Forms of Community Participation in Disaster Risk Management Practices (Natural Disaster Research, Prediction and Mitigation)

NATURAL DISASTER RESEARCH, PREDICTION AND MITIGATION FORMS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT PRAC...

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NATURAL DISASTER RESEARCH, PREDICTION AND MITIGATION

FORMS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT PRACTICES No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.

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NATURAL DISASTER RESEARCH, PREDICTION AND MITIGATION

FORMS OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

R. OSTI EDITOR

K. MIYAKE ASSOCIATE EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‟ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Forms of community participation in disaster risk management practices / editors, R. Osti and K. Miyake. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-1-61122-700-0 (eBook) 1. Emergency management--Citizen participation. 2. Disaster relief--Citizen participation. 3. Risk management. I. Osti, R. (Rabindra) II. Miyake, K. III. Title. HV551.2.F67 2010 363.34'6--dc22

2010038628

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

Chapter 2

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 7

Chapter 8

vii Implementation of Community Based Disaster Risk Management in Indonesia: Progress, Issues and Challenges Krishna S Pribadi, Teti Argo, Aria Mariani, and Hening Parlan

1

Lessons Learned from Community Based Early Warning System in the Philippines Susan R. Espinueva and Prisco D. Nilo

17

Building for Floods in the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region – Local Knowledge and Community Innovation Mats G. Eriksson

31

Community-Based Disaster Risk Management Can Lead to Good Urban Governance Gabrielle Iglesias

39

Methodology Used for Community Based Multi-Hazard Risk Management in Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand State, India Surya Parkash

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Reducing Disaster Damage through People‟s Participation in Emergency Response in Bangladesh Giasuddin Ahmed Choudhury and Motaleb Hossain Sarker

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Disaster Risk Reduction as an Integral Part in Microfinance Capacity Building: Lessons Learned in the Aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, Myanmar Drew Bishop, Kurt MacLeod, Erica Tubbs, and Anne Coghlan Sustainable Community Empowerment Against Mt. Merapi Volcanic Disaster Djoko Legono, Darmanto, Teuku Faisal Fathani, Radianto Triatmadja, Joko Sujono, Rachmad Jayadi, Budi Kamulyan, and Sri Puji Saraswati

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Contents

Chapter 9

Community Based Disaster Risk Management in Vietnam Huy Nguyen, Hoang Minh Hien, Rajib Shaw and Tong Thi My Thi

119

Chapter 10

Flood Risk Management Culture and its Role in Changing Natural and Physical Environments of Lower West Rapti River Basin in Nepal Mahesh R. Gautam, Rabindra Osti, Dhruba R. Gautam, Hironori Inomata, Samir Dhakal, and Katsuhito Miyake

133

Chapter 11

Participatory Water Management: Bangladesh Model Abu Taher Khandakar

149

Chapter 12

Use of Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction Tools in Community Action; Perspective from Asia Sisira Kumara

157

Index

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PREFACE Disaster management, which involves prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and rehabilitation efforts, has been discussed for a long time. In short, such management stages can be classified into before, during and after event activities. Disaster preparedness can be referred to as all measures taken to prepare in advance aiming at reducing the impact of possible disasters. Although all preparedness activities aim at reducing the damage at community, on-site practicality, which concerns the full utilization of the capacities particularly at the time of emergency, has not been well documented, possibly because of difficulties in visualizing emergency contexts to be faced by local communities. This book focuses on the methodological approach of CBDRM that has been practiced in different parts of the world, mostly in highly disaster-prone Asian localities. Chapter 1- Community based disaster risk management as a form of people cantered, participatory and bottom-up approach disaster risk management has been introduced in Indonesia since the early 2000s, when different organizations, academic as well as nongovernment organizations implemented some pilot projects in various places in Indonesia, focusing on different hazards such as flood, drought, land slide, volcanic eruption etc. The country officially supports community based approach in disaster management when the National Law on Disaster Management was made effective in 2007, where the right and the responsibility of the community in disaster management are stipulated in a chapter. Efforts to identify and formulate the characteristics of CBDRM model for Indonesia which are currently being attempted by the Indonesian Society for Disaster Management through a participatory process of compilation of best practices in the country will be described, which eventually led to the development of CBDRM frameworks. Some models of community based disaster management approach implemented in the country will be discussed, exemplified by some pilot project implementations on CBDRM in various flood prone villages in different parts of Indonesia by the Centre for Disaster Management of the Bandung Institute of Technology. One of the main challenges of the CBDRM implementation in Indonesia is its sustainability. Learning from past experiences, some issues on developing an enabling policy which promotes CBDRM as the national disaster management strategy are discussed. Challenges for future adoption of CBDRM as part of development planning and implementation are also identified. Chapter 2- Early warning systems are non-structural disaster mitigation measures designed to save human lives by enabling local authorities and the community to plan and to act accordingly in the event of a disaster. When applied to the flood hazard, such early

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warning would require facilities to measure rain data and upstream catchment and river behavior so that timely warnings from a possible flood can be provided to the downstream communities. Hence, the design of the early warning system on flood should adopt a river basin or a watershed approach to essentially account for the upstream, midstream and downstream aspects of the basin. Within the framework of disaster management system in the Philippines, emphasis is made on “self reliance”, “self help” and “mutual assistance” at the local level, particularly in the utilization of resources. It is against this backdrop that the community based flood early warning system (CBFEWS) is developed and anchored on the existing local disaster coordinating council that is inherent in the institutional set-up of every local government unit (LGU). The Philippines has already implemented quite a number of CBFEWS since 1999. The earlier flood early warning system were demand driven while the recent CBFEWS initiatives were funded by foreign donors. Experiences in implementing early warning system are quite varied and these challenges are reflected in the issues and concerns as well as lessons learned derived in the various engagements with the LGUs. Chapter 3- In the Hindu Kush – Himalayan region, people have adapted to challenges related to too much and too little water for generations. Will these adaptive mechanisms be enough in the current rapid pace of change in both climate and society? The impact from climate leads to increased water induced hazards. New infrastructure being built will have to adapt to increasing hazards. This is not always the case. New private and public buildings are being constructed in hazard prone areas, against local knowledge and common sense. Traditional knowledge on where and how to build houses safely need to be acknowledged, and policies allowing access to safe land for public buildings need to be put into place. Cultural norms hampering parts of the society to shift to more hazard resistant housing and livelihood practices need to be supported, particularly among the younger generation. Chapter 4- Community involvement is recognized as essential in the disaster risk management process. Community participation is able to improve the understanding of the sources of disaster risk, raise the awareness of local capacities to reduce risk, and strengthen the consensus over reducing disaster risk and the commitment to disaster risk management goals. This chapter presents another dimension in that the community-based disaster risk management process can also meet the goals of good urban governance by being consistent with some of the principles of governance, namely civic engagement and citizenship, subsidiarity, and transparency. Chapter 5- Uttarakhand in India is a newly established hill-state which largely occupies Garhwal and Kumaon Himalaya. In the past, many communities in this region suffered from major earthquakes, landslides, debris flows, flash floods, forest fires, hailstorms and lightning etc. During the last one decade, the interventions made by the governmental and nongovernmental organizations through various disaster risk reduction projects as well as some pilot programmes undertaken under the leadership of local community-based organizations have built the communities‟ capacity to prepare themselves against such disasters and reduce the risks by appropriate planning, development and management at local levels. It is believed that well aware, informed and prepared community is better able to avert, prevent and react to disasters than otherwise. Learning from the field experience, a universal methodology has been developed to empower communities through training and field demonstrations to initiate local actions for multi-hazard risk management by the inhabitants of 50 villages in Rudraprayag District in Uttarakhand State, Garhwal Himalaya. The chapter elaborates the

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activities undertaken in developing the methodology for community based disaster risk management, the process of operation, the outcome and its sustenance. Chapter 6- Bangladesh, due to its geographical setting and climatic condition, is the most disaster prone country in the world. Substantial loss of agricultural production, disruption of communication, damage and economic loss take place due to such disasters every year. Over the periods, risk reductions programmes have been carried out by individual organizations with the development partners according to their own views and targets focused on relief and rehabilitation. A Public - private partnership approach is now felt necessary to achieve the national goal. The cyclone SIDR hit the coast of Bangladesh in 15 November, 2007 and caused severe damage to the lives and properties of thousands of people of the coastal districts. Among these, five districts namely Patuakhali, Barguna, Bagerhat, Jhalokhathi and Pirojpur were the worst affected. A study was conducted in the SIDR affected area through people‟s participations/households survey and a sustainable management information system was developed to reduce the risk during emergencies. For better planning, management and monitoring of Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) related activities, a GIS based Management Information System (GMIS) was required for the emergency WASH cluster in Bangladesh. And to fulfill this requirement UNICEF assigned CEGIS to develop a GIS based MIS, to collect and analyze the data for meaningful information generation to improve interventions by the WASH cluster member agencies in the SIDR affected districts. The study area covers 16 upazilas (sub-district) of SIDR affected five districts- mainly focusing on people‟s participation in emergencies during disasters to reduce the associated risks and damages. Chapter 7- Pact, Inc. had been working in Myanmar for 10 years prior to Cyclone Nargis, which struck the Irrawaddy Delta in May, 2008. Microfinance in the Irrawaddy Delta in the south of the country was a major element of their work. This project was significantly impacted both during the storm and in its aftermath. This article will look at the impact of the storm on Pact‟s microfinance program and the benefit of large community based structures like the microfinance program in quickly reaching disaster survivors. It will highlight how its program infrastructure was instrumental in helping other NGOs respond. And, finally, it will explore how Pact has begun to integrate disaster risk reduction strategies into its local capacity building programs to enhance and strengthen local ownership for village level planning. It explores the importance of putting communities at the centre of disaster preparedness and response. The chapter will also document how capacity building in disaster risk reduction is important not only for the people who live in zones at risk of water-related disasters, but also how it can mitigate the financial and personnel impacts on agencies that work in these regions. Chapter 8- It is known that Mt. Merapi of Java, Indonesia, is an active volcano which erupts frequently and threats downstream residents lives and assets, due to either pyroclastic flow or debris flow phenomena. The frequent eruption of Mt. Merapi volcano which is approximated to occur once in 1 to 3 years (for small and medium eruption) and once in 9 to 16 years (for big eruption) should make the people, who live near by, worried on how they save their lives in emergencies. Although the government has already built various infrastructures (e.g. sabo, early warning system, etc.), community awareness and ownership in adapted systems seems to be an effective way to mitigate Mt. Merapi disaster. This situation is proven by the fact that the number of casualties of each eruption is still significant. One critical reason behind such losses is the low level of disaster awareness

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among community members. This chapter presents the experience on the development of community awareness against the Mt. Merapi disaster through the processes of understanding the community aspirations, capacities, locality (social, culture, and environment condition), followed by building the capacity of the community. The key activities under the community empowerment programme were the development of education material for the kindergarten school and the evacuation drills. Related studies to support and inspire the community empowerment program include the study on current public participation in disaster management as well as current disaster education program that has formally been applied in the area. Moreover, the process of the community empowerment involving the direct community participation is the feature to be promoted as a lesson-learned for further development of the similar disaster mitigation activities. Chapter 9- This chapter provides the information about the status of activities of Community¬ Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) in Vietnam and case studies that was the success measures on disaster management. The Natural Disaster Risk Management Project (NDRMP) adopts an innovative approach to disaster risk management in Vietnam and provides support for disaster prevention and mitigation measures at all levels of government, including at community level where vulnerability prevails. The CBDRM is one component of the NDRMP which aims at strengthening the capacity of villages and communes. It also aims at the disaster management institutions to become more responsive to the short term and longer¬ term needs of the vulnerable communities through participatory risk assessment and identification, prioritization and implementation of risk reduction measures. The project intends to help communes implement activities that deal with natural hazards through capacity building in participatory planning and management. Safer village and commune plans that focus on long term intervention and preparedness measures were developed. The project has been building on existing community based disaster management and risk reduction models, and found empower flood ¬prone communes to prevent and reduce the impact of disasters and secure and protect their livelihoods. The CBDRM activities directly support government efforts for sustainable development by helping reduce human, economic, and financial losses from disasters caused by nature in the target communes. In this chapter, the roles of the local communities, community facilitators, provincial level and central level were defined; this chapter also described how the CBDRM approach could be used to build the capacity of the most vulnerable populations to carry out risk mitigation measures at all levels. Chapter 10- There is a consensus that conventional flood management with attributes such as techno-centric, top-down, and focused on reactive intervention, has proven ineffective to deal with floods problems. Instead, community based flood risk management (CBFRM) with attributes such as people-centric, bottom-up, and focused on preparedness, has been advocated as an approach that can build the capacity of the community, and help them manage the floods sustainably. Local knowledge and capacity are the key foundations of such approach on which an elaborate framework for resilience enhancement can be based. Using participatory research tools, a case study from lower West Rapti River Basin is presented here elucidating the local knowledge on flood management on various stages of flood disaster risk management cycle. The study analyzed the vulnerabilities and capacities of the community under changing natural and physical environments, elucidated the local flood management practices including coping and adaption measures, and advocated the need for strengthening the existing informal CBFRM approach in the study area. Capacity building of community

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level organizations, improvement of people's livelihood assets, scientific inputs for improved flood warning and management systems, co-ordinated support mechanism for relief and rescue at the time of major flood events are some of the key actions felt needed in the study area for enhancing effectiveness of the CBFRM approach. Chapter 11- Water is a very precious wealth. Over this planet Earth, the balance of water contained on about three-fourth surface area is covered by water body. Humans should have been very much pleased having so much water without any labour or investment. Fact remains that in nature available water may be put under two broad categories: (i) sweet water (or fresh water) and (ii) saline water. Fresh water are contained in rivers, lakes, underground, and in mountain as snow or glassier or in cloud in gaseous form while saline water is contained in the oceans and seas. Water has multiple uses. Demand for fresh water have registered sharp rise world over for human consumption; for cattle, for industry, agriculture and fishery. It is now recognized that fresh water has been becoming scarce, in regions and in communities, even for drinking and sanitation purposes. Hence there is an obvious urgency for economic and wise use of this resource. Chapter 12- Community based disaster risk reduction is a well known thematic focus of many regional, national and sub-national organizations to build capacities and to strengthen existing disaster management structures, whilst emphasizing the contributions made by communities and to advance the creation of safer communities. CBDRR program should emphasizes its efforts on, Institutionalization of CBDRR into the policy, planning and implementation; Implementation of innovative programs to explore new dimensions in CBDRR practice; Development of frameworks and tools to support the work of decisionmakers and practitioners; Development of new training tools to enhance the capacity of practitioners; Continued support to the regional entities for promoting CBDRR practices. However limited knowledge on the use of CBDRR tools in CBDRR and rural development programs is still a challenge. Most of the development and CBDRR practitioners are yet to acknowledge and appreciate those tools that have been tested and proven effective in reducing disaster risks in the region. For effective implementation of CBDRR programs in the region, national governments need to perform a facilitative role and establish an enabling environment for community based disaster risk reduction. In addition, the CBDRR practitioners should be well equipped with CBDRR tools such as field practitioner‟s handbook on CBDRR, Critical Guidelines for CBDRR, Media Kit on CBDRR, and Guidance on CBDRR for local authorities and Guidebook for integrating CBDRR into local government policies and programs. This paper provides a brief discussion on several CBDRR tools that can readily be used in community action in the region.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

IMPLEMENTATION OF COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN INDONESIA: PROGRESS, ISSUES AND CHALLENGES Krishna S Pribadi1, Teti Argo2, Aria Mariani3, and Hening Parlan4 1

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl Ganesa 10, Bandung, Indonesia 2 School of Architecture, Planning and Public Policy, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl Ganesa 10, Bandung, Indonesia 3 Centre for Disaster Mitigation, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Jl Ganesa 10, Bandung, Indonesia 4 Humanitarian Forum International, Jl Menteng Raya No. 62, Jakarta 10340, Indonesia

ABSTRACT Community based disaster risk management as a form of people cantered, participatory and bottom-up approach disaster risk management has been introduced in Indonesia since the early 2000s, when different organizations, academic as well as nongovernment organizations implemented some pilot projects in various places in Indonesia, focusing on different hazards such as flood, drought, land slide, volcanic eruption etc. The country officially supports community based approach in disaster management when the National Law on Disaster Management was made effective in 2007, where the right and the responsibility of the community in disaster management are stipulated in a chapter. Efforts to identify and formulate the characteristics of CBDRM model for Indonesia which are currently being attempted by the Indonesian Society for Disaster Management through a participatory process of compilation of best practices in the country will be described, which eventually led to the development of CBDRM frameworks. Some models of community based disaster management approach 1

Tel:62-22-2502272, Email : [email protected]. Tel:62-22- 250 9171, Email : [email protected]. 3 Tel:62-22-93373751, Email : [email protected]. 4 Tel/fax 62-21-3923316, Email: [email protected] . 2

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Krishna S Pribadi, Teti Argo, Aria Mariani et al. implemented in the country will be discussed, exemplified by some pilot project implementations on CBDRM in various flood prone villages in different parts of Indonesia by the Centre for Disaster Management of the Bandung Institute of Technology. One of the main challenges of the CBDRM implementation in Indonesia is its sustainability. Learning from past experiences, some issues on developing an enabling policy which promotes CBDRM as the national disaster management strategy are discussed. Challenges for future adoption of CBDRM as part of development planning and implementation are also identified.

Keywords: Community-based disaster risk management, project framework, policy, Indonesia

1. INTRODUCTION Important works on community-based disaster risk reduction by many authors and organizations, such as Maskrey (1989), Abarquez and Murshed (2004), UNCRD (2004), Davis and Murshed (2006) have been considered as the corner stones by the community of practice, in particular in Southeast Asia. Community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) is basically a people cantered approach aiming at reducing disaster risk through “a broad range of interventions, measures, activities, projects and programs, which are primarily designed by people in at-risk localities and are based on their urgent needs and capacities” (Victoria, 2002). CBDRM can be considered as a mechanism of choice for building community resilience at the local level, by empowering people to plan and decide on actions to reduce disaster risks by their own resources. Capacity building is the heart of the process, by mobilizing the community to be able to understand their own risk situation and build local awareness, by learning from past mistakes, and by looking for ways to reduce their own vulnerabilities so they will be able to cope with, prevent or minimize loss and damage to life, property, and their environment. By CBDRM, people are also empowered to quickly spring back and recover from disasters, not only depending to outside support and relief aids but benefiting from their strengthened capacity. In particular, for flood disasters involving complex factors within a river basin, which could not be dealt solely by local people in the affected areas, CBDRM approach can help build the capacity of the local people to “live with floods”, as an alternative to “keep the flood away from people” or “keep people away from the flood”, by promoting community preparedness (DoCoutto and Rouhban, 2004).

2. CBDRM PRACTICES IN INDONESIA Water induced hazards in Indonesia have been acknowledged as the highest contributor of the disaster events in the country, an archipelagic nation of more than 17.000 islands and more than 230 millions populations. Data from EM-DAT (2010) shows that from 1900 to 2010, water induced disasters which consist of drought, tsunami, flood, landslide, and storms accounted for almost 55 % of the total number of disaster events (Table 1), if (water borne) epidemic diseases are not included in the category.

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Table 1. Disasters in Indonesia, 1900- 2010

Hazard type Drought Earthquake Tsunami Flood Landslide Storm Volcano Wildfire Total

# of Events 9 96 7 135 42 10 48 9 356

Killed 9,329 29,947 167,841 5,902 2,250 1,992 17,945 300 235,506

Population Affected 4,804,220 8,463,540 568,561 8,731,109 393,652 19,698 1,015,453 3,034,478 27,030,711

Damage (000 US$) 160,200 7,053,476 4,506,600 2,418,553 121,745 344,390 9,329,000 23,933,964

Adopted from EM-DAT, 2010.

In the past few decades, unchecked development activities have brought tremendous pressure to the natural resources, resulting in a serious degradation of the environment, increase in vulnerability to various water-induced hazards and sensitivity to climate change and climate variability. In the past, water-induced disaster mitigation efforts have been carried out by the government through various structural and non structural interventions. Only by the beginning of this decade that some initiatives involving the participation of communities at the grass root level have been introduced, as policy makers start to understand the complexity of water induced disasters and that structural measures sufficient to deal with community vulnerability issues. As community-based approach in disaster risk management has been introduced in Indonesia for more than a decade, this chapter discusses the progress of its implementation through some examples and its future prospect in building the resilience of the country against various natural hazards, and in particular water induced disasters.

2.1. CBDRM Framework in Indonesia 2.1.1. National Policy on Disaster Management The Act No.24/2007 on disaster management was enacted in April, 2007, initiated by the parliament and supported by a coalition of civil society organizations (Government of Indonesia, 2007). In essence, the act adopts new paradigms marking the shift of emphasis from:   

post-disaster reactive response only to a more proactive, comprehensive riskmanagement approach people protection as charity of central government to mandate of local governments government responsibility to “everybody‟s business”, meaning that participation of all stakeholders in disaster management is essential in the policy and institutional set up as well as in the coordination mechanism

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The act covers stipulations on role and responsibility of the government (national and local) and the citizens in disaster management, institutional set up, stages in disaster management which include disaster reduction and disaster response and recovery, various funding schemes and the management and role of various parties in relief aid. Despite its comprehensiveness, the act does not explicitly consider CBDRM approach in its description of disaster reduction stages. Instead, some articles supporting the role of the citizens (i.e. the community) in disaster management are elaborated, the most relevant being article 26.e, which stipulates the right of citizens to “participate in decision making on disaster management activities, especially when having relevance on self and his/her community”, and 26.f quotes: “conduct monitoring over implementation of disaster management in accordance with regulated mechanism ”. Nevertheless, the act has provided the foundation for a more proactive risk management approach in disaster management in Indonesia, where both government and citizens, including the civil society organizations, share responsibilities.

2.1.2. Actors in CBDRM in Indonesia The meaning of “community-based” in CBDRM is that the community plays the key role in managing the disaster risk. As a matter of fact, it is agreed upon that in this approach, community is the main actor who develops and implements their own approaches to managing disaster in managing their risk. This argument implicates that the role of CBDRM practitioners is always as „outsider‟ of the community, although he/she may come from and live in the areas, assisting the communities to deal with local disaster issues, on which their services are defined by limited spatial dimension and time availability. It is then necessary that the practitioners have to build their own entry and exit strategy. In reality, CBDRM practices in Indonesia have been initiated by some non-government organizations and university-based researchers through action research in the field of disaster risk management in the beginning of the last decade. Later on, CBDRM initiatives flourished when a huge flow of relief aids arrived in the aftermath of the Great Indian Ocean Tsunami on the 26 December, 2004, which has raised the awareness of many parties of the need to build the community resilience to disasters. Many humanitarian organizations implemented the concept of community-based approach, first for managing the emergency relief and early recovery efforts, and later to help the communities in building up resilience toward disaster. It is worth noting that some pioneering works on community based flood mitigation have been done by researchers from the Centre for Disaster Mitigation at the Bandung Institute of Technology (CDM-ITB), collaborating with the Asian Disaster Reduction Centre, working in East Bandung area (Rudyanto et al., 2007), and in Bidara Cina area, Jakarta, in collaboration with UNESCO (UNESCO, 2004), which will be described in more detail later. Other organizations include the Indonesian Society for Disaster Management (MPBI) and the Yayasan IDEP, which promote actively CBDRM approach in the country. On the other side, government agencies at the national as well as local levels have initiated various community-based approaches in their program related to disaster management (ADPC, 2008). The Indonesian Red Cross (PMI) has also adopted community-based disaster risk reduction and preparedness approach since year 2002 in their works, a shift from a traditional emergency response to a more proactive stance. (PMI, 2010).

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2.1.3. Development of CBDRM Framework There were concerns that in the absence of proper standards and frameworks, the CBDRM could become a trap of mediocrity or even counter-productive to the communities concerned. Consistent with its goal, i.e. to continuously improve disaster management practices, the Indonesian Society for Disaster Management has initiated, in 2004, a series of CBDRM annual symposiums where CBDRM practitioners meet to strengthen their work by taking stock of field practices, review their framework and tools, and build network. (ADPC,

2008) As a result of the process, there were agreements that implementing CBDRM should consider the following issues (MPBI,2008): (i) integration of climate change and disaster risk reduction; (ii) disaster risk reduction in urban communities; (iii) building awareness and preparedness; (iv) children in the context of disaster vulnerable groups; (v) local government policy in CBDRM institutionalization; and (vi) sustainable livelihood improvement. Institutionalization of CBDRM needs to consider issues relating to (i) institutionalization of CBDRM through Musrenbang (local development planning meeting); (ii) planning and budgeting of CBDRM; (iii) schemes for sustainable CBDRM institutionalization; (iv) to create independence by relying on strengthened local institutions, resources and knowledge within the community. Several documents on CBDRM in Indonesia have been published, such as those by Boli et al. (2004), Paripurno (2006), IDEP (2007), Pribadi et al.(2008), and Lassa et al.(2009). Most prominent issues discussed in the documents include mainly concept and definition of CBDRM; objective, norms and values ; process and mechanism; tools, methods and skills; role of multi-stakeholders (Government, NGOs/ INGOs, community, private sector); sustainability and exit strategy. An example of a framework of process for implementing CBDRM is proposed in Pribadi et al. (2008), as presented in Figure1.

3. SOME EXAMPLES OF CBDRM ON WATER-RELATED DISASTER 3.1. Community-Based Flood Mitigation in Bandung City and Jakarta A community-based flood mitigation project was implemented by the Bandung city and Jakarta city. The initiative on community-based flood mitigation (CBFM) was implemented in Bandung city in 2001, focusing on two pilot villages, each representing a peri-urban village and an urban residential area respectively (ITB-ADRC, 2001). Participatory rural appraisal and hazard-vulnerability-capacity (HVC) analysis were among the tools used for assessing the community flood risk, as well as to raise the community awareness on the flood hazard and their vulnerability situation. Community organizing and community action planning helped the people in implementing appropriate structural and non-structural flood mitigation, using local knowledge and material. Another CBFM type initiative was also implemented in Bidara Cina Village, East Jakarta, (ITB-UNESCO, 2004), collaborating with UNESCO Jakarta, aimed at minimizing disastrous impact of recurrent floods on urban community in the Municipality of East Jakarta. Similar community risk assessment method as the one used in Bandung was also used to assess hazard, vulnerability and capacity.

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The community were encouraged to organize themselves and develop and implement their own action plans, geared towards non-physical and non-structural aspects, which include community waste management system, improved community flood preparedness such as local flood warning system, measures for protecting valuable assets during floods, search and rescue, organizing emergency relief aids etc. In both cases, local authorities were very supportive and communication means between the local communities and local government agencies were established for synergic actions from both sides. Figure 2 shows a facilitated community meeting in a participatory HVC assessment. Vidiarina (2006) described another model of a community based flood disaster risk management conducted by the Action Contre le Faim (ACF), a French NGO, in the Kampung Melayu village, East Jakarta, to reduce the vulnerability of the people affected by floods and to strengthen the capacity of these communities and local authorities to understand, monitor and react to the flood impact, through baseline studies, grass roots awareness raising and empowerment and coordination within the community itself.

3.2. CBDRR Initiatives in Aceh and West Sumatera Lessons from CBFM initiatives in Bandung and Jakarta were adopted to implement another Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) initiative in West Sumatra and Aceh provinces, supported by United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) fund, focusing on multi-hazard disaster and aimed at improving community resilience toward disaster, through enhancing awareness, and organizing disaster planning and preparedness at the local community level. Similar process was used in its implementation, which eventually evolved and was then developed into a model of CBDRR implementation process framework, presented in Figure1.

Figure 1. Steps in CBDRM implementation.

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Figure 2. A community facilitation meeting in Bidara Cina village, Jakarta.

Figure 3. A disaster awareness session at a village mosque in Pariaman, West Sumatra.

Figure 4. Survey to identify an alternative evacuation route at Paya Kelembu, Suak Timah Village, Aceh Province.

Experiences in West Sumatra and Aceh showed that local culture defines the communication means within the local community which can be used for enhancing the community mobilization and awareness process, varying from informal discussions in the village café, village meetings, traditional festivities and religious gatherings. Involvement of the local government authorities (village head, sub-district officials, municipal agencies) in the process proves to be useful in getting support from the whole community members for different actions (ITB-UNDP, 2007). Figures 2 shows an example of a community meeting in

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the mobilization process, while Figure 3 and Figure 4 show respectively an example of community awareness session and a community field survey for identifying tsunami evacuation routes in the field.

3.3. Other CBDRM Schemes in Indonesia Some other initiatives on community-based approaches have also been developed in Indonesia to deal with landslides, debris flows and wildfires induced drought impact. For landslides and debris flows, community-based early warning systems have been introduced by university researchers in collaboration with the relevant agencies. A pilot project community based landslide early-warning system has been implemented in the Banjarnegara Regency, Central Java, as described in Karnawati et al. (2009), Fathani et al. (2008) and DRH (2010). The system consists of extensometers to measure soil movements and rain gauges to measure rainfall intensity. The measuring system is connected to a siren warning which will alert the community to evacuate when a potential landslide is likely to occur. Village action plans for disaster prevention and response (including contingency plan) are developed with the community participation. Public education and evacuation drills are part of the process. The community is also responsible for maintaining and operating the system. A similar system based on wire sensors and rain gauges connected to transmitters and siren system was also developed to monitor and provide warnings to imminent debris flows to communities in Merapi volcano villages. Preparing the community to operate and maintain the system as well as conduct training and education to benefit from the system is also part of the community-based early warning mechanism (Legono et al., 2008). Abberger et al., (2002) reported that a community-based approach has been used in the management of wildfires in Indonesia, as the case of village level community-based fire management in East Kalimantan province, initiated within the framework of Integrated Forest Fire Management Project (IFFM) in the early 2000s, as a response to the devastating 1997/98 worst wildfire ever recorded in Indonesia due to El Nino draught. The scheme consists of institutional development, fire management training, equipment use and maintenance, an extensive awareness program involving village communities as well as larger public audience in the province. Volunteers from village fire brigades coming from 11 villages, were selected from high fire risk areas based on a fire risk map of the province. Standard Operating Procedures were introduced by training them and then they are equipped with hand tools for fire fighting at the community level.

4. FROM PRACTICE TO POLICY 4.1. Learning from Past Experiences One of the main roles of community based disaster risk management is to introduce disaster as a manageable event in the community livelihood. Introducing about minimizing the number of victims and damages, and continuing planning for the future as the major

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activities in people‟s lives remain a challenge. CBDRM found its major supporters during the periods when disasters just strike or when post disaster activities require involvement of many parties. However, it is one of the dependable activities that governments rely upon, especially when the areas prone to disasters are remotely located and when outside helps may come in late. CBDRM however, and its term coined, has been closely related to the format that is externally invented, or do not come from the local communities themselves. CBDRM tends to be introduced as either a pilot project, or as a limited term projects to the communities, with the understanding that the projects will be duplicated in other areas once introduced. The case study of community based flood management in Kelurahan Bidara Cina, Jakarta was emulated in the neighbouring community, using their own local resources. In other cases there is expectation that the government involvement in CBDRM would lead them to initiate similar projects in other areas. It is not about duplicating that becomes the problems. Resources in terms of capacity of facilitators as well as knowledge in DRM are scarce in comparison to areas to be empowered. Opportunities to involve in training on CBDRM remain scarce at the local level and people have to do learning by doing in order to support community in taking their responsibility of disaster management. Concentrations of implementing CBDRM are thus taking place in disaster prone areas when the disaster leads to attention at the national level. Some of disaster events take attentions only at the local level. The province of East Nusa Tenggara (NTT), which observes disasters on a regular basis, including flood in Benanain watershed that leads to food shortage, has limited access towards CBDRM (Usfomery, 2007). Despite the development of a CBDRM guideline by Boli et al. (2004) in Kupang, NTT, spreading out CBDRM to the local level has not been noted much in NTT as late as 2007. Thus CBDRM, introduced as project-based activities in many locations that lead to a national level attention, is a strategy used to promote awareness in which the community can be a partner in disaster risk reduction at the policy level. This is to imply that in the absence of the government involved in disaster risk management, the community with outside help takes the roles to manage the risk. However, the positive side of these CBDRM practice is to promote policies at the national level that need to be revised in line with practice of disaster management that has occurred in the society. CBDRM is replicated by various organizations dealing with charity works such as World Vision, Catholic Relief Services, etc. and religious social organizations in Indonesia such as Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), Muhammadiyah etc., who in the past did not have track record in community based disaster management, adopted CBDRM as a formal approach within the organizations in order to mobilize local resources and to use their influences to help others (ITB-AUSAID, 2008). Variants of CBDRM are especially adopted by organizations who have specific missions such as Red Cross organizations, or psychology focused organizations or social work based organisations. During its course, methods of CBDRM evolves to be more systematic, process oriented and becomes more measurable. CBDRM found its formats as it specializes in convincing the community that they play major parts in disaster risk reduction. CBDRM becomes more participatory as the bulk of activities rely on the facilitators who have experiences in facilitating the communities in other areas of expertise. At the local level, with limited human resources, such facilitators that specialize in disaster risk management come from other areas of expertise.

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During the course of experiences, the CBDRM format has to be accountable and measurable. In the mechanism of CBDRM there are monitoring and evaluation phases, which aimed at ensuring the activities reach its intended goals. Some would include transparency in terms of funding being used, and various networking efforts, and resource persons invited in the course of the activities. Others would include accountability from the sides of actors involved. Some would include participatory based monitoring and evaluation phase, which means the community members monitor and evaluate CBDRM that took place within their communities. Other types of scheme depend on outside sources for monitoring and evaluation of the activities.

4.2. Formulating Enabling Policy Expansion of CBDRM takes the meaning that preparedness towards the disaster is more important than response during the disaster. This is a departure from the previous emphasis on response capacity. Efforts to upscale CBDRM have taken place. LIPI (the Indonesian Institute of Sciences) initiates programs on community-based disaster preparedness, focussing on developing education and awareness materials for school children and communities in the country. LIPI together with NU organization even developed specific booklets that include adoption from religious verses in order to ensure that disaster risk reduction is in line with religious practices (LIPI, 2010). Furthermore, in health sector, Emergency Preparedness and Response (EPR) program are launched by the Ministry of Health of Indonesian government. Desa Siaga Bencana (Disaster Preparedness Village) is an effort to equip villages including its institutional arrangement so that it is prepared to deal with disaster at the local level. Concerns about disaster preparedness have also been part of the discussion with the Ministry of Social Works, Indonesia. In 2003, they establish Tagana (Taruna Siaga Bencana/ Disaster Preparedness Youth). This is a part of Youth organizations (Karang Taruna) that have been established at the village level. Tagana contributes resources that are responsive and handy in dealing with disaster preparedness and response. They work together with local radio organizations (RAPI), Red Cross, international aid agencies and different ministries at the national level to establish their part of disaster preparedness (TAGANA, 2010). At the local level, invention has taken place in order to ensure that issues of disaster preparedness remains relevant. Aceh introduces Index Siaga Bencana or Disaster Preparedness Index (DPI ) that will assess the preparedness at the village level (Nasution, 2010). DPI consists of assessment of the community members‟ parameters regarding their preparedness in early warning system, school system, health care system, evacuation zones, and communication to the governments. Assessment using DPI helps the government to comprehend what is lacking in promoting CBDRM to the communities and what to do about it. The case of Meuraxa sub district of Banda Aceh for example, shows that participatory approach, especially on data accuracy and in evacuation phase, is lacking (Nasution, 2010). It shows of which social institutions such as health facilities or school facilities have prepared themselves to deal with disaster. Despite the fact that invention at the village level to introduce disaster preparedness concept, the results of the assessment are limitedly transformed into development programs or projects at the local level. The local governments remain limited in their capacity to address a lack of resources at the village level. The

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community attempts to protect themselves with several initiatives. Villages with their limited budgets and resources develop their own community plan to prepare themselves. Cases of CBDRM in the villages in Aceh and West Sumatera conducted by ITB-UNDP show that the community leaders are capable to channel community initiatives to be a part of the government initiatives. In other case, they become the major drive in the community preparedness at the city level. In rural areas, up-scaling village initiatives to be a part of the government initiatives prove to be more challenging. Distance from the location of government offices as well as limited communication between them restraints efforts to adopt local initiatives. Rural villages rely on local traditions such as using the lowest lying part for non settlement, partaking in specific types of tree planting to develop their own disaster preparedness. Such practices are often transmitted through local dialogue with the elderly or bedtime storytelling to the children. In fact, some local traditions have been key in saving lives. The case of Simeulue island in North Sumatera, using local traditions in the form of storytelling to remind the younger generation of what had happened and what to do in order to save our lives (Yogaswara and Yulianto, 2008) can save lives. Of 80,500 people, only seven died, and leads to a prestigious UN Sasakawa Award (deLeon et al., 2007). Local traditions and wisdom that are aimed at protecting the environment in some ways promote disaster reduction as well. Local wisdom in NTT and Papua on protecting trees from being cut or fishing at certain time frame provides indication on how vulnerable the environment if disturbed (Pristiyanto, 2009). Such uses of local knowledge and wisdom can be a powerful tool at the local level when preparing the community. Unfortunately the position and integration of local knowledge and wisdom are often not part of the framework of CBDRM when introduced at the village level. Local traditions and wisdom are at the fringe of CBDRM framework. This is to say that CBDRM are framed with knowledge that is codified and well understood in modern framework of thinking. At the policy level, up-scaling does not end with introducing local wisdom as an asset at the local level towards disaster preparedness. The relation between CBDRM and development policies and programs are a concern. With the enactment of the National Act No 24/2007 on Disaster Management, which was then followed by various implementing regulations and decrees from related ministries, local authorities can formally engage in the management of pre, during and after disaster. Some local authorities are inventive with promoting CBDRM and allocate funding towards these activities. It is interesting to note that the National Disaster Management Plan 2010-2014 already mentioned two relevant strategies on disaster risk reduction (DRR), i.e. mainstreaming DRR into development planning and community-based disaster management, each with budgeted programs amounting respectively to Rp 6.16 billions (approx. US$ 0.65 millions) and Rp 110 Billions (approx. US$ 12 millions) (BNPB, 2010). However, it is still to be seen how they can be implemented effectively, as although disaster management is one of the national priorities, it often relates more on preparing at the national level on promoting procedures and knowledge, sometimes high tech, and managing funding in disaster response. In post recovery period, integrating disaster risk reduction is a challenge, particularly as often resources in post recovery periods may pour in from various sources including from out of the countries. This leads to disaster management in post recovery period becomes an accelerated development period where development activities take its course in different standards and procedures to those of „normal‟ development period. The case of Aceh with BRR Aceh - Nias (Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency of Aceh

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- Nias) shows that accelerating processes were needed with specific procedures to ensure the success of the recovery process, but on the other side these were also questioned whether disaster risk reduction has been prioritized or not in the process. In accordance with the DM Act, all provinces and many districts in Indonesia are currently establishing their Local Disaster Management Offices (BPBDs) that specifically monitor and promote disaster management using local resources and allow practitioners and local institutions to be involved. However in practice, the BPBDs are still constrained to build their capacity and to operate as the current regulatory procedures limit the options for developing their human resources and even some contradictory notions between different regulations still confuse the local government authorities, as such is the case with the current government funding regulation which does not support the financing of BPBDs‟ operation, in particular for risk reduction purpose. Definition of the roles and responsibility of the communities as the subject in disaster management in the regulations is not well defined, in contrast to the roles and responsibility of the government. This gives doubt to the legitimacy of CBDRM practice as to whether giving more authorities to the communities would reduce the roles of the government. Usfomeny (2007) argued that the strengthening of the position of CBDRM relies on a strong, determined local government leader that would make CBDRM parts of development policies. Government leaders become the focal point to promote that BPBDs can function as it is intended and thus promote the existence of CBDRM. At the local level, local government institutions that deal with disaster risk management should not be limited to BPBDs, and should involve other agencies such as the environmental management Office or local development planning agency and spatial planning division as well as health and social work division. These local institutions have their parts in contributing to CBDRM through their own programs at the community level, thus engaging disaster risk reduction with sectoral development programs. However, how much will they involve will still depend on the leader in order to mobilize resources needed to do the engagement.

CONCLUSION CBDRM emerges from practice using participatory approach to promoting community oriented management. When it is up-scaled, CBDRM frameworks have been codified in order to find similarities and differences in order to be adopted by provinces/districts with vast different characteristics. At the early phase of introducing CBDRM, emphasis is on disaster preparedness which allows the community to learn about managing disaster ahead of time. With limited resources dedicated to maintain disaster preparedness coupled with limited capacity to maintain the momentum of preparedness, many communities would balk at the efforts as they are faced with more critical priorities. Disaster preparedness cannot be left to the community to maintain its momentum. Except for some communities whose disaster occurs on regular basis, other communities may take chance instead of maintaining resources just to be prepared when disaster strikes. CBDRM can resolve some causes of disaster especially human induced. However relying heavily on CBDRM to reduce damages in society would never be adequate. For water induced disaster, CBDRM can only do so far with managing disaster preparedness for

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response. Insensitive decision making in development process may lead to serious water induced disasters. Deciding on which development can take place should mean deciding what kind of disaster related risk that may be tolerated, and at the local level, CBDRM provides an appropriate approach for a more participative decision making resulting in a more sensitive development decision. However, if CBDRM may not be a part of decision making related to development, then CBDRM would be alien in the terrain of constructing development. Integrating community based disaster risk management as part of development process either at the national or local levels are promising. As a country prone to water induced disasters, decisions on development means that consensus who gain and who losses would be important. Tools such as Regulatory Impact Assessment (RIA), or Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) that help the decision makers to measure such gains and losses have been in place. If CBDRM would not be left to the fringe of development, it requires specific approaches catered to the context of Indonesia in order to make it part of a more sustainable development program.

REFERENCES Abarquez I., Murshed Z. 2004. Community-Based Disaster Risk Management: Field Practitioners. Handbook. ADPC. Abberger H., Bradford M. S., Dotzauer H. 2002. The development of a community-based approach for an integrated forest fire management system in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. In Communities in flames: proceedings of an international conference on community involvement in fire management. Balikpapan, 25-28, July, 2000, FAO, 2002. pp.81-89. ADPC-Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre. 2008. Community Based Disaster Risk Management in Indonesia, www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs/.../ 2008/final_crindonesia_ 23nov.pdf, (Accessed 10 June, 2010). BNPB-Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana. 2010. Rencana Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana 2010-2014 (National Disaster Management Plan 2010-2014), Jakarta – Indonesia. Boli Y., Nakmofa Y., Seng I.S., Ofong L., Herman L. 2004. Panduan Penanganan Risiko Bencana Berbasis Masyarakat (Manual of Community Based Disaster Risk Management), FPKB, Kupang , http://www.ntt-academia.org/studi_bencana_ntt.html, (Accessed 16 July 2010). Davis I., Murshed Z. 2006. Critical Guidelines, Community-Based Disaster Risk Management. ADPC. Bangkok, Thailand. DeLeon J.C.V., Bugardi J., Dannenmain S., Broher R. 2007. Early warning systems in the context of disaster risk management, Agriculture and Rural Development 1/2007. UNU– EHS and UN/ISDR. http://www.rural21. com/uploads/media/ELR_Early _warning_systems...0107.pdf (Accessed 10 June 2010). DoCoutto R. Z., Rouhban M.B. 2004. APELL and Floods A community-based approach for disaster Reduction. UNESCO_UNEP Publication. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0013/001378/137828e.pdf , (Accessed 10 June, 2010) DRH-Disaster Reduction Hyperbase. 2010. drh.edm.bosai.go.jp/... /505cce625335652 d1441d6dc6d84524361eaa854, (Accessed 10 June 2010 ).

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EM-DAT-Emergency Events Database. 2010. Data on Indonesia. http://www.emdat.be/resultcountry-profile, Belgium. (Accessed 10 June, 2010). Fathani T.F., Karnawati D., Sassa K., Fukuoka H., Honda K. 2008. Development of Landslide Monitoring and Early Warning System in Indonesia. In Web proceedings of The First World Landslide Forum. 18-21 November 2008, United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan, pp.481-484. http://www.iclhq.org/WLFweb/WebProceedings_Inde _Index.htm, (Accessed 10 June, 2010) Government of Indonesia. 2007. National Act No.24/2007 on Disaster Management, Republic of Indonesia, 27 April, 2007. IDEP-Indonesian Development of Education and Permaculture. 2007. Community based disaster management: Manual (in Bahasa Indonesia), 2nd Ed., IDEP Foundation, http://www.idepfoundation.org/download_ files/pbbm/IDEP_PBBM_Panduan_Ed_2.pdf, (Accessed 10 June, 2010). ITB-Institut Teknologi Bandung and Asian ADRC-Disaster Reduction Centre. 2001. Community-Based Flood Mitigation in Bandung. LPPM-ITB, Final Report. Unpublished. ITB-Institut Teknologi Bandung and UNESCO. 2004. Strengthening Community Resilience in Flood Mitigation. Final Report, LAPI-ITB, Unpublished. ITB-Institut Teknologi Bandung-AUSAID. 2008. Technical Support for Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah Disaster Risk Management Program, Final Report, CDM-ITB, Unpublished. ITB-Institut Teknologi Bandung-UNDP. 2007. Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction in Nangroe Aceh Darussalam (NAD) and West Sumatera. Final Report, CDM-ITB, Unpublished. Karnawati D., Fathani T.F., Andayan B., Burton P.W. 2009. Landslide Hazard and Community-based Risk Reduction Efforts in Karanganyar and the Surrounding Area, Central Java, Indonesia. In Proceeding of the 7th Regional Conference of IAEG (Int. Assoc. Of Engineering Geology). 9-11 September 2009, Chengdu, China, pp. 436-441. Lassa J., Pujiono P., Pristiyanto D., Paripurno E.T., Magatani A., Parlan H. 2009. Kiat Tepat Mengurangi Risiko Bencana, Pengelolaan Risiko Bencana Berbasis Komunitas (PRBBK) (Appropriate tips to reduce disaster risk, CBDRM), Grasindo Publ., Jakarta. Legono D., Pamudji A., Fathani T.F., Prabowo I. 2008. Development of Community-based Early Warning System against Debris Flow at Mt. Merapi, Indonesia. In web proceedings of The First World Landslide Forum. 18-21 November 2008, United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan, pp.404-406 http://www.iclhq.org/WLFweb/WebProceedings_Index.htm, (Accessed 10 June, 2010). LIPI-Indonesian Institute for Sciences. 2010. (http://www.siagabencana.lipi. go.id/), (Accesed 15 July, 2010). Maskrey A. 1989. Disaster Mitigation: A Community-Based Approach (Oxfam Development Guidelines), Oxfam Professional Publication. MPBI-Masyarakat Penanggulangan Bencana Indonesia. 2008. Draft Report. In proceedings of 4th Symposium on Institutionalizing and Integrating CBDRM into Policy, Bali, 19-21 August, 2008, Unpublished. Nasution A. 2010. Pengelolaan Risiko Bencana Berbasis Masyarakat di Kecamatan Meuraxa, kota Banda Aceh (Community Based Disaster Risk Management in Meuraxa sub District, Municipality of Banda Aceh). http://karstaceh.com/chamber/pengelolaan-resiko-bencana-

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berbasis-komu-nitas-di-kecamatan-meuraksa-kota-banda-aceh-2, (Accessed 10 June, 2010). Paripurno E.T. 2006. Penanggulangan Bencana oleh Komunitas (Disaster Management by Community), PSMB-UPN Veteran,Yogyakarta. PMI-Palang Merah Indonesia (Indonesian Red Cross). 2010. PMI in Disaster Risk Reduction, .http://www.pmi.or.id/eng/program/Default.asp?act= detailandid_sub=47 (Accessed 10 June, 2010) Pribadi K.S., Argo T.A., Kertapati E., Latief H., Sengara I.W., Kusumastuti D.K., Hadisutisna S., Utami A., Mariany A., Asparini A. 2008. CBDRR Framework, a brief guideline on implementation of community-based disaster risk reduction, CDM-ITB, Bandung. Pristiyanto D. 2009. Mendorong Penyebarluasan Gerakan Pengelolaan Risiko Bencana Berbasis Komunitas (Promoting community based disaster risk management) http://www.mpbi.org/content/mendorong-penyebarluasan-gerakan-pengelolaan-risikobencana-berbasis-bencana, (Accessed 10 June, 2010). Rudyanto B., Pribadi K.S., Arakida M. 2007. Community-based Flood Mitigation Project: The Case Study of Bandung City, Indonesia. In Proceeding of the International Symposium on Landslide Risk Analysis and Sustainable Disaster Management (IPL 2007). 21-24 January 2007, United Nations University, Tokyo. TAGANA-Taruna Siaga Bencana. 2010. (http://taganaindonesia.org/). (Accessed 16 July 2010). UNCRD-United Nations Centre for Regional Development. 2004. Disaster Management Planning Hyogo Office; Sustainable Community Based Disaster Management (CBDM) Practices in Asia, A Users Guide, UNCRD, Kobe Japan. UNESCO-United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. 2004. Flood mitigation: a Community-based project; maximizing knowledge to minimize impacts, unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ 0015/001543/154381e.pdf. (Accessed 10 June, 2010). Usfomeny P. 2007. Dicari, pemimpin yang sadar bencana (Wanted, leaders who are disaster aware) https://docs.google. (Accessed on 10 June 2010). Victoria L.P. 2002. Community based approach to disaster mitigation. In Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Best Practices in Disaster Mitigation: Lessons Learned from the Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program and other initiatives, 24-26 September 2002, Bali, Indonesia, ADPC, pp.269-314. Vidiarina H. 2006. The Challenge and lessons of working with communities in urban areas: the ACF experience in Kampung Melayu. In PDRSEA 3 (4). ADPC., ECHO, and UNESCAP. [www.adpc.net], (Accessed 16 July 2010). Yogaswara H., Yulianto E. 2008. Pengetahuan Lokal tentang Tsunami pada Masyarakat Simeulue, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam (Local Knowledge on Tsunami in Simeulue Community, Aceh), www.jtic.org , (Accessed 10 June, 2010).

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

LESSONS LEARNED FROM COMMUNITY BASED EARLY WARNING SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES Susan R. Espinueva1 and Prisco D. Nilo2 Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration, Philippines

ABSTRACT Early warning systems are non-structural disaster mitigation measures designed to save human lives by enabling local authorities and the community to plan and to act accordingly in the event of a disaster. When applied to the flood hazard, such early warning would require facilities to measure rain data and upstream catchment and river behavior so that timely warnings from a possible flood can be provided to the downstream communities. Hence, the design of the early warning system on flood should adopt a river basin or a watershed approach to essentially account for the upstream, midstream and downstream aspects of the basin. Within the framework of disaster management system in the Philippines, emphasis is made on “self reliance”, “self help” and “mutual assistance” at the local level, particularly in the utilization of resources. It is against this backdrop that the community based flood early warning system (CBFEWS) is developed and anchored on the existing local disaster coordinating council that is inherent in the institutional set-up of every local government unit (LGU). The Philippines has already implemented quite a number of CBFEWS since 1999. The earlier flood early warning system were demand driven while the recent CBFEWS initiatives were funded by foreign donors. Experiences in implementing early warning system are quite varied and these challenges are reflected in the issues and concerns as well as lessons learned derived in the various engagements with the LGUs.

Keywords: early warning system, community based approach, flood, network design, disaster management, partnership, sustainability

1 2

Tel: +632-9294065, 9282754, Email: [email protected]. Tel: +632-9294065, 9282754. Email: [email protected].

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1. INTRODUCTION Early warning system in the Philippines started in 01 January 1865 when the Observatorio del Ateneo Municipal was set up by the Jesuit fathers. But prior to this date, meteorological observations were being made by using systematic recording of meteorological observations by the Jesuits to forecast the weather. For floods, coping strategies covering both indigenous and conventional ways have long been practiced and these are inherent in any community that is highly susceptible to flooding. The vulnerability of the Philippine archipelago to hazards is defined by its location and natural attributes. It is located along the typhoon belt in the Western North Pacific Basin in the Pacific where 33 percent of tropical cyclones develop. On the average, the country faces 20 tropical cyclones annually, of which 5 to 7 are destructive. Tropical cyclones along with other severe weather systems such as monsoons and the inter-tropical convergence zone, among others, oftentimes produce heavy rainfall that trigger floods and rain induced landslides. Due to the various weather causing phenomena in the Philippines, flooding is not a recent hazard in the Philippines but one that has occurred throughout the recorded history of the archipelago (Bankoff, 2003). Floods are „one of the greatest natural calamities that may occur in any place‟, while typhoons are responsible for much of the rain that makes the climate so ideal for agriculture. These natural disasters which are hydro-meteorological hazards related cost the Government an average of PhP15 Billion per year in direct damages, or more than 0.5% of the national GDP, and indirect and secondary impacts further increase this cost (Rabonza, 2010). The disaster management system in the Philippines is governed by issuance of national policies and adjustments are done in consideration of regional and international frameworks. In 1978, Presidential Decree 1566 was passed for strengthening the Philippine disaster control and capability and establishing the national program on community disaster preparedness. Under the decree, disaster management, specifically disaster preparedness and emergency operations is to be pursued with a heavy emphasis on “self reliance”, “self help” and “mutual assistance”. This means that maximum utilization of resources at every politicoadministrative level is enjoined before assistance is sought from higher levels. Primary responsibility for disaster management is placed upon line agencies of the government. The exercise of leadership responsibilities is expected from the local government executives (Governors, Mayors, Barangay Captains). The main role of the national government is to provide support to the local government units. Both planning and real operations are to be carried out in an inter-agency multi-sectoral basis to optimize the utilization of Resources. Every agency of government is directed to prepare its disaster preparedness plan. It is within this framework that early warning systems for flood were developed to capacitate the communities at risk. Flood early warning in the Philippines started with the introduction of tele-metered system in 1973 in the Pampanga river basin in Luzon Island as a pilot area. The effectiveness of the system in mitigating the impacts of flooding paved for the establishment of similar early warning systems in three other major river basins in Luzon in 1983. In the late 90s, this system was extended for reservoir operation in 5 major dams in Luzon.

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However, during the 1990s, the increasing incidence of flooding has been noted in various parts of the country. Since tele-metered flood early warning system requires considerable investments, the Philippine government restored the low cost and simple early warning systems as non-structural measure in mitigating the impacts of flooding. In addition, the top-down approach type of development that was popular in the 1960‟s where rapid rural appraisals were employed was no longer effective (Amadore et al., 2003). Most of the projects failed and the donors realized that development was not easy. As a result, the bottom up approach was introduced where consultations were made at the community level before project implementation. Consequently, the community based flood early warning system (CBFEWS) was conceived and applied in medium size river basin. After the success of the pilot project on community based flood early warning system, the system was replicated in other catchments.

2. METHODOLOGY The early warning system on flood employs a community based approach that integrates the installation of monitoring instruments, and activities undertaken by the community and the local as well as national governments. In the CBFEWS, the national government facilitates the implementation of the project while the local government and the community managed the operation and maintenance of the installed facilities (Espinueva, 2007).

2.1. Strategies in the Establishment of CBFEWS Most often the local government units (LGUs) assume that the installation of flood monitoring devices in their area will equip them with an early warning device without considering the effect of the upstream condition. However, with the intervention of the Hydrometeorology Division, Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services (PAGASA), the LGUs were made to understand the importance of lead time in any early warning system in order to enable communities to undertake preparedness measures before a disaster strikes. The first strategy in the establishment of a flood early warning system (FEWS) is the consideration of the basin or catchment in designing the network of observation equipment. Given the geographic setting and physiographic features of the watershed, the LGUs and communities should view the early warning system in the context of a river basin approach where upstream, midstream and downstream activities affect the time of concentration and the volume of runoff as reflected in the shape of the hydrograph. Given the fact that most flood prone communities are aware that heavy rainfall intensities upstream may result to flooding in the downstream area, FEWS will systematize or enhance the existing coping mechanisms of communities. The second strategy is that the FEWS must be managed by the community. The residents near the rivers or in flood prone areas are the best people who can cope with the flood hazard because they are equipped with indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) on the behaviour of the rivers. The enhancement of the ITK of the community in coping with flooding in their

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respective area through FEWS and their participation in the operation and maintenance of the monitoring equipment will inculcate in them a sense of ownership (Nilo et al., 2007). This is one of the issues crucial in the sustainability of the FEWS. The third strategy is the mainstreaming of FEWS in the disaster contingency plan of the community in order to ensure the sustainability of the FEWS. Through this scheme, the budgetary requirement for operation and maintenance (O & M) activities are programmed and sourced out from the 5% calamity fund allocation in every LGU. Although the process will require approval of the municipal/city council through a resolution, such scheme is underscored during consultation meetings and stipulated in the Memorandum of Agreement between the PAGASA and the LGUs which is usually signed before the implementation of the project.

2.2. Activities in the Establishment of CBFEWS In general, a CBFEWS consists of two distinct groups: one is involved in monitoring the natural phenomena and the other in assessing the hydrometeorological conditions and mobilizes the necessary resources and executes an emergency plan. To establish a CBFEWS, the PAGASA follows six basic components namely: i) consultation with local government units (LGUs), ii) design of hydrological network following a river basin approach, iii) acquisition and/or fabrication of monitoring facilities, iv) ocular survey of proposed sites (derived from a table top survey), v) installation of facilities and hydrographic survey, and vi) training of observers and dry run on the operation of the CBFEWS. The implementation of the system is culminated by the turnover of the CBFEWS to the LGUs.

2.2.1. Consultation with Lgus The identification of the most appropriate type of FEWS in a certain locality or community must be based on the community‟s cultural values, beliefs and personal experiences. It is crucial to present the plan to the LGUs and identify their needs and assess their interest and acceptability of the project through participatory discussion (Perez et al., 2007). The consultation meeting is designed to bring together the stakeholders to discuss the feasibility of implementing a CBFEWS and to assess the existing facilities that can be utilized for the CBFEWS. The concept of CBFEWS will be introduced as well as the roles and responsibilities of the stakeholders through a draft Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) for comments and review. There is also a need to identify the Disaster Operation Center (DOC) which is in place in every municipality and normally headed by the Deputized Civil Defense Coordinator (DCDC). Very often, the most downstream municipality in a river basin is designated as the DOC, in case two or more municipalities encompassed a river basin. 2.2.2. Network Design The networks design of the CBFEWS includes a table top survey on where to position the monitoring stations for rainfall and water level. Following the river basin approach, the design of the network is prepared using a flood hazard map and a topographic map (Figure 1) which identifies the boundaries of rivers and tributaries.

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Figure 1. A sample topographic map (left) and the network design (right).

The CBFEWS is designed based on typical conditions of the study area and the indigenous practices of the communities. Among the factors to be considered in the implementation of the CBFEWS are: 1) technical capability of the community to operate and maintain the installed equipment; 2) economic capability of the community to purchase or acquire the equipment and spare parts to ensure the continuous operation of the system; and 3) availability of volunteers or LGUs from the community to operate the instrumentation.

2.2.3. Acquisition and Fabrication of EWS Instruments The basic instruments of a CBFEWS are rainfall, water level gauges and flood markers. Although there are sophisticated equipments available for flood forecasting and warning, the maintenance cost for such equipment is high and most often not affordable by the LGU and the community. As much as possible, PAGASA recommends locally fabricated instruments in order for the community to easily replace defective instruments in the future. The use of simple technology permits observers to carry out measurements of hydrometeorological conditions in a practical way. Therefore, the technology to be employed must satisfy the following requirements: 1) low cost and available locally; 2) practical and simple to use; and 3) modular units for easy maintenance. A. Rain-Gauge The project recommends a combination of digital and manually operated rain-gauges (Figure 2). The standard 8-inches rain-gauge (Figure 2) is recommended by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). It is composed of a collector tube and a collector funnel made of Gauge #26 Galvanized Iron, a measuring tube made of brass or Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe and a measuring stick made of wood or metal (Figure 3) and can be easily fabricated using local materials.

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Figure 2. Standard 8-inches manual rain-gauge (left) and the digital electronic rain-gauge (right).

Figure 3. Specification of a Standard 8 inches manual rain-gauge.

B. Water Level Gauge A water level gauge is a simple staff gauge usually painted in semi-permanent structures such as pier of concrete bridges. A template is prepared using a cardboard as shown in figure 4. The scales in the template are in centimetres and one full template measures one meter. C. Communication System The communication network is the heart of the CBFEWS. The system will adapt the existing communication system in order to achieve a sense of community participation in the transmission of observed data to the disaster operation centre. The use of radios is recommended because of its reliability even when commercial power fail and guarantees availability of communication in case of emergency. Mobile phones can also be use as an

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alternative form of communication. For warning purposes, fabricated bells are provided in addition to the existing warning equipment being utilized by the community.

Figure 4. Preparation of a water level gauge template.

2.3. Ocular Survey of Proposed Sites After establishing the network density, the proposed sites are verified through actual survey in coordination with the LGUs. There are criteria that are considered in choosing the sites of the proposed monitoring stations such as the presence or availability of an observer, access to the site and the availability of communication facilities as indicated in the report. The ocular survey is usually undertaken in coordination with the LGUs. All feasible sites are plotted on a map and presented to the LGUs. The survey team also conducts a needs analysis survey in the form of questionnaires.

2.4. Installation and Hydrographic Survey Standard rain-gauges are installed in open areas where there are no obstruction like big trees and buildings of more than 10 meters high from the installation site. The instrument is normally mounted on a concrete platform (Figure 5) to make it stable and enclosed by a fence to protect it from stray animals. The digital rain-gauge can be installed on the roof of houses, buildings and other structures. The rain-gauge is battery operated and connected to the monitor through a wire (Figure 6). The monitor is usually installed inside the building or house where the rain-gauge is installed for easy reading and monitoring of the rainfall intensity even during night time or heavy rains. The water level gauge is painted on the pier of a concrete bridge using the template as shown in Figure 7.

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Figure 5. Installation of a standard manual rain-gauge.

Figure 6. Installation of digital electronic rain-gauge (left and centre photos) and the monitor (right).

Ladder

Cut out pattern made of cardboard

Spray paint

Figure 7. Fixing water level gauges on bridge piers.

The hydrographic survey consists of discharge measurement and cross-sectioning (Figure 8) of the river channel. These are done by PAGASA to determine the carrying capacity of rivers and to derive the assessment levels at the particular cross section. Discharge measurement activities are undertaken to establish correlation of river heights with the flow of the river.

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Figure 8. Measurement of river cross-section.

The assessment levels are divided into Level 1, Level 2 and Level 3 which will be the basis in issuing flood advisories/warnings. Each warning level corresponds to a particular situation in the river which necessitates the issuance of an alert to the community. The flood advisories for the community are also classified into READY (Level 1), GET SET (Level 2) and GO (Level 3). The meanings of each level of flood advisory are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Meaning of flood advisories Assessment Level Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

River height The river at a reference point is about 40% full. The river at a reference point is about 60% full. The river at a reference point is 100% full.

Flood Warning READY GET SET GO

Meaning Awareness -that flooding is possible within the next 24 hours. Preparedness- that flooding is threatening within the next 12 hours. Response - that flooding is expected to occur/or will persist within the next 12 hours.

2.5. Training for Observers The training module is composed of formal lectures and actual observation of rainfall data using the manual and digital rain-gauges. The second part of the training is mostly a table top exercise on the operation of the CBFEWS. The observers should know where and whom to send the observed data. The person in-charge in the operation centre conducts the analyses and interprets the data reported by the observers or volunteers and then issues alerts or flood advisories/warnings to the communities at risk. The operation of a CBFEWS will be integrated into the existing activities and set-up of the DOC. It is crucial that the DOC will be able to understand the operation of the CBFEWS since the DOC will decide on the interval of data transmission during inclement and emergency situations, interpret the observed data and issue the corresponding flood warnings.

2.6. Pilot Testing/Dry Run A dry run is conducted to check that the activities are carried out in accordance with existing protocols and following the communication scheme in Figure 9.

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Figure 9. Communication scheme.

2.7. Other Activities 2.7.1. Agreement among Stakeholders For the implementation of CBFEWS, there is a need for the stakeholders to agree on the activities to be undertaken, the cost sharing scheme among the key players as well as the roles of the community and the institutions involved. All these are stipulated in a Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) which is signed before the installation of facilities to ensure the smooth implementation of the CBFEWS. 2.7.2. Enactment of a Local Ordinance for Operation and Maintenance The MOA signed during the implementation of the system is binding within the tenure of the local chief executive who signed the MOA. To address the issue on sustainability, it is crucial that a local ordinance be enacted by the city or municipal council that stipulates the allocation of a reasonable amount of budget for the operation and maintenance of the system. A sample of the ordinance enacted by the municipal council of Dumangas, Iloilo, Philippines is shown in Figure 10. LEGISLATIVE SUPPORT (Dumangas, Iloilo) •

ORDINANCE NO 2005-01 entitled, “AN ORDINANCE PROVIDING AN ANNUAL APPROPRIATION FOR THE MAINTENANCE AND OTHER OPERATIONAL EXPENSES OF THE COMMUNITY-BASED FLOOD AND DROUGHT FORECASTING AND WARNING SYSTEM IN DUMANGAS, ILOILO”.

Figure 10. Agreement sample.

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3. LESSONS LEARNED Although the CBFEWS was conceptualized in 1999, among the first projects to be established are located in Bulacan and Dumangas in Iloilo which were initiated and funded by the LGUs in 2005 and 2006, respectively. By the first quarter of 2006, the most comprehensive multi-hazards mapping and assessment for effective community based disaster risk management project (READY project) was launched in the Philippines by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) with funding from the Australia Agency for International Development (AusAID). The READY project is an offshoot of the flashfloods that occurred in December 2004 in the provinces of Quezon and Aurora. The immediate benefits of FEWS are manifested in several project areas. In August 2004, Typhoon Marce brought heavy rains in the province of Bulacan that resulted in the swelling of the Angat river and its tributaries. But with the data observed from the FEWS coupled with the storm warnings, the people in the province were able to harvest their aquaculture products before the fishponds were overflowed (Hernando, 2008). The passage of Typhoon Fengshen (locally known as typhoon Frank) in June 2008 caused the worst flooding that devastated the island of Panay. Hundreds of people died and damage to infrastructure and agriculture was estimated to be more than one billion pesos. However, in the municipality of Dumangas, Iloilo where a CBFEWS is in place, there was no casualty reported and their emergency team even assisted the neighbouring towns in rescue operations. In August 2009, Typhoon Morakot brought intense rains causing the breaching of dikes that resulted to massive flooding and destruction of school, buildings, houses and roads in the province of Zambales in the Philippines. Fortunately, there were no casualties and the local officials utilized the CBFEWS facilities in warning to evacuate people to safe areas. Similar incidents also have taken place in Olongapo City and Vigan City where the CBFEWS were established. Implementing a science-based project for the benefit of the community and designed to be operated by the community is a most challenging but satisfying feat. Although indigenous practices and beliefs as well as cultural background were considered in the design of CBFEWS, there are issues and concerns to address, challenges to hurdle and good practices that need to be replicated.

Operation and Maintenance The responsibility of O &d M of the adapted CFEWS is of the LGUs, specifically the deputized Civil Defence Coordinator (CDC) who also heads the Disaster Operation Centre. However, the CDC is appointed by the local chief executive. Budget for O and M is subject to scrutiny and audit and it is not automatic especially on pre-disaster activities. It is therefore critical for the CBFEWS to be mainstreamed in the planning process of the LGU‟s.

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Institutional Stability of CBFEWS The operation of the CBFEWS is integrated in the functions of the DCC which is an organic part of the institutional set-up of every local government unit. However, depending on the priorities of the local chief executive, the DCCs are organized but not always functional. In addition, local chief executives are elected every 3 years and the fast turnover of local officials is a major constraint in the continuous and smooth operation of the CBFEWS. Under this situation, the community being one of the stakeholder and direct beneficiary of the CBFEWS should demand from the LGU for its continued operation.

Differences in Political Affiliation The political situation in pilot tested areas generally dominates every activity at the local level. The effectiveness or benefits of undertaking a community based system maybe disregarded due to differences in political parties and their working agenda and priorities. This is the general trend in most areas. But there are a few exceptions that need to be emulated. For instance, in Dumangas, Iloilo, even if there was a change in leadership and initial resistance from the newly elected chief executive, the intervention from the national agencies enabled the local executive to be appreciative of the benefits of the CBFEWS in the community. As a result, the O & M of the CBFEWS was sustained and further enhanced.

Sustainability Based on extensive experiences in dealing with communities in the implementation of CBFEWS, the most effective mechanism to ensure its sustainability is the passage of a local ordinance by the city, municipal or provincial council allocating budget for O & M. Since the local ordinance goes beyond the tenure of he local officials, it indicates that the CBFEWS has been mainstreamed into the contingency and development plans of the locality.

Acceptability of the CBFEWS Despite the increasing frequency of intense disasters from hydrometerological related hazards such as floods, initiatives on early warning as an effective mitigating measure has just started to gain recognition. Often, communities that have experienced major disasters are more receptive and appreciative in sustaining the CBFEWS. There is now a paradigm shift in disaster mitigation towards giving focus on disaster preparedness and prevention instead of limiting it to disaster response, recovery, and rehabilitation.

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Institutionalization of Partnership among Stakeholders The implementation of CBFEWS involves several stakeholders such as technical agencies from the national government, local governments, private sector, academic institutions, non-government organizations and even the media. Each entity plays a critical role in the implementation, operation and maintenance of the early warning system. In an area where a CBFEWS is in place, a monitoring team composed of the various stakeholders is organized and convene regularly to discuss the issues and concerns and limitations of the system. The Office of Civil Defence at the regional and provincial and even at the city and municipal levels must take the lead since disaster management is within their mandates. The local CBFEWS team should conduct regular assessment of activities, re-training of observers and post-disaster meetings, public information drives, etc.

Role of Volunteers and School The very basic activity of the CBFEWS is the observation of rainfall and water level data by observers designated by the LGus. However, the most effective observers are volunteers and / or school children who are supervised by their teachers. The involvement of volunteers and school children will significantly boost the observation of rainfall and water level and greatly reduce the cost of operations. Hence, school grounds are the preferred sites for the installation of manual rain-gauges.

CONCLUSION The increasing frequency of flooding in rural and urban areas in the Philippines as manifested in the recent flood events has transformed the mindset of communities and local officials in their preparedness and mitigation efforts. The people and the national government are becoming more appreciative of the benefits of early warning system as a non-structural flood mitigating measure. The request for technical assistance in the establishment of a CBFEWS from NGOs and LGUs both in rural and urban areas has increased to the point that PAGASA need to re-train more technical personnel. Since it is the community who will bear the brunt of nature‟s extremes, they will always take up the challenge within their own capacities to undertake any measure to protect themselves against hydro-meteorological hazards. And due to its simplicity and cost effectiveness, the adoption of early warning system on flood will be a preferred option of the community. As more LGUs adopt CBFEWS in their communities, more lessons are learned and the PAGASA is working on documenting the best practices of the LGUs in operating and sustaining the CBFEWS. To increase the effectiveness and to upscale the CBFEWS in other areas, the strategies will continuously be modified to suit the needs of the LGUs and the community. Recently, a city council initiated the establishment of CBFEWS through the enactment of local resolution by the city council even before the implementation of the project. This is the best way to start the CBFEWS whereby the LGUs do the planning based

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on their needs and provide the budget while the PAGASA will guide and facilitate the establishment of the CBFEWS. Another strategy to stir the interest of the LGUs is to conduct public information drive on CBFEWS at communities in flood prone areas. For PAGASA, the establishment of CBFEWS has extended the coverage of its flood forecasting and warning service, improved its observation network and most of all, enhanced its partnership with the local government units and the community. In due time, the LGUs and the community will realize that meteorology, particularly rainfall forecasting where flood forecasts are based, is not an exact science and that flooding is a result of the interplay between nature and society. Moreover, the PAGASA advocates that the system should be demand driven whereby the LGUs provide the funding to impress a sense of ownership which is an important condition that will ensure sustainability of the system. The CBFEWS is a classic example that showcase how science works at the community level

REFERENCES Amadore L. A., Encarnacion R. P., Bautista M. J., Espinueva S. R. 2003. Multi-sectoral Partnership for Sustainable Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness: A Government Agency’s Perspective. Country Report for Philippines presented in the World Water Forum Meeting in Kyoto, Japan. Bankoff G. 2003. Vulnerability and flooding in metro Manila. International Institute for Asian Studies (IIAS) Newsletter, 31 July, 2003. http://www.iias.nl/iiasn/ 31/IIASN31_11.pdf (Accessed on July 10, 2010). Espinueva S. R. 2007. Establishment of Community Based Flood Early Warning System (CBFEWS) in the Province of Surigao del Sur, UNDP Ready Project under the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration. Manila, the Philippines. Hernando H. T. 2008. Typhoon committee general guidelines for setting-up a communitybased flood forecasting and warning system (CBFFWS), Typhoon Committee Report by United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) and World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). Thailand. Nilo P. D., Espinueva S. R., Subbiah A. R., Bildan L., Rafisura K. 2007. Taking up flooding through a community-based early warning system. Asian Disaster Preparedness Resources. ADPC, Bangkok, Thailand. http://www.adpc.net/. (Accessed July 10, 2010). Perez R. T., Espinueva S. R., Hernando H. T. 2007. Community-based flood early warning system. Briefing paper for workshop on the science and practice of flood disaster management in urbanizing Monsoon Asia/ 4-6 April 2007, Chiang Mai, Thailand . (Accessed July 12, 2010) Rabonza G. 2010. Eighth meeting of the regional consultative committee on disaster management (RCC-8), Manila, the Philippines.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

BUILDING FOR FLOODS IN THE HINDU KUSH HIMALAYAN REGION – LOCAL KNOWLEDGE AND COMMUNITY INNOVATION Mats G. Eriksson1 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Khumaltar, Kathmandu, Nepal

ABSTRACT In the Hindu Kush – Himalayan region, people have adapted to challenges related to too much and too little water for generations. Will these adaptive mechanisms be enough in the current rapid pace of change in both climate and society? The impact from climate leads to increased water induced hazards. New infrastructure being built will have to adapt to increasing hazards. This is not always the case. New private and public buildings are being constructed in hazard prone areas, against local knowledge and common sense. Traditional knowledge on where and how to build houses safely need to be acknowledged, and policies allowing access to safe land for public buildings need to be put into place. Cultural norms hampering parts of the society to shift to more hazard resistant housing and livelihood practices need to be supported, particularly among the younger generation.

Keywords: Traditional knowledge, culture, building against hazards, Hindu Kush Himalaya, adaptation to floods

1. INTRODUCTION The vast Hindu Kush – Himalayan (HKH) region is characterized by many different climate and cultural environments. It spans from the Pamir, Hindu Kush, and Karakoram 1

Author is currently affiliated with Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), Stockholm, Sweden. Tel: +46 8 52213960, Email: [email protected].

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ranges in the west along the main Himalayan range to the Hengduan Shan and other ranges in the east. However large the area is, people in all corners of the region faces the problem of having either too much or too little water at any point in time. The South Asian monsoon regime determines the climate and brings huge amount of water in the summer to the central and eastern part of the region, while the long dry winter season poses severe challenges to water availability (Eriksson et al., 2009; Xu et al., 2009). Despite the region having ample amount of rainfall, measured on an annual basis, water scarcity is profound throughout the region during large parts of the year. The arrival of the rainfall is often connected with severe challenges as well. High intense rainfall events create havoc when leading to rapid increase of pore water pressure in the soil in steep terrain, and consequently triggering debris flows and slope failures. Similarly, the water level in streams and river beds may increase rapidly causing flash floods with the threat to destroy farm land and infrastructure. On a larger scale, and on the foot-slopes and plains below the mountains, the monsoon rainfall brings thousands of river courses in the large river basins to the limits of their capacity. Eventually the levee‟s confining the water to the river courses will be overtopped or breached leading to widespread flooding and inundation. The arrival of the monsoon and the high intense rainfall events, leading to flash floods, riverine floods, and inundation are part of the natural climate regime dating back to geological time scales. Thus, the people living in this region have, of necessity, adapted their livelihoods, agriculture and cultural practices to these pre-conditions. However, the current rapid changes in climate and its variability is increasing constrains to access to water and may exacerbate the frequency and severity of flash floods, riverine floods, and inundation. Therefore, people‟s ways and means to live with floods and droughts, developed over generations, become increasingly important to sustain the resilience of the communities in the HKH. To this end, the rapid changes in the society as well as in the climate, puts increasing constrains to life style and livelihoods in these communities, and local knowledge and practices on how to respond to climate related stressors may need external support in order to be sustainable over time (ICIMOD, 2009). Conceptually reducing the risk of disasters is closely associated with adaptation processes (Moench, 2009). Thus, by strengthen better preparedness for disasters, improved adaptation to climate induced hazards will be achieved, and a gradual shift towards more resilient communities will take place. The concepts of disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation embrace a broad scope of the society including both structural and non-structural dimensions. This chapter will provide some examples on how local communities have developed ways to adjust their housing in flood prone areas, as well as examples where people live with risk. Both challenges related to flash floods as well as inundation will be highlighted.

2. “READING” THE LANDSCAPE Living in the HKH means living with risk. Mountain regions are inherently hazard prone areas and planning and construction of the society and its infrastructure inevitably has to follow the law of nature and the preconditions provided by the landscape and its physical features.

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In Chitral district in northern Pakistan, and similar remote and high altitude areas of the region, good options for suitable places for house construction is limited. The landscape in Chitral is characterized by steep rocky slopes beneath which flood plains host braided and meandering rivers. One of the main landscape features then left for house construction, as well as for agriculture, orchards and vegetable gardens, are the alluvial fans occurring at the mouths of stream gorges, or valleys, descending from the high mountains (Figure1). These are extremely prone to flash floods. In fact, alluvial fans are formed from such events and living on these is therefore connected with a high risk level (Figure2). Thus, local knowledge on how to find the least vulnerable spots on these alluvial fans becomes highly important. In most cases this boils down to staying away from the main flood paths of potential flash floods. An elder in the Krakal village in the Kalash valley in Chitral summarized this as: “We take two things into account when we build our houses. We don‟t build houses in the way of floods and in places where stones may fall down”. This in turn means finding places to live on the sides of the fan, which would be somewhat sheltered from a flood path, or at the very edges of the fan, where a flash flood would have lost much of its energy and destructive force, as well as having been diluted over a larger area. Some villages are built on fossil, inactive alluvial fans which then are safer. Other settlements are built in clusters and slightly high up on mountain slopes not only to be safe from floods, but also to save suitable land for agriculture. In a smaller scale it becomes useful to understand the physical behaviour of stream courses. This is something that inhabitants of Chitral also have learned over time (Dekens, 2007a). “Water always remember its path” is a local expression that has been useful when guiding the location of new house constructions. The expression aims to describe the nature of flowing water on an alluvial fan, where a stream can be confined to a certain channel for a long time, only to suddenly abandon this channel and take a new course, normally as part of a flood event. Sooner or later it is likely that the stream again reverts back to the original channel, which then has been dry for a substantial amount of time. An alluvial fan is normally characterized by numerous such dry fossil channels, all of which, however, may become active again at a certain flash flood event. Therefore, staying away from old channels has proved to be a successful survival strategy in Chitral as elsewhere. However, such old channels may be very subtle and difficult to detect in the landscape and it may take either a scientific scholar trained in geomorphology, or local knowledge based on experience, to detect such paleo-channels. Lately, population increase and pressure from the society for additional land for house constructions and public buildings have forced people to push the limits of physical landscape safety. In Chitral district and many other areas in the region, houses, schools, and other buildings are increasingly being located in vulnerable, or even extremely vulnerable, spots. This is often due to a combination of lack of suitable land or lack of access to suitable land, lack of proper knowledge on physical landscape hazards, and ignorance. Corruption may also at times lead to buildings being located in unsuitable places.

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Figure 1. In Chitral, Pakistan, alluvial fans, occurring at the mouth of stream gorges and valleys, provide one of the few areas for settlement.

Figure 2. Huge boulders transported and deposited by a flash flood have miraculously spared the houses built on the side of an alluvial fan in Chitral.

In Chitral, for instance, one can find several recently constructed public schools located in the uppermost part, in the hydrographic apex, of recent active alluvial fans. These are extremely vulnerable spots, witnessed for instance through the absence of trees and large shrubs in these areas, since they are washed away from time to time (Figure3). The exact reason for why schools are located in such areas is not fully known and addressed. In Nepal, along main river valleys, schools are also found to be located in precarious positions in the landscape. For instance, along the Bhote koshi river course in north-central Nepal schools and other buildings are located very close to the water level (Figure4). This river course has been subject to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) in the past causing substantive destruction. Presently, nine potential GLOF lakes have been identified in the uppermost part of the basin, in the Tibet Autonomous Region in China. If any of the moraine ridges damming the lakes would burst, the propagating flood wave would travel across the

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border to Nepal and inflict considerable damage and destruction along the river course, including damaging the buildings recently built near the stream course, and of course putting the people in these buildings into immediate danger.

Figure 3. In Chitral, schools and other public buildings are sometimes built in the most vulnerable areas, on the uppermost parts of alluvial fans (white circle).

Figure 4. A school built on low lying vulnerable land, close to the Sun-Bhote Koshi river, Nepal.

In order to rectify such trends it becomes increasingly important to a) acknowledge and build upon local knowledge and experience, developed over generations; b) create awareness among district government officials on risks related to floods and flash floods, and other landscape related hazards; and c) counteract corrupt behaviour in processes of allocating land for public buildings, like schools and hospitals.

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3. CULTURAL TRADITIONS AND HOUSE CONSTRUCTIONS IN ASSAM, INDIA The tradition to build houses on plinths has been developed over generations as an effective way to adapt to recurrent floods and periods of inundation. This is practised in places in the Terai in Nepal (Dekens, 2007b), and it is the traditional way of living in Assam (Das et al., 2009). Here, the design and construction of the plinth house is often dependent on the economic status of the family. Some soil plinths are walled with bricks to make them stronger and endure inundation better, and bamboo poles might be used as a measure against soil erosion. The heights of the plinths are often reflecting the financial situation of the family, where wealthy families are better protected in terms of floods than poor. However, a plinth house can only be raised to a certain level, normally 0.5-1.5 m, which may not always be high enough to stay above the flood level. Therefore, it is common to also build platforms inside the house to be used for storage. In times of long term inundation these platforms may also serve as living platforms where families may stay for several weeks. People decide to leave their houses only when it is absolutely not possible to live in them due to the inundation. This reluctance to leave the houses is mainly due to the efforts and hardship coming with shifting place to live. An alternative way of constructing houses in Assam is to build them on stilts made from wood and bamboo, or concrete (Figure5). Such houses, named „chang ghar‟, built and used by the so called Mishing tribal community (Das et al., 2009), are even more effective in times of floods since the houses can be elevated to higher levels (2-2.5 m) than plinth houses. It contains living room, kitchen and food storage, and can even accommodate small livestock. Life can thereby proceed more or less as normal even during times of inundation. This house is innovative with multipurpose functions, and a classical example of physical adaptation over long time periods, based on local knowledge, which in turn is based on observations and first hand experience of river behaviour during generations.

Figure 5. Houses built on concrete or bamboo stilts provide a classical and proven technique to increase the resilience to seasonal floods in Assam state, India. (Photo: P. Das).

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Although proven to be better adapted to floods, the non-tribal Assamese community does not construct these kinds of houses. They are of the opinion that these houses are less able to provide conditions for cleanliness, hygiene and sanitation, and that stilt houses are connected with a lower rank in the society. These opinions prevail despite the stilt houses proven to withstand floods better than the plinth houses. The mishing population on the other hand, think that the Assamese are too conservative, holding on hard to their traditional customs, and sometimes accusing them for being self-destructive since it has happened that Assamese have drowned during times of floods, as a result of inadequate adaptation. The two different types of house constructions described above are closely linked to cultural traditions and norms. The decision to rely on plinth houses, and reject stilts, is particularly strong among the older generation, which is more conservative. This generation is also in general often making key decisions in the families and is thereby also influencing the adaptive capacity in the families and community. The younger generation is less conservative and prepared to step away from the cultural norms and adapt to new ways of living, even if these are against engraved traditions and connected with lower status in the society.

CONCLUDING REMARKS The HKH region, and the world at large, is currently experiencing large changes, some related to climate, and some related to society. Growing populations are putting ever increasing constraints on available resources, including access to land. As the frequency and magnitude of floods and flash floods are likely to increase in HKH in the future, it becomes increasingly important to find ways and means to adapt to such changes. There are strong evidences that poor countries are disproportionately affected by climatic hazards. Much is related to the rapid increase of population which mean that in many cases new land and landscape areas are occupied which were previously vacant because they are hazardous (Handmer, 2009). Adapting to flood hazards will automatically reduce the risk for disasters to happen, and adaptation thereby becomes a way to manage disaster risks. As highlighted, understanding better the factors that determine where and how people settle in the landscape becomes important. To this end it is crucial to know better the policies and cultural norms influencing the construction of new houses, particularly public buildings like schools and hospitals. Here, important work is currently being done to improve the safety of schools and hospitals from earthquakes. However, much needs to be done to also safeguard buildings, and thereby people, from flood hazards. This is particularly the case in mountain areas where access to safe land is scarce, and where policies supporting safe construction might be weak. Access to sufficient financial resources to acquire safe land might also be a limiting factor as well as corruption and other un-official drivers that may influence access to land, and people‟s adaptive capacity (Handmer, 2009). Similarly, a better understanding of the cultural norms determining people‟s choices on community level is beneficial when for instance designing projects and interventions targeting and supporting community adaptation to climate induced and other hazards. Here, support of the parts of the society that dare to challenge well established norms and practices, when they are contra-productive, in the efforts to reach more resilient communities might be

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needed. Working with, and support, youth and the younger generation becomes particularly important.

REFERENCES Das P., Chutiya D., Hazarika N. 2009. Adjusting to floods on the Brahmaputra plains, Assam, India. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Publication, Kathmandu. Dekens J. 2007a. Herders of Chitral, the lost messengers? Local knowledge on disaster preparedness in Chitral district, Pakistan. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Publication, Kathmandu, Nepal. ISBN 9789291150267. Dekens J. 2007b. The snake and the river don’t run straight. Local knowledge on disaster preparedness in the eastern Terai of Nepal. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Publication, Kathmandu, Nepal. ISBN 9789291150274. Eriksson M., Xu J., Shrestha A.B., Vaidya R.A., Nepal S. 2009. The changing Himalayas– impact of climate change on water resources and livelihoods in the greater Himalayas. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) Publication, Kathmandu, Nepal. ISBN 9789291151110. Handmer J. 2009. Adaptive capacity: What does it mean in the context of natural hazards? In the Earthscan reader on adaptation to climate change. Schipper ELF. Burton I. (Eds). Stockholm, Earthscan Publishers. ICIMOD. 2009. Local responses to too much and too little water in the greater Himalayan region. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD). Kathmandu SBN 9789291151288. Moench M. 2009. Adapting to climate change and the risks associated with other natural hazards: methods for moving from concepts to action. In the Earthscan reader on adaptation to climate change. Schipper, ELF., Burton I. (Eds.) Stockholm, Earthscan Publishers. Xu J., Grumbine R.E., Shrestha A.B., Eriksson M., Yang X., Wang Y., Wilkes A. 2009. The melting Himalayas–cascading effects of climate change on water, biodiversity and livelihoods. Conservation Biology 23(3), pp. 520-530.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT CAN LEAD TO GOOD URBAN GOVERNANCE Gabrielle Iglesias1 Asian Disaster Preparedness Center Bangkok, Thailand

ABSTRACT Community involvement is recognized as essential in the disaster risk management process. Community participation is able to improve the understanding of the sources of disaster risk, raise the awareness of local capacities to reduce risk, and strengthen the consensus over reducing disaster risk and the commitment to disaster risk management goals. This chapter presents another dimension in that the community-based disaster risk management process can also meet the goals of good urban governance by being consistent with some of the principles of governance, namely civic engagement and citizenship, subsidiarity, and transparency.

Keywords: community-based disaster risk management, governance, urban environment

1. INTRODUCTION Dagupan City is a sub-regional center for trade and commerce, finance, high-level health and education services in Northern Luzon Island of the Philippines (Figure 1). It is located along the sea coast on an eastern margin of the delta of Agno River. It lies just a meter above sea level and is traversed by Pantal River, a major tributary of the Agno River. Flooding in Dagupan is a common problem and the situation is further aggravated by the onset of high tide. Tidal back flow has created secondary rivers that in turn made islets out of the eastern settlements featured in this chapter.

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Figure 1. Location map of Dagupan city. (Image courtesy of ADPC).

Like many cities in Asia, Dagupan also has its share of poor communities, and their homes can be found in the areas at high-risk to the city‟s annual floods. This is the story of eight communities (and a supportive city government) who decided to systematically plan and prepare for flood disasters. The PROMISE-Philippines Project (2006 to 2009) opened a new door for the city to advance the culture of safety and disaster resilience by putting forward the significance of community participation. The experience in Dagupan City captured in this chapter showed that getting (poor) communities involved in reducing their own disaster risk, through the process of community-based disaster risk management, can simultaneously promote good urban governance.

1.1. Hazard Profile There are seven river systems that traverse Dagupan, all draining into Lingayen Gulf. Most of the rivers are heavily silted due to upstream riverbank erosion and proliferation of informal settlements along riverbanks, and is the cause of heavy flood in the city in the past years. Typhoons pass through often, create heavy rains in the upper catchment of the Agno river basin, and subsequently the waters reach Dagupan city and can cause floods (Figure 2). The city is also exposed to water release from the Binga and San Roque dams. Furthermore, the 7.8-magnitude North Luzon earthquake of 16 July 1990 caused not only widespread damage in the city, it also created a dynamic lateral shifting of Pantal River that left numerous abandoned channels and a low-lying terrain made up of levees and back-swamps that are inundated during floods and high tides, altering the flood hazard-scape.

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Figure 2. Dagupan city flood hazard map 2006. (Image courtesy of Dagupan City Government).

1.2. Initial Community Profile During a participatory risk assessment conducted in 2006 at the community level, the communities realized they had neither a system for early warning of an oncoming flood, nor a system for evacuation. People just lived with risks and either fled to higher grounds or stayed in their inundated house every time the city flooded. Using a hazard such as floods due to monsoons and typhoons as take-off point for disaster risk reduction is strategic it would be recurring, and so people have a high incentive and repeating reminder to reduce their risks. The community referred to in this chapter is the barangay, the smallest administrative and political unit of the country. Dagupan City is comprised of 31 barangays. Each barangay has an elected council headed by a chair, and a budget for development work, including an annual automatic setting aside of 5% from the barangay funds for disaster preparedness (known as the calamity fund). Before the year 2010, part of the mandate of the barangay is to form a Barangay Disaster Coordinating Council (BDCC) from among its residents, also headed by the barangay chair, with the authority to plan for disaster response coordination. (These mandates come from the Presidential Decree 1566 of 1978 on the National Program on Community Disaster Preparedness, and Republic Act 7160 of 1991 on the decentralization known as the Local Government Code. The mandates have just recently expanded with the passage of Republic Act 10121 last May 27 to include a mandate for disaster risk reduction; the law‟s Implementing Rules and Regulations that contain exact mechanisms and scope are yet to be developed). At the beginning of this story in 2006, the city government‟s assessment of community preparedness had reflected the capacity gaps in the barangays. All of the city‟s 31 barangays had inactive BDCCs (Iglesias, 2007a). They needed training in emergency response, had no inventory of emergency equipment, no stockpile of relief goods (food, medicines etc.), no

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standard operating procedures (SOPs) to rely on during emergencies or disasters, and would have to reach out to their community members to raise awareness levels on hydrometeorological, seismic and other disasters. This was the situation because the city authority and the city‟s barangays are mandated to concentrate on responding to hazards such as flooding (evacuation, search and rescue operations, emergency medical treatment, providing security) and on being prepared for emergencies (stockpiling and maintaining emergency equipment). They were engaged in a drainage system maintenance and river dredging as mitigation, but nothing towards vulnerability reduction. The city government identified disaster response activities that BDCCs should perform. The list included search-and-rescue operations (SAR), evacuation, relief distribution, emergency medical treatment, and security and other police action. The identified postdisaster recovery activities included damage assessment, debris-clearing operations, rebuilding or repairing, and psychological rehabilitation. The barangay’s role in disaster risk mitigation was not recognized at this early stage.

2. CBDRM FOR GOOD URBAN GOVERNANCE 2.1. The Concept The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UNHABITAT) promotes the following definition of good urban governance: “Urban governance is inextricably linked to the welfare of the citizenry. Good urban governance must enable women and men to access the benefits of urban citizenship. Good urban governance, based on the principle of urban citizenship, affirms that no man, woman or child can be denied access to the necessities of urban life, including adequate shelter, security of tenure, safe water, sanitation, a clean environment, health, education and nutrition, employment, public safety and mobility. Through good urban governance, citizens are provided with the platform which will allow them to use their talents to the full to improve their social and economic conditions.” Good urban governance is associated with the eight principles of sustainability, subsidiarity, equity, efficiency, transparency and accountability, civic engagement and citizenship, and security; these norms are regarded as interdependent and mutually reinforcing (UNHABITAT, 2002). Certainly, disaster risk management also has the goal of assuring that people‟s access to the basic necessities are assured, and any sustainable economic growth does not backslide with every disaster event. Disaster risk management is not just a function of government, but it can be a responsibility of the private sector within their own businesses, and even the poor and underserved can take it on their shoulders for their own safety, welfare and continuing livelihood through community participation in risk management. In this work, three principles of good urban governance appear to have been reinforced: civic engagement and citizenship, subsidiarity, and transparency. Community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) is a process in which at-risk communities are actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities (Abarquez and Murshed, 2004). This cannot be achieved without enhancing their capacities for recognizing the hazards that surround them, acknowledging their strengths and weaknesses against the hazards, and

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fostering a positive attitude to undertake mitigation and emergency preparedness. This approach has been evolving since the 1990s to recognize the community‟s resource potential and indigenous knowledge base, and to correct the defects of the top-down approach in disaster management and development planning. This chapter proposes that if an examination is made of the CBDRM process and we find that at least some of the principles of good urban governance can be found after its introduction into the community, then we may be able to make a case for good urban governance being assisted or helped along by CBDRM.

2.2. The CBDRM Process in Eight Barangays The case study will not be clear without a description of the process undertaken. In the case of this specific project in Dagupan City, the city government proposed to work on the high risk communities as the pilot for their CBDRM activities. Eight barangays were eventually identified as at high risk to flooding, based on the frequency and severity of flooding, flood depth, and the length of time that a flood would stay. These eight barangays (Bacayao Norte, Bacayao Sur, Lasip Chico, Lasip Grande, Mangin, Pogo Grande, Salisay and Tebeng) are located along the creeks of Pantal River.

2.2.1. Training and Workshop on CBDRM After an orientation of the selected communities about the project and getting their agreement to participate, the first activity was a training and workshop on the concepts of CBDRM and participatory risk assessments. The first to be trained were city officials who were to be closely involved in the project; underwent training first as a participant, and later as trainer. The city officials trained, in turn, identified peer trainers from each of the barangays, and also in the same two-stage process. Finally, the peer trainers conducted the CBDRM training and workshop for all members of their communities. The technical resource persons came from the trained city officials as well as representatives of the national flood control station and national weather service. The participation of the city and national officials in this training will become important later when the principle of transparency of risk is discussed. During the workshops, the trainers found that the residents in these eight barangays were apparently resigned to the idea that there was not much that they can do about it. After undergoing the CBDRM training and workshop sessions and engaging in participatory risk assessment sessions of their neighborhoods, they came to several (common) realizations about their vulnerabilities that could be corrected to reduce their flood risk (Luneta and Molina, 2008): (1) Community members could not tell when they were at low, medium or high risk to floods, and so were not appropriately prepared for floods when needed. (2) The communities were vulnerable to flooding at night when no one was watching the river water level. (3) The eight respective BDCCs were not familiar with their roles and responsibilities in emergency response coordination and lacked the necessary equipment and facility for emergency preparedness. (4) Finally, the various livelihood activities were in jeopardy during flooding episodes. The communities were guided by the project to develop the appropriate mitigation projects and activities to reduce the identified vulnerabilities. The mitigation measures were: (1) With the help of the city government, evacuation plans were developed that had

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appropriate responses per flood level. (2) A community flood alert system was established that, with the corresponding system development at the city level and coordination with the national meteorological service, became a true end-to-end early warning system (EWS). (3) The BDCCs and volunteers were given several training sessions on their roles in emergency response and the necessary skills. (4) Alternative livelihood options were set up for poorer members of the community that were still connected to flood disaster preparedness. All these mitigation measures were developed simultaneously over the span of three years, and the main features will be explained in the rest this section.

2.2.2. Evacuation Planning The city government and the eight BDCCs developed their respective emergency response plans. The plans had to consider several points: (1) the lowest areas that easily get inundated; (2) the number of flood gauges needed for the EWS and appropriate locations; (3) pick up points and safe routes for evacuation; (4) safe temporary and permanent evacuation centers; (5) people‟s roles and responsibilities in an evacuation; and 6) validating and revising the EWS. The plans provided the BDCCs and residents with a framework for how to systematically deal with the factors that increase their susceptibility to the harmful effects of flood episodes. It gave a clear overview on their vulnerable situation, the capacities available in their barangays to cope with it, and familiarity with the city‟s overall emergency response strategy. The plans had several important features:  

Classifying homes and other buildings by flood risk level (low-, medium- and high) based on the structure and material of the building. The location of the community‟s critical infrastructure if present, and plans to develop them if absent. These included health centers, day care centers, schools, the barangay‟s Emergency Operations Center (EOC), evacuation routes, the temporary and the permanent evacuation centers, and the means to communicate the alerts of possible floods.

Existing structures (the barangay office, homes, health centers, schools, day care centers, roads and lanes) were assessed if they could serve as part of the network of critical infrastructure network.   

Developing and maintaining the community‟s method of receiving flood alerts from the national government and transmitting the same to its residents (EWS). Key roles during floods, who would fulfill them, and training needs to ensure the effectiveness of the responder. Testing and improving the plan and its features through flood monitoring, drills and simulation exercises, and periodic review of the data in the participatory risk maps.

2.2.3. End-to-End EWS Early warning had been thought to have three parts: (1) technical monitoring of hazards and warning where the hazards are modelled and the risk is assessed to determine when a warning should be sent out; (2) the communication and dissemination of warnings; and (3)

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the development of appropriate responses from individuals and communities (such as get ready and stock up on necessities, secure one‟s home or work place, evacuate to a safe place) through drills and clear signs to show safe evacuation routes. However, ISDR in 2006 published a checklist for developing an EWS that promoted the idea of a system centered around people. In addition to the three aforementioned parts, it added a fourth that emphasized risk knowledge of the individual and communities. Further, it placed the communities as one of the key stakeholders in the establishment and operation of an EWS. The flood EWS installed in the high-risk communities of Dagupan was not developed as a stand-alone system. The city government did the coordination with the relevant government office (the PAGASA Flood Control Office) so that the city could directly receive flood alerts (Iglesias, 2007a). The city also took the role of monitoring and recording river water levels, flood heights and durations, of relaying these to the PAGASA Flood Control Office to improve their river model, and used the same to periodically assess and update the flood hazard map for Dagupan. The role of the barangays in the establishment and operation of the EWS was formalized in several ways as activities that supported their BDCCs and evacuation plan: (1) they used their risk maps and update the list of residents living in the high-, medium- and low-risk zones; (2) they developed local or indigenous equipment for warning dissemination (such as bullhorns and bamboo instruments) with the corresponding warning sounds or messages; (3) each community developed flood gauges that were color-coded to correspond to alert levels, monitored these continuously once a flood alert has been raised, and transmitted the data over radio to the city government‟s EOC where the flood situation and overall emergency response is being coordinated; (4) the barangay councils had billboards set up in various points of their respective barangays that had the legend of the flood gauges to indicate the alert and the expected response from the communities; and (5) the BDCCs developed communication protocols for communicating with the city‟s EOC. Clearly, this flood EWS requires the integration of the barangay within the system, and can be classified as “people-centered”.

2.2.4. Improving the Emergency Response The BDCCs and volunteers were given several training sessions on their roles in emergency response, in first aid, SAR, and in water-based SAR. These training sessions were conducted with the technical assistance of the Philippine Red Cross chapter in Pangasinan province and the city health officer. Each barangay conducted flood drills, and each participated in the city‟s test of their communication equipment and information relay protocols. One barangay (Mangin) participated in Dagupan city‟s flood simulation exercise conducted in May 2007. All these were monitored and timed so that each BDCC and the city‟s EOC could improve their effectiveness in times of floods. Some rescue equipment were distributed to each barangay based on needs identified in their action plans. These equipment included boats, bamboo raft, road guides to demarcate safe routes that avoid open canals, flashlights, hard hats, raincoats, boots, ropes, megaphones, emergency lamps, bamboo warning devices (kanungkong), two-way radios for city-wide communication, cameras, radio transistors, heavy duty lamps, farm tractor and others. Each barangay supplemented the equipment by purchasing flashlights, two-way radios, and megaphones from their own budgets.

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2.2.5. Connecting Livelihood with Disaster Risk Management Some of the livelihood activities in the high-risk barangays were vulnerable to disruption during floods so that the provision of alternative livelihood options was also a priority of the communities in their action plans. Each community had set up a process for screening and approving small-scale disaster mitigation projects, and alternative income generating activities were submitted as a mitigation project. Approved projects included rice retailing, a community pharmacy, and operating pedicabs where community members could rent pedicabs from the BDCC on a daily basis. These were small income generating projects that not only created income for the poor community members, but also provided the BDCC either with operating funds (from the pedicab rental fees) or with relief goods (rice and medicine) that was replaced with fresh stock before they expired (and the old stock sold through the community stores).

2.3. Civic Engagement and Citizenship Armed with the information that they collected about their own risks, the residents of the eight barangays participated in their disaster risk management from the very beginning. They undertook several activities to build community awareness of the risks around them, to create ownership over solutions that they can implement by themselves, and to promote the spirit of cooperation between them, the city government, and civic organizations such as the Red Cross. The emergency plan, in particular, served as a catalyst for the communities to become concerned with early warning and evacuation, and advanced a culture of safety (Luneta and Molina, 2008). Civic groups and private entrepreneurs would also contribute to the execution of different parts of the emergency plan, either as trained rescue volunteers, crowd control, or providing relief goods. The local print and radio media in the province were also briefed on the city and barangay emergency plans, and they participated in public awareness drives. The PROMISE Philippines project came with an opportunity to use a fund for small-scale disaster mitigation projects that must be accompanied by resource inputs from the city government and the community residents. The total amount available was only USD 30,000, and a single project could use no more than USD 5,000. The fund was divided into eight mitigation projects, one for each barangay, based on the identified needs that came out during the action planning workshops. Four of the projects were the physical improvement of the EOC of the barangay, three projects were the improvement of the barangay evacuation center, and one project was a small dike. The money from the project was used to buy construction materials. The residents of each barangay contributed their labor for free, and the work was done under the supervision of the city engineer. The project had several unintended but welcome outcomes insofar as civic engagement is concerned. The residents of the high-risk barangays became active advocates for disaster risk management, and would give presentations on their respective community‟s work to Philippine and foreign visitors of the city government. They were regarded as earnest advocates who were practicing what they were preaching. The PROMISE Philippines project was extended by one year wherein the city government and barangays helped establish the Northern Luzon Disaster Risk Reduction Network, and the Region 1 Disaster Coordinating Council (whose area of responsibility covers Pangasinan province) invited Dagupan City and

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its barangays to be resource persons for its advocacy efforts directed at the four provinces in the region. Perhaps the best example of an outcome of the project showing engagement was when the barangay residents joined up with the city government to advocate in front of the city council (Sangguniang Panlungsod) that enacts legislation and budget resolutions applicable only to Dagupan City. In 2007, they lobbied together for the creation of a permanent EOC for the city (Figure 3), and the city council passed City Ordinance 1908-2007 that created the EOC, defined its mandate, and provided for the initial capital outlay and annual operating budget.

Figure 3. Barangay residents are seated in the left-hand section during the city council‟s deliberations on disaster preparedness (Image courtesy of PROMISE/Dagupan City Government).

2.4. Subsidiarity through Stakeholder Involvement The principle of subsidiarity is the placement of authority and resources to the closest appropriate level. This principle encourages decentralization of government functions as well as local democracy to improve the reach of public service towards those who need it, and to make public service as responsive as possible. The urban governance process encourages local governments to engage in a constructive dialogue with stakeholders on development issues, and involving them in decision-making through a sustainable and proactive risk reduction approach. In many countries, the national legal mandates of cities do not include such processes but fortunately that is not the case in the Philippines. Prior to RA 10121, the barangay was already responsible for disaster response coordination in its area, but not for all aspects of disaster risk management that must include vulnerability reduction, structural mitigation, and non-structural mitigation. (Risk management is not mentioned specifically in current Philippine laws, but is implied as part of the considerations for development planning, land use planning, zoning, physical infrastructure planning, and construction regulation; these activities are part of the scope of city and municipal governments, and of provincial government and national government as far as some infrastructure planning are concerned.)

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In fact, this particular example of CBDRM has made a case for how the paradigm can be changed from response to risk management. The paradigm shift occurring in all eight barangays under the project, wherein the BDCCs were transformed from mere emergency response coordination bodies to what may be considered as local risk management committees. When the barangays are not facing a crisis, they are updating their list of households and the risk to floods, refreshing their inventory for relief, training people in search-and-rescue, briefing children and new community members on the flood alerts, and cleaning their drains in preparation for rainy season. Figure 4 is a photo of the two Disaster Data Boards on display in the Barangay Mangin EOC, used to track families in their jurisdiction, and to keep an inventory of relief goods. CBDRM can also ensure that community people can use coping and survival strategies to respond to an emergency situation even before outside help from the government or NGOs arrive, and thereby averting a potential disaster. One of the objectives of the barangay emergency plans was that each of the eight should be self-sufficient for at least three days as part of their flood disaster preparedness. The communities were encouraged to have enough relief goods in stock, to be prepared to evacuate themselves, to rescue themselves, and to know first aid to be prepared for an extreme situation where the emergency response from the city, provincial or national government are severely strained. By August 2008, the level of community disaster preparedness in the eight barangays was a stark contrast to how the barangays were at the start, when their BDCCs were inactive, had no inventory for relief, and no trained volunteers in their communities.

Figure 4. BDCC members of Barangay Mangin explain their Disaster Data Board that keeps track of the number of persons and families affected by a hazard event and their needs. (Image courtesy of PROMISE/Dagupan City Government).

2.5. Transparency of Risk Transparency means "sharing information and acting in an open manner"; it enables stakeholders to gather information that may be critical to defending their interests, such as information concerning disaster risk that could enable them to protect themselves. A transparent disaster risk management system would have clear procedures for public decisionmaking and open channels of communication between stakeholders and officials.

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Participatory hazard and vulnerability mapping with the subsequent participatory risk assessment are considered to be the starting point in the process. These assessments are carried out using participatory tools and trained volunteers to facilitate inputs from a wide range of community stakeholders. Figure 5 is a photo of the typical participatory risk map. The communities were guided to indicate the risk (low, medium or high) of a neighborhood within a barangay, and that neighborhood‟s priority for evacuation.

Figure 5. Flood risk map of Barangay Mangin prepared through the participatory approach (Image courtesy of PROMISE/Dagupan City Government).

Risk would be based on the data collected by each community during transect walks and workshops. The data would be processed into useful information, such as: 1) flood zones based on the community‟s collective memory of the periodicity, depth, and duration of floods; 2) the location of houses, classified by quality of construction and ability to withstand strong winds, and or by number of storeys that can afford the resident family some protection from high water; 3) the location of individuals with special needs in emergencies (invalids, the elderly, with physical disabilities, babies and children); 4) the location of the community‟s critical infrastructure such as wells, health centers, day care, schools, Barangay Hall, churches/mosques and other evacuation areas, and even strong multi-storey houses that can serve as temporary evacuation areas/shelters. (Agricultural communities in Asia would also indicate temporary shelters for their livestock). At the municipal level, the assessment is integrated into other municipal maps, such as land use, human settlement data, etc.. using GPS and GIS technology, transforming the community knowledge into formal products (Iglesias, 2007b). At the community level, the assessments are the basis for community action plans to reduce their own risks. At the city level, the city also has a risk assessment to cover the entire area. Both geographic levels of risk assessment were interlocked in the CBDRM process so that one assessment informed and validated and updated the other. A key ingredient to making this happen was the presence of city officials during the CBDRM workshops in each barangay. They were able to give technical resource inputs, to observe the participatory assessments of hazard, vulnerability, capacity and risk, to give guidance and clarification when requested or needed. At the same time, the city government had direct knowledge of the

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process of the assessments and action planning, and therefore knew the degree of reliability of the same. Thanks to the CBDRM process, the city gained additional manpower for flood data collection. The trained volunteers of the barangay who were monitoring flood gauges in rivers and flood markers in their communities were relaying data to the city government on depth, date and time of reading, flood duration and extent. This voluntary community effort is continuing up to today, and contributes to the improvement of the flood model for the city. Finally, barangay action plans were based on their respective residents‟ assessments and perceptions of risk. The goals were owned immediately by the community that framed them. In their own words and amateur map symbols, they were able to describe which areas are exposed to floods, to identify their own resources that they can mobilize, and to decide upon the steps they would undertake to reduce their risk. This is an important point about risk perception because the communities developed self-motivation to protect themselves during the CBDRM process, and this motivation could be said to contribute to their actions to reduce their risks.

3. THE REAL TESTS Dagupan City experienced severe floods from several typhoons within the last decade. These typhoons included Typhoon Babs (local name Loleng) in 1998, one of the most destructive typhoons that hit the Philippines, and Typhoon Linfa (local name Chedeng) in 2003 whose precipitation measured in Dagupan reached 723 mm and is one of the wettest typhoons so far. We can reasonably consider the community response to floods from typhoons that passed over them after the CBDRM process began as tests of how well they managed their risk. (Note: The source of the data for the impacts of the typhoons is the Dagupan City Government.)

3.1. Typhoon Halong 2008 Typhoon Halong (local name Cosme) hit Dagupan City on May 17, and resulting in severe damage to 3,349 houses and partial damage to 15,034 houses, affecting 24,973 families. Damage to public infrastructure (school buildings, day care centers, health centers, barangay and city offices, lighting) was pegged at USD 0.69 million. There was no rain in Dagupan, but the city had some flooding due to dam water release and high tide. Estimated losses for the local fishing industry were at USD 13 million. The city and barangay disaster coordinating councils were all activated, and the flood early warning system was monitored non-stop. Barangay Mangin had the highest flood risk, and yet it managed to evacuate its residents, distribute its own relief goods in addition to the relief goods from the City, and ensured that all its residents were reached. The city‟s relief work and the Dagupan Red Cross began immediately after the typhoon passed, as well as recovery efforts to purify water, clear roads and restore water and electrical services. It would seem that the city and barangays were able to work well together for early warning.

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No one died from the eight barangays covered during Typhoon Halong. Unfortunately, there were casualties from other barangays during the Typhoon Halong event. Three children that lived next to Pantal River and were swept into the waters and drowned, and one adult male died from exposure.

3.2. Typhoon Parma 2009 On October 8, about a month after the PROMISE Philippines project ended, Northern Luzon was submerged by the worst flooding in its history with over 500 casualties and at least PhP 7 billion-worth (about USD 150 million) of damage to properties. Most cities and municipalities were badly affected by floods that came from a combination of rain from Typhoon Parma (local name Pepeng) and emergency dam water release. Unlike the neighboring localities, Dagupan City was well-prepared even before the storm entered the country and had no casualties because of its CBDRM work in spite of being entirely covered in flood water. The eight high-risk barangays had undergone two pre-emptive evacuations triggered by the end-to-end flood early warning system; this system was previously reinforced by community-based disaster risk management processes, several evacuation drills and flood simulations. Dagupan City government was therefore able to concentrate on the medium- and low-risk barangays, since the week-long flood managed to cover the entire city at one point. The BDCCs were able to prevent death and major damage while waiting for other rescuers to reach their areas during the crucial hours. The city‟s EOC had to manage 18 evacuation centers sheltering 155,000 people, and some high-rise buildings that became temporary shelters for 30,000 people. The evacuation centers, in turn, in the eight barangays were prepared with supplies, and thanks to their SOPs they continued to monitor survivors‟ relief needs and convey the data to the city government for them to put out an appeal for additional relief.

4. HALLMARKS OF SUCCESS 4.1. Institutionalization of DRR Efforts Institutionalization is shown when the barangay develops the necessary organizational body with a focus on DRR, allocates part of its budget for DRR on an annual basis, develops SOPs for emergency response, and engages in policy-making for DRR. All of these will contribute to a modification of the disaster readiness of the community for several reasons: 

The successful activation of the BDCCs for emergency and disaster response during floods and typhoons was observed during the major typhoons of 2008 and 2009. This has raised the expectations of barangay residents that preparedness must be done every year, and evacuation is a necessary step when the flood alert level is high.

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



The creation of the SOPs will turn preparedness tasks into a routine of the barangay and BDCC, and will be a reference for future barangay residents and BDCC members. The annual use of the barangay’s budget for its EOC, evacuation center, mitigation activities, risk assessment and disaster preparedness will stabilize the acceptance of DRR. The participation of the barangay residents in policy-making at the city level implies that they possess some solidarity and public spiritedness in promoting DRR.

However, an important test of institutionalization is if the residents periodically conduct a risk assessment so that they can capture any changes in vulnerability and capacity, and therefore changes in the level of risk.

4.2. Local Recognition On 12 August 2009, Dagupan City was awarded the national-level Kalasag Award for disaster preparedness. Dagupan City was the demonstration site of PROMISE in the Philippines. The award was presented by the President of the Republic of the Philippines on behalf of the National Disaster Coordinating Council and Department of the Interior and Local Government. The citation reads: “In recognition of its people-driven local governance, providing vast opportunities for a well-prepared and empowered community. Dagupan City's nationally and internally-funded disaster mitigation projects anchored on the local socio-economic development efforts and plans are testaments of an exemplary leadership of the local government. These commendable efforts earned them not only this recognition but also the greater unquantifiable benefit of providing security and peace of mind for their people that Dagupan City is and will always be a community that is resilient and safe from disasters.”

The citation was specific in the contribution of people-driven local governance as having improved the city‟s disaster risk management. One can infer that during the process of CBDRM, local governance processes improved, and this led, in turn, to the improvement of the city‟s disaster risk management. In fact, Barangay Mangin of Dagupan City also won the regional-level Kalasag Award for disaster preparedness, too, for both 2007 and 2008. In 2008, Barangay Mangin was also a national finalist for the award. PROMISE Philippines had a partner, the Center for Disaster Preparedness (CDP) (who provided both technical and organizing inputs for the city and project barangays) who was also awarded the 2008 regional-level Kalasag Award for best performing non-governmental organization. These awards to Barangay Mangin and CDP also help validate the idea of how a city working with its community stakeholders towards a common good like disaster management can redound to improving the relationships among the three actors and increase civic engagement.

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4.3. Documentation by International Organizations The CBDRM work has been documented by ADPC to promote methodologies developed and insights gained into disaster risk management. However, it has also been recognized by others (such as the United Nations, Oxfam GB and the Philippine media) as having some of the good or best practices in various aspects of disaster risk management. The list of the documentation where the CBDRM work was recognized can be found after the references. The recognition of their good practices is another form of validation of the approach.

CONCLUSION Disaster management approaches had traditionally been done by national government or state government, with top-to-down flows of decisions. A rethinking of the approach emerged when this was proven ineffective, since decisions were made using assessments, priorities and perceptions of people who were not among those who were directly affected by the positive and negative impacts of decisions. CBDRM puts community participation at the heart of the process so that the main stakeholder and the most vulnerable to disaster will have greater roles over the decisions and mitigation activities. The experience with the selected communities of Dagupan City has shown precisely this subsidiarity of the role of preparedness as the people are volunteering to be first responders, giving their time to be trained and drilled, and supporting the institutionalization of theEOC in the community. CBDRM promoted greater sharing of the information between city government and community, to enable both set of actors to make their respective decisions and implement mitigation activities. The eight barangays in Dagupan City are contributing to the flood early warning system by providing their own monitoring and alerting schemes, and worked with the city government to align their local systems and infrastructure for evacuation and emergency management with the city‟s emergency management plan. This reflects the principle of transparency. The communities of the barangays have also demonstrated greater civic engagement by supporting the advocacy for disaster preparedness at the city-level legislation process. Sustainability of CBDRM and good urban governance will be the main challenge that remains for the communities of Dagupan. They have already been trained to teach others about the process, so it will be up to them to continue the work. Future research could revisit the city and the eight barangays after five years, to see if greater scope for disaster risk reduction from R.A. 10121 has interacted with the process.

ABOUT THE PROMISE PROGRAM (2005 TO 2010) The Program for Hydro-Meteorological Disaster Mitigation in Secondary Cities in Asia (PROMISE) was funded by USAID/OFDA to contribute towards reduction of vulnerability of urban communities through enhanced preparedness and mitigation of hydro-meteorological disasters in South and Southeast Asia. The Philippines was one of six project countries; the

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other countries were Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam, Each had one or two demonstration cities that were selected for their high vulnerability to hydrometeorological disasters. Kindly contact the author for more information about the program, or check the URL: http://www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs/UDRM/PROMISE/Default.asp

REFERENCES Abarquez I., Murshed Z. 2004. Field Practitioners’ Handbook. Bangkok: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), p. 29. Iglesias G. 2007a. Cooperation Between Local Authority and Communities Reduces Flood Disaster Risk in Dagupan City, Philippines. Safer Cities series, April 2007. Iglesias G. 2007b. Community Risk Mapping. GIM International, 21(12), December 2007, p. 49. Luneta M., Molina J.G. 2008. Community Based Early Warning System and Evacuation: Planning, Development and Testing. Safer Cities series, March 2008. United Nations Human Settlements Programme-UNHABITAT. 2002. The Global Campaign on Urban Governance, Concept Paper, UNHABITAT, 2nd ed, Nairobi, Kenya.

BEST PRACTICES DOCUMENTATION OF CBDRM EFFORTS OF DAGUPAN CITY “Local Knowledge and Practices for Disaster Preparedness and Mitigation,” Tropical Coasts, 14 (2), Dec. 2007. “Mainstreaming Community-Based Mitigation in City Governance,” Building Disaster Resilient Communities: Good Practices and Lessons Learned published by UNISDR and UNDP, Jun 2007. "Preventing Armageddon," report by ABS-CBN News, Oct. 2009. "Strength in Numbers: The Barangay as Building Block," video documentary by Oxfam GB, 2008.

BEST PRACTICES DOCUMENTATION OF THE CBDRM EFFORTS IN OTHER PROMISE DEMONSTRATION CITIES "Many partners, one system: An integrated flood early warning system for Jakarta" Local Governments and Disaster Risk Reduction: Good Practices and Lessons Learned published by UNISDR, Mar 2010. “Micro-credit scheme for better livelihood for communities living in disaster prone areas of Kalutara, Sri Lanka,” Private Sector Activities in Disaster Risk Reduction: Good Practices and Lessons Learned published by UNISDR,: Dec 2008.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

METHODOLOGY USED FOR COMMUNITY BASED MULTI-HAZARD RISK MANAGEMENT IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA, UTTARAKHAND STATE, INDIA Surya Parkash1 National Institute of Disaster Management, 5-B, I.P. Estate, M.G. Road, New Delhi-110002, India

ABSTRACT Uttarakhand in India is a newly established hill-state which largely occupies Garhwal and Kumaon Himalaya. In the past, many communities in this region suffered from major earthquakes, landslides, debris flows, flash floods, forest fires, hailstorms and lightning etc. During the last one decade, the interventions made by the governmental and nongovernmental organizations through various disaster risk reduction projects as well as some pilot programmes undertaken under the leadership of local community-based organizations have built the communities‟ capacity to prepare themselves against such disasters and reduce the risks by appropriate planning, development and management at local levels. It is believed that well aware, informed and prepared community is better able to avert, prevent and react to disasters than otherwise. Learning from the field experience, a universal methodology has been developed to empower communities through training and field demonstrations to initiate local actions for multi-hazard risk management by the inhabitants of 50 villages in Rudraprayag District in Uttarakhand State, Garhwal Himalaya. The chapter elaborates the activities undertaken in developing the methodology for community based disaster risk management, the process of operation, the outcome and its sustenance.

Keywords: Community, Vulnerability, Hazards, Capacity, Disasters, Risk Management, Action Plan

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Tel.: +91-11-23724310, Email: [email protected].

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1. INTRODUCTION Every corner of the earth is in some way or other, prone to natural hazards that can adversely affect the life, livelihoods, economy and environment. But these hazardous events become catastrophic and termed as disasters when they strike any built environment and affect population that is not prepared against hazards. Thus, disasters of any kind may inflict the safety and quality of life in an unprepared society. Despite all the scientific and technological innovations, it has been difficult to reduce the impacts of these disasters. Governmental or institutional interventions for disaster management too, do not succeed due to lack of considerations for community dynamics, perceptions and priorities in local context. Rather the vulnerability to disasters sometimes may rise due to increase in population density, poverty, occupation of hazardous areas, unplanned/fast developments, human fault and hostile actions, neglect of unforeseen hazards like climate change, global warming and so on. Since most of our concerns are anthropocentric and relate to development of a sustainable environment, most hazards in remote and unpopulated areas are not cared for and all our efforts focus towards disaster management of populated and built areas. India‟s most population (about 70% as per Census Report 2001) lives in villages and hence, the present attempt is primarily oriented towards a rural community to reduce disaster risks. Disasters are linked not only to hazardous events but also to the vulnerabilities of the exposed elements and capacities within the society to cope with them. Thus, there are three major operating factors that influence the degree of disaster risk in any area i.e. hazard factor (magnitude, frequency, time of occurrence, duration and extent), vulnerability of different elements exposed to hazards (degree/duration of exposure, proximity to hazardous sources, degree of vulnerability and its value) and the capacities (techno-economic status, sociopolitical system and coping mechanisms). The chapter focuses on possible methods of hazard identification and assessment by the community in its locality, by virtue of their experiences with these disasters in the past/present that affect their lives, livelihood, livestocks, living places and lifelines besides the physical assets and the environment. As a first step, a history of these disasters and their impacts on community, its resources and environment is recorded through a community meetings in 50 villages in Uttarakhand state, India (Figure 1) for spatio-temporal assessment of all the hazards (H) and depicted in a sketch called community based multi-hazard risk assessment sketch map (Figure 2). The sketch shows not only the hazards (indicating the place and year of occurrence) but also the physiographic details, natural and social resources, infrastructure and community facilities. The second step in the approach relates to collection of information and data on different exposed elements (physical, human, livestock, environment etc.) in a presentable form i.e. Tables or Charts, thus, providing an idea of degree of vulnerabilities (V) of different elements to all the hazards collectively as well as individually. In the third step, capacities (C) within the community in terms of skills, technology, resources, knowledge, experiences and information to face or cope with the disaster are evaluated. These three steps (HVC) give a very good assessment of the potential risks due to possible disasters in any locality. The assessed risks are ranked, categorized and prioritized by the community based on certain parameters and perceptions at local level. An action plan is then prepared to avert, prevent, mitigate or manage these potential disasters for reducing the risks/losses.

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The planning strategy was then worked out on the basis of the aforementioned three steps. The fourth step (first in the planning strategy) makes an attempt towards hazard management i.e. to explore if the hazard can be avoided, prevented, mitigated, or monitored. The community looks for various options/alternatives that can be applied using the local skills, resources, knowledge and techniques. In the fifth step, an attempt to strengthen the existing vulnerable elements or reduce their degree of vulnerabilities through the use of antidisaster or disaster resistant technologies will be promoted or encouraged. The sixth step, which envisages that despite all the efforts, disaster may continue to inflict upon the society, ensures that the community is aware and prepared to face the remnant disasters in a planned way rather than being caught suddenly in a rash manner. It assumes that an informed, aware and prepared community will be better able to cope with disasters than otherwise.

Figure 1. Location map of study area-50 villages in Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand, India.

Figure 2. Community based multi-hazard risk assessment sketch map of Senna Village, Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand state, India.

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2. WHY COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT? The need for a Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) can be highlighted by pointing out the shortcomings in the existing approach and stating the advantages of CBDRM.

2.1. Shortcomings in the Existing Approach a.

Same plan regardless of the regional characteristics is implemented/imposed everywhere. b. Local/indigenous knowledge, experience, skills, resources and techniques are not given due importance. Rather external resources and techniques are proposed to be utilized. c. Negligence on local cultural instincts and heritage. d. Prioritisation is decided by an outsider and not the stakeholders or the community itself. e. Local community does not have any information about the disaster management plans for their area and the role of different sectors in helping the community during disasters.

2.2. Advantages of Community Based Disaster Risk Management a.

Feelings of coordination and self belonging to the society are developed. As the plan is prepared in local laymen‟s language, it is better understood by the community (including the illiterates). b. Local geo-climatic and socio-economic characteristics get attention of the people in development and disaster management. c. Local initiatives begin and community provides assistance to the executing agencies involved in disaster management. d. There is exchange of knowledge, information, skills and techniques between the community and the experts involved from outside. e. Community comes forward to put its ideas and suggestion for selection of appropriate programs suitable to their locality and society. f. Community can keep a watch/monitor the quality of works being done in its locality. It will also generate a sense of responsibility among the community. g. It will lead to capacity building of the community on issues of disaster safe developmental activities.

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3. DEVELOPMENT, TESTING AND APPLICATION OF COMMUNITY METHODOLOGY The inception of the idea that CBDRM would be rational and beneficial for the society, led to development of a suitable methodology for use by the community in its aim to reduce disaster risks. Although several scientific and technological methodologies exist for hazard identification, assessment, monitoring and control; yet the community is barely involved or benefited by their application. Therefore, an attempt has been made to involve and use the community‟s experiences and knowledge in dealing with the issues of disaster assessment and management while applying scientific principles of disaster management in a broader sense. Basically, six steps were identified – three of which involve assessment of hazards, vulnerability and capacity within a locality and the other three steps deal with action planning for modification, monitoring or management of the first three issues. A tool called participatory learning and action (PLA) was applied during development of the said methodology to make it practical and easier for the community to adopt. The draft of this approach was taken to an interior village and discussed with the community there about its objectives and usage (Figure 3a). The village community took keen interest in the proposed activity and carried out the whole task without much difficulty in less than two days at a community gathering. The results of this test were quite encouraging and hence, it was planned to extend the methodology to the community in other villages through a training of master facilitators from the members of task forces for disaster management in these villages (Figure 3b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. a) People participating in discussion and b) village level training for member of local disaster task force.

The format of the methodology was designed in a way so that it can cover all the necessary steps in community based action planning for disaster risk management. However, the format was kept in an open style so that the community should be able to add or alter any information necessary to make it more effective and relevant as and when required. Some of the critical issues like climate change, global warming and environmental degradation as well as the development pressure and population stress due to poverty, hunger and demographic growth in a locality may also significantly affect the incidences and impacts of disasters. After drafting the plan, it was proposed that it should be presented before the community through a gathering of all the villagers and then tested and reviewed. The work plan and schedules of these plans were made available for public information. Further, the roles,

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responsibilities and operational procedures of the community members involved in planning, testing, review, implementation, monitoring and evaluation were also well defined.

4. PROCEDURE FOR USING METHODOLOGY FOR CBDRM The following paragraphs discuss about the procedure to adopt this methodology for other areas and reap some benefits from this approach for communities in other parts of world. At the onset of this process, some key actions are required to be taken by the community to initiate the work in an organised and systematic way. It involves formation of task forces and supporting groups, their affiliation with village development committee, community mobilization and disasters related sensitization. In the present case, such task forces for disaster management were formed at village levels through Disaster Risk Management Programme of United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Government of India. A dedicated village level disaster risk management committee should gather necessary information about disasters and their impacts in their locality to sensitize people through awareness campaigns. In order to involve the whole community in the process of disaster assessment and preparation of plan for disaster management, it would be essential that people are made aware about the impacts of hazards and need for preparedness to reduce losses. Community mobilization or motivation can be done through street plays, drama, songs, skits, posters, meetings, interactions, Sandesh Yatras (Message trips) and video documentaries etc. It should gain confidence among community and involve all the stakeholders in drafting, testing, review, monitoring, revision, implementation and evaluation of CBDRM plan. The process is briefly explained below.

4.1. Drafting the Plan It involves the following activities:        

Disaster campaign and community mobilisation / sensitization Information about locality, community and the environment Multi-hazard identification and assessment Vulnerability and capacity assessment Risk categorization and prioritization Existing protection systems and safety/risk management plan Where are gaps in protection and safety? - Identify what is not being done What options are available and what action can be taken? – Brainstorming alternatives

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4.2. Testing and Review After the action plan is drafted, it should be tested and reviewed with the community for its practicability and acceptability by all stakeholders. It may invite attention to following important issues.       

What is practically feasible and acceptable? Evaluate Actions Who else is doing this? – Coordinate with others How the implementation priorities will be set? – Define Action Plan Who administrates the plan and implements actions? – Develop a Strategy How the actions will be done? – Standard Operating Procedures When the actions will be started and completed? – Implementation Plan Monitoring and Evaluation scheme? – Adopt and Monitor

4.3. Implementation Strategy Through the process of plan preparation, community determines the WHY, WHAT and WHERE of the plan; WHY damages occur, WHAT to do to achieve safety goals, and WHERE to implement the measures to reduce losses. To ensure that the plan will be implemented effectively, the following additional questions like WHO, WHEN and HOW should be answered. Who will lead the implementation efforts? A committee responsible for managing the implementation activities can be established. It will be responsible for ensuring that project/plan continues to make progress. The manager of the unit should dedicate a significant amount of time to this task and should have the ability to obtain assistance from others. When will these activities be implemented, and in what order? A proper implementation schedule should be prepared defining top priorities, vital, essential and desirable actions with place, time and duration. Some activities may be implemented simultaneously. The following pre-requisites must be met to initiate ground actions.    

Identify all implementation tasks. Determine needed order of completion. Coordinate with other community activities and determine any special scheduling needs (e.g., seasonal climatic conditions). Determine start date and completion date.

How will community fund the implementation of envisaged actions? An appropriate budget and potential source(s) of funding should be identified. Identification of suitable technical and financial assistance sources is also important. Sometimes, the implementation of actions may require permits or approvals, which should be discussed at planning stage. The number of human resources, the time and skills required to execute the work should also be pre-determined.

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5. RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS It includes compilation of information on disasters (past, existing and potential) and preparation of multi-hazard risk depicting sketch map along with data on seasonality and statistics of disaster. It is followed by vulnerability and capacity assessment through collection and analysis of data on population density/distribution, age distribution, ethnicity, mobility, vulnerable groups, and emergency resources etc. It also includes environmental information like water sources, climatic conditions, landforms, fauna and flora.

5.1. Compilation of Data/Information related to Past, Existing and Potential Disasters Before embarking upon the spatial assessment on a chart or a sheet of paper, it is advisable that a list of the past, existing and potential disasters that have affected or may affect the life, economy and environment in the locality is prepared. The list would serve as a basis for indicating the affected or susceptible elements and collection of necessary information on these disasters and their impacts on the community which will ultimately help in planning and management. The planning committee can identify hazards in the community by using the following methods: a. Involve the whole committee in the planning process. b. Research the history of previous hazards in the community. Consult local historical records, old newspapers, local administration etc, for evidence of previous emergencies. c. Ensure both „natural‟ and „man-made‟ hazards are identified. Be completely objective. d. Brainstorm, using the complete planning committee, to ensure that no hazard has been overlooked. e. Draw information from emergencies in other comparable communities and localities. f. Consider hazards identified by higher level planning committees. The output of this step is a list of hazards, including those which have no history of occurrence in the locality. List hazards randomly; do not attempt to rank them at this stage.

5.2. Preparation of Multi-Hazard Risk Management Sketch of the Locality Based on knowledge and experiences of local people, an attempt is made to depict the village boundaries, physiographic features, natural resources, social or individual resources, community facilities, infrastructure and hazards of all kinds (Figure 2). Such a sketch displays a very good picture of the resources, hazards and the development in the locality. A transect survey of the locality may also be organized to gather more information about the present conditions of the terrain. Following steps are taken to achieve this goal.

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i.

Village territory (boundaries) and physiography (drainages, ridges, valleys, slopes, lake, ground cracks, landforms, rivers etc.) ii. Natural resources–forests, mines, water sources such as falls, springs, lakes, medicinal plants iii. Social/individual resources or properties – human population, live-stocks, agricultural fields, cowsheds, watermills, open lands, building sites, houses, shops, factories iv. Community facilities – Panchayat Bhawan, community centre, temples, schools, society or govt. offices, police station, forest post v. Infrastructure/basic amenities–roads, hospitals, electric lines, telecommunication (phones, mobiles, wireless, post office), water pipelines vi. List of disasters (past, existing and potential). All information and data on the past disasters and their impacts are collected in a tabular form. The table provides the community a complete idea of the damages suffered by them in previous disasters and the degree of potential risks from future disasters. The details of lives lost, livelihood, resources, environment etc. are well illustrated through this exercise vii. Hazardous areas/susceptible zones – indicate areas that are or may be affected by any hazardous event and put a symbol for that disaster e.g. landslide, earthquake, forest fires, hailstorms viii. Risk management features indicating existing preventive and mitigative measures, safe/unsafe shelters and routes, evacuation scheme (Figure 4), proposed development and disaster resistant features Reference marks such as north direction arrow on the village sketch and some standard legends (wherever possible) would always help villagers orient better.

Figure 4. Community prepared safe route evacuation sketch map of Senna Village, Rudraprayag district, Uttarakhand State, India.

5.3. Hazard Analysis and Disaster Sensitive Periods (Seasonal Calendar) Hazard analysis is that part of the planning process which identifies and describes hazards and their effects on the community. The analysis involves: identifying hazards, describing a) hazards (their frequency, distribution and impacts), b) effects (susceptible zones,

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vulnerable persons and properties, facilities and services that likely to be affected and the potential problems), and c) community and environment (vulnerability and capacity assessment); and Prioritizing hazards; and determining planning objectives and scope for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. Hazard analysis provides the basis for emergency planning and arrangements. Temporal analysis of the data on disasters will also reflect the vulnerable periods of the year or time of the day that may be more sensitive to a particular disaster compared to other periods/times. Accordingly strategies for prevention, mitigation or preparedness can be planned.

5.4. Disaster History Since most of the information get collected during the last step, the same can be used to write a history of disasters in the locality. The community can add versions of people‟s experiences with the disasters and the lessons learnt or problems faced prior, during or after the disasters. This will be quite useful to record lessons learnt, good and bad practices as well as to avoid any mis-happenings

5.5. Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment Vulnerability analysis is done by assessing the proportions of each group as part of the whole population, identifying any specific localities where there are concentrations of vulnerable people or other elements, e.g. schools, temples, in proximity to a hazard source. For each group identified, problems which might be expected under emergency conditions are noted. Community information also provides data on those groups in the community that have specialist skills or knowledge which may be useful in emergency management. In order to bring a sense of belonging to the document by every individual in the community and to evaluate overall vulnerabilities and capacities, detailed information from each household/family should be suggested. The basic information gathered from each household include a reference to the households, the name of its family head, income levels and sources, age groups and physical/health conditions, skills/trainings in disasters management, emergency facilities and so on. Among the data on households, an attempt was made to identify insecure and vulnerable people who will need special and urgent attention in case a disaster strikes. After an analysis of human and livestock vulnerabilities is completed, the next most important element is structural vulnerability of buildings. It is often seen that the impacts of disasters become high due to structural collapses particularly during earthquakes, landslides and floods. Thus, an attempt is made to collect data pertaining to vulnerability of buildings in the locality. It depends on the type of structure, year of construction (age of building), design and construction practice, and so on. Besides considering the vulnerability aspect, it also deals with the capacities within the structure that may be used for safety, search and Rescue during disaster times. A mention of emergency requirements during disaster times would be helpful. Just like people and livestocks in households, prepare a separate list of vulnerable buildings so that utmost care can be taken of the people who are resident in such buildings or

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may get affected by damage or collapse of these vulnerable buildings. The list should be available at Emergency Resources and Operations Centre (EROC) and distributed to responsible members of the task force and supporting groups. It will help them to take quick actions in saving lives as the information would be useful in locating the potential structures that may suffer severe damages during a disaster. The community can also prepare a sketch map showing the various life line and critical facilities as well as basic amenities available in the village or in its vicinity that can be affected or utilized during a disaster. The contact details of the emergency personnel during emergency should be made known to the community.

6. RISK CATEGORIZATION AND PRIORITIZATION Prioritising hazards enables a planning committee to concentrate efforts on those hazards which may have the greatest effect on the community. Prioritization can be assisted by using certain tools like matrix analysis and „Hazard Scoring and Ranking System‟. Based on the cumulative risk determined on the basis of degree of severity of the hazards and the class of vulnerability of different elements, the various levels of risk can be defined as acceptable, tolerable, adaptable, and non-acceptable or intolerable risks. The categorization will also help prioritizing the focus of disaster risk management actions as vital, essential and desirables within a given span of time.

7. ACTION PLAN FOR MULTI-HAZARD RISK MANAGEMENT The procedure for use of CBDRM methodology involves application of the maps, information and data obtained through the process of risk assessment for management of risks / losses in the locality in a way so that disaster incidences as well as the impacts can be minimized.

7.1. Hazard Avoidance and Prevention Plan It may involve the following activities.         

Hazard zonation – incentive zoning and performance zoning Regulating development and landuse controls/standards Enforcement of building codes/byelaws Promotion of disaster resistant technologies Awareness and dissemination of safety guidelines / best practices Awareness campaign about hazards and their impacts Structural mitigation measures Non-structural or regulatory measures Loss sharing measures

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7.2. Hazard Mitigation and Vulnerability Reduction Plan Disasters that can not be avoided or prevented are considered for mitigation and vulnerability reduction planning. Activities, often long-term, which aim to reduce the impact of a hazard on vulnerable communities, and address the related vulnerable conditions and their underlying causes are known as mitigation. Mitigation planning may include       

Reducing the frequency, severity, duration, extent of hazards by various possible means Diversification of incomes / livelihood alternatives Food and water security Training for community in disaster planning and management Disaster resistant housing, infrastructure and services programmes Advocacy to government and community Environmental protection

7.3. Preparedness Plan The disaster preparedness aims to:  

Ensure that appropriate systems are in place to provide prompt and effective assistance to disaster victims. Prepare the community to handle the disaster in the first 48-72 hours or so when outside help has not reached and the local administration is itself affected by the disaster.

It includes community awareness/education, disaster plans, training/test exercises, emergency communications, evacuation plans, public information, warning systems, resource inventories, provision of special resources. The planning committee will need to determine whether any specialist functions will be required to be performed in support of the main community plan. These functions may include medical, communications, search and rescue, welfare, transport, engineering, and agriculture. These proactive plans should aim to develop a culture of prevention and preparedness against disaster risks among the community leading to adaptability and resilience in an agile manner.

7.4. Establishment of Emergency Resources and Operations Centre The community should establish a local emergency resources and operations centre to meet its vital needs to manage the disaster risks. It may include the following.

Methodology Used for Community Based Multi-Hazard Risk …      

 

67

List of skilled and trained human resources in and around village Available emergency resources – list and storage Information and data on past, existing and potential disasters A copy of the community based disaster management plan, its schedules and progress with time Training materials for disaster management Active stockpiling of emergency resources (This approach for providing supplies usually is more effective than the massive, post-disaster influx of supplies. It also does not tie up capital on stocks that may have a limited shelf life or never be used) Facilities for collection and maintenance of disaster funds Disaster reduction day/week celebrations

7.5. Warning, Drills and Exercises Methods used for disseminating the warning may include media messages, door knocks, community networks, audible and/or visual signals. Consideration should be given to warning special needs groups like visually challenged, hearing impaired and physically unfit. a. The stages of evacuation are: warning, withdrawal, shelter, reunion, and return. b. Identification of:- sites suitable as assembly areas, sites suitable as evacuation centres, evacuation routes between the above, organisations/committees responsible for conducting and assisting with the evacuation, registration teams. c. Organisations/committees responsible for arranging and coordinating transport, and d. Organisations/committees responsible for operating evacuation centres.

7.6. Response Plan (with Local Capacities) Response is the activation and implementation of operational systems which includes activating and staffing the Emergency Resources and Operations Centre (EROC), activating the communications system, collecting, processing, and disseminating information, alerting support organisations, preparing and disseminating warnings and other public information, activating liaison arrangements, coordinating and deploying resources and arranging outside assistance, and providing assistance to other areas. The response plan should include information on       

Reflex action to disaster and information Emergency communication and transportation Search, rescue, emergency relief and first aid Safe/alternate routes for evacuation Safe accommodation, temporary shelters with basic amenities like food, water, light, ventilation (air), communication, health facilities (medicines), sanitation etc. Security of private properties and weaker sections particularly young women Carcass disposal, disinfectant spray and immunization

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Consolation (psycho-social counselling) to the victims Rapid damage assessment and relief distribution Repair, re-strengthening, retrofitting, reconstruction, resettlement, rehabilitation, recovery, redevelopment.

7.7. Reacting to Disasters In order to respond properly to disasters, it is vital to know how to react to disasters. The task forces will identify appropriate reaction measures for each hazard and make the community aware and prepared with this information. In order to make it more effective, practical rehearsals in the form of mock drills and simulation exercises can be conducted with different target groups for ensuring the right kind of response by all.

7.8. Emergency Communication and Transportation Plan Since immediately after the disaster happens, one need to communicate with others who can be at risk or who can help; communication strategy should be prepared to trigger the Incident Command System (adopted recently by Government of India for Disaster Risk Management). Most often, the routine communication systems fail during such disasters, therefore, alternative arrangements that can be depended upon during disaster should be made. Transportation is also affected during disasters. So it becomes difficult to reach to the victims in time. An alternative emergency route and conveyance method can be thought of for operations during such emergencies. A list of important individuals, authorities and offices related to disaster risk management should be kept ready along with their names, designation, addresses (both official and residential), phone numbers, mobile, fax, email etc. in easily accessible manner.

7.9. Search, Rescue, and Relief A separate group of people can be assigned the task for carrying out search, rescue and relief operation during any disaster. Persons with background in army, civil defense, home gaurds or police can be helpful in doing such activities. Nurses and medical practitioners can guide and help in emergency relief and first aid to the victims.

7.10. Evacuation Plan, Safe Accommodations and Sites for Temporary Shelters Since a large population of the village may be affected during disasters, a sketch of the village territory showing safer buildings and sites should be prepared during plan formulation to indicate the places and the evacuation routes to be used during disaster periods. The plan map should not only show the emergency exit routes but also indicates the access routes that may be used by outsiders for providing relief to the victims. The access route is connected to

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main road. The evacuation routes are normally the alternate footpaths/roads leading to an area away from the vulnerable structures and susceptible locations.

7.11. Consolation (Psycho-Social) Team Generally, there is a panic and trauma during and after the disaster. Victims need to be properly consoled and inspiration from local known person gives them more solace compared to outsiders. The consolation (psycho-social) teams may consist of respected aged persons, religious priests, school teachers or community leaders.

7.12. Disposal of Corpses and Carcasses Proper disposal of dead bodies at the earliest possible time is essential to avoid outbreak of any epidemic in the disaster affected area. A group of persons may be assigned this duty and trained in proper recording and disposal of dead bodies, particularly from the inhabited areas.

7.13. Immunization and Infection Control Due to large number of deaths and injuries during disasters, the potential of getting affected by any contagious disease are very high. To control this, a team should be dedicated to immunize people and livestock against possible diseases and those affected by such diseases should be treated under control and given a separate facility.

7.14. Water and Sanitation Drinking water supply may be affected during disasters. The water may be polluted by sewerage damage or due to some other reasons. Necessary precautions should be taken to keep a check on water quality and in case it is found polluted, proper treatment of the water sources and supplies should be done. Any leakage of drinking water supply that may occur during disaster should be immediately checked. Proper sanitation should be planned around temporary shelters where large number of people may reside together temporarily.

7.15. Rapid Damage Assessment and Relief Distribution Appropriate objective kind of rapid damage assessment criteria should be well set for assessing the degree of damages and distribution of relief to the affected people. A team consisting of reliable, honest and justified persons can be kept ready for this kind of work.

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7.16. Rehabilitation Plan This is the phase in which the community is back on the normal life process and in fact is fine tuning their resources to deal with other emergencies. They are, thus, also in a position to provide help to some other disaster affected area in the manner that they received help and assistance. The rehabilitation plan shall include the following sub-plans.   

Shelter Rehabilitation Livelihood Rehabilitation Psycho-social Rehabilitation

7.17. Recovery and Redevelopment Plan Recovery is restoration of the community structure and facilities, and support provided to affected people. It may include providing short-term emergency accommodation, counseling emotionally-affected people, establishing and managing emergency financial relief schemes, repairing or replacing damaged public utilities, services, and assets, surveying and assessing damage to public and private property. Rapid steps must be taken to establish a system of continuous contact with the families stricken by the disaster. A system of this kind makes it possible to:             

collect information on requirements, route instructions and information, distribute where necessary the means of survival (clothing, blankets, food, etc.). Transport and highway maintenance; communications and information, Water supply, food, means of survival, Sanitation Health, Public law and order. The mid-term and long term recovery plan will include Relief and compensation Repair, re-strengthening, retrofitting and reconstruction Resettlement and relocation Loaning, compensation, insurance and tax exemptions

The redevelopment plan of the locality should include the lessons learnt from the disasters, thereby discouraging the bad practices and encouraging the good practices for redevelopment in the affected area.

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8. EXPERIENCES AND LIMITATIONS OF METHODOLOGY The experience of local community can help in developing a formally structured information infrastructure. Implementing such a process, however, will not be so simple. It will take time and commitment on the part of all those involved because there are some sources of frustration that will need to be addressed before it can become a reality. For example, a recurring view was expressed by the village community that they had „heard it all before‟ at various times, but nothing practical had ever eventuated. They are looking for a worked-through example that they can follow and the resources to do it. It can not be achieved in any meeting, training or workshop; it can only be achieved on the ground in a real-world situation. The lack of communication reaching both top-down and bottom-up at the village level was also seen as a major source of frustration, and consequently a major hurdle. For a process that is all about information and improving the effectiveness with which it may be disseminated and used, the sharing of information about the process is critical – and that depends on communication. Another frustration revolves around a stated lack of coordination and cooperation between the people and agencies that should be working together to improve community safety. This was seen as part of the power and political processes that tend to build barriers, rather than bridges. Frustration also relates to the perceived lack of resources – human, financial and technical. This is probably a universal frustration for all disaster managers. Typically, they are allocated only limited resources as well as limited time because a vested senior group seem to hold a different view (a disaster is unlikely to happen during their term in office, so why spend too much money on a disaster management system that does not bring significant political/economic gains with it). This may be a simplistic and cynical view, but it seems to correlate well with reality. These are not just technical issues but also socioeconomic issues. Fortunately, frustrations can be overcome through strong will and determination by the public, even those as seemingly intractable as the ones identified here. These established foundations are very sound indeed, and provide an excellent base on which to build an appropriate and sustainable information infrastructure may address issues from the village level to the level of the district and beyond. There are undoubtedly frustrations and problems that will need to be addressed along the way; however, it is clear that the communities are committed to embarking on this journey for a safer sustainable environment. Another limitation of CBDRM lies in the fact that the local knowledge at the level of community can not always be sufficient to assess large scale phenomena especially if their origin lies away from the zone of perception of the community or if it results from an exceptional situation (e.g. flooding due to bursting of a landslide dam on upstream side of the community). Therefore, the logic of the concept should clearly indicate the possibility of integrating information received from outside the community (national/state/district level disaster warning centers), even if it is of scientific origin and not expressed in terms to which the community is used to, as another major contribution to the re-assessment of a hazardous situation. The most important limitation of this approach is sustenance of initiatives and actions for adapting to a culture of disaster prevention and risk reduction. It has been found that the

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efforts at community level dropped gradually when the support from the external stakeholder was withdrawn. Therefore, a proper sustenance mechanism for continuity of the initiatives and actions towards community based disaster risk management must be well worked out at the time of its implementation as long term strategy.

CONCLUSION The successful application of this methodology in more than 50 villages by the community itself is evidently a good indicator of the acceptability and practicability of the approach as well as its outcome in the forms of large amounts of actual data and information generated through the process. The approach seems more rational and context specific for socio-cultural as well as geo-climatic condition. Its participatory nature and learning dynamics helps in deeper penetration of the efforts among the community. The approach gives an opportunity to community for self help rather than being dependent on outside resources/expertise during an actual disaster, thus eliminating the chances of delays and wrong-doings. It also provides information to outsiders about the community‟s needs and strengths, enabling an appropriate aid acceptable to the affected society. It is essential that local capacities be further strengthened to assess and manage disaster risks as well as to utilize indigenous knowledge, resources, skills, experiences, information and ideas. The approach considers varied factors like age, gender, geographic location, caste, ethnicity, literacy, community structure/dynamics, local politics, economic disparities and decision making in this process. These factors when accounted in disaster risk management strategies and action plan become a great asset in execution and implementation at ground level by the affected community. If the methodology is applied in other areas in a similar fashion, it will have, no doubt, a very large database on disasters and a culture of aware and prepared communities in all villages. The approach is open for further modifications to suit to specific requirements of any area/ community as is permitted in any context specific approach. Technical and financial support from outsiders will serve as a catalyst to further boost the efforts of these villagers in fully implementing their strategies for disaster risk management at local levels.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author is thankful to Mr. P.G. Dhar Chakrabarti, Executive Director, NIDM for his kind support and encouragement to publish this chapter.

RESOURCES USED Methodology for Community Based Disaster Risk Management, Community Based Disaster Risk Management Society, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India (unpublished). Village Level Multi-hazard Risk Management Action Plan, Senna Village, Rudraprayag District, Uttarakhand, India (Unpublished).

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

REDUCING DISASTER DAMAGE THROUGH PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN EMERGENCY RESPONSE IN BANGLADESH Giasuddin Ahmed Choudhury1 and Motaleb Hossain Sarker Centre for Environment and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS), Dhaka

ABSTRACT Bangladesh, due to its geographical setting and climatic condition, is the most disaster prone country in the world. Substantial loss of agricultural production, disruption of communication, damage and economic loss take place due to such disasters every year. Over the periods, risk reductions programmes have been carried out by individual organizations with the development partners according to their own views and targets focused on relief and rehabilitation. A Public - private partnership approach is now felt necessary to achieve the national goal. The cyclone SIDR hit the coast of Bangladesh in 15 November, 2007 and caused severe damage to the lives and properties of thousands of people of the coastal districts. Among these, five districts namely Patuakhali, Barguna, Bagerhat, Jhalokhathi and Pirojpur were the worst affected. A study was conducted in the SIDR affected area through people‟s participations/households survey and a sustainable management information system was developed to reduce the risk during emergencies. For better planning, management and monitoring of Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) related activities, a GIS based Management Information System (GMIS) was required for the emergency WASH cluster in Bangladesh. And to fulfill this requirement UNICEF assigned CEGIS to develop a GIS based MIS, to collect and analyze the data for meaningful information generation to improve interventions by the WASH cluster member agencies in the SIDR affected districts. The study area covers 16 upazilas (sub-district) of SIDR affected five districts- mainly focusing on people‟s participation in emergencies during disasters to reduce the associated risks and damages.

1

Tel: + 8801711-592558, Email: [email protected].

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Keywords: Disaster, GMIS, Vulnerability, People‟s Participation, WATSAN, WASH, Livelihood, Hygiene

1. INTRODUCTION The geographical setting of Bangladesh makes the country vulnerable to natural disasters. The major disasters concerned here are the flood, cyclone, storm surge, flash flood, drought, tornado, riverbank erosion, salinity and landslide. These extreme natural events are termed disasters when they adversely affect the whole environment, including human beings, their shelters, or the resources essential for their livelihoods resulting in loss of agricultural production, disruption of communication, injury, damage and destruction of immobile infrastructure, disruption to essential services and national economic loss. Major disaster prone areas of Bangladesh are portrayed in the figure 1.

Figure 1. Major disaster prone areas of Bangladesh.

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1.1. Cyclone Tropical cyclones from the Bay of Bengal accompanied by storm surges are one of the major disasters that frequently occurred in Bangladesh. The country is one of the worst sufferers of all cyclonic casualties in the world. The funnel-shaped northern portion of the Bay of Bengal causes tidal bores when cyclones make landfalls, and thousands of people living in the coastal areas are affected. Some recent cyclones and number of death is given in Table 1. Figure 2 shows major cyclones that hit Bangladesh Coast. Table 1. Major cyclones that hit the Bangladesh coast (Sarker et. al. 2008) Date November 12, 1970 April 29, 1991 November 15, 2007 May 26, 2009

Figure 2. Major cyclones hitting the coastal zone.

Death 167,000 138,000 10000 330

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1.2. Flood Major portion of Bangladesh is part of the Ganges Delta, one of the largest flood plains in the world. The total catchment area of the major rivers in Bangladesh is more than 12 times the size of Bangladesh. Floods are annual phenomena mostly occurring during the months of June to October. Most of the water comes from neighbouring countries. Regular river floods affect 20% of the country increasing up to more than 68% in extreme years. The floods of 1987, 1988, 1998, 2000, 2004 and 2007 were particularly catastrophic, resulting in large-scale destruction and loss of lives. Approximately 37%, 43%, 52% and 60% of the country is inundated with floods of return periods of 10, 20, 50 and 100 years respectively (MPO, 1986). Generally four types of floods occur in Bangladesh.    

Flash flood caused by overflowing of hilly rivers of eastern and northern Bangladesh (in April-May and September-November). Rain flood caused by drainage congestion and heavy rains. Monsoon flood caused by major rivers usually in the monsoon (during JuneOctober). Coastal flood caused by storm surges.

In the year 2000, Bangladesh faced an unusual flood over its usually flood-free southwestern plain, which also caused loss of life and massive damage to property.

1.3. Initiatives for Reducing Risk Induced by Disaster Bangladesh government has developed different mechanism for the emergency response during natural disasters. For the purpose of emergency information exchange and relief management, an Emergency Operations Centre (EOC) has been established at the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management (MOFDM) as operational unit. EOC gets activated with the first information of the disaster emergency situation and works on the overall direction from MOFDM for handling all aspects of emergency situation. The emergency and relief management system during disasters recognizes the key role of the Cabinet Secretary in the Inter-Ministerial Co-ordination and in supervising the district administration and ensures the services of the Armed Forces as well as Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) working in the country. Under the system, Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation (DRR) within the administrative control of the MOFDM acts during emergency situation and operates relief activities for distribution to the remote field levels. A dynamic professional and well known organization which is called Disaster Management Bureau (DMB) has been established under the MOFDM to perform specialist functions at the time of emergency to help EOC by extending technical support services through MIS/GIS for information exchange. In addition, there exists Cyclone Preparedness Program (CPP) which plays very useful role during cyclone. Further different development agencies like UNDP, WFP, DFID and UNICEF have developed emergency WASH (Water Supply Sanitation and Hygiene) cluster for emergency

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disaster responses. However, the most effective process is the People‟s Participation in emergency response to reduce the disaster damages in Bangladesh.

1.4. People’s Participation in Risk Reduction People‟s participation in disaster risk reduction refers to the assessment of hazards, vulnerabilities and risks, developing the ability to cope by preparing coping strategies and finally preparing implementation plans of risk reduction options by the local community. Rural people, especially the poor, landless, fisher-farmers, women and disable are highly vulnerable to hazards. The increasing frequency of hazards and subsequent loss of lives and resources are making them more vulnerable. Since the adaptive capacity is essential to reduce the vulnerability, therefore, it is necessary to ensure an effective people‟s participation in all stages of disaster risk reduction. Considering all these factors, the need to practice wider participation in preparing risk reduction actions is inevitable, where all the stakeholders and their representatives participate in planning and implementation processes through consensus.

2. METHODOLOGY In order to assess the role of community participation in natural disasters risk reduction particularly in emergency response management, CEGIS has employed following methodology in the Cyclone SIDR affected areas.

2.1. Households Survey to Assess the Peoples’ Response during Emergencies The process consist of several sub-activities (i) household survey questionnaire design and development, (ii) field test of the questionnaire, (iii) update and finalizing questionnaire, (iv) determining sampling techniques and size, (v) conduct HH survey, (vi) database development and data analysis. A Flow Chart showing the methodology is shown in the Figure 3.

2.1.1. Household Survey Questionnaire Design and Development For collection of WASH related household data, a well-defined questionnaire is necessary. Several consultation meetings with UNICEF were also done during questionnaire development. The questionnaire has been developed covering all the aspects of water supply, sanitation and hygiene status in the SIDR affected area. The major attributes of the questionnaire are (i) Household location, (ii) household head and occupation, (iii) sources and types of the water sources, (iv) fetching of water, (v) affected status of water point by SIDR, (vi) sanitation status (which includes types of latrine, damage by SIDR, repairing status so on), (vii) Hygiene practices and awareness status of the SIDR affected area and (viii) overall observation of the study area.

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Figure 3. Methodology of the case study.

2.1.2. Field Test of the Questionnaire The developed questionnaire has also been tested through reconnaissance field survey at Manikganj to find the additional and surplus item, understanding ability of the respondents and the surveyors etc .This area is chosen because it is a highly disaster prone area and tornadoes, Norwester and flood hits this area frequently. 2.1.3. Update and Finalizing Questionnaire The questionnaire was then updated and finalized discussing with UNICEF and based on lesson learnt from the reconnaissance field survey at Manikganj. 2.1.4. Sampling Techniques and Size Determination of sampling techniques is an important issue. For this study the normally distributed “Multi-stage Systematic Random Sample” technique has been used to conduct the household survey because it is unbiased. The ArcGIS software has been used for properly randomly distribution to make it unbiased and as well as well distributed. Further, the sample size is an important factor for any survey, as sampling in research is unavoidable, since time, money and efforts do not allow studying all possible members of a

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population. To determine the sample size for this study the following formula has been used, where the sample size n and margin of error E are given by:

x  Z(c /100)2 r(100 r)

(1)

n  Nx/{(N 1)E2  x}

(2)

E  [(N  n)x /{n(N 1)}]

(3)

where N is the population size, which is about 6,90,347 households of the SIDR affected five districts, r is the fraction of responses that we are interested in, and Z (c/100) is the critical value for the confidence level c. (Ref: Basic Statistics: A Modern Approach by Morris Hamburg). Thus, the largest sample size 384 is determined at 5% margin of error, 95% of confidence level and 50% response distribution. This calculation is based on pre-assuming that the sample distribution follows normal distribution.

2.1.5. Conduct Household Survey The field data were collected through door to door survey in sampled and selected households using developed questionnaires. 2.1.6. Data Matrix Development for Monitoring the Disaster Response Activities The 4W matrix of WASH intervention reflects Who is working Where, When and What. The major information collected under 4W matrix are water supply and sanitation access or coverage to the population through different mode of WATSAN technologies and as well as hygiene practices. The 4W matrix data collected from different sources are: i. ii. iii. iv.

Local Government (Upazila Parishad and Union Parishad), Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) field offices, Local Administration Offices and WASH cluster partner agencies.

Further, damage of household and affected population of different districts under the study area was also collected. During the survey period (February – May 2008) the 4W matrix data have been updated through several visits and meetings with relevant agencies in the field area.

2.2. Database Development and Data Analysis After collecting and processing household and 4W matrix data, a well organized data has been developed. Then all the data were converted into GIS format for spatial analysis and mapping purposes using different GIS techniques. After database development different types of data analysis were performed based on the following indicators:

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2.2.1. Analysis Gender Status of Surveyed Household Head From the collected and processed sample field survey data, the district wise household heads gender data was analysed for the study area and presented. It is observed that the only 6% of the total surveyed household‟s heads is female and substantial percentage (94%) is male. 2.2.2. Analysis of Water Supply Data Source of water supply is one of the important parameter of the household survey. A brief description of the district wise water supply status is given below in Table 2. Table 2. Availability of drinking water sources

District

Tube well

Bagerhat Barguna Patuakhali Pirojpur

25 37 48 34

Pond Sand Filter (PSF) 8 2 3

River/ Pond Khal

RainWater Harvesting

Tap

Other

Total

11 20 15 21

11 1 1

2 4 1 4

3 2

100 100 100 100

40 36 36 37

Frequency of drinking water collection in a day is an important issue in the water scarce and severe affected areas. Therefore, frequency of drinking water collection data were collected and processed for the study area and presented in Table 3 below. Table 3. Frequency of drinking water collection District

Range 0

Range 1-2

Range 3 - 5

Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur Total %of total

104 4

97 79 5 71 75 327 35

77 64 17 66 97 321 35

8 2 118 13

Range 5 10 24 39 3 54 20 140 15

Range >10

Total

2 3 3 9

304 189 28 208 194 923 100

17 2

Furthermore, District-wise functional and non- functional status of water points are described below for the study area in Table 4. Table 4. Status of drinking water points District Bagerhat Barguna Patuakhali Pirojpur

Functional 98 93 99 96

Non Functional 2 7 1 4

Total 100 100 100 100

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Ownership of the water point data were collected and processed for the study area. From the collected and processed sample field survey data, the water point ownership data were analysed for the study area and presented in Table 5 below. Table 5. District-wise ownership status of drinking water points District Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur Total % of total

Own 135 54 9 70 79 347 38

Neighbour 79 51 3 46 37 216 23

Community 90 84 16 92 78 360 39

Total 304 189 28 208 194 923 100

Water point damage data is crucially important for the present study and damage data were collected through the household survey. From the collected and processed sample field survey data, the district wise water point damage data were analysed and presented in Table 6. Table 6. District wise water point damages status in the study area

District Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur Total

Tube-Well Af 11 26 27 8 72

N-Af 60 44 14 71 47 236

Pond Sand Filters (PSF) Af N-Af 20 3 4 4 28 3

River/Khal

Pond

Af 19 33 4 14 40 110

Af 74 50 10 56 70 260

N-Af 14 4 17 35

N-Af 35 6 14 55

Af=Affected, N-Af=Not Affected

Table 7. District wise water point repairing and reconstruction status District Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur Total % of total

Repaired 118 93 7 74 66 358 72

Not Repaired 20 22 3 23 45 113 23

Not Affected 3 2 4 16 25 5

Newly Built 1 3 4 1

Total 142 120 14 97 127 500 100

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Water point repairing data is very important for the present study and repairing data were collected through the household survey. From the collected and processed sample field survey data, the district-wise water point repairing and reconstruction status data were analyzed for the study area and presented in Table 7. A summery of district wise water coverage is shown in Table 8. Table 8. District wise water coverage summarized from 4W matrix data Item Population Affected population Water Coverage (%) Damage (%) Proportion of WS restored (%)

Bagerhat 1,120,181 889,960 39 47

Barguna 782379 674,420 50 61

Jhalokati 160,900 159,222 24 64

Patuakhali 891,938 336,345 65 54

Pirojpur 780,620 708,296 28 44

35

12

3

29

25

2.2.3. Analysis of Sanitation Data Types of latrines usage in the SIDR affected area are one of the important parameter of the household survey. Data analysis result on the latrines usages status for study area is described below in Table 9. Table 9. Latrine usages in the study area

District

Latrine with septic tank

Bagerhat Barguna Patuakhali Pirojpur

5 6 5 6

Pit latrine with ring and slab 78 69 63 81

Pit latrine without ring and slab 11 16 14 9

Anywhere/ Hanging no specific latrine place 5 1 9 1 17 2 2 1

Total 100 100 100 100

Information on repair/newly built Latrines after SIDR in the surveyed areas is given below. From the Table 10, 45% of latrines are repaired, 5% are newly built and 30% of latrines are still needed to be repaired. Table 10. Summary information of repair/newly built latrines due to SIDR District Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur Total % of total

Repaired 62 41 4 48 45 200 44

Not repaired 45 28 1 42 27 143 31

Newly built 5 5 1 4 4 19 4

Not applicable 36 15 8 17 20 96 21

Total 148 89 14 111 96 458 100

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2.2.4. Analysis of Hygiene Data Hygiene practice in the SIDR affected area is another important parameter of the household survey. Summary of hygiene practice is depicted in the Table 11. From the table, the 98% of households use ash, 97% use washing soap and 92% use bath soap. Table 11. Summary information of soap and ash users by district District Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur Total % of Total

Total HH 140 84 14 98 91 427 100

Bath soap 125 76 14 87 90 392 92

Wash soap 137 79 14 95 91 416 97

Ash 134 83 14 98 90 419 98

2.3. GAP Analysis and Vulnerability Mapping 2.3.1. Gap Analysis During the post SIDR period, WASH related services provided by different agencies to the SIDR affected areas were not sufficient or does not cover 100% area or households. Baseline information is a pre-requisite for any kind of gap analysis. Due to lack of sufficient base information, the GAP analysis has been carried out for the present study, considering available data parameters collected from the sampled field survey (DPHE-UNICEF, 2004). The GAP analysis has been done under this study using (i) the data from household survey and (ii) the data from public water point survey. The detail description of GAP analysis using these two types of data has been briefly described below: A. Gap Analysis Using House-Holds Survey Data During this WASH related households survey, several important information on water and sanitation collected are (i), affected water points, (ii) rehabilitated water points, (iii) newly built water points, (iv) affected latrine, (v) rehabilitated latrines and (vi) newly built latrines etc and these parameters are used to analyze the for water supply and sanitation. B. Gap Analysis for Water Supply From the collected sampled household level water sources data, the district wise gap of water point has been analyzed using the equations and the result is presented in Table 12. The table shows that the highest percentage of gap is at Pirojpur district, which is 39% and lowest percentage of gap is at Bagerhat district, which is 21%. C. Gap Analysis for Sanitation Further, District-wise affected versus gap for sanitation facilities has been analyzed and presented in Figure 4. It has been found that at Pirojpur district the gap versus affected ratio is

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1:2.30, at Bagerhat the ratio is 1:9, at Barguna the ratio is 1:2.30, at Patuakhali 1: 2.15 and at Jhalokati 1:1.5 only. Table 12. District- wise water sources gap using household survey data District

Total

Affected

Repaired

Bagerhat Barguna Jhalokati Patuakhali Pirojpur

284 177 18 202 141

144 121 14 99 127

119 87 7 67 65

Newly built 1 7 2 2

Gap

% of Gap

24 27 5 32 60

21 25 36 32 39

Figure 4. Affected Vs gap for sanitation facilities (latrines) using household survey data

2.3.2. Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping The goal of this research is to reduce vulnerabilities during the disaster and enhance the resilience of poor people and ecosystems impacted by water scarcity, floods, SIDR and other water-related shocks. Vulnerability (V) is a dual concept which entails the likelihood of events that may result in a series of negative livelihood outcomes, as well as the coping mechanisms that people employ to face risk events such as floods, cyclones, arsenic hazard, etc. To identify the degree of vulnerability, a vulnerability mapping exercise has been carried out for the present study. Steps followed for this WATSAN vulnerability mapping are: A. Selection of Vulnerability Indicators The degree or magnitude of WATSAN vulnerability calculated as for this study considering several factors or indicators. The indicators used for this study are: (i) proportion of elderly people (age => 60 years), (ii) proportion of landless households, (iii) proportion of female widow, (iv) presence of water scarcity, (iv) severely affected unions, (v) NGO services, and (vi) percentage of shelter less people during Sidr etc. All these above indicators were taken into consideration in conceptualizing the vulnerability index calculation for this study based on the union wise available data. The indicators used for vulnerability computation has been presented in Table 13. The table explains the relationship between the indicators and the vulnerability to risk.

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Table 13. Indicators used for vulnerability computation SL 1 2

Indicator Proportion of elderly people (age => 60 years) Proportion of landless households

3

Percentage of widow

4 5

Water scarcity Severely affected by SIDR

6

NGO services

7

Percentage of shelter less people during Sidr etc.

Degree of vulnerability Higher the % of elderly people, higher the vulnerability Higher the % of Landless HH, higher the vulnerability Higher the % of Female widows, higher the vulnerability Presence of water scarcity, higher the vulnerability Severely affected indicating higher the vulnerability Presence of NGO services indicating lower the vulnerability Higher the shelterless people higher the vulnerability

B. Vulnerability Index Calculation Individual tables 14a-g were generated for different indicators containing the indicator parameter and their score values. The relative score value has been used for the calculation of vulnerability with the upper limit value of 3 and lower limit value of 1 at different scale of interval. It can be mentioned that in the lookup table higher the score the higher the vulnerability. Table 14a. Proportion of elderly (age => 60 years) people (V1) Percentage (%) of elderly people <4 >= 4 to <=8 >8

Score 1 2 3

Table 14b. Proportion of landless households (V2) Percentage (%) of landless households < 30 >= 30 to <=50 >50

Score 1 2 3

Table 14c. Percentage of widow (V 3) Percentage (%) of widow < 0.5 >= 0.5 to <=3 >3

Score 1 2 3

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Giasuddin Ahmed Choudhury and Motaleb Hossain Sarker Table 14d. Water scarcity (V4) Water scarcity Not water scarce (Value = 0) Water scarce (Value = 1)

Score 1 3

Table 14e. Severely affected by SIDR (V5) Severely affected by SIDR Value = 0 (not affected) Value = 1 (affected)

Score 1 3

Table 14f. NGO services (V6) NGO services NGO services (Value = 1) No services (Value = 0)

Score 1 3

Table 14g. Percentage of shelter less people during emergencies (V7) Percentage (%) of shelter less-people < 80 >= 80 to <=90 >90

Score 1 2 3

After calculating the individual score, combined vulnerability for each administrative unit were calculated using following formulae: (4)

where,

VI = Final vulnerability Index

V1 = Individual score for proportion of elderly (age => 60 years) people Weights for V1 = 0.15 V2 = Individual score for proportion of landless households Weights for V2 = 0.15 V3 = Individual score for percentage of widow Weights for V3 = 0.15

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V4 = Individual score for water scarcity area Weights for V4 = 0.20 V5 = Individual score for severely affected by SIDR Weights for V5= 0.20 V6 = Individual score for NGO services Weights for V6 = 0.20 V7 = Individual score for percentage of shelter less people during emergencies Weights for V7 = 0.05

From calculated scores, the three major classes were generated as (i) High, (ii) Medium and (iii) Low. The class with the score has been presented in Table 15. Table 15. Vulnerability index (VI) Vulnerability type Low Medium High

Figure 5. Cyclone SIDR response in Bangladesh.

Index 1.00 to 1.50 1.51 to 2.00 2.01 o 3.0

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C. Vulnerability Mapping After calculating union wise vulnerability index, the union-wise vulnerability data were linked with spatial data of the study area unions. Further these vulnerabilities were classified into three classes (low, medium and high) using ArcGIS software. The sample vulnerability map is presented in Figure 5. It may be noted that the classification that has been made using ArcGIS is dynamic and it can be reclassified changing the degree of V or VI

2.4. GIS Based MIS Software Development for Emergency Response Monitoring For effective monitoring of SIDR affected area in Bangladesh, a GIS based web enable monitoring system named as GIS based MIS (GMIS) has been developed under this project. The web-based system is developed with the aim that all the partners in the process will have access to the system through internet or intranet based system on their access authorization. The system is developed using open source software development tools to reduce the cost and licensing obligations. The user interfaces, input/output formats have been designed and developed in consultation with UNICEF Bangladesh. The major components of the GMIS are (i) Data Explorer, (ii) GMIS Mapping, (iii) Reporting, (iv) Photos and Maps, (iv) Knowledge Based, (v) Data Management. The software is capable to monitor the emergency response status of the affected area and hence suggests an immediate response in recovering any particular disaster. It has been observed from the case study that, people‟s participation plays a substantial part in activities related to emergency recovery of any disaster. Community participation can more effectively be introduced in the whole process by incorporating a SMS-based feedback service in the developed GIS based MIS software (Figure 6). This will increase the efficiency as well as broaden the scope of the whole risk reduction process by providing easy access to information to the community, decision makers and planners and as well as the politician for the greater benefit of the country to reduce the disaster risk reduction during emergencies.

Figure 6. Development of GIS based MIS software for emergency WASH cluster in Bangladesh.

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2.5. Flood Forecasting and Early Warning: A Community Based Risk Reduction Approach The study emphasised to develop the community based flood forecasting system using satellite imageries and GIS (CEGIS, 2006). The objectives of the study were:  

To disseminate of Flood Level information to the community with a lead time before the flood occurs and To reduce risk from flood by empowering the community with flood warning information before it comes

Figure 7. Conceptual diagram of the flood forecasting system.

+ -

(a)

(b)

Figure 8. a) Information dissemination in occurrence of flood through information board and b) SMS based Symbolic Information System.

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A community based warning system is developed and warning message are disseminated to the community during flood disaster (Figure 7). Water level data from different gauge stations in major rivers maintained by Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB) are collected. Then these data are interpreted and analyzed based on Digital Elevation model (DEM) using GIS to determine probable flood level at local tributaries and surrounding floodplains. Interpreted information are shared with local people (Figure 8a) as and when the water level is likely to exceed the safety limit; at the earliest time by warning them using coloured flags and mobile SMS („+/-' indicates 9 inch increase/decrease in water level ) at frequent intervals (Figure 8b). An example of information dissemination by using flag is shown in the table 16. Table 16. Use of coloured flags for information dissemination Water level change Today flood status

Flag Top flag: No flag, Green, Yellow, Red

Water level after 48 hr

Except the topmost flag

Description No flag – the water level at gauge is at below the Normal Flood level Green – the water level at gauge is within the Normal Flood range Yellow – the water level at gauge is within the Moderate Flood range Red – the water level at gauge is above the Moderate Flood range No Flag - WL change < 1 bighat (22 cm) White Flag – decrease of WL Blue Flag – increase of WL

3. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN EMERGENCY RESPONSE DURING SIDR 3.1. Water Sources From the household survey data and field observations, it has been found that substantial amount of damaged water sources have been repaired. Further, major portion (more than 70%) of the damaged water sources have been repaired by the community itself and about 1015% of the water sources have been repaired by NGOs. However, following specific issues were noticed. 1. In the case of water points, majority of the PSF has been severely damaged 2. From the local people‟s perception about water points, it is known that participation of NGOs in repairing the water points especially the ponds and tube wells are insufficient 3. Water points are mainly affected by the saline water, damages trees, dead body of human and the livestock

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4. DPHE, UNICEF and DANIDA has contributing in repairing the water points in the study area and amount of contribution need to be substantially increased

3.2. Sanitation From the household survey data and field observations, it has been found that substantial amount of damaged latrine has been repaired which is about more than 50%. Further, major portion (more than 80%) of the damaged latrine have been repaired by the community itself and about 10-15% of water points have been repaired by NGOs. The following specific findings are derived. 1. Majority of the surveyed households have been using the sanitary latrines which is about 70% 2. Majority of the damaged latrines have been repaired and built by the household owners e.g. community itself 3. About 10% of the surveyed households have been sharing latrines.

3.3. Hygiene Practice Hygiene practices information has been collected from the field through interviewing the people of sampled households using developed field questionnaires. Usually majority of the interviewed people replied positive answers regarding the hygiene practices especially for the usage of soap before taking their meals and after defecations. High accuracy data on hygiene practices can be obtained through detailed demonstration at house level, which needs 6-7 hours for each house household. However, according to the reported household survey data, it is observed that substantial proportion of the people wash their hands with water before and after taking food, after defecation, before preparing, serving and feeding children. The following conclusions are drawn from this specific survey. 1. The survey found that about 50% of the people (only living in the surveyed households) have been using soap/ash/soil to wash hands after defecation. 2. The people of the surveyed households have been using ash or soil and as well as soap for washing their hands after defecation 3. 24% of the people have been using soap for washing hands before taking their food. Most of the people learnt about hygiene practice from their families, neighbours, media and religious culture. This is also indication of People‟s Participation to reduce disaster damages during emergencies.

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CONCLUSION It has been found that the local community significantly participates in the emergency response during and after the cyclone SIDR disasters in the coastal areas of Bangladesh The study further reveals that the public-private partnership approach of risk reduction can be very effective for reducing disaster damages during emergencies The developed GIS based MIS can be enhanced further by incorporating the community feedback through mobile Short Message Service (SMS) system for efficient planning and decision making in emergency situations in future.

REFERENCES CEGIS-Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services. 2006. “Inventory of Community Risk Reduction Program” Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme (CDMP), UNDP, Bangladesh. DPHE-Department of Public Health Engineering and UNICEF-United Nations Children's Fund. 2004. “Report on the Nationwide Baseline Survey on Sanitation” UNICEF, Dhaka, Bangladesh. MPO-Master Plan Organisation. 1986. Report on Flood and Storm Surge. Sarker M. H., Hossain M. M. A., Ahmed S. 2008. Development of GIS Based Management Information System for the Emergency WASH Cluster of UNICEF in Bangladesh. Centre for Environment and Geographic Information Services (CEGIS), Dhaka, Bangladesh.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AS AN INTEGRAL PART IN MICROFINANCE CAPACITY BUILDING: LESSONS LEARNED IN THE AFTERMATH OF CYCLONE NARGIS, MYANMAR Drew Bishop1, Kurt MacLeod2, Erica Tubbs3, and Anne Coghlan4 1

DBishop Consulting, Ellensburg, WA, USA 2 Pact Asia Eurasia 3 Pact Myanmar 4 Pact Results and Measurement

ABSTRACT Pact, Inc. had been working in Myanmar for 10 years prior to Cyclone Nargis, which struck the Irrawaddy Delta in May, 2008. Microfinance in the Irrawaddy Delta in the south of the country was a major element of their work. This project was significantly impacted both during the storm and in its aftermath. This article will look at the impact of the storm on Pact‟s microfinance program and the benefit of large community based structures like the microfinance program in quickly reaching disaster survivors. It will highlight how its program infrastructure was instrumental in helping other NGOs respond. And, finally, it will explore how Pact has begun to integrate disaster risk reduction strategies into its local capacity building programs to enhance and strengthen local ownership for village level planning. It explores the importance of putting communities at the centre of disaster preparedness and response. The chapter will also document how capacity building in disaster risk reduction is important not only for the people who live in zones at risk of water-related disasters, but also how it can mitigate the financial and personnel impacts on agencies that work in these regions. 1

3600 Brondt Road, Ellensburg, WA 98926, USA Tel: +1-509-859-4725, E-Mail: [email protected]. E-Mail: [email protected]. 3 E-Mail: [email protected]. 4 E-mail: [email protected]. 2

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Keywords: Microfinance, Community Capacity Building, Cyclone Nargis, Disaster Management, Irrawaddy, Myanmar, Pact, Inc., DRR

1. INTRODUCTION Pact, Inc, is an international non-governmental organization (NGO) based in Washington, D.C whose expertise is in building the capacity of local organizations and communities in developing countries. It is recognized as a leader in empowering local communities. Pact's mission is to help build strong communities globally that provide people with an opportunity to earn a dignified living, raise healthy families, and participate in democratic life. Pact achieves this by strengthening the capacity of grassroots organizations, coalitions and networks and by forging linkages among government, business and the citizen sectors to achieve social, economic and environmental justice. Pact Myanmar began working in the Irrawaddy Delta region in 1998 in concert with UNDP, providing microfinance services to the inhabitants of this region. Prior to Cyclone Nargis, Pact had not been involved in any significant humanitarian disaster responses.

2. THE IRRAWADDY DELTA Myanmar is an isolated country located between the diverse cultural and geographical boundaries of China, Bangladesh, India, Laos and Thailand. (Figure 1). The Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) Delta in the south western portion of Myanmar is the rice bowl for this country covering approximately 415,000 km2 (Brichieri-Colombi, 1983). It is a fragile and intricate ecosystem of mangrove swamps and tidal estuaries. Non saline arable areas are limited and becoming scarce due to the erosion of riverbanks, saltwater intrusion, and increasing soil salinity. Poor water control and drainage works contribute to periodic flooding and crop losses. Most poor households cultivate a single crop of traditional monsoon paddy rice. Farmers who are better-off are able to grow early maturing, high-yielding varieties of paddy rice and benefit from an additional winter crop such as groundnuts or soybeans. In the very few areas where irrigation facilities are available, summer paddy rice is grown. Marginal farm households cannot afford to use chemical fertilizer or manure and suffer from declining crop yields. In some townships such as Laputta, Bogalay and Mawlamyaingyun, it is estimated that more than half of the population is landless. Many marginal farmers engage in fishing and crabbing. Those who fish typically do not own fishing gear or boats and depend on fish traders for such resources. Some households raise pigs, chickens, or ducks. Others crop during the slack growing season by borrowing from more well-off farmers and loans are paid back through labour or through a portion of paddy crop. The effective interest rate charged by fish traders, rice traders and others in these loan arrangements typically amount to 10 per cent a month (Mya Than, 2000). Henzhada is the city considered to be the head of the Irrawaddy Delta. From this point, the topographical elevation of Delta drops only 18m over the next 258 kilometres before the river finally reaches the Andaman Sea in the south (Figure 2). Because agricultural development in the Delta has focused primarily on rice, in addition to the land being flat,

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there are few forests. Low level flight over the Delta reveals a land that holds no natural barriers to mitigate the impact of a significant cyclone on the region.

Figure 1. Map of Myanmar.

Figure 2. Profile of the Irrawaddy Delta.

3. CYCLONE NARGIS In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis struck the southern coast of Myanmar, killing an estimated 130,000 people, displacing a further 2.4 million from their homes and causing catastrophic destruction to the region in terms of livelihoods and income generation (Bishop, 2009). Due to over ten years of program experience in Myanmar and in the Delta region, Pact occupied a

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unique organizational situation. In the years prior to Cyclone Nargis, Pact Myanmar had developed large-scale microfinance and health programs and was active in 33 townships throughout the country. Pact was operating a large Microfinance program in partnership with UNDP, reaching over 400,000 borrowers in three regions. In the Irrawaddy Division, Pact was active in three of the seven townships (Bogale, Laputta and Mawgyun) most heavily affected by Cyclone Nargis. In these three townships, Pact had an unequalled network of 267 staff operating from 16 field offices serving a population of over 79,000 households in 985 villages, where the storm affected 90% of the population (Bishop, 2009). Because of the strength of Pact‟s presence in the Delta, it was inevitable that Pact Myanmar would be directly affected by the cyclone. For example, the agency lost five of its own staff and two branch offices were swept out to sea. However, this loss could have been higher, reducing Pact Myanmar‟s ability to respond, if it not been for the past experience of Pact Myanmar‟s country director.

3.1. Pre-Storm Experience in Mitigating Effects Experts had been watching Cyclone Nargis build up for several days prior to landfall. The official word was that while strong, the path the cyclone was taking would not significantly impact Myanmar. This official forecast was based partially on the modelling of the storm, but also on the history of cyclones and the Delta region. As a Bangladeshi who had experience with cyclones while working with other NGOs in his home country, Pact Myanmar‟s country director had been monitoring the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency‟s satellite tracking of the storm. Based on his background, he began calling Pact Myanmar staff in the Delta, warning them to take precautionary measures. Initially, most of the staff did not take the threat seriously. However, repeated urgings eventually convinced most of the staff to take some rudimentary precautionary measures. Besides this simple step, there were no real procedures in place for reducing the risk of the impending disaster. This was true for most agencies operating in Myanmar at the time. Prior to Cyclone Nargis, Pact Myanmar did not have Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) training as a component of their microfinance or health programs. As a “pure” development agency, Pact‟s expertise and experience did not include responding to major disasters. As previously mentioned, none of Pact‟s country programs had ever been seriously impacted and, thus, addressing DRR issues was not a part of the organizational approach.

3.2. Pact Myanmar’s Post Disaster Response In the wake of Cyclone Nargis, Pact Myanmar‟s response was twofold. The first response was to realize that people in its Microfinace Program would need the funds they had saved through participation in the program. There was the additional recognition that the outstanding debt burden of $2.94 million would seriously add to the financial burden experienced by cyclone survivors in affected communities. Reacting to what Pact decided was a humanitarian mandate to respond to such high levels of disaster in communities where the microfinance program had worked for over 10 years,

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Pact began a large scale humanitarian effort. In following with international microfinance best practices, Pact decided to separate its microfinance operations from its humanitarian relief operations in order to make it clear to shocked communities that the assistance they received from Pact was in no way linked to their outstanding loans. Pact first suspended all microfinance activities in the most affected regions and was able to mobilize staff from unaffected regions for the relief efforts. Before Cyclone Nargis, Pact‟s Microfinance Program had approximately 67,800 loans outstanding in the three most affected townships in the Delta totalling $2.94 million which were effectively lost to the project. The majority of borrowers were engaged in small livestock and fishery activities. Other livelihood activities included small scale rice farming and petty trade. The storm washed away fishing boats and equipment, killed livestock, fouled drinking water catchment ponds, destroyed petty trading stocks and soaked the arable farm land under 4.5 m of salt water. The path towards rebuilding livelihoods would be long and difficult. Together with UNDP, Pact made the decision to forgive the balance on all outstanding loans in the Delta. While half of Pact‟s staff engaged in direct relief activities linked to community-wide food security, water and hygiene improvement, primary health care and shelter reconstruction funded by multiple international donors, the other half began disbursing savings to clients who survived the cyclone. These funds represented over $1.24 million and had to be mobilized from other operating regions of the Microfinance Program to meet the immediate needs felt by clients who had saved for such emergencies. These immediate cash disbursements were some of the first funds to flow into the Delta region in the aftermath of the cyclone. This rapid response provided Microfinance Clients emergency cash relief and placed decision-making ability for the use of those funds into the hands of the affected individuals themselves with the understanding that through utilizing their own savings they could address their individual essential needs. Overall, 50,263 clients or their immediate surviving relatives were located and only 220 savings accounts remain to be returned as some clients and their families are still missing. Given the size and scope of the Microfinance Program this was not an insignificant number of families assisted during this time of need. Pact capitalized on its extensive physical and human infrastructure in the Delta and contributed heavily to relief efforts in many areas. However, Pact was also cognizant of its lack of disaster response expertise. In order to address this gap, Pact Myanmar‟s major response was, through careful selection, to partner with relief agencies that had access to financial resources but did not have expertise or a presence in the Delta. Due to this infrastructure, Pact‟s staff would end up facilitating the efforts of 10 major funding and relief agencies by offering the infrastructure to provide immediate responses in affected communities. The staff‟s extensive knowledge of the local communities built up over ten years was critical in helping affected people receive vital assistance quickly. This knowledge was coupled with a deep level of trust between communities and Pact staff which allowed the response to proceed quickly and efficiently. Myanmar was (and still is) unique in the challenges it presents to the international humanitarian community. Pact Myanmar played a critical role in disaster mitigation because it had established a positive reputation with both the government and the local populations. It drew on this experience to provide assessment and distribution services for Oxfam U.K., WHO, OFDA, the World Food Program, UNDP, UNICEF, Action Aid and other agencies who needed reliable services and a network that it could tap into immediately to deliver much

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needed relief materials. In addition to providing relief materials, Pact was well positioned to implement a cash grant program to affected communities which followed some of the same transparent and accountable procedures that had been engrained in the staff due to their microfinance expertise. Pact Myanmar quickly learned the intricacies of relief logistics with the staff managing the distribution of food and non-food essential items. It pulled its staff from medical projects in the north of the country to provide needed medical assistance for a health system that had been washed away. In an environment where critical decisions had to be made in a much quicker time frame than was normal for the organization, Pact Myanmar was able to respond to the needs of its microfinance clients and donor partners with the rapid turnaround demanded in disaster response. Once the urgency had passed and things began to settle into a new normal, Pact realized that it had played a fundamental role, as recognized by many donors, in the relief efforts. Pact saw this as a great learning opportunity and conducted an assessment of the impact of the relief operations on the organization overall and specifically on its Myanmar Program in order to incorporate lessons learned and identify ways that this experience would fundamentally change the way it operates in the future. From this experience, Pact came to understand the importance of DRR as fundamental approach to development. Concurrently, Pact slowly began to rebuild its Microfinance Program in the Delta with careful coordination and consultation with communities in the most affected areas. A phased approach was taken to begin distributing loans in less affected areas where immediate asset recovery was possible. The next step was to expand back into more destroyed areas after vital needs for food security and shelter rehabilitation were met. Largely because communities felt that Pact stood with them during the worst days of the cyclone aftermath, Pact‟s client base significantly expanded in the two years following the cyclone. In the entire Delta region there has been a 33% growth from 102,766 clients in April of 2008 to 136,783 clients in June of 2010. Pact borrowers in the 3 most affected townships expanded by 55% from 50,483 clients to 78,711 clients in the same period.

4. DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AS AN INTEGRAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT Disaster Risk Reduction is the conceptual framework considered to minimize vulnerabilities to disaster throughout a society and to avoid (preparedness) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the impacts of hazards within the context of sustainable development. DRR is concerned with reducing the level of vulnerability and minimizing the disrupting effects of hazards by building the capacities of communities to address these concerns. DRR is a growing approach within the humanitarian field. It is a crossover discipline between humanitarian response and community development. Its foundational idea is that local communities that recognize potential disasters based on historical background can develop local strategies to minimize, as much as possible, the impact of future catastrophic events. It also provides training for the local community in post-disaster recovery. While international reaction to events like the recent earthquake in Haiti is quick, the response time

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of international teams to begin delivering aid, especially first aid, is hindered by the logistical challenges of getting to the victims in a timely manner. Communities trained to respond to the critical issues of first aid, psychological trauma and essential human needs can reduce the death toll as well as the number of people permanently handicapped either physically or psychologically. DRR focuses both on strengthening local physical infrastructure as well as capacity building for local populations. Infrastructure focus can include (but is not limited to) building structures that withstand potential (local) disasters such as levees and canals to reduce flooding, strengthening foliage on mountain sides to reduce landslides and improving evacuation routes for tsunamis and/or volcano eruptions. Capacity building efforts aim to strengthen the capacity of local communities in rendering first aid, post-disaster trauma identification, having sufficient supplies of food and water available, activities that mobilize disaster survivors to begin their own recovery, and developing social infrastructures such as community based DRR committees and networks which can be mobilized to respond before, during and after disasters. A significant benefit of placing DRR activities and capacity in the hands of potentially affected communities is that these local communities gain a sense of control over their lives and do not become passive recipients of relief goods and services. Devastating natural disasters completely strip affected populations of a sense of control over their lives. By being central to the process of initiating first level care, conducting a well-structured needs assessment before the first outside help arrives, playing an active role in the distribution of goods and supplies and participating in the provision of services, communities are able to restore a sense of control and initiate the healing process. By placing communities in an active and central role prior to, during and after a disaster, there is a greater potential that the response will be quick, appropriate and reach those in most need. DRR as a program component is steadily expanding from NGOs that execute both humanitarian response and community development into NGOs that are solely community development focused. As apparent in the need to write-off over $2.94 million dollars in loans and the dismantlement of years of community built assets in Nargis affected communities, Pact recognized that one significant disaster can set back years of community development. By integrating DRR as a part of the community development program, project losses can be reduced and activities restarted more quickly. It is also more cost effective. It is estimated that only 4% of the US$ 10 billion spent annually on humanitarian aid is devoted to DRR; however, for every dollar spent on DRR, US$5 to US$10 of economic loss is saved from disaster (Schwartz, 2006). Therefore, for a variety of good reasons, DRR is steadily becoming a critical component of Majority World (the new term for Third World) development.

5. SETTING UP A DRR PROGRAM Information and training are two of the most critical needs when mitigating the effects of a humanitarian disaster. The core of a DRR program involves training the local population in data and information collection and responding to needs quickly. The first critical step in DRR is actively knowing the community. In small rural communities, it might seem like people already know each other. However, NGOs conducting DRR training find the people

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they are training surprised at just how many important details about their community they are unaware of. Analyzing the history of previous disasters is important to know how to focus training. If an area is not mountainous, it would not make sense to develop projects that address landslides. Likewise, if the community is not close to the sea coast, tsunami awareness programs are not needed. It might be tempting in conducting a DRR analysis to downplay disasters that have been infrequent in the past. However, in this case, the Irrawaddy Delta had been affected by only two major cyclones in the previous 60 years of any magnitude even close to what happened in 2008. Analyzing history of disasters in a particular area and realizing if a significant disaster has occurred in the past can direct the content of a DRR initiative. In some cases, local populations are unaware of the history further augmenting the need to understand the history of disasters for a particular geographic area. Early warning is also critical in disaster mitigation. In Myanmar, once authorities began to realize that disaster was imminent, there was not sufficient time for the affected populations to move to safe locations. Given the breadth and depth, yet simplicity, of technology, it is possible to develop a simple, yet effective, early warning system if this is coupled with a network of communities who have been trained in DRR practices. Internet access to storm tracking, along with broadcast instant messaging, is a simple warning infrastructure. In the case of Myanmar, instant messaging is primarily restricted to phone centres which are limited throughout the Delta region. This demands a human infrastructure such as a DRR network to relay these important messages. Most microfinance institutions and programs have extensive human infrastructures and networks to be able to carry out the business of loans and savings to households. Therefore, in areas that do not have access to information technology, microfinance networks provide a conduit for early warning messaging. An effective DRR program identifies the most effect and appropriate ways to implement early warning systems. There are some very practical skills that DRR programs can provide to communities so they can play an active role in preparing for a response. For example, it is important to know what to do when a warning siren sounds. Do inhabitants need to leave the area? Do they need to move to open ground? Do they need to get into shelters? The nature of the response depends on the type of impending disaster. The review of disaster history for an area dictates what type of response is demanded. It also informs where emergency supplies need to be concentrated. These include food that resists damage, water, first aid supplies and tarps for shelter. Other supplies can be added as the community sees fit, but a minimum of a three day supply is needed. Other practical skills that communities can develop include rosters of who will be responsible for different recovery activities in case there is a disaster. Communities should know that each activity needs to have several people assigned and responses cannot be hijacked by village elite. It is probable that even with adequate preparations a disaster will take lives. Having only one individual assigned to direct a response puts the whole disaster response at risk if that leader is one of the casualties. Once the disaster has passed, response times are critical. Community members who are able to quickly carry out their assigned duties reduce the incidence of death and disability. Broken bones can be properly set, bleeding controlled, shock minimized and sensible first aid interventions enacted. Shelter teams can set up the needed structures to house families from the elements of sun, rain and excessive temperatures depending on the season. Supply teams

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can distribute blankets, food, water and other critical items which is part of the community planning process and should be readily stored and available. Trained team members can begin assessing the extent of the damage and organizing prioritized lists ready for outside aid agencies when they arrive. Communication teams can begin notifying families of survivors in order to reduce stress and worry. Team members trained in trauma awareness can begin working victims through initial exercise in order to minimize the post traumatic stress that accompanies these events. In summary, the community can begin organizing itself. While in the past relief agencies exhibited more of a top down approach to disaster services, DRR has inculcated a new approach which recognizes that communities can play a fundamental role in the disaster response for the pre, during and after phases. This helps to empower communities to develop appropriate responses, effective and efficient mechanisms and has the added local human capital element with the potential to save more lives with less cost.

6. PACT MYANMAR’S DRR PROGRAM In the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis, Pact reviewed its actions and program, looking to learn for the future. One recommendation was to add DRR as a component of its capacity building programs. While it is not possible to estimate if Pact Myanmar might have been able to reduce the amount of money it would have had to write off after Cyclone Nargis, it did recognize its position within the communities of the Irrawaddy gave it a strong platform to strengthen them against future disasters. Pact Myanmar identified cyclones, floods, fires and tsunamis as potential disasters. Fire was an excellent addition given the prevalence of wood as a building and cooking fuel material coupled with the close proximity of the houses in a village allowing fires to spread rapidly. A walk through villages in the region indicated that buckets of sand and long poles for beating down flames were the extent of the fire services. Pact Myanmar performed a complete environmental scan instead of just preparing for the next cyclone. Pact Myanmar‟s approach was to step back from Cyclone Nargis and approach the whole concept of DRR from a needs based position. It would have been easy for all involved to allow Cyclone Nargis to overtake the process. It was not totally possible to erase the Cyclone from the process, but Pact Myanmar began the process by defining what constituted a disaster in the eyes of the communities and built from there. Interestingly, while Delta communities recognized the need to prepare for another cyclone, they were equally concerned with preparing for other disasters such as floods and fires, signifying their ability to look into the future and not focus all attention on the destruction of the past. This approach which put community identified hazards and risks at the centre of the planning process provided the opportunity for Pact to implement a more comprehensive DRR approach. This is a good model for development programs that are considering adding DRR to their own strategies and programs. Based on DRR research, as well as its own expertise in local capacity building, Pact Myanmar developed a manual its facilitators use to guide a community through the DRR process. Central to their approach is presenting the DRR process to the local community and then facilitating as community leaders develop their own DRR strategy. Pact Myanmar

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exhibits a strong level of respect for the local ownership of the process. This is critical for the sustainability of DRR in a community. Outside agencies can bring in the training and concepts, but at some point the outside agency will depart and the community must own the process in order for it to sustainably meet their needs in the face of a disaster. Sustainable DRR is more than another development project. At its core, sustainable development requires a change in the beneficiaries‟ world view. Some changes are easy to affect; people are looking for an improved way to farm or help in running a more profitable business. However, learning to evaluate potential disasters and plan strategies that will mitigate their impact is not a skill set most communities in the developing world possess. Most developing world rural communities are focused, at most, on the current production season and addressing immediate livelihood, health and social needs. Asking them to plan for something that may or may not happen is not an easy assignment, especially as more often than not there exists an element of fate inherent in rural communities that supersedes a natural tendency towards planning for the future. Pact Myanmar‟s program walks a community through a four day process of learning to assert a measure of control in the outcomes of a natural disaster that may strike them. The program provides the tools necessary for the participants to gather the information needed themselves, thereby infusing local ownership from the start. The facilitator‟s guide lays out the process in an easy to follow, logical format that can be adapted to any type of potential disaster situation. The first day, the group reviews the nature of disasters and the DRR concept, reviews the concept of the early disaster warning kits provided by Pact as part of the process and leads the group through the election of a Village Disaster Management Committee (VDMC). From the first day, the village establishes its first social infrastructure that could play an important role in the disaster response continuum. The second day, the participants are guided through the process of identifying local hazards and vulnerabilities, creating an inventory of community capabilities and preparing a village map identifying resources and hazards. Day three is focused on action planning, distribution of early warning kits and preparing to present the committee and their work to the community. Day four the larger community is formally introduced to the VDMC, introduced to their work, shown the maps and made aware of the action plan. This begins to develop some accountability been the VDMC and the larger community. It also places the VDMC in a leadership role from the start. Special attention is paid to making sure children understand what is happening because they can often be the most vulnerable when it comes to disasters. For example, Pact Myanmar developed a colouring book that teaches children the concepts and ideas of DRR in an interactive way that encourages deeper family discussion and house-hold level planning for risk mitigation (Figure 3) . Pact Myanmar‟s focus on children is an important and unique component of their DRR initiative. Developed countries teach their children how to contact emergency services if necessary at an early age. In school, they are taught how to react according to the local disasters that may happen in their community. While developing world communities may not have emergency services children can contact, they can teach them what to do if they are not with their care givers as an emergency unfolds (e.g. Figure 4). They can be taught where to go, especially if they find themselves alone following a disaster. Older children can be taught simple first aid to help the injured. And, it must be remembered, parents may choose to put their children in a safe place they cannot access. Following the disaster, the child may be

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alone. Knowing the village post-disaster plan will help the child know where to find safety and provide the first steps in either being relocated with surviving parents and/or being registered for aid specific to children. Some of the core activities undertaken during the workshop are shown in figures 3-5.

Figure 3. Children enjoying reading basic DRR information in colouring books.

Figure 4. A swimming training for kids by VDMC as part of village DRR action plan.

Feedback from the workshops Pact Myanmar has delivered indicates a deep appreciation by the participants. They appreciate the facilitative approach Pact Myanmar takes in presenting the information and placing villagers in active leadership roles. They appreciate an approach that recognizes the participants are volunteers still needing to work their farms or businesses. They appreciate that at the end of the seminar, Pact Myanmar provided them with the information and tools that allow them to make their own decisions, elect their own people and choose their own courses of action.

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Figure 5. Pact staff handing over early warning kits to VDMC during mass meeting.

Another feature of Pact Myanmar‟s DRR facilitation is to offer disaster mitigation suggestions that are longer term. Disaster mitigation is more than immediate recovery. It is also about longer term rebuilding and restoring the community to a sense of normality. Suggestions in Pact‟s DRR initiative include looking at building savings accounts, storing crop seed in disaster resistant facilities and other strategies that would allow the community to be less reliant on outside intervention to begin the rebuilding process.

CONCLUSION Communities located in regions that border water are vulnerable to a variety of disasters that can threaten their very existence. Following a flood, hurricane or tsunami the follow-on costs of rebuilding may be untenable. Additionally, survivors may find it difficult to overcome acute trauma. DRR is an approach to reduce the impact of such events by teaching communities to prepare for and survive disasters and to take initiative in recovering from them. These activities are proving to be critical in community survival and recovery. It is also proving to be the most cost effective approach in terms of humanitarian responses. To date, DRR has primarily been pursued by humanitarian response agencies as a second wave response. However, given the importance of DRR in the sustainability of any development project, this article presents a case whereby a traditional development agency and financial services provider was able to transform its operations to provide a structure for quick and efficient relief delivery while simultaneously acting as a financial safety net to build a foundation for enhanced disaster response in the future. Through recognizing the importance of and integrating DRR into existing programming, Pact demonstrates that the DRR integration at the community level can be done economically and efficiently while also placing ownership for the response with the communities themselves. The integration of DRR into existing community based programs enhances community resilience and augments the sustainability of longer term program outcomes. This locally driven response provides the necessary human and physical infrastructure to reduce the loss

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of life, provide a more efficient response mechanism and present a more sustainable alternative than currently available to relief agencies who address immediate effects of a disaster. DRR should no longer be only the work of relief agencies but should be integrated into longer term development and financial services programs with a broader development agenda as demonstrated by Pact‟s work in Myanmar.

REFERENCES Bishop, D. 2009. Pact’s response to Cyclone Nargis, PACT-Inc. September 2009. Yangoon, Myanmar. Brichier C. 1983. J.S.A. Hydrological studies of the Irrawaddy Delta, Hydrology of Humid Tropical Regions with Particular Reference to the Hydrological Effects of Agriculture and Forestry Practice. In proceedings of the Hamburg Symposium, August 1983, IAHS Publ. no.140. Mya T. 2000. Changing faces of the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Delta (1850-2000), Institute of South East Asian Studies, Singapore, December 2000 Schwartz E. 2006. A needless toll of natural disasters, The Boston Globe Op-Ed, 23. The Informal Taskforce on Climate Change of the Inter-Agency Standing Committee and The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. 2008. Disaster Risk Reduction Strategies and Risk Management Practices: Critical Elements for Adaptation to Climate Change, UNFCCC Adhoc Working Group on Long Term Cooperative Action, 11 November 2008. Bonn Germany. United States Geographical Survey Web Site - http://earthquake.usgs.gov/ earthquakes /eqinthenews/2010/us2010rja6/#summary, accessed 23 March 2010.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT AGAINST MT. MERAPI VOLCANIC DISASTER Djoko Legono1, Darmanto, Teuku Faisal Fathani, Radianto Triatmadja, Joko Sujono, Rachmad Jayadi, Budi Kamulyan, and Sri Puji Saraswati Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia

ABSTRACT It is known that Mt. Merapi of Java, Indonesia, is an active volcano which erupts frequently and threats downstream residents lives and assets, due to either pyroclastic flow or debris flow phenomena. The frequent eruption of Mt. Merapi volcano which is approximated to occur once in 1 to 3 years (for small and medium eruption) and once in 9 to 16 years (for big eruption) should make the people, who live near by, worried on how they save their lives in emergencies. Although the government has already built various infrastructures (e.g. sabo, early warning system, etc.), community awareness and ownership in adapted systems seems to be an effective way to mitigate Mt. Merapi disaster. This situation is proven by the fact that the number of casualties of each eruption is still significant. One critical reason behind such losses is the low level of disaster awareness among community members. This chapter presents the experience on the development of community awareness against the Mt. Merapi disaster through the processes of understanding the community aspirations, capacities, locality (social, culture, and environment condition), followed by building the capacity of the community. The key activities under the community empowerment programme were the development of education material for the kindergarten school and the evacuation drills. Related studies to support and inspire the community empowerment program include the study on current public participation in disaster management as well as current disaster education program that has formally been applied in the area. Moreover, the process of the community empowerment involving the direct community participation is the feature to 1

Tel 62-274-519788, Email: [email protected].

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Djoko Legono, Darmanto, Teuku Faisal Fathani et al. be promoted as a lesson-learned for further development of the similar disaster mitigation activities.

Keywords: Volcano disaster, community empowerment, disaster education, evacuation drills, Mt. Merapi

1. BACKGROUND Through summarize of previous records on active volcano disaster in the world during 20th century, Mt. Merapi ranks in the top 10 for deaths, injuries and homelessness. Mt. Merapi eruption induced pyroclastic, tephra, laharic flow and flooding occurred with a cycle of 9 to 16 years for larger scale and 1 to 3 years for smaller scale flows (see Table 1). Most pyroclastic flows move down with a distance of 3 to 4 km from the summit, or even more than 7 km. Various efforts have been carried out by the government to build necessary countermeasures including development of sabo dams and other related forecasting and warning equipment. Apparently, the „end of the javelin‟, i.e. people who live at the nearby disaster prone area still have insufficient capacity to act proper actions when disaster takes place. Based on the facts that the number of casualties caused by Mt. Merapi disaster was relatively large throughout the history of eruption, efforts on its effective mitigation should be introduced and applied in to the practice. Such efforts include but not limited to the development of disaster education for young age population and evacuation drills for the community.

2. INSTITUTION AND COMMUNITY RELATED STUDIES In almost every eruption period, Mt. Merapi produces a large amount of sediment volume that may contribute damage along downstream area of the streams and surroundings. On the other hand, this large number of sediment becomes valuable resources as construction materials. The rock, stone, gravel, and sand, has become good building materials that attract many parties to be involved in utilizing such materials. However, the intensive sand mining activity has also created many environmental damages such as riverbed degradations followed by damage on infrastructures that have been built. In order to minimize the negative impacts, particularly to sustain the infrastructures such as bridges, roads, sabo facilities for protecting the hazards areas, a community-participation based study was conducted. The activities of the mentioned works were formulated and established in the “Study on the Institution and Community Development at Mt. Merapi Area”. Through a considerably reliable approximation technique, the average yearly production of sand mining in Mt. Merapi is given in Figure 1 (DGWRD, 2001 and other surveys). It can be calculated from Figure 1 that yearly average sand mining volume in Mt. Merapi area is approximately 3,550,000 m3 per year. The rapid decline in sand mining volume from 2001 until 2006 suggests that sand stock around Mt. Merapi was reducing due to mining activities whereas no eruption occurs. The availability of sand surrounding Mt. Merapi had been reduced due to mining activity. The balance between input (pyroclastic material) and output (sand mining production) is important to prevent environment degradation.

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Furthermore, the recommended value of sand mining production is about 2,000,000 m3 per year. Table 1. History of volcanic incidents in Mt. Merapi during the 20th Century Date 1904/01/30 1920/10/12 1930/12/18 1934/11/17 1943/04/01 1954/01/18

Phenomena causing impact Pyroclastic Pyroclastic Pyroclastic Pyroclastic Pyroclastic Pyroclastic

1956/01/03 1961/04/13 1962/10 1963/12 1969/01/07 1976/11/25 1984/06/13 1986/12/31 1994/11/22 1996/10/31 1997/01/17 1998/07/18 2006/06/17

Pyroclastic/Tephra Pyroclastic Secondary lahar/flooding Secondary lahar/flooding Primary lahar/pyroclastic Secondary lahar/flooding Pyroclastic Secondary lahar/flooding Primary lahar Tephra Tephra Tephra Pyroclastic

Killed Injured 16 35 1,369

45

64

57

6 2 3 29

Homeless

Affected (incl evacuees)

3,000 (3 villages) 1,000 (1 village) 13,000 (13 village) 100 (near valley)

Higher vills

1,000 (1 vills) 3,000 (3 villages) and 100 (20 homes) 75 1,000 6 8,000 (8 villages) 10,000 5 5,000 (5 vills) 15 (orphanage) 38,000 (790 homes) 38,000 1,000

1 64

500

6,026 >300

1 2

5 314 200

3,444 6,000 10,000

Total Affected 3,061 1,035 14,369 100 1,000 3,121 1,000 10,012 5,007 15 38,003 29 1,000 1 6,590 300 3,450 6,314 1,202

Figure 1. Sand mining volume at various years.

Based on several workshops on sand mining management, it was found that most of the stakeholders agree to involve the community participation in executing and in controlling the activity of sand mining. The idea on the development of community institutions was growing

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and it resulted in an opinion that village level may have such institution. The possible types/formats of the institution being considered by current national practices are; a) Government sector b) Government/semi-government enterprise c) Community-based Among of the above three types/formats; the community-based type was the most appropriate, which is able to accommodate community aspiration and perception. Finally, three community institutions at village level with three different legal statuses were established, and further development of these community institutions was focused on not only sand mining management but also those related to Mt. Merapi disaster management as well as other environment management. A relevant study on public participation in disaster management at village level showed that local people generally know very well about the Mt. Merapi disaster characteristics, but some knowledge regarding the countermeasures that have been introduced was still required. In order to develop the community institution, the local people also have a willingness to cooperate with any party from government and nongovernment sector through the established community institutions. It has to be realized that the sustainability of the community institutions may depend on various activities. Integration of those activities was therefore essential, and the continuous effort of empowerment was required.

3. DISASTER EDUCATION PROGRAM FOR KINDERGARTEN SCHOOL In almost all cases of the natural disaster occurrences, the number of casualties is generally larger at the area where the awareness of the surrounding people is low. Many efforts have been made to raise the community awareness against the natural disaster including in Mt. Merapi area, Yogyakarta. It is obvious that raising the awareness is a longterm, continuous, and tireless process, in which the understanding on the locality (capacity, behaviour, and other modalities) is significantly important. In order to understand the locality, an intensive and close communication among parties those in-charges of raising community awareness are necessary. A long-term study on the development of disaster education material regarding to the effort of community awareness raising on Mt. Merapi disaster, was conducted during 2008-2009. Eight kindergarten schools were selected as targets for the development of the early disaster education program. The process of selection was justified, taking into account the aspirations and perceptions of related stakeholders, i.e. education agency of local government level, kindergarten school teachers, kindergarten school association, as well as the students‟ parents. At the end of the development of disaster education material, an event called Merapi Festival was conducted. People from various levels (ages, related agencies, and parents) were gathered to know about the Merapi disaster. The approach as well as the material content and deliveries were found to be very effective.

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3.1. Development of Disaster Education Material Eight kindergarten schools were selected as targets for the study, and then the disaster education material was developed by taking into account the capacity of both teachers and children. The major issue related with teachers‟ capacity persists in the form of the necessity of teachers to understand the disaster phenomena. For this reason, initial capacity building program for kindergarten school teachers was carried out. It was not an easy task since most teachers did not have sufficient knowledge of Mt. Merapi disaster. The most important issue of the students‟ capacity is that majority of them cannot read at that level. It was realized that the disaster education material should comprise of familiarizing pictures and/or body language. Utilizing the above criteria, two main materials have been developed, i.e. the Guideline Book and the Worksheet. The main materials were provided with several supporting materials consisting of comic, storybook, and height scale. In addition, the adopted materials from Kyoto University, i.e. Bosai Duck and Bosai Dance, were also introduced to students.

3.1.1. Guideline Book and Worksheet There are 2 themes in the guideline book, namely 1) Disaster theme with 4 sub-themes (eruption, pyroclastic flow, flood, debris flow) and 2) Environment theme with 6 sub-themes (conservation, technical mitigation building, plant, social, livelihood, institution). The guideline book covers the definition of each sub-theme, the cause of each natural event (subtheme) and signs of natural disaster, the impact of disaster, how to avoid disaster, social problems, and disaster management organizations. After the disaster education guidebook was completed, the worksheet book was then created so that the target group can practice and develop their understanding on the Mt. Merapi disaster. Worksheet book is a compilation of illustrated tasks in the education book. The tasks are actually a type of learning tools. The tasks include drawing, colouring, completing maze, outing series pictures in the right order, etc. Figure 2 and 3 show the cover of the guideline book and the worksheet respectively. 3.1.2. Comic It is anticipated that kindergarten school children may utilize comic to understand the Mt. Merapi disaster. The students may understand the content through teacher explanation, or they may read through (for those who are able to read) by themselves. The contents of the comic include the followings (example is shown in Figure 4); a) b) c) d) e)

Typical of Mt. Merapi eruption Types of material expelled by Mt. Merapi Disaster early warning system The location, method and evacuation Understanding function of “sabo” works.

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Figure 2. Cover page of the guideline book.

Figure 3. Cover page of worksheet.

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Figure 4. Example of pictures from comic.

3.2. Merapi Festival It is well understood that public fiesta is a type of public campaign including raising awareness on a certain target including Mt. Merapi disaster. The above aforementioned understanding has inspired the necessity of conducting Merapi Festival. Hence, the Merapi Festival was conducted with the objective to promote disaster risk awareness. The theme of the Merapi Festival was “Living in Harmony with Risk of Merapi Disaster”. The content of promotion on disaster risk awareness covers the followings; a) improving public awareness on disaster risk management, b) transferring knowledge on mitigation and disaster prevention to the local community, c) developing a disaster management system through educational approach to minimize the negative impacts of Mt. Merapi disaster, d) strengthening local wisdom and culture related to Mt. Merapi, e) building sense of togetherness among the community in the disaster prone area. The expected outputs from these activities are; a) building community behaviour in reducing the risks of disaster in order to make the community has a better resilience against Mt. Merapi disaster, b) building community understanding in management of resources (sand, gravel, stone, rock, etc.), disaster mitigation, and related facilities (sabo structures, and early warning system), as a part of sustaining the water resources development and improving environment quality.

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Figure 5. Merapi festival.

4. EVACUATION DRILLS Mt. Merapi is an active volcano where the occurrence of the eruption is very frequent and produces significant disaster. As a part of disaster mitigation program, evacuation drills become very important not only for raising the community awareness, but also for increasing the community resilience against Mt. Merapi disaster. Various stakeholders from related governmental agencies in Yogyakarta and Central Java Provinces and private sectors, introduced several drills at certain levels, mostly above the village levels. However, there are a very few evacuation drill programs being conducted at the lower levels, in which community should conduct the first action when the disaster occurs. A self community-based evacuation drills has been developed at four sub-villages at Mt. Merapi area. The selection process of the four sub-villages as a model area was done based on long-term approach to accommodate community participation, so that the sustainability of the self evacuation drills program can be achieved. Three levels of alert currently recognized by the local community are utilized to develop the program, including process of selecting the small group in charge in developing standard operating procedures, evacuation map, poster, and disaster preparedness organization. Method of self-evacuation drills development, implementation, and its evaluation are best practices that are being lesson learned which further contribute recommendations for raising community awareness, preparedness, and resilience against Mt. Merapi disaster. Moreover, a replication of similar community–based evacuation drills program is highly recommended. The evacuation drill development was focused on four main activities i.e. (1) review the existing evacuation drill programs and its standard operating procedure (SOP); (2) select the targeted village or sub-village, as well as the possible parties involved; (3) develop and

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disseminate the evacuation drill materials (SOP, Evacuation Map, Poster); and (4) develop the community-based evacuation drill organization, its implementation and evaluation. Four sub-villages have been selected as the targets of the evacuation drill development program, i.e. sub-villages of Jamburejo, Takeran, Kalitengah Lor, and Kalitengah Kidul. According to the observation, the previous evacuation drills program were mostly training of trainers (TOT), only few people involved in the program. The existing standard operating procedure (SOP) stated that government in regency level has responsibility to conduct evacuation up to the village level, whereas responsibility of evacuation from each house to temporary evacuation shelter (TPS=Tempat Pengungsian Sementara) is managed by village government. Therefore, there is a necessity to develop an evacuation drill program at the subvillage level. The program is aimed at the following objectives; a) provide a complementary evacuation drill program at sub-village level, b) introduce community-based approach in evacuation drill program at sub-village level, c) establish the standard operating procedure, evacuation map, poster, and a community organization at sub-village level.

Figure 6. Community participation in the development of evacuation map.

The selection of four sub-villages as targets of the evacuation drill development was carried out by considering the following aspects; (1) Sub-villages are located at the hazard zone area and (2) the local community has a intention to have better capacity in anticipating Mt. Merapi disaster. The development of the evacuation drill materials (SOP, evacuation map, and evacuation poster) was carried out by considering the community aspirations. Such aspirations include the differentiation of evacuation drill based on the three alert levels, i.e.; Waspada (Steady), Siaga (Ready), and Awas (Evacuate). In the implementation stage, these three levels of alert status were conducted in separate times. The main activities of the evacuation drill in Waspada level are; (1) coordination people in charge (PIC), (2) information dissemination and (3) data updating. Accordingly, the main activities in Siaga level is data updating and evacuation of vulnerable group. Furthermore, disaster mitigation

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games were introduced to vulnerable group upon their stay in the TPS. In Awas level, all potential groups should be evacuated to TPS. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the community participation in the development evacuation map and implementation of evacuation drill respectively, whereas Figure 8 shows a product i.e. an evacuation map of Jamburejo Subvillage.

Figure 7. Implementation of evacuation drill.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION The following are the key findings and recommendations from the study, which may help further develop similar community-based natural disaster management. 1) Through long-term (2007-2009) approach of identifying community aspiration and locality (socio-culture-environment), three community institutions were established. 2) Community institutions are supposed to accommodate the activities related to not only sand mining activity, but also activities other then sand mining (e.g. agriculture, tourism, as well as disaster management). 3) The sustainability of the community institutions depends on not only the human resources but also the other logistics (office utilities, legal status, budget, etc). 4) The kindergarten school children are the key factor on the success of disaster knowledge transfer. This may also involve in availing appropriate disaster education materials and building the capacity of the related teachers. 5) It is recommended that the community-based approach on the disaster management development should consider the local socio-culture-environment condition, which might be different from one to another.

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Figure 8. Evacuation map of Jamburejo.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to express profound gratitude to the Directorate General of Water Resources Development, Ministry of Public Works, Government of Indonesia through Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd. who have provided the chance to carry out the Study on Institution and Community Development Project at Mt. Merapi area, and last but not the least, to the local people of Kemiren Village, Kepuharjo Village, and Sindumartani Village, for the helpful and cooperative action during the entire project implementation.

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REFERENCES Directorate General of Water Resources Development, Ministry of Public Works, Government of Indonesia-DGWRD. 2009. Study on the Institution and Community Development at Mt. Merapi Area, Final Report. Directorate General of Water Resources Development, Ministry of Public Works, Government of Indonesia-DGWRD. 2001. Review Master Plan Study of Mt. Merapi, Final Report. Fathani T.F., Karnawati, D. 2009. Early warning of landslide for disaster risk reduction in central Java Indonesia. In proceeding of the International Workshop on Early Warning for Landslide Disaster Risk Reduction in the Eastern Asian Region, Kunming, China, December 1-5, 2009. Legono D. 2005. Important issues on sediment-related disaster management in Indonesia. In proceeding of the International Symposium on Fluvial and Coastal Disaster, Kyoto University, Japan December 1-2, 2005. Legono D., Rahardjo A.P., Fathani T.F., Prabowo I. 2008. Development of community-based early warning system against debris flow at Mt. Merapi, Indonesia. In proceeding of the First World Landslide Forum, Tokyo, Japan, November 18-21, 2008.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN VIETNAM

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Huy Nguyen1,*, Hoang Minh Hien2, Rajib Shaw1, and Tong Thi My Thi3

Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Japan Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan 2 Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Vietnam, 02 Ngoc Ha, Hanoi, Vietnam 3 Hue University, Vietnam, 102 Phung Hung, Hue City, Vietnam

ABSTRACT This chapter provides the information about the status of activities of Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) in Vietnam and case studies that was the success measures on disaster management. The Natural Disaster Risk Management Project (NDRMP) adopts an innovative approach to disaster risk management in Vietnam and provides support for disaster prevention and mitigation measures at all levels of government, including at community level where vulnerability prevails. The CBDRM is one component of the NDRMP which aims at strengthening the capacity of villages and communes. It also aims at the disaster management institutions to become more responsive to the short term and longer term needs of the vulnerable communities through participatory risk assessment and identification, prioritization and implementation of risk reduction measures. The project intends to help communes implement activities that deal with natural hazards through capacity building in participatory planning and management. Safer village and commune plans that focus on long term intervention and preparedness measures were developed. The project has been building on existing community based disaster management and risk reduction models, and found empower flood prone communes to prevent and reduce the impact of disasters and secure and protect their livelihoods. The CBDRM activities directly support government efforts for sustainable development by helping reduce human, economic, and financial losses from disasters caused by nature in the target communes. In this chapter, the roles of the local communities, community facilitators, provincial level and central *

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Huy Nguyen, Hoang Minh Hien, Rajib Shaw et al. level were defined; this chapter also described how the CBDRM approach could be used to build the capacity of the most vulnerable populations to carry out risk mitigation measures at all levels.

Keywords: Community based disaster management, “Four on-the-spot motto”, Vietnam

1. INTRODUCTION The location and topography of Viet Nam make it one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world, suffering from typhoons, tropical storms, floods, drought, seawater intrusions, landslides and forest fires (World Bank, 2009). Of these, the most damaging and frequent are typhoons, tropical storms and floods. The northern and central regions are affected on average, annually by 6-8 typhoon or tropical storms from the South China Sea; they also occur in the southern areas but less frequently. As evidenced from disaster impacts, local community is directly affected and they are the most vulnerable to disasters. The worst sufferers of the disaster impacts are the communities and people in the rural areas. Thus, to reduce the disaster impact or to adapt with it, the first and foremost is livelihood security. Local community, themselves have a huge hidden capacity which is need to be utilized; i.e. a large number of people, they have their own traditional knowledge, they have their own connection, association in the social life and it would be a great social capital for disaster management (Nguyen, et al., 2009). Growing evidences prove that top-down approaches do not work. Top-down approaches fail to meet needs of vulnerable communities, ignore the potential of local resources and may even increase people‟s vulnerabilities. Vulnerable people themselves must be at the heart of decision making when it comes to planning and implementing disaster risk management measures. Therefore, arousing up the role of local community is a need for disaster management process (Shaw, 2006). The Natural Disaster Risk Management Project (NDRMP) adopts an innovative approach to disaster risk management in Vietnam and provides support for disaster prevention and mitigation measures at all levels of government, including at community level where vulnerability is most significant. NDRMP aims to reduce the impact of natural hazards on Vietnam's development process, and Community Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) is one of components of this project. This chapter is to provide the information about the status of CBDRM in Vietnam.

2. GEOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING OF VIETNAM Vietnam is stretch of land stretching along Indochinese peninsula which is located in South-east Asia. Vietnam‟s mainland stretches from 23023‟ to 08002‟ North latitude and widens from 102008‟ to 109028‟ East longitude. Length counted in straight line from North to South stays at about 1,650km. Entire territory of Vietnam includes 331,112 km2 of mainland and 1 million square kilometers of territorial sea. Vietnam‟s climate is generally hot and humid. In central and southern Vietnam, seasonal variations are slight and marked only by a dry and a wet period. Along the central coast, temperatures range from 18 to 280C in January

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and from 24 to 370C in July (Reduan I., 2004). In general, rainfall is plentiful throughout the country, although most precipitation in southern and central Vietnam occurs during the summer months when monsoon winds sweep in from the sea. The Mekong Delta has the longest rainy season, typically lasting from May to October. Central Vietnam receives heavy precipitation from September to December. The average annual rainfall is about 1680 mm in the Red River Delta, 1650 mm along the central coast, and 1980 mm in the Mekong Delta. Spread over an area of about 331,112 sq. km Vietnam has a population of 85,789,573 people, according to the Census at 1st of April 2009 and has a rapid population growth, with an average annual growth rate of 2.23 %. Viet Nam is in a process of rapid social and economic change. However, challenges to an equitable and just development still remain. The gap between the very rich and the very poor is increasing, especially between rural and urban populations. To counteract this, the Vietnamese Government has stressed the importance of an inclusive agenda in its Social Economic Development plan.

3. DISASTER RISK AND DISASTER IMPACTS The location and topography of Viet Nam make it one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. The country‟s terrain is diverse, with a distribution of mountains, rivers, highlands, deltas, coastlines, peninsulas, and islands (Table 1). Mountains and highlands account for three-fourths of its total land area, and are dispersed throughout the country within a dense network of rivers and canals. It has seven river deltas which make up one-fourth of the total area: Red River Delta, Central Delta, South East Delta, and Mekong River Delta. Table 1. Vietnam’s disaster frequency (MARD, 2009) High Flood Typhoon Inundation

Medium Tornado Drought Landslide Flash flood Fire

Low Earthquake Accident (technology) Frost Damaging cold Deforestation

The very diversity of Viet Nam‟s land and water areas makes it vulnerable to natural disasters such as typhoons, tropical storms, floods, inundation, drought, desertification, salt penetration, landslides, and earthquakes. Floods and storms are the most common natural disasters, as they occur frequently and cause considerable damages to lives and properties. In recent years, Viet Nam experienced an upsurge and intensity of these natural disasters. The country has suffered heavy human, economic, and infrastructure losses from the onslaught of floods, typhoons, and droughts, among others. It was estimated that from 1995 to 2006, the total estimated loss from storms, floods, and drought was at VND 61,479 billion (around USD 3,236,000,000), not to mention massive loss of lives, infrastructures, and livelihoods.

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Typhoons and floods are the most frequent and most devastating of these hazards. The storm season is from May to December. In most years, storms hit the Northern part of Vietnam from May through June then move gradually South from July to December. Typhoons and floods often cause a heavy loss of life and damage to infrastructure and economic activity because of the concentration of population along the coastline and in low lying deltas, particularly of the Mekong and Red rivers. In recent years, disasters have continually occurred all over the country, causing vast losses in human life, property, socio-economic and cultural infrastructure as well as environmental degradation. In the recent decade (1999-2008), natural disasters such as typhoons, floods and droughts have caused significant losses, including 7500 missing and dead people, and asset damage equivalent to 1.5% of GDP. Natural disasters in Vietnam have been increasingly severe in terms of magnitude, frequency and volatility. Table 2 provides some evident data on that. Dangers to the population have increased with the spread of economic activity and development into marginally suitable areas such as floodplains, coastal swamps, drainage channels or other natural buffers. The result is that most of Vietnam's people with the number of around 18 million people now live in low-lying river basins and coastal areas, so they are exposed to risks from multiple natural hazards (Nguyen et al, 2010). Table 2. Recent damages of disasters in Vietnam, 1999-2008 (source: MARD, 2009) Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Economic lost (USD) 301,507,709 283,242,833 337,022,200 130,558,533 105,981,867 105,981,867 372,393,173 1,190,106,460 115,139,160 806,118,736

Number of People Dead 825 762 604 355 180 174 377 339 462 474

4. COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT IN VIETNAM 4.1. Current Status of CBDRM in Vietnam Community based disaster risk management projects and programmes have been implemented in Vietnam from early 2000. Most of these programmes/projects are funded by international donors and are implemented through local nongovernment organizations in Vietnam. Local authorities serve as co-operating agencies to implement these projects/programmes. The CBDRM aims to strengthen the capacity of villages and communes and the disaster management institutions to become more responsive to the short and longer term needs of the most vulnerable villages through participatory risk assessment and

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identification, prioritization and implementation of risk reduction measures. The projects intend to help communes implement activities that deal with natural hazards through capacity development in participatory planning and management. Safer village and commune plans that focus on long term intervention and preparedness measures are planned to be developed. Projects funded by foreign donors have combined non-structural and structural measure (small structures), to enhance the project‟s sustainability. Moreover, projects funded by the Government are structural projects, most of which are big projects that focus on flood mitigation. Community-based disaster risk management activities were carried out in Thua Thien Hue and Quang Tri provinces since 2001. These two projects were conducted by the Centre for International Studies and Cooperation (CECI) and World Vision. Since then, community capacity building for better natural disaster preparedness has attracted the attention of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). In 2003, a total of nine provinces had their CBDRM activities. These were Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Da Nang, Quang Ngai, Binh Dinh, Ninh Thuan, and Binh Thuan. Until 2007, there are 23 out of 64 provinces/cities that have some level of CBDRM activities. These include Thanh Hoa, Yen Bai, Nghe An, Ha Tinh, Quang Binh, Ninh Thuan, Binh Thuan, Son La, Ha Giang, Thua Thien Hue, Lao Cai, Kon Tum, Da Nang, Binh Dinh, Quang Ninh, Hai Phong, Thai Binh, Nam Dinh, Ninh Binh, Tien Giang, Quang Ngai, and Ben Tre. A total of 17 international and local non-government organizations have implemented or are currently implementing CBDRM related projects/programmes in 23 provinces (Partnerships for Disaster Reduction-South East Asia, 2008). These are World Vision, Netherlands Red Cross, Spanish Red Cross, Development Workshop France, Care International in Viet Nam, Centre for International Studies and Cooperation (CECI), Save the Children Alliance, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), Church World Services, Australian Aid (AusAid), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World Bank, Deutche Gesselschaft fur Technische Zusammeinarbeit (GTZ), ActionAid, Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC), and Oxfam.

(Source: Partnerships for Disaster Reduction-South East Asia, 2008). Figure 1. Implementation arrangement.

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Most CBDRM activities are directly implemented through the local Committee for flood and storm control and search and rescue, or the local people‟s committee with the participation of local residents (Figure 1). CBDRM activities include capacity building for natural disaster preparedness and community planning combined with structural measures (small structures). The budget for capacity building component accounts for 70% of project budget, and 30% for structural measures. Normally, the average budget for CBDRM projects is around USD 200,000 to 300,000. Other CBDRM projects have an implementation budget of about USD 800,000. A part of this budget is directly transferred to local authorities for management and monitoring. CBDRM projects/programmes focus on water-induced disasters while there were only one or two projects on flash flood and drought. Most are implemented in the Northern, Central, and Southern provinces. Of these, only two projects have been implemented in the Central Highlands provinces. These projects deal with building the resilience of communities to recurrent natural hazards, particularly flash floods, in the upland areas of Viet Nam.

4.2. Policy and Institutional of CBDRM in Vietnam It is recognized that “CBDRM” is new in terms of “terminology” but in practice, this approach has been employed at different levels and in distinctive areas in Vietnam. Deeper research clearly showed that there are common factors between meaning, objective of CBDRM and meaning, objectives, policies and fundamental principles of Vietnamese Government. That is “relying on the people and mainly implemented by the people”, fostering grassroots democracy through implementation of “grassroots democracy regulation”, principles of “Publicize and socialize flood storm control and disaster mitigation” and “4 on-site motto”, “sharing resources and collaborative implementation” such as cofunding by Central government and locality in construction of disaster management infrastructures, laid out legal basis for local institutions “participate in monitoring the construction of disaster management works”, encourage the adoption of “measures and newtechnology solutions”. In this view, there has been both “top-down” and “bottom-up” approaches but at different levels. Some cases are still keen on top-down approach as a result of the centralized planning mechanism in the past years that not only partly obstacle but also need the more time for fully applying the CBDRM approach in some case. However, those principles and mottos have strengthened the responsibility of relevant stakeholders. On the other hand, those have mobilized traditional experience, resources and partly ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of disaster management activities. Government agencies from central to local levels have recognized and positively assessed CBDRM as an effective approach. This has been reflected in disaster management policies, strategies and local authorities have encouraged and created favorable conditions for international and non-governmental organizations in collaboration with local government and technical institutions to implement CBDRM projects in various regions of the country. In 2007, with support of Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), CCFSC had collaborated with MARD to develop criteria of emulation and awarding mechanism in flood storm control and disaster mitigation, in which there is an awarding scheme for organizations and individual

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with exceptional practices in CBDRM. This is an indication of encouraging CBDRM adoption in Vietnam. Vietnamese Government also confirmed that disaster management strategies should be mainstreamed in socio-economic development process so as to reduce the risks of development setback, environmental pollution, breach of ecosystem balance and escalate disaster risks (GSRV, 2009). Recent programs and policies indicated that there has been a combination of multi-purposes in some disaster mitigation activities and socio-economic development. Some typical examples are: improving the surface of river and sea dykes as road; construct drainage for irrigation combined with aquaculture production, evacuation to new residential areas linking with promotion of livelihood and flash flood safety; safe harbors for boats, etc. International and non-governmental organizations have been putting joint efforts to support and promote disaster risk reduction activities. In which, CBDRM has been adopted in different forms and at various levels, from mobilization and policy propaganda to support specific programs and projects for disaster preparedness, as well as develop into good CBDRM models for further replication in Vietnam. Specific CBDRM interventions and initial 16 good practice examples have been selected from disaster vulnerable areas in various regions of Vietnam, e.g. in mountainous areas prone to flash flood and land slide, in coastal areas of the Centre prone to typhoons, sea level rise, salty intrusion, river flood, drought and Me Kong River Delta prone to prolonged flood and inundation. Also, there are many other practices applying participatory approach but have not been documented are strong evidence for great support by international and NGO organizations relating to CBDRM in Vietnam. In a broader context (including both direct interventions and researches) which has direct or indirect link to disaster risk management, community-based concepts and approaches have been initiated and implemented in a number of pilot projects, in which international organizations have worked together with sectors and localities such as “Community Based Environment Management”, “Community Based Agricultural Extension in mountainous districts”, “Participatory Capacity Building for Water Resources Management”, “Community Based Aquaculture Product Management”, “Community- Based Healthcare Development”, “Pilot Community Based Children Protection Network”, etc.

4.3. The Role of the Local Authorities The local authorities play a crucial role throughout the implementation of the project‟ activities - from providing support to supervising project deployment. With assistance from local authorities, the project has been successfully implemented. As chief representative and administrative agency of the community, the local of the geography and administrative procedures of disaster-prone areas in the most vulnerable areas in their locality, they also act as links between the programmes and the vulnerable groups. The local authorities are a determinant of the project‟s sustainability. They are solely responsible for a project‟s maintenance and improvement. Hesitation and failure of local authorities to work with the project may render the project unstable. Therefore, active consensus building and support from the local authority is necessary. Local authorities also take part in project activities, with their participation most visible at Steering Committees for Flood and Storm Control from the central to the local level, People‟s

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Committees at all levels, Education Department, Women Association, and in the Red Cross Society System.

4.4. The Gap in the Needs of the Communities and CBDRM Practitioner’s Organizations Local communities want to improve their knowledge, update their information, and get the attention and support of local bodies and relevant projects/programs. They also want to take part in and benefit from the projects. As stakeholders, they have the right and responsibility to protect structures built from the projects. With their increased awareness and knowledge of disasters, they become better able to prepare for disasters in the long term. Organizations carrying out CBDRM activities, on the other hand, expect a better system that will facilitate better coordination from central to local levels. It is idea that project period be conducted between 2.5 to 4 years so that project activities can be developed thoroughly, and to allow more time for training and practice as well as for impact assessment can be longer. Lessons learned will help improve succeeding CBDRM projects. Moreover, CBDRM policies should be developed to support the implementation of local projects. Projects should also address practical concerns of beneficiaries. Because it is difficult for them to earn a living, the poor do not have much time to take part in project activities. The capacity of local authorities and officers of communities and hamlets are also limited and may not meet the requirements of project activities and the residents. The projects have been implemented in the framework of the action plans approved by the donors. This does not address the various needs of the community. There is no real volunteer system in the community. Most of the people who participate in the projects are local officers with official duties; therefore, they could not spend much time on project activities. Time and human resource constraints have made it difficult for the projects to fully implement all their identified activities and desired outcomes. Communication and coordination of efforts between implementing units of the government were also identified to be weak. While disaster risks have often been addressed by the vertical professional system, focus has been on disaster response rather than on preparedness. In some circumstances, disaster management has been considered as the responsibility of the Flood and Storm Control organizations only. In many areas, it is believed that disaster risk mitigation/management belongs to the projects; therefore, it depends mostly on external resources rather than on the internal capacity of the localities (Nguyen et al, 2009). The success of the projects largely depends on the capacity of local Red Cross organizations, local authorities, and other relevant stakeholders. The Red Cross organizations take part in building the capacity of local officers and residents. The training curriculum is rigid and inflexible, and training documents are not regularly updated. The organizations implementing CBDRM projects, at the end of each phase, carried out assessments and discovered lessons learned. These, however, could not be put well into practice in the overall management system. It is difficult to replicate the project models in other regions because of limited human and financial resources for CBDRM. The commitment of local leaders to replicate has not been very high. On institutional issues,

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organizations lack specialization in other kinds of disasters in Vietnam. This leaves floods and storms as the only disasters that are being addressed in response and preparedness, with the Central Committee for Flood and Storm Control taking responsibility for these two disasters. It is feared that the onslaught of a disaster other than floods and storms leave local authorities without any plan or response preparation.

4.5. Measures to Increase the Institutionalization of CDBRM in Vietnam There is a need to work closely with local authorities at all levels for CBDRM initiatives to be given priority in all activities. CBDRM has been included in the National Strategy for Disaster Prevention, Response and Mitigation that was approved by the Viet Nam Government in November 2007. As stipulated in the Strategy, concrete plans must be developed for the implementation of CBDRM activities. The institutionalization of CBDRM is a long process, involves time lags, and requires efforts to be made by parties concerned. To increase CBDRM institutionalization, among the primary conditions required is the recognition of the necessity and importance of CBDRM by decision-makers (both those developing and enforcing laws) at all localities and in all sectors. Promoting CBDRM as well as other disaster mitigation programs/projects must be supplemented by effective manpower, technical support, constant follow-up, and supervision. It is also necessary to strengthen regulating activities among sectors at central and local levels, including the governance system and project administration committees appointed by the government. There is a need to strike a balance between the authority and responsibility of involved parties (government and non-government organizations). • • • •

• •

•

Develop plans for the implementation of medium- and long term CBDRM programs/projects in areas highly prone to disasters. Establish good practices that pose possibility to be widely replicated in those areas. Prepare materials/documentary on those good practices to propagate to the general public. Strengthen the capacity of Committees for Flood and Storm Control at all levels to facilitate the regulation of resources for disaster management and, at the same time, for the expansion of disaster reduction activities. Mapping organizations active in CBDRM will further ease the operations of these organizations. In addition, it must be consulted with the line authorities to attain consensus and receive support for CBDRM. It is important to have the Government‟s assistance so as to ensure an appropriate regulation of CBDRM institutionalization. Compile instructions on CBDRM for the implementing organization and establish policies to promote CBDRM activities. Contact the national and local authorities: CBDRM cannot be implemented with a mere reliance on the community and commitment of support by leaders at all levels is needed for successful implementation. Measures and approaches to CBDRM are clearly stipulated in the National Strategy and are geared for implementation, leading the establishment of a linkage among activities at national and local levels.

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Institutionalization of CBDRM is essential to ensuring sustainability. The process encompasses the establishment of good institutions, policies, and organizational and managerial activities, as well as encouragement of communities‟ involvement in disaster management. Government sectors and divisions establish a system of disaster management and development plans in light of their regional disaster characteristics, the vulnerability, and community capacity; create a link to other policies set by and on-going activities carried out by other sectors. Finally, the institutionalization shall be viewed as an integral part of the on-going development process, consistent with the requirement of current and future generations.

5. CASE STUDIES ON CBDRM IN VIETNAM The CBDRM activities in Vietnam have been contributing to effective disaster mitigation and focusing on the major work such as raising awareness, planning village safety for local people to response by their own, providing effective measures in order to reduce loss of life and property. The special new in CBDRM program is local people themselves plan and give out solutions and thus unify the authorities from central to local levels in the work of disaster mitigation. The key principle for mitigation activities has been highlighted by government is the participation of local people from the beginning to the end.

5.1. Four on-the-Spot Motto in Ha Tinh Province Ha Tinh is one of the Central provinces which witnessed a severe climate in past decades with a number of serious weather related disasters which includes tropical storms, dry hot westerly winds, droughts, heavy rains and flash floods. Impacts of climate change and disasters in Ha Tinh are notable in all sectors including water availability, agricultural productivity, aquatic productivity, forestry, industrial development, transportation resources out of which the most noticeable is likely to be the negative impacts on agricultural, forestry and aquatic production as it would adversely affect the livelihood of the communities. The CBDRM has been implemented in Ha Tinh Province from 2002 by local government with the support from NGOs (Oxfam Hong Kong, Red Cross, etc.) Under the framework of National Target Program to Response to Climate change in Viet Nam, Ha Tinh has built and implemented many policies and measures in term of CBDRM. Especially, the local government has highlighted the importance of improving community awareness and individual knowledge on climate change so that each member in social community can create their own solutions to response to disaster from their experience. The “Four on-the-spot motto” is one of success measures on coping with disasters in this area (JANI, 2010). The “Four on-the-spot motto” used for natural disaster management generally means: Each household or locality should prepare all essential items to prevent or respond to natural disasters, which may occur at the locality at any time. The prepared items should meet the emergence relief demands of the household or its locality, and ensure they are ready to provide support to other households or other localities before external forces are asked to provide support (ADPC and MRC, 2007)

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The four on-the-spot motto was included in the legal documents issued by the Government. It states clearly that in areas where natural disasters occur frequently, People‟s Committees should “organize training and simulation exercises for agencies directly engaging in flood and storm prevention and rescue; develop preparedness plans, and mobilize all local resources under the motto “four on-the-spot: leadership on-the-spot, forces on the- spot, means and materials on-the-spot, and logistics on-the-spot,” in order to teach them to respond to the consequences of floods and storms, and promote rehabilitation.

5.2. Story from Huong Khe District, Ha Tinh Province The Phuong My commune is considered as navel of flood in Huong Khe districts, Ha Tinh Province. The commune population has more than 600 households, with about 3300 inhabitants – most rely on agriculture. Frequently facing to many floods and typhoons each year, the local government has attached great importance to the disaster preparedness. Since 2002, The Oxfam Hong Kong has been supporting three programs aimed at improving life standard, raising awareness on community based disaster risk mitigation and emergency assistance. Besides The four on-the-spot motto, local government also proposed two more onthe-spot measures, which are first aid on-the-spot and self-management on-the-spot. In addition, the early warning system and information network are considerably strengthened at commune and village level. As a result, the amount of death and missing substantially reduced; especially no one died or missed during the flood season of 2007. Vu Quang is another commune in Huong Khe District, where also got the benefit from CBDRM program. The good early warning system saved thousands of people during the flood occurred in 2007 because people know the flood in advance, then there was enough time for them to manage their facilitation and prepare safe shelters, thus reduced the damage significantly.

5.3. Story from Cam Xuyen District, Ha Tinh Province With 18 km coastline and 48 km sea river dikes, interference of three rivers and lake systems, dams, slots, Cam Xuyen is considered as “the navel” of natural disaster. From 2007, Cam Xuyen has been facing many severe storms and floods. The total damage caused by typhoon No. 9 and the tornado in 2009 is VND10 billion VND. According to the forecast, the weather will change complexly, and the disaster will increase both intensity and frequency. In 2010, the temperature in Cam Xuyen at the beginning of March was up to 400C, together with heat waves and the northeast monsoon phenomenon. Abnormal climate changes suddenly from hot to cold caused heavy rains accompanied with cyclones and typhoons. Most recently, the cyclone occurred in April 2010 caused many houses un-roofs and damaged large areas of rice crops and winter-spring crops. Located in such a vulnerable region, the local government of Cam Xuyen district has established many CBDRM projects and concentrated all forces to the flood and storm prevention and rescue. In Cam Xuyen district, there are four flood and storm prevention groups was established with the participants from community. The main objectives of these groups are to help local people to prepare human resources, facilities, food and funds; to approve the plans for flood and storm prevention and to monitor

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the development of typhoons/floods. Besides, each group has responsible for an important construction of the district, and cooperates with local government to timely response to disasters. While these four groups have to finish all the needed preparation before the flood and storm season, the local government has responsible for inspection and evaluation the quality of constructions and important projects in order to timely recover the problems. In addition, the local government has implemented the “Four on-the-spot motto” and many other programs to promote propaganda and disseminate disaster knowledge and action plans to local people. For that reason, the CBDRM are considered as urgent tasks for the flood and storm prevention in Cam Xuyen district to reduce the loss from disasters.

(photo source: vovmews.vn). Figure 2. Task force on-the-spot is helping the victim of flood.

CONCLUSION CBDRM is new in terms of “terminology” but in practice, this approach has been employed at different levels and in distinctive areas in Vietnam through many generations. The meaning and objectives of CBDRM are well reflected in policies and fundamental principles of Vietnamese Government. That is “relying on the people and mainly implemented by the people”, fostering grassroots democracy through implementation of “grassroots democracy regulation”, principles of “publicize and socialize flood storm control and disaster mitigation” and “4 on-spot motto”, “sharing resources and collaborative implementation” such as co-funding by central government and locality in construction of disaster management infrastructures, laid out legal basis for local institutions “participate in monitoring the construction of disaster management works”, encourage the adoption of “measures and new-technology solutions” (GSRV, 2009; JANI, 2010). There have been the “bottom-up” approaches at different levels of CBDRM but in some cases are still keen on top-down approach as a result of the centralized planning mechanism in the past years that not only partly obstacle but also need the more time for fully applying the CBDRM approach. However, those principles and mottos have strengthened the responsibility of relevant stakeholders. On the other hand, those have mobilized traditional

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experience, resources and partly ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of disaster management activities.

REFERENCES ADPC and MRC. 2007. Raising the awareness of the community in flood risk reduction in Vietnam. In: Flood emergency management strengthening – component 4 of the MRC, Flood Management and Mitigation Program, Mekong River Commission. Vientiane, Lao PDR. GSRV-Government of Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 2009. Vietnam national progress report on the implementation of the Hyogo Framework for Action, Hanoi, Vietnam. GSRV-Government of Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 2009. National plan implementation for the National strategy on National disaster prevention, response and mitigation to 2020. GSRV. Hanoi. JANI-The Joint Advocacy Network Initiative, 2010. Four on-the-spot motto in disaster management. JANI. Vietnam. MARD-Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Development. 2009. Disaster impacts in Vietnam. A summary report at the National forum on DRR and CCA. October, 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam. Nguyen H., Shaw R. 2009. Water Resource Management, Climate Change and Indigenous Knowledge. In Indigenous Knowledge and Disaster Risk Reduction: From Practice to Policy Edited by: Shaw, R., Anshu, S., and Yukiko T., Publisher: NOVA Publisher, USA. Nguyen H., Shaw R. 2010. Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction in Vietnam, A book chapter in Climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction, Edited by: Rajib Shaw, Juan Pulhin and Joy Pereira Publisher: Emerald, UK Partnerships for Disaster Reduction-South East Asia. 2008. Monitoring and reporting progress on community-based disaster risk management in Vietnam. Partnerships for Disaster Reduction-South East Asia. Vietnam. Reduan I. 2004. Multisensor approach to evapotranspiration mapping and stream model validation in the perfume river basin, Hue, Vietnam. p6. Available at: http://www.itc.nl/library/papers_2004/msc/wrem/reduan.pdf Shaw R. 2006. Community based climate change adaptation in Vietnam: inter-linkage of environment, disaster and human security, In: Multiple Dimension of Global Environmental Changes, edited by S. Sonak, TERI publication, 521-547. World Bank. 2009. City Profiles: Hanoi, Vietnam. Climate Resilient Cities: A Primer on Reducing Vulnerabilities to Disasters.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

FLOOD RISK MANAGEMENT CULTURE AND ITS ROLE IN CHANGING NATURAL AND PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS OF LOWER WEST RAPTI RIVER BASIN IN NEPAL

1

Mahesh R. Gautam1,*, Rabindra Osti1,†, Dhruba R. Gautam1, Hironori Inomata2, Samir Dhakal1, and Katsuhito Miyake2 Nepal Development Research Institute, Dhobighat, Lalitpur, Nepal 2 International Centre for Water Hazard and Risk Management, Public Works Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan,

ABSTRACT There is a consensus that conventional flood management with attributes such as techno-centric, top-down, and focused on reactive intervention, has proven ineffective to deal with floods problems. Instead, community based flood risk management (CBFRM) with attributes such as people-centric, bottom-up, and focused on preparedness, has been advocated as an approach that can build the capacity of the community, and help them manage the floods sustainably. Local knowledge and capacity are the key foundations of such approach on which an elaborate framework for resilience enhancement can be based. Using participatory research tools, a case study from lower West Rapti River Basin is presented here elucidating the local knowledge on flood management on various stages of flood disaster risk management cycle. The study analyzed the vulnerabilities and capacities of the community under changing natural and physical environments, elucidated the local flood management practices including coping and adaption measures, and advocated the need for strengthening the existing informal CBFRM approach in the study area. Capacity building of community level organizations, improvement of people's *

currently at Desert Research Institute, Nevada System of Higher Education, Las Vegas, Nevada, 89119, USA; [email protected]. † [email protected].

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Mahesh R. Gautam, Rabindra Osti, Dhruba R. Gautam et al. livelihood assets, scientific inputs for improved flood warning and management systems, co-ordinated support mechanism for relief and rescue at the time of major flood events are some of the key actions felt needed in the study area for enhancing effectiveness of the CBFRM approach.

Keywords: Community Based Flood Risk Management, Local Knowledge, Preparedness, Capacity, Vulnerability, West Rapti Nepal

1. BACKGROUND Floods are known as frequent and most devastating events worldwide and they become a serious public concern especially in changing climatic conditions. The database (Hoyois et al., 2007; DFO, 2008) indicates that flood kill more people each year than any other water related disasters. Asia continent is much affected by floods and the countries like India, China, Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Nepal are extremely vulnerable (WWAP, 2006). It indicates that the majority of flood disasters‟ victims are also poor people living in isolated communities in developing countries, who suffer most and are the first causalities of such incidents. The deteriorating consequences of flood disasters in developing countries are exacerbating through self-excited poverty-cycle phenomenon (Osti, 2004). In response to these problems, much effort has been given to understanding the hydrological characteristics of extreme flood events, the development of advanced applied engineering techniques to prevent flood hazards, and the advancement of early-warning technologies to minimize the impact of flood disasters. Although the development of such techniques has increased dramatically, the efficiency of the approaches used have always been questioned (Osti et al., 2009). Because there are no immediate solutions for the complete mitigation of damage caused by floods, the impacts of flood disasters at the grass-root level are likely to worsen in the coming years. Therefore, it is desirable to develop the resilience of each floodprone community to cope with problems, especially their ability to prepare for and handle emergency situations. This can best be accomplished through the development of selfempowered and self-determinant proactive preparedness mechanisms under the community based flood disaster risk management (CBFRM) framework. In many Asian flood plains, people are living with flood for many years. People who have been living in such areas are well experienced on how to tackle with such flood events. Floods are not always the enemy of human being but in many instances, they are opportunities. Perhaps, this is why the livelihoods of people are closely connected to flood plains in many countries, despite the fact that the areas are highly vulnerable to floods (Osti et al. 2009). In natural system, occasional floods with minor damage are often considered as lesson learn opportunities as they make aware of possible extreme floods in future so that at least certain level of community flood preparedness is always in place. However, flood events often turned into extreme even greater than the general perception and cause enormous damage, despite the fact that people have ample knowledge on how to live with floods. Thus, there is compelling reasons to find whether people‟s prevailing knowledge works for extreme flood events. Local knowledge on flood forecasting, early warning and flood management and emergency management practices can be important assets for community based flood risk

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management (CBFRM). This knowledge is tacit and mainly of experimental nature acquired over years of coping with floods and in some instances the transmitted ones over generations through stories, poems and songs. It is necessary that any comprehensive flood management plan should take into account the existing local knowledge of flood affected communities on local physical condition, history and trends of the flood, local flood forecasting and warning approaches, and various other aspects of flood management (Dekens, 2007). This is necessary as people know the local context, the physical set up, the problems of floods and possible solutions better than the outsiders (Osti et al., 2009). While it is important to study existing local beliefs and practices for forecasting, early warning, and for flood management, in the operational phase it is equally important to ascertain that they are useful and appropriate, and can be integrated in the disaster management plan. In order to understand properly the benefits, limitations and scope of traditionally adopted social mechanism against flood disaster prevention aimed at revitalization and enhancement for CBFRM, a field based study was conducted. The field study was aimed at analyzing the context of flood related vulnerability in the lower West Rapti river basin in Nepal, finding the local activities undertaken by the community for flood management. This chapter elucidates local activities undertaken by the community from lower West Rapti river basin in Nepal and analyzes the vulnerabilities and capacities of the community based on the participatory community based analyses.

2. STUDY AREA Nepal is known as a hot spot for disasters. Over the last 24 years (1983-2006), every year 867 people lost their lives in Nepal on an average (DWIDP, 2007). Landslide and floods have claimed about 300 people per year, which is almost one third of the total deaths due to all disasters together. Quite a significant portion of GDP is lost every year due to natural disasters. Nepal's Terai region, which is relatively flat and low laying area is the part of the Ganges/Brahmaputra River Basin, which is one of the most flood disaster-prone regions. The flood plains are being increasingly crowded to meet ever-increasing demands of food and fibre, and consequently the flood problem is exacerbated. Similarly, human interventions in the river-floodplain system (dams/barrage, and bunds) constructed have exacerbated the situation. The West Rapti River is one of the major rivers of Nepal which supports and affects lives of several thousand populations in the Banke district having one of the lowest Human Development Index (HDI), high population and low infrastructure facilities in Nepal. In the last ten years the floods of 1999, 2006 and 2007 have been more destructive. The total households (HHs) and population in the study area (Figure 1) is 2028 and 13256 respectively, which gives the average population size per HH as 6.01. The main source of livelihood in the study area is agriculture. Apart from this, seasonal labour (both on- and off-farm), services and businesses are other sources of livelihood. The level of food sufficiency is very miserable. Majority of houses in the study area are of thatched roof with mud-wall type and very weak against flood, while very few houses are made of cement and concrete. The floods have caused damaged to the houses, crops and livestock affecting people‟s livelihood means. The percentage of completely and partially damage houses in Matehiya and Gangapur VDCs

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in the 2007 year flood is 30% and 40% respectively (Gautam et al., 2010). Huge acreage of agricultural lands has been destroyed in the study area by bank cutting and silt deposits. A community-based estimate suggests that crop production has reduced in recent years when compared to the production some 20 years ago. The estimate shows that the land productivity for paddy in the inundated area has reduced by from 36 % to 80% at various clusters within the study area.

Figure 1. Location map of study area (Gangapur and Matehiya).

3. PARTICIPATORY ASSESSMENT Matehiya and Gangapur Village Development Committees (VDC; the smallest administrative unit in Nepal) were selected for the study based on the history of incidence and severity of the floods, recommendation of key government‟s district line agencies, and with recommendations from the district level interaction workshop on October 2007. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools were applied to study the existing condition of the study area. A reconnaissance visit to the flood affected areas was made to interact with local leaders and other community members as a precursor to the detailed PRA Survey and planning. In addition, a local level consultation workshop comprising of flood affected people, VDC functionaries, local level political leaders, social workers, teachers, deprived group members, etc. was held at the beginning. Although we primarily used the participatory vulnerability analysis (PVA) as a guiding tool for the fieldwork (Table 1), we supplemented it with approaches enabling livelihood assets assessment (capacity) through vulnerability and capacity analysis approach-VCA (IFRC, 2006). PVA is a systematic process that involves communities and other stakeholders in an in-depth examination of their vulnerability, and at the same time empowers or motivates them to take appropriate actions. (Action Aid International, 2000). Unlike PVA, VCA identifies vulnerability (weaknesses) as well as strengths (capacity) of the community under study.

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Table 3. Methodological framework of participatory assessment Assessment

Vulnerability and capacity analysis

Assessment questions

Who is vulnerable? Why is s/he vulnerable?

What are the livelihood assets/capacity?

What are the impacts of Vulnerability

PRA Tools

Focus group discussion, Key informant survey, resource mapping, problem tree, problem ranking, mobility mapping, timeline

Focus group discussion, key informant survey, resource mapping, capacity assessments

Focus group discussion, key informant survey, cause-effect analysis

Local communitybased flood management practices 1. What are the local knowledge and practices on storm forecasting and flood warning? 2. What are the management practices before, during and after flood? 3. What are the short and long term community measures? Focus group discussion, key informant survey, social and resource mapping, seasonal calendar, priority ranking

3.1. Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment While in general there is less ambiguity and divergence on defining hazard, there are competing and widely divergent views on vulnerability and risk. In this study, vulnerability is defined as set of conditions that affect the capacity of a person or group to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from the impact of natural or man-made hazards (Blaikie et al., 1994). Risk is a composite factor incorporating both hazard and vulnerability. Not all people are vulnerable equally. Three different groups of people were identified as most vulnerable to flood risks based on different factors. Location-wise, the people living in the low lying area and along the banks of West Rapti River, and living in the clusters along both banks of rivers/rivulets flowing from the Churia (southern range of mountains of Nepal consisting of fragile geography) were found must vulnerable. Similarly, the Terai Dalit (minority, so-called low cast group) communities‟, and landless people were found most vulnerable groups based on the socio-cultural and economical bases respectively. However, there is significant overlap in these groups. For instance, landless people often are located in the hazard prone areas, and are also associated to Dalit groups.

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There are many underlying causes of vulnerabilities of people to flood disaster. Most of these reasons lead to one common factor-poverty. The nexus of poverty-flood disaster (Figure 2) in the study area was inferred based on the community-driven problem-tree analysis. Besides poverty, physical factors like dense settlements also contribute to the vulnerability to flooding due to poor drainage and water logging.As shown in Figure 2, extreme floods affect their livelihood assets which in turn make them poorer and hence further increase their vulnerability. Thus a positive feedback loop of poverty-vulnerability cycle is set rolling. The damage of infrastructures due to flood enhance physical isolation of the villages from the administrative centre, cause health impact, and enhance the fatalistic attitude and behaviours leading to increased attitudinal vulnerabilities.

Figure 2. The poverty-flood nexus in the study area.

A detailed analysis of vulnerabilities is made together with the capacities in Table 2. As shown, although vulnerabilities do exist, the community has some remarkable capacities/assets on which the CBFRM plan can be built on.

3.2. FRM Practices in the Study Area The timeline and trend analysis of the major extreme events developed through community participation revealed that people in the study area have been living with natural floods from the time memorial. These natural floods have impacted their livelihood through loss of paddy seeds, livestock, and crops. Damage of houses spread of water-borne diseases, degradation of lands through siltation also contributed to the loss of their assets. But the community have been dealing these floods through their tacit knowledge on flood management under informal community-based management approach together with external relief supports. However, people expressed their perception that floods are more frequent and

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have been occurring in responses to even smaller storms making their local flood management system overstressed. The recent floods in 2006 and 2007 showed, as the resilience of the local system is reduced, external support and intervention is inevitable. In the following, the existing management practices in various phases of the flood cycles are discussed. Many of these activities demonstrate that the community has a well-founded base for flood disaster management. Table 2. The capacities and vulnerabilities of the community in the study area Livelihood assets Social capital

Human capital

Financial capital

Natural capital

Physical capital

Capacities and Vulnerabilities Capacities: Practice of Parma (labour sharing) system and group farming, lack of major ethnic disputes in flood management, presence of strong social norms for helping weak and vulnerable age groups, presence of community level organizations e.g. community forest user groups, disaster management group set up by Red-Cross, existence of coping mechanism and adaptive strategies for flood management (see section 3.2.2), unified voice of political parties for the flood related issues. Vulnerabilities: Parma system limited to hill groups, the disaster management group set up by Red-Cross not very effective at present, existence of untouchability practices, settlement practices on low lying and unsafe areas, some level of mistrust among people particularly during the armed struggle, weak enforcements of decisions, disputes in mobilization of external resources Capacities: Local knowledge and skills on flood management, presence of skilled personnel (health worker, women health worker, professional swimmers, boat operators, search and rescue facilitators etc.) in the villages. Vulnerabilities: low level of literacy, poor income source, poor health and living standards, fatalistic attitude Capacities: Presence of 18 saving and credit groups (SCG) and Ama Samuha (Mothers' group), community forest user groups Vulnerabilities: Lack of access of poor and marginal people to SCG and AS through mandatory rule of the monthly savings ; absence of collateral free credit facilities; lack of financial safety-net for agriculture inputs (seeds, fertilizer) after flood damage ; inadequate community's emergency fund; subsistence farming Capacities: Highly fertile lands with potential for high productivity, availability of high altitude land nearby for shelter, presence of forests, availability of water resources for potential use and development Vulnerabilities: Reliance on rain-fed irrigation; poor land management particularly in low lying areas, careless extraction of sand and boulders from the fragile churia range Capacities: Presence of potential physical shelters, ongoing bridge construction linking the villages with the district head-quarter Vulnerabilities: Thatched roof mud houses, poorly constructed roads and drainage systems, lack of adequate permanent flood shelters, lack of resourceful health posts, and schools, irrigation from risk prone earthen channels from geologically fragile churia range, high density of households causing drainage congestion

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There are diverse ethnic groups and subgroups within the study area including groups of hill and Terai origins. Thus the local knowledge is not same everywhere in all communities. The local knowledge and practices for storm forecasting, flood warning, and management at various phases of flood-cycle are presented below.

3.2.1. Forecasting of Heavy Storms and Early Warning Most people in the study area still practised their own ways for forecasting heavy storms. Some of the variables and indicators considered by the people for forecasting heavy storms include: position of the cloud in the sky, the extent of rainfall guesstimated in upper catchments and Churia area, mobility of ants, abnormal crying/voices of animals and birds, the intensity of sound of thunderstorm, direction of wind, position of stars, and degree of hotness. People have tried to assume and correlate their proven knowledge for early warning. There is a general practice that people living in the areas along or near the river banks get voluntarily involved in the monitoring of flood and warning especially during the daytime in the monsoon season. Some indicators used by people for early warnings were: 3.2.1.1. Rumbling Sounds of Rivers People assess the rumbling sound of the rivers to identify the sound of heavy flood upstream. Once assessed that there is a flood upstream, there is a general practice of shouting in loud voice to notify other people. 3.2.1.2. Muddy Smell of the Water of the River Muddy smell in the water is considered as another indicator of the flood. Generally big flood carry fresh soil/mud along with water and its smell is different than the normal flood. According to the local people, changed colour of river water is also another indicator of flood. 3.2.1.3. Presence of Dry Leaves, Mud and other Materials in River Water When the water level increases, flood carries dry leaves, mud and other materials along the river course. These are taken as an indication of increasing water level. It was also reported that if number of fishes in rivers suddenly starts increasing, then this is considered as an indication of possible flooding in the immediate future. If there is a big flood coming nearby, dead bodies of animal and snake can be seen floating on the surface of the water. 3.2.2. Management before, during and after the Flood People in the study area demonstrated some knowledge and skills for flood preparedness and management before, during and after the floods. This resulted in response to their good understanding and knowledge about flood and flood related possible damage and destruction. It is learned that natural floods were common in the study area and people in the villages have been able to manage the natural floods in the past through their preparedness, and management practices. The external agencies (humanitarian relief agencies, army, and others) were also found to play a critical role in extreme floods. However, as the human interventions in the river basin increased over the past, the frequency and extent of flooding increased making available local means overstressed and inadequate. The flood management practices

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of the community in the study area as grouped into three categories namely flood management before, during and after the flood are reported below.

3.2.2.1. Before Flood Floods are not total surprises and shocks to the people in the study area. Thus, local people are mentally prepared to face and struggle with the possible flood disaster and prepare accordingly at individual, family, and community levels. People expressed that the conventional way of living with floods should be the lasting alternative in the absence of a any well developed flood risk management system. Two groups of people were found in the study area in terms of flood preparedness. The first group of people managed basic materials needed during the flood situation at their houses. They kept plastic sheets, tents, ropes, rubber tubes, empty drums, torchlight, etc. especially during monsoon season. On the other hand, the other group of people who were unable to manage the materials in advance adopted „wait and see‟ strategy. As a result, the people of latter groups were found to be more vulnerable during the flood because of the poor preparedness. Interestingly these preparedness correlated well with the poverty level of the people- relatively well off people had better preparedness. Some of the other preparedness measures taken by the people were: a) Collection of local and other medicines: Many people use local spices such as marich (black pepper), harro (Terminalia chebula), barro (Terminalia bellirica) and kala jira (black cumin) in the food and take tulasi (Ocimum tenuiflorum) tea as a preparedness against cough and cold that may be prevalent in the monsoon season. They also collect neem (Azadirachta indica) leaves for treating the fever and skin diseases. As a precautionary measure, some people procure essential drugs like Amzit, Cetamol, Jeevan-jal (a popular brand of oral rehydration fluid), etc in advance. Similarly, a number of domestic treatment practices for livestock are common in the study area as people cannot afford for western medicines and do not have access to the services of veterinary technicians particularly during floods. Therefore, before the floods, some communities collect these herbal medicines from forest areas. These include, karaunda (a local forest plant) root for the treatment of Khoret (foot and mouth diseases), lahara beli for diarrhoea and dysentery, gurjo (Tinosporra sinensis (Lour) Merril ) and gralic for stomach problems and bojo (Acorus calamus) for the cough and cold problems. b) Management of food items: There is a general practice of milling sufficient grain in advance for monsoon season. People usually prepare and keep dry food and vegetables such as beaten rice, salt, sugar, bheli (raw sugar), noodles, gundruk (dried green leafy vegetables), potato chips, lentils etc. Besides, people also prepare dry food of satuwa (roasted and powdered gram), bhuja (puffed rice), biscuits, especially for their kids. Sidra (dry fish), mango pickles, titaura (dried lentils and mustard), and dried pumpkin are also prepared specially for the monsoon period. Similarly, as livestock grazing during monsoon is not possible in flooded and inundated areas in majority of the villages, people usually store the straw, khar (hay), dry grass, chopped grass, and bran in advance. c) Management of firewood and cow-dung cakes: In the northern villages, people manage firewood from the nearby forest areas for cooking energy. People in the

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d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

southern villages, however, use cow dung apart from firewood. Usually, people manage sufficient quantity of firewood and prepare cow dung cakes for monsoon period as it is very difficult to manage firewood during the flooding season and it often may be the case that people cannot go out for numbers of day. People make aatiya/taad (an elevated area specially used to store materials) to store the firewood and cow dung safely. Storage of the valuable materials in Attaiya or in Pukka (brick and cement) houses: People living in the low lying flood prone areas who have thatched houses usually keep the important documents and utensils in the elevated safe places either in their own house or in safer pukka houses of close neighbours or relatives. People construct temporary aatiya/taad to place the deheri (grain storage bin made up of mud) for storing grass and feed of livestock. Protection of livestocks and poultry: Some settlements in the study area weave doko (large sized bamboo basket) in advance for protecting poultry during the flood. It is a common practice of putting chicken in the dokos and hanging them on the safer places. Some people even try to sell chicken before flood season. Also, people take their livestock to safer places if they perceive that flooding problem will become severe. People of Gangapur use to take their livestock to Jamuni, a place relatively safer from flood. Preparation of the khatiya of bigger height: Raised khatiya (locally woven bed with sturdy ropes made from babio i.e. Eulaliopsis binata) is very common in the Terai. Due to risk of snakebites, there is a common practice of sleeping on khatiya. As the number of deaths with snakebites after flooding is on rise, people have started to make khatiya of bigger heights. khatiya are especially useful to keep the children outside the house during flood if the flood level inside the house is high. For instance, in 1995, some people of Mahadevnagar in Matehiya village have saved the lives of their children by hanging the khatiya on the trees and keeping their children on it throughout the night. Construction of pihan: During flood, it is very difficult to cook food due to wet surrounding which makes it difficult to burn firewood. For this reason, people make Pihan (cooking stand) in advance to keep stoves or other traditional cooking stoves on it. Preparation of Informal and formal self plan for evacuation: During heavy floods, evacuation to the safer places is common. People prepare informal plan in advance for possible evacuation to safer areas. For example, the people of Dondra and Gangapur villages used to go to Chaubis Bigha (comparatively on higher elevation) because of safety and proximity. In 2007, eight households (HHs) of Gangapur, Kudarbetwa and five HHs of the Sonbarsha villages moved to a forest area (Panchayati Ban) at a nearby village (Kohala village). Similarly, people from about 50% HHs of Dondra and about 110 HHs residing near the sub-health post of Gangapur village moved to a safer forest area (Chaubis Bigaha). In addition, before monsoon, people within the community discuss for evacuation plan and management of evacuation places. The plan consists of renovation of possible evacuation centres and administrative arrangement with school management committee to close the school for some days among others.

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Creation of drainage outlet in each plot of land: Poor drainage system compounds the flooding and inundation problem in the study area. In order to protect paddy land from the possible flood, a very common practice in the study area is construction of savah (drainage outlet) in each plot of land. In some villages such as Motipur, clearance of silts from canal and culvert is usually carried out before the flooding period.

3.2.2.2. During Flood During floods, people focus on keeping of valuable goods safely, stay at elevated beds, take shelters at safer locations, mobilize the local resources and attempt to divert the floods. Some of the local practices are: a) Taking shelter at appropriate places: At the initial stage when flood has just started, those having tents and plastic sheets start using them. khatiya are stacked over one another to raise height. People keep children, elderly people and pregnant women on raised khatiya. But as the flood water level increases further, people abandon their houses and move towards safer places. Those few households who have multi-storey cemented buildings stay in the upper floors while others sometime prepare temporary machan (elevated place) to stay. Families whose houses are completely damaged or destroyed take shelter at school, health post and neighbouring pukka houses. b) Rescuing people: Children, pregnant women and elderly are given high priority as they are the first victims from the floods. Kids are rescued to the taad/aatiya or to the khatiya to save from the flood. Some people use vehicles‟ tire tubes and family fishing boats for rescue purpose. As people perceive that floodwater level has reached the danger level, those having such rescue and relief materials start using them. c) Managing Livestock: Generally livestock are kept at uplands to protect them from the flood. In an extreme condition, livestock are freed from rope so that they can swim and go to safer places on their own. In high flood situation, management of livestock may not be a priority for people. d) Monitoring flood during night: Many communities are found to monitor flood during night time. For this purpose, usually youths from the same tole (neighbourhood) are assigned on a rotational basis. e) Mobilising youths: Role of youths (particularly school students) is very important during evacuation of the people towards comparatively safer place. Schools are closed for some days and youths are involved in rescuing people affected from the flood. The rescue and relief activities include carrying people towards the safer places, management of valuable goods arrangement of food, and treatment of people. f) Informing Red Cross and other stakeholders: These days, local volunteers inform relevant stakeholders about the situation of flood through Code-Division-MultipleAccess (CDMA) phone and seek immediate relief materials. The Red Cross and security personnel are first notified followed by other stakeholders such as District Administration Office, who is responsible for emergency supplies. g) Filling sand bags to divert the flood: On the basis of their proven knowledge, experiences and practices, people also try to divert flood water from their area. It is

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Mahesh R. Gautam, Rabindra Osti, Dhruba R. Gautam et al. done by excavating temporary diversion channels and constructing dykes of sandbags.

3.2.2.3. After Flood In the post-flood scenario, it is learned that some of the general management measures usually taken by people are as follows:        

Informal damage assessment Sun-drying of wet seeds, grains and clothes Manual separation of damaged seeds and grains from good ones Construction/repairing of houses Management of food and clothes Management of temporary set up for children and elderly Maintenance of tube well for drinking water Use of local treatments to manage water borne diseases before they receive treatment from health posts and veterinary posts

The short term strategies adopted by the people in the study area (coping strategies) are basically managing with limited resources such as cheaper and less food at times of food shortage, borrowing, bartering, and even selling household assets and land, and eventually migrating if they are financially overstressed. On the contrary, people in the study area are found to have developed adaptation strategies (long term approach) to improve their resiliency against the evolving flood situations. Examples include: 



    

Cultivating water melon and sakarkhanda (sweet potato), peanuts, etc. in the area where the land is covered with deposited sand as means of securing alternative livelihood. Preparing different seed beds of paddy at increments of time so that seedling with 2528 days age considered by the farmers as the most appropriate for better productivity are available for transplantation in the events of floods or droughts. Increasing the height of goat-shed as goats are considered highly vulnerable to be swept by flood. Raising homesteads above the flood level of last ten years. Shifting from earthen (Figure 3a) to wooden storage bins (Figure 3b) for grain storage. Constructing channel in the villages to divert flood water. Raising height of newly installed hand pumps.

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(b)

Figure 3. Grain storage bins (a) Earthen (b) Wooden.

4. DISCUSSIONS Most of the current practices of flood management activities are result of the local community-based initiatives. These activities are mostly based on community's knowledge and experiences of co-existence with floods. However, a number of activities from disaster management organizations such as Red Cross, and other organizations in the past have played a positive catalytic role for increasing resiliency against flood risks. As we argued earlier, flood management program should be developed in the framework of community-driven participatory management initiatives cantered on use of both local and scientific knowledge. Gautam et al. (2010) have proposed such a framework utilizing both conventional hydrology/ hydraulic and social sciences to demonstrate how these supplement each other in operational hydrologic problems such as flood management. Using the same study site, they showed tools from social sciences utilizing local knowledge and/or capacity on ethno-flood history, flood hazard and risk mapping, setting up effective plans for evacuation and flood management were extremely useful for enhancing the practicality, reliability and effectiveness of hydrologic sciences under data-limited uncertain environment. Such fusion of tools from hydrologic and social sciences can greatly benefit participatory, bottom-up approach of CBFRM. The bottom-up approach has several advantages such as: sustainability, utilization of local resources, tools and knowledge, environmentally sensitive measures, efficiency and effectiveness of management, suitability and social acceptance. While the „hard‟ science and engineering like hydrology and hydraulics can have potential solutions to many flood-management problems, these solutions can be inadequate, or unsustainable if the local contexts are ignored. Tools from social sciences help put the people at the focus and bridge the There is a strong need of addressing vulnerabilities of the community and taking additional measures for enhancement of resilience. In the study area, vulnerability is directly related to various livelihood assets and poverty. Similarly, resiliency against flood is continuously decreasing due to increasing flood frequencies. Thus well coordinated external support for rescue and relief operation is more apparent than before. Neither the local knowledge, nor the CBFRM alone can solve the whole problem. They provide a workable framework. Scientific inputs for improved flood forecasting and warning, environmentally sensitive mitigation measures are equally a necessity for an effective

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CBFRM system. In fact, the community action plan developed by the community as part of the study suggested a number of environmentally sensitive hardware measures such as „check dams‟, drainage improvements and other needs of scientific inputs.

CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY Based on the participatory tools, the study demonstrated that local communities have their own coping and adaptation mechanism based on their local knowledge against flood disasters. They have an existing informal CBRFM system in practice from historic time. But with the evolving flood situations due to increasing human interventions, vulnerabilities to flood hazards have been on rise. Poverty further brings in vulnerabilities to flood. The PCA and VCA approaches widely used in the field of disaster risk reductions are available for assessment of flood related vulnerabilities and capacities of the community. These approaches are based on PRA tools and form a starting point of the CBFRM. PRA tools such as focus group discussion, key informant survey, social and resource mapping, problem tree, problem and priority ranking, mobility mapping, timeline, seasonal calendar, cause-effect analysis etc. can be used to catalyze the community to draw their own vulnerability, capacity, hazard, and risk maps which can form a base for the community prepare a CBFRM action plan. In all these processes, conventional technical inputs can be effectively fused through discussion and facilitations by the technical and social experts with the communities. The era of big flood control scheme is still on- going, however attention needs to be focused on community based flood disaster risk management because it is realized that no such structure can prevent flood unless otherwise local people are well prepared for worst situation. Local knowledge and inertia will give significant input to CBFRM system and bring active participation. Although traditional knowledge on flood risk management has great potentiality to reduce disaster impact, scientific inputs and environmentally-sensitive mitigation measures are essential in changing climatic and physical environment of the flood plains, and the new paradigm of flood management should be focussed on harnessing benefits of conventional hydrology/hydraulic and social sciences.

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Deckens J. 2007. The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal. Gautam M. R.,Osti R.,Gautam D. R.,Chhetri M. B., Pahari K., Inomata H., Dhakal S. 2010. Do we need a new paradigm in applied hydrology? Experience of integrating hydrology and social sciences for disaster-risk reduction in a developing country. Accepted for presentation at Hydrology Conference 2010. Elsevier, San Diego, USA. IFRCS-International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. 2006. What is VCA? An Introduction to Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment. IFRCC, Geneva, Switzerland. Hoyois P. Scheuren J.M., Below R. and Guha-Sapir D. 2007. Annual Disaster Statistical Review: Numbers and Trends 2006. The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters. Brussels. Osti R., Miyake K., Terakawa A. 2009. Application and operational procedure for formulating guidelines on flood emergency response mapping for public use. Flood Risk Management 2(4), 293-305. Osti R. 2004. Forms of community participation and agencies role for the implementation of water induced disaster management: protecting and enhancing the poor. Disaster Prevention and Management, 13 (2), 6-13. WWAP-world water assessment programme. 2006. United Nation world water development report II. WWAP, Paris.[accessed 03 November 2008]

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

PARTICIPATORY WATER MANAGEMENT: BANGLADESH MODEL Abu Taher Khandakar1 Bangladesh Water Development Board, WAPDA Building, Motijheel Commercial Area Dhaka -1000, Bangladesh

1. BACKGROUND Water is a very precious wealth. Over this planet Earth, the balance of water contained on about three-fourth surface area is covered by water body. Humans should have been very much pleased having so much water without any labour or investment. Fact remains that in nature available water may be put under two broad categories: (i) sweet water (or fresh water) and (ii) saline water. Fresh water are contained in rivers, lakes, underground, and in mountain as snow or glassier or in cloud in gaseous form while saline water is contained in the oceans and seas. Water has multiple uses. Demand for fresh water have registered sharp rise world over for human consumption; for cattle, for industry, agriculture and fishery. It is now recognized that fresh water has been becoming scarce, in regions and in communities, even for drinking and sanitation purposes. Hence there is an obvious urgency for economic and wise use of this resource. Bangladesh is a country with plenty of fresh water. Estimated 1250 billion cubic meter fresh water pass over about 310 rivers of the country annually. About 80% of this huge amount of water occurs in four months in June-September period of the year. And again about 93% of the total annual flows in the rivers come from outside Bangladesh‟s territory through about 54 (out of 57) international rivers. Among the cross-boundary rivers three are most prominent – (i) the Ganges, (ii) the Brahmaputra and (iii) the Meghna. The Ganges has her origin in the western foothill of the Himalayas in Nepal and the Brahmaputra has origin in the northern foothill of the Himalayas in Tibbet (China). The Borack River in the eastern India that comes into Bangladesh through the north-eastern border, has the name “Twibai River” in the upstream at the joining place of the provincial states of Monipur, Mizoram and Assam. The Borack River entering into Bangladesh are bifurcated into “Surma” and “Kushiara” and 1

Tel: +880-29552194, Fax: + 880-2-9564763 Email: D.M.A Taher Khandokar [email protected].

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then again join together to take the name of “Meghna” to fall into the Bay of Bengal joining with the lower parts of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra Rivers. However, these rivers over thousands of years played the role to carry silt and clay from the hills and deposited that in an area adjacent to the Bay of Bengal to create the greatest delta in the Planet, Bangladesh, now having a landarea of 147,570 sq km. The terrain of the country is flat, land level not very much high above mean sea level. The beds of the rivers are now filled up with silt and conveyance capacity drastically reduced. Consequent upon this, flooding by spilling river banks was a regular phenomenon in the monsoon. This was the scenario in the northern part and middle part of the country. On the other hand, the southern part of the country bordering the Bay of Bengal has a coastline of 710 km length. Everyday in winter and summer, tide from the sea caused submergence of land (about 20% area of the country) with saline water. The troubles in the coastal area would aggravate more when cyclonic storm of wind with hurricane speed (exceeding 200 km/h) would hit the land with accompanying tidal surges/floods. The outcome of floods either caused by river flows from the upstream or by tidal floods from the sea would have the same impact: crops damaged, infrastructures destroyed and people killed. The country, its economy was very much agro-based and still so for about 65% of the population, would always suffer losses to a severe extent. This was just one side of the coin. The other side was also more disappointing. In the region excluding the coastal area, the land was not protected against flooding and hence only rain-fed paddy crops were produced by the farmers. The varieties were local and yield per unit area was very low when compared with high yielding varieties elsewhere. The condition in the coastal areas was much bleaker. No crop (suitable for human consumption) could be cultivated in the coastal zone as the land would remain submerged by brackish water of the sea. The outcome was a nation with prolonged food deficit, economic misery, malnutrition, lack of education for children, disease and disappointment. This was the situation in Bangladesh in 1950s when her people were under the rule of Pakistan. In 1954, 1955 and 1956 there were consecutive severe floods in Bangladesh and a severe situation of famine developed and death of huge people could however be avoided by importing rice from abroad and partly by supplies of relief from friendly nations. An organization named “East Pakistan (then Bangladesh was known as East Pakistan) Water and Power Development Authority (EPWAPDA)” started functioning on 04 April 1959 in Dhaka (then written as „Dacca‟, capital of Bangladesh) to address water related matter and management. In fact, since that year the EPWAPDA (now Bangladesh Water Development Board: „BWDB‟) made interventions through mostly engineering measures in the water sector. EPWAPDA was a statuary body and was entrusted with sufficient administrative and financial powers and its “Water Wing” envisaged a master plan to address flood related hazard mitigation and improvement/development of irrigation activities in order to boost “Grow More Food” programme of the Government. The organization embarked on to develop the first major irrigation project of the country named the “Ganges-Kobadak Irrigation Project (or in short G K Project)” which will be described later.

2. MANAGEMENT OF AN IRRIGATION PROJECT In Bangladesh, like her neighbouring countries in South Asia, rice is the staple food of people. Traditionally, over thousand of years farmers cultivated land in the pre-monsoon

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period and saw seeds of paddy in broadcast practice. They would wait for monsoon rain to set in by June and onwards up to September to get rain-fed irrigation for paddy crop. The traditional local variety of paddy production per unit of land was low due to two reasons. Traditional crop of paddy itself with long stem was always a low yield paddy genetically. The second problem was high depth floods, 1.5 to 2.0 m deep water in the monsoon that damaged crops; however then damage to crops by insects was not a significant problem. Added to these two problems was another very grave factor that the two crops (Kharif-I and Kharif-II) were very uncertain due to devastating floods in June-September. In around mid-1950s, the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) invented a new high yielding variety (HYV) of paddy (in Bangladesh the variety was known as IRRI). This crop locally known as boro paddy, needs special care for cultivation. For example, a seed bed (on mud soft soil) is to be prepared at the end of November, about four weeks are taken for saplings to grow about 15 cm high, then land is to be prepared with water by tiling (now a days with mechanical plough), transplanting is to be carried out in early January (even partly in Feb), the plants thrive in February (when temp rises) and harvesting may be done in end May. In order to get a good harvest, the farmer needs to use right amount of chemical fertilizer, insecticides and clean out weeds of land. And importantly, right amount of irrigation water must be applied to the land at regular intervals. In Bangladesh, surface water is very cheap. Somebody willing to lift water from a river with a low lift pump (LLP) may do so without any permission and without paying any charge for water. But farmers are not rich people; and in most cases an individual can‟t afford to own a LLP. Similar is the situation for extracting groundwater with shallow tube well. However, Bangladesh Government commissioned a few big irrigation projects with secured flood control and drainage infrastructures; the G K Irrigation Project or the G K Project being one of them.

GK PROJECT The project is located at the west area of Bangladesh on the right bank of the Ganges River (in the east). Through the west boundary, the Kobadak River, a distributory of the Ganges flows down towards the south into the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges sustains flow in the lean season (January to May) too and plan was made to utilize about 153 m3/sec flow of the river for dry season irrigation and go for High Yielding Variety (HYV) of IRRI paddy in January to May period when natural calamity by flood is very much unusual in the country. The project has a gross area of 197,500 Ha and net irrigable area now is about 110,000 Ha. One main pumping plant with three units of turbine pumps (110.52 m3/sec capacity) and another subsidiary pumping plant of 42.50 m3/sec capacity were commissioned in civil structures across the Ganges to lift water. An intake canal (700 m long) from the river to the pumping station was dug; surface water is lifted with electrical power driven pumps and put into the main canal (193 km long). The project components include secondary canal (467 km), tertiary canal (995 km) and 2184 number irrigation structures plus 3500 field outlets, flood embankment (39 km) and drainage canal (971 km). The government manages everything by doing maintenance and operation of the pumping plant and deliver water up to the tertiary canal. The remaining part of the operation rests with the beneficiaries that include: (i) development and maintenance of field canal, (ii)

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receive irrigation water in the farm, (iii) cultivate the farm, (iv) apply fertilizer in the land, (v) transplant saplings, (vi) uproot weeds, (vii) use pesticides to control insects and (viii) harvest the crops. Notably, the responsibility of the government agency and the beneficiaries is separate and in an ideal situation the responsibility does not overlap. But – the importance of the intervention by the government agency lies into the fact that it should give optimum output in economic (and in social) term from the project. For example, crop production or benefit will be curbed if a tertiary canal fails to carry water to a plot due to choking; or if a farmer having flowing water beside his plot does not utilize the same to produce crop. Such a situation is unwelcome to national economic growth. So, the optimum benefit out of the system is possible when the government agency and the beneficiaries join hands together in planning, operation, maintenance, monitoring, and even minimum evaluation activities of the system. To mobilize the members of the public for “Public Participation” is a very difficult task. It is a fact that in the first step, agreement of the members of the public shall have to be obtained for the common cause where interest of the beneficiaries and the government lies at a place.

4. PARTICIPATORY WATER MANAGEMENT APPROACH IN GK PROJECT In 1950s, the modern technique of cultivation and crop production was not known to this area of Asia. The usual practice of cultivation was to do tillage with plough pulled by oxen or bullocks, saw seeds of paddy (or jute seeds) and level the ground by pulling a bamboo ladder over. This was done in the dry period of the year. The seeds would germinate under plenty of sunshine, and farmers would wait for rain from the heaven to have a crop feed by monsoon water as stated earlier. People would saw seeds of even two crops together: the Kharif I (Aus paddy) and Kharif II (Aman paddy) – though the harvesting time of these two crops was separated by a period of about 90 days apart. The only fertilizer available that time was the manure of cow-dung: an addition sometimes would be the in-land ash made by burning of the stems of paddy left out after harvesting the crop. People never used transplanted Boro (Rabi crop) or Aman (Kharif II) crop, they didn‟t practice seed beds, and they didn‟t use any chemical fertilizer. The crops were eaten up by insects and they didn‟t use any insecticide. They never used a low lift pump to extract any water from a river for any purpose, at least for irrigation. Of course, the government had an irrigation department, very small in size but their activities were limited. The irrigation department merged with the EPWAPDA as soon it was created. However, the EPWAPDA in its effort to “Grow More Food” drew a comprehensive plan to bring about a change. The organization targeted the G K Project as the main battle ground. For this project a Training Institute under the name “Baradi Irrigation and Agriculture Extension Centre” was established. An expatriate expert academician was brought as principal of the Centre. It chalked out elaborate programme to impart training to the farmers on the techniques of modern farming, on application of fertilizer and pesticides and importantly on management of field water related matters and transplanted paddy cultivation. For this reason, the EPWAPDA fielded qualified officers of agriculture extension background. The project, the water for irrigation, the expert personnel to impart training and

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agriculture extension personnel of the department, all were there. But to achieve the goal the target people were not there (or they were not motivated)! So there was an urgency to bring in the farmers within the reach. And that led to development of a mechanism to organize the community and obtain their participation in the process. And to the greater extent that was the beginning of the efforts to search and solicit “Public Participation” in an irrigation project, and subsequently in all water sector projects of either “Flood Control and Drainage (FCD) and/or Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation (FCDI)” projects. And of late however the organization (BWDB) has been making efforts to obtain opinion of people on any new project which even include riverbank protection to prevent erosion or even dredging of rivers to improve navigability or mitigate water logging problem.

5. ORGANIZING THE COMMUNITY It is recognized that to attract people to a cause which is though beneficial to them is hardly an easy task. It takes long time to communicate with people – that some other people, even when they are public servant – are willing to tell them something which in near future may yield a benefit to them. As the first step towards the goal, a concept of “Chashi Club” of “Farmers Club” was conceived in 1960s. The idea was to provide a forum for the farmers to discuss their own problems and find out likely solutions, develop the skill and mechanism for management of their own affairs, through trial and error, by themselves (in the field). In fact, the farmers first of all needed a space to assemble at a convenient place nearby. The EPWAPDA responded to it by constructing an institution complex building for each Chashi Club on about 0.33 acres (1335 sq meter) of land. The complex has an assembly hall and a store room for the farmers with an office room for the Extension Overseer (of the Department). The residential quarter of the Extension Overseer was also housed in the complex separately. In the premises of the Club there is a garden where fruits, vegetables and seasonal crops are cultivated for demonstration purpose to the farmers.

6. WORKLOAD OF EXTENSION OVERSEER One Extension Overseer (EO) at each Chashi Club was posted by the government. Each EO generally was assigned duty over 2500 to 3000 acres of land and more or less 700 to 900 farm families. The area was covered with 2 (two) to 4 (four) tertiary canals for irrigation purpose. In general, two Chashsi Clubs were located about 3 miles apart. In the G K Project, the authority established 13 Extension Centres and as many as 49 Chasi Clubs were formed.

7. MANAGEMENT OF CHASHI CLUB The affairs of the Club are carried out by a Managing Committee. The Committee consists of 09 to a maximum of 15 members. They are elected from among the farmers representing village leaders, school teachers, Union Parishad (lowest tier of local government) members. In turn the members elected one Chairman, one Vice-Chairman and

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one Joint Sectary. The Extension Overseer acted as the Ex-officio Secretary of the Managing Committee. The “Chashi Clubs” were registered under the Department of Co-operatives of the government. The Executive Committee held meetings one day each week in the Club. In the meeting, they discussed among themselves about their well-being, matters pertaining to modern agricultural practices and issues related to operation, maintenance of the project in the respective jurisdiction, and especially any problem about distribution of irrigation water to the farmers. They could take any such issue to the notice of the Extension Overseer immediately for appropriate intervention by the government agency (BWDB). The infrastructures for “Chashi Clubs” are still in place but the BWDB shifted to more modern concept of “Participatory Water Management” approach.

8. PARTICIPATORY WATER MANAGEMENT The Government in 2000 A.D. envisioned a policy of greater participation by the members of the beneficiaries in the water resources sector projects. To this effect the government approved a document named “Guidelines for Participatory Water Management (GPWM)”. This is a broad policy document which envisaged participation of the beneficiaries in every step of the water resources project starting from project identification to (completed) project operation, maintenance and evaluation phases. In this approach, “Water Management Group WMG)” in the grass-root level are formed with members of the beneficiaries. In an irrigation project, beneficiaries (family heads) falling within the command area of one tertiary canal are the target people to be members of the WMG. The formation of WMG is organized by the Extension Overseer through mobilization and motivation of the beneficiaries. The farmers will be the primary member each of the WMG and the members shall elect an Executive Committee (EC) of 12 Members from among themselves; with one Chairman, one Vice-Chairman and one Secretary. The WMG shall adopt a memorandum/bye-laws describing its aims, objectives, rules of business, duties and responsibilities. Among other activities the WMG affirm in the memorandum that it would render services for proper management of water within the WMG jurisdiction of the project for their collective development and income generating activities in association with the project authority. They must generate some amount of fund through voluntary contribution in the form of subscription by the members. With the document of bye-laws and a minimum of savings of Bangladeshi currency Taka or BDT 30,000 (1 US $ = 70 BDT), the WMG can get registered with the Department of Co-operatives of the government. On registration, the WMG is legally accepted as an entity to be entitled for government help and assistance in the form of loans and other facilities/trainings on income generating activities (IG activities) as the government operates through different agencies for development of the general mass. The steps of registration with the Department of Co-operatives are sometimes a difficult task owing to the fact that sufficient number of primary members to generate a sum of BDT 30,000 within a short period cannot be gathered to form a WMG. In fact, it takes huge labour on the part of the Extension Overseer to mobilize and motivate the farmers towards a successful conclusion of the effort. In the G K Project beginning from the year 2003-2004, as many as 454 WMGs with total membership of 9534 could be registered with

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the Department of Co-operatives. In addition to this, there are still as many as 295 WMGs with membership strength of 4347 formed but could not be registered with the Department of Co-operatives as the WMGs do not have the minimum mandatory savings of fund. The WMGs, both registered and non-registered however entitled to receive water for irrigation from the project. The EC of the WMG, as stipulated in the bye-laws, shall convene in meeting every month but minimum one meeting of the EC must be convened in two months. In addition to this, the WMG will hold annual general meeting (AGM) at the close of the year; and special AGM may be convened any time as warranted in the circumstances. The account of the WMG is subject to annual audit by the Department of Co-operatives. The WMG Executive Committee Members keep liaison with the Sub-Divisional Engineer‟s office in all matters related to operation and maintenance of the project. The next tier of the system is the “Water Management Association (WMA)”. The GPWM stipulates that a WMA will be formed with representatives nominated by the WMGs within the jurisdiction of the WMA. It also stipulates that the WMA shall have an EC comprising 12 members and the WMA should have at least 30% female members. So, theoretically one WMA can be formed with 12 WMGs. In order to ensure placement of female members in the WMA, two members with mandatory one female member from one WMG each are nominated into the WMA. The WMA need not be registered with the Department of Cooperatives. The EC is stipulated to meet in a monthly meeting but in unavoidable circumstances the EC is required meet once at least in two months. The task of the WMA is to oversee the functioning of the WMGs, resolve any internal or external conflict of the WMGs and keep liaison with the Executive Engineer‟s office for operation and maintenance of the project. There are 12 WMAs existent in the G K Project. The participatory management, if it is called public participation as well, might end at this level. But in the GPWM, there is another top tier of institutional arrangement in this respect. A “Water Management Federation (WMF)” may be formed for big water resources project, say for a command area of 50,000 Ha or more. The formation of the WMF is similar as the WMA. Members into the WMF are nominated by the WMA on being recommended in the AGM. The WMF has an EC comprising 12 Members with one President, one VicePresident and one Secretary. The WMF works as the apex body of the WMGs and WMAs; the WMF may convene any time and also annually, it performs functions similar to the WMA for the entire project, it keeps liaison with the Project Director (the Superintending Engineer) of the government agency and performs an advisory role in respect operation and maintenance of the project. One WMF is existent in the G K Project.

9. CHALLENGE OF THE PARTICIPATORY WATER MANAGEMENT EFFORTS Water management issues are complex and complicated whether it is an irrigation project or it is a flood control and drainage project. In fact, almost all flood control and drainage projects somehow provide opportunities to the community to utilize some surface water for various uses. In the coastal zone in the south of the country where most of the projects are polder projects (i.e., flood control and drainage projects) farmers take water of the outfall river when salinity level is low or use rain water harvested in the internal drainage canals for

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irrigation or supplementary irrigation in the post monsoon period. Thus everywhere participatory water management is important. As for the G K Project (and for similar big projects), it is difficult to handle and keep in touch with every WMG with limited number of personnel in the government agency. In fact, a two-way communication is the key for success of the effort. Another notable problem arises out of the fact that the WMG members lack in to participate in the group activities on the assumption that others will however do the work. In the G K Project it was conceived that operation and management of the system in the level of tertiary canals will be left over to be done by the WMGs themselves. But this concept did not materialize as the WMGs need further development of capability, both managerial and financial, to handle such responsibility effectively. In this Project, the BWDB has intended to collect some irrigation service charge (ISC), an amount of BDT 500 (US $ 7.14) per Ha each year. This created a problem. Firstly, the farmers are yet not motivated to promptly pay it out. The most difficult problem relating to collection of ISC arises from the mechanism to be followed. The first difficulty is: one hector of land which is about 2.47 acres (1 acre = 43560 sq ft; 1 sq ft = 0.0929 sq m) belongs to a big number of farmers; may be 10 to 12 persons as the farm size (or real ownership of land) is small. The process of ISC collection involves: identification of plot receiving irrigation water in the field, determine the area of the plot, identify the real owner of the land, work out the amount of ISC, issue a demand notice in prescribed form, ensure delivery of the notice to the real addressee in the correct address and then collect it by sending an authorized personnel and also issue the farmer a valid receipt. The farmer needs to be issued a reminder if he fails to oblige the demand notice in time. The farmers, and partly the policy makers are of the opinion that the government can waive the ISC, and if the ISC is not paid it is not easy to lodge a court case promptly as the action will involve more money than the ISC unpaid amount, and such action could also sour the working relation with the WMGs. So, in essence the three noticeable difficulties with approach of Participatory Water Management in Bangladesh are: (i) Inadequate agency personnel to mobilize, motivate and liaison with the beneficiaries; (ii) Inadequate capability of the WMGs to take responsibility to independently operate and maintain any part of big water sector project and (iii) Introduction of ISC without motivation of the beneficiaries. Despite the above stated problems, the BWDB could arrange to deliver irrigation water to as much as 100,000 Ha (91% of target) of land for Kharif-II crop in one season in the recent past with the active participation of the WMGs and this could be rated as a big success. Dealing with people for such matter as complex as operation and management of G K Project where the WMGs members are 9881 in number, and where literacy rate is less than 50% and poverty rate is about 40%, is a very difficult task least to say. But, “Participatory Water Management” approach is the best practice to involve the beneficiaries for better, transparent and accountable management of the public water sector projects. There will be ups and downs in the approach, but the positive results of good governance in the sector out of the approach will always offset the cumulative negative results that will accrue for non-involvement of the beneficiaries in the process.

In: Forms of Community Participation… Editors: R. Osti and K. Miyake

ISBN 978-1-61122-303-3 © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 12

USE OF COMMUNITY BASED DISASTER RISK REDUCTION TOOLS IN COMMUNITY ACTION: PERSPECTIVE FROM ASIA Sisira Kumara1 Asian Disaster Preparedness Center 24/F SM Tower, Bangkok 10400, Thailand

ABSTRACT Community based disaster risk reduction is a well known thematic focus of many regional, national and sub-national organizations to build capacities and to strengthen existing disaster management structures, whilst emphasizing the contributions made by communities and to advance the creation of safer communities. CBDRR program should emphasizes its efforts on, Institutionalization of CBDRR into the policy, planning and implementation; Implementation of innovative programs to explore new dimensions in CBDRR practice; Development of frameworks and tools to support the work of decisionmakers and practitioners; Development of new training tools to enhance the capacity of practitioners; Continued support to the regional entities for promoting CBDRR practices. However limited knowledge on the use of CBDRR tools in CBDRR and rural development programs is still a challenge. Most of the development and CBDRR practitioners are yet to acknowledge and appreciate those tools that have been tested and proven effective in reducing disaster risks in the region. For effective implementation of CBDRR programs in the region, national governments need to perform a facilitative role and establish an enabling environment for community based disaster risk reduction. In addition, the CBDRR practitioners should be well equipped with CBDRR tools such as field practitioner‟s handbook on CBDRR, Critical Guidelines for CBDRR, Media Kit on CBDRR, and Guidance on CBDRR for local authorities and Guidebook for integrating CBDRR into local government policies and programs. This paper provides a brief discussion on several CBDRR tools that can readily be used in community action in the region.

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Email: [email protected].

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Keywords: DRR, CBDRM, Capacity Building, Participatory Risk Assessment, Critical Guidelines, Media Kit, Advocacy

1. INTRODUCTION Asian Disaster Preparedness Center‟s programs in recognition of its vision of safer communities through disaster risk reduction and sustainable development encouraging the growth of locally born and relevant risk reduction activities and promoting community ownership has developed and tested various CBDRR tools in institutionalizing community based disaster risk reduction in Asia. These CBDRR tools have widely been used and proven effective in several countries such as Bangladesh, Lao PDR, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines and Vietnam. CBDRR was a specific focus under the Partnerships for Disaster Reduction in Southeast Asia (PDRSEA), project implemented in seven Southeast Asian countries since 2001. The program has developed practical tools for practitioners to support community action. This chapter is an analysis and critique found in implementing ADPC‟s CBDRR programs in the region applying those CBDRR tools for effective implementation and results.

2. CBDRM TOOLS IN ASIA There are number of CBDRR tools developed by various organizations in Asia. Those tools varies from Guidelines, Handbooks, Kits, Lessons learned documentations, training curriculum etc. This article discusses some of those tools that are developed by ADPC under its CBDRR program being implemented in the region.

2.1. Field Practitioner’s Handbook on CBDRR as a Tool for Capacity Building of CBDRR Practitioners The concept of Community-based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) has emerged during the past two decades in South East Asian countries. NGOs, citizen‟s organizations, humanitarian agencies and government departments in different countries in the region were the promoters of CBDRR concepts. Despite this rapid expansion in CBDRR applications, a majority of CBDRM practitioners face difficulties in finding opportunities for skill development. CBDRR practitioners are based at local or commune levels therefore, it is not possible for all practitioners to participate in CBDRR training courses even though there are number of training courses available at regional level. Partnership for Disaster Reduction in Southeast Asia (PDR SEA) project of ADPC, under the guidance of UNESCAP, took steps to fill that need by producing a tool kit on CBDRR which specifically designed for the field practisioners. The goal of the CBDRM Field Practitioners‟ Handbook is to equip CBDRM practitioners with theoretical principles and practical tools that can be applied in community work. Recognizing the need and level of expertise avail in the region, this tool was designed in three parts:

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Part 1 Community-Based Disaster Risk Management: A Framework for Reducing Risk. Field practitioners should be well equipped with basic concepts of CBDRR. It is recognized that great majority of CBDRR practitioners are still having difficulties in understanding these CBDRR concepts. Therefore, the purpose of the first part is to clarify the basic concepts of CBDRM. Part 2 Resource Packs: The second part covers essential participatory community based disaster risk management tools for implementing various stages of the CBDRM process. It provides step by step instructions to facilitate specific activities. The topics covered are Participatory Project Cycle Management, Participatory Disaster Risk Assessment and Action Planning, Formation and Training of Community Disaster Risk Management Organizations and Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation. Part 3 Major Considerations in undertaking CBDRM: the third part discusses tools on two cross-cutting themes related to CBDRM - Gender Conscious Approach to CBDRM and Disaster Risk Communication (DRC). There are three key concepts that have been introduced in this handbook. These are:   

Community-Managed Implementation Participatory Disaster Risk Assessment and Action Gender Conscious Approach to Disaster Risk Reduction

Community ownership and management of risk reduction measures is the implicit philosophy behind Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM). Communitymanaged implementation as refers to a process where at risk communities are in the heart of decision making process and are directly and actively engaged in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of their risk reduction measures. This comprise of Participatory Disaster Risk Assessment (PDRA) and Analysis, identification of risk reduction measures, development of action plans and implementation and evaluation of plans. Participatory Disaster Risk Assessment and Action Planning are discussed in the field practitioner‟s handbook and it is hoped that its inclusion in this handbook will advance the practice of Community-Based Disaster Risk Management in the South East Asia region. This handbook builds on past experiences and lessons learned by many CBDRM practitioners in the region. It is recognized that many NGOs use different terminologies for community based disaster risk assessment in the region. Such as Participatory Capacities, Vulnerabilities Assessment (PCVA in Oxfam funded CBDM projects in the Philippines and in East Timor), vulnerabilities, capacities assessment (VCA by Red Cross Society in South East Asia) and hazards, capacities, vulnerabilities assessment (HVCA by ADPC). In all of these forms, participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools have been extensively used by practitioners to collect and exchange information, facilitate dialogue, and encourage communities at risk to decide on acceptable levels of risks and take concrete actions for risk reduction.

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Different community groups and individuals are affected by disasters differently. Impacts of disasters in a particular country may differ from men and women, boys and girls because of their position in family and society. The Gender Conscious Approach to CBDRM is making use of existing tools of analysis to enable CBDRM practitioners to sensitize the risk reduction programmes and processes as well as to contribute to the improvement of women and girl‟s position in society. This handbook has been described as, we, CBDRM Practitioners in South East Asia region, have begun the task of putting down into “book form” what we do in our practice. The major limitation of this tool is that it will not address all concerns and expectations of CBDRM practitioners. This is by no means a complete set of tools and resources on CBDRM. The document is also written in English, a language that many practitioners in South East Asia are not completely familiar with. This field practitioners handbook was produced bringing together theory and practice from the six South East Asian countries – Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines. CBDRM practitioners are therefore encouraged to test and experiment with the tools and methodologies presented in this tool and communicate their experiences to ADPC and to each other. It is only through this constant dialogue among CBDRM practitioners that we can improve our theory and practice.

2.2. Critical Guidelines as Minimum Standards for CBDRR The importance of community-based approaches has been recognized since long in promoting a culture of safety through reducing local vulnerabilities and building capacities. These approaches have been practiced by various community groups, national and international organizations and government departments, in some cases, for over two decades now. The practice of community-based approaches has remained diverse due to a host of factors. They include the organizational mandates of the concerned organizations, sociocultural context of the communities, levels of economic development of communities, political structures in a country and multiplicity in funding cycles of donor organizations. This diversity has raised concerns about the quality in practice and the need for promoting good practices. Another key trend in the recent years has been the efforts by NGOs, UN and other international organizations to mobilize government support for CBDRM in policy, planning and programming. This is sometimes also known as integration of CBDRM. In this regard the organizations have adopted various approaches including national and local advocacy, capacity building, integrating risk factors into development planning and joint implementation of CBDRM activities with government departments. These efforts to gain governmental support have also necessitated the need for common national frameworks about community-based approaches so as to convince the authorities. The development organizations find it difficult to mobilize support from the authorities in the absence of a common reference point. The ADPC‟s own experience under the Partnerships for Disaster Reduction South East Asia (PDRSEA3) program demonstrated the need for development of regional guidelines. The development of minimum standards in other disciplines like the humanitarian sector, as well have played a catalytic role in creating a demand within the disaster risk reduction community to formulate minimum standards for practice in the area of community-based disaster risk management.

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Critical Guidelines of CBDRR is an effort to address the above issues, the initiative on drafting of Critical Guidelines of Community based Disaster Risk Management was undertaken by the ADPC and the UNESCAP under the jointly implemented Partnerships for Disaster Reduction South East Asia (PDRSEA3) project. It is expected that the availability of these Critical Guidelines will enable development practitioners to follow common principles, processes and approaches in the identification, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of community-based projects on disaster risk management, thus contributing to the improvement in practice. The Critical Guidelines were developed through a consultative process. The guidelines were reviewed by range of CBDRR professionals through a series of consultations. The consultative process followed in the development of the guidelines helped to establish a minimum consensus amongst the practitioners in establishing benchmarks for the CBDRM practice, which is an encouraging development towards improvement of quality in the CBDRM practices. These critical guidelines are by no means exhaustive. This output should be considered as „work in progress‟, which has been formulated upon the basis of experiences of participating organizations and individuals. Other individuals and organizations may have different experiences. The application of these guidelines in the field should allow further refinement. The document is divided into two parts. The first part titled as General Guidance describes the Background, source materials and principles of performance and outcome indicators, key definitions, elements of risk reduction, and the concept of resilient community. The second part is titled as “Guidelines for good practice in community-based disaster risk management”. It is divided into two sections. The first section is about Process Indicators, while the second is about Outcome Indicators. The Process Indicators discuss six process steps in the implementation of CBDRM programs and projects. For each process step, i) aim, ii) steps in this process, iii) key outcome indicators, iv) and guidance notes to implement CBDRM are discussed. The purpose of the first section is to describe the essential elements of a good CBDRM process. The purpose of the second section is to discuss the expected outcomes of a good CBDRM process. The Outcomes are about institutional arrangements and product outputs that a CBDRM program/project must endeavor to establish in the local community in order to ensure the continuity of community initiatives for disaster risk reduction after the completion of externally sponsored development initiatives. These outcome indicators can also serve as markers to gauge the success of an externally supported CBDRM process in developing capacity of local community to achieve sustainable development. If an externally supported process was able to establish the institutional arrangements described in the outcome indicators, that initiative could be described as a successful initiative, an otherwise assessment would mean more efforts were required to develop community capacity. It is suggested to adhere to the critical guidelines as minimum standards for CBDRR by practitioners in the region. However the challenge is the limited knowledge on critical guidelines and language barrier where ADPC has published these guidelines in English Language.

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2.3. Workbook on CBDRM for Local Authorities: Catalyst Agent for CBDRR Local Authorities play a critical role in facilitating CBDRR process and making an enabling environment for CBDRR. However it is widely recognized the limited knowledge and capacity of local authorities in the region on CBDRR. The purpose of this workbook is to facilitate the capacity building of local government officials on Community-based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) in PDRSEA target countries including Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Timor Léste and Vietnam. It is expected that the workbook will be adapted and used by National Disaster Management Offices (NDMO) and NGOs in the countries of South East Asia for training the local government officials.

2.3.1. Target Users The workbook is primarily intended for those who will train the lowest government political structure and those who will facilitate the implementation of CBDRM at the communities; e.g. district authorities giving training to village authorities. They can also be:       

National Disaster Management Offices Trainers at district, provincial and commune levels Provincial government officials District government officials NGOs/CBOs Line Ministries International organizations; e.g. IFRC, National Societies

The primary beneficiaries of this workbook will be the local government officials who will do CBDRM activities. Secondary beneficiaries will include NGOs and other nongovernment organizations. This workbook is for the participants during a training course, and is not a manual of operations.

2.3.2. Methodology The following steps were adopted while preparing the workbook:    

Review of existing training manuals and curricula in the region Discussion amongst ADPC staff members about the contents of the workbook Regional workshop on curriculum development for local authorities Revision on the basis of feedback from the Regional workshop

2.3.3. Training Modules There are altogether 5 training modules and 20 training sessions in this workbook. The following topics have been covered:   

Module 1: Introduction and Overview of Key Concepts Module 2: Community Risk, Needs and Damage Assessment Module 3: Disaster Risk Reduction Planning

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Module 4: Community Managed Implementation Module 5: Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation

Each module is structured as: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Learning objectives of the session Key concepts Reference materials: content of the session References

2.3.4. Training Methods This workbook can be used for both in-house training with field exercises and self-study. At the end of each session, note page for „New Learning and Reflection‟ have been included.

2.4. Media Kit for CBDRM- Tool for Enhancing the Role of Media in CBDRR Disasters cause huge loss of life and property and they damage the environment in the countries of region. Disasters are caused by hazards which impact upon vulnerable people, infrastructure, assets and environment. Some of the common hazards experienced in the region include typhoons, floods, drought, forest fires, landslide, earthquakes and tsunami. We can avoid and reduce losses from disasters, by either mitigating the hazards or reducing the vulnerabilities of the people living in hazard prone areas. The process of disaster risk reduction involves identification of hazards/ vulnerabilities, analyzing their potential impact, identifying priorities for risk reduction and identification and implementation of solutions. In order to reduce risks to disasters everybody needs to get involved. This includes government departments, scientific organizations, research institutions, NGOs, United Nations agencies, donor agencies, the media, and the private sector. The role of at-risk communities and groups is most important in reducing the risks of disasters. All of the above stakeholders have different perceptions about the nature of risks, priorities for risk reduction and the appropriate solutions. Therefore, extensive communication amongst the multiple stakeholders is required in order to understand each other‟s opinions and identify solutions that are acceptable to each other. The role of at-risk communities is highly important in this whole process because ultimately a large number of solutions will be implemented at the family and community level by the local people. Therefore, any solutions implemented without the participation and involvement of the at-risk communities either may not be relevant or not sufficient to reduce disaster risks effectively. The experiences in the Asian region show that the at-risk communities have many capacities to reduce risks and cope with disasters when they occur. However, it is important to enhance their capacities further to enable them to effectively cope with the disaster problem. Historically, the media has been playing an active role in disaster situations. Whenever a disaster occurs, the media has to cover it to provide information about what happened, what authorities and international aid organizations are doing to respond and how effective the response is. The media also has been playing an important part in communicating early warning to at-risk communities. Recently the role of the media is being

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recognized in other phases of the disaster cycle as well, e.g. the Pre-Disaster Phase and the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Phase, aside from the During-Disaster Phase, in which the media is already an active player. Now the governments, United Nations, donor agencies, and development NGOs have recognized that the media can assist in reducing disaster risks. The media plays an important role in providing analysis on disaster risks and vulnerabilities, in facilitating communication amongst multiple stakeholders, in highlighting the need for longer term actions to reduce risks, and particularly in increasing awareness of the at-risk communities on disaster preparedness. Thus Media can perform a very important function of facilitating communication amongst the different stakeholders in general, as well as raising awareness of the at-risk communities. This role of the media was acknowledged in the World Conference on Disaster Reduction (WCDR) that was held in Kobe, Japan at the initiative of the United Nations in January 2005. In line with the recommendations of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, produced in the WCDR, the ADPC, UNESCAP and DIPECHO have decided to work with the media in five Southeast Asian countries, i.e. Cambodia, Timor Léste, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam. The purpose of this initiative is to orient the media about its role in disaster risk management and particularly on how media can enable the at-risk communities to reduce disaster risks, cope with disasters and recover from their impact. Under this initiative, National Orientation Workshops for the Media were organized in the five countries during 2005. The National Orientation Workshop for the Media had the following objectives:  

To orient media people on community-based disaster risk management practices; and To develop strategies for the involvement of media in supporting community action for disaster risk management.

This Media Kit has been developed as a guide for media professionals in the five countries:   

as a Handout for the National Orientation Workshop for Media; to raise the awareness of media about its role in disaster risk reduction; and to enable them to perform that role in an effective manner.

The Handbook is Comprised of Two Parts. Part one explains the key concepts of disaster and media, CBDRM, the role of media in disaster risk management, and useful information for the media on disaster preparedness. Part two includes country-based resources such as hazard profiles, case studies on CBDRM, and contact information of national and regional organizations engaged in disaster risk management.

2.5. Guidebook on Advocacy for Integrating CBDRR into Government Policy and Programming The goal of this guidebook is to develop and strengthen the skills and knowledge of stakeholders on designing and implementing advocacy strategies to integrate CBDRM into

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policy, planning and programming of local authorities in South East Asian countries. This guide was developed through consultative process and materials included have been selected from the outputs of a regional workshop on CBDRM advocacy that was held by the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) in Bangkok from 18-21 April 2006. The leading government and nongovernmental organization representatives those who are designing and implementing advocacy program on CDRR attended the workshop and discussed on the process, approaches, principles, strategies and tools of CBDRM advocacy as employed by them. Small country groups discussed their experience and lesson learned in CBDRR advocacy and ended up with a write-shop and plenary discussion. Content of this guide was formulated through this consultation and were able to develop as an advocacy tool for various stakeholders in CBDRR. Given the nature of different policy and governance structures in the countries, the advocacy guidelines of this guidebook range from greater community participation to focused lobbying with the decision makers. As a result, the countries with centralized hierarchies might call for simpler but deep advocacy strategies with long-term commitments on the part of the donors. However, in these cases it is difficult to have alternative sources of information needed for the advocacy campaigns other than those generated by the state-run structures. Advocacy on CBDRR in Asia has been approached in many different ways by Community organizations and other interested stakeholders. For this reason, users of the guidebook will find that there is no single prescribed way to undertake a successful advocacy intervention. This contextual necessity was well realized during the consultation process. Therefore a full-fledged session has been allocated to understand the governance and planning structures of the focused countries. Nevertheless, the present guidebook impresses upon the development and CBDRM practitioners and its advocates to go beyond targeting formal instruments and adopt developmental approaches to analyze advocacy environment and try to match their initiatives with dynamics of their respective politics. The participants‟ responses varied but we assume that empirical data coming out of this regional workshop must have a valid basis for their multiple responses, and it was also affirmed that despite the diversity of governance structures, the stages of the advocacy initiatives for such a diverse audience remained more or the same as following: Identifying policy issues; Selecting an advocacy objective; Researching audiences/ Stakeholders‟ analysis; Developing and delivering advocacy messages; Understanding the decision-making process; Building alliances; Making effective presentations; Fund raising for advocacy, and Evaluating and improving the advocacy. This Guidebook will help disaster and development practitioners to understand themes and issues of advocacy process for CBDRM and provide practical assistance in undertaking advocacy initiatives at national and local levels. ADPC sees in such a Guidebook an enabling tool for CBDRM practitioners to set common procedures and approaches for their lobbying with the government authorities and other stakeholders to mobilize resources and create conducive environment for CBDRM in their respective countries. However, the selection of advocacy field and its audience remains a question of critical curiosity; in that, whether to undertake CBDRM advocacy and lobbying on national level, or to initiate it at the local level to contribute to the integration of CBDRM into government policy making and programming in the focused countries of Southeast Asia.

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Whereas the CBDRM advocacy is cognizant of the fact that Local Government (LG) is the tier where governments directly interact with the people, it also is mindful that LG authorities need support from national level. National level advocacy is required for fund allocation, while if it has to sustain and be implemented it has to create meaningful ownership at the local level. One pragmatist answer to this dilemma of choosing the right advocacy field and audience lies in the nature of the governance structures that we have to operate within. The most centralized organizations demand advocacy at the top, while the decentralized structures are more conducive to aggregate public pressures and support the decentralized reforms. This resolve asks for focus upon stakeholder analysis, strategy and tool, and principle development, and to see if which of these have worked; which not and why so. Institutionalization and mainstreaming of the CBDRM by advocacy would naturally turn to questions like legal instruments, and striving to make it as part of the regular formal education process and national curriculum. As a component, our advocacy efforts would aim to find academic institutions to take ownership of the whole process within their routine programming. Research also helps in convincing people and motivates them by case studies, externally and sharpens planning skills within the advocate groups. The efficiency and affectability of this Guidebook is encouraged by the fact that ADPC invited authorities alongside the CBDRM advocates during its regional workshop. Obviously, its outputs also include the official version and evaluation of the advocacy process from their perspective; which is critical, because they in most of the cases stand as recipients of the advocacy undertaken by civil society. Hence a dual reception has been demonstrated to highlight aspects of CBDRM advocacy for integration. Two audiences have been kept in mind in preparing this Guidebook: first, the CDBRM practitioners coming from different strata of international to national and local agencies; and second, and development activists at the field and offices who have to secondarily complement their work with CBDRM initiatives at times. The Guidebook can moreover be useful for trainers who are looking for support material to assist them in designing and delivering training events on CBDRM advocacy. This has three parts; Part 1 defines over-all environment of advocacy for CBDRM. This provides working definitions of CBDRM and advocacy, and briefly explains utility of their interface. It would then set-out broad parameters, main beliefs, values/ethics, and philosophy for advocacy on CBDRM. Step-by-step stages, validated by the workshop participants in the light of their experience, have also been given. To exemplify and illustrate how best advocacy can affect change, and what is the roadmap to success, we have also elaborated two case studies from environment and gender; so that the readers can learn directly from these best practices. Although relevant for all CBDRM practitioners and organizations, this section is particularly helpful to those who are in the early phase of their interaction with the CBDRM, or to those general advocates within the development sector who aspire to undertake such advocacy. As learning, this would facilitate to set normative and academic framework of a training event. Part 2 reviews and monitors progress of CBDRM Advocacy in Southeast Asia. It identifies national and local stakeholders in each country - target agencies for advocacy on

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CBDRM/various categories of stakeholders undertaking advocacy. It also defines their interest and role in advocacy on CBDRM based on comparative advantages, and visits the functioning of various stakeholders; e.g. mechanisms and procedures for development planning; policies related to risk reduction, and related fields; programs having potential to support CBDRR; planning and funding cycles, and opportunities for and obstacles in advocacy faced by various stakeholders. This stakeholders‟ analysis is informed by five key questions in a tabular format:     

Local (Provincial, Municipal/City, Village) stakeholders? Interest and role in Advocacy? Their functions and responsibility? Opportunities for advocacy? Obstacles before advocacy groups?

In this section, the stakeholder analysis has also been elaborated and as to why it‟s vital to launch advocacy efforts from a developmental perspective that approaches analysis in terms of understanding dynamics of power and shifts from formal and constitutional political studies. This part also includes another section to discuss the current and previous experiences of participant on advocacy to promote/integrate CBDRM/ DRM in the government system. This reviewing part would map out the process of advocacy and what main approaches have been adapted by the CBDRM advocates. Empirical evidence as experienced by the regional workshop participants in their respective countries has also been included. They were asked to deconstruct one of their advocacy initiative/ campaign by highlighting the process steps against each step of the 9-point stages of advocacy: Previous experience (process, decisions, factors and, reasons behind selection); key lessons learnt against each steps and recommendations for future. While considering participants‟ work with the local and national authorities, they discussed and elaborated on the following questions:  

Weaknesses of various advocacy strategies adopted? Gaps in advocacy strategies adopted.

This part is the review and evaluation component of existing governance structures and how advocacy groups have dealt with obstacles. It also recommends approaches on how to understand of advocacy work that could have been reverted errors and could have presented the best possible ways to tackle particular problems while advocating. As learning, this would impart approaches to analyze stakeholders and national bodies on DM. It also provides how we can systemically plan our advocacy initiatives, and evaluates as process. How gaps can be logically identified and what lessons can be learnt? In the early 1990‟s leading [northern] NGOs became aware that the impact of their work was temporary and small-scale. As a result they identified strategies to scale up their impact:    

Co-operation with government Operational expansion Linking the grassroots together National and international lobbying and advocacy

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In the last 10 years NGOs have focused on scaling up through advocacy, trying to persuade different groups of actors or targets - individuals, states, corporations, international organizations - to alter their policies and behaviors in relation to development issues. Development and emergency work alone are unlikely to produce sustained improvements in the lives of impoverished people. Advocacy is a tool that can draw on programme experience to show the impact existing public policies have on the poor and to suggest alternatives. Advocacy, especially southern advocacy, is linked to empowerment. A mean to an end that can facilitate the process by which people, through articulating their own needs and desires, gain the confidence and ability to influence decisions which will affect their own future. The opportunities for NGOs to affect policy are increasing for a variety of reasons – the rise of participatory development, work with partners and the rights-based approach makes working with southern counterparts easier. In addition many NGOs (North and South) are increasingly expected to act as an arm of the state to compensate for cuts in expenditure and therefore have a more direct involvement in policy development. Part 3 is a future-oriented section of the Guidebook, and is actually is the text where the definitional issues and progress of practical advocacy has been culminated into key advocacy messages and guidelines from the perspectives of individual countries. It deals first with developing specific key messages emanating from actual advocacy needs of the participants‟ countries. These messages can be drafted in the light of two considerations: First, the stakeholders have to highlight why authorities should be keen to integrate CBDRM with their planning and programming processes. This would entail selling benefits and incentives of CBDRM to local authorities and other stakeholders; e.g. improving governance, environmental sustainability, poverty alleviation. Second; what do we expect authorities to do to integrate CBDRM in the local national authority system? By which specific steps they can ensure that the CBDRM has been integrated with the LG system? How can they integrate? To conclude, this part provides guidelines on what is required for an affirmative advocacy action to integrate CBRDM into official planning and programming of the focused South Asian Countries. What are the recommended strategies?

2.6. Where and How these Tools are Being Used All these tools were developed under the Partnership for Disaster Risk Reduction in South Asia (PDRSEA) project which was implemented since 2001-2008. The partners were INGOs, NGOSs, Civil Society Organizations and Government agencies at national and local levels from Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippine. Later, these tools were widely circulated and used in other disaster prone countries in Asia such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Maldives, Afghanistan, Timor Leste, Nepal etc by various DRR players such as NGOs, INGOs, civil society organization and local authorities through their regular training courses, project implementation and learning workshops.

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CONCLUSION There are number of tools available within Asia that can readily be used by CBDRR practitioners in reducing disaster risks. This ranges from different thematic areas such as participatory risk assessment, risk reduction planning, Critical guidelines on CBDRR, involvement of media in risk reduction, CBDRR and Local governance, advocacy for CBDRR etc. Most of the CBDRR practitioners are familiar with participatory risk assessment and risk reduction planning. However it is well recognized that other tools such as critical guidelines as minimum standards for CBDRR, media kit to enhance media participation in risk reduction, advocacy for mainstreaming CBDRR into national policies and programs are yet to maximize their usage in community based disaster risk reduction. Community based disaster risk management is a holistic process where all stakeholder are involved while the community at risk are playing a major role. Therefore CBDRR practitioners need to well equip with these tools bringing together all these stakeholders for effective disaster risk reduction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The Partnerships for Disaster Reduction - South East Asia Phase 3 (PDRSEA3) program was jointly implemented by Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) and the UNESCAP with funding support from the European Commission Humanitarian Aid Department (ECHO) under its „Fourth DIPECHO Action Plan for Southeast Asia‟. The one-year project, which commenced in February 2005, aims to establish an improved, enabling environment for CBDRM through promoting ownership in national programs and local entities, enhancing the capabilities of CBDRM practitioners and the expansion of new and strengthening of existing partnerships in Southeast Asia particularly in the target countries Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Timor Léste and Vietnam. Therefore ADPC acknowledges the support given by DIPECHO and UNESCAP in producing all these CBDRR tools under this project. The Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), established in 1986 is a regional, inter-governmental, non-profit organization and resource center based in Bangkok, Thailand. ADPC is mandated to promote safer communities and sustainable development through the reduction of the impact of disasters in response to the needs of countries and communities in Asia and the Pacific by raising awareness, helping to establish and strengthen sustainable institutional mechanisms, enhancing knowledge and skills, and facilitating the exchange of information, experience and expertise. Its service as the longest serving center in DRR in the world is greatly appreciated.

REFERENCES Abarquez I., Murshed, Z. 2004. Field Practitioners’ Handbook. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, Bangkok. Kanta K., Murshed Z. 2006. Participant’s workbook, community based disaster risk management for local authorities. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center , Bangkok.

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Asian Disaster Preparedness Center-ADPC. 2006. Critical Guidelines for Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, Bangkok. Vicky, P. and Murshed, Z. 2006, Community Based Disaster Management and the Media. Bangkok: Asian Disaster Preparedness Center Iqbal B. 2006, Guidebook on Advocacy; Integrating CBDRM into Local Government Policy and Programming. Asian Disaster Preparedness Center, Bangkok.

CBDRR DOWNLOADABLE AT Field practitioner‟s handbook on CBDRR: http://www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs/ CBDRM/Publications/Downloads/Publications/12Handbk.pdf. Critical Guidelines on CBDRR http://www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs/ CBDRM/Publications/ Downloads/Publications/guidefull.pdf. Workbook on CBDRM for Local Authorities http://www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs /CBDRM/Publications/Downloads/Publications/curriculum-cbdrm.pdf. Media kit for CBDRM-http://www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs/CBDRM/ Publications/ Downloads/Publications/pdrseamediakit.pdf. Guidebook on Advocacy for integrating CBDRR into government policy and programming http://www.adpc.net/v2007/Programs/CBDRM /Downloads/Publications/advocacyfull.pdf.

INDEX A accommodation, 67, 70 accountability, 10, 42, 102 action research, 4 adaptability, 66 adaptation, 31, 32, 36, 37, 38, 131, 144, 146 adaptive mechanisms, viii, 31 advocacy, 47, 53, 160, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 Afghanistan, 168 agencies, ix, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 18, 28, 29, 58, 71, 73, 76, 79, 80, 83, 93, 96, 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 110, 114, 122, 124, 129, 136, 140, 147, 154, 158, 163, 166, 168 agricultural production, ix, 73, 74 agriculture, xi, 18, 27, 32, 33, 66, 116, 129, 135, 139, 149, 152 apex, 34, 155 appraisals, 19 aquaculture, 27, 125 arsenic, 84 Asia, 15, 30, 40, 49, 53, 93, 120, 131, 134, 152, 157, 158, 159, 160, 165, 168, 169 Asian countries, 158, 160 Asian localities, vii aspiration, 110, 116 assessment, 6, 10, 24, 25, 27, 29, 41, 42, 49, 56, 59, 60, 62, 64, 68, 69, 71, 77, 97, 98, 99, 136, 137, 144, 146, 147, 159, 161, 169 assets, ix, xi, 6, 56, 70, 99, 107, 134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 144, 145, 163 authorities, 6, 7, 11, 12, 68, 100, 122, 125, 127, 128, 160, 162, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168 awareness, viii, ix, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 35, 39, 42, 46, 60, 78, 100, 101, 107, 110, 113, 126, 128, 129, 131, 164

B Bangladesh, ix, 54, 73, 74, 75, 76, 88, 89, 92, 94, 134, 149, 150, 151, 156, 158, 168 banks, 137, 140, 150 barriers, 71, 95 behaviors, 168 Belgium, 14 benchmarks, 161 beneficiaries, 151, 152, 154, 156, 162 benefits, 27, 28, 29, 42, 60, 146, 168 biodiversity, 38 birds, 140 bleeding, 100 boils, 33 bones, 100 borrowers, 96, 97, 98 brass, 21 budget resolution, 47 building code, 65 burn, 142

C Cabinet, 76 Cambodia, 158, 160, 162, 164, 168, 169 campaigns, 60, 165 canals, 45, 99, 121, 153, 155 capacity building, ix, x, 58, 93, 99, 101, 111, 119, 123, 124, 160, 162 case study, x, 9, 43, 78, 88, 133 cash, 97, 98 catalyst, 46, 72 catchments, 19, 140 categorization, 60, 65 cattle, xi, 149 CBDRM, vii, x, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 42, 43, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 65, 71, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127,

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128, 129, 130, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170 census, 56, 121 Centre for Disaster Management of the Bandung Institute of Technology, vii, 2 chemical, 94, 151, 152 China, 14, 34, 94, 118, 120, 134, 149 cities, 40, 47, 51, 54, 123 citizens, 4, 42 citizenship, viii, 39, 42 civic, viii, 39, 42, 46, 52, 53 civil society, 3, 4, 166, 168 classes, 87 classification, 87 cleaning, 48 clients, 97, 98 climate, viii, 3, 5, 18, 31, 32, 37, 38, 56, 59, 120, 128, 129, 131 climate change, 3, 5, 38, 56, 59, 128, 129, 131 clusters, 33, 136, 137 collateral, 139 common sense, viii, 31 communication, 6, 7, 10, 11, 22, 23, 25, 44, 45, 48, 67, 68, 71, 110, 156, 163 communication systems, 68 Community based disaster, vii, xi, 1, 14, 120, 122, 157, 169 community based flood early warning system (CBFEWS), viii, 17, 19 Community involvement, viii, 39 comparative advantage, 167 compensation, 70 compilation, vii, 1, 62, 111 complement, 166 complexity, 3 compounds, 143 computation, 85 conference, 13 conflict, 155 consensus, viii, x, 13, 39, 77, 125, 127, 133, 161 conservation, 111 construction, 32, 33, 36, 37, 46, 47, 49, 64, 108, 124, 130, 139, 143 consumption, xi, 149, 150 contingency, 8, 20, 28 conventional flood management, x, 133 convergence, 18 cooking, 101, 141, 142 coordination, 3, 6, 23, 41, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 58, 71, 98, 115, 126 coping strategies, 18, 77, 144 correlation, 24 corruption, 37

cost, 18, 19, 21, 26, 29, 88, 99, 101, 104 counseling, 70 covering, 18, 78, 94 critical infrastructure, 44, 49 critical value, 79 crop production, 136, 152 crops, 129, 135, 138, 150, 151, 152, 153 crowd control, 46 cultivation, 151, 152 cultural norms, 37 cultural practices, 32 cultural values, 20 culture, x, 7, 31, 40, 46, 66, 71, 72, 92, 107, 113, 116, 160 currency, 154 curricula, 162 curriculum, 126, 158, 162, 166, 170 curriculum development, 162 cycles, 139, 160, 167 Cyclone Nargis, v, ix, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 101, 105 cyclones, 18, 75, 84, 96, 100, 101, 129

D danger, 35, 143 data analysis, 77, 80 data collection, 50 database, 72, 77, 80, 134 deaths, 69, 108, 135, 142 debris flows, viii, 8, 32, 55 decentralization, 41, 47 decision makers, 13, 88, 165 decision-making process, 165 defecation, 92 defects, 43 deficit, 150 degradation, 3, 108, 138 Delta, ix, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 105, 121, 125 democracy, 47, 124, 130 demonstrations, viii, 55 Department of the Interior, 52 deposits, 136 destruction, 27, 34, 74, 76, 95, 101, 140 developing countries, 94, 134 disability, 100 disappointment, 150 disaster education program, x, 107, 110 Disaster management, vii, 53 disaster management institutions, x, 119, 122 Disaster preparedness, vii, 12 disaster risk management, vii, viii, ix, x, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 27, 39, 40, 42, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52,

Index 53, 55, 59, 60, 65, 68, 72, 113, 119, 120, 123, 125, 131, 133, 134, 146, 159, 160, 161, 164, 169 disasters, vii, viii, ix, x, 2, 3, 4, 9, 13, 18, 28, 32, 37, 40, 42, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 92, 93, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 134, 135, 146, 160, 163, 169 dismantlement, 99 disruption of communication, ix, 73, 74 divergence, 137 diversity, 121, 160, 165 DOC, 20, 25 donors, viii, 17, 19, 97, 98, 122, 123, 126, 165 downstream communities, viii, 17 draft, 20, 59 drainage, 42, 76, 94, 122, 125, 138, 139, 143, 146, 151, 155 drawing, 111 drinking water, 69, 80, 81, 97, 144 drought, vii, 1, 2, 8, 74, 120, 121, 124, 125, 163 drugs, 141 drying, 144 dykes, 125, 144

E early warning, viii, ix, 8, 10, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, 30, 41, 44, 46, 50, 51, 53, 54, 100, 102, 104, 107, 111, 113, 118, 129, 134, 140, 163 Early warning systems, vii, 13, 17 East Asia, 105, 123, 131, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 165, 169 East Timor, 159 economic activity, 122 economic change, 121 economic development, 52, 125, 160 economic growth, 152 economic loss, ix, 73, 74, 99 economic status, 36, 56 ecosystem, 94, 125 education, x, 8, 10, 39, 42, 107, 108, 110, 111, 116, 150 election, 102 emergency, vii, ix, 4, 6, 18, 20, 22, 25, 27, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 48, 51, 53, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 73, 76, 77, 88, 89, 92, 97, 100, 102, 129, 131, 134, 139, 143, 147, 168 employment, 42 empowerment, x, 6, 107, 108, 110, 168 encouragement, 72, 128 energy, 33 engineering, 66, 134, 145, 150

173

English Language, 161 entrepreneurs, 46 environmental degradation, 59, 122 environmental management, 12 environmental sustainability, 168 epidemic, 2, 69 EPR, 10 equipment, 8, 19, 20, 21, 23, 41, 43, 45, 97, 108 equity, 42 erosion, 40, 74, 94, 153 ethics, 166 ethnic groups, 140 ethnicity, 62, 72 Eurasia, 93 European Commission, 169 evacuation, x, 7, 8, 10, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 52, 53, 63, 66, 67, 68, 99, 107, 108, 111, 114, 115, 116, 125, 142, 143, 145 evapotranspiration, 131 execution, 46, 72 exercise, 18, 25, 45, 63, 84, 101 expertise, 9, 72, 94, 96, 97, 98, 101, 158, 169 exposure, 51, 56 extraction, 139

F fabrication, 20 facilitators, x, 9, 59, 101, 119, 139 factories, 63 famine, 150 farm land, 32, 97 farm size, 156 farmers, 77, 94, 144, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155 farms, 103 fauna, 62 fever, 141 financial relief, 70 financial resources, 37, 97, 126 financial support, 72 fine tuning, 70 fire fighting, 8 first aid, 45, 48, 67, 68, 99, 100, 102, 129 first responders, 53 fish, 94, 141 fishing, 11, 50, 94, 97, 143 flash floods, viii, 32, 33, 35, 37, 55, 124, 128 flight, 95 flood hazard, vii, 5, 17, 19, 20, 37, 40, 41, 45, 134, 145, 146 flood hazards, 37, 134, 146 flood prone villages, vii, 2

174

Index

flooding, 18, 19, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 42, 43, 50, 51, 71, 94, 99, 108, 138, 140, 142, 143, 150 floods problems, x, 133 flora, 62 fluid, 141 food security, 98 forecasting, 21, 30, 89, 108, 134, 137, 140, 145 forest fires, viii, 55, 63, 120, 163 formal education, 166 formula, 79 foundations, x, 71, 133 France, 123 fruits, 153 funding, 4, 10, 11, 12, 27, 30, 61, 97, 124, 130, 160, 167, 169 fusion, 145

health care, 10, 97 height, 25, 111, 142, 143, 144 herbal medicine, 141 highlands, 121 Highlands, 124 Hindu Kush, v, viii, 31 homelessness, 108 Hong Kong, 128, 129 host, 33, 160 House, 35 housing, viii, 31, 32, 66 human capital, 101 Human Development Index, 135 human resources, 9, 12, 61, 67, 116, 129 human security, 131 humanitarian aid, 99 hygiene, 36, 78, 79, 83, 91, 92, 97

G GDP, 18, 122, 135 geography, 125, 137 Germany, 105 GIS based Management Information System (GMIS), ix, 73 good urban governance, viii, 39, 40, 42, 43, 53 goods and services, 99 google, 15 governance, viii, 39, 40, 42, 43, 47, 52, 53, 127, 156, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 government policy, 165, 170 governments, xi, 9, 157, 166 GPS, 49 grass, 3, 6, 134, 141, 142, 154 grassroots, 94, 124, 130, 167 grazing, 141 groundwater, 151 group activities, 156 growth rate, 121 guidance, 49, 158, 161 guidelines, 30, 65, 147, 160, 161, 165, 168, 169

H hailstorms, viii, 55, 63 Haiti, 98 harbors, 125 harmful effects, 44 harvesting, 151, 152 hazard prone areas, viii, 31, 32, 137, 163 hazards, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 18, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 42, 44, 56, 59, 60, 62, 63, 65, 66, 77, 98, 101, 102, 108, 122, 137, 146, 159, 163

I ideal, 18, 152 images, 13, 15 immunization, 67 impact assessment, 126 Impact Assessment, 13 incidence, 19, 100, 136 independence, 5 India, viii, 35, 36, 38, 55, 56, 57, 60, 63, 68, 72, 94, 134, 149 indigenous knowledge, 43, 58, 72 Indonesia, vii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 54, 107, 117, 118, 134, 158, 160, 162, 164, 168, 169 Indonesian Society for Disaster Management, vii, 1, 4, 5 inertia, 146 information exchange, 76 information technology, 100 infrastructure, viii, ix, 27, 31, 32, 47, 50, 53, 56, 62, 66, 71, 93, 97, 99, 100, 104, 121, 122, 135 insecticide, 152 insects, 151, 152 institutions, x, 12, 26, 100, 109, 110, 116, 119, 122, 124, 130, 166 integration, 5, 11, 45, 104, 160, 165, 166 interface, 166 interference, 129 intervention, x, 19, 28, 79, 104, 119, 123, 133, 139, 152, 154, 165 interventions, viii, ix, 2, 3, 37, 55, 56, 73, 100, 125, 135, 140, 146, 150 intrusions, 120 ISC, 156

Index isolation, 138

J Japan, 14, 15, 30, 118, 119, 133, 164 Java, ix, 8, 14, 107, 114, 118 jurisdiction, 48, 154, 155

K Kenya, 54

L lakes, xi, 34, 63, 149 landscape, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37 language barrier, 161 Laos, 94 lead, 9, 13, 19, 29, 33, 58, 61, 89, 138 leadership, viii, 18, 28, 52, 55, 102, 103, 129 leakage, 69 learning, 2, 9, 59, 72, 98, 102, 111, 166, 167, 168 legend, 45 legislation, 47, 53 levees, 40, 99 lightning, viii, 55 literacy, 72, 139, 156 livestock, 36, 49, 56, 64, 69, 91, 97, 135, 138, 141, 142, 143 lobbying, 165, 167 local authorities, vii, xi, 6, 11, 17, 124, 125, 126, 127, 157, 162, 165, 168, 169 local communities, vii, x, 6, 9, 32, 94, 97, 98, 99, 119, 146 local community, viii, 6, 7, 55, 71, 77, 92, 98, 101, 113, 114, 115, 120, 145, 161 local government, viii, xi, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 28, 29, 30, 47, 52, 110, 124, 128, 129, 153, 157, 162 local government unit (LGU), viii, 17 logging, 138, 153 logistics, 98, 116, 129 lying, 11, 35, 40, 122, 137, 139, 142

M magnitude, 37, 40, 84, 100 majority, 91, 97, 111, 134, 141, 158, 159 malnutrition, 150 management, vii, viii, ix, x, xi, 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 29, 30, 39, 42, 43, 47, 48, 52, 53,

175

55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 73, 76, 77, 107, 109, 110, 111, 113, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 164 management committee, 48, 142 manpower, 50, 127 manure, 94, 152 mapping, 27, 49, 80, 84, 131, 137, 145, 146, 147 matrix, 65, 79, 80, 82 media, 13, 29, 46, 53, 67, 92, 163, 164, 169 media messages, 67 messages, 45, 100, 165, 168 messengers, 38 meter, 22, 39, 149, 153 methodology, viii, 55, 59, 60, 65, 72, 77 Microfinance, v, ix, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98 missions, 9 modelling, 96 models, vii, 1, 125, 126 modules, 162 momentum, 12 motivation, 50, 60, 154, 156 Mt. Merapi of Java, ix, 107 mutual assistance, viii, 17, 18 Myanmar, ix, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105

N NAD, 14 national goal, ix, 73 National Law on Disaster Management, vii, 1 Natural Disaster Risk Management Project (NDRMP), x, 119, 120 natural disasters, 18, 74, 76, 77, 99, 105, 121, 122, 128, 129, 135 natural hazards, x, 3, 38, 56, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124 natural resources, 3, 62 neglect, 56 Nepal, 31, 34, 35, 38, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 146, 147, 149, 168 Netherlands, 123 network density, 23 NGOs, ix, 5, 29, 48, 76, 91, 93, 96, 99, 123, 128, 158, 159, 160, 162, 163, 167, 168 normal distribution, 79 nutrition, 42

176

Index

O obstacles, 167 obstruction, 23 oceans, xi, 149 operations, 18, 42, 66, 68, 97, 98, 104, 127 opportunities, 52, 134, 155, 158, 167, 168 optimum output, 152 organize, 6, 129, 153 overlap, 137, 152 ownership, ix, 20, 30, 46, 81, 93, 102, 104, 107, 156, 158, 159, 166, 169

P Pacific, 18, 30, 169 Pact, Inc, ix, 93, 94 Pakistan, 33, 34, 38, 54, 150, 168 paradigm shift, 28, 48 PCA, 146 periodicity, 49 peri-urban, 5 Philippines, viii, 17, 18, 26, 27, 29, 30, 39, 40, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 134, 158, 159, 160 physical environment, x, 133, 146 physical features, 32 pigs, 94 pilot programmes, viii, 55 plants, 63, 151 platform, 23, 42, 101 police, 42, 63, 68 policy makers, 3, 156 political leaders, 136 political parties, 28, 139 politics, 72, 165 pollution, 125 population density, 56, 62 population growth, 121 population size, 79, 135 positive feedback, 138 potato, 141, 144 poultry, 142 poverty, 56, 59, 134, 138, 141, 145, 156, 168 poverty alleviation, 168 precipitation, 50, 121 preparation, 48, 60, 62, 130 preparedness, vii, ix, x, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 28, 29, 32, 38, 41, 44, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 60, 64, 66, 93, 98, 114, 119, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 133, 134, 140, 141, 164 prevention, vii, x, 8, 28, 64, 66, 71, 113, 119, 120, 129, 131, 135

principles of governance, viii, 39 profit, 169 program outcomes, 104 programming, 104, 160, 165, 166, 168, 170 project, vii, ix, x, 2, 5, 8, 9, 15, 19, 20, 21, 27, 29, 43, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 61, 88, 93, 97, 99, 102, 104, 117, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156, 158, 161, 168, 169 proliferation, 40 propaganda, 125, 130 psychology, 9 Public - private partnership approach, ix, 73 public awareness, 46, 113 public safety, 42 public schools, 34 public service, 47 pumps, 144, 151 PVA, 136 PVC, 21

Q quality of life, 56

R radio, 10, 45, 46 rain data, viii, 17 rainfall, 8, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 29, 30, 32, 121, 140 reactive intervention, x, 133 reception, 166 recognition, 28, 52, 53, 96, 127, 158 recommendations, 114, 116, 136, 164, 167 reconstruction, 68, 70, 82, 97 recovery plan, 70 redevelopment, 68, 70 reforms, 166 rehabilitation, vii, ix, 28, 42, 68, 70, 73, 98, 129 rehydration, 141 relatives, 97, 142 relevance, 4 reliability, 22, 50, 145 relief, ix, xi, 2, 4, 6, 41, 42, 46, 48, 50, 51, 67, 68, 69, 73, 76, 97, 98, 99, 101, 104, 105, 128, 134, 138, 140, 143, 145, 150 rent, 46 repair, 82, 83 replication, 114, 125 reputation, 97 requirements, 64, 72, 126 research institutions, 163 researchers, 4, 8

Index resettlement, 68 resilience, x, 2, 3, 4, 6, 32, 36, 40, 66, 84, 104, 113, 114, 124, 133, 134, 139, 145 resistance, 28 resolution, 20, 29 resources, viii, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, 20, 37, 47, 50, 56, 57, 58, 62, 63, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 74, 77, 94, 102, 108, 113, 120, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 139, 143, 144, 145, 154, 160, 164, 165 response time, 98, 100 rights, 168 risk assessment, x, 5, 41, 43, 49, 52, 56, 57, 65, 119, 122, 159, 169 risk factors, 160 risk management, vii, viii, x, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, 15, 27, 39, 40, 42, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 55, 59, 60, 65, 68, 72, 113, 119, 120, 122, 123, 125, 131, 133, 134, 135, 141, 146, 159, 160, 161, 164, 169 risk perception, 50 risks, viii, ix, xi, 2, 35, 38, 41, 42, 46, 55, 56, 63, 65, 66, 72, 73, 101, 113, 122, 125, 126, 137, 157, 159, 163 river basin, viii, 2, 17, 18, 19, 20, 32, 40, 122, 131, 135, 140 river basins, 18, 32, 122 river behavior, viii, 17 river systems, 40 rubber, 141 rules, 154 runoff, 19 rural areas, 11, 120 rural development, xi, 157

S salinity, 74, 94, 155 saltwater, 94 saving lives, 11, 65 savings, 97, 100, 104, 139, 154 savings account, 97, 104 scaling, 11, 168 scarcity, 32, 84, 85, 86, 87 scientific knowledge, 145 SEA, 13, 158 sea level, 39, 125, 150 seasonality, 62 sediment, 108, 118 seed, 104, 144, 151, 152 self help, viii, 17, 18, 72 self-study, 163 sensitivity, 3 sensitization, 60

177

sensors, 8 septic tank, 82 settlements, 33, 39, 40, 138, 142 shape, 19 shelf life, 67 shelter, 42, 67, 85, 86, 87, 97, 98, 100, 115, 139, 143 shock, 100 shortage, 9, 144 shrubs, 34 SIDR, ix, 73, 77, 78, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 91, 92 signals, 67 signs, 45, 111 simulation, 44, 45, 68, 129 Singapore, 105 skilled personnel, 139 skin, 141 skits, 60 SMS, 88, 90, 92 social acceptance, 145 social capital, 120 social infrastructure, 99, 102 social institutions, 10 social life, 120 social norms, 139 social problems, 111 social resources, 56 social sciences, 145, 146, 147 social workers, 136 software, 79, 87, 88, 89 soil erosion, 36 solidarity, 52 South Africa, 146 South Asia, 32, 150, 168 Southeast Asia, 2, 53, 158, 164, 165, 166, 169 soybeans, 94 specialization, 126 Sri Lanka, 54, 158, 168 staffing, 67 stakeholder analysis, 166, 167 stakeholders, 3, 5, 20, 26, 29, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 58, 60, 61, 77, 109, 110, 114, 124, 126, 130, 136, 143, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 stars, 140 states, 129, 149 statistics, 62 stockpiling, 42, 67 stomach, 141 storage, 36, 67, 142, 144, 145 storms, 2, 120, 121, 122, 127, 129, 139, 140 storytelling, 11 stoves, 142 strategy use, 9

178

Index

stressors, 32 stretching, 120 structural dimension, 32 style, 32, 59 subgroups, 140 subsistence, 139 subsistence farming, 139 Sun, 35, 144 supervision, 46, 127 surface area, xi, 149 surplus, 78 survival, 33, 48, 70, 104 survivors, ix, 51, 93, 96, 99, 101, 104 susceptibility, 44 sustainability, vii, 2, 5, 17, 20, 26, 28, 30, 42, 102, 104, 110, 114, 116, 123, 124, 125, 128, 131, 145 sustainable development, x, 13, 98, 102, 119, 158, 161, 169 sustainable economic growth, 42 Sweden, 31 Switzerland, 147

transportation, 67, 128 trauma, 69, 99, 101, 104 trial, 153 tropical storms, 120, 121, 128 turnover, 20, 28

U UK, 131 UNESCO, 4, 5, 13, 14, 15 UNICEF, ix, 73, 76, 78, 79, 83, 88, 91, 92, 97 unions, 85, 87 United Nations (UN), 6, 11, 13, 14, 15, 27, 30, 42, 53, 54, 60, 92, 123, 160, 163 United Nations Development Programme, 6, 27, 60, 123 updating, 48, 115 upstream catchment, viii, 17 urban areas, 15, 29 urban life, 42 urban population, 121 Uttarakhand, v, viii, 55, 56, 57, 63, 72

T target, x, 68, 111, 113, 119, 153, 154, 156, 162, 166, 169 teachers, 69, 111 team members, 101 technical assistance, 29, 45 technical support, 76 technologies, 57, 79, 134 technology, 21, 124, 130 temperature, 129 tenure, 26, 28, 42 territory, 63, 68, 120, 149 Thailand, 13, 30, 94, 158, 160, 168, 169 Third World, 99 threats, ix, 107 tides, 40 time frame, 11, 98 time lags, 127 time periods, 36 timely warnings, viii, 17 tornadoes, 78 tourism, 116 traditions, 11, 37 training, viii, xi, 8, 9, 20, 25, 29, 41, 43, 44, 45, 48, 55, 59, 66, 71, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 115, 126, 129, 152, 157, 158, 162, 163, 166, 168 transmission, 22, 25 transparency, viii, 10, 39, 42, 43, 53 transplantation, 144 transport, 66, 67

V validation, 53, 131 variables, 140 variations, 120 varieties, 94, 150 vegetables, 141, 153 vehicles, 143 ventilation, 67 victims, 8, 66, 68, 69, 99, 101, 134, 143 Vietnam, x, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 134, 158, 162, 164, 169 village level planning, ix, 93 vision, 158 volatility, 122 Volunteers, 8, 29 vulnerability, x, 3, 5, 6, 18, 42, 47, 49, 52, 53, 56, 59, 62, 64, 65, 66, 77, 84, 85, 86, 87, 98, 119, 120, 128, 135, 136, 137, 138, 145, 146 vulnerable people, 64, 163

W warning systems, vii, 13, 17, 18, 19, 66, 100 Washington, 94 water, viii, xi, 2, 3, 12, 13, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, 40, 43, 45, 50, 51, 62, 63, 66, 69, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91,

Index 94, 97, 99, 101, 104, 113, 121, 128, 134, 138, 139, 140, 143, 144, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 155, 156 water quality, 69 water resources, 38, 113, 139, 154, 155 Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH), ix, 73 watershed, viii, 9, 17, 19 wealth, xi, 149 welfare, 42, 66 wells, 49, 91

179

West Rapti River Basin, vi, x, 133 wildfire, 8 wood, 21, 36, 101 World Bank, 120, 123, 131

Y yield, 150, 151, 153 young women, 67

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