MONOGRAFIES 6
ENRAHONAR
M
Antoni Malet
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals Studies on SeventeenthCentury Mathematizations of Infinitely Small Quantities
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Servei de Publicacions Bellaterra, 1996
DADES CATALOGRAFIQUES RECOMANADES PEL SERVEI DE BIBLIOTEQUES DE LA UNIVERSITAT AUTÓNOMA DE BARCELONA
Malet, Antoni ('ram Indivi,ibles to Infinitesimals : Studies on SeventeenthCentury Mathematizations of Infinitely Small Quantities. (Enrahonar. Monografies : 6)
ISBN 8449005205
1. Universitat Aut6noma de Barcelona. Departament de Filosofia (BeIlaterra) [1. Universitat Aut6noma de Barcelona. Servei de Publicacions (Bellaterra) lll. Col·lecció l. Infinit (Matematica) Historia S. XVII 2. Caleul Historia S. XVII 511"16"
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Imprcs en paper ecologic
A la Clara
CONTENTS 9
PREFACE
CHAPTER l. THE SEVENTEENTHCENTURY METHOD OF INDIVISIBLES
11
Bonavenrura Cavalieri's Indivisibles. Indivisibles and «the analyrical an of quadrature». Limirs in Geomeuical Oprics.
CHAPTER 2. REMAKING INDIVISIBLES: PASCAL, BARRO\X!, WALLIS
23
Torricelli. Pascal. Barrow. Wallis. Discussing the Hom Angle. Infiniresimals in Mathemarical Proof
CHAPTER 3. OPPOSING INDIVISIBLES: HUYGENS, GREGORIE, NE\X!TON
51
Boulliau. Huygens. James Gregorie on Quadratures. Transformarjon Theorems. Newton. Newton and Gregorie on Cavalieri's PrincipIe.
CHAPTER 4. JAMES GREGORIE'S «SOME GENERAL PROPOSITIONS OF GEOMETRY»
75
Inrroduceion. Description of rhe Manuscrit. Editorial Convenrions. '1' ranslarion. CHAPTER 5. METHODS OF TANGENTS ca.
1670
101
Inrroduction. FcrmatBeaugrand's Method ofTangents. The Kinematic Method ofTangents. Gregorie's Second Method ofTangents. Analyric Computation ofTangenrs. Barrow's Method «withour Ca!cuJarion... Tangents to rhe Cycloids. A Formula «'1'0 Change the Variable... Tangents to Curves ofTrigonomeuic Lines. Newton's Merhods ofTangents around 1670.
CHAPTER 6. INFINITES ANO INFINITESIMALS IN SEVENTEENTHCENTURY NATURAL PHlLOSOPHY
137
The Atomisation of Physical Effects. Bodies, Fluids and Mechanical Explanations. In and Out ofTheological Debates.
REFERENCES
157
PREFACE
Ir is only fair to say that the more powerful and sophisticated techniques of quadrature of the late seventeenth century wt!re largely indebted ro Cavalieri, particularly ro the program he set forth in his 1635 Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam ratione promota, and to the early practitioners of the method of indivisibles, particularly Torricelli. They introduced general rreatments for curves and surfaces. They emphasized the use of general theorems ruling the transformation of geomerric figures as essential rools for determining their dimensions. They developed the insight that the equivalence of figures could be proved by comparing their indivisible elements, and suggested that a geomerric quantity could be determined as the sum of an infinite number of infinitely small parts. That all this is essential background to understanding the great mathematical contributions of the seventeenth century is well known. There is, however, substantial disagreement as ro the demonsrrative status the method of indivisibles held during the century. Furthermore, while indivisibles and infinitesimals came ro be interchangeable words for most mathematical practitioners, particularly after 1650, originally two very different notions were behind them. Cavalieri's genuine indivisibles (points, lines, an so on) were soon discarded, ro be substituted by infinitesimals. This essay analyzes some seventeenth-century texts closely related either to the changing notion of indivisibles or ro the status of the method itself. Ir is suggested here that the how and why of the rransformation of indivisibles into infinitesimals are related ro the hightened status acquired by the method of indivisibles among legitimate mathematical techniques. Chapter one, largely introducrory in character, reviews the first attacks and main objections raised against the method of indivisibles. Chapter two studies the main answers ro them, focusing on texts by Isaac Barrow and John Wallis. Chapter three compares the views of Christiaan Huygens, James Gregorie and Isaac Newron on the soundness of the method of indivisibles, and reviews some of the attempts to circumvent the flaws they discovered in it-including Ismael Boulliau's. Chapter four contains an annotated English version of James Gregorie's «Some General Propositions of Geometry»-an unpublished manus-
Indivisibles
(O
Infinitesimals
Anroni Maler
cript setting forth an Archimedean construction of the basic results of the method of indivisibles. This piece has the additional interest of con taining results closely similar to the mathematicallemmas opening Newton's Principia mathematica. Chapter five is devoted to the methods of tangents produced just before the publication of the first essays on the Leibnizian calculus, paying special attention to the role of infinitesimal notions in them. Finally, Chapter six reviews the role of the method of indivisibles in its philosophical con texto It is argued in conclusion that the main strength of the method was its dovetailing with key elements of the mechanical philosophy. In the chapter of acknowledgements I must gratefully mention the generous support fram the Diputació de Barcelona that has made this publication possible. Josep Montserrat, whose general support and encouragement in matters academical is a pleasure to acknowledge, eagerly received my manuscript and published it within the collection «Monografies» of Enrahonar. Material in Chapters 2 and 5 has previously appeared in «Barrow, Wallis, and the Remaking of SeventeenthCentury Indivisibles» (Centaurus, 38, 1995), and in «James Gregorie on Tangents and the 'Taylor' Rule for Series Expansions» (Archive jOr History 01Exact Sciences, 46, 1993, 97137). I wish to thank the publishers for kind permission to partially reproduce here these texts. Kind permission fram Edinburgh University Library to publish an English translation of James Gregorie's Latin manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. Research has been carried on in the University of Edinburgh Library, the Bodleian Library, and during a twomonth visit to the Munich Deutsches Museum in the summer of 1991 in the State Library of Bavaria. The staffs of these institutions are sincerely thanked for their help and kindness. Financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Educación (Research Project PB900692) is also gratefully acknowledged. For comments and discussions on different parts of this book I am indebted to e.e. Gillispie, M.S. Mahoney, and K. Andersen. My thanks to Guillem and Jordi for their noisy playfulness and to Clara for her companionship.
Sto Cugat del Valles, September 1995
CHAPTER 1
The Sevenreenrh-Cenrury Merhod of Indivisibles
After the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, when the notion that continua are composed of indivisibles was a minority opinion, the sixteenth century saw the revival of indivisibilism and the irruption of the troublesome notion of actually infinite space. The novel understanding of the continuum linked to these changes has not been yet properly explored, yet we know that attacks on the Aristotelian continuum carne from more than one direction. Innovative ideas carne from sixteenthcentury Aristotelians such as Ruggiero (who was lecturing on Aristotle's Physics in the Collegio Romano in the early 1590's). He considered both partes divisibiles and partes indivisibiles of the continuum, «thus conferring on indivisibles the status of parts also.» 1 Authors taking part in, or influenced by the NeoPlatonic reviva!, like Patrizi's or Bruno's, also abandoned the Aristotelian continuum. Renewed interest in Democritean and Stoic ideas played a part too. While these authors by no means agreed on their arguments nor on their doctrines, they variously defended the existence of a minimum of space, the existence of indivisibles of different sorts, and that the continuum was composed by its indivisibles. 2 How well mathematical practitioners accepted these ideas, we do not know. We have strong indications that mathematical magnitudes that were incomparable or incommensurable (because they were too big or too small) with finite magnitudes did come to play an ever growing role in sixteenthcentury mathematics and natural philosophy. Whether mathematicians agreed or not on the soundness of infinitely large magnitudes, Copernicus could use a clo-
1. W.A. Wallace, «Traditional Natural I'hilosophy», in C.B. Schmitt et al eds., Cambridge History ofRenaissance Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University I'ress, 1988),201235, p. 214216 (quotation comes from p. 216). 2. ].E. Murdoch, «lnfinity and continuity», in N. Kretzmann, A. Kenny,]. I'inborg eds., Cambridge History ofLater Medieval Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University I'ress, 1982),564591, p. 567584; E. Cassirer, Elproblema del conocimiento en la filosofia yen la ciencia modernas, 4 vol., W. Roces transo (Mexico D.F.: FCE, 1986; 1st German ed., 1906), l, 276288;]. Henry, «Francesco I'atrizi da Cherso's Concept of Space and its Later lnfluence», Annals ofScience, 36 (1979), 549573.
12 From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Anroni Malet
sely related notion to make a counterargument against the objection that no parallax can be observed. While he assened the finite dimension of the radius of the fixed stars orbs, he took the radius of the eanh orbs to be incommensurable with ir. When taken twice, or several times (aliquotiens) , indivisibles (minimis corpusculis ac insectilibus, quae atomi vocantur) or atoms do not add up to visible objects, and yet they can be multiplied to such an extent that at last they make up a visible magnitude (apparentem magnitudinem): The same [can be said] of rhe place of the earth. Alrhough ir is nor the cenrer of rhe world, yer rhe disrance ro ir is srill incomparable, particularly wirh rhe sphere of the fixed stars."'
The relationship between finite magnitudes and their points or indivisibles raised questions substantial enough to be used in the skeptical debate of the second half of the sixteenth century. In a letter to Clavius of a bout 1574 the skeptic, Francisco Sanches, was to highlight the doubts this issue casts on the soundness of mathematical foundations. Mathematics cannot be a model of scientia, Sanches argued, not only because it is not causal, but because even its very principIes are doubtful. «For example, one supposes that there are points, but their existence and manner of being may be doubted. And the same applies to lines and surfaces.»4 We do not know how sixteenthcentury intellectual developments and contemporary changes in the social status of mathematics and mathematicians may have predisposed sorne firstrank mathematicians to embrace a non Aristotelian continuum. By the turo of the seventeenth century, however, Johannes Kepler had very successfully used infinitesimal notions in problems involving quadratures and cubatures, and others soon followed. During the first two or three decades of the century a sizable group of mathematicians developed mathematical techniques of quadrature that ro a lesser or greater extent rested on the notions of indivisibles and infinitesimals. 5 Bonaventura Cavalieri's Indivisibles The origins of infinitesimals, one of the most fruitful as well as debated mathematical notions from around 1600 to around 1800, can fairly accurately be
3. «Ita quoque de loco rerrae, quamvis in cenrro mundi non fuerit, distantiam ramen ipsam incomparabilem adhuc esse praesertim ad non errantium srellarum sphaeram.» See N. Copernicus, De revolutionibus orbiunJ caelestiunJ libri sex (F. Zeller, K. Zeller eds., München: R. Oldenburg Verlag, 1949), p. 17. 4. F. Sanches, That Nothing is Imown (E. Limbrich ed., D.F.S. Thomson trad., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 4950 (1 am quoring Limbrick's paraphrase of Sanches's words). 5. M. Baron, The Origins ofthe Infinitesimal Ca!culus (New York:D?ver, 1969), p. 108ff; A. Koyré, «Bonaventura Cavalieri er la géomérrie des conrinusn. in Etudes d'histoire de la pensée scientifique (Paris: Gallimard, 1973),320349, p. 322.
Chapter 1
The SeventeenthCentury Method of Indivisibles 13
traced back to Bonaventura Cavalieri's 1635 Geometría índivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam ratione promota, the book that first introduced indivisibles into mainstream seventeenthcentury mathematics. This is by no means to say that indivisibles or infinitesimals were not used before, but that Cavalieri first offered a «rigorous» geometrical construction of the powerful intuition that sees geometric magnitudes as made up of infinitely many small constituents. Up to the seventeenth century infinites and infinitesimals had no proper place in mathematical discourse, and Stevin and Kepler, whose contributions appeared in works that properly speaking belong not to pure mathematics, made no attempt to bring their new notions and methods within the domain of Euclidean canons. This is what makes Cavalieri's work to occupy a special place in the introduction of infinitesimal methods. 6 In possession of an ecclesiastical education in philosophy and theology, Cavalieri was well aware of the centuries old debate on the nature of the continuuma debate that provided many arguments against the continuum being made up by, or equal to, the reunion of its «minimal pans» or indivisible elements. He allowed himself only the son of indivisibles that classical geometry and philosophical tradition knew of: points, lines, and surfaces. These indivisibles Archimedes did use to good effect in his «mechanica]" method of quadratures and cubatures.7 Within the mathematical principIes Euclid and Archimedes set fonh, indivisibles cannot be «pans» of the mathematical object they belong tobecause comparability and the quality ofbeing a pan go together. If indivisibles were pans, they would be comparable and homogeneous with their whole. An «infinitely small paw> was therefore a contradiction in terms, words designating objects that cannot existin the same sense that triangles with one side longer than the other two together could not exisr. Apparently embracing these views, Cavalieri carefully refrained from stating
6. G. Cellini, «Gli indivisibili nel pensiero matematico e filosofico di Bonaventura Cavalieri)" Periodico di matematiche, 4 ser., 44, 1966, 121; «Le dimostrazioni di Cavalieri del suo principio», Periodico di matematiche, 4 ser., 44, 1966, 85105; L LombardoRadice, Inrroduction ro Geometria degli Indivisibili di Bonaventura Cal'alieri, L LombardoRadice ed. (Torino: Eunice, 1966); K. Andersen, «Cavalieri's Method of Indivisibles», Archive fór History ofE>:act Sciences, 31, 1985,291367; E. Giusti, Bonaventura Cavalieri and the Theory oflndivisible,- (Bologna: Cremonese, 1980); «Dopo Cavalieri. La disCllssione sugli indivisibili», in Atti del Convegno «La Storia de!!e Matematiche in Italia».Cagliari. 29-30 settembre e 1 ottobre 1982 (Cagliari: Universita di Cagliari, n.d.), 85114; E. Festa, «Quelques aspects de la conrroverse sur les indivisibles», in M. Bucciantini, M. Torrini eds., Geometria e atomismo ne!!a scuola galilea na (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, 1992), 193207; D.M. ]esseph, «Philosophical Theory and Mathematical Practice in the Seventeenth Century», Stud. Hist. Phi! Sci., 20, 1989,215244; F. de Gandt, «Cavalieri's Indivisibles and Euclid's Canons», in P. Barker, R. Ariew eds., Revolution and Contilluiry. Essays in the History and Philosophy ofModern Science (Washington: The Catholic Universíty of America Press, 1991), 157182. 7. E.]. Dijksterhuis, Archimedes (Princeton: Princeton Universiry Press, 1987, C. Dikshoorn trans., with a bibliographic essay by W.R. Knorr; Isr ed. 1938), 313336. Of course Cavalieri did not know of Archimedes's «mechanical theorems», which were published only in 1912.
14
From Indivisibles
QI S,
T
Antani Malet
ro Infmitesimals
V R
v
]
M
A
;1/N
IK ;h
p
L
B
G
l
lE
D
e
H
Figure 1.
that magnitudes were made up by the reunion or addition of their indivisibles. To circumvent this difficulty, however, he introduced mathematical objects also foreign to the Greek classical tradition, those of «all the lines» and «aH the planes». Anachronistically speaking, «aH the lines» of a a given figure is the set of aH the straight line segmenrs conrained within a figure and paraHel to a given line (the reguia). These notions provided Cavalieri with means for proving the socalled Cavaiieri's principie along with several quadratures. According to this principie (here exemplified only in the case of surfaces, but of application to any twO geometrical magnitudes whose indivisibles can be compared), if two figures ABT, ABC (see Figure 1) are such that for any straight line NKO paraHel to the base TC the ratio NK : KO is the same, then the twO surfaces ABT, ABC also are in the same ratio. Cavalieri offered three proofs of this result, but the three of them were deemed incomplete by his contemporaries. Cavalieri's flrst proof is given in Proposition 4, Bk. 2, of his Geometria indivisibilibus. Cavalieri was careful enough ro address the question of whether a ratio between «all the lines» of a figure and those of another could possibly existo The affirmative answer ro this question is proved in the opening Proposition 1 of Book 2. Then he proved in Proposition 3 that «aH the lines» are in the same ratio as the figures. The proof, carried on by «superpositioll», may entail an infinite processas his critic Guldin poinred out. From Propositions 1 and 3 his principie easily foHows. Cavalieri's second and third praofs, both avoiding the use of the troublesome notion of «aH the lines», are given together in Proposition 1 of Book 7 of the Geometria indivisibilibus. The second proof depends on his attempt to demonstrate, also by «superposition», the equality of two figures whose «lines» are one by one equal. His contemporaries found the proof objectionable as well. The third proof was added «Since the preceding proposition is a most momentous one and a differem oo')
The SeventeenthCentury Methad afIndivisibles 15
Chapter 1
manner, not differenr from Archimedes's style, to proof its first pan has come ro my mind».8 As the words suggest, this proof uses an exhaustion technique. Modern commentators, including CeHini and G. Castelnuovo, have defended its soundness, even though Cavalieri's contemporaries were not convinced by it either. 9 As is weH known, Cavalieri's indivisibles were soon substituted by infinitesimals, and the method of indivisibles grounded on the assumption that the surfaces of figures, the volumes of solids, and the lengths of lines are equal to aH the indivisibles they conrain taken rogether. 10 Provided that the operation of «taking together» is understood as sorne son of addition, Cavalieri's principie can be derived from the assumption just menrioned. Let us assume a
m
b
n
for all the ordinates a = NK, b = KO in Figure l. lf for a finite number of /s it is a. : b. = m : n, then we obviously have Ia. : Ib. = m: n. We may then concluJe that i I i 1 AH the as
m
AlI the b's
n
by analogy with the addition of a finite number of magnitudes. Two difficulties arise. One, which did not seem to bother seventeenthcentury mathematicians, is the very notion of a sum that involves an infinite number of terms, and the demonstration of a rule involving such a sumo The second and historicaHy more meaningful difficulty in this approach is that the classical notion of indivisible must be set aside. lf «aH the lines» is to yield the surface of a figure, and if «aH the lines» results fram sorne son of addition of the lines, the lines must be understood to be rectangles whose heights are ordinasee, in the te lines and whose bases are infmitesimal segments. As we セィ。h middle decades of the century indivisibles were explicitly transformed into infinitesimals by sorne leading mathematicians, including Pascal (around 1658) and Barrow (around 1665, first published in 1683).
8. B. Cavalieri, Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam mtione promota (Bologna, 1653), p. 488. 9. For very good detailed accoums ofCavalieri's proofs, see Andersen's «Cavalieri's Method ofIndivisibles», and Ce]]jnj's «Gli indivisibili ne! pensiero matematico e filosofico di Bonaventura Cavalieri», and «Le dimostrazioni di Cavalieri de! SUD principio»; see also LombardoRadice's editorial notes ro his Italian edition of Cavalieri's book. 10. Cavalieri never asserted such a thing, bur T orricelli and many others did; see Andersen, «Cavalieri's Method of Indivisibles», passim.
16
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimal,
Antoni Maler
Indivisibles and «the analytical art of quadrature» From the very beginning, fruitfulness was recognized as the major virtue of the method of indivisibles. However, while it was recognized to be a powerfui analytical tool, its demonstrative status was much debated in the decades following the publication of Cavalieri's Geometria. In this period Cavalieri and Torricelli worked hard to legitimate the use of indivisibles. Generally speaking, they managed to ensure a place for them in the mathematicians's armory, but only as a heuristic weapon. While proudly stressing that the method of indivisibles was very fruitful indeed, they assumed a rather defensive stance towards the soundness of its foundations. Cavalieri and Torricelli compared the method of indivisibles to Algebra and to the analytic art that the ancients must have used, and left hidden, to make their discoveries. This was a powerful theme in the early seventeenth 11 century, as M.S. Mahoney convincingly argued in his srudy on Fermat. Cavalieri, for instance, compared the aggregates or congeries of lines to irrational arithmetical quantities, and used the algebraist's handling of irrational quantities as justification for his notion of «all the lines»: 1 have used an artifice [artijicio] similar ro rhar often used by Algebraists for solving problems. For, however ineffable [ineffabilisJ, absurd and unknown the roots of numbers be, they none the less add, subtract, multiply and divide them; and they are convinced of having sufficiently met their obligation when they have succeeded in finding out from the given problem the result which was required. Not differently, therefore, it is legitimate for me ro make usein arder ro investigate the measure of continuaof the congeries of indivisibles, either of lines ar planes, ... for if they are nameless [innorninabilisJ, absurd and unknown with respect to their number [ofindivisiblesJ, rheir magnirude [rnagnitudo] is enclosed in welldefined limits. 12 The comparison with the analytical art of the ancients is explicit in Torricelli: But this Geometry of rhe indivisibles is hardly a new invention .,. [.] 1would rather believe rhat i:he aneient Geometers did use this merhod in arder ro discover their most difficult Theorems, although they preferred taking a different path ro prove themeither to hide their secret art, ar else not ro allow invidious detractors any occasion for criricism.]3
11. M.S. Mahoney, The Mathematical Career ofPierre de Fermat 1601-1665 (Princeron: Princeron Universiry Press, 1973), p. 2648. 12. Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam ratione promota (Bologna, 1653), b2 recto (all references are made ro rhis edirion). Translarions are my own, bur 1 have benefired fram L. LombardoRadice's lralian rranslarion, Geometria degli [ndivisibili di Bonaventura Cavalieri (Torino, 1966). 13. E. Torricelli, Opere, 3 vol., G. Loria eta1ed. (Faenza, 1919),11,139. Translarions are my own.
Chaprer I
The ScventeenthCentury Method of Indivisibles 17
Among the many advantages of the «geometry of the indivisibles», Torricelli listed its eHiciency in providing short proofs and its heuristic power: Be ir as it may, rhe rruth is that this geometry provides an exuaordinary short cut ro rhe faculty of invention and thar it supporrs innumerable very difficult rheorems by short, direct, posirive [aff¡'rrnativus] demonstrarions, which can hardly be achieved by means of the doctrine of the ancients. In fact, rhis geomerry is rhe ttuly royal road for sharp mathematicians, and Cavalieri, aurhor of wonderful invenrions, was rhe [¡rst to discover it and ro explain it for [he public benefit.]4 William Oughtred, the influential English mathematics teacher, and someone not involved in the creation of the method of indivisibles, did not faíl to notice and stress its power. He says, in his 1645 answer to one Keylway interested in the quadrarure of the circle, 1 ... am induced to a better confidence of your performance, by reason of a geometricanalytical art ar pracrice found out by one Cavalieri, an Italian, of which about three years since 1 received information by a lerter from Paris, wherein was praelibated only a small taste thereoE, yer so that 1 divine grear enlargement of the bounds of the marhematical empire will ensue.]5 During the middle decades of the seventeenth century recognition that indivisibles involved conceptual problems was more often than not accompanied by the notion that they were very much needed to deal with otherwise intractable problems. Cavalieri himself, however hard he tried to provide sound foundations for his method, could not avoid recognizing that the new principies he was using would not convince every mathematician. He was thus led to advance the notion that concerns about foundations are philosophical rather than mathematical. He also used the argument that the basic notions and techniques of the method of indivisibles must be sound because the results they provide agree with those found by other means. He says, in his Geometria indivisibifibus (the argument reappears twelve years later in his Ey;ercitationes geometricae sex): 1 do nar think ir is useless ro no rice .. , that mosr of rhe things that were disclosed by Euclid, Archimedes, and others, have also been demonstrared by me, and rhar my conclusions agree perfectly with their conclusions. This must be an evident indication that 1 have gathered rrue things in rhe basic principies [o!rny rnethodJeven though 1 know that from false principIes rruths can be sophisrical1y deducedo But that that had happened ro me in so many conclusions [otherwúej proved geometrically, 1would deem ro be absurd. 16 14. [bid., p. 140. 15. Oughrred ro Roben Keylway, [Ocrobre 1645], in S.]. Rigaud ed., Correspondence ofscientiflc men ofthe seventeenth century (2 vols., Oxford, 1841, repr. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1965),1,65. 16. Geometria indivisibilibus, p. 112; ExereitiUiones geometricae sex (Bologna, 1647), p. 195.
18
From Indivisibles
to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malct
Let us stress, incidental!y, that Leibniz was to use a similar argument in the early 1690s to foster the cause of his «nouvel!e analyse des infinis». As a positive test of the sour.dness of his infinitesimal analysis, he produced the perfect agreement between results found through it and those found by other means, «quoiqu'il n'y ait eu aucune communication entre les auteurs des solutions; ce qui est une marque de la vérité».17 We now know that Cavalieri's arguments failed to convince most of his contemporaries. Overlooking or rejecting his subtile treatment of the col!ection of indivisibles induded in any magnitude as a mathematical object distinct from the magninide itself, most mathematicians assumed Cavalieri's method of indivisibles ro entail an aromistic view of geometrical magnitudes. Wel!known, centuriesold arguments against mathematical atomism did also play a role in the development of the method through the seventeenth century. As is well known, the most direct and formal attacks on the method of indivisibles carne from two Jesuits, Paul Guldin (15771643) and André 1'acquet (1612 1660). 1'he mathematical part of Guldin's attack (he also blamed Cavalieri for plagiarizing Kepler and Soverus) rests on his rejeetion of «al! the lines» and «al! the planes» as legitimate mathematical objects susceptible to have a ratio to one another. 1'he main argument in 1'acquet's 1651 criticism was that no magnitude is an aggregation of its heterogeneous indivisibles. 18 Al! competent mathematicians, however, knew that no kind of geometrical continuum could be conceived as composed of indivisibles heterogeneous to the continuum itself Arguments against, for instance, a line being but an aggregate of its points can be traced back to Arisrotle, and they had lost none of their strength and cogency in the seventeenth century. Let us stress, therefore, that mathematicians opposing the method of indivisibles were not the only ones aware of the logical dangers lurking in an uncritical acceptance of indivisibles. Highly articulate expositions of the need of banning indivisibles from geometry are found, however confusing that may appear, in at least three very distinguished practitioners of «indivisible» techniques, Isaac Barrow, Blaise Pascal and John Wal!is. 1'0 account for this apparent contradiction we must pay attention to the changing meaning of the word
17. G.W. Leibniz, «De la chainette, ou solurion d'un probleme fameux, proposé par Galilei, pour servir d'essai d'une nouvelle analyse des infinis, ... " Uournd des S,avam, 1692), in Mathematische Schriften, el. Gerhardr ed. (Hildesheim, 1962), V, 258263, p. 260. 18. Guldin's argumenrs are reproduced verbarim in exercitatio III of Cavalieri's Exercitationes geometrú;ze sex, p. 177241. T acquer's much more brief ones are found in his Cvlindricorum et ammlarium libri IV (Anrwerp, 1651), p. 2124. See E. Giusri, Borzaventura Cavalieri and the Theory o/Indivisibles, p. 5565 and 7376; and «Dopo Cavalieri. La discussione sugli indivisibili", in Atti del Convegno "La Storia del/e Matematiche in Italia". Cagli,zri, 2930 settembre e 1 ottobre 1982 (Cagliari:Universira di Cagliari. n.d.), 85114; E. Fesra, "Quelques aspecrs de la conrroverse sur les indivisibles", in M. Buccianrini, M. Torrini eds., Geometria e atomismo nel/,z scuola galileana (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki, J 992), 193207. See also H. Bosmans, «André T acquen>, in Académie Royale de Belgique, Biographie nationale (Bruxelles, 19261929), XXIV, mis. 440464.
Charter 1
The SeventeenthCentu'ry Method of Indivisibles 19
,ándivisible,). Mathematicians of the middle decades of the seventeenth century explicitiy abandoned the old notion of heterogeneous indivisibles and gave the leading role to infinitesimals, a quite new notion occupying an intermediate position between indivisibles a Lancienne and finite geometrical magnitudes. As we shal! see, they did so partiy by giving a new meaning ro one of the main Arisrotelian arguments against dassical atomismthe infinite divisibility of the geometrical continuum. Interpreted as providing an actuaL infinite division, this argument supported the view that a finite line can be divided into an infinite number of infinitely sma11 pam. Interestingly enough, the substitution was not registered at the rherorical level, tor the expression «method of indivisibles» was ro be used through the century. 19 In common with the old indivisibles, infinitesimals had the property that no finite number of them taken rogether could be equal to or greater than any finite magnitudein modero jargon, infinitesimals were nonArchimedean magnitudes. But Cavalierian indivisibles and Barrow's «indefinitely smal!linelets» (indefinite parvis LineoLis) differ in three essential aspects. Infinitesimals are divisibLe; that is, it makes mathematical sense to halve an infinitesimal. 1'hey are hornogeneous with the magnitude they originated from. In particular, by taking together infinitesimal surfaces, a larger surtace is gainedwhich wil! be infinitesimal itself, if their number be finite, or it wi11 be finite, if their number be infinite. Finally, infinitesimals can actually be reached by a process of infinite divisiona process which can never yield a point, say, starting from a linear segmento Ir has been said that the method of indivisibles encountered no real opposition during the seventeenth century. As this account has it, worries about rigor and sound reasoning were not central ro seventeenthcentury mathematical thought, and with the exception of1'acquet and Guldin no real mathematician positioned himself publidy against the new notions of Cavalieri and his fo11owers. Those who did, mostiy persons of no consequence, were motivated by conceros, philosophical or otherwise, of no importance to the mathematical community.20 Although this picture contains sorne truth, it is incomplete. For one thing, many firstrank mathematicians, induding Newton, Gregorie and Huygens, did worry about the foundations of the method of indivisibles. Newton and Gregorie did offer their particular version of a demonstration of Cavalieri's principie. On the other hand, the method of indivisibles was not straightforward in its application. Himself an advocate of indivisibles, Pascal was led ro use the method of exhaustion to setde a question in which two proofs, one by indi19. While rhe notíon of infiniresimals was clearlv introduced inro mainstream marhemarical rhoughr by rhe middle of rhe 17rh cenrury, rhe word «infiniresima[" is almosr never ro be found in sevenreenrhcenrury rexrs. More ofren rhan nor, rhe rerm used is "indivisible", The French also used "infinimenr perir". In Larin ir was common ro refer ro parrs rhar were ((infinice parvae» or (exiguae). 20. See E. Giusri, Bonaventura Cavalieri and the Theory o/Indivisibles (Bologna, 1980), p. 48. Compare wirh D.T. Whireside's "Parrerns of Marhematícal Thoughr in rhe ¡arer Sevenreenrh Cenrury", Archive ftr History o/Exact Sciences, 1(1960), 179388, p. 327.
20
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Chaptet I
visibles and the other by motion, yield conflicting conclusions. 21 As we shall see, the use of indivisibles could produce paradoxes involved enough to lead the young Huygens to consider the method of indivisibles completely unreliable. It must be stressed, however, that the status of the method of indivisibles improved markedly as the cenrury went on. We know that Fermat and Torricelli could appreciate the advantages of indivisibles as tools of discovery, but would use them only warily as tools of proof. In the second half of the seventeenth century we find many leading mathematicians, such as Pascal, Wallis, Sluse, and Barrow, willing to grant fulllegitimacy to the method of indivisibles. In the same period a growing number of authors asserted the essential eguivalence between proofs involving indivisibles and proofs patterned according to the classical exhaustion method. In Pascal's wellknown words, «tout ce gui est demontre par la veritable regle des indivisibles se demontrera aussi a la rigueur et a la maniere des anciens; ... l'une de ces methodes ne differe de l'autre gu'en la maniere de parien).22 This meant that the method of indivisibles had gained a new status: it was now deemed able to provide legitimate demonstrations, which was something that few mathematicians would have dared to say in the 1630s and 1640s. In the next chapter we shall find evidence that beneath this significant modification of the logical status of the method of indivisibles lies the substitution of infinitesimals for classical indivisibles.
The s・カ ョイ・ ョイィセc・ョエオイケ
Method of Indivisibles 21
L
o A
F
E
D T
G
e
Limits in Geometrical Opties
It has been said that seventeenthcentury mathematicians got entangled with infinitesimals because they failed to use the notion of mathematicallimit. Historically speaking, it is true that the vexed guestion of the métaphysique du calcul infinitésimal-to put it in eighteenthcentury lingo was definitely setded through Cauchy's definition oflimit in the first decades of the nineteenth century. The 610 definition of limit, however, has litde to do with the foundational guestions that worried seventeenthcentury mathematicians, with the notions they were handling, and with the mathematicallanguage they had at their disposal. Although in the seventeenth century mathematicallimits were of no conseguence in relation either to the solution of mathematical problems or to foundational matters, perhaps it is worthwhile recalling that seventeenthcentury geometrical optics did use a notion closely related to the modero notion oflimit. Let us assume that a family of rays LF, OE, ... (see Figure 2), the prolongation of which gather in sorne point D, is refracted by the surface AFE. Christiaan Huygens established that the point T, defined by taking TA : DA 21. «Lenre de A. Denonville a Monsieur A.D.D.S. en luy envoyanr la Demonstration a la maniere des Aneiens de I'Egalite des Lignes Spiraie et Parabolique» (10 Deeember 1658), in Oeuvres, VlII, p. 255ff. 22. B. Pascal, Oeuvres, P. Bourroux, L. Brunsehvieg, F. Gazier eds., (14 vols., Paris, 19041914), VIll, p. 352.
Figure 2.
egua! to the refraction index, is the actual or «real» gathering point after refraction. In order to demonstrate it he proves, first, that no ray reaches the axis AD between A and T. Secondly, that EA > FA implies CT > GT. And finally, that there are always rays that after refraction meet the axis AD at points whose distance to T is smaller than any given distance. 2.3 T is, therefore, the limit of all the intersections C, G, ... as the angle ADF gets smaller, and Huygens's characterization seems to be as good a (geometrical) definition of limit as it could be hoped for in the seventeenth century. Huygens, however, never carne to use a notion similar to it out of the context of geometrical optics. As we shall see, he was indeed worried about the cogency of indivisibles and infinitesimals. He used them to discover results, but was reluctant to use them in mathematical demonstrations and avoided them as much as he could. A similar consideration can be made in relation to Barrow's geometrical definition of optical images, although he was not reluctant to use infinitesimals. 24 For 23. C. Huygens, Dioptrica (1653), in Oeuvres completes de Christiaan Huygens (22 vol.. La Haye, 18881950), XIII:1, p. 18. 24 For Barrow's geometrieal ¡imits, see 1. Barrow, Lectiones XVIII ... in quibus opticorum phaenomenon genuinae rationes investigantur, ac exponuntur (1669), in The Mathematiml Works, W. WheweIl ed. (Cambridge, 1860), p. 5152.
22
Fmm Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Anroni Malet
limits to be of any use in solving the puzzle posed by infinitesimal notions, the objeets of the infirtitesimal ca!culus must be funetions expressed and defined analytieally, but those objeets were absent fram seventeentheentury mathematies.
CHAPTER2
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis
As is well known Cavalieri's notions were urrerly misrepresented during the seeond half of the seventeentheentury, and Torrieelli one of Cavalieri's keenest followers has been partieularly blamed for this misrepresentation. 1 Examples showing how the word «indivisible» was misused in the seeond half of the seventeenth eentury eould easily be multiplied. K. Andersen, for instanee, pointed to Roberval as one among many who «prajeeted his own ideas into [Cavalieri's theoryJ; thus he intradueed the idea that it was based on infinitesimals». 2 A good example of the muddling of Cavalieri's ideas is pravided by John Wallis's following aecount. He explained in his 1685 Treatise o/Algebra that the «Geometry ofIndivisibles, or Method ofIndivisibles» was "First inttodueed by Bonaventura Cavallerius, in a Treatise by him Published in the Year 1635; and pursued by Torrieellius, in his Works Published in the Year 1644.» Wallis had no qualms about handling infinitesimal magnitudes, as if they involved no logieal diffieulty whatsoever, but he did stress that the soealled indivisibles should not be understood as points, lines, or planeswhieh, as we now know, is how Cavalieri undersrood them. Rather they had ro be substituted by infinitesimals: According ro this Method [oflndivisibles], a Line is considered, as consisting of an Innumerable Multitude ofPoints: A Surface, ofLines, ...: A Solid, ofPlains, or other Surfaces..... Now this is not ro be so undersrood, as if those Lines (which have no breadth) could 611 up a Surface; or those Plains or Surfaces, (which have no
l. K. Andersen, «Cavalieri's method of indivisibles», Archive ftr History o[Exact Sciences, 31 (1985), 291367; E. Giusti, Bonaventura Cavalieri and the Theory o[Indivisibles (Bologna: Cremonese, 1980); F. de Gandt, «Les indivisibles de Torricelli», in F. de Gandr ed., L oeuvre de Torricelli: science galiléenne et nouvelle géométrie (Nice: Les Belles Lettres, 1987), 147206; and «Cavalieri's Indivisibles and Eudid's Canons», in P. Barker, R. Ariew eds., Revolution and Continuity. Essays in the History and Philosophy o[Modern Science (Washingron: The Catholic Universiry of America Press, 1991), 157182. 2. K. Andersen, «The Method ofIndivisibles: Changing Understandings», in A. Heinekamp (ed.), 300]ahre «Nova methodus» von G. W Leibniz (1684 1984) (Wiesbaden: Steiner Verlag, 1986), 1425, p. 23.
,.. 24
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni MaJet
Chapter 2
B
thickness) could compleat a Solido But by such Lines are ro be undersrood, small Surfaces, (of such a length, but very narrow,) ... 3
And Wallis makes clear that in this context «very narrow» stands for infinitely narrow. Once we accept that important differences exist between Cavalieri's indivisibles and their putative descendants, the infinitesimals, it seems historically pertinent to try and answer sorne related questions: Why were infinitesimals introduced? How were they introduced? Why were they preferred ro classical indivisibles? The secondary literature, particularly the older one, mostly suggests that mathematical rigor and unassailable foundations were not of paramount importance during this periodthat the fruitfulness of the new methods and notions balanced, as it were, the logical deficiencies in their foundations. Wc would like ro suggest here that just the opposite may be the truth. That it was precisely because mathematicians cared a lot about questions uf rigor and foundations that they set out to modify Cavalieri's theory. By focusing on detailed discussions by Blaise Pascal, Isaac Barrow and John Wallis on foundational questioIlS re1ated to indivisibles and infinitesimals, we will demonstrate that at least for them, influential mathematicians all, the shift from indivisibles to infinitesimals was one ro which they devoted much thought. When they came eventually to embrace infinitesimals and reject indivisibles, they did so because they thought that the former offered much more sol id foundations than the latter. By substituting infinitesimals for indivisibles mathematicians provided a new status to the method of indivisibles, which thereby became a legitimate method of proof. 4 Torricelli, in answer to a numbet of paradoxes apparently entailed by Cavalieri's method, set out to modify Cavalierian indivisibles. 5 As F. de Candt has recently shown, Torricellian indivisibles could be compared by «quantity» and were reachable through infinite subdivision. 6 They are our starting puint.
3. J. Wallis, A Treatise ofAlgebra, bot/' Hirtorical and Practical (London, 1685),285286. 4. Compare with D.M. Jesseph, "PhiJosophical Theory and Mathemarical Praetice in the Seventeenth Century», Stud. Hist. Phi/. Sci., 20, 1989, 215244; and also with A. Malet, "Providing Foundations m New Methods of Quadraturen, in "Studies on James Gregorie (16381675)>> (Ph.D. Diss., Princemn University, 1989),216283. 5. Torricelli gathered an impressive collection of f¿1se mathematÍcal resu1rs derived by using indivisibles. They are found in "Contro gl'infiniri», in E. Torricelli, Opere, 3 vol. (in 4), G. Loria, G. Vasurra eds. (Faenza, 1919), 12, p. 47ff, and in "De indivisibilibus», ibid., p.415ff. 6. F. de Gandt, «Les indivisibles de T orricellí», in F. de Gandt ed., L 'oeuvre de Torricelli: science galiléerme et nouvelle géométrie (Nice: Les BeHes Lettres, 1987), 147206; «L'evolutÍon de la théorie des indivisibles et l'apport de Torricelli», in Bucciantini, M. Torrini eds., Geometria e atomismo /leila scuola gaülea/la, 103118. See alsu E. Bortolotti, ,,1 progressi del metodo infinitesimale nell'opera geometrica di Evangelista Torricelli», Periodico di matematiche, 4 ser, 8,1928,1959.
...
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 25
pcセ
Q
A
R
D
s
e
Figure 1.
Torricelli To put Torricelli's thought in context let us review a paradox, ofren dealt with by both supporters and critics of indivisibles alike, that Cavalieri and Torricelli deemed particularly damaging. In the nonisosceles triangle ABC (see Figure 1) the two triangles BDA, BDC are different. Every line PQ parallel ro the base AC determines two equaflines PR, QS. As the line PQ moves parallel to the base and occupies every position from D to B, it determines an equal number of equal indivisibles PR and QS. Hence, «AlI the lines PR» '" «AlI rhe lines QS», and the triangles BDA and BDC ought to be equa!.? A second paradox, concerning concentric cirdes, is worth memioning because we shall see below how Barrow dealt with ir. Consider two concentric cireles and join the center to al! the poims of rhe larger circumference. It is obvious, says Torrice1li, that as many points will be determined by the intersccrion of all the radii with the smaller circumference as there are points in the larger one. Torriccl!i conduded from here that the points in the smaller circumference were «smaller» (sic) than those in the greaterindeed, the points were in the same proponiun as the diameters. 8 Torricelli, therefore, endowed indivisibles with different magnitudes and imroduced comparisons between them: That all the indivisibles be equal ro one another, that is, poims ro poims, lines (in width) ro lines, ... , is an opinion, in my view, not only hard to prove, but false.9
7. Cavalieri discusses this paradox in his 5 April1644leIter to Torricel1i, in Turricelli's Opere, IIJ, 1701; he returns to it in his 1647 Exercitationes geometriwe sexo CL 11. Bosmans, «Sur une concradiction reprochée a la théorie des "indivisibles» chez Cavalieri", Arma/e,· de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles, 42 (192223),829. 8. T orricelli, Opere, 12, 320. 9. This, and rhe nexr fragments, must have been writren ca. 1645, see Opere, 12, 320.
26
Antoni Malet
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Chapter 2
Facing a paradox very similar ro one of the aboye, Torricelli explained away the different lengths of the sides AB and BC (in Figure 1) by introducing the idea that the points on each side had different lengths:
if this division is made, or if it is assumed ro have been made, an inhnite number of times, we would come ro have, instead of trapezoids, a line BC equal ro the line BA. 1 mean equal in quantity (quantita), not in length, for even though both of them are indivisibles, the line BC will be as much larger than the line BA as the latter is longer than the former. 11
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I
r
V'
Oセ
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A
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I
•..
,
B
]
G'l
セZh
GbOセ
V/ I
E
A
D'
1
D
Figure 3.
As Torricelli himself showed, this new notion of indivisible not only solves paradoxes, but also is very helpful to determine tangents. Let AB'B (see Figure 3) be the general parabola
セZケ
o
e:T'
In order to determine the point E such that EB is the tangent at B, complete the rectangle EFBD and consider the lines FB and BD, which are equal «in quantity,) as just shown. To determine the ratio FB: GB, which is the same as ED; AD and so will give us the point E, Torricelli points out that the ratio between FB and GB is the same both «in quantity» and in length. Whence ED
BD «in quantity»
AD
GB «in quantity»
To determine this last ratio, Torricelli assumes that BD and GB are reached by infinite division. That makes this ratio equal to m/n. Knowing that the figure BB'D'D is ro the figure BB'G'G as are the exponents m, n, he takes the middle point 1 on D'D and poinrs out that the figures BHID and BH]G are in the same ratio. So he can conclude, if we make this division, or assume thar ir has been made, an inhnire number of times, rhere will remain, instead of hgures, two lines [BD] and [BG] rhar, nor in length, but in quamity will be as rhe exponem [m] is to rhe exponent [n].12
Figure 2.
10. ¡bid., 3201. Cf. Bortolotti, ,,1 progressi del merado infinitesimale". 11. ¡bid., 322.
G
F
Were all the inhnite lines parallel ro the base AC drawn, the segment [PQ] would mark as many points on the straight line AB as in the straight line BC; whence any point of the former is ro any point of the latrer as the whole line [AB] is ro the whole line [Bq. 10 Torricelli did not drop the word «indivisible», but the notion he used here is by no means the same one Cavalieri had in mind. Furthermore, in Torricelli's hands indivisibles became not only comparable among themselves, they became reachable by infinite division as well, thus allowing the mathematician ro translate ratios between figures into ratios between indivisibles. For instance, starting from the obvious equality of the trapezoids EBAA' and EBCC' (see Figure 2), he would point out that, by taking the middle point 1 ofEB, two trapezoids IBA, IBC, which were equal as well, were obtained. So,
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow. Wallis 27
12. ¡bid, 3223 .
28
From Indivisibles
to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Since 1'orricelli's indivisibles have no precedem in classical mathematics, securing their soundness seemed a necessary condition for the method of indivisibles to beco me an standard mathematical too!' 1'orricelli himself seems ro have thought as much, although the most imeresting views on the marrer carne from Pascal and Barrow. Pascal
Pascal justified the use of «indivisibles» by explicidy transforming them imo infinitesimals, and then dismissing any suggestion that the larrer notion involved logical difficulties. He said, in the wellknown words ofhis 1658letter ro Carcavi, je ne feray aucune difficulre d'user de cerre expression; la somme des ordonnees, qui semble n'esrre pas Geomeuique a ceux qui n'emendem pas la doctrine des indivisibles, er qui s'imaginem que c'esr pecher comre la Geometrie que d'exprimer un plan par un nombre indefiny de lignes; ce qui ne vient que de leur manque de imelligence, puisqu'on n'emend auue chose par la, sinon la somme d'un nombre indefiny de recrangles fairs de chaque ordonnee avec chacune des perires ponions egales du diametre, dom la somme est cenainemenr un plan, qui ne differe de !'espace du demy cercle que d'une quamire moindre qu'aucune donnee. 13
Pascal was not in the least willing to conclude that a surface was the aggregation of all of its ordinates. He saw no problems, however, in understanding it as made up by infinitely many rectangles with infinitesimal bases. We shall come back ro his comemion that this infinite sum would yield the surface of the figure with undetectable error. Pascal's thoughts on indivisibles and infinitesimals are fully set forrh in the opuscule «De l'esprit géométrique», undated but probably written in 1657 or 1658. 14 Geometry's objects are, according to Pascal, motion, number, and space things that encompass the whole universe, according ro the Holy Writ, and which have a «reciprocal and necessary relationship». 1'0 them time must be added, because time and motion are umhinkable without each other. 15 Knowledge of what belongs in common to all these notions, therefore, «ouvre 13. Oeuvres, VIII, 3523. 14. "De l'esprit geometrique», in Oeuvres, IX, 24070, particularly 256ff. On Pascal's indivisibles, see H. Bosmans, "La notion des indivisibles chez Blaise Pascab, Archivio di Storia della Scienza, IV, 1923,36979; ].L. Gardies, Pascal entre Eudoxe et Cantor (Paris: Vrin, 1984); J. de Lorenzo, "Pascal y Jos indivisibles», Theoria, 1, 1985,87120. The interpreraríon here offered is at odds with Bosmans's and Gardies's. 15. ,,[Mollvement, nombre, espace], qui comprennent tout l'universe, selon ces paroles: Deus ficit omnia in pondere, in numero, et mensura (Sap. XI, 21), Ont une liaison reciproque er necessaire. Car on ne peut imaginer de mouvement sans quelque chose qui se meuve; et cene chose etant une, cette unite esl ['origine de tous Jes nombres; enEn le mouvement ne pouvant estre sans espace, on voit ces trois choses enfermees dans la premiere. Le temps mesme y est aussi compris: car le mouvemem et le temps sont relalifs l'un a l'aune; la promptitude et la lenteur, qui SOnt les differences des mouvemems, ayant un rapport necessaire avec le temps.» From B. Pascal, "De l'esprit geometrique", in Oeuvres, IX, 24070, p. 256.
Chapler 2
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 29
l'esprit aux plus grandes merveilles de la nature». 1'he most imponam thing they have in common is infinity: La principale (propriéré commune] comprend les deux infinirés qui se rencon-
uem dans coures: l'une de grandeur er l'aurre de peritesse. 16
Pascal considers the two infinities to be imimately related, «de telle sone que la connaisance de l'un mene necessairement ala connaisance de l'autre.»17 He also assumes that the actual infinity of space emails its subdivision in actual infinitesimal pans: De sone que l'augmemation infinie enferme necessairemem aussi la division infinie. Er dans I'espace le mesme rappon se voir emre ces deux infinis comraires: c'est a dire que, de ce qu'un espace peut esue infinimem prolongé, il s'ensuir qu'il peut esue infinimem diminué, ... 18
Pascal adduces here an example that involves an optical device. Imagine that through a telescope we observe a boat gerring away in a straight lineo 1'he spot on the glass where one specific poim on the boat is observed would go cominuously up (haussera toujours par un flux continueb as the vessel would go away. If the boat goes to infinity, the spot will go up and yet it will never reach the poim where a horizomal ray coming from the eye reaches the telescope. D' ou l'on voit la conséquence necessaire qui se tire de la infiniré de l'erendue du cours de vaisseau, a la division infinie er infinimem perite de ce perir espace resram au dessous de ce poim horizomal. 19
Elsewhere he used another optical analogy. He stressed that pans so tiny as ro be invisible (imperceptibles) can be enlarged by lenses umil they equal the firmamem which shows that a litde space may have as many fcans (in particular, we may add, an infinite number of pans) as a large one. o 1'hese considerations, however, were but bagatelles. 1'he basic argumem rested on the infinite divisibility of space. 1'his notion assumed by all geometers, says Pascal, emailed the existence of infinitesimals unless the end product of infmite division be truly indivisibles. 1'herefore Pascal endeavored ro demonstrate that indivisibles cannot be reached by division, nor can they be pans of a cominuum.
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
¡bid. ¡bid., p. 261. ¡bid. ¡bid. ¡bid., p. 258. He concluded by poiming out rhat nOlhing assures us that we see objects in its «lme» (veritable) size, for lenses may have reestablished the (fue size «que la figure de notre oei] avait changee et raccourcie».
30
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Anroni Malet
He rehearsed two of the most well-known argumems against a cominuum made up of indivisibles. Two indivisibles cannot make up extended space because this entails they must touch each other. If they touch everywhere, they cannot be two different indivisibles. If they rouch in part, they have parts, so they are not indivisibles. The second classical argument goes against the notion that space is made up of a finite number of indivisibles. If this were rhe case, then there cannot exist an square the surface of which doubles the surface of a given square. 21 He also stressed the heterogeneous (sic) characrer of indivisibles vis-a-vis the cominuum. Ir is obvious rhat any space, howsoever small ir be, can be halved, and the parts obrained halved again. How could ir be that at some poim two halfparts turned out ro be indivisibles? This is absurd, because then two indivisibles wirhout extension (etendue), taken rogether would make up extended space. Pascal highlighred the evidence and clarity of this conclusion: Il n'y a point de connaissance naturelle dans l'homme qui precede cellesla, et qui les surpasse en dane. 22 Why is it, then, that excellem minds deny the existence of <
Chaprer 2
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 31
- - - - - - -
hensible it be, must be taken for the truth. This is why we must accept «infinite divisioD», even if no geometer can understand it: 11 n'y a point de geometre qui ne croie l'espace divisible a I'infini. Gn ne peur non plus I'estre sans ce principe qu'estre homme sans ame. Et neanmoins iI n'y en a point qui comprennenr une division infinie; et l'on ne s'assure de cette verite que par cette seule raison, mais qui est cenainement suffisanre, qu'on comprend parfaitement qu'il est faux qu'en divisanr un espace on puisse arriver a une panie indivisible, c'est a dire qui n'ait aucune etendue. 25 Finally, to help reluctam thinkers to come to terms with infinite divisibility, he wem over a modified version of one of Zeno's paradoxes (not idemified as such), and argued that it was no serious argumem against his position. If it is hard to understand how an space made up of infinite divisibles is traversed in a finite time, this is because two disproportionate things are compared: an infinity of divisibles against a finite time. The proper comparison, however, is the one between the infinity of divisibles and the infinity of instams making up time: Et pour les soulager dans les peines qu'ils auraient... a concevoir qu'un espace ait une infinite de divisibles, vu qu'on les parcoun en si peu de temps, ... il faut les avenir qu'ils ne doivent pas comparer des choses aussi disproponionees qu'est l'infinite des divisibles avec le peu de temps ou ils sont parcourus: mais qu'ils comparent l'espace entier avec le ウセュ・エ enrier, et les infinis divisibles de I'espace avec les int1nis instanrs de ce temps; ... 6 Pascal's mystic leanings led him ro endow the comemplation of infinity with a strong religious meaning. The position of mankind between infinity and nothing, he said ro conclude, could prompt thoughts much more valuable than anything geometrical: Mais ceux qui verront dairement ces verites pourront admirer la grandeur et la puissance de la nature dans cette double infinite qui nous environne de toures pans, et apprendre par cette consideration merveilleuse a se connaitre eux mesmes, en se regardanr places entre une infinite et un neant d' etendue, entre une infinite et un neant de nombre, entre une infinite et un neant de mouvement, entre une infinite et un neant de temps. Sur quoi un peur apprendre a s'estimer a son juste prix, et former des reflexions qui valent mieux que tour le reste de la geometrie. 27 Let us turn to Isaac Barrow's (16301677) caurious exploration of the logical foundations of the new notion of infinitesimals set forth in his Lucasian
25. ¡bid 26. ¡bid, p. 259. 27. ¡bid, p. 262.
32
From Indivisibles ro Intlnitesimals
Antoni Malet
lectures. First written in 1665, Barrow's arguments are close ro Pascal's, although they have no mystic flavor attached ro them. Barrow Isaac Barrow did nor spare laudarory adjeerives ro rhe «excellent Method of Indivisibles, rhe most fruitful mother of new Inventions in Geometry».28 According ro him, rhere is a small, select group of very produerive merhods, probably unknown ro the Ancients, ro which rhe method of indivisibles (<<which already has been, bur never sufficiendy can be, praised») belongs. They are used for the easier resolution of all sorts of problems, for the invention of rheorems, and for rhe construction and demonsrration of problems and theorems... Many of these mosr use fui and elegant merhods, unknown ro rhe ancients or ar least not commirred ro memory, has the industry of the moderns invenred and brought ro lighr. (Such are, besides rhe new merhod of Analysis, chiefly cuirivared by Viera and Cartesius, ... Cavalleri's Method oflndivisibles, which already has been, but never sufficientiy can be, praised; rhe Method cÍrea Maxirna 6, },1inirna... ; the various general rules of invesrigating the rangents of curves; the ways of producing curve lines and of investigaring their properties from the dependance and composirion of motions; rhe methods for comparing different series of magnitudes, increasing or decreasing in a certain order, and for thus derermining rhe measures ofinnumerable r,lanes and solids; rana'] rhe general rules for readily finding rhe cenrers of graviry... ).2'!
According to Barrow, indivisibles (that is, points, lines, and surfaces) are perfecdy legirimate mathematical entities. To introduce and define the notion of surface, for insrance, he rook a body «rerminated on every side». Its «term (terminus) is not divisible inwardly, or as ro its thickness (for ifit should be so divisible, not the whole, bur only something of ir without would be the rerm,...) Hence there is given sorne Term of a solid magnitude that is indivisible as ro thickness; this is called a surface».30 Indivisibles, however, cannot under any circumstance constitute or compase lines, surfaces, or solids. A great many arguments againsr rhe opposite view appear in the secrions of Lecture IX in which Barrow discussed the divisibiliry and composition of magnitudes. He used Arisrorelian arguments againsr aromism ro argue thar points «joined rogether will form no magnitude».31 He also made reference ro Arisrode and Plaro when arguing for the infinite divi-
28. 1. Barrow, Mathematieal Works, W, Whewell ed. (Cambridge, 1860), p, 1667, The Mathnnatical Lectures were rranslared by J, Kirkby and published in London in 1734 as T/Je Usefitlness o/MatlJelnatical Learning Explained and Demonstrated ... Translarions are my own, but 1 benefited from Kirkby's translation. 29. ¡bid., p. 2123. 30. ¡bid., p. 135. 31. ¡bid., p. 139. ,,",
セ。ーエ・イ
2
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 33
32 sibiliry of magnitude. Finally, he summoned up many classical examples ro show rhat many geometrical proposirions become problemaric when the assumprion rhar magnitudes consisr of points is inrroduced. If lines consisr of points, for insrance, how is rhe mean proponional berween lines of seven and nine painrs ro be conceived? Then Barrow addressed the paradox involving concentric circles, an old paradox much used in rraditional debares abour indivisibles. Consider rwo concentric circles and join the center ro aH rhe poinrs of rhe larger circumference. Ir wiH be interesring to put Barrow's arguments along Torricelli's, who used the paradox to endow indivisibles with different mag33 nitudes. Barrow, on the orher hand, was to use rhe paradox for rhe only purpose of arguing thar circumferences are not made up of poinrs. If rhey were, says Barrow, all circumferences would be egual, for when radii join the center of a circle ro every point in irs circumference, it is apparent thar «circumferences of more concenrric circles consisr of rhe same number of points wirh rhe former, and conseguendy are egual (adequare) ro the former circle».34 Barrow recognized rhat language does sornerimes disservice ro those who «apply the exceHent Merhod ofIndivisibles», in thar rhey seem to be saying that «all these parallellines are egual ro such aplane». What has ro be undersrood by rhese expressions, however, is an infinite or indererminare sum, not of lines, bur of «parallelograms of a very small and nonconsiderable (inconsiderabilis) (if I may say so) height». In ralking of planes whose sum is egual to a solid, we musr egually understand «prisms or cylinders of noncompurable heighr».35 On what grounds was Barrow ro admit these «infinite» sums and <
36. In faet Barrow did not speeity whether he was arguing against a finite or an inflnitekind of mathematieal atomismo In one of the few oeeasions in whieh he did so, he deemed the hypothesis of the finite number of indivisibles to be «still more repugnant ro the laws of Geometry». In this oeeasion he pointed out that Galileo he1d the view that magnitude is eomposed of an infinite number of atoms. See Mathematical Works, p. 147; on Galileo's indivisibles, see A.M. Smith, "Galileo's Theory of Indivisibles: Revolution or Compromise?», }ournal o/the History o/Ideas, 37 (1976), 57188.
34 From Indivisibles to lnfinitesimals
Antoni Malet
That «a fmite magnitude... can have an infinity of parts», Epicurus held to be uninteHigible, says Barrow. He could not see the point of Epicurus's objection, however. Had not mathematicians shown that any inflnite series whose terms decrease in geometrical proportion adds up to a finite number? Barrow, therefore, did «not see any contradiction in [a finite magnitudes] having more than mil1ions of parts, or more than can be expressed by any number, nay, rather 1 conceive it ro be very agreeable to reason.»3? Then Barrow addresses one of the most classical arguments against the handling of infinite aggregates which he attributes ro the aromists (sic). 1f an infinite number of parts were actually found in, say, a line, then different sorts of infinites would exist, and sorne infinites would be greater than others for the infinite number of parrs of a twofeet line would double the number of parts of a onefoot line, for instance. The aromists concluded, says Barrow, that «it seems absurd for an infinite ro be exceeded, contained, or multiplied.»38 But this was no longer a powerful argument in the seventeenth century. By assuming that space itself is infinite, says Barrow, one can produce innumerable instances of «an infinite number within an infinite numbef», for if a right line be supposed ro be extended infinice1y in space, which almosc nobody deems not ro be immense, it will doubtless comain an infinice number 39 of feec, an infinite number of paces, and an infinice number of furlongs.
Not that Barrow would flatly assume such a controversial hypothesis as the infinity of space, but since che adversary builds his argumems upon the nature of infinite, ic will be legitimace for us ro suppose che same chingo And if che position of the thing itself be perhaps impossible, yet the consequence would be manifesc and perceptible, i.e., that it is in no wise repugnam... with the nature of an infinite ro be contained in another infinite. 40
Newron was to use a similar argument in 1693 in a letter to Bentley. He asserted there that infinite divisibility entails no logical contradiction, because not aH the infinites are equal. Sorne authors, says Newton, will deny that a finite quantity be supposed equal ro an infinite sum arguing that, since al1 inflnites are equal, this would entail the equality of whatever twO finite magnitudes that be expressed as an infinite sumo The argument is wrong, says Newton, because «tho' there be an infinite Number of infinite little Parts in an 1nch, yet there is twelve times that Number of such Parrs in a Foot».41 37. Barrow, Mathematical Works, p. 144. 38. Ibid., p. 146. 39. Ibid. 40. Ibid., p. 147. 41. Newton to Benrley, 17 January 1692/3, in Isaac Newton 's Papers and Letters on Natural Philosophy, LB. Cohen ed. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Universiry Press, 1978),293296, p.295.
Chaptet 2
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Battow, Wal1is 35
セ
Barrow did not pay much attention ro other objections against the actual existence of an infinite number of parts in a flnite magnitude and quickly rnentioned and answered other objections, including Zeno's.42 He was not to close his discussion on a rriumphal note, however. He did recognize that his hypothesis was not selfevident. «1 deny not that it is difflcult ro understand, how every single part can be divided so as aH not to be actually reduced by the division to indivisibles, or to nothing or what is next ro nothing». While he allowed that we were «not able ro comprehend how this indefinite division can be performed», he none the less srressed that the truth of the «indcflOite divisioo», «proved by so many evident tokens, and supported by so many srrong arguments», followed «of necessity from the nature of matter, a thing most manifestly known ro us».43 He srressed, finally, «the imperfection of the human mind and the poverty of our mental capacities», obstaeles so relevant here that we are dealing with «that kind of things, which cannot be comprehended by our minds, as being finite.»44 Barrow had thus grounded the new notion of infinitesimal parts. Ir was not a notion completely free of obscurities, but it seemed ro Barrow to be, if nothing else, less obscure than any other of the alteroatives al10wing him ro salvage the «excellent method of indivisibIes». Barrow had a well deserved reputation as someone who favored synthetical, rigorous proofs and clear foundations. Even now he is more often than not presented as a mathematical conservative who did not appreciate algebra nor the new techniques closely linked to ir. However, daring to explore the logical underpinnings of infinitesimals, Barrow was certainly modero and innovative when he publicly defended the new infinitesimals against Tacquet and other mathematical «classicists» reluctant ro abandon the Arisrotelian continuum. Let us now turo to the comments on infinitesimals and indivisibles by someone whose reputation among his contemporaries was quite the opposite to Barrow's. Wallis A leading mathematician and forceful advocate of the use of infinitcsimals, John Wallis (1616 1703) had among his fellow mathematicians a welldeserved reputation for disregarding the niceties of classical exhaustion proofs and elassical methodology general1y.
42. Barrow, Mathematical Works, p. 146. 43. Ibid., p. 148. 44. Ibid. Compare with Newton's reflection on the soundness of the analysis performed by means of infinire series in his 1669 De Analysi: «... we, mere men possessed only of finire intelligence, can neirher designare al! rheir rerms [ofthe series], nor so grasp rhem as ro ascerrain exacrly rhe quantiries we desire from rhem, ... », in D.T. Whireside ed., Mathematical Papers ofIsaac Newton (8 vals., Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 19671981),11, p. 240 (Whireside's rranslarion).
36
Antoni Maler
From Indivisibles to Intlniresimals
Chaprer 2
His 1655 Arithmetica infinitorum probably was the first printed text ro combine in a systematic way infinitesimals and arithmeticallimits. 45 Fermat, Roberval and Pascal had previously used similar or related techniques, but their works only appeared later on. Wallis's Arithmetica infinitorum proves results that can be anachronistically rendered as n
Iik limn---7
1=0 00
(n+1)n k
[1J
k+1
Wallis's proofs rely in what we now call incomplete induction. In order ro prove [1 J for the case k = 1, he calculated the ratio n
Ii i=ü
(n+ 1)n for small values of n, to condude that it carne ever nearer ro 1/2 as n increasedo His proofs for the cases k = 2 and 3 are similar. He then assumed k = 1/2 and 1/3, saw that [lJ also holds in these cases, and dared to condude that [lJ holds for every k integer or fractional. 46 The emphasis in Wallis's book lies on many original applications of [1], rather than on its demonstration. The very structure of the book reveals this emphasis. After proving the case k = 1 of [lJ in Propositions 1 and 2, Wallis devotes the next sixteen Propositions to gain results (on spirals, mainly) by applying it. Then, after devoting Propositions 19, 20 and 21 to prove the case k = 2, has them followed by seventeen Propositions containing applications of ir. Then come Propositions 39, 40 and 41 proving the case k = 3, and so on. However, as if expecting criticism for his methods of proof, Wallis warned the reader that he was interested in revealing his methods of discovery rather than in providing elegant demonstrations. Indeed, his methods provoked sharp attacks from sorne quarters. Fermat and sorne of his friends were Wallis's most fierce critics in a complex debate whose context has not been fully elucidated yet. Ir is apparent though that mathematical rigor was discussed in intimate connection with matters of
45. ]. Wallis, Arithmetica infinitorum, sive Nova Methodus Inquiriendi in Curvilineorum Quadraturam, alioque difficiliora Matheseos Problemata (Oxford, 1655). Quotations are ro ]. WaIlis, Opera mathematica, 1, 355478. 46. Fot details, see ].F. Scon, The MathematiL"a1 Work ofJohn Wallis (London, 1938),3560.
セ」。ャ ケ
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 37
While Ferma.t 、セキッャ。 that Wallis's methods キ・セ heubeauty and セエゥャ ケy frunful, he was adamant m denymg the status of demonstratlons to the arguments supporting the results in the Arithmetica infinitorum. What is true of particular cases, he said, is not necessarily true universally «ce qui se deduit par comparaison en Geometrie, n'est pas tousiours veritable».48 Fermat accompanied his criticism with an eager invitation for Wallis ro join him in his researches in what we now call number theory. Wallis stressed that his demonstrations were most appropriated in order tO illuminate the way to new results. He thinks Cavalieri has opened a fruitfui way and cannot find exception to his methods. Rather than to admire Archimedes on account oE his elegant demonstrations, Wallis thinks we should blame him for hiding his method of investigation. He himself expects ro be thanked by those who aspire to discover new truths. As for Fermat's arithmetical problems, Wallis sets forth a rather negative appreciation not of Fermat's methods and solutions, but of the enterprise as a whole. Wallis cannot see the point of this sort of problems, for they seem to be unimportant, and, short of time, he chooses his mathematical problems in terms of utility.49 . Several colleagues of Wallis and Fermat joined in the discussion, always revolving around the foregoing themes. Frenide, Fermat's mouthpiece, wondered how it could be that a mathematics professor [Wallis, that isJ is concerned by the utility of a mathematical result. Outsiders may be naive enough ro put such questions, but Wallis surely knows that the higher mathematics the arithmetic of infinites, for instance has no mechanical uses whatsoever. Frenide stressed that, generally speaking and excepting the lower and easier and less prestigious parts of mathematics, which are used by surveyors, gaugers, and similar people arithmetic and geometry were of no practical use. In a higher sense, however, no truth is useless. Mathematics is pursued on account of its subtlety and perfection, and because it is most fitting for the human mind to look after the ttuth. 50 Fermat, sending a series of theoand Lord Brounckner to examine, remarked rems and conjeetures for セ。ャゥウ of the conjecture, that 2 2 + 1 is a prime number, that obviously it cannot be said to be useless. He also suggests to them not to abuse of analytical formulae in detriment of the methods of Eudid and Apollonius, lest the mathematical elegance of the ancients be lost. 51 47. The debate is found in Commercium epistolicum, de Quaestionibus quibuJdam Mathematicis nuper habitum. In ter Nobilissimos Viros [Lotd Brouncker, K. Digby, Fermat, Frenic1e, WaIlis, van Schooten, et. al.] (Oxford, 1658). in ]. Wallis, Opera Mathematica (3 vol., Oxford, 1693 I 699; repr. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1972), 11, 757860. 48. Wallis, Opera, 11 p. 761; see also Fermat's «Remarques sur l'arirhmétique des ínfinís du S.]. Wallis», in P. Fermat's Oeuvres, 4 vol., P. Tannery, C. Henry eds. (París, 18911812), 11, p. 347353. 49. Wallís to Dígby, in Wallis, Opera, 11, 777789, particularly p. 781782. 50. Frenic1e to Dígby, in ibid., 810811, p. 811. 51. Fermat to Digby, ín ibid., 857859, p. 858.
38
From Indivisibles ca Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Wallis and his Netherlander colleagues, van Schooten and Hudde, were unimpressed by such arguments. Van Schooten dismissed Fermat's arithmetical problems with words similar to Wallis's: they obviously have no use whatsoever. The little spare time he can devote to science, Hudde explains to van Schooten, he wishes to spend in problems not only more useful, but also more general and promising ro bring more glory and recognition to whom may solve them.52 Reporting his own views as well as Hudde's to Wallis, van Schooten stressed that in his country it is «general opinion» among mathematicians that problems in number theory have no interest and no use whatsoever, are extremely difficult, and their solution will bring little glory ro their authors. 53 Years later, in his 1685 Treatise ofAlgebra, Wallis carne back to this discussion, only to reassert his views. Teaching how to find, as opposed to demonstrate, new truths was not only usefuI but sorely needed, he said. With his methods, the matter at hand will not «be parcelled out into several Lemmas and preparatory Pro¡ositions. Which though it might look more August, would be less edifYing».5 With hindsight, Fermat was right. Ir is also clear, however, that he represented a minor current within seventeenthcentury mathematics, and that his criticism ofWallis's methods was linked to moral and aesthetical values. Their different approaches may result, among other things, from the differences between the cultural matrix of Catholic France and the Calvinist and puritan leanings ofWallis and his Netherlander colleagues. Be that as it may, Wallis's views on method and rigor cannot be dismissed as the expression, or the result, of mere carelessness. As we shall see, he was keen about both clarifYing the notions involved in the method of indivisibles, and discussing the logical dangers he perceived in the use of indivisibles. Wallis accurately discussed his own understanding of notions basic to the method of indivisibles in his response to attacks by Thomas Hobbes. 55 In his
セR
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 39
1656 Six Lessons to the Professors ofMathematicks... Hobbes had criticized Wallis's use of infinitesimals with the classical argument that infinitesimals mus t be either equal to zero or have a finite magnitude. 56 He also criticized Wallis's use of Cavalierian indivisibles (lines that make up figures, and so on); it was in answer to this that Wallis included in the Treatise ofAIgebra the comments on indivisibles quoted at the beginning of the present chapter. In 1671 Hobbes submitted several questions to the Royal Society, requesting that the Society «pass a judgment on them,> whatever that might have meant. The Society passed them to Wallis, and his unsigned answer was published in the Philosophical Transactions. Hobbes started quoting (accurately) Wallis's result we have encapsulated as [1] aboye: If there be undersrood an infinire row of Quantities beginning with O, ... , and increasing conrinually according to the natural order of numbers, O, 1, 2, 3, etc, or according to rhe order of their sguares, as 0, 1, 4, 9, etc, or according ro the order of their cubes, as 0, 1, 8, 27, etc, whereof the last is given; [then] the proportion of the whol e, shall be to a row of as many, thar are egual to the last (in rhe nrst case) as 1 ro 2; (in the second case) as 1 ro 3; (in the third case) as 1 to 4, etc. 57
As Hobbes pointed out, this proposition «is the ground of all his [Wallis's] doctrine concerning the Centers of Gravity of all Figures.» He then asked six questions, three of which directly concerned the notion of infinitesimals: 2. Whether a Finire Quantiry can be divided into an Infinite N umber of lesser Quanrities, or a Finite guanriry consist of an Infinite Number of parts (which he builderh on as received from Cavallieri.) 3. Whether rhere be any Quanriry greater than Infinite.
52. Van Schooren ro Wallis, in ibid, 833841, p. 835: 53. ¡bid., p. 840. 54. Treatise o/ALgebra, p. 305. 55. 1 cannor dwell here on the very interesting conrext of rhe squabble berween Wallis and
Hobbes, although irs rheological dimension wj)\ be rouched upon in Chaprer 6. Suffice ir ro say rhar ir was a disagreement by no means confined ro rechnical aspecrs of rhe foundarions of marhemarical merhod on rhe conrrary, rhe birremess of the marhematical conflicr derived from deep philosophical and polirical differences berween Hobbes and rhe philosophical esrablishment ro be idenrified wirh rhe Royal Soeiery. On rhe wider conflict, see S. Shapin, S. Schaffer, Leviathan and the air-pump (Princeron: Princeton Universiry Press, 1985), passim. On rhe philosophical discussion abour marhemarical infinities, see P. Mancosu, E. Vailari, «Torricelli's Infinirely Long SoJjd and Irs Philosophical Reception in rhe Seventeenth Century», [sis, 82,1991, 5070, p. 6569; and S. Probsr, «Infiniry and crearion: rhe origin of rhe controversy berween Thomas Hobbes and rhe Savilian professors Serh Ward and John Wallis», Brit. Jour. Hist. ::'i:i., 26, 1993,271279. On orher aspecrs of rhe conflicr berween Hobbes and Wallis, see S. Schaffer, «Wallifaction: Thomas Hobbes on school diviniry and experimenral pneumarics», Stud. Hist. Phi!. Sci., 19, 1988,275298. On Hobbes's marhemarics, see D.M. Jesseph, "Hobbes and Marhematical Merhod», Perspectives on Scíence, 1, 1993, 306341.
5. Whether there be any number Innnite. For it is one thing to say, that a Quanriry may be divided perpetually without end, and anorher thing to say that a Quanriry may be divided into an innnite number of parts. 58 Hobbes ended his series of questions stressing that they were a matter of common sense, not of Geometry:
56. T. Hobbes, Six Lessons to the SaviLian Professors o/the Mathematics, in W. Molesworrh ed., EngLish Works o/Thomas Hobbes (11 vols., London, 18391845), VII, p. 300301. See also H.M. Pycior, «Marhemarics and Philosophy: Wallis, Hobbes, Barrow, and Berkeley», Jour. Hist. Id., 48,1987,265286; and F. Cajori, "COntroversies on Marhemarics berween Wallis, Hobbes, and Barrow», Mathematics Teacher, 22,1929,146151. 57. T. Hobbes, To the Right HonorabLe and others, the Learned Members o/the RoyaL Society (n.pl., n.d. [1671]) (a ftLio leafler prinred on one side). 58. 1 quore rhem separaredly, as were prinred in rhe PhiLosophicaL Transaetions, 6, 1671 (Seprember 18, 1671, Num. 75), 22412250, p. 2242.
40
From Indivisibles
[Q
Infinitcsimals
Amani Malet
The examination thereofbeing so ease, thar there needs no skill either in Ceomerry, or in rhe Latine Tongue, or in the Art of Logick; but onely of the common understanding of Mankinde ro guide your ] udgement by. S') Wallis's answers rested on the distinction between «to be» and «to be supposed». (Incidentally, let us norice rhat Wallis's views were published as rhose of the Royal Society, the most prestigious philosophical institution in Resrorarion England.) In mathematics, all the way back to Eudid, says Wallis, «infinites» are only «supposed», but not taken to «actually Be, or be possible to be performed». Apparently Wallis's caveat refers to the physical, material impossibility of actually producing an infinite number of things or performing an infinite number of acts: Euclid (in his second postulare) requiring, the producing a strcight line Infinitely...; did not mean, that it should be actually performed (for it is nor possible for any man to produce a streighr line infinitely;) but, that ir be supposed. And ifAB be supposed so produced... ; its length must be supposed ro beco me infinite (or more than any length assignable;) ... Again, when (by Euclid's tenth Proposition) the same AB, may be Bisected in M and each of the halves in m, and so onwards, Infinirely: it is not his meaning... thar it should be actually done, (for, who can do it?) but that it be supposed. And upon such (supposed) section infinitely continued, rhe partS must be (supposed) infinitely many; ... 60 Thanks to the distinction between mathematical objects rhat be and rhat are supposed to be, Wallis can enlist non other than Eudid ro the cause of infinitesimals: «And this 1 say, ro shew rhat the supposirion of Infinites (with these attendants) is not so new, or so peculiar to Cavallerius or DI. Wallis, but that Eudid admirs it, and all Mathematicians with him; ... »61 With rhese solid foundations, Wallis goes on ro answer Hobbes's questions on the affirmative: 2. A Finire Quantity... may be supposed... divisible inro a number of pans Infinitely many (or, more than any Finite number assignable:) ... And, all those PartS were in the Undivided whole; (e1se, where should they be had?) 3. Of supposed Infinites, one may be supposed greater than another: As a, supposed, infinite number ofMen, may be supposed ro have a Creater number of eyes ... 5. There may be supposed a number Infinite; that is, greater than anyassignable Finire: As rhe supposed number of parts, arising from a supposed Section Infinitely continued. 62 Wallis's views on infinitesimals were further discussed in his Defense o/the Angle o/Contact and his Treatise o/AIgebra (both of 1685). In rhe latter work 59. Hobbes, To the Right Honorable and others, the Learned Members ofthe Royal Society. 60. Philosophical Transactions, 6, 1671 (Seprember 18, 1671, Num. 75), 22412250, p. 2242. 61. ¡bid. 62. ¡bid., p. 22422243.
......
セ
______________r⦅」 Gュ 。⦅ォ ゥョMLァセャョ、ゥカ ウ 「ャ・ Z
Pascal, Barrow. WaUis 41
he set forth his views on the foundations of «the method of exhaustions» (his words). According to Wallis, this method (<
As we shall presently see, Wallis wants ro separare himself from Clavius's views on infiniresimals, for Clavius understands them as magnitudes heterogeneous with finite magnirudes. As opposed to Clavius, Wallis wants them ro be homogeneous, and therefore capable of being legitimately used as the basis of the method of indivisibles. He understands that the method of e xhaustions «in the limit» yields equality between the given figure and the final producr of rhe succession of figures that gets ever doser ro it: all continual approaches, in which the Disrance comes ro be less than any assignable, must be supposed, if infinirely continued, to determine in a Coinciden ce or Concurrence: The Difference rhus coming ro nothing: or (what Ceometry accounts as such,) Less rhan any assignable. Thus the Hyperbola and its Asymptote, if infinitely continued, must be supposed ro meet. ... Thus a Circle must be supposed Coincident with an (Inscribed or Circumscribed) Regular Polygone, of Sides infinitely many. And rhe like in cases Innumerable. lo) Wallis ended up his discussion of the «method of e xhaustions» sending the reader to his Defense o/the Angle o/Contact, a shorr tract added ro the Treatise 01AIgebra where he further comments on his understanding of infiniresimals and his differences wirh Clavius. 63. Treatise ofAIgebra, p. 284. 64. ¡bid. 65. ¡bid.
42
From Indivisibles ro Infiniresimals
Anroni Maler セ
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 43
. F
Discussing the Horn Angle Further insight on Wallis's views on infinitesimals and indivisibles is ro be gained from his discussion of the nature of the horn angle, angle of contingence, or angle of contacto According to the Oxford English Dictionary (1971 edition), the angle of contingence is «the infinitesimal angle between the circumference of a cirele and its tangent, or between two tangents to a curve at consecutive points.» The OED definition, whose reference ro the infinitesimal character of the angle would surely not fail to stir sorne discussion even today, nicely encapsulates the notion that Wallis was so keen to discuss. Whether the angle of contingence has ro be considered an angle proper and if yes, how much it measures had been discussed since antiquity. In the sixteenth century the matter gained notoriety through the discussions of Chrisropher Clavius (15381612) and Jacques Peletier (15171582). Clavius published a rebuttal of Peletier's views in his influential commentary on Eudid's Elements. Later on Vieta sided with Peletier. Clavius's account was again criticized by Wallis, joining the ranks of Peletier and Vieta with his 1656 Treatise o/the Angle o/Contacto This in 1662 was in turo criticized by a Jesuit, Vincent Léotaud (15961672), who attempted to rescue Clavius (also a Jesuit), not only from the attacks ofWallis, bur also from those of another Jesuit, André Tacquet (16121660). Wallis answered ro Léotaud's 1662 Cycfomathiawith his Deftnse o/the Angle o/Contact, a tract appended to the 1685 Treatise o/Afgebra. 66 AlI the authors involved in the conrroversy agreed that Proposition III16 of Euelid's Efements unassailably proves that the horn angle DAP (see Figure 4) is less than any acute rectilinear angle. (Euelid's III16 actually proves that any straight line FA (different from the tangent PA) cuts the circumference of the cirele at sorne point E -::f:. A.) According to Peletier, Eudid III16 contradicts Eudid Xl, the socalled «Axiom of Archimedes». This principIe requires that given two unequal magnitudes, it be always possible to subdivide the larger so as ro come eventually to a magnitude less than the smaller one or equivalently, that by adding the smaller magnitude ro itself it be possible ro overcome the larger one. Literally, Euelid Xl does not say so, but Peletier, Clavius and Wallis rook Xl to be equivalent ro the results just mentioned. A learned humanist, a poet, and the author of several creative innovations regarding algebraic symbolism, Peletier wanted to remove the flaw from Eudid's text through a radical reinterpretation of the notions here involved. He wanted ro remove horn angles from the category of angle, and ro deny that they be «quantities» which in the sixteenthcentury context meant that they had to be «qualities», and therefore exeluded from the realm of objects proper ro mathematics. Peletier stressed that otherwise Euelid 1II16 is a flagrant counterexample of Xlo 67 66. A Dejimse ofthe Angle ofContactwas published in 1685 annexed to the Treatise ofAIgebra, along with other mathematical tracts, on pages numbered 69 10 105. It [eatures an independent ti tle page dated 1684. 67. L. Maieru, <:' .. .in Christophorum Clavium de ContaclU Linearum Apologia". Considerazioni altorno alla polemica Era Peletier e Clavio circa l'angolo di contalto (15791589»>, Arch.
I P
D セ
E
B
e
A
Figure 4.
Peletier's goals in this controversy are far from elear. Since his attack put Eudid's Efements in a nowin position, one in which its undisputed repuration as a paradigm of true knowledge could not escape unscathed, he might very well have had a political or philosophical axe ro grind. He may have intended to provide weapons to the skeptics, or been interested in making room for the analyric mathematics that were then starting ro take shape in France. Be that as it may, Peletier's stress on the flaws apparently present in Eudid's text must have been disturbing ro Clavius, a religious man deeply committed to the Counrerreformation task of resroring the old authority in matters philosophical. Against Peletier, Clavius was to argue that there is no conrradiction between Euelid III 16 and Xl, provided that angles of contingence be (assumed) heterogeneous with rectilinear angles. Although he never says so in that many words, Clavius is in a sense suggesting that horn angles could be considered as the indivisibles of rectilinear angles. The drawback in Clavius's position, which Peletier did not fail ro use against him, is that Eudid explicitly compares the two kinds of angles, thus making them homogeneous magnitudes. To this Clavius was to answer comparing horn angles to finite segments and rectilinear angles to infinite straight lines. Clavius, therefore, seems ro come very dos e to making angles of contingence analogous ro infinitesimal rectilinear angles. Peletier could, and did, attack Clavius's last analogy by pointing out that infinite lines are no magnitudes the mathematician can handle. Clavius was ro attack Peletier's notion of horn angle by pointing ro the obvious geometrical reality made up by any curve and its tangent. The space they determine is there, and has welldefined geometrical properties. If those angles are not quantities, how it can be that the circumferences of three cireles such that Hist. Ex. Sci., 41, 1990, 115137; T. Heath, note to Eudid IlI-16, in T. Heath ed. and trans., Euclid. The Thirteen Books ofthe Elements (3 vols., New York: Dover, 1956), JI, 3943.
44
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
anyone touches the other two nor in rhe same point endose a space -rhis entails, says Clavius, rhar rhe sides of rhe curvilinear rriangle somehow "open up» at rhe verrices of the rriangle. 68 Interestingly enough, Clavius's norion of angle of contact was assailed from rwo parties deeply disagreeing from each other abour rhe cogency of the merhod of indivisibles. André Tacquer, one of rhe srrongest critics of the merhod of indivisibles, could nor agree wirh Clavius because he wanted quantities «incomparably smal¡" banned from geomerrical speculations. 5ince Wallis embraced jusr rhe opposite view, it would nar be unreasonable to expect Wallis ro side wirh Clavius and take angles of contingence as evidence of infinitesimals introduced by Eudid himself However, Wallis sided with Peletier. Wallis's view rhat «rhe Angle of Contacr is of no Magnirude» is grounded on rhe argument rhat no magnirude different from zero is less than any magnitude whatsoever: in al! sons of Magnitudes (or Quantiries) wharever, Thar whjch may be proved ro be leJJ than any aJJignable, is indeed (as ro rhar son of Quantity) ofno fvfrzgzitude. (Because if of any, ... ir mighr be so Mulriplied as ro exceed the greatest:)
The wording ofWallis's argument mighr suggesr rhar his use of infiniresimals is inconsistent with it. This is nor rhe case, as we shall see, because in speaking of «any assignable magnitude» he is implicirly induding infinitesimal magnitudes. Indeed, he will ser forrh a new conceptualizarion of angles of contingence by carefully separaring rhem from truly infiniresimal magnitudes. For Wallis will argue rhat, were horo angles parr of rectilinear angles, then rhere would be infinirely small rectilinear angles smaller than horo angles. According ro Wallis, rhe most compelling evidence supporring Clavius's posirion is rhar horo angles are unmistakably «there», that they are dear and distinct parrs of geomerrical diagrams. Of course, rhis was a powerful argument within seventeenthcentury marhemarical merhodology, where geomerrical drawings played so crucial a role in marhemarical proof As Clavius would have it, nothing but a muddled and dubious argument can suggesr rhar rhe parr of the plane determined by any horo angle is ro be assumed <
セ
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 45
nitesimal chords, Wallis stresses that the circular arc is ro be considered «one continued Curveline (withour Fracture or Angle)).71 And then goes on: And as (by such continual Flexion) each Point of the Curve doth obtain a new Direction; so is rhe Direction, at every Point, the same with that of the Tangent at the same Point».72
He is therefore introducing a correspondence berween points and angles of contaet, and seems to suggest rhar an angle of c ontact is within a rectilinear angle in the same way as a poinr belongs ro a lineo Now, since Wallis recognizes that ane can compare as to magnitude angles of contingence, and that rhey are something different from a «nonangle», he cannor push the analogy berween horo angles and points too faro He is thus led ro ser up an elaborate conceptual scaffolding which has as a key element the nation of <
The definirian is nor very illuminating, bur sorne examples are. A paint, adds Wallis, rhough ir has «as yet no Magnitude; yet, if considered as in arder to Motion, ir is in rhe nexr possibility to Length, and Inceptive of ir. (Far, if
71. Deftnse, p. 90. Wallis also explores the conjectute thar circular ares be made up of infiniresimal chords. If we assume, he says, arcs «as made up of a cenain number (finire or infinire) of streight lines; and the whole Flexute or Bowing... Equivalem ro one Righrangle; and rhar Flexure uniform (as in a Cirele it is) we must then allow ro each Poim of Flexute, such a Proponional pan of one Righlangle, as is denominated by such number (finire or infinite) as is the number of arts so supposed; and rherefore, if infmite, セ R a Proponional 00
pan... infinitely small: And such will be the Are of Contaet (ar each Point) in such Rectilinear Polygone,) (ibid). In the next page, Wallis comes again ro rhe same idea, ro deny ir explicir1y: Let a polygone be inscribed in a cirele, and be «the number of sides infinite1y many; such side must be infinite1y shon... and rhe External Angle infinire1y small; but the Direction (or tendeney) of such side (how small soever) ... must sri1l be the same... But if rhenO'. such side (infinitely small) be supposed fimher to degenerate into a Point, and rhat Polygon into a Cirele,... the Angle of Contaet... which was, before, infinite1y small. must now be nothing» (ibid., p. 91). 72. Dejénse, p. 90. 73. Dejénse, p. 95 (stress in the original).
""" 46
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
never so littIe moved, it describes a Line.»,74 A line is an inceptive of surface, and a surface is inceptive of solid. Other examples are puzzling, although they are important for Wallis's purposes. «Celerity or Swifteness» is inceptive of Length in motion; and «Acceleration lis] Inceptive as ro Celerity». This said, Wallis presents his view that angles are inceptives of distance, and horn angles are inceptives of angle or «declinatioTI». According to him, an angle is but an inclination given at an angular point. An angle «is made in the Angular Point A; and is the same whether the Legs containing it be long or short». It is an inceptive of distance in the sense that «so soon as ever we be past the Angular Point, the Legs are actually Distant».7 5 Angle, he adds, is not distance: (like as, in motion, Celerity is not Length:) But it is Inceptive of distance; shewing the degree of Divarícation, [or] Declination... : That is, at what rate... the line AC [one o/the sides o/the angle Wallis is considering] doth divaricate, decline, deviate or depan fram AB [the other side].76
Angles show the degree of declination, or the rate at which distance increases. When the declination is not constant we need take into consideration the degree or rate at which declination increases and this is, according ro Wallis, the angle of contingence. Comparing the rectilinear angle ABC (see Figure 5) and the circular arc AGF, he says: And, like as the Distance [fram AccC ro AbbB] may be changed, either by Leaps (per saltum) as in Ab, ce, cf, C; or (gradually) by continual Declination, as in AcC; ... So may the Declination also vary; either by Leaps, ... (making so many Rectilinear Angles) as in ABCDEF; or (gradually) by continual Flexion, as in one contínued Curve AGF: ... 1 say further, ... That Deflection (whereby a Curveline departs from its Tangent, and which is commonly called the Angle of Contact) is not Angle, or Declinatíon; (like as, in motion, Acceleratíon is not Celerity:) But is Inceptive of Declination; shewing the degree of Curvity: That is, at what rate... it flies off from Rectitude».77
By analogy with the relationship between acceleration and velocity Wallis has characterized the angle of contaet as the rate at which rectilinear angles change. Having thus mathematized the notion of horn angle, he can now effectively counter C1avius's argument that angles of contingence are obviously something, and differ as ro magnitude. He stresses more than once that in general inceptives have magnitudes of their own. Angles of contingence, in particular, have their own magnitude, different from zero and enabling us to 74. 75. 76. 77.
.....,
Deftnse, Deftnse, Deftnse, Defense,
p. 96. p. 96. p. 97. p. 978.
Chapter 2
A
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Battow, Wallis 47
¡
D
=::::: , .
E '-
セi
F
Figure 5.
make comparisons between them. They have their «Magnitude, tho of a nother kind and Heterogeneous to that of Angle; in like manner as Angle... is Heterogeneous to Distance; Celerity to Length; Acceleration to Celerity; Line to Surface... >,78 After this long detour through inceptive land, Wallis can summarize and spell Out the conceptual differences separating his views from C1avius's. It may seem, says Wallis, that 1 [Wallis] am now merely suggesting that angles of contingence have magnitudes heterogeneous (and therefore not capable of having a ratio) with that of rectilinear angles and therefore that 1 am in agreement with C1avius. But the crucial difference is this, that Wallis cannot accept heterogeneity on the grounds of «being too smal)": 1 do thus far agree with Clavius, (and always did) That what he calls an Angle of Contact... hath a Quantity or Magnitude, capable of measure, ... ; and that. .. is Heterogeneous ro Angle...; and therefore not capable of praponion ro ir, nor can by any Multiplication become equal to it, or exceed it. But herein we differ; That he makes his Angle of Contact, such a Quantity as is Pan of a Rectilinear Rightangle; ... and the Angle of Contact no otherwise Heterogeneous to a Rightlined Angle, but only because so very small.7 9
And then Wallis goes on to explain why magnitudes that are any part of others are always homogeneous ro them: «But,... if the Angle of Contaet be a Part; and such as leaves the Remainder less than the whole; then ... may be so Multiplyed as ro exceed the whole, ... nor can any pan of a Magnitude be 78. Deftnse, p. 99. Wallis had previously stressed that generally speaking inceptives have their own magnitudes: «But these Inceptives, tho they are as yet no whit of that whereof they are Inceptives; yet may, as Inceptives, have a Magnitude of their own; and that at such rate (or in such proportion) as they are afterwards to be operative" (ibid., p. 96). 79. Deftnse, p. 99 .
4B
Antoni Malet
From Indivisibles to Inflnitesimals
so small as nor ro be capable of such Multiplicarion, and Hererogeneous, only because smalb. Bo And Wallis will conclude his discussion by srressing rhar he includes infinirely small pans among rhe homogeneous pans he is now ralking abour: Where, by rhe way, we may observe a grear difference berween rhe proponion of
lnfinite ro Finite, and, of Finite ro Nothing. For _1_, rhar which is a pan infini00
rely small, mayo by infinire Multiplicarion, equal rhe whole: But MセL
1
rhar which
is Norhing, can by no Multiplicarion become equal ro Somerhing. And rhis may serve for rhe sertling of rhar Norion concerning rhe Angle of Contaet, and orher Norions of like Narure. 81
Infiniresimals were rherefore crucial in Wallis's arremprs ar clarifying debares on marrers of conceptual foundarions. Infinitesimals in Mathemarical Proof In 1682 Ismael Boulliau (16051694), a disringuished marhemarician and asrronomer, published his Opus novum ad arithmeticam infinitorum, a work rhar provided synrherical proofs for results Wallis had published many years before in his own Arithmetica infinitorum. Upon receiving a copy of rhe book from irs aurhor, WaIlis rhanked Boulliau and spoke posirively of rhe book. However he very much srressed rhar Boulliau's endeavors were rarher pointless, for rhere was norhing ro be missed in demonsrrarions involving infiniresimals. B2 By rhe time WaIlis was rhus dismissing Boulliau's book, probably mosr marhemarical pracririoners shared his views. Sorne rhiny years befare, in rhe 1650s, rhe sratus of infiniresimals was much less clear. In his already quored words of 1658, Pascal was one of rhe tlrsr ro stress rhar rhe merhod of indivisibles involved no diftlculties, provided rhar rhey be undersrood as infiniresimals. 83 As we shall see now, rhis was precisely whar aIlowed Barrow ro claim rhar proofs involving intlniresimals could easily be rranslared inro more classical and indirecr proofs. More rhan once Barrow warned rhe reader rhar proofs performed by rhe merhod of indivisibles could also be carried on following a more apagogical and circuirous parh. 84 Nor rhar Barrow rhoughr rhe former proofs unconvincing or in any way defecrive, bur he recognized rhar readers nor used ro rhem mighr balk. So he added an appendix ro rhe Geometrical Lectures inrended ro
80. 81. 82. 83. 84.
.....
Defense, p. 99. Defense, p. 99. Treatise 01Algebra, 310-311. Pascal, Oeuvres, VlII, 3523. The fragment belongs ro one of che 1658 leners ro Carcavi. «Apagogica¡" was ofren used in rhe sevenreenth century ro refer to proofs by reduccion to absurdo
セ
Remaking Indivisibles: Pascal, Barrow, Wallis 49
show how his proofs could be supplemenred ro obrain classical demonstrations by reducrion ad absurdum. The appendix, rhe second one in rhe Geometrical Lectures, opens as foIlows: Having regard for brevity and perspicuity (mainly rhe larrer), che preceding results were proved by direet arguments (discursu), by which nor only rhe rruch is cogently enough confirmed, bur also cheir origins mosr neatly appear. Buc for fear anyone less used ro chis son of arguments had difficulty, we will add che following shon notes. With them me said arguments are secured and with their help apagogical proofs of rhe preceding results will be easily worked out. 85
The appendix is inreresring because ir shows rhe kind of diftlculties Barrow anricipared his readers would have. As we shall see, Barrow was nor concerned about rhe use of infiniresimals and did nor make any arrempr ro ger rid of rhem. What did concern him was ro show rhar rhe difference between an aggregare of intlniresimals, each one being nor rruly idenrical wirh a pan of rhe whole surface, and rhe surface is less than any finire magnirude. This is rhe precise, literal meaning of Barrow's (and also Pascal's) words ro rhe effecr rhar a figure and the sum of irs indivisibles «minimally (minime) differ», or rhar rheir difference is «smaller rhan any given quanrity». Thar is, rhey do differ, bur rhe difference is jusr an intlniresimal pan, less rhan any given, finire quanrity. Given rhe curve AB (see Figure 6), ler irs base DB be divided in indefinirely many equal pans by rhe poinrs Z, and ler rhe parallelograms making up rhe circumscribed figure ADBMXNXOXPXRA and rhe inscribed figure HXGXFXEXZDH be complered. Ler S be a surface rhar is grearer rhan the inscribed figure and less rhan rhe circumscribed figure. Barrow proved thar S is equal ro rhe surface AXBD, detlned by rhe curve AB, by proving firsr rhar rhe surface AXBD cannor be less rhan S, and rhen rhar ir cannor be grearer rhan S. Ler us firsr assume rhar AXBD is less rhan S, and rhar rhe difference is equal ro rhe recrangle ADLK, a finire magnirude. The recrangle ADZR is smaller rhan recrangle ADLK because AR is an indefinirely smallline (indefinite parva), and rherefore shoner rhan AK. Bur rhe recrangle ADZR, because ir is ャ。オアセ ro rhe sum of rhe recrangles AHXR, XPXG,oo., is grearer rhan all rhe rrilInea AXR, XXp, XXO,oo. rogerher. Therefore, rhe surface AXBD plus rhe rec・ャァョ。セ ADZR is grearer rhan rhe circumscribed figure. Ir follows rhar S, which IS equal ro rhe surface AXBD plus ADLK, is grearer rhan rhe circumscribed figure, conrrary ro rhe hyporhesisso AXBD cannor be less rhan S. By a similar argumenr Barrow proved rhar AXBD cannor be grearer rhan S, and hence concluded rhar AXBD is equal ro S.86
85. Barrow, Mathematical Works, p. 284. The appendix includes, along wich che proof discussed here, argumenrs ca support che legicimacy of subscicucing an indefinicely small segmene of che cangene for che arc; ibid., p. 284285. 86. Mathematical Works, p. 2856.
50
Amon; Malet
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimal>
CHAPTER3 A
K
X R p O H ---G X セ F X
E
L
iセ
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton
N M
X
1\
セx
Z
DZZZZB
Figure 6.
Barrow has here produced a proof involving a double reductio ad absurdum, but involving infinitesimals too. His main concern was not to produce a proof strictly patterned on the exhaustion procedures of Eudid and Archimedes, free of indefinite1y smallline1ets. It must be stressed that it was not difficulty or ignorance what precluded Barrow from producing such proofs. James Gregorie (16381675), with whom Barrow kept an important mathematical correspondence, and whose work Barrow knew and very much appreciate, could easily produce them although he did not publish them. What did eoncern Barrow was ro show that the addition of infinitesimal rectangles produced exactly the space endosed by the curve. Indefinite1y small magnitudes were no longer the issue the issue was whether they worked properly enough.
With hindsight we may be tempted ro say that Pascal, Barrow and Wallis represented the future, in the sense that infinitesimals were ro become a basic notion for the deve10pment of the Leibnizian calculus and eighteencentury mathematics generally.1 Between the future and the past, represented by such traditional mathematicians as Tacquet and Guldin, we may yet find sorne intermediate positions. Entertaining no doubts about the usefulness of infinitesimals and indivisibles in geometrical investigations, sorne mathematicians seem ro have thought that neither infinitesirnals nor Cavalieri's demonstrations could be legitimate1y used for demonstratives purposes. The method of indivisibles put them visavis notions and techniques they could possibly not renounce using, even though they were not able ro put those notions in asure footing. Sorne attempts at getting over the difficulties posed by the method of indivisibles were thus made that went beyond a mere reworking of dassical exhaustion proofs.
Boulliau Ismael Boulliau (16051694), a French Catholic priest author of books in astronomy, mathematies and opties, is now chiefly remembered for his Astronomia philo/aica (Paris, 1645). A Copernican treatise incorporating Kepler's findings, his book offered one of the best surveys of astronornical techniques before Newton's Principia. 2 Prompted by A. Tacquet's 1654 Elementa Geometriae p/anae ac solidae, he published in 1657 his revision of d assical methods as part of his Exercitationes geometricae tres. 3 Boulliau offered here shortcllts through the longwinded exhaustion proofs of Eudid and Archirnedes. 1. H.].M. Bos, «Differemials, HigherOrder Diffcrcntials and (he Derivacive in me Leibnizian Ca!cuius», Archivefor History ofthe Exact Sciences, 14 (1974), 1-90. 2. LB. Cohen, The Newtonian Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 36, 226227, 300. 3. «Exercicacio 1. Circa demonsrrationes per inscriptas e( circumscrip(as figuras», in Exercitationes geometricae tres (Paris, 1657),722.
52 From
Antoni Male!
Indivisibles ro 1nfini tesimaIs
Chaprer 3
end of the progression. Now, AE infinitely decreased (imminutd in infinitum) is always greater than Q, while Cl increased in infinitum is always smaller th an Q. In faet, the wording of the proposition is even more cumbersome that the presenr paraphrase suggests, for Boul!iau speaks of ratios greater (or smaller) th an equality, rather than of magnitudes that are greater (or smaller). Boul!iau wanrs ro prove that B = Q. Bur Q cannot be greater than B, because, that Q be some AF, greater than B, contradicts that AE infinitely decreased is always greater than Q. And Q cannot be smal!er than B for a similar reason. Now, ro apply this Proposition ro the surface of the sphere, Boulliau reminds the reader that Archimedes proved the surface of the solids of revolurion generated by the inscribed octagonal polygon ACBLDMEN rotating round the axis AD (see Figure 2), and by al! regular inscribed polygons of 16, 32, and so on, sides, ro be smaller than four times the surface of the cirele of diameter AD. Archimedes also proved the surface of the solids of revolution generated by the circumscribed octagonal polygon FOGPHQlR rotating round the axis FH, and by al! regular circumscribed polygons of 16, 32, ... sides, lO be grealer than four times the surface of the cirele of diameter AD. Now, the surfaces of the circumssolids of revolution are ro be taken as the magnicribed (inscribed, イ・セー」エゥカャケI tudes AE, AF, ... (Cl, CK,oo. ) in the foregoing proposition; the magnitude B will be taken as K, the magnitude of the spherical surface, ro which the surfaces of the inscribed and circumscribed solids get ever eloser; and Q is ro be taken as S, four times the surface of the cirele over the diameter AD. Ir directly fol!ows from the foregoing proposition that S = K,5
E
o
F
G
Q
ヲセ
H
N
I
A
B
e
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton 53
D
Figure 1.
For instance, that spherical surfaces equal fout times the セオイヲ。」・ of their generating circles-which is Prop. 31, Bk. 1 of Archimedes's On the sphere and cylinder-Boulliau derived from the following result: Let rwo magnitudes be compated ro sorne given magnirude [B]. Let one of the former be decreased by the subrraction of parts in infinite number, and the other increased by the addition of parts in infinite number, so that they get ever more equal ro the given magnitude [B] and at the very end of these progressions they reach it [equality]. Moreover, let one of the same [rwo], howsoever decreased, be always greater than sorne other magnirude [Q], and let the other, howsoever inereased, be less than it. But let the two get ever closer ro equality. The magnitude ro which the rwo magnitudes were compared lB] is equa! ro that [Q] which when compared ro the greater howsoever deereased is a!ways less than it, but when compared ro the smaller howsoever increased is always greater than it. 4
F
Gu-
In spite of its obscurity, Boulliau's proposition is litrle more than a rewording of its hypotheses. In Figure 1, AE and CI are two magnitudes compared ro B. When decreased (increased, respectively) by an infinite number of parts, EF, FG,oo., (IK, KL, ... ) they get ever closer ro B, to get actual!y equal at the
'*
ᄀIセ
4. «Si ad aliquam magnirudinem datam duae magnirudines eomparentur, quarum una inh-
nitarum parrium ablatione deereseat; altera inhnitarum panium additione augeatur, et ad aequaliratem magnirudinis datae magis magisque aeeedant, et in oedem progressionis termino ad eam perueniant; ipsarúmque altera quantumuis imminuta ad aJiam magnirudinem, semper maiorem, quam aequalitaris, rarionet reneat; altera quanruttluis aueta minorem, ad aequalitatis yero rationem magis ae magis aeeedanr. Magnitudo ad quam eomparantur duae magnirudines, aequalis erir iBis, ad quam maior quanrumuis imminuta maiorem, quam aequalitatis, rationem semper tenet; minor vero quanrumuis aueta minorem quam aequalitaris rarionem semper tener." [bid., p. 8.
K 15 H Figure 2.
5.
¡bid., p. 17-18.
54
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Boulliau set forth other propositions that abstracted, so to speak the more salient features of exhaustion proccsses and applied them to c1assical results. 6 Almost at the same time Christiaan Huygens was playing with a similar idea, although he never publishcd it'? The changing views of Christiaan Huygens (16291695) on the method of indivisibles are particularly revealing on account of both, his ccntral role in seventeenth-century mathematical sciences, and the way he used indivisibles and infinitesimals in his works. 8 Huygens Perhaps the best known expression of the two-sided status enjoyed by indivisibles in the central decades of the seventeenth century is Huygens's 1650 exchange of views with his then mentor van Schooten. Huygens had been led ro consider the use of indivisibles completely unreliable because they could easily produce wrong results. By using indivisibles Torricelli had proved (and published in 1644) the area of the circ1e ro be egual ro a right triangle the cathetuses of which are equal to the radius and to the circumference of the circ1e. Take the circle BD with center A (see Figure 3). The segment Bx, perpendicular ro the radius BA, is equal ro the perimeter of the circ1e. Concentric circles within BD, such as 10, will have perimeters egual to segments lA (paralIel to Bx). Now, all the concentric circles's perimeters taken together constitute the whole circle BD, and all the segments lA constitute the right triangle ABx, so the result follows. 9 Huygens found the argument aItogether unacceptable. He pointed out (ro van Schooten, in 1650) that the same argument allows us to conclude that the circle is equa! ro the triangle ABC, in which the base BC, always egua! ro the perimeter of the circle, is not at right angles to the radius AB. Or else, take an isosceles triangle ADC (see Figure 3) such that the sides AD and OC together are equal to the perimeter of the semicircle ABe. Now, for any semicircle FGH within ABC there is a triangle FKH whose perimeter eguals in length the perimeter of FGH. Therefore the semicirc1e ABC and the triangle ADC are egualwhich is not true. This sort of criticism was common fare in the middle decades of the century. As Giusti has recently pointed out, Thomas Anglus's 1658 Exercitatio geometrica marshalled many false deductions of the sort just mentioned as
セ
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newron 55
B D
cセ
A
, ' セ
A',',
- 0-
1)
,le
.','-
1
B
o
1 X
D
Figure 3.
evidence against Cavalierian indivisibles. 10 Here Anglus set up the following general counterexemple ro Cavalieri's principIe. Let two figures be comprised between the same two parallels and have egual bases on one of the parallels. Let us assume their «widths», measured by the regula (that is, by the intersections of any straight line between the parallels and parallel to them as well), to decrease continually rowards their vertices (located on one of the parallels). Ir is obvious then that any width in one of the figures is egual to sorne width in the other (probably not at the same distance from the base)therefore collections of «all the lines» determined by the same regula of diffirent figures have the same elements. 11 Ir apparently follows, by way of Cavalieri's principie, that the figures are egualwhich is generally falseo In 1650, reassured by his mentor van Schooten, Huygens carne ro use indivisible technigues. 12 But even appreciating the method's «insignem brevitatem" and heuristic power, Huygens could not believe it provided unassailable mathematical proofS. In his 1650 «De iis quae liquido supernatant", the hydrostatical treatise that is one of his first exercises in «mixed" mathematics (or mathematical physics, ro put it anachronistically), Huygens briefly set forth his views on the advantages of the method of indivisibles, and did make use of it, but he also composed an appendix to the treatise providing exhaustion proofs for sorne results demonstrated through indivisibles in the treatise.13
6. He proved in a similar way that circles are as the squares of their diameters, and that cylinders are [hrice [he cones with the same base and height. Ibid., p. 1822. 7. Huygens, Oeuvres, XIV, p. 338. According ro the editors this undated fragment was composed in 1659. 8. Gn Huygens's mathematics and its place in the seventeenthcentury contex[, see J. Yoder. Unrotling Time. Christiaan Huygens and the mathematization o/ nature (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988); H.J.M. Bos, «Huygens and mathematics", in H.J.M. Bos et al eds., Studies on Christiaan Huygens (Lisse, 1980), 126147; "L'élabora[ion du calcul infinitesimal, Huygens entre Pascal et Leibniz", in Huygens et la France (Paris, 1981); A. Heinekamp, "Christiaan Huygens vu par Leibniz", in Huygens et la France, 99-114. 9. Torricelli, Opere, 11,174.
..
10. T. Anglus (ar White, Blacklow. Albus, 15931676), Exercitatio geometrica. De Geometria Indivisibilium, et Proportione Spiralis ad Circulum (London, 1658). 11. Quoted in E. Gius[i, "Dopo Cava1ieri. La discussione sugli indivisibili", in Atti del Convegno «La Storia delle Matematiche in Italia", Cagliari, ... 1982 (Cagliari: Universita di Cagliari. n.d.), 85114, p. 9293. 12. C. Huygens, Oeuvres completes (22 vols., La Haye: Société HoI1andaise des Sciences, 18881950), I, 1302, for van Schooten's views, and p. 1324, for Huygens's abjeccions to proofs invalving indivisibles. 13. For Huygens's views in his 1650 "De iis quae liquido supernatant", see the opening sentences ofBk. 111, in Oeuvres. XI, p. 158; for tflc appcndix, see ibid., p. 204210.
56
From Indivisibles ro Infiniresimals
Amoni Maler
In 1659, in nores inrended for a marhemarical trearise he was planning, bur never published nor finished, Huygens carne ro recognize rhar he could nor go on providing exhausrion proofs for everyone ofhis resulrs, ever more convolured and cumbersome. Furthermore, granring rhar rhe merhod of indivisibles was nor a legirimare merhod of proof, Huygens stressed rhar ir was a powerful rool of discovery, rhe marhemarician's mosr valuable rask: Sorne [resulrs] by indivisibles. But they fail when rhey are assumed ro make up a demonsuarion. For the rest, for the putpose of convincing rhe skilled [mathemaricians] rhere is no big difference between providing a complere proof [demomtmtio absoluta] or else the foundarions of such a ーイッエセ ar the sight of which they will nor doubt thar a perfecr demonsuation can be given. AlI the same, 1 acknowledge that in rightly establishing a proof so thar ir is dear, eleganr and the mosr appropriared, rhe skill and genius [of irs aurhor] shines fonh, as in all of Archimedes's works. However, mosr imponanr by far is rhe merhod of irs invenrion, the knowledge of which pleases aboye all and is keenly desired by the learnedwherefore it fanher appears rhar rhis merhod provides a more clear and quick comprehension... Then indeed we economize out writing and the reading of others for time is no longer available, given the enormous quanriry of geometrical invenrions developed (which in this learned cenrury is daily increased and seems rhar will be immense), when rhe wrirers make use of rhe prolix bur perfeer method of the ancienrs. Yer in the foregoing, wriuen sorne rime ago, rhis [method of rhe ancienrs] has been preserved, so rhar ir be an indicarion and something of an example showing rhar rhe remainder may also be produced in rhis way.14 Perhaps rhe mosr importanr source abour Huygens's views on indivisibles and infiniresimals is an indirecr one: rhe way he used rhese notions in his mosr emblemaric and carefully planned book, rhe 1673 Horo!ogium osci/latorium. In ir Huygens used infiniresimals, bur he did nor allow himself rhe use of indivisibles. Infiniresimals appear in rhe lasr and crawning Proposirion XI of rhe rhird pan of rhe book, dealing wirh rhe «evolurion» and recrification of curves. 15 Infiniresimals reappear in many proposirions of rhe fourth part of rhe book, serring fonh rhe rheory of rhe cenrer of oscillarion. Bur indivisibles are conspicuously absenr from rhe book. On rhe orher hand we know, rhanks ro ]. Yoder's masrerful reconstrucrion, rhar indivisibles played a crucial role in Huygens's discovery of rhe cycloidal characrer of rhe isochronous pendulum. Huygens's arrack resrs indeed in his analyzing rhe movemenr of rhe pendulum in «particles» (particula) of time and space, and his «raking rogerher» all rhe lines rhar make up a given surface. 16 Indivisibles, however, complerely disappeared fram rhe final, published proof of rhose results conrained in part 11 of rhe Horo!ogium. More rhan once Huygens did assume rhere curves composed of an infinire (sic) num14. Oeuvres, XIV, 337; see also ibid., p. 190192. 15. Pan III, Praposirion XI reads «Given a curved line, find another curve whose evolurion describes ir. Show that fram any geometrical curve another geometrical curve can be derived for which an equal straight line can be determined» (Oeul'res, XVIII) p. 225241). 16. Oeuvres, XVI, p. 392398.
Chaprer 3
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton 57
ber of straighr lines, bur crucial sreps fram his firsr (unpublished) proof in which rhe equality of figures was esrablished rhrough rhe equality of rheir indivisibles were removed, ro be subsritured by exhausriontype argumenrs. 17 James Gregorie on Quadratures H.W. Turnbull's 1939 edirion of rhe James Gregory Tercentenary Memoria! Vo!ume revealed Gregorie's impressive marhemarical conrriburions. (Ir seems appropriare, following suggesrions by C. Eagles and D.T. Whireside, ro keep rhe old spelling Gregorie, for he never renounced ir himself. «Gregory» was rhen an English usage rhar many scors never made rheir own I8 ). We know now rhar Gregorie was a firsrrank, highly innovarive marhemarician working in isolarion from rhe leading scienrific circles. James Gregorie's conrriburions ro quadrarures belong ro four caregories. 19 There are firsr rhe wellknown results conrained in his marhemarical books, Véra circu!i et hyperbo!ae quadraturil (I667) and Geometriae ptlrS universa!is (I 668). After reading Mercaror's Logarithmotechnia in 1668, which impressed him deepl:?;' Gregorie engrossed himself in rhe invesrigarion of merhods for series expansions. o In rhe nexr fewyears, bur mainly in 1670 and 1671, he carne upon rhe binomial rheorem and rhe socalled «Taylof» expansions, and applied rhem, as well as rhe more straighrforward merhods of long division and roor exrracrion, ro a grear variety of marhemarical problems. Whar we know abour his work along rhese lines is fragmenrary. ApparenrIy we know rhe essenrial resulrs he achieved in rhis field, which are found in his correspondence wirh Collins and in rhe manuscriprs published by Turnbull in 1939, but how Gregorie discovered and proved rhese resulrs remains mainly conjecrural. 21 Thirdly, we musr consider rhe 1684 Exercitatio Geometrica, published in Edinburgh by James's nephew, David Gregory, as an imponanr source on James's ideas as well. This needs perhaps sorne jusrificarion. Alrhough in prefacing rhe Exercittltio David acknowledged rhar he was using his uncle's marhemarical remains, rhis was nor raken lirerally enough by his conremporaries,
17. Compare Yoder's account 01' Huygens's discovery of me results here memioned, in her Unrolling Time. Christiaan Huygens and the mathematization ofnature (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), p. 4861, with Huygens's final version, in Horologium, pan II, Propositions XXIII ro XXV, in Oeuvres, XVIII, p. 170186. For instances in which a curve es taken equal ro an infinite number of its tangents, see the demonstrations 01' Prapositions VIII, IX, and XXI. 18. See D.T. Whiteside's anicle on Gregorie in the Dictionary ofSciemific Biography, and C. Eagles's «The Mathematical Work 01' David Gregory 16591708» (Ph.D. Diss., Universiry ofEdinburgh, 1977), p. 2430. 19. In what follows, «quadrature» will be used generically ro refú ro rectifications and cubatures as well as quadratures. 20. See my «Studies on James Gregorie», chapter l. 21. ¡bid., chapter 3. See also Turnbull's study 01' the Gregorie manuscripts in H.W. Turnbull ed., Gregory Tercentenary Memorial Volume (London, 1939), p. 34782 and 1323. See also H.W. Turnbull, «James Gregory: A Stlldy in the Eatly Hisrory ofInrerpolarion», Proceedings ofthe Edinburgh Mathematical Sociery, 2nd ser, 3(1933), 15172.
58
From Indivisibles
ro Infinitesimals
Amoni Malet
nor by historians. After all, common sense dictates, ifDavid's were just an editorial hand, he would not have failed to say so and to give his uncle proper credit. A close look at David's handling of James's manuscripts, however, has revealed a nontooscrupulous hand. There is hard evidence that David had no qualms in letting his uncle's university lectures pass as his own or in publishing results ofJames's under his name. 22 On the other hand, careful study of his works and manuscripts has yielded a rather harsh evaluation of his mathematical knowledge and abilities. 23 All this justifies, in my opinion, the assumption that the ideas and results contained in the 1684 Exercitatio Geometrica are essentially James's. Finally, the fourth source is constituted by a hitherto unpublished manuscript, «Geometriae propositiones Quaedam Generales», in which Gregorie grounds on impeccable Archimedean foundations basic results of the method of indivisibles. Two sets of results from Gregorie's manuscript must be highlighted. Several propositions concern Cavalieri's principIe, which by means of exhaustion proofs is shown to hold for generic plane figures as well as for solid bodies. By the same demanding method Gregorie proves that similar lines, surfaces (either plane or not), and volumes are, respectively, as the ratio of proportionality, as its square, or as its cube. Gregorie's unpublished piece is of particular interest because it displays remarkable similarities with many ofNewton's opening mathematicallemmas in the Principia. 24 It will appear from our comparison that the styles of Gregorie and Newton are very different, but that they were agreed as to what results provided an adequate basis for quadratures generally. As indicated aboye we must loo k at the ideas in the 1684 Exercitatio Geometrica as part of a method put together by James Gregorie around 1670 upon reading Mercator's Logarithmotechnia. Now, if we compare the Exercitatio with Newton's 1669 De Analysi, we shall find them remarkably similarindeed similar enough to induce Newton in 1684, upon reading the Exercitatio, to initiate the «Specimens of a Universal [System] ofMathematics».25 The method of quadrature set forth in the Exercitatio Geometrica rests on the following ideas and results. 26 First, it uses the notion of «element», which sometimes is an infinitesimal and sometimes an indivisible, as it will be explained below. Second, it rests in a lemma to the effect that the surface of aplane figure whose element or ordinate is mxl'lr is
22. See my «Studies on James Gregorie», chapter 1. 23. See the thorough study by C. Eagles, "The Mathematical Work of David Gregoty», Ph.D. Diss, Edinburgh, 1977. See also D.T. Whiteside's anicle in the DSB, V, 51922. In Whiteside's appreciation, David's career is the perfect example of how "a modicum of talent, effectively lacking originaliry, was stretched a long way», l.c., p. 521. 24. References to the similarities with Newton's lemmas wete made by Turnbull, Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 445, and Whiteside, Newton's Mathematical Papers, VI, 109 n39. 25. Lefi: unfinished, the treatise «Matheseos Universalis Specimina» has been published in Whiteside's edition ofNewton's mathematical papers. CfNewtan's Mathematical Papers, IV, 526ff. 26. The mast impartant technicalities concerning the content af the Exercitatio Geometrica have been adequately discussed in C. Eagles's thesis, p. 30744, and will nat be discussed here.
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton 59
Cbapte! 3
r m x p+r
セ
r
(the surface, that is, determined by the axis, the curve and the ordinate ュクャGOセN Third, it assumes that the surface of a figure whose element is the sum (either finite or infinite in number) of elements of this kind, mxl'lr, is equal to the sum of the surfaces yielded by every termo Fourth, it uses algebraic methods that expand roots and fractions of polynomials in power series. And finally, it rests in a thorough knowledge of the properties of the socalled characteristic triangle. The properties of the characteristic triangle were used to determine the elements of curves, which yield rectifications, and the elements of the surfaces of solids of revolution. Most noticeably missing here are the two most powerful methods James Gregorie had devised to gain series expansions, that is, the binomial theorem and the «Taylof» rule. In the Exercitatio the basic notion of «element» was not used consistently. At the beginning of the book elements were formally defined as infinitesimals. Given a curve ADE (see Figure 4), «An element is a line or rectangle BCKD whose width is indefinitely small and differs minimally from BCED». Similarly, the element of the curve is defined as the little curve (curvula) DE, and the element of the solid of revolution generated by the rotation of the curve AE around the axis AC as the cylinder generated by the rectangle BCKD. 27 Later on in the Exercitatio, however, points are the elements of a curve, arcs ofcircumfirence are the elements of a figure bounded by a spiral, circles are the elements of solids of revolution, and so onthat is, elements are indivisibles, not infinitesimals. James Gregorie always showed a marked reluctance to use infinitesimals
E
K
F
A
B
e
Figure 4.
27. Exercitatio Geometrica, p. 5.
li :1'1
:11
60
From Indivisibles ro Infiniresimals
Antoni Maler Cbapter 3
and avoided them in his published works almost completely. He used inflOitesimals only in Proposition 7 of the Geometriae pars universalis, to prove a method of tangents derivative of Fermat's. 28 On the other hand, he showed himself always concerned with providing exhaustion proofs for any new, or not so new, significant result found by means of inflOitesimals. This applies to many important results that received c1assicalstyle demonstration in his Geometriae pars universalis, but also to the proofby exhaustion ofMercator's quadrature of the hyperbola that Gregorie produced upon getting acquainted with Mercator's result and published shortly thereafter in his 1668 Exercitationes geometricae. The same applies to his demonstration, also published in the 1668 Exercitationes, of the quadrature of the secants. The same applies, finally, to his exhaustion proof of Cavalieri's principie we will publish below. Let liS go back to the fact that in the 1684 Exercitatio the notion of ,<e1ement» was inconsistently used. Probably this is only a consequence ofDavid Gregory's inconsistent editing of his unc1e's papers. Of course, David was pushed to use infinitesimals by the fact that infinitesimal notions were, by the time he published the Exercitatio, widely accepted, while indivisibles had been all but forgotten. Ineidentally, the word «element» as well as the notion of element as a generic indivisible came from the small treatise on the method of indivisibles inc1uded in the third volurne ofMilliet Dechales's ponderous 1674 Cursus mathematicus, a work we know was thoroughly studied by David Gregory.29 The treatise disappeared from the 1690 enlarged, 4volume edition of the Cursus mathematicus. As noticed aboye, the method of quadratures set forth in the 1684 Exercitatio Geometrica is the same as that in Newton's 1669 De Ana(ysi. Even though the twO essays relied in the same algebraic rnethods when it carne to gain series expansions, David could not provide a full explanation of all of these rnethods. He did mention the existence of a rnethod to express y as a power series of x when a polynornial equation f(x,y) = O is given, but he did not describe the rnethod. Newton's De Analysi, on the other hand, did inc1ude an account of such a method, which Newton called «the algebraic resolution of affected equations».30 Newton could not, however, inc1ude the «Taylor» rule, which he carne upon only years later,31 nor the binomial theorem, abollt which he apparently had rnisgivings. As pointed out aboye, David Gregory's account did not inc1ude the binomial theorern nor the «Taylor» rule, both already used by his unc1e in 1670. 28. See below, Chaprer 5. 29. Dechales's rrearise on indivisibles is found in volume 3, p. 76591, of his Cursus seu mundus mathematicus, in 3 folio volumes (Lyon, 1674). On rhe manuscripr «Quaedam de indivisibilium merhodo a Cavillario excogirara», a ser of nores garhered upon reading Dechales's accounr of the method of indivisibles hitherto attributed to James Gregorie, but in al! probability drafted by David Gregory, see my study of Gregorie's manuscripts in A. Malet, "Srudies on James Gregorie (16381675)>> (Ph.D. Diss., Princeton U niversity, 1989), Appendix to chaprer l. 30. See Newron's Mathematical Papers, Ir, 22232. 31. In 169192, rhat is; cf. Newton's Mathematical Papers, VII, 48 nI.
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton 61
A second difference between Newton's De Analysi and the Exercitatio is found in how the two works prove the basic lemma that we express x fax"'/ndx = Nセ :!m+n)/n, m,n being positive integers. [1] O m+n
To prove this result Newton assumed x (see Figure 4) to be equal to z = 2.. >.3/2.
= AB and a surface such as ADB
3
For a different x, say AC or x + o, the surface z becornes z + ov, v being sorne interrnediate value benveen the ordinates BD and CE. Therefore, ; (x + 0)3 = (z + ov)2.
Newton concludes, after developing parentheses and canceling, lf we now suppose [Be] ro be infinite1y small, rhar is, o ro be zero, v and y [rhe ordinare DB, rhar is] will be equal and rerms mu1tiplied by o will vanish and rhere will consequendy remain ... x l / 2 = y. Conversely rherefore if x l / 2 = y, rhen will _2_ x)/2 = z.
3
Finally, Newton explained why the argurnent works for any rational positive exponent of x. 32 In the Exercitatio Geometrica the proof of the result [1] is referred, for m/n positive, to Proposition 54 of the Geometriae pars universalis, and for m/n negative to Proposition 59 of the sarne. We shalllook in detail at the first of these theorems. Let rhe curve ICA (see Figure 5) be defined by AB _( AK
EC
)
)P/q ,
AE
AK, AB being the sides of a given rectangle, and DE being any parallel ro AB. Proposition 54 of the Geometriae pars universalis states that the whole paralle!ogr am ABIK is to the figure ACIK as p + q to q. To prove this result, Gregorie mtroduces an auxiliary curve AHG defined by taking, for every C on the curve セcaL CH (parallel to KA) equal to the subtangent EF at C. Now, says Gregorie, 1t has been proved in Proposition 11 that Figure ACIGHA = Figure ACIK. 32. Newron's Mathematical Papers, !l, 2424 (Whiteside's translation).
62
Amoni Malet
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Q
J
セ
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton
63
figure ACIGHA as pro q, whence rhe whole recrangle Al, which is equal ro ACIGHA plus ABICA, is ro ACIGHA, or AClKA, as p + q ro q.33 Ler us look now ar Proposition 11, which plays a crucial role in rhe foregoing proof and provides an interesring relarionship between quadrarures and rangenrs generally.34 Proposirion 11 esrablishes, for any curve wharsoever ACI (see Figure 5), rhar figure ACIK = figure ACIGHA, where rhe curve AHG has been defllled by drawing from every point C a segment CH parallel ro AK and equal ro rhe subrangent EF ar C. Gregorie's exhausrion proof is grounded in rhe following inequaliries:
s
rrapezoid ICEK > mixtilinear figure ICHH' recrilinear figure IMCEK < mixrilinear figure ICSQ,
J'
where «mixrilinear» means rhar rhe figure is partly bounded by curved lines. 35 Ler us assume, says Gregorie, rhe figures ACIK and ACIGH nor ro be equal, and ler X be irs difference. Ler BA be divided in points B, L, ... , A such rhar rhe difference between rhe inscribed mixrilinear figures ICHH', LCA and rhe circumscribed mixrilinear figures ICG'G, CAFH be less rhan X. Now, because of rhe inequaliries jusr mentioned,
H'
trapezoid ICEK > mixrilinear figure ICHH' trapezoid CAE > mixrilinear figure CAL,
F and also
B
A
E
K Figure 5.
On rhe orher hand, rhe subrangent EF of rhe curve ICA is always found by raking AE : FE :: p : q. (Gregorie does nor explicirly deduce rhis result, bur says ir is a consequence of rhe general merhod ro find rangents he has ser forth in Proposirion 7.) Therefore, by Cavalieri's principie, rhe figure ABICA is ro rhe
recrilinear figure IMCEK < mixrilinear figure ICSQ recrilinear figure CFE < mixrilinear figure CAFH. Now, since rhe figure ACIK is grearer rhan rhe trapezoids ICEK, CAE togerher, and less rhan rhe recrilinear figures IMCEK, CFE togerher, rhe figures ACIK and ACIGH are found ro be bounded between all rhe mixrilinear figures ICHH', CAL and all rhe mixtilinear figures ICSQ, CAFH. This implies rhar rhe difference between rhe figures ACIK and ACIGH is less rhan X, which is absurd. 36 In irself a good example of a transfirmation result, Proposirion 11 provides an adequare transirion from Gregorie's quadrarures by series expan33. Geometriae pars universalis, p. 102-4. 34. This resulr had been found by Roberval and Torricellí in rhe 1640's. In rhe early 1690's lean Gallois accused lames Gregorie of plagiarism, a charge rhar prompred David Gregory's answer. 35. These inequaliries are easily proved ín Proposirion 10. The mixrilínear figure ICHH' is smaller rhan che rrapezoid ICHH', whích is smaller chan IC]]', whích is equal ro che rrapezoid ICEK. In a similar way, rhe mixrilinear figure ICSQ is grearer rhan rhe recrilínear figure IMCSQ, whích ís equal ro IMCEK (Geometriae pars universalis, p. 25-7). 36. Geometriae pars universa/is, p. 27-9.
64
From Indivisibles ro Infiniresimals
Anroni Maler
sions to his ideas about how the problems of quadratures had to be tackled generally. Transformation Theorems In the Preface to his 1668 Geometriae pars universalis Gregorie stressed that the «deficiencies of [algebraic] analysis» are «particularly noticeable when it comes to measure the quantities of curves». This, however, could be remedied by means of transformation theorems. A transformation theorem established the equality of two figures such that one has been obtained from a geometrical transformation of the other. Gregorie's Geometriae pars universalis offered several general transformation theorems, which were also published, with minor variations, in Isaac Barrow's 1670 Geometrical Leetures. In Gregorie's own words, quadratures could be solved provided that knowing the essential property of any given figure, a method be given to transform (transmutandl) the figure in an equal one having known properties, and then [to transftrm] this latter figure in another, and so forth, until eventually the figure be transformed in sorne known quantity, In this way the measure of the given quantity which was sought for would be found, not differently from what is done in the resolution of analytical equations,17
This emphasis on geometrical transformations as an essential rool ro deal with quadratures has been sorne times interpreted as an obstacle to the progress of mathematical thought in the seventeenth century, and specifically to the discovery of the calculus, because it detracted attention from algebraic techniques. According to Gregorie, however, algebraic analysis was allimportant for taking full advantage of the approach to quadratures that he was advocating: The student of this method must be versed in analysis aboye all, for withollt analysis the examination of the properties of any given figure surpasses the forces of any genius. 18
Gregorie saw no inconsistency in attacking problems simultaneously analytically and geometrically. On the other hand, Newton himself saw algebra as a mere ancillary tool. With harsh words for cumbersome algebraic symbols that may obscure rather than clarif}r problems, Newton advocated the use of geometrical techniques in the opening sentences of his Geometria curvilinea, a fluxional study of curves written ca. 1680: Men of recent times, eager ro add ro the discoveries of the ancients have united the arithmetic of variables [speciosam] with geometry. Benefitting from that, pro-
37. Geometriae pars univemz!is, t2, recto and verso. 38. Ibid, t2 verso,
Chaprer 3
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens. Gregorie, Newron 65
gress has been broad and far reaching if your eye is on the profuseness of output but the advance is less of a blessing if you look at the complexity of its conc!usions. For these computations, progressing by means of arithmetical operations alone, very often express in an inrolerably roundabout way quantities which in geometry are designated by the drawing of a single line. 3'!
And he adds later on: Observing therefore that numerous kinds of problems which are usually resolved by lalgebraic] analysis may (at least for the most part) be more simply affecred by 40 synthesis, 1 have written rhe following trearise on the ropic.
Let us stress, finally, that ideas very similar ro Gregorie's on the role of geometrical transformations were uttered in 1676 by an authoritative voice. Leibniz, an attentive reader of Gregorie's Geometriae pars universalis, explained his (differential) method as follows in 1676: my method is but a corollary of a general theory of rransformarions, by the help of which any given figure wharever, by wharever equarion ir may be accurately stated, is reduced ro anorher analytically equivalent figure... Furthermore rhe general method of transformatÍons itself seems ro me proper to be counted among the most powerful methods of analysis, for not merely does ir serve for infinire series and approximations, but also for geometrical solutÍons and endless other things that are scarcely manageable orherwise,41
Leibniz saw his method as the culmination of the method of indivisibles. To ensure the equality of two figures, they had ro be divided in «innumerable» parts and each pan of a figure had to be shown equal to a part of the other figure. This method, he concluded, contains the true merhod of indivisibles as mosr generally conceived and, as far as 1 know, not hirherto expounded wirh sufficient universality.42
39. Newron, Mathematicall'apers, IV, 421 (Whireside translarion). 40. Ibid, p. 423 (Whireside rranslarion). For funher commentaries on rhe subordinare role Newron advocared for algebra in geometrical matters, see rhe passages from his 1707 Arithmetiol universalis (written between 1673 and 1683), in Mathematicall'apm', V, 425429,471477. 41. Leibniz ro Newron (in answer ro rhe epistoÚl posterior), 27 Augusr 1676 (n.s.), Correspondence o/haac Newton, 11, 5771 (1 have slightly modified Turnbull's rranslarion, p, 65). This passage has been highlighred by Hofmann, who srressed Leibniz's general dependence on rhe rradirion ro which Gregorie belongs; cE. his Leibniz Í/¡ Paris (Cambridge, 1974), p. 2324. On Leibniz as reader of Gregarie, see D. Mahnke's «Neue Einblicke in die Entdeckungsgeschihte der hoheren Analysis", Ahhand/ungen der l'reussische Akademie der Wissenschaften, PhysikalischMarhematische Klasse, 1(1925), 164, which details Leibniz's marginalia ro the Geometriae pars universa/is. 42. Correspondence o/Isaac Newton, Il, 66.
66
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Newton Newton's critical views on indivisibles can be traced back ro his Geometria curvilinea (ca. 1680 ?) and further back ro his rewriting of the Method o/Fluxions in 1671-1672. The Geometria curvilinea is an unfinished general treatise on the fluxional study of curves. 43 In his introductory pages Newton pointed out that «Eudid has delivered the foundations of the geometry of straight lines». But, «since Eudid's elements are scarcely adequate for a work dealing, as this, with curves, 1 have been forced to frame others.» He further added that Those who have raken the measure of curvilinear figures have usually viewed rhem as made up of infinirely many infinitely-small parts. 1, in fact, shall consider them as generated by growing, ... 1 should have believed rhar rhis is rhe narural source for measuring guanriries generared by conrinuous flo w according to a precise law, both on accounr of rhe clariry and breviry of the reasoning involved and because of the simpliciry of rhe conclusions and rhe illustrarions reguired.44 The first Newtonian formulation of a new foundation for the geometry of curves seems to lie in a few pages Whiteside titled «Addendum on the Theory of Geometrical Fluxions». Newton very likely wrote them in the winter 16711672, originally as an outgrowth of his 1671 Method o/Series and Fluxions. 45 In fact, the Geometria curvilinea was but a revised and expanded version of the «Addendum». We find in the «Addendum» a threefold hierarchy of proofs, by algebra, by moments (infinitesimals, that is), and by fluxions, each one Newton deemed to be less rigorous than the next. In Newron's Method o/Fluxions we read that After rhe area of sorne curve has rhus been found, careful considerarion should be given to fabricating a proof of the consrruction which as far as permissible has no algebraic calculation, so rhar rhe rheorem embellished wirh it may tum out worthy of public utterance. A general method of proof exisrs, indeed, and this 1 shall attempt ro illustrare by the following examples.46 Newton's «general method» involved the use of moments and the compa- rison of the momentareas of curves, the equaliry of the moments allowing him to condude that the whole figures are equal. 47 Newron pointed Out that
43. Reproduced in Newron's Mathematicaf Papers, IV, 42084. Very lirrle is known abour rhe background of rhis work and rhe circumsrances in which ir was wrirren; see Whireside's inrroducrion and nores ro rhe rexr, l.c., p. 4 I !ff. 44. [bid, p. 423 (Whireside's rranslarion). 45. Reproduced in Newron's Mathematicaf Papers, III, 32853. According ro Whireside, rhe rexr was wrirren around rhe dare given aboye and originared asan augmenred replacemenr for a couple pages in Newron's Method o/Series, eyenrually nor ro be inc1uded in rhe rrearise; l.e. p. 329, nn. I and 2. 46. Newron's Mathematicaf Papers, III, p. 279 (Whireside's rranslaríon). 47. [bid, p. 27983.
Chapter 3
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newron 67
he had «here used this method of proving that curves are equal or have a given ratio... since it has an affiniry to the ones usually employed in these cases»which is a dear reference, as Whiteside pointed out, ro the method of indivisibles. Yet, a better foundation was possible: «However, that [method] based on the ¡enesis of surfaces by their motion or flow appears a more natural approach.» 4 The method providing «a more natural approach» was the method of fluxions, which could be brought ro perfection just by making explicit its axiomatic basiso Interestingly, his first and second axioms were Cavalieri's principie cast in fluxionallanguage. According to Newton, this method will come ro be still more perspicuous and resplendent if certain foundations are, as is cusromary with the synrhetic merhod, first laido Such as these. Axioms 1. Magnitudes generated simultaneously by egual fluxions are egua!. 2. Magnitudes generated simulraneously by fluxions in a given ratio are in the ratio of the fluxions. 3. The fluxion of rhe whole is egual ro the fluxions of its parts taken rogether.
4. «'0'»
5. Contemporaneous moments are as their fluxions. 49
Years later, by the time Newton expanded the «Addendum» into the
Geometria curvilinea, he modified this set ofaxioms; Cavalieri's principie, however, was still among them. 50 Furthermore, there was no mention of algebraic proofs. Rather ro the contrary, Newton inveighed against what he described as an encroachment of algebraic methods on what should be the proper sphere of geometry, and he substituted a geometrical argument for the former algebraic derivation of the fluxion of a product. 5l Although we do not know why Newton would eventually refrain from giving more explicidy fluxional foundations ro the Principia, it is apparent now that in choosing the opening mathematicallemmas of the Principia as he did, he was only being consistent with a longtime held view. 52 48. [bid, po 283 (Whireside's rranslarion). 49. [bido, p. 33 I (Whireside's rranslarion). Newron removed axiom 4, "The grearer fluxion is rhar which produces rhe grearer magnirude')' 50. Newron, Mathematicaf Papers, IV, p. 427. The new ser ofaxioms posrulared, along wirh rhe addiriviry of fluxions, rhar magnirudes simulraneously generared by equal fluxions (fluxions in a given rario, respecrively) are equal (are in rhe given rario), and conversely. Furrhermore, and rhis is rhe novelry, ir inc1udes rhe axiom rhar "Fluxions of quanriries are in rhe firsr rario of rheir nascenr pans». 5 l. The subsrirurion of a geomerrical proof for an algebraic one, poinred out by Whireside, occurs in Proposirions I ro 3, ibido, p. 42832. 52. On Newron's opening marhemaricallemmas ro rhe Principia, see Whireside's edirion of rhe earliesr remaining drafr (of abour rhe early 1685), pan of rhe reYised "De moru Corporum», in Newron's Mathematicaf Papen', VI, 92ff. See also F. de Candr, "Le sryle marhemarique des Principia de Newron», Revue d'histoire des sciences, 39(1986), 195222, and "Temps physique and remps marhemarique chez Newron», in Mythes et represerttatiom du temps, D. Tiffeneau ed. (Paris, 1985), p. 87105.
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Newton seldom indulged in providing complete exhaustion proofs, but a few pages Whiteside tentatively dated as of circa 1670 remain in which he uses classical methods to demonstrate results concerning the surfaces and volumes of several figures and solids. 53 Interestingly, at one point he says in a scholium, «This proposition could have been shown more easily by spatial morion... But that answers ro no Euclidean postulate or principle.,,54 This caveat, by so meone who abundantly used nonEuclidean mathematical concepts, must certainly be taken with a grain of salt. As we have seen, however, Newton was seriously concerned with the foundations ofhis method of quadrature at least as early as 1671 or 1672, when he was working on his Method ofSeries and Fluxions. Let us compare now Newton's opening mathematicallemmas in his Principia to Gregorie's foundations for the method of indivisibles offered in his manuscript «Some General Propositions of Geometry". Newton and Gregorie on Cavalieri's Principie Gregorie and Newton did not provide the same foundations for quadrature in general, but they approached the problem in a remarkably similar way. As is well known, Cavalieri's principie was a basic tool for performing geometrical quadratures that Newton was to put among the mathematicallemmas in the opening section of the Principia. Gregorie and Newton shrank from the use of infinitesimals in formal demonstrations, and that made imperative finding a proof for Cavalieri's principIe in substitution for the additive analogy mentioned in Chapter 1 aboye. Gregorie's first theorem in his «General Propositions» establishes that figures inscribed in a curve AGCB (see Figure 6) and figures circumscribed about it can be found, such that they differ by less than any given quantity Z. Gregorie specified that the curve must be simple, which roughly means, in our language, that it is either increasing or decreasing. 55 Interestingly, the result resembles one Barrow annexed to his Geometrical Lectures for the sake of showing the «equivalence" between apagogical proofs and proofs by indivisibles. Gregorie's proof uses, as Barrow's did, that the parallelogram AKDB is equal to the difference between the inscribed and circumscribed figures but notice that Gregorie's inscribed and circumscribed figures are explicitly composed of a finite number of rectangles. Then, assuming that a rectangle ABNO equal ro the given square Z has been adjoined to the axis AB, Gregorie divides the base BC in as many equal pans as needed for one of them to be less than NB. This partition of BC gives obviously the inscribed and eircumscribed figures desired.
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton 69
Chaprer 3
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This is essentially the argument in Lemma Il, Book 1, of the Principia, although Newton does not prove exactly the same thing and uses a language strongly reminiscent of Barrow's. Starting with any number of parallelograms inscribed in the curve acE (see Figure 7) what kind of curve, we are not told and others circumscribed about it, Newton assumes «their number [ofrectangles] to be augmented in infinituln» and seeks to prove that the «ultimate ratios that the inscribed figure ... , the circumscribed figure... , and curvilinear figure ... , have to one another are ratios of equality.» 56 As Barrow did, Newton uses an infinite process of division ro approximate the surface of the curved figure by means of inscribed and circumscribed figures. He balks, however, at the prospect of handling the «ultimate" figures resulting from this process and uses instead their ultimate
a
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A 53. Newron's Mathematical Papers, III, 408419. Whireside ritled rhese pages «Researehes into rhe elemenrary geomerry of eurved surfaeeso> and rentarively suggesred rhar «Newron intended his present researehes ro form rhe nucleus of a [similar to Barrow s) leerure series of his own on Arehimedean geomerry.') Cf. l.c., p. 408, nn. 1 and 2. 54. ¡bid., p. 413 (Whireside's rranslarion). 55. See Chaprer 4 for further derai!s.
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56. A. Kayre, LB. Cahen eds., Principia mathematica (Cambridge (Mass), 1972),1, p. 7374. Al! rhe referenees ro rhe Principia are made ro rhis editian.
70
From Indivisibles ro Infiniresimals
Anroni Maler
ratios. In Newton's argument, the rectangle alBA «because its breadth AB is supposed diminished ín ínfinítum, becomes less than any given rectangle.» Since this rectangle alBA is equal to the difference between the inscribed and circumscribed figures, Newton concludes that the three figures «become ultimately equal».57 The foregoing results are just an introduction ro Cavalieri's principIe, to which we now turno Again the differences in formulation between Newton and Gregorie are imeresting. While Gregorie has no qualms in comparing ordinates to ordinates, Newton, however, will assume in his Lemma IV that parallelograms (an equal number of them) are inscribed in the figures AacE, PprT (see Figure 8), and then, their breadths being diminished ín ínfinítum, that «the ultimate ratios of the parallelograms in one figure to those in the other, each to each respectively, are the same». In order to prove that the whole figures will be in the same ratio as well, Newton has to use the Barrowian «infinite division» of the figures in infinitesimal parallelograms. The two sums of parallelograms, says Newton, will be as any one parallelogram in one figure ro the corresponding parallelogram in the other. Now, Newton is here talking about ínfiníte sums of infinitesimal parallelograms, for he concludes that the two figures will be in the said ratio because, as he has proved in Lemma 11, «the former figure to the former sum [ofparallelogramsJ, and the latter figure ro the latter sum, are in the ratio of equality.»58 Gregorie's approach is different, much more «classical». Since the next chapter contains a complete translation of Gregorie's proof, a close rendering of his words is not needed here. Let two figures ABC, ABT on the same diameter AB (see Figure 9) be such that homologous ordinates (i.e., such as NK, KO) are always in the same ratio as the bases TB and BC are. Gregorie assumes that the figures are not in the same proponion, and that the ratio ofTB to BC is that of
a.
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregorie, Newton
Chaprer 3
figure ABT to sorne figure X, which differs from ABC by a quantity Z. Now he takes a partition on the diameter AB -say the one determined by points K, L- such that the figures inscribed in and circumscribed about ABC differ by less than Z. He then takes the inscribed and circumscribed figures the same partition produces for ABT. The inscribed figures KNPRVB and KOHFDB will be in the constant ratio of BT to BC, and so the two circumscribed figures will. Now, since the figures circumscribed about ABT and ABC are as ABT to sorne space X, and since the figure circumscribed about ABT is greater than ABT, the figure circumscribed about ABC must be greater than the space X. We conclude similarly that the figure inscribed in ABC must be less than the space X. So both the figure ABC and the space X are between the inscribed and circumscribed figures. Therefore, they differ by less than these figures, which differ by less than Z. But this is absurd because ABC and X differ by Z. One more lemma in the opening section of the Príncípía also appears among Gregorie's «General Propositions of Geometry». It states, but does not prove, that «all the corresponding sides, whether curvilinear or rectilinear, of similar figures are proportional; and the areas are in the duplicate ratio of the sides.»59 Gregorie's «General Propositions» features three sets of results addressed to similar figures, one dealing with plane figures, a second with curves, and the last wirh volumes and surfaces of solids. Now, as rhe following ourline shows, rhe proof of even the simplest case, which is rhe one Newton stared, is not straightforward. Given the similar figures ABC, FDE (see Figure 10), in which KF
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57. ¡bid., p. 74. 58. ¡bid., p. 76. 1 have slightly modified Cajori-Mone's translation.
71
59. Lemma V, Principia mathematica, 1, 77.
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72
F rom Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
for any straight line LIK joining the center K to the perimeter, the tlgure FDE must be shown to be to ABC as the square of KF to the square of KA. To prove this, Gregorie introduces an auxiliary curve AHD detlned as follows. For every N on AK, draw NG parallel ro KB and determine H by the condition NH : NG = KF : KA. According ro Cavalieri's principIe, the figures AHDK and AGBK are as KF to KA. Now join KG, and let O be the intersection of KG and the curve FD. Produce HO until it meets the straight line KB at M. Since the ratios NG : NH and KG : KO are equal, the line HM is parallel to AK. Furthermore, the triangles HOG and KOM are similar, whence it is easy to condude that MO
KF
MH
KA
for any straight line MOH parallel ro KA. According to Cavalieri's principIe, therefore, the figures DFK and DHAK are as KF to KA. Hence the figures DFK and AGBK are as the squares ofKF and KA. Finally, similar proofs would apply ro the remaining pans AKC, CKB, ... of the figure.60 Other demonstrations of this sort accompany Gregorie's propositions concerning similar curves and solids. Newton's remaining lemmas in section 1 of the Principia deal with the ultimate rarios of chords, arcs and tangents, a matter that Gregorie did not address in the manuscript here under consideration. Interestingly, though, similar propositions appear in the appendix to the Geometrical Lectures that Barrow deemed appropriate adding ro strengthen his proofs. Newton's intent in induding the mathematical section at the opening pages of the Principia was the same.
Chaptet 3
Opposing Indivisibles: Huygens, Gregotie, Newron 73
In contradistinction to Barrow, however, Newton would explicitly cast doubts upon the soundness of the «method of indivisibles», exdude the understanding of quantities as consisting of infinitesimals, and produce his lemmas as providing better foundations for' quadrature techniques than those provided by the method of indivisibles. In Newron's own well known words, iil the final scholium ro the mathematicallemmas of the Principia, These Lemmas are premised to avoid the tediousness of deducing longwinded demonsrrarions tld tlbsurdum, according ro the method of the ancient geometers. For demonsrrations are shorter by the method of indivisibles; but because the hypothesis of indivisibles is harsher, and therefore that method is reckoned less geometrical, 1 preferred ro deduce the demonstrations of what follows fram the last sums and ratios of vanishing quantities and the first [sums tlnd ratio>l of nascent quantities... For hereby the same thing is performed as by the method of indivisibles. Now these principies being demonstrated,we may use them more safely.61
Ir has been recently argued that Newton's use of fluxions and ultimate ratios is «Iogically equivalent» to using infinitesimals. 62 Indeed the foregoing shows Newton's style to be doser to Barrow's than ro Gregorie's. And yet the fact remains that Newton studiously avoided infinitesimals, particularly in texts he published himself. He made use of them in many places, but chose ro cast his mathematics into the language of fluxions. His matheI1).atical thought, as well as Huygens's and Gregorie's, did incorporate new norions and techniques crucially hinging on the acceptance of the actual infinite. AlI of them, however, were reluctant to treat inflnitesimals as a fullfledged mathematical notion. They certainly could and did think in terms of infinitesimals, but would rather have infinitesimals out of formal demonstrations than in.
L
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Figure 10. 60. This is Proposition 4 01' Gregorie's manuscripr (see chaprer 4).
61. Principia, l, 867. l have modified CajoriMorre's translaríon. 62. Z. Bechler, Newton s Physics and the Conceptual Structure o/ the Scientific Revolution (Dordrechr: Kluwer Academíc Publishers, 1991),238252, p. 238, 250.
CHAPTER4
James Gregorie's «Sorne General Propositions of Geometry»
Introduction The present chapter offers an English translation and commentary of James Gregorie's manuscript «Sorne General Propositions of Geometry». Its main results concern Cavalieri's principIe and the ratios between similar figures, the lengths, surfaces, and volumes of which are shown to be as the corresponding sides, their squares, and their cubes, respectively. We have no indication as to when Gregorie, who died in 1675, put together the results here assembled, bur it must have been after his return to Scotland in late 1668. His «General Propositions» are best understood vis-a-vis the geometric program outlined in the preface ro his 1668 Geometriae pars universafis. Stressing the limitations of analytical or algebraic tools when it comes ro the resolurion of many important quadratures, Gregorie suggested there the finding of transformation theorems as the most powerful approach to quadrature problems. A transformation theorem permits transforming the figures whose quadrature is sought into other equivalent figures whose quadratures are easier to establish. In connection with his transformation theorems, Gregorie explicitly mentioned Cavalieri's method. Cavalieri's principIe, which is itself a transformation theorem, yields direct proofs of many transformation theorems. It was well known at the time that results concerning similar figures, when coupled with the quadrature of the triangle and the parabola, yield many results Eudid and Archimedes had proved. In highlighting results about similar figures Gregorie was only following the lead of Cavalieri and other Italian practitioners of the method of indivisibles.! With these results, as with the remaining results in this manuscript, what was novel was the cogency of Gregorie's proofs and their Archimedean style. Compare, for instance, Gregorie's proofs on similar figures with Cavalieri's in the Geometria indivisibifibus, Bk. 2, Proposition XV (on plane figures) and XVII (on solids). l. Giusti has already stressed similariry as a main factor in the generaliry and power of «indi-
visible» techniques; see his Bonaventura CavaLieri and the Theory o/Indivisibles (Bologna, 1980), p. 2930.
76
From Inclivisib", to Infinitesimals
°r
Antoni Malet
James Gregorie's "Sorne General Propositions of Geometry» 77
Chapter 4
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Before desci bing the results the manuscript contains, 1 shall introduce Gregorie's notiolls of «simple» (simplex) curve and of «similan) figures. Simple curves play an irfl portant role through the manuscript because curves are explicitly required tobe simple in most of rhe theorems, and this is the only requirement that generic curves have ro meet. To be precise, curves may be either simple or complsed of simple arcs. As defined by Gregorie in his Geometriae pars universalis, 1 curve such as AC (see Figure 1) is simple because from A to C, the curve «alvrays gets doser ro, or further away from, the straight line [BC, given in position,).2 Gregorie's definition rather explicitly exdudes dosed curves from being simple. In all the instances in which simple curves were considered, here in th s man uscript as well as in the Geometriae pars universalis, they were also assUillrd to be continuous and of c onstant convexity. The notion of simple surface, used in Proposition 12, is more problematic. As Gregorie used the notion in thi, proposition, a simple surface had the property that any curve such as AQGC Cee Figure 2), which is the plane section determined by aplane perpendicular to the plane of reference ABB', be a simple curve. Proves of ァ・ョセイ。ャ results about generic curves were not new in Gregorie's time. New was, howevér, Gregorie's specification that sorne theorems could only be proved on the hypoth.esis that the generic curve be simple. The requirement is new even visavis the use that both Barrow and Newton made of generic curves. Cavalieri hinlself had singled out the generality of sorne of his theorems as one of the wOrthiest characteristics of his technics. «I will not be silent», says Cavalieri ーイセヲ。」ゥョァ his Geometria, abolir rhe grearest generality of rhis merhod of proof, for rhar which is proved by orher medlOds jusr for one class of solids, or ar mosr for a few classes, is directly demotJ.srrared by liS for an infiniry of rhem. 3 2. 3.
Geometriae pars universczlis, p. l. Geometria indiVlJibitibus, [b3] recto. LombardoRadice, in his ltalian rranslarion ro Cavalieri's Geometry ofindtvisibles, and Giusri (f.c.), stressed rhar Cavalieri repearedly shows himself aware of rhe wOlrh of general results.
•
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For instance, where Eudid would need four different, longwinded theorems ro prove that similar a) parallelepipeds, b) pyramids, c) cones and cylinders, and d) spheres are as the cubes of corresponding sides, one general demonsrration with indivisibles was enough ro prove that «all similar solids» are in the said ratio. 4 Cavalieri could achieve this by introducing a new, more general notion of similarity that explicitly encompassed the similarity of polygonal figures defined in Eudid's Elements and the similarity of conic sections defined by Apollonius. To introduce this notion, Cavalieri rook tangents AE, KQ (see Figure 3) ro the figures ABOC, KLYP, respectively. The angles AEG, KQR are assumed ro be equal, and the straight lines CG, YR, also tangent ro the figures, ro be parallel ro AE, KQ, respectively. The figures ABCO, KLYP are said ro be similar if for any two straight lines BF, LU parallel ro AE, KQ, and such that EF : EG : QU : QR, all the segments cut into the two figures are in the same ratio EG : QR, that is, if BI
15
EG
LT
TX
RQ
Cavalieri's definition of similarity, dearly inspired by Apollonius's, is more general than Eudid's.5 Rectilinear segments like BI and LT Cavalieri called 4. Eudid's Elements, Bk. Xl, Proposirion 33, and Bk. XlI, 8, 12, and 18. For Cavalieri's general rheorem, see his Geometria indivisibilibus, Bk. 2, Proposirion XVII. 5. Cavalieri's definirion is rhe 10rh ofBk. 1 ofhis Geometry ofindivisibles. Euclide's similar polygons are defined in rerms of rhe equaliry of angles and rhe proportionality of corres ponding sides (Elements, Bk. VI, Definirion 1). Apollonius's definiüon, referred ro by Cavalieri, is rhe second of Bk. VI of his Conic Sections. According ro Apol1onius, rwo secrions are similar if any couple of ordinares (one in each section) are as rhe segments rhey determine on [he axes [he segments, [ha[ is, whose endpoints are the verrices of [he secrions and rhe meer of [he ordinares and the axes. Cavalieri proved his definiríon to encompass rhe c1assical ones in his Bk. 1, Proposirions XXVII and XXVIII.
78
Anroni Malet
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
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James Gregorie's "Sorne General Propositions of Geometry" 79
Chapter 4
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«homologus», a word Gregorie used with the same meaning. Gregorie provides
no definition of similar figures. Even though the use he made of the notion is consistent with Cavalieri's definition, he almost always used it in situations such as the one illustrated in Figure 4 (actually the 5th figure in Gregorie's manuscript). Here the ratio LK : IK is the same for any couple of corresponding (homologus) points L and 1. That is, the figure ABC is an «expansion» of FDE by means of a change of scale with K as the fixed point. Gregorie called a fixed point such as K the <
6. According ro Heath, the construction of similar polygons about their common cenrer was inrroduced by Clavius by the mm of the 17th cenrury; cf Euclíde's Elements, vol 2, p. 231.
Gregorie proves that it is possible ro inscribe straight lines in any simple curve such that their ratios to circumscribed tangents be < a, for any a > l. Then, after showing that the curve will always be greater than the chords and less than the tangents (Proposition 8), Gregorie demonstrates in the 9th Proposition that the difference between circumscribed and inscribed straight lines can be made as small as wished. This result enables Gregorie to prove in the next proposition that the lengths of similar curves are as their corresponding straight lines. This is the last of the results in plane geometry. In Proposition 11 Gregorie proves the similarity of two figures that are in parallel planes and one is the «projection» of the other from a given point in neither of the planes. In Proposition 12 and its Consectary, Gregorie demonstrates that for any solid bounded by two perpendicular planes and a simple surface, inscribed and circumscribed cylinders can be found such that their difference is less than any given quantity. In Proposition 13 and its Consectary Gregorie uses this result to provide an exhaustion proof for Cavalieri's principIe in the case of volumes of solids. Dealing with similarity in the case of solid figures, the remaining three propositions contain involved geometrical constructions. Their demonstrations are hard to follow on Gregorie's diagrams, in which, explicitly, plane figures were meant to illustrate 3dimensional constructions. Mer an auxiliary result is provided by Proposition 14, Proposition 15 proves that similar solids are as the cubes of corresponding sides. Proposition 16 states, and contains the beginning of the proof, that surfaces of similar solids are as the squares of corresponding sides. The manuscript is clearly incomplete. Not only does the last proposition break off before it ends, but also the articulation of its mathematical content appears less elaborate and polished than usual in Gregorie's finished products. As indicated below, nar all the figures included in the manuscript were actually referred to in the texto Ir will be noticed, finally, that sorne of Gregorie's demonstrations answer ro the pattern illustrated by the proof of Cavalieri's principIe summarized in
80
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Anroni Malet
the preceding chapter. Having proved for a broad class of curves, plane figures, and solids that inscribed and circumscribed straight lines, parallelograms, and cylinders, respectively, can be found such that differ by less than any assigned quantity, Gregorie can easily pass from properties or hypothesis concerning the ordinates of a figure, or the plane sections of a solid, to properties of the whole figures, or solids, through exhaustion proofs. To prove, for instance, that two magnitudes JI. and 13 are in a given ratio, say R : S, Gregorie assumes that they are not, and that for a new magnitude X, it is JI.: X:: R: S. He inscribes figures in 13 and circumscribes others about it such that they differ by less than 13 X. But he then shows that X must be greater than the figure inscribed in 13 and less than the circumscribed one; he concludes, therefore, that the difference between 13 and X is < 13 X, which is impossible.7 This particular kind of reduction ad absurdum was one of Gregorie's preferred methods of proof. 8 Gregorie was particularly proud of this method, which he considered his own. As he said in the Preface to the Geometriae pars universalis, If 1am not mistaken, I use a method of proof that is my own. It is certainly much shoner than Archimedes's, but not less geometrical. I also use in the most obvious propositions Cavalieri's method, which is without difficulty reduced to Archimedes's or to our own. 9 We shall presently see how Gregorie reduced Cavalieri's method to his own in his «Sorne General Propositions of Geometry». Description of the Manuscript Bearing the title «Geometriae propositiones Quaedam Generales a J: G:», the Latin manuscript here translated is now document number 16, on pages 113 ro 120, of the folio volume Dc 1.61, Edinburgh University Library. Written of an amanuensis hand, the manuscript occupies seven and a quarter folio pages, which the same hand numbered from 1 ro 8. Thirteen figures accompanying the text appear neatly drawn in a separate folio sheet that is only numerated «121», as part of the Dc 1.61 volume. Of the thirteen figures, only those numbered 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are actually referred ro in the text; the whole folio page 121 is here reproduced as Figure 5. Editorial Conventions The captions that send the reader ro specific figures, originally in the margins, have been included in the text. Figures are referred ro by numbers consecuti-
7. To compare Gregorie's proofs wirh dassical Greek exhausrion, see, for insrance, Archimedes's Measurement o/a Cirele, Proposirion 1, or Eudid's Elements, XII, Proposirion 2. 8. As Whiteside has aJready pointed out. See his «Patterns», p. 335. 9. Geometriae pars ulliversalis, Preface, t2 verso and t3 recto.
Chaprer 4
James Gregorie's «Sorne General Proposirions ofGeomettY" 81
ve ro the numbers of the other figures in this chapter, but Gregorie's original numeration is indicated at the foot of each figure. Punctuation has been modernized. Except in Propositions 3 and 10, where Gregorie highlighted two series of proportionalities and inequalities by breaking the text and setting them apart, the original text flows unremittingly from the start of every demonsnation to the «Q.E.D.» 1 have often introduced a full stop to separate the demonstration proper from the preliminary part in which the geometrical construction needed for the proofis set up. Words in square brackets are editorial additions. The symbol «\\» and numbers in square brackets indicate the beginning of each manuscript page.
82
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet M
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TRANSIATIüN
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Sorne General Propositions of Geornetry
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THEüREM 1 Let the figure ABC (see Figure 6) be comprehended by a simple lO curve and by the two straight fines AB, BC, and let a given parallelogram be called Z. 1 say, that rectilinear figures constituted by parallelograms can be inscribed in and circumscribed about the figure ABC so that the diffirence between them be less than the given figure Z.
DEMüN5TRATION Let a parallelograrn üABN = Z be set upon the straight line AB, with angle üAB = ABC, and let BC be divided in as rnany equal parts as needed for any of thern to be less than NB, and let straight lines DK, EH, CF be drawn parallel to the sarne AB to rneet the curve at points Q, G, C; also let straight lines AK, LQH, MIGF be drawn parallel to BC It is evident that the inscribed rectilinear figure LQIGEB is rnade by the parallelograrns LQIM, MGEB, and the circurnscribed rectilinear figure AKQHGFCB is rnade by the parallelograrns AKQL, LHGM, MFCB. Now 1 say, that the difference between thern is less than Z. For jr is clear enough that the difference between thern is equal to all the parallelograrns AKQL, QHGI, GFCE put together. But MIDB, GFCE are equal because they stand upon the sarne bases BD, EC and between the sarne
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Figure 6 (Figure 1 in rhe manuscripr). 10. As nored in rhe introducrion, Gregorie used rhe word simplex ro designare a curve, or a fragment of a curve, rhar is eirher increasing or decreasing.
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84
From Indivisibles
to Infinitesimals
Antoni Matet
parallellines MF, Be. For the same reason, since the straight lines MI, IG are egual, the parallelograms LQIM, QHGI are egua!. Therefore the parallelogram AKDB is egual to the difference between the rectilinear figures inscribed and circumscribed. Now because the parallelograms OABN, AKBD lie between the same parallellines OK, ND (AO and BD are parallellines on account of the egual angles OAB, ABD), and the base BD is less than the base BN, the parallelogram AKBD will be less than the parallelogram OABN. But OABN is egual to Z, and therefore the difference between the inscribed and the circumscribed figures (that is, the parallelogram AKDB) is less than Z. Q.E.D.
James Gregorie's «Sorne General Proposirions of Geometry» 85
Chaprer 4
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Let a right cyfinder11 with height Y be erected upon the same figure ABC (see Figure 6). 1 say, that the right cyfinder wilf be equaf to the paralfefepiped whose height is Y and whose base is a paralfefogram equaf to the curvilinear figure ABe.
DEMONSTRATION Let us assume the same figure ABC to be egual to the parallelogram X. I say, that the parallelepiped XY is egual ro the right cylinder set up oyer figure ABC with height Y. If they are not egual, let their difference be ZY. From the preceding result, let us assume LK, IH, EF together < Z. 12 The parallelepipeds LDY + lEY < cylinder, because they are contained in it, and the parallelepipeds ADY + QEY + GCY > cylinder, because they comprehend it. Therefore LDY + lEY < XY, and ADY + QEY + GCY > XY. There are thus four guantities, LDY + lEY being the smallest, ADY + QEY + GCY being the biggest, and the cylinder and XY being the middle ones. The difference of the middle ones is therefore greater than the difference of the extreme ones, which is absurdo Therefore &c. PROPOSITION 3. THEOREM
If two figures have the same diameter, and their ordinates bear afways the same ratio to one another, 13 then one figure wilf be to the other as ordinates are to ordinates.
11. «Righr cylinden) designares here any solid constirured by segments of equallengrh perpendicularlyerecred upon aplane closed curve, no matter what shape rhis curve has. This norion had been already used by Cavalieri. 12. Gregorie used Oughrred's signs for oms <, >. 13. Sic. As rhe proof suggesrs, ir has ro be understo.od that just rhe ordinares rhar fall upon rhe same poinr of rhe diamerer bear a consrant ratIo.
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PROPOSITION 2. THEOREM
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Figure 7 (Figure 2 in che manuscripr).
DEMONSTRATION Let two figures ABC and ABT (see Figure 7) that haye the same diameter AB and bases CB, BT be such that any arbitrary ordinate RL is always to the ordinate LF as the base BT to the base Be. I say, that the figure ABT is to the figure ABC as the base BT to the base BC, or as RL to LE If ABT is not to ABC as BT to BC, let BT be to BC as figure ABT ro a figure X, which differs from figure ABC by a guantity Z. Let figure ABC be inscribed in a rectilinear figure made by parallelograms and circumscribed about another figure of the same SOft such that the difference between the circumscribed and the inscribed figures is less than Z. Now let KOHFDB be the inscribed rectilinear figure, and AIOGFECB the circumscribed one. The rectilinear figures KNPRVB and AMNQRSTB, determined by the straight lines lA, GK, EL produced, are inscribed in and circumscribed about the figure ABT. The parallelogram NKLP is to the parallelogram KOHL (because their heights are egual) as NK ro KO, that is, as TB to BC (from the nature of the figure). In the same way is proyed that the parallelogram LRBV is ro the parallelogram LFDB as RL to LF, or TB to Be. Therefore the whole rectilinear figure KNPRVB is ro the rectilinear figure KOHFDB as TB to Be. In the same way, the parallelogram MAKN is to the parallelogram AIOK (because their heights are egua!) as the base NK ro KO, or TB to Be. For the same reason, the parallelogram QLKR is to the parallelogram KGFL, and the parallelogram SLBT ro LECT [read «LECB,,], as TB to Be. Hence the whole rectilinear figure AMNQRSTB is to the whole rectilinear figure AIOGFECB \\ [2] as TB to Be. Now let us call
AMNQRSTB=A AIOGFECB= B KNPRVB= C KOHFDB= D
86
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
James Gtegotie's "Sorne General Propositions of Geometry»
Chaptet 4
87
Fig. ABT= E Fig. ABC= F[.]
[Now,j
L
A : B :: TB : BC :: E: X, therefore A: E :: B : X, but A > E, whence B > X. Similarly C : D :: TB : BC :: E : X, therefore C : E :: D: X, but C < E, whence D < X.
There are thus four guantities, the greatest of which is B, the smallest D, and the middle ones F and X. The difference between the greatest and the smallest must therefore be greater than the difference between the middle ones. But the difference between the extreme ones is assumed to be smaller than Z. Whence it is absurd that the difference between the middle ones be Z, and the difference between the middle ones (that is, between ABC and X) will therefore be nil (nuifa). Therefore the figure ATB is to the figure ABC as TB ro Be. Q.E.D. Iffigures ABT, ABC were constituted on the same side [ofthe diameter] , the conclusion would be the same and no change would have ro be made in the demonstration. If figures ABT, ABC were constituted on different diameters, but of eguallength s , the same would still be proved, provided that in both figures the ordinates bent at egual angles over the diameter, for [in this case] they could be constituted on the same diameter. This demonstration can be applied only when the curve AFC is simple, but the proposition is none the less true when AFC is most sinuous, for it can always be divided in several simple curves. 1 do not mention the curve ANT because it is always of the same nature as the Curve AFC, as can be easily proved. PROPOSITION 4. THEOREM
Similarfigures are to each other in the dupficate ratio oftheir corresponding straight fines. DEMONSTRATION Let ABe, FDE (see Figure 8) be similar figures, i.e., KF : FA [read KA]:: KI : KL. 1 say, that the figure FDE is ro the figure ABC in the duplicate ratio between the corresponding straight lines KF and KA. On the diameter KA and the base KD, let a figure AKDH be drawn contained by th e straigh t lines KA, KD, and by the curve AHD such that, when a straight line NG parallel to the base KB, meeting the curves AHD and AGB in H and G, is drawn ad iibitum, NH is always to NG as KD ro KB.
B
E
e Figure 8 (Figure 5 in the manuscript).
From the preceding result it is evident that the figure AHDK is ro the figure AGBK as KD ro KB. Let the straight line KG, which meets the curve FD at O, be drawn, and let the straight line HO be produced until it intersects the straight line HB [read KB] at M. Because of the nature of the figures FDK and AKB, KO is to KG as KD ro KB; but NH is ro NG as KD ro KB, whence NH is ro NG as KO to KG, for which reason the straight line HOM is parallel to the straight line NK. Moreover, the triangles HOG, OKM are similar, for the straight Enes NG, KB are parallel, the angles OKM, OGH are" egual, and the angles OMK, OHG are egua!. Hence, HO : OM :: OG : OK. Componendo, HM : OM :: GK : OK, and invertendo, OM : HM :: KO: KG, that is, OM : HM :: KF : KA. Now, since this result always holds, and the straight line HOM is parallel ro AFK, it will be KF : KA :: FDK : ADK; that is figure FDK : (figure] ADK :: KD : KB. There are therefore three guantities in the continued proponion of the line KD ro the line KB. The first is FDK; the second, the figure AHDK; the third, the figure AGBK. Therefore, the ratio of the first to the third is the duplicate ratio of the first to the second; that is, FDK is to ABK in the duplicate ratio of KD ro KB (or of figure FDK to figure AHDK). Just in the same way is proved that the figure DKE is to the figure BKC in the duplicate ratio of the line KD to KB; likewise, the figure FEK is to the figure AKC in the same ratio, i.e., in the duplicate ratio of line KD ro line KB. Whence the whole figure FDE is ro the whole figure ABC in the duplicate ratio of line KD ro line KB. Q.E.D.
Ir is evident from here that circles are in the duplicate ratio of their radii. In fact, if the preceding figures are assumed ro be circles having a common center K, no change has to be made to the demonstration. [3]
PROPOSITION 5. PROBLEM
Given two similar figures and any point whatever, either inside or outside one of the figures, it is possibfe [to find} the corresponding point in the other figure.
88
From Indivisibles
[Q
Infinitesimals
James Gregorie's "Sorne General Propositions of Geometry» 89
Chapter 4
Antoni Malet
Let ABe, OEF be similar figures in which A and O are cottesponding points (see Figure 9).14 Let G be any point whatever in the plane of the figure ABC either inside or ourside the figure itself. The point cottesponding to G in the other figure is to be found. Let the sttaight line AGB be drawn thraugh points A, G. In the other figure, let DE be its cottesponding sttaight line and AB : AG :: DE : OH. 15 I say, that the point cottesponding to Gis H. Let the sttaight line AC be drawn ad fibitum; [then] let angle EOF = [angfe] BAC and the joints GC, HF be drawn. Since A and O are cottesponding points, and AB and DE are cottesponding sttaight lines as well, and angles BAC and EOF are equal, it will be AB : AC :: DE: OF;IG now, alternando, AB: DE:: AC: DE Bur AB: AG:: DE: OH, and alternandoAB: DE:: AG : OH; whence AG : OH:: AC: DE Now, since angle GAC = angle HOF, it is evident that the ttiangles AGe, HOF are equiangular. For that reason, [angfe] BGC = [angfe] EHF, and AG: OH :: GC : HE Bur AB : EO :: AG : OH, whence AB: DE:: GC: HE Likewise, since AB: DE:: AG: OH, it is also AB : DE:: GB : HE, whence GB: HE:: GC: HE Bur since this always holds when the angles BGC and EHF are equal, it is manifest that point G cottesponds to point H. Q.E.D.
drawn, and through the point O fet the straight fine NOS be drawn paraffef to CFD. 1 say. that the straight fine NOS is tangent to the curve A OTat the point o.
Let the sttaight line PVSEO be drawn. It will be PO: PF :: PS : PO, because the sttaight lines OS, FO are parallel. Likewise, because of the nature of the curves, PO : PF :: PV : PE, whence PS : PO :: PV : PE, and, alternando, PS: PV:: PO : PE. Now, fram the hypothesis (since FO is tangent to the curve), PO> PE, whence PS > PY: Since this always holds, the sttaight line NOS is tangent ro the curve A VT. Q.E.D. PROPOSITION 7. PROBLEM Given a simpfe curve whatever, to inscribe and circumscribe straight fines to it in such a way, that the ratio o/the circumscribed ones to the inscribed ones be fess than any given ratio o/greater inequafity. 11
Let PQZ [read QEZ] (see Figure 10) be the curve, and the given ratio of greater inequality that of A to B. In the concave side of the curve (for we assume the curve to be simple), let us take a point P such that when the tangents Q4, 3Z are drawn, the angles CQ4 and LZ3 are not acute. 18 Let B be to sorne quantity greater than B and less than A as PQ to PC, that is,
PROPOSITION 6. THEOREM Let QFI, A OT be two similar curves (see Figure 10), and fet P be the common correspondingpoint. Through P fet the straight fine POF, cutting the curves at O and F, be drawn. Let the straight fine CFD, tangent to the curve QFI at F, be
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Figure 9.
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14. This figure is not Gregorie's. No indication in the manuscript sends the reader to any specific figure, nor the geometrical construcrion provided by Gregorie firs into any of rhe figures accompanying the manuscript. 15. It must be noticed that Gregorie can draw corresponding lines while trying to determine corresponding points not on the curves themselves. This is consistent with Cavalieri's definition of similarity. 16. This is easily deduced from Cavalieri's definition.
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p Figure 10 (Figure 9 in the manuscript).
17. That is, less rhan any given ratio A : B, with A > B. Compare with Archimedes's On the Sphere and Cylinder, Bk.1 Proposirions 3 and 4, in which it is proved rhat regular polygons inscribed in and circumscribed ro a circle and to a sector of a circle can be found such that the ratio between their sides is less than any given rario A : B, with A > B. 18. As shown in Figure 20, C and L are assumed ro be on rhe straight lines QP and ZP, respectively.
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From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Anton; Malet
A: 13 > PC : PQ.19 Then, from C, let the tangent CF to the curve be drawn, and [from Q] let a straight line parallel to ir and meeting the curve at E be drawn. Through E let the straight line PEO, which meets CF produced at O, be drawn. Then, as ir has just been done, let the tangent OIL, from O, and its parallel EHM be drawn. This is ro be repeated until finally the whole curve is surrounded by the tangents. 1 say, that the ratio of the circumscribed srraight lines CO + OL to the inscribed ones QE + EM is less than the ratio of A to B. By construction A: 13 > PC: PQ. Bur PC : PQ:: CO : QE :: PO : PE :: OL : EM, whence PC : PQ :: CO + OL : QE + EM. That is, [theyare] in a ratio less than rhat of Ato B. Q.E.D. PROPOSITION 8. PROBLEM J say, the same things being assumed, that the circumscribed fines are greater than the curve and the inscribed ones less than it. FO + DI > curve FI (see Figure 10);20 likewise F4 + Q4 > curve QF. But C4 > Q4, because the angle CQ4 is greater than an acure one and therefore the [angle] QC4 is to that extent less than an acute one. Ir is therefore C4 + 4F > Q4 + 4F, and C4 + 4F, or CF > curve QF. Ir is proved similarly that IL > curve IZ. Whence FO + DI + CF + IL > curve FI + curve FQ + curve IZ, that is, CO + OL > curve QZ. Q. E. D. Now, curve QE > straight line QE. 2 1 Since the angle LZE [read IZ3] is greater than an acure one, of necessity [angfe] ZL3 = angle PMH is acute. Whence it follows that the angle HML is obtuse and EZ > EM. But the curve EZ > the srraight line EZ, hence the curve EZ > the straight line EM, and curves QE + EZ> straight lines QE + EM. That is, the curve QEZ is greater than the straight lines QE + EM. Q.E.D. PROPOSITION 9 J say, the same things being assumed, that the circumscribed fines can be greater than the inscribed ones by less than any given lineo
James Gregorie', "Sorne General Proposirions of Geomerry" 91
Chapter 4
Let curve QEZ = a (see Figure 10) and the given line = Y. Let PC : PQ < a + Y: a. 22 1 say rhat ir is done. For, separando CQ: PQ < Y: a. Now, it is PC : PQ :: CO + OL : QE + EM, and separando \\ [4] CQ: PQ:: CO + OL QE EM: QE : [read +] EM. Therefore CO + OL _ QE _EM : QE + EM < Y : a. But Y : a < Y : QE + EM, because a > QE + EM. Ir is, therefore, CO + OL QE EM : QE + EM < Y : QE + EM. That is, Y > CO + OL QE EM. Q. E. D. PROPOSITION 10. THEOREM
Similar curves are as corresponding straight lines. Let QEZ, AVK be similar curves (see Figure 10); 1 say, that they are ro one another as corresponding srraight lines. Inside the curve QEZ let a point P be raken such thar each of rhe angles CQ4, LZ3 is greater than an acute one, and 23 let this point P be the common corresponding point. 1 say, that curve QEZ : curve AVK :: srraight line PQ: [straight line] PA. If it is denied, let PQ: PA :: a: AVK, and let the difference between a and QEZ be equal to Y. According to the preceding result, let us take CO + OL _ QE _EM < Y. Since the curves QEZ, AVK are similar, CO and NS, as well as OL and SJ, must be parallel. By construction, the srraight lines CO, NS are parallel ro the straight lines QE, VA, and 01, SJ are parallel to EM, VY as well. [Now] QP : AP :: FP : OP :: CO : NS :: IP : TP :: OL : EM, whence QP : AP :: CO + OL : NS + SJ. Ir is similarly proved that QP : AP :: QE + EM : AV + VY.
[Since] QP : AP :: a: [curve] AVK [ami! QP : AP :: CO + OL : NS + SJ therefore CO + OL : NS + SJ :: a : [curve] AVK and alternando CO + OL : a :: NS + SY [read SJJ : [curve] AVK, and for that reason CO + OL > a. Similady, [since] QP : AP:: QE + EM: AV + VY, therefore QE + EM : AV + VY:: a : [curve] AVK and alternando QE + EM : a :: AV + VY: AVK, but AV + VY < curve AVK, whence QE + EM < a. There are therefore four quantities, of which CO + OY [read «DI»] is the greatest, QE + EM the smallest, and the curve QEZ and a are the middle ones. The difference between the middle ones, say 11, is therefore less than the dif-
19. Thar ¡s, a poinr C is chosen on PQproduced such rhar PC : PQ < A: B. The exisrence of a magnirude such as PC is proved by Archimedes, On the Sphere and Cylinder, Bk.1 Proposirion 2. 20. This is Assumprion 2 of Archimedes's On the Sphere and Cylinder. Ir was used in its Bk.1, Proposirion 1 ro prove rhar rhe perimerer of any polygon eircumscribed ro a circle is grearer rhan rhe perimerer of rhe eircle. 21. This is Assumprion 1 of Archimedes's On the Sphere and Cylinder.
22. In whar is apparenrly an amanuensis error, «A's" appear in place of «u's" rhrough rhe proof of rhis proposirion. 1 have changed rhem back ro «u's" again. 23. Gregorie does nor mention rhe case in which rhe point P, «commune er utrique figurae homologum», does nor yield angles CQ4, LZ3 grearer rhan 90 0
•
92
Fram Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Amoni Malet
Chapter 4
ference between the middle ones [read «the extreme ones»]; but it has been shown to be greater, which is absurdo Therefore, the quantities QEZ and a do not differ, and are accordingly equa!. Q.E.D.
CONSECTARY lf the straight lines DF, BC, HI are parallel, all things remaining the same as aboye, it is easily proved the similarity and eguality of the figures DBE, FCG. For, because of the parallelism of the plans and the straight lines DF, HI, the straight lines DH, PI are parallel and egua!. Similarly, DB, FC and BH, CI are parallel and egual, and therefore angle DBH = angle FCL Since this always holds, and DB = FC and BH = CI, it is manifest that the figures DBE, FCG are similar and equa!. Q.E.D.
PROPOSITION 11. THEOREM
Given two parallel plans, let two figures lie on them such that every straight line drawn ftom an elevatedpoinf!4 andgoing through the perimeter %ne o/the figures goes also through the perimeter o/the other. J say, that these figures are similar, and are to each other in the duplicate ratio o/any o/the straight lines drawn.
Whence, parallel plans that cut a cylindrical surface always determine egual and similar sections; in a conical surface, however, [the sectionsJ are similar and in the duplicate ratio of their distances to the vertex of the cone.
Let two paral!el planes go through points B, C (see Figure 11). Figures DEB, FGC on them are so related that all the straight lines AD, AB, AH, AE drawn from the elevated point Ato the perimeter of the figure DEB, and then produced until they reach the other plane, fall on the perimeter FCGI of the other figure. 1 say, that the figures DEB, FGC are similar and in the duplicate ratio of AD to AF, or AH to AL Let straight lines BH, CI, DH, PI be drawn. Because of the parallelism of the planes, AB : AC :: DB : FC; since the angle at A is the same, it is manifest that the triangles ADB, AFC are similar, and angle ADB = [angleJ ACF [read AFq. Similarly, it is manifest that the triangles ABH, ACI are similar and that angle ABH = angle ACL Therefore, angles DBH, FCI are egual, and AB : AC :: BH : CI; hence DB : FC :: BH : CL Since the angles DBH, FCI are egual and this always happens, it is manifest that the figures DBE, FCG are similar; accordingly, they are in the duplicate ratio of corresponding straight lines, that is, that ofDB to FC, or AD : AF. Q.E.D.
[5J
solid whose surftce is simple, the excess o/all the circumscribed cylinders together over the inscribed ones will be equal to the greatest o/the circumscribed ones. Let CAB (see Figure 6) be any solid whose surface is simple. Let the solid be cut by eguidistant plans GE, QD, AB, and the right cylinders GFCE, QHED, AKDB, IGED, QLBD be completed. 25 1 say, that the circumscribed cylinders GC, QE, AD exceed the inscribed ones lE, LD by an amount egual to the greatest circumscribed cylinder AD. We have been compelled to present all this on a plane figure, for if we would have used a diagram with solids, it would have been a burden and also brought confusion rather than being of service as a representation. lt is enough to take cylindrical surfaces in the place of the straight lines AK, LH, MF, BC; the bases of these surfaces will be the common intersections AB, QD, GE of the eguidistant plans with the given solido The cylinders EF, lE, since they have the same base GE and egual heights EC, DE are egua!. Similarly, LD, QE [areJ egual as well. Therefore, the inscribed ones LD + El, or QE + EF, are exceeded by the circumscribed ones AD + QE + EF by an excess AD. Q.E.D.
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B
PROPOSITION 12. THEOREM
If right cylinders o/the same height are circumscribed about and inscribed in any
F
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James Gregorie's "Sorne General Proposicions of Geometry" 93
lf the solid were on al! sides comprehended by a curved surface either simple or sinuous, its seetion by plans would easily reduce the problem in each small portion to our case, and in each of them separately the same demonstration would apply. But if the solid or any of its smal! portions were contained in
V
e
Figure 11 (Figure 6 in the manusctipt).
25. The cylinder IMBD, alsa listed, musr be omitred. Figure 2, not in Gregorie's manuscript, is meant to illustrate his proof. The solid AQGCEDBB'D'E', whose surface is simple, is cut by rhe parallel planes ABB', QDD', etc. Inscribed and circumscribed cylinders are ser up upon the plane sections. The greatest one, AKD"BB', provides an upper bound for rhe difference between the inscribed and the circumscribed cylinders.
24. That is, a point nat on either of the planes.
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94
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Chapter 4
Antoni Malet
parallel plans (the remaining things being as aboye), the excess of the circumscribed cylinders oyer the inscribed ones would be egual to the difference between the smallest of the inscribed cylinders and the greatest of the 26 circumscribed ones. For that reason, the greatest of the circumscribed cylinders is always either egual to or greater than the said excess.
is egual to the parallelepiped whose base is the rectangle NKXX and height KL, that is, the parallelepiped oyer NL and height X. Similar/y, the parallelepiped oyer RB is egual to the cylinder LO, just as the parallelepiped oyer MK (and height X, which is always assumed) [is セ。オア・ ro the cylinder KI, the paraIlelepiped oyer QL ro the cylinder LG, and the parallelepiped [over] SB [is セ。オア・ ro the cylinder BE. Therefore, all the parallelepipeds MK + QL + SB circumscribed abour the cylinder oyer ABT and with height X are egual ro all the cylinders KI + LG + BE circumscribed abour the solid ABe. Not
CONSECTARY
Ir is fram here easily deduced a method to bring the difference between the circumscribed and the inscribed cylinders down to less than a right cylinder whose base is Z and height X Let the plane AB be to the plane Z as the straight line X to the straight line Y. Ir is manifest that the cylinder upon the plane Z with height X will be egual to the cylinder upon the plane AB with height Y, because bases and height are in recipracíty. Now let the height of the solid BC be diyided in egual parts BO, DE, EC such that any one, say BO, be less than y, and let the cylinders be completed as indicate aboye. I say that it is already done. The cylinder BOKA, as demonstrated just aboye, is either egual to the difference between circumscribed and inscribed cylinders, or greater than the same. But, because BO < Y, the cylinder BOKA is less than the cylinder upon the plane AB and height Y. Therefore the difference between the circumscri- bed and the inscribed cylinders is less than the cylinder upon the plane AB and height Y, that is, than the cylinder upon the plane Z whose height is
[6] differendy, \\ all the parallelepipeds NL + RB inscribed in the same cylinder oyer ABT are egual ro all the cylinders KH + LO inscribed in the solid ABe. Therefore, since the cylinder oyer ABT is greater than the parallelepipeds NL + RB and smaller than the parallelepipeds MK + QL + SB, it will be also greater than the cylinders KH + LO and less than the cylinders KI + LG + BE. There are therefore four guantities, the greatest of which is KI + LG + BE, mat is, the circumscribed cylinders, while the inscribed cylinders, i.e., KH + LO, are the smallest one; the middle ones are the solid ABC and the cylinder on the plane figure ABT and height X. The difference between the greatest and smallest guantities, therefore, is greater than Z, the difference between the middle ones; but it is also less [than Z), which is absurdo Therefore the said solids are not different, and so they are egual. Q.ED.
XQ.ED.
PROPOSITION 13. THEOREM
Let ABC (see Figure 7) be any so/id whatever andABTapfanefigure adjoining it. For any arbitrary p/ane OKN, perpendicufar to the so/id's height, the intersection with the so/idABrC} is the pfane KO, and with the pfane ABT is the straight fine KN. The figure ABTis such that the rectang/e made by a given straight fine X and KN is a/ways equa/ to the p/ane Ka. 1 say, that the right cy/inder whose base is ABTand height X is equa/ to the so/id ABe. If the said solids are not egual, let Z be their difference. Let straight cylinders of the same height be inscribed in and círcumscribed abour the solid ABC, and be they such that the circumscribed cylinders exceed the inscribed ones by less than Z. The bases of the cylinders being praduced, they intersect the plane ABT in the straight lines KN, LR. Now, as many rectangles are completed on ABT as cylinders are on the solid ABe, as seen in the diagram. Let a parallelepiped with height X be imagined oyer eyery rectangle. Since the rectangle NK by X is egual to the plane KO, it is manifest that the cylinder KOHL 26. Thar is, for rhe portion of rhe solid in Figure 2 bounded by rhe planes ABB' and CEE', rhe difference berween rhe inscribed and rhe circumscribed cylinders is jusr equal ro rhe difference berween rhe cylinders AKD"DBB' and ICE'E.
James Gregotios "Sorne Genetal Propositions DE Geometry" 95
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If the figure ABT were not adjacent ro the solid ABC, bur were of such a kind that Ítself, or another figure egual ro it (haYing the said propeny), could be adjoined ro the solid ABe, then it is still manifest that the solid ABC is egual ro the right cylinder oyer the figure ABT and height X. For cylinders on egual bases and with the same or egual heights are egua\. CONSECTARY Whence (if ABT, ABC be two solids with the same height and so related ro one another that when a plane perpendicular ro the height is drawn trough both of them and determines the common intersection KN with the solid ABT and the figure KO with the solid ABe, then the plane figure NK always bears the same ratio ro the plane figure KO, say that ofR ro S) the solid ABT is ro the solid ABC as R is to S. For right cylinders erected on these figures with the same height as mese solids are in the same ratio as the solids are; besides, they are in the same ratio as the bases are, that is in the ratio of R ro S. Therefore the solids are in the ratio ofR ro S.27 27. Cregorie uses Proposirion 13, bur rakes rhe fIgures ABC, ABT in Figure 7 ro represenr simulraneously solids and plane figures. Ler us assume rhar ABT is a plane figure such rhar irs ordinare NK rimes rhe common heighr AB of rhe solids is equal ro rhe plane secrion NK fmm rhe solid ABT. In rhe same way, ABe is a plane figure such rhar ordinare Kü x AB = plane Kü. According ro Proposition 13, rhe righr cylinders erecred upon rhese plane
96
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
It also results from this that cylinders on equal bases and with the same height, either right or inclined, are equaI. Because, when cut by planes that are equally distant from the bases, the common intersections28 are a1ways equal to the bases, and thus equal to each other. Not otherwise is to be understood of oblique cylinders on different bases and the same height, since for a similar reason they are proportional to their bases. So, cylinders bear to one another a ratio that is as the direct ratio of their bases and the direct ratio of their heights.
James Gregorie's "Sorne General Propositions ofGeometry>,
Chapter 4
97
11
drawn from point G through [a point in] the perimeter of the figure NLM a1so goes through [a point in] the perimeter of the figure KIH. Therefore (according ro the e1eyenth proposition aboye) the figures KIH, NLM are in the duplicate ratio of that between the straight lines GL and GH. Q.E.D.
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PROPOSITION 15. THEOREM
111'1
Similar sofids are in the tripficate ratio o/that between corresponding straight fines.
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,l'
PROPOSITION 14. THEOREM Let two simifar sofids be cut by paraffefplanes going through the extreme points o/ corresponding straight fines. 1 say, that the pfane figures cut, or the common intersections, are in the dupficate ratio o/that between corresponding straight fines.
Let GABC, GEDF be two similar solids (see Figure 12) cut by parallel planes KIH, NLM that go through L and H, the end points of corresponding straight lines GL, LH. I say, that the figures KIH, NLM are in the duplicate ratio of GL toHG. Let any point in the perimeter of the figure NLM, say M, be joined by the straight line GM to the common corresponding point G, and let GM be produced until it meets the other plane at 1. It is manifest, because the planes are parallel, that GL : GH :: GM : G1. Because of this (and since the solids are similar), the point I is also on the surface of the solid GABC; as a consequence, I is also in the perimeter KIH. For the same reason, eyery straight line
A
Let A and B be similar solids (see Figure 13), O their common corresponding point, and DE, DF corresponding straight lines. I say, that A is to B in the triplicate ratio ofDE to DE If the solids A and B are not in the triplicate ratio ofDE to DF, let A be to X in the said triplicate ratio of DE to DF, and let Z be the difEerence between B and X. Let right cylinders with the same height be inscribed in and circumscribed about the solid B, and let the difference between the inscribed cylinders and the circumscribed ones be less than Z. Let MC be one oE the inscribed cylinders and MK a circumscribed one. From the perimeters of the bases oE the cylinders let straight lines CD, LO, etc, which cut the surface oE solid A at N, H, etc, be drawn. Let planes parallel to the bases oE the cylinders EN, IH, etc, be drawn to intersect the solid A; then having for bases these intersections, \\ [7] the cylinders IN, IG, etc, inscribed in and circumscribed about the solid A are to be completed. It is maniEest that the plane EN is to the plane FC in the duplicate ratio oE that between the corresponding straight lines DE and DE Similarly, the figure IH is to the figure ML in the duplicate ratio of OH to DL, or DE to DE Let us take aplane that runs through [the sofids A and E], cuts perpendi-
e
F
Aq¡;;:::::::::
I
K
M gセf|
セi E
El
-'L
B
Figure 12 (Figure 7 in rhe manuscripr).
figures ABT, ABe wirh heighr AB equal rhe solids ABT, ABC, respecrively. Now rhe resulr foll ows from Proposirion 3. 28. Thar is, rhe inrersecrions on rhe same plane.
1 I
,1'
---,
x
D Figure 13 (Figure 8 in rhe manuscripr).
8 va-
11 1 1'
I!II
11I
1I
11 1
98
From Indivisibles
tO
Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Chapter 4
T in rhe rriplicare rario ofOE ro DF, rhar is, R: T :: A: X; and alternando, R : A :: T : X. Bur R < A, whence T < X. Similarly, S : V :: A : X, and alternando S : A :: V: X. Bur S > A, and consequently V > X. There are rherefore four quanriries T, V; X, B, rhe grearesr and smallesr of which are V and T, and rhe middle ones X and B. The difference between rhe exrreme ones, V and T, rherefore, is grearer rhan Z, rhe difference between rhe middle ones, X and B. Bur by consrrucrion ir is less rhan ir, which is absurdo Therefore X and B are nor diEferenr, bur are equal; rhar is, A is ro B in rhe rriplicare rario of rhe line DE ro rhe line DE Q.E.D.
["'
·
F. k
M . j ".
e
James Gregorie's "Sorne General Propositions of Geometry» 99
K
K
.< ../ ..\
:::::::=:=-
PROPOSITION 16. THEOREM
D)...
\
i
I
The surftces o/similar solids are to each other in the duplicate ratio o/corresponding straight lines (see Figure 10).
Figure 14.
Zセ
',\:
cularly rhe bases of rhe cylinders, and curs rheir surfaces in rhe srraighr lines KL, CO, GH, NP. [See Figure 14 andfootnote 29.]29 Since rhe solids A, B are similar, DN : DC :: DH : DL; rherefore rhe srraighr Iines NH, CL are parallel and rhe rriangles NDH, CDL similar. Hence, DN : DC :: NH : CL. 3ur since rhe srraighr lines OL, PH, as well as rhe straighr Iines NH, CL, are parallel, and rhe angles NPH, COL are righr angles, ir is manifesr rhar rhe rriangles NHp, CLO are similar, rhar is, NP : CO :: NH : CL :: ND : CD. Therefore rhe rario of rhe plane IH ro rhe plane ML is rhe duplicare rario ofNP ro CO. Bur rhe rario of rhe cylinder GI ro rhe cylinder KM is equal ro rhe composirion of rhe rario ofIH ro ML and rhe rario ofNP ro CO. Since rhe former is rhe duplicare rario of DN ro CD and rhe larrer is equal ro rhis one [j.e., to DN.- CD], ir is manifesr rhar rhe cylinder GI is ro rhe cylinder KM in rhe rriplicare rario ofDN ro DC, or DE ro DE The same rario and proponion are proved ro hold between all rhe cylinders circumscribed abour solid A and all rhose circumscribed abour solid B, and likewise berween rhe ones inscribed in solid A and rhose in sol id B. Ler rhe cylinders inscribed in solid A be called R, and S rhe ones circumscribed abour rhe same, and T rhe eylinders inscribed in solid B, and V rhe circumscribed ones. R is ro
Everyrhing proved in Proposirions 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 aboye concerning simple curved lines can be applied wirh lirrIe or no modificarion ro simple curved surfaces. For if in rhe figure rhe curved lines QEZ, A VK are assumed ro be surfaces of similar solids whose common corresponding poinr is P, rhen rhe parallel planes CD, NS, which are rangent ro rhe said surfaces ar O and F and end ar rhe same conic surface,30 will be similar, and rherefore in rhe duplicare rario ofPS ro PO. Similarly, rhe similar parallel planes DC, EQ are in rhe duplicare rario ofDP ro Ep, and rhe similar parallel planes DL and EM are in rhe same rario. Now ler rhree or more planes be drawn rhrough rhe poinr D; ler rhem be contained in any way wharever in a solid angle and be rangenr ro rhe curved surface QEZ. Ler rhese planes DC, DL, erc, and rhe curved surface QEZ end on a conic surface [PCL] such rhar rhe angles, say PCD, PLD, formed by rhe rangent planes and by every srraighr line produced on rhe conic surface ro rhe rangenr planes are acure. We will assume rhe said planes ending on rhe conic surface ro be grearer rhan rhe curved surface QEZ comprehended by rhe same conic surface, and rhe parallel planes wirhin rhe curved surface, say EQ, EM, ro be less rhan rhe same. Now, in similar solids we can assume (as we demonsrrared ro be rhe case for similar planes in proposirions 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 aboye) rhe common corresponding point ro be so close ro E rhar rhe said angles are always acure;3! in every case, rherefore, rhe circumscribed pianes can be [assumed to be] grearer rhan rhe curved surface, and rhe inscribed ones [to be] less rhan rhe same.
30. This canie surfaee has no been menrioned yer, bU[ ir will be inrrodueed below. As norieed in rhe introduerory eommenrary, rhis ¡asr proposition of rhe rnanuseripr does no! show rhe wellordered pattern of exposirion and proof eharaererisrie of Gregorie's geornerrical dernonsrrarions. 31. The eornrnon eorresponding poinr is, of caurse, dererrnined a priori by rhe solids rhernselves.
29. Gregorie rakes a rneridian seerion by aplane D<:pep (see Figure 14). Allowing a rorarion around rhe axis Dc¡:. rhe rneridian seerion ean be assurned ro lie on rhe plane of rhe figure and be represen red by rhe sarne Figure 13.
J
100
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
CHAPTER5
Now let a straight line through E, parallel ro the straight line that is the common intersection of the planes DC, DL be produced until it meets the curved surface [atm, say]. (Were the said straight line [through E] ro run OUtside the curved surface, further planes tangent ro the curved surface between I and F would be drawn through D, until eventually aH the straight lines through E that are parallel ro the cammon intersections of the planes would run inside the curved surface.) Next, from P and through the intersection poim [0)] let a straight line be produced that meets the intersection of the planes DC, DL in a point. In this point, let a salid angle be constituted by the planes DC, DL and by how many soever planes tangem ro the curved surface QEZ. \\ [B]Now let us proceed with the intersections of the remaining planes as we did with the imersections of the planes DC, DL. In this way, whatever poim D outside the convex pan of the curved surface be taken, a surface is eventually completed out of tangem planes that endoses the curved surface [QEZ] and the conic surface. AH of the said planes end on straight lines where they do not meet the conic surface. Next, planes parallel ro DC, DL, and to the remaining planes through D are drawn through E, and similarly, through the other poims where straight lines joining P ro the [vertices ofthe] solid angles interseet the curved surface, let planes be drawn parallel ro the planes that comprehend the salid or. .. 32 angles. [Thus] a surface is generated that is also constituted by planes and ends, as the other does, on the conic surface. Ir is easily proved that the whole surface CDL is ro the whole surface CEM [read QEM} in the duplicate ratio of PD ro PE. But the ratio of PD to PE can be made less than any given ratio of greater inequality, and in consequence (similarly to what has been proved about lines in proposition 8 aboye) the excess of the surface CDL over the surface QEM can [be made] less33 [End ofmanuscript]
32. Unreadable word. 33. The Jast senrence of the manuscript reads as follows: «sed ratio PD ad PE minor potest esse quacunque ratione assignabili majoris inaequaJitatis; et consequenrer (simiJiter ac in ¡ineis in huius BV" demonstrarur) excessus superficiei CDL supra superficiem QEM minor potest».
Methods ofTangents ca. 1670
Introduction
i i
Zセ
i
Innnitesimals played a crucial role in the development of new methods of quadrature, but they were a1so used in solving other problems. In the present chapter we shall examine the role of infinitesimal notions in methods of tangents. While the relationship between tangents and quadratures was not panicularly emphasized for most of the seventeemh century, it carne evemually ro be seen as crucial ro the foundations of the infinitesimal calculus and even ro its hisrorical origins. During the seventeemh century, however, this relationship received not much attention from leading mathematicians not even when they discovered results that unrnistakably revealed ir. As we shall see, well in the 1670s mathematicians devised methods of tangems mostly ro obtain «recipes» or a1gorithms that could be easily used with as large a dass of curves as possible. They laid emphasis on the algebraic rules involved, trying ro achieve as much simplicity as possible. AH the while infinitesimals, which sorne of thern used in their algorithms, were sidelined as peripheral ro their rnain cancern. Most of the material presemed in this chapter concerns James Gregorie's methods of tangems, a1though we shall a1so deal with methods used by Newron, Barrow and Wallis at about the same time. l In 1668 James Gregorie published the Geometriae Pars Universalis, lnserviens Quantitatum Curvarum transmutationi et mensurae, a work that largely inspired Isaac Barrow's much more famous 1670 Geometrical Lectures. The two works belong ro a mathematical gente sometimes called infinitesimal geometrical analysis. Gregorie's Universal Part ofGeometry contains a hisrorically uninteresting method of tangems. Ir is derivative from Fermat's and dosely related ro Barrow's famous analytical method, ro which we shall remrn below 2. However, Gregorie is also the author of
l. 1 have dealt in full with Gregorie's «TayJoP' techniques and the methods he used to attack difflcult functions in «James Gregorie an Tangents and the "TayJar Rule" for Series Expansions», Archive jOr History ofExact Sciences, 46 (1993), 97137. 2. Gregarie never c1aimed ariginaliry with respect ta this methad. On Fermat's methad, see M.S. Mahoney, The Mathematical Career ofPierre de Fennat (Princeron: Princeton Universiry
102
From Indivisibles ro Inflnitesimals
Anroni Maler
an innovative, highly original method of tangenrs that has so far been neglected in part because only fragmenrary manuscript remains of it survived, and in part because HoW. Turnbull failed to identif)r them properly. Gregorie's second method of tangents consisted in a set of rules giving the subtangent of curves defined by variables, u, that were sums or differences (u = a ± b), or fourth and mean proportionals (a: b:: e: u, a: u:: u: b) of other variables, a, b, C,ooo, the subtangents of which were supposed knowno Gregorie's rules directly yield the subtangent of the new variable as a1gebraic combination of the known subtangents of a, b, C,oo. セa we shall see, Gregorie's second method is more powerful than any other general method available before Leibniz's first papers on the differenrial calculus. A1though formally very differenr from the differential calculus, Gregorie's method has in common with it the emphasis on the a1gebraic definition ofvariables and the a1gebraic characterization of tangenrs.
Gregorie puts AB = a, the ordinate BE = b, and introduces a constant e such that he has
BK2 AK
a
a Now, since Gregorie assumes «the ordinate DG ro fall on the same point G of the curve as the straight line FH», he can use the similarity of triangles FDG, FEH, and therefore the proportionality EH : EF :: DG : DE This proportionality yields the equality (z o)
\Jab 2c3 + b 3c3 a
KC3
0
.lf
A
Zセ
F
y'L
L¡ セM
).,¡
セ
!< 'f .
B
K
セ
+ b 3c3
DG = 'Va(bo)2 c3 + (b 3_0)3'c3
=0
Nセ セ I
セ。「R」S
z
\'a(bo)2 C3+ (bo)3 c3
a
EH3
0
セg
a3
=_0 Hence EH =
To determine the subtangent z = FE, Gregorie takes DE equal ro nothing (nihil seu serum 0)0 He has then BD = b o, AD = a + b 0, FD = z o, and
Proposition 7 of]ames Gregorie's 1668 Geometriae Pars Universalis contains the following method of tangents, explained through a particular exampleo Let the curve BHC (see Figure 1) be such that for any two ordinates EH, KC,
t
BE2 AE EH3
FermatBeaugrand's Method ofTangenrs
BE2 AE
Methods of T angenrs ca. 1670 103
Chapter 5
セh
e
After eliminating roots and parenthesis and cancelling equal terms on both sides, Gregorie reaches an expression in which al! the terms are multiplied by o. He divides by o, then discards all the terms that still contain or one of its powers, and gets, finally, z in terms oE a and b0 3 This is but Fermat's method, which originally avoided the use of the infinitesimal o, as it evolved in the hands of his colleague Jean de Beaugrand4• As its title makes explicit, Gregorie's Proposition 7 teaches how ro draw tangents ro «those curves that Descartes calls geometricah>o As we shall presently see, this method's characteristic limitation was that its application ro nongeometrical curves required ad hoc trickso Gregorie accompanied his Proposition 7 by two more propositions dealing with tangents ro non geometrical curves, but they were unrelated ro FermatBeaugrand's method. In Proposition 8 (see Figure 2) the curve AIM is supposed knowno Then the ordinates HK of the curve AKü, HK = HI + IK, are defined by the condition that IK is in a given proportion ro arc Al. Notice that this inc1udes me cyc1oid, when AIM is half the circumference of a circleo Proposition 8 proves that the tangent KB is drawn by taking on the tangent BI ro the curve AIM (the construction of which is supposed known) BI equal ro arc Al: this determines the point B through which passes the tangent BK.5
°
Figure 1. Geometriae Pars Univmalis (Padua, 1668), p. 202. 4. M.S. Mahoncy, The Mathematical Carea o/Piare de Ferml1t, p. 65: M.E. Baron, Thel Origins o/the Infinitesimal Calculus (New York: Dover, 1969), p. 172173. 5. Geometriae Pars Universalis, p. 2224.
3.
Press, 1973), p. 65ff On Barrow's, see Mahoney, «BerweenAnciems and Moderns», in M. Feingold ed., BefVre NellJton: The Life and Times o/Isaac BarrollJ (Cambridge, 1990), 179249.
,(ji
104
Fram Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Anroni Malet
Methods ofTangents
Chapter 5
ca. 1670 105
B
A セ[」AGHIᄋ
セd
A
B
セ セ
IR
O R
0\\5 \\
p
I j\ V Y \
Figure 3.
In a similar vein, Proposition 9 teaches how ro draw tangents to a curve AMT (see Figure 3) such that NM (perpendicular to AR) is always proportional to arc Al, say NM : arc Al :: P : Q, the curve AlO being known, as well as how to draw its tangents. Let AO be parallel to NM, and C the intersection of the tangent CI with it. Proposition 9 proves that the point O, through which passes the tangent OM, falls in the intersection of AO with OZ, paralIel ro AR and such that CI : ZM :: P : Q.6 Gregorie's Propositions 8 and 9 just demonstrate that the lines BK and OM are tangents by showing that they always fall on the same side of the curve. He gives no hint as to how to find tangents to non-geometrical curves. Publications by John Wallis (in 1672) and Isaac Barrow (in 1670) skillfuIly used the Fermat-Beaugrand method to draw the tangents to non geometrical curves such as the cyc1oid, the curve of the tangents (the one we may anachronistically represent by y = tanx), the curve of the secants, and the quadratrix. We will provide now an outline of one ofWaIlis's results and one of Barrow's. Elegant examples of the most sophisticated results the method produced, they will give us a way of measuring the simplifications introduced by other methods. Let us start with Wallis's determination of the tangent to the conchoid. In Figure 4, the ordinate VMa of the conchoid AOaO is equal to s = VM, the sinus of arc AM, plus Ma. If CP = Q, CV = x, then Ma = SQ/ x. (Notice that if CP = CA = r, then Ma is the tangent of arc AM.) Calling x + Q = r¡, we have therefore r¡ Va
= - s
x
セL
x
T
-- __ ,__
"
'-- J
V<:
,: f3
Figure 4.
:i\r'
i'
where V = AV and h = r + x. Now, on point O, such that OV = a, we have an ordinate DO
r¡+a
r¡+a ,1 ",(v-a) (h+a) x+a
= -,
Y;h-2xa
x+a
,
where Wallis neglected a term with ti- under the radical sign. On point O we have also the line OT, terminating on the tangent aF. Because of the similarity of triangles VAF and OTF, t-a
Ha
Va
OT= t
t
セy[ィ x
where t represents the subtangent VF. Now, after comparing the squares of DO and OT (in order to get rid of the radical signs), cancelling, neglecting terms in ti, and finally assuming that O is in V, and so that a vanishes, Wallis gets an expression of t in terms of known quantities, t = s2r¡x / (r¡r2 - vhx).7 By assuming CP = CA = r, then Ma is the tangent of angle ACM and Wallis can shorten the determination of the tangent to the curve of tangents by using the foregoing calculations. 8 Let us look now to Barrow's determination of the tangent to the quadratrix. The quadratrix CMV (see Figure 5) originates from the combination of two uniform motions. While a straight line parallel ro AB moves uniformly from C towards A, the radius AF (simultaneously starting from AC) rotates uniformly c1ockwise. The intersection of these two lines determine the points 7.
6.
y
f.1 k'/----
T
Figure 2.
Z
.' ,,,--r------·, ----'"'.:·:.:.' f3 U···· f3u
N
L
X a
-
e
5
¡bid., p. 24-25.
J. Wallis, «Epítome Binae Methodi Tangentium», Philosophical Tramactions (no. 81, MaTch 25),7, 1672, 4010-6, p. 4012.
8.
¡bid.
106
From Indivisibles to Infini[esimals
Amoni Malet
e
F
"'\
,', k ZGセ
=:
Chap[er 5
Methods of T angents ca. 1670 107
Calculo» is that terms inc1uding powers of infinitesimals must be always neglected, because such terms «amount ro nothing» (nihil valebunt). He gets therefore,
f) f'/\
LF 2 = r2 r2f2/k 2 + 2fpma/P = (r2m 2 + 2fmpa)/k2. Finally, the similariry of triangles ANQ and AFL entails
A
QL P
KV T
AQ2
AL 2
QN2
LF 2
From here, by taking AQ = f- e and QN = m + a, arrer sorne computation and cancelling, he arrives at
B
Figure 5.
Ppa r 2fa = r 2me.
of the quadratrix. In Figure S, the quadratrix arc NM represents an infinitesimal arc, or the hypotenuse of the infinitesimal triangle NRM with infinitesimal sides a = NR, e = RM. It is of course assumed that this triangle is similar to the finite triangle AMp, with sides AM = k, MP = m, PA =f Ir is similar too to the finite triangle MPT, with sides me tangent MT, the ordinate m, and the subtangent PT = t. That is, a
m
e
Barrow starts by writing the infinitesimal arc FE as pal r, where r is the radius AC and p the quadrant of the circumference CBthe proportion r: p :: a: arc FE comes from the definition of the quadratrix. Now, from the characteristic triangle ofthe círcle Barrow deduces AE
arc FE
---=
EK
LK
Since EK = mrlk (because triangles AMP and AEK are similar), we get LK
=pma I rk. Next, Barrow finds AL as the difference AK KL, rf
pma
k
rk
AL
He then expresses LF2 as? AU, neglecting the term with a2 fram AU. In fact, one of the few general rules he gives when introducing his method «ex
Now, by using the relationship between the infinitesimals a, e and the subtangent t, a: e:: m: t, he obtains t in terms of k and f \:.." dl .
"i. [セ
k2 p t=f r2
Barrow's attack on the quadratrix is one of the five examples added at the end of Lecture X of his Geometrical Lectures. 9 Other examples given by Barrow were two «geometrical» curves, the curve we may anachronistically represent by Q = tan s, and the C4rve of the tangents. 10 In his own words, this appendix was about «his method ro find tangents by calculation [ex Calculo]», which is but a version of the FermatBeaugrand method that made explicit use of the charaeteristic or infinitesimal triangle. The Kinematic Method ofTangents
As the foregoing results suggest, the analyric methods published ca. 1670 required ro be specifically adapted ro each nongeometrical curve. In many instances, therefore, approaching the problem by way of the kinematic definition of curves provided a much easier and more insightful method. This is precisely what John Wallis said in that many words in his 1672 paper on tangents. ll 9. 1. Barrow, Lectiones Geometricae: In quibus (praesertim) Generalia Curvarum Linearum Symptomata Dec!4rantur, in The Mathematical Works, W. Whewell ed. (Cambridge, 1860), 155320, p. 249250. 10. Ibid, p. 246250. ].M. Child transla(ed (he de(ermination of (he (angem ro (he curve of (he (angen(s in The Geometrical Lectures ofIsaac Barrow (Chicago: Open COUC(, 1916), 122123. 11. Wallis, «Epitome Binae Me(hodi Tangemium», Philosophical Transaetions (no. 81, March 25),7, 1672,40106.
108
Prom Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Chapter 5
Antoni Malet
Wallis highlighted there that he knew of two methods for drawing tangents method, he said, was grounded on dealing with «species», algebraic symbols, mat is, the omer with <<1ines». The method with «species», we have already referred ro. Wallis's method with «lines» is Roberval's lcinematic method. He applied his first method (the one similar ro Fermat's) ro the parabola, the cis- soid, me conchoid, me tangents and the secants. The second method was applied, among other curves, ro me spiral, the quadratrix, the cycloid, and the conchoid. Wallis explicitIy based his second method on the notion that curves are ro be considered as made up (he used the verb confiato) of infinitesimal parrs (infinite exiguis) that coincide with the infinitesimal intersection of the curve and its tangents these parts, therefore, are «determined in position».11 He then compared the infinitesimals on the curve with the corresponding infini- tesimals on the axes or on some suitable straight line, ro argue in a general and qualitative way that, when the curve is defined by the composition of motions, the parallelogram issuing from the tangents ro the defining motions yields the tangent to the curve. He stressed that this second method was the most appro- priate to deal with curves originating from motion «
On the summer of 1670 Gregorie discovered his second method of tangents, that has ro be viewed against the background ofIsaac Barrow's 1670 Lectiones Geometricae. In July 1670 Gregorie received from John Collins a copy of Barrow's book fresh from the printer. 14 On September 5 he wrote back: 15 1 haye read oyer Mr Batrow's Lectures with much pleasure and attention, whe- rein 1 find him to haye infinite1y transcended aH that ewer [sic] wrote before him. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Ibid, p. 4013. Ibid, p. 4014. The error mentioned here is rhe only one 1 have noriced. Collins ro Gregorie, 9 July 1670, in Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 101. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 103.
1670 109
1 haye discoyered fram Barrow his method of drawing tangents rogether with sorne of my own, a general geometrical method, without calculation, of drawing tangents ro all curves, and comprehending not only Barrow's particular methods, but also his general analyrical method in the end of t he 10th lecrure. My method contains not aboye 12 propositions.
セョ・
Gregorie's Second Method ofTangents
Methods ofTangents ca.
ᄋヲセ
t セN
.1·
';/
"
This paragraph makes up the piece number 16 of the Commercium Epistolicum, published in 1712 at Newron's instigation. 16 The paragraph is usually read as an acknowledgement of Gregorie's indebtedness ro Barrowand it may have been included here just ro convey this suggestion. However, as we shall see presentIy, Gregorie's method of tangents is based on a principie completely absent from Barrow's work. No additional mention of Gregorie's «general geometrical method, without calculation, of drawing tangents» surfaces in his subsequent correspondence, and very littIe of it has survived among his extant manuscripts. 17 Gregorie cauld rightIy claim that his method was «withollt calculation», as opposed ro Barrow's analytical method which was «ex Calculo». 18 The expression Gregorie used, however, is unfortunate. Barrow's Geometrical Lecturescontain two very different approaches ro the problem of tangents. They contain the method «ex Calculo», involving computations with infinitesimals and derivative ofFermat's, already referred ro. But this is only an appendix at the end of Lecture X. The bulk of Lectures VI to X is devoted ro the determination of tangents by means of geometric constructions and this Barrow had called the investigation of tangents «without the trouble or tediousness of calculation»19! Thus the same expression «without calculation» came ro express, with Gregorie and with Barrow, two opposite approaches ro methods of tangents.
16. The Commercium Epistolicum, F. Biot and E. Lefort eds. (Paris, 1856), p. 77. 17. The evidence that remains ofGregorie's work atter his return to Scocland from the Continental rour early in 1669 is very peculiar. Gn the one hand, we have the finished products of his techniques mailed from Sr Andrews ro John Collins, in London. Most of those shorr, yery compacr fragments provide series expansions as solurions for a great many problems in quadrature, rectification, and calculation of trigonometric tables. They conrain no clue as ro how the series were derived. Gn the other hand, we have the mathematical annotations accidentally preserved on the margins and other blank spaces of the letters Gregorie received. Unnoticed until the present century, these fragments were edited and published by Turnbull in the Gregory Volume. Ir is on these manuscripr pieces and on Turnbull's interpretation of them that our new, higher appreciation of Gregorie rests. Apparenr1y, none of the manuscript remains found in the letters is a full record of rhe notes Gregorie jotted down in the midst of a creative process. The fragments are certainly not drafts of more or less finished minitreatises. No definitions are set fotth, no propositions are clear1y stated, no proofs are provided. Byall accounts, these nores belong to an intermediate stage between the creative process and the organization of the material in standard, deducrive, mathematical formo See A. Malet, «Studies on James Gregorie (16381675)" (Ph.D. Diss., Princeron Universiry, 1989), Ch. 1. 18. Barrow, Lectiones geometricae, p. 246. 19. «absque calculi molestia vel fasridio", ibid, p. 209. See M. Mahoney, «Barrow's mathematics: between aneients and moderns", p. 179249 in Beftre Newton: The Life and Times o/Isaac Barrow, M. Feingold ed., p. 2134.
110
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
On November 23, 1670 Gregorie communicated ro Collins that he had (,almost ready for the press another edition of my quadrarura circuli et hyperbolae», ro which a complement would be added: «1 purpose also ro add ro it several universal methods, as 1 imagine as yet unheard of in mathematics, both in geometrie and analyticks».20 Ir is highly probable that his method of tangents was among the methods «as yet unheard of». We do know that sorne son of minitreatise containing Gregorie's method of tangents was acrually written down and circulated among friends and students or so at least suggests William Sanders's inventory of Gregorie's mathematical papers. Upon Gregorie's death, Sanders, a longtime acquaintance and colleague of Gregorie's who succeeded him as mathematics professor at the University of St Andrews, drew an «Accompt of Mr Gregories papers both as ro what 1 have seen, and what 1 conjecrure can be found in his scholars hands».21 One of the papers listed is the method of tangents, which is mentioned as being then in possession of s omeone teaching at the university of Glasgow:
Methods ofTangents ca. 1670 111
Chapter 5
Anroni Malet
def dee curves Gl, AK, and let AB = e, FB = d, GB = f, HB = e; make DB = df ce then the join CD will rouch the eurve Ch.
セヲ\
1
A
K
e
«The way of drawing tangents unto all sorts of eurve lines, eomprehended in four or five propositions, never done by any other. These are not ro be found amongst his papers, but ean be had from Mr Thomas Nieolson regent in Glasgow.»
li M
1/ FH +-e
Analytic Computation ofTangents
M25
«Let Ch, AK be curves, MB a suaight line, and G1 a curve with the propeny that GB is always equal ro the same AB, CB [i.e., CB = AB + CB]; let the suaight lines CD, AF be the tangents ro the eurves Ch, AK; put CB = a, DB = b, AB = e, FB = d; let BH = adb + edb , and join GH, da + be whieh will be tangent ro the curve Gl. Let GH, AF be the tangents ro the
P i e
O a
There is no trace of this piece either among his extant manuscripts or among those of David Gregory, who inherited and used his uncle James's mathematical papers.
Let us mm now ro Gregorie's method of tangents as it has acrually come down ro uso Ir appears in three fragments that Tumbull called the M25, M22, and M45 manuscripts. 22 The first of them sets forth rules for the subtangents of curves defined algebraically such as u = a ± b, and so on. The M25 piece, which contains Figure 6, reads thus: 23
I
/
LJ
B D N +-- 6 .
1+
セ
¡{---.
Figure 6. (5mallletters added).
But ifGB: AB:: CB: OB, and BH = a, BF = b, BD = e, it will be b ; if it is always GB : AB :: AB : CB, and HB = e, baeb a + ae c d FB = d, it will be in every case DB = Rセ _d and the signs + and [accom-
BN =
paying e and ti] are to be kept according ro the faet that e and d lie in different [or the same] sides. Now, everything remaining the same, let DB = e, it will be in every case FB = 2ce . But more generally, if the e+e
ratio of GB ro CB is the multiplied ratio of AB ro CB in the ratio of m ro n [GB: CB = (AB : CB)m/n], it will be in every ease DB= mde
20. Gregorie ro Collins, 23 November 1670, in Gregory Tercentenary Vo!ume, p. 118. 21. The document, fully reproduced in A. Malet, «5tudies on James Gregorie (16381675),), p. 8990, is now kept at the Edinburgh Universiry Library, Dc 1.41.129. 22. References to the manuscripts will be made using Turnbull's reference numbers. 23. Gregory Tercentenary Vo!ume, p. 347. Translations are my own, but 1 afien füllow rather closely Turnbull's.
セ、・
».
(Gregorie semphasis)
Gregorie's results are correct, and in what follows the reader can assume they to be so, unless otherwise stated. In order ro handle them easily, 1 shall
112
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Chapter 5
Anroni Malet
use the notation T GB (oa:asional1y, T(GB)) to represent the subtangent of the curve GI with ordinate GB. In that notation Gregorie's rules look like this: 1. Subtangent o[the sum
T AB+CB =
Rule 3.1: If CB = R constant, and OB = R. AB/GB, then T CB =
Rule 3.2: If GB = R constant, and R.OB = AB.CB, then T GB = 00 and
(GB-AB).TGB.TAB GB.TAB-AB.TGB
T
OB
エセL
GB If
CB
AB
T OB = -
OB
T GBTAB+T GB TCB,TcBTAB
4 and 5. Subtangent o[the third and mean proportionals GB AB If = _ _ , then AB CB
4. T CB
TGBTAB and
2.TGBTAB
5.
T AB
Rule 7.
2.TGB T CB
CB
CB
TGB+T cB
I I
24. Ar rhe end ofhis Leerure IX; in Barrow, Leetiones geometricae, p. 240.
T(a ffi) = -1- T, a
r
m.TAB·T GB n.TAB·TGB
Two general remarks are in order concerning Gregorie's rules. First, that rules for finding the subtangent of products and guotients of two variables were to be easily deduced from rule 3. For Gregorie only needed to assume that a straight line paral1el to the axis has a infinitely long subtangent, a result mentioned by Barrow,24 to obtain the fol1owing relationships as direct conseguences of formula number 3:
+T AB CB
to the curve the abscissa of which is u = a:. 1 ' where a is the abcissa of a given
T CB = m.TGB n.TAB
T
m
m
6. Final1y, if GB =(AB)n _ ,
TCB"TAB
In seventeenthcentury mathematical treatises, however, in order to produce magnitudes homogeneous with the magnitudes already known, it was usual to introduce or define new magnitudes as mean proportionals rather than as an explicit product or division. This explains Gregorie's producing rules for subtangents of curves defined in terms of mean proportionals. Secondly, the arrangement of rules 3 to 6 suggests they are in order of algebraic deduction. While formulae 4 and 5 are obviously particular instances of formula number 3, the repeated use of the same formulae 4 and 5 al10ws us to derive formula number 6 through algebraic manipulations. Let us turn now to the two minor pieces M22 and M45 that also contain rules for the determination of subtangents. The M22 manuscript applies the rule for the subtangent of a power,
TGBTCBTAB
--= __
=
'11
....
3. Subtangent o[the fourth proportional
and
T GBTAB
T GB-AB =
CB.TAB+AB.TCB
00
TGB·TAB
T OB =
2. Subtangent ofthe diffirence
(AB+CB).TAB"TCB
Merhods of T angenrs ca. 1670 113
I
I
curve and r is a constant that makes u a linear magnitude. This result had been explicitly mentioned by Barrow for m integer or fractionaF5. Gregorie may have deduced it as a particular case of rule 6. The M22 piece, which contains Figure 7, seems to apply rule 7 (not explicitly mentioned by Gregorie) to sorne particular problem in which the relationship between subtangents on the Yaxis, rather than between those on the Xaxis, was needed: 26 M22
n+l = m
AG = a ffi
AH = a
r n
CE = c DF = mcan [.] rn
I
J
25. Leerure IX, §§2, 3, and 5; Barrow, Lectiones geometricae, p. 2356. 26. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 368.
114
From Indivisibles to InfiniresimaJs Antoni MaJer
Merhods of T angents ca. 1670 115
Chapter 5
The first pan of manuscript M45, which contains Figure 8, is similar to the foregoing piece. In M45, however, the relationship between the subnormals, rather than between the subtangenrs, of affi/r ffi 1 and a is spelled Out. In the second pan of M45 we see Gregorie using a variable z ro desig- nate (times a constant r) the quotiem between an ordinate FB and its sub- normal HB:27
M45
Ler AB Be
=
FB
=
=
a
b
セ
r m - 1
2m 2 -
rhen will HB = mba
C2m -2
Now ifFB : BH :: r: z, F
,
rhen will z = mba
i
セ
H/1E ;:, /1 !
rhar is, b is multiplied by rhe exponenr ID and this product again by the power of a diminished by 2, which produet is divided by the same power of r.
セZ ,
t
o:!.
D
C セ
A
セ
B
b
Tb
•
tI HB ( ilM セNェ
-L----l,
6
セ
セ
The foregoing rules are an essential complemem ro the results on subtangems provided in Barrow's Geometrical Lectures. As compared ro Barrow's, Gregorie's work is more algebraico Gregorie's rules are about curves defined in terms of sums, differences, and proporcional means, and his results are expressed as algebraie results as opposed ro geometrical constructions. The precise affiliation of each one of Gregorie' s rules ro Barrow's results is as follows. Rules 1 and 2, on the subtangent of a curve the ordinates ofwhich are the sum or the difference of two variables, have no amecedem among
_ D
E
Figure 8. (Smallletters added). 27. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 368. 1 have used TurnbulI's rransIarion. The fragmem here reprodueed oeeupies a comer ofa sheer of paper. On rhe .lame .Iide ofjr hut FlIrrher away rhere is a rewording 01' the instruerions ro find z: "ler eaeh single rerm be mlllriplied by irs exponent; ler 2 be deduced from Íts power, and ler [he producr be mulriplied by b." The material disposition of the two fragmems and ies aecompanying figure can be .leen in Gregory Tercentenary Volume, pIare IlI.
28. el'. Barrow, Leaiones geometricae, p. 2434 and 257. Gregotie used a similar norion in Propusicion VI of his Geometriae Pars Universalis. See Turnbull's comments in Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 368 and 36970. 29. Leerme V1Il, § 15, p. 2323 in Barrow, Lectiones geometricae.
J
セ
I
セ
I 1
T a
Barrow's Method «without CalculatioD»
CLL
セ
a.
The result is found in Barrow's Lectures, a1though there geometrical considerations substitute for the minus sign. 29 Given that sorne ofGregorie's rules find a eounterpart in Barrow's geometrical propositions on tangents, and given as well Gregorie's aeknowledgemem of gerring inspiration from his reading ofBarrow's Geometrical Lectures, we shall now tum ro clarify the extem of Gregorie' s indebtedness ro Barrow's work.
A
,
The variable z imroduced here gets tantalizingly close to the modem notion of derivative, but similar notioos are ro be found elsewhere in Gregorie's 1668 Geometriae Pars Universalis as well as in Barrow's 1670 Lectiones geometricae. 28 In what follows I shall assume that Gregorie knew the following rule that links the subtangems of two curves of (positive) ordinates a, b such that a + b = R, R being a constam: Rule 8.
Figure 7. (Smallletters addcd).
m 2 -
j,
I11
セ
1 1·1·
I1
j
I
1
I
I
l
'111 1.[:1
116
Chapter 5
Amoni Malet
Fraro Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Merhads afTangems ca, 1670 117 II!III
y F
E
I t,
F
o
E
セ
T
E
T
N
\
セ
,
','
S
セ
E
D
Figure 10.
Figure 9.
RO
M.TO
SO
R
S
T
Figure 11.
This relationship not only holds for the subtangents at the inrersection poinr B. As stated in section 12, the same formula, just substituting P for O everywhere, gives us the relationship among the subtangents at the intersections of the curves EBE and FBF with the straight line PG parallel to BO.30 Finally, section 14 gives an equivalenr result for the case in which the subtangenrs SO and OR (see Figure 12) do not lie in the same side of point 0: 31
Barrow's results. In itself, this highlights the stronger algebraic character of Gregorie's approach. Gregorie's rule 3, on the subtangenr of the fourth proportional, has no real anrecedent either among Barrow's results. Scctions 5 and 9 in Barrow's Lecture VIII are the ones more closely related to Gregorie's rule 3. BriefIy stated, section 5 says that when two curves (see Figure 9) OGZ, NFY are such that the ratio of their ordinates, EG/EF, is constant, then, in the assumption that the tangenr at G cuts the axis at T, TF is tangent to the curve NF that is, the curves have the same subtangent. Section 9 says that when the curves YFN, XEM (see Figure 10) are such that DE times DF is constanr, then the tangenr to E is to be drawn by taking DT equal to DS but in opposite direction or, as we would put it, TOE'" T DF' Gregorie' s rules 4 to 6 are related to results in sections 11, 12, and 14, Lecture IX, ofBarrow's Geometrical Lectures. There Barrow assumed the lines OT and BT (see Figure 11), the curve EBE, and its subtangent RD tobe given, and then he determined the subtangenr of the curve FBF such that, for every straight line PG parallel to BO, the segment PF is (in Barrow's words) a «geometrical mean of the same orden) between PG and PE. If PF were the Nth 。ュッョセ the Ml proportional means between PG and PE, or PG : PF '" (PG : PE)N/ ,Barrow would call M and N the «exponents» of PF and PE. This is a particular case of Gregorie's rule 6, when Gregorie's curve GI (in Figure 6) is assumed to be a straight lineo . Barrow's section 11 states that, in Figure 11, the relationship between TD and the subtangents SO and RD is given by N.TO+(MN).RD
P
M
B
E
セL[N
""/,,,,;
",,,,,,,
/'/// """"" . " ,;,;""".,,, ",;'1'
R
D P
T
S
Figure 12.
[1]
30. ¡bid., p. 239. 31. ¡bid., p. 239. In formulae [1] and [2] notations have been modernized.
J
118
After naming a few segments on the diagram, Gregorie makes statements about the «tangents» (sic) of two variables meaning the subtangents of these variables when they are taken as if making up a curve on the axis AZ (see Figure 14) of the cycIoid. 32 In Figures 13 and 14, the point P lies on a prolate cycIoide. Gregorie called e the segment AF, equal ro the perpendicular ordinate from P ro the axis AZ. The tangent ro the cycIoid at P is always parallel ro ES, which is perpendicular to eセ Wallis mentioned the result in De cycloide, but did 33 not even see the necessity of proving it.
14. But if the points T, R do not faH on the same side of O (or P), the tangent (BS) ro the curve EBF is drawn by making
N.RO _ (M-N).TO
RO
M.TOSO.
SO
[2]
Methods ofTangents ca. 1670 119
Chaptet 5
Anroni Malet
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
':f
-J
;:'
Interestingly, it is not only a matter of signs that makes formula [1] different from [2]. We can trace the differences between [1] and [2] back ro the fact that the same proportional mean term, say PF = (PEN. PG M -N)1IM, can be considered the Nth as well as the (MN)th mean term between PE and PG. Its being one or the other depends on which one, PE or PG, is assumed to be the [¡rst. Now, if we assume PF ro be the (MN)th term after PG, we get formula [2], but if we assume PF ro be the N th after PE, then we get formula [1]. Now, why should Barrow change the denomination of a term? An explanation is that, since PG was greater than PE in Figure 11, and it was the other way round in Figure 12, Barrow may have substituted one for the other so as to have always the lesser one as the [¡rst term of the geometrical progression. Whatever reasons Barrow may have had, it appears that Gregorie did not feel compelled to abide by Barrow's treatment of the problem. Gregorie's emphasis on his rule number 4 applying ro euery case, with a simple changed sign, is probably an answer ro Barrow's peculiar treatment of the problem. Gregorie's result number 6 agrees with Barrow's formula [2].
f3 -r--. .....--- -
ᄋ セb
.... \\
D
セ
Iv.11, /l
A
y
/
Z
T
Tangents to the Cycloids Figure 14.
It is now time ro mm to smdy the way Gregorie's analytic rules worked in practice. Gregorie's computations on the cycIoids, which he used ro [¡nd out the coefficienrs of the «Taylor» series expansions for these curves, incIude a reference ro a diagram in Wallis's book De cycloide, encIosed here as Figure 13 (reference axes in dotted lines, the letters 0, Q, and the smallletters have been added ro Wallis's figure).
Gregorie expressed the «tangent» the subtangent, that is of e by means of two variables q and p, and then worked out the subtangents of several algebraic expressions: 34 M46 «In Wallis's book on the cycloid, figure 21, let AF = e, AO = r, セa J2ree 2 = q, ce=p, e has tangent pe, p has tangent p2, 2 q 2 2 q {pe has tangent セ , ."Jqe has q has tangent HpセL q e pqeq
A F te Ir --D
./ M
I
G
tangent I
= c,
P 6
lB f3 11 ..
セ L3
q 2_ e2
R has tangent
セNᄏ5
q 2 _e
2
32. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 3645. I have omirted here (he first line of rhe M46 piece, which concerns (he rectificacion of the ellipse. See Maler, «James Gregorie on Tangents". 33. J. Wallis,Opml mathematica (3 vol., Oxford, 16931699), l, p. 567. 34. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 365.
Figure 13. From Wallis's De cycloide (Opera, l, p. 564). Smallletters added. I
J
120
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Chapler 5
Antoni Malet
セL
Let us call Te the subtangent YT on the axis AZ. Given the similarity of triangles PYT and {3EF,
T _c_ e
But
I3F =
c - e, and EF is the mean proportional between thc segments ir ==
-..j2re-e 2 • Hence
e(c - e) Te
and -/qel can be equally deduced by means of his rules. 35
M46
-..j2re - el
e
2 Given the definiríon of the variables p and q, Gregorie could express T as pe/q. This expression for the subtangent of e explains Gregorie's words «e has tangent pelq».
=
セ
5 セYイTアR
q -
Te
+
_
Tlr e
lr-e
The subtangent oE 2r - e is, according to rule 8, equal to -T (2r _ e)fe e - pqfe. Therefore we have, mer cancellations, T _ q-
t
_2r 4e 2_ A7r 4g2e +2r5i _3r 5e 2 +3c4e:_30r 5q 2e + QUセR・ャN 2p 4 p5 p5 2 p 4e 2p 6 p6 p6 2p 6 p7
p7
The flrst entry oE mis array is merely me variable e = AF (see Figure 13). In me same figure, let us assume the prolate cycloid MOPA ro represeot a funcríon y reEerred ro perpendicular axes with origin at O. As mentÍoned in the iotroduction, Turnbull showed that the four last entries of the M46 array are, except for a constant factor, the first four derivatÍves oE y = PQ with respect ro x = OQ. As noticed by Turnbull, Grcgorie made a mistake in the computa: tion oE the last entry. Gregorie's mistakc, 1 have shown elsewhere, providesl evidence that the path he followed to achieve his rcsults is thc one here sug' gested. 37
5 the subtangent of q is 2TeT
4r3qep+6r4qe 4r4qp r3qpl 3r3 qe 2
Mーセ
2r -e: q :: q: e.
T -
_ r2pel
4
as stated by Gregorie. The next four results, which involve square roots, are to be: derived by means of rule 5. For instance, to find the subtangent of q = -v(2r - eJe, let us Start from
According to rule
p
2p3e
p _ pl ---, e q
pe q
3-
MSセゥーアzZRャ・
His next result, the subtangent of p = e - e, foll ows from rule 8. According ro this rule, the subtangent oE e - e (e being a constant) is, except for the sign, equal to Tepfe. Whence
Tp
121
Notice that Gregorie expressed the subtangent of p as a positive magnitude, without the minus sign, even though he used the correct sign when T was needed ro determine other algebraic expressions. In other instances Gregorie omitted the minus sign in front of algebraic expressions of magnitudes, and yet the magnitudes were nonetheless correcdy assumed ro contain the minus sign when used in algebraic operations. The M46 manuscript, ro which a1l the foregoing pertains, ends with a 5entry array of algebraic expressions that looks as follows. 36
(3F EF .
determines on the diameter AB, i.e. EF
セア・L
Methods ofTangents ca. 1670
What Gregorie in all probability did to obtain me four last rows of thi array was the following. First, he found the subtangeot of e, pefq, and dividcdl
=
2qpc -q22' -e
as stated by Gregorie. Gregorie's expressions for the subtangents oE
I
j
35. Gregorie used these expressions as partial results in \ongwinded computations; see Malet, "James Gregorie on T angents». Notice that Gregorie provides the subtangent ol'..f
122
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Amon; Malet
e by its subtangent. The result, q/p, is a dimensionless ratio between two geo- metrical segments. Because he was working within a geometrical framework, he could not allow a dimensionless ratio to stand for the new quantity from which the subtangent had to be calculated. So he took qlp times r instead, which is the expression labeled «2nd» in the array aboye. The quantities qr/p couId be assumed to make up a new curve. The next step was to find out its subtangent, say T. Then the quotient of qrlp by T, multiplied by r again, gave Gregorie the expression marked «3rd» in the array. And so on. In other words, the rows always feature rtimes the quotient ordinate/subtangent, the row n-J being always the ordinate for the row n. In practice the computation of the subtangents of the algebraic expressions listed in the array aboye must have been a formidable task from the third entry on. Doubtless Gregorie had at his disposal generalized versions of his rules 1 and 2 that give the subtangent of curves known as sums and differences of variables. For the sum or difference of three variables, for instance, we have (from rules 1 and 2 when one of the curves is assumed to be a and the other b ± e): l' a±b+c _
セ J.¡,lE'
a b c T T T a b c
a±b±c
El
F
.
,
,
DN
A
l0
B
6
K
o
H
A
a
o
セ
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
A Formula «To Change the Variable» The main result set fonh in Gregorie's M38 manuscript is a tool to determine the new subtangent of a curve after the curve has been submitted to a specific transformation. Anachronistically we could say that this result provides a formula to find the new subtangent in terms of the old when the curve suffers a «change of variable». Figures 15 and 16 belong to the M38 manuscript (dotted lines MLN and the one standing on 'A. have been added ro Gregorie's diagrams). In Figure 15 the two curves AD and CI have known subtangents BE and BF at points A and C. Gregorie assumes the curve AD to be straightened into the rectilinear segment ab (see Figure 16) and all the ordinates CB, MN,... , of the curve CI to be perpendicularly set up on the segment ab, so that if'A. is the new position of point L, which means arc AL = rectilinear segment a'A., then the ordinate MN, which meets the curve AD in L, will stand on point 'A.. Then, ifT' stands for the subtangent at G of the new curve GK thus obtained, and l' = BF for the old subtangent at C, we have
[1.1]
Ir follows that -+-+-=
¿"
¿
(a±b±c).Ta·Tb·Tc. a.Tb·Tc±b·T.aTc±e.Ta·Tb
a±b±c alTa ± b/Tb ± e/Te
G
e
This formula takes on a more compaet and recognizable appearance when numerator and denominator are divided by TaTbT : c
l' a±b±c =
Methods ofTangents ca. 1670 123
Chapter 5
[1.2]
T a ± b ± C
CV-Rule 1'0 the modero reader, this is only the well known rule giving the derivative of the sum as the sum of derivatives. Ir should be evident by now that Gregorie had achieved an algorithm for the determination of tangents which was algebraic ro a remarkable extent. With its power funher increased with a rule «to change the variable», Gregorie could tackle several unusual curves. He could assume, for instance, that «the tangents are erected perpendicularly over the logarithms of the secants». The subtangent of this curve, he adds, will be r ,3/(! + rj), q being the tangent and r the radius. As checked by Turobull, the result is true. That is, by applying differential techniques to the curve x = nogsec8, y = n:g8, we find its subtangent to be n;in 2 8, which coincides with Gregorie's expression.
T'
-
Lj。セ
b
T
'
a = AB being the ordinate of the curve AD and b = BE its subtangent. 1 shall caH this result the CVrule. In Gregorie's own words: 38 M38
'\
Let DA, lC be two curves ad libitum over the same axis lB, and CAB an ordinate or perpendicular ro ir. Let the straigh[ lines AE, CF, which meet the axis at E and F, be tangent ro the curves DA, lC, and, on the other hand, let KG be another curve over the axis ba such that if the straight line ba is assumed ro be equal ro the curve DA, the ordinate Ga is always equal ro the
38. Gregory Tercentenl1ry Volume, p. 3778 .
..L
124
From Indivisibles ro Infiniresimals
Anroni Malet
G
[G]
Pl セq
'[Q]
Oセ
セャ
Ol i⦅セx J z yM .. á
..
6
x1
Sz
H
..
• •
Figure 17.
T
---
SI
...
'11
Methods ofTangenrs ca.
Chapter 5
¡670
125
セNHG
y
•
I
M
1
Figure 18.
ocdinate CB. Also, let steaight line CH, whieh meets the axis at H, be tangent ro the curve KC. Let AB = a, BE = b, CB = e, BF = d, then it will be aH 2 2
2 2
a d +b d
=
;ja2 + b2
o
M38
The following proof of this result (none is extant) uses geometrical technigues Gregorie put at work in his published books and shows that the result could be easily justified. 39 By taking 52 5¡ (see Figure 18) small enough, triangles GH5¡ and GPQ can be made as nearly similar as needed. Hence, H5¡ : G5 1, which is egual to T : y, can be made as nearly egual to 5i 5 ¡ : GQ as needed. 5imilarly (see Figure 17), 5 25¡ : xセi can be made as nearly egual to ,f t? + ¡;. : b as needed. The same is true セ「ケ taking a segment egual to GQ on the y ordinate (see Figure 17)) for the ratios GQ : X 2*X¡ and d: y. Now, by compounding the ratios 5 25 1 : X2X¡ and GQ : X2 *X l , and by taking into account that X2 *X¡ and X2X¡ become as nearly egual as needed when 5 2 5¡ becomes small, we can conc1ude that T : y is egual to ,faz + ¡; : b compounded with d: y. Whence T = (,f(i2 + lJ)d/b, as stated by Gregorie. The second pan of the M38 manuscript contains an application of the CVrule. A1ways making reference to the diagram in Figure 16, Gregorie assumes ba to be a small circular arc, and Ga, or s, its sec;¡nt. Then the subtangent aH of the secants when set up over the arcs is
Zセ
Á
of the circ1e). In Gregorie's words,40
セ
E
Figure 19.
d b
b2
DF
B
ウセイ
«If ba were any are at the beginning of the quadrant, Ca = secant = s, it would
NスIセO⦅]h。・「
'\JT7
In order to get the foregoing expression for aH, let us take a guadrant of a circ1e MAO (see Figure 19) and let the ordinate CB, erected over point B on the radius 00, be egual to the secant of arc AO. Now, OB is the cosine of the arc, and the secant is rllcosine. Therefore, the secants determine a curve CCI which is an hyperbola, a fact already used by Gregorie in his Exercitationes geometricae. By the known property of the tangent to the hyperbola, the subtangent BF at point C is egual to OB. Let us now apply the CVrule to the hyperbola CCI and the guadrant of the circle MAO. When the guadrant is straightened and the secants erected on it, we wiU obtain a new curve (the one mentioned by Gregorie) the subtangent of which, T', is, according to the CVrule, egual to 2
OB ,fAB + BE BE
(as always, r stands for the radius
2
OB AE . BE
sion for the subtangent uH. Gregorie added series expansions for both the subtangent and the subnormal that he probably obtained by means of his binomial theorem (cf. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 378 and 1323). Finally, the M38 piece contains an erroneous statement about the secant of half che arc that seems ro have been a false start for the resule concerning the secants.
39. See Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 378, for a derivation of this formula which uses modern notions and techniques. 40. GreJ(ory Tercentenary Volume, p. 3778. The M38 piece also contains the expression V(56 ?54)lr4 for the subnormal aO, which is an obvious consequence of the expres
I 1,
J
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From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
Chapler 5
Because of similar triangles, AE = !. Whence, if 5= secant of arc AD, BE AB ·'t
r2
r
'./s27. as stated by Gregorie. Tangents to Curves of Trigonometric Lines
"ji. _ -1'
IC
IL ヲaゥエjNMャセ r
r
_rL.
セ
IK'
1
IC 2 + .
IK2 1 But in this case = - (tg2AI r 2), and we obtain the formula IC2 e2
tャウ]。セN
S
r
This expression allowed Gregorie to determine the subtangent of any trigonometric line set up ayer the logarithms of the secants once he knew the subtangent of the trigonometric lines set up over the arcs. In one of Gregorie's manuscripts we f1nd him giving the subtangents of curves made up by the cosines, sines, arcs, secants, cosecants, tangents, and cotangents when these lines are «set up perpendicularly upon the logarithms of the secants». Gregorie expressed his results as follows (all the results are correet except for the fact that three subtangents lack a minus sign). 43
---,
K
M43
1
JK セ
We do not know any analytical expression for the ordinate IK, and yet we can apply the CVrule formula to it. Let any trigonometric line be set up over the arc AO making up a curve whose subtangeni:, say Ta, we know. Then, according to the CVrule, me subtangent Tls for the new curve in which the trigonometric line is set up oyer the straightened curve AKQ is giyen by
L
e
2.
r
B
A
nality). Proposition VI of the Geometriae Pars UniversaLis proves that the length of the arc AK is proportional to the area ABNI. 41 It also proyes that IC (that is, the subtangent of the curve AKQ) is equal to r IK/IL a result that may be anachronistically reworded as «IL is the derivative of the function IK». Now jet us assume that AO (always in Figure 20) is a straightened part of a quadrant of a cirde, r is the radius, and NI the tangent of the arc Al. According to one of the results in the Exercitationes geometricae, the area ABNI is the logarithm of the secant of AI.42 Hence, if AKQ is taken as indicated aboye, we haye 1 ]. arc AK = Iogsec Al
In Figure 151et us apply the CV-rule assuming the two curves CI and AD are the same. The ordinates AB are now set up oyer their own curve anachro- nistically speaking, theyare giyen as function of the arcparameter. The CVrule says that the new subtangent aH is precisely the ancient tangent AE. If applied to the quadrant of the cirele, this corollary of the M38 formula makes it obvious that the subtangent of the sines set up over the arcs is equal to the trigeHO- metric line called tangent. Thus Gregorie could easily find the subtangent of any trigonometric line set up oyer the arcs either directly from the CVrule or indirectly by means of the subtangent rules. To セカゥイ・、 the subtangents of curves more involved, we Gregorie had to use a combination of results from his Geometriae shall Lキッャサセ・ウ Pars UniversaLis, his Exercitationes geometricae, and the CVrule. 2 Given the curve BN5 (see Figure 20), let ALP be an auxiliary curve such that IL = IN2 ? (r is constant, and the equaliry is supposed to hold for every IN set up perpendicularly upon AO), and let AKQ be a curve such that the ordinate KI is proportional to the area AL! (heing 1/ r the constant of proportio
- ,N
Methods ofTangents ca. 1670 127
o
[xiv] «If rhe sines of rhe complements [cósines] are ser up perpendicularly over rhe logarirhms of rhe secants, ir will be T = r; bur if rhe sines rhemselves are ser up over
41. Geometriae Pars Universalis, p. 1720. 42. Proposirion IV of the «Analogia inrer lineam Meridianam...'" Exercitatinnes genmetricae,
Figure 20.
p. 1921. 43. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 352.
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From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals
Antoni Malet
the same, ir will be T セ
3
-;-- r (e is rhe sine of rhe complement). Bur if rhe ares e
rhemselves are ser up over the same, it will be T セ セ
(r is rhe rangenr and a rhe r
are). If rhe seeants are ser up over rhe same, ir will be T セ r; if the seeanrs [ofthe complements, or cosecants], it will be T セ T
セ
r-
セM
セ
3
- r. If rhe rangents, ir will be e2
2
; if rhe tangents of the complemenrs [cotangents]' it will be T r
セ
2
r __ e_ .» r
It will be noticed that in the foregoing list the subtangents of the cosines, cosecants, and cotangents lack a minus signo In general, however, operations with subtangents do not show repeated arithmetical errors to be accounted by the lack of those signs. It can be surmised, therefore, that Gregorie know how to use the subtangents with the right sign in calculating with them, but was unwilling to allow a subtangent to be a negative magnitude by itself. Let us assume now (in the same construction, Figure 20) that NI is the secant of the arc Al. It will be now IL = 1/sec2AI r 2 = tg 2AI. Furthermore, as Gregorie proved in the Exercitationes, the logarithm of the tangent ofhalf the complement of Al yields the area ABNl.44 Hence, if the curve AKQ is taken as indicated aboye and Quad stands for the guadrant of the circle, we have 1.
arc AK = l logtg Quad Al r 2
2.
IK = IL = AエPセ IC r r
If Ta stands for the subtangent of any trigonometric line set up over the arc AO and Tlt for the new subtangent when the same line is set up over the logarithms of the tangents of half the complements, then we have
Nセ
Chapter 5
Methods of T angents ca. 1670
the arcs and of the cosines used elsewhere, Gregorie probably deduced by means of the formula Tlr = Tare.seca/ r. 45 One of the most interesting features in Gregorie's technigues as opposed to Barrow's, their most direet antecedent is that algebraic operations become the central notions on which the rules concentrate. With his new method Gregorie could analytically determine, as a matter of routine computation, the tangents to mechanical as well as geometrical curves, provided their abseissas are given as sums or products of variables the subtangents of which are known. There is no denying, on the other hand, that Gregorie's technigues belong to a conceptual framework strongly geometrical in character. He took pains to preserve the dimensional homogeneity of algebraic expressions and did not treat ratios as ordinary mathematical magnitudes obviously because they were not geometricallines. Subtangents, as geometrical magnitudes generally, were always positive magnitudes, and signs were only needed ro rightly express the relationships magnitudes hold ro each other. Needless to say, Gregorie shared this conceptual framework with almost any other contemporary mathematician. His technigues, therefore, give us a new insight into the intricate relationship between algebra and geometry in the 17th century. Gregorie's work on tangents and Taylor expansions, particulariy, is an excellent example of innovative analytical results produced in a geometrical setting. In his case at least, but I think it is also true in many others, geometry and algebraic analysis were more like two layers of the mathematical discourse than two conflicting views about its purpose and its actual working. Newton's Methods ofTangents around 1670 In his «October 1666 Tract on Fluxions» Newton based his method of tangents on his famous Proposition 7, which provides the eguation between fluxions once an eguation j(x,y) = O defining the «nature» of any curve is known. Proposition 7 assumes that «an Eguation expressing relation twixt twO or more lines x, y, z, etc: described in same time by two or more moveing bodys A, B, C, etc.» is known, and then teaches how to find «the relation of their velocities p, g, r, etc.» If the eguation involves just two variables, each term of the eguation must be multiplied by np/x (n being the term's degree in x), then by mqly (m being the term's ydegree), and the terms without x!' or j" discardedo The result being egualed to zero, we obtain the sought eguation between p and q, fluxions of x and y respectively.46
t
Th = Ta
セ
IK2 1 _ Ta sec Al IC2+ r'
This formula yields the subtangent of any curve whose ordinates stand over the logarithms of the tangents of half the complements once it is known the subtangent of the curve made up by the same ordinates standing over the arcs. In one of his manuscripts, Gregorie states that the sines set up upon the logarithms of the tangents of half the complements have subtangent egual to sinelcosine2, times セN This result, as well as the results on the subtangents of 44. Propositions n and nI ofrhe «Analogia inter lineam Meridianam... », p. 169.
129
t
45. Gregory Tercentenary Volume, p. 350352; Malet, ,<James Gregorie on Tangents», p. 129135. 46. D.T. Whireside ed., The Mathematical Papers ofIsaac Newton, 8 vol. (Cambridge, Cambridge Univ. Press, 1%7),1, p. 402. Proposirion 7 was applied ro a great many problems, the first of whieh, in Newron's order, was «To draw rangents to erooked \ines». Orher problems were: "To find ye rhe quantiry of erookednesse oflines»; "To find rhe points ofinflexion"; «To find ye nature of ye rhe erooked \ine whose area is expressed by any given equation»; «The Narure of any Crooked line being given to find its area, when it may bee done.» (Ibid., p. 41630.)
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From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
Anroni Malet
Proposition 7 of the <<1666 Tract» is grounded on the notion of instantaneous velocity, and assumes (i) in uniform motion spaces are as the speeds; and (ji) instantaneous motion, or motion during an infinitesimal time, is uniformo Newton compares the motions of two bodies that move simultaneously during the moment O. Body A, with velocity p, describes the infinitesimalline p.o while body B, with velocity q, describes q.o. Now, let
r
x3 abx + c3 d y2 = O [*] express the relation between the lines x (space described with velocity p) and y (space described with velocity q). After the moment o, x becomes x + po, and y becomes y + qo. Substituting these quantities for x, y in [*], cancelling, dividing all the terms by o, and then omitting all terms that still contain o or a power of it (because «those terms are infinitely little in which o is»), we get 3px? abp -2dqy = O. Whence p : q:: 2dy: (3x? ab). Finally, Newton goes over all the stages of his deduction ro argue that they bear out the general rules set forth in Proposition 7. When the equation j(x,y) = Oexpresses a relationship between coordinates referred to Cartcsian axes, then the proportionality B(y) : B(x) :: y: subtangent (B(x) is our way of representing the Buxion of x) provides the subtangent to the curve at point (x,y) in terms of x, y, and the quantities which appear in the equation of the geometrical curve. Although the foundations must have been very different, the algorithm thus obtained is similar to 5Iuse's.47 This is the algorithm of which Newton provided an example in a lerrer ro Collins of December 1672. Newron considers a curve determined «by any aequation as 3 x 2:xxy + bxx bbx + byy y3 = O», and provides the following rule:
Chaprer 5
Methods ofTangenrs ca. 1670
131
But Newton, along with every other contemporary mathematician, did work with curves which were not geometrical in Descartes's sensethat is, curves the nature of which could nor be expressed byan algebraic equation between Cartesian coordinares. So Newton made distinctions between different sorts of lines: between geometrical and mechanical, and within the geometrical, between the ones expressed by means of a Cartesian equation and those expressed otherwise. 49 In the single example of his method of tangents applied to a mechanical curve he provided in the «1666 Tract», the quadratrix, his Proposition 7 was of no use and the tangent was found through an ad hoe argument an argument, as we shall see now, based on the composition of the motions defining the curve. 50 In Figure 21 the tangent be is determined by taking bd = arc b! on the rangent to the circle gb/; then, by drawing from d the perpendicular de to bd until it meets am. 51 The «component» of the motion of b along the tangent bd is unproblematic, once we decide that the arc pm can legitimately be taken as a measure of the rotating motion. The motion that corresponds to this in the direction of ha is precisely ha. But bis also consrrained ro move along the radius ap besides moving in the direction of ha. So in the time b would have moved to d along the エ。ョセ・エ and tu e along be, it would have also moved to e along the direction 「。NUセ
k.
To draw the tangent... the Rule is this. Multiply the termes of the aequacion any arirhmeticall progression according to the dimensions of y suppose thus by 3 + bxx bbx + 2byy 3' y3 also according ro the dimensions of x supx O 2xxy 1 O O x3 2xxy +bxx bbx + byy _y3 pose thus 3 2 2 1 O O. The first product shall be the Numerator, and the last divided by x the Denominator of a fraction wch expresseth the length of [the subtangent] BD to whose end D the tangem CD musr be drawn. 48
a
e
f (
me
Figure 21.
47. Newcon co Collins, 10th December 1672, in H.W. Turnbull eta/eds., The Corresponder/ce O/Isaac Newton, 6 vol. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1957),1, p. 2478. Sluse's method was published in the Philosophieal Transaetions of 20 ]anuary 1672/73, vol 7, p. 51437, and hints about Sluse's proof (which never appeared in full) were published in the same journal (vol. 8, 1673, p. 6059). On Sluse's method of tangents, see L. Rosenfeld, ᆱr・ョ←Mfイ。 セッゥウ de Sluse et le probU:me des tangentes», ¡"is, 10 (1928), 41634; and P. Bockstaele, "La théorie des tangentes aux combes algebriques dans l'oeuvre de RenéFran<;:ois de Sluse», Bulletin de la Soeiéte Royale des Scienees de LJege, 55 (1986), 13544. 48. Correspondenee o/Isaac Newton, 1, p. 247.
49. D.T. Whiteside ed., The Mathematieal Papers o/Isaac Newton (8 vol., Cambridge, 19671981),1, p. 4168. 50. Ibid, p. 418. The quadtatrix is here defined as the curve kbf(see Figure 21) desccibed by the intersection b of two lines hb and ap, hb moving uniformly from k ro a always parallel to ma, while ap circulates uniformly from k ro m about the center a. 51. Ibid. 52. In Newton's own words: «or suppose ye motion of ye point p fixed in ye line ap, rowards m to bee pm, yn ye motion of ye point b fixed in ye line ab, towards d is bl = bd (prop 4),
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132
From Indivisibles to Infinitesimals Amon; Malet
,.
Newton's only example is well chosen indeed, for it forcefully illustrates both the virtues and shortcomings of drawing tangents «by motion». This method, on the one hand, was powerful -and the only one available generally to deal with lines defined or understood in terms of morion. On the other hand, drawing tangents «by motion» was tricky and could easily induce into error. Roberval, a past master in the use of rhis method, had applied it to a great many interesting curves conic sections, all sorts of conchoids, Pascal's limac;on, spirals, guadrarrix, cissoid, cyeloid, the cyeloid's «companioll» (a sinusoidal curve), and Descartes's parabola. Although his contributions were only known through the posthumous publication of his papers at the turn of the eighteenth century, it is worthwhile guoting the (only) general rule his method rested on. By its «mechanicai» Content and its loose wording, it elearly conveys the main difficulties ir entailed:
CI1.
1670
133
As is well known, the guadratrix twice defeated the young Newton's attempts to find its tangents by motion. It also defeated Wallis, who in the 1672 publication of his methods of tangents felt in the same error as Newton. According to Wallis in the guadratrix AaB (see Figure 22), «if rhe tangent [to the cirele YaZj is assumed aV = aY, and the parallelogram VavF is completed, the join aF is tangent to the guadratrix.»54 Newton provided the same faulty construction in his early (October 1665) thoughts on «How to draw tangents to Mechanicalllines». Along with Newton and Wallis, Descartes also made a misrake in dealing with the guadratrix's slippery tangents. 55 By the time Wallis published his 1672 paper on tangents, however, Newton had already improved his first correct solution making ir a particular case of a method which, although not completely general, was based on the fluxional calculus and could be applied ro families of mechanical curves. In his Method o/Series and Fluxions of 16701671, Newton dealt with mechanical curves the «natUfe» of which was expressed by an algebraic eguarion involving variables defined by means of rhe area or the lengrh of sorne auxiliary curve. 56 For instance (see Figure 23), AC being a circle or any known auxiliary curve, Newton deals with one curve AD defined by the eguation z! + axz = where AB = x, BD =y, and z is defmed as the area ABe. Newton reaches the fluxional eguation of the curve by using that fl(z) = fl(x).CBY In another example, the curve AD is defined by the eguaríon xz = where z represents now the arclength Ae. To reach the fluxional eguation, Newton uses here that fl(z) : fl(x) :: Ct : Bt, where the tangent Ct and subtangent Bt are supposed to be known. Let us turn, finally, ro Newton's fluxional attack on the guadratrix, which is deduced as a particular case of the following problem. In Figure 24, t = FC is an arc of a circle with center in A, and CS is irs tangent at e. FD is a mechanical curve defined by assuming that y = DB is given by «any relationship you wish between DB and... [arclength] fC» (notice that arc FC is determined by the radius DA).58 Newton assumes radius AC = 1, and calls AB = x, CE = v, AE = z. First of aH, from fl(t): fl(v):: CS: EC, and from the similariry of triangles ACE and CES, Newton deduces
Par les propieres specifiques de la ligne courbe (qui vous seront données) examinez les divers mouvemens qu'a le point qui la décrit a l'endroit Ol! vous voulez mener la touchante: de tous ces mouvements composez en un seule, tirez la ligne de direction du mouvement composez, vous aurez la touchante de la ligne courbe. 53
l,
F v
セ]Mz
1,
, D
y 1---<,:.." , a X エ]Mセ
ce
",
e
Method. ofTangents
Chapter 5
E
B
Z
Q
Figure 22.
fl(v)
= z.fl(t).
[1]
Secondly, from fl(t): fl(z):: CS: ES, and fram the same similarity of triangles, (Newton justifies the minus sign pointing out that AE diminishes as EC increases)
& ye morion ofye tine bh towards ca, & rherefore of ye poinr b fixed in ir rowards c (prop 3) is ha セ hc (by supposjrion): Also ce 11 bh & ed /1 ap (supposirion). Therefore (by Prop 6) ye inrersecrion poinr b of rhese rwo lines ap & hb, moves in ye diagonal eb, & consequenrIy eb roucherh ye Quadratrix in b... (Ibid.} Newron was somewhar more explicir in his firsr successful (afrer rwo failures) arrack on rhe quadrarrix's rangenr, probably during rhe winrer of 1666: «The poinr b wiII be moved ro ye line ce & ed in [rhe] same rime [,] wch cannOr bee unlesse ir move to e... (Ibid, p. 380). The mosr complere explanarion of rhe drawing «by morion.. of rhe quadrarrix rangenr is Roberval's; see be1ow, note 53. 53. G.P. de Roberval, «Observarions sur la composirion des Mouvemenrs er sur le moyen de rrouver les Touchanres des lignes courbes.. , in Académie Royale des Sciences, Mémoires de l'Académie oo. depuis 1666jusqu 'ii 1699 (Paris, 1730), 6, 189, p. 25.
54. J. Wal1is, «Epi tome Binae Methodi Tangenrium.. , p. 4015. 55. Newron, Mathematical Papm, l, p. 3719. As Whireside highligh[s rhere, :\Iewron provided rwo differenr faulry constructions before falling on [he corren answer he included in his «1666 Tracr», given aboye. See ibid, p. 379, for references. 56. D.T. Whi[esidc ed., The Mathematical Papers ofIsaac Newton, m, p. 12131. 57. Newron made plausible rhis resulr early on on rhe same [rearise. See ibid., p. 79.
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Antoni Malet
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
:,
セ :
Chapce[ 5
calculus praper.
A
t
B
E B
A
F
s
Figure 24.
Figure 23.
fl(z)
= v.fl(t).
[2]
Finally, fram the similarity of triangles AEC and ABO, we have z.y = v.x. Using his fluxional calculus, Newton then deduces
[3]
fl(z).y + z.fl(y) = fl(v).x + v.fl(x).
Now, by elimination of fl(v), fl(z), and v between [1], [2], and [3], he obtains fl(y).x fl(t).j- fl(t).XZ
135
quence», should those authors care ro look at their results algebraically. The methods of tangents gathered here show that algebraic and geometrical approaches to mathematics did not clash in the seventeenth century, and that we will have to look elsewhere to find convincing explanations for rhe rise of the
D
T
Methods of Tangents ca. 1670
= fl(x).y,
[4]
which only involves the Cartesian coordinates (x,y) and the auxiliary magnirude t. The quadratrix, Newton goes on, is the curve FO which results fram taking y= t. Substitutingyand fl(y) for tand fl(t) in [4], Newron arrives at fl(y): fl(x):: y: x - T
- x?,
which, given the praportionality between fl(y), fl(x), yand the subtangent, yields the subtangent to the quadrarrix. 59 Conventional wisdom sees algebraic techniques and notions as one of the driving forces in the conceptual development of seventeenth century mathemarics read, the birth of the calculus. Most general textbook histories of mathematics still present seventeenthcentury geometrical achievements, and particularly those of Barraw, so closely connected to Gregorie's, as clear instances in which a penchant for geometry was a drawback in the way ro the '(true» infinitesimal calculuswhich would have appeared as an (,easy conse58. [bid, p. 131. 59. [bid
.......
.,. CHAPTER6
Infinites and Infinitesimals in Seventeenth-Century Natural Philosophy
The Atomization of Physical Effects Actual infinites appear in many seventeenth-century philosophical discussions. As is well known, the actual infinity of physical space explieitly received by a growing number of natural philosophers made a strong impact in philosophical discourse, as it did in esthetic and moral matters. «This much is true, that the space of universal nature is infiniteiy extended in every direction», said Huygens in his Cosmotheoros.! According to Pascal, «ceux gui verront dairement ces vérités [concerning infinitesJ pourront admirer la grandeur et la puissance de la nature daos cette double infinité gui nous environne de toures parts».2 As we saw in Chapter 2, Isaac Barrow took the actual infinity of space into his revision of sorne traditional arguments used against the notion of infinite. The infinity of space was also used to make plausible the notian of infinitely small guantities. Samuel Clarke argued to Leibniz that «Infinites are composed of finites, in no other sense, than as finites are composed of infinitesimals». 3 Pascal thought the two infinities, <, p. 354355. T¡'e Leibniz-Clarke eorrespondenee' (Manchesrer: Manchesrer Universiry 3. H.G. A1exander Press, 1956), p. 48.
セ
oo.,
138
From Indivisibles ro Infinitesimals
de [elle sone que la connaissance de l'un mene nécessairemene l'aurre. 4
Anroni Malet
a la connaissance de
Apparently, these were thoughts widely held. In 1669 an obscure correspondent ofHuygens, the Baron de Nulandt, conveyed to him similar feelings: I'infiní et le rien a peine peuuene ils estre cODl;:eus l'un sans l'autre, car ce qui est infini a l' esgard de quelque chose, cette mesme chose est rien a l' esgard de \' autre, de sone que rien a la mesme propon ion a quelque chose finie, que cette mes me chose a a l'infini; ... J' aij remarque de mesme que ces noms sone aequiuoques et relatifs et que la mesme chose peut estre infinie a l'esgard d'une, et rien a l' esgard de quelque autre chose, comme une ligne donne est infinie a I'esgard d'un point et touteffois est rien a l'esgard d' une surface; ... 5
We have seen in Chapter 2 that the old problem of the composition of continua in terms of indivisibles became irrelevant as infinitesimals were substituted for indivisibles. Almost simultaneously, as we shall see in the present Chapter, arguments traditionally regarded as formidable objections to the handling of infinites large and small seem to have lost their punch sometime during the second half of the seventeenth century. Timehonored cautions and theological connotations traditionally linked to discussing infinites faded quite suddenly as well. This, I would suggest, was at least partially a consequence of the majar role infinites and infinitesimals carne ro play in seventeenthcentury natural philosophy. The mechanical philosophy relies on the tacit assumption that each partide's essential (mechanical) properties its size, mass, inertia, and so onare independent of the existence of other partides. 6 The mere addition of partides's mechanical magnitudes accounts for the properties of macroscopic bodies. As there is no longer a whole body that bestows properties on its parts, so it is possible to consider the infinitesimal magnitudes of the parts independently of the magnitude of the whole. Even while the handling of individual partides ar the actual measuring of any of their magnitudes was obviously out of question and it was recognized explicidy to be so, the seventeenthcentury natural philosopher had no qualms assuming observable mechanical effects ro be equal ro the sum of very small magnitudes. In practice and mathematical computation, these very small magnitudes were handled as indivisibles or infinitesimals. A few years ago A. G. Molland argued that one feature of the Scientiflc Revolution was what he called «the atomization of motion». He convincingly 4. Pascal, "De ¡'esprit géométrique et de l'are de persuaden" p. 354. 5. F.W. de Nulandt to Huygens, 23 May 1669, in Huygens, Oeuvres, VI, p. 435. 6. G. Freudenthal has convincingly shown the essential rale this assumption plays in Newton's natural philosophy. See his Atom and Individual in the Age ofNeu'ton. On the Genesis ofthe Mechanistic World View, P. McLaughlin transo (Dordrecht: D. ReideI. 1986).
r ,'/
Chaptet 6
Infinites and Infinitesimals in Seventeenth-Century Natural Philosophy
139
argued that analysis in terms of «moments» or «atoms» of time was typical of the seventeenthcentury, and so it was the view that motions and speeds were «composed of a uniquely determined set of ultimate elements»,7 Galileo provides the obvious example, but many others may be added. As the fol1owing exampie from Isaac Beeckman's diary indicates, the atomization of motion could be used to obtain many sorts of results, sorne ofwhich are not deemed correet roday. In 1618 Beeckman analyzed free fall by looking at it as constituted by successive motions through the indivisible moments making up the time of fall. He assumed that in every moment the body would describe a "parallelepiped» (sic) that would increase in length as the body's falling speed increases. When the quantity of air in the parallelepiped equals the body's weight, Beeckman argues, the force pulling the body down will be balanced by a contrary pull of the same magnitude coming from the air apparently applying in sorne innovative way Archimedes's principie ro the airo This demonstrates, he concludes, the existen8 ce of an «equality poino) in which the body gets a uniform falling speed. With the advent of the calculus in the late seventeenth century, M.S. Mahoney has convincingly identified a «process of bootstrapping by which mathematics and mechanics assisted and provoked one another ro deeper sophistication».9 The process, we may add, had strong roots in the way indivisibles and infinitesimals were used ro gain quantitative results in many fields, not only in motion, ever since the first decades of the century. In a famous passage, Galileo argued from the observable fact that ants carry wheat grains that a multitude of ants can pul1 ashore a big boat loaded with wheat. But this was merely introducrory stuff to his treatment of the paradox involved in the socal1ed Arisrotle's wheel, which in tum al10wed him to argue that an infinite number of minimal forces provides cohesion ro solid bodies. ID He also argued that particles in fluids must be something like mathematical indivisibles, and so must be the minimum particles of fire and of the sun's rays.11
7. A.G. Molland, «The atomisation of motion», Studies in History and Philosophy ofScience, 13 (1982): 3154; quotation comes fram p. 43. 8: e. de Waard ed., Journal ten upar Isaac Beeckman de 1604 a1634, 4 vol. (La Haye: Martinus Nijhoff, 1939), 1, [UVRセT quoted in R. Dugas, La mécanique au XVIIi: sii:cle (des antécédents scolastiques a la pensée classique) (Neuchátel: Éditions du Griffon, 1954), 527528. For a further example of «atomio> analysis of motion, this time fram Descartes, see ibid., p. 528529. 9. M.S. Mahoney, «Infinitesimals and transcendent relations: The mathematics of moríon in the late seventeenth century», in D.e. Lindberg, R.S. Westman eds., Reappraisals ofthe Scientific Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 461491, p. 484. 10. Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, in torno adue nuoue seienze, in Opere, 20 vol. (in 21), A. Favaro ed. (Repr. Firenze: Barbera, 1968; 1st ed., 18901909), VIII, 39346, p. 67ff. 11. Discorsi, in Opere, VIII, p. 85; see also Opere, IV, p. 106. The role this view of fluids play in Galileo's physical arguments has been pointed out in M. Biagioli, «Anthropology of Incommensurability», Studies in History and Philosophy ofScíence, 21 (1990), 183209. For the indivisibles of fire and light, see Opere, VIII, p. 86; VI, 347352; and his comments to Baliani's lener of 8 August 1619, in Opere, XII, p. 475. On Galileo's corpuscularism, see W.R. Shea, Galileos intellectual revolution (London: Macmillan, 1972), p. 2731,101105.
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Tuming to others authors, Huygens decomposed surfaces and bodies in infinitesimal e1ements in order to calculate centers of gravity and centers of oscilIation. 12 Another, less familiar example of the application of indivisibles is James Gregorie's use in optics of a typical Cavalierian technique. In his 1663 Optica promota, containing the first attempt to quantifY optical devices, Gregorie used indivisibles ro measure «the strength to bum or illuminate» of radiation cones coming from a radiating body. First he found a proportion between the strength to bum or illuminate of two radiation cones coming from a radiating point A and the squares of a trigonometric function of their angles at the vertex. Next, he proceeded ro «divide the radiating body in its radiant points». Finally, by taking «all the antecedents» and «all to consequents» he extended the proportion to radiation cones coming from the whole radiating body.13 This is the most wellknown use natural philosophers made of infinites, infinitesimals and indivisibles through the seventeenth century but it was by no means the only one, nor perhaps the most decisive one. As we shall see presently, infinites and infinitesimals were also used to define notions and characterize hypothetical substances. Huygens, for instance, characterized the force of percussion as being infinite (infinie) visavis static force. 14 Key notions of the mechanical philosophy such as Huygens's atoms and gravitational ether, Hooke's menstruum, or Newton's empty space were characterized byendowing them, or the particles constituting them, with sorne physical property (fluidity, ve1ocity, hardness, emptiness, .. ) in an infinite degree. In Book nI of the Principia mathematica Newton's (empty) space is pro- ved as a corollary ofProposition VI (the weights ofbodies, at equal distances from the center of the planet, are proportional to their quantities of maner). Corollary In asserts that «all spaces are not equally fuI!». Therefore, «if the quantity of maner in a given space can, by any rarefaction, be diminished, what should hinder a diminution to infinio/» (italics added). Next, assuming that bodies are made up, in the last analysis, of solid particles of the same den- sity that «cannot be rarefied without pores», Newton concludes in Corollary IV that «a void, space or vacuum must be granted». 15 So (infinite) emptiness is conceived by opposition ro absolute fullness. 12. C. Huygens, Oeuvres completes, XVI, 384555, passim. 13. Proposition 33 of Gregorie's text establishes that "Vites Conorum tadiosotum, in illus- ttando, ve! comburendo (radiis nimirum in spatia aequalia absque debilitatione congrega- 6s) sunr in duplicata ra60ne Chordarum, suorum semiangulorum radiosorum.» Corollary 1 exrends rhe result, first ptoved for points, to a "corpus radiosum" by the rypica1 expedient oF<,erir ut una anrecedentium... ad unam consequentium ita omnes antecedentes, nempe vires in illustrando ve! comburendo totius corporis radiosi ad omnes consequentes...» CE. J. Gregorie, Optica Promota, seu Abdita radiorum ref/exorum et refrth:torum Mysteria, Geometn'ce Enuc!eata (London, 1663), p. 42, 4344. 14. Oeuvres, XIX, p. 24; quoted by RS. WestEJ.1I, Force in Newton's Physics (Landon: MacDonald, 1971), p. 180. . 15. 1. Newron, Mathematical Principies o/Natural Philosophy, F. Cajori ed., A Motte transo (Berke!ey: Universiry of California Press, 1962), 414; quoted by G. Freudenthal, Atomand Individual in the Age o/Newton, 2021.
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We shall focus now on the use of infinites and infinitesimals in conceptualizing mechanical causality and the notion of body. Bodies, Fluids, and Mechanieal Explanations In the wake of Descartes the notion of body was revisited by many. It was generally agreed that impenetrability, along with extension, must be required ofbody, but there was no consensus as to how to conceptualize this new requirement. The most straightforward way to do so was Huygens's. The most deep and influential Continental natural philosopher during the second half of the century, Huygens, postulated an absolute and infinite hardness (durete parfaite et infinie) for the atoms of first matter (matiere premiere).16 Hooke's characterization of the notion of body was quite different. His rested on a fluid the particles of which are the smallest, for they are «infinite1y or indefinitely fluid», and are endowed with the largest velocity. Both Huygens and Hooke, therefore, did introduce substances whose mechanical magnitudes are infinitely or incomparably smaller or larger than those of o ther substances. We shall go through their main arguments now. In 1692 and 1693 Huygens and Leibniz corresponded about the existence and nature of atoms. The thoughts Huygens conveyed ro Leibniz here were not impromptu sentences more or less carelessly pronounced. For months Leibniz had been entreating Huygens to set forth his views on matters of natural philosophy. Eventually, by producing comments on Huygens's recently published Traité de la lumiere and the Discours sur la cause de la pesanteur, Leibniz succeeded. Approaching the end of a brilliant inte1lectual career, Huygens offered Leibniz his mature thoughts on basic notions of the mechanical philosophy. Huygens had embraced the notion that unbreakable atoms moving in the void were the building blocks of the physical world. Leibniz could not understand those «extraordinary things», which required a «permanent mirac1e»: oo. j'ay remarqué que vous estes pour le Vuide et pour les Atomes. J'avoue que j'ay de la peine a comprendre la raison d'une telle infrangibilité, et je croy que pour pas cet effect il faudroit avoir recours a une espece de miracle perpetuel. Je ne aussi de necessité qui nous oblige a. recourir a des choses si extraordinaires. 1
VOl
Huygens's answer shows that far from being a logically questionable notion, actual infinite hardness was the only notion that did not seem absurd to him. Huygens's infinite hardness is an essential feature of his revision of Cartesian metaphysics. Whereas Descartes identifies the «natute or notion» of body with mere extension, Huygens, against this «Cartesian dogma», thinks that body must be conceived with extension but also with the property of not allowing 16. Oeuvres, XVI, p. 210.
17. Leibniz to Huygens, 11 Apri11692, in Oeuvres, X, p. 286.
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another body in the space it occupieso 18 Accordingly he thinks that bodies soft and deformable are constituted of vacuoles and partides, which may in turn contain vacuoles and subpartides, and so ono At the end of this regression, however, there will always be atoms endowed with «durities insuperabilis».19 La raison qui m'oblige de poser des aromes infrangibles est que ne pouvam m'accomoder, non plus que vous, Monsieur, du dogme Cartesien, que l'essence des corps consiste dans la seule etendue, je trouve qu'il est necessaire, a fin que les corps gardem leur figure, et qu'ils resistem aux mouvemems les uns des autres, de leur donner l'impenetrabilité, et une resistence a estre rompus ou enfoncezo Or cene resistence il faut la supposer infinie, paree qu'il semble absurde de la supposer dans un certain degré, comme si on disoit qu'elle egale celle du diamam oo., car cela ne peut avoir de cause dans une matiere, Ol! d'ailleurs on ne suppose rien que l'etendueo oo. L'hypothese de la durete infinie me paroit done tres necessaire, et je ne conc;:ois pas pourquoy vous la trouvez si estrange, et comme qui infereroit un continuel miracle. 20 The main difficulties Leibniz saw in Huygens's atoms were physical in characrer. Ir would be hard ro image how such particles could cohere; they would not rebound when colliding; they would entail a «jump» (un saut) from the extreme case of perfect cohesionless (where two atoms touch) to atomic infinite hardness whereas such «jumps» are not ro be found «in nature»o There were also metaphysical reasons against perfectly hard atomso Leibniz believed that <
18. «Spatium nempe est quod a corpore occupari po(est. Corpus quod spacium occupa(, quod quidem sine extensione concipi non potes(, sed prae(er ex(ensionem necessario quoque ei conveni( u( in spacium quod occupa(, non adminat aliud corpus.» (From a manuscript of 1692, in Oeuvres, XIX, p. 325.) 19. Oeuvres, XIX, p. 4. 20. Huygens ro Leibniz, 11 ]uly 1692, in Oeuvres, X, p. 299300. 21. Leibniz ro Huygens, 26 Sep(ember 1692, in Oeuvres, X, p. 319; and Leibniz ro Huygens, 20 March 1693, ibid., 426-428. 22. Ibid., p. 428.
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sibilityo According to Leibniz, different kinds of maner were endowed with different degrees of hardness in such a way that «la matiere ait par tout que!que union ou connexion, et que neantmoins eH soit encare divisible par touto»23 In Huygens's view, il est plus aise d'accorder la durete parfaiteet infinie pour rous, que cene variete de forces pour differenrs corps. Car il est plus difficile de concevoir les raisons de ces differenrs duretez, que d'en admenre une seule infinie. Ce seroit imaginer plu24 sieurs especes de mariere premiere au lieu que je n'en ay besoin que d'uneo Not impressed by Leibniz's criticism, Huygens soon discontinued their exchange of views on the atomic hypothesiso Leibniz did try ro continue their discussion, but Huygens declined polite!yo 25 Let us mm now ro Roben Hooke's characterization of bodyo As John Henry has recently shown, a crucial component of Hooke's mechanical philosophy is his menstruum, a subtle fluid with peculiar propenies o26 Hooke's «sensible universe», or «the Whole of Realities, that any ways affect our Senses», is body and motiono 27 Body, according to Hooke, is not to be characterized by figure, hardness, «Fixedness, Rarefaction nor Densation», but by being «somewhat receptive and communicative of motion»o28 Aware that this is not what people usually understands by body, Hooke explains that «according to the cammon notion .. oBody is somewhat that doth perfectly fill a determinate quantity of space or extension so as necessarily ro exclude all other bodies from being comprehended within the same Dimensions»o In contradistinction, he defines «a sensible Body ro be a determinate Space or Extension defended from being penetrated by another, by a power from withino»29 Ir is by providing, among other things, this «power from within» that his menstruum ensures the physical structure of the universeo 23. Ibid., p. 427. 24. Huygens to Leibniz, 12 ]am;lary 1693, in Oeuvres, X, p. 386. 25. Huygens ro Leibniz, 17 September 1693, in Oeuvres, X, p. 509; see ibid., p. 539, 574,600, and614. 26. ]ohn Henry, «Robert Hooke the Incongruous Mechanist», in M. Huncer, S. Schaffer eds., Robert Hooke. New Studies (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 1989), 149180. Myaccounc of Hooke's nocions relies heavily on Henry's paper. 27. «Lectures de Potencia Restitu(iva, or ofSpring, Explaining (he Power ofSpringing Bodies» (1678), in RT. Guncher ed., Early science in Oxford (VIII). Tbe Cutler Lectures o/Robert Hooke (Oxford, 1931),333356, p. 339; «Discours of (he Nature ofComets», in postbumous Works (New York: ]ohnson Repr. Co, 1969), 171. In (he «Leceures de Po(encia Rescitutiva», Hooke suggests tha( bo(h body and mocion may be twO ma(erializacions of (he same principIe: «These tuo do always councerbaHance each other in aH (he effeces, appearances, and operacions ofNature, and therefore it is not impossible bU( that they may be one and the same...» (ibid.). However, in his "Discours of the Na(ure of Corne(s» of four years la(er he s(resses the primary, irreducible character of both body and motion (Postbumous Works, 172174).
28. Ibid. 29. Ibid. p. 339340.
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Hooke explains his notion of «sensible body» through the analogy of an 1 square foot iron square that «occupies» 1 cubic foot when it most quickly moves back and forth along a 1-foot long lineo The vibrations thus necessary for bodies ro be, «1 do not suppose inherent or inseparable from the Partieles of Body, but communicated by Impulses given from other bodies». Furthermore, partieles show «affinities» ro receive motion that are somehow linked to their magnitudes: every Patticle of marrer according to its determinate or presenr Magnitude is receptive of this or that peculiar motion and no other, so that Magnitude and receptiviry of motion seems the same thing. Hooke adduces here the example of musical chords, which «are receptive of the motioo» of chords of the same tune, but do not vibrate in response ro the motion of other chords..30 So a partiele's magnitude and velocity determine a spectrum of motions that may move and alter it, but partieles will be «principally» moved by motions «of equal Velocity with their motions, and by other harmonious motions in a less degree» ..31 This general mechanism seems ro provide Hooke with an explanation for aH sorts of physical actions, ineluding actions-at-a-distance, although he does not attempt ro explain here specific effects like light, heat, magnetic influences or gravity.32 A question remains, however, and this is, what sort of vehiele wiH translate «harmonious motions» from body ro body. The menstruum comes ro scene: I do further suppose, A subtil marrer that incompasseth and pervades all other bodies, which is the Menstruum, in which they swim which maintains and continues all such bodies in rheir motion, and which is the medium that conveys all Homogenious or Harmonical motions from body to body.33 Hooke's notion ofbody needs no atoms nor «any determinate Part ofBody perfectly solid». As body, says Hooke, «a quart ofWatw) is not more essentially a Body, when sol id, as Ice, than when fluid; that is, the Minims of it are equally disposed ro Motion or Rest in position to each in other; and therefore Body, as Body, mayas well be, or be supposed ro be indefinite1y fluid, as definite1y solid; and consequently there is no necessity to suppose Aroms, or 30. Ibid, p. 340-341. 31. Ibid, p. 341. 32. Hooke's presenr account cleatly answers ro rhe lasr of the queries (rhe One abour rhe «operarions of narute» involved in «Heat and Light,... Rarefaction and Condensation, Hardness..., Perspicuity and Opacousness, Refracrions and Colours, etc») set forth ar the end of his
1661 AttemptJor the Explication 01 the PhaOlomOla Observable in an Experiment Published by the Honourable Robert Boyle, in R.T. Gunrher ed., Early science in OxJord (X). The Lijé and Work olRobert Hooke (Part 1"/) (Oxford, 1935), 1-50, p. 41. For an accounr of gra-
vity along rhe lines here mentioned, see «Discours of the Nature of Comers», 176-85, parricularly 183-185.
33. Ibid.
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any determinate patt of Body perfecdy solid, ot such whose Pans are uncapable of changing position one ro another; sin ce, as I conceive, the Essence of Body is only determinate Extension, or a Power of being unalterably of such a Quantity, ...34 Another essential function the menstruum performs is maintaining liquid bodies in their fluid state. The pattieles of «bulky and sensible» bodies are kept rogether by the partieles of the surrounding medium vibrating in a «dissonant» way. According ro the differences between the vibrations of a body's partieles and those of the medium around, the body is more or less powerful in preserving its own shape. Fluid bodies are those the partieles of which are intimately intermixed with those of the menstruum: All bodies neet the Eanh are incompassed with a fluid subtil marrer by the differing Ve10ciry of whose parrs all solid bodies are kept rogether in the peculiar shapes, they were left in when they were last fluid. And all fluid bodies whatsoever are mixed with this fluid, and which is not extended from them till they become solid. Fluid bulks differ from solids only in this, that all fluids consists of two sotts of patticles, the one this common Menstruum near the Eatth, which is interspersed between the Vibrating panicles appropriated to that bulk, and so patticipating of the motions and Vibrations thereof: And the other, by excluding wholly, or not patticipating of that motion. 35 Hooke goes on then ro explain that in liquid bodies the partieles of the menstruum, or «heterogeneous fluid», preeludes me partieles of the bodl directly 3 ro hit their neighboring partieles, as partieles from solid bodies do.. Hooke is not very precise about the nature of his menstruum. In the many direct and indirect references Hooke devotes ro it, it appears as an ideal fluid in the sense that it is the limit case of fluidness. It is constituted by the smallest particles, a notion Hooke introduces through an indirect, negative way: The smaller the patticles of bodies are the nearer do they approach ro the nature of the general fluid, and the more easily do they mix and participate of its motion.37 Hooke also specifies that the motion properly corresponding to any partiele is inversely as its «bigness». This would endow the partieles of the menstruurn with the largest velocity. A notion very similar to the 1678 menstruum reappears in his 1682 «Discourse of the Nature of Comets». Here, in the context of explaining the nature of fluid «Celestial Bodies», Hooke divides them in two kinds: 34.
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one whose Parts are in sorne son solid, and may have determinate Figures, Magnitudes and Motions; and the other, which hath no one Pan that may be called a Solid, but its Parrs are infinitely or indefinitely fluid. The first 1 call the Een-fluid, or almost-fluid Aether; the second, the quite fluid AetheI. 38
This «quite fluid aethef» is in fact «so fluid, as hardly to be able ro hinder the Motion of any Solid through in>. Ir is nonetheless «the Medium by which the Communication of the harmonious or inharmonious Motions of the more solid Parts and Partieles are communicated to others at a considerable distance».39 Avowedly, Hooke is not clear about the ultimate nature of the menstmum. As we shall see below, however, ambiguity on whether the smallest magnitudes involved in mechanical explanations were infinitesimal rather than finite was almost always present through the century. Hooke was aware of the peculiar status his menstruum or «quite fluid ethef» hado He acknowledged that the quite fluid ether «seems a meer Chimera, and without real ground in Nature», and that among the «Observations and Experiments 1 shall afterwards produce ... may be no one found that can positively demonstrate» its existence. Hooke then added a methodological comment on the kind of knowledge ro be achieved about «Causes, PrincipIes and Operations» that work by «Instruments ... far removed beyond the reach of our Senses». The working of insensible causes must be imagined through analogy or «similitude» from the working of causes that can be observed: [T]he best and utmost we can do rowards the discovery of [such Causes, Principies and Operations]' is only accurately ro observe and examine all those Effects produced by them, which fall within the Power of OUt Senses, and comparing them with such Effeers, produced by Causes that fal! within the teach of o ur Senses, ro examine, and so from Sensibles ro argue the Similitude of the nature of Causes that are whol!y insensible. And this is the utmost Bound and Limit of our most exalted and regulated Reasoning, beyond which that Power cannot carry us. 40
Hooke was thus ro solve quite easily what is now known as the problem of transduction. 41 Ir will be noticed that in fashioning his quite fluid ether Hooke used «similitude» in two ways. He made it able to produce effects «similaf» to effects produced by observable fluids. And he imagined it ro be constituted by particles «similaf» ro ordinary fluids's particles but infinitely 38. «A Discourse of the Nature of Comets», in The Posthumolls Works o/Robert Hooke (London, 1705; repI. New York: ]ohnson Reprint Co., 1969), [149]185, p. 165; see]. Henry, «Roben Hooke", p. 161ff. 39. [bid., p. 171. 40. «A Discourse of the Nature ofComets», p. 165. 41. See M. Mandelbaum, Philosophy, Science and Sense Perception: Historical and Critical Studies (Baltimore: ]ohns Hopkins University Press, 1964), Ch. 2; ].E. McGuire, «Atoms and the 'Analogy of Nature': Newton's Third Rule of Philosophizing», Stud. Hist. Phi!. Sci., 1, 1970,358.
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reduced in size. We ヲゥセ、 エィセウ double use of «similitude» in the fashioning of other substances or obJects tntroduced by seventeenthcentury natural philosophers. The supposition that magnitudes and sizes were incomparably or infinitely larger (or smaller) than ordinary ones could be required either ro ensure the mechanical explanation of sorne physical effect, or ro account for the unobservable character of substances deemed necessary to explain nature mechanically. Perhaps the most elaborate of these «limit» substances is Robert Hooke's menstruum, but among the conceptual rools of mechanical philosophers there are other examples of material substances characterized by possessing sorne physical property in an infinite degree. Hobbes's air contains parts that are «infinite1y subtle». That their subtlety is aboye measure is the reason why Boyle's account of the phenomena revealed by the pneumatic pump is wrong. No matter how accurately the receiver is sealed, parts of the air will get in because of their infinite subtlety. Years before Hobbes had introduced «the purest aethereal substance; of which no part is an Arom, but which can be divided ... into pans which are always divisible».42 As is well known, Huygens envisaged a series of matters of increasing subtlety as the most plausible way of explaining electrical phenomena, magnetism, optical phenomena, gravity, different solid states, or even the spherical shape of drops.43 The partieles of Huygens's luminiferous ether are ro be supposed «estre d'une matiere si ・エョ。ィ」ッイーセ de la durete parfaite & d'un ressort si prompt que nous voulons.» 4 Here Huygens attributes the cause of the partieles's spring (ressort) still ro sorne subtle matter that pervades the partieles of the subtle luminiferous ether. 45 Fluidity, or the condition ofliquids, Huygens explained through «une matiere fortement agitee, et si subtile qu'elle penetre par rouS les corps que nous estimons les plus solides». This subtle matter also 46 explains the resistance water offers ro compression. Ir is undersrood that partieles of any of those ethers are negligible in comparison with the partieles of ethers higher or lower in the hierarchy of subtlety. This is explicidy said of the partieles of the luminiferous ether, less subtle than the magnetic ether. Huygens conceives the ether that canies the light pulses ro be composed «de parties incomparablement plus grosses que la matiere magnetique, laquelle ne fait que les traverser, et couler par leurs interstices sans auoir la force de les chasser de leur place».47 42. S. Shapin, S. Schaffer, Leviathan and the air-pump. Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental lije (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 116, 119. 43. See R. Halleux, «Huygens et les théories de la mariere», in Huygens et la France (Paris: Vrin, 1982), 187196. ror a list of effects to be explained through sorne subde maner, see Oeuvres, XIX, p. 553. ror comparisons berween different kinds of subtle matters, see ibid., p. 570577.
44. 45. 46. 47.
[bid., p. 472[bid. [bid., p. 328, 334335. Oeuvres, XIX, p. 577.
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Huygens attached an «infinite1y swift motion» (mouuement infiniment viste) to the motion of the subtle gravitational matter that goes through bodies and causes their weight. 48 That the (observed and observable) motion of macroscopic bodies can be disregarded in comparison with the infinite1y swift motion of gravitational matter was crucial in Huygens's account of Galileo's hypothesis that free fall is a uniformly difform motion. Since bodies are pushed (poussez) by parts of gravitational matter the motion of which, est tousiours infinimenr plus viste que celui qu'ils peuuenr auoir acquis par des cheutes qui tombenr soubs norre experience, cela fait que I'action de la matiere qui les presse peut esrre considerée rousiours aussi forte que lors queIle les trouue au repos, d'ou I'on conclud ensuitte assez facilement I'accroissement des vitesses proportionné a celuy des temps.49 Thus the notion that the mechanical effects of partieles may be infinitesimal in character played a crucial role in the mechanical philosophy. Apparently Huygens had occasional misgivings about conceptual difficulties arising from his conjecture that there were many kinds of partieles, those of a ny kind being incomparably smaller (or bigger) than those of another. He argued that «rien n'empesche de supposer ces différents degrez de grandeur vu la gradation possible a i'infini vers la petitesse».50 This notion is hard to understand properiy. Apparently Huygens saw in it just a logicomathematical tenet allowing him to assume aH degrees of incommensurableorincomparable magnitudes. In Leibniz's hands, however, it became an argument against an atomistic understanding of matter: We would have narure ro go no farther, and ro be finire, as OUt minds are: but this is being ignorant of the greatness and majesty of the author of rhings. The least corpuscle is acruaIly subdivided in infinirum, and contains a world of other crearures. 51 Avowedly there is a fundamental ambiguity in the way «incomparably» larger (or smaller) magnitudes were handled in the seventeenthcentury. It is never eleariy acknowledged whether «incomparably» and «infinite1y» meant that the magnitudes were actually infinitesimal, or infinite, when compared to each other, or were just (finite) magnitudes such that as a matter of practical computation one could be neglected by comparison to the other. What is yet more remarkable, it does not appear that seventeenthcentury natural philosophers were much bothered by such an ambiguity. This may respond to sorne philo48. Oeuvres, XIX, p. 627; quoted by R.S. WestfaIl, Force in Newton's Physics (London: MacDonald, 1971), p. 182. 49. Oeuvres, XIX, p. 640. 50. Oeuvres, XIX, 575 (quoted in HaIleux, «Huygens et les théories de la matiere», p. 192). 51. H.G. Alexander ed., The LeibnizClarke correspondence (Manchester: Manchester Universiry Press, 1956), p. 43.
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sophers's pragmatist stance in front of the question the existence of infinitesimals, that is combined with awareness that mathematicians, even if answering mostly affirmative1y, had no complete1y satisfactory answer to it. In 1701, in one of the few occasions 1 know of in which supporters of infinitesimals discussed this ambiguity, Varignon requested Leibniz's views upon it.52 Varignon was worried because he had been told that, contrary to what he taught and thought, Leibniz understood differentials of magnitudes (dx) as magnitudes very small but none the less determined and ultimate1y comparable to x. Interestingly, Leibniz dismisses Varignon's worries without addressing Varignon's main preoccupation, or rather dismissing the re1evance of the preoccupation but giving no answer to it. Mathematical analysis, says Leibniz, cannot hinge on «metaphysical controversies» such as whether there are in nature lines that are truly infinite1y shorter or longer than others. It is possible, and it is enough, to explain the infinite through incomparability. Thus, a partiele of magnetic matter, which goes through glass, is incomparably smaller than a grain of sand, and this in turn is incomparably smaller than the terraqueous globe, which is so as weH in comparison with the firmamento Incomparability between magnitudes, Leibniz goes on, can be understood both ways as one magnitude being strictly speaking infinite1y larger than the other, or as one being mere1y negligible visavis the other. Such incomparable magnitudes «font l' effect des infiniment petits rigoureux».53 There are in Leibniz's long answer sorne rationalist arguments that perhaps sorne seventeenthcentury mathematicians, particulariy British ones, would not embrace, as for instance Leibniz's suggestion that if anybody does not countenance infinitesimals «a la rigueur metaphysique et comme des choses reelles», then he may take them to be ideal notions like imaginary roQts, or powers with no ordinary numbers as exponents, «le tout pour établir des idées propres a abreger les raisonnemens et fondées en realités.»54 On the main, however, Leibniz's answer to Varignon may have set forth the dominant view in seventeenthcentury mathematics and natural philosophy, that, as he put it, in geometry as well as in nature everything works as if infinitesimals were perfectly real. 55 In and Out of Theological Debates It is to be stressed that well into the seventeenth century arguments against using infinites were not mere1y scholariy exercises, for they played a role in 56 re1igious apologyas they had otherwise done since the Middle Ages.
52. Varignon ro Leibniz, 28 Novembre 1701, in G.W. Leibniz, !'vlathematische Schriften, 7 vol., c.l. Gerhardt ed. (Hildesheim, 1962), IV, 8991. 53. Leibniz ro Varignon, 2 February 1702, in G.W. Leibniz, Mathematische Schriften, IV, 9194, p. 91. 54. ¡bid., p. 9293. 55. ¡bid., p. 93. 56. ].E. Murdoch, «Infiniry and conrinuiry», passim.
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In 1652, in his Philosophicall Essay Towards an Eviction ofthe Being and Attributes ofGod, Seth Ward put typical arguments against actual infinites at the center of his answer to the question, «Whether or not there be a God?». In order to prove that the God-head is the eternal cause of everything, Ward assumes the series of human generations ro be infinite -for, if it be finite, then we must be1ieve in a «first production from a cause eternal». Yet assuming the number of generations ro be infinite, Ward argues, «doth force the minde to contradictions, and consequently the fictÍon is vaín and utterly impossible.» The argument can be summarized as follows. The number of generatÍons ending in Abraham is obviously less than the number of generations ending in ]oseph, Abraham's greatgreat son. Since no number can be greater than infinite, this implies the number of generations ending in Abraham cannot be infinite. And if one is to assert that both «Abraham's series)) of generations and ]oseph's are infinite, then we must condude that both numbers are equal while one strictly is a part of the other: If any shall affirm rhar rhe course of generaríon had no beginning, bur rhar rhe number of [generarions] harh been infinire, ... [Ier us] imagine the generations of Abraham for example, and of]oseph. I demand ... wherher before rhe binh of Abraham, there had pasr an infinire series of generations or nor? If rhe series was finire, rhe work of generarion had beginning, which is rhe conclusion I contend for, if rhe series past was infinite, rhen ar the binh of]oseph 'ris evident rhat more generations were pasr, so we have found a number greater rhen that which was supposed ro be infinite, and consequently rhat was nor infinite, so it was borh infinite and not infinite, a manifesr contradicrion; but if we say thar Abrahams series was infinire and thar so was Josephs also, then it will follow thar the number of Abrahams was equall ro rhe number of Josephs, bur Abrahams was but a pan ofJosephs, wherefore the pan is equall ro the whole.... We see therefore rhat supposing rhe erernity of the world, or rhe infinity of generarions doth force the minde ro contradicrions, and consequently the fiction is vain and utterly impossibleY A similar argument, if originally phrased, is to be found in the writings of the nonconformist divine, ]ohn Howe (16301705).58 Shortly after the publication of Ward's Philosophicall Essay, Edward Stillingfleet's Origines sacrae inaugurated a style of Christian apology attuned to the needs and achievements of natural philosophy.59 One of the most representative among the «Iatitudemen» and bishop ofWo!cester from 1689, Stillingfleet (16351699) represents the emergence of the reasonable, enligh57. S. Ward, A Philosophicall Essay Towards an Eviction ofthe Being and Attributes ofGod (Oxford, 1652), 1516. 58. See his 1675 The Living Temple ofGod, in The Works oj.".. jolm Howe (2 vol., London, 1724), r, 1242, p. 55. 59. See S. Hurton, «Edward StillingHeet, Henry More, and the decline of Moses Atticus: A note on 17thcenrury Anglican apologetics», in R. Kroll et al eds., Philosophy, science and religion in England 16401700 (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1992),6484.
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tened re1igiosity of the eighteenth century. Stillingfleet had no qualms about embracing a corpuscular ontology, but harshly rebuked the «Epicurean atomists» for endowing matter with a se1fmoving principIe. This, he argued, would suggest that there is <<TIothing e1se but matter and motÍon in the world» and lead to the deification of matter. 6ü While allowing that «many of the Phaenomena of the Universe are far more intelligible [if] explained by matter and motÍon then by substantial forms and real qualitites», Stillingfleet ウオセᆳ gested that God direct intervention is needed truly to understand nature. 1 Stillingfleet mentioned in passing that the infinite duration of the world entails a contradictÍon but he just pointed out that this demonstrates «the impossibility of our understandings comprehending the nature of Infinity».62 Not giving any special place to the antinomies derived from infinite quantities in his arguments about God's existence and providence, Stillingfleet used arguments that were eminently «reasonable» (sic), and stressed God's role as a necessary source of motion and designo As noticed by Nan Gabbey, the writings of the Cambridge Platonist, Henry More (16141687), also reveal the impact of seventeenthcentury natural philosophy on his views on the infinite. In his 1642 Psichodia Platonica More, who had not yet get in contaet with Cartesian ideas, denied the possibility of infinite time with the argument mat the number ofhours, days and months past would all be equal to each other. In 1646, however, after reading Descartes's Principies ofPhilosophy, More's universe is infinite1y extended, and an infinite 63 number of planetary systems in it reveals God's infinite goodness. Interestingly, therefore, there is a historicallink berween a shift in Christian apology, that moves doser to natural philosophy and gives a new importance ro demonstratÍons of God's existence based on the design argument, and the fact that logical antinomies derived from handling infinites both lose strength and feature less prominently, or are no longer deemed worth mentioning, in theological debates. The changing status of infinites and infinitesimals in the second half of the century is illustrated by one of the last squabbles between Wal1is and Hobbes. In 1671, in the quarre1 already referred to in Chapter 2, Wallis had ro answer a number of strictly mathematical queries among which, whether «there be any number Infinite)) and whether «there be any Quantity greater than Infinite». The interesting part of this debate for us now comes after Wallis's (strictly mathematical) answers ro Hobbes's queries. For, in a compleat reversal of roles, Wallis, the advocate of infinitesimals and mathematical infinites,
60. Origines sacrae. or a RdtionalAccount ofthe Grounds ofChristian Faith (London, 1662); on corpuscularianism, p. 377ff, and 448ff; on the deification of selfactive marter, p. 446. 61. ¡bid., p. 448. 62. ¡bid., p. 376. 63. A. Gabbey, «Philosophia Cartesiana Triumphata: Henry More (16461671»>, in T.M. Lennon, ].M. Nicholas, ].W. Davis eds., Problems ofCartesianism (Kingsron: McGillQueen's Universiry Press, 1982), 171250. p. 17582.
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rhrows rhe paradoxes of rhe infinire againsr Hobbes. As if marhemarical infinires were now insulared from classical paradoxes, Wallis did use rhem as an ad hominem argument ro expose Hobbes's marerialism and be/id on rhe erernity of the world: But having solved these Quaere's, I have sorne for Mr. Hobs to answer. .. Let him ask himself therefore, if he be still of opinion, that there is no Argument in nature to prove, the World had a Beginning. l. Whether, in case ir had not, there must not have passed an Infinite number ofyears before Mr. Hobs was born.... 2. Whether, now, there have not passed more, that is, more than that infinite number. Wherher, in that Infinite (or more than infinite) number of Years, there have not been a Greater number of Days and Hours: and of which hitherto, the last is given. 4. Whether, if this be an Absurdity, we have not then ... an Argument in nature to prove, the world had a beginning. ... [He cannor] serve himself (as the Mathematicians do) with supposed Infinites; For his Infinites, and more than Infinites ofYears, Days, and Hours, already past, must be Real Infinites, ... Mr. Hobs shall do well... to solve these, before he propose [sic] more Quaere's of Injinites. 64 Againsr Hobbes rhe gambir was dangerous, for he answered rhar Wallis's argument proved as well that Cod had a beginning. Yet Hobbes was not to push rhe argument very far a10ng rhis line eirher ir was obvious ro him rhar, «Thus 'tis when men intangle themselves in a Dispute of that which they cannot comfrehend.... A11 this arguing ofInfinites is but the ambition of Schoolboyes.»6 To which Wallis, apparently glad to let things rest here, only answered rhat «We are not to measure Cods Permanent Duration ofEternity, by our successive Durarion ofTime: Nor, his Intirc Ubiquity, by Corporcal Extension.»66 In an un p ublished text written in the early 1690s, probably in 1692 or 1693, Newron carefully disringuished Cod from space, which «[b]y reason of irs erernity and infinity will neither be Cod nor wise nor powerful nor a1ive».67 The text ineludes rhe recognition that infinires are hard ro understand, particularly ro rhe nonversed in marhematics: Srill I admit that an infinite number of thillgs is difficult ro conceive, and is therefore taken by many people as impossible: but there are many things concerning numbers and magnitudes which ro men not learned in mathematics will appear
64. U. Wallis], "An Answet to Fout Papers of Mr. Hobs, .... ", Philosophical Transactions, numo 75 (18 September 1671),22412250, p. 22432244 65. T. Hobbes, Three papers Presented to the Royal Society Against Dr. Wallis (London, 1671). p. [8J. 66. U. WallisJ, "An Answer ro Four Papers ofMr. Hobs, .... », p. 2250. 67. ].E. McGuire, "Newron on Place, Time and God: An Unpublished Soutce», Brit. jour. Hist. Sci., 11 (1978), 114129, p. 119 (unless otherwise noticed, 1 will use McGuire's translation). McGuire identified the text he transcribed and translated as a draft relating ro a revised edirion of lhe Principia Newron was planing in lhe early 1690s. On this text, see also his "Existence, Actualiry and Necessiry: Newton an Space and Time», Annals ofScience, 35 (19 7 8), 463 508.
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paradoxical, and yer are enrirely rrue. As rhar an area of infinire lengrh, and solid ofinfinite length and width, can be measured; ... 68 Newron added here a number of marhemarical resulrs involving infinite spaces and motions, ro conelude, among orher things, «rhar nor everyrhing eternal and infinite will be Cod». Interestingly, rhis rext, that makes actual infinity explicitly independent from rhe notion of Cod, stresses that «[i]r is of concern ro theologians thar the conceprion [of Cod] be made as easy and as agreeable to reason as possible».69 Newron went on to first clarif)r and then set forth whar he rhought was rhe «most perfecr idea of Cod», afrer which he stressed again that his idea combined as much as it could be hoped for inrelligibility with a description of Cod's perfection: This is an Idea of a most perfect being, and a harder concept [ro grasp] will add very litde ro the deity's perfecrion, but rather will render it suspect and exclude it from rerum natura.7° Robert Boyle offers as good an evidence as ir could be desired about rhe changing status of the notion of infinite, particularly visavis theological conrroversies. As has been very recently shown, his 1681 Discourse ofThings above Reason, Inquiring whether a Philosopher should admit there are any such «developed [the] point thar human finite reason is unable ro penetrate the mysteries of Christianity» a point mostly nonconformist in characrer. 71 Sophronius, Boyle's mourh piece, brings forward a threefold division among things rhat escape human comprehension. To the hrst category, things «incomprehensible», belong things whose nature is not comprehensible, such as intellectual beings of a higher order rhan human souls, including of course Cod. 72 Secondly, «inexplicable» things are those that we are not able ro conceive, such «as how matter can be infinitely... divisible» or how Cod made rhe world out of nothing. 73 Finally, he calls «insociable» rhose things whose narure seems contradictory, being such as are incumbred with difficulties or objections, that cannot direcdy and satisfacrorily be removed by them, thaL .. do reason but at the common rate, 68. ¡bid 69. ¡bid, p. 121. 70. "Haec est Idea entis summe perfecti et conceptus durior Deitatem minime perficiel sed suspectam potius reddet et excludet e rerum natura.» ¡bid, p. 122. I have slightly modified McGuite's transIatian. 71. ]. Wojcik, "The theological context of Boyle's Things above Reasom>, in M. Hunrer ed., Robert Boyle Reconsidered(Cambtidge: Cambridge Universily Ptess, 1994), 139155, p. 149. Wojcik's anicle provides an excellent summary ofBoyle's Discourse and ilS rheological co ntext. 72. R. Boyle, Discourse ofThings above Reason, in T. Birch ed., Works, 6 vol.. (London, 1772; repr. Hildesheim: Georg Ohms, 1966), IV, 406469. p. 407408. 73. ¡bid, p. 408.
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such objecrs of conremplation as this third SOft consists of, having something belonging ro them, that seems not reconcilable with sorne very manifest, or at least acknowledged truth.?4 Here Boyle offered, as an «example of a moral nature», that men have free will and yet God has foreknowledge of everything that will come to pass. This, as Wojcik convincingly argues, was one of the most disputed poims in the comext that prompted Boyle's Things above Reason. Next, as examples of «insociable» things of a mathematical nature, he offered sorne typical paradoxes linked to the notions of infinite and indivisible,75 He stresses the fact that many people, including «great wits», are genuinely baffied by the unconquerable diEficulties they met with not only with notions such as God's nature, but also with problems such as «whether or not a continued quamity... be made up of indivisibles.»76 Boyle's general poim, however, is mainly a positive one. He does not want to forbid not even discourage that reason be used in these truly difficult questions he wishes to warn about using it too confidendy. The rules and notions of our reason, Boyle says, are abstracted only from finite things, or are congruous but ro them; they may prove useless or deceitful ro us, when we go about ro strecht them beyond their measure, and apply them ro the infinite God, or ro things, that involve an infiniteness either in multitude, magnitude, or littleness.?7 Acknowledging human reason proper limitations, he does not wam to suggest that we should not «pry into the wonderful attributes of this most singular and adorable being [God]»,78 On the contrary, «We owe so much to God... , that I shall be very glad to learn any thing, that may increase my wonder and veneration for an object, to whom I can never pay enough of either.>,79 In a differem text, Boyle uses the infinite as a double analogy to talk about God. Of God he says «that it is that, of which how much soever one takes, there still remains more to be taken» and Boyle explicitly reminded the rea-
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der that this was Aristotle's definition of infinite. He also uses infinite series as a metaphor for our grasp of the idea of God: as in an infinite series... though you may still advance ro greater and greater numbers, yet all that you can do by that progress, is ro go farther and farther from the first... term of the progression, (which in our case answers ro smallest degree of our knowledge of God) without ever reaching, or,... so much as approaching to an infinite number, (in case there were any such) or even to the greatest of aH numbers; as will be acknowledged by those, that have looked inro the properties of progressions in infinitum. 80 The paradoxes of the infinite are not signaling here forbidden intellectual roads nor blocking them. The notion of infinite has lost its cemuries old theological virulence it is just something we must get used to live with. Ir was too useful an element of mathematical techniques for mathematicians and natural philosophers ro reno unce to it particularly when it was growing ever more fashionable to approximate Christian apology to natural philosophy, ro subordinate dogmatic questions to «reasonable» arguments, and ro acknowledge the limits of human reason in maners metaphysical and theological. Above all, infinites and infinitesimals constituted an integral part of notions that were crucial ro the mechanical and experimental philosophy. They became embedded so to speak into the conceptualization of the physical world. This may contribute to explain why in the eighteenth century to question their status became a maner of the «metaphysique du calcul infinitesimal».
74. ¡bid 75. For instance, since «geometricians... teach rhe divisibiliry in infinitum... ro be marhemari-
cally demonsrrable", he compares rhe infinire number of parrs in rwo segmenrs, rhe legrh of one of which is jusr half rhe orher's. The rwo infinire number of pans cannor be eirher equal, because rhe lines are nor equal, nor differenr, because one line would ger divided in a number of pans grearer rhan infinire. Therefore, «we may be reduced eirher ro rejecr inferences legirirnarely drawn frarn rnanifesr or granred rrurhs, or ro adrnir conclusions, rhar appear absurd; if we will have all rhe cornrnon rules, whereby we judge of orher rhings, ro be applicable ro infinires." ¡bid, p. 409. The rwo concenrric circles are also rnenrioned 76. 77. 78. 79.
(ibid, p. 409410). ¡bid, p. 411. ¡bid, p. 414. ¡bid, p. 446. ¡bid, p. 423.
80. R. Boyle, 01 the High Veneration Man s¡nteffeet owes to Cod, peeuliarly fOr His Wisdom and Power, in Works, Y, 130157, p. 153.
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