top 20% had average household incomes of $137,500 by 2000, whereas the incomes of the poorest 20% averaged only $13,000 – and were lower in real terms than in 1980.
Tertiary
Education in the US is primarily the responsibility of the state governments. Reports critical of standards in US public high schools cite problems of discipline, a devaluation in the worth of leaving diplomas, and a lack of resources in many areas. Private education at secondary level continues to develop rapidly, catering for 9% of high-school students. While the number of Roman Catholic private schools has shrunk, more nondenominational feepaying schools have been founded. Three-quarters of students now go on to some form of tertiary college. The leading US universities are internationally recognized as being world-class.
WORLD RANKING Position in World
U
1st
50th
100th
1
5 $35,400
8
99%
29 77 years
34 7 deaths
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
See also OVERSEAS TERRITORIES p.640
609
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD SOUTH AMERICA tin
Argen
OFFICIAL NAME: Eastern Republic of Uruguay CAPITAL: Montevideo POPULATION: 3.4 million CURRENCY: Uruguayan peso OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1828
South America
Brazil
a
URUGUAY 1828
Aug 25
ROU
-3
URUGUAY
.uy
+598
U
RUGUAY IS SITUATED IN the southeast of South America, sandwiched between its larger neighbors Brazil and Argentina. Its capital, Montevideo, is an Atlantic port on the River Plate, lying on the opposite bank to the Argentine capital Buenos Aires. Uruguay became independent in 1828, after nearly 150 years of Spanish and Portuguese control. Decades of liberal government ended in 1973 with a military coup that was to result in 12 years of dictatorship, during which 400,000 people emigrated. Most have since returned. Almost the entire low-lying landscape is devoted to the rearing of livestock, especially cattle and sheep. Uruguay is a leading wool exporter, but in recent years modern service industries have become increasingly important.
†
CLIMATE
TRANSPORTATION
Subtropical
WEATHER CHART FOR MONTEVIDEO
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4 0
0/32
Carrasco, Montevideo 1.17m passengers
†
Drive on right
Uruguayan grasslands. Rich pasture covers three-quarters of the country, ideal for cattle and sheep. Animals and animal products account for over a third of export earnings.
TOURISM
90 ships 74,700 grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 40,000 km (24,855 miles)
8983 km (5582 miles)
2993 km (1860 miles)
1600 km (994 miles)
1.42m visitors
/
Up 13% in 2003
Argentina 60% Brazil 9% USA 2% Chile 1%
-20/-4
There are extensive internal and international coach and bus services. The government has sold off its share in the national bus industry and has closed down all passenger railroad services. A multimillion-dollar project to build a 45-km (30-mile) road bridge across the River Plate from Colonia to Buenos Aires is still under review. The bridge is to be privately financed, recouping costs with a toll.
Uruguay has one of the most benign climates in the world. It is uniformly temperate over the whole country. Winters are mild, frost is rare, and it never snows. Summers are generally cool for these latitudes and rarely tropically hot. The moderate rainfall tends to fall in heavy showers, leaving most days sunny.
†
PEOPLE
19/km2 (50/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
92%
8%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Protestant 2%
Roman Catholic 66%
Jewish 2% Other and nonreligious 30%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Black 4%
White 90%
Paraguay 1% Other 27% 0
10
20
50
40
30
Mestizo 6%
Most Uruguayans are second- or third-generation European, mainly of Spanish or Italian descent. There are also some mixed European– Amerindian mestizos (a group which had absorbed all indigenous Amerindians by the mid-19th century) and a small minority of people descended from Africans or immigrants from Brazil, who live near the Brazilian border or in and around Montevideo. More recent immigrants include Jews, Armenians, and Lebanese. Historically, ethnic tensions have been few. The birthrate is low for Latin America. The considerable prosperity derived from cattle ranching allowed Uruguay to become a welfare state long before any other Latin American country. In spite of Uruguay’s serious economic decline since the end of the 1950s, there is still a sizable, if less prosperous, middle class. A clear
60
% of total arrivals
Sandy beaches near the River Plate estuary are a major attraction; Punta del Este is the main beach resort. The old Spanish fortifications of Montevideo have been destroyed, but the city retains a colonial atmosphere.
Pop. density low
Spanish
610
Visitors : Population 1:2.4
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
-10/14
U
†
sign of the country’s economic and social deterioration during the years of military dictatorship was the unprecedented growth of shanty towns around Montevideo. Uruguay is largely a Roman Catholic country, but it is liberal in its attitude to religion, and all forms are tolerated. Divorce is legal. Women, who gained the vote in 1932, are regarded as equal to men. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 1.8% 8.1% 10.9% 14.3% 16.5%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39 0–19
Male 0.9% 6.4% 10.2% 13.9% 17%
% of population by age group
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: URUGUAY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Embalse de Salto Grande
LAND HEIGHT
A
Z
DE
Minas de Corrales
H C U
Sarandí Grande
Pl
at
San Ramón Tala Minas
Canelones Progreso
Libertad
Las Piedras
a
Pando
MONTEVIDEO 0
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Mercsr
IBRD
Joined UN in 1945
OAS
RG
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Government credibility Batlle was seriously weakened by the early departure of junior coalition Blancos from his cabinet in 2002. With elections due in 2004, the Blancos were seen to be distancing themselves from Batlle’s harsh austerity program, already affecting the Colorados’ popularity. Economic malaise The economy entered its fifth year of recession in 2003. Government forecasts of a 2% contraction for the year were far below what independent economists predicted.
Regional integration is a major focus, but President Batlle’s determination to clinch a bilateral trade deal with the US caused a row with the Brazilian government, which said that it contravened the official policy of Mercosur to negotiate trade agreements as a bloc. Argentina also took exception to plans to impose protective tariffs to cushion Uruguayan industry from the effects of Argentine devaluation. Such difficulties complicated diplomatic moves to strengthen Mercosur as a negotiating bloc in upcoming talks to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). Uruguay and the US have agreed a legal assistance treaty to allow easier access to bank accounts of those suspected of laundering the proceeds from narcotics trafficking.
AID
†
Recipient
$13m (receipts)
Luis Alberto Lacalle Herrera, president in 1990–1995.
Jorge Batlle Ibáñez, who took office for a four-year term as president in 2000.
o
g a L bo
.
Down 13% in 2002
Uruguay received an IMF standby loan of $1.5 billion for 2002–2003, but aid remains otherwise modest.
ir
im
Ce
tí lla
Lascano Chuy
Pan de Azúcar
Piriápolis
N
A Aiguá Castillos
Cerro Catedral 513m
O
Rocha San Carlos Maldonado Punta del Este
A T
100 miles
Geplac
Gran de
José Pedro Varela
100 km
0
n
U
Florida San José de Mayo
Rosario Santa Lucía
Juan L. Lacaze
o
E
Colonia del Sacramento
N
m ar
C Nueva Helvecia
La
Río Branco
E
D
Treinta y Tres
H
Cardona
I L L A
Ol i
Sarandí del Yí Durazno José Batlle y Ordóñez
Trinidad
Dolores Nueva Palmira Carmelo
Melo
R
Yí
Mercedes
A
The elections of 1984 heralded a return to democracy. Since then the main Colorado (PC) and Blanco (PN) parties have monopolized power, either alone or in coalitions, despite being traditional opponents. The left-wing EPFA has been the effective opposition, frequently in alliance with trade unions fighting austerity measures and reform of the social security system. Despite the crowded electoral calendar in 1999, and infighting among Blanco factions, there was broad consensus on the need for continuing economic reform. In the 1999 elections, Colorado candidate Jorge Batlle won the presidency in the face of an unusually strong left-wing challenge.
Cerro Chato
Soriano
N
A
Paso de los Toros
Ne g r o
Fray Bentos
PROFILE
Fraile Muerto
g
C
Uruguay is a presidential multiparty democracy.
Ne
Young
G
3% 3% NE Res
R
23% PN
Urug uay
32% PC
L
Isidoro Noblia
n aró
Guichón
gu Ya
E
C
Qu e gua y Gran de
Paysandú
Embalse del Río Negro
39% EPFA
I
Tacuarembó bó em ar cu Ta
Chamber of Senators 31 seats
under 10 000
Tranqueras
IL
ug u Ur
EPFA = Progressive Broad Front PC = Colorado Party (Colorados) PN = National Party (Blancos) NE = New Space Res = Reserved for the vice president
over 10 000
LA
ay
4% NE
over 50 000
Sea Level
ED
O
Rivera
ro
T 22% PN
G r a nd e
Salto
N
33% PC
pe y
HA
Ar a
POPULATION over 100 000
200m/656ft
I
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Chamber of Representatives 99 seats
41% EPFA
Total Area : 176 220 sq. km (68 039 sq. miles)
M
President Jorge Batlle Ibáñez
URUGUAY R
Tomás Gomensoro Artigas
G
L. House 1999/2004 U. House 1999/2004
Multiparty elections
N
†
POLITICS
L
C
A
B Cuare im
Bella Unión
A
N
T
I
C
CHRONOLOGY The Spaniards were the first to colonize the area north of the River Plate. In 1680, the Portuguese also founded a colony there, at Colonia del Sacramento, so starting 150 years of rivalry between the colonial powers for control of the territory. 1726 Spaniards found Montevideo. By 1800, whole country is divided into large cattle ranches. 1808 Montevideo declares independence from Buenos Aires. 1811 Patriotic rancher and local caudillo, José Gervasio Artigas, fends off Brazilian attack. 1812–1820 Uruguayans, known as Orientales (“Easterners,” from the eastern side of the River Plate), fight wars against Argentinian and Brazilian invaders. Brazil finally takes Montevideo. 1827 Gen. Lavalleja defeats Brazilians with Argentine help. 1828 Seeing trade benefits that an independent Uruguay would bring as a buffer state between Argentina and Brazil, Britain mediates and secures Uruguayan independence. 1836 Start of large-scale European immigration.
611
U
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
.
No compulsory military service
Down 39% in 2002
The military withdrew from power in 1985 and has since respected civilian rule. “Lodges” operate within the army to promote officers’ interests and have displayed opposition to the government’s replacements and promotions within the military hierarchy. A 1986 law virtually blocked investigations into killings, torture, and “disappearances” during the dictatorship, but there is still pressure to bring guilty officers to justice. A presidential decree in 1997 granted amnesty to officers punished for political offenses under military rule.
ECONOMICS $14.6bn
¥
†
URUGUAYAN ARMED FORCES
3 frigates, 8 patrol boats
5700 personnel
31 combat aircraft (12 A37B, 6 IA-58B)
3100 personnel
The defense budget is modest; recent purchases have come from Israel and the Czech Republic.
Inflation 28% p.a. (1990–2001)
29.73 Uruguayan pesos (26.82)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................77th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4340 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$262m INFLATION ..........................................14% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................17%
EXPORTS
Mexico 4%
15,200 personnel
None
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
15 main battle tanks (T-55)
Germany 5% Argentina 5%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
612
$212m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
U
1838–1865 La Guerra Grande civil war between Blancos (Whites, future conservative party) and Colorados (Reds, future liberals). 1865–1870 President Venancio Flores of Colorados takes Uruguay into War of Triple Alliance against Paraguay. 1872 Peace under military rule. Blancos strong in country, Colorados in cities. 1890s Violent strikes by immigrant trade unionists against landed elite enriched by massive European investment in ranching. 1903–1907 Reformist Colorado, José Batlle y Ordóñez, president. 1911–1915 Batlle serves second term in office. Batllismo creates the only welfare state in Latin America with pensions, social security, and free education and health service; also nationalizations, disestablishment of Church, abolition of death penalty. 1933 Military coup. Opposition groups excluded from politics. 1939–1945 Neutral in World War II. 1942 President Alfredo Baldomir dismisses government and tries to bring back proper representation. 1951 New constitution replaces president with nine-member council. Decade of great prosperity follows until world agricultural prices plummet. Sharp drop in foreign investment. 1958 Blancos win elections for first time in 93 years. 1962–1973 Tupamaros urban guerrillas battle government. 1966 Presidency reinstated. Colorados back in power. 1967 Jorge Pacheco president. Tries to stifle opposition to tough anti-inflation policies. 1973 Military coup. Promises to encourage foreign investment counteracted by denial of political freedom and brutal repression of the left; 400,000 emigrate. 1984 Free presidential elections won by Julio Sanguinetti (Colorado). 1985 Military step down, Sanguinetti inaugurated. 1986 Those guilty of human rights abuse granted amnesty. 1989 Referendum endorses amnesty in interests of stability. Elections won by Luis Alberto Lacalle Herrera and Blancos. 1994–1995 Sanguinetti reelected, forms coalition government. Mercosur membership. 1999 October, presidential election won by Colorado Jorge Batlle. 2002 Uruguay loses investment grade status due to impact of Argentine crisis.
DEFENSE
2002
USA 8% Other 56% Brazil 22% IMPORTS
China 4%
Mexico 5% USA 9% Brazil 17%
Other 42% Argentina 23%
STRENGTHS Fertile grasslands. Major wool exporter. Beef-meat products. Fishing. Competitive exchange rate.
WEAKNESSES Few natural resources. Dependence on Brazilian and Argentine markets. Modest industry. Large public sector deficit. Prolonged economic recession. Troubled banking sector.
production; livestock and animal products, especially meat and wool, bring in over one-third of export earnings. Tourism is increasingly important. Most economic activity – and half the population – is concentrated in Montevideo. A shrinking economy has made it difficult to achieve GDP and fiscal targets agreed with the IMF. Unions resist spending cuts and, with public opinion hostile to major privatizations, there has been little progress in necessary structural reforms. URUGUAY : MAJOR BUSINESSES
Salto Paysandú
Río Branco
Fray Bentos
PROFILE Uruguay’s economy is traditionally agricultural. Three-quarters of the land is rich pasture, supporting livestock; much of the rest is given over to crops. Farming, which formerly brought great wealth, has given way to services as a major employer. Manufacturing now accounts for some 16% of GDP yet remains tied to the land with farmbased goods accounting for half of
Colonia del Sacramento Durazno Montevideo Heavy engineering Food processing Oil refining Wool spinning Meat packing
Leather Textiles
0 0
100 km 100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: URUGUAY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 2.2m kW
Not an oil producer; refines 38,400 b/d
105,051 tonnes
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.3% (0.2% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 6th
Yes
Yes
Yes
Pollution of the main Uruguay and Plate Rivers is a concern, as is traffic density in Montevideo. TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 293 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 16 daily newspapers, including El País, El Diario, and La Mañana 4 services: 1 state-owned, 3 independent
1 state-owned service, 100 independent stations
The press is relatively free. El País supports the Blancos (PN), while La Mañana backs the Colorados (PC). No death penalty
/
80
100
Embalse del Rio Negro
i
Rio Negr o
and amethysts are so far extracted. The mining of gold deposits is currently being developed and exploration continues.
†
EDUCATION 98%
m
ke La
School leaving age: 15
0
100 km
0
†
SPENDING
100 miles
GDP/cap. increase
97,541 students
195 per 1000 population
100
% of each age group in education
Yes
7100 prisoners
60
40
% of total generation by type
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
Yes
†
20
0
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Yes
CRIME
Nuclear 0% Other 0%
1.6 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
†
Cropland Pasture Forest Sheep Cattle Wheat
Combustion 7% (0.5bn kWh)
M ir
Most of Uruguay is farmland, much of it given over to cattle and sheep. Rice is the country’s only other significant export. There are no known oil or natural gas resources; most electricity is imported. Considerable potential is believed to exist for the mining sector, but only small quantities of building materials and jewelry-quality agate
URUGUAY : LAND USE
Hydro 93% (7.1bn kWh)
Gold, iron, gemstones, copper, zinc, lead, manganese
11.7m cattle, 9.78m sheep, 13.3m chickens
MEDIA
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Rio Urugua y
†
RESOURCES
Defense 1.8%
80
Education 2.5% 60
100%
Murders 7
per 100,000 population
11
per 100,000 population
1981
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Levels of violent crime are generally low in comparison with neighboring Brazil and Argentina. However, rises in street violence and organized crime are of growing concern.
Health 5%
100% 0
40
38%
20
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Education, inspired by the French lycée system, is state-funded for 12 years up to secondary level and is compulsory for all children for nine years from the age of six. Both state and private schools follow the same curriculum; private schools are monitored by the government. Facilities are rudimentary in rural areas. Uruguay has two statefunded universities. The children of wealthy Uruguayans tend to complete their studies in the US. Resistance to tax increases and pressure to reduce the fiscal deficit have both placed serious constraints on education spending. Secondary school students continue to stage protests against the resulting effects on the system.
Up 15% in 2000
CRIME RATES
280 per 1000 population
HEALTH 1 per 270 people
†
Welfare state health benefits Cancers, heart and cerebrovascular diseases
Most Uruguayans have easy access to health services. Average life expectancy is high. The health system faces a challenge, however, with a large number of people unable to afford health insurance. Despite opposition, the government has privatized some of the state medical establishments. Health spending has in recent years been a victim of the budget cuts and social welfare reforms aimed at controlling the fiscal deficit.
Uruguay possesses the social mobility which is typical of countries created through decades of large-scale immigration, and many professionals come from modest backgrounds. A 1999 report by the IDB exempted Uruguay from the regional trend of serious income inequality. The wealthy members of society either tend to be landowners or are employed in the financial sector. They have traditionally looked toward Europe, rather than the US, for luxury goods. The most deprived sections of Uruguayan society are the urban poor of Montevideo, a large proportion of whom are of mixed African and European descent, and the rural poor, who own little or no land.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
U
50th
42 100th
55 $4340
75 years
58
57
98%
14 deaths
46
150th
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
613
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
UZBEKISTAN
Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan UZBEKISTAN
1991
Sept 1
UZ
+5 to +6
Afghanistan
TOURISM
.uz
+998
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Uzbekistan CAPITAL: Tashkent POPULATION: 26.1 million CURRENCY: Som OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Uzbek 1991
Asia
CENTRAL ASIA
S
HARING WHAT IS LEFT of the Aral Sea with Kazakhstan, its northern neighbor, Uzbekistan contains the ancient cities of Samarqand, Bukhara (Buxoro), Khiva, and Tashkent. It is the most populous central Asian republic and has considerable natural resources. The dictatorship of President Karimov has prevented the spread of Islamic fundamentalism.
332,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:79
/
Up 22% in 1999–2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
North & East Asia & the Pacific 59% Europe 30% Middle East 7%
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR TASHKENT
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Americas 1%
Has no fleet 0
70,992 km (44,112 miles)
None
4126 km (2564 miles)
1100 km (684 miles)
Uzbekistan has a well-developed transportation system. An extensive network of buses serves country areas, while good Soviet-style systems of trolley buses and trams operate in the major cities. Tashkent’s subway system was the first in central Asia. Road and rail networks have deteriorated since 1991, however, and are concentrated in the south and east.
Uzbekistan has a harsh continental climate. Summers can be extremely hot and dry. Large areas of the country are desert.
A
T
N
S H
ARAL SEA
A
Z
LAND HEIGHT
A
K S
Chimboy
K Y Z Y L
TURAN
K
U
LOWLAND
200m/656ft Sea Level
M
Da
M
Nurota
ry
Sirdaryo
T
I
Koson
Urgut Kitob Shahrisabz GE RAN SAR
Denov Boysun
N Jarqo‘rg‘on
Termiz
ANISTAN
S
Namangan Andijon
Shahrixon
Asaka
Marg‘ilon Farg‘ona
RG K Y
Bulung‘ur
G IS
AFGH
Olmaliq Qo‘qon
Samarqand
Qarshi
A
Chust
Angren
Jizzax
Kattaqo‘rg‘on
Oqtosh Kogon
Qorako‘l
S Mosque in Samarqand. The city remained an Islamic stronghold, despite communist attempts at suppression, when Uzbekistan formed part of the Soviet Union.
Navoiy
hon
JI KI ST AN
I
fs ra
A
G‘ijduvon
Buxoro
T
Gazli
Za
N
N URO TA T I ZM A S
ANGE
KAL R
CHAT
Guliston Yangiyer Bekobod
a
E
Ayda rko ‘l K o‘li
r Sy rya a D
Amu
K
G‘azalkent
N
Yangiyo‘l
YZ
A
Xiwa
R
RG
T
U
Chirchiq TASHKENT
Zarafshon
To‘rtko‘l
KY
Gora Manas 4488m
N
Uchquduq
T
over 10 000
500m/1640ft
Nukus
Urganch
over 50 000
1000m/3281ft
Taxtako‘pir
Taxiatosh
over 1 000 000 over 100 000
2000m/6562ft
A
Xo‘jayli
H
T
K
Qo‘ng‘irot
POPULATION
3000m/9843ft
QAT O BO RKÛ BO H TO I GH
Z
USTYURT u Darya Am
A
60
UZBEKISTAN
K
A
K
PLATEAU
614
50
40
30
Total Area : 447 400 sq. km (172 741 sq. miles)
Mo‘ynoq
U
20
Uzbekistan has considerable tourist potential. Bukhara, once a trading center on the silk route, is famous worldwide for its architecture and carpet-making. It has great religious significance for Muslims, who are encouraged to make at least one pilgrimage to its holy shrines. Bukhara’s Kalyan Mosque is famous for its minaret built of unbaked bricks. The city of Samarqand was expanded in the 14th century by Timur, and contains the monumental gateway of the Shir Dar Madrasa, one of the most beautiful buildings in the Islamic world.
-10/14 -20/-4
10
% of total arrivals
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
0
0/32
South Asia 2%
Drive on right
Other 1%
Tashkent International 1.52m passengers
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TRANSPORTATION
Desert/mountain
Y
Z
N
0 0
100 km 100 miles
S
T
A
N
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UZBEKISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
58/km2 (151/mi2)
Uzbek, Russian, Tajik, Kazakh THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
37%
63%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Orthodox Christian 9%
Other 3%
Sunni Muslim 88% ETHNIC MAKEUP
Tajik 5% Russian 8%
Kazakh 4%
WORLD AFFAIRS
Pop. density medium
Other 12%
1970s, when net emigration of Russians began. The authoritarian nature of the Karimov leadership has prevented potential antagonism between the country’s ethnic groups from becoming violent; incidents such as the 1989 and 1990 clashes between Meskhetians and Uzbeks are rare. The removal of the dominance of the Communist Party has meant that Uzbek society has reverted to traditional social patterns based on family, religion, clan, neighborhood (mahalla), and region, rather than on membership of the party. Independence has done little to alter the peripheral role of women in politics. Arranged marriages are still the custom in the countryside. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female
Uzbek 71%
0.4%
Among the former Soviet republics, Uzbekistan has a relatively complex ethnic makeup. In addition to the Uzbeks, Russians, Tajiks, and Kazakhs, there are small minorities of Tatars and Karakalpaks. The proportion of Russians has been declining since the
†
POLITICS
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Supreme Council 250 seats
Male 0.2%
60–79
2.7%
7.5%
40–59
7.2%
15.6%
20–39
15.5%
23.4%
0–19
24.3%
% of population by age group
Multiparty elections
President Islam Karimov
1999/2004
3.2%
80+
4% 1% J Vac
since bomb attacks in Tashkent in 1999. Karimov has kept the support of the Russian minority by avoiding nationalist rhetoric.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES 44% Ind
19% PDP
14% 8% 6% 4% S PF LN NR
Ind = Independents PDP = People's Democratic Party S = Self-sacrifice (Fidorkorlar) PF = Progress of the Fatherland LN = Local nominees J = Justice (Adolat) NR = National Renaissance Vac = Vacant
Uzbekistan is effectively run by a presidential dictatorship. In 2002 a referendum approved the creation of a second legislative chamber and lengthened the presidential term.
Islamic fundamentalism Civil war in Tajikistan and the rise of the taliban in Afghanistan raised fears of Islamic fundamentalism. A joint operation with Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan against the pan-regional Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) took place in 2000, as cross-border attacks rose. IMU leader Juma Namangani was reported killed alongside taliban fighters in Afghanistan in late 2001. A clampdown against the Hizb-ut Tahrir group continues.
PROFILE President Islam Karimov’s former communist PDP has not been willing to devolve or share power. The 1992 constitution appeared to endorse multipartyism, but Karimov took advantage of his enhanced powers to ban several opposition parties, including the nationalist Birlik (Unity) and the Islamic Renaissance Party. Erk (Will), the only legal opposition party, was proscribed in 1993, and in 1995, a group of its activists received stiff sentences for political subversion. Real opposition is now entirely underground. The intimidation and arbitrary imprisonment of dissidents are common, and have increased
Regionalism The high birthrate puts pressure on limited agricultural resources. Migration from poorer areas has led to calls for secession from some regions. In the densely populated eastern Fergana Valley there have been a number of violent incidents.
Islam Karimov, first elected president in 1990 and Uzbekistan’s sole leader since independence.
CIS
SCO
OIC
† NAM
Joined UN in 1992
OSCE
Unlike neighboring Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, Uzbekistan has the resources to allow it to follow a relatively independent foreign policy. The Karimov leadership has used this to promote Uzbekistan as the leading central Asian state, a role for which it vies with Kazakhstan. It is a member of the Georgia–Ukraine–Uzbekistan– Azerbaijan–Moldova (GUUAM) group of ex-Soviet states, signifying a wish to maintain a certain distance in relations with Russia, though it suspended its membership for a year in 2002. It has border disputes with its immediate neighbors, in particular over the laying of landmines on its borders with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan to prevent terrorist incursions. Ties with the US were strengthened when Uzbekistan hosted US forces during the war in Afghanistan in 2001. The US offered support after a wave of terrorist attacks in early 2004. Relations with Turkey are also developing. While Western companies have difficulty in sealing contracts in Uzbekistan, Turkish companies have been commissioned to build vital installations such as those for telecommunications.
CHRONOLOGY Once part of the great Mongol Empire, present-day Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire between 1865 and 1876. Russification of the area was superficial, and it was not until Soviet rule that significant Russian immigration occurred. A further influx of Russians occurred during Stalin’s program of forced collectivization. 1917 Soviet power established in Tashkent. 1918 Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), incorporating present-day Uzbekistan, proclaimed. 1923–1941 Alphabet changes, from Arabic to Latin to Iranized Tashkent, finally to Cyrillic. 1924 Basmachi rebels who resisted Soviet rule crushed. Uzbek SSR founded (which, until 1929, included the Tajik ASSR). 1925 Anti-Islamic campaign bans schools and closes mosques. 1936 Karakalpak ASSR (formerly part of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) incorporated into the Uzbek SSR. 1937 Uzbek communist leadership is purged by Stalin.
U
615
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
$189m (receipts)
/
Up 24% in 2002
Uzbekistan’s lack of commitment to economic stabilization and its record of rights violations have generally deterred
DEFENSE $1.8bn
†
/
bilateral aid donors. US aid linked to the “war on terrorism” had become the largest single source, overtaking inflows from Japan, but was slashed in 2004 due to continuing human rights abuses.
Phasing out conscription
Up 3% in 2002
UZBEK ARMED FORCES
Uzbekistan has a standing army of around 40,000 personnel, mainly conscripts, as well as over 17,000 internal security troops and a 1000-strong National Guard. The military is being restructured, with a view to full professionalization of the armed forces. A policy of mining the land borders with Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan to thwart incursions by Islamist militants has drawn international criticism.
ECONOMICS $7.85bn
†
40,000 personnel
340 main battle tanks (T-62, T-64, T-72)
None
165 combat aircraft (Su-17, Su-24, Su-25, Su-27, MiG-29)
15,000 personnel
None
Inflation 211% p.a. (1990–2001)
1020 som (974)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................98th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$310 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$239m INFLATION .......................................45.5% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................10%
EXPORTS
Poland 5%
Tajikistan 7%
550
400
400
250
250
100
100
1998
Italy 8% Other 51%
Ukraine 11% Russia 18%
IMPORTS
USA 7%
Kazakhstan 8% South Korea 9%
Other 43%
Germany 10%
GDP
550
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
616
Recipient
Consumer price index 1998=100
U
1941–1945 Industrial boom. 1959 Sharaf Rashidov becomes first secretary of Communist Party of Uzbekistan (CPUz). Retains position until 1983. 1966 Tashkent razed by earthquake. Rebuilding brings in large number of Russian and other non-Uzbek migrants. 1982–1983 Yuri Andropov becomes leader in Moscow. His anticorruption purge results in emergence of a new generation of central Asian officials. 1989 First noncommunist political movement, Birlik (Unity), formed but not officially registered. June, clashes erupt between Meskhetians and indigenous Uzbek population of Fergana Valley, resulting in more than 100 deaths. October, Birlik campaign leads to Uzbek being declared official language. 1990 Islam Karimov becomes executive president of the new Uzbek Supreme Soviet. Further interethnic fighting in Fergana Valley; 320 killed. 1991 August, independence is proclaimed and Republic of Uzbekistan is adopted as official name. October, Uzbekistan signs treaty establishing economic community with seven other former Soviet republics. November, CPUz restructured as the People’s Democratic Party of Uzbekistan (PDP); Karimov remains its leader. December, Karimov confirmed in post of president. Uzbekistan joins the CIS. 1992 Price liberalization provokes student riots in Tashkent. New post-Soviet constitution adopted along Western democratic lines. All religious parties banned. September, Uzbekistan sends troops to Tajikistan to suppress violence and strengthen border controls. 1993 Growing harassment of opposition political parties, Erk (Will) and Birlik. 1994 Introduction of som. 1995 January, Karimov’s PDP wins legislative elections. March, referendum extends Karimov’s presidential term until 2000. 1999 Bomb attacks by Islamist terrorists lead to crackdown and arrests of hundreds of opposition activists. Legislative elections. 2000 Karimov reelected. 2002 Referendum extends president’s term to seven years. 2003 Utkur Sultanov replaced as prime minister by Shavkat Mirziyayev after eight-year term.
†
AID
2002
during World War II, Uzbekistan’s economy is predominantly agricultural. Promarket reforms have been slow, despite fresh assistance from the World Bank to increase the efficiency of privatized companies. The gold sector has attracted investment from US companies. Energy resources are still to be fully exploited. The som was devalued by 50% in 2001.
Russia 23% UZBEKISTAN : MAJOR BUSINESSES
STRENGTHS Gold. Well-developed cotton market. Considerable unexploited deposits of oil and natural gas. Current production of natural gas makes significant contribution to electricity generation. Manufacturing tradition includes agricultural machinery and central Asia’s first aviation factory.
ARAL SEA
Tashkent Namangan
Nukus
WEAKNESSES Dependent on grain imports, as domestic production meets only 25% of needs. Very limited economic reform. High inflation. Environmentally damaging irrigation scheme for cotton production.
PROFILE With the exception of Tashkent, which became an industrial area
Quqon Bukhoro
Textiles
Samarqand
Fertilizers Silk weaving Leather tanning Food processing
0
Engineering
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: UZBEKISTAN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 11.7m kW
8152 tonnes
166,000 b/d (reserves 600m barrels)
8.2m sheep, 5.4m cattle, 14.5m chickens
Natural gas, coal, oil, gold, uranium, copper, tungsten, aluminum
u
20
0
60
40
80
100
†
CRIME
Death penalty in use
.
CRIME RATES
Yes
Yes
Yes
4
per 100,000 population
Yes
Yes
Yes
2
per 100,000 population
103
per 100,000 population
Thefts
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 3 daily newspapers, including the Uzbek Khalk suzi and the Russian Pravda Vostoka 2 state-controlled services, 35 private stations
2 state-controlled services, over 15 private stations
Uzbekistan’s restrictions on independent publications are designed to encourage the promotion of the personality cult and policies of Karimov, and manifest themselves both in overt censorship and self-censorship by media outlets. Independent journalists face harassment. The expression of Islamist and nationalist opinion is forbidden.
Heart, respiratory, and cerebrovascular diseases, cancers
1 per 345 people
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
School leaving age: 18
66 per 1000 population
Defense 2.9%
183,600 students
Health 2.7% 0
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 100
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 3 per 1000 people
Welfare state health benefits
Education 8.4% 99%
% of each age group in education
†
Crime rose in the 1990s as living standards declined. In 2001 the number of crimes carrying the death penalty was reduced to four. Unofficial Islamic courts in the Fergana Valley are a sign of opposition to the government.
†
200 miles
The health service has been in decline since the dissolution of the USSR. Some rural areas are not served at all. In 1998 a $69.7 million project to improve health services was announced, with the World Bank providing a loan of some $30 million. Serious respiratory diseases among cotton growers are increasing.
Rapes
EDUCATION
200 km
0 0
†
HEALTH
Down 2% in 2000–2002
Murders
MEDIA
Cropland Pasture Forest High mountain regions Desert Wetlands Sheep Cotton - cash crop
world’s fifth-largest producer. A decision after independence to diversify was reversed when the value of cotton as a commodity on the world market became clear. Fruit, silk cocoons, and vegetables for Russian markets are also of rising importance.
48,000 prisoners
The irrigation schemes required to sustain the cotton industry have wreaked considerable environmental damage. Soil salination is now a major problem. The Aral Sea has also been seriously depleted. It has shrunk in size by more than half in the last 30 years and is now divided in two. In 2004 the World Bank backed a $75 million project to save the Aral Sea region; the southern section is to be left to dry up completely. The indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides to increase production has polluted many rivers.
K
% of total generation by type
4.8 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
K YZ YL D a
M
Sustainability rank: 118th
Nuclear 0% Other 0%
U
/
2%
†
ARAL SEA
Combustion 89% (43bn kWh)
a ry
ENVIRONMENT
UZBEKISTAN : LAND USE
Hydro 11% (5.4bn kWh)
Am
Uzbekistan has one of the world’s largest gold mines, at Murantau in the Kyzyl Kum desert, and also large deposits of natural gas, oil, coal, and uranium. An important oil field was discovered in 1992 in the Namangan region and production will rise with further investment. Most gas produced is currently used domestically, but it could also become a strong export. Cotton is the main focus of agriculture: Uzbekistan is the
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Former communists are still the wealthiest group, since they retain control of the economy. Many rural poor live below the poverty line.
80
60
100%
99%
WORLD RANKING
40
20
9%
Position in World 1st
0
Primary
Secondary
U
Tertiary
1
50th
The state system still follows the Soviet model, though some instruction is in Uzbek. In the late 1980s, there were a few ethnic Tajik schools and a university in Samarqand. These were closed down in 1992 as relations deteriorated between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The rise in Islamic consciousness has led to a growing number of madaris – schools attached to mosques. In 1999 the establishment of Tashkent Islamic University was agreed.
99%
100th
150th
116 67 years
193rd
107 125 52 deaths
161 $310
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
617
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
VANUATU
VANUATU
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Vanuatu CAPITAL: Port Vila POPULATION: 212,000 CURRENCY: Vatu OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Bislama, English, and French 1980
1980
July 30
VU
+11
.vu
+678
T
HE ARCHIPELAGO OF Vanuatu stretches over 1300 km (800 miles) in the South Pacific. Mountainous and volcanic in origin, only 12 of the 82 islands are a significant size – Espiritu Santo and Malekula are the largest. Formerly known as the New Hebrides – ruled jointly by France and Britain from 1906 – Vanuatu became independent in 1980. Politics since then has been democratic but volatile.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical oceanic
WEATHER CHART FOR PORT VILA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
†
Pop. density low
Bislama (Melanesian pidgin), English, French, other indigenous languages
17/km2 (45/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
80/31 70/28
22%
78%
60/24
60/140 50/122
50/20
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
0/32
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Seventh-day Adventist 6% Presbyterian 37%
0
Traditional beliefs 8% Roman Catholic 15% Anglican 15%
Other 19%
The climate is tropical and hot. Rainfall and temperatures decrease north to south. Cyclones occur November–April.
†
Drive on right
321 ships 1.38m grt
Bauerfield, Port Vila THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 257 km (160 miles)
None
None
None
Road quality is generally poor, with routes on some remote islands impassable in the wet season.
TOURISM 50,400 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:4.2
/
Up 29% in 2003
Indigenous Melanesians – ni-Vanuatu – comprise 94% of the population. Of Vanuatu’s 82 islands, 67 are inhabited, but 80% of people live on 12 main islands. The population is becoming more urbanized and one in eight ni-Vanuatu now lives in Port Vila. However, 60% of the population still live by subsistence agriculture. Vanuatu is home to some of the Pacific’s most traditional peoples, and local social and religious customs are strong. With 105 indigenous languages, Vanuatu boasts the world’s highest per capita density of languages. Bislama pidgin is the lingua franca. Women have lower social status than men, and bride price is still commonly paid. Many educated women refuse to marry because of loss of property rights. To boost equality, primary schools are encouraged to take girls.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
V
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Tourism in Vanuatu is facing stiff competition from cheaper regional rivals. Organized tours include sea fishing, sailing, kayaking, and diving.
618
President Kalkot Mataskelekele
Parliament 52 seats
15% 15% VP UMP
Vanuatu’s unspoiled beaches are one of the reasons for the upsurge in the tourist industry.
15% Ind
35% Others
NUP = National United Party VP = Vanua'aku Pati UMP = Union of Moderate Parties Ind = Independents
Ni-Vanuatu politics is best described as anarchic. Political allegiances are swiftly changed and governments frequently toppled. Independence leader Fr. Walter Lini remained a powerful political figure despite being ousted as VP leader and premier in 1991. He went on to lead the NUP until his death in 1999. Power has shifted between shaky coalitions headed by either the VP (1980–1991) or the UMP (1991–2001). A grand coalition between the two parties, forged in 2001 under Edward Natapei of the VP, came undone amid infighting in late 2003. Natapei’s next coalition was brought down by a series of defections. Fresh elections in 2004 again left no faction with enough seats to form a government. A shaky coalition led by Serge Vohor of the UMP was shored up by the addition of the 10-seat NUP.
WORLD AFFAIRS OIF
Comm
NAM
† PC
Joined UN in 1981
PIF
Political instability prompted France to recognize independence only reluctantly in 1980. The UK, on the other hand, did not share its partner’s hesitation. The anti-French VP government of the day accused France of supporting an abortive bid for independence by Espiritu Santo that year. Vanuatu was the first South Pacific state to gain full membership of the Non-Aligned Movement. In 2002–2003 it was forced by the OECD to improve financial transparency.
†
Recipient
$28m (receipts)
Other 15%
Multiparty elections
AT THE LAST ELECTION
AID
New Caledonia 10%
†
2004/2006
Australia 60% New Zealand 15%
Fiji
New Caledonia
POLITICS
20% NUP
90/35
Rainfall in July and September is 96.5 cm/38 inches
TRANSPORTATION
Pacific Ocean
PACIFIC OCEAN
.
Down 13% in 2002
Vanuatu is heavily dependent on aid. Leading donors include Australia, France, the ADB, the EU, Japan, and New Zealand. Vanuatu is classed by the UN as a Least Developed Country (LDC), and as such receives guaranteed aid support.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: VANUATU
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
DEFENSE There is no army
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
ECONOMICS $221m
†
Espiritu Santo Aoba
Passage Lolvavana
116.3 vatu (120.5)
Pentecost
Malo
Norsup
Ambrym
Malekula Paama Lopévi
Epi Tongoa
O R
Efate
STRENGTHS
Émao
PORT VILA
Baver Field
A Erromango
LAND HEIGHT
Aniwa
500m/1640ft Sea Level
Isangel
0
Japan 5% India 33%
Indonesia 6% South Korea 10%
Thailand 23% Other 23% IMPORTS
Other 27%
Singapore 8% New Zealand 10% Taiwan 15%
Australia 21%
RESOURCES
Japan 19%
†
Electric power 12,000 kW
26,690 tonnes
Not an oil producer
130,000 cattle, 62,000 pigs, 340,000 chickens
None
Vanuatu’s main resources are its arable land – only partly utilized – and its forests and waters. These could be exploited by the tourist, timber, and fishing industries. New export crops are being explored to offset declining copra and cocoa exports. Beef is of growing importance. Nuclear power development was banned under 1983 legislation.
Futuna
Aneityum
100 km
0
†
HEALTH
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Heart diseases, cancers, malaria
A network of rural clinics and village health workers has helped to improve health levels. Nominal fees are charged.
†
SPENDING
100 miles
ENVIRONMENT
/
0.2% partially protected
EXPORTS
52 students
A
200m/656ft
Large trade and budget deficits. Rate of growth stagnating: contracted in 1999 and 2001. Offshore banking stopped after international pressure. Dependence on agricultural sector, vulnerable to adverse weather and fluctuating market prices.
Tanna
E
WEAKNESSES
N
†
†
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
14 per 1000 population
0.4 tonnes per capita
TV ownership low
Daily newspaper circulation is very low PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Education 7.3% Health 2.2% 0
5
96 prisoners
V
100th
101 117 $1070
No death penalty
112
69 years
34 deaths
193rd
Little change from year to year
The Australian aid agency AusAID is funding a $1.4 million reform program for the Vanuatu police service.
25
Position in World
150th
,
20
WORLD RANKING
50th
†
15
The dominance of subsistence farming and small-scale cash cropping has helped to prevent extreme poverty. Most of the rich are not ni-Vanuatu.
1 state-owned service
CRIME
10
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
1st
The Vanuatu Weekly appears in each official language. Television Blong Vanuatu broadcasts four hours a day.
33 per 1000 population
Defense None
There is 1 daily newspaper, the Vanuatu Daily Post. A number of weeklies are published in Bislama, English, and French
1 state-owned limited service
GDP/cap. decrease
Not available
Logging is increasing, but most of the rainforest remains intact, and roundwood exports are banned. Population growth is high, at nearly 3% a year, but is falling. A majority of the population does not have access to a potable and reliable water supply.
MEDIA
Schooling is not compulsory
The abolition of fees has helped to boost primary enrollment. Illiteracy is a major concern.
N
S
1000m/3281ft
†
34%
A
L
Expanding services sector, including tourism. Major economic reforms instituted, including introduction of value-added tax and resizing public service in return for assistance from ADB. Large fishing potential.
1980 Independence; Walter Lini prime minister (until 1991). Secession bid by Espiritu Santo. 1999 Tidal wave. Death of Lini. 2002 Vanuatu’s first ever hailstorm hits Tanna. 2003 Reforms take Vanuatu off blacklist of tax havens. 2004 Serge Vohor prime minister.
SHEPHERD ISLANDS
Émaé Nguna
In 1906, Britain and France set up the New Hebrides under joint rule.
EDUCATION
E O C
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................183rd GNP PER CAPITA .............................$1070 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ......................–$15m INFLATION .........................................2.1% UNEMPLOYMENT ....................................Low
C
under 10 000
Maéwo
Luganville
SCORE CARD
POPULATION over 10 000
Méré Lava
Tabwémasana 1888m
CHRONOLOGY
Total Area : 12 200 sq. km (4710 sq. miles)
BANKS ISLANDS
Santa Maria I.
Big Bay
Inflation 2.9% p.a. (1990–2001)
VANUATU
TORRES
I C I F P A C
There is no army. A small paramilitary force receives training from the US. Papua New Guinean troops helped to end the 1980 secessionist movement on Espiritu Santo.
Hiu
Tégua ISLANDS Loh Uréparapara Toga Mota Lava Vanua Mota Lava
129
189 34%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
619
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD Europe
EUROPE
VATICAN CITY
Italy VATICAN CITY
OFFICIAL NAME: State of the Vatican City CAPITAL: Vatican City POPULATION: 911 CURRENCY: Euro OFFICIAL LANGUAGES: Italian and Latin 1929
1929
Oct 22
V
+1
.va
+39
T
HE VATICAN CITY, which lies in central Rome, is the world’s smallest independent state. It includes ten other buildings in Rome and also the pope’s summer residence at Castel Gandolfo. As the Holy See it is the seat of the Roman Catholic Church, deriving its income from investments and voluntary contributions known as Peter’s Pence.
†
CLIMATE
WEATHER CHART FOR THE VATICAN CITY
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
PEOPLE
Mediterranean
Pop. density high 2070/km2 (5359/mi2)
Italian, Latin
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
The buildings and gardens of the Vatican City. St. Peter’s Basilica was built from 1506– 1626 on the traditional site of St. Peter’s tomb.
POLITICS
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
On death of reigning pope
Sacred College of Cardinals 120 seats
Roman Catholic 100%
-20/-4
Cardinals under the age of 80 are eligible to elect a new pope. There are no political parties.
Summers are hot; winters are mild. November is particularly rainy.
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
The railroad is used only for carrying freight. Official visitors are transferred from Rome airport by helicopter. Not available
,
Little change from year to year
V
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Most visitors come from Italy, Germany, Spain, and Central and South America. Numbers from eastern Europe are rising 30
40
te
20
M
o
n
10
% of total arrivals
V
a
V
C
o
The Vatican museums can accommodate 20,000 visitors daily
†
n
TOURISM
ca
None
E
1 km (0.6 miles)
ti
None
M
None
The Vatican City operates in the manner of an elected monarchy, as the reigning pope has supreme executive, legislative, and judicial powers, and holds office for life. He is elected by the College of Cardinals, who vote until one candidate for the position of Supreme Pontiff achieves a two-thirds majority. The administration of the Vatican City State, of which the pope is temporal head, is conducted by the Pontifical Commission. The Holy See, which is the governing body of the Roman Catholic Church worldwide and of which the pope is spiritual head, is governed by the Roman Curia, the ATICAN ITY Church’s administrative Main Entrance Total Area : network. It is the Holy 0.44 sq. km (0.17 sq. miles) See that maintains diplomatic relations Pigna abroad. Pope John Courtyard Paul II, elected in Vatican 1978, was the first Museums non-Italian pope Vatican since 1523. Now Belvedere in his 80s, he Courtyard Radio continues Raphael Papal Vatican Sistine apartments Stanza to fulfill G a r d e n s Chapel his duties despite St. Peter's Saint Peter's Papal visibly Square Basilica Heliport suffering Vatican Railway from Station Parkinson’s disease and N RO arthritis. M
The Vatican has more than 900 citizens, including over 100 lay persons. Several hundred more lay staff are employed in the city-state. Citizenship can be acquired through stable residence and holding an office or job within the City. A citizen’s family can gain residence only by authorization. The pope is the spiritual leader of around 17% of the world’s population. The countries with the largest number of Roman Catholics are Brazil, Mexico, Italy, the US, and the Philippines.
O
Heliport for official visitors
Drive on right
R
†
TRANSPORTATION
Almost all tourists who visit Rome go to the Vatican, while others come as pilgrims. Up to 100,000 hear the pope’s annual Easter Message in St. Peter’s Square. The Vatican’s art collections are among the greatest in the world. Years of restoration work on the Sistine Chapel frescoes were completed in 1999.
620
His Holiness Pope John Paul II
LEGISLATIVE OR ADVISORY BODIES
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
-10/14
0
No legislative elections
100%
0
0/32
†
E
0
200 metres
0
800 feet
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: VATICAN CITY
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
WORLD AFFAIRS OSCE
Not a UN member
IAEA
The Vatican is neutral, with observer status in many international organizations, but papal opinion greatly influences the world’s one billion Catholics. In 2003 John Paul II was vital in building support in his native Poland for its membership of the EU.
†
AID
,
Undisclosed
Aid is donated through the pope’s charities (such as the Holy Childhood Association, which distributes around $15 million a year to children’s causes), through funds donated for use at the pope’s discretion, and through religious orders acting under papal charter.
DEFENSE Ceremonial Swiss Guard only
†
,
No compulsory military service
Not applicable
Not applicable
0.822 euros (0.871)
SCORE CARD
Not an oil producer
None
None
The Vatican imports all its energy. It has no farmland; its area is restricted to buildings and their formal gardens.
ENVIRONMENT
,
None
†
Istituto per le Opere di Religione has assets of $3–4 billion. Interest on investments. Voluntary contributions from Catholics worldwide (Peter’s Pence). Gold reserves in Fort Knox, US. Stamp and coin issues. Receipts from tourists.
WEAKNESSES Losses incurred by Radio Vaticana and L’Osservatore Romano. Cost of foreign papal visits, buildings maintenance, and diplomatic missions. Total lack of natural resources of any kind.
†
Not available
Not available
The Vatican is increasingly concerned about the need to balance development and conservation. In 1993, the pope urged a gathering of scientists to press colleagues worldwide to inform people on the need to protect the environment.
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There is 1 daily newspaper, L'Osservatore Romano, which is also published weekly in 6 European languages, and monthly in Polish 1 state-owned service
1 state-owned service
Radio Vaticana’s longwave broadcasts are continuing after a brief suspension caused by concern over radiation.
CRIME
†
1870 Italy annexes Papal States. 1929 Lateran Treaty – Fascist Italy accepts Vatican City as independent state. 1978 Cardinal Karol Wojtyla pope. 1981–1982 Attempts on pope’s life. 1984 Catholicism disestablished as Italian state religion. 1985 Catholic Catechism revised for first time since 1566. 1994–1995 Opposition to abortion and contraception reiterated at UN conferences in Cairo and Beijing. 1998 Statement repenting Catholic passivity during Nazi Holocaust. 2000 Jubilee Year. Papal apology for Catholic violence and oppression over two millennia. 2001 John Paul II becomes first pope to enter a mosque.
Prisoners are held in Italy
,
99%
Welfare state health benefits Heart and cardiovascular diseases, cancers
Pope’s own doctor is in permanent residence at Vatican
Pope John Paul II’s strong opposition to abortion and contraception has prompted criticism from around the world, and from within the Church.
SPENDING
†
Not applicable
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
No data
No data available
Minimal crime levels
The reputation of the 105-strong Swiss Guard was shaken in 1998, when a young guard shot dead his commandant and the latter’s wife and then committed suicide. Three Vatican Bank officials were earlier alleged to have been involved in the Banco Ambrosiano affair.
EDUCATION
†
HEALTH
No death penalty
†
Not applicable
EXPORTS/IMPORTS
The Vatican produces no goods for export. All commodities are imported, mainly from Italy.
The Vatican is located in Rome because tradition held that St. Peter was buried on the site of the Church of Constantine, which was pulled down in the Renaissance to make way for the building of St. Peter’s Basilica. The Vatican has been the pope’s usual residence since 1417, when the pontiffs returned from Avignon in France at the end of the 39 years of Great Schism.
Daily newspaper circulation figures not available
WORLD GNP RANKING ..................The Vatican GNP PER CAPITA ......................does not have BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................a national INFLATION .............................economy in the UNEMPLOYMENT ..........................usual sense
STRENGTHS
Electric power: None
None
Not applicable
The Vatican is strictly neutral territory. Under the 1954 Hague Convention, it is recognized as “a moral, artistic, and cultural patrimony worthy of being respected as a treasure for all mankind.”
ECONOMICS
†
RESOURCES
Donor
Undisclosed
CHRONOLOGY
He has traveled more extensively than any other pope, completing his 100th foreign visit (to Croatia) in 2003. Trips are used to promote political as well as religious dialogue. In 2000 the pope made an unprecedented apology for 2000 years of anti-Judaism and in 2001 he became the first pope to enter (and pray in) a mosque and the first to visit Orthodox Christian Greece.
9389 students
The university, founded by Gregory XIII, is renowned for its theological and philosophical learning. There are more than 110,000 primary and secondary Catholic schools around the world.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
The wealth of the Vatican is primarily that of the Catholic Church. Its art treasures may not be sold. It is not known how much personal wealth its citizens have.
V
WORLD RANKING The pope and his Vatican staff enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the world
621
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD SOUTH AMERICA
VENEZUELA
C o lo m
1830
Guyana
bi a
OFFICIAL NAME: Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela CAPITAL: Caracas POPULATION: 25.7 million CURRENCY: Bolívar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Spanish 1830
South America
VENEZUELA
July 5
YV
-4
Brazil
.ve
+58
L
OCATED IN THE NORTH of South America, with a long Caribbean coastline, Venezuela has a vast central plain (the Llanos) drained by the Orinoco, while the Guiana Highlands dominate the southwest of the country. A Spanish colony until 1811, Venezuela was lauded as Latin America’s most stable democracy until its recent political upheavals. Though the country has some of the largest known oil deposits outside the Middle East, much of Venezuela’s population still lives in shanty-town squalor.
CLIMATE
†
Tropical wet and dry/ equatorial
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR CARACAS
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
432,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
†
Visitors : Population 1:59
.
Down 8% in 2001–2002
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
USA 19%
20/68
20/8
Germany 14%
10/50
10/4
Netherlands 12%
0
0/32
Canada 7%
-10/14
UK 6%
-20/-4
Other 42%
The hot Maracaibo coast is surprisingly dry; the Orinoco Llanos are alternately parched or flooded. Uplands are cold.
TRANSPORTATION Simón Bolívar International, Caracas 5.13m passengers
†
Drive on right
274 ships 865,400 grt
0
10
20
30
50
40
60
% of total arrivals
†
PEOPLE
29/km2 (75/mi2)
Spanish, Amerindian languages THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
2690 km (1671 miles)
87%
13%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION 433 km (269 miles)
Protestant and other 11%
7100 km (4412 miles)
Massive road-building programs from the 1960s onward have benefited the oil and aluminum industries. Because of the limited railroad system, buses are the main form of transportation throughout most of the country. The French-designed subway in Caracas was completed in 1995.
V
Roman Catholic 89%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Amerindian 2%
Black 9% White 20%
Mestizo 69%
The Orinoco. The huge Llanos (“plains”) are grazed by five million cattle, which are herded close to the river in the dry season.
622
Tourism is still a relatively minor industry in Venezuela, but one with enormous potential. Venezuela has many beaches that are the equal of any Caribbean island’s, and a fascinating jungle interior which is a target for more adventurous tourists. For many years, the high value of the bolívar made Venezuela an expensive destination, but, after recent devaluations, it has become one of the cheapest in the Caribbean. Privatizing state-run hotels was part of a drive to attract foreign investment.
Pop. density low
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 32,693 km (20,314 miles)
President Hugo Chávez changed the name of the country as part of his Bolivarian Revolution.
Venezuela is one of the most highly urbanized societies in Latin America, with most of its population living in cities, mainly in the north. A historic “melting pot,” it has experienced largescale immigration from Italy, Portugal, Spain, and all over Latin America. There remains little of the white Hispanic aristocracy that survives in Colombia and Ecuador. The small number of native Amerindians, such
as the Yanomami and Pemón, live in remote regions now threatened by illegal settlers. Most of the black population, who are descended from Africans brought over to work in the cacao industry in the 19th century, live along the Caribbean coast. Oil wealth has brought comparative prosperity, but life in the barrios (shanty towns) which sprawl over the hillsides around Caracas is one of extreme poverty. Discontent peaked in the food riots of 1989 and 1991, leaving hundreds dead, along with the country’s reputation for being a model democracy. The oil boom accelerated change for women, who today are to be found in all the professions. Politics, however, remains a largely masculine preserve. Oil wealth has also brought a measure of Americanization – boxing and baseball are among the most popular sports. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.3%
Male 0.2%
3%
60–79
2.7%
8.1%
40–59
8%
15.6% 22.6%
80+
20–39
15.9%
0–19
% of population by age group
23.6%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: VENEZUELA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
C
A
ARUBA (Neth.)
VENEZUELA Total Area : 912 050 sq. km (352 143 sq. miles)
R
G u lf of Venezuela
B
E
A
N
S
Islas Las Aves Islas Los Roques
Maiquetía Los Teques Turmero
Coro
San Rafael del Moján
over 1 000 000
B
NETHERLAND ANTILLES(Neth.)
Punto Fijo
POPULATION
I Bonaire
Curaçao
Islas le Orchila
E
A
Isla Blanquilla
CARACAS
Isla de Margarita
Petare
La Asunción Porlamar Carúpano
Isla La Tortuga
Puerto Cabello
TRINIDAD
over 100 000
A
over 50 000
R
É
M
ca A r au
Caicara del Orinoco
L
Sea Level
Ciudad Bolívar
Projected Railway ra Cau
M e ta
C
Puerto Ayacucho
Salto del Angel (Angel Falls)
L
H
G
M
L
oc in
o
I
AT THE LAST ELECTION
A
O r
B
President Hugo Chávez
2000/2005
N I A
í
O
†
U
I G
D S A N L H on Car
O
POLITICS
Multiparty elections
Upata
Embalse de Guri
N
500m/1640ft
3% COPEI
I
A
4% MAS
National Assembly 165 seats
A
inoco Or
A
A
San Fernando
L Cumaná
Y
L
U
IL
G
RD
Pa ra g ua
CO
N
Z 56% MVR
19% AD
A
14% 4% PRVZL Others
MVR = Fifth Republic Movement AD = Democratic Action MAS = Movement toward Socialism PRVZL = Project Venezuela COPEI = Social Christian Party The Patriotic Front (PP) comprises the MVR, the MAS, and some smaller parties
R
B
Equator
continued despite a clear vote of support for the president.
Hugo Chávez led a coup attempt in 1992, against a backdrop of corruption, poverty, austerity, and riots in Caracas. His election as president in 1998 broke the traditional parties’ stranglehold on power and raised expectations among the poor. He embarked on root and branch reform of the political and judicial systems, and enacted a new “Bolivarian” constitution. With his mandate renewed in 2000, his command-style running of the country fomented political opposition and deterred investment. A one-day military coup in April 2002 failed when officers changed tack following mass protests and the largely unfavorable international response. Restored to office, Chávez mollified rather than punished opponents, but was unable to prevent protests from spiraling later that year into a prolonged general strike which paralyzed the country.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Political stability The general strike petered out in early 2003, but the opposition managed to force a referendum on Chávez’s rule, in August 2004. Dissatisfaction
Oil policy Support of oil prices and quotas within OPEC remain central, despite Chávez’s desire to use oil revenue to build a broader economy. The nine-week 2002– 2003 general strike crippled the industry to the tune of billions of US dollars and forced the import of oil from Brazil.
WORLD AFFAIRS ACS
AP
OAS
† OPEC
0 0
200 km 200 miles
CHRONOLOGY
Venezuela is a multiparty democracy.
PROFILE
uth
San Cristóbal
o
2000m/6562ft 1000m/3281ft
G u áric
a an
3000m/9843ft
Mo
LAND HEIGHT
OCEAN
t's
ID
over 10 000
ATLANTIC
en
& Güiria Maracaibo TOBAGO Cumaná Cabimas San Felipe A Gulf of San Francisco S T Caripito Barcelona O Baruta Carora Valencia C Paria Ciudad Machiques Maracay Puerto Tocuyito The Maturín Güigüe Ojeda L A Barquisimeto C O R D Se La Cruz D E rp I L L E R A San Juan Lago de Valera Trujillo de los Morros San Carlos Maracaibo Zaraza Anaco Acarigua San Carlos Valle de la del Zulia Bocono El Tigre Tucupita Guanare Pascua Calabozo Gu El Vigía Mérida S E Barinas O D Pico Bolívar Ciudad re N San Antonio A 5007m Tovar Soledad Guayana del Táchira ER Apur e
over 500 000
Joined UN in 1945
RG
A traditionally pro-US orientation was challenged by Chávez, with his personal friendship with Cuba’s Fidel Castro, visits to Libya and Iraq, and opposition to “Plan Colombia.” The Bush administration acknowledged the new interim government during the April 2002 military coup, but denied helping to install it, though the main coup participants had made very public visits to the US State Department in preceding months. The OAS announced opposition to the coup, as did all of Venezuela’s neighbors. Better regional economic integration with the Caribbean and Central and South America are important.
Venezuela was the first of the Spanish imperial colonies to repudiate Madrid’s authority under the guidance of the revolutionary, Simón Bolívar, in 1811. 1821 Battle of Carabobo finally overthrows Spanish rule and leads to consolidation of independence within Gran Colombia (Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador). 1830 Gran Colombia collapses. José Antonio Páez rules Venezuela; coffee planters effectively in control. 1870 Guzmán Blanco in power. Rail system constructed. 1908 Gen. Juan Vicente Gómez dictator; oil industry developed. 1935 Gómez falls from power. Increasing mass participation in political process. 1945 Military coup. Rómulo Betancourt of AD takes power as leader of a civilian–military junta. 1948 AD wins elections, with novelist Rómulo Gallegos as presidential candidate. Military coup. Marcos Pérez Jiménez forms government, with US and military backing.
623
V
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
†
Recipient
$57m (receipts)
/
Up 27% in 2002
The IDB provided loans totaling $52.5 million in 2002 for the promotion of child care and agricultural technology.
624
.
Compulsory military service
Down 43% in 2002
VENEZUELAN ARMED FORCES
Chávez had led officers opposed to austerity and corruption in a 1992 coup attempt. Military leaders claimed in April 2002 that civil unrest forced them to oust him, and they backed interim president Pedro Carmona, who dissolved the National Assembly and Supreme Court by decree. After widespread protests middle-ranking officers got cold feet and rapidly reinstalled Chávez.
ECONOMICS $102bn
†
2601 bolívares (1598)
EXPORTS
Brazil 2%
Dominican Republic 3%
Other 35% IMPORTS
Germany 5%
18,300 personnel
125 combat aircraft (Mirage 50EV/DV, F-5/16, EMB-312)
7000 personnel
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
Brazil 6% Colombia 8%
Other 45% USA 32%
STRENGTHS Large proven oil deposits. Massive reserves of coal, bauxite, iron, and gold; successful development of new bitumen fuel which has attracted considerable foreign investment. Telecommunications, banking, iron, and steel also attract foreign capital. Producer of high-grade aluminum. Labor market becoming more flexible.
GDP
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1999
Netherlands Antilles 13%
USA 45%
Netherlands Antilles 4%
2 submarines, 6 frigates, and 6 patrol boats
Inflation 43% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING .........................36th GNP PER CAPITA .............................$4080 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS....................$7.71bn INFLATION ......................................22.4% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................16%
Spain 2%
34,000 personnel
None
SCORE CARD
81 main battle tanks (AMX-30)
2000
2001
2002
2003
of nonaccountability and patronage in state-owned industries and government bureaucracies. Privatizations and government cuts have failed to solve the problem. Promises by President Chávez to deal with excesses and diversify the economy, by promoting domestic processing industries over crude oil exports, have received a mixed response from investors, who favor more market-oriented reforms. A general strike in late 2002–early 2003 crippled the economy, especially the oil industry. The bolívar has been pegged to the US dollar on favorable terms since 2003. Its devaluation in 2004 increased the value of oil revenue, while rising world prices magnified the effect. VENEZUELA : MAJOR BUSINESSES Valencia
Caracas
Maracaibo
Aragua
WEAKNESSES Political instability. Huge, cumbersome state sector; despite some privatization, large areas still overmanned, inefficient, and subject to widespread corruption. Poor public services which, despite Venezuela’s wealth during the oil-boom years, have been badly maintained. Fluctuations in world oil prices. Major infrastructure renewal is now long overdue. Widespread tax evasion.
GDP 1999=100
AID
$1.08bn
†
Consumer price index 1999=100
V
1958 General strike. Adm. Larrázabal leads military coup. Free elections. Betancourt, newly returned from exile, wins presidency election for AD. Anticommunist campaign mounted. A few state welfare programs introduced. 1960 Movement of the Revolutionary Left (MIR) splits from AD, begins antigovernment activities. 1961 Founder member of OPEC. 1962 Communist-backed guerrilla warfare attempts repetition of Cuban revolution in Venezuela; fails to gain popular support. 1963 Raúl Leoni (AD) elected president – first democratic transference of power. Antiguerrilla campaign continues. 1966 Unsuccessful coup attempt by supporters of former president, Pérez Jiménez. 1969 Rafael Caldera Rodríguez of COPEI becomes president. Continues Leoni policies. 1973 Oil and steel industries nationalized. World oil crisis. Currency peaks against US dollar. 1978 Elections won by COPEI’s Luis Herrera Campíns. Disastrous economic programs. 1983 AD election victory under Jaime Lusinchi. Fall in world oil prices leads to unrest and cuts in state welfare. 1988 Carlos Andrés Pérez of AD wins presidency. 1989 Caracas food riots; 1500 dead. 1992 Attempted coup, led by Col. Hugo Chávez. 1993–1995 Andrés Pérez ousted for corruption; Caldera Rodríguez reelected. More social unrest. 1998–2000 Chávez and PP defeat COPEI-led coalition in elections; embark on radical political reform. New controversial Constituent Assembly approves new constitution, later endorsed by referendum. Chávez reelected. New unicameral National Assembly. 2002 April, Chávez ousted in military coup. Reinstalled a day later, after foreign and domestic protests. December, mass strike cripples economy (ends early 2003). 2004 Chávez wins approval in referendum called by opposition.
DEFENSE
R
CHRONOLOGY continued
Oil
.O
rin
oco
Ciudad Bolívar
Rum Brewing Oil refining Ceramics
Puerto Ordaz
Agribusiness Tobacco Engineering
PROFILE
Metals
0
Government finances have habitually been in crisis as a result of a culture
Vehicle assembly
0
* significant multinational ownership
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: VENEZUELA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 21.3m kW
2.99m b/d (reserves 78bn barrels)
16.1m cattle, 2.92m pigs, 2.7m goats, 110m chickens
Oil, bauxite, iron, natural gas, coal, gold, diamonds, aluminum
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 74% (63bn kWh) Combustion 26% (22bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 20
0
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
ENVIRONMENT
/
64% (40% partially protected)
†
Sustainability rank: 48th
6.5 tonnes per capita
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Flooding and mudflows, exacerbated by overdevelopment of the coastal strip, caused thousands of deaths in late 1999.
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 86 daily newspapers. El Universal and El Nacional are the most prominent
8 services: 1 state-owned, 7 private
1 state-owned service, 500 independent stations
In 2003 President Chávez threatened to revoke private TV broadcasters’ licenses, accusing stations of supporting the crippling two-month general strike.
†
19,554 prisoners
No death penalty
.
Down 20% in 1997–2000
CRIME RATES
Murders 33
per 100,000 population
Rapes 12
per 100,000 population
Thefts 283
93%
per 100,000 population
Urban robberies and violence involving young delinquents are major problems, as is narcotics-related crime. Cattle smuggling to Colombia is rife.
VENEZUELA : LAND USE
L
60
100% 69%
20
18% Secondary
Tertiary
An extra $1 billion in social spending approved in 2000 includes raising entitlement in the state sector. Education is characterized by teacher shortages and a high drop-out rate; the quality of education at state universities is low. The private sector is growing.
1 per 417 people
N
A
IG
HL
AND
S
Coffee - cash crop
0
Cattle
0
†
SPENDING
200 km 200 miles
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
60 per 1000 population
113 per 1000 population
Defense 1.3%
Health 3.7% 5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
80
HEALTH
IA
H
Education 5.2%
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
Primary
O S in o c o R. Or
Pasture
0
0
N
A
Forest
681,174 students
40
L
Cropland
School leaving age: 12
100
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 206 per 1000 people
CRIME
†
EDUCATION
% of each age group in education
†
MEDIA
Venezuela has a remarkable diversity of resources. It has the world’s sixthlargest proven oil reserves, vast quantities of coal, iron ore, bauxite, and gold, and cheap hydroelectric power. Huge investment programs are currently under way to raise production in all these sectors as well as in oil-refining capacity. However, the Chávez government wants to cut the investment budget of the state oil company, PDVSA, reduce its output, and increase its contributions to the exchequer. Such uncertainty has deterred private investors. Venezuela has begun exploitation of Orimulsion, a new bitumen-based fuel from the Orinoco; commercially exploitable reserves are estimated at 270 billion barrels. Venezuela’s aim to be the world’s largest aluminum producer is threatened after difficulties associated with privatizing the sector.
U
434,569 tonnes
G
†
RESOURCES
†
Welfare state health benefits Cerebrovascular and heart diseases, cancers, violence, accidents
The health service suffered along with other public services from poor management in the 1970s and severe cuts in the 1980s and 1990s. Most health care is concentrated in the towns, and people from indigenous communities often have to travel long distances to receive treatment. Medicines, which have to be paid for, are expensive, and preventable diseases are recurring. Hospitals need modernization. An additional $1 billion in social spending approved in 2000 includes spending on health.
The oil boom years of the 1970s largely benefited those already rich, and middle-income consumers did well out of state-sponsored improvements in health and education and subsidized goods, largely at the expense of the poor. The collapse of world oil prices, economic austerity measures, high inflation, and the devaluation of the bolívar in the 1980s and 1990s squeezed the middle class and in addition seriously eroded the living standards of working-class households. In 2001, more than 20% of people were living in extreme poverty, according to official figures. An estimated 16% of the labor force were unemployed in 2002, and many of those who were working were in the informal sector.
WORLD RANKING Position in World 1st
50th
100th
V 59 $4080
50 74 years
83 93%
150th
74
68
19 deaths
193rd
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
625
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
VIETNAM
SOUTHEAST ASIA os La
VIETNAM Cambodia
OFFICIAL NAME: Socialist Republic of Vietnam CAPITAL: Hanoi POPULATION: 81.4 million CURRENCY: Dông OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Vietnamese 1976
1976
Sept 2
VN
+7
.vn
+84
V
IETNAM LIES ON the eastern side of the Indochinese peninsula. Over half the country is dominated by the heavily forested mountain range, the Chaîne Annamitique. The most populated areas, which are also the most intensively cultivated, are along the Red and Mekong Rivers. Partitioned in 1954 after a war against France, Vietnam was not reunited until 1976, a few months after the communist north finally defeated the southern regime and its US allies in the Vietnam War. Vietnam is now a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party. Since 1986, the regime has pursued a liberal economic policy known as doi moi (renovation).
CLIMATE
†
Tropical monsoon
TOURISM
WEATHER CHART FOR HANOI
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J 40/104
2.43m visitors
Rainfall A
S O N D cm/in 40/16
Visitors : Population 1:34
/
Up 52% in 2003
China 29%
20/68
20/8
Taiwan 10%
10/50
10/4
Japan 7%
0
721 ships 1.13m grt
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK
V
23,325 km (14,493 miles)
430 km (267 miles)
2545 km (1581 miles)
17,702 km (10,999 miles)
Rebuilding infrastructure is still a priority. The flagship project, the four-lane Ho Chi Minh Highway linking Hanoi and the south, has had its target completion date put back until after 2005. A major port development plan is under way. Trains travel slowly, with an average speed of around 15 km/h (9 mph), and Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City takes three days. The bus network is extensive but journeys are also timeconsuming. Taxis and cycles provide cheap local transportation. Hanoi has plans for an elevated metro line.
626
25%
75%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 7% Buddhist 55%
Other and nonreligious 38%
Chinese 4%
Vietnamese 88%
Other 45%
Tan Son Naht Intl, Ho Chi Minh City 5.06m passengers
250/km2 (648/mi2)
THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
Thai 2%
France 3%
Drive on right
Vietnamese, Chinese, Thai, Khmer, Muong, Nung, Miao, Yao, Jarai
Cambodia 6%
-20/-4
†
Pop. density high
ETHNIC MAKEUP
-10/14
Vietnam’s geography means that there are sharp local contrasts in the climate. The north has cool winters, while the south is tropical, with even temperatures all year round. The central provinces are affected by typhoons. The northern Red River delta is subject to drought, while the Mekong delta in the south suffers heavy flooding.
†
PEOPLE
Other 6%
30/12
0/32
†
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
30/86
TRANSPORTATION
Asia
China
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
Until the government opened the way to large-scale tourism in the 1990s, Russians, eastern Europeans, and backpackers from the West made up the bulk of visitors. Other travelers were either on business, or overseas Vietnamese, Viet Kie, who were visiting relatives. Under a “master plan” adopted in 1995, massive investment was channeled into hotels, with an official target of three million tourists a year by 2000. This was not met but arrivals did increase. Poor transportation infrastructure remains a problem. Vietnam’s appeal lies in its unspoiled Asian way of life and in the areas of spectacular natural beauty such as Ha Long Bay on the Red River delta.
Family life is strong and is based on kinship groups within village clans. A pronounced north–south cultural split remains evident in the cities. Chinese are the largest minority group. When the victorious communists reunited north and south Vietnam in 1976, they viewed the Saigon Chinese (in what was renamed Ho Chi Minh City), with their Taiwanese links, as a corrupt bourgeoisie. The northern Mountain Chinese were also suspect as a possible fifth column for China’s ambitions in Vietnam. Various other mountain minorities (montagnards), with a history of collaboration with the French and Americans, were also sidelined by the regime in Hanoi. Montagnard resentment over the resettling of lowlanders in mountain regions sparked violent protests in early 2001. War deaths cause older generations of women to outnumber men. Women form a high proportion of the labor force, and are starting to gain greater political prominence, most notably Vice President Nguyen Thi Binh. Female conscription was reinstated in 2001. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.5% 3.9%
24.6%
Boats moored near Nha Trang. With 3444 km (2140 miles) of coastline, use of the sea, for transportation and fishing, is vital to Vietnam.
80+ 60–79
Male 0.3% 3%
6.7%
40–59
5.5%
16.2%
20–39
13.5%
0–19 % of population by age group
25.8%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: VIETNAM
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
POLITICS
No multiparty elections
President Tran Duc Luong
2002/2007 AT THE LAST ELECTION
I
H
The sole permitted political grouping is the Vietnamese Fatherland Front (VFF), which is dominated by the Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) Ind = Independents Vac = Vacant
N
Vietnam is effectively a singleparty communist state.
C Ha Giang
O
I L G B l ac Ri
Ê
N
v er
Cao Bâng
BÂC PHÂN
PROFILE
Viêt Tri
N
Bâc Giang Hai Dõòng
HANOI
L
Hoa Binh
Ha Ãông
Câm Pha Hông Gai Cai Lan
Hai Phong Thai Binh Nam Ãinh
Ma Chu
Ãao Bach Long Vi
Thanh Hoa
Tõòng Ãõòng
A
A traditional communist system is still in place, with a powerful politburo elected by the party central committee. The CPV general secretary wields much power, alongside the prime minister and president. Changes in senior posts in 1997 left reformers such as new prime minister Phan Van Khai still outnumbered by conservatives. The 2001 party congress balanced the theme of greater democracy with a renewed commitment to socialism.
Lang Sòn
Thai Nguyên
Yên Bai
SO
A
Lô
AN
k
Ãiên Biên
G
âm
H Lai Châu
Fan Si Pan 3143m Lao Cai R ed R iv er
G u l f Ca
1% 1% Ind Vac
89% CPV
Nong Duc Manh, powerful general secretary of the CPV.
ASEAN
9% Other VFF
National Assembly 500 seats
Tran Duc Luong, elected president in 1997.
WORLD AFFAIRS
o f
T o n g k i n g Vinh
O
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES Economic reform Vietnam is attempting to move to a market economy without Ãông Ha political liberalization. Huê Economic reformer Nong Duc Manh Ãa Nâng became party T Hôi An leader in 2001, Tam Ky but real concern remains that Quang Ngai “individualism” will be encouraged, Kon Tum stability undermined, Plây Cu Qui Nhòn and the party’s monopoly Tuy Hoa of power weakened Buôn Ma Thuôt by the opening to Nha Trang competition Ãa Lat Cam Ranh of collective Phan RangThap Cham farming and Di Linh n state enterprises. Do
Ãông Hòi
VIETNAM Total Area : 329 560 sq. km (127 243 sq. miles)
S
POPULATION
A
over 1 000 000 over 500 000 over 100 000
U
over 10 000
G
2000m/6562ft
A
an
500m/1640ft
I
N
D
H
M
Châu Ãôc
Thu Dâu Môt ek
H
au
Long Xuyên
on
g
lf Gu
Vinh Long
Go Công Vung Tau Bên Tre Tra Vinh
of
Soc Trâng
T h
a
Ca Mau
Bac Liêu o ek M
i
la
n
d
S
Phan Thiêt
Hô Chi Minh
Tân An My Tho
Sa Ãec
Vinh Rach Gia Cân Thò
Biên Hoa
H
Tây Ninh
C
Rach Gia
gN ai
M A
I
N
BLôc Ninh
O
ng
D
el
H
ta
T
Corruption An investigation into crime boss Nam Cam (sentenced to death in 2003) revealed worrying levels of official collusion with organized crime.
C
100 miles
Â
O
100 km
N
P
Sea Level
A
g
200m/656ft
Ãao Phu Quôc
Da R
1000m/3281ft
0
S
N
under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
0
E
R
over 50 000
CP
† Mekong River
OIF
Joined UN in 1977
NAM
Economic liberalization has improved relations with the US, with lifting of the aid and trade embargo in 1992–1994, full diplomatic relations in 1995, and a landmark bilateral trade agreement in 2000, ahead of a visit by US president Bill Clinton that November. Vietnam joined ASEAN in 1995, in the wake of the settlement of the Cambodia issue. Trade and economic cooperation links with Japan have been strengthened. Tension with China was reduced by an agreement in 1999 over their mutual land border, though competing claims to the Spratly Islands remain a source of friction.
AID
†
Recipient
$1.28bn (receipts)
.
Down 12% in 2002
Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia in 1978 halted all aid from China, Japan, and the West (except for Scandinavian countries), leaving it mostly dependent on the USSR. Western donors resumed assistance in the early 1990s. Their aid rapidly became the main source of capital for improving infrastructure, though foreign investment fell away significantly in the late 1990s.
CHRONOLOGY From 1825, the brutal persecution of the Catholic community, originally converted by French priests in the 17th century, gave France the excuse to colonize Cochin-China, Annam, and Tonkin, and then merge them with Laos and Cambodia. 1920 Quoc ngu (Roman script) replaces Chinese script. 1930 Ho Chi Minh founds IndoChina Communist Party. 1940 Japanese invasion. 1941 Viet Minh resistance founded in exile in China. 1945 Viet Minh take Saigon and Hanoi. Emperor abdicates. Republic proclaimed with Ho Chi Minh as president. 1946 French reenter. First Indochina war. 1954 French defeated at Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam divided at 17ºN. USSR supports North; US arms South. 1960 Groups opposed to southern regime unite as Viet Cong. 1964 US Congress approves war. 1965 Gen. Nguyen Van Thieu takes over military government of South. First US combat troops arrive. 1965–1968 Operation Rolling Thunder – intense bombing
V
U Côn Ãao
627
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY continued
.
Compulsory military service
Down 1% in 2002
VIETNAMESE ARMED FORCES
Vietnam has large and well-equipped armed forces, notably the world’s seventh-largest army. Military service is compulsory, and conscripts serve a two- or three-year term. The army’s role in preserving both stability and socialism was reaffirmed in 2001. Increased defense spending on the navy reflects tensions in the South China Sea, where there are disputed claims to the Spratly and Paracel Islands.
ECONOMICS $34.8bn
†
15,722 dông (15,497)
EXPORTS
Other 51%
2 submarines, 6 frigates, and 42 patrol boats
42,000 personnel
189 combat aircraft (53 Su-22, 12 Su-27, 124 MiG-21bis/PF)
30,000 personnel
Inflation 14% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................57th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$430 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$604m INFLATION .........................................3.8% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................25%
China 6%
412,000 personnel
None
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
1211 main battle tanks (T-34/54/55/62, PRC Type-59)
Germany 6% Australia 7%
GDP
160
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80 1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
628
$2.29bn
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
V
of North by South and US. 1967 Antiwar protests start in US and elsewhere. 1968 Tet (New Year) Offensive – 105 towns attacked simultaneously in South with infiltrated arms. Viet Cong suffer serious losses. Peace talks begin. US eases bombing and starts withdrawing troops. 1969 Ho Chi Minh dies. Succeeded by Le Duan. War intensifies in spite of talks. 1972 11-day Christmas Campaign is heaviest US bombing of war. 1973 Paris Peace Agreements signed, but fighting continues. 1975 Fall of Saigon to combined forces of North and Provisional Revolutionary (Viet Cong) Government of South. One million flee after end of war. 1976 Vietnam united as Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Saigon renamed Ho Chi Minh City. 1978 Invasion of Cambodia to oust Pol Pot regime (by January 1979). 1979 Nine-Day War with China. Chinese troops pushed back after destroying everything for 40 km (25 miles) inside Vietnam. “Boat people” crisis. At UN conference, Vietnam agrees to allow legal emigration, but exodus continues. 1986 Death of Le Duan. Nguyen Van Linh, new Communist Party general secretary, initiates liberal economic policy of doi moi (renovation). 1987 Fighting in Thailand as Vietnam pursues Kampuchean resistance fighters across border. 1989 Troops leave Cambodia. 1991 Open anticommunist dissent made a criminal offense. 1992 Revised constitution allows foreign investment, but essential role of Communist Party is unchanged. 1994 Having already lifted sanctions, US drops 30-year trade embargo. 1995 US–Vietnamese relations normalized. Vietnam joins ASEAN. 1997 Tran Duc Luong elected president, Phan Van Khai prime minister, by National Assembly. 1998 Asian financial crisis dampens economic boom. 1999 Signing of border treaty with China. 2000 Worst flooding along Mekong for 40 years. November, Bill Clinton becomes first US president to visit Vietnam since the war. 2001 March, visit by Russian president Vladimir Putin. April, ninth party congress. Nong Duc Manh becomes general secretary. 2003 An outbreak of acute pnuemonia (SARS) is contained.
DEFENSE
2002
Diverse resources; oil and unexploited gas reserves. Young, literate, low-cost labor force. Strong light industrial and handicraft export industries.
promised massive investment in agriculture, but plans to cut back coffee production as world prices have fallen. Attracting foreign investment through reform is essential; government policies regarding state-owned enterprises promise more scope for joint ventures, and new laws on tradelicensing and investment were passed in 2000. Also that year the country’s first stock exchange opened. The government has set a target of doubling GDP in the next decade. The potential certainly exists, based on an educated and highly motivated young labor force and on mineral resources, located mostly in the north.
WEAKNESSES
VIETNAM : MAJOR BUSINESSES
USA 15%
Japan 15% IMPORTS
Singapore 11% Other 40%
South Korea 12% China 12%
Taiwan 13%
Japan 12%
STRENGTHS
Weak economic institutions. Weight of bureaucracy. Heavy dependence on aid for reconstruction. Enduring suspicion of entrepreneurial southern attitudes and “individualism.” Corruption.
Hanoi *
Hai Phong * Steel Cement
PROFILE The encouragement of private enterprise began in 1988. Touted in the mid-1990s as the next Asian “tiger,” Vietnam has aimed at more moderate growth since the crisis of 1997–1998, achieving an impressive annual average GDP growth rate of over 6% for 1990–2003. Inflation, once a huge problem, was held down in the 1990s, and is now under firm control. Increased rice production has boosted incomes, and domestic demand helped the post1998 upswing. The government has
Nam Ãinh Ãa Nâng
Textiles
*
Brewing Garments
Quang Nam
Shipbuilding Consumer goods Vehicle manufacture Oil & gas
Biên Hoa 0 0
300 km
300 miles * significant multinational ownership
Hô Chi Minh *
*
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: VIETNAM
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 5m kW
Hydro 55% (15bn kWh)
100
80
/
4% (2% partially protected)
†
55,000 prisoners
Sustainability rank: 94th
g on
ENVIRONMENT
†
CRIME
Death penalty in use
/
300 km
0
300 miles
†
Up 13% in 2000
HEALTH
0.7 tonnes per capita
Welfare state health benefits Heart disease, cancers, malaria
1 per 1919 people
Murders 1
per 100,000 population
Vietnam’s medical achievements include developing a vaccine for hepatitis B, and extracting an antimalarial drug, artemisinin, from the indigenous thanh hao tree. An extensive campaign is under way to combat the spread of AIDS.
Rapes Yes
Yes
Yes
2
per 100,000 population
Yes
Yes
Yes
31
per 100,000 population
Thefts
In the Vietnam War, seven million tonnes of bombs were dropped, and the defoliant chemical Agent Orange was sprayed over vast areas; a “census” of the continuing health impact was announced in 1999. Half of Vietnam’s forests were seriously damaged and some 5% destroyed. Deforestation continued into the 1990s due to logging and expansion of coffeegrowing, causing soil erosion and flooding. Floods along the Mekong in 2000 were the worst for 40 years.
†
0
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
MEDIA
ek M
Vietnam is now the world’s thirdlargest coffee producer and is the third-largest exporter of rice – to the
 N
60
40
H
20
% of total generation by type
TV ownership medium
The judicial system is based on the Soviet model. The education camps established after liberation have now closed, but religious and political dissidents are still held without trial. Corruption has risen sharply since economic liberalization, as has the illegal drift of young people to urban areas, where they are blamed for increasing petty crime and “social evils” such as begging, prostitution, and drug-taking. In major cities theft from foreigners is a problem .
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
93%
1 state-owned service with 53 provincial stations
1 state-owned service with many local stations
The media are tightly regulated. TV is the dominant medium. All editors have to be Party members, but criticism of the authorities is still possible. Even Nhan Dan, the CPV newspaper, has been known to expose laxity in the system, especially in the judiciary. However, in 2002 the authorities sought out and destroyed books by proscribed authors.
School leaving age: 10
873,000 students
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
No data
48 per 1000 population
Defense 7.1% Education 2.8% Health 1.5% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
Ostentatious consumerism is rising despite official disapproval, but is beyond most people’s reach. Wealth disparities are growing, with rural areas falling deep into poverty.
WORLD RANKING
100
% of each age group in education
There are 7 daily newspapers, including Nhan Dan, Quan Doi Nhan Dan, Hanoi Moi, and Sai Gon Giai Phong
†
EDUCATION
Daily newspaper circulation 4 per 1000 people
U
P
0
R
Cropland Pasture Forest Wetland Rice Rubber - cash crop Pigs
G
Nuclear 0% Other 2% (0.7bn kWh)
T
VIETNAM : LAND USE
N
Combustion 43% (11bn kWh)
er
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
iv
Coal, oil, tin, zinc, iron, antimony, gas, apatite, salt, bauxite
BÂC PHÂN R
69m ducks, 24.9m pigs, 4.39m cattle, 185m chickens
detriment of domestic stocks. Oil production, small by world standards, is sufficient to make it Vietnam’s biggest export earner. The Oil and Gas Corporation of Vietnam (PetroVietnam) is involved in joint ventures with international oil firms. Vietnam has unexploited gas reserves in the South China Sea; gas from the only producing field has to be flared off. Timber exports have been banned since 1997 to preserve forests. Northern Vietnam has a surplus of electricity, mainly from hydroelectric schemes.
ed
372,000 b/d (reserves 2.5bn barrels)
R
2.01m tonnes
80
Position in World 1st
60
100% 40
50th
100th
20
0
V
70%
88
10% Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Private sponsorship helps fund education. Vietnamese universities have a strong liberal arts tradition. Social pressure to obtain a degree leads to high levels of cheating among university applicants.
70 years
150th
193rd
84 93%
101 30 deaths
112
151 $430
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
629
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
YEMEN
Saudi Arabia
1990
1990
May 22
ADN
+3
.ye
+967
Y
EMEN IS LOCATED in southern Arabia. The west is mountainous, with a fertile strip along the Red Sea. The center and south are largely arid mountains and desert. Until 1990 Yemen was two countries, the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in the west and the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) in the south. The YAR was run by successive military regimes; the poorer PDRY was the Arab world’s only Marxist state. Postunification conflict between the two ruling hierarchies, nominally in coalition, led to a two-month civil war in 1994, the ousting of the former Marxists, and a new constitution.
†
Hot desert/mountain
WEATHER CHART FOR SANA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
†
TOURISM
/
76,000 visitors
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Visitors : Population 1:263
Up 4% in 2001
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low 36/km2 (92/mi2)
Arabic THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
25%
75%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Christian, Hindu, and Jewish 3% Sunni Muslim 55%
Shi'a Muslim 42%
Indian, Somali, and European 2%
Afro-Arab 3%
Saudi Arabia 19% Italy 9% Germany 8%
Arab 95%
France 6%
-10/14
Iraq 5%
-20/-4
Other 53%
The desert climate is modified by altitude, which affects temperatures by as much as 12˚C (22˚F). Rainfall increases in northwest and central Yemen.
TRANSPORTATION
†
Drive on right
47 ships 78,000 grt
El Rahaba, Sana 998,743 passengers THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 8040 km (4996 miles)
None
None
None
Aden’s history as a port stretches back 3000 years. Adequate roads link the main cities, but many rural areas are inaccessible. International airlines, including the modern fleet of Yemenia, serve Sana and Aden.
Y Hilltop village in northern Yemen, showing traditionally decorated, multistory houses built from unbaked mud bricks.
630
Africa
Djibouti
ETHNIC MAKEUP
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
0
0/32
Oman
YEMEN
Eritrea
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Yemen CAPITAL: Sana POPULATION: 20 million CURRENCY: Yemeni rial OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: Arabic
CLIMATE
Asia
MIDDLE EAST
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
% of total arrivals
The home of the legendary Queen of Sheba, Yemen attracts tourists interested in Arab society, architecture, archaeology, and historical remains. The Romans called Yemen Arabia Felix because of its fertile farmlands and dominance in the frankincense trade. Yemen was the second country, after Saudi Arabia, to convert to Islam. Sana, a walled medieval city, is the most interesting center for tourists. It has impressive architecture, particularly tall stone and mud-brick Arab houses, and the palaces of the former imamate. Over 100 km (60 miles) from the capital, the Marib Dam, built in ancient times, is another major attraction. Southern Yemen has been open to Western visitors only since 1990. Its run-down infrastructure and lack of hotels, especially on the coast, have hindered tourism. German and French tourists were the first to travel to northwest Yemen during the 1980s. Hopes of a major rise in tourism following the end of the 1994 civil war were dashed in 1998 after tribesmen kidnapped and killed four tourists. Fears of further attacks deterred Westerners. Tourists are subject to a ban on the consumption of alcohol, except in five-star hotels. Whiskey and beer are available on the black market, which operates out of Djibouti.
Yemenis are almost entirely of Arab and Bedouin descent, though there are people of mixed African and Arab descent along the south coast and a small, dwindling, Jewish minority. The majority are Sunni Muslims, of the Shafi sect. However, Zaydi Shi’a are strong in the north, where many people have close family in Saudi Arabia. Many Yemenis consider Saudi Arabia’s Asir province to be part of Yemen. Over a million Yemenis went to work in neighboring states during the 1970s oil boom, but most were forced to return in 1990 due to Yemen’s support for Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. Tensions, which in 1994 led to civil war, continue to exist between the south, led by cosmopolitan Aden, and the more conservative west. In rural areas and in the western highlands, semifeudal tribal chiefs hold sway, Islamic orthodoxy is strong, and most women wear the veil. In the south, however, women still claim the educational, professional, and social freedoms they had under the Marxist regime, especially in urban areas. POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.7% 1.8% 5.7% 12.9% 28.9%
80+ 60–79 40–59 20–39
Male 0.7% 1.7% 5.3% 11.9%
0–19 % of population by age group
30.4%
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: YEMEN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Wád
í Ma
Khamir w
íA
AH
brá
d
SANA
Jabal an Nabí Shu‘ayb Az Zaydíyah 3760m
Kamarán
R
Ma’rib
E
RAML
Bájil
AT
SA AS
D
Dhamár
Yarím an í T ub ád
S Ramádah
Ni§áb
E A
At Turbah
Laíij
l Bab e
Madínat ash Sha‘b Barím
ndeb
a§ fl ay ‘ar w at Ay
Al Ghayçah al M
Al Buzún
T A W A M R A Ç
Ar Rawçah
Ar Riyán Burúm
Zinjibár Shaykh ‘Uthmán
‘Adan (Aden)
U
1% 1% Ind Ba'ath
15% 3% 1% al-Islah YSP NUPO
GPC = General People's Congress al-Islah = Yemeni Alliance for Reform YSP = Yemen Socialist Party Ind = Independents NUPO = Nasserite Unionist Popular Organization Ba'ath = Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party
Yemen is a multiparty, presidential democracy.
PROFILE The merger of the YAR and the PDRY in 1990 united Yemenis for the first time since 1735; free elections were held in 1993. While President Ali Saleh initially maintained unity, a bloody civil war in 1994 fueled a southern secessionist movement, soon crushed. In 1999 Saleh won the region’s first democratic presidential election, later extending his term to seven years. His GPC increased its majority in 2003, despite the participation in the poll of the former southern-ruling YSP (who had boycotted the 1997 election). The government still faces anger at the levels of poverty in an oil-rich country, and relies on familial ties to the army to retain power. The Islamist al-Islah, formerly a junior partner of the GPC, is now the chief opposition, having eclipsed the jaded YSP.
over 10 000 under 10 000
LAND HEIGHT
Ash Shiír
3000m/9843ft
Al Mukallá
2000m/6562ft
N
E
D
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft Sea Level
N 0
Qalansíyah
100 km
Abd-Al-Kuri
0
Hadíboh
Suqutrá
100 miles
CHRONOLOGY MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES
AT THE LAST ELECTION
over 100 000
Sayíút
F
F
POPULATION
over 500 000
Íarrah
Balíáf
O
L
Damqawt ar am
Qishn
Al Khuraybah
Multiparty elections
House of Representatives 301 seats
asíl ah
Layjún
A
President Ali Abdullah Saleh
2003/2009
Wá dí
‘Amd
Al Íawrah ‘Irqah Aíwar
Shuqrah
G
†
POLITICS
W á dí al Jiz‘
As Sufál
Al Bayçá’ Lawdar
Ta‘izz
79% GPC
Al Hajarayn
Radá’
W
Ma
N
Í
d
Ibb
í
Al Farçah
bí
a dí Z
Zabíd
Al Mukha
YA
Íaríb
Bayt al Faqíh Wá
B‘
A AT
Wád
THÍR Á L K A Tarím Shibám Íawrá' Say’ún
M
‘Amrán
Hajjah
Al Íudaydah
ád
D
r
‘Abs
Al Luíayyah
W
LA T
Minwakh
Q
Íaraç Húth
U
R M
B
Ghubbat al
RA
Sanáw
N
fla‘dah
L
A
‘
H
K
L
Á
A
U
Í
I
D
M
A
S
Mídí
R
A
Total Area : 527 970 sq. km (203 849 sq. miles)
O
YEMEN
A
I
B
A
Relations with Saudi Arabia Tensions persist over oil exploration rights, Yemeni claims on Asir, and accusations that Riyadh funds insurgent tribesmen and, until recently, al-Islah. The two sides clashed violently over 1600 km (1000 miles) of disputed border in 1998, despite a 1995 memorandum of understanding. In early 2001, both sides withdrew border troops under a pact reached in 2000. Instability For a decade Yemen has suffered from tribal insurgency and popular discontent with Saleh’s government. Since 1992, tribesmen have kidnapped more than 100 foreigners, including diplomats and tourists. Leaders of four smaller opposition parties were arrested in 2003 following clashes at demonstrations.
Ali Abdullah Saleh, former YAR president, now leader of the unified Yemen.
Shaikh Abdullah al-Ahmar, leader of the opposition al-Islah.
From the 9th century, the Zaydi dynasty ruled Yemen until their defeat by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. The Turks were expelled by the Zaydi imams in 1636. 1839 Britain occupies Aden. 1918 Western Yemen independent. 1937 Aden made a crown colony, hinterland a protectorate. 1962 Army coup in west. Imam deposed, Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) declared. Civil war. 1963 Aden and protectorate united to form Federation of South Arabia. 1967 South Arabia independent as People’s Republic of South Yemen. British troops leave Aden. 1970 South Yemen renamed People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). Republican victory in YAR civil war. 1972 War between YAR and PDRY ends in peace settlement. 1974 Army coup in YAR. 1978 Lt. Col. Ali Saleh YAR president. Coup in PDRY: radical Abdalfattah Ismail in power. 1979 PDRY signs 20-year treaty with USSR. 1980 Ismail replaced by moderate Ali Muhammed. 1982 PDRY peace treaty with Oman. Major earthquake kills 3000. 1984 YAR signs 20-year cooperation treaty with USSR.
631
Y
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
DEFENSE
CHRONOLOGY continued
AL
AMF
IBRD
†
Joined UN in 1947/1967
NAM
OIC
Isolated after its support for Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War, Yemen now actively supports the US; US agents operate on its soil in an attempt to tackle heavily armed Islamist terrorists believed to have strong links to al-Qaida.
AID
†
Recipient
/
Up 27% in 2002
International donors pledged $2.3 billion in 2002 to fund the government’s antipoverty programs. Arab countries are the largest source of aid.
632
Down 7% in 2002
YEMENI ARMED FORCES
Following unification in 1990, mutual suspicion hampered the integration of the two separate defense forces. Sporadic, bitter clashes have taken place. The main domestic security concern is insurgent tribesmen and, internationally, anti-Western terrorist activity such as the sinking of USS Cole off Aden in late 2000. US military aid has increased accordingly.
ECONOMICS $9.15bn
†
184.7 Yemeni rials (178)
EXPORTS
Malaysia 6% South Korea 12% China 15%
India 17%
IMPORTS
India 4% UK 3%
11 patrol boats
1700 personnel
116 combat aircraft (F-5E, Su-20/22, MiG-21, MiG-29)
5000 personnel
Inflation 21% p.a. (1990–2001)
WORLD GNP RANKING ..........................90th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$490 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS .....................$342m INFLATION .......................................15.9% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................35%
Thailand 19%
60,000 personnel
None
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
Other 31%
790 main battle tanks (30 T-34, 450 T-54/55, 200 T-62, 60 T-72, 50 M-60A1)
France 4% USA 5% China 6%
Other 78%
STRENGTHS Rising oil production. Deposits of copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and zinc. Industries: oil refining, chemicals, salt, foodstuffs, cement, leather. Aden “free zone.” Improving private sector. Rural development program.
WEAKNESSES Political instability deters investment. Civil war damage. Well-organized black market undermines tax base. Subsistence agriculture. High population growth, unemployment. Lack of central control, poor integration, and patronage politics hamper economic revival.
GDP
250
250
200
200
150
150
100
100
50
50 1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
expulsion of over one million Yemeni guest workers from Saudi Arabia imposed a huge burden on the economy, boosting unemployment and ending the flow of workers’ remittances. The 1994 civil war seriously damaged oil refineries, water systems, and communications centers. Economic crisis forced the government to reduce expenditure and subsidies on certain staple foods. This provoked widespread civil unrest – there were particularly violent demonstrations in 1998 and 2003. Many farmers switched from food crops, such as wheat, to growing the more profitable narcotic plant qat, forcing Yemen to import food supplies. Strong oil prices in recent years and IMF-backed “streamlining” have encouraged substantial foreign debt relief and funded new dams and roads. YEMEN : MAJOR BUSINESSES Sana ‘Amrán
Tarím Bájil
PROFILE
$584m (receipts)
Y
.
Unification in 1990 aimed to transform the economy, particularly through the exploitation of large oil and gas reserves, discovered in 1984; exports of oil began in 1987. Industrial investment around Aden was planned. These policies were severely affected by the 1991 Gulf War. In addition, the
GDP 1998=100
WORLD AFFAIRS
$486m
Compulsory military service
Consumer price index 1998=100
1986 Coup attempt in PDRY leads to civil war. Rebels take control of Aden. New PDRY president meets YAR counterpart. 1987 Oil production starts in YAR. 1988 YAR holds elections for consultative council; Muslim Brotherhood gains influence. 1989 Speeding-up of unification process. PDRY publishes a program of free-market reforms. YAR and PDRY sign unification agreement. Constitution of unified Yemen published. 1990 Restrictions on travel between YAR and PDRY lifted. Ali Saleh becomes president of Republic of Yemen. May, formal unification. Pro-Islamic groups oppose secular constitution. 1991 Yemeni guest workers expelled by Saudi Arabia in retaliation for Yemen’s position over Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Arab states boycott independence celebrations. 1992 Assassinations, food riots, and unrest delay elections until 1993. 1994 Southern secessionists defeated in civil war. Amended constitution adopted. 1997 Saleh’s GPC wins absolute majority: poll boycotted by YSP. 1998–1999 Violent border dispute with Saudi Arabia. Kidnapping of tourists, four killed; three members of Islamic Army of Aden (IAA) sentenced to death. 1999 Saleh reelected. 2000 Yemen agrees border with Saudi Arabia after 66-year dispute. October, terror attacks on US naval vessel and UK embassy. 2001 Referendum approves extension of presidential term to seven years. 2002 Government targets suspected al-Qaida allies in tribal areas, expels 100 foreign “scholars.”
†
Al Mukallá Ta‘izz
Shuqrah Textiles
Adan (Aden) Zinjibár
Cement Salt mining Oil refining
0
100 km
Food processing
Light engineering 0 100 miles * significant multinational ownership
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: YEMEN
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
RESOURCES
Electric power 810,000 kW
142,198 tonnes
454,000 b/d (reserves 4bn barrels)
7.25m goats, 6.5m sheep, 34.8m chickens
Oil, natural gas, salt, copper, gold, lead, zinc, molybdenum
†
MEDIA
TV ownership high
Daily newspaper circulation 15 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA There are 4 daily newspapers, including Al-Thawra and Al-Jumhuriyah, which have the largest circulations
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 0% 1 state-controlled service
Combustion 100% (3bn kWh) Nuclear 0% Other 0% 0
1 state-controlled service
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
Oil reserves are considerable, though initial estimates were exaggerated. The 2000 border agreement with Saudi Arabia promises better Yemeni access to oil fields. Salt is the only other mineral to be commercially exploited, and its production continues to grow steadily. The agricultural sector employs just under half the working population. Cotton is a cash crop. Livestock and livestock products, including dairy produce and hides, are mainstays of the north. Yemen’s rich fishing grounds in the Arabian Sea now provide a major source of earnings, despite poor equipment, though the “Aden free zone” project has encouraged investment in the port. Yemen’s population growth, averaging around 4% a year and among the highest in the world, is putting severe strain on the country’s natural resources, especially water.
YEMEN : LAND USE RUB
‘AL
KH
A
LI
†
CRIME 14,000 prisoners
Death penalty in use
/
Up 42% in 2000
4
per 100,000 population
0.4
per 100,000 population
42
per 100,000 population
Rapes
Thefts
Political assassinations continue to threaten stability. There is little formal law enforcement outside the main cities; foreign companies risk kidnappings and theft by Bedouin raiders. There is a proliferation of illicit weapons: the number of firearms has been estimated at 60 million – three times the population size. Some blame lawlessness on the narcotic, qat.
†
EDUCATION
School leaving age: 14
.
None
†
Not available
0.5 tonnes per capita
% of each age group in education
ENVIRONMENT
Diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, malaria, bilharzia
1 per 5000 people
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
15 per 1000 population
28 per 1000 population
Defense 5.7% Education 10% Health 1.5% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
184,072 students
Most Yemenis suffered a fall in living standards after Saudi Arabia expelled its Yemeni workers. A lack of jobs in other Gulf states has fueled unemployment, estimated at around 30%. Except for a small elite, the ownership of consumer goods is low.
100
0
No welfare state health benefits
The major cities have an adequate primary health care system. A new 300-bed hospital in Sana was due to be completed in 2004. Rural areas are less well served. In 2002 the World Bank approved a $27 million credit for a Health Reform Support Project to increase health provisions in poor communities. Health services are under threat from tribal gangs.
Murders
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
0
†
HEALTH
CRIME RATES
49%
Cropland Pasture Desert Cotton 100 km Grapes Sheep 100 miles
Yemen has a distinguished tradition of intellectual debate, and legislation embodies freedom of the press, but in practice this remains poorly developed. The government keeps tight control of the media and vets the entry of foreign journalists. TV and radio are state-controlled and have a limited range around the principal cities. Satellite TV is not generally available. Television and radio are particularly important media as illiteracy rates are very high.
80
60
40
WORLD RANKING
81%
Position in World
46%
20
1st
11% 0
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
50th
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Large areas remain untouched by development, preserving habitats for rare birds. Problems include water scarcity, overgrazing, and soil erosion.
Some 80% of the population have had no formal classroom education; schooling barely extends beyond urban areas. Some 73% of women cannot read or write. In 2004 unregistered religious schools were ordered to be closed. There are two universities – Sana and Aden – as well as another five higher education institutions. The government’s unpopular economic policies have encouraged student activism.
100th
150th
193rd
145
145
$490
57 years
151 170 49%
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
149
79 deaths
Y
Infant mortality per 1000 live births Human dev. index
633
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ZAMBIA
SOUTHERN AFRICA Congo Dem. Rep.
1964
Oct 24
Z
+2
.zm
+260
L
YING IN THE HEART of southern Africa, landlocked Zambia is a country of upland plateaus, bordered to the south by the Zambezi River. Its economic fortunes are tied to the copper industry: falling copper prices in the late 1970s, and then the growing inaccessibility of remaining reserves, have led to a severe decline in the economy. In 1991, Zambia achieved a peaceful transition from single-party rule to multiparty democracy.
†
CLIMATE
PEOPLE
Tropical wet and dry
WEATHER CHART FOR LUSAKA
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
15/km2 (38/mi2)
Bemba, Tonga, Nyanja, Lozi, Lala-Bisa, Nsenga, English THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
40%
60%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
0
0/32
†
Pop. density low
Muslim and Hindu 1%
-10/14 -20/-4
Traditional beliefs 36%
Zambia has a tropical climate, with rains from November to April. The southwest is prone to drought.
TRANSPORTATION Lusaka 390,406 passengers
†
Christian 63%
Drive on left
Has no fleet
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 20,117 km (12,500 miles)
60 km (37 miles)
2173 km (1350 miles)
2250 km (1398 miles)
Road surfaces are often poor; railroads are being rehabilitated, especially those serving the copper mines. Zambian Airways was liquidated in 1994; private airlines are now in operation.
TOURISM 565,000 visitors
†
Visitors : Population 1:19
.
Down 2% in 2001–2002
Though ethnically heterogeneous, with more than 70 different groups, Zambia has been less affected by ethnic tension than many African states. The largest group, about 34% of the population, is the Bemba, who live in the northeast and also predominate in the central Copperbelt. Other major groups are the southern Tonga, the eastern Nyanja, and the Lozi in the west. There are also thousands of refugees, from Angola and latterly from Zimbabwe and the DRC. Zambia’s main urban area is the Copperbelt, where many third- and fourth-generation town dwellers live. Some half a million children are employed there in hazardous conditions. The rural population lives mainly by subsistence farming. A National Gender Policy was issued in October 2000 to redress inequalities between the sexes.
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
Zimbabwe 25% South Africa 15%
Zimbabwe
0
10
30
40
50
AT THE LAST ELECTION
Z
The Victoria Falls, the country’s most spectacular natural feature, draws many visitors. Wildlife and white-water rafting are other attractions.
634
8% 5% 5% UNIP App Others
MMD = Movement for Multiparty Democracy UPND = United Party for National Development UNIP = United National Independence Party FDD = Forum for Democracy and Development App = Appointed Up to eight members are appointed by the president, and the speaker is also a member
Frederick Chiluba and the MMD defeated long-term president Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP in 1991. Despite painful reforms Chiluba was eventually accused of the same failings as Kaunda: a struggling economy and authoritarian rule. In 2001 he purged the MMD of critics, prompting the formation of new opposition parties, and in 2002 his chosen successor, Levy Mwanawasa, won disputed elections. Mwanawasa condemned Chiluba’s corruption, but he too soon faced the usual criticisms. He angered opposition parties by creating without their official consent a cross-party “national unity” government in 2003. He has questioned privatization policies, jeopardizing aid flows.
†
WORLD AFFAIRS Comm
ACP
AU
NAM
Joined UN in 1964
SADC
Zambia led Africa’s opposition to apartheid South Africa and now enjoys close links with Pretoria. It also has a significant role as a mediator in neighboring conflicts.
AID
†
Recipient
$641m (receipts)
/
Up 84% in 2002
Regional drought in 2002 dramatically increased the need for aid. Donors pledged $1.3 billion, returning aid to the yearly levels seen before a freeze in 1997 prompted by state corruption. By 2004 domestic food production had dramatically increased.
$25m
Musi-o-Tunya (The Smoke That Thunders), known in English as Victoria Falls. Spray from the falls can be seen 30 km (20 miles) away.
1% 8% FDD Vacant
30% UPND
43% MMD
60
% of total arrivals
Multiparty elections
National Assembly 158 seats
DEFENSE 20
ue
President Levy Mwanawasa
2001/2006
UK 11% Other 49%
†
POLITICS
Moz am bi q
Z A M B IA
i
1964
M a la w
Angola
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Zambia CAPITAL: Lusaka POPULATION: 10.8 million CURRENCY: Zambian kwacha OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English
Africa
Tanzania
†
.
No compulsory military service
Down 7% in 2002
Despite the relatively small budget, the 28,100-strong Zambian Defense Force is well equipped. Soldiers have been badly hit by HIV/AIDS.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ZAMBIA
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Inflation 48% p.a. (1990–2001) 4750 Zambian kwacha (4768)
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................129th GNP PER CAPITA ...............................$340 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ....................–$584m INFLATION .......................................22.2% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................50%
69,200 tonnes
Not an oil producer
2.6m cattle, 1.27m goats, 340,000 pigs, 30m chickens
Copper, cobalt, coal, zinc, lead, gold, emeralds, amethysts
Copper production is rising after years of low world prices, and is expected soon to match the output of the 1970s. Zambia has rich hydropower potential.
Food produced for export. Boom in new export crops such as cotton and flowers. Minerals, notably copper, cobalt, and coal. Market-oriented reforms and privatization attracting foreign private investors. Copper industry finally privatized in 2003. Strategic location. Reduced customs duties.
.
32% (22% partially protected)
†
MEDIA
Overreliance on copper, which still accounts for around half of export earnings. Domestic reserves declining. Shortage of finance for restructuring. High inflation, negative growth, serious droughts. Arable land underused. Delays in privatization programs.
TV ownership medium
Dem. Rep. of Congo 7% Thailand 8% Japan 8%
Broadcasting is dominated by the government. Opposition journalists have been accused of treason.
†
CRIME
South Africa 28%
USA 4% China 4%
.
Mwenda Lake Bangweulu
Ch
am
Samfya Mpika
Mufulira Kitwe Ndola Luanshya
Kaoma Lu
pa am
Za m
Mongu i
N
bez
M
K
an
ac hil e
Senanga do
Kabwe
Mumbwa
Choma Kalomo
k La
e
i
B O T S W AN A
B
Livingstone Victoria Falls
M Z I
B
A
ng
Chipata Katete
Petauke
M
Chilanga LUSAKA Mazabuka zi Kafue be Monze riba Ka
HIV prevention programs are reducing infection rates in Lusaka. However, over 25% of town dwellers are HIV-positive.
†
SPENDING
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
8 per 1000 population
Defense 0.7% Education 2.3% Health 3% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP
WORLD RANKING Position in World
A OZ
MB
IQU
150th
129
1000m/3281ft 500m/1640ft 200m/656ft
0 0
100th
E
LAND HEIGHT
N
50th
a
as hi
Chongwe
Sinazongwe amb ez
N AM IB IA Z
s
Zam
Kalabo Limulunga
w
Kapiri Mposhi
ue Kaf
u
p
E
m
W
bo
Serenje Lu
Luk
Lun ga
O
o Ka
u
Kafue
eb un g
Lunsemf wa
w
Respiratory infections, diarrheal diseases, AIDS, malaria
1st
Chililabombwe
Chingola
Kabompo
Welfare state health benefits
L
hi Solwezi
A
z be m
Kalulushi un g
Isoka
M
Ka
Zambezi L
be
Lu
nga Lu
L
Mungwi
Kasama
†
Standards of living for most Zambians are now lower in real terms than at independence in 1964. Some people lack basic nutrition.
I A
a
under 10 000
i
N
w
A
Kawambwa
. R
wis h
A
Sunzu 2067m
Mporokoso
ng
Nchelenge
Z
Mbala
Mansa
Mw b o m po o
over 10 000
Wes t
over 50 000
Mpulungu
Lake Mweru K
Luapula
over 100 000
Schools are understaffed. Fees for secondary students have affected the already very low attendance rate.
I
CO P.
E
M DE
over 500 000
N
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Mweru Wantipa
al u
POPULATION
O
i
N
G
24,553 students
17 per 1000 population
sh
South Africa 64%
Total Area : 752 614 sq. km (290 584 sq. miles)
80%
School leaving age: 13
Down 14% in 2000
Cases of violent crime and burglary are rising rapidly. President Mwanawasa pledged not to sign execution orders during his term T of office. A
Other 23%
†
EDUCATION
Moratorium on death penalty
13,173 prisoners
ZAMBIA
1972 UNIP one-party government. 1982–1991 Austerity measures and corruption: pressure for democracy. 1991 MMD government elected; Frederick Chiluba defeats Kaunda. 1996 Controversial elections. 2002 Levy Mwanawasa president.
1 per 10,000 people
7 services: 1 state-controlled, 6 independent
IMPORTS
UK 3%
Northern Rhodesia was developed by Britain solely for its copper. The UNIP, led by Kenneth Kaunda, took power at Zambian independence in 1964.
There are 3 daily newspapers, including the state-owned Times of Zambia and the Zambia Daily Mail 1 state-controlled service
Japan 2%
CHRONOLOGY
HEALTH
PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Malawi 9%
G
0.2 tonnes per capita
Daily newspaper circulation 12 per 1000 people
EXPORTS
Other 40%
Sustainability rank: 69th
Drought is a recurrent hazard. Rhinos are almost extinct as a result of poaching. Revenues from legal hunting are being channeled into villages to encourage support for conservation.
WEAKNESSES
A
†
ENVIRONMENT
STRENGTHS
a n g wa
Electric power 2.3m kW
W
$3.46bn
†
RESOURCES
A
†
ECONOMICS
200 km
193rd
80%
160 $340
174 192 37 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
164
108 deaths
Infant mortality per 1000 live births
Z
Human dev. index
200 miles
635
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
ZIMBABWE
SOUTHERN AFRICA Zambia
M oz a
ZIMBABWE Botswana
OFFICIAL NAME: Republic of Zimbabwe CAPITAL: Harare POPULATION: 12.9 million CURRENCY: Zimbabwe dollar OFFICIAL LANGUAGE: English 1980
1980
April 18
ZW
+2
Africa
e qu bi m
South Africa
.zw
+263
Z
IMBABWE IS SITUATED in southern Africa. Its upland center is crisscrossed by rivers flowing into Lake Kariba and the Zambezi River, on which lies the region’s most spectacular natural feature, the Victoria Falls (Musi-o-Tunya). Attempts to preserve white rule in the former British colony led to a long guerrilla war before independence in 1980. Robert Mugabe, the country’s leader since then and its president since 1987, has become increasingly authoritarian and divisive. Violent seizure of white-owned farmland and severe drought have contributed to virtual economic collapse.
†
CLIMATE
Tropical wet and dry/ steppe
TRANSPORTATION
WEATHER CHART FOR HARARE
Average daily temperature °C/°F J F M A M J J
Rainfall A S O N D cm/in
40/104
40/16
30/86
30/12
20/68
20/8
10/50
10/4
Harare 639,628 passengers
†
Drive on left
The Kariba Dam, which has created the vast Lake Kariba on the Zambezi River, lies on Zimbabwe’s northwest border with Zambia.
TOURISM 2.07m visitors
Has no fleet
Visitors : Population 1:6.2
/
Up 11% in 2001
MAIN TOURIST ARRIVALS
THE TRANSPORTATION NETWORK 8619 km (5356 miles)
None
3077 km (1912 miles)
Lake Kariba and the Mazowe River
Zambia 35% Southern Africa 30%
0
0/32
Mozambique 9% UK & Ireland 8%
-10/14 -20/-4
USA & Canada 4%
The rail network, among the densest in sub-Saharan Africa, requires modernizing. Economic troubles have forced a reduction in internal air services.
Other 14%
Because of its altitude, Zimbabwe is comparatively temperate for a country in the tropics; humidity is also low. The rainy season occurs between A mb e zi November and March but, with the Za M I exception of the eastern highlands, Zambezi Escarpment O rainfall is erratic and drought is Chirundu common. Annual rainfall ranges Muzarabani Makuti B Kariba from 140 cm (55 in) in the Kariba Dam a eastern highlands to Ruy a Karoi b Mhangura Mount Darwin i 40 cm (16 in) in the e M ar ow Mutorashanga Mvurwi Limpopo valley. K
0
10
20
30
40
% of total arrivals
Manyam e
L
a
k
e
n
A
Sa
Ma z
Z
Angwa
Zimbabwe’s principal attractions are the Victoria Falls, the Kariba Dam, numerous national parks, the Great Zimbabwe ruins near Masvingo, and World’s View in the Matopo Hills. Invasions of large commercial farms led by “war Nyamapanda veterans”, the violence in the ya Glendale Bindura run-up to the parliamentary t i Lions Den Mutoko Banket A Chinhoyi elections in 2000, and the Mazowe Lake ensuing violent suppression CHIZ AR IRA Z HARARE Murehwa Victoria Manyamé Falls NAMIBIA HILLS of domestic political Z am b e z i Chitungwiza Chakari Norton opposition have put Marondera Victoria Falls Golden Valley Chegutu Beatrice Kadoma Zimbabwe on the list Gokwe Nyanga Hwange Eiffel Flats Kamativi of unsafe destinations MAFUNGABUSI Inyangani Rusape S Dete ha 2592m for many visitors. Fuel ng a PLATE AU ni Nyazura Kwekwe and foreign currency Chivhu Redcliff shortages have further Mutare Mvuma undermined the Gweru tourism sector. Cashel Shurugwi In addition to these Chimanimani factors, Zimbabwe is wary Mashava Masvingo that mass-market tourism Bulawayo Matopos Chipinge IMBABWE Esigodini Zvishavane Lake Kyle might seriously damage the Mbalabala R u Total Area : nd environment. However, the e kw N Plumtree 390 580 sq. km e lure of foreign exchange has (150 803 sq. miles) Ngundu encouraged the development A Chiredzi Gwanda of conference facilities in POPULATION LAND HEIGHT Triangle Harare and vacation complexes, over 500 000 Mwenezi Rutenga un de N 2000m/6562ft M such as Elephant Hills, around over 100 000 U Shashe we ne 1000m/3281ft zi Victoria Falls. State law over 50 000 Bu requires there to be 500m/1640ft over 10 000 bi 0 100 km 30% local ownership 200m/656ft under 10 000 Beitbridge of tourist ventures. L im p o p o 180m/590ft
M
G w a yi
B
B
O
T
I
S
W
Q
A
Z
Sav e
To
U
R
E
zi m
T huli
ni wa ng
Z
†
SOU
636
0
TH AF RICA
100 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ZIMBABWE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
†
PEOPLE
Pop. density low 33/km2 (86/mi2)
Shona, isiNdebele, English THE URBAN /RURAL POPULATION SPLIT
37%
63%
RELIGIOUS PERSUASION
Other (including Muslim) 1% Traditional beliefs 24%
Syncretic (Christian/ traditional beliefs) 50%
Christian 25%
ETHNIC MAKEUP
White 1%
Other African 11%
Asian 1%
Ndebele 16%
Shona 71%
†
POLITICS
POPULATION AGE BREAKDOWN
Age
Female 0.6% 1.6%
Male 0.5%
80+ 60–79
1.6%
5.8%
40–59
5.3%
14.9%
20–39
13.6%
0–19
28.3%
27.8%
% of population by age group
government and discrimination against whites officially endorsed. Tensions have increased massively. Families are large, and almost half the population is under 15. Zimbabwean society is traditionally patriarchal. In 1999 a Supreme Court ruling provoked protest by according only “junior male” status to black women, especially those marrying under traditional law.
Multiparty elections
President Robert Gabriel Mugabe
2000/2005
There are two main ethnic groups, the majority Shona in the north and the Ndebele in the south. The European and Asian communities are declining. Ethnic tensions plagued the 1980s. In 1983 alone 1500 Ndebele were massacred by the army as the ruling, Shona-dominated, ZANU–PF attempted to suppress the predominantly Ndebele Zimbabwe African People’s Union (PF–ZAPU). A Unity Accord in 1987 eased the conflict, and ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo was appointed vice president in 1990. As a legacy of colonial rule, whites remain generally far more affluent than blacks, an imbalance partly redressed by policies to improve black education and increase employment. Redistribution of land, previously slow and dogged by accusations of corruption, was stepped up in 2000. A movement to seize whiteowned farms was backed by the
AT THE LAST ELECTION
1% ZANU–Ndonga
Parliament 150 seats
Tsvangirai was charged with treason in 2002 and has been repeatedly arrested for organizing strikes. In 2004 the MDC vowed to boycott elections until Mugabe introduced genuine political reform.
MAIN POLITICAL ISSUES 41% ZANU–PF
20% App
38% MDC
ZANU–PF = Zimbabwe African National Union–Patriotic Front MDC = Movement for Democratic Change App = Appointed ZANU–Ndonga = Zimbabwe African National Union–Ndonga 30 seats are set aside for presidential appointments and traditional chiefs
80% of MPs are elected. The president is directly elected every six years.
PROFILE After leading Zimbabwe to independence as a democracy and winning an internal dispute with the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), Robert Mugabe’s ZANU–PF has since dominated politics. However, its status has been questioned as support for the opposition MDC has grown since its formation in 1999. Despite widespread preelection intimidation, the MDC won a convincing share of votes in 2000, particularly in Harare and Bulawayo, and its members have since been victimized by government thugs. MDC leader Morgan
†
WORLD AFFAIRS COMESA
G15
NAM
AU
The rule of President Mugabe Mugabe, hitherto prime minister, was elected president unopposed in 1987. He dropped attempts to create a oneparty socialist state in 1991. His position has become increasingly precarious as ZANU–PF has lost support in the face of economic collapse and a reinvigorated opposition led by the MDC. He has resorted to authoritarian and violent policies to stay in power. His reelection in 2002 drew widespread criticism, and in 2004 he banned human rights NGOs. Land redistribution Though most agree that the distribution of farmland unfairly favored the white minority, the speed and method of belated land redistribution has provoked protest. White-owned farms have been confiscated without compensation and violently occupied by self-styled “war veterans” who have government blessing. The policy has led to a huge drop in grain production.
Robert Mugabe, elected prime minister in 1980 and president in 1987.
AID US$201m (receipts)
†
Morgan Tsvangirai, leader of the opposition MDC.
Recipient
/
Up 23% in 2002
Political violence since 2000 has prompted most international aid donors to suspend financial support. Struggling under massive food shortages, Zimbabwe agreed in 2002 to accept genetically modified food aid. However, in 2004 the World Food Program withdrew its teams after they were not allowed to survey food stocks; agencies were told that food aid was not needed, as Zimbabwe will be self-sufficient by the next harvest. The opposition has requested supplies to continue, fearing that scarce food supplies will be used as a political tool.
Joined UN in 1980
SADC
Zimbabwe is an active member of the SADC and COMESA. Relations with postapartheid South Africa are particularly good. Zimbabwean troops were active in the DRC from 1998 to 2002. This strong involvement in
African affairs and Mugabe’s own role as an anticolonial champion have led to regional support for the confrontational policy against white commercial farmers. His increasingly antidemocratic stance, however, has brought near-total isolation from the wider international community. The EU, the US, and the UK have been loud in their condemnation
of Mugabe’s regime, and sanctions and aid suspensions have contributed to the perilous state of the economy. Despite agreeing to Zimbabwe’s suspension from the Commonwealth in 2002, southern African leaders were bitterly disappointed by its extension, which prompted Mugabe to withdraw Zimbabwe completely in late 2003.
637
Z
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CHRONOLOGY In 1953, the British colony of Southern Rhodesia became part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland with Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi).
/
No compulsory military service
Up 122% in 2002
Nationalist guerrillas were the heroes of independence in 1980. By the late 1990s, however, resentment grew when ex-combatants demanded enormous pensions. Though formally nonaligned, Zimbabwe supported the Mozambican regime against Renamo guerrillas and backed the US-led operation in Somalia in 1992–1995. The withdrawal of troops from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), dispatched there in 1998 to help President Laurent Kabila fight rebels, began in April 2001, following the Lusaka peace accord. Troops remained in the DRC
ECONOMICS US$6.16bn
†
ZIMBABWEAN ARMED FORCES 25,000 personnel
40 main battle tanks (PRC Type-59/69)
None
50 combat aircraft (1 Hunter, 5 Hawk, 9 MiG-21, 6 MiG-23)
4000 personnel
None
for many months after the withdrawal was officially completed in 2002. Despite economic crisis, US$200 million was spent on jet fighters and military vehicles from China in 2004.
Inflation 28% p.a. (1990–2001)
5348 Zimbabwe dollars (824)
ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE INDICATOR Consumer Price Index
SCORE CARD
WORLD GNP RANKING ........................105th GNP PER CAPITA ...........................US$470 BALANCE OF PAYMENTS ................–US$467m INFLATION ........................................140% UNEMPLOYMENT...................................70%
EXPORTS
Japan 5% UK 5%
Germany 5% South Africa 6% China 6%
Other 73% IMPORTS
Germany 3% UK 3%
South Africa 46%
GDP 1060
1060
USA 3% Dem. Rep. of Congo 5%
Other 40%
STRENGTHS Sound infrastructure. Broad-based economy. Virtual self-sufficiency in energy. Gold, coal, horticulture, cotton. Tourist potential. Good education system.
740
740
420
420
100
100
1998
1999
2000
2001
GDP 1998=100
638
US$637m
†
Consumer price index 1998=100
Z
1961 Joshua Nkomo forms ZAPU. 1962 ZAPU banned. Segregationist Rhodesian Front (RF) wins polls. 1963 African nationalists in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland demand dissolution of Federation. ZANU, offshoot of ZAPU, formed by Rev. Sithole and Robert Mugabe. 1964 New RF prime minister Ian Smith rejects British demands for majority rule. ZANU banned. 1965 May, RF reelected. November, state of emergency declared (renewed until 1990). Smith’s unilateral declaration of independence. UK imposes economic sanctions. ANC, ZANU, and ZAPU begin guerrilla war. 1974 RF regime agrees cease-fire terms with African nationalists. 1976 ZANU and ZAPU unite as Patriotic Front (PF). 1977 PF backed by “frontline” African states: Mozambique, Tanzania, Botswana, and Zambia. 1979 Lancaster House talks produce agreement on constitution. 1980 Independence as Zimbabwe. Following violent election campaign, Mugabe becomes prime minister of ZANU–PF/ PF–ZAPU coalition. Relations severed with South Africa. 1983–1984 Unrest in Matabeleland, PF–ZAPU’s power base. 1985 Elections return ZANU–PF, with manifesto to create one-party state. Many PF–ZAPU members arrested. 1987 Provision for white seats in parliament abolished. ZANU– PF and PF–ZAPU sign unity agreement (merge in 1989). Mugabe elected president. 1990 Elections won by ZANU–PF. Mugabe reelected president. 1991 Mugabe abandons plan for one-party state. Severe drought. 1999 Death of Vice President Nkomo. Opposition forms MDC. 2000 Government loses referendum on new constitution. Expropriations of white-owned farmland by squatters. Strong MDC performance in polls. ZANU–PF accused of using intimidation to retain majority. 2002 Mugabe reelected in flawed poll. Commonwealth membership suspended. Threat of mass starvation and economic collapse. 2003 Zimbabwe leaves Commonwealth.
DEFENSE
2002
1980s, increasing unemployment and inflation. Prospects for the mining industry appear particularly bleak: collapsing mineral prices have forced the closure of diamond, gold, platinum, and chromium mines. The cost of living and inflation have soared amid economic chaos; prices for basic provisions were fixed in 2001. The black market is now more important than the formal economy, while there is greater reliance on remittances from economic emigrants. ZIMBABWE : MAJOR BUSINESSES Harare Kadoma Gweru
WEAKNESSES Political violence since 2000: foreign investors deterred. Massive food shortages; risk of famine. Shortages of fuel and cash. Agriculture and hydroelectric output affected by drought. Mass emigration. Large budget deficits, unemployment, and inflation. Labor unrest, bank collapses, food price riots. Cheap imports damage local industries.
PROFILE In 1991 a market-oriented economy superseded the socialist policies of the
Mutare Hwange Kwekwe
Bulawayo Rutenga Tobacco
Agribusiness
Steel
Engineering
Textiles
Coal mining
Chemicals
Vehicle assembly 0
Footwear
0
200 km 200 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: ZIMBABWE
Key to symbols and abbreviations on cover flaps
Electric power 2m kW
13,200 tonnes
Not an oil producer
5.75m cattle, 2.97m goats, 22m chickens
Gold, coal, asbestos, nickel, copper, silver, iron, emeralds, lithium, diamonds
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Hydro 47% (3.3bn kWh)
0
20
60
40
100
80
% of total generation by type
†
ENVIRONMENT
.
12% (6% partially protected)
Sustainability rank: 46th
†
CRIME
1.2 tonnes per capita
21,000 prisoners
0
Death penalty in use
/
Up 17% in 2000–2001
200 km
0
Yes
Yes
10
per 100,000 population
Yes
No
38
per 100,000 population
1958
per 100,000 population
Thefts
MEDIA
†
TV ownership medium
Daily newspaper circulation 18 per 1000 people PUBLISHING AND BROADCAST MEDIA
Murder and narcotics-related offenses are rife in urban areas. The illegal occupation of white-owned farms, supported by the government, and electoral violence have led to many deaths. The secret service and the army have been criticized for human rights abuses.
†
EDUCATION 90%
1 state-controlled service
Persecution of journalists has increased since a 2002 press law. The independent Daily News has faced severe government harassment, and has been closed intermittently under the legislation.
SPENDING
†
GDP/cap. increase
CONSUMPTION AND SPENDING
43 per 1000 population
25 per 1000 population
Defense 3.4% Education 10.4%
48,894 students
Health 2.8% 0
5
10
15
20
25
Defense, Health, Education spending as % of GDP 100
Socialist policies in the 1980s lessened the gap between blacks and whites. But currency depreciation and inflation have since greatly reduced real wages.
80
60
99%
WORLD RANKING
40
43%
20
4% 0
Primary
Secondary
Position in World 1st
Tertiary
There are 2 daily newspapers, the state-controlled Herald and Chronicle
1 state-controlled service
AIDS, tuberculosis, accidents, malaria, heart disease, cancers
The largest threat to health is AIDS. It has dramatically reduced average life expectancy, created around a million orphans, and kills 3000 people a week. A belated AIDS program, offering generic drugs, is now in place. Malaria and tuberculosis account for many other deaths. The beleaguered health system is free for the poor.
School leaving age: 12
THE EDUCATION SYSTEM
% of each age group in education
In communal areas, the land is suffering from overpopulation and overstocking. Deforestation, soil erosion, and deterioration of wildlife and water resources are widespread. There are concerns over future plans to build more hydroelectric dams. Measures have been taken to protect the black rhinoceros, including moving them to safer areas and combating poaching: patrols have killed some 200 poachers since 1984 when a shoot-tokill policy was first introduced. The government also supports a scheme for dehorning – the horn is the poachers’ main target. In 1997 Zimbabwe led the move at the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species to allow a limited resumption of international trade in ivory. An increase in ivory poaching since 1999 has led to calls for more protection for elephants.
e
Welfare state health benefits
1 per 10,000 people
Rapes No
†
HEALTH
Murders No
ti
Limp opo
200 miles
CRIME RATES
ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES
ya
MAFUNGABUSI PLATEAU
Sa v
Other 0%
Cropland Pasture mb e z i Forest Za Tobacco - cash crop a Maize rib Ka Cattle e
n
Nuclear 0%
ZIMBABWE : LAND USE
Sa
Combustion 53% (3.7bn kWh)
Over 45% of electricity needs are met by hydropower; the Kariba Dam provides the bulk of this energy. The plant is run by the Central African Power Company and is jointly owned with Zambia. There are plans to privatize the Zimbabwean power company ZESA. Plans to build new hydroelectric dams in the region have been shelved as the Zimbabwean economy stagnates. Coal production declined by 17% at Hwange in 2000, but Malaysian investments there are set to exploit large deposits. Zimbabwe is a net energy importer.
La k
†
RESOURCES
50th
Improving education, and trebling attendance at primary school, were signal successes in the postindependence period. Education is compulsory and instruction is in English. The introduction of fees in 1992 raised fears that many parents would be forced to pull at least some of their children out of school, particularly girls. In 2004, when private schools hiked fees, the authorities closed 45 of them, accusing them of seeking to deter black pupils.
100th
100
150th
193rd
90%
146
146
$470
76 deaths
147
188 39 years
GNP per capita in US$ Life expectancy Literacy
Infant mortality per 1000 live births
Z
Human dev. index
639
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
D
ESPITE THE RAPID process of decolonization since 1945 (pages 52–55), roughly seven million people around the world still live in nonsovereign territories under the protection of the UK, the US, France, Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Australia, or New Zealand. These remnants of former colonial empires may have persisted for economic, strategic, or Svalbard political reasons. (to Norway) BARENTS SEA Jan Mayen (to Norway)
N O RT H SEA DENMARK
UNITED KINGDOM
NETHERLANDS
UNITED KINGDOM
EUROPE
Channel Islands:
Guernsey and Jersey (to UK)
B
Isle of Man (to UK)
Hong Kong and Macao reverted to Chinese control in the late 1990s. Others await political developments, such as referenda, which will determine their future status. Finally, there is a large group of territories that are considered too small, remote, or weak to be able to survive as independent states.
THE UK STILL HAS THE LARGEST number of overseas territories in the world. What were previously known as Crown colonies and dependent territories are now British overseas territories. Residents are full British citizens. Most territories sustain a large degree of local autonomy, and if they express a consitutional desire for independence then they may have it, as long as they can form a viable independent country. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands retain their special connection as Crown dependencies, neither a part of the UK nor colonies.
A LT IC SEA
AY RW
Faeroe Islands (to Denmark)
NO
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
OVERSEAS TERRITORIES & DEPENDENCIES
FRANCE
SEA OF J A PA N
A
Gibraltar (to UK)
S
I
A YELLOW SEA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
EAST CHINA SEA
A
F
R
I
C
A
Paracel Islands (Disputed)
ARABIAN SEA
SOUTH CHINA SEA
Northern Mariana Islands (to US) Guam (to US)
Spratly Islands (Disputed)
British Indian Ocean Territory (to UK)
Ascension (Administered by St Helena)
J AVA S E A
Cocos (Keeling) Islands (to Australia)
Mayotte (to France)
ARAFURA SEA
Ashmore & Christmas Island (to Australia) Cartier Islands (to Australia)
St Helena (to UK)
Coral Sea Islands (to Australia) CORAL SEA
AT L A N T I C OCEAN
Tristan da Cunha (Administered by St Helena)
Réunion (to France)
A U S T R A L I A
Amsterdam Island St. Paul Island
Gough Island (Administered by St Helena)
French Southern & Antarctic Territories (France) Crozet Islands Kerguelen
Bouvet Island (to Norway)
Heard & McDonald Islands (to Australia)
French Southern and Antarctic territories are not included in the following section. Any territories which involve an Antarctic claim are not shown.
640
INDIAN OCEAN
Europa (Administered by Réunion) Bassas da India (Administered by Réunion)
NEW ZEALAND NEW ZEALAND’S GOVERNMENT has no desire to retain any overseas territories. However, the economic weakness of its dependent territory Tokelau and its freely associated states, Niue and the Cook Islands, has forced New Zealand to remain responsible for their foreign policy and defense.
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES OVERSEAS TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES
UNITED STATES
OF
AMERICA
THE OVERSEAS TERRITORIES OF THE US have been seen as strategically useful, if expensive, parts of its backyard. The US has, in most cases, given the local population a say in deciding its own status. Thus, full sovereignty has been granted to three successor states of the former US-administered UN Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. A US commonwealth territory, such as Puerto Rico, has a greater level of independence than that of a US unincorporated or external territory.
Australia
Denmark
New Zealand
Netherlands
United Kingdom
Norway
United States
Disputed
France
Greenland (to Denmark)
ARCTIC OCEAN BEAUFORT SEA
AT L A N T I C OCEAN
NORTH AMERICA
BERING SEA
St Pierre & Miquelon (to France) Turks & Caicos Islands (to UK)
U N I T E D S T AT E S OF AMERICA
Puerto Rico (to US) Bermuda (to UK)
Midway Islands (to US)
Gulf of Mexico
Cayman Islands (to UK)
Wake Island (to US)
Navassa Island (to US)
Johnston Atoll (to US)
PA C I F I C O C E A N Kingman Reef (to US)
CARIBBEAN SEA
British Virgin Islands (to UK) Anguilla (to UK)
Virgin Islands (to US) CARIBBEAN SEA Netherlands Antilles (to Neth.) Montserrat (to UK) Aruba Martinique (to Neth.) (to France)
Guadeloupe (to France)
Clipperton Island (Administered by French Polynesia)
French Guiana (to France)
Palmyra Atoll (to US) Baker & Howland Islands (to US)
Jarvis Island (to US)
Tokelau (to NZ) Wallis & Futuna (to France)
SOUTH AMERICA
Cook Islands (to NZ)
American Samoa (to US)
French Polynesia (to France)
Niue (to NZ) New Caledonia (to France) Norfolk Island (to Australia)
Pitcairn Islands (to UK)
FRANCE
NEW ZEALAND
FRENCH TERRITOIRES D’OUTRE-MER are considered an indivisible part of the French Republic. As a result, France has developed economic ties, and stressed the advantage of interdependence over independence, with its overseas territories. A distinct hierarchy has been developed. Overseas départements, officially part of France, have their own governments. Territorial collectivités are administered by a French-appointed commissioner and a locally elected council, while overseas territoires have varying degrees of autonomy.
Falkland Islands (to UK)
South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands (to UK)
641
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
AMERICAN SAMOA
ARUBA
STATUS: Unincorporated territory of the US CLAIMED: 1900 CAPITAL: Pago Pago POP. : 70,260 DENSITY: 360/km2 (937/mi2)
STATUS: Autonomous part of the Netherlands CLAIMED: 1643 CAPITAL: Oranjestad POP.: 70,844 DENSITY: 367/km2 (945/mi2)
C
OMPRISING THE EASTERN half of the Samoan islands, American Samoa sits on the edge of Polynesia in the South Pacific Ocean. Though Christianity, introduced in the 19th century, has taken a very firm hold – Samoa is known as the “Bible Belt” of the Pacific – the traditional and conservative fa’a Samoa (Samoan way of life) continues to dominate the islands’ culture. At its base is the extended family, the aiga, while traditional chiefs, or matai, retain their central role in government. Samoa came under the control of the US in 1900, and life there remained largely unchanged until a US-led drive for modernization in the 1960s. Along with better health care and industrial development, fa’a Amerika also meant unemployment, pollution, and rising petty crime fueled by alcohol. Tuna processed by Pago Pago’s canneries P Tutuila A C represent 93% of American Samoa’s IF I C Manua Islands exports. Efforts to diversify include OC 0 50 km EA N the development of other light 50 miles 0 industries and tourism.
T
N
HE MOST DEVELOPED island among the Dutch Caribbean territories, Aruba lies 25 km (15 miles) off the coast of Venezuela. Its tropical climate is moderated by constant trade winds sweeping in from the Atlantic. Formerly the richest island in the Netherlands Antilles, Aruba became a separate dependency of the Netherlands in 1986. Transition to full independence, expected in 1996, was halted in 1994 after an agreement was reached between the governments of the Netherlands, Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles. The Netherlands voiced concern over the island’s security and the danger of its becoming a base for narcotics trafficking, and the Aruban government questioned the desirability of full independence, citing C high unemployment A R and economic instability. I B Since 1986, the Palm B Beach Noord E economy of Aruba, A formerly dependent ORANJESTAD on oil refining, has Queen Beatrix Intl Airport diversified. Tourism and offshore finance have A
0
E
Olosega
N
Pago Pago Intl Airport Vaitogi
Leone
Manua Islands
Ofu
Tula
PAGO PAGO
S
Tutuila
Tau
N
Amouli
10 km
San Nicolas Ceru Colorado
10 miles
0
0
10 km 10 miles
0
ANGUILLA
Palm Beach, Aruba, also known as the Turquoise Coast, lies on the western side of the island. The beach stretches for 10 km (6 miles) and is the site of a low-rise beach resort.
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1650 CAPITAL: The Valley POP. : 12,738 DENSITY: 133/km2 (344/mi2)
L
YING IN THE CENTER of the Leeward Islands, in the Caribbean, Anguilla has a subtropical climate, the heat and humidity being tempered by trade winds. Lumped by the UK into a joint colonial administration with St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguillans took up arms to protect their dependent status in 1967 when St. Kitts and Nevis was awarded internal self-government. Lacking any major industry, Anguilla relied on the economic stability that came with being an overseas territory. In the 1980s the island’s government resolved to introduce a tourist industry and targeted the luxury end of the market. Tourism is now Anguilla’s main source of income. Almost 50,000 tourists, around 60% from the US, visit Anguilla each year.
become the most important sectors of the economy, and there are now more than 600,000 visitors annually, the majority of them from the US. The rapid expansion of tourism has, however, put considerable strain on Aruba’s infrastructure, and some attempt has been made to restrict the number of visitors. At the same time facilities have been improved to encourage the growth of the data-processing industry.
Oranjestad, Aruba’s capital, contains many Dutch colonial-style buildings. Though first claimed by the Spanish in 1499, Aruba was colonized by the Dutch in the 17th century.
Scrub Island
Prickly Pear Cays
C
A
Seal Island
R
I
B
B
E
A
E
A
Lower West End Point Anguillita Island
N
L
E
East End Village
Crocus Bay
THE VALLEY
N
Wall Blake Airport
I Blowing Point U Village G N Cove Rendezvous A Bay Bay
L
L
A
0
H
C N
4 km 4 miles
0
above Sea Level
N
A
Road Bay
LAND HEIGHT
Windward Point
Island Harbour
South Hill Village
West End Village
642
S
200m/656ft
500m/1640ft
Aruba’s cooperation with the US in the region includes support for its actions against narcotics trafficking from South America, and since the closure of the US base in Panama in 1999, US aircraft have used bases on the island to launch reconnaissance flights. Those who oppose this cooperation fear that it could drag Aruba unnecessarily into the civil conflict in Colombia.
1000m/3281ft
1500m/4572ft
above 2000m/6562ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
BERMUDA
St Catherine Point
suppress its proindependence aspirations while in government. Major issues include the Paget I St George's complexity of the tax structure, Harbour Smith's I ITUATED MORE THAN 1000 km reform of the bloated civil US Naval St David's Air Station (650 miles) off the coast of the service, soaring property Island Kindley Field Airport US, Bermuda consists of a chain prices, rising crime, Long of more than 150 coral islands. environmental issues, and Bay Bailey's Bay The Gulf Stream, flowing between Bermuda and narcotics trafficking. Bermuda Castle Harbour Nonsuch Island is overwhelmingly a service NORTH economy. Lilies are grown for Trunk I Commissioner's export, but few other agricultural A T L A N T I C Point Harrington Tucker’s products are grown in sufficient Town Sound Ireland quantity, and the islands are heavily Grassy Bay Island Flatts Village O C E A N Sam Hall's Bay North dependent on food imports. Tourist figures have been falling Ireland steadily, but tourism is still a significant industry, Hinson Bay Long Bay Island South the greatest share of visitors coming from the US. Somerset Sue Wood Bay Financial services have become the most important Somerset HAMILTON Island sector of the economy, helping to maintain one of Long Island Hinson the highest per capita incomes in the world. The Great Sound Island government has attempted to head off international Grape Bay Darrell criticism of its financial environment through a series Island of reforms. Bermuda also operates one of the world’s Elbow Bay largest flag-of-convenience shipping fleets. STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1612 CAPITAL: Hamilton POP. : 64,482 DENSITY: 1217/km2 (3224/mi2)
St George's Island
St George
S
Little Sound
Warwick Long Bay
N
Chaplin Bay Horseshoe Bay 0 0
2 km 2 miles
the eastern seaboard of the US, keeps the climate mild and humid. Bermuda is racially mixed; over a third of the population are of European extraction. Racial tension has lessened since the 1960s and 1970s. A more representative electoral system was established after a Royal Commission visited Bermuda in 1978. For 30 years after the first general election, held in 1968, Bermuda was ruled by the conservative United Bermuda Party (UBP). Its veteran leader, Sir John Swan, resigned as prime minister and party leader in 1995, when a referendum decisively rejected his campaign for independence from the UK. In a general election in 1998 the UBP was heavily defeated by the Progressive Labour Party, which pledged to
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1814 CAPITAL: Diego Garcia POP. : 3000 DENSITY: 50/km2 (130/mi2)
T
under 5000
100 miles
under 10 000
N ARCHIPELAGO of 60 Caribbean islands, 15 of them inhabited, the British Virgin Islands lie at the northwestern end of the Leeward Islands chain. Tourism, now a major economic activity, is suited to the tropical climate, but there is concern about its effect on the environment. There are also fears Anegada that traditional place-names are being altered to be more touristThe Settlement friendly. The offshore finance sector is important, and has been more AT LAN tightly regulated since 1990, TIC OCEAN following scandals involving foreign firms registered in the territory. Great Camanoe
Gt. Tobago
Tortola West End
EA
The Na rrow
N
SE
over 50 000
Virgin Gorda Airport
Spanish Town nel han C e rak Ginger Island ci s D ran S a Cooper Island lt rF Isl Salt Is. an dP assa Peter ge
ROAD TOWN
Great Thatch
IBB
Beef Island Airport
Long Swamp
Great Harbour
Little Tobago
CAR
Virgin Gorda
Jost Van Dyke
Norman Island
0 0
over 100 000
N
Island
A
Military Base
over 10 000
South Sound
Guana Island
s
HE BRITISH Indian Ocean Blenheim Reef Territory, or Chagos Peros Salomon Atoll Islands, lies in the Banhos Boddam Island middle of the Indian Ocean. The Nelson Island coral atolls are uninhabited, Chagos Archipelago except for the UK–US military (or Oil Islands) base on Diego Garcia, and the UK has undertaken to Eagle Islands Three Brothers cede the islands to Great Chagos Mauritius when they Bank Danger Island are no longer required. An appeal by the Egmont Islands Chagossians, evicted by N I N D I A N the UK from the islands in 1968, for compensation O C E A N DIEGO was rejected by the UK 0 100 km GARCIA High Court in 2003. UK-US
POPULATION
BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1672 CAPITAL: Road Town POP. : 21,730 DENSITY: 142/km2 (368/mi2)
A
BRITISH INDIAN OCEAN TERRITORY
0
Bermuda has one of the highest densities of golf courses in the world. Nine courses have now been developed.
Si
High Point
Urban areas
AIRPORTS
International
20 km 20 miles
Local
643
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
CAYMAN ISLANDS
COOK ISLANDS
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1670 CAPITAL: George Town POP. : 41,934 DENSITY: 162/km2 (419/mi2)
STATUS: Territory in free association with New Zealand CLAIMED: 1901 CAPITAL: Avarua POP. : 21,008 DENSITY: 89/km2 (228/mi2)
T
HE LARGEST OF BRITAIN’S territories in the Caribbean, the Cayman Islands lie 225 km (140 miles) west of Jamaica and south of Cuba. The abundance of exotic wildlife, especially marine life, is a powerful draw for tourists. Grand Cayman is credited as the home of modern scuba diving, the first ever specialist shop opening there in 1957. The islanders have rejected greater autonomy, persuaded that their economic stability is linked to their status as an overseas territory. Thanks to the absence of tax and foreign-exchange controls, the islands form one of the world’s largest Little Cayman offshore financial centers, but tourism CAR IBB Cayman EAN continues to underpin the S E A Brac economy. Cayman Grand Cayman Little Cayman Grand Cayman
West End
Gerard Smith Airport
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West Bay
Spot Bay
Brac
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GEORGE TOWN
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CHRISTMAS ISLAND STATUS: Australian external territory CLAIMED: 1958 CAPITAL: Flying Fish Cove POP. : 433 DENSITY: 3/km2 (8/mi2)
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O NAMED because it was sighted on Christmas Day in 1643, Christmas Island lies in the Indian Ocean, Rocky North East 380 km (240 miles) Point Point FLYING FISH Silver City south of Java. Its population COVE Pooh San INDIAN is mostly Malay and North West Christmas I Point Aerodrome Chinese, descended from OCEAN laborers imported to mine Phosphate Low Quarry Point rich phosphate deposits. A national park covers some 70% of the island. In 2001 Australia agreed Jones Point Smithson Bight with Russia to begin N construction of a major Phosphate rocket-launching site Quarry 0 4 km South Point on the island. 0
4 miles
COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS STATUS: Australian external territory CLAIMED: 1955 CAPITAL: West Island POP. : 630 DENSITY: 45/km2 (126/mi2) N N ALL, 0 5 km North Keeling 27 coral Island 0 5 miles atolls make up Horsburgh Island e the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. ug ef Situated in the Indian Ocean, roughly t R r Po Direction Island halfway between Australia and Sri Home Island Lanka, they have been part of the Northern Territory electoral district since 1992. The inhabited islands WEST are the European-dominated ISLAND West Island and Home Island, Cocos Islands South which has a mainly Cocos Malay Intl Airport Island community. Coconuts are I N D I the sole cash crop. A N O C E A N
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above Sea Level
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YING IN THE MIDDLE of the South Pacific 3000 km (1900 miles) from New Zealand, the Cook Islands are a combination of 24 coral atolls and volcanic islands. Achieving selfPenrhyn government in 1965, they have Rakahanga adopted a diversified economy Pukapuka Manihiki focusing primarily on tourism Nassau Northern Cook and banking, but with significant Islands trade in giant clams and pearls. Suwarrow Depopulation is of serious PACIFIC OCEAN concern, as over 40,000 of the indigenous Maori population Palmerston Aitutaki Manuae have migrated, seeing greater Mitiaro N opportunities beyond the Takutea Rarotonga islands, and now live Atiu AVARUA Mangaia in New Zealand and 0 400 km Southern Cook Australia. This outflow 400 miles Islands 0 of labor poses a major problem for the islands’ future development, though remittances to relatives form an important source of income. The government of the Cook Islands, headed since 2002 by centrist prime minister Robert Woonton, is advised by a traditional council known as the House of Ariki. It is seeking a program of political reform, including devolving administration to the outer islands and cutting back an expensive bureaucracy.
FAEROE ISLANDS STATUS: Self-governing territory of Denmark CLAIMED: 1380 CAPITAL: Tórshavn POP. : 46,345 DENSITY: 33/km2 (86/mi2)
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IDWAY BETWEEN Scotland and Iceland in the north Atlantic, the Faeroe Islands have a moderate climate for their latitude – a result of the warm Gulf Stream current. Home rule since 1948 has given the Faeroese a strong sense of national identity – they voted against joining the European Communities with Denmark in 1973, but now have favorable terms of trade with most EU members. Fishing is the dominant industry, providing over 90% of exports. In the face of international criticism, the Faeroese have continued their traditional cull of pilot whales and bottle-nosed dolphins. Sheep farming is important, and Kalsoy Kunoy Vidoy there is a small textile industry Fugloy which exports traditional Fuglafjørdhur Svínoy woolens and puffin and Bordhoy Eysturoy Vestmanna Klaksvík eider-duck feathers. Streymoy Denmark’s moves Mykines Vágar toward ever closer TÓRSHAVN European integration Vágar Airport Koltur have strengthened Nólsoy Hestur calls in the Faeroes NORTH for full independence. Sandoy Negotiations to establish Húsavík Skúvoy a “sovereign nation” ATLANTIC Su under the Danish dh Stóra Dimun uro y a rf jø monarchy began rd h ur O C E A N Litla Dimun in 1998. However, the Tvøroyri Danish government’s N Sudhuroy Vágur threat in 2001 to suspend subsidies Sumba to the islands quashed 0 20 km calls for a referendum. 20 miles 0
1000m/3281ft
1500m/4572ft
above 2000m/6562ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
FALKLAND ISLANDS
restrictive licenses caused a fall in fishing revenues. The overexploitation of squid has seen a halt in its fishing. Depressed wool prices have caused a slump in the fortunes of the sheep-farming industry. The UK and Argentina reached agreement in 1995 on oil exploration, and it is hoped that the seabed around the islands will prove rich in reserves with great potential for the economy. Tourist numbers, including birdwatchers, photographers, and military historians, are increasing rapidly.
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1832 CAPITAL: Port Stanley POP. : 2967 DENSITY: 0.24/km2 (0.63/mi2)
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ITUATED IN THE South Atlantic Ocean, over 12,000 km (7440 miles) from the UK, the Falkland Islands are influenced by the S O cold Antarctic current. The main islands Jas on U T Isl of East and West Falkland and the an H ds A T L hundreds of outlying islands have a cool, A N T I C temperate climate with frequent strong winds. O C E A N Pebble Island The islands gained international attention with the Argentine invasion, By ro and subsequent British recapture, in nS Douglas ou nd 1982. Since then, the UK government Port has invested heavily in a “Fortress San Carlos West King Falklands” policy. A new runway and Port East George Bay Howard a military base to house an enlarged Chartres Mt Usborne 758m Settlement garrison were built at Mount Pleasant. Mount Pleasant Falkland Airport Goose Green Queen The islanders, for their part, are Charlotte Ch determined to maintain the political Fox Bay o Bay iseu Falkland Fox Bay West East l S ound status quo, but in 1999 improving Weddell Island relations led to the restoration of Lively Port dv Island scheduled air connections with Argentina. North Arm en Stephens tu re So Sn Since the Falklands War, the economy of the d. un ay d islands has prospered. Falklanders invested Speedwell of Ha rbo urs Island heavily in schools, roads, and tourism in a fresh drive for a strong identity. By 1987, the Falklands had George Island become financially solvent through the sale of fishing 0 licenses, though sales by Argentina of cheaper, less K
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FRENCH GUIANA
A campaign for greater autonomy in the late 1970s and early 1980s led to limited devolution of power to a regional council. The grip on local power by the Guianese Socialist STATUS: French overseas department CLAIMED: 1817 Party (PSG) has been undermined since 1993 by a more CAPITAL: Cayenne POP. : 186,917 DENSITY: 2/km2 (5/mi2) unified opposition, but it is still the largest party in the regional council. ANDWICHED BETWEEN Brazil and During the 1990s the people became increasingly Suriname, French Guiana is the vocal in their condemnation of the French government’s only remaining colony in South A T perceived indifference to their country’s problems, America. A belt of coastal marsh, L A and there were riots in 1996 and 1997 over and an interior of equatorial jungle, combine in N Mana the education system. The PSG has a location which was, for years, notorious for T I accordingly campaigned for the offshore penal colony, Devil’s Island. Sinnamary C r a greater autonomy. As an overseas The rainforest, which covers 90% of the M St.- Laurentle Devil's I. du - Maroni département of metropolitan territory, is particularly rich in flora and O Apatou Kourou Cambrouze France, French Guiana fauna. It harbors over 400,000 species, C is also a region of including more different species of E CAYENNE Saint-Élie Montsinéry the EU, but it is heavily bird than in the whole of Europe. A Roura Citron Rochambeau N dependent on France Concentrated near the coast, Délices itself for aid, food, and the population is ethnically mixed. Cacao manufactured goods. It While 40% are creoles, there are Régina Grande-Santi has a number of valuable around 5000 Amerindians and about E TU Ouanary natural resources, 2000 Hmong refugees who fled civil la OR T M E including gold, fishing, war in Laos in the 1980s. GN TA N O St- Georges and forestry, and also M Maripasoula has potential for increased Saül tourism, but these are yet to be fully exploited because of a lack of skilled labor Camopi and investment and an Bienvenue underdeveloped infrastructure. AP i IT op m IR The Guiana Space Center, I Ca which is situated on the coast at Kourou, has been Siminiout N operational since 1964. Z From there the Ariane A rockets of the European Kourou was selected for the launch of the ESA’s R 0 60 km Space Agency (ESA) Ariane rockets because of its equatorial site. B 60 miles 0 are launched. The town has grown from 800 to 23,000 people. on
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POPULATION
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Urban areas
AIRPORTS
International
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645
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
FRENCH POLYNESIA
GREENLAND
STATUS: French overseas country CLAIMED: 1843 CAPITAL: Papeete POP. : 245,516 DENSITY: 70/km2 (181/mi2)
STATUS: Self-governing territory of Denmark CLAIMED: 1380 CAPITAL: Nuuk POP. : 56,385 DENSITY: 0.03/km2 (0.07/mi2)
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UADELOUPE lies at n n el the southern end a Cha A nguill Îlot Tintamarre Marigot of the Leeward Islands St. Martin in the Caribbean and Île Fourchue includes the north of St. Martin island Gustavia and St. Barthélémy island near Anguilla. St. Barthélémy The movement for independence from France has slowly died, though the AT LA smaller islands voted in 2003 Pointe de la N Grande Vigie e T for greater autonomy. The ag s s IC a eP economy is largely p u Port-Louis Grand o l e Cul-de-Sac based on tourism d Marin ua G Ste. Rose and agriculture, Le Moule La Désirade Le Raizet Airport Les Abymes with sugar, rum, St. François Pointe-à-Pitre Pointeand bananas the Pointe Ste. Ann des Chateaux Noire Petitmain exports, Bourg but the islands Capesterredepend on foreign Belle-Eau Marieaid. The banana Galante BASSE-TERRE St. Louis industry is Pointe du Vieux-Fort vulnerable to Capesterre TerreLes Saintes Grandde-Haut hurricanes and global Bourg TerreGrand Ilet de-Bas age trade pacts prompting S Pass E Dominica efforts to expand sugar A 0 20 km production and tourism.
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STATUS: French overseas department CLAIMED: 1635 CAPITAL: Basse-Terre POP. : 440,000 DENSITY: 247/km2 (640/mi2)
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UARDING THE western entrance to the Mediterranean, Gibraltar has survived on military and marine revenues. However, as Britain has cut defense spending, so its military presence on the Rock has declined. In response Gibraltarians have developed a vigorous offshore banking industry. Strict antismuggling legislation, in force since 1995, has curbed extensive smuggling SPAIN Gibraltar from north Africa into Spain. Airport Gibraltar’s relationship with Britain North Mole and Spain remains contentious. The two governments’ talks on the territory’s status have Catalan prompted mass protests from the Bay colony’s inhabitants, who have felt sidelined in the discussions, and an unofficial referendum in Sandy Bay Rosia 2002 rejected joint sovereignty. Summit
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GIBRALTAR STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1713 CAPITAL: Gibraltar POP. : 27,776 DENSITY: 3968/km2 (9259/mi2)
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HE WORLD’S LARGEST island after Australia, Greenland is situated in the North Atlantic and surrounded by seas that are either ARCTI C OCEAN frozen or cooled by cold Arctic currents. With Nord AND YL A AR an Arctic PE AD N N climate, much SE it CA US tra of its land is SM sS ' A e R ND a r Siorapaluk D A permanently U L KONG Qaanaaq FREDERIK ice-covered. Danmark VIII LAND Havn Granted home B Pituffik A Savissivik rule in 1979, F Greenlanders Daneborg Kullorsuaq are of mixed Kraulshavn Inuit and European Tasiusaq Mesters Vig origin. Younger Upernavik Ice Thickness islanders increasingly 3270m Ittoqqortoormit reject the traditional, Maarmorilik Uummannaq fishing-based, subsistence ND Ilulissat LA Qeqertarsuaq lifestyle by Qasigiannguit cle moving to Cir Kangerlussuaq ti c Sisimiut Arc towns, placing a heavy burden N Ammassalik KO Maniitsoq on the advanced welfare system. NUUK (Godthåb) Proposals to Qeqertarsuatsiaat develop the Paamiut mining of ice for Narsarsuaq drinking water Qaqortoq N Nanortalik could create vast Narsaq Kujalleq revenues, even Nunap Isua raising the possibility of (Kap Farvel) 0 400 km economic independence. GR
Îles
SCATTER OF 130 South Pacific islands and coral atolls over an area the size of Europe combine to form French Polynesia. The average temperature varies during the year between 20˚C (68˚F) and 29˚C (84˚F), with rainfall of over 150 cm (58 in). Nearly 75% of the population live on Tahiti, the main island. The French administration has developed the islands with little regard for local wishes, and the 70% West Polynesian (Mahoi) majority have seen their simple, self-sufficient economy transformed into one dependent on the French military and tourism. Nuclear testing on Mururoa Atoll created many jobs, but there was growing opposition, and a final series of tests, held in 1995-1996 despite widespread ar qu ises international protests, provoked local demonstrations s and riots in Papeete. T u French Polynesia a Raiatea m ip ot e PAPEETE became an “overseas ld u el aS Tahiti oc iét é country” in 2004. Îles du Duc Major concerns are a de Gloucester the growth of tourism Mururoa Atoll Îles Gambier Îles N and the rebuilding Aus tra S O U TH l e s of indigenous trade. P AC I F I C Future hopes rest Marotiri 400 km largely on new tuna- 0 O CE A N fishing ventures. 0 400 miles
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646
LAND HEIGHT
above Sea Level
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500m/1640ft
N
The Rock of Gibraltar. The British excavated 143 caves, and built 50 km (30 miles) of roads and as many km of tunnels, for defensive purposes.
0
1000m/3281ft
1500m/4572ft
above 2000m/6562ft
N
20 miles
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
YING 47 KM (29 miles) off the coast of France, Alderney Guernsey and its dependencies St Anne Burhou form the northwestern part of the Channel Islands, historically part of the Duchy of Normandy. English is the language most commonly used, but Norman patois is spoken in some villages, and some formal ENGLISH business of the legislature CHANNEL is conducted in French. Travel to France is easier than Guernsey to the UK: St. Sampson King's Mills Herm Alderney is N ST. PETER only 13 km Torteval Sark PORT (8 miles) Guernsey Airport from the French 0 5 km mainland. Residents 0 5 miles on the smaller islands have no need for cars, and life continues in an unhurried manner that has changed little through the centuries. The islanders guard this lifestyle with strict residence laws. Guernsey’s mild climate has encouraged the development of tourism and market gardening as major industries. Tomatoes and flowers are produced mainly for the UK market. The low tax system, independent of the UK, has led to a substantial and profitable financial services industry. Many international banks have Guernsey subsidiaries.
POPULATION
under 5000
under 10 000
over 10 000
over 50 000
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YING HALFWAY BETWEEN England and Northern Ireland in the Irish Sea, the Isle of Man has been inhabited for centuries by the Celtic Manx people. Established by the Vikings in the 9th century, the Manx parliament, the Tynwold, has autonomy from the UK in a number of matters, including taxation, and the death penalty was only officially Point of Ayre abolished in 1993. The islanders have used this independence to Bride Andreas establish a thriving financial and Ramsey business sector, which has Bay aided employment as the Ramsey Sulby Ballaugh traditional industries of agriculture and fishing Kirkmichael decline. There is still Snaefell 620m a shellfish industry, Laxey specializing in Peel scallops. Tourism St John Crosby is also important: Ouchan there are around 300,000 visitors each DOUGLAS year. Publicity has been increased Santon N Port Erin by the growing R Ronaldsway I number of Castletown Port films being St Mary 0 10 km Calf of Man made on the 0 10 miles island. Manx culture received a boost in 1993, when the local language, in danger of dying out, began to be taught in the island’s schools once more. The Calf of Man, a small uninhabited island, is administered as a nature reserve. A
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STATUS: British Crown dependency CLAIMED: 1765 CAPITAL: Douglas POP. : 74,261 DENSITY: 130/km2 (336/mi2)
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STATUS: British Crown dependency CLAIMED: 1066 CAPITAL: St. Peter Port POP. : 64,818 DENSITY: 997/km2 (2593/mi2)
ISLE OF MAN
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A World War II Japanese antiaircraft gun emplacement, Agat Bay. Guam’s history as a battleground during the Pacific War helps to attract tourists.
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HE VOLCANIC island of Guam lies at the southern end of the Mariana archipelago in the Pacific. Its tropical climate has encouraged tourism, though it lies in a region where typhoons are common. Guam’s indigenous Chamorro people, who comprise around 40% of the population, dominate Ritidian Point the island’s political and social life. They are famous for a set of facial Pati Point expressions, called “eyebrow,” Anderson which virtually constitutes Air Force Base a language of its own. P Yigo P Though English is the I L Dededo official language, PHI Tamuning Guam International Airport Chamorro is Cabras Island Barrigada commonly Apra Harbour HAGÅTÑA AN spoken, and (AGAÑA) E Naval Base C in 1998 the Yona Marianas Apra Heights spelling of the capital was Santa Rita Talofofo changed from Agat Facpi um Agaña to the Point Chamorran Umatac Bolanos Inarajan Hagåtña. The N Merizo 378m US military base, covering one-third 0 10 km Cocos Aga Point Island of the island, has 10 miles 0 made Guam strategically important to the US. Military spending and tourism revenues have failed to benefit all islanders, and 23% live below the poverty line. The influx of US culture has
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also threatened to upset Guam’s social stability. Greater independence has been an issue since the early 1980s, with a series of referenda since 1982. A draft Commonwealth Act was rejected by the US Congress after nearly 15 years of deliberation.
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GUAM STATUS: Unincorporated territory of the US CLAIMED: 1898 CAPITAL: Hagåtña POP. : 163,000 DENSITY: 297/km2 (769/mi2)
The annual TT motorbike race on the Isle of Man. Thousands of people come to watch the island’s famous Touring Trophy race.
over 100 000
Urban areas
AIRPORTS
International
Local
647
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
JERSEY
MARTINIQUE
STATUS: British Crown dependency CLAIMED: 1066 CAPITAL: St. Helier POP. : 90,156 DENSITY: 777/km2 (2003/mi2)
STATUS: French overseas department CLAIMED: 1635 CAPITAL: Fort-de-France POP. : 393,000 DENSITY: 348/km2 (901/mi2)
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HE BAILIWICK OF JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, lies some 22 km (14 miles) from the coast of Normandy in France. The official language (since 1960) is English, but French is still used in the courts. The island has a mild climate owing to the Gulf Stream, fine beaches, and more sunshine than anywhere else in the British Isles. Jersey has its own legislative and taxation systems which are a blend of the French and British versions. The Jersey States Assembly is one of the oldest legislative bodies in the world. Members stand as independents, rather than for political parties. It is considered a “Peculiar” of the UK monarchy, and has the right to reject “unacceptable” UK laws. Historically, agriculture has ENGLI been Jersey’s most important SH CHANNEL industry, with dairy cows its St. John Rozel most famous export, closely St. Peter's followed by early-harvested Airport potatoes, tomatoes, and Gorey flowers. By the end of ST. HELIER St. Aubin the 20th century, however, EN farming had been eclipsed GLIS H CHANNEL by the rise of offshore N 0 6 km finance and tourism. The 6 miles 0 growth of these sectors, and rigid controls on the rights of residence, have ensured high living standards for most of the inhabitants. Jersey is also host to a large Portuguese community which works in the island’s tourist industry.
JOHNSTON ATOLL
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OHNSTON ATOLL LIES 1150 km (714 miles) southwest of Hawaii. The atoll consists of a coral reef, two highly modified natural islands, Johnston and Sand, and two completely man-made islands, Akau (North) and Hikina (East). The islands, which were used by the US for nuclear weapons tests, were seriously contaminated with plutonium in 1962, when a nuclear missile exploded P A C I F I C during testing. Regular O C E A N Akau tests began in 1971, sin Hikina and until 2000 the Ba g in rn islands were Sand Island Tu also used for Johnston Island the storage US of nuclear (Air Base) material and N the destruction ne l el of chemical 0 4 km and biological 0 4 miles weapons, including sarin nerve gas and the defoliant Agent Orange. Cleanup operations began in 2000 and since 2001 the only inhabitants left have been some US air force personnel, civilian contractors, and officials from the US Fish and Wildlife Service; the islands have been designated as a wildlife refuge: a breeding place for seabirds and green turtles.
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HRISTOPHER COLUMBUS described Martinique as “the most beautiful country in the world.” It lies in the middle of the Caribbean Windward Islands but has retained remarkably close links both culturally and economically to mainland France. The island is dominated by the Montagne Pelée volcano, which violently erupted and engulfed the old capital, St. Pierre, in 1902. Situated in the Caribbean’s hurricane belt, Martinique suffers an average of one natural disaster every five years. Its long association with France and its status as an overseas département have left Martinique with a distinctly French feel; nonetheless nearly 90% of the population are of African or mixed ethnicity, and this influence has created a vibrant Caribbean tradition, particularly in music. Some of Martinique’s more famous children include Joséphine Bonaparte (Napoléon’s first wife) and Frantz Fanon, the black revolutionary who influenced anticolonial movements in the 20th century. Economic power remains in the hands of the Bekes (descendants of white colonial settlers), who own most of the agricultural land. This situation has led in the past to outbreaks of violence and calls for greater autonomy. However, high living standards depend on French subsidies and a French-style social welfare system. The traditionally agricultural economy, based on the cultivation of sugarcane and bananas, has been forced to diversify as EU subsidy cuts come into effect, and high-class tourism is now the biggest source of income and the largest provider of A T Macouba employment. Grand L A 'Rivière Almost 80% N Le Lorrain of the halfT Montagne I million C Pelée 1397m annual Ste. Marie Le Morne Rouge visitors St. Pierre come La Trinité from Le Carbet France. Le Robert Since the late 1980s FORT-DESchœlcher FRANCE unemployment Le Lamentin Le François and emigration Aéroport de Ducos Fort-de-France/ have been high, le Lamentin S with the result Le Vauclin E A that over 30% of Martiniquais Les Anses-D'Arlets Rivière-Pilote nationals are resident in metropolitan Ste. Anne N France. 0 10 km I B C A R
STATUS: Unincorporated territory of the US CLAIMED: 1858 CAPITAL: Not applicable POP. : Not applicable
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LAND HEIGHT
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Martinique. Tourists are attracted to the island’s beaches, its mountainous interior, and the historic towns of Fort-de-France and St. Pierre.
500m/1640ft
1000m/3281ft
1500m/4572ft
above 2000m/6562ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
MAYOTTE
grant the island départementstyle autonomy in 2000. Chissioua 10 miles 0 The economy is still Mtsamboro Baie de N largely agricultural, Handréma producing crops both Mtsamboro Baie de Longoni for internal consumption Acoua and for export. However, Petite-Terre Réserve Forestière large quantities of Dzaoudzi Mtsamgamouji de Majimbini Pamandzi foodstuffs are also MAMOUDZOU imported. France has Dzaoudzi-Pamandzi Airport invested in an airport Dembéni Sada INDIAN and port, but tourism has been slow to develop. OCEAN Bouéni Baiede Bandrélé Nevertheless, the relative Bouéni Chirongui prosperity of Mayotte has encouraged separatist movements Baie de on the two other small Comoros Kani islands to seek closer relations with France. 0
STATUS: French territorial collectivity CLAIMED: 1843 CAPITAL: Mamoudzou POP. : 178,437 DENSITY: 477/km2 (1239/mi2)
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ART OF THE COMOROS archipelago, Mayotte lies about 8000 km (5000 miles) from France, between Madagascar and the east African coast. It was the only island in the archipelago to vote against independence from France in a 1974 referendum. The other islands declared unilateral independence in 1975 and laid claim to Mayotte. Despite widespread poverty, endemic unemployment, and a cost of living twice that of France, the Mahorais voted again in 1976 to maintain the link. The main political movement has since unsuccessfully demanded that Mayotte be given the status of a French département, hoping that this would bring more aid to develop their largely agricultural economy. France opposes this idea because of the costs involved, but did
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MIDWAY ISLANDS
NETHERLANDS ANTILLES
STATUS: Unincorporated territory of the US CLAIMED: 1867 CAPITAL: Not applicable POP. : Not applicable
STATUS: Autonomous part of the Netherlands CLAIMED: 1816 CAPITAL: Willemstad POP. : 221,000 DENSITY: 276/km2 (715/mi2)
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MONTSERRAT STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1632 CAPITAL: Plymouth POP. : 8995 DENSITY: 88/km2 (231/mi2)
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over 10 000
over 50 000
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POPULATION
A
ONTSERRAT IS ONE of the Leeward Islands chain in the eastern Caribbean. It has been devastated by volcanic eruptions which began in 1995 and culminated in massive explosions of the Soufrière Hills volcano in 1997 and 1998. North West Exclusion Bluff As a result, the southern twoZone thirds of the island, where Plymouth and Blackburne Yellow Hole airport are located, have St John's become uninhabitable Cudjoehead and it is illegal to enter the volcano “exclusion Trant's Bay zone.” Some two-thirds Woodlands Blackburn Bay of the population CENTRE Airport HILLS Salem left for neighboring m Bethel r Fa islands or the UK Harris in 1997. Calls for Cork Hill independence, based SOUFRIÉRE on a tourist boom in HILLS PLYMOUTH the 1980s, have been Chances Peak 914m largely dropped, as Kinsale the island is now N Germans Landing Bay dependent on UK Bay Morris aid. The disaster Old Fort Point Shoe Rock 0 3 km soured relations, setting off a bitter 3 miles 0
HE NETHERLANDS Antilles are composed of two Caribbean island Sint Maarten groups. Curaçao – the Princess Philipsburg Juliana richest and wealthiest island – and Airport A R Bonaire lie just off the Venezuelan IB BE coast, while Saba, St. Eustatius, and AN SE Sint Maarten – whose northern half A Saba is part of Guadeloupe – lie 800 km The Bottom (500 miles) to the north. Financial St Eustatius scandals, political instability, Oranjestad and the issue of the federation’s N 0 future, among other things, have 30 km strained relations with the Dutch 30 miles 0 government, the major aid provider. Tourism CAR Curaçao Bonaire and financial IB CA BE Noordpunt RI A BB services N Westpunt Malmok E S Rincon provide the E Klein backbone Hato Intl Bonaire Airport Kralendijk St. Willibrordus of the Flaming Field WILLEMSTAD Airport islands’ Lacre Punt Santa Caterina economy. A
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AMED BECAUSE of its position between California and Japan, Midway is a coral atoll at the western end of the Hawaiian islands; there have been moves to make it part of Hawaii. The site of a major World War II battle, the atoll comprises two large islands, totaling over 4 sq. km (1.5 sq. miles), and several smaller ones. It functions as a naval air base and wildlife refuge. The population is limited to military personnel and civilian contractors, but some tourism is permitted, mainly connected with the wildlife.
dispute over the cost of resettlement and reconstruction. A new capital, tentatively named Port Diana, is planned for the “safe” northern coast. The tourism industry is struggling to rebuild itself, but is hindered by the fact that both the airport and the seaport were closed by the eruption. Montserrat can now only be reached via neighboring Antigua.
Montserrat. Known as the Caribbean’s “emerald isle” because of its luxuriant flora and Irish heritage.
over 100 000
Urban areas
AIRPORTS
International
Local
649
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
NEW CALEDONIA
NIUE
STATUS: French overseas territory CLAIMED: 1853 CAPITAL: Nouméa POP. : 228,000 DENSITY: 12/km2 (31/mi2)
STATUS: Territory in free association with New Zealand CLAIMED: 1901 CAPITAL: Alofi POP. : 2145 DENSITY: 8/km2 (21/mi2)
N
EW CALEDONIA, or, as it is known to the indigenous Kanaks, Kanaky, is an island group 400 km (250 miles) west of Vanuatu and 1350 km (840 miles) off the coast of eastern Australia. Tension over socioeconomic inequalities and independence between the Melanesian Kanaks, who form over half of the population, and the influential expatriate Caldoches, resulted in a long history of political violence. Under the 1988 Matignon Accord, France imposed a year of direct rule as the prelude to a new constitutional structure which attempted to address Kanak grievances by providing greater provincial autonomy. Though some racial violence continued after 1988, it has not again reached the same level. The Nouméa accord, signed in 1998, set out a 15-year program for gradual autonomy which would end in a vote on selfRé Île Pott ci determination. P f Île Art Waala
de
Île
C
s
Île Yandé Île Baaba
A
oo
C
k
I
F
Be
I
Île Balabio
le p
Poum
C
Koumac Koné
C
E
Lifou
Poya
Wé Île Tiga
O
Houaïlou
Moindou
Y
Canala Thio
Maré
A
Tadine
U
La Foa
T
OC
É
Bouloupari
EA
Yaté
La Tontouta Airport
N
NOUMÉA Île des Pins
G
a
Vao
r
0 0
80 km
n
d
Ré c i f
80 miles
NHABITED by Pt Vincent Australian Mt Bates migrants and 318m Anson Cascade Bay descendants Steels Pt Burnt Pine of the mutineers of HMS Bounty, Middlegate Norfolk I Norfolk Island lies 1400 km (869 KINGSTON Aerodrome miles) east of Australia. Islanders speak a hybrid language, mixing Nepean Island Westcountry English, Gaelic, and ancient Tahitian. They enjoy substantial Philip Island autonomy, and in 1991 rejected a plan N to become part of the Australian federal state. Tourists, attracted by the climate 0 4 km and unique flora, have brought islanders a relatively high standard of living. 4 miles 0 FIC
Bourail
I
N
L
Pouembout
N
A
Ouvéa
L Fayaoué Hienghène E Touho Poindimié S Ponérihouen
NORFOLK ISLAND SOUTH PACI
Î
HE WORLD’S LARGEST coral island, Niue lies 2400 km (1500 miles) northeast of New Zealand. C I F I C Tropical fruits form part P A of the subsistence economy, while tourism Mutalau and the sale of postage stamps provide Lakepa foreign currency. Mass emigration has ALOFI Liku seen the Niuean community in New Hanan Intl Airport Zealand grow to over 20,000. In an Hakupu effort to stem the tide, New Zealand has Avatele invested heavily in the Niuean economy, O C E A N but growth remains slow and the local N economy was devastated by the damage 0 10 km caused by Cyclone Heta in early 2004. 10 miles 0
STATUS: Australian external territory CLAIMED: 1774 CAPITAL: Kingston POP. : 1853 DENSITY: 53/km2 (143/mi2)
O
Ouégoa
T
S u d
NORTHERN MARIANA IS. STATUS: Commonwealth territory of the US CLAIMED: 1947 CAPITAL: Saipan POP. : 80,006 DENSITY: 175/km2 (455/mi2)
A
FORMER UN trust Farallon de territory, the Pajaros Northern Marianas Maug Islands preferred in 1987 to Asuncion retain links with the US rather than opt Agrihan for independence, though local politicians have questioned its current status. US aid Pagan fueled a boom in the 1980s, but it depended Alamagan on immigrant workers who were soon more Guguan numerous than the indigenous Chamorro Sarigan community, while tourism has speeded the Anatahan decline of the local subsistence economy. P
IC IF AC
Aguijan
650
LAND HEIGHT
above Sea Level
200m/656ft
500m/1640ft
Farallon de Medinilla
SAIPAN
Saipan
A nickel mine, New Caledonia. The importance of the nickel industry to the territory’s economy has made the control of reserves a dominant issue in politics, and in negotiations over the island’s independence from France.
OCEAN
Nickel mining is the territory’s most valuable export industry, generating around 80% of export income. New Caledonia has about 25% of world reserves, and is the fourth-largest producer in the world, but the industry employs relatively few people, and is vulnerable to fluctuations in the world price. It was seriously affected by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–1998, but recovered on the back of high world prices in 2000. Tourism and agriculture are bigger employers, though less than 1% of total land area is cultivated. Corn, yams, sweet potatoes, and coconuts have traditionally been the main crops, and since the 1990s melons have been exported to Japan in large quantities. Fishing is important, the main catches being tuna and shrimp, most of which are also exported to Japan. A project for farming giant clams started in 1996. Unemployment nevertheless remains high among young Kanaks.
Tinian
Rota
0 0
N
150 km 150 miles
Rota, Northern Marianas. The limestone outcrop of Wedding Cake Mountain overlooks the small village of Songsong.
1000m/3281ft
1500m/4572ft
above 2000m/6562ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
PARACEL ISLANDS
PITCAIRN ISLANDS
STATUS: Disputed CLAIMED: Not applicable CAPITAL: Not applicable POPULATION: Unknown
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1887 CAPITAL: Adamstown POP. : 47 DENSITY: 1.3/km2 (3/mi2)
O
A
CCUPIED BY CHINESE FORCES (who call them the Xisha Islands), but also claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam, the Paracel Islands are a small collection of coral atolls situated some 325 km (200 miles) east of Vietnam, in the South China Sea. Subject to frequent C H I N A Amphitrite Group typhoons and with a S E A Woody Island Lincoln Island tropical climate, the Pattle Island Crescent Paracels are at the Pyramid Rock Group Money Island center of a regional N dispute over the vast Discovery Reef Passu Keah reserves of oil and Triton Island natural gas which are 0 50 km believed to lie beneath 0 50 miles their territorial waters. China has built port facilities and an airstrip on Woody Island to support its claim.
GROUP OF volcanic South Pacific islands, Pitcairn is Britain’s most isolated dependency. Pitcairn Island was the last refuge for the 18th-century mutineers from HMS Bounty. The economy operates by barter, fishing, and subsistence farming, and is reliant on regular airdrops from New Zealand and periodic visits by supply vessels. Postage stamp sales provide foreign currency earnings. In 2003, several Pitcairn men were N C I F A charged with sexual assault. I P
C
Pitcairn Islands
ADAMSTOWN
PACIFIC
Point Christian
OCEAN Oeno Island
Pitcairn Island
O 0
1 km
0
Henderson Island Ducie Island Pitcairn Island
St. Paul's Point
C
E
A
1 miles
0 200 km 0
N
200 miles
PUERTO RICO STATUS: Commonwealth territory of the US CLAIMED: 1898 CAPITAL: San Juan POP. : 3.89 million DENSITY: 434/km2 (1123/mi2)
At night, the bright lights of Puerto Rico’s well-developed roads, settlements, and busy ports are in sharp contrast to the rest of the Caribbean – notably the dark outline of Haiti, just to the west.
P
UERTO RICO, a US territory since its invasion in 1898, is by far the most populous nonindependent territory. It is the easternmost of the Greater Antilles chain in the Caribbean. The population density, highest around San Juan, is comparable with the Netherlands and is higher than in any US state. The tropical climate attracts growing numbers of tourists, 85% from the US, and there have been major efforts to expand hotel and resort facilities. Puerto Rico was granted its current commonwealth status in 1952, four years after an abortive proindependence uprising. The inhabitants have US citizenship but only limited self-government. In three plebiscites, in 1967, 1993, and 1998, the islanders endorsed continued commonwealth status rather than opting for either US statehood or independence. The most recent of these votes was extremely close, but the pro-statehood governor who called the 1993 and 1998 votes, Pedro Rossello, was replaced by the anti-statehood Sila Calderón – the first female governor of Puerto Rico – in 2001. Though thousands of the mostly Spanish-speaking Puerto Ricans N T I C have migrated to the US L A A T mainland in search of higher R i c P u e r t o wages, the islanders have Isabela Arecibo one of the highest living
standards in the region. Tax relief, cheap labor, and the island’s role as an export-processing zone, mainly for the US market, attracted many businesses. Clothing, electronics, petrochemical, and pharmaceutical industries traditionally dominated, but the decision to phase out tax exemptions for companies reinvesting in the island caused a slump in 1996, and more emphasis is now being placed on the service sector. New industries include health care and clinical testing, biotechnology, and other knowledge-based areas. Governor Calderón spearheaded the campaign to stop the US navy from using the populated eastern island of Vieques for bombing practice. In 2000 an invasion of the bombing range by protestors led to some high-profile arrests, including that of Robert Kennedy Jr. In response President George W. Bush agreed to hand the range back to the department of the interior and O C E the last bombing exercise A N was completed in 2003. o
T r e n c h
SAN JUAN
Vega Baja
Aguadilla Manatí
na C a
l
Caguas
Mayagüez
I L L E R A C O R D
d
San Germán Yauco
C E N T R A L Coamo
under 5000
under 10 000
Yabucoa
Isla de Vieques
in Virg
I B B E A N C A R
over 10 000
Vieques
Humacao Cayey
over 50 000
N
S E A
over 100 000
0
AIRPORTS
International
Pa
ss
ag
e
20 km 20 miles
0
Urban areas
Culebra
Sonda des Vieques
Guayama Cabo Rojo
Isla de Culebra
Ponce
Isla Mona
POPULATION
Fajardo
Utuado Bahia de Mayagüez
Carolina
Guayuabo
e
la
M o n a
San Sebastián
Luis Muñoz Marin Airport
Catano
Bayamón
Local
651
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD
RÉUNION
ST. PIERRE & MIQUELON
STATUS: French overseas department CLAIMED: 1638 CAPITAL: Saint-Denis POP. : 756,000 DENSITY: 301/km2 (779/mi2)
STATUS: French territorial collectivity CLAIMED: 1604 CAPITAL: St. Pierre POP. : 6976 DENSITY: 29/km2 (75/mi2)
S
a
T. PIERRE & Miquelon Cap Miquelon 0 5 km is a group of 0 5 miles Le Cap barren islands Miquelon N lying just off the south coast Pa of Newfoundland, Canada. sse The islands are surrounded by some of the world’s Miquelon richest fishing grounds. Their inhabitants have Grand traditionally earned a Barachois living from fishing, and from servicing foreign trawler fleets off the coast. A long-running and sometimes bitter dispute between Canada and France Île Verte over fishing and mineral rights was settled in LANGLADE 1992. The ruling, Grand Colombier which was generally Saint-Pierre deemed to be in Canada’s Île aux Marins Cap Coupé SAINT PIERRE favor, has led the French St. Pierre Airport authorities to diversify the economy by developing port facilities and encouraging tourism. Goelette la
BA IE
Ist hm e de L a ng l a de
ts
HE LARGE VOLCANIC ISLAND of Réunion, 800 km (500 miles) east of Madagascar, provides France with an important strategic presence – and a large military base – in the Indian Ocean. Its mountainous interior has forced the majority of the population to live along the coast. Tensions still exist between the very poor black community and the wealthy Indian and European groups, though the D I A N I N violence of 1991 has not been SAINT DENIS repeated. Despite the Ste-Marie introduction of measures St-Denis-Gillot Le Port St-André applicable to all French Ga St-Paul le overseas départements, St-Benoit intended to improve Piton des social and economic Neiges 3069m La PlaineCIRQUE standards, unemployment DE des-Palmistes CILAOS remains high and the cost of living very expensive. Les Avirons Piton de la Fournaise Réunion’s main crop N Le Tampon St-Louis is sugarcane, though Cyclone St-Pierre Dina devastated 0 15 km St-Joseph O C E A N production in 2002. 15 miles 0
LA
T
ST. HELENA & DEPENDENCIES
SPRATLY ISLANDS
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1673 CAPITAL: Jamestown POP. : 7367 DENSITY: 60/km2 (157/mi2)
STATUS: Disputed CLAIMED: Not applicable CAPITAL: Not applicable POPULATION: Unknown
SO
U
TH
LAND HEIGHT
above Sea Level
200m/656ft
N
D
S
CATTERED ACROSS SOUTH West York Island a large area of the CHINA South China Sea, the Thitu Island SEA reefs, islands, and atolls Flat Island that make up the Spratly Loaita Island Nanshan Island Islands have become one of south Asia’s most Itu Aba Island serious security issues. Namyit Island Strategically, the islands N lie in one of the world’s Y busiest shipping areas. In Sin Cowe Island L T addition, surveys suggest RA 0 60 km SP that some of the largest 60 miles 0 oil and gas reserves yet found lie in the Spratlys’ territorial waters. Claimed, all or Spratly Island in part, by China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines, more than 40 of the larger islands now have garrisons from some of the claimant states. A code of conduct allowing freedom of navigation was agreed in 2002. A
IC
652
S
L
T
SO
U
T
OGETHER, Ascension the North Point H AT islands of St. L A Helena, Tristan N GEORGETOWN da Cunha, and Ascension form The Peak Britain’s main dependency in 859m S.E. G r een M t. Point the south Atlantic. St. Helena is S W Bay famed for being the final place Portland N Point A E of exile for Napoléon. Its main O C South Point economic activities – fishing, livestock farming, and the sale of handicrafts – are unable to St. Helena TIC support the population; as a LAN AT result, underemployment on JAMESTOWN Deadwood Plain the island is a major problem. Half Tree Hollow Longwood Many “Saints” have been forced to seek work on Diana's Blue Hill Peak 820m Ascension, which has no Sandy Bay N resident population and EA Speery O C is operated as a military base Island and communications center, though civilian flights have been permitted since 1998. Tristan da Cunha Tristan da Cunha, a volcanic ATLAN TI TH island 2000 km (1240 miles) U C Edinburgh O S south of St. Helena, is inhabited Queen Mary's by a small, closely knit farming Peak 2060m Anchorstock Point Sandy Point community. It was badly hit by severe winter storms in 2001. Deadman’s Stonyhill Point Bay The 2002 British Overseas O C E A N Territories Act granted all overseas citizens full British N 0 8 km citizenship, assuaging a source 8 miles 0 of local resentment.
IS
T
The isolated Chinese occupying force on one of the Spratly Islands.
500m/1640ft
1000m/3281ft
1500m/4572ft
above 2000m/6562ft
THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD: OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
SVALBARD
VIRGIN ISLANDS (US)
STATUS: Norwegian dependency CLAIMED: 1920 CAPITAL: Longyearbyen POP. : 2811 DENSITY: 0.04/km2 (0.12/mi2)
STATUS: Unincorporated territory of the US CLAIMED: 1917 CAPITAL: Charlotte Amalie POP. : 124,778 DENS. : 360/km2 (931/mi2)
M
n
n
rd e
HE US VIRGIN ISLANDS are a collection of 53 volcanic islands, just to the east of Puerto Rico. Most of A N T I C O C E the population – a A T L A N mix of African and Saint Thomas I Saint John I Cyril E. European ethnic King Airport groups – live on CHARLOTTE P i Cruz Bay ll s Pa AMALIE bu r the main islands y S o u nd ss a ge of St. John, St. Thomas, and St. Croix. Tourism is B B E A N S EA R I the principal activity, A C though St. Croix has Saint Croix I Christiansted N also used federal aid Frederiksted Alexander Hamilton Airport to develop industry. It 0 10 km has one of the world’s 10 miles 0 largest oil refineries. gi
or fjo
T
Vir
ORE THAN 150 ice-covered Arctic islands 650 km (400 miles) north of Norway make up Svalbard. In accordance with the Spitsbergen Treaty of 1920, nationals of the treaty powers L A N D E N S have equal rights to exploit E E the coal deposits, subject G R A to regulation by Norway. The only companies Spitsbergen still mining are Nordaustlandet Pyramiden Norwegian and Longyearbyen Russian. There has etet senstr Svalbard Airport Erik been conflict with Barentsburg Erik Iceland over fishing Kong Karls rights. Over half Land N of the area of the Edgeøya islands is designated St 50 km 0 as environmentally protected. 50 miles 0
TOKELAU
St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands, is a major stopoff for Caribbean cruise ships. Tourists are attracted by the island’s dutyfree shopping.
STATUS: New Zealand dependent territory CLAIMED: 1926 CAPITAL: Not applicable POP. : 1418 DENSITY: 142/km2 (354/mi2)
A
1989 UN REPORT states that in the 21st century these islands in the South Pacific will disappear under the sea, unless action is taken to stop global warming. The economy depends on a tuna cannery and the sale of fishing licenses, postage stamps, and coins; a catamaran link between the atolls has increased tourist potential. Tokelau’s small size and economic Atafu Atoll fragility make independence unlikely, but in 1996 it gained the right to enact its own internal legislation, and since 2001 the P A Nukunonu Atoll local authorities have had C N IF full control of the islands’ Fakaofo Atoll IC public services. More than O 6000 Tokelauans live 0 50 km CE AN in New Zealand. 50 miles 0
WAKE ISLAND STATUS: Unincorporated territory of the US CLAIMED: 1898 CAPITAL: Not applicable POP. : Not applicable
W
AKE ISLAND, in fact three islands that form the rim of an extinct volcano, has a US air base, whose airstrip can be used in emergencies by trans-Pacific flights. After widespread condemnation a 1998 proposal to store nuclear waste there was dropped. It is claimed by the Marshall Islands.
TURKS & CAICOS ISLANDS
WALLIS & FUTUNA
STATUS: British overseas territory CLAIMED: 1766 CAPITAL: Cockburn Town POP. : 19,350 DENSITY: 45/km2 (117/mi2)
STATUS: French overseas territory CLAIMED: 1842 CAPITAL: Matá‘Utu POP. : 15,734 DENSITY: 57/km2 (148/mi2)
M ou ch oi r
I
Ca
over 50 000
O C 10 km
0
over 100 000
Kolia
Taoa
E
I
10 miles
Pointe Vele Pointe Sauma
N
Urban areas
´
MATA‘UTU
Île Uvea
C
Pointe Île Alofi Mafa'a
A
Wallis-Hihifo Airport
Lac Kikila
Pointe Fogo'one
Île Faioa
Nukuatea
0 0
AIRPORTS
N
over 10 000
Nuku Leava
N
0
I Île Futuna F
A
under 10 000
P A C
Pointe Fatua
E
under 5000
NLIKE THOSE OF France’s other South Pacific overseas territories, the inhabitants of Wallis and Futuna have little desire for greater autonomy. The islands’ subsistence economy produces a variety of tropical crops, while expatriate remittances and the sale of licenses to Japanese and South Korean fishing fleets provide foreign exchange. Deforestation, leading to C Nukuloa soil erosion, is of great concern. C
POPULATION
U
O
ITUATED 40 km (25 miles) south of the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands is a group of 30 low-lying islands, eight of which are A T L A inhabited. A traditional ge sa N as P salt-based economy T s o I C ic North Caicos was exhausted Bottle Creek O Providenciales Bambarra C in 1964, leading Kew E Grand Blue Hills to two decades A Caicos N of stagnation. Since the 1980s, East Caicos West Caicos however, tourism Caicos Bank South Caicos Grand Turk Island Cockburn Cockburn and offshore Harbour Grand Town banking have Turk Airport N led a dramatic ge Turks ssa Islands turnaround in Ambergris Cays Pa the islands’ 0 30 km fortunes. 30 miles 0
P A C I F
S
International
Local
6 km 6 miles
653
GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS~ABBREVIATIONS
GLOSSARY
OF
GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS
HE GLOSSARY FOLLOWING lists all geographical terms occurring on the maps and in main-entry names T in the Index~Gazetteer. These terms may
element of the name; where they precede it the term is reversed for indexing purposes – thus Poluostrov Yamal is indexed as Yamal, Poluostrov.
precede, follow, or be run together with the proper
Geographical term Language, Term
Dooxo Somali, Valley Düzü Azerbaijani, Steppe -dwíp Bengali, Island
A
E
KEY
Å Danish, Norwegian, River Alpen German, Alps Altiplanicie Spanish, Plateau Älv(en) Swedish, River Anse French, Bay Archipiélago Spanish, Archipelago Arcipelago Italian, Archipelago Arquipélago Portuguese, Archipelago Auk#tuma Lithuanian, Upland
B Bahía Spanish, Bay Baía Portuguese, Bay Baír Arabic, River Baie French, Bay Bandao Chinese, Peninsula Banjaran Malay, Mountain range Batang Malay, Stream -berg Afrikaans, Norwegian, Mountain Birket Arabic , Lake Boêazı Turkish, Lake Bucht German, Bay Bugten Danish, Bay Buíayrat Arabic, Lake, reservoir Buìeiret Arabic, Lake Bukit Malay, Mountain -bukta Norwegian, Bay bukten Swedish, Bay Burnu Turkish, Cape, point Buuraha Somali, Mountains
C
Embalse Spanish, Reservoir Erg Arabic, Dunes Estany Catalan, Lake Estrecho Spanish, Strait -ey Icelandic, Island Ezero Bulgarian, Macedonian, Lake
F Fjord Danish, Fjord -fjorden Norwegian, Fjord -fjørdhur Faeroese, Fjord Fleuve French, River Fliegu Maltese, Channel -fljór Icelandic, River
G -gang Korean, River Ganga Nepali, Sinhala, River Gaoyuan Chinese, Plateau -gawa Japanese, River Gebel Arabic, Mountain -gebirge German, Mountains Ghubbat Arabic, Bay Gjiri Albanian, Bay Gol Mongolian, River Golfe French, Gulf Golfo Italian, Spanish, Gulf Gora Russian, Serbian, Mountain Gory Russian, Mountains Guba Russian, Bay Gunung Malay, Mountain
H
Cabo Portuguese, Cape Cap French, Cape Cascada Portuguese, Waterfall Cerro Spanish, Mountain Chaîne French, Mountain range Chau Cantonese, Island Cháy Turkish, River Chhâk Cambodian, Bay Chhu Tibetan, River -chôsuji Korean, Reservoir Chott Arabic, Salt lake, depression Ch’ün-tao Chinese, Island group Chuôr Phnum Cambodian, Mountains Cordillera Spanish, Mountain range Costa Spanish, Coast Côte French, Coast Cuchilla Spanish, Mountains
Íadd Arabic, Spit -haehyôp Korean, Strait Haff German, Lagoon Hai Chinese, Sea, bay Íammádat Arabic, Plateau Hámún Persian, Lake Hawr Arabic, Lake Háyk’ Amharic, Lake He Chinese, River Helodrano Malagasy, Bay -hegység Hungarian, Mountain range Hka Burmese, River -ho Korean, Lake Hô Korean, Reservoir ⁄olot Hebrew, Dunes Hora Belarussian, Mountain Hrada Belarussian, Mountains, ridge Hsi Chinese, River Hu Chinese, Lake
D
I
Daêı Azerbaijani, Turkish, Mountain Daêları Azerbaijani, Turkish, Mountains -dake Japanese, Peak Danau Indonesian, Lake Ãao Vietnamese, Island Daryá Persian, River Daryácheh Persian, Lake Dasht Persian, Plain, desert Dawíat Arabic, Bay Dere Turkish, Stream Dili Azerbaijani, Spit -do Korean, Island
654
Île(s) French, Island(s) Ilha(s) Portuguese, Island(s) Ilhéu(s) Portuguese, Islet(s) Irmak Turkish, River Isla(s) Spanish, Island(s) Isola (Isole) Italian, Island(s)
J Jabal Arabic, Mountain Jál Arabic, Ridge -järvi Finnish, Lake Jazírat Arabic, Island Jazíreh Persian, Island
Jebel Arabic, Mountain Jezero Serbo-Croat, Lake Jiang Chinese, River -joki Finnish, River -jökull Icelandic, Glacier Juzur Arabic, Islands
K Kaikyó Japanese, Strait -kaise Lappish, Mountain Kali Nepali, River Kalnas Lithuanian, Mountain Kalns Latvian, Mountain Kang Chinese, Harbor Kangri Tibetan, Mountain(s) Kaôh Cambodian, Island Kapp Norwegian, Cape Kavír Persian, Desert K’edi Georgian, Mountain range Kediet Arabic, Mountain Kepulauan Indonesian, Malay, Island group Khalîg, Khalíj Arabic, Gulf Khawr Arabic, Inlet Khola Nepali, River Khrebet Russian, Mountain range Ko Thai, Island Kolpos Greek, Bay -kopf German, Peak Körfäzi Azerbaijani, Bay Körfezi Turkish, Bay Kõrgustik Estonian, Upland Koshi Nepali, River Kowtal Persian, Pass Kúh(há) Persian, Mountain(s) -kundo Korean, Island group -kysten Norwegian, Coast Kyun Burmese, Island
L Laaq Somali, Watercourse Lac French, Lake Lacul Romanian, Lake Lago Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Lake Laguna Spanish, Lagoon, Lake Laht Estonian, Bay Laut Indonesian, Sea Lembalemba Malagasy, Plateau Lerr Armenian, Mountain Lerrnashght’a Armenian, Mountain range Les Czech, Forest Lich Armenian, Lake Liqeni Albanian, Lake Lumi Albanian, River Lyman Ukrainian, EstuaryLake
M Mae Nam Thai, River -mägi Estonian, Hill Maja Albanian, Mountain -man Korean, Bay Marios Lithuanian, Lake -meer Dutch, Lake Melkosopochnik Russian, Plain -meri Estonian, Sea Mifra∞ Hebrew, Bay Monkhafad Arabic, Depression Mont(s) French, Mountain(s) Monte Italian, Portuguese, Mountain More Russian, Sea Mörön Mongolian, River
N Nagor’ye Russian, Upland Na¡al Hebrew, River Nahr Arabic, River Nam Laotian, River Nehri Turkish, River Nevado Spanish, Mountain (snowcapped) Nisoi Greek, Islands Nizmennost’ Russian, Lowland, plain Nosy Malagasy, Island Nur Mongolian, Lake Nuruu Mongolian, Mountains Nuur Mongolian, Lake Nyzovyna Ukrainian, Lowland, plain
O Ostrov(a) Russian, Island(s) Oued Arabic, Watercourse -oy Faeroese, Island -øy(a) Norwegian, Island Oya Sinhala, River Ozero Russian, Ukrainian, Lake
P
Passo Italian, Pass Pegunungan Indonesian, Malay, Mountain range Pelagos Greek, Sea Penisola Italian, Peninsula Peski Russian, Sands Phanom Thai, Mountain Phou Laotian, Mountain Pi Chinese, Point Pic Catalan, Peak Pico Portuguese, Spanish, Peak Pik Russian, Peak Planalto Portuguese, Plateau Planina, Planini Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croat, Mountain range Ploskogor’ye Russian, Upland Poluostrov Russian, Peninsula Potamos Greek, River Proliv Russian, Strait Pulau Indonesian, Malay, Island Pulu Malay, Island Punta Portuguese, Spanish, Point
Q Qá‘ Arabic, Depression Qolleh Persian, Mountain
R Raas Somali, Cape -rags Latvian, Cape Ramlat Arabic, Sands Ra’s Arabic, Cape, point, headland Ravnina Bulgarian, Russian, Plain Récif French, Reef Represa (Rep.) Spanish, Portuguese, Reservoir -rettó Japanese, Island chain Riacho Spanish, Stream Riban’ Malagasy, Mountains Rio Portuguese, River Río Spanish, River Riu Catalan, River Rivier Dutch, River Rivière French, River Rowd Pashtu, River Rúd Persian, River Rudohorie Slovak, Mountains Ruisseau French, Stream
GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS~ABBREVIATIONS
S Sabkhat Arabic, Salt marsh flaírá’ Arabic, Desert Samudra Sinhala, Reservoir -san Japanese, Korean, Mountain -sanchi Japanese, Mountains -sanmaek Korean, Sarír Arabic, Desert Sebkha, Sebkhet Arabic, Salt marsh, depression See German, Lake Selat Indonesian, Strait -selkä Finnish, Ridge Selseleh Persian, Mountain range Serra Portuguese, Mountain Serranía Spanish, Mountain Sha‘íb Arabic, Watercourse Shamo Chinese, Desert Shan Chinese, Mountain(s) Shan-mo Chinese, Mountain range Sha√√ Arabic, Distributary -shima Japanese, Island Shiqqat Arabic, Depression
Shui-tao Chinese, Channel Sierra Spanish, Mountains Sòn Vietnamese, Mountain Sông Vietnamese, River -spitze German, Peak ‹tít Slovak, Peak Stoeng Cambodian, River Stretto Italian, Strait Su Anbarı Azerbaijani, Reservoir Sungai Indonesian, Malay, River Suu Turkish, River
T Tal Mongolian, Plain Tandavan’ Malagasy, Mountain range Tangorombohitr' Malagasy, Mountain massif Tao Chinese, Island Tassili Berber, Plateau, mountain Tau Russian, Mountain(s) Taungdan Burmese, Mountain range
GLOSSARY HIS GLOSSARY provides a T comprehensive guide to the abbreviations used.
A abbrev. abbreviated ABM antiballistic missile(s) Adm. Admiral AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Amh. Amharic ANC African National Congress APC armored personnel carrier(s) approx. approximately ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
B BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BCE Before Common Era b/d barrels per day B-H Bosnia and Herzegovina bn billion (1000 million) Brig. Brigadier BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy
C C central c. circa C. Cape ºC degrees (Centigrade) cap. capita Capt. Captain CAR Central African Republic CD compact disc CE Common Era CIA Central Intelligence Agency cm centimeter(s) Cmdr. Commander CNN Cable News Network Co. Company Col. Colonel Czech Rep. Czech Republic
OF
DE D.C. District of Columbia Dens density dept. department dths deaths dev. development Dr. Doctor DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo dwt dead weight tonnage E east EC$ Eastern Caribbean dollar(s) EEC/EC European Community EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone ECU European Currency Unit EMS European Monetary System est. estimated
FG ºF degrees (Fahrenheit) Flt. Lt. Flight Lieutenant Fr. Father Fr. French/France ft foot/feet FYRM Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP Gross Domestic Product (the total value of goods and services produced by a country excluding income from foreign countries) Gen. General Geplac Geplacea GNP Gross National Product (the total value of goods and services produced by a country) grt gross tonnage
HI HEP hydroelectric power HH His/Her Highness HIPC heavily indebted poor country(ies) hist. historical HIV human immunodeficiency virus H.M. His/Her Majesty
THE MAPS The maps in the Nations of the World section of this book have used the most up-to-date reference sources available to provide local name forms and spellings, that is to say those used within the country. In an age when international
Teluk Indonesian, Malay, Bay Terara Amharic, Mountain Tog Somali, Valley Tônlé Cambodian, Lake Top Dutch, Peak -tunturi Finnish, Mountain Tur‘at Arabic, Channel
W
V
X
Väin Estonian, Strait -vatn Icelandic, Lake -vesi Finnish, Lake Vinh Vietnamese, Bay Vodokhranilishche (Vdkhr.) Russian, Reservoir Vodoskhovyshche (Vdskh.) Ukrainian, Reservoir Volcán Spanish, Volcano Vozvyshennost’ Russian, Upland, plateau Vrh Macedonian, Peak Vysochyna Ukrainian, Upland Vysoâina Czech, Upland
Waadi Somali, Watercourse Wádí Arabic, Watercourse Wáíat, Wâhat Arabic, Oasis Wald German, Forest Wan Chinese, Bay Wyæyna Polish, Upland
Xé Laotian, River
Y Yarımadası Azerbaijani, Peninsula Yazovir Bulgarian, Reservoir Yoma Burmese, Mountains Yü Chinese, Island
Z Zaliv Bulgarian, Russian, Bay Zatoka Ukrainian, Bay Zemlya Russian, Bay
ABBREVIATIONS HMS His/Her Majesty's ship H.R.H His/Her Royal Highness H.S.H His/Her Serene Highness I. Island ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile(s) in inch(es) Intl International IRBM intermediate-range ballistic missile(s) Is Islands
JKL kg kilogram(s) km kilometer(s) km2 square kilometer (singular) kW kilowatt(s) kWh kilowatt hour(s) CE Common Era L. lower Ltd. Limited Lt. Lieutenant Lux. Luxembourg
MN m million/meter(s) Maced. Macedonia Maj. Major MBA Master of Business Administration CE Common Era Mercsr Mercosur mi2 square mile(s) mm millimeter(s) Mon. Montenegro MP Member of Parliament MSP Member of Scottish Parliament Mt. Mountain/Mount Mts Mountains MW megawatt(s) N north NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Nepad New Partnership for Africa’s Development Neth. Netherlands NGO Nongovernmental Organization
NIC Newly Industrialized Country NPT Non-Proliferation Treaty NZ New Zealand
PQR p.a. per annum PLO Palestine Liberation Organization PNG Papua New Guinea pop. population Rep. Republic Res. Reservoir Rev. Reverend Russian Fed. Russian Federation
S S south S. & Mon. Serbia & Montenegro SARS server acute respiratory syndrome Serb. Serbia SLBM submarine-launched ballistic missile(s) sq. square SSBN nuclear-fuelled ballisticmissile submarine(s) SSR Soviet Socialist Republic St. Saint START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty Switz. Switzerland
TU TGV train à grande vitesse TV television UAE United Arab Emirates UK United Kingdom UN United Nations US/USA United States of America USS United States ship USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics U. upper Uzb. Uzbek
VW VCR video cassette recorder W west
travel, on holiday or on business, is commonplace, this criterion seems the most appropriate. English conventional forms have been used for all international features and for all capital cities. English conventional forms also appear on all the maps in the World Factfile.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS~PICTURE CREDITS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS DORLING KINDERSLEY would like to express their thanks to the following individuals, companies and institutions for their help in preparing this atlas: ADDITIONAL CARTOGRAPHY Advanced Illustration (Congleton, UK) Andrew Bright Cosmographics (Watford, UK) Malcolm Porter Swanston Publishing (Derby, UK) Andrew Thompson
DESIGN Boyd Annison, Icon Solutions (Chesham, UK) for Macintosh consultancy and chart templates Bruno Maag, Dalton Maag (London, UK) for font consultancy and production
RESEARCH
AND
REFERENCE
Dr D Alkhateeb, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, Vienna, Austria) Amnesty International (London, UK) Caroline Blunden CNN International (New York, USA) DATAQUEST EUROPE SA (PARIS, FRANCE) CSL Davies Department of Trade and Industry Export Market Information Centre (London, UK) The Flag Institute (Chester, UK) Foreign and Commonwealth Office (London, UK) Alexander Fyges-Walker Christel Heideloff, Institute of Shipping Economics and Logistics (Bremen, Germany) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank, Washington, DC, USA) International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC, Geneva, Switzerland) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO, Montreal, Canada) International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL, Lyon, France)
International Institute for Strategic Studies, for information from The Military Balance (London, UK) International Boundaries Research Unit, University of Durham Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London (London, UK) Intermediate Technology Development Group (Rugby, UK) Chris Joseph, United States Travel and Tourism Administration (USTTA, London, UK) Latin American Bureau (London, UK) Patrick Mahaffey, Ohio European Office (Brussels, Belgium) Peter Mansfield Robert Minton-Taylor National Meteorological Library and Archive (Bracknell, UK) Oil and Gas Journal (Houston, Texas) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, Paris, France) Penal Reform International (London, UK) Matt Ridley Screen Digest (London, UK) William Smith, Chicago Sun-Times (Chicago, USA) Tourism Concern (London, UK) United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch (UNCPC, Vienna, Austria) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, New York, USA) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya) United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (UNFAO, Rome, Italy) United Nations International Labour Organization (UNILO, Geneva, Switzerland) United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA, New York, USA) Westminster Reference Library (London, UK) World Conservation Monitoring Centre (Cambridge, UK) World Health Organization (WHO, Geneva, Switzerland) World Tourism Organization (Madrid, Spain) The many embassies, High Commissions, airports, national information and tourist offices in London and around the world.
PICTURE CREDITS t=top, b=below, a=above, l=left, r=right, c=center Agence France Presse: 300crb, 332tr, 445cr; Victor Drachev 123bcr; Vassil Donev 153bcr; Eric Feferberg 188br; Francois Guillot 256crb; Martyn Hayhow 256bcr; Attila Kisbenedek 293br; John MacDougall 77tr; Shah Marai 78br; Tatiana Munoz 195tcr; Keld Navntoft 219tcr; Bernd Settnik 269br; Sergei Supinsky 587tr; Weda 229tc; Alamy: Peter Adams 327tc; Britishcolumbiaphotos.com 175bl; Bryan & Cherry Alexander 491bl; Diomedia 512c; Jon Arnold Images 243tr; Popperfoto 245bcr; Springfield Photography 598br; Stock Connection Inc / Rob Crandall 291tc; Ancient Art & Architecture Collection: 44bcr; 45bl; 45cr; 47tc; G Tortoli 45tcb; Arcaid: P Mauss Esto 598bc; Art Archive: 44bl; 49bl; 49cr; 51tcl; Aspect Picture Library: 202tr; Brian Seed 418c; D Bayes 370bl; Fiona Nichols 304tr; Associated Press AP: AFP 415bcr; Aaron Favila 467crl; Humberto Pradera/Agencia Estado 149cb; Bullit Marquez 190br; Bridgeman Art Library, London/New York: Hermitage, St Petersburg 46bc; Lauros - Giraudon / Château de Malmaison 48bcr; National Maritime Museum, London 47br; Private Collection 48bcl; D Donne Bryant Stock Picture Agency: 461tc; Byron Augustin 436tr; Dale Buckton: 594br; Camera Press: A Pucciano 95cr; F Goodman 649bca; H Andrews 627bcr; S Smith 245bcl; T Charlier 607bl; Nick Carroll: 647tr; The J Allan Cash Photolibrary: 55tl; 106c; 116bc; 146br; 149tl; 168tr; 171tr; 241tr; 308tr; 320br, 339cr; 342bl; 383tc; 386c; 438bc; 440tr; 451bc; 474tr; 566bc; CDA: 429tcr; Bruce Coleman Ltd: 498bl; B&C Calhoun 174bc; Dr MP Kahl 94tr; F Prenzel 104tc; Gerald Cubitt 88tr; Gerald Cubitt 244bc; Gordon Langsbury 262bc; J Fry 511tc; J Jurka 542bc; K. Maj 470c; Kim Taylor 515tr; L Lee Rue 91tl; LC Marigo 281tc; M Berge 396tr; MPL Fogden 462ca; O Langrand 370tr; P Davey 214bc; S Prato 274bc; Colorific: J Polleross / M Kreiner 54cl; M Rogers 536tr; Sandro Tucci 159bl; Comstock: 194bc, 24tl, 535tc; Tor Eigeland 399tc; Corbis: AFP 233bcr, 555tcr; Ricardo Azoury 144tc; Yannis Behrakis 275tcr; Jamil Bittar 137cr; Desmond Boylan 300cbr; Dean Conger 487tr; Icone Films / Gilles Fonlupt 258bc; Bob Krist 642br; Jack Fields 648bl, 650bl; Brooks Kraft 471tr; Miki Kratsman 486br; Franz-Marc Frei 261cb; Christopher J Morris 172cbr; Bazuki Muhammad 387bcl; Reuters / Peter Andrews 471tcr; Reuters / Ceerwan Aziz 313 c; Reuters / Beawiharta 305bcl; Reuters / Michael Dalder 271bl; Reuters / Amit Gupta 303bl; Reuters / Tom Hanson 175tc; Reuters / Kamal Kishore 303tc; Reuters / William Philpott 324cbl; Reuters / Via Reuters TV / © NTV 489cl; Reuters / Darren Whiteside 337tc; Alan Schein Photography 606br; David Turnley 258tr; Nick Wheeler , 647br; Joseph Sohm 603bl; Keren Su: 189tr; Corbis Sygma: Baldev 189br; Vernier Jean Bernar 195tr; David Brauchli 513bcl; Patrick Durand 327bl; Shandiz Mohsen 309tcl; James Davis Travel Photography: 145bl; 218c; 250bc; 330bc; 379tl; 390tr; 401tc; 411tl; 428bc; 432bc; 493tc; 494bl; 496bl; 502tr; 550bc; 558tr; 586tr; 626bl; 643cr; Prisma 86cla; Prisma / Schwarz 226tr; S Begawan 151tl; S Thingeyjar 297tc; World View - Fototheek Amsterdam 177tc; Kurt Easterwood: 337bl; Democratic Party of Japan: 334cbr; Mary Evans Picture Library: 47bl, 47trb; Chris Fairclough Colour Library: 51cr; 375tl; 572br; Robert Harding Picture Library: 76tr; 180c; 225tl; 273tc; 282bl; 293tr; 312tr; 336bl; 358bc; 449tc; 466tr; 480tr; 501tc; 513tc; A Woolfitt 114bc; C Martin 266bc; C Rennie 580ca; D Hughes 259bc; Explorer 377tc; Explorer / Roy 110tr; F Dubes 148bl; Frerck / Odyssey 402tr; G Hellier 217tr; G Hellier 518tr; G Roli 444tr; Gascoine 610bl; P Craven 254tr; Photri 222ca; R Rainford 593tl; Rosehaven Management Ltd 653cr; Sassoon 134cb; Sassoon 264cl; Paul Harris Photography: Paul Harris Photography 484tr; Hulton Getty: 50bcr; 51br; 53br; Robert Hunt Library: 53tc; Hutchison Library: 136bl; 369tc; 596bc; 636tr; Andrew Hill 634bc; Bernard Gérard 261bc; Christine Pemberton 210tr; J Henderson 286ca; JG Fuller 650bcr; L Taylor 484bl; M Macintyre 568ca; Robert
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Francis 560tr; Trevor Page 524ca; Image Bank: 394bl; A Rippy 186tr; G Jung 576tr; GA Rossi 646bl; M Beebe 209cl; ME Newman 324tr; P Trummer 232tr; T Madison 187br; Images Colour Library: 426bl; Image Select: Ann Ronan 42bc; Impact Photos: A le Garsmeur 412ca; Ben Edwards 450tr; C Penn 584tr; G-J Norman 356tr; J Arthur 526tcr; Mark Henley 188tr; Robin Lubbock 236tr; David King Collection: 55tcb Magnum: H Cartier-Bresson 53tcb; NATA Photo: 488bc; nPower Renewables © Dan Towers 2004 601tc; Office of Mark Latham: 102cbr; Office of the Prime Minister of Canada: 172crb; Panos Pictures: B Tobiasson 329bc; Chris Stowers 333bl; D Hulcher 360tr; Jeremy Hartley 156bc; Marc French 289tc; Morris Carpenter 365bc; Neil Cooper 130tr; R Giling 538tr; S Sprague 160tr; Sean Sprague 136c; Michael Harvey 149cl; John Miles 189cl; 597cb; 602bl; Pa Photos: AFP 419cbl; EPA 146tr, 188bcr, 353bcr, 631bcr; Popperfoto: 51trb; 52br; 55bl; AFP / Armand 54br; David Mercado / Reuters 137crl; Reuters 271tc; Jeremy Piper / Reuters 102bcr; John Cobb / EPA 275tr; Reuters 345tr; Official U.S. Air Force Photo 55cr; Popperfoto / Reuters: Peter Andrews 637cr; Simon Baker 433tlb; Denis Balibouse 203cl; Russell Boyce 594cra; Bogdan Cristel 481cr; Dimitar Dilkoff 153bcl; Mohamed Hammi 573tcr; Hyungwon Kang 601bcr; Francois Lenoir 127bcr; Havakuk Levison 318bcr; David Loh 623tcl; Alexander Natruskin 487bl; Patrick de Noirmont 159bcl; Enny Nuraheni 305bcr; Pilar Olivares 463tcl; Hrvoje Polan 293bcr; Romero Ranoco 467cr; Molly Riley 268bcr; Oswaldo Rivas 555tr; Henry Romero 403bcl; Jayanta Shaw 623tl; Ruben Sprich 547cr; STR 451tr, 577car; 293bcl, 577trb, 607bcl; Sukree Sukplang 563tr; Susumu Takahashi 334cbl; Martin Thomas 182tr; Pierre Virot 476bcl; Haydn West 594tcr; Kimberly White 618tcr; Darren Whiteside 165tcr; Rick Wilking 600bcr, 600br; Reuters: 123bcl, tcr; 507br; Rex Features: 116tcbr; 172bcr; 256cb; 341bcl; 481cbr; 486bcr; 516bl; 526tr; 543tcl; 587tcr; 594tr; 594trb; 606bl; 611bc; 627bcl; Action Press 268cbr; 415bcl; 535tr; ArgenPress 95crb; Giuseppe Aresu 324cbr; Mark Brewer 320cl; Sari Gustafsson 251tcr; 487bcl; J Sutton Hibbert 597ct; Paul Browncr; David Hartley 219tr; ISOPress 251tr; 581car; ISOPress Seneport 513bcr; Keystone USA / Ku 320br; James D Morgan 105tc; F Stevens 211bcl; Farnood 309tcr; Ken McKay 531tr; Alfredo Rocha 475bcr; Ron Sachs 605bcl; 631bcl; Karl Schoendorfer 107bcl; Sipa-Press 77tcr, 83bcl, 95cbr, 127bcl, 141bc, 188bcr, 318br, 429tcl, 445c, 563tcr, 645bl; Tony Kyriacou 353bcl; Sam Tinson 601bl; Torregano 419cl; Wilhemsen 105bl; Harry Smith Collection: 46clb; South American Pictures: Jevan Berrange 206br; P Dixon 456tr; T Morrison 606tr; Sovfoto/Eastfoto: 652br; Frank Spooner Pictures: 53bl; 83bl; 324bc;345tcr; 543tr; A Denize 371tcr; Alain Morvan / Gamma 547c; Alexis Duclos 182tcr; C Poulet 647cr; Tim Crosby / Gamma - Liaison 602ct; Gamma / B Iverson 233bcl; Gamma / F Apesteguy 507bcr; Gamma / Iliona - Figaro Magazine 113tc; Gamma / K Al Arab 573tcl; Gamma / N Jallot 408tr; Gamma / Najer 387bcr; Gamma / Xinhua 188bcl; Georges Merillon 441bcl; KJ Eddy 107bcl; Liason / Peterson 441bcr; Liason / Markel 637c; N Sagansky 203cr; P Perrin 313cr; Patrick Piel 268bra; Reglain 165tr; Victoria Brynner 451tcr; Tony Stone Images: 179bc; 198tr; 354bl; 444br; A Cassidy 302br; Alan Kearney 182bc; Alan Smith 362c; C Waite 592bc; D Armand 172tr; D Hanson 562bl; D Schultz 50bl; Dennis Stone 344tr; G Allison 605bl; H Kurihara 270bc; J Pragen 616tr; Joe Cornish 317bc; Marcus Brooke 158tr; O Benn 93tc; 279tr; P Chesley 406ca; Penny Tweedie 384bc; R Evans 152tr; R. Everts 415tr; R Smith 102tr; R Smith 231tl; S Egan 530tr; S Egan 546tr; Steven Rothfeld 393tc; Swiss Embassy: 551cr; 551crr; Sygma: Valdev 350ca; R Reuter 502bl; Telegraph Colour Library: 100tr; Ford Motor Company Ltd 52clb; Topham Picturepoint: 133tc; 238tr; 371tr; 433cal; 478bc; 504bc; 642c; Trip: 506bl; G Spenceley 380tr; T Goodman 285tc; V Shuba 122c; V Sidoropolev 340tr; Ukrainian Government: 591tr; World Pictures: 83cla; 322bl; 422ca; 554tr; Zefa Picture Library: 80bc; 120bl; 200ca; 526bl; 570bc; 618bl; Everts 630ca; F Lanting 142tr; Streichan 268bl.
