Food and Environment: The Quest for a Sustainable Future

Food and Environment

WIT Press publishes leading books in Science and Technology. Visit our website for the current list of titles. www.witpress.com

WITeLibrary Home of the Transactions of the Wessex Institute. Papers presented at Food and Environment 2011 are archived in the WIT elibrary in volume 152 of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment (ISSN 1743-3541). The WIT electronic-library provides the international scientific community with immediate and permanent access to individual papers presented at WIT conferences. http://library.witpress.com.

FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FOOD AND ENVIRONMENT

Food and Environment

CONFERENCE CHAIRMEN V. Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE M.D. Hubinger J. Kreyenschmidt D. Lund G. Olafsdottir C. Prentice A. Ramirez P. Zubia-Aloy

Organised by Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Sponsored by WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment

WIT Transactions Transactions Editor Carlos Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst Southampton SO40 7AA, UK Email: [email protected]

Editorial Board B Abersek University of Maribor, Slovenia Y N Abousleiman University of Oklahoma,

G Belingardi Politecnico di Torino, Italy R Belmans Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,

P L Aguilar University of Extremadura, Spain K S Al Jabri Sultan Qaboos University, Oman E Alarcon Universidad Politecnica de Madrid,

C D Bertram The University of New South

USA

Spain

A Aldama IMTA, Mexico C Alessandri Universita di Ferrara, Italy D Almorza Gomar University of Cadiz, Spain

B Alzahabi Kettering University, USA J A C Ambrosio IDMEC, Portugal A M Amer Cairo University, Egypt S A Anagnostopoulos University of Patras, Greece

M Andretta Montecatini, Italy E Angelino A.R.P.A. Lombardia, Italy H Antes Technische Universitat Braunschweig, Germany

M A Atherton South Bank University, UK A G Atkins University of Reading, UK D Aubry Ecole Centrale de Paris, France H Azegami Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan

A F M Azevedo University of Porto, Portugal J Baish Bucknell University, USA J M Baldasano Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain J G Bartzis Institute of Nuclear Technology, Greece A Bejan Duke University, USA M P Bekakos Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

Belgium

Wales, Australia

D E Beskos University of Patras, Greece S K Bhattacharyya Indian Institute of Technology, India

E Blums Latvian Academy of Sciences, Latvia J Boarder Cartref Consulting Systems, UK B Bobee Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Canada

H Boileau ESIGEC, France J J Bommer Imperial College London, UK M Bonnet Ecole Polytechnique, France C A Borrego University of Aveiro, Portugal A R Bretones University of Granada, Spain J A Bryant University of Exeter, UK F-G Buchholz Universitat Gesanthochschule Paderborn, Germany

M B Bush The University of Western Australia, Australia

F Butera Politecnico di Milano, Italy J Byrne University of Portsmouth, UK W Cantwell Liverpool University, UK D J Cartwright Bucknell University, USA P G Carydis National Technical University of Athens, Greece

J J Casares Long Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Spain

M A Celia Princeton University, USA A Chakrabarti Indian Institute of Science, India

A H-D Cheng University of Mississippi, USA

J Chilton University of Lincoln, UK C-L Chiu University of Pittsburgh, USA H Choi Kangnung National University, Korea A Cieslak Technical University of Lodz, Poland

S Clement Transport System Centre, Australia M W Collins Brunel University, UK J J Connor Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

M C Constantinou State University of New York at Buffalo, USA

D E Cormack University of Toronto, Canada M Costantino Royal Bank of Scotland, UK D F Cutler Royal Botanic Gardens, UK W Czyczula Krakow University of Technology, Poland

M da Conceicao Cunha University of Coimbra, Portugal

L Dávid Károly Róbert College, Hungary A Davies University of Hertfordshire, UK M Davis Temple University, USA A B de Almeida Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal

E R de Arantes e Oliveira Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal

L De Biase University of Milan, Italy R de Borst Delft University of Technology,

Netherlands G De Mey University of Ghent, Belgium A De Montis Universita di Cagliari, Italy A De Naeyer Universiteit Ghent, Belgium W P De Wilde Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium L Debnath University of Texas-Pan American, USA N J Dedios Mimbela Universidad de Cordoba, Spain G Degrande Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium S del Giudice University of Udine, Italy G Deplano Universita di Cagliari, Italy I Doltsinis University of Stuttgart, Germany M Domaszewski Universite de Technologie de Belfort-Montbeliard, France J Dominguez University of Seville, Spain K Dorow Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, USA W Dover University College London, UK C Dowlen South Bank University, UK

J P du Plessis University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

R Duffell University of Hertfordshire, UK A Ebel University of Cologne, Germany E E Edoutos Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

G K Egan Monash University, Australia K M Elawadly Alexandria University, Egypt K-H Elmer Universitat Hannover, Germany D Elms University of Canterbury, New Zealand M E M El-Sayed Kettering University, USA D M Elsom Oxford Brookes University, UK F Erdogan Lehigh University, USA F P Escrig University of Seville, Spain D J Evans Nottingham Trent University, UK J W Everett Rowan University, USA M Faghri University of Rhode Island, USA R A Falconer Cardiff University, UK M N Fardis University of Patras, Greece P Fedelinski Silesian Technical University, Poland

H J S Fernando Arizona State University, USA

S Finger Carnegie Mellon University, USA J I Frankel University of Tennessee, USA D M Fraser University of Cape Town, South Africa

M J Fritzler University of Calgary, Canada U Gabbert Otto-von-Guericke Universitat Magdeburg, Germany

G Gambolati Universita di Padova, Italy C J Gantes National Technical University of Athens, Greece

L Gaul Universitat Stuttgart, Germany A Genco University of Palermo, Italy N Georgantzis Universitat Jaume I, Spain P Giudici Universita di Pavia, Italy F Gomez Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, Spain

R Gomez Martin University of Granada, Spain

D Goulias University of Maryland, USA K G Goulias Pennsylvania State University, USA

F Grandori Politecnico di Milano, Italy W E Grant Texas A & M University, USA

S Grilli University of Rhode Island, USA

R H J Grimshaw Loughborough University, D Gross Technische Hochschule Darmstadt,

M Karlsson Linkoping University, Sweden T Katayama Doshisha University, Japan K L Katsifarakis Aristotle University of

R Grundmann Technische Universitat

J T Katsikadelis National Technical

A Gualtierotti IDHEAP, Switzerland R C Gupta National University of Singapore,

E Kausel Massachusetts Institute of

UK

Germany

Dresden, Germany

Singapore J M Hale University of Newcastle, UK K Hameyer Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium C Hanke Danish Technical University, Denmark K Hayami University of Toyko, Japan Y Hayashi Nagoya University, Japan L Haydock Newage International Limited, UK A H Hendrickx Free University of Brussels, Belgium C Herman John Hopkins University, USA S Heslop University of Bristol, UK I Hideaki Nagoya University, Japan D A Hills University of Oxford, UK W F Huebner Southwest Research Institute, USA J A C Humphrey Bucknell University, USA M Y Hussaini Florida State University, USA W Hutchinson Edith Cowan University, Australia T H Hyde University of Nottingham, UK M Iguchi Science University of Tokyo, Japan D B Ingham University of Leeds, UK L Int Panis VITO Expertisecentrum IMS, Belgium N Ishikawa National Defence Academy, Japan J Jaafar UiTm, Malaysia W Jager Technical University of Dresden, Germany Y Jaluria Rutgers University, USA C M Jefferson University of the West of England, UK P R Johnston Griffith University, Australia D R H Jones University of Cambridge, UK N Jones University of Liverpool, UK D Kaliampakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece N Kamiya Nagoya University, Japan D L Karabalis University of Patras, Greece

Thessaloniki, Greece

University of Athens, Greece Technology, USA

H Kawashima The University of Tokyo, Japan

B A Kazimee Washington State University, USA

S Kim University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA D Kirkland Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners Ltd, UK

E Kita Nagoya University, Japan A S Kobayashi University of Washington, USA

T Kobayashi University of Tokyo, Japan D Koga Saga University, Japan S Kotake University of Tokyo, Japan A N Kounadis National Technical University of Athens, Greece

W B Kratzig Ruhr Universitat Bochum, Germany

T Krauthammer Penn State University, USA C-H Lai University of Greenwich, UK M Langseth Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

B S Larsen Technical University of Denmark, Denmark

F Lattarulo Politecnico di Bari, Italy A Lebedev Moscow State University, Russia L J Leon University of Montreal, Canada D Lewis Mississippi State University, USA S lghobashi University of California Irvine, USA

K-C Lin University of New Brunswick, Canada

A A Liolios Democritus University of Thrace, Greece

S Lomov Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

J W S Longhurst University of the West of England, UK

G Loo The University of Auckland, New Zealand

J Lourenco Universidade do Minho, Portugal J E Luco University of California at San Diego, USA

H Lui State Seismological Bureau Harbin, China

C J Lumsden University of Toronto, Canada L Lundqvist Division of Transport and

Location Analysis, Sweden T Lyons Murdoch University, Australia Y-W Mai University of Sydney, Australia M Majowiecki University of Bologna, Italy D Malerba Università degli Studi di Bari, Italy G Manara University of Pisa, Italy B N Mandal Indian Statistical Institute, India Ü Mander University of Tartu, Estonia H A Mang Technische Universitat Wien, Austria G D Manolis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece W J Mansur COPPE/UFRJ, Brazil N Marchettini University of Siena, Italy J D M Marsh Griffith University, Australia J F Martin-Duque Universidad Complutense, Spain T Matsui Nagoya University, Japan G Mattrisch DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany F M Mazzolani University of Naples “Federico II”, Italy K McManis University of New Orleans, USA A C Mendes Universidade de Beira Interior, Portugal R A Meric Research Institute for Basic Sciences, Turkey J Mikielewicz Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland N Milic-Frayling Microsoft Research Ltd, UK R A W Mines University of Liverpool, UK C A Mitchell University of Sydney, Australia K Miura Kajima Corporation, Japan A Miyamoto Yamaguchi University, Japan T Miyoshi Kobe University, Japan G Molinari University of Genoa, Italy T B Moodie University of Alberta, Canada D B Murray Trinity College Dublin, Ireland G Nakhaeizadeh DaimlerChrysler AG, Germany M B Neace Mercer University, USA D Necsulescu University of Ottawa, Canada F Neumann University of Vienna, Austria S-I Nishida Saga University, Japan

H Nisitani Kyushu Sangyo University, Japan B Notaros University of Massachusetts, USA P O’Donoghue University College Dublin, Ireland

R O O’Neill Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA

M Ohkusu Kyushu University, Japan G Oliveto Universitá di Catania, Italy R Olsen Camp Dresser & McKee Inc., USA E Oñate Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain

K Onishi Ibaraki University, Japan P H Oosthuizen Queens University, Canada E L Ortiz Imperial College London, UK E Outa Waseda University, Japan A S Papageorgiou Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

J Park Seoul National University, Korea G Passerini Universita delle Marche, Italy B C Patten University of Georgia, USA G Pelosi University of Florence, Italy G G Penelis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

W Perrie Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Canada

R Pietrabissa Politecnico di Milano, Italy H Pina Instituto Superior Tecnico, Portugal M F Platzer Naval Postgraduate School, USA D Poljak University of Split, Croatia V Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK H Power University of Nottingham, UK D Prandle Proudman Oceanographic Laboratory, UK

M Predeleanu University Paris VI, France M R I Purvis University of Portsmouth, UK I S Putra Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia

Y A Pykh Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia

F Rachidi EMC Group, Switzerland M Rahman Dalhousie University, Canada K R Rajagopal Texas A & M University, USA T Rang Tallinn Technical University, Estonia J Rao Case Western Reserve University, USA A M Reinhorn State University of New York at Buffalo, USA

A D Rey McGill University, Canada

D N Riahi University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign, USA B Ribas Spanish National Centre for Environmental Health, Spain K Richter Graz University of Technology, Austria S Rinaldi Politecnico di Milano, Italy F Robuste Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Spain J Roddick Flinders University, Australia A C Rodrigues Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal F Rodrigues Poly Institute of Porto, Portugal C W Roeder University of Washington, USA J M Roesset Texas A & M University, USA W Roetzel Universitaet der Bundeswehr Hamburg, Germany V Roje University of Split, Croatia R Rosset Laboratoire d’Aerologie, France J L Rubio Centro de Investigaciones sobre Desertificacion, Spain T J Rudolphi Iowa State University, USA S Russenchuck Magnet Group, Switzerland H Ryssel Fraunhofer Institut Integrierte Schaltungen, Germany S G Saad American University in Cairo, Egypt M Saiidi University of Nevada-Reno, USA R San Jose Technical University of Madrid, Spain F J Sanchez-Sesma Instituto Mexicano del Petroleo, Mexico B Sarler Nova Gorica Polytechnic, Slovenia S A Savidis Technische Universitat Berlin, Germany A Savini Universita de Pavia, Italy G Schmid Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Germany R Schmidt RWTH Aachen, Germany B Scholtes Universitaet of Kassel, Germany W Schreiber University of Alabama, USA A P S Selvadurai McGill University, Canada J J Sendra University of Seville, Spain J J Sharp Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Q Shen Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA X Shixiong Fudan University, China G C Sih Lehigh University, USA L C Simoes University of Coimbra, Portugal

A C Singhal Arizona State University, USA P Skerget University of Maribor, Slovenia J Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia

V Sladek Slovak Academy of Sciences, Slovakia

A C M Sousa University of New Brunswick, Canada

H Sozer Illinois Institute of Technology, USA D B Spalding CHAM, UK P D Spanos Rice University, USA T Speck Albert-Ludwigs-Universitaet Freiburg, Germany

C C Spyrakos National Technical University of Athens, Greece

I V Stangeeva St Petersburg University, Russia

J Stasiek Technical University of Gdansk, Poland

G E Swaters University of Alberta, Canada S Syngellakis University of Southampton, UK J Szmyd University of Mining and Metallurgy, Poland

S T Tadano Hokkaido University, Japan H Takemiya Okayama University, Japan I Takewaki Kyoto University, Japan C-L Tan Carleton University, Canada E Taniguchi Kyoto University, Japan S Tanimura Aichi University of Technology, Japan

J L Tassoulas University of Texas at Austin, USA

M A P Taylor University of South Australia, Australia

A Terranova Politecnico di Milano, Italy A G Tijhuis Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Netherlands

T Tirabassi Institute FISBAT-CNR, Italy S Tkachenko Otto-von-Guericke-University, Germany

N Tosaka Nihon University, Japan T Tran-Cong University of Southern Queensland, Australia

R Tremblay Ecole Polytechnique, Canada I Tsukrov University of New Hampshire, USA R Turra CINECA Interuniversity Computing Centre, Italy

S G Tushinski Moscow State University, Russia

J-L Uso Universitat Jaume I, Spain E Van den Bulck Katholieke Universiteit

Z-Y Yan Peking University, China S Yanniotis Agricultural University of Athens,

D Van den Poel Ghent University, Belgium R van der Heijden Radboud University,

A Yeh University of Hong Kong, China J Yoon Old Dominion University, USA K Yoshizato Hiroshima University, Japan T X Yu Hong Kong University of Science &

Leuven, Belgium

Netherlands

R van Duin Delft University of Technology, Netherlands

Greece

Technology, Hong Kong

P Vas University of Aberdeen, UK R Verhoeven Ghent University, Belgium A Viguri Universitat Jaume I, Spain Y Villacampa Esteve Universidad de

M Zador Technical University of Budapest,

F F V Vincent University of Bath, UK S Walker Imperial College, UK G Walters University of Exeter, UK B Weiss University of Vienna, Austria H Westphal University of Magdeburg,

R Zarnic University of Ljubljana, Slovenia G Zharkova Institute of Theoretical and

Alicante, Spain

Germany

J R Whiteman Brunel University, UK

Hungary

K Zakrzewski Politechnika Lodzka, Poland M Zamir University of Western Ontario, Canada

Applied Mechanics, Russia

N Zhong Maebashi Institute of Technology, Japan

H G Zimmermann Siemens AG, Germany

Food and Environment The Quest for a Sustainable Future

Editors V. Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Editors V. Popov Wessex Institute of Technology, UK C.A. Brebbia Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

Published by WIT Press Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK Tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223; Fax: 44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com For USA, Canada and Mexico Computational Mechanics Inc 25 Bridge Street, Billerica, MA 01821, USA Tel: 978 667 5841; Fax: 978 667 7582 E-Mail: [email protected] http://www.witpress.com British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-84564-554-0 ISSN: 1746-448X (print) ISSN: 1743-3541(online) The texts of the papers in this volume were set individually by the authors or under their supervision. Only minor corrections to the text may have been carried out by the publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher, the Editors and Authors for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. The Publisher does not necessarily endorse the ideas held, or views expressed by the Editors or Authors of the material contained in its publications. © WIT Press 2011 Printed in Great Britain by Quay Digital, Bristol. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publisher.

Preface

The First International Conference on Food and the Environment focused on a variety of issues from the production to the transport and storage affecting the quality and safety of food products at the retailers’ shops. The aim of the conference was to emphasise the effects of modern food production processes on the human health and the environment and to initiate discussions on the best ways to produce food of required quality, sufficient quantities and in a sustainable way which takes into account the environment. The many advances made for over a century in food production have resulted in the possibility of feeding the whole of humanity. These advances have been achieved by the introduction of new production practices and a variety of added substances aimed to enhance the quality and safety of the food products; the whole process being affected by other environmental conditions such as contamination of air, water and soil resulting from sources other than agriculture. On the other hand there are examples where the food production and food processing have detrimental effects on the environment. Some of the major challenges remain with the extensive farming, which though offering higher productivity and larger volumes should not either compromise the quality of the product or cause suffering in animals. Given the importance of the problem which affects the whole world population, it is essential to understand the consequences that food production processes and demands can have on the food consumed daily by the world population. Of particular importance are the effects on human health and the well-being of the population, as well as the more general issues related to possible damage to the environment and ecology.

Food-related problems, in spite of their importance, have not been sufficiently well discussed in relation to their possible consequences to the environment, to better understand the challenges faced by the society in this regard. The Food & Environment Conference created an atmosphere which encouraged fruitful interactions and exchange of knowledge and ideas amongst the participants working in industry and government and those employed at universities and research organizations. This volume contains some of the contributions presented at the First Conference on Food & Environment, which was held in the New Forest, UK. The conference was organized by the Wessex Institute of Technology. It was sponsored by WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment and The International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. The editors would like to thank all the authors for their papers and, in particular, the members of the International Scientific Advisory Committee for their help during the review process. The Editors, New Forest, 2011

Contents Section 1: Impact of food production on the environment Environmental impacts of local food production in Japan and changes needed for future sustainability S. Mishima & K. Kohyama .................................................................................. 3 Agrarian urban architecture T. Gentry............................................................................................................ 13 Dryland crop production and greenhouse gas emissions in Canada: a regional comparison S. Kulshreshtha, J. Dyer & B. McConkey.......................................................... 25 Assessment of hazards in local soy-cheese processing: implications on health and environment in Oyo State, Nigeria S. B. Fasoyiro .................................................................................................... 37 Use of blast furnace slag and water treatment residues to reduce the runoff of dissolved reactive phosphorus from agricultural lands Z. Ahmad, M. Abdel Basit, S. Yamamoto, T. Honna, H. Yasuda & M. Inoue ....................................................................................... 45 Environmental and economic evaluation of conventional and organic production systems in the Canadian Prairie provinces S. Kulshreshtha & C. Klemmer.......................................................................... 55 Section 2: Contamination of food Microbial growth models for shelf life prediction in an Icelandic cod supply chain R. Gospavic, H. L. Lauzon, V. Popov, E. Martinsdottir, M. N. Haque & E. Reynisson ............................................................................. 69

Risk assessment of exposure to multiple mycotoxins in food S. Viegas, C. Viegas, C. Ramos, M. Silva, R. Sabino, C. Veríssimo & L. Rosado ................................................................................. 81 Emerging contaminants in consumer products: environmental fate and transfer to human food-chain T. Eggen, M. Möder & A. Arukwe ..................................................................... 89 Soil composition of community gardens: are there quality concerns? S. Wunderlich, C. Feldman, K. Latif & P. Punamiya ........................................ 95 Degradation of histamine in tuna soup by diamine oxidase (DAO) A. Naila, S. Flint, G. C. Fletcher, P. J. Bremer, G. Meerdink & R. H. Morton........................................................................... 103 Microbiological quality of fresh (unpasteurized) fruit juices in Makkah, Saudi Arabia B. Mashat......................................................................................................... 113 Air fungal contamination in ten hospitals’ food units from Lisbon C. Viegas, C. Ramos, M. Almeida, R. Sabino, C. Veríssimo & L. Rosado..................................................................................................... 127 Section 3: Food processing issues Quality indices, polyphenols, terpenic acids, squalene, fatty acid profile, and sterols in virgin olive oil produced by organic versus non-organic cultivation method E. Anastasopoulos, N. Kalogeropoulos, A. C. Kaliora, A. M. Kountouri & N. K. Andrikopoulos .................................................................................... 135 Nutrient constituents, functional attributes and in vitro protein digestibility of the seeds of the Lathyrus plant O. Aletor, C. E. Onyemem & V. A. Aletor....................................................... 145 Household processing and dissemination of tomato paste technology K. O. Zaka........................................................................................................ 157 Section 4: Traceability and temperature control Multicriteria model for the selection of traceability and temperature control technologies along the cold chain. P. Zubía Aloy, E. Mechó Laussac, V. Cloquell Ballester & D. Moya Ramírez......................................................................................... 165

Novel solutions supporting inter-organisational quality and information management V. Raab, R. Ibald, W. Reichstein, D. Haarer, B. Petersen & J. Kreyenschmidt ......................................................................................... 177 Quality losses in deep-frozen foodstuffs at cyclically modified storage temperatures M. Braun, R. Stamminger & G. Broil .............................................................. 189 Section 5: Characterisation of foodplants The phytotoxicity of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol and Phenol to local agricultural plant species in China K. Poon, K. L. Hon & J. J. Huang ................................................................... 203 Siddha herbs for obesity J. Raamachandran & T. Venkatasubramaniam............................................... 215 Author Index .................................................................................................. 225

This page intentionally left blank

Section 1 Impact of food production on the environment

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

3

Environmental impacts of local food production in Japan and changes needed for future sustainability S. Mishima & K. Kohyama National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, Japan

Abstract We employed the distance-to-target method to devise a single environmental impact indicator (EII) of the total environmental impact of agricultural production, mainly fertilizer use. We focused on the effects of fertilization on greenhouse gas (nitrous oxide, N2O) emission, groundwater pollution by nitrogen (N) through leaching and surface (river) water eutrophication by N and phosphorus (P) through erosion as environmental impacts in the base year of 1990 as well as in 2005. We estimated each environmental impact in all (47) prefectures and at the Japanese national scale as a reference value. Target values were set temporally, except N2O emission, which has a midterm governmental target. The EII in each prefecture in 1990 and 2005 was calculated from normalized environmental impacts and weighting factors using reference and target values. The EII in each prefecture ranged from 0.9 to 81.1 in 1990 and from 0.7 to 68.4 in 2005. Surface water eutrophication by N and P contributed greatly to the EII, especially in prefectures with high EII values. To mitigate high EII values, the agricultural sector should reduce the N surplus by decreasing the fertilizer input and fertilizing with P dependent on soil P fertility to prevent excessive accumulation of P. Keywords: distance-to-target method, environmental impact indicator, fertilization, prefectural scale.

1 Introduction Although fertilization is essential for agricultural production, it causes various negative environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, eutrophication and pollution of surface and groundwater. Previous studies have WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110011

4 Food and Environment considered these problems individually, but it is important to examine the total environmental impact of fertilizer use to evaluate the optimal conditions of agricultural production by life cycle assessment (LCA). The distance-to-target (DtT) method [1] is sometimes used in LCA to simplify the total environmental impact consisting of various kinds of impacts. In this study, we estimated nitrous oxide (N2O) emission due to agricultural production, potential groundwater pollution by nitrogen (N) due to surplus N from agricultural production and potential surface water eutrophication by N and phosphorus (P) due to farmland soil erosion in 1990 and 2005 for the 47 prefectures of Japan. We then aggregated these four impacts into one indicator value as an environmental impact indicator (EII) using the DtT method. We evaluated the relative environmental impact due to prefectural agricultural production by comparing EII values among prefectures and between the two years. In addition, we analyzed what factors may have caused high or low EII values in particular prefectures.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Data sources The amounts of N and P flow associated with agricultural production in the 47 prefectures and in Japan as a whole were those reported by Mishima and Kohyama [2]. Soil fertility data were taken from MAFF [3]. 2.2 Nitrous oxide emission Nitrous oxide emission was estimated by IPCC Tier 2 methodology [4]; namely, N2O emission was calculated as N flows multiplied by emission factors of the various model components. This study included direct N2O emission from livestock waste processing and fertilization of farmland soil and indirect N2O emission through leaching and deposition of N. 2.3 Groundwater pollution potential The potential groundwater pollution by N (GW) was calculated based on residual N in agricultural production (RN), precipitation (Prec) and the potential evapotranspiration (ET) from Mishima et al. [5], using eqn (1): GW

RN ( Prec. ET )

(1)

2.4 Surface water eutrophication potential The potential surface water eutrophication by N and P due to erosion (EN, EP) at the watershed and prefecture scales were estimated based on the erosion

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

5

potential (E) calculated using the USLE, residual N and P (RN, RP) and available N and P in farmland soil (AN, AP), as follows: EN

( RN

AN ) E

(2)

EP

( RP

AP) E .

(3)

2.5 Target setting The Japanese government set as a midterm target a 25% reduction of total greenhouse gas emissions by 2025 as compared to 1990 levels. Therefore, we used a 25% reduction of N2O emission versus the level in 1990 as the anticipated target. In contrast, no governmental or regulatory targets have been set for reductions in groundwater pollution and river water eutrophication. Therefore, we set tentative targets based on the inverse of the regression reported by Mishima et al. [5], which is the correlation between groundwater pollution potential and the percentage of observation wells in prefectures that exceeded the water quality standard (10 mg N L-1): EOW

0.606 (0.634 GW )

(4)

where EOW is the percentage of observation wells in prefectures that exceeded the water quality standard. The target groundwater pollution potential was set such that all observation wells would meet the water quality standard. For the surface (river) water eutrophication potential, 2 mg N l-1 and 0.1 mg P -1 l were employed as tentative targets [6]. At river water-quality monitoring points (n=1260) set at the output of each watershed, first the correlations between total N and P flow and EN and EP, respectively, were tested. Then we calculated the total N and P flows necessary for N and P concentrations to meet our tentative standards and tested the correlations of these flows with EN, TN’, TP’ and EP. 2.6 Application of the DtT method for aggregation According to Brentrup et al. [7], impacts were normalized, weighted and then aggregated using eqn (5):

EII

( wi i

Ii ), Ni

(5)

where Ii is the impact indicator for impact category i, Ni is the normalization reference (national average in this study) for impact category i, wi is the weighting factor for impact category i and wi is set as follows: Pi , wi Ti (6) WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

6 Food and Environment where Pi is the present normalization reference of impact category i and Ti is the target reference of impact i. Here i represents N2O emission, groundwater pollution potential by N or surface water eutrophication potential by N and P. The baseline year was set to 1990.

3 Results and discussion 3.1 Environmental impacts 3.1.1 Nitrous oxide emission National N2O emission levels in 1990 and 2005 were 4.45 and 3.84 kg N2O-N ha-1, respectively. The main causes of the reduction in N2O emission were the reductions in chemical N fertilizer application from 116.4 to 91.9 kg N ha-1 and in livestock waste production from 148.3 to 145.6 kg N ha-1. In both years, the highest N2O emission was observed in Shizuoka, followed by Miyazaki and Kagoshima. Among all prefectures, Shizuoka has the largest area of tea plantations, which receive the highest chemical N fertilizer input [8] and have the highest emission factor (2.62) [9] among all crops. Miyazaki and Kagoshima are prefectures with intensive livestock farming, which is a major source of N2O emission in Japan. The lowest N2O emission levels were in Fukui and Ishikawa, which both have extensive livestock farming and rice paddy farming that receive the lowest chemical N fertilizer [8] and that has the lowest emission factor (0.31) among crops [9]. 3.1.2 Groundwater pollution potential The national average groundwater pollution potential was 5.36 mg N l-1 in 1990 and 4.06 mg N l-1 in 2005. The highest values were observed in Kagawa (26.21 mg N l-1 in 1990 and 25.11 mg N l-1 in 2005), because of high livestock waste production caused by the most intensive poultry farming, as well as the lowest (Prec – ET) value (569mm) in Japan. Kumazawa [10] reported that groundwater pollution by N tends to occur in intensive livestock and upland farming areas rather than in paddy farming areas. According to our estimates, however, Miyazaki, the prefecture with the most intensive livestock farming, and Kagoshima, that with the second most intensive, did not have high groundwater pollution potential, because of large (Prec – ET) values. The Kanto region (around the Tokyo metropolitan area) had a relatively high groundwater pollution potential, although the reasons are unclear. 3.1.3 Surface water eutrophication potential The national average surface water eutrophication potential values were 10.3 kg N ha-1 and 4.7 kg P ha-1 in 1990 and 5.1 kg N ha-1 and 8.9 kg P ha-1 in 2005. Shizuoka had the highest values for both N and P (161.6 kg N ha-1 and 69.7 kg P ha-1 in 2005), followed by Aichi (135.7 kg N ha-1 and 56.5 kg P ha-1 in 2005) and Okinawa (115.0 kg N ha-1 and 51.3 kg P ha-1 in 2005). The lowest values were in Shiga (0.018 kg N ha-1 and 0.007 kg P ha-1 in 2005). This environmental impact was largely dependent on erosion potential. In general, prefectures in the southWIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

7

west of Japan or on the Pacific Ocean side had higher surface water eutrophication potential than prefectures in the north-east or on the Japanese Sea side. In addition, prefectures dominated by paddy rice farming had lower values than those dominated by upland crops or orchards. 3.2 Weighting factors and aggregated indicator 3.2.1 Nitrous oxide emission The weighting factor for N2O emission was 1.33 (=100/75), because 25% cut is governmental direction. 3.2.2 Groundwater pollution potential The regression equation between the percentage of observation wells in prefectures that exceeded the water quality standard and potential groundwater pollution by N was as follows: GW

5.42 (0.52 EOW ) (r=0.563, p<0.001).

(7)

Therefore 5.42 mg N l-1 was the designated value. The weighting factor for groundwater pollution potential was 0.992 (=5.38/5.42; national average is 5.38). 3.2.3 Surface (river) water eutrophication potential The regression formulas were as follows: 4.033 (0.867 EN ) (r = 0.522, p<0.001)

(8)

TN ' 5.099 (0.592 EN ) (r = 0.343, p<0.001)

(9)

0.265 (0.0609 EP) (r = 0.481, p<0.001)

(10)

TP ' 0.259 (0.0372 EP) (r = 0.337, p<0.001),

(11)

TN TP

where TN and TP are total N and P flows (Mg) at real water-quality monitoring points. TN' and TP' are temporal N and P flows when water-quality targets are set as 2 mg N l-1 and 0.1 mg P l-1. Therefore, the weighting factors were 1.46 (=0.867/0.592) for N and 1.64 (=0.0609/0.0372) for P. 3.2.4 Aggregated indicator and its evaluation The aggregated indicator (EII) values ranged from 0.9 to 81.1 in 1990 and 0.7 to 68.4 in 2005 (Figure 1a). Shizuoka had the highest EII value among prefectures. Aichi, Kagawa, Ehime, Nagasaki and Okinawa also had relatively high values compared to those of the other prefectures. Fukui had the lowest EII value, and Hokkaido, Niigata, Toyama and Ishikawa had relatively low values. The reasons underlying these rankings are unclear. The contribution of each impact differed widely among prefectures (Figure 1b, c). In those prefectures with relatively high EII values, the contributions of EN and EP were dominant, except in Kagawa. In these prefectures, upland crops (including tea) and orchards distributed on

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

8 Food and Environment Hokkaido Aomori Iwate Miyagi Akita Yamagata Fukushima Ibaraki Tochigi Gunma Saitama Chiba Tokyo Kanagawa Niigata Toyama Ishikawa Fukui Yamanashi Nagano Gifu Shizuoka Aichi Mie Shiga Kyoto Osaka Hyogo Nara Wakayama Tottori Shimane Okayama Hiroshima Yamaguchi Tokushima Kagawa Ehime Kochi Fukuoka Saga Nagasaki Kumamoto Oita Miyazaki Kagoshima Okinawa

Figure 1:

Fig.1a

1990 2005

Fig.1b GW N2O EN EP

0

10

20 20 EII ha-1

Fig.1c

GW N2O EN EP

40 60100 0 50 100 50 100 0 Component in1990(%) Component in 2005(%)

The environmental impact indicator (EII) values in each prefecture in 1990 and 2005 (a). The composition of environmental impacts as groundwater pollution potential (GW), nitrous oxide emission (N2O) and surface (river) water eutrophication potential by N and P (EN and EP) in 1990 (b) and 2005 (c).

values, GW and N2O emission were dominant factors, and these prefectures were dominated by paddy rice farming and extensive livestock farming. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

9

By comparing the EII value of each prefecture between 1990 and 2005, we found that the value increased in 26 prefectures and decreased in the other 21 prefectures. Although the reasons are unclear, we propose that prefectures with increased EII values increased the use of chemical N and P fertilizers and intensified livestock farming between 1990 and 2005. The relative contribution of EP as compared to those of EN, N2O emission and GW decreased in 42 prefectures and increased in the other 5. The main cause for this decrease was lower input of chemical P fertilizers [11], and the degree of reduction was larger than that of chemical N fertilizer input, which is the main cause of N surplus on farmland [2]. The Organization for Economic Co-operative Development (OECD) [12] proposed that the soil surface balance of N and P is a factor affecting air, water and soil damage. Mishima and Kohyama [2] reported that the highest RN value that calculated by slight different to N surplus on soil surface balance N was observed in Miyazaki, followed by Shizuoka, Kagoshima and Okinawa. The high RN values in Miyazaki and Kagoshima were caused by intensive livestock farming. However, these prefectures were not among those prefectures with extremely high EII values. The reasons for this discrepancy are the two prefectures’ large precipitation, which lowers GW, and relatively little erosion potential, which lowers EN. Although both RN and EII could indicate potential environmental impacts, we think that RN would indicate just the whole absolute potential, whereas EII does not indicate the absolute potential of environmental impacts, but rather allows comparison of the relative degree of changes over time or among prefectures. The same idea could apply to RP and EII. 3.3 Mitigation

To mitigate N-related impacts, the agriculture sector should lower the input of chemical N fertilizer to crops, especially vegetables and tea [8], and apply restrictions on the intensity of livestock farming dependent on local land use [2], because GW and N2O emission depend on the amount of N flow. Although EN is related to RN as well as the available N in farmland soil, EN is significantly correlated with RN: EN

( 6.22 10 6 ) (7.02 10 5 RN ) (r = 0.723, p<0.001)

(12)

Therefore, the regulation of N flow would be a sound mitigation measure for N-related impacts. However, RP is not correlated with EP; rather EP is strongly affected by available P in farmland soil. Because soil testing in recent years has revealed increased and sometimes excessive levels of P [13], P fertilization should be performed dependent on the actual P fertility of farmland soil. Thus, to mitigate EP, P fertilization should be more tightly regulated.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

10 Food and Environment it is manually done which results in bleeding. This could also lead to product contamination. Injury from wood piercing of fingers while pushing the wood into the firewood was also recorded. Accidental oil splashes often occur while frying soy-cheese which often results in skin burns.

4 Conclusion This study reported some of the hazards that are encountered during soy-cheese processing. It also reflects how small scale food processing which forms an integral part of the Nigerian economy can affect human and environmental health through ignorance of processors on implications of their activities. The following are therefore recommended as strategies to reduce some of the problems identified in local food processing: -the need for training of local processors on food safety practices to sensitize and create awareness on possible hazards and their implications on human and environmental health -the need for food law enforcement agencies to have standards for locally processed foods and to ensure they are implemented -the need for the environmental law enforcement agencies to have waste disposal standard for small scale processors.

Acknowledgement USDA Borlaug Women-in-Science Research supporting this study.

Grant is acknowledged for

References [1] Kale F.S. Soybean, its values in dietetics, cultivation and uses. J.D Jain Publishers: Delhi, pp. 420,1985. [2] Aworh O.C & Nakai S. Extraction of milk clotting enzyme from Sodom apple (Calotropis procera). Journal of Food Science 51(6), pp. 1569-1570, 1986. [3] Babatunde R.O & Quaim M. Patterns of income diversification in rural Nigeria: determinants and impacts. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 48(4), pp. 305-320, 2009. [4] AFRO Food Safety Newsletter. Street food vending in the region: Food safety challenges. World health Organization food safety (FOS), (2), pp. 15, 2006. [5] Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Food borne botulism from home-prepared fermented tofu—California 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56(5), 96-97, 2007. [6] Fasoyiro S.B, Obatolu V.A, Ashaye O.A, Adegoke G.O & Farinde E.O. Microbial hazards in locally processed soy-cheese in Nigeria. Nutrition and Food Science 40(6), pp. 591-597, 2010. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

11

[7] Derici H., Kara C., Bozdag A.D., Nazli O., Tansug T., Akca E. Diagnosis and treatment of gallbladder perforation. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 12(48), pp. 7832–7836, 2006. [8] Potter N.N. and Hotchkiss. J.H., Food Science. Fifth Edition. Springer USA. pp. 119-120, 1998. [9] Evert N., Gibson B.L., Oxman A.D. & Kramer J.R. Health effects of aluminum: a critical review with emphasis on aluminum in drinking water Environmental Review 3, pp. 29-81, 1995. [10] Fennema O.R. Food Chemistry. Third edition. Taylor and Francis Group. New York. pp. 292-295, 1985. [11] Pambou-Tobi N.P., Nzikou J.M., Matos L., Ndangui C.B., Kimbonguila A., Abena A.A., Silou T., Scher J. & Desobry S. Comparative Study of Stability Measurements for Two Frying Oils: Soybean Oil and Refined Palm Oil. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 2(1), pp. 2227, 2010 [12] Omueti O. Home level preparation of protein improved (soya kokoromaize snack). Tropical Oil Seed Journal 4, 95-101, 1999. [13] Daramola A. & Ibem E.O. Urban environmental problems in Nigeria: implication in sustainable development. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 12(1), pp. 124-145, 2010. [14] Betchley C., Koenig J.Q., Vanbelle G., Checkoway H., Reinhardt T. Pulmonary Function and Respiratory Symptoms in Forest Firefighters. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 31(5), pp. 503-509, 1997.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

13

Agrarian urban architecture T. Gentry Laboratory for Innovative Housing University of North Carolina, Charlotte, USA

Abstract In urban areas throughout the United States, the prevailing environmental design measures planners, architects and engineers use to address carbon footprint, water footprint, stormwater runoff, and food deserts are disassociated from one another, which produces suboptimal solutions. Reducing the carbon footprint typically involves scrutinizing the heating, cooling and light equipment. Reducing the water footprint invariably calls for the use of low-flow equipment, greywater systems and xeriscapes. Mitigating stormwater runoff defaults to the incorporation of rain gardens, bio-swales and green roofs. And, eradicating food deserts usually relies on the planning of farmers’ markets and community gardens. Missing is the one solution that addresses all four of these concerns – agrarian urban architecture. Planting green roofs, rain gardens, bioswales and public spaces with fruits and vegetables transforms urban rainwater from a stormwater management problem to a vital resource for community gardens and urban CSA (community supported agriculture) farms that are widely distributed throughout the urban area, which work to eliminate food deserts. Diverting rainwater away from measures that promote evaporation towards measures that produce food reduces the water footprint. And, producing food locally eliminates the carbon footprint associated with transporting food long distances. The only real challenge is getting this information into the hands of the people who can best effect a change – emerging planners, architects and engineers. This paper recounts a two-year effort to teach agrarian urban architecture by incorporate farming into a multidisciplinary design studio for planning, architecture and engineering students at the University of North Carolina Charlotte. The course pedagogy revolves around the integrated design process to seek environmentally and socially sustainable housing, which must include farming to be comprehensive.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110021

14 Food and Environment Keywords: water footprint, rainwater, integrated design process, architecture, urban farming.

1 Introduction In 1910 the United States citizenry was predominately a rural agrarian population. By 1920 it was predominately an urban population. Providing food for the growing urban population resulted in the number of farms increasing to nearly 7 million by 1935 [1]. During the next 30 years mechanization allowed farmers to work larger farms, which lead to farm consolidation and a sharp decline in the number of farms, and farmers. The transition to fossil fuel based industrial farming in the 1970s lead to additional farm consolidation, which reduced the number of farms to 1.9 million in 1997 [1]. Today, less than 1 percent of the United States population claims farming as their occupation, [2] and most of them are only familiar with industrial farming. This implies most of the remaining 99 percent of the population – which includes planners, architects and engineers – has no or limited firsthand knowledge of any kind of farming. The result is a significant oversight in seeking environmentally and socially sustainable urban development/design solutions. Realizing this, the author, who is an architect and a professor of architecture, began working with experts in the local food movement to include urban farming in the architecture program at the University of North Carolina Charlotte.

2 Professional recognition of sustainability development In 1990 the American Institute of Architects (AIA) formed the Committee on the Environment, which “... works to advance, disseminate, and advocate – to the profession, the building industry, the academy, and the public – design practices that integrate built and natural systems and enhance both the design quality and environmental performance of the built environment [3].” Six years later the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) “... revised its Code of Ethics to make the principles of sustainable development part of the canon of civil engineering practices [4].” Four years after that the American Planning Association (APA) adopted its Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability [5]. While all three of these actions demonstrate an awareness of the environmental aspect of sustainable development what is also notable is how awareness of the social aspect lagged. The AIA originally made no mention of the social aspect, the ASCE recognized the social aspect, and the APA elaborated on the social aspect. Today, all three organizations recognize both aspects, and acknowledge environmentally sustainable solutions cannot be achieved through socially unsustainable means, specifically social injustice.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

15

3 Sustainable development When talking about sustainable development it is critical to differentiate between growth and advancement. The notion of sustainable growth – be it sustainable world population growth or the sustainable growth of personal material wealth – is only viable in the context of unlimited resources, which is to say it does not exist. Sustainable advancement is development that utilizes resources at rates equal to or less than the rates of replenishment. The two resources this paper focuses on are air and water.

4 Disassociated bits of the whole Planners, architects and engineers in the United States who use the conventional approach to working on joint projects tend to have limited interaction with one another. Each discipline will work on their bit and then passes it on. The consequence of this type of process is the methods used by any one discipline to address a particular issue are often limited to those that are directly controlled by the discipline. Methods that require a high level of interdisciplinary integration are not used or not known. What follows is a list of issues that have either emerged or undergone transformation in past couple of decades, but continue to be addressed independently by each discipline. 4.1 Carbon footprint Carbon footprint is a measure of a person’s environmental impact on the atmosphere due to greenhouse gas emissions. It is measured in unit mass of carbon dioxide equivalent per unit time – e.g. carbon dioxide equivalent in tonnes (metric tons) per year (t/yr) or pounds per year (lb/yr). The per capita carbon footprint in the United States is 19.7 t/yr (43,400 lb/yr), according to 2007 data from the United Nations [6]. In the United Kingdom it is 9.0 t/yr (19,800 lb/yr). In the United States, the use of fossil fuels in industrial agriculture accounts for a significant percentage of the carbon footprint; however, the actual amount is in dispute. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates it is 18%, while Treehugger, an environment advocacy group, reports it may be as high as 30% [7]. Regardless of which number is more accurate, what is beyond dispute is industrial agriculture uses several calories of fossil fuel energy to produce one calorie of food energy [8, 9]; and, in doing so transforms a carbon sequestering process – plant growth – into a carbon emitting process. 4.2 Water footprint Water footprint is a measure of a person’s direct and indirect consumption of water. It is measured in unit volume of water per unit time – e.g., cubic meters per year (m3/yr) or gallons per year (gal/yr). The per capita water footprint in the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

16 Food and Environment United States is 2,483 m3/yr (655,900 gal/yr) [10]. In the United Kingdom it is 1,245 m3/yr (328,700 gal/yr). Agriculture accounts for 58.7% of per capita water consumption in the United States with most of the water coming from sources inside the United States. In the United Kingdom it accounts for 65.1% with most of the water coming from sources outside of the United Kingdom. 2,500

2,000

Industrial Internal; 609

Agricultural External; 267

M3/capita-yr

1,500

Industrial External; 197

Industrial External; 284

1,000 Agricultural Internal; 1,192

Agricultural External; 592

500

0

Domestic Internal; 217

USA Figure 1:

114

Agricultural Internal; 218

38

UK

The per capita water footprints of the United States and United Kingdom from 1997 to 2001 are shown with end uses and sources broken out [11].

Water scarcity occurs when the water footprint exceeds the quantity of available water. Water scarcity is often transferred from one region to another region through indirect water consumption. Water scarcity in developing WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

17

countries often results in social injustice due to women and the poor bearing a disproportionally large share of the burden. One of the leading causes of indirect water consumption and the transfer of water scarcity is the export-import of agricultural products. 4.3 Rainwater Farmers tend to think of rainwater as a valuable resource. Until recently, most planners, architects and engineers in the United States tended to think of rainwater as a stormwater management problem that required the use of retention and detention ponds, catchments and storm sewers. Currently, most planners, architects and engineers who have adopted sustainable development design practices treat rainwater much in the same way they treat outdoor temperatures. Both are seen as environmental conditions that need to be managed on site. Sedum covered roofs are used to promote rainwater evaporation. Rain gardens and bioswales filled with ornamental plants are used to promote evaporation and percolation. Permeable surfaces are used to promote percolation. And, cisterns are used to collect rainwater for flushing toilets. Missing from all of these approaches is the notion of rainwater as a valuable resource. 4.4 Food deserts A food desert exists when households in a geographic area have limited access to affordable nutritious food. It tends to happen most often in low-income neighbourhoods where households “... live far from a supermarket or large grocery store and do not have easy access to transportation [12].” The U.S, Department of Agriculture reports, “... 11.5 million people, or 4.1 percent of the total U.S. population, live in low-income areas more than 1 mile from a supermarket [12].” To the nearly complete exclusion of architects and engineers, it is planners who address food deserts. Methods for dealing with the issue include zoning, public transportation, community gardens and farmers’ markets.

5 Integrated design process The integrated design process (IDP) brings most, if not all, stakeholders of a project into the design process at the onset of the project, which differs from the conventional design process that brings stakeholders into the design process at various points during the development of the project. The benefit of the integrated design process over the conventional design process is it capitalizes on the opportunity to develop a high quality comprehensive solution by placing a large percentage of effort in the schematic design phase; whereas, the conventional design process places the greatest effort in contract documents phase to coordinate a collection of piecemeal solutions. Working in the integrated design process avoids the consequence of the conventional design process that was outlined above; that is, methods that require a high level of interdisciplinary integration are not used or not known.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Construction

Bidding

Contract Documents

Design Development

Programming

High

Schematic Design

Distribution of effort for a conventional design approach

Opportunity to initiate a high quality design solution Low

Quality of design solution and quantity of effort

18 Food and Environment

Distribution of effort for an integrated design approach Inception

Completion

Project timeline Figure 2:

Conventional versus integrated design process.

5.1 Integrating the bits into a whole Through the integrative design process it is possible to address the four bits listed above – carbon footprint, water footprint, rainwater and food deserts – with the single solution of incorporating farming into urban architecture to produce agrarian urban architecture. Planting green roofs, rain gardens, bioswales and public spaces with fruits and vegetables transforms urban rainwater from a stormwater management problem to a vital resource for community gardens and urban CSA (community supported agriculture) farms that are widely distributed throughout the urban area, which work to eliminate food deserts. Diverting rainwater away from measures that promote evaporation towards measures that produce food reduces the water footprint. And, producing food locally eliminates the carbon footprint associated with transporting food long distances. The only real challenge is getting this information into the hands of the people who can best effect a change – emerging planners, architects and engineers. The balance of this paper covers a two year effort by Dr. Brett Tempest, Assistant Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and the author to teach agrarian urban architecture at the University of North Carolina Charlotte. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

19

6 Agrarian urban architecture in higher education In the fall semester of 2009, Dr. Tempest and the author began teaching a multidisciplinary design studio that focused on precast and prestressed concrete as a structural system for various building types; and, the design of intentional communities containing senior cohousing and community supported agriculture. The studio serves undergraduate and graduate students in urban planning, architecture and engineering. The course pedagogy revolves around the integrated design process (IDP) to seek environmentally and socially sustainable solution for development. 6.1 Enriching the IDP experience Enriching the IDP experience requires reaching out beyond the academic environment to farmers and experts in farming, the local food movement, agriburbia® and more. 6.1.1 Farmers and experts in farming The University of North Carolina Charlotte is located 14 miles southwest of the Cabarrus County Elma C. Lomax Incubator Farm. “This farm works much like a business incubator. Individuals interested in starting a business as a farmer can enroll in the program which provides classroom instruction on the business of farming in Cabarrus County as well as hands–on experience on the farm.” “[It] supports local farming while encouraging a new generation of farmers to ensure quality local food sources flourish in Cabarrus County [13].” The close proximity of the farm to the university campus makes it an excellent resource for students to develop some insight into the nuances of community supported agriculture (CSA) and organic farming. In addition to several acres of fields, the site includes a greenhouse, high tunnel, produce handling area, and other facilities. 6.1.2 Local food Family farming in the Charlotte region extends back to when United States was still a British colony. Many farms in the area in the area are still owned by the same families that were deeded the farms by the King of England. It is this strong heritage in farming that drives the local food movement in the region. Support for the movement is so strong the County of Cabarrus created the position of local foods coordinator at a time when several county positions were being eliminated to deal with the downturn in the economy. Aaron Newton, coauthor of A Nation of Farmers: Defeating the Food Crisis on American Soil, was the original hire and continues to serve in the position. His workload includes routine visits to the studio to critique student work and give lectures. 6.1.3 Agriburbia® “Agriburbia® is [a] design movement and economic model that advocates for private development and re-development which integrates aspects of Agrarianism ...” It uses “... professional food production as a key element in the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

20 Food and Environment community design, social network, and financial viability of the development. Agriburbia provides a commercially viable mechanism for individuals and businesses to become more self sufficient and create truly sustainable communities [14].” Matthew Redmond is CEO of the TRS Group which developed the concept of agriburbia. He has visited the studio to talk about developing an agriburbia community.

Figure 3:

Architecture and engineering students visited the Cabarrus County Elma C. Lomax Incubator Farm where they received instruction on CSA farming from North Carolina Cooperative Extension staffers.

6.2 Studio outputs The studio is yielding outputs beyond the educating of the students. One student is developing an intentional community containing senior housing and CSA farming for her capstone undergraduate project. Another student is researching urban agriculture for his M. Arch thesis. The Laboratory for Innovative Housing is partnering with Habitat for Humanity, the County of Cabarrus and the North Carolina Cooperative Extension to secure funding from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development to research the role of local food in creating and maintaining sustainable low-income and affordable communities.

7 Moving forward After teaching the studio for two years and seeing the outputs, it is clear planners, architects and engineers need to actively seek and engage the expertise of farmers and other people working in the local food movement; unfortunately, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

21

that clarity is not widely shared. Overcoming that lack of clarity is going to require farmers and other people working outside the spheres of planners, architects and engineers to insert themselves. One way to accomplish this is to host a workshop or design charette. In 2010 the Discovery Place – well known for its children’s science museum – created the Charlotte Center for Urban Agriculture. In November it hosted the Visioning Workshop to explore and promote the role of urban agriculture.

Figure 4:

Summary of the production analysis for a vertical urban farm, produced by Frank Bates as part of his M. Arch thesis.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

22 Food and Environment In closing, the thought that is most important to remember is, agrarian urban architecture represents an advancement in sustainable development because it optimizes the utilization of resources while enhancing society.

Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges the PCI (Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute) Foundation and Georgia/Carolinas PCI for their technical support and generous underwriting of the interdisciplinary integrated design studio.

References [1] United States Department of Agriculture. Agriculture Factbook 2001-2002. Washington D.C. : U.S. Government Printing Office, 2003. [2] Ag 101 Demographics. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. [Online] 10 September 2009. [Cited: 24 February 2011.] http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ ag101/demographics.html. [3] AIA Committee on the Environment. The American Institute of Architects. [Online] [Cited: 21 February 2011.] http://network.aia.org/AIA/ CommitteeontheEnvironment/Home/Default.aspx. [4] ASCE & Sustainability. ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers. [Online] 1996-2011. [Cited: 20 February 2011.] http://www.asce.org/ ProgramProductLine.aspx?id=30338&css=print. [5] American Planning Association. Policy Guide on Planning for Sustainability. American Planning Association. [Online] 17 April 2000. [Cited: 21 February 2011.] http://www.planning.org/policy/guides/pdf/ sustainability.pdf. [6] Millennium Development Goals Indicators. United Nations. [Online] [Cited: 20 February 2011.] http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx. [7] Food + Health. Treehugger. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 20 February 2011.] http://www.treehugger.com/files/2009/05/will-allen-industrial-agriculturemost- polluting-dangerous.php. [8] Green, Maurice B. Eating Oil: Energy Use in Food Production. Boulder, CO : Westview Press, 1978. [9] Astyk, S. and Newton, A. A Nation of Farmers: Defeating the Food Crisis on American Soil. Gabriola Island, BC : New Society Publishers, 2009. [10] National Water Footprint Statistics. Water Footprint Network. [Online] 2011. [Cited: 20 February 2011.] http://www.waterfootprint.org/? page=files/NationalStatistics. [11] Hoekstra, A.Y. and Chapagain, A.K. Globalization of water: Sharing the planet's freshwater resources. Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing, 2008. [12] Economic Research Service U.S. Department of Agriculture. Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Thier Consequences. Washington D.C. : U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2009.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

23

[13] Elma C. Lomax Incubator Farm. Cabarrus Local Food System. [Online] 22 June 2010. [Cited: 25 February 2011.] http://localfood.cabarruscounty.us/ Lists/Categories/Category.aspx?Name=Elma%20C.%20Lomax%20Incubat or%20Farm. [14] Agriburbia-TRS Group. Agriburbia: Growing Sustainable Communities by the Bushel. [Online] 2010. [Cited: 25 February 2011.] http://www.agriburbia.com/index.html.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

25

Dryland crop production and greenhouse gas emissions in Canada: a regional comparison S. Kulshreshtha1, J. Dyer2 & B. McConkey3 1

Department of Bioresource Policy, Business and Economics, University of Saskatchewan, Canada 2 Agro-Environmental Consultant, Cambridge, Ontario, Canada 3 Soil and Water Conservationist, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Environmental Health, Swift Current, Saskatchewan, Canada

Abstract Agricultural production systems produce several environmental impacts, including emissions of greenhouse gases. The objective of this paper is to investigate differences in greenhouse gas emissions from various crops grown under dryland production system in various regions of Canada. Results indicate that the emissions intensity varies depending upon the measure adopted – whether it is on per unit of area or production. In addition there is wide variability across regions of production. In the Prairie region, the greenhouse gas emissions intensity on a per hectare basis ranged from 378 kg for Alfalfa in Alberta to 1,837 kg for durum wheat in Saskatchewan. Generally, central Canada emits the highest GHG level on a per hectare basis but not on a tonne of production basis. Keywords: crop production, greenhouse gas emissions, emission intensity, dryland production systems.

1 Introduction 1.1 Background Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction has been accepted by most countries as an important activity in helping to safeguard against future climate change. With this in mind, the international community has initiated measures to curb the rising trend in GHG emissions, and in fact, reduce them to a point where these WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110031

26 Food and Environment are less harmful to society. Although compared to other industrial countries, Canada is not a major contributor of GHG emissions, with the 1990 total GHG emissions levels having represented just 1.8% of the global total, but on a percapita basis Canada ranks second-highest in emissions, exceeded only by the United States, Environment Canada [1]. Of the total GHG emissions of 734 megatonnes (Mt) of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e), the contribution of Canadian agriculture is only 8% of this total, Environment Canada [2]. This equivalency is calculated by converting methane (CH4) by using its global warming potential of 21, and nitrous oxide (N2O) of 310 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Although the contribution level of GHG emissions from Canadian agriculture may be small in relation to other emission sources, as shown in figure 1, on an absolute scale, the total agricultural GHG emissions in 2008 were estimated to be 62 Mt of CO2e). Agriculture is not a large contributor of CO2 but a large proportion of CH4 and N2O is emitted by agricultural production activities. In addition, agriculture contributed to total GHG emission indirectly through manufacturing of farm inputs, including off-farm transportation (Dyer and Desjardins [3]).

Transportation Combustion 26%

Industrial Processes 7% Other 11%

Livestock 4%

Agriculture 8%

Stationary Combustion 48%

Figure 1:

Agricultural Soils 4%

Distribution of greenhouse gas emissions in Canada by source, in CO2e..

1.2 Need for the study Since the signing of the Kyoto Protocol by Canada and other countries, identification of GHG-emissions reduction potential of various sectors is an important activity. In this context, Canadian agriculture is viewed as playing a role in GHG emission mitigation as well as in sequestration. Crop production activities are major contributors to total Canadian agriculture GHG emissions. However, in order to develop effective mitigation and sequestration strategies, knowledge of the nature of GHG emissions from various crop production activities is required. Since crop enterprises may vary in terms of their GHG WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

27

emission efficiency, such measures could focus on either improving resource use efficiency and/or product substitution as possible strategies for reducing GHG emissions. Many studies in Canada and the U.S.A. have addressed issues surrounding GHG emissions. Addressing mitigation of GHG emissions is the starting point in many of these studies, where the best opportunities are investigated (Garnett [4]). Study of soil carbon sequestration has been addressed by Gregorich et al. [5], Curtin et al. [6], while Bergstrom et al. [7], Liang et al. [8], and Sainju et al. [9] have also reported the effect of tillage on soil carbon sequestration. Several studies (McGinn and Akinremi [10]; Gregorich et al. [11]; and Paul et al. [12]) have also reported GHG emissions in the context of crop rotations. Some studies have estimated livestock GHG emissions (see Vergé et al. [13]). However, these studies have not addressed the issue of relative contribution of various crops in different regions of Canada. Such information may be important for developing strategies for reducing GHG emissions. The objective of this study was to estimate the regional GHG Emissions Intensity Coefficient (GHG-EIC) of various crops in Canada. Emphasis was placed on dryland production systems and on conventional tillage systems. Although irrigation production systems are also responsible for GHG emissions, they are relatively small in comparison to total production.

2 Methods and material Within Canada, most crop production activities are localized in the Prairie Provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta) and Central Canada ( Ontario and Quebec). Together these two regions constitute 97.6% of total cropped area of Canada. British Columbia and Atlantic Canada were, relatively speaking, minor players. GHG emissions from dryland production systems in various regions are typically a result of two sets of factors: crop mix and technology of production. Although both of these factors need to be captured in a comparison of GHG-EIC, the latter is left for future research in this area. Thus, this study is limited to differences in GHG-EIC for various crops and major regions of agricultural production in Canada. This consideration was captured in the development of a model called the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model (GHGEM), which was calibrated for the base year 2006 (Census of Agriculture in Canada year). The model was an update of the model described by Sobool and Kulshreshtha [14]. Results were aggregated at the provincial level. Although the GHGEM included both crop and livestock production activities, as well as dryland and irrigated method of crop production, in this study only dryland crop production activities are included. GHG emissions from agriculture are generated in three ways: (1) Direct emissions from agricultural production related activities; (2) Indirect emissions through ecosystem level changes, and (3) Induced emissions, which are the economic activities resulting from the production of farm commodities. For example, in the production of wheat, use of fertilizer would be a source of direct WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

28 Food and Environment emissions. It results in atmospheric deposition and leaching into groundwater, and which are classified as indirect emissions. Production of wheat requires manufacturing of fertilizer, which generates further emissions; in addition, this production is mostly exported to outside regions and has to be transported. These two sources are called induced emissions. In order to estimate these three types of emissions, the GHGEM was designed in a modular fashion. Each module represents a set of related activities. Although soil carbon sequestration is an activity included in the model, since it is not crop specific, it has been shown as a separate activity. Various modules in the GHGEM are shown in table 1. The main source of data for emission factors was the IPCC Tier-1 methodology as described in Houghton et al. [15], supplemented with those from Olsen et al. [16] and Nyboer and Laurin [17]. Table 1:

GHGEM modules and activities along with their association by type of gas. Module

Module Activity

Crop Production Emissions Module

Crop Residues Nitrogen Fertilizers Machinery Fuel Use On-Farm Transportation Other On-Farm Fuel Use

Energy Use Emissions Sub-Module On-Farm Transportation & Stationary Combustion Emissions Module Sub-total Direct GHG Emissions Indirect Emissions Module

Atmospheric Deposition Nitrogen Leaching Total Direct & Indirect Production-Related Emissions Farm Inputs Manufacturing, Transportation and Storage Off-farm Transportation Total Agricultural GHG Emissions

CH4

N2O

X

X

X X X

X X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X X X X

X X

X X

X X

CO2

Direct crop-production-related emissions included those from crop production activities (such as decomposition of crop residues and application of nitrogenbased fertilizers), and use of fossil fuels for farm machinery and transportation. The On-Farm Transportation and Stationary Combustion Emissions Module was divided into two areas of fuel use, namely the consumption of fossil fuels related to the transport of the crops after harvest from the field to the bins and the energy requirements for all other activities (limited to those related to crop production, such as crop drying) on the farm Dyer et al. [18]. The Indirect Emissions Module contained emissions resulting from the application of nitrogen-based fertilizers that subsequently resulted in nitrogen being either volatized into the air or WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

29

leached into the soil and subsequently into groundwater. The induced emissions contained two modules – Farm input manufacturing and off-farm transportation. All emissions were converted into CO2e, and are not shown by individual gases. As noted above, crop production also leads to either soil carbon source or sequestration. However, these emissions could not be estimated for each crop and therefore, are not included in the total GHG emissions Dyer et al. [18]. H Estimation of GHG emission intensity coefficients (GHG-EIC) was done for three Prairie Provinces (Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta) in western Canada, and for Ontario and Quebec in eastern Canada. These were estimated using two criteria: on per unit of land (ha), and per tonne of production. In total, five crops (alfalfa, spring wheat, durum wheat, barley, and canola) in western Canada and four crops (alfalfa, wheat, corn for grain, and soybeans) in eastern Canada were included.

3 Results and discussion 3.1 Distribution of greenhouse gas emissions from wheat production in Saskatchewan To illustrate the nature of GHG emissions from crop production, wheat in Saskatchewan was selected. Saskatchewan is a major contributor to wheat production in the Prairies. Composition of total GHG emitted ha-1 and on per tonne (t-1) is shown in table 1. A distribution of these emissions is shown in figure 2. To produce wheat in Saskatchewan, a total of 530 kg of GHG ha-1 is released, of which the majority comes from fuel use and fertilizers. As shown in figure 2, these emissions are only 62% of the total emissions. After all wheat- productionTable 2:

The distribution of total GHG in CO2e from spring wheat production in Saskatchewan on per ha and per tonne basis. Source

Fertilizer Other Crop Sources Fuel for farm machinery On-farm Transportation and other uses Total Farm Level Emissions Indirect Emissions Farm Input Production, Transportation, Storage Off-farm Transportation Total Emissions excl. Soil Organic Matter

Emissions (kg ha-1) 53.92 155.16 216.89 104.07 530.03 31.22

Emissions (kg t-1) 13.65 39.28 54.91 26.35 134.18 7.90

254.93

64.54

41.79

10.58

857.96

217.20

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

30 Food and Environment

Figure 2:

Distribution of total wheat-production-related GHG emissions.

related activities are accounted for, a hectare of wheat generates a total of 858 kg of CO2e GHG emissions. The remaining 38% are through activities beyond the farm level. These include manufacturing of farm input which contributes 30% to the total and the remaining through off-farm transportation activity. The above set of estimates does not include the soil carbon sequestration potential of various crops. Part of the reason for this is that sequestration estimates in Canada are available only at a Census Agriculture Region (CAR) level and not by crops. Furthermore, carbon sequestration in soils changes from one time period to another, depending on cultural practices and soil characteristics. For these reasons, this estimate was excluded from the total. 3.2 Estimated area-based GHG-EIC for crops in the Prairies As noted above, five crops were selected for the estimation of GHG-EICs in the Prairie Provinces. Results are shown in table 2. Both direct farm level emissions and total system (farm and beyond-farm activities) were included here. For alfalfa, GHG emissions from farm level activities ranged from 141 to 351 kg ha-1. One of the crops with the highest emissions level was durum wheat production in Saskatchewan, where 1.1 t of GHG are emitted from every hectare of durum wheat production. Although all the estimates in table 2 are for crops grown using intensive (or conventional) tillage, provincial differences in GHG-EIC show variability caused by differences in soil type as well as cultural practices. For crops such as alfalfa and barley, Manitoba has a higher GHG-EIC than other provinces. Differences in fertilization and fuel use (resulting from the soil characteristics) may be partial answer to these differences.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Table 3: Crop Alfalfa Spring Wheat Durum wheat Barley (Feed) Canola

31

Area-based greenhouse gas emission intensity (CO2e kg ha-1) of crops in Prairie Provinces. Level Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total

Alberta 140.9 378.7 530.0 858.0 558.3 885.2 529.6 909.1 386.0 744.7

Saskatchewan 231.2 803.5 701.1 1,179.6 1,127.1 1,837.0 538.3 885.6 390.6 720.8

Manitoba 351.3 644.4 642.6 981.6 742.0 1,088.7 757.7 1,140.6 445.3 618.4

3.3 Production based GHG-EIC for crops in Prairie provinces Comparison of area-based emissions may be misleading if yields of various crops are different across the three provinces Dyer et al. [18]. For this reason, area-based coefficients were converted to a per-tonne basis to take into account regional production efficiencies that may exist. Doing so allows for a regional comparison of intensity coefficients. While the area-based estimates may be significantly higher for one crop or region compared to another, the input requirements may result in an optimal yield for the specific crop or region. This optimal yield may help to overcome the high area-based intensity coefficient estimates, resulting in a production coefficient that is more efficient when compared to other regions where yields are relatively lower. However, climate plays an important role in determining yields, and this fact makes these coefficients vary over time. The results are shown in table 3. When production efficiencies are captured, GHG-EICs show a different pattern across the Prairies. For example, for alfalfa production, Manitoba had the Table 4: Crop Alfalfa Spring Wheat Durum wheat Barley (Feed) Canola

Production-based greenhouse gas emission intensity (CO2e kg t-1) of crops in Prairie Provinces, under intensive tillage system. Level Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total

Alberta 56.6 152.1 134.2 217.2 126.3 200.3 133.7 229.6 273.7 528.2

Saskatchewan 162.4 294.3 214.0 358.5 272.3 443.7 138.7 228.2 241.1 444.9

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Manitoba 86.7 159.1 241.6 369.0 175.8 258.0 158.9 239.1 247.4 343.6

32 Food and Environment highest area-based coefficients (table 3), but such is not the case when these are adjusted for higher yields in that province. To produce a tonne of alfalfa emits only 159 kg of GHG in Manitoba, as against 294 kg in Saskatchewan, when all crop-production-related activities are accounted for. Canola production seems to have a relatively higher GHG-EIC in all three provinces, compared to cereal crops. Most of the increase in emissions is a result of higher fuel use for this production. 3.4 Crop production GHG-EIC for eastern Canada Although the crop mix in western Canada is not exactly comparable to that in eastern Canada, every attempt was made to select similar crops. Alfalfa, being a major source of forage, provided no problem. Wheat in Ontario could be considered similar to that in the western region. In eastern Canada, corn is used as a major feedgrain and is comparable to barley in western Canada. Canola is an oilseed crop and is similar to production of soybeans in eastern Canada. For these crops, GHG-EIC is presented in table 4. Corn is an input-intensive crop, as the GHG-EIC shows. For just the farm level, every hectare of corn in Ontario produces 2.2 t of GHGs in carbon dioxide equivalent. This is the highest GHG-EIC among all crops. These coefficients also show that crop production in Quebec is less GHG-emitting than in Ontario. These differences are a result of different cultural practices followed in the two provinces. Table 5:

Area and production based greenhouse gas emission intensity of crops in eastern Canada.

Crop

Level

Alfalfa

Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total Direct Farm Total

Wheat Corn for Grain Soybean

Ontario kg ha-1 kg t-1 563.8 79.8 957.3 135.6 1,240.5 153.5 1,770.5 219.1 2,197.5 147.5 3,085.9 207.1 630.8 241.7 839.7 321.7

Quebec kg ha-1 kg t-1 484.7 86.4 669.0 119.3 1,017.1 174.5 1,257.0 215.6 1,872.4 155.8 2,271.0 188.9 622.1 249.9 731.1 294.6

3.5 Comparison of crop-production-related GHG-EIC between western and eastern Canadian provinces Comparison of selected crops for Saskatchewan and Ontario is shown in figure 2. In both regions, corn production is the highest GHG-emitting crop on a per ha basis, but not on the basis of its total production.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Figure 3:

33

Comparison of GHG-EIC on area and production basis between Saskatchewan and Ontario, selected crops.

Both corn and alfalfa produce a higher yield per unit of land, and therefore, on a production basis, they are not as high a GHG emitter as barley. In general, on account of yield differences, Saskatchewan’s GHG emissions rates are higher than those in Ontario. The above analysis also shows that regional variation in the production-based GHG-EICs is less than that of the area-based estimates. One of the main reasons for this reduction is the differences in allocation of inputs, particularly fertilizer. The contribution level of the fertilizer related GHG-EIC to total GHG-EIC ranged from a high of 32% for Ontario corn production to a low of 14% for Saskatchewan barley production. The optimal level of fertilization is positively correlated to crop yield; thus, higher fertilization rates for various crops result in higher yields. The end result is that for various crop types, increasing the fertilization rate will increase crop yields by a greater amount, thus decreasing the GHG-EIC on a production basis relative to an area basis.

4 Summary and implications This study has demonstrated a wide variability in the greenhouse gas emission intensity among regions and crops under dryland production. Such information needs to be taken into account in the formulation of regional agricultural GHG emission reduction measures. However, the picture of EICs changes whether one examines these emissions on the basis of area or production. When estimated on an area basis, the GHG-EICs in Central Canada are higher than those for the Prairie Provinces, but on a basis of tonnes of production, Ontario crop production is more GHG-friendly than that in the Prairies.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

34 Food and Environment Table 6:

Estimated solid carbon sequestration potential in Prairies and central region of Canada. Region Prairies Central Canada

Source 15.35 112.02

Amount in kg ha-1 Sink Net amount -99.10 -83.75 0 112.02

Source: Sobool and Kulshreshtha [14]. These conclusions are based on a methodology where soil carbon sequestration is not taken into account. Regionally there are wide differences in the level of carbon that is sequestered on an annual basis, as shown in table 4. For the Prairies, it is estimated that overall the region has a potential for sequestration at 83.75 kg ha-1, but for Central Canada, crop production emits 112 kg ha-1 over all CARs within these provinces. There is a significant intraregional variability in these estimates, since in the Prairie Provinces, some CARs emit CO2 whereas others provide sequestration. In the Central Canada no CAR does sequestering of CO2. If these estimates were to be included in the estimation of the GHG-EIC, crop production in the Prairies would be more GHG-emissionsfriendly that that in Central Canada. Overall, while the absolute value of the GHG-EICs is an important factor in determination of overall damage to environment (through climate change), the regional and crop-specific comparisons also provide the greatest insight as to emission efficiencies. In addition, there is a large variability among crops and for the same crop among regions. While certain regions or crop types may be a significant source of GHG emissions on an absolute scale, these values really do not provide any insights as to formulating GHG mitigation policies that are the most efficient. These emission coefficients should prove to be useful for developing an efficient GHGmitigation policy for agriculture (crop production), or at least allow for the priorizing of GHG-mitigation strategies based on region and crop types. One of the limitations of these results is the partial nature of estimation. For example, pasture and forages are typically associated with livestock production. Similarly, the rotation followed for various crops is also different from region to region. Further studies could focus on these issues related to GHG emissions from dryland production systems.

Acknowledgements This research was financed by a research grant obtained from the BIOCAP Canada, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Strategic Policy Branch, & Semi-arid Prairies Agricultural Research Center).

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

35

References [1] Environment Canada. Information on greenhouse gas sources and sinks: Data and reports. On-Line. http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/data_reports _e.cfm. 2005. [2] Environment Canada. National Inventory Report – Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada. Part I. Ottawa. 2010. [3] Dyer, J.A. & Desjardins, R.L., A review and evaluation of fossil energy and carbon dioxide emissions in Canadian agriculture. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 33(2), pp. 210-228, 2009. [4] Garnett, T., Where are the best opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the food system (including the food chain). Food Policy. 36, pp. 523-532, 2011. [5] Gregorich, E., Rochette, P., VamdenBygaart, A. & Angers, D., Greenhouse gas contributions of agricultural soils and potential mitigation practices in Eastern Canada. Soil and Tillage Research, 83(1), pp. 53-72, 2005. [6] Curtin, D., Selles, F., Wang, H., Zentner, R. & Campbell, C., Restoring organic matter in a cultivated, semiarid soil using crested wheatgrass. Can. J. Soil Sci., 80, pp. 429-435, 2000. [7] Bergstrom, D., Monreal C. & St. Jacques, E., Influence of tillage practice on carbon sequestration is scale dependent. Can. J. Soil Sci., 81, pp. 63-70, 2001. [8] Liang, B., McConkey, B., Schoneau, J., Curtin, D., Campbell, C., Moulin, A., Lafond, G., Brandt S. & Wang. H., Effect of tillage and crop rotations on the light fraction organic carbon and carbon mineralization in Chernozemic soils of Saskatchewan. Can. J. Soil Sci., 83, pp. 65-72, 2003. [9] Sainju, U., Whitehead W. & Singh, B., Cover crops and nitrogen fertilization effects on soil aggregation and carbon and nitrogen pools. Can. J. Soil Sci., 83, pp. 155-165, 2003. [10] McGinn, S. & Akinremi, O., Carbon dioxide balance of a crop-fallow rotation in western Canada. Can. J. Soil Sci., 81, pp. 121-127, 2001. [11] Gregorich, E., Drury C. & Baldock, J., Change in soil carbon under longterm maize in monoculture and legume-based rotation. Can. J. Soil Sci., 81, pp. 21-31, 2001. [12] Paul, E., Collins, H. Paustian, K. Elliott, E. Prey, S. Juma, N. Janzen, H. Campbell, C. Zentner, R. Lafond G. & A. Moulin, G., Management effects on the dynamics and storage rates of organic matter in the long-term crop rotations. Can. J. Soil Sci., 84, pp. 49-61, 2004. [13] Verge, X., Dyer, J., Desjardins, R., & Worth, D., Greenhouse gas emissions from the Canadian beef industry. Agricultural Systems, 98, pp. 126-134, 2008. [14] Sobool, D. & Kulshreshtha, S., Greenhouse gas emissions from Canadian agriculture model: Technical documentation. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK., 2005. [15] Houghton, J., Meira Filho, L., Lim, B., Treanton, K., Manaty, I., Bonduki, Y., Griggs, D. & B. Callander, B., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

36 Food and Environment Change greenhouse gas inventory reporting instructions. Volumes 1-3. Bracknell. U.K., 1997. [16] Olsen, K., Collas, P. Boileau, P., Blain, D., Ha, C., Henderson, L., Liang, C., McKibbon, S. & Morel-a-l’Huissier L., Canada’s greenhouse gas inventory. Environment Canada, Greenhouse Gas Division. Ottawa, ON., 2002. [17] Nyboer, J. & Laurin, A., Development of greenhouse gas intensity indicators for Canadian industry. Prepared for Environment Canada and Natural Resources Canada. Canadian Industrial Energy End-use Database and Analysis Centre. Simon Fraser University. Burnaby, B.C., 2002. [18] Dyer, J.A., Vergé, X.P.C., Desjardins, R.L., Worth, D.E. & McConkey, B.G., The impact of increased biodiesel production on the greenhouse gas emissions from field crops in Canada. Energy for Sus. Dev., 14(2), pp.73– 82, 2010.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

37

Assessment of hazards in local soy-cheese processing: implications on health and environment in Oyo State, Nigeria S. B. Fasoyiro Institute of Agricultural Research and Training, Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract This study was carried out to assess the hazards associated with the processing of soy-cheese in Oyo State, Nigeria. Soy-cheese is a cheese-like product from soybean, rich in nutrients and often eaten as a substitute for meat. Soy-cheese processing is an important source of income generation for many women processors in south-west Nigeria. Thirty local processors were interviewed using structured questionnaire. Information obtained from the processors include: types of waste generated, means of disposal, types of hazards processors are exposed to during processing, any previous training in food safety. The processing operations were also observed for possible hazards and their sources. Results of the study show that hazards in soy-cheese processing include physical, chemical and occupational apart from microbial types. Both liquid and solid wastes were generated during the production process. Almost all the processors (96.7%) disposed solid waste by bush burning causing environmental pollution. Processors were often faced with the challenge of cuts, burns, smoke and free radicals during processing which has its health implications. The study is expected to bring a follow-up training in educating the local processors on the implications of their activities on health and the environment. Keywords: soy-cheese, processors, hazards, environment, health implications.

1 Introduction Soy-cheese is a popular product from soybean which is cheese-like in taste. In the Orient, it is called tofu while in Nigeria, it is called soy-warankashi. It is rich in protein and fat and it is highly digestible (Kale [1]). It has been used as meat and cheese substitute in both rural and urban areas of south west Nigeria. Local WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110041

38 Food and Environment processing of soy-cheese is usually done at the home-level requiring little or no sophisticated equipment. Different methods of local processing of soy-cheese have been described in literature based on the use of local coagulants by Aworh and Nakai [2]. This product after production is often sold on the streets. Soy-cheese processing is a common enterprise among women both in rural and urban communities in Oyo State, Nigeria. The enterprise is often run as a sole business in some families whereas some utilize food processing as a diversified means of income generation and for household food security by Babatunde and Quaim [3]. High level of unemployment rate due to poverty has increased the number of people especially women involved in processing and street-vending of foods as a means of livelihood for sustenance of their families. Soy-cheese, although a valuable product in meeting the nutritional requirement for improved intake of quality protein in both children and adult, it is however often processed under poor hygienic conditions. Fresh soy-cheese is a high risk food because it is high in protein, moisture and fat contents which makes it highly susceptible to microbial attack. In addition, it can become easily contaminated through poor handling. Concerns over the safety of home-made street-vended foods has increased because of food borne diseases and health risks associated with their consumption. Street-vended foods have been reported by AFRO Food Safety Newsletter [4] to pose health risks particularly to the young, the elderly and those living with HIV/AIDS. There have been reported cases of food poisoning after consumption of street foods. Centre for Disease Control and Prevention [5] reported the case of botulism from consumption of home-prepared tofu. Food safety issues have both public health and environmental implications. It is related to poverty, a multi-dimensional issue which is not just about inaccessibility to nutritionally adequate food but also to food hazards. Food hazards are associated with low income, poor accessibility to safe practices which leads to vulnerability and disempowerment. An earlier study by Fasoyiro et al. [6] reported on the microbial hazards and critical control points in local soy-cheese processing. The processing situation is worsened by lack of electricity, safe potable water, public health education and sanitation services. This study reports on identified hazards apart from microbes associated with soybean processing in Oyo State and their implications on health and the environment.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Selection of study area Local processors were selected from Alakia, Apata and Bodija areas of Ibadan, Nigeria. The areas were selected on the basis of high density of soy-cheese processors concentrated in these areas. Thirty women were randomly selected for this study.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

39

2.2 Assessment of hazards in soy-cheese processing Processors were visited prior to the study to seek their consent in participating in the study. Observations were made on noticeable sources of physical, chemical and occupational hazards during the production operations of soy-cheese. Main soy-cheese processing operations involve: washing of soybean seeds, soaking of soybean seeds, milling, filtering with cheesecloth, addition of coagulant (fermented maize liquor or alum solution), boiling, straining, pressing and frying. Structured interview schedule was also used in collecting data on: whether processors utilize soy-cheese processing as main source of income, the number of years spent in soy-cheese processing, types of waste generated during processing, means of waste disposal, types of occupational hazards processors are exposed to during processing, any previous training in food safety. The interview schedule was administered to the selected processors between February and May, 2008. Descriptive statistical tool (percentages) was used in analyzing the data.

3 Results and discussion The attributes of the respondents are shown in Table 1. The processors (76.6%) were involved in soy-cheese processing as their sole business while others are involved in other petty businesses in generating income for their household sustainability. Some of the respondents have spent up to 10 years in soy-cheese processing. Out of all the respondents interviewed, only 6.67% has training in food processing while none of them have been trained in food safety practices. Table 1:

Characteristics of respondents.

Characteristics of respondents

Percentage of respondent (%)

Soy-cheese as main business

76.7

Years in soy-cheese business <1 year

13.3

< 5 years

26.7

5-10 ears

33.3

>10 years

26.7

Training in food processing

6.67

Training in food hygiene/ safety

nil

Table 2 shows the physical and chemical hazards in local soy-cheese processing. Physical contaminants include stones and soils from improperly sorted seeds, pressing operation and drawn well water. Soy-cheese pressing was done by putting the drained soy-cheese inside cheesecloth and pressing on WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

40 Food and Environment between stones for dewatering. Small stones were noticeable in some soy-cheese samples. Derici et al. [7] reported that stones have been implicated with appendicitis as a result of stones in the gall bladder. This in human health could lead to surgery with its economic implications. Water used for processing was obtained directly from the well and used without prior treatment. In a previous study by Fasoyiro et al. [6], some microorganisms found in water samples used in soy-cheese preparation, the coagulant and the soy-cheese samples were reported (Table 3). Poor unhygienic practices of the handlers is a major means of microbial contamination of the product through exposure of processing materials and products to dust and dirts apart from using untreated water. Soy-cheese processors prepare soy-cheese in open places. Food borne disease due to intake of contaminated foods have been implicated in causing either food infections or food intoxication. Food infections involve microorganisms present in the food at the time of consumption which then grow in the host and cause illness and disease. Food intoxication on the other hand involves toxic substances produced in the food as a by-product of microbial activities prior to consumption and cause disease upon ingestion (Potter and Hotchkiss [8]). Staphylococcus aureus has been implicated in producing bacterial food poisoning by intoxication. Aspergillus flavus produces mycotoxin (Aflatoxin). Mycotoxins may be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive. Aflatoxin Table 2:

Physical and chemical hazards in soy-cheese processing.

Hazards Physical contaminants Stones, soils Dust, dirts Chemical hazards Free radicals, oxidation compounds Aluminum sulphate Iron (metal) rusts Ink Table 3:

Possible sources of contamination Seeds, water Chopping boards, trays, utensils, cheesecloth Continuous re-use of frying oils Coagulant Knives, trays Newspapers used as packaging materials

Some microorganisms detected during soy-cheese processing. Sources Water samples

Coagulant (Fermented maize liquor) Soy-cheese samples after frying

Microorganisms Streptococcus sp, Staphylococcus sp. Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli Aspergillus sp, Rhizopus sp Streptococcus sp, Staphylococcus sp. Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Aspergillussp, Rhizopus sp

Source: Fasoyiro et al. [6]

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

41

exposure in children has been associated with child stunting and neurological impairment [4]. Escherichia coli is a faecal coliform. Symptom of microbial infection or intoxication can range from vomiting, diarrhoea, intestinal cramps to more complicated cases and death. Study on food habit has shown that children are important street food consumers [4], hence they form big target for these hazards Some processors utilized aluminum sulphate solution without standards as coagulant for precipitation of soybean paste slurry. This is used as an alternative to fermented maize liquor. There is still no adequate information or literature on the safety of consumption of aluminium sulphate. However, Evert et al. [9] reported on possible effects such as dementia from consumption of aluminium sulphate. Other noticeable hazards are iron rust from knives and aluminium coated iron trays used in cutting soy-cheese of some processors. Ink is also a chemical hazard detected from the packaging material. All of the processors uses old newspaper as packaging material for soy-cheese. There is the need to discourage this practice among the processors. The processors usually sell their products around their homes and on the street, the packaging materials after consumption by the consumers were used in littering the surroundings without proper disposal means. Local soy-cheese is usually sold in fried forms. All the processors re-used the frying oil from a previous frying process. This is usually for eight to ten times till it is discarded due to dark colour. Frying is usually carried out using large iron wrought frying pans on open fire. The frying operation that takes place at very high temperatures. During frying, oxidative reactions involving the formation of and decomposition of hydroperoxides occur which leads to formation of compounds such as ketones, hydrocarbons, acids and esters (Fennema [10] and Pambou-Tobi et al. [11]). Darkening of frying oils due to oxidation products is noticeable in the reused frying oils. Products of lipid oxidation has been implicated in development of carcinogens [10 ]. The waste products generated during soy-cheese processing and their means of disposal is shown in Table 4. Waste generated during soy-cheese processing can be classified as solid and liquid wastes. One of the solid wastes generated is Okara, this is the product removed after sieving the soymilk from the grinded paste slurry. Some of the respondents (16.7%) however indicated that they utilize the Okara in animal feeding while the others discarded it as waste. Research has shown that Okara is rich in protein and it has also been utilized in food fortification of maize by Omueti [12]. This will be useful in improving the nutritional status of the poor resource people. Other waste products include packaging materials in form of newspapers and polyethylene bags. Almost all the processors (96.7%) disposed solid wastes by burning. Refuse burning leads to production of smoke and emission of gases causing air pollution. This promotes acid rain which pollutes the land and water with implications on human, terrestrial lives and the vegetation. Air pollution also contributes to global warming due to depletion of the ozone layer (Daramola and Ibem [13]). Fermented maize liquor is the common coagulant used in soy-cheese processing. It is fermented water from processing maize into a product called Ogi. The processors either collect the liquor from Ogi processors or prepare Ogi by WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

42 Food and Environment themselves to obtain the fermented liquor. Excess fermented liquor not utilized in a day was either poured into gutters or dumped into open vegetation. Dark oil from frying process was disposed in a similar way as the fermented liquor. Table 4:

Types of waste generated during soy-cheese processing and means of disposal. Solid waste (Source) Okara

Paper (packaging material) Polyethylene film (packaging material) Liquid waste Wash water (from washed and soaked seed) Fermented maize liquor (excess coagulant) Dark Oil (from continuous frying process)

Means of disposal Used as animal feed, directly on open vegetation By burning By burning

Direct dumping to open vegetation and gutters Direct dumping to open vegetation and gutters Direct dumping to open vegetation and gutters

Table 5 highlights the occupational hazards encountered by the soy-cheese processors. Local processors generally utilize firewood in cooking. The firewood generates smoke which contact the processors eyes. Smoke is reported to cause irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, Betchley et al. [14].The long term effect of the smoke could result in eye disorders. All the processors interviewed opted for the use of firewood as a cheaper means of cooking compared to use of kerosene stove or cooking gas. Continuous cutting of trees for the purpose of firewood is not only affecting the environmental health by depleting the natural resources but also contributes to global warming and climate change. Processors (13.3%) sometimes sustained injuries such as cut fingers during cutting of cheese since Table 5:

Occupational hazards faced by soy-cheese local processors.

Occupational hazards (frequency of respondents) Eyes in contact with firewood smoke

Sources From firewood used in cooking

(73.3%) Cuts, bleeding (53.3%)

From knives While pushing firewood into the fire

Burns (40%)

Hot oil splashes during frying

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

43

it is manually done which results in bleeding. This could also lead to product contamination. Injury from wood piercing of fingers while pushing the wood into the firewood was also recorded. Accidental oil splashes often occur while frying soy-cheese which often results in skin burns.

4 Conclusion This study reported some of the hazards that are encountered during soy-cheese processing. It also reflects how small scale food processing which forms an integral part of the Nigerian economy can affect human and environmental health through ignorance of processors on implications of their activities. The following are therefore recommended as strategies to reduce some of the problems identified in local food processing: -the need for training of local processors on food safety practices to sensitize and create awareness on possible hazards and their implications on human and environmental health -the need for food law enforcement agencies to have standards for locally processed foods and to ensure they are implemented -the need for the environmental law enforcement agencies to have waste disposal standard for small scale processors.

Acknowledgement USDA Borlaug Women-in-Science Research supporting this study.

Grant is acknowledged for

References [1] Kale F.S. Soybean, its values in dietetics, cultivation and uses. J.D Jain Publishers: Delhi, pp.420,1985. [2] Aworh O.C & Nakai S. Extraction of milk clotting enzyme from Sodom apple (Calotropis procera). Journal of Food Science 51(6), pp. 1569-1570, 1986. [3] Babatunde R.O & Quaim M. Patterns of income diversification in rural Nigeria: determinants and impacts. Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture 48(4), pp.305-320, 2009. [4] AFRO Food Safety Newsletter. Street food vending in the region: Food safety challenges. World health Organization food safety (FOS), (2), pp. 15, 2006. [5] Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Food borne botulism from home-prepared fermented tofu—California 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 56(5), 96-97, 2007. [6] Fasoyiro S.B, Obatolu V.A, Ashaye O.A, Adegoke G.O & Farinde E.O. Microbial hazards in locally processed soy-cheese in Nigeria. Nutrition and Food Science 40(6), pp.591-597, 2010. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

44 Food and Environment [7] Derici H, Kara C, Bozdag A.D, Nazli O, Tansug T, Akca E. Diagnosis and treatment of gallbladder perforation. World Journal of Gastroenterology. 12(48), pp. 7832–7836, 2006. [8] Potter N.N and Hotchkiss. J.H. Food Science. Fifth Edition. Springer USA. pp.119-120, 1998. [9] Evert N., Gibson B.L, Oxman A.D & Kramer J.R. Health effects of aluminum: a critical review with emphasis on aluminum in drinking water .Environmental Review 3, pp. 29-81, 1995. [10] Fennema O.R. Food Chemistry. Third edition. Taylor and Francis Group. New York. pp.292-295, 1985. [11] Pambou-Tobi N.P, Nzikou J.M, Matos L., Ndangui C.B, Kimbonguila A. , Abena A.A, Silou T., Scher J. & Desobry S. Comparative Study of Stability Measurements for Two Frying Oils: Soybean Oil and Refined Palm Oil. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 2(1), pp. 22-27, 2010 [12] Omueti O. Home level preparation of protein improved (soya kokoro-maize snack). Tropical Oil Seed Journal4, 95-101, 1999. [13] Daramola A. &Ibem E.O. Urban environmental problems in Nigeria: implication in sustainable development. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 12(1), pp.124-145, 2010. [14] Betchley C., Koenig J.Q., Vanbelle G., Checkoway H., Reinhardt T., Pulmonary Function and Respiratory Symptoms in Forest Firefighters. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 31(5), pp.503-509, 1997.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

45

Use of blast furnace slag and water treatment residues to reduce the runoff of dissolved reactive phosphorus from agricultural lands Z. Ahmad1, M. Abdel Basit1, S. Yamamoto2, T. Honna2, H. Yasuda1 & M. Inoue1 1 2

Arid Land Research Centre, Tottori University, Japan Faculty of Agriculture, Tottori University, Japan

Abstract Continuous use of phosphorus (P) fertilizers has created severe environmental concerns. Control of non-point source of P contamination is the biggest challenge. In current study, residues from the water treatment facilities (WTR) and blast furnace slag (BFS) were tested for their ability to reduce the P runoff. Residues from water treatment facilities have been extensively tested under crop or grass cover but less is know when applied to bare lands. Similarly, BFS has been studied for its use as a filtering material in wastewater treatment plants, but its use on agricultural lands for P control has not been reported yet. A silty clay loam soil was amended with BFS and WTR at the rate of 50 g kg-1 soil. Chemical P was applied at the rate of 400 kg ha-1. Bared soil surface with two roughnesses (low and high) was exposed to two artificial rainfall intensities (35 and 75 mm h-1). Each treatment was exposed to three rainfall events with a constant rainfall depth of 70 mm. Results of the study showed that, regardless of rainfall intensity and soil roughness, dissolved reactive P (DRP) reduced over the runoff time from both amended pots while from control pots an increasing trend was observed. Water treatment residues reduced the mean DRP concentration by 27.3% and DRP load by 32% as compared to un-amended plots. Though the trend was declining but P concentrations were higher from BFS amended plots compared to control. DRP concentrations were lower under high rainfall intensity than low rain intensity due to the dilution factor. This study affirms the ability of WTR to reduce the P mobility from bare soils as well however further studies are needed to test the effectiveness of BFS under filed conditions. Keywords: dissolved reactive phosphorus, simulated rainfall intensity, soil roughness, blast furnace slag, water treatment residues. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110051

46 Food and Environment

1 Introduction Agriculture is the primary source of non-point source of Phosphorus (P) pollution which is degrading the streams and lakes quality. To reduce this P transport to surface water bodies, many strategies and management practices have been investigated. Some management practices include conservation tillage, crop residue management, cover crops, buffer strips, contour tillage, runoff water impoundment, and stopping land application of biosolids once the threshold soil test P value is reached. But P based compost application or stopping P application will not serve the goals [1] because there are still many highly P contaminated soils which are posing threats to the environment. Analogously, to reduce the dissolved P in runoff water or to increase the P holding capacity of soil, a number of soil amendments have also been attempted. As P is fixed by oxides of iron, aluminium and calcium carbonates present in soil, any material which has high contents of these elements will ultimately increase the soil P holding capacity. Blast furnace slag (BFS) is one of the materials which have been used for P removal in wastewater-treatment systems [2]. Blast furnace slag is a non-metallic co-product which is produced in iron industries. It consists primarily of silicates, alumino-silicates, and calcium-alumina-silicates. Because of the high Al and Ca contents this material has been extensively studied for its ability to fix the P. These investigations showed that the material has strong potential for P-removal [3]. However, use of BFS on agricultural lands to reduce the P mobility has not been investigated yet. Similarly, drinking water treatment residuals (WTR) are effective due to their high P sorbing capacity. Drinking water treatment residuals are often rich in amorphous Fe or Al oxides due to the use of Fe or Al salts as coagulants during drinking water treatment. Several field and lab studies have been conducted to evaluate the use of WTR as a P sorbent and reported that WTR significantly reduces the P losses. Water treatment residues are applied on the surface, incorporated into soil, or co-blended with different P sources. However, performance of WTR under different soil roughness conditions has not been fully explored. Therefore, the current study was designed to evaluate i) the potential use of BFS on arable lands to reduce DRP concentration through runoff, ii) the effect of soil roughness on the performance of WTR, and iii) interaction of soil roughness conditions and rainfall intensities under different soil amendments.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Rainfall simulator An indoor dripper-type rainfall simulator installed at the Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, Japan was used in this study. Rain simulation was done from a height of 12 m. The experimental area (2.3 m2) was equipped with an adjustable-angle steel plate to adjust the slope angle of the plots and was

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

47

protected against the air currents by plastic sheets. The deck was adjusted to a slope of 8%. 2.2 Soil and soil amendments used A silty clay loam soil (Fulvudand) was used in this study. The soil was air dried, then crushed mechanically and sieved using a 2 mm mesh sieve. Water treatment sludge was collected from the Kyo-ritsu water purification plant, Hiroshima, Japan. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (BFS) was collected from Aichi Steel Corporation, Aichi, Japan. Water treatment sludge was in the form of granules (<5mm) which were crushed to powder (<0.5 mm). A steel pan of 1.0 × 0.5 × 0.16 m with four drain holes, and side and back walls 0.03 m higher than the soil surface, was used to prepare the soil plots. First of all, each pan was filled with a gravel filter of 0.04 m depth to facilitate the lateral flow of the water without causing water logging in the pan. Before packing, the top 5 cm of soil was amended with BFS or WTR at the rate of 5g per 100g of soil. The same soil was mixed with chemical P fertilizer in the form of KH2PO4 at the rate of 400 kg P ha-1. The packing was done by hand in a systematic way using a wooden plank and care was taken to make all the plots as homogeneous and uniform as possible. 2.3 Overland flow and runoff sampling Levelled and firm soil surface of each treatment was then changed to low or high rough using two hand spades. To achieve the low soil roughness a spade with a 2cm long blade was used, while to achieve high soil roughness a spade with blade of 5cm length was used. Two rainfall intensities 30 and 65 mm h-1 were used for each treatment with the rainfall depth of about 60mm for each run. Each treatment was subjected to three consecutive runs. The first run was carried out on a dry surface (dry run) while the other two runs were done over the wet surface (wet run). Each subsequent run was carried out within the time period of 12 h. Three soil amendments, two soil roughness levels, two rainfall intensities and two replications with three runs gave a total of 72 runs. Runoff water was collected over the time and allowed to settle for 1 h, and then a subsample was filtered through a 0.45 m cellulose acetate membrane filter for DRP, Al, Fe, and K analysis. Quantification of DRP, Al, Fe and K was done on ICP-AES with in 24 h of collection. Data collected during the study were statistically analyzed using StatView software.

3 Results 3.1 Effect of low rainfall intensity (30 mm h-1) Overall mean DRP concentration was higher under low rainfall intensity as compared to high rainfall intensity. Changes in DRP concentration with the passage of runoff time were observed and results are shown in Figs. 1 to 4. During the runoff event, irrespective of soil roughness, DRP concentration in unWIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

48 Food and Environment amended (control) plots was lower at the start of the first run (Figs. 1 and 2) and increased with the increase in time of runoff over the surface. Dissolved reactive P concentration continued to increase during the second run from un-amended plots with low soil roughness (LSR) (Fig. 1). However, at the start of the third run, DRP concentration was lower in runoff water as compared to the first and second runs, and increase was less with the time of runoff (Fig. 1). Contrary to un-amended plots, DRP concentration started to decrease with the time of runoff over the plots amended with water treatment residues (WTR) and blast furnace slag (BFS) (Fig. 1). !

Run-1

Control

con.

K

Run-3

Run-2

4

3.5

0.3 0.2

3 0.1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

10

20

42

62

82

102 120

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0.3

3.8

0.25

3.6 3.4

0.2

3.2

0.15

3 2.8

0.1

2.6

0

2.4

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

10

20

40

60

80

100 120

10

20

40

60

80

100 120

1

5

0.9 0.8

4.5

Fe,

BFS

Al

0.7

P,

2.2

0.6

4

0.5 0.2

3.5

0.15 0.1

3

K con. (ppm)

con.

P,

0.05

0.05 0

2.5

10

15

25

35

45

65

Time (min.)

Figure 1:

2.5 140

K con. (ppm)

Al

Fe

0.4

0

WTR

P

K con. (ppm)

P, Fe, Al con.

0.5

Fe,

Al

85

90

10

20

30

40

60

80 100 120

Time (min.)

10

20

40

60

80

100 120

Time (min.)

Effect of low rainfall intensity (30 mm h-1) and low soil roughness on nutrients concentration in runoff water.

Change in soil roughness from low to high did not change the overall trend of DRP concentration in runoff water under 30 mm h-1 rainfall intensity (Fig. 2). Among the two soil roughness conditions, it was observed that DRP concentration in runoff water was considerably less under the high soil roughness as compared to the low roughness condition. The difference of soil roughness on DRP under low rainfall intensity is more obvious in the control and WTR amended plots (Figs. 1 and 2). WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Al

P

Run-1

Fe

K

Run-2

Run-3 3.8

Control

3.6

0.15

3.4

0.1 3.2

0.05

3

10

15

20

25

35

45

55

10

20

40

60

80 100 120

10

20

40

60

80 100 120

WTR

4.5

0.16 0.155 0.15 0.145

4

0.14 0.12 0.1

3.5

0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

40

60

80 100 120

10

20

40

60

80 100 120

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

4.5 4

0.4 0.08 0.07

3.5

0.06

3

0.05 0.04 0.03

K con. (ppm)

BFS

3

5

0.9

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

2.8

K con. (ppm)

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

0.165

10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (min.)

Figure 2:

K con. (ppm)

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

0.2

0

49

10

20

40

60

80 100 120

Time (min.)

10

20

40

60

80 100 120

2.5

Time (min.)

Effect of low rainfall intensity (30 mm h-1) and high soil roughness on nutrients concentration in runoff water.

3.2 High rainfall intensity (65 mm h-1) Similar to low rainfall intensity, the trend of DRP in runoff from amended plots did not change significantly with the increase in rainfall intensity under both soil roughness levels. Under the low soil roughness, DRP concentration in control treatment increased with the time of runoff (Fig. 3). A similar trend was observed during the second run and maximum DRP concentrations were recorded during the third run. In WTR amended plots, DRP concentration decreased over the time of runoff during the first run (Fig. 3). In the second run, DRP concentrations were higher at the start of the run, but later trend was linear, while in the third run DRP concentration in runoff water was relatively steady (Fig. 3). Similarly, in BFS amended plots, DRP concentration decreased with time of runoff in all three runs and minimum DRP concentrations were recorded in the third run (Fig. 3). WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

50 Food and Environment

P

Fe

K

Run-3

Run-2

3.8 3.6 3.4

0.06

3.2

0.04 3

0.02 0

5

10

15

20

25

30

36

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

WTR

4

0.11 0.1

3.8

0.06

3.6

0.045

3.4

0.03

3.2

0.015 0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

3

0.8

4.8

0.7

4.4

0.6

4

0.5

3.6

0.4

2.8

0.2

2.4

0.1 5

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 46

5

10

20

30

Time

40

50

56

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

con.

3.2

0.3

0

K

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

4.2

0.12

con.

BFS

0.13

Time

Figure 3:

2.8 4.4

K

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

0.14

con.

Control

0.18 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12

Al

Run-1

K

P, Fe, Al con (ppm)

!

2

Time

Effect of high rainfall intensity (65 mm h-1) and low soil roughness on nutrients concentration in runoff water.

Under high soil roughness, DRP concentration remained stable with the runoff time in the control plots (Fig. 4). During the second run, DRP concentration increased until 30 min of runoff and then became stable (Fig. 4). In the third run, DRP concentration from the control plots remained steady until the first 20 min of runoff, and then it slightly decreased to a steady level (Fig. 4). Plots amended with WTR showed decrease in DRP concentration during the first run (Fig. 4), while in the second run DRP concentration remained relatively stable. Concentration of DRP in runoff remained steady during the third run, but a slight decrease was observed toward the end. In the BFS amended plots, decrease in DRP concentration was sharp in the first run (Fig. 4), but in the second run DRP concentration remained steady (Fig. 4). During the third run, DRP concentration was also steady but slightly declined toward the end of runoff.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

51

3.3 Iron, aluminium and potassium concentration in runoff Changes in Fe, Al and K concentrations are also shown in Figures 1 to 4. It was observed that the overall mean Al concentration in runoff water was higher under low rainfall intensity. Increasing the soil roughness from low to high also increased the Al concentration in runoff. Among the amendments, Al concentration did not change greatly. However, Al concentrations were slightly higher from WTR under HSR. A trend similar to Al was observed for Fe concentration under both rainfall intensities and soil roughness. No variation in Fe concentration was observed from any of the three soil amendments. While K concentration in runoff water did not change with any change in rainfall intensity or soil amendment, however, K concentration was slightly higher under high soil roughness conditions. !

Al

Control

Fe

K

Run-2

Run-3

0.25

3.8

0.2

3.6

0.15

3.4

0.1

3.2

0.05

3

0

5

10

15

21

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

WTR

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

0.12

4

0.1 0.08

3.5

0.06 0.04 0.02

10

15

20

26

5

15

25

35

45

56

5

15

25

35

45

56

3

0.7

3.8

0.6

3.6

0.5

3.4

0.4

3.2

0.1

3

0.08

2.8

0.06

2.6

0.04 0.02

K con. (ppm)

BFS

0.14

K con. (ppm)

P, Fe, Al con. (ppm)

2.8

4.5

0.16

5

10

15

20

25

Time (min.)

Figure 4:

K con. (ppm)

P, Fe, Al con (ppm)

Run-1

P

31

5

10

20

30

40

50

Time (min.)

56

5

10

20

30

40

50

56

2.4

Time (min.)

Effect of high rainfall intensity (65 mm h-1) and high soil roughness on nutrients concentration in runoff water.

4 Discussion It was observed that, under both soil roughness levels, overall DRP concentrations decreased with the increase in rainfall intensity from 30 mm h-1 to WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

52 Food and Environment 65 mm h-1. Reduced DRP concentration under high rainfall might be due to the dilution factor as a high volume of runoff water flows over a short period of time. Previous studies examining nutrient concentrations in runoff related to rainfall intensity have also hinted at dilution as a key process affecting N and P concentrations in runoff [4]. Slight increase of DRP concentration in control treatment might be due to the different physico-chemical and hydraulic processes. In the first dry run, soil was dry and P was also applied in dry form, so with the onset of rain event dissolution of P occurred, which is highly water soluble, so DRP concentration started to increase over time. Smith et al. [5] compared different P fertilizers and suggested that the fertilizer granules released P to the water during the wetting process. Among the two soil amendments, WTR appeared to be very effective in reducing DRP runoff from the bare soil. Mean DRP concentration in runoff water was reduced by 27.3% and DRP load by 32% from the WTR amended plots as compared to the control treatment. Incorporation or surface application of WTR has been reported to reduce dissolved and extractable P in soil by several researchers [6, 7]. In BFS amended plots, the trend of DRP concentration in runoff was similar to the WTR. However, the overall DRP concentrations in all BFS amended plots were higher than the WTR and control treatment. Blast furnace slag has been extensively explored as substrates for P removal from constructed wetland systems, both in the laboratory and field [8]. Phosphorus adsorption capacity of BFS varied among the different studies, which is expected due to the variation in experimental setup, material used and different P loads studied. However, we could not find any study showing the efficiency of BFS in soils to compare our results. Overall Al and Fe concentrations did not vary significantly under any soil amendment and were in the limits of USEPA drinking water standards [9]. Slightly higher Al concentrations from WTR amended plots was anticipated due to the higher Al contents of WTR as well as high indigenous soil Al contents. It was observed that K concentrations were higher in runoff as compared to other nutrients observed, which might be due to the higher soil native K contents as well as K added in the form of KH2PO4 with P dose. Munodawafa [10] stated that amount of nutrient loss is also depends on the fertility status of the soil and the abundance of a particular nutrient in the soil.

Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) for providing the grant to conduct this study.

References [1] Zahoor, A., Honna, T. & Yamamoto, S., Leachability and phytoavailability of NPK from different bio-composts under chloride and sulphate dominated irrigation water. Journal of Environmental Quality, 37(3), pp. 1288-98, 2008. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

53

[2] Korkusuz, E.A., Beklio lu, M. & Demirer, G.N., Use of blast furnace granulated slag as a substrate in vertical flow reed beds: Field application. Bioresource Technology, 98, pp. 2089-2101, 2007. [3] Sakadevan, K. & Bavor, H.J., Phosphate adsorption characteristics of soils, slags and zeolite to be used as substrates in constructed wetland systems. Water Research, 32, 393-399, 1998. [4] Fraser, A.I., Harrod, T.R. & Haygarth, P.M., The effect of rainfall intensity on soil erosion and particulate phosphorus transfer from arable soils. Water Science and Technology, 39, pp. 41-45, 1999. [5] Smith, D.R., Owens, P.R., Leytem, A.B. & Warnemuende, E.A., Nutrient losses from manure and fertilizer applications as impacted by time to first runoff event. Environmental Pollution, 147, pp. 131-137, 2007. [6] Oladeji, O.O., O’Connor, G.A. & Brinton, S.R., Surface applied water treatment residuals affect bioavailable phosphorus losses in Florida sands. Journal of Environmental Management, 88, pp. 1593-1600, 2008. [7] Elliott, H.A., O’Connor, G.A., Lu, P. & Brinton, S., Influence of water treatment residuals on phosphorus solubility and leaching. Journal of Environmental Quality, 31, pp. 1362-1369, 2002. [8] Westholm, L.J., Substrates for phosphorus removal-Potential benefits for on-site wastewater treatment? Water Research, 40, pp. 23-36, 2006. [9] EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), 2006 Edition of the drinking water standards and health advisories. EPA 822-R-06-013. Washington, DC. www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/drinking/dwstandards.pdf [10] Munodawafa, A., Assessing nutrient losses with soil erosion under different tillage systems and their implications on water quality. Physics and Chemistry of Earth, 32, pp. 1135-1140, 2007.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

55

Environmental and economic evaluation of conventional and organic production systems in the Canadian Prairie provinces S. Kulshreshtha1 & C. Klemmer2 1

Department of Bioresource Policy, Business and Economics, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada 2 Farm Credit Corporation, Regina, Canada

Abstract Changing agriculture current production practices (called conventional production system) to an organic production system can reduce the need for synthetically produced agricultural inputs, and thereby reduce emissions. However, this change may also generate other co-benefits (or costs) to society. The focus of this study is to evaluate the implications of converting a conventional agriculture production system to an organic one for greenhouse gas emissions, level of agricultural production, farmer net income, and for regional and national level changes. The analysis was undertaken for the three Prairie Provinces in Canada. Since there are several types of changes resulting from the conversion, a trade-off analysis was used to evaluate the overall desirability of the two production systems. The study concluded that converting land under a conventional production system to an organic production system reduces greenhouse gas emissions and improves farm income, Canadian gross domestic product, household income, and employment. However, it also results in a reduction in physical quantity of agricultural production, and thus has implications for food self-sufficiency. Keywords: organic crop production, greenhouse gas emissions, farm income, sustainable food production, trade-offs.

1 Introduction The impact of agriculture on the environment has come under increasing scrutiny (Hanley [1]). Over the past century, the climate on earth has become increasingly WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110061

56 Food and Environment warm IPCC [2]. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are commonly believed to be one of the major root causes of climate change. These emissions occur both naturally as well as a result of human activity. Burning of fossil fuels and the generation of hydrocarbons are greatly disrupting the carbon cycle (the movement and storage of carbon). The human consumption of oil and coal, as well as the destruction of forests in both the developed and developing worlds has both increased carbon in the atmosphere and reduced the planet’s ability to sequester carbon. Scientists and policymakers around the world have identified agriculture as one of the major contributors to the world’s GHG emissions (Rosenberg et al. [3]). In Canada agriculture’s contribution is estimated to be 62 Mt, equivalent to 8.4% of the total Canadian GHG emissions. This in not including transportation, input costs, or agri-food processing” Government of Canada [4]. Organic farming (used in this study as synonymous to Organic Production System or OPS) is defined as a “system of managing agricultural holdings that implies major restrictions on fertilizers and pesticides” (Stolze et al. [5]). The OPS is based on different crop farming practices, protection of the environment and promotion of sustainable agricultural development. It “pursues a number of aims, such as the production of products, which contain no chemical residues, the development of environmentally sensitive production methods, which avoid the use of artificial chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and the application of production techniques that restore and maintain soil fertility” (Stolze et al. [5]). In addition, OPS utilizes beneficial management practices which incorporate mitigation strategies for reducing GHG emissions (Scialabba [6]). As OPS strives to combine tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved, an assessment of long-term environmental, economic, and social benefits relative to comparable conventional production system (CPS) is needed. Although the role of organic agriculture in mitigating GHG emissions is recognized, there may be some indirect impacts of converting crop area from CPS to OPS. For example, as demand for farm inputs contributing to GHG emissions (fertilizer and pesticides) decreases, some of the industries producing these inputs could be affected adversely. Ultimately this process may affect the level of regional economic development. Thus, a situation of trade-off between environmental protection and economic development may result from such a conversion. In Canada, there has been minimal research done on OPS’s role in GHG mitigation or in identifying other benefits (or costs) to society. This study was undertaken to fill this void.

2 Study methods 2.1 Literature review A review of studies indicates that there is wide agreement that OPS comes closest to an environmentally friendly agriculture. It is generally perceived as a form of agriculture that is more favorable for the environment than CPS. Abbas WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

172 Food and Environment defined parameters from previous chapter. On the other hand, Related Cost will depend exclusively on technologies costs. The second step after selecting the criterion was to calculate its weight. For that mission a group of experts [12] at ITENE was asked to compare the importance between the cost and the configuration of a supply chain. The question asked was: is it more important to have the lowest costs or is it more important to adapt the new technologies properly to the SC needs? The result was a 48% of the total importance for the costs and 52% for the configuration of the SC. In turn, the 52% is distributed between the RBCC and the RLT depending on the needs of traceability or temperature control of the studied SC. For example, if a SC is not critical in terms of temperature control (optimal temperature for the product 15ºC, low number of links, minimum distance and duration, etc.) but has important requirements in traceability, a higher percentage of the 52% will be given to the criterion RLT. With this action more weight is given to the weaker criterion. Keeping on with filling in the matrix, the alternatives Ei are the set of technologies already explained in Section 3. These are: thermograph, TTIL, Datalogger, iButton, bar code, RFID and last but not least, RFID with an incorporated temperature sensor. The last element of the matrix is the coefficient Rij. These numbers were calculated in two different ways in function of the criteria on which they depend. The coefficients related to the criterion cost are fixed and they have been calculated from a comparative study of the associated costs of the several temperature and traceability control technologies. Among others: product cost, equipment cost, installation cost, implementation cost and possibility of reusability. On the other hand, the coefficients that depend on the criterion RBCC and RLT are variable and its calculation is in function of the benefits that each alternative produce on preventing the different risks. The user of the model chooses among the following benefits the ones they would like to achieve from implementing one of the possible technologies on its SC: Benefits within temperature control Reduce the number of inconsistencies Reduce overstocks Improve clients perception of the product Save on quality staff hours Save on additional temperature record devices Benefits within traceability control Improve the efficiency of reception / entrances of assets Improve the visibility of the stocks of raw materials, intermediate and finished products Improve the efficiency of physical inventories. Improve the efficiency of picking and replenishment Improve the efficiency and accuracy of shipments Reduce the number of obsolete products Reduce the amount of stocks WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

173

Alternatives that satisfy a higher number of benefits obtain higher coefficients and vice versa. The final result is shown on Matrix 2. All coefficients have been standardized in order to make the relevant calculations and lead to consistent results. Matrix 2: ALTERNATIVES

Termograph TTIL Datalogger iButton Bar code RFID RFID+sensor Weight

Final A/C matrix. Cost savings 0.108 0.325 0.065 0.081 0.325 0.054 0.041 48 % 48 %

RBCC RLT R12 R13 R22 R23 R32 R33 R42 R43 R52 R53 R62 R63 R72 R73 WRBCC WRLT 52 %

6 Validation With the aim of validating the model the data from two cold supply chains have been used. The first one is an ice-cream cold chain where the product is transported from the production factory to the DC and from the DC to the stores. The distance is approximately 55 km and 41 minutes. This project was funded by Spanish Government and its name is GLOBALOG. The second chain, in contrast, is an international fresh hake Chile-Spain supply chain studied under the 6th Framework EU Program – Chill-On. In the next table the data that defines the input of the model is compiled for both chains:

ENVIR. FACTORS

REQUIREM.

CHARACT. OF THE SC

Table 3:

Input data for Globalog and Chill-on supply chains.

Distance Duration Number of links Intermodal

Local < 1 day 4-5 steps NO

International 7-30 days > 8 steps YES

Staff qualification Tolerable Temp. range (ºC) Microbiological Stability

Medium

Medium

[-30, -10]

[0, 5]

Highly perishable product

Highly perishable product

Presents cold losses

Keeps products organoleptic properties

< 0 ºC

May be > 30 ºC

Good

Good

Good

Regular

Packaging Environmental conditions State of the communication State of the IS

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

174 Food and Environment

7 Results The application of the model showed the results listed in Tables 4 and 5. For both chains, the best alternative was the TTIL followed by the bar code and the RFID+sensor. The TTIL is a technology that provides almost all the benefits described before at a very low cost. That is the main reason why it has such a big percentage. Tables 1 and 5:

Alternatives rank.

Percentage TTIL Bar code RFID+sensor iButton Datalogger Termograph RFID

27% 19% 14% 12% 11% 10% 6%

Percentage TTIL Bar code RFID+sensor Termograph RFID iButton Datalogger

24% 22% 15% 11% 10% 10% 9%

8 Conclusion The study performed in this work has proved the applicability of multicriteria methodology for the Cold Supply Chain. It has also laid the groundwork for developing a model that is extensible to different cold chains and technologies. At the moment it is a support tool to complement the selection of a technology, but it has the potential to become a commercial tool. For that reason, the future research areas that are presented below will add value to this tool: •

Use an adjusted ROI (Return on Investment) to quantify the investment. It is clear that to success in the implementation of a new technology for monitoring or tracking a SC is crucial a more detailed study of the economic environment. For this reason, it would be interesting to improve the analysis of costs to quantify the ROI for each one of the different alternatives.

•

There are many discrete multicriteria methods which could address the problem of technology selection in a different way. For this reason, a sensitivity analysis according to other multicriteria methods could be of interest to add support to the validity of the tool.

•

Consider the environmental impact: the introduction of a technology control in a supply chain has a direct impact on companies’ costs. This impact is more evident that the environmental impact that may result

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

175

from such implementation. Currently, environmental issues are taking greater role in all areas and attempting to analyse the environmental impacts of the use of these technologies could provide a differentiating value for this tool.

References [1] Sarig, Y., Traceability of food products. CIGR Journal, Bologna, 2003. [2] AECOC. Distribución de productos congelados y refrigerados, Recomendaciones AECOC para la logística, 1997. [3] Raspor, P., Total food chain safety: how good practices can contribute?, 2008. [4] Labuza, T., Time-Temperature integrators and the cold chain: what is next? Proc. of the Cold Chain Management 2nd International Workshop, Bonn, pp. 43-52, 2006. [5] EAN Internacional. Guía de implementación para la trazabilidad de productos frescos, 2006. [6] AECOC. Guía de calidad en simbología: puntos críticos, 2006. [7] Jedermann, R. et al, Linking RFIDs and Sensors for Logistical Applications. 12th International Conference, AMA Service GmbH, Wunstorf, pp. 317-322, 2005. [8] Vello, J., RFID, una tecnología madura en un sector dispar. 2004. [9] Romero, C. Teoría de la decisión multicriterio: Conceptos, técnicas y aplicaciones, 1993. [10] Cerrano, M.L. et al. Apoyo Multicriterio a la Toma de Decisiones en una Cooperativa Eléctrica, 2000. [11] Bustos, E. F., Métodos multicriterio discretos de ayuda a la decisión, Escuela Superior del Cómputo (ESCOM), Mexico. http://www.angelfire.com/ak6/ilb/4_4.pdf [12] Seminar. La logística del Frío, Fundación ITENE, Valencia, 2010.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

177

Novel solutions supporting inter-organisational quality and information management V. Raab1, R. Ibald1, W. Reichstein2, D. Haarer2, B. Petersen1 & J. Kreyenschmidt1 1

Preventive Health Management Group, University of Bonn, Germany Bayreuther Institut für Makromolekülforschung, University of Bayreuth, Germany

2

Abstract Special Time Temperature Indicators (TTI) are able to display temperature histories by colors, so that the TTIs are able to provide information of the freshness of specific products. To use TTIs in different steps of the supply chain the following requirements need to be fulfilled: Kinetic models to predict the response of the TTIs as a function of time and temperature have to be available as well as warning and action control ranges at different handover points and the ability to translate the response of the TTIs into management and product information. For an economical use of TTIs, software solutions should be available to support the participants within the supply chain with management and product information. This information results from mathematical models that use the responses of the TTIs as input and it results from knowledge what is stored in databases. The objective of this study was to develop an internet based software solution that uses a TTI kinetic model as a practical tool to use TTIs in dedicated meat supply chains. In this study the OnVuTM TTI was used and a validated model to predict the response of the TTI as a function of time and temperature and that also shows a correlation to the kinematics of the spoilage of meat. By using the model within the internet based software with an interface to the response of the TTIs, the remaining shelf life of dedicated products could be easily measured at each point within the supply chain. Within this study the implementation within a poultry supply chain was investigated. Keywords: temperature monitoring, time-temperature-integrators, shelf life prediction, cold chain management.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110181

178 Food and Environment

1 Introduction Since quality, freshness and shelf life of meat strongly depends on temperature (Lambert et al. [1], McDonald and Sun [2], Kreyenschmidt [3], Koutsoumanis and Taoukis [4], Gospavic et al. [5], Nychas et al. [6]), the food producers must also define upper threshold temperatures that determine the validity of the estimated expiry dates of special food products. So, food producers have to estimate an expiration date under special assumptions depending on the cold chain of what the product is exposed to. This results in situations, in which the retailers declare food to be waste, because of an expired “best-use-before-date”, in spite of the fact, that the food is still usable and of good quality. The reason: The exposed cold chain was much better than the assumed cold chain for what the expiration date got estimated. On the other hand, there are also customers that buy food under the assumption that it is still fresh and has a good quality, because they believe in the labelled expiration date (Labuza and Szybist [7]). But in reality it is spoiled, because of cold chains that are not as good as the food producer assumed. Both situations produce unnecessary costs. And of much bigger concern is the consumers health, food poisoning may occur due to consumption of expired or spoiled food (Fu and Labuza [8]). To avoid such scenarios it is necessary to get the information of the actual quality of the food at any given point of time, instead of the expiration dates that are only valid for predefined conditions. To reduce unnecessary costs and to be economically more efficient, a good decisions making is essential. For example FEFO (First Expires First Out) or SMAS (Safety Monitoring and Assurance System) (Giannakourou et al. [9]) could be used instead of the conventional FIFO (First In First Out) principle (Koutsoumanis et al. [10]). For such an innovative decision making, efficient temperature monitoring tools could be the basis to deliver the missing information (Olafsdottir et al. [11], Eden et al. [12]). Today, several possibilities are on the market to monitor the temperature in each step of the supply chain. During the last years new solutions on basis of the wireless communication technology like RFID smart tags, RFIDs with temperature sensors (Jedermann et al. [13]) as well as the possibility to transfer measured temperature data in real-time, for example via GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) or Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN) have been developed (Wang et al. [14], Ruiz-Garcia et al. [15]). Up to now most solutions cannot be used for monitoring the temperature on single item level due to much too high costs for the food industry. Therefore a suitable placement for the measuring units on pallet levels must be considered for each scenario. Measuring units that can and would be added directly on single levels are Time Temperature Indicators (TTIs) that are very small and that do not cost more than the economical benefit what would be produced by the use of the TTIs (Taoukis and Labuza [16, 17]). The principles of TTIs are chemical, physical or enzymatic reactions as functions of time and temperature. Its results are usually displayed by color changes of the TTI, so it is by the OnVuTM TTI (Eichen et al. [18]). If the discoloration of the label (respectively the color change) correlates with the WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

179

spoilage of the food for different temperature conditions, the label also gives information about the actual quality of the product. In general, the label can be read out visually or technically, for example by using a spectrophotometer. The possibility to read out the color by using a spectrophotometer delivers digital information that is unambiguous and what can be used as an input for processing units, like special software. However, to support the decision-making process of actors within supply chains, it is a necessity to translate the response of TTIs rapidly and easily into management information. The aim of this study was the development of an internet based software solution integrating a TTI kinetic model as a practical tool to assist in applying and using TTIs in meat supply chains. For testing-reasons, the OnVuTM TTI was investigated.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Description of the time temperature indicator and development of the software The analysed indicator was the OnVuTM label B1+081126 (Ciba Specialty Chemicals & Freshpoint, Switzerland, patent WO ⁄ 2006 ⁄ 048412). According to Kreyenschmidt et al. [20], the end of the products shelf life is shown by the TTIs by the time it takes until the color of the blue photochromic spot reaches a reference color. An automated UV-light charger (GLP TTI, Bizerba, Germany) was used to activate the labels when it was attached to the product. The discoloration processes of the labels were measured using a colorimeter (X-rite EyeOne i1^Basic, Gretag Macbeth, Switzerland) by measuring the Lab-values of the CIE Lab color system. Temperature loggers (iButtons, Verdict Systems BV, The Netherlands) were used to control the experiments. The square value (SV, eqn (1)) was used as a quality parameter to quantify the color changes of the TTI.

SV

L

a

b

(1)

where SV: square Value; L: lightness; a: red and green component; b: yellow and blue component of the label. Within previous studies the TTIs were investigated under isothermal and nonisothermal conditions within laboratory experiments and a mathematical model that describes the discoloration was developed. On basis of this model a TTI adjustment model as well as a TTI kinetic model (Kreyenschmidt et al. [20]) was developed. By using the mathematical model the TTI can be adjusted to different kind of food products by changing its initial parameters. The model was validated within a field trial in November 2009 within a poultry supply chain. The validated model is a main requirement for the use of TTIs in food supply chains and it also was the basis for the development of the software.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

180 Food and Environment The algorithm of the software was programmed by using PHP (Hypertext Preprocessor) and the use of a MySql-database, so that it is compatible with servers of commercial internet providers. The user is able to adjust the algorithm to new products and the user may deal with adjustable supply chains of up to ten different time-steps. So the user is able to simulate real or assumed timetemperature scenarios for a real or assumed spoilage behavior of foods. First validation of the basis features of the software were part of a previous TTI field trials (Raab et al. [21]). Main features of the software are to support the monitoring, the estimation of remaining shelf life, to support storage optimization and pricing. On basis of the temperature monitoring model and the inter-organizational cold chain model of Raab et al. [19] the information requirements of the software were determined: the software should allow further data processing of the measured square values of the TTIs and it should be possible to enter the measured TTI values in any step of the food supply chain into the software which allows a comparison of the measured response of the TTIs with the predicted response. By using calculated limit ranges, the software should show whether the cold chain was in its limit or not. Therefore an easy to handle assessment of the status of the products by displaying different light fields should be programmed: green light field - cold chain was within its limits, yellow light field - cold chain was close to its limit or red light field - cold chain was not ok. Further on, the remaining shelf life under the maximum tolerable temperature should be calculated which should help the actors to take further decision regarding use, storage or selling of the products. 2.2 Field trial scenario and validation of the model The chain started with the packaging of fresh chicken breast fillet in cardboard boxes (5kg, aerobic package) at a German slaughterhouse. Shelf life of the product is 164 hours (determined in previous shelf life studies (Bruckner [22])) under a maximum storage temperature of 4°C. After palletizing the cardboard boxes were transported to a wholesaler with several unloading phases. After storage within a cold store over night, the cardboard boxes were transported to different butcher’s shops close to Bonn. The chicken breast fillets arrived there approximately 24 hours after slaughtering. At the step of the packaging in total 60 labels were activated with an initial SV0 of 57.4 (according to a shelf life of 164 hours with a maximum storage temperature of 4°C) and placed on top and inside of three different cardboard boxes (10 labels per side). Conventional microbiological analysis was conducted to compare the predicted shelf life on basis of the Web2.0 based software solution with the calculated shelf life on basis of the measured counts of the most important spoilage organism, Pseudomonas sp. The investigation of the samples was conducted as described by Bruckner et al. [23]. Three samples were taken out of each box at every inspection point. The spoilage level of Pseudomonas sp. for the fresh chicken breast fillet was defined at 7.5 log10 cfu/g according to Bruckner et al. [23]. Cardboard box 1 was stored in the cooling chamber of the butchers shop until the end of the shelf life. Cardboard boxes 2 and 3 were stored within a second cooling chamber but at cardboard box 2 a temperature abuse of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

181

15°C for 2 hours were simulated at the step of the butchers shop (48 hours after packaging). The responses of the TTIs, the temperature recordings of the data loggers as well as the microbiological samples were measured or checked in each step of the supply chain. The response of the TTIs were measured by using a spectrophotometer and entered directly into the software.

3 Result and discussion 3.1 Web2.0 based software solution for quality-improvement by using TTIs Software was programmed and it is demonstrated on: http://www.ccmnetwork.com). Figure 1 shows a screenshot of the software.

Figure 1:

Screenshot of the functionality “quality-improvements by using TTIs” of the Web2.0 based software solution.

Different products can be chosen from the select box, which provides automatically that the right algorithm is chosen which was developed on basis of the laboratory investigations and validated in previous field trials. In this example the product “poultry 1” stands for the chicken breast fillet within the exemplified poultry supply chain where the above described field trials were conducted. Within the time row “maximum storage temperature” automatically a maximum storage temperature of 4°C is shown for this product. Furthermore any other information for stock management etc. can be easily integrated within the software. To check the response of the TTI the information regarding the date of packaging is mandatory. The measured SV-value of the TTI has to be integrated into the row “measured TTI-value”. The software calculates on basis of those values whether WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

182 Food and Environment the cold chain was within its limits or not and the remaining shelf life of the product in hours. Figure 2 shows a screenshot of the software after entering different parameters and clicking the button “CHECK TTI VALUE”.

Green light

Figure 2:

Screenshot of the functionality “quality-improvements by using TTIs” of the Web2.0 based software solution by using the option “check TTI value”.

In this example the user sees that the cold chain was in its limits and that the remaining shelf life is 167 hours. If the measured TTI value would be closer to the calculated set point the user will see a yellow symbol and if the measured TTI value is much above the user will see a red sign. But in all cases the remaining shelf life in hours is calculated for further decision makings as a function of the storage temperature of the product in the future, e.g. if the measured TTI value is close to its limit within one step of the supply chain, the actor can lower the transport or/and storage temperature within the next step to prolong the shelf life. A further option of the software helps to simulate shelf lives for dedicated products depending on dynamical and adjustable timetemperature-rows. It is possible to simulate the shelf life of this product in dependency of time and temperature. Therefore specific time intervals with its specific temperatures for specific steps within the chain can be entered within the provided rows. 3.2 Results from the field trial Activation of TTI-Labels took place at 2°C to 8°C in a cooling room at the company. The target value was SV 57.4. For all investigated boxes and a total of 60 TTIs an initial Square Value of 57.3 ± 0.1 was reached under the environmental circumstances within the slaughterhouse. According to Herranz WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

183

and Kreyenschmidt (2009), an abbreviation of 0.2 from the calculated initial SV can be determined as an acceptable range. The measured response of the TTIs was compared with the predicted response by using the TTI kinetic model within the software. Figure 3 gives an overview about the observed as well as the predicted limit range for each individual step for cardboard box 1. Thereby the limit range was calculated by using the Web2.0 based software solution. Slaughterhouse

Wholesaler

Butchery / Storage optimization

Packaging Inspection points Box 1

Box 1

Storage & Distribution

Product flow

Box 1 Distribution 10 hours

Inspection with TTI as a sensor Validation/ Action

Figure 3:

Location

SV obs. Limit range

S1 - Top

57.33

S7 - Inside

57.19

20 hours

54.53-60.27

SV obs. 60.31 60.13

Limit range 57.05-63.05

+

+

Controll passed

Controll passed

SV obs. 60.58 60.40

Limit range 58.19-64.32

+

Comparison of the observed SV and the predicted limit range in each individual step of the supply chain for cardboard box 1.

Box 1 was stored in the cooling chamber of the butcher’s shop. The TTIs on top of the box indicated a mean shelf life of 206.6 ± 5 h (8.6 days). And a mean shelf life of 223.1 ± 5 h was calculated by the TTIs inside the box 1 where a mean temperature of 1.6 +/- 0.9°C was measured. Box 2 was exposed to a temperature abuse (2h at 15°C) and stored afterwards in the cooling chamber. At a mean temperature of 2.8 +/- 1.5°C the TTIs on top of box 2 reached SV 71 after 115.8 ± 4h. Box 3 also was stored in the cooling chamber. TTI-discoloration time of the TTIs on the top of box 3 indicated a mean shelf life of 156.7 ± 5h with a measured mean temperature of 3.1 ± 1.0°C. The TTIs on the inside of box 3 reached an SV of 71 after 163.8 ± 5 h. The calculated end of shelf life on basis of the measured TTI values was in a good agreement with the predicted TTI values by using the kinetic model and the Web2.0 based software. Figure 4 shows the observed and predicted response of the TTI at the top and the bottom of cardboard box 2 in comparison to the growth of Pseudomonas sp. on poultry meat within this box. The results from the field trial validated that the TTI in combination with the software is a usable and pragmatic tool for temperature and shelf life monitoring. By entering the TTI value in real-time into the software, it could be revealed in each step, whether the cold chain was within its limit or not. As shown above, the temperature conditions within the field trial were in its range within all steps of the supply chain, except of the manipulated cold chain for cardboard box 2. Figures 5 and 6 show screenshots of the calculation of the remaining shelf life based on the color of the label measured after 72 hours after packaging at the top of the boxes of cardboard box 1 and 2. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

184 Food and Environment a.

b. 80

8

80

10 75

75

4 60

SV_predicted

4

End of shelf life

70

log10 [cfu/g]

6 65

Temperatur [°C]

70

6

8

End of shelf life

2

2

6

4

65 4 60

Temperatur [°C]

6

8

SV log10 [cfu/g]

8

10

2

2

55

55

0

0 0

24

48

72

96

120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336

0

0 0

24

48

72

96

120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336

Time [h]

Time [h]

SV_predicted,

Figure 4:

SV_observed,

Temperatur,

Pseudomonas sp.,

modGompertz

Example of the response of the TTIs (observed and predicted values), and growth of Pseudomonas sp. on poultry at cardboard box 1 (a. top of the box, b. inside of the box).

Green light

Figure 5:

Screenshot of the calculation of the remaining shelf life based on the color of the label measured after 72 hours after packaging for cardboard box 1 (without simulated temperature abuse).

The screenshots show that the cold chain of cardboard box 1 was quite in its limit whereas the cold chain of cardboard box 2 was not in its limit. The results from the calculation of the software were in close agreement with the results from the scientific analysis (Figures 5 and 6). The temperature abuse within the storage period of cardboard box 2 was shown by a faster discoloration of the labels and also by a higher square value of the TTIs. By using the Web2.0 based model a shorter shelf life of the chicken breast fillet in cardboard box 2 was calculated.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

185

Red light

Figure 6:

Screenshot of the calculation of the remaining shelf life based on the color of the label measured after 72 hours after packaging for cardboard box 2 (with simulated temperature abuse).

4 Conclusion and prospect The system ‘software and TTI’ supports the decision making process of the actors in several ways. The actors may monitor the specific cold chain of each product and they can simulate special scenarios to optimize their cold chain management. The field test showed the applicability and usefulness of the WEB2.0 based software solution which allows an economical integration of the TTIs into temperature monitoring systems and it enhances the applications by using TTIs. A demonstration of the software is available at: http://www.ccmnetwork.com. The described field trial was part of an extensive field trial within the European Project Chill-On (Contract no.: FP6-016333-2), conducted in October 2010. In this project novel temperature monitoring devices such as TTIs, tsensors and rf-TTIs, monitoring technologies for location, stationary and mobile management units (SMU, MMU, GIL), real-time PCR kits to monitor spoilage and pathogenic bacteria and QMRA/SLP models to predict microbial quality and safety were combined in the TRACECHILL system. The efficient implementation of TTIs in supply chains was one aim within the Chill-On project and one component of the holistic system (Chill-On [24]).

Acknowledgements The study was partly financed by the EU-project Chill-On (FP6-016333-2). Thanks all companies and students for supporting the study.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

186 Food and Environment

References [1] Lambert, A.D., Smith, J.P. & Dodds, K.L., Shelf life extension and microbiological safety of fresh meat – a review. Food Microbiology, 8(4), pp. 267-297, 1991. [2] McDonald, K. & Sun, D.W., Predictive food microbiology for the meat industry: a review. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 52(1-2), pp. 1-27, 1999. [3] Kreyenschmidt, J.. Modellierung des Frischeverlustes von Fleisch sowie des Entfärbeprozesses von Temperatur-Zeit-Integratoren zur Festlegung von Anforderungsprofilen für die produktbegleitende Temperaturüberwachung, PhD thesis, Rheinische Friedrich-WilhelmsUniversität Bonn, Agrimedia Verlag, Bergen/Dumme, 2003. [4] Koutsoumanis, K. P. & Taoukis, P., Meat safety, refrigerated storage and transport: modeling and management. Improving the Safety of Fresh Meat, eds. J. N. Sofos, Woodhead Publishing Limited: Cambridge, pp. 503-561, 2005. [5] Gospavic, R., Kreyenschmidt, J., Bruckner, S., Popov, V. & Haque, N., Mathematical modelling for predicting the growth of Pseudomonas ssp. in poultry under variable temperature conditions. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 127(3), pp. 290-297, 2008. [6] Nychas, G.-J. E., Skandamis, P. N., Tassou, C.P. & Koutsoumanis, K. P., Meat spoilage during distribution. Meat Science, 78(1-2), pp. 77-89, 2008. [7] Labuza, T. P. & Szybist, L. M., Open Dating of Foods, Food & Nutrition Press, Inc.: Trumbull, Connecticut, 2008. [8] Fu, B. & Labuza T.P., Considerations for the Application of Time-Temperature Integrators in Food Distribution, Journal of Food Distribution Research, 23(1), pp. 9-18, 1992. [9] Giannakourou, M.C., Koutsoumanis, K., Nychas, G.J.E. & Taoukis, P.S., Field evaluation of the application of time temperature integrators for monitoring fish quality in the chill chain. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 102(3), pp. 323-336, 2005. [10] Koutsoumanis, K. P.; Taoukis, P.; Nychas, G.-J E., Development of a Safety Monitoring and Assurance System for chilled food products. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 100, pp. 253-260, 2006. [11] Ólafsdóttir, G., S. Bogason, C. Colmer, M. Eden, T. Hafliðason & Kück, M., Improved efficiency and real time temperature monitoring in the food supply chain. 1st IIR International Cold Chain and Sustainability Conferences. Cambridge, 2010. [12] Eden, M., Raab, V., Kreyenschmidt, J., Hafliðason, T., Ólafsdóttir, G. & Bogason, S.G., Continuous temperature monitoring along the chilled food supply chain. Food chain integrity: a holistic approach to food traceability, safety, quality and authenticity, eds. J. Hoorfar, K. Jordan, F. Butler & R. Prugger, Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, pp. 115-129, 2011.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

187

[13] Jedermann, R., Ruiz-Garcia, L. & Lang, W., Spatial temperature profiling by semi-passive RFID loggers for perishable food transportation. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 65, pp. 145-154, 2009. [14] Wang, N., Zhang, N. & Wang, M. Review. Wireless sensors in agriculture and food industry -- Recent development and future perspective. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 50(1): 1-14, 2006. [15] Ruiz-Garcia, L., Steinberger, G. & Rothmund, M., A model and prototype implementation for tracking and tracing agricultural batch products along the food chain, Food Control, 21(2) , pp. 112–121, 2010. [16] Taoukis, P.S. & Labuza, T.P., Applicability of time–temperature indicators as shelf life monitors of food products. Journal of Food Science, 54(4), pp. 783-788, 1989. [17] Taoukis, P.S. & Labuza, T.P., Reliability of time-temperature indicators as food quality monitors under non-isothermal conditions. Journal of Food Science, 54(4), pp. 789-792, 1989. [18] Eichen, Y., Haarer, D., Feuerstack, M., Jannasch, U., Bücken, W., Uber, M., Nisbet, T., Reichert, H., Feiler, L. & Fuchs, A., What it takes to make it work: the OnVuTM TTI. Proc. of the 3rd Int. Workshop Cold-ChainManagement, 2nd-3rd of June 2008, eds. J. Kreyenschmidt, Bonn, 2008. [19] Raab, V.; Bruckner, S.; Beierle, E.; Kampmann, Y. & Petersen, B., Generic model for the prediction of remaining shelf life in support of cold chain management in pork and poultry supply chains. Journal on Chain and Network Science, 8(1), pp. 59-73, 2008. [20] Kreyenschmidt, J., Christiansen, H., Huebner, A., Raab, V. & Petersen, B., A novel photochromic time-temperature indicator to support cold chain management. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 45(2), pp. 208-215, 2010. [21] Raab, V., Ibald, R., Albrecht, A., Petersen, B. & Kreyenschmidt, J., WEB2.0 based Software Solution to support a practical implementation of Time Temperature Indicators. Proc. of the 4th Int. Workshop Cold Chain Management, eds. J. Kreyenschmidt, Bonn, pp. 57-58, 2010. [22] Bruckner, S., Predictive shelf life model: A new approach for the improvement of quality management in meat chains. PhD thesis, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Südwestdeutscher Verlag für Hochschulschriften, Saarbrücken, 2010. [23] Bruckner, S.; Raab, V. & Kreyenschmidt, J., Concept for the implementation of a generic model for remaining shelf life prediction in meat supply chains. 6th Int. Conference Predictive Modeling in Foods Meeting Abstracts and Information Booklet, 08th–12th September 2009, Washington DC, USA. [published on CD], 2009. [24] Chill-On, Chill-On Field Trials Summary Report, Online. www.chill-on.com/final-report.html, 2011.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

189

Quality losses in deep-frozen foodstuffs at cyclically modified storage temperatures M. Braun, R. Stamminger & G. Broil University of Bonn, Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Household and Appliance Technology Section, Germany

Abstract The project “Smart Domestic Appliances in Sustainable Energy Systems (SmartA)” aims at developing strategies showing how smart domestic appliances can contribute to load management in future energy systems. These systems will have to integrate larger shares of renewable energy, which are partly intermittent, and therefore will require a smarter management of generation and demand. As household refrigerators and freezers are using a considerable amount of electricity, they are also under investigation how much they can contribute to a smarter energy management. The main area of use in smart systems may be the possibility to store surplus or renewable energy in terms of cold, especially in freezers. Intermittent use would result in increased hysteresis of the temperature of stored food and possible food quality losses due to multiple cooling cycles. Quality losses in frozen foodstuffs depend not only on the average storage temperature but also on the amplitude of the fluctuations. Aim of this study is to quantify quality changes (weight, texture, sensorial quality and nutritional value) in foodstuff (peppers, bread and minced beef) stored for one year in freezers at different average temperatures and temperature amplitudes (-24°C with temperature amplitude 7.5 K and -19°C with temperature amplitude of 1.5 K). The results show no significant difference in quality changes between both storage conditions (statistical reliability 95%) with an exception of vitamin C. Consequently, the assumption can be made that the average storage temperature has a greater influence on the range of chemical-physical processes in foodstuffs during frozen storage than the amplitude of temperature fluctuations. Keywords: frozen storage, temperature fluctuation, moisture migration, texture, weight loss, vitamin C, peroxide value.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110191

190 Food and Environment

1 Introduction In times of rising energy prices the question of possible ways of saving energy in private households is growing in importance. Devices with high energy consumption are the first to be targeted. These are primarily refrigerators and freezers which account for 16% of the total energy consumption in households and hence are the largest domestic consumers [1]. The project “Smart Domestic Appliances in Sustainable Energy Systems (Smart-A)” run by Öko-Institute.V. and the University of Bonn is developing strategies for the utilisation of domestic appliances in an environment of fluctuating energy from solar and aeolic energy sources (www.smart-a.org). Possibilities of cold storage in freezers are being investigated which are able to bridge longer interruptions to the energy supply [2]. However, that would mean that foodstuffs would be subject to high fluctuations in temperature which could lead to a loss in quality [1]. 1.1 Quality of foodstuffs Various dimensions must be considered when investigating the quality of foodstuffs. On the one hand, sensorial enjoyment, or sensorial quality, and the health value, or hygienic-toxicological quality, are important. On the other hand, other quality aspects such as the nutritional value (dietary quality) and the usage value play a large role in a comprehensive assessment. However, for consumers the quality of goods represents a certain value. The sensorial value is of prime importance because the individual characteristics can, at least in part, be examined and determined sensorially before purchasing. The health aspect is the next in importance. The quality of frozen foodstuffs is affected primarily by factors such as the type and condition of the original goods, processing conditions, storage temperature, length of storage and packaging [3]. 1.2 Storage temperature of foodstuffs in the home The absolute upper limit for the reproduction of micro-organisms is -10°C, therefore a safe temperature limit would be c. -12°C [4]. GUTSCHMIDT [5] stated in various studies that a temperature of -18°C should be the maximum limit for longer-term food storage. Corresponding minimum requirements for the appropriate production and distribution of frozen foodstuffs in food production and the food trade have been defined in the Ordinance on Frozen Foodstuffs (TLMV) which stipulates a minimum temperature of -18°C. The speed of chemical reactions is slowed at lower temperatures, but not evenly. For example, in the temperature range of -30°C to -18°C the reaction rate of fruit and vegetables drops by 2 to 3 times (=Q10 value) if the temperature is lowered by 10 K However, in the range above -15°C the Q10 value rises continuously to between 4 and 8 or higher [5]. The Q10 values for fish and meat at temperatures from -20°C to -10°C lie between 1.1 and 2.6, individually as high as 4 or 5, and at temperatures below -20 °C the values lie between 1.05 and 1.1 [6]. Hence the reaction rate is considerably slower in the lower temperature WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

191

range than in the higher. This behaviour means that particularly sensitive substances such as vitamins are preserved to a large extent. For example, the vitamin C content in frozen vegetables is still preserved to 90 to 100% even after 12 months of storage at a temperature of -30°C [7]. However, in addition to setting the right storage temperature it is reported also as important to keep temperature fluctuations within as narrow a range as possible since the size and shape of the fine ice crystals formed during freezing can change markedly during frozen storage. The growth of ice crystals is speeded up by fluctuations in temperature. Recrystallisation takes place if the vapour pressure is greater around small crystals than around large crystals. Hence a drop in vapour pressure occurs so that large crystals continue to grow at the expense of small ones. Long storage with high fluctuations in temperature is reported to cause a coarser crystal structure to emerge which can lead to cell damage [8]. One study states that the amplitude of temperature fluctuations and the average temperature of frozen storage have a great influence on the extent of recrystallisation and the associated dehydration process in foodstuffs. However, this influence diminishes with lower average temperatures, i.e. the lower the storage temperature, the lower are the overall water and quality losses [9]. Temperature fluctuations may cause gradual dehydration and freezer burns in foodstuffs. If the interior temperature of the freezer drops, the packaging is colder than the frozen food for a short time. This means that vapour sublimates from the product and condenses on the colder inside of the packaging. If the interior temperature rises again, the product is colder than the packaging and the inverse process occurs, but the vapour condenses on the surface of the product and does not re-enter the product. Hence snow forms gradually in the packaging and the foodstuff dehydrates [4]. However, a study with beef products showed very different results after one year of frozen storage with fluctuating and constant temperatures. Samples from storage at a constant temperature of -23°C are compared with samples from storage at temperatures fluctuating between -23°C and -21°C and between -21°C and -18°C. The temperature fluctuations occurred in a 12 hour cycle. After one year of storage no significant quality differences or noticeable weight losses were recorded [10]. 1.3 Storage time of foodstuffs in the home The length of storability of foodstuffs is determined to a great extent by biochemical reactions triggered primarily through enzyme activity. Enzymes are still active at temperatures between -18°C and -20°C, albeit at a highly decelerated rate, thereby causing changes to protein and fats. These changes affect the smell, taste and consistency of foodstuffs considerably [11]. The length of storage is also affected by temperature fluctuations. Standard refrigerator and freezer units use only 2 set-point controllers. The controller activates the compressor (or other electrical parts) at a set upper temperature and de-activates them after cooling to a set lower temperature. This is controlled by preset parameter settings. Hence the temperature will fluctuate between two WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

192 Food and Environment limits. The type of temperature control is determined by the location of the sensor; a differentiation is made between direct and indirect temperature control. For direct temperature control the sensor is located in the refrigerator-freezer at a point which represents the interior temperature so that the temperature can be recorded as a direct value. For indirect control the sensor is placed at the vaporiser and hence controls the temperature of the vaporiser [12]. 1.4 Project remit The objective of these investigations is to quantify quality changes in stored foodstuffs due to increased amplitude of the storage temperature in freezers. In order to arrive at an overall assessment, the different aspects of quality must be investigated for changes using set indicators. Especial attention will be paid to weight losses and changes in texture of foodstuffs, followed by the nutritional value and sensorial quality. In addition, the energy consumption of the freezer units will be compared for varying storage temperatures and temperature amplitudes.

2 Material and methods Two identical freezers, model GSP36/A31 from Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH with a capacity of 296 l and an ability to freeze of 24 kg in 24 h, were compared. The first unit (Freezer1) was operated at a temperature set on the device of -19°C and a temperature amplitude of 1.5 K, while the second device (Freezer2) was programmed at -24°C with a temperature amplitude of 7.5 K. Thus a maximum temperature of -18°C was ensured in both freezers. Both freezers were stocked with identical foodstuffs which were analysed at set intervals. Mass and texture analyses, vitamin C content and peroxide values as well as sensory impressions were to be incorporated in the evaluation of quality changes. Foodstuffs with short storage lives were selected for the evaluation of the two types of frozen storage. Biochemical reactions in vegetables like peppers causing a destruction of vitamins are happening during frozen storage [13]. Bread is representative of changes in texture due to retrogradation during cold and frozen storage [14]. Changes occur in meat through oxidation reactions of fats which can also be analysed [15]. Peppers: Fresh red peppers, grade 1, were bought from one batch at a store for the trial. The peppers were washed, cut and divided between labelled Ziploc freezer bags. Approximately 50 g of pepper slices were weighed out for each bag. The samples for weight and texture measurements were cut into pieces using a round cutter made of metal with a diameter of 4 cm. The remaining pieces were cut into irregular strips c. 3-4 cm long and packed for the other analyses (vitamin C and sensorial test). The peppers were not blanched before being frozen. Bread: Fresh rye bread from the same batch with a rye percentage of 30% as sold in standard 500 g packets was used for the bread samples. For the weight WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

193

and texture measurements two bread slices were packed together in a Ziploc zipper freezer bag, labelled and weighed. One slice of bread was sufficient for the sensorial tests. Minced beef: The minced beef was bought frozen and vacuum packed in preportioned packs at one time in one shop. The packs were already divided into 4 x 250 g compartments. One sample corresponds to a 250 g compartment. The samples were weighed and labelled. All cut and packaged samples were distributed equally on 7 shelves in the individual freezers. The products were then frozen for 24 hours using the Superfreeze function (-40°C). Thereafter the temperature was automatically adjusted to the preset level (Freezer1 = -19°C and Freezer2 = -24°C). The positioning of the samples was documented. Extraction of the samples for analysis was performed in accordance with the EU Commission Directive 92/2/EC of 13 January 1992 [16] laying down the sampling procedure and the Community method of analysis for the official control of the temperatures of quick-frozen foods intended for human consumption. In order to reflect all temperature areas of a freezer in the analysis, the samples were always taken from three areas (top, middle, bottom). The analyses were performed every four weeks up to the fourth month and thereafter every 3 months (so after 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 36, 52 weeks). Measurement method for moisture migration: In order to determine changes in mass, the difference of the final mass to the initial mass of all samples in a thawed out state is measured. The juices that run out during thawing are collected in a 100 ml beaker via a funnel and also weighed in order to verify the accuracy of the measurement. Measurement method for assessing texture: A texture analyser with various sensors was used to measure the texture. The samples are analysed in a thawed out state. The firmness of the peppers is tested in a pressure test according to a testing regulation called “skin puncture strength of different coloured peppers using a cylinder probe” [17]. A stainless steel probe (P/0.5S) is used. The firmness of bread is investigated in accordance with the standard AACC (74-09) using a cylinder probe (P/36R). The texture of minced beef is tested using a stainless steel cylinder probe (P/0.5S) and the same program as for the peppers [17].The results are expressed as the force required to deform the sample to a certain degree. Measurement method for vitamin C content: The vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) content is determined using a colour test from Boehringer Mannheim GmbH Biochemica and a UV VIS spectral photometer with double beam technology [18]. Measurement method for the peroxide value: Fat oxidation is measured using the L 13.00-6 method “Determination of the peroxide number in fats and oils (method as per Wheeler)” from the Official Collection of Analytical Methods of the Federal Republic of Germany in accordance with Art. 35 LMBG (Foodstuffs and Commodities Act).

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

194 Food and Environment Measurement method for sensorial quality: The sensory quality is tested in a triangle test according to DIN/ISO 4120 with 12 testers. The results provide information concerning the significance or non-significance of differences between samples [19]. The samples are thawed out and evaluated under laboratory conditions in accordance with the DIN 10962 standard. Statistical method: In order to compare two independent random samples for significant differences a statistical hypothesis test, or t-test, is used [20].The level of significance in these investigations is set at a maximum permissible probability of error = 0.05. Since the test statistic is t- distributed with n degrees of freedom, the zero hypothesis H0(= the foodstuff samples from Freezer1 and Freezer2 do not display any significant differences; hence they are identical) for the level of significance is rejected if |t| > ( ;n) applies. If the test ratio is smaller than the table value (= t-value from the table for the t-test which can be found in every statistical formulary) then H0 cannot be rejected [20].

3 Results and discussion Moisture migration and changes in texture: The percentage weight losses of the samples after thawing shows that the first instance of foodstuff-specific weight loss occurs when freezing the foodstuff (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). It increases only slowly with continued length of storage. The vertical bars in the figures

Figure 1:

Weight loss in % of the initial weight of peppers, minced beef and bread over 52 weeks of frozen storage (own report).

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Figure 2:

195

Penetration force for determining texture properties of peppers, bread and minced beef over 52 weeks of frozen storage (own report).

vitamin C in mg/100g peppers

show the standard deviation for samples taken at the same time. The connecting lines are for optical simplification only. The differences in samples are not significant (t-test). Vitamin C content: The vitamin C content of the samples after thawing shows that this decreases only slowly with increasing length of storage and that standard deviations increase (Fig. 3). A significant difference can be detected 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

vitamin C Freezer1

0

4

8

vitamin C Freezer2

12

16

24

36

52

weeks

Figure 3:

Vitamin C content (peppers) over 52 weeks of frozen storage (own report).

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

196 Food and Environment between the samples after 24, 36 and 52 weeks of storage (t-test). The vitamin C content in Freezer2 was (109.3 8.8) mg/100 g of peppers after 52 weeks. The vitamin C content in Freezer1 was (104.6 11.0) mg/100 g of peppers. Changes in peroxide value: The change in peroxide value (POV) in minced beef shows that the values tend to rise over time (Fig. 4). However, the values for both freezers are very close and the standard deviations overlap mostly. No significant difference could be detected between the samples of both freezers (t-test). 10,0

POV Freezer1 POV Freezer2

POV 0-3: fresh, undecayed, can be stored further POV 3-6: perishable, should be used soon POV 7-10: mostly suety, must be refined

9,0

POV in 1/8 mmol O2/kg

8,0 7,0 6,0 5,0 4,0 3,0 2,0 1,0 0,0 0

4

8

12

16

24

36

52

weeks

Figure 4:

Changes in POV (minced beef) over 52 weeks of frozen storage (own report).

Sensorial quality: In the triangle tests the divergent samples for bread were correctly detected by 7 testers after 0 weeks, for peppers after 9 weeks and for minced beef after 16 weeks. With 7 correct answers from 12 testers and a significance level of = 0.1, a slight differentiation trend was identified between the foodstuff samples of both freezers (Fig. 5). One explanation could be that the samples compared can be differentiated by external characteristics not caused by the storage conditions in the freezer. This occurred with a minced beef sample taken from Freezer1 after 5 weeks and was caused by faulty packaging with a resultant loss of vacuum. The difference between the samples was therefore clearly visible for the testers. This result is classified as a maverick and excluded from further evaluation. At a significance level of = 0.05 the panel did not detect any statistically significant differences in the samples from both freezers.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

197

Food and Environment

12 maverick sample detected correctly (number of 12 testers)

11

highly significant difference ( =0,01)

10

9

significant difference ( =0,05)

9 slight trend ( =0,1)

8

7

7

7

7

7

6 6

6

6 5

5

4

4

5 5

3

4

4 3

3

3

2 2

2

5

2

1 0 bread 0 weeks

Figure 5:

5 weeks

peppers 9 weeks

13 weeks

16 weeks

minced beef 36 weeks

52 weeks

Results of triangle test with a panel of 12 testers (own report).

Energy consumption: In 24 h Freezer1 uses 0.564 kWh and Freezer2 0.627 kWh. If the energy consumption of Freezer2 is set as 100%, the energy consumption of Freezer1 is only 90%. Hence Freezer1 uses around 10% less energy than Freezer2 (Tab. 1). Table 1:

Energy consumption of freezers (365 days=52 weeks) (own report). Freezer Freezer1 Freezer2

24 hours (kWh) 0.564 0.627

365 days (kWh) 205 228

Total (%) 90 100

This difference is caused by the differences in the set operating temperatures and the programmed temperature hysteresis. The temperature setting for Freezer1 was -19°C, hence on average the compressor runs a shorter time than the compressor of Freezer2 with a temperature setting of -24°C. The higher energy consumption for Freezer2 is due to higher energy losses, causing longer working time and the resultant greater consumption of energy of its compressor.

4 Conclusions In view of the results, it is now possible to answer the question as to the extent of quality changes depending on the average storage temperature and temperature amplitude. It can be said in conclusion that for the most part no significant quality differences between the storage temperatures and temperature amplitudes could be identified. The only significant differences were identified after 24, 36 WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

198 Food and Environment and 52 weeks in the vitamin C content of peppers, which indicates that the average temperature has a greater influence on the complex of chemical and physical processes in foodstuffs during freezing than the amplitude of fluctuations in temperature. However, the difference of average values was only 5 mg/100 g of peppers, which has scarcely any dietary effect on people. A decisive difference is observable in energy consumption, which is noticeably higher for the freezer with a lower storage temperature and higher temperature fluctuation. Therefore, a frozen storage at the most stable temperature possible is to be preferred, if the electricity consumption is to be kept as low as possible. However, if electricity is not the issue, for example when it is coming from renewable sources and available ‘for free’ (e.g. photovoltaic), food stuff may be stored at much lower temperatures with high fluctuations without causing significant effects on food quality. The main area of use in smart systems may be the possibility to store surplus or renewable energy in terms of cold, especially in freezers. An intermittent use would result in an increased hysteresis of the temperature of stored food without causing significant effects on food quality due to multiple cooling cycles.

References [1] Scholz, W., Energieeffizienz bei Hausgeräten, EOR-Forum, in: http://www.eor.de/fileadmin/eor/docs/aktivitaeten/2007/EOR_Forum/Vortr aege/EOR-Forum-ScholzEnergieeffizienz_bei_Hausgeraeten.pdfZentralverband Elektrotechnik- und Elektronikindustrie e.V., Frankfurt am Main, pp. 1–32, 2007 [2] Stamminger, R., Synergy Potential of Smart Domestic Appliances in Renewable Energy Systems, Shaker Verlag:Aachen, 2009 [3] Timm, F., Qualitätssicherung. Tiefgefrorene Lebensmittel, F. Timm, K. Hermann (Hrsg.) Backwell: Berlin, 2. Auflage, pp. 242–246, 1995 [4] Timm, F., Grundlagen und Auswirkungen des Tiefgefrierens. Tiefgefrorene Lebensmittel, F. Timm, K. Hermann (Hrsg.) Backwell: Berlin, 2. Auflage, pp. 15 – 41, 1995 [5] Gutschmidt, J., Über den Einfluss des Gefrierens und der Gefrierlagerung auf die Qualität gefrorener Lebensmittel. Conserva 17, pp. 266–270, 301– 306, 1969 [6] Spiess, W. E. L., Welche Bedeutung kommt -18°C als Grenztemperatur bei der Gefrierlagerung von Lebensmitteln? Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologie 8, pp. 89–93, 1975 [7] Hötzel, D., Zittermann A., Qualitätsvergleich zwischen frischen und tiefgekühlten Lebensmitteln. Ernährungs-Umschau 39, pp. 95–101, 1992 [8] Heiss, R., Eichner, K., Haltbarmachen von Lebensmitteln, Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Göttingen, Heidelberg, 4. Auflage, pp. 157–192, 2002 [9] Reid, D. S., Perez Albela, L., The effect of average storage temperature, and temperature fluctuation on the rate of moisture migration in a model frozen food. Proc. of the 13th World Congress of Food Science & Technology, Nantes (France), pp. 1939–1948, 2006 WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

199

[10] Moleeratanond, W., Ashby, B. H., Kramer, A., Berry, B. W., Lee, W., Effect of a Di-Thermal Storage Regime on Quality and Nutritional Changes and Energy Consumption of Frozen Boxed Beef. Journal of Food Science 46 (3), pp. 829–837, 1981 [11] HEA Bilderdienst,Informationen über Elektrizität und ihre Anwendung. Serie: Kühl- und Gefriergeräte, VWEW Energieverlag GmbH: Frankfurt a. M., 5. Auflage, pp. 22, 2001 [12] Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH (BSH), http://www.bsh-group.com [13] Kramer, A., Der Einfluss des Tiefkühlens und der Gefrierlagerung auf die Nährstofferhaltung bei Obst und Gemüse. Die Industrielle Obst und Gemüseverwertung 64, pp. 212–219, 1979 [14] Gork, F.-P., Prauser, A., Fertiggerichte. Tiefgefrorene Lebensmittel, F. Timm, K. Hermann (Hrsg.) Backwell: Berlin, 2. Auflage, pp. 165–182, 1995 [15] Berghofer, E., Vorteile des Einsatzes der Tiefkühlung in der Gemeinschaftsverpflegung im Vergleich mit den Kühlverfahren. Literaturstudie Universität Wien, http://www.gourmet.at/Dokumente /Verpflegungsformen_Studie_Berghofer_2002.pdf [16] Richtlinie 92/2/EWG, 1992, EU Commission, Directive 92/2/EC of 13 January 1992 laying down the sampling procedure and the Community method of analysis for the official control of the temperatures of quickfrozen foods intended for human consumption. Amtsblatt Nr. L 034 vom 11.02.1992, Brüssel, pp. 30–33 [17] WinopalForschungsbedarf GmbH, The Texture Analysis Applications Directory-Food Products. Information of Winopal Company http://www.winopal.com/laborbedarf/produkte/texture-analyser.html [18] Boehringer Mannheim, L-Ascorbinsäure. Methoden der enzymatischen BioAnalytik und LM-Analytik. Boehringer Mannheim GmbH, Biochemica, Mannheim, pp. 2–5, 20–23, 1994 [19] Busch-Stockfisch, M., Dreiecksprüfungen-Triangeltest. Praxishandbuch Sensorik in der Produktentwicklung und Qualitätssicherung. Hamburg, Behr’s (aktualisierte Loseblattsammlung), 4. Akt.-Lfg. 10/03 pp. 1–12, 2003 [20] Sachs, L.,Angewandte Statistik – Anwendung statistischer Methoden, Springer Verlag: Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, 11. Auflage, pp. 208–211, 352–361, 2004

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Section 5 Characterisation of food plants

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

203

The phytotoxicity of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol and Phenol to local agricultural plant species in China K. Poon, K. L. Hon & J. J. Huang Food Science and Technology Program, Division of Science and Technology, Beijing Normal University - Hong Kong Baptist University United International College, China

Abstract Industrial pollutants are known to affect the growth of plants and increase the costing of agricultural production. For ecological risk assessment, the toxicological screening benchmark concentrations of contaminants in soil and soil solution may use as the indicators for potential concern. The benchmark values were derived from the lowest values of the EC30 of the chemicals in tested plant species. As the economically important agricultural plant species in China are quite different from that of the North America, local data on the phytotoxicity of chemicals to local species should be a piece of valuable information. In the present studies, the method of seed germination and root elongation were used to estimate the EC50 and EC30 of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol (TCP) and Phenol to six economically important local agricultural plants. The lowest EC30 of TCP in tested species was found to be one forth of the reference benchmark values, while the lowest EC30 of Phenol was similar to the benchmark concentration. The phytotoxicity of TCP was found to be more rigorous than that of Phenol in reducing the growth of local agricultural plants. For the tested agricultural species, Raphanus sativus “short-leave radish no. 13” was relatively insensitive to the effect of TCP and Phenol, while Amaranthus mangostanus “round-leaf green amaranth” was the most sensitive one. For the three species from the genus Brassica, they have similar sensitivity to both of the chemicals. Keywords: 2,4,6-Trichorophenol, Phenol, phytotoxicity, toxicological benchmarks, agricultural plants.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110201

204 Food and Environment

1 Introduction There is a rapid industrialization and soaring rise of urban population in China. Local environment is gradually contaminated with different chemicals released by industries [2–4]. A lot of environmental contaminants are known to have phytotoxic effects to the terrestrial plants [5–7]. Small organic molecules with molecular weight less than 500 can enter the plant root system easily. In most cases, plants do not have a defence system to discriminate the entry of these harmful organic materials [1] and the entry is largely determined on the basis of their polarity [1]. A lot of chemical pollutants have been demonstrated to affect the growth of terrestrial plants and increases the cost of agricultural production. Some of these contaminants could even accumulate in the plant and pass to human through consumption [8-9]. This imposes the potential food safety hazard to the public. Environmental contaminant for example phenolic compounds were quite toxic and shown to damage DNA of human lymphocytes [4]. They are found in food, water and air. Phenol has been widely used in industry for example to produce pesticide and dyestuff. A lot of phenol-containing products were found in market including mouthwashes, toothache drops, throat lozenges, analgesic rubs, and antiseptic lotions or smoking tobacco [2]. These products could contribute part of the source of phenol contamination to environment. 2,4,6trichlorophenol (TCP) is a chlorinated phenol that has been used as a fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, antiseptic [10], defoliant, and glue preservative [11]. Upon heating, TCP decomposes to toxic and corrosive chemical, hydrogen chloride and chlorine [12]. Phenol and TCP have been demonstrated to inhibit the growth of root of Chinese cabbage [5]. The concern has been raised in media on the pace of development in China has gone far more advanced than the local policies and regulatory guidelines [13]. Constant monitoring and proper follow-up are necessary to control the influence of the industrial contaminants to agricultural production. According to the ecological risk assessment in US, wherever the land contain the contaminant of concentration over the toxicological screening benchmark are required for further attention [1]. However, there is not enough local data to support whether the toxicological screening benchmarks could be applicable to local agricultural plant species in China. In this present studies, we would like to gather more basic information on the phytotoxicity of industrial contaminants to local agricultural plant species of China in particular to the economically significant species. Six commonly consumed vegetables in south China were chosen for the studies. The growing periods to harvest were ranged from 25–50 days and the sowing month was from April to November.

2 Materials and methods 2.1 Chemicals and seeds Phenol of analytical grade was purchased from Guangzhou Luo Xin Bao Chemicals Ltd., and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) of purity > 97.0% (GC) were WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

205

purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Seeds were purchased from Guangzhou Changhe Seed Co. Ltd. Six different local agricultural plant species were tested. They included 1) Amaranthus mangostanus “Round-leaf green amaranth” (Amaranthus); 2) Cucumis melo var. conomon Makino “oriental pickling melon long-body green strips”(Cucumis); 3) Raphanus sativus “short-leave radish no.13”(Raphanus); 4) Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis var. utilis “AprilSeptember flowering Chinese cabbage no.19” (“Cabbage no.19”); 5) Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis var. utilis “yellow-leaf medium flowering Chinese cabbage” (“Yellow leaf cabbage”); 6) Brassica campestris ssp. Chinensis Makino var. communis “Pak Choi” (“Pak Choi”). The six agricultural species used in the present studies are the popular Chinese vegetables in Guangdong province of southern China. The growth cycle of these agricultural species take average of 25-50 days and the sowing months are usually around summer to autumn from April to October (Table 1). The appearances of the six seeds are similar to each other. They are small and round, except Raphanus and Cucumis with bigger seeds (Table 1). The toxicity test model of seed germination and root elongation [14] was used in the present studies. Table 1:

Seed characteristics and planting practices of different species. Seed Characteristics Shape Diameter (mm)

Amaranthus mangostanus “Round-leaf green amaranth” Cucumis melo var. conomon Makino “oriental pickling melon long-body green strips” Raphanus sativus “short-leave radish no.13” Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis var. utilis “April September flowering Chinese cabbage no.19”; Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis var. utilis “yellow-leaf medium flowering Chinese cabbage”; Brassica campestris ssp. Chinensis Makino var. communis “Pak Choi”;

Planting Harvest Sowing Time month (days) 25-30 4-10

Round

1.5

Oval

3x7

35

3-4

Round Round

3.5 1.5

45 28-32

4, 9 5-10

Round

1.5

40-50

6-10

Round

1.5

25

5-10

2.2 Pretreatment of seeds Seeds were first pretreated with 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for 10 minutes, and soaked for 1 hour in glass-distilled water before air-dried at room temperature to remove the fungal spores. 2.3 Seed germination and root elongation studies For the first part of the experiment, suitable incubation times for seed of each species were determined. Seed was incubated in the dark until at least 65 percent of the control seed have germinated and developed roots that were at least 20mm long. The root length was measured from the transition point between the hypocotyls and to the tip of the root. For seed to be counted as having germinated, the length of the primary root should attain a length of 5mm. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

206 Food and Environment Using the optimal incubation time, the seeds were incubated in different concentration of test chemicals. Forty-five seeds per species were used for each exposure of different chemical concentration and control. Every 15 seeds were placed in a 15-mm diameter petri dish with filter paper put in the bottom; 10ml of deionized water or chemical solution were used in each petri dish for seed germination and root elongation experiments. The petri dishes were then covered and incubated in the seed germinator at 25+1 C and 75% humidity in complete darkness. Three replicates were repeated for each concentration. After the incubation, the root length of each seed was measured. Using probit transformation of a dose-response curve, the value of EC50 and EC30 of each chemical for each seed species were estimated.

3 Results 3.1 TCP Figure 1a showed that TCP did not significantly affect the seed germination rate of Raphanus, Cucumis and Amaranthus. For the three species from the genus Brassica (Figure 1b), only the two species of “Pak Choi” and “Yellow leaf cabbage” were affected, but not the “Cabbage no.19”. The seed germination rate was decreased with increased in TCP concentration. TCP was Table 2:

Effective concentration of TCP and Phenol for each species. Incubation Time (h)

Amaranthus mangostanus “Round-leaf green amaranth” Cucumis melo var. conomon Makino “oriental pickling melon long-body green strips” Raphanus sativus “shortleave radish no.13” Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis var. utilis “April September flowering Chinese cabbage no.19”; Brassica Campestris ssp. Chinensis var. utilis “yellow-leaf medium flowering Chinese cabbage”; Brassica campestris ssp. Chinensis Makino var. communis “Pak Choi”; Literature value [5] Benchmark value [1]

TCP

Phenol EC50 ppm EC30 ppm 52.1 15.7

63

EC50 ppm 17.8

EC30 ppm 2.6

61

14.9

5.0

322.7

139.8

45

15.9

11.4

140.0

85.3

60

15.3

4.8

42.7

31.0

60

9.7

3.4

67.5

28.4

60

10.1

3.4

46.7

27.1

12.7

125.6 10

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

10

Food and Environment

Figure 1a 120 100

%

80 60 40 20 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

ppm Raphanus sativus

Cucumis melo

Amaranth mangostanus

Figure 1b 120 100

%

80 60 40 20 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

ppm Cabbage No 19

Figure 1:

Pak Choi

Yellow Leaf Cabbage

Seed germination rate at different TCP concentration.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

207

208 Food and Environment

Figure 2a 35 30 25 mm

20 15 10 5 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

ppm Raphanus Sativus

Cucumis melo

Amaranth mangostanus

Figure 2b 35 30

mm

25 20 15 10 5 0 0

5

10

15

20

25

ppm Cabbage No 19

Figure 2:

Pak Choi

Yellow Leaf Cabbage

Root length at different TCP concentration.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Figure 3a 120 100 80

%

60 40 20 0 0

100

200

300

400

500

600

ppm Raphanus sativus

Cucumis melo

Amaranthus mangostanus

Figure 3b 120 100

%

80 60 40 20 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

ppm Cab b age No 19

Figure 3:

Pak Choi

Yellow Leaf Cab b age

Seed germination rate at different Phenol concentration.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

209

210 Food and Environment

Figure 4a

40

mm

30 20 10 0 0

200

400

600

ppm Raphanus sativus

Cucumis melo

Amaranthus mangostanus

Figure 4b 40 35 30 mm

25 20 15 10 5 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

120

ppm Cabbage No 19

Figure 4:

Pak Choi

Yellow Leaf Cabbage

Root length at different Phenol concentration.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

211

found to reduce the root elongation of six species (Figure 2a, b). The higher the concentration of TCP was, more was the root length reduction. Table 2 showed that the EC50 of six plant species were comparable in values. For the EC30 of six species, Raphanus had the highest values, while Amaranthus had the lowest. 3.2 Phenol Increased in Phenol concentration decreased the seed germination rate of Cucumis (Figure 3a), but not affecting the other five species (Figure 3b). Phenol was shown to reduce the root elongation of all six species in a concentration dependent manner (Figure 4a, b). However, at low concentration of Phenol, the growth of Raphanus was not dramatically affected (Figure 4a, b). Table 2 showed that Cucumis had the highest EC50 of 322.7ppm and seconded by Raphanus with EC50 of 140 ppm. For the other four species, the values of EC50 were ranged from 42.7 to 67.5 ppm. For EC30, Cucumis had the highest values, followed by Raphanus, and Amaranthus had the lowest. For the three species in genus Brassica, “Pak Choi”, “Cabbage no.19” and “Yellow leaf cabbage”, they had comparable values.

4 Discussion Chinese food culture and the choice of vegetables were different from that of western society. The research data on Chinese agricultural species gradually become important, especially for ecological risk assessment in local area. The six agricultural species used in the present studies were the popular Chinese vegetables in Guangdong province of southern China. The growth cycle of these agricultural species took average of 25-50 days and the sowing months were usually around summer to autumn from April to October (Table 1). The appearances of the six seeds were similar to each other. They were small and round, except Raphanus and Cucumis with bigger seeds (Table 1). The six species also had comparable germination time. They all were shown to have high sensitivity to TCP, in particular for Amaranthus, and so its EC50 and EC30 were the smallest amongst the six species in studies. When compared this value to the toxicological benchmark concentration, the smallest value observed in six Chinese vegetables was only about one forth of the benchmark [1]. The deviation may suggest a readjustment of the benchmark may be necessary for Chinese vegetables. For Phenol, the smallest EC30 shown by Amaranthus was comparable with the toxicological benchmark concentration [1]. Generally, the EC30 of the six agricultural species were much larger than that of TCP. It indicated that TCP was more toxic than Phenol to the growth of plants. The observation was consistent to the previous studies that addition of chlorine group in the Phenol increased its toxicity to plants [4]. Cucumis with the largest seed had the largest EC50 of 322.7 ppm and followed by the second large seed Raphanus with EC50 of 140 ppm. Larger the seed was, less sensitive was to the chemicals. Larger seed may correlate with their higher capability to neutralize the toxic chemicals, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

212 Food and Environment possibly via the various mechanisms of degrading the toxic chemicals [3, 15– 17]. Although we did not observe a similar correlation in the studies with TCP, it could be due to the fact that TCP was much more toxic than phenol and so the differential tolerance of the seed could not be observed. Although Cucumis had the largest EC50, but it was the only one species among the tested species was affected by Phenol in seed germination. For Raphanus, the seed with the second largest EC50 and EC30 values, the growth was not affected at low concentration of Phenol. The root maintained a similar growth rate at the low concentration and declined only after the threshold concentration was reached (Figure 4a). A similar growth pattern was observed for Raphanus exposed to TCP (Figure 2a). When considering both impact factors of seed germination and root elongation, Raphanus was considered to be the most tolerant species among the six to the effect of Phenol. It also applied to TCP that Raphanus was also the most tolerant species. For the three species chosen from the same genus Brassica, they were distinct in features and were treated as unique vegetables from the consumers’ point of view. Their responses shown in growth inhibition to both chemicals were similar, but their responses in seed germination were different. “Cabbage no.19” and “Pak Choi” were inhibited by TCP in seed germination, but not “Yellow leaf cabbage”. As there were differential responses to chemicals even within the close family, it may be worth to study more on other close species. Chinese agricultural plants were unique and may respond differently from that of the western countries. It was supported by the present studies to show the differential sensitivity to contaminant. It would be worthwhile to investigate more on Chinese agricultural plants upon the exposure to other types of environment contaminants.

Acknowledgement This work was financially supported by UIC Research Grant.

References [1] Efroymson, R.A., Will, M.E., Suter, II G.W., Wooten, A.C. Toxicological Benchmarks for Screening Contaminants of Potential Concern for effects on Terrestrial Plants: 1997 Revision Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN, 1997 [2] Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Toxicological Profile for Phenol (Update). Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, 1998 [3] Biswas, D. K., Scannell, G., Akhmetov, N., Fitzpatrick, D., Jansen, M. AK. 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol mediated increases in extracellular peroxidase activity in three species of Lemnaceae Aquatic Toxicology 100: 289-294, 2010

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

213

[4] Micha owicz, J., Majsterek, I. Chlorophenols, chlorocatechols and chloroguaiacols induce DNA base oxidation in human lymphocytes (in vitro). Toxicology 268(3): 171-175, 2010 [5] Feng, L., Wang, L., Zhao, Y. and Song, B. Effects of substituted anilines and phenols on root elongation of cabbage seed. Chemosphere 32: 15751583, 1996 [6] van Gestel, C.A.M., Adema, D.M.M., and Dirven-van Breemen, E.M. Phytotoxicity of some chloroanilines and chlorophenols, in relation to bioavailability in soil. Water, Air Soil Pollut. 88:119-132, 1996 [7] Hulzebos, E.M., Adema, D.M.M., Dirven-van Breemen, E.M., Henzen, L., van Dis, W.A., Herbold, H.A., Hoekstra, J.A., Baerselman, R., and van Gestel, C.A.M. Phytotoxicity studies with Latuca sativa in soil and nutrient solution. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 12:1079-1094, 1993 [8] Gupta, S., Satpati, S., Nayek, S., Garai, D. Effect of wastewater irrigation on vegetables in relation to bioaccumulation of heavy metals and biochemical changes Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 165:169177, 2010 [9] Gupta, S., Satpati, S., Nayek, S., Garai, D. Effect of wastewater irrigation on vegetables in relation to bioaccumulation of heavy metals and biochemical changes Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 165:169177, 2010 [10] Ogunniyi, TAB., Oni, PO., Juba, A., Asaolu, SO., and Kolawole, DO. Disinfectants/antiseptics in the management of guinea worm ulcers in the rural areas. Acta Tropica 74: 33–38(6), 2000 doi:10.1016/S0001706X(99)00057-1 [11] “Safety data for 2,4,6-trichlorophenol”. University of Oxford. 2005-09-05. http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/TR/2,4,6-trichlorophenol.html. [12] Hazardous Substances Data Base. National Library of Medicine. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/HSDB [13] Media release 9/2006: Metals in china: protecting the environment. Reference 06/177 http://www.csiro.au/news/ps291.html [14] EPA OPPTS 850.4200 Ecological effects test guidelines. Seed germination/ root elongation toxicity test [15] Aranda, E., Sampedro, I., Ocampo, JA., Garcia-Romera, I. Phenolic removal of olive-mill dry residues by laccase activity of white-rot fungi and its impact on tomato plant growth International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 58:176-179, 2006 [16] Singh, S., Melo, JS., Eapen, S., D’Souza, SF. Potential of vetiver (Vetiveria zizanoides L. Nash) for phytoremediation of phenol Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 71: 671-676, 2008 [17] Saparrat, MCN., Jurado, M., Díaz, R., Romera, I.G., Martínez, M.J. Transformation of the water soluble fraction from “alpeorujo” by Coriolopsis rigida: the role of laccase in the process and its impact on Azospirillum brasiliense survival. Chemosphere 78(1):72-76, 2010

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

This page intentionally left blank

Food and Environment

215

Siddha herbs for obesity J. Raamachandran1 & T. Venkatasubramaniam2 1 2

Murugan Siddha Marunthakam, Murugan Illam, India “Rekha Cuisine”, Old Basing, Basingstoke, UK

Abstract The Siddha medicinal system developed by Tamil Siddhars is the oldest medicinal system in India. It has developed medicines in a scientific way. In today’s world obesity occupies a significant place since many people are affected by it. Even though obesity is not a new phenomenon, yet, today it has attained such an epidemic proportion to be rechristened as “globesity”. The causes for obesity may be genetics, food habits, sedentary life-style and hormonal changes. The Siddha medicinal system developed by Tamil Siddhars deals with this problem according to the root-cause for obesity. Several herbs are in use to control obesity. Some of them are used as part of food and others are used as medicines. The Tamil Siddhars were the first to give the concept of “food is medicine”. This paper discusses various herbs and the way they are used. Keywords: Siddha medicine, genetic problem, sedentary life, hormone imbalance, Andrographis paniculata, Zingiber officinale, Dolichos biflorus, Erthrina Varigata, thermo genesis, BMI, LDL.

1 Introduction Obesity, once considered a sign from the affluence, has now become a major source of nuisance both aesthetically and from the heath-point of view. Like diabetes which may trigger other diseases, obesity and over-weight are also a cause for many chronic diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, etc. Once considered a problem for people in the higher income group, overweight and obesity are now on the rise even among the middle income groups especially in the urban settings. According to a recent survey (OECD Health Data 2005) nearly 30% of Americans and 23% of the UK population is obese. The percentage increases almost in all countries causing concern to health authorities. It is necessary to tackle this problem of obesity as it is the root cause WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line) doi:10.2495/FENV110211

216 Food and Environment for several non-communicable diseases, principally cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases and the like. A study in the Lancet predicted that by 2030 nearly 70% of all deaths will be from non-communicable diseases. Obesity and overweight are defined as abnormal or excessive fat accumulation in the body that poses a risk to health. As of now, a crude way of indicating obesity is the body mass index (BMI). The BMI is calculated by dividing a person’s weight in kilogram by the square of his or her height in meter (kg/m2). If the BMI is greater than 25 but less than 30 then he or she is overweight. However, if the BMI is >30 then the person is considered obese. 1.1 Causes of obesity One obvious reason for obesity is the input and output ratio, that is, the balance between calorie intake and energy spending. If a person eats more calories than he/she spends (metabolizes) then the person’s body will store the excess energy as fat which when accumulates over the years will result on overweight and to obese conditions. This type of situation is due to inadequate physical activity. However there are many other factors that contribute to obesity. Some of them are: Over-eating Some people tend to eat more than necessary and especially food with fat content. The diet may not be a balanced one. According to Siddha philosophy, “food is medicine”. One can avoid falling sick by properly eating. To this end the Siddhars gave the concept of “aru suvai unavu”, that is, diet with six tastes. These are astringent, sour, sweet, salt, bitter and hot. A diet with combination of food with these tastes is equivalent to modern “balanced food” [1]. In modern days it is also becoming a fashion to go after “fast food”, fried food etc. which contribute to not only obesity but also other health problems. A non-balanced diet is as good as malnutrition though tend to cause over-weight. Genetics Genetics also plays a major role in causing obesity in children especially if both parents are obese. Hormone problem Thyroid gland dysfunction is another cause for obesity as the hormone secreted by it essentially regulates the body’s metabolism which determines the rate at which a person can burn calories and thus has the ultimate effect on one’s weight. With reference to obesity we talk about underactive thyroid, a disorder known as “hypothyroidism”. That is, thyroid hormone secretion is not enough to maintain the metabolic activity. In the Siddha medicinal system there are various herbs used to tackle obesity according to root cause for the same. Some of them can be used as part of food and others will be used only as medicine. We will discuss these one by one.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

217

2 Herbs used as food 2.1 Murraya Koenigii (“kariveppilai” in Tamil) Commonly known as “curry leaves”, one cannot find a single house in Tamil naadu and elsewhere without the leaves of Murraya koenigii in its kitchen. It is also a common sight to see the growing of this plant in many homes especially in the village side. However, every grocery shop will sell these leaves as it is widely used almost in most of the preparation like saambaar, rasam (types of Tamil cuisine) and other dishes. While it is customary to add few leaves of Murraya koenigii in the above preparation it is also used alone to cure certain physical ailments. Obesity is one such ailment for which Murraya Koenigii is used with success. Murraya Koenigii is especially useful in cases where obesity is caused by improper digestion of food and over eating. Murraya Koenigii is very good in burning calories which helps in controlling one’s weight. The plant is medium sized tree that grows up to 3 to 4 meters. The leaves are imparipinnate and leaflets rhomboid. The flowers are white and in terminal cyme, each bearing 60 to 90 flowers and the average diameter of a fully opened flower is around 1 cm (Fig. 1).

Figure 1:

Murraya Koenigii.

The smooth and shining leaves of Murraya Koenigii may resemble that of the neem tree. However the leaves do not have teeth like that of neem. While the leaves, ribs and bark are medicinally useful, only the leaves are used in cuisines. The phytochemicals present in the leaves are: mahanimbine, girinimbine, isomahanimbine koenimbine, koengicine etc. [1]. The method of using Murraya Koenigii as part of food is given below. Recipe 1: Dry the leaves of Murraya koenigii in shade and powder them. Take about 200 grams of the powder. To this add 20 grams each of pepper, cumin seeds and dried ginger, all in the powdered form. Add salt to taste. Mix them well. Mix a table spoon of this powder with cooked rice (cooked rice is called “saatham” in Tamil) and eat at the first serving. This is good for diabetes, WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

218 Food and Environment indigestion and constipation. It should be mentioned that about 1 gram of melted ghee should be added to the above rice before eating. This way full benefit can be obtained. It is also to be mentioned that diabetic people must use only brown rice (“kai kuththal arisi” – that is hand polished rice in Tamil). Recipe 2: Kariveppilai saatham: This is a common dish normally made in houses and also during functions like marriages. It is prepared thus: Take fresh leaves of Murraya koenigii 100grams; dried red chilli, 10 grams, tomato and onion 1 each of normal size; mustard and black gram each 1 tea-spoon and sesame or olive oil 2 table spoons. Method: Pour oil in a saucepan and when it is hot put mustard and blackgram. Allow the mustard to splatter. This process is known as “thaaliththal” in Tamil. Then add finely chopped Murraya leaves, tomato and onion. Fry them well. Then grind them to a paste form. Add salt to taste. This is called “kariveppilai thuvaiyal”. Take enough of the thuvaiyal and mix with saatham. Normally 5 grams of thuvaiyal can be added to 50 grams of saatham. Eating this regularly as a first thing during lunch will control obesity and diabetes and cure it eventually. This will also cure indigestion and remove tastelessness. This will increase insulin secretion in the body. There have been several clinical studies that show the anti-obesity effect of Murraya Koenigii. The anti-obesity and lipid lowering effects of Murraya koenigii was studied by Birari et al. [2]. They gave the dichloromethane (MKD) and ethyl acetate (MKE) extracts of Murraya koenigii leaves orally at a dose of 300 mg /kg/day to the high fat diet induced obese rats and found significant reduction in the body weight gain. The authors concluded that the phytochemical mahanimbine present in Murraya koenigii is responsible for controlling obesity. While the study proves what the Siddha medicinal system predicted more than 2000 years ago, however, the Siddha system attributes such control to stomachic property (“pasith thee thoondi” in Tamil) of Murraya koenigii. The first author has advised this herb for many people especially to those who are obese genetically. Incidentally such a food will also control diabetes and diabetes related obesity. The result is very satisfactory as seen in Table.1. (Note: In Table 1, (2: 61%) indicates that for 61% of the people treated the BMI index number was reduced by 2 from the level before medication started. In a similar way other readings are to be interpreted. All the readings are from the personal clinical observation of the first author and taken over the past 15 years. The results are based on 3 to 6 months’ study). 2.2 Zingiber officinale (“Inji” in Tamil) The plant Zingiber officinale – more commonly called ginger – is widely known and used not only as medicine but also as part of cuisine. There is no home in Tamil nadu without a piece of ginger. The plant is generally 60 to 180 cm. high with smooth and green leaves. The leaf looks like that of miniaturized plantain leaf. Its flowers are small and the pedicles short. The most useful part is its root which has pleasant aromatic odour. It is brownish externally and yellow internally, (Fig. 2).

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Figure 2:

219

Zingiber officinale.

While fresh ginger is called “inji” in Tamil, the dried one is called “chukku” and both of them are used in medicines. Ginger for its stimulant and carminative properties is used in tooth-ache, gout, rheumatism of the jaws and relaxed uvula. Its decoction is given for colic pain, tympanites, vomiting etc. Ginger boosts thermo genesis, or calorie burning, allowing the body's tissues to use more energy than normal thus helping one to lose weight [3, 4]. The phytochemicals present in Zingiber officinale are diarylheptanoids, ginger diol, shogaol and related compounds, essential oil. The dominant sesquiterpene is zinginerene. The less predominants are: cis-sesquisabinene hydrate, zingibernol, ar-curcumine, -bisabolene, -selinene, -elemente, sesquiphellandrene, zingiberenol. From Siddha medicine point of view Zingiber officinale is stomachic, digestive and carminative. While a piece of Zingiber officinale is normally added to many dishes made in the home, Zingiber officinale is used to control weight in the following way. Method 1: Crush a piece of Zingiber officinale and take two table spoon of the juice. To this add equal amount of honey and 100 millilitres of warm water. Mix them well and drink on empty stomach. Continued use will reduce one’s weight due to its thermo genesis property. Method 2: Take a small piece of Zingiber officinale and a few pieces of seasalt. Munch them together and then drink warm water. Do this just half-an-hour before lunch or dinner. This will improve digestion and is good for those who have poor digestion and appetite. The modern analysis indicates that the compounds gingerol and shogaol increase the metabolic rate and thus help to “burn off” excessive fat. They also help to suppress the absorption of calorie-dense dietary fats from the intestines. For these reasons regular intake of ginger should aid in countering excessive weight gain and obesity. The effect of this is quite dramatic, see Table 1. 2.3 Dolichos Biflorus (“kollu” in Tamil) It is more commonly known as horse gram as it was used widely to feed horses. However, in Tamil nadu it is used in Tamil dishes, including kollu porial, kollu WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

220 Food and Environment avial, kollu sambar, and kollu rasam. In traditional Siddha cuisine, horse gram is considered a food with medicinal qualities, (Fig. 3). This pulse is a demulcent in calculus affections, cough etc. It is also used to reduce corpulence. There is even a proverb which says: “iLaiththavanukku ellu; kozhuththavanuuku kollu”. That is, give sesame seeds to emaciated and horse gram to corpulent. While the food with sesame seeds will make an emaciated person gaining weight, so also the use of horse gram will make a corpulent to shed of weight. The seeds of Dolichos Biflorus contain demethylhomopterocarpin and some vitamins.

Figure 3:

Dolichos biflorus seeds.

Method 1. Soak a tablespoon of Dolichos Biflorus seeds in water overnight. In the morning drink the water and pressure cook the seeds along with a little salt. The cooked seeds can be used to mix with rice and eaten. Continued use will not only shed one’s weight but will reduce LDL (Low Density Lipoproteins also known as “bad” cholesterol) level. Method 2. It is common to make what is known as “kollu podi” to be mixed with steamed rice for eating. This will not only reduce BMI but will also reduce LDL level. It is made thus: Take 100 grams of Horse gram seeds; 10 numbers (or 10 grams) of red or dried chillies; half a gram of fried Asafoetida powder and salt to taste. Now, fry horse gram and red chillies without adding any oil. When they cool down add Asafoetida and salt and powder them. This powder can be used to mix with steamed rice with some sesame oil and eaten at a first serving. Repeat 3 times a week. These recipes are quite effective in cases of genetically obese people. It has also been shown that Dolichos biflorus decreases the level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substance indicating the antioxidant potential of the Dolichos biflorus [5, 6] (see Table 1).

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

Table 1:

221

BMI reduction values. Male Age: 18-52 years 2: 61% 3: 32% 4: 07% 2: 74% 3: 21% 4: 5% 2: 76% 3: 22% 4: 02% 2: 65% 3: 28% 4: 07%

Herb Murraya Koenigii Ginger Dolichos biflorus Andrographis Paniculata

Female Age:18-45 Age: >45 2: 64% 1: 10% 3: 30% … 4: 6% … 2: 76% 1: 23% 3: 20% … 4: 4% … 2: 68% 1: 18% 3: 29% … 4: 02% … 2: 89% 1: 23% 3: 7% 2: 02% 4: 04% …

3 Herbs for hormonal problems 3.1 Andrographis paniculata Andrographis paniculata is a herb widely used in Siddha medicine for centuries. This is known as ground neem and is very widely used by Tamils for various ailments. Its stem is dark green, 30 to 100 cm in height, 2 to 6 mm in diameter, quadrangular with longitudinal furrows and wings on the angles of the younger parts, slightly enlarged at the nodes. Its leaves are glabrous, up to 8 cm long and 2.5 cm broad, lanceolate and pinnate. Its flowers are small, in lax spreading axillary and terminal racemes or panicles. The flowers are white with rosepurple spots on the petals. The capsules are linear-oblong, acute at both ends, 1.9 cm by 0.3 cm with numerous seeds that are sub quadrate and yellowish brown in colour. The whole plant is bitter in taste. The dried stems are sold in market, (Fig. 4).

Figure 4:

Root of Andrographis paniculata.

The plant is much valued for its stomachic and tonic properties. Mixed with other drugs it is successfully used in general debility and convalescence after fevers. The powder of the stem is quite useful in hypothyroidism which causes WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

222 Food and Environment obesity. In fact, Andrographis paniculata has positive effect on one’s immune system. Half a gram of the powder along with warm water taken on empty stomach for nearly three months restores the function of thyroid.

4 Menstrual problems On close scrutiny of Table 1, one may find that most of the above mentioned herbs did not give satisfactory results in case of women older than 48 years. On examination it as found that most of them were in the menopause stage and some of them even reached menopause. For such women Siddha medicine advises using another herb in conjunction with one or other herbs to be decided case by case. The following herb is for such women. 4.1 Erythrina variegata (“kaliyaana murukkan” in Tamil) The Erythrina variegata is a medium sized tree which grows about 3 to 10 meters in height. The tree has lot of thorns in it so that it is normally grown as hedge plant. Its legume has 6 to 8 seeds. The flower is very attractive and red in colour, (Fig. 5). The fresh bark has a smooth grey colour with unpleasant smell but not very bitter in taste. The bark is used medicinally to reduce bile and it is also febrifuge and anthelmintic. The bark is also used as collyrium in opthalmia. The leaves are normally used not only as medicines but also as part of food. Its medicinal properties are many. The leaves are normally applied externally to cure venereal buboes and to relieve pain in the joints. There is another variety of this tree yielding white flowers and is more useful in medicines. The leaves of this plant are especially used to cure many problems associated with menstrual disorders. The phytochemicals content of this plant are erythratine, ferulic and caffeic acids etc. Alkaloids like erysotine, erythratidine, 11-hydroxy-epierythratidine, epierythratidine etc. isoflavonoids, seadenone, erycristagallin erythrabysin II, phaseollin etc. and fixed oil. The efficacy of Erythrina variegata in reducing cholesterol level was analysed by Balamurugan and Shantha [7].

Figure 5:

Erythrina variegata.

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

223

Method: Extract the juice from the leaves of Erythrina variegata and drink 20 millilitres at a time for three months. This will not only reduce weight but will also remove stomach pain that normally occurs during menstrual period. The result of such administration is shown in Table.2. The first row gives the result for those whose obesity is due to digestive problems. The second row gives the result for those whose obesity is due to genetic cause. Menstrual problem is common to both. The results are obtained by the first author after 6 months of continued use of these medicines. As before (1: 78%) indicates that the BMI number is reduced by 1 for 78% of the persons treated and so on. Table 2:

BMI reduction in females during and beyond menopause. Herb

Age: > 45

Erythrina variegata + Ginger

1: 78% 2: 64% 1: 68% 2: 54%

Erythrina variegata + Dolichos biflorus

5 Conclusion The oldest medicinal system of India, namely the Siddha medicinal system has several formulae to tackle obesity. Some of the herbs used in the clinics are reported in this paper. Most of them are administered to obese and overweight people and their BMI are monitored over a period to prove the efficacy of Siddha medicines for such problems. It is to be noted that Siddha medicinal system did not simply prescribe herbs for obesity. It goes to the root of obesity, that is, whether obesity is due to genetic reasons or sedentary life or hormonal problem or menstrual problem and then prescribes medicine accordingly. The herbs mentioned in this paper are only a few, but there are several others which are in use for different combination of diseases. For example, if an obese person is also suffering due to blood pressure then Withania somnifera (“amukkaravu” in Tamil) is prescribed and so on. It is hoped that obese community at large will make use of such Siddha medicines to shed off their excessive flesh, the only thing that one will lose using Siddha medicines!

References [1] Raamachandran, J., Herbs of Siddha Medicines-The First 3D book on herbs, Murugan Pathippakam, Chennai 600087, 2008 [2] Birari R, Javia V, Bhutani KK., Antiobesity and lipid lowering effects of Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng leaves extracts and mahanimbine on high fat diet induced obese rats. Fitoterapia. 2010 Dec; 81(8):1129-33 [3] Goyal, R.K., Kadnur, S.V. Beneficial effects of Zingiber officinale on gold thioglucose induced obesity. Fitoterapia 77, (2006) 160-163

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

224 Food and Environment [4] Jeyakumar SM, Nalini N, Venugopal P Menon. Antioxidant activity of ginger (zingiber officinale Rose) in rats fed a high fat diet. Med Sci Res 1999; 27:341-4 [5] Ganga Raju and Rama Raju., Anti-adipogenic compositions containing piper betle and Dolichos biflorus, United States Patent Application 20100203117, 2010 [6] Kottai Muthu A, Sethupathy S, Manavalan R, Karar PK. Hypolipidemic effect of methanolic extract of Dolichos biflorus Linn in high fat diet fed rats. Indian J Exp Biol 2005; 43:522-5 [7] Balamurugan, G and A Shantha., Effect of Erythrina variegata seed extract on hyperlipidemia elicited by high-fat diet in wistar rats, J. of Pharmacy and Bio-Allied Sciences, Year : 2010, Volume : 2, Issue : 4, Page : 350-355

WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 152, © 2011 WIT Press www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541 (on-line)

Food and Environment

225

Author Index Abdel Basit M. ........................... 45 Ahmad Z. ................................... 45 Aletor O. .................................. 145 Aletor V. A. ............................. 145 Almeida M. .............................. 127 Anastasopoulos E..................... 135 Andrikopoulos N. K................. 135 Arukwe A. ................................. 89 Braun M. .................................. 189 Bremer P. J. ............................. 103 Broil G. .................................... 189 Cloquell Ballester V. ............... 165 Dyer J......................................... 25 Eggen T...................................... 89 Fasoyiro S. B. ............................ 37 Feldman C.................................. 95 Fletcher G. C............................ 103 Flint S. ..................................... 103 Gentry T. .................................... 13 Gospavic R. ............................... 69 Haarer D. ................................. 177 Haque M. N. .............................. 69 Hon K. L. ................................. 203 Honna T. .................................... 45 Huang J. J. ............................... 203 Ibald R. .................................... 177 Inoue M...................................... 45 Kaliora A. C. ............................ 135 Kalogeropoulos N. ................... 135 Klemmer C. ............................... 55 Kohyama K. ................................. 3 Kountouri A. M. ...................... 135 Kreyenschmidt J. ..................... 177 Kulshreshtha S. .................... 25, 55

Latif K. ...................................... 95 Lauzon H. L. .............................. 69 Martinsdottir E........................... 69 Mashat B. ................................. 113 McConkey B. ............................. 25 Mechó Laussac E. .................... 165 Meerdink G. ............................. 103 Mishima S. ................................... 3 Möder M. ................................... 89 Morton R. H............................. 103 Moya Ramírez D. .................... 165 Naila A..................................... 103 Onyemem C. E. ....................... 145 Petersen B. ............................... 177 Poon K. .................................... 203 Popov V. .................................... 69 Punamiya P. ............................... 95 Raab V. .................................... 177 Raamachandran J. .................... 215 Ramos C. ........................... 81, 127 Reichstein W. .......................... 177 Reynisson E. .............................. 69 Rosado L. ........................... 81, 127 Sabino R. ........................... 81, 127 Silva M. ..................................... 81 Stamminger R. ......................... 189 Venkatasubramaniam T. .......... 215 Veríssimo C. ...................... 81, 127 Viegas C. ........................... 81, 127 Viegas S. .................................... 81 Wunderlich S. ............................ 95 Yamamoto S. ............................. 45 Yasuda H. .................................. 45 Zaka K. O. ............................... 157 Zubía Aloy P............................ 165

This page intentionally left blank

...for scientists by scientists

Island Sustainability Edited by: S. FAVRO, Hydrographic Institute of the Republic of Croatia and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

The massive scale of the seasonal mobility of population is a comparatively recent phenomenon which imposes considerable stress on the environment and is particularly acute in the case of coastal regions and islands. The problems are more serious for the case of islands or archipelagos, which have limited resources and possibilities of developing supporting infrastructures. Most islands cannot provide all resources required to maintain a large seasonal tourist population and in many cases basic requirements such as water and energy, as well as agricultural produce, need to be imported.The impact of large seasonal population increases in the community and the resulting socio-economic factors need to be carefully evaluated, as well as issues related to transportation and communication, all of which should be part of an overall strategy. The papers are published under the following topics: Tourism Impact and Strategies; Community Issues; Changing Climate and Environment; Infrastuctures; and Transport Issues. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 130 ISBN: 978-1-84564-434-5 eISBN: 978-1-84564-435-2 Published 2010 / 304pp / £116.00

WIT Press is a major publisher of engineering research. The company prides itself on producing books by leading researchers and scientists at the cutting edge of their specialities, thus enabling readers to remain at the forefront of scientific developments. Our list presently includes monographs, edited volumes, books on disk, and software in areas such as: Acoustics, Advanced Computing, Architecture and Structures, Biomedicine, Boundary Elements, Earthquake Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Fluid Mechanics, Fracture Mechanics, Heat Transfer, Marine and Offshore Engineering and Transport Engineering.

...for scientists by scientists

Heat Transfer in Food Processing Recent Developments and Applications Edited by: S. YANNIOTIS, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece and B. SUNDÉN, Lund University, Sweden

Heat transfer is one of the most important and most common engineering disciplines in food processing. There are many unit operations in the food industry where steady-state or unsteady-state heat transfer is taking place. These operations are of primary importance and affect the design of equipment as well as safety, nutritional and sensory aspects of the product. The chapters in this book deal mainly with: heat transfer applications; methods that have considerable physical property variations with temperature; methods not yet widely spread in the food industry; or methods that are less developed in the food engineering literature. The application of numerical methods has received special attention with a separate chapter as well as emphasis in almost every chapter. A chapter on artificial neural networks (ANN) has also been included since ANN is a promising alternative tool to conventional methods for modelling, optimization, etc in cases where a clear relationship between the variables is not known, or the system is too complex to be modelled with conventional mathematical methods. Series: Developments in Heat Transfer, Vol 21 ISBN: 978-1-85312-932-2 eISBN: 978-1-84564-292-1 Published 2007 / 288pp / £95.00

...for scientists by scientists

Sustainable Development and Planning V Edited by: C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK

This book contains the proceedings of the latest in a series of biennial conferences on the topic of sustainable regional development that began in 2003. Organised by the Wessex Institute of Technology, the conference series provides a common forum for all scientists specialising in the range of subjects included within sustainable development and planning. It has become apparent that planners, environmentalists, architects, engineers, policy makers, and economists have to work together in order to ensure that planning and development can meet our present needs without compromising future generations. The topics covered by the papers included in the book include: City planning; Regional planning; Social and political issues; Sustainability in the built environment; Rural developments; Cultural heritage; Transportation; Ecosystems analysis, protection and remediation; Environmental management; Environmental impact assessment; Indicators of sustainability; Sustainable solutions in developing countries; Sustainable tourism; Waste management; Flood risk management; Resources management; and Industrial developments. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 150 ISBN: 978-1-84564-544-1 eISBN: 978-1-84564-548-5 Forthcoming 2011 / apx 900pp / apx £342.00

...for scientists by scientists

Energy and Sustainability III Edited by: Y. VILLACAMPA, University of Alicante, Spain, C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK and A.A. MAMMOLI, University of New Mexico, USA

It has been clear for some time that the way in which our society exists, operates, and develops is strongly influenced by the way in which energy is produced and consumed. No industrial process can proceed without an adequate energy supply, and without industrial production, society lacks the commodities on which it depends. Our energy systems have evolved over a long period and continue evolving in response to the needs of both Industry and Society. This evolution involves technological development and innovation, especially now that we need to look beyond simple fuel combustion as a source of energy and consider both greater efficiency in the use of energy and new ways of producing it. The Third International Conference convened on the subject is the latest in a biennial series that brings together experts from around the world. Their papers, contained in this book, will include research on: Renewable Energy Technologies; Energy Management; Energy Policies; Energy and the Environment; Energy Analysis; Energy Efficiency; Energy Storage and Management; Conversion Process for Biomass and Biofuels; CO 2 Sequestration and Storage. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, Vol 143 ISBN: 978-1-84564-508-3 eISBN: 978-1-84564-509-0 Forthcoming 2011 / apx 600pp / apx £228.00

WITPress Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, SO40 7AA, UK. Tel: 44 (0) 238 029 3223 Fax: 44 (0) 238 029 2853 E-Mail: [email protected]