Fundamentals of Economics: Учебное пособие

ФЕДЕРАЛЬНОЕ АГЕНТСТВО ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования УЛЬЯНОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Н. Н. Доловова, О. Б. Степанова, Е. В. Аристова

FUNDAMENTALS OF ECONOMICS УЧЕБНОЕ ПОСОБИЕ

Ульяновск 2006

2 УДК 802.0 (075) ББК 81.2 Англ. Я 7 Д64 Утверждено редакционно-издательским советом университета в качестве учебного пособия Рецензенты:

кафедра «Иностранные языки» Ульяновского государственного педагогического университета им. И. Н. Ульянова г. Ульяновска; АЛТУХОВА ЕВГЕНИЯ ЕВГЕНЬЕВНА канд. филол. наук, ст. преподаватель кафедры лингвострановедения и коммуникации факультета иностранных языков и коммуникации ИМ О Ульяновского Государственного Университета г. Ульяновска.

Доловова, Н. Н. Д64 Fundamentals of Economics: учебное пособие / Н. Н. Доловова, О. Б. Степанова, Е. В. Аристова. – Ульяновск: УлГТУ, 2006. – 118 с. ISBN 5-89146-800-0 М атериалы пособия дают представление об основах экономической деятельности и о специфике подготовки экономистов в США и Великобритании на примерах оригинальных текстов. Тексты и задания стимулируют не только поиск новой экономической информации, но и потребность её обсуждения, выводят на широкую дискуссию. Учебное пособие предназначено для студентов экономических факультетов, а также всех, кто интересуется проблемами современной экономики. Пособие ставит задачу научить студентов читать оригинальную литературу по специальности и вести беседу на профессиональные темы. УДК 802.0 (075) ББК 81.2 Англ. Я 7

ISBN 5-89146-800-0

© Н. Н. Доловова, О. Б. Степанова, Е. В. Аристова, 2006 © Оформление. УлГТУ, 2006

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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПРЕД ИСЛОВИЕ……………………………………………………………..……

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About Economy and Economics………………………………………….………...

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LESSON 1 ……………………………………..…………………………...…..….

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LESSON 2 ……………………………………………………….………….…….. 10 LESSON 3 ………………………………………………………………….…….. 13 LESSON 4 …………………………………………………………….………….

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LESSON 5 ……………………………………….……………………….………. 21 LESSON 6 …………………...…………………………………………………… 24 LESSON 7 …………………………………………………………….………….. 29 LESSON 8 ……………………..………………………………………………… 32 LESSON 9 ……………………………………………………………….………. 36 LESSON 10 ……………………………………………..………………………… 40 LESSON 11 …………………..……………………………………………………. 44 LESSON 12 ………………...……………………………………………………… 49 LESSON 13 ………………………..………………………………………………. 53 LESSON 14 …………………………………..…….…………….………………. 58 LESSON 15 ………………………………….……………………………………. 62 ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ ………………………………………………………………… 67 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 1 ……………………………………………………………….. 68 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 2 ……………………………………………………………….. 72 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 3 ……………………………………………………………… 116 БИБЛ ИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК ………………………………………… 123 3

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ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ Данное учебное пособие предназначено для студентов 1 курса финансово-экономических специальностей вузов, а также для широкого круга лиц, использующих английский язык в своей практической деятельности в сфере экономики и бизнеса. Пособие рассчитано на лиц, обладающих знанием нормативной грамматики английского языка и имеющих словарный запас в 2000-2500 лексических единиц. В условиях возрастающей интеграции мирового сообщества и включения нашей с траны в мировую финансово-кредитную систему английский язык с тал средством общения для российских специалистов в сфере бизнеса, что предполагает практическое владение языком, т.е. умение читать и переводить оригинальную литературу по специальности, а также умение принять учас тие в беседе на профессиональную тему. Все тексты и упражнения составлены на основе оригинальной лексики, употребляемой современными носителями языка. Цель пособия - сформировать у студентов умение читать и переводить оригинальную литературу по специальности и развить у них навыки устной речи в пределах пройденной тематики. Для облегчения работы преподавателя с данным пособием и лучшей ориентации с тудентов в учебном материале, что является важным фактором успешного усвоения учебного материала, все уроки пособия имеют единую структуру. Учебное пособие включает в себя 15 уроков (Lessons). Каждый урок состоит из двух текстов, один из которых содержит информацию общеэкономического характера (базовый), а второй служит дополнением к нему. Оба текста тематически связаны друг с другом, но касаются различных сторон темы или расширяют её. Каждый урок содержит необходимый лексический минимум, а также вопросы, направленные на понимание прочитанного и стимулирующие коммуникативную деятельность. Для лучшего закрепления лексического минимума предлагаются упражнения, способствующие лучшему запоминанию лексических единиц. Кроме того, в каждом уроке представлены основные экономические понятия (Key concepts), которые являются ключевыми в общеэкономической теории. В пособие включены также 3 приложения (Appendixes), которые могут быть использованы как для самостоятельной работы студентов, так и для работы в аудитории в соответствии с рекомендуемыми заданиями или по усмотрению преподавателя. Тематика и характер учебных материалов, представленных в пособии, обеспечивают формирование у студентов обширного профессионального словаря, навыков ведения беседы и чтения в рамках специальности. 4

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About Economy and Economics The word economy comes from the Greek word for "one who manages a household.'' At first, this origin might seem peculiar. But, in fact, households and economies have much in common. A household faces many decisions. It must decide which members of the household do which tasks and what each member gets in return: Who cooks dinner? Who does the laundry? Who gets the extra dessert at dinner? Who gets to choose what TV show to watch? In short, the household must allocate its scarce resources among its various members, taking into account each member's abilities, efforts, and desires. Like a household, a society faces many decisions. A society must decide what jobs will be done and who will do them. It needs some people to grow food, other people to make clothing, and still others to design computer software. Once society has allocated people (as well as land, buildings, and machines) to various jobs, it must also allocate the output of goods and services that they produce. It must decide who will eat caviar and who will eat potatoes. It must decide who will drive a Porsche and who will take the bus. The management of society's resources is important because resources are scarce. Scarcity means that society has less to offer than people wish to have. Just as a household cannot give every member everything he or she wants, a society cannot give every individual the highest standard of living to which he or she might aspire. Economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources. In most societies, resources are allocated not by a single central planner but through the combined actions of millions of households and firms. Economists therefore study how people make decisions: how much they work, what they buy, how much they save, and how they invest their savings. Economists also study how people interact with one another. For instance, they examine how the multitude of buyers and sellers of a good together determine the price at which the good is sold and the quantity that is sold. Finally, economists analyze forces and trends that affect the economy as a whole, including the growth in average income, the fraction of the population that cannot find work, and the rate at which prices are rising. Although the study of economics has many facets, the field is unified by several central ideas. In the rest of this chapter, we look at Ten Principles of Economics. Key concepts scarcity – economy – economics –

the limited nature of society’s resources the system by which a country’s wealth is produced and used the study of how society manages its scarce resources; social science concerned with using scarce resources to obtain the maximum satisfaction of the unlimited material wants 5

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Words to remember household –

дом, хозяйство

account –

счет

to take into account

– брать в расчет

to allocate –

размещать, распределять

scarce –

недостаточный, скудный

goods and services –

товары и услуги

resource –

запасы, ресурсы, средства; природные богатства

to invest –

вкладывать

investment –

вложение

income –

доход

facet –

аспект

to recur –

повторяться, возвращаться

fraction -

доля, порция, часть

Fill in the gaps using the words given (scarcity, income, interact, society, trends, management, economics, economy) 1)

The word ______ comes from the Greek word for "one who manages a house-

hold.'' Like a household, a _____ faces many decisions. The _____ of society's resources is important because resources are scarce. _____ means that society has less to offer than people wish to have. _____ is the study of how society manages its scarce resources. Economists also study how people _____ with one another. Economists analyze forces and _____ that affect the economy as a whole, including the growth in average _____, the fraction of the population that cannot find work, and the rate at which prices are rising.

2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

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LESSON 1 Principle #1: People Face Tradeoffs How People Make Decisions There is no mystery to what an “economy” is. Whether we are talking about the economy of Los Angeles, of the United States, or of the whole world, an economy is just a group of people interacting with one another as they go about their lives. Because the behavior of an economy reflects the behavior of the individuals who make up the economy, we start our study of economics with ten principles of economics or four principles of individual decisionmaking. The first lesson about making decis ions is summarized in the adage: "There is no such thing as a free lunch." To get one thing that we like, we usually have to give up another thing that we like. Making decisions requires trading off one goal against another. Consider a student who must decide how to allocate her most valuable resource—her time. She can spend all of her time studying economics; she can spend all her time studying psychology; or she can divide her time between the two fields. For every hour she studies one subject, she gives up an hour she could have used studying the other. And for every hour she spends studying, she gives up an hour that she could have spent napping, bike riding, watching TV, or working at her part-time job for some extra spending money. Or consider parents deciding how to spend their family income. They can buy food, clothing, or a family vacation. Or they can save some of the family income for retirement or the children's college education. When they choose to spend an extra dollar on one of these goods, they have one less dollar to spend on some other good. When people are grouped into societies, they face different kinds of tradeoffs. The classic tradeoff is between "guns and butter.'' The more we spend on national defense to protect our shores from foreign aggressors (guns), the less we can spend on personal goods to raise our standard of living at home (butter). Also important in modern society is the tradeoff between a clean environment and a high level of income. Laws that require firms to reduce pollution raise the cost of producing goods and services. Because of the higher costs, these firms end up earning smaller profits, paying lower wages, charging higher prices, or some combination of these three. Thus, while pollution regulations give us the benefit of a cleaner environment and the improved health that comes with it, they have the cost of reducing the incomes of the firms' owners, workers, and customers. Another tradeoff society faces is between efficiency and equity. Efficiency means that society is getting the most it can from its scarce resources. Equity means that the benefits of those resources are distributed fairly among society's members. In other words, efficiency refers to the size of the economic pie, and equity refers to how the pie is divided. Often, when government policies are being designed, these two goals conflict. 7

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Consider, for instance, policies aimed at achieving a more equal distribution of economic well-being. Some of these policies, such as the welfare system or unemployment insurance, try to help those members of society who are most in need. Others, such as the individual income tax, ask the financially successful to contribute more than others to support the government. Although these policies have the benefit of achieving greater equity, they have a cost in terms of reduced efficiency. When the government redistributes income from the rich to the poor, it reduces the reward for working hard; as a result, people work less and produce fewer goods and services. In other words, when the government tries to cut the economic pie into more equal slices, the pie gets smaller. Recognizing that people face tradeoffs does not by itself tell us what decisions they will or should make. A student should not abandon the study of psychology just because doing so would increase the time available for the study of economics. Society should not stop protecting the environment just because environmental regulations reduce our material standard of living. The poor should not be ignored just because helping them distorts work incentives. Nonetheless, acknowledging life's tradeoffs is important because people are likely to make good decisions only if they understand the options that they have available. Key concepts efficiency –

the property of society getting the most it can from its scarce resources the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of society

equity –

Words to remember to interact -

взаимодействовать

goal -

цель

to trade off -

(зд.) сопоставить

family income -

доход семьи

standard of living -

уровень жизни

efficiency -

эффективность, производительность,

equity -

справедливость, беспристрастность

tradeoff -

альтернатива, соотношение выгод и потерь

reward -

поощрение, вознаграждение

well-being -

(материальное) благосостояние, достаток

to abandon -

отказываться ( от чего-л. ) 8

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The Gift One dollar and eighty-seven cents. That was all. Three times Della counted it. And tomorrow was Christmas. She sat down on the old sofa and burst into tears. She had saved every penny for months and this was the result. Twenty dollars a week doesn't go far. Only $1.87 to buy a present for Jim. Her Jim. She had spent hours planning to buy something nice for him. She went to the mirror and let down her hair. She let it fall to its full length, below her knees. There were two possessions of which the Dillinghams were very proud. One was Jim's gold watch, which had been his grandfather's. The other was Della's hair. She put her hair up again nervously and cried a little again. Then she put on her old brown jacket, her old brown hat and went down the stairs to the street. She stopped at a sign which read: ‘Madame Sofronie. Hair Goods of All Kinds’. She ran up the stairs. ‘Will you buy my hair?’ asked Della. ‘Take your hat off’, said Madame Sofronie, ‘and let me look at it’. She let her hair down. ‘Twenty dollars’, said Madame. ‘Give it to me quickly,’ said Della and the woman began to cut off Della's beautiful long hair. For the next two hours Della searched for a present for Jim. Then she found it. It was a platinum chain for Jim's watch. As soon as she saw it, she knew it was right for Jim. It was like him. Quiet and valuable. It cost $21. When Della got home, she started to curl her hair. After half an hour, her head was covered in small curls. At seven o'clock the front door opened and Jim came in. Della whispered to herself: ‘Please God, make him think I am still pretty.’ Jim looked thin and serious. Poor Jim! He was only twenty-two! His eyes fixed upon Della and there was an expression on his face which frightened her. ‘Jim, darling, don't look at me like that. My hair will grow again. I cut it off and sold it because I wanted to buy you a present. I've got a beautiful present for you.’ ‘You've cut off your hair.’ said Jim slowly. ‘Yes, but I'm still me without my hair, aren't I?’ ‘Your hair is gone,’ he said again, almost like an idiot. He took a package from his coat pocket and threw it on the table. Della tore at the string and paper. First, an ecstatic scream. Then, hysterical tears. For there lay the combs - the set of beautiful, tortoiseshell hair combs which she had wanted for so long. She knew they were expensive. She hugged them closely and said: ‘My hair grows very fast, Jim.’ Then she jumped up and gave him her present. The platinum watch chain flashed in the light. ‘Isn't it beautiful, Jim? Give me your watch. I want to see how it looks on it.’ Jim sat down on the sofa and smiled. ‘Dell,’ he said, ‘let's put our Christmas presents away and keep them for a while. They're too nice to use at present. I sold the watch to buy your combs. Now let's have supper.’ 9

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The wise men invented the art of giving Christmas presents. This was the story of two foolish young people who sacrificed for each other their most important possessions. But of all who give presents, these two were the wisest. Answer the questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What two possessions did Della and Jim Dillingham value most highly? How much did Della have to spend on a Christmas present for Jim? How did she manage to buy him a present? What did she buy for Jim? What did Jim do for her? How did he get the money to buy it? How long ago do you think the story took place? Why? How do you know that the Dillinghams were poor? How long do you think they had been married? Do you think the Dillinghams were happy? Fill in the gaps using the words given

(reduce, welfare system, allocate, services, incentives, tradeoff, goods, efficiency, equity,) 1. Consider a student who must decide how to allocate her most valuable resource—her time. 2. When people are grouped into societies, they face different kinds of _____. 3. Laws that require firms to _____ pollution raise the cost of producing _____ and _____. 4. _____ means that society is getting the most it can from its scarce resources. 5. _____ means that the benefits of those resources are distributed fairly among society's members. 6. Some of these policies, such as the _____ or unemployment insurance, try to help those members of society who are most in need. 7. The poor should not be ignored just because helping them distorts work _____.

LESSON 2 Principle #2: The Cost of Something Is What you Give Up to Get It Because people face tradeoffs, making decisions requires comparing the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action. In many cases, however, the cost of some action is not as obvious as it might first appear. 10

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Consider, for example, the decision whether to go to college. The benefit is intellectual enrichment and a lifetime of better job opportunities. But what is the cost? To answer this question, you might be tempted to add up the money you spend on tuition, books, room, and board. Yet this total does not truly represent what you give up to spend a year in college. The first problem with this answer is that it includes some things that are not really costs of going to college. Even if you quit school, you would need a place to sleep and food to eat. Room and board are costs of going to college only to the extent that they are more expens ive at college than elsewhere. Indeed, the cost of room and board at your school might be less than the rent and food expenses that you would pay living on your own. In this case, the savings on room and board are a benefit of going to college. The second problem with this calculation of costs is that it ignores the largest cost of going to college—your time. When you spend a year listening to lectures, reading textbooks, and writing papers, you cannot spend that time working at a job. For most students, the wages given up to attend school are the largest single cost of their education. The opportunity cost of an item is what you give up to get that item. When making any dec ision, such as whether to attend college, decision makers should be aware of the opportunity costs that accompany each possible action. In fact, they usually are. College-age athletes who can earn millions if they drop out of school and play professional sports are well aware that their opportunity cost of college is very high. It is not surprising that they often decide that the benefit is not worth the cost. Key concepts opportunity cost –

whatever must be given up to obtain some item

Words to remember benefit -

выгода; польза; прибыль; преимущество

obvious -

очевидный, явный

as it might first appear - как может показаться с первого взгляда enrichment -

обогащение

tuition -

обучение

to add up -

складывать, подсчитывать, подытоживать; находить сумму

food expenses -

расходы на еду

wages -

заработок, доход, вознаграждение

cost -

цена, стоимость; расход; расходование 11

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item -

отдельный предмет ( в списке и т. п. )

to earn -

зарабатывать

to be aware -

быть осведомленным

worth -

стоящий, заслуживающий, имеющий ценность, важность

Things for Sale 1 A Hello. The Pearson residence. B Oh hello. I was ringing up about the advertisement in the paper for an electric cooker. Is that you? A Yes, it is. We still have it for sale. B Oh good. How old is it? A Well, it's about five or six years old. (Uh huh) It has two ovens (Uh huh) and four burners and it's in very good condition. B Are you still using it? A No, we're not using it any more because we've bought a gas cooker. (Ah) Would you like to come and take a look at it? B Yes, I think so. Where are you, actually? 2 A Hello. 770606. B Hello. Is that the person who's advertising the wooden desk? A Oh yes, yes, that's right, yeah, that's me. (In the paper) B You've still got it, have you? (Yeah, yeah) What sort of desk is it? A Well, it's a bit of an antique, actually, used to belong to my granddad. It's got, well obviously a fold-out bit at the top which you can write in, and it's got three drawers underneath. It's quite interesting. B And what's it made of? What's the wood? A I'm not a great expert at wood, actually, but I think it's got some sort of veneer over the top which looks like walnut. I don't know if is. (Really?) It is old. B And you're selling it for Ј60? A Yeah, or near offer, yeah. B Yeah. OK, well can I come and see it? A Yeah. It's a bit difficult today, but are you free tomorrow any time? B Yeah, in the morning I could come. A Morning, fine, yeah. What time would suit you? B About nine o'clock. A Right, OK, nine o'clock. (OK) What's your name, sorry?

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Answer the questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is being sold in Dialogue 1? Give information about it. Did B decide to buy it without first taking a look at it? Why is A selling the cooker? Is it broken? What is being sold in Dialogue 2? Describe it. Who did the table used to belong to? What’s the price of the table? O.n.o. stands for ‘or near offer’. What’s its meaning? Did A and B arrange to meet on the day of their telephone conversation? What time did they arrange to meet? Learn the dialogue by heart. Fill in the gaps using the words given

(opportunity cost, earn, sale, costs, advertising, condition, calculation, benefits) 1. Because people face tradeoffs, making decisions requires comparing the _____ and _____ of alternative courses of action. 2. The second problem with this _____ of costs is that it ignores the largest cost of going to college—your time. 3. The _____ of an item is what you give up to get that item. 4. College-age athletes who can _____ millions if they drop out of school and play professional sports are well aware that their opportunity cost of college is very high. 5. We still have it for _____. 6. He is the person who's _____ the wooden desk. 7. It has two ovens and it is in very good _____.

LESSON 3 Principle #3: Rational People Think at the Margin Many decisions in life involve making small incremental adjustments to an existing plan of action. Economists call these marginal changes. In many situations, people will make the best decisions by thinking at the margin. Suppose, for instance, that a friend asks your advice about how many years to stay in school. If you were to compare for him the lifestyle of a person with a Ph.D. to that of a grade school dropout, he might complain that this comparison is not helpful for his decision. Your friend is more likely to have some education already 13

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and to be deciding whether to spend an extra year or two in school. To make this decision, he needs to know the additional benefits that an extra year in school would offer and the additional costs that he would incur. By comparing these marginal benefits and marginal costs, he can evaluate whether the extra year is worthwhile. As another example of how thinking at the margin helps decision making, consider an airline deciding how much to charge passengers who fly standby. Suppose that flying a 200-seat plane across the country costs the airline $100,000. In this case, the average cost of each seat is $100,000/200, which is $500. One might be tempted to conclude that the airline should never sell a ticket for less than $500. Yet the airline can raise its profits by thinking at the margin. Suppose that a plane is about to take off with ten empty seats. A standby passenger is waiting at the gate willing to pay $300 for a seat. Should the airline sell it to him? Of course it should. If the plane has empty seats, the cost of adding one more passenger is minuscule. Although the average cost of flying a passenger is $500, the marginal cost is merely the cost of the bag of peanuts and can of soda that the extra passenger will consume. As long as the standby passenger pays more than the marginal cost, selling him a ticket is profitable. As these examples show, individuals and firms can make better decisions by thinking at the margin. A rational decis ion maker takes an action if and only if the marginal benefit of the action exceeds the marginal cost. Key concepts marginal changes – marginal cost – marginal product -

small incremental adjustments to a plan of action the increase in total cost that arises from an extra unit of production the increase in output that arises from an additional unit of output

Words to remember margin -

разница (между себестоимостью и продажной ценой), маржа; прибыль; минимальный возможный барыш

to involve -

втягивать, вовлекать (in, with); касаться, затрагивать

incremental -

возрастающий, поднимающийся, увеличивающийся

Ph.D. -

(сокр. от Doctor of Philosophy) доктор философии

to incur -

подвергаться (чему-либо ); навлекать на себя 14

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to evaluate -

оценивать; устанавливать стоимос ть;

to charge -

устанавливать, назначать цену

average -

средний

to conclude -

делать вывод, заключение

profits -

прибыль, выгода

profitable

-

прибыльный, выгодный

merely -

только, просто

to consume -

потреблять, расходовать, поглощать, тратить

to exceed -

превышать; переступать пределы, границы; выходить

за пределы

Dialogue (I) ANNE: The

newspapers and magazines are full of illustrated advertisements. Most of them are very well done, but I don't always approve of them. DAVID : What's wrong with them, Anne? ANNE : I don't like to be told what to buy. DAVID : Oh, but the advertisements help you to choose what's best, don't they? ANNE : Some of them have useful information, perhaps. But most of them do nothing but tell you to buy. They tell you to 'Drink more milk' and 'Eat more fruit'. They tell you what kind of petrol to put in your tank, what kind of soap-powder to wash your clothes with, what kind of breakfast food to give the children, what kind of toothpaste to clean your teeth with. I can't believe there's much difference between one kind of tooth-paste and another! JACK: I agree with you, Anne. The petrol companies must spend hundreds of thousands of pounds on advertising. I wonder if they'd be able to take a penny off the price of a gallon of petrol, if they stopped spending all that money on advertising. DAVID: I doubt it. And if they stopped advertising, your morning paper would probably cost you a halfpenny or a penny more. No newspaper could sell at its present price without the money it gets from advertising. MAVIS: Don't you like the wonderful colored advertisements you get in the weeklies, Anne? Especially in the women's magazines. I often find the advertisements more exciting than the reading matter. ANNE : Oh, I find some of them attractive. I like those showing wonderful kitchens and furniture. That's because Jack and I are getting married soon, and we're interested in furnishing. And I read the food advertisements. They sometimes give useful recipes. MAVIS : What kind of advertisements do you really dis like? 15

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: The picture strip kind. You know what I mean: the man who can't do his office work properly, who's going to lose his job, perhaps. Then someone tells him to take something or other every evening before he goes to bed. Then you see a picture of him afterwards, full of life and energy, and getting a rise in salary or being made manager of the company. DAVID : Yes, I know the kind of advertisement you mean. But the public likes picture strips. So do I. I always look at that kind of advertisement. And I usually remember the name of the product that's being advertised. JACK : We'll become a nation of illiterates if this sort of thing goes on. People are content to look at pictures that tell a story. They'll forget how to read. DAVID: Oh, but you're forgetting the little balloons! There's always some reading matter in the strips! And in any case, many things can be described more easily in pictures than in words. MAVIS: And these advertisements do have one strong point in their favour. They do provide work for the commercial artist. DAVID : 1 suppose you never look at commercial television, do you, Anne? ANNE: No, I don't. I think it's terrible to have one's home invaded by people talking to you from the screen and telling you to buy this, that and the other. Especially when the advertising comes right in the middle of a play or a concert of good music. DAVID : Oh, but does it? Many of the advertisements are well done, and don't interfere with the programme. It's like newspaper advertising, isn't it? A question of money again. Someone's got to pay the cost of these television programmers. Isn't it better to let the advertisers pay the cost? JACK : I'd rather pay an annual license fee, as we do for BBC sound and television broadcasts. MAVIS : Are you and Anne against advertising of any kind? ANNE : Oh, no. Some kinds can be quite useful. JACK: Books, for example. I like to know what new books are being published so that I can ask for them at the public library. I read the book reviews, but not all the new books are reviewed. There isn't enough space in the dailies and weeklies, probably. ANNE: And I want to know about what's on at the theatres, what the programmes are at the concerts, what new films there are. ANNE

Answer the questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

What’s Anne’s attitude to the advertisements? What’s Jack’s viewpoint? How does the advertisement influence the price of newspapers? What attracts Mavis to an advertisement? What kind of advertisement does Anne really dislike? What’s the link between the strips and commercial artists? Is it annoying when the advertising comes in the middle of a play or a film? What does Anne say about it? 8. Does David approve of advertising while programs or films are on? 16

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9. Are Jack and Anne against advertising of any kind? 10. What do you think about advertising? Fill in the gaps using the words given (additional costs, marginal, minuscule, profits, rational, exceeds, additional benefits, worthwhile, average) 1. Economists call these _____ changes. 2. To make this decision, he needs to know the _____ that an extra year in school would offer and the _____ that he would incur. 3. By comparing these marginal benefits and marginal costs, he can evaluate whether the extra year is _____. 4. In this case, the _____ cost of each seat is $100,000/200, which is $500. 5. Yet the airline can raise its _____ by thinking at the margin. 6. If the plane has empty seats, the cost of adding one more passenger is _____. 7. A _____ decision maker takes an action if and only if the marginal benefit of the action _____ the marginal cost.

LESSON 4 Principle #4: People Respond to Incentives Because people make decisions by comparing costs and benefits, their behavior may change when the costs or benefits change. That is, people respond to incentives. When the price of an apple rises, for instance, people decide to eat more pears and fewer apples, because the cost of buying an apple is higher. At the same time, apple orchards decide to hire more workers and harvest more apples, because the benefit of selling an apple is also higher. The central role of incentives in determining behavior is important for those designing public policy. Public policies often alter the costs or benefits of private actions. When policymakers fail to consider how behavior might change as a result, their policies can have effects that they did not intend. As an example of such unintended effects, consider public policy toward seat belts and auto safety. In the 1950s few cars had seat belts. Today all cars do, and the reason for the change is public policy. In the late 1960s, Ralph Nader's book Unsafe at Any Speed generated much public concern over auto safety. Congress responded with legis lation requiring car companies to make various safety features, including seat belts, standard equipment on all new cars. How does a seat belt law affect auto safety? The direct effect is obvious. With seat belts in all cars, more people wear seat belts, and the probability of surviving a 17

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major auto accident rises. In this sense, seat belts save lives. This direct impact of seat belts on safety is what motivated Congress to require seat belts. Yet, to understand fully the effects of this law, one must recognize that people change their behavior in response to the incentives they face. In this case, the relevant behavior is the speed and care with which drivers operate their automobiles. Driving slowly and carefully is costly because it uses the driver's time and energy. When deciding how safely to drive, rational people compare the marginal benefit from safer driving to the marginal cost. They drive more slowly and carefully when the benefit of increased safety is high. This explains why people drive more slowly and carefully when roads are icy than when roads are clear. Now consider how a seat belt law alters the cost-benefit calculation of a rational driver. Seat belts make accidents less costly for a driver because they reduce the probability of injury or death. Thus, a seat belt law reduces the benefits to slow and careful driving. People respond to seat belts as they would to an improvement in road conditions—by faster and less careful driving. The end result of a seat belt law, therefore, is a larger number of accidents. How does the law affect the number of deaths from driving? Drivers who wear their seat belts are more likely to survive any given accident, but they are more likely to find themselves in an accident. The net effect is ambiguous. Moreover, the reduction in safe driving has a clear adverse impact on pedestrians (and on drivers who do not wear their seat belts). They are put in jeopardy by the law because they are more likely to find themselves in an accident but are not protected by a seat belt. Thus, a seat belt law tends to increase the number of pedestrian deaths. At first, this discussion of incentives and seat belts might seem like idle speculation. Yet, in an article published in 1975, economist Sam Peltzman showed that the auto-safety laws have, in fact, had many of these effects. According to Peltzman’s evidence, these laws produce both fewer deaths per accident and more accidents. The net result is little change in the number of driver deaths and an increase in the number of pedestrian deaths. Peltzman’s analysis of auto-safety is just one example of general principle that people respond to incentives. Many of the incentives that economists study are more straightforward than those of the auto-safety laws. For example, no one is surprised that a tax on apple causes people to buy fewer apples. Yet, as the seat belt example shows, policies sometimes have effects that are not obvious in advance. In analyzing any policy, one must consider not only the direct effects but also the indirect effects that work through incentives. If the policy changes incentives, it will cause people to alter their behavior. QUICK QUI Z list and briefly explain the four principles of individual decisionmaking Words to remember to respond –

отвечать, реагировать

incentive –

стимул 18

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to hire –

нанимать

to determine –

определять

equipment –

оборудование

law –

закон

to survive –

выживать

impact –

воздействие, толчок

to require –

требовать

relevant –

относящийся к делу, уместный

to alter –

изменять

to reduce –

сокращать

adverse –

неблагоприятный

to increase –

увеличивать

tax –

налог

Dialogue (II) : It strikes me you and Jack are a couple of young highbrows! Are you interested only in serious things? ANNE : We are interested in serious things! Is that something to be ashamed of? MAVIS : Not at all, Anne, but we can't be serious all the time! JACK: So many advertisements are obviously untrue! How many kinds of soappowder and synthetic detergent are there? More than you can count on the fingers of one hand, I'm sure. And every one of them says, 'OZO—or whatever the name is— washes whitest!' MAVIS: Does it matter? People learn to take such statements with a grain of salt. They try half a dozen kinds of soap-powder and decide for themselves. JACK: Don't you think advertisements sometimes cause people to buy things they don't need? The men who write them are so clever! They persuade people that they must have a new washing-machine or a new refrigerator—to keep up with the neighbours. DAVID: That may be true. Some advertisers do make use of social snobbery. But social snobbery is quite strong, isn't it? Advertisers are not to blame if they sometimes make use of it. I've known people who've bought a thing just because they've seen that their neighbours have one. MAVIS: The advertisers are not always successful, though. My father has had his car for nine years. He's quite satisfied with it, in spite of the pages and pages of advertisements of new cars. DAVID

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: I think the worst offenders are the cosmetic manufacturers. The women's magazines are full of their advertisements. MAVIS : You're not opposed to the use of make-up, are you? ANNE : No, I use both face powder and lipstick. But I don't buy the widely advertised kinds. Mine cost less than half the prices of the kinds you see advertised everywhere—and they're just as good. DAVID : I heard a good story about a firm of face-cream manufacturers the other day. They put a new kind on sale at 5/- a jar. It didn't sell at all well. So they gave it a. new name, packed it in a new kind of jar, put up the price to 10/-, and spent thousands of pounds on advertising it. In a few months it was selling almost faster than they could manufacture it. JACK: Lots of people firmly believe the more something costs, the better it must be. Your story proves what I said earlier, doesn't it? Goods could be much cheaper if the advertising costs were cut down. DAVID: I'm not sure that that's always true. If advertising results in higher sales the manufacturers may be able to use mass production. That usually means lower costs and cheaper goods. ANNE : Won't there be mass production anyway, if the article is something that everybody needs? MAVIS: Motor-cars are mass produced. The motor-car manufacturers spend millions on advertising. JACK : That's because there's so much competition. If there were only one company mass producing cars, advertising would be unnecessary and the cost could be saved. DAVID: That raises quite a different question—whether competition serves any useful purpose. We'd better not start discussing that or we'll never get home this evening. ANNE

Answer the questions 1. Why does David call Anne and Jack ‘a couple of young highbrows’? 2. Do you agree that nowadays many advertisements are untrue? 3. Do people sometimes follow the advertisements and buy things they don’t need? 4. Do you follow the motto ‘to keep up with the neighbors’? 5. Is Anne for or against expensive make-up? 6. What story did David tell about a firm of face-cream manufacturers? 7. Does the price always reflect the quality of goods? Give your own examples. 8. Does advertising always result in higher sales? 9. Why does Jack say that so many advertisements are obviously untrue? 10. Are mass produced goods cheaper or more expensive? Fill in the gaps using the words given (hire, reduction central role, improvement, probability, adverse, legislation, ambiguous, policies, )

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1. At the same time, apple orchards decide to _____ more workers and harvest more apples, because the benefit of selling an apple is also higher. 2. The _____ of incentives in determining behavior is important for those designing public policy. 3. Public _____ often alter the costs or benefits of private actions. 4. Congress responded with _____ requiring car companies to make various safety features, including seat belts, standard equipment on all new cars. 5. With seat belts in all cars, more people wear seat belts, and the _____ surviving a major auto accident rises. 6. People respond to seat belts as they would to an _____ in road conditions—by faster and less careful driving. 7. The net effect is _____. 8. Moreover, the _____ in safe driving has a clear _____ impact on pedestrians.

LESSON 5 How People Interact The first four principles discussed how individuals make decisions. As we go about our lives, many of our decisions affect not only ourselves but other people as well. The next three principles concern how people interact with one another.

Principle #5: Trade Can Make Everyone Better Off You have probably heard on the news that the Japanese are American competitors in the world economy. In some ways, this is true, for American and Japanese firms do produce many of the same goods. Ford and Toyota compete for the same customers in the market for automobiles. Compaq and Toshiba compete for the same customers in the market for personal computers. Yet it is easy to be misled when thinking about competition among countries. Trade between the United States and Japan is not like a sports contest, where one side wins and the other side loses. In fact, the opposite is true: Trade between two countries can make each country better off. To see why, consider how trade affects your family. When a member of your family looks for a job, he or she competes against members of other families who are looking for jobs. Families also compete against one another when they go shopping, because each family wants to buy the best goods at the lowest prices. So, in a sense, each family in the economy is competing with all other families. Despite this competition, your family would not be better off isolating itself from all other families. If it did, your family would need to grow its own food, make its own clothes, and build its own home. Clearly, your family gains much from its 21

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ability to trade with others. Trade allows each person to specialize in the activities he or she does best, whether it is farming, sewing, or home building. By trading with others, people can buy a greater variety of goods and services at lower cost. Countries as well as families benefit from the ability to trade with one another. Trade allows countries to specialize in what they do best and to enjoy a greater variety of goods and services. So, the Japanese, as well as the French and the Egyptians and the Brazilians, are as much American partners in the world economy as they are their competitors. Words to remember trade -

торговля (among, between; with; in); коммерческая деятельность

well-off (better-off) –

богатый, зажиточный

to concern -

касаться, относиться; описывать; затрагивать

to interact -

взаимодействовать

competitors -

конкуренты

compete -

конкурировать, состязаться, соперничать

compition -

конкуренция

customer -

заказчик, покупатель; клиент

to lose –

проигрывать; терять; нес ти потери, убытки, ущерб

to gain -

выигрывать

despite -

несмотря на, вопреки чему-л.

sewing -

шитье

variety –

разнообразие

to benefit (from) -

помогать, приносить пользу, извлекать выгоду

The Bolt that Holds the Ikea Empire Together Ingvar Kamprad is no ordinary multi-billionaire. The founder of the Ikea furniture empire travels economy class, drives a 10-year-old Volvo and buys his fruit and vegetables in the afternoons, when prices are often cheaper. Ask him about the 22

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luxuries in his life and he says: ‘From time to time, I like to buy a nice shirt and cravat and eat Swedish caviar’. Mr Kamprad is one of Europe's greatest post-war entrepreneurs. What began as a mail-order business in 1943 has grown into an international retailing phenomenon across 31 countries, with 70,000 employees. Sales have risen every single year. The Ikea catalogue is the world's biggest annual print run - an incredible 110m copies a year. And Mr Kamprad has grown extraordinarily rich. He is worth $13.4bn (£8.7bn) and is the 17th richest person in the world, according to Forbes, the US magazine. The concept behind Ikea's amazing success is unbelievably simple: make affordable, well-des igned furniture available to the masses. And then there is Mr Kamprad himself - charismatic, humble, private. It is his ideas and values that are at the core of Ikea's philosophy. Best known for his extremely modest lifestyle, he washes plastic cups to recycle them. He has just left his long standing Swedish barber because he found one in Switzerland, where he lives, who charges only SFr 14 (£6) for a cut. ‘That's a reasonable amount,’ he chuckles. All Ikea executives are aware of the value of cost-consciousness. They are strongly discouraged from travelling first or business class. ‘There is no better form of leadership than setting a good example. I could never accept that I should travel first class while my colleagues sit in tourist class,’ Mr Kamprad says. As he walks around the group's stores, he expresses the feeling of ‘togetherness’ physically, clasping and hugging his employees. This is very uncharacteristic of Sweden. ‘Call me Ingvar,’ he says to staff. The informality and lack of hierarchy are emphasized by his dress style, with an open-necked shirt preferred to a tie. Mr Kamprad has had both personal and business battles. He has fought against dyslexia and illness. One of Mr Kamprad's characteristics is his obsessive attention to detail. When he vis its his stores, he talks not only to the managers but also to floor staff and customers. A recent visit to s ix of the group's Swedish stores has produced ‘100 details to discuss’, he says. By his own reckoning, his greatest strength is choosing the right people to run his businesses. He is determined that the group will not go public, because short-term shareholder demands conflict with long-term planning. ‘I hate short-termist decisions. If you want to take long-lasting dec isions, it's very difficult to be on the stock exchange. When entering the Russian market, we had to decide to lose money for 10 years.’ Mr Kamprad has been slowly withdrawing from the business since 1986, when he stepped down as group president. He maintains that he is still ‘too much involved and in too many details’, although he admits to a distinct reluctance to withdraw altogether. The question is : can there be an eternal Ikea without Mr Kamprad? Does the group depend too much on its founder? Will the empire continue, as control of Ikea gradually moves to Mr Kamprad's three sons? From the Financial Times

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Answer the questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Why is the founder of IKEA not an ‘ordinary’ multi-billionaire? What are luxuries for him? How did his company start? How many people are there in the IKEA furniture empire? What’s the main philosophy of IKEA’s success? Prove that Ingvar Kamprad leads an extremely modest lifestyle. What is the best form of leadership according to the IKEA’s executives? How is the company’s feeling of “togetherness” expressed by the author of the article? What is Ingvar Kamprad’s greatest power, according to his own words? What was the company’s prediction when they entered the Russian market? What’s Ingvar Kamprad’s attitude towards short-term decisions? Fill in the gaps using the words given

(specialize, phenomenon, employees, isolating, produce, compete, shareholder, entrepreneurs) 1. In some ways, this is true, for American and Japanese firms do _____ many of the same goods. 2. Compaq and Toshiba _____ for the same customers in the market for personal computers. 3. Despite this competition, your family would not be better off _____ itself from all other families. 4. Trade allows each person to _____ in the activities he or she does best, whether it is farming, sewing, or home building. 5. Mr. Kamprad is one of Europe's greatest post-war _____. 6. What began as a mail-order business in 1943 has grown into an international retailing _____ across 31 countries, with 70,000 _____. 7. He is determined that the group will not go public, because short-term _____ demands conflict with long-term planning.

LESSON 6 Principle #6: Markets Are Usually a Good Way to Organize Economic Activity The collapse of communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe may be the most important change in the world during the past half century Communist 24

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countries worked on the premise that central planners in the government were in the best position to guide economic activity. These planners decided what goods and services were produced, how much was produced, and who produced and consumed these goods and services. The theory behind central planning was that only the government could organize economic activity in a way that promoted economic wellbeing for the country as a whole. Today, most countries that once had centrally planned economies have abandoned this system and are trying to develop market economies. In a market economy, the decisions of a central planner are replaced by the decisions of millions of firms and households. Firms decide whom to hire and what to make. Households decide which firms to work for and what to buy with their incomes. These firms and households interact in the marketplace, where prices and self-interest guide their decisions. At first glance, the success of market economies is puzzling. It might seem as if decentralized decision making by millions of self-interested households and firms would result in chaos. Yet this is not the case. Market economies have proven remarkably successful in organizing economic activity in a way that promotes general economic well-being. In his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations, economist Adam Smith made the most famous observation in all of economics: Households and firms interacting in markets act as if they are guided by an "invisible hand" that leads them to desirable market outcomes. One of our goals in this book is to understand how this invis ible hand works its magic. As you study economics, you will learn that prices are the instrument with which the invisible hand directs economic activity. Prices reflect both the value of a good to society and the cost to society of making the good. Because households and firms look at prices when deciding what to buy and sell, they unknowingly take into account the social benefits and costs of their actions. As a result, prices guide these individual decis ion makers to reach outcomes that, in many cases, maximize the welfare of society as a whole. There is an important corollary to the skill of the invisible hand in guiding economic activity: When the government prevents prices from adjusting naturally to supply and demand, it impedes the invisible hand's ability to coordinate the millions of households and firms that make up the economy. This corollary explains why taxes adversely affect the allocation of resources: Taxes distort prices and thus the decisions of households and firms. It also explains the even greater harm caused by policies that directly control prices, such as rent control. And it explains the failure of communism. In communist countries, prices were not determined in the marketplace but were dictated by central planners. These planners lacked the information that gets reflected in prices when prices are free to respond to market forces. Central planners failed because they tried to run the economy with one hand tied behind their backs— the invis ible hand of the marketplace.

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Key concepts market economy –

an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services

invisible hand -

the tendency of firms and resource suppliers seeking to further their self-interests in competitive markets to further the best interest of society as a whole (the maximum satisfaction of wants)

Words to remember collapse -

разрушение, крушение, гибель, крах, падение

premise -

исходное условие; предположение, допущение; предпосылка, посылка

to guide -

руководить, управлять, направлять

central planning –

центральное планирование

to promote -

поощрять, поддерживать, содействовать

to produce –

производить, вырабатывать

well-being -

благосостояние, достаток; благополучие, процветание

to abandon -

отказываться; прекращать (делать что-л.)

household -

домашнее хозяйство

to hire -

нанимать, предоставлять работу, приглашать на работу

incomes -

(периодический, годовой) доход, приход, прибыль; заработок

to prove -

оказываться, показывать на практике

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wealth -

богатс тво, изобилие, благосостояние, процветание

value –

ценность, стоимость, цена

to impede -

препятствовать, задерживать, затруднять

supply and demand –

предложение и спрос

corollary -

вывод; заключение; следствие

distort -

искажать; искривлять; деформировать; представлять в ложном свете

marketplace –

рынок, место для проведения рыночных торгов

The Legacy of Adam Smith and David Ricardo Economists have long understood the principle of comparative advantage. Here is how the great economist Adam Smith put the argument: It is a maxim of every prudent master of a family, never to attempt to make at home what it will cost him more to make than to buy. The tailor does not attempt to make his own shoes, but buys them of the shoemaker. The shoemaker does not attempt to make his own clothes but employs a tailor. The farmer attempts to make neither the one nor the other, but employs those different artificers. All of them find it for their interest to employ their whole industry in a way in which they have some advantage over their neighbors, and to purchase with a part of its produce, or what is the same thing, with the price of part of it, whatever else they have occasion for. This quotation is from Smith's 1776 book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. This book was a landmark in the analys is of trade and economic interdependence. Many economists consider Smith to be the founder of modern economics. Smith's book inspired David Ricardo, a millionaire stockbroker, to become an economist. In his 1817 book Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo developed the principle of comparative advantage as we know it today. His defense of free trade was not a mere academic exercise. Ricardo put his economic beliefs to work as a member of the British Parliament, where he opposed the Corn Laws, which restricted the import of grain. The conclusions of Adam Smith and David Ricardo on the gains from trade have held up well over time. Although economists often disagree on questions of policy, they are united in their support of free trade. Moreover, the central argument for free trade has not changed much in the past two centuries. Even though the field of economics has broadened its scope and refined its theories since the time of Smith 27

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and Ricardo, economists' opposition to trade restrictions is still based largely on the principle of comparative advantage. Answer the questions 1. Have you ever heard of the name “Adam Smith”? What do you know about him? 2. What is the title of the book Smith wrote in 1776? 3. Was his book important for economics? 4. What examples does Adam Smith give to illustrate the principle of comparative advantage? 5. What do you know about David Ricardo? What is he famous for? 6. What is the link between Adam Smith and David Ricardo? 7. What did David Ricardo defend in his book “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation”? 8. What law did David Ricardo oppose as a member of the British Parliament? 9. Despite disagreements on questions of policy what unites all economists? 10. What has changed in economics since the time of Smith and Ricardo? Fill in the gaps using the words given (produced, premise, customer, provides, monopolist, abandoned, market economies, consumed, taxes) 1. Communist countries worked on the _____ that central planners in the government were in the best position to guide economic activity. 2. These planners decided what goods and services were _____, how much was produced, and who produced and _____ these goods and services. 3. Today, most countries that once had centrally planned economies have _____ this system and are trying to develop _____. 4. _____ distort prices and thus the decisions of households and firms. 5. Before discussing the behavior of a price-discriminating _____, we should note that price discrimination is not possible when a good is sold in a competitive market. 6. And if any firm tried to charge a higher price to a _____, that customer would buy from another firm. 7. The reason is that this rule _____ a way to separate business travelers and personal travelers.

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LESSON 7 Principle #7: Governments Can Sometimes Improve Market Outcomes Although markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity, this rule has some important exceptions. There are two broad reasons for a government to intervene in the economy: to promote efficiency and to promote equity. That is, most policies aim either to enlarge the economic pie or to change how the pie is divided. The invisible hand usually leads markets to allocate resources efficiently. Nonetheless, for various reasons, the invis ible hand sometimes does not work. Economists use the term “market failure” to refer to a situation in which the market on its own fails to allocate resources efficiently. One possible cause of market failure is an externality. An externality is the impact of one person's actions on the well-being of a bystander. Pollution is the classic example. If a chemical factory does not bear the entire cost of the smoke it emits, it will likely emit too much. In this case, the government can raise economic well-being through environmental regulation. Another possible cause of market failure is market power. Market power refers to the ability of a single person (or small group of people) to unduly influence market prices. For example, suppose that everyone in town needs water but there is only one well. The owner of the well has market power—in this case a monopoly—over the sale of water. The well owner is not subject to the rigorous competition with which the invisible hand normally keeps self-interest in check. You will learn that, in this case, regulating the price that the monopolist charges can potentially enhance economic efficiency. The invis ible hand is even less able to ensure that economic prosperity is distributed fairly. A market economy rewards people according to their ability to produce things that other people are willing to pay for. The world's best basketball player earns more than the world's best chess player simply because people are willing to pay more to see basketball than chess. The invisible hand does not ensure that everyone has sufficient food, decent clothing, and adequate health care. A goal of many public policies, such as the income tax and the welfare system, is to achieve a more equitable distribution of economic well-being. To say that the government can improve on market outcomes at times does not mean that it always will. Public policy is made not by angels but by a political process that is far from perfect. Sometimes policies are designed simply to reward the politically powerful. Sometimes they are made by well-intentioned leaders who are not fully informed. One goal of the study of economics is to help you judge when a government policy is justifiable to promote efficiency or equity and when it is not.

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Key concepts market failure – a situation in which a market left on its own fails to allocate resources efficiently externality the impact of one person’s action on the well-being of a bystander market power - the ability of a single economic actor (or small group of actors) to have a substantial influence on market prices Words to remember to intervene -

иметь дело; помешать, вмешиваться; посредничать, выступать посредником

to enlarge -

увеличивать(ся), расширять(ся);

failure -

провал, неуспех, неудача, несостоятельность, банкротс тво

on its own –

самостоятельно, сам по себе

externality -

вид, внешность, облик

impact -

влияние, воздействие; толчок, импульс

pollution –

загрязнение

environmental regulation –

контроль охраны окружающей среды

owner -

владелец; собственник, хозяин

unduly -

незаконно, неправильно; чрезмерно

to influence -

оказывать влияние, влиять, воздействовать

rigorous competition – жесткая конкуренция self-interest -

собственная выгода, заинтересованность

to enhance -

увеличивать, усиливать, улучшать

prosperity -

преуспевание, процветание

fairly distributed -

справедливо распределен

to earn -

зарабатывать

goal –

цель

income tax –

подоходный налог 30

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welfare system -

система социального обеспечения

justifiable -

могущий быть оправданным, защищенным; позволительный; законный

QUICK QUI Z list and briefly explain the three principles concerning economic interactions

New Citizens of Britain About 8,000 West Indians were based in Britain as soldiers during the Second World War. Some of them decided to return to Britain after the war because of poor economic prospects at home. They were citizens of the British Empire, with the right to hold British passports and live and work in Britain. In fact many of them considered England as their 'mother country'. In the 1950s and early 1960s, Britain had a strong economy and needed more workers. Many young Indians and Pakistanis came to Britain, where they could easily get jobs. Unlike the West Indians, Pakistanis and Indians never thought that they were moving to a 'mother country'. They moved for economic reasons. In 1962 Britain passed a law, the Commonwealth Immigration Act, which meant that people from countries like Canada, Australia, India, Pakistan and Jamaica could no longer go and live in Britain unless they had a job there. Then in 1968 Britain passed a new Act. Now only people whose fathers or grandfathers were born in Britain were allowed to live there. In 1965, the first Race Relations Act made racial discrimination a criminal offence, but it didn't cover housing or employment. Stronger Race Relations Acts were passed in 1968 and 1976. 'No Coloureds' and 'Europeans Only' signs were now illegal. The third Race Relations Bill in 1976 was stronger and more extensive than previous ones. It set up the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) to look into cases of discrimination on racial grounds. Despite the laws against discrimination, there are still many inequalities. In proportion to their numbers, members of ethnic minorities still do more unskilled jobs, and make up a bigger share of the unemployed, than the majority of the population. But in education they now generally do better than others, and there is a growing number of politic ians, lawyers, actors, writers, academics, musicians, business people and sports stars who provide models of successful lives in a multiethnic society. Answer the questions 1. What do you know about the first wave of immigrants in Britain? When did it happen? 31

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2. What was the reason of Indians’ and Pakistanis’ immigration to Britain in the 1950s and early 1960s? 3. What law did Britain pass in 1962? 4. What is this law about? 5. What measures did Britain undertake in 1968? 6. According to the first Race Relations Act, immigrants in Britain were supplied with work and housing, weren’t they? 7. When did racial discrimination become illegal in Britain? 8. What is CRE? 9. Does the third Race Relations Bill differ from the previous ones? What’s the difference? 10. Describe the present-day position of immigrants in Britain. Fill in the gaps using the words given (inequalities, discrimination, goal, sufficient, market failure, resources, exceptions) 1. Although markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity, this rule has some important _____. 2. The invisible hand usually leads markets to allocate _____ efficiently. 3. One possible cause of _____ is an externality. 4. The invisible hand does not ensure that everyone has _____ food, decent clothing, and adequate health care. 5. A _____ of many public policies, such as the income tax and the welfare system, is to achieve a more equitable distribution of economic well-being. 6. In 1965, the first Race Relations Act made racial _____ a criminal offence, but it didn't cover housing or employment. 7. Despite the laws against discrimination, there are still many _____.

LESSON 8 Principle #8: A Country's Standard of Living Depends on Its Ability to Produce Goods and Services How the Economy as a Whole Works We started by discussing how individuals make decisions and then looked at how people interact with one another. All these decisions and interactions together make up “the economy”. The last three principles concern the workings of the economy as a whole. The differences in living standards around the world are staggering. In 1993, the average American had an income of about $25,000. In the same year, the average Mexican earned $7,000, and the average Nigerian earned $1,500. Not surprisingly, 32

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this large variation in average income is reflected in various measures of the quality of life. Citizens of high-income countries have more TV sets, more cars, better nutrition, better health care, and longer life expectancy than citizens of low-income countries. Changes in living standards over time are also large. In the United States, incomes have historically grown about 2 percent per year (after adjusting for changes in the cost of living). At this rate, average income doubles every 35 years. In some countries, economic growth has been even more rapid. In Japan, for instance, average income has doubled in the past 20 years, and in South Korea it has doubled in the past 10 years. What explains these large differences in living standards among countries and over time? The answer is surprisingly simple. Almost all variation in living standards is attributable to differences in countries' productivity—that is, the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker's time. In nations where workers can produce a large quantity of goods and services per unit of time, most people enjoy a high standard of living; in nations where workers are less productive, most people must endure a more meager existence. Similarly, the growth rate of a nation's productivity determines the growth rate of its average income. The fundamental relationship between productivity and living standards is simple, but its implications are far-reaching. If productivity is the primary determinant of living standards, other explanations must be of secondary importance. For example, it might be tempting to credit labor unions or minimum-wage laws for the rise in living standards of American workers over the past century. Yet the real hero of American workers is their rising productivity. As another example, some commentators have claimed that increased competition from Japan and other countries explains slow growth in U.S. incomes in recent years. Yet the real villain is not competition from abroad but flagging productivity growth in the United States. The relationship between productivity and living standards also has profound implications for public policy. When thinking about how any policy will affect living standards, the key question is how it will affect our ability to produce goods and services. To boost living standards, policymakers need to raise productivity by ensuring that workers are well educated, have the tools needed to produce goods and services, and have access to the best available technology. Over the past decade, for example, much debate in the United States has centered on the government's budget defic it—the excess of government spending over government revenue. As we will see, concern over the budget deficit is based largely on its adverse impact on productivity. When the government needs to finance a budget deficit, it does so by borrowing in financial markets, much as a student might borrow to finance a college education or a firm might borrow to finance a new factory. As the government borrows to finance its deficit, therefore, it reduces the quantity of funds available for other borrowers. The budget deficit thereby reduces investment both in human capital (the student's education) and physical capital (the firm's factory). Because lower investment today means lower productivity in the future, budget deficits are generally thought to depress growth in living standards. 33

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Key concepts productivity –

the quantity of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time

Words to remember living standards –

уровень жизни

measure -

мера; единица измерения

quality -

качество

quantity –

количество

nutrition –

питание, еда, корм, пища

life expectancy -

вероятная продолжительность жизни

economic growth -

экономический рост

rapid -

быстрый, скорый, стремительный

productivity -

производительность, продуктивность

amount -

величина, количество

per unit of time –

за единицу времени

meager existence –

cкудное существование

to increase -

возрастать, увеличивать(ся); расти;

villain -

главный виновник, злодей

flagging -

никнущий, слабеющий

profound -

сильный, глубокий; чрезвычайный

budget deficit –

дефицит бюджета

excess -

избыток, излишек, излишнее количество

revenue -

доход; выручка

borrowing -

одалживание, заимствование

Gross National Happiness Gross national happiness is more important than gross national product. That's the official government policy of King Jigme Singye Wangchuck of Bhutan, ruler of what some have called 'the last paradise on earth'. Indeed, his programme of careful economic development and gradual change has so far ensured that Bhutan, 34

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completely isolated from the rest of the world until 1961, has managed to balance the need to progress into the 21st century with the need to preserve its cultural heritage. But there's trouble in paradise. Tiny Bhutan lies in the Himalayas, squeezed between the world's two most densely populated countries, China and India. Roughly the same size as Switzerland, Bhutan is a country of dense forest and breathtaking mountain ranges - at 22,623 feet, Gangkhar Puensum is the highest unclimbed peak in the world. This haven of peace and natural beauty is home to a multitude of exotic wildlife, including the endangered red panda and almost mythical snow leopard. Brightly colored prayer flags fly from every hillside. The people here follow the Buddhist Middle Way, a philosophy based on pacifism, paternalism and egalitarianism. Time itself is measured differently in Bhutan - not in hours and minutes, but in kalpas, a unit of time equivalent to several million years. At least, that's how it used to be. For now technology has finally come to this remote farming community. Foreign investment has helped build up the country's infrastructure, improve health and education and create a growing tourist industry. Cybercafes have opened in the capital, Thimphu, and the television aerials rising from the rooftops may soon outnumber the prayer flags. But the traditional way of life, upon which so much of Bhutan's 'national happiness' has depended, is under threat. In 1998 the king of Bhutan decentralised power and appointed a central cabinet. The country now has a seat at the UN. But the Bhutanese themselves seem divided over their country's future. Should they continue to reap the many benefits progress has already brought or try to regulate the accelerating pace of change while there's still time? Answer the questions 1. What is the official government policy regarding the King of Bhutan? 2. When did Bhutan open up to the world? 3. Where is Bhutan situated? Describe its geographical position. 4. What have you learnt about Gangkhar Puensum? 5. What does the word ‘kalpas’ mean? 6. How did foreign investments change the economy of the country? 7. The politics and economy of any country can’t be separated. Prove this by giving an example from the text. 8. With what countries does Bhutan border? 9. What philosophy do the people in Bhutan follow? 10. Why is Bhutan called ‘the last paradise on earth’? Fill in the gaps using the words given (quality, decentralized, living standards, investment, doubles, boost, productivity, minimum-wage) 35

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1. Not surprisingly, this large variation in average income is reflected in various measures of the _____ of life. 2. Changes in _____ over time are also large. 3. At this rate, average income _____ every 35 years. 4. Similarly, the growth rate of a nation's _____ determines the growth rate of its average income. 5. For example, it might be tempting to credit labor unions or _____ laws for the rise in living standards of American workers over the past century. 6. To _____ living standards, policymakers need to raise productivity by ensuring that workers are well educated, have the tools needed to produce goods and services, and have access to the best available technology. 7. Foreign _____ has helped build up the country's infrastructure, improve health and education and create a growing tourist industry. 8. In 1998 the king of Bhutan _____ power and appointed a central cabinet.

LESSON 9 Principle #9: Prices Rise When the Government Prints Too Much Money In Germany in January 1921, a daily newspaper cost 0.30 marks. Less than two years later, in November 1922, the same newspaper cost 70,000,000 marks. All other prices in the economy rose by similar amounts. This episode is one of his tory's most spectacular examples of inflation, an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy. Although the United States has never experienced inflation even close to that in Germany in the 1920s, inflation has at times been an economic problem. During the 1970s, for instance, the overall level of prices more than doubled, and President Gerald Ford called inflation "public enemy number one.'' By contrast, in the 1990s, inflation has been about 3 percent per year; at this rate it would take over 20 years for prices to double. Because high inflation imposes various costs on society, keeping inflation at a low level is a goal of economic policymakers around the world. What causes inflation? In most cases of large or persistent inflation, the culprit turns out to be the same—growth in the quantity of money. When a government creates large quantities of the nation's money, the value of the money falls. In Germany in the early 1920s, when prices were on average tripling every month, the quantity of money was also tripling every month. Although less dramatic, the economic history of the United States points to a similar conclusion: The high inflation of the 1970s was associated with rapid growth in the quantity of money, and 36

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the low inflation of the 1990s has been associated with slow growth in the quantity of money.

Principle #10: Society Faces a Short-Run Tradeoff between Inflation and Unemployment If inflation is so easy to explain, why do policymakers sometimes have trouble ridding the economy of it? One reason is that reducing inflation is often thought to cause a temporary rise in unemployment. This tradeoff between inflation and unemployment is called the Phillips curve, after the economist who first examined this relationship. The Phillips curve remains a controversial topic among economists, but most economists today accept the idea that there is a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment. According to a common explanation, this tradeoff arises because some prices are slow to adjust. Suppose, for example, that the government reduces the quantity of money in the economy. In the long run, the only result of this policy change will be a fall in the overall level of prices. Yet not all prices will adjust immediately. It may take several years before all firms issue new catalogs, all unions make wage concessions, and all restaurants print new menus. That is, prices are said to be sticky in the short run. Because prices are sticky, various types of government policy have short-run effects that differ from their long-run effects. When the government reduces the quantity of money, for instance, it reduces the amount that people spend. Lower spending, together with prices that are stuck too high, reduces the quantity of goods and services that firms sell. Lower sales, in turn, cause firms to lay off workers. Thus, the reduction in the quantity of money raises unemployment temporarily until prices have fully adjusted to the change. The tradeoff between inflation and unemployment is only temporary, but it can last for several years. The Phillips curve is, therefore, crucial for understanding many developments in the economy. In particular, policymakers can exploit this tradeoff using various policy instruments. By changing the amount that the government spends, the amount it taxes, and the amount of money it prints, policymakers can, in the short run, influence the combination of inflation and unemployment that the economy experiences. Because these instruments of monetary and fiscal policy are potentially so powerful, how policymakers should use these instruments to control the economy, if at all, is a subject of continuing debate. Key concepts inflation -

an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy

Phillips curve –

the short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment 37

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Words to remember spectacular -

производящий глубокое впечатление; эффектный

overall level of prices – общий уровень цен to experience -

испытывать, знать по опыту, переживать

to cause -

быть причиной, вызывать; причинять

culprit -

преступник; виновный, правонарушитель

to double -

удваиваться

to triple -

утраиваться

conclusion -

итог, результат, следствие

to rid -

освобождать, избавлять (of - от чего-л., кого-л.)

to reduce -

ослаблять, понижать, сокращать, уменьшать

temporary -

временный

unemployment -

безработица

controversial -

спорный, сомнительный; дискуссионный

to adjust –

исправлять; улаживать, приспосабливать, согласовывать, регулировать

in the long run -

в конце концов; в общем

overall level of prices - общий уровень цен, предельный уровень цен in the short run -

в течение короткого периода времени, кратковременно; в краткосрочном плане

to lay off -

увольнять

crucial -

ключевой, наиболее значительный, решающий

exploit -

пользоваться, использовать, эксплуатировать

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QUICK QUI Z list and briefly explain the three principles that describe how the economy as a whole works

The Federal Reserve Whenever an economy relies on a system of fiat money, as the U.S. economy does, some agency must be responsible for regulating the system. In the United States, that agency is the Federal Reserve, often simply called the Fed. If you look at the top of a dollar bill, you will see that it is called a "Federal Reserve Note.'' The Fed is an example of a central bank—an institution designed to oversee the banking system and regulate the quantity of money in the economy. Other major central banks around the world include the Bank of England, the Bank of Japan, and Germany's Bundesbank. The Fed's Organization The Federal Reserve was created in 1914 after a series of bank failures in 1907 convinced Congress that the United States needed a central bank to ensure the health of the nation's banking system. Today, the Fed is run by its Board of Governors, which has seven members appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. The governors have 14-year terms. Just as federal judges are given lifetime appointments to insulate them from politics, Fed governors are given long terms to give them independence from short-term political pressures when they formulate monetary policy. Among the seven members of the Board of Governors, the most important is the chairman. The chairman directs the Fed staff, presides over board meetings, and testifies regularly about Fed policy in front of Congressional committees. The president appoints the chairman to a four-year term. The Federal Reserve System is made up of the Federal Reserve Board in Washington, D.C., and 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks located in major cities around the country. (If you look at any dollar bill, you can find the name of the regional bank that issued that dollar.) The presidents of the regional banks are chosen by each bank's board of directors, whose members are typically drawn from the local banking and business community. The Fed has two related jobs. The first job is to regulate banks and ensure the health of the banking system. This task is largely the responsibility of the regional Federal Reserve Banks. In particular, the Fed monitors each bank’s financial condition and helps to facilitate bank transactions by clearing checks. It also acts as a banker's bank. That is, the Fed makes loans to banks when banks themselves want to borrow. When financially troubled banks find themselves short of cash, the Fed acts as a lender of last resort—a lender to those who can not borrow anywhere else—in order to maintain stability in the overall banking system. The Fed's second and more important job is to control the quantity of money that is made available in the economy, called the money supply. Decisions by policymakers concerning the money supply constitute monetary policy. At the 39

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Federal Reserve, monetary policy is made by the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC). Answer the questions 1. What agency is responsible for regulating the system of money in the USA? 2. What other major central banks around the world do you know? 3. What can you read on the top of a dollar bill? 4. When and why was the Federal Reserve created? 5. Who runs the Fed? 6. What authorities do Fed governors have? 7. What’s the term length of governors? 8. What are the functions of the Fed chairman? 9. How is the Federal Reserve System organized? 10. What two related jobs does the Fed have? Fill in the gaps using the words given (value, regulate, inflation, borrow, unemployment, temporary, concessions) 1. This episode is one of history's most spectacular examples of_____, an increase in the overall level of prices in the economy. 2. When a government creates large quantities of the nation's money, the _____ of the money falls. 3. This trade off between inflation and _____ is called the Phillips curve, after the economist who first examined this relationship. 4. It may take several years before all firms issue new catalogs; all unions make wage_____, and all restaurants print new menus. 5. The tradeoff between inflation and unemployment is only _____, but it can last for several years. 6. The Fed is an example of a central bank—an institution designed to over-see the banking system and _____ the quantity of money in the economy. 7. That is, the Fed makes loans to banks when banks themselves want to _____.

LESSON 10 Interdependence and the Gains from Trade Consider your typical day. You wake up in the morning, and you pour yourself juice from oranges grown in Florida and coffee from beans grown in Brazil. Over breakfast, you watch a news program broadcast from New York on your television 40

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made in Japan. You get dressed in clothes made of cotton grown in Georgia and sewn in factories in Thailand. You drive to class in a car made of parts manufactured in more than a dozen countries around the world. Then you open up your economics textbook written by an author living in Massachusetts, published by a company located in Texas, and printed on paper made from trees grown in Oregon. Every day you rely on many people from around the world, most of whom you do not know, to provide you with the goods and services that you enjoy. Such interdependence is possible because people trade with one another. Those people who provide you with goods and services are not acting out of generosity or concern for your welfare. Nor is some government agency directing them to make what you want and to give it to you. Instead, people provide you and other consumers with the goods and services they produce because they get something in return. Our economy coordinates the activities of millions of people with varying tastes and abilities. Let’s consider the reasons for economic interdependence. One of the Ten Principles of Economics highlighted in previous lessons is that trade can make everyone better off. This principle explains why people trade with their neighbors and why nations trade with other nations. In this lesson we examine this principle more closely. What exactly do people gain when they trade with one another? Why do people choose to become interdependent? To understand why people choose to depend on others for goods and services and how this choice improves their lives, let's look at a simple economy. Imagine that there are two goods in the world—meat and potatoes. And there are two people in the world—a cattle rancher and a potato farmer—each of whom would like to eat both meat and potatoes. The gains from trade are most obvious if the rancher can produce only meat and the farmer can produce only potatoes. In one scenario, the rancher and the farmer could choose to have nothing to do with each other. But after several months of eating beef roasted, boiled, broiled, and grilled, the rancher might decide that selfsufficiency is not all it's cracked up to be. The farmer, who has been eating potatoes mashed, fried, baked, and scalloped, would likely agree. It is easy to see that trade would allow them to enjoy greater variety: Each could then have a hamburger with French fries. Although this scene illustrates most simply how everyone can benefit from trade, the gains would be similar if the rancher and the farmer were each capable of producing the other good, but only at great cost. Suppose, for example, that the potato farmer is able to raise cattle and produce meat, but that he is not very good at it. Similarly, suppose that the cattle rancher is able to grow potatoes, but that her land is not very well suited for it. In this case, it is easy to see that the farmer and the rancher can each benefit by specializing in what he or she does best and then trading with the other. The gains from trade are less obvious, however, when one person is better at producing every good. For example, suppose that the rancher is better at raising cattle and better at growing potatoes than the farmer. In this case, should the rancher or farmer choose to remain self-sufficient? Or is there still reason for them to trade with 41

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each other? To answer this question, one must look more closely at the factors that affect such a decision.

Words to remember interdependence -

взаимозависимость

to manufacture -

производить, изготовлять; делать, обрабатывать

generosity –

великодушие, благородство, щедрость

to rely (on, upon) -

полагаться (на кого-то)

to provide with -

снабжать; доставлять; обеспечивать (чем-л. материальным)

to coordinate -

координировать, согласовывать

to highlight -

выделять, подчеркивать; отводить главное место; выдвигать на первый план

to gain -

выигрывать

to improve -

улучшать

variety -

разнообразие

self-sufficient -

самостоятельный; автономный; независимый

Price Discrimination So far we have been assuming that the monopoly firm charges the same price to all customers. Yet in many cases firms try to sell the same good to different customers for different prices. This practice is called price discrimination. Before discussing the behavior of a price-discriminating monopolist, we should note that price discrimination is not possible when a good is sold in a competitive market. In a competitive market, there are many firms selling the same good at the market price. No firm is willing to charge a lower price to any customer because the firm can sell all it wants at the market price. And if any firm tried to charge a higher price to a customer, that customer would buy from another firm. For a firm to price discriminate, it must have some market power. Firms use various business strategies aimed at charging different prices to different customers. Let’s consider three simple examples. 42

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Movie Tickets Many movie theaters charge a lower price for children and senior citizens than for other patrons. This fact is hard to explain in a competitive market. In a competitive market, price equals marginal cost, and the marginal cost of providing a seat for a child or senior citizen is the same as the marginal cost of providing a seat for anyone else. Yet this fact is easily explained if movie theaters have some local monopoly power and if children and senior citizens have a lower willingness to pay for a ticket. In this case, movie theaters raise their profit by price discriminating. Airline Prices Seats on airplanes are sold at many different prices. Most airlines charge a lower price for a round-trip ticket between two cities if the traveler stays over a Saturday night. At first this seems odd. Why should it matter to the airline whether a passenger stays over a Saturday night? The reason is that this rule provides a way to separate business travelers and personal travelers. A passenger on a business trip has a high willingness to pay and, most likely, does not want to stay over a Saturday night. By contrast, a passenger traveling for personal reasons has a lower willingness to pay and is more likely to be willing to stay over a Saturday night. Thus, the airlines can successfully price discriminate by charging a lower price for passengers who stay over a Saturday night. Quantity Discounts So far in our examples of price discrimination, the monopolist charges different prices to different customers. Sometimes, however, monopolists price discriminate by charging different prices to the same customer for different units that customer buys. For example, many firms offer lower prices to customers who buy large quantities. A bakery might charge $0.50 for each donut, but $5 for a dozen. This is a form of price discrimination because the customer pays a higher price for the first unit bought than for the twelfth. Quantity discounts are often a successful way of price discriminating because a customer’s willingness to pay for an additional unit declines as the customer buys more units. Answer the questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Are all customers in an equal position when they buy goods? What does “price discrimination” stand for? Is price discrimination possible in competitive market? Why? What must a firm have to price discriminate? Do movie theaters price discriminate? How do they do it? Are airline prices different? What factors do they depend on? Into what two categories do airlines divide customers? What characteristics of business travelers are important for airline companies? Is a passenger traveling for personal reasons more or less willing to pay? 43

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10. Talk about quantity discounts. What other examples of price discrimination do you know? Fill in the gaps using the words given (gains, consumers, trade, generosity, manufactured, restricted, support) 1. You drive to class in a car made of parts _____ in more than a dozen countries around the world. 2. Those people who provide you with goods and services are not acting out of _____ or concern for your welfare. 3. Instead, people provide you and other _____ with the goods and services they produce because they get something in return. 4. The _____ from trade are most obvious if the rancher can produce only meat and the farmer can produce only potatoes. 5. It is easy to see that _____ would allow them to enjoy greater variety. 6. Ricardo put his economic beliefs to work as a member of the British Parliament, where he opposed the Corn Laws, which _____ the import of grain. 7. Although economists often disagree on questions of policy, they are united in their _____ of free trade.

LESSON 11 Economic Theory The task of economic theory or analysis is to systematically arrange, interpret, and generalize upon facts. Principles and theories—the end result of economic analys is—bring order and meaning to a number of facts by tying these facts together, putting them in correct relationship to one another, and generalizing upon them. "Theories without facts may be barren, but facts without theories are meaningless.""(Kenneth E. Boulding, Economic Analysis: Microeconomics, 4th ed. (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, Incorporated, 1966, p. 5.) Principles and theories are meaningful statements drawn from facts, but facts, in turn, serve as a constant check on the validity of princ iples already established. Facts—how individuals and institutions actually behave in producing, exchanging, and consuming goods and services—change with time. This makes it essential that economists continuously check existing principles and theories against the changing economic environment. The history of economic ideas is strewn with once-valid generalizations about economic behavior which were rendered obsolete by the changing course of events. Terminology. A word on terminology is essential at this juncture. Economists talk about "laws," "principles," "theories," and "models." These terms all mean 44

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essentially the same thing: generalizations, or statements of regularity, concerning the economic behavior of individuals and institutions. The term "economic law" is a bit misleading because it implies a high degree of exactness, universal application, and even moral rightness. So, to a lesser degree, does the term “principle”. And some people incorrectly associate the term "theory" with idle pipe dreams and ivory-tower hallucinations, divorced from the facts and realities of the world. The term "model" has much to commend it. A model is a s implified picture of reality, an abstract generalization of how the relevant data actually behave. Generalizations. Economic principles are generalizations and, as the term implies, characterized by somewhat imprecise quantitative statement. Economic facts are usually diverse; some individuals and institutions act one way and some another way. Economic principles are therefore frequently stated in terms of averages or statistical probabilities. For example, when economists say that the average household earned an income of about $32,000 in 1988, they are generalizing. It is recognized that some households earned much more and a good many others much less. Yet this generalization, properly handled and interpreted, can be very meaningful and useful. "Other things equal" assumption. Like other scientists, economists make use of the ceteris paribus or “other things being equal” assumption in constructing their generalizations. That is, they assume all other variables except those under immediate consideration are held constant. This technique simplifies the reasoning process by isolating the relationship under consideration. In the natural sciences controlled experiments usually can be performed where "all other things" are in fact held constant or virtually so. Thus, scientists can test the assumed relationship between two variables with great precision. But economics is not a laboratory science. The economist's process of empirical verification is based upon "real-world" data generated by the actual operation of the economy. In this rather bewildering environment "other things" do change. Despite the development of rather complex statistical techniques designed to hold other things equal, such controls are less than perfect. As a result, economic principles are less certain and less precise in application than those of the laboratory sciences. Macro and micro. There are two essentially different levels of analys is at which the economist may derive laws concerning economic behavior. The level of macroeconomics is concerned either with the economy as a whole or with the bas ic subdivis ions or aggregates—such as the government, household, and business sectors—which make up the economy. An aggregate is a collection of specific economic units which are treated as if they were one unit. Thus, we might find it convenient to lump together the almost eighteen million businesses in our economy and treat them as if they were one huge unit. In dealing with aggregates, macroeconomics is concerned with obtaining an overview, or general outline, of the structure of the economy and the relationships among the major aggregates which constitute the economy. No attention is given to the specific units which make up the various aggregates. It is not surprising, then, to find that macroeconomics entails discussions of such magnitudes as total output, the total level of employment, total income, total expenditures, the general level of prices, and so forth, in analyzing 45

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various economic problems. In short, macroeconomics examines the forest, not the trees. It gives us a bird's-eye view of the economy. On the other hand, microeconomics is concerned with specific economic units and a detailed consideration of the behavior of these individual units. When operating at this level of analys is, the economist figuratively puts an economic unit, or very small segment of the economy, under the microscope to observe the details of its operation. Here we talk in terms of an individual industry, firm, or household, and concentrate upon such magnitudes as the output or price of a specific product, the number of workers employed by a single firm, the revenue or income of a particular firm or household, the expenditures of a given firm or family, and so forth. In microeconomics we examine the trees, not the forest. Microeconomics is useful in achieving a worm's-eye view of some very specific component of our economic system. Key concepts macroeconomics microeconomics -

the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets

Words to remember to arrange -

улаживать, приводить в порядок

to interpret -

объяснять, толковать, интерпретировать

to generalize -

обобщать; сводить к общим законам

to tie -

связывать

barren -

бесплодный, неплодородный, непродуктивный

validity -

действительнос ть,

обоснованность,

вескость, достоверность essential -

существенный, весьма важный,

strewn -

разбросанный

obsolete -

вышедший из употребления, устарелый, изношенный 46

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misleading -

вводящий в заблуждение, обманчивый

exactness -

точность; аккуратнос ть, пунктуальность

universal application –

всестороннее применение

divorced from the facts –

оторванные от фактов

imprecise -

неопределенный, неточный

aggregate -

соединение, совокупность, совокупная величина

expenditure -

издержки, расход(ы) (for)

to entail -

влечь за собой; вызывать что-л. ; навлекать

John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) The English economist John Maynard Keynes is regarded as the father of modern macroeconomics. In 1935 George Bernard Shaw received a letter from John Maynard Keynes in which Keynes asserted, "I believe myself to be writing a book on economic theory which will largely revolutionize . . . the way the world thinks about economic problems." And, in fact, Keynes' The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936) did revolutionize economic analys is and established Keynes as one of the most brilliant and influential economists of all time. The son of an eminent English economist, Keynes was educated at Eton and Cambridge. While his early interests were in mathematics and probability theory, Keynes ultimately turned to economics. Keynes was far more than an economist: He was an incredibly active, manysided man who also played such diverse roles as principal representative of the Treasury at the World War I Paris Peace Conference, deputy for the Chancellor of the Exchequer, a director of the Bank of England, trustee of the National Gallery, chairman of the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts, bursar of King's College, Cambridge, editor of the Economic Journal, chairman of the Notion and later the New Statesman magazines, and chairman of the National Mutual Life Assurance Society. He also ran an investment company, organized the Camargo Ballet (his wife, Lydia Lopokova, was a renowned star of the Russian imperial Ballet), and built (profitably) the Arts Theatre at Cambridge. In addition, Keynes found time to amass a $2 million personal fortune by speculating in stocks, international currencies, and commodities. He was also a

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leading figure in the "Bloomsbury group," an avant-garde group of intellectual luminaries who greatly influenced the artistic and literary standards of England. Most importantly, Keynes was a prolific scholar. His books encompassed such widely ranging topics as probability theory, monetary economics, and the economic consequences of the World War I peace treaty. His magnum opus, however, was the aforementioned General Theory which has been described by John Kenneth Galbraith as "a work of profound obscurity, badly written and prematurely published." Yet the General Theory convincingly attacked the classical economists' contention that recession would cure itself. Keynes claimed that the capitalistic system contained no automatic mechanism capable of propelling it toward full employment. The economy might languish indefinitely in depression and poverty. Indeed, the massive unemployment of the worldwide depression of the 1930s seemed to provide sufficient empirical evidence that Keynes was right. His basic policy recommendation—a startling one at the time—was for government to increase its spending in order to induce more production and put the unemployed back to work. Answer the questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

When was John Keynes born? Where did he study? What do you know about these places? What preceded John Keynes’s economic interests? Describe his activities other than economics. What is the “Bloomsbury group”? Tell about John Keynes’s links with art. Tell about John Keynes as a scholar. What assessment did Galbraith give to John Keynes’s General Theory? Was his approach different from that of classical economists’ contention? What was his basic policy recommendation for the government to do? Fill in the gaps using the words given

(poverty, monetary, generalize, expenditures, principles, aggregate, frequently) 1. The task of economic theory or analysis is to systematically arrange, interpret, and ______ upon facts. 2. _____ and theories are meaningful statements drawn from facts, but facts, in turn, serve as a constant check on the validity of principles already established. 3. Economic principles are therefore_____ stated in terms of averages or statistical probabilities. 4. An _____ is a collection of specific economic units which are treated as if they were one unit. 5. It is not surprising, then, to find that macroeconomics entails discussions of such magnitudes as total output, the total level of employment, total income,

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total_____, the general level of prices, and so forth, in analyzing various economic problems. 6. His books encompassed such widely ranging topics as probability theory, _____ economics, and the economic consequences of the World War I peace treaty. 7. The economy might languish indefinitely in depression and _____.

LESSON 12 Economic Goals It is important at this point that we note, and reflect upon, a number of economic goals or value judgments which are widely, though not universally, accepted in our society and, indeed, in many other societies. These goals may be briefly listed as follows: 1 ECONOMIC GROWT H The production of more and better goods and services, or, more simply stated, a higher standard of living, is desired. 2 FULL EMPLOYMENT Suitable jobs should be available for all who are willing and able to work. 3 ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY We want to get the maximum benefits at the minimum cost from the limited productive resources which are available. 4 PRICE LEVEL STABILITY Sizable upswings or downswings in the general price level, that is, inflation and deflation, should be avoided. 5 ECONOMIC FREEDOM Bus iness executives, workers, and consumers should enjoy a high degree of freedom in their economic activities. 6 AN EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME No group of citizens should face stark poverty while other citizens enjoy extreme luxury. 7 ECONOMIC SECURITY Provision should be made for those who are chronically ill, disabled, handicapped, aged, or otherwise dependent. 8 BALANCE OF TRADE We seek a reasonable balance in our international trade and financial transactions. This list of widely accepted goals (There are other goals which might be added. For example, improving the physical environment is a widely held goal) provides the basis for several significant points. First, note that this or any other statement of basic economic goals inevitably entails problems of interpretation. What are "s izable" changes in the price level? What is a "high degree" of economic freedom? What is an "equitable" distribution of income? Although most of us might accept the above goals as generally stated, we might also disagree very substantially as to their specific meanings and hence as to the types of policies needed to attain these goals. It is noteworthy that, although goals 1 to 4 and 8 are subject to reasonably accurate measurements, the inability to quantify goals 5 to 7 undoubtedly contributes to controversy over their precise meaning. 49

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Second, certain of these goals are complementary in that to the extent one goal is achieved, some other goal or goals will also tend to be realized. For example, the achieving of full employment (goal 2) obvious ly means the elimination of unemployment, a bas ic cause of low incomes (goal 6) and economic insecurity (goal 7). Furthermore, considering goals 1 and 6, it is generally agreed that the sociopolitical tensions which may accompany a highly unequal distribution of income are tempered to the extent that most incomes rise absolutely as a result of economic growth. Third, some goals may be conflicting or mutually exclusive. Some economists argue that those forces which further the attainment of economic growth and full employment may be the very same forces which cause inflation. In fact, the apparent conflict between goals 2 and 4 has been at the forefront of economic research and debate in recent years. Goals 1 and 6 may also be in conflict. Some economists point out that efforts to achieve greater equality in the distribution of income may weaken incentives to work, invest, innovate, and take bus iness risks, that is, to do the things that promote rapid economic growth. They argue that government tends to equalize the distribution of income by taxing high-income people quite heavily and transferring those tax revenues to low-income people. The incentives of a highincome individual will be diminished because taxation reduces one's income rewards. Similarly, a low-income person will be less motivated to work and engage in other productive activities when government stands ready to subsidize that individual. International example: Through central planning the Soviet Union has been able to virtually eliminate unemployment with the result that this source of worker insecurity has almost disappeared completely. However, with little fear of losing one's job, Soviet workers are quite cavalier regarding work effort and therefore productivity and efficiency in the Soviet Union are quite low. Here we have a conflict between goal 7, economic security, and goal 1, the growth of worker productivity. This leads us to a fourth point: When basic goals do conflict, society is forced to develop a system of priorities for the objectives it seeks. To illustrate: If full employment and price stability are to some extent mutually exclusive, that is, if full employment is accompanied by some inflation and price stability entails some unemployment, society must decide upon the relative importance of these two goals. Suppose the relevant choice is between, say, a 7 percent annual increase in the price level accompanied by full employment on the one hand, and a perfectly stable price level with 8 percent of the labor force unemployed on the other. Which is the better choice? Or how about a compromise goal in the form of, say, a 4 percent increase in the price level each year with 6 percent of the labor force out of work? There is clearly ample room for disagreement here. Key concepts economic growth -

an increase either in real output (Gross National Product) or in real output per capita 50

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GNP balanced trade -

the total market value of all Final goods and services produced in the economy during a year a situation in which exports equals imports

Words to remember judgments –

суждение; решение суда

economic growth -

экономический рост

full employment -

полная занятость, работа полный рабочий день/на полную ставку

available -

наличный, имеющийся в распоряжении

economic efficiency -

рентабельнос ть

price level stability -

стабильность уровня цен

upswing -

подъем; улучшение

downswing -

падение, снижение, спад, упадок

economic freedom -

экономическая независимость/свобода

an equitable distribution –

равноправное распределение (дохода)

stark poverty –

абсолютная (крайняя) беднос ть

extreme luxury –

чрезмерная роскошь

economic security –

экономическая надежнос ть (стабильность)

balance of trade -

активный баланс ( внешней торговли )

complementary -

добавочный, дополнительный

financial transactions –

финансовые сделки

inevitably -

неизбежно, неминуемо

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The Cost of Living They say that people's standard of living is going up all the time. Well I don't know about the standard of living, but the cost of living is certainly going up. Before I even see my salary, the Government takes about 30% of it away in income tax. Then I have to pay the rent for the apartment, which the landlord's just put up again. And on top of that there are all the bills for heating, phone and electricity. It's no better at the shops, either. The price of food is unbelievably high these days. I used to be able to save money, but last year I had to close my savings account, because there was no money left in it. And it's getting worse: last month I spent my whole salary in just one week, and I had to ask my manager for a loan to last me till the end of the month. It's enough to make you want to jump in front of a train. Only I haven't got any life insurance. I can't afford it - it's too expensive.

A Waste of Money A I think things are a waste of money if you buy them simply as a status symbol, if you buy them to show off or you do something in order to, just to show how much money you've got to spend. So things can be a waste of money at times, and at other times they're not a waste of money. So if you go to a very expensive restaurant and have a very expensive meal just to show everybody that you can afford it, and ‘Look how rich I am’, then I think that's a waste of money. If you buy a very expensive car just because you want everybody to say ‘Oh he must be rich’ or ‘She must be rich’ then it's a waste of money. But if you buy, do these things because to you they're special or because they're a treat, and you don't do it extravagantly, you do it because you just enjoy it so much, then I think that's fine. B I saw an advertisement for a perfume the other day, and the only words on the advertisement were ‘The most costly perfume in the world’. Whether it smells wonderful or not, obviously the most important thing here is either for the man to give a woman a very expensive present or for the woman to have it seen on her dressing table. And again it's what you say, it's ostentation, it isn't - I mean, if it smells wonderful then fine, but if it's simply for the expense and to show off then yes, it is a waste of money. Answer the questions 1. What’s the difference between the standard of living and cost of living? 2. Is people's standard of living changing all the time? What about the cost of living? 3. What is the amount of income tax according to the text? What is the amount of income tax in your country? 52

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4. Where does the speaker spend his/her money before he/she even sees the salary? 5. How has the financial situation of the speaker changed since the previous year? 6. How much time did it take the speaker to spend his/her salary last month? 7. Is the speaker going to jump in front of a train? Why? 8. How does A explain the meaning of “a waste of money”? 9. What is B’s viewpoint? 10. What do you consider to be ”a waste of money”? Fill in the gaps using the words given (mutually exclusive, tends, price, salary, stable, distribution, tax, annual, rewards, taxing) 1. What is an "equitable" _____ of income? 2. Some goals may be conflicting or _____. 3. They argue that government _____ to equalize the distribution of income by _____ high-income people quite heavily and transferring those tax revenues to lowincome people. 4. The incentives of a high-income individual will be diminished because taxation reduces one's income _____. 5. Suppose the relevant choice is between, say, a 7 percent _____increase in the price level accompanied by full employment on the one hand, and a perfectly _____ price level with 8 percent of the labor force unemployed on the other. 6. Before I even see my_____, the Government takes about 30% of it away in income _____. 7. The _____ of food is unbelievably high these days.

LESSON 13 Graph & their Meaning Economists often use graphs to illustrate their models, and by understanding these "pictures" students can more readily comprehend what economists are saying. Most of the principles or models explain the relationship between just two sets of economic facts; therefore, simple two-dimensional graphs are a convenient way of visualizing and manipulating these relationships.

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Constructing a graph A graph is merely a visual representation of the relationship between two

variables.

Table 1 provides us with a simple hypothetical illustration which shows the relationship between income and consumption. Without ever having studied economics, one would expect intuitively that high-income people would consume more than low-income people. Thus we are not surprised to find in Table 1 that consumption increases as income increases. How can the information in Table 1 be expressed graphically? Glance at the graph shown in Figure 1. Now look back at the information in Table 1 and we will explain how to represent that information in a meaningful way by constructing the graph you just examined. What we are trying to show visually, or graphically, is how consumption changes as income changes. Since income is the determining factor, we represent it on the horizontal axis of the graph as is customary. And, because consumption is dependent upon income, we represent it on the vertical axis of the graph as is also customary. Actually, what we are doing is representing the independent variable on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the vertical axis. Now we simply have to arrange the vertical and horizontal scales of the graph so that they conveniently reflect the range of values of consumption and income, as well as to mark the steps in convenient graphic increments. As you can see, the ranges in the graph cover the ranges of values in Table 1. Similarly, as it so happens in this example, the increments on both scales are $100 for approximately each halfinch. Next, we have to locate for each consumption value and the income value that it depends upon a single point which reflects the same information graphically. Our 54

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five income-consumption combinations are plotted by drawing perpendiculars from the appropriate points on the vertical and horizontal axes. For example, in plotting point C— the $200 income - $150 consumption point - perpendiculars must be drawn up from the horizontal (income) axis at $200 and across from the vertical (consumption) axis at $150. These perpendiculars intersect at point C. which locates this particular income-consumption combination. You should verify that the other income-consumption combinations shown in T able 1 are properly located in Figure 1. By assuming that the same general relationship between income and consumption prevails at all other points between the five points graphed, a line or curve can be drawn to connect these points. Us ing Figure 1 as a benchmark, we can now make a number of additiona l important comments. Direct and inverse relationships In this instance our ups loping line tells us that there is a direct relationship between income and consumption. By a pos itive or direct relationship we mean that the two variables—in this case consumption and income—change in the same direction. An increase in consumption is associated with an increase in income: conversely, a decrease in consumption is associated with a decrease in income. When two sets of data are pos itively or directly related, they will always graph as an upsloping line as in Figure 1. In contrast, two sets of data may be inversely related. Consider Table 2, which shows the relationship between the price of basketball tickets and game attendance at Gigantic State University. We observe a negative or inverse relationship between ticket prices and attendance: these two variables change in opposite directions. When ticket prices decrease, attendance increases. Conversely, when ticket prices increas e, attendance decreases. Words to remember to comprehend -

понимать, постигать, осмысливать, соображать

two-dimensional -

дву(х)мерный; плоский; поверхностный

convenient -

удобный, подходящий

variable –

переменная (величина)

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to provide (with) -

снабжать; доставлять; обеспечивать (чем-л. материальным)

to consume -

потреблять, расходовать, поглощать, тратить

as is customary –

как принято

to mark -

отмечать, обозначать, размечать

to cover –

охватывать

to reflect -

отражать

to plot -

изображать схему, диаграмму; чертить, вычерчивать ( график, кривую )

appropriate -

подходящий, соответс твующий ( to, for )

to verify -

контролировать, проверять, подтверждать

to prevail -

преобладать, господствовать, превалировать

benchmark -

эталон

conversely -

обратно; вспять, назад, наоборот

Some Words Used in Arithmetic add subtract multiply divide

7+8=15 21- 7=14 9 x 9=81 45: 3=15

addition subtraction multiplication division

This oblong measures 2 cm. by 5 cm Its area is 10 sq, cm.

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A square with sides that measure 10 cm. has an area of 100 sq. cm. The square of 7 (72 ) is 49. The square of 9 is 81. A table four foot square (a table with sides that are four feet) has an area of sixteen square feet. This circle has a diameter of two inches. Its radius is one inch. To find the area of a circle we multiply the square of the radius by π (the Greek letter p, pronounced pai). A=πr2 . 2 The area of this circle is 1 x 3,14 square inches.

Answer these questions: 1. What is the answer if you add 17 to 71? 2. What remains if you subtract 15 from 75? 3. What is the answer if you multiply 9 by 12? 4. What are 8 times 8? 5. Are ques tions 3 and 4 problems in divis ion or problems in multiplication? 6. What do 5, 6 and 7 add up to? 7. What is the answer if you divide 60 by 5? 8. If you divide 17 by 3, the answer will be 5 . . . and how many left over? 9. The oblong ABCD has sides that are 6 cm, and 4 cm. What is the area of the triangle ABD?

10. Think of a number—any number you like. Add 6 to it. Multiply the new number by 2 and then subtract 8 from the answer. Divide this answer by 2 and then subtract the number you first thought of. If the answer is 2, mark it right. If it is not 2, mark it wrong and do the question again.

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Fill in the gaps using the words given (comprehend, data, vertical axis, measure, hypothetical, independent variable, diameter, illustrate, consumption, direct relationship) 1. Economists often use graphs to _____ their models, and by understanding these "pictures" students can more readily _____ what economists are saying. 2. Table 1 provides us with a simple _____ illustration which shows the relationship between income and _____. 3. What we are doing is representing the _____ on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable on the _____. 4. By a pos itive or _____ we mean that the two variables—in this case consumption and income—change in the same direc tion. 5. When two sets of _____ are positively or directly related, they will always graph as an up-sloping line. 6. A square with sides that _____ 10 cm. has an area of 100 sq. cm. 7. This circle has a _____ of two inches.

LESSON 14 The Foundation of Economics (I) Two fundamental facts provide a foundation for the field of economics and, in fact, comprise the economizing problem. It is imperative that we carefully state and fully understand these two facts, because everything that follows in our study of economics depends directly or indirectly upon them. The first fact is this: Society's material wants, that is, the material wants of its citizens and institutions are virtually unlimited or insatiable. Second: Economic resources—the means of producing goods and services—are limited or scarce. Unlimited wants Let us systematically examine and explain these two facts in the order stated. In the first statement, precisely what do we mean by "material wants"? We mean, first, the desires of consumers to obtain and use various goods and services which provide utility, the economist's term for pleasure or satisfaction. (This definition leaves a variety of wants—recognition, status, love, and so forth—for the other social sciences to worry about.) An amazingly wide range of products fills the bill in this respect: houses, automobiles, toothpaste, compact-disc players, pizzas, sweaters, and the like. In short, innumerable products which we sometimes classify as necessities (food, shelter, clothing) and luxuries (perfumes, yachts, mink coats) are all capable of satisfying human wants. Needless to say, what is a luxury to Smith may be a 58

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necessity to Jones, and what is a commonplace necessity today may have been a luxury a few short years ago. But services satisfy our wants as much as do tangible products. A repair job on our car, the removal of our appendix, a haircut, and legal advice have in common with goods the fact that they satisfy human wants. On reflection, we realize that we indeed buy many goods, for example, automobiles and washing machines, for the services they render. The differences between goods and services are often less than they seem to be at first. Material wants also include those which businesses and units of government seek to satisfy. Businesses want factory buildings, machinery, trucks, warehouses, communications systems, and other things that assist them in realizing their production goals. Government, reflecting the collective wants of its citizenry or goals of its own, seeks highways, schools, hospitals, and military hardware. As a group, these material wants are, for practical purposes, insatiable, or unlimited, which means that material wants for goods and services are incapable of being completely satisfied. (It should be mentioned in passing that the fallacy of composition is relevant here. Our wants for a particular good or service can be satisfied; that is, over a short period of time we can get sufficient amounts of toothpaste or beer. Certainly one appendicitis operation is par for the course. But goods in general are another story. Here we do not, and presumably cannot, get enough.) A simple experiment will help to verify this point: Suppose we are asked to list those goods and services we want but do not now possess. If we take time to ponder our unfilled material wants, chances are our list will be impressive. And over a period of time, wants multiply so that, as we fill some of the wants on the list, at the same time we add new ones. Material wants, like rabbits, have a high reproduction rate. The rapid introduction of new products whets our appetites, and extensive advertising tries to persuade us that we need countless items we might not otherwise consider buying. Not too many years ago, the desire for personal computers, light beer, video recorders, digital watches, and microwave ovens was nonexistent. Furthermore, we often cannot stop with simple satisfaction: The acquisition of an Escort or Chevette has been known to whet the appetite for a Porsche or Mercedes. In summary, we may say that at any given time the individuals and institutions which constitute society have innumerable unfulfilled material wants. Some of these wants—food, clothing, and shelter—have biological roots. But some are also influenced by the conventions and customs of society: The specific kinds of food, clothing, and shelter we seek are frequently determined by the general social and cultural environment in which we live. Over time, wants change and multiply, abetted by the development of new products and by extensive advertis ing and sales promotion. Finally, let us emphatically add that the overall end or objective of all economic activity is the attempt to satisfy these diverse material wants.

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Key concepts economizing problem -

society’s material wants are unlimited but the resources available to produce the goods and services that satisfy wants are limited; the inability of any economy to produce unlimited quantities of goods and services

Words to remember foundation -

основа, основание; азы, базис

insatiable -

ненасытный; жадный, алчный ( of )

in the order stated –

в перечисленном порядке

to obtain -

получать; добывать; приобретать

utility -

выгодность, общественная полезнос ть

innumerable -

бессчетный, бесчисленный

necessities -

предметы первой необходимости

luxuries -

предметы роскоши

tangible –

осязаемый, ощутимый; вещественный, материальный

to possess -

обладать

collective wants –

коллективные нужды

military hardware –

военное оборудование

fallacy -

ошибка, заблуждение

to whet -

разжигать, раззадоривать; возбуждать (аппетит, желание)

advertising -

рекламирование, реклама, объявление, рекламное объявление

to persuade -

убеждать ( that, of - в чем-л.)

acquisition –

приобретение

to abet -

стимулировать, побуждать;

diverse -

многообразный, разнообразный, разный; 60

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Who Pays the Luxury Tax? In 1990, Congress adopted a new luxury tax on items such as yachts, private airplanes, furs, jewelry, and expensive cars. The goal of the tax was to raise revenue from those who could most easily afford to pay. Because only the rich can afford to buy such extravagances, taxing luxuries seemed a logical way of taxing the rich. Yet, when the forces of supply and demand took over, the outcome was quite different from what Congress intended. Consider, for example, the market for yachts. The demand for yachts is quite elastic. A millionaire can easily buy a yacht; she can use the money to buy a bigger house, take a European vacation, or leave a larger bequest to her heirs. By contrast, the supply of yachts is relatively inelastic, at least in the short run. Yacht factories are not easily converted to alternative uses, and workers who build yachts are not eager to change careers in response to changing market conditions. Our analysis makes a clear prediction in this case. With elastic demand and inelastic supply, the burden of a tax falls largely on the suppliers. That is, a tax on yachts places a burden largely on the firms and workers who build yachts because they end up getting a lower price for their product. The workers, however, are not wealthy. Thus, the burden of a luxury tax falls more on the middle class than on the rich. The mistaken assumptions about the incidence of the luxury tax quickly became apparent after the tax went into effect. Suppliers of luxuries made their congressional representatives well aware of the economic hardship they experienced, and Congress repealed most of the luxury tax in 1993. Answer the questions 1. On what goods did the Congress adopt a new luxury tax? 2. Are these the only luxury items? What can you add? 3. What was the goal of the 1990 luxury tax? 4. Did the outcome and Congress’s intentions coincide? 5. Does the demand for yachts vary? Why? 6. Does the supply for yachts vary? Why? 7. Who suffers when the demand is elastic and supply isn’t? 8. Why does the burden of a luxury tax fall more on the middle class than on the rich? 9. Who told the representatives from the Congress about the economic difficulties? 10. Did the Congress abandon most of the luxury tax? Fill in the gaps using the words given (material, necessities, amounts, burden, suppliers, fundamental, beer, tangible, hardship, luxuries) 61

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1. Two _____ facts provide a foundation for the field of economics and, in fact, comprise the economizing problem. 2. In short, innumerable products which we sometimes classify as _____(food, shelter, clothing) and _____(perfumes, yachts, mink coats) are all capable of satisfying human wants. 3. But services satisfy our wants as much as do _____ products. 4. _____ wants also include those which businesses and units of government seek to satisfy. 5. Our wants for a particular good or service can be satisfied; that is, over a short period of time we can get sufficient _____ of toothpaste or _____. 6. The _____ of a luxury tax falls more on the middle class than on the rich. 7. _____ of luxuries made their congressional representatives well aware of the economic _____ they experienced, and Congress repealed most of the luxury tax in 1993.

LESSON 15 The Foundation of Economics (II) Scarce resources Consider now the second fundamental fact: Economic resources are limited or scarce. What do we mean by ''economic resources"? In general, we are referring to all the natural, human, and manufac tured resources that go into the production of goods and services. This clearly covers a lot of ground: factory and farm buildings and all sorts of equipment, tools, and machinery used in the production of manufactured goods and agricultural products; a variety of transportation and communication facilities; innumerable types of labor; and, last but not least, land and mineral resources of all kinds. There is an apparent need for a simplified classification of such resources, which we shall meet with the following categories: (1) property resources—land or raw materials and capital; (2) human resources—labor and entrepreneurial ability. Resource categories Let us examine these various resource categories. LAND What does the economist mean by land? Much more than do most people. Land refers to all natural resources—all "gifts of nature"—which are usable in the productive process. Such resources as arable land, forests, mineral and oil deposits, and water resources come under this general classification. CAPIT AL What about capital? Capital, or investment goods, refers to all manufactured aids to production, that is, all tools, machinery, equipment, and factory, 62

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storage, transportation, and distribution facilities used in producing goods and services and getting them to the ultimate consumer. The process of producing and accumulating capital goods is known as investment. Two other points are pertinent. First, capital goods ("tools") differ from consumer goods in that the latter satisfy wants directly, whereas the former do so indirectly by facilitating the production of consumable goods. Second, the term "capital" as here defined does not refer to money. True, business executives and economists often talk of "money capital," meaning money which is available for use in the purchase of machinery, equipment, and other productive facilities. But money, as such, produces nothing: hence, it is not to be considered as an economic resource. Real capital— tools, machinery, and other productive equipment - is an economic resource; money or financial capital is not. LABOR Labor is a broad term which the economist uses in referring to all of the physical and mental talents of men and women which are usable in producing goods and services (with the exception of a special set of human talents— entrepreneurial ability—which, because of their special significance in a capitalistic economy, we choose to consider separately). Thus the services of a logger, retail clerk, machinist, teacher, professional football player, and nuclear physicist all fall under the general heading of labor. ENTREPRENEURIAL ABILITY Finally, what can be said about this special human resource which we label entrepreneurial ability, or, more simply, enterprise? We shall give the term a specific meaning by assigning four related functions to the entrepreneur. 1. The entrepreneur takes the initiative in combining the resources of land, capital, and labor in the production of a good or service. Both a sparkplug and a catalyst, the entrepreneur is at once the driving force behind production and the agent who combines the other resources in what is hoped will be a profitable venture. 2. The entrepreneur undertakes the chore of making basic business-policy decisions, that is, those nonroutine decisions which set the course of a business enterprise. 3. The entrepreneur is an innovator—the person who attempts to introduce on a commercial basis new products, new productive techniques, or even new forms of business organization. 4. The entrepreneur is a risk bearer. This is apparent from a close examination of the other three entrepreneurial functions. The entrepreneur in a capitalistic system has no guarantee of profit. The reward for his or her time, efforts, and abilities may be attractive profits or losses and eventual bankruptcy. In short, the entrepreneur risks not only time, effort, and business reputation, but his or her invested funds and those of associates or stockholders. Key concepts land –

natural resources (“free gifts of nature”) which can be used to produce goods and services 63

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capital – labor – labor force –

the equipment and structures used to produce goods and services the physical and mental talents (efforts) of people which can be used to produce goods and services persons sixteen years of age and older who are not in institutions and who are employed or are unemployed and seeking work

Words to remember to cover –

охватывать

innumerable -

бессчетный, бесчисленный, многочисленный, несчетный

communication facilities –

средства связи

apparent -

видимый,

несомненный,

открытый,

очевидный, явный property –

cобственность, имущество; достояние

to refers (to) –

относиться (к)

raw materials –

сырье

entrepreneurial –

предпринимательский

entrepreneur -

бизнесмен, делец, предприниматель

enterprise -

предприятие

significance -

важность, значительность; значимость

gifts of nature –

дары природы

deposits -

месторождение, залежь

ultimate -

последний, конечный; окончательный

pertinent -

уместный; подходящий; имеющий отношение, относящийся к делу

purchase -

приобретение, покупка

capital goods -

средства производства, капитальные блага, капитал (в смысле товара)

consumer goods -

потребительские товары, товары народного потребления 64

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bankruptcy -

банкротство; несостоятельность

stockholder -

акционер; пайщик, владелец акции

Oil and the Economy Some of the largest economic fluctuations in the U.S. economy have originated in the oil fields of the Middle East. Crude oil is a key input into the production of many goods and services, and much of the world's oil comes from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and other Middle Eastern countries. When some event (usually political in origin) reduces the supply of crude oil flowing from this region, the price of oil rises around the world. U.S. firms that produce gasoline, tires, and many other products experience rising costs. The result is a leftward shift in the aggregate-supply curve, which in turn leads to stagflation. The first episode of this sort occurred in the mid-1970s. The countries with large oil reserves got together as members of OPEC, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. OPEC was a cartel—a group of sellers that attempts to thwart competition and reduce production in order to raise prices. And, indeed, oil prices rose substantially. From 1973 to 1975, oil approximately doubled in price. Oilimporting countries around the world experienced simultaneous inflation and recession. In the United States, the inflation rate exceeded 10 percent for the first time in decades. Unemployment rose from 4.9 percent in 1973 to 8.5 percent in 1975. Almost the same thing happened again a few years later. In the late 1970s, the OPEC countries again restricted the supply of oil in order to raise the price. From 1978 to 1981, the price of oil more than doubled. Once again, the result was stagflation. Inflation, which had subsided somewhat after the first OPEC event, again rose above 10 percent per year. Unemployment rose from about 6 percent in 1978 and 1979 to about 10 percent a few years later. The world market for oil can also be a source of favorable shifts in aggregate supply. In 1986 squabbling broke out among members of OPEC. Member countries reneged on their agreements to restrict oil production. In the world market for crude oil, prices fell by about half. This fall in oil prices reduced costs to U.S. firms, which shifted the aggregate-supply curve to the right. As a result, the U.S. economy experienced the opposite of stagflation: Output grew rapidly, unemployment fell, and the inflation rate reached its lowest level in many years. In recent years, the world market for oil has been relatively quiet. The only exception has been a brief period during 1990, just before the Persian Gulf War, when oil prices temporarily spiked up out of fear that a long military conflict might disrupt oil production. Yet this recent tranquility does not mean that the United States no longer needs to worry about oil prices. Political troubles in the Middle East (or greater cooperation among the members of OPEC) could always send oil prices higher. The macroeconomic result of a large rise in oil prices would most likely resemble the stagflation of the 1970s. 65

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Answer the questions 1. Which countries does much of the world's oil come from? 2. What happens when the supply of crude oil flowing from this region is reduced? 3. What is OPEC? 4. What consequence did the rise in oil prices have in the mid-1970s in the USA? 5. How did oil prices change from 1973 to 1975? 6. What impact did it have on oil-importing countries? 7. What happened in the world market for oil in 1986? 8. How did it influence different economic processes? 9. Does oil price depend on political events? Give an example from the text. 10. What is the situation with the world market for oil in recent years? Fill in the gaps using the words given (retail clerk, accumulating, entrepreneurial)

market,

risk,

limited,

bankruptcy,

simplified,

1. Economic resources are _____ or scarce. 2. There is an apparent need for a _____ classification of such resources, which we shall meet with the following categories: (1) property resources—land or raw materials and capital; (2) human resources—labor and _____ ability. 3. The process of producing and _____ capital goods is known as investment. 4. Thus the services of a logger, _____, machinist, teacher, professional football player, and nuclear physicist all fall under the general heading of labor. 5. The entrepreneur is a _____ bearer. 6. The reward for his or her time, efforts, and abilities may be attractive profits or losses and eventual _____. 7. The world _____ for oil can also be a source of favorable shifts in aggregate supply.

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ЗАКЛЮЧЕНИЕ Курс

«Fundamentals

of

economics» имеет важное значение для

формирования навыков работы с литературой на инос транном языке. Студенты получают возможность познакомиться с оригинальными источниками по своей специальнос ти. Учебное пособие строится по принципам комплексности и интенсивности. Комплексный подход и междисциплинарные связи позволяют учитывать степень знакомства с обсуждаемой проблематикой на родном

языке.

Интенсивность достигается за счет предоставления

разнообразных текстов и заданий различного объема и с тепени сложности в пределах одного раздела. Пособие позволяет обучать студентов с различным уровнем знаний и обеспечивает широкие возможности аудиторной и самостоятельной работы.

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ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 1 ТАБЛИЦА НЕСТАНДАРТНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ (LIST OF NON-STANDARD VERBS) Infinitive be bear bear beat become

Past Simple

Participle II

Значения

was, were bore bore beat became

been born borne beaten

begin blow break

began blew broke

begun blown broken

bring

brought

brought

build

built

burn

burnt

built burnt /burned

burst bought caught chose came cost cut

burst bought caught chosen come cost cut

deal

dealt

dealt

do draw

did drew

done drawn

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat fall

ate fell

eaten fallen

делать, исполнять тянуть, везти; рисовать, чертить пить вести, приводить в движение; гнать есть, питаться падать

feed

fed

fed

кормить, питать

feel

felt

felt

чувствовать

fight find

fought found flew

fought found

сражаться, бороться находить, обнаруживать летать

burst buy catch choose come cost cut

fly

become

flown

быть родить; производить носить, перевозить бить, разбивать делаться, становиться начинать дуть, раздувать ломать, нарушать; прекращать приносить, приводить, привозить строить жечь, гореть взрываться, разразиться покупать ловить; схватить выбирать приходить, приез жать стоить резать, разрубать; стричь иметь дело; торговать

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Infinitive

Past Simple

ПРОДОЛЖЕНИЕ ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ 1 Participle II Значения запрещать forbidden

forbid forget

forbade forgot

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

got

give go

gave went

given gone

grow hang

grew hung / hanged

grown hung / hanged

have hear

had heard

had heard

hide

hid

hidden

hit

hit '

hit

hold hurt

held hurt

held hurt

keep

kept

kept

know

knew

known

learn

laid led learnt learned

laid led learnt / learned

leave

left

left

оставлять; уходить

let lie

let lay

let lain

позволять, пускать лежать

light

lit

lit

освещать, зажигать

lose

lost

lost

терять

make mean

made meant

made meant

meet

met

met

делать; заставлять означать; подразумевать, иметь в виду встречать(ся)

pay

paid

paid

платить

put read

put read

put read

класть; ставить читать

ride

rode

ridden

ездить (верхом)

lay lead

forgotten

забывать замораживать, мерзнуть, застывать получать, доставать, становиться, делаться давать, предоставлять идти, ехать расти, увеличиваться; делаться вешать, подвешивать, висеть иметь слышать прятать(ся), скрываться) ударять(ся), задеть держать вредить; ранить, причинять боль держать, хранить знать класть, положить; излагать вести, управлять узнавать, учить

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Past Simple rang rose

ПРОДОЛЖЕНИЕ ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ 1 Participle II Значения rung звонить risen вставать; возникать

run

ran

run

бегать; управлять

say

said

said

see seek

saw sought

seen sought

говорить, сказать видеть

sell

sold

sold

продавать

send

sent

sent

посылать

set shake

set shook

set shaken

shoot

shot

shot

ставить, помещать трясти, колебать стрелять

show

showed

shown

показывать

shut sing

shut sang

shut sung

закрывать петь

sink

sank

sunk

опускаться, тонуть

sat

sat

sleep slide

slept slid

slept slid

сидеть спать

speak

spoke

spoken

скользить разговаривать

spend

spent

spent

тратить, проводить

spoil spread

spoiled/spoilt spread

spoiled/spoilt spread

портить растягивать

spring

sprang

sprung

прыгать

stand

stood

stood

стоять

steal strike

stole struck

stolen stricken/struck

красть, похищать ударять

swim

swam

swum

плавать

swing

swung

swung

качаться, колебаться

take teach

took taught

taken taught

брать; принимать учить; преподавать

tore

torn

разрывать

Infinitive ring rise

sit

tear

искать, стремиться

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throw

threw

ПРОДОЛЖЕНИЕ ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ 1 Participle II Значения сказать, сообщать, told рассказывать thought думать, полагать thrown бросить, кидать

wake

woke

woken / waken

просыпаться; будить

wear weep

wore wept

worn wept

win

won

won

носить плакать выигрывать

write

wrote

written

писать; сочинять

Infinitive tell think

Past Simple told thought

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ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 2

КРАТКИЙ ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ СПРАВОЧНИК § 1. Глагол to be

Глагол to be в Present, Past и Future Indefinite (Simple) имеет следующие формы: Личное местоимение

Present

Past

Future

I

am

was

shall (will) be

he, she, it

is

was

will be

we

are

were

shall (will) be

you, they

are

were

will be

В вопросительной форме глагол to be ставится перед подлежащим: What is profit?

Что такое прибыль?

В отрицательной форме после глагола to be ставится отрицание not: This is not a good idea.

Это не очень хорошая идея.

§ 2. Глагол то have Глагол to have в Present, Past и Future Simple имеет следующие формы: Личное мeстоимение I

Present

Past

Future

have

had

shall have

he, she, it

has

had

will have

we

have

had

shall have

you, they

have

had

will have

Вопросительная форма глагола to have образуется двумя способами: 1) путем постановки глагола to have перед подлежащим: Have you a dictionary?

У Вас есть словарь?

2) с помощью вспомогательного глагола to do: Do you have a dictionary?

У Вас есть словарь?

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Отрицательная форма глагола to have также образуется двумя способами: 1) с помощью отрицательного nо перед существительным: I have no dictionary.

У меня нет словаря.

2) с помощью вспомогательного глагола to do: I do not have a dictionary.

У меня нет словаря.

§ 3. Оборот There + be в Simple Active Число

Present

Past

Future

Единственное Множественное

there is there are

there was there were

there will be there will be

Оборот there + be переводится есть, находится, имеется, существует. Перевод предложений с оборотом there + be следует начинать с обстоятельства места или со сказуемого, если обстоятельс тво отсутс твует. Слово there — вводная частица — на русский язык не переводится. Например: There are many methods of doing this. There is a number of supply companies on the system. There will be more items of good soon.

Существует много методов сделать э то. В этой системе несколько компанийпоставщиков (услуг). Скоро будет больше наименований товара.

§ 4. Личные и притяжательные местоимения (Personal and Possessive Pronouns) В английском языке личные мес тоимения имеют два падежа: именительный (nominative) и объектный (objective). Личные местоимения в именительном падеже употребляются в предложении в качестве подлежащего; личные местоимения в объектном падеже употребляются в предложении в качестве дополнения (прямого, косвенного или предложного). Существуют также соответствующие притяжательные местоимения и их абсолютные формы. Притяжательные мес тоимения служат определениями к существительным. Если возникает необходимость употребить притяжательные местоимения без существительного, то употребляется специальная форма, которая называется абсолютной формой. Объектный падеж личных местоимений соответствует винительному и дательному падежам в русском языке.

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Личные местоимения Именительный Объектный падеж падеж Iя mе меня, мне you ты, Вы he он she она it он, она, оно we мы

you тебя, Вас, тебе, Вам him его, ему her ее, ей it его, ее, ему, ей us нас, нам

you вы they они

you вас, вам them их, им

Притяжательные местоимения

Абсолютные формы

mу мой, моя, мое, мои your твой(-я), Ваш(а), (-е) his его her ее its его, ее our наш(-а), (-е), (-и) your ваши their их

mine мой, моя, мое, мои yours твой(-я), Ваш (-а) his его hers ее its его, ее ours наш(-а), (-е), (-и) yours ваши theirs их

Местоимения в объектном падеже с предлогами соответствуют в русском языке местоимениям в косвенных падежах без предлогов и с предлогами: I asked him to come and see me.

Я попросил его прийти и навестить меня.

She told me to bring the book to her.

Она сказала мне принести книгу ей.

They went to the laboratory and

Они пошли в лабораторию

we went with them.

и мы пошли вместе с ними.

That is her book, not yours.

Это ее книга, не ваша.

Here is your notebook.

Вот твоя тетрадь.

I cannot find mine.

Я не могу найти мою.

§ 5. Времена группы Simple Active Времена группы Simple обозначают факт совершения действия в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем без уточнения, как оно протекает во времени. The Present Simple Tense (Настоящее неопределенное время) The Present Simple Tense выражает обычное, повторное действие. Часто употребляется со словами always всегда, usually обычно, every day (week, year) каждый день (неделю, год) и т. д.: Most banks provide their Большинство банков обеспечивают customers with banker’s cards. своих клиентов банковскими карточками. Утвердительная форма глагола в the Present Simple Tense совпадает с 74

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инфинитивом без частицы to: to study — учиться.

I study — я учусь.

В 3-м лице единственного числа к глаголу добавляется окончание -s (-es): to speak — he speaks, to see — she sees, to wash — she washes, to dress — she dresses, to do — he does, to pay — he pays, to study — he studies. Вопросительная и отрицательная формы глагола в the Present Simple образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола to do в форме do и does (для третьего лица единс твенного числа) и смыслового глагола в инфинитиве без частицы to. В вопросительном предложении вспомогательный глагол выносится перед подлежащим, а в отрицательном — стоит после подлежащего и между ним и смысловым глаголом ставится отрицательная частица not: Do you know the name of your new boss? Does he know his name? You don’t know his name. He doesn’t know his name.

Ты знаешь имя нового босса? Он знает его имя? Ты не знаешь его имени. Он не знает его имени.

The Past Simple Tense (Прошедшее неопределенное время) The Past Simple Tense выражает действие в прошлом и обычно употребляется со словами yesterday вчера, the day before yesterday позавчера, last year, month, week в прошлом году, месяце, неделе, ago тому назад, the other day на днях. Правильные глаголы образуют утвердительную форму в the Past Simple путем прибавления окончания -ed к инфинитиву без частицы to для всех лиц единс твенного и множественного числа: to ask — asked, to study — studied. Например: Last month he borrowed money from the bank.

В прошлом месяце он взял ссуду в банке.

Утвердительная форма неправильных глаголов в the Past Simple образуется особым способом и для каждого глагола приведена в таблице неправильных глаголов (см. приложение 1). Вопросительная и отрицательная формы в the Past Simple образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола did для всех лиц и чисел: Did he borrow money from the bank last Он взял ссуду в банке в прошлом month? месяце? Он не брал ссуду. He didn’t borrow any money.

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The Future Simple Tense (Будущее неопределенное время) The Future Simple Tense выражает будущее действие со словами tomorrow завтра, the day after tomorrow послезавтра, tonight сегодня вечером, next year, month, week в следующем году, месяце, неделе, in ... days (hours) через ... дней (часов) и т. д. Утвердительная форма в the Future Simple образуется при помощи вспомогательных глаголов shall (для первого лица единственного и множественного числа) и will (для всех других лиц) и инфинитива глагола без частицы to: I shall take a loan. Я возьму ссуду. He will take a loan. Он возьмет ссуду. Вопросительная форма глагола в the Future Simple образуется путем вынесения вспомогательного глагола shall или will перед подлежащим: Shall we take a loan? Мне взять ссуду? Will he take a loan? Он возьмет ссуду? Отрицательная форма глагола в the Future Simple образуется при помощи отрицательной час тицы not, которая ставится после вспомогательного глагола shall или will: We shall not take any loan. Я не буду брать ссуду. He will not take any loan. Он не будет брать ссуду. Глаголы в the Present, Past и Future Simple переводятся как совершенным, так и несовершенным видом глагола в нас тоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени соответс твенно.

The Simple (Active) Present

Past

{I, we, you, they} write {he, she, it} writes

Do

I, we, you they

Does he, she, it

Утвердительная форма I, he, she it, we, wrote you, they

Future {I, we} shall write he, she, it, will write you, they

Вопросительная форма I, you, Shall {I, we} write? Did he, she, write? write? Will {he, she, it, you, it, we, they they} write? Отрицательная форма

{I, we, you, they} do not write I, he, she, {he, she, it} does not write it, we, you, they

{I, we} he, she, did not write it, you, they

shall not write will not write 76

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§ 6. Порядок слов в утвердительном, вопросительном и отрицательном предложениях Отличительной чертой английского языка является твердый порядок слов в предложении. В английском языке твердый порядок слов имеет большое значение, так как он является одним из основных способов выражения отношений между словами в предложении, члены которого часто определяются только по занимаемому ими месту в предложении. Порядок слов в утвердительном предложении таков : подлежащее, сказуемое, дополнение и обстоятельс тва (при наличии косвенного дополнения оно стоит после прямого). Обстоятельс тва места и времени могут быть также и перед подлежащим. Определение, выраженное прилагательным или местоимением, всегда стоит перед определяемым им существительным. Порядок слов в предложениях ВопроВспомоПодлеСказуемое Допол- Обстоятельство сительное гательный жащее нение слово глагол — — My friend studies English at the institute. — Does my friend study English at the institute? Where does my friend study English? — — — My friend does not study English at the institute. В английском языке существуют два основных типа вопросов: общие и специальные. Общие вопросы требуют ответа «да» или «нет» и начинаются с глаголов to have, to do, to be или модальных глаголов: Have you a bank account? Yes, I have / No, I have not. Are you busy now? Yes, I am/No,I am not. Can you lend me money? Yes, I can /No, I cannot. Does your business make a profit?

У тебя есть счет в банке? Да/нет. Ты сейчас занят? Да/нет. Ты можешь дать мне денег? Да/нет Твой бизнес прибыльный?

Специальные вопросы ставятся к какому-либо члену предложения и начинаются с вопросительного слова who кто, whom кого, кому, whose чей, what что, какой; which который (из двух или нескольких); where куда, где; when когда; why почему; how как; how many, how much сколько. Специальные вопросы требуют полного ответа: What profit does our business make? I receive more money than I spend.

Какую прибыль принесет твой бизнес? Я получаю больше денег, чем трачу. 77

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§ 7. Основные формы глаголов В английском языке глаголы имеют четыре основные формы: 1) инфинитив, 2) прошедшее время, 3) причастие II, 4) причастие I. У правильных глаголов вторая и третья формы совпадают (оканчиваются на -ed). Каждый неправильный глагол имеет свои формы Past Simple и причастия II, у отдельных глаголов вторая и третья формы иногда тоже совпадают, но не оканчиваются на -ed. Четвертая форма у всех без исключения глаголов образуется с помощью окончания -ing, прибавляемого к основе глагола (инфинитив без частицы to). Основные формы глагола Infinitive

Past Simple

Participle II

Participle I

to use to send

used sent

used sent

using sending

§ 8. Страдательный залог (The Passive Voice) Страдательный залог в английском языке употребляется тогда, когда внимание говорящего сосредоточено не на субъекте, а на объекте действия. Глагол в страдательном залоге показывает, что подлежащее подвергается действию, а не само его выполняет. Сравните: He makes profit in business. Profit is made in his business.

Он получает доход от бизнеса. Его бизнес приносит прибыль.

Страдательный залог образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени, лице и числе и причастия II смыслового глагола, т. е. по формуле to be + Participle П. The Passive Voice (Simple) Present Simple

Past Simple

Future Simple

I am asked

I, he} was asked

I, we} shall be asked

he,she,it} is asked

she, it} was asked

we, you, they} are asked

we, you, the} were asked

he, she, it} will be asked you, they} will be asked

Меня спрашивают

Меня спрашивали

Меня спросят

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Глагол в страдательном залоге можно переводить на русский язык тремя способами: 1) глаголом с окончанием -ся, -сь; 2) глаголом быть (в прошедшем и будущем времени) и краткой формой причас тия; 3) неопределенно-личной формой глагола. При переводе следует выбирать тот способ, который лучше всего подходит в каждом отдельном случае. Например: Present Past Future

Many houses are built in this city. Many houses were built last year. Many houses will be built soon.

Много домов строится (строят) в этом городе. Много домов было построено (построили, строилось). Много домов будет построено (будет строиться) скоро.

§ 9. Особенности перевода пассивной конструкции Следует помнить, что подлежащее в предложении с глаголом в страдательном залоге переводится на русский язык винительным или дательным падежом: He was given a loan. But before it he was asked a few questions.

Ему дали заем. Но прежде ему задали несколько вопросов.

§ 10. Предлог (The Preposition) Предлоги — это служебные слова, которые указывают на связь существительных (или местоимений) с другими словами в предложении. Например: We met at the door of the bank.

Мы встретились у дверей банка.

По своей форме предлоги делятся на простые, сложные и составные. К простым предлогам относятся большей час тью односложные предлоги, такие, как in, on, at, by, to, with, from и т. д. Сложные предлоги образуются путем сочетания двух слов: inside внутри, outside снаружи, throughout через, upon на, into в, out of из и т. д. Составные предлоги — это предлоги, представляющие в основном сочетание существительного, прилагательного, причастия или наречия с простыми предлогами или союзами: by means of с помощью, посредством; because of изза, within внутри, в; instead of вместо; during в течение; in spite of несмотря на; in front of перед; in accordance with в соответствии с, согласно чему-либо; thanks to благодаря; owing to благодаря; according to 79

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в соответствии, по словам и т. д. У большинства предлогов ес ть свои конкретные значения, например: from от, из; under под; above над; after после; before перед, до; about о, около; on в, на; through через; towards к; round вокруг; without без и т. д. У некоторых предлогов (of, by, for, with и др.) значения конкретизируются только в контексте, например: Here's a letter for you. She's been here for two weeks. How much do they pay for the work? They went out for a walk. There is a man waiting for you.

Вот письмо для тебя. Она находится здесь в течение двух недель. Сколько они платят за работу? Они пошли на прогулку. Тебя ждет какой-то человек.

Хотя предлоги обычно ставятся перед существительными, в английском языке есть несколько конструкций, в которых предлог отделяется от того существительного, к которому он относится. Это происходит в следующих случаях: 1) в специальных вопросах: What are you looking at? What is this article about?

На что ты смотришь? О чем эта статья?

2) в придаточных предложениях: I don't know what problems they are going to begin with.

Я не знаю, с каких проблем они собираются начать.

3) в пассивных конструкциях: The laboratory assistant was sent for.

За лаборантом послали.

§ 11. Времена группы Continuous Present

Past Futute Утвердительная форма I am writing {I, he, she, it} was writing {I, we} shall be writing {he, she it} is writing we, you, they} were {he, she, it, you, they} will {we, you, they} are writing writing be writing Вопросительная форма Am I writing? Was {I, he, she, it} Shall {I, we} be writing? Is {he, she, it} writing? writing? Will {he, she, it, you, they} Are {we, you, they} Were {we, you, they} be writing? writing? writing? Present Past Futute Отрицательная форма I am not writing I, he, she, it} was not I, we}shall not be writing 80

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he, she, it} is not writing we, you, they} are not writing?

writing we, you, they}were not writing

he, she, it, you, they}will not be writing

Времена группы Continuous образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени, лице и числе и причас тия I, т. е. по формуле to be + Participle I (-ing).

The Continuous (Active) Времена группы Continuous употребляются для выражения действия, происходящего в какой-то определенный момент времени в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем. Этот момент может подразумеваться из контекста или может быть обозначен либо конкретным указанием на время, например: в 10 часов, либо указанием на другое однократное действие, например: когда мы вошли, когда мы вернулись и т. д. В The Present Continuous момент может быть выражен словами now сейчас, at the present moment в настоящий момент, at this moment в этот момент. Например: Our company is doing well now. He was doing well when a sharp rise in inflation took place.

Дела у нашей компании идут хорошо. У него дела шли хорошо, пока не произошел резкий подъем инфляции.

Глаголы, выражающие чувства: to love любить, to like нравиться, to hate ненавидеть и т. п.; восприятия: to see видеть, to hear слушать, to feel чувствовать, to know знать, to remember помнить, to understand понимать и т. п.; а также глаголы to belong принадлежать, to contain содержать, to consist состоять, to possess обладать, как правило, в форме Continuous не употребляются. Например: Thank you, I feel much better now. гораздо лучше.

Благодарю Вас, я чувствую себя

На русский язык времена группы Continuous переводятся глаголами несовершенного вида нас тоящего, прошедшего или будущего времени. Длительный характер дейс твия передается словами сейчас, в данный момент, в это время и т. п.: You can talk to him. в данный момент. He was getting ready for his final exam, when I came in. когда я пришел.

Вы можете поговорить с ним Он готовился к выпускным экзаменам,

She will be working at her article at that Завтра в это время она будет time tomorrow. работать над своей статьей. 81

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The Continuous (The Passive) В с традательном залоге the Future Continuous не употребляется. Три способа перевода с традательного залога (см. § 8) справедливы и для перевода времен группы Continuous, но последние переводятся глаголом несовершенного вида: The book is being read.

Книгу читают. to be + being + Participle II

Present Past

I am he, she, it + is being written we, you,they are I, he, she, it was being written we, you,they were

§ 12. Функции и перевод it В предложении it может употребляться: 1) как личное местоимение в функциях подлежащего (именительный падеж) и дополнения (объектный падеж); переводится словами он, она или его, ее: Take this book. It is interesting. Read it. We shall speak about it next time.

Возьми эту книгу. Она интересная. Прочти ее. Мы поговорим о ней в следующий раз;

2) как указательное местоимение (переводится словом это): What is it? It is our new laboratory.

Что это? Это наша новая лаборатория;

3) как формальное (вводящее) подлежащее в выражениях типа It is cold. It is getting dark. It is winter. It is necessary to... It seems... It is known that...

Холодно. Темнеет. Зима. Необходимо... Кажется... Известно, что...

В этих предложениях it не переводится; 4) в составе усилительной конструкции it is ...that (it не переводится): It’s software that helps to increase productivity.

Именно программное обеспечение помогает увеличить производительность; 82

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5) как формальное дополнение в выражениях типа make it possible делать возможным; make it difficult затруднять; find it useful считать (находить) полезным (здесь it также не переводится).

§ 13. Функции и перевод one Слово one может быть: 1. Числительным. В этом случае one стоит перед существительным, является его определением и переводится словом один: I have only one dictionary.

У меня есть только один словарь.

2. Неопределенным местоимением. Тогда one употребляется в качестве подлежащего в неопределенно-личных предложениях и на русский язык не переводится: One can read such a text without a dictionary.

Можно читать такой текст без словаря.

3. Заменителем существительного. В этом случае one употребляется вместо ранее упомянутого существительного, чтобы избежать его повторения. Перед словом-заменителем может стоять артикль и оно может употребляться в форме множественного числа (ones). Переводится one тем существительным, которое заменяет, или не переводится вообще, например: You may take my dictionary (dictionaries). Thank you, I have one (ones), the one that Peter gave me yesterday.

Вы можете взять мой словарь (словари). Спасибо, у меня есть словарь (словари), тот, который дал мне вчера Петя.

§ 14. Функции и перевод that That может быть: 1. Указательным местоимением. В этом случае оно стоит перед существительным и является определением. Во множественном числе употребляется слово those. На русский язык that (those) переводится словами тот, та, то (те); этот, эта, это (эти): That house was built in 1970. Can you repeat all those questions which the teacher asked?

Тот дом был построен в 1970 году. Можете вы повторить все те вопросы, которые задал преподаватель?

2. Относительным местоимением. В этом случае that стоит после существительного, вводит определительное придаточное предложение и переводится словом который: 83

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The book that you gave me yesterday is interesting.

Книга, которую вы мне вчера дали, интересная.

3. Союзом дополнительного придаточного предложения. В этом случае that стоит после глагола и переводится на русский язык словом что: We know that he studies at the Technical University in Ulyanovsk.

Мы знаем, что он учится в УлГТУ.

4. Союзом подлежащего придаточного предложения. В этом случае that стоит в начале предложения и переводится словами то, что: That the profession of an engineer requires a special training is a well-known fact.

To, что профессия инженера требует специальной подготовки, — хорошо известно.

5. Союзом сказуемого придаточного предложения. В этом случае that стоит после глагола to be и переводится словами то, что: The feature of higher education in this country is that it is available to all.

Особенностью высшего образования в нашей стране является то, что оно доступно всем.

6. Заменителем существительного, чтобы избежать повторения существительного в единственном числе; чтобы не повторять существительное во множественном числе употребляются those и these. В этом случае обычно за этими словами следует дополнение с предлогом. That, those and these переводятся на русский язык тем существительным, которое они заменяют, или вовсе не переводятся: The climate of this part of the country differs from that of our region.

Климат этой части страны отличается от климата нашего района.

7. Частью усилительной конструкции it is (was) ... that, где that не переводится: It was you that said so. It was the invention of the steam engine that revolutionized production processes.

Это вы так сказали. Именно изобретение парового двигателя коренным образом изменило все производственные процессы.

§ 15. Степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий (Comparison Degrees of Adjectives and Adverbs) Прилагательные в английском языке имеют три с тепени сравнения: положительную, сравнительную и превосходную. 84

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Положительная степень fast быстрый, быстро hot горячий, горячо happy счастливый large большой

Сравнительная степень faster более быстрый, быстрее hotter более горячий, горячее happier счастливее larger больший

Превосходная степень the fastest самый быстрый, быстрее всего the hottest самый горячий, горячее всего the happiest самый счастливый the largest самый большой

Сравнительная и превосходная степени образуются двумя способами: 1. Путем прибавления суффикса -еr в сравнительной степени и суффикса -est в превосходной степени к основе односложного прилагательного или наречия: 2. С помощью слов more в сравнительной степени и most в превосходной степени перед многосложными прилагательными и наречиями: Положительная степень difficult трудный

Сравнительная степень more difficult более трудный

Превосходная степень the most difficult самый трудный

Некоторые прилагательные образуют степени сравнения не по общему правилу: Положительная Сравнительная степень степень good, well better хороший, хорошо лучший, лучше bad, badly worse плохой, плохо худший, хуже little less маленький, мало меньший, меньше much, many тоге много больше far farther, further далекий, далеко более далекий, дальше near близкий, близко

nearer более близкий, ближе

late later поздний, послед- более поздний, позже ний, поздно

Превосходная степень the best самый лучший, лучше всего the worst самый худший, хуже всего the least самый маленький, меньше всего the most наибольший, больше всех the farthest (о расстоянии), the furthest (о времени и расстоянии) самый далекий, дальнейший, дальше всего the nearest (о расстоянии), next (о порядке следования) ближайший, самый близкий, ближе всего the latest (о времени), last (о порядке следования) самый последний, поздний, позднее всего 85

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§ 16. Времена группы Perfect Времена группы Perfect образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола to have в соответс твующем времени, лице и числе и причастия II смыслового глагола, т. е. по формуле: to have + Participle II. The Perfect (Active) Времена группы Perfect употребляются для выражения действия законченного, завершенного к какому-то моменту времени в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем. The Present Perfect употребляется для выражения действия, законченного к настоящему моменту и связанного с настоящим своим результатом: I have read the book. Present I, we, you, they

have written

he, she, it

has written

Я прочитал эту книгу. Past Утвердительная форма I, he, she, it, we, you, they

Future I, we

shall have written

had written he, she, it, you, they

will have written

Вопросительная форма I, we, Have you they Has I, we, you, they he, she, it

he, she, it

written?

written?

have not written has not written

I, he, she, had it written? we, you, they Отрицательная форма I, he, she, it we, you they

had not written

Shall

Will I, we he, she it, you, they

I, we

have written?

he, she, it, you, they

have written?

shall not have written will not have written

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Действие закончилось к настоящему моменту, и результат дейс твия налицо (книга прочитана). The Present Perfect употребляется с наречиями неопределенного времени: today сегодня, this year в этом году, this week на этой неделе, already уже, always всегда, never никогда, so far до сих пор, ever когда-либо, just только что, often часто, not yet еще нет. Например: Profits have risen considerably this year. этом году.

Прибыли значительно возросли в

The Past Perfect употребляется для выражения прошедшего действия, которое совершилось до определенного момента в прошлом. Этот момент может обозначаться: 1) обстоятельством времени с предлогом by к (by the beginning of, by the end of the month, by 10 o'clock, etc.): By the end of May the company had offered a package of service.

К концу мая компания предложила пакет услуг;

2) другим (более поздним по времени) прошедшим действием в Past Simple: Sales had increased dramatically after a better information system was introduced.

Продажи значительно выросли после того, как была введена улучшенная система информирования.

The Future Perfect употребляется для выражения действия, которое будет закончено к какому-то моменту в будущем: I shall have done all my work by seven o'clock.

К семи часам я уже сделаю всю свою работу.

На русский язык времена группы Perfect переводятся глаголом совершенного вида. The Present и Past Perfect переводятся глаголом, как правило, прошедшего времени, a the Future Perfect — глаголом будущего времени. The Perfect (Passive) to have + been + Participle II Present Past Future

I, we, you, they have been written he, she, it + has I, he, she, it had been written we, you, they I, we + shall have been written he, she, it + will you, they

Три способа перевода страдательного залога справедливы и для перевода 87

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времен группы Perfect. Однако последние, как правило, переводятся глаголом совершенного вида: The work will have been finished by the end of the week.

К концу недели работа будет закончена.

§ 17. Соответствие английских временных форм временным формам глагола в русском языке Русский язык

Нас тоящее время

Прошедшее время

Английский язык

Примеры

Present Simple

They play tennis on Sunday. Они играют в теннис по воскресеньям. They are playing tennis now. Они играют в теннис сейчас.

Present Continuous Present Perfect

They have lived in this town for ten years. Они живут в этом городе 10 лет.

Past Simple

They played tennis last Sunday. Они играли в теннис в прошлое воскресенье.

Past Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Simple

Будущее время

Future Continuous Future Perfect

They were playing tennis at 10 o'clock last Sunday. В прошлое воскресенье в десять часов они играли в теннис. They have already played tennis today. Они сегодня уже играли в теннис. They had played tennis before we returned. Они играли в теннис до того, как мы вернулись. They will play tennis tomorrow. Они будут играть в теннис завтра. They will be playing tennis at this time tomorrow. Завтра в это время они будут играть в теннис. They will have played tennis by the time we return home. Они уже сыграют в теннис, когда мы вернемся домой.

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§ 18. Сводная таблица образования и употребления времен (изъявительное наклонение) Active Voice to ask Simple to ask Present asks

Past asked

Continuous to be asking Future

shall will

ask

Present am is are

asking

Past was were

asking

Passive Voice Simple to be asked Present am is are

ask

Past {was, were} asking

Future am {shall, will} is be asked are

Действие как факт (обычное, постоянное, повторяющееся) usually, every day, yesterday, tomorrow, often, last week, next week seldom, 5 days ago sometimes

Perfect to have asked Future

shall will

be have asking asking has

being asked

Past was were

being asked

Past had asked

Future shall will

asking

to be asked

Continuous to be being asked Present

Present

Perfect to have been asked

Future

Present

Past

Future

____

{have, has} been asked

had been asked

{shal, will} have been asked

Употребление Действие как процесс (незаконченное, длящееся) now

Действие, предшествующее какому-то моменту, связанное с ним результатом today, this week, at 4 o'clock, from 6 o'clock till by 4 o'clock .. when Bob came already, 7 o'clock ... when Bob came ... back ... ever, never, just, not yet 89

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§ 19. Согласование времен (Sequence of Tenses) В английском языке существует правило согласования времен. Оно касается дополнительных придаточных предложена и заключается в том, что глаголсказуемое придаточного предложения согласуется во времени с глаголом-сказуемым главного предложения. Это согласование выражается в следующем. 1. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в настоящем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения может стоять в любом требуемом по смыслу времен. We know that he worked hard yesterday. We know that he works hard. We know that he will work hard tomorrow.

Мы знаем, что он много работал вчера. Мы знаем, что он много работает. Мы знаем, что он будет много работать завтра.

2. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в прошедшем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения также должен стоять в одном из прошедших времен, а именно: а) если действие, выраженное глаголом-сказуемым придаточного предложения, совпадает по времени с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым главного предложения, то в придаточном предложении он употребляется в the Past Simple или в the Past Continuous и переводится на русский язык глаголом в настоящем времени: We knew that he worked hard. We knew that he was working hard.

Мы знали, что он много работает.

б) если действие, выраженное глаголом-сказуемым придаточного предложения, предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым главного предложения, то в придаточном предложении глагол-сказуемое стоит в the Past Perfect и переводится на русский язык глаголом прошедшего времени. We knew that he had worked hard.

Мы знали, что он много работал;

в) если действие, выраженное глаголом-сказуемым придаточного предложения, является будущим по отношению к действию, выраженному глаголомсказуемым главного предложения, то в придаточном предложении употребляется глагол в the Future in the Past (будущее в прошедшем). Это время употребляется только при согласовании времен и переводится на русский язык глаголом будущего времени. The Future in the Past образуется с помощью вспомогательных глаголов should для 1-го лица единственного и множественного числа и would для 2-го и 3-го лица единственного и 90

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множественного числа и инфинитива смыслового глагола без частицы to: We knew that he would work hard tomorrow.

Мы знали, что он будет много pаботать завтра.

Правила согласования времен соблюдаются при переводе предложений из прямой речи в косвенную: She says, «I work today». She says that she works today. She said, «I work today». She said that she worked that day.

Она говорит: «Я работаю сегодня». Она говорит, что она работает сегодня. Она сказала: «Я работаю сегодня». Она сказала, что она работает сегодня.

Предложения, выражающие общий вопрос в прямой речи, в косвенную вводятся союзом whether или if ли: Не asked me, «Do you speak English? » Он спросил меня: «Вы говорите поанглийски?» Не asked me whether (if) I spoke Он спросил меня, говорю ли я поEnglish. английски.

§ 20. Согласование времен

He says (that)

He said (that)

he works (is working) работает (одновременное действие) he worked (was working) работал (предшествующее дейс твие) he will work (will be working) будет работать (будущее действие) he worked (was working) работает (одновременное действие) he had worked работал (предшествующее дейс твие) he would work (would be working) будет работать (будущее действие)

§ 21. Дополнение (The Object) В английском языке различают прямое (отвечает на вопросы кого? что?), косвенное (кому? нему?) и предложное (с кем? для кого? о чем?) дополнения. Прямое дополнение в английском языке соответс твует в русском языке дополнению, выраженному существительным или мес тоимением в 91

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винительном падеже без предлога: Ann met a friend. We saw him yesterday. The engineer stopped the machine.

Аня встретила друга. Мы видели его вчера. Инженер остановил механизм.

Косвенное дополнение в английском языке выражается именем существительным в общем падеже или местоимением в объектном падеже, которые соответс твуют русским именам существительным или местоимениям в дательном падеже. Косвенное дополнение не употребляется без прямого дополнения и всегда стоит перед ним. John sent the manager a report. Mother bought us new books.

Джон послал менеджеру доклад. Мама купила нам новые книги.

Предложное дополнение выражается сочетанием предлога с существительным или местоимением: The teacher read a story to the children. We spoke about him (to him).

Учитель прочитал рассказ детям. Мы говорим о нем (с ним).

Местоимение it в функции дополнения употребляется в сочетании с прилагательными после глаголов make, find, think, consider и др. В этом случае местоимение it на русский язык не переводится: make it possible make it difficult (easy) (облегчать)

делать возможным, давать возможность, затруднять

No one thought (found, considered) it necessary to discuss the problem now.

Никто не считал нужным обсуждать проблему сейчас.

§ 22. Определение (The Attribute) Определение обычно относится к существительному. Оно может быть расположено перед определяемым существительным или после него. Определение отвечает на вопросы what? what kind? какой, whose? чей, which? какой, который? и др. Определение может быть выражено: 1) прилагательным a difficult work

трудная работа

Многосложные прилагательные типа available, necessary, possible, reliable и т. д. могут стоять и после определяемого существительного: 92

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books available in this library

книги, имеющиеся в этой библиотеке

2) местоимением his book some students at that time

его книга некоторые студенты в то время

3) числительным (количественным и порядковым) several thousand students the first locomotive in Russia

несколько тысяч студентов первый паровоз в России

4) существительным в притяжательном падеже the professor's lecture the students' notes

лекция профессора записи студентов

5) существительным в общем падеже a football match

футбольный матч

Особенностью английского языка является частое употребление существительного перед другим существительным в качестве определения к нему. Функция такого существительного в предложении зависит только от его места перед существительным: a test instrument instrument test

испытательный прибор испытание прибора

Существительное в общем падеже в функции определения переводится на русский язык прилагательным, существительным в родительном падеже или причас тным оборотом; 6) существительным с предлогом the building of the institute the train from Moscow the text book for beginners the method in use

здание института поезд из Москвы учебник для начинающих используемый метод

7) существительным-приложением, поясняющим стоящее перед ним существительное The Cherepanovs, the inventors of the first Russian locomotive, were workers.

Черепановы, изобретатели первого русского паровоза, были рабочими.

We must translate this article by the

Мы должны перевес ти эту статью 93

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end of the week, which is not an easy task.

к концу недели, что является нелегкой задачей;

8) причастием (Participle I или Participle II), которое может стоять как перед определяемым существительным, так и после него: a fast running taxi students going to the University illustrated journal the book translated in 1980

быстромчащееся такси студенты, которые идут (идущие) в Университет иллюстрированный журнал книга, переведенная в 1980 году

9) герундием a way of reading the possibility of using

манера чтения возможность использования

10) инфинитивом an article to translate

статья для перевода

11) определительным придаточным предложением, которое присоединяется к главному предложению при помощи союзных слов who который; whom которого; whose чей, которого; when когда; where куда, где; why почему или бессоюзным способом: I have read the article which you recommended. I have read the article you recommended.

Я прочел статью, которую вы рекомендовали.

The town in which I live is not far from Moscow. The town which I live in is not far from Moscow. The town I live in is not far from Moscow.

Город, в котором я живу, (находится) недалеко от Москвы.

§ 23. Неопределенные местоимения some, any, no, every и их производные Местоимение some и его производные (somebody, someone, something) употребляются в утвердительных предложениях, any и его производные (anybody, anyone, anything) — в вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях, а no и его производные (nobody, no one, nothing) — в отрицательных предложениях (в последнем случае глагол-сказуемое стоит в 94

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утвердительной форме). Сложные местоимения, в состав которых входит body или one, употребляются только в отношении лиц, а сложные местоимения, в состав которых входит thing, — в отношении неодушевленных предметов. Any и его производные в утвердительном предложении имеют значение любой: Which journal do you want? Any will do.

Какой журнал вам нужен? Любой подойдет.

Употребление местоимений some, any, no, every Тип предложения

Местоимение

some somebody, someone something somewhere Утвердительное every everybody, everyone everything everywhere any anybody, anyone Вопросительное anything anywhere no nobody, no one, Отрицательное nothing nowhere

Перевод некоторый, несколько, какой-то кто-то что-то где-то каждый, всякий всякий, каждый, все все везде, всюду какой-нибудь кто-нибудь что-нибудь где-нибудь никакой никто ничего нигде

§ 24. Модальные глаголы (The Modal Ve rbs) Модальные глаголы выражают не само дейс твие или состояние, а отношение к ним со стороны говорящего. С помощью модальных глаголов можно показать, что действие возможно или невозможно, обязательно или не нужно, вероятно или неправдоподобно, желательно и т. д. Модальными являются глаголы can, may, must, ought, should, would, need. Особенностью модальных глаголов является то, что они: 1) не имеют полного самостоятельного значения и употребляются в сочетании с инфинитивом смыслового глагола (без частицы to); 2) не имеют инфинитива, причастия, герундия; 3) не имеют окончания -s в 3-м лице единс твенного числа настоящего времени; 4) не имеют формы прошедшего времени, кроме саn и may (could, might), и 95

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будущего времени; 5) образуют вопросительную и отрицательную формы без вспомогательного глагола to do: May I take your dictionary?

He cannot drive a car.

Рассмотрим примеры употребления модальных глаголов.

Can Глагол can имеет значение мочь, обладать физической или умственной способностью: can (настоящее время) могу, может, можем и т. д.; could (прошедшее время) мог, могла, могло и т. д. Например: Even a child can lift it. Даже ребенок может поднять это (это легко сделать). Can you speak English? Вы можете говорить по-английски? Сочетание to be able быть в состоянии с последующим инфинитивом с частицей to является эквивалентом глагола саn и восполняет его недос тающие формы: We shall be able to do it only tomorrow.

Мы сможем сделать это только завтра.

May Глагол may имеет значения разрешения и возможности: may (настоящее время) могу, может, можем и т. д.; might (прошедшее время) мог, могли и т. д. Например: May I come in? He may be at home.

Можно мне войти? Он может быть дома.

Сочетания to be allowed и to be permitted с последующим инфинитивом с частицей to являются эквивалентом глагола may и восполняют его недостающие формы в значении мочь, иметь разрешение: Не was allowed to come in.

Ему разрешили войти.

Must Глагол must выражает необходимос ть, моральную обязанность и соответствует в русском языке словам должен, нужно, надо. Глагол must имеет только одну форму настоящего времени: You must do it yourself.

Вы должны это сделать.

Наряду с глаголом must и взамен его недостающих форм употребляются его эквиваленты to have (должен в силу обстоятельств) и to be (должен в силу запланированнос ти, намеченности действия), а следующий за ними инфинитив 96

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имеет частицу to: It was raining heavily and we had to stay at home. He is to take his exam in June.

Шел сильный дождь, и мы должны были остаться дома. Он должен сдавать этот экзамен в июне.

Ought Глагол ought выражает моральный долг, желательнос ть действия, относящиеся к настоящему и будущему времени. На русский язык ought переводится словами следовало бы, следует, должен. После ought инфинитив всегда употребляется с частицей to: You ought to see a doctor.

Тебе следовало бы обратиться к врачу.

Should Глагол should в качестве модального глагола выражает обязанность, желательнос ть действия, совет, рекомендацию. На русский язык should переводится как следует, должен, обязан: You should know about it.

Вам следует знать об этом.

Would Глагол would в качестве модального глагола может выражать: а) обычные и повторяющиеся дейс твия в прошлом (в этом значении он является синонимом выражению used to): Не would spend hours in the Tretyakov Gallery. He used to spend hours in the Tretyakov Gallery.

Он обычно проводил многие часы в Третьяковской галерее. Он любил проводить многие часы в Третьяковской галерее;

б) упорное нежелание выполнить какое-то действие: I asked him to do it but he wouldn't.

Я попросил его сделать это, но он ни за что не хотел;

в) присущее свойство, характеристику (часто встречается в технической литературе): Paper would burn.

Бумага хорошо горит.

Need

Need может употребляться как модальный глагол и как правильный глагол. Как модальный глагол need имеет только одну форму. Он в основном 97

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употребляется в отрицательных предложениях: You needn't come here to day.

Тебе не нужно приходить сюда сегодня.

§ 25. Функции глагола to be Функция Смысловой глагол (be + предлог + существительное) Глагол-связка (be + существительное или прилагательное)

Вспомогательный глагол: Continuous Tenses (be + Participle I) Модальный глагол (be + инфинитив с частицей to)

Пример

Перевод

The book is on the table. This problem is of great importance. He is a student. The speed of an electric car was not high. The speed of an electric car is about 60 km/h.

Книга находится на столе. Эта проблема имеет огромное значение. Он — студент. Скорость электромобиля была невысокая. Скорость электромобиля составляет 60 км/ч.

Не is writing a new article now.

Сейчас он пишет новую статью. Статья написана нашим The article is written by профессором. our professor. He is to come to the lab Он должен прийти в лаat 10 o'clock. бораторию в 10 часов.

§ 26. Функции глагола to have Функция

Пример

Перевод

Смысловой глагол (have These laboratories have Эти лаборатории имею т + существительное) modern equipment. современное оборудование. Вспомогательный глагол These laboratories have Эти лаборатории закупили (have + Participle II) bought modern equip- современное оборудование. ment. Модальный глагол (have These laboratories have Эти лаборатории должны + инфинитив с частицей to buy modern закупить современное to) equipment. оборудование. 98

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27. Причастие (The Participle) Причастие является неличной формой глагола, которая обладает свойствами глагола, прилагательного и наречия. Подобно прилагательному, причастие может быть определением к существительному или именной частью составного сказуемого: The analyzed information The information was analyzed

Проанализированная информация. Информация была проанализирована.

Подобно наречию, причастие может быть обстоятельс твом, характеризующим действие, выраженное сказуемым: Taking better advantage of technology he company improves. идут лучше.

С использованием новой технологии наилучшим способом дела компании

Подобно глаголу, причастие имеет видовременные и залоговые формы, может иметь прямое дополнение и определяться наречием. В английском языке существуют два вида причастий: Participle I и Participle II. Participle I образуется путем прибавления окончания -ing к основе глагола: to speak — speaking, to stop — stopping, to begin — beginning, to travel — travelling, to drive — driving, to lie — lying. Participle II правильных глаголов образуется путем добавления окончания ed к основе глагола: to ask — asked, to train — trained. Participle II неправильных глаголов образуется особыми способами; это третья форма неправильных глаголов: to give — given, to build — built. Все другие сложные формы Participle I образуются с помощью вспомогательных глаголов to be или to have и Participle II смыслового глагола. Формы причастий Participles Participle I Participle II Perfect Participle

Active developing having developed

Passive being developed developed having been developed

§ 28. Функции причастия в предложении Основные способы перевода Причастие выполняет две функции в предложении — определения и обстоятельства. 1. Причастие в функции определения может занимать место перед определяемым существительным или после него. В этом случае Participle I обычно переводится на русский язык причастием действительного залога 99

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настоящего или прошедшего времени, оканчивающимся на -ущий, -ющии, -ащий, -ящий, -вший: The waiting man is in the library. People buying products are called consumers.

Ожидающий человек – в библиотеке. Те, кто покупает товары, называются потребителями.

Сложная форма Participle I пассивного залога в функции определения (после существительного) может переводиться также придаточным определительным предложением: An efficient information system being implemented in the restaurants now will help maintain high standards of servicing.

Эффективная информационная система, которая вводиться сейчас в ресторанах, поможет поддержать высокий уровень обслуживания.

Participle II в функции определения (перед или после существительного) переводится на русский язык страдательным причастием настоящего или прошедшего времени, оканчивающимся на -емый, -имый, -нный, или придаточным определительным предложением: The organization deals with both planned and unplanned events equally well. The deal well with events both planned and unplanned.

Организация справляется с плановыми и внеплановыми заданиями одинаково хорошо. Они хорошо решают задачи, как запланированные, так и внеплановые .

2. Причас тие в функции обстоятельства обычно стоит в самом начале предложения, т. е. предшествует подлежащему, или следует за группой сказуемого. В этом случае причастие может выполнять функцию обстоятельства времени, причины, условия и т. д. В этой функции причастию могут предшествовать союзы when, while, if, unless, once, though и т. д. Причастие (с союзом или без него) переводится на русский язык или полным придаточным предложением времени, причины, условия, или деепричастием, оканчивающимся на -я, -в, или существительным с предлогом при: Using PIN you can use banker’s card to withdraw cash from ATM. White using the Internet people can exchange ideas easily. Having invested big money in new technology banks issued new type of cards with a computer “chip”. The company won’t prosper, unless

Используя PIN-код, вы можете использовать банковскую карточку, чтобы получить наличные из банкомата. Используя Интернет, можно легко обменяться идеями. Вложив много денег в новую технологию, банки выпустили новые кредитные карточки с «чипами». Компания не добьется процветания, если 100

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reorganized.

ее не реорганизовать.

Сопоставление перевода причастий в функции определения и обстоятельства Participle I

Participle II

В функции определения A lot of students from developing Some American countries get help from countries (из развивающихся developed countries (из развитых стран) study in this country. An electric стран). car developing the speed of 50 km/h The mechanism developed in our (развивающий скорость 50 км/ч) is laboratory (разработанный в нашей being des igned. The device being лаборатории) is mass-produced. The developed (разрабатываемый, method developed (разработанный который разрабатывается) will be метод) provided good results. tested at the plant. В функции обстоятельства (While, when) developing (Разрабатывая, Когда Белл разрабатывал) transmitter for deaf people Bell invented the telephone. Being developed (Когда будет разработан), a new supercomputer will be very powerful.

(When, if) developed (Когда (если) будут разработаны, При удачной разработке) successfully, space platforms may be very useful for national economy.

§ 29. Независимый причастный оборот Независимый причастный оборот – это сочетание существительного в общем падеже ( или местоимения в именительном падеже ) с Participle I или Participle II, в котором существительное (или местоимение) выполняет роль подлежащего по отношению к причастию и не является подлежащим всего предложения. Такой оборот логически связан с предложением и по существу является его обстоятельс твом. Подобно обстоятельс тву, независимый причас тный оборот может предшес твовать подлежащему, т. е. стоять в начале предложения или следовать за группой сказуемого в конце предложения. Этот оборот всегда отделяется запятой от остальной части предложения. И в начале предложения в функции обстоятельс тва на русский язык этот оборот переводится, как правило, придаточным предложением причины, времени, условия с союзами так как, когда, если и др: All information about customers being in one place, you can be

Если вся информация о потребителях будет храниться в одном месте, 101

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highly responsive to their needs. можно будет быстро удовлетворять их потребнос ти. В конце предложения независимый причастный оборот переводится на русский язык чаще всего самостоятельными предложениями или присоединяется союзами а, и, причем: Banks invest money in new technologies, credit card companies working closely with all the major banks.

Банки вкладывают деньги в новые технологии, и компании, выпускающие кредитные карты, работают в тесном сотрудничестве с крупнейшими банками.

Некоторые независимые причастные обороты, начинающиеся предлогом with, переводятся также, как и независимые причас тные обороты без предлога with: With the company taking advantage of a new technology, its profits have risen considerably.

После того, как компания использовала новую технологию, ее доходы значительно возросли.

§ 30. Герундий (The Gerund)

Герундий — это неличная форма глагола, обладающая свойствами как существительного, так и глагола. Герундий выражает действие, предс тавляя его как название процесса. Герундий образуется путем прибавления окончания -ing к основе глагола. В русском языке нет формы глагола, соответствующей английскому герундию. Подобно существительному, герундий может быть в предложении подлежащим, частью сказуемого, прямым дополнением; перед ним может с тоять предлог в функции определения или обстоятельства и, наконец, герундий может иметь в качестве определения существительное в притяжательном или общем падеже или притяжательное местоимение. Подобно глаголу герундий имеет видовременные и залоговые формы, прямое дополнение и может определяться обстоятельством, выраженным наречием. В предложении The energy of body is its capacity for doing work.

Энергия тела — это его способность совершать работу

герундий doing выполняет функцию определения существительного capacity (именное свойство герундия) и в то же время имеет прямое дополнение work (глагольное свойство герундия).

Формы герундия Tense

Active

Passive

Simple Perfect

driving, having driven

being driven, having been driven

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Функции герундия Герундий может выполнять в предложении следующие функции: 1) подлежащего Investing money in new technology is a policy of major banks

Политика крупных банков – инвестирование денег в новую технологию.

В функции подлежащего герундий переводится на русский язык существительным или неопределенной формой глагола, придаточным предложением, если перед герундием стоят определяющие его слова; 2) части составного сказуемого Bank’s policy is investing money инвестирование in new technology.

Банковская

политика

–

денег в новую технологию.

В функции именной части составного сказуемого герундий переводится на русский язык существительным или неопределенной формой глагола; 3) прямого и предложного дополнения Не likes reading.

Он любит чтение (читать).

В функции прямого и предложного дополнения герундий переводится на русский язык существительным или неопределенной формой глагола. В функции предложного дополнения герундий обычно употребляется после глаголов с послелогами to depend on зависеть от, to insist on настаивать на, to agree to соглашаться, to object to возражать против, to think of думать о, to succeed in удаваться, to prevent from мешать и т. д.: He is not used to being an unsuccessful businessman.

Он не привык быть не преуспевающим бизнесменом;

4) обстоятельства By using the Internet we get an access to large computerized databases

Используя Интернет, мы получаем доступ к крупным базам данных.

Перед герундием в функции обстоятельства всегда стоит один из следующих предлогов: after, before, on, at, in, for, by, without и др. В этой функции герундий обычно переводится существительным с предлогом или деепричас тием несовершенного или совершенного вида; 5) определения It’s a good opportunity of learning the economics of the business.

Это хорошая возможность изучить экономику бизнеса.

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…a means of doing work. ... средство для выполнения работы. Герундию в функции определения обычно предшествует предлог of (иногда for). В этой функции герундий переводится на русский язык существительным в родительном падеже, существительным с предлогом или неопределенной формой глагола. Герундий с последующим существительным указывает на назначение предмета, отвечает на вопросы для чего?, для какой цели? и переводится либо существительным в именительном или родительном падежах, либо прилагательным: reading hall writing paper бумага для письма.

читальный зал почтовая бумага, писчая бумага,

Герундиальный оборот Герундиальный оборот — это сочетание притяжательного местоимения или существительного в притяжательном или общем падеже с герундием. Такой оборот переводится обычно придаточным предложением: We knew of his having taken a loan from the bank. Nobody thinks of the company losing a lot of money.

Мы знаем, что он взял ссуду в банке. Никто не считает, что компания потеряет много денег.

Функции герундия и причастия Синтаксическая Герундий Причастие функция Подлежащее Driving a car is a profession _ Сказуемое His hobby is driving He is driving to Kiev now Дополнение He writes articles about _ driving Определение His plan of driving to Kiev is The man driving a car is our not good chief engineer Обстоятельство Before driving a car one must Driving a car one must be very learn to do it properly attentive

§ 31. Условные придаточные предложения (Conditional Sentences) Условные придаточные предложения присоединяются к главному предложению следующими союзами: if если, unless если не, provided (that), 104

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providing (that) при условии, что; при условии, если. Различают три типа условных придаточных предложений. 1. Условные предложения первого типа (реальные) выражают вероятные (осуществимые) предположения, относящиеся к настоящему, прошедшему и будущему времени. В этом случае сказуемые главного и придаточного предложений выражаются глаголами в изъявительном наклонении: If you borrow money from the bank you will have to pay interest.

Если ты возьмешь ссуду в банке, тебе придется выплачивать проценты.

(В английском языке в условном предложении первого типа употребляется настоящее время для выражения значения будущего действия) If I come late, I have no time to read. If I came late, I had no time to read.

Если я прихожу поздно, у меня нет времени почитать. Если я приходил поздно, у меня не было времени почитать.

2. Условные предложения второго типа (маловероятные) выражают маловероятные предположения, относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени. В этом случае сказуемые и в главном, и в придаточном предложениях употребляются в сослагательном наклонении, т. е. в условном предложении используется либо were для глагола to be для всех лиц и чисел, либо форма, совпадающая с Past Simple, для всех других глаголов. В главном предложении употребляется сочетание should + Infinitive без частицы to для 1-го лица единс твенного и множественного числа и would + Simple Infinitive для остальных лиц. В современном английском языке сочетание would + Simple Infinitive употребляется и с 1-м лицом единственного и множественного лица, как бы вытесняя глагол should. Различие между ними исчезает совсем, когда в разговорной речи should, would сокращаются до d: If the sales increased our profits would rise too.

Если бы продажи выросли, наши бы доходы тоже возросли.

If the sales had increased last year our profits would have risen twice as much by now.

Если бы продажи возросли в прошлом году, наши доходы увеличились в два раза сейчас.

Функции инфинитива Инфинитив может выполнять в предложении следующие функции: 1) подлежащего To spend more money on research and development is necessary.

Необходимо тратить деньги на исследование и развитие. 105

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To work with computer was new to many of us.

Работать (работа) с компьютером было новым для нас.

В этом случае инфинитив стоит в самом начале предложения во главе группы слов перед сказуемым. Инфинитив в функции подлежащего можно переводить как неопределенной формой глагола, так и отглагольным существительным; 2) обстоятельства цели To finance investments company borrow money from banks.

Чтобы финансировать вложения, компании берут ссуду в банках;

3) условные предложения третьего типа (нереальные) выражают неосуществимые предположения, относящиеся к прошедшему времени. В этом случае в условном придаточном предложении используются формы, совпадающие с Past Perfect, а в главном — сочетание should/would + Perfect Infinitive без частицы to: If I had been here yesterday, I should have helped you.

Если бы я был здесь вчера, я бы помог вам.

Второй и третий типы условных предложений, как относящиеся к настоящему и будущему времени, так и относящиеся к прошедшему времени, переводятся на русский язык одинаково, так как в русском языке существует только одна форма сослагательного наклонения — форма прошедшего времени глагола в сочетании с частицей бы. Эта форма в русском языке употребляется как в главном, так и в придаточном предложениях. Ниже для сравнения приведены условные предложения трех типов: If we are free (today, tomorrow), we shall go to the cinema.

Если мы будем свободны, мы пойдем в кино (сегодня, завтра).

If we were free (today, tomorrow), we should go to the cinema.

Если бы мы были свободны, мы бы пошли в кино (сегодня, завтра).

If we had been free (yesterday), we should have gone to the cinema.

Если бы мы были свободны, мы бы пошли в кино (вчера).

В условных предложениях второго и третьего типов союзы provided, if могут отсутс твовать. В этом случае в условном предложении глаголы were, had, should ставятся перед подлежащим: Were I you, I should not do it. не делал этого. Had he been here, he would have helped you.

Если бы я был на вашем месте, я бы Если бы он был здесь, он бы помог вам. 106

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Should the temperature drop, the metal would set.

Если бы температура понизилась, металл бы затвердел.

§ 32. Инфинитив (The Infinitive) Инфинитив представляет собой основу глагола, которой обычно предшествует частица to, и относится к его неличным формам.

Формы инфинитива Tense Simple Continuous Perfect

Active to help to be helping to have helped

Passive to be helped to have been helped

1. The Simple Infinitive Active и Passive употребляется для выражения действия, одновременного с действием, обозначенным глаголом-сказуемым в предложении, в настоящем, прошедшем и будущем времени: I am glad to help him. I was glad to help him. I'll be glad to help him. I am glad to be helped.

Я рад помочь ему. Я был рад помочь ему. Я буду рад помочь ему. Я рад, что мне помогают.

2. The Continuous Infinitive Active употребляется для выражения действия в процессе его развертывания, происходящего одновременно с действием, обозначенным глаголом-сказуемым в предложении: I am glad to be helping him. It was pleasant to be helping him again.

Я рад, что сейчас помогаю ему. Было приятно снова помогать ему.

3. The Perfect Infinitive Active и Passive употребляется для выражения действия, которое предшес твует действию, обозначенному глаголомсказуемым в предложении: I am glad to have helped him. I am glad to have been helped.

Я рад, что помог ему. Я рад, что мне помогли.

To make a profit one must earn Чтобы получать доход, необходимо more money than one spends. зарабатывать больше денег, чем тратить. To increase the speed the designers

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have to improve the aircraft shape конструкторы должны улучшить and engine efficiency. форму самолета и КПД (эффективность) двигателя. Once a week a student of Cambridge Раз в неделю студент Кембриджа is to go to his tutor to discuss his должен встретиться со своим work. наставником, чтобы обсудить свою работу.

Функции инфинитива Инфинитив может выполнять в предложении следующие функции: 1) подлежащего Тo translate such an article without a dictionary is difficult. To work with computer was new to many of us.

Переводить (перевод) такую статью без словаря трудно. Работать (работа) с компьютером было новым для нас.

В этом случае инфинитив стоит в самом начале предложения во главе группы слов перед сказуемым. Инфинитив в функции подлежащего можно переводить как неопределенной формой глагола, так и отглагольным существительным. 2) обстоятельства цели То translate such an article without a dictionary, you must know English well.

Чтобы переводить такую статью без словаря, вы должны хорошо знать английский язык.

One must work hard to master a foreign language.

Нужно много работать, чтобы овладеть иностранным языком.

To increase the speed, the designers have to improve the aircraft shape and engine efficiency.

Чтобы увеличить скорость, конструкторы должны улучшить форму самолета и КПД (эффективность) двигателя.

Once a week a student of Cambridge Раз в неделю студент Кембриджа is to go to his tutor to discuss his work. должен встретиться со своим наставником, чтобы обсудить свою работу. В этом случае инфинитив может стоять как в самом начале предложения перед подлежащим, так и в конце предложения. В функции обстоятельства цели инфинитиву могут предшес твовать союзы in order to, so as чтобы, для того чтобы. 108

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3) части сказуемого (простого и составного) Our aim is to launch a new product onto the market. He can translate this article without a dictionary. He will translate the article next week.

Наша задача – выпустить на рынок новый товар. Он может переводить такую статью без словаря. Он будет переводить (переведет) эту статью на следующей неделе.

В этом случае инфинитив стоит либо после глагола to be, либо после модальных глаголов, либо после вспомогательных глаголов. 4) дополнения He doesn’t like to borrow money. The article was not difficult to translate. I am glad to have spoken to our lecturer about my work.

Он не любит занимать деньги. Эту статью было нетрудно переводить. Я рад (а), что поговорил(а) с нашим лектором о моей работе.

В этом случае инфинитив стоит после глагола или прилагательного. 5) определения The company is the first to launch this product onto the market.

Это компания первая выпустила этот продукт на рынок.

В этой функции инфинитив стоит после слов the first, the second, the last и т. д. или после существительного. После существительного инфинитив чаще всего стоит в пассивной форме, обычно имеет модальное значение и выражает действие, которое должно произойти в будущем. В этом случае инфинитив переводится определительным придаточным предложением: Не gave me some articles Он дал мне несколько статей, to translate. которые нужно было перевести (для перевода). Here is information to be analyzed. Это информация, которую необходимопроанализировать. Here is the article to translate. Вот статья для перевода. Gagarin was the first to orbit the Гагарин первый облетел Землю. Earth. The device to be tested has been Прибор, который будет (должен) made in our lab. испытываться, сделан в нашей лаборатории.

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§ 33. Инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for Инфинитивный оборот с предлогом for предс тавляет собой сочетание предлога for с существительным в общем падеже или местоимением в объектном падеже и инфинитива. Инфинитив показывает, какое дейс твие должно быть совершено лицом, обозначенным существительным или местоимением. Этот оборот переводится на русский язык придаточным предложением обычно с союзом что, чтобы: Не waited for her to speak. We stopped for them to pass by. It is difficult for students to learn FORTRAN.

Он ждал, что она заговорит. Мы остановились, чтобы они могли пройти. Студентам трудно выучить FORTRAN.

§ 34. Инфинитив как часть сложного дополнения (The Complex Object) В английском языке суждение, мнение, предположение о чем-то или о ком-то можно выразить двумя способами: 1) сложноподчиненным предложением с дополнительным придаточным предложением We think that this can help us better understand world markets.

Мы думаем, что это может помочь нам лучше понимать мировые рынки;

2) простым предложением со сложным дополнением, которое представляет собой сочетание существительного (в общем падеже) или местоимения (в объектном падеже) с инфинитивом. На русский язык сложное дополнение с инфинитивом переводится точно так же, как и сложноподчиненное предложение с дополнительным придаточным предложением: We think this to help us better understand world markets.

Мы считаем, что это поможет нам лучше понимать мировые рынки.

Сложное дополнение с инфинитивом употребляется после следующих глаголов: to know знать, to want хотеть, to find находить, устанавливать, to like любить, нравиться, to think думать, to believe полагать, to assume допускать, предполагать, to consider считать, to expect предполагать, to allow позволять, to enable давать возможность, to cause заставлять и др.: They expect the meeting to be over soon. скоро закончится.

Они предполагают, что собрание

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Особенностью употребления сложного дополнения с инфинитивом является то, что после некоторых глаголов опускается частица to перед инфинитивом. К ним относятся глаголы чувственного восприятия: to feel чувствовать, to hear слышать, to see видеть, to watch наблюдать, to notice замечать, to let позволять, to make заставлять: The students heard the professor speak about his experimental work. He made us do this work.

Студенты слышали, как профессор говорил о своей экспериментальной работе. Он заставил нас сделать эту работу.

§ 35. Инфинитив как часть сложного подлежащего (The Complex Subject) В английском языке мнение или предположение группы неопределенных лиц о чем-то или о ком-то можно выразить двумя способами: 1) сложноподчиненным предложением It is expected that the Internet will change the way businesses interact with each other.

Предполагают, что Интернет изменит способы взаимодействия бизнеса друг с другом;

2) простым предложением со сложным подлежащим, которое включает имя существительное (в общем падеже) или мес тоимение (в именительном падеже) и инфинитив. Инфинитивный оборот «сложное подлежащее» употребляется после следующих глаголов в страдательном залоге: to know знать, to say говорить, to report сообщать, to find находить, устанавливать, to assume, to suppose предполагать, to consider, to think считать, думать, to expect ожидать, полагать и др.: The Internet is expected to change the way businesses interact with each other. Перевод таких предложений следует начинать со сказуемого предложения и переводить его неопределенно-личным предложением известно, предполагают, установлено, считают и т. д., за которым следует придаточное предложение, вводимое союзом что: Предполагают, что Интернет изменит способы взаимодействия различных бизнесов с друг другом. Возможен и другой способ перевода этих подлежащего):

предложений (начиная с

Интернет, как полагают, изменит способы взаимодействия различных бизнесов. 111

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Глагол-сказуемое может быть и в действительном залоге, если употребляются следующие глаголы: to seem, to appear казаться, по-видимому, очевидно; to prove, to turn out оказываться; to happen случаться, оказываться: There appears to be a sharp rise in inflation. The method appears to be of some interest.

Очевидно, будет резкий скачок инфляции. Этот метод, по-видимому, представляет интерес.

Наконец, глагол-сказуемое может быть составным: to be likely вероятно, to be unlikely невероятно, маловероятно, едва ли, to be sure, certain несомненно, непременно, обязательно: Taxes are likely to fall slowly. Налоги, вероятно, будут медленно сокращаться.

§ 36. Сослагательное наклонение (The Subjunctive Mood) Сослагательное наклонение показывает, что говорящий рассматривает дейс твие не как реальный факт, а как предполагаемое, желательное или нереальное. В русском языке имеется только одна форма сослагательного наклонения – сочетание формы глагола прошедшего времени с частицей бы (сделал бы, хотел бы и т. д.) Эта форма может относиться к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему времени. В английском языке имеется несколько форм сослагательного наклонения. При выражении предположения, желания или возможности в нас тоящем или будущем времени простые формы сослагательного наклонения совпадают с формой инфинитива без частицы to для всех лиц и чисел или с формой Past Simple. Глагол to be в этом случае имеет формы be и were для всех лиц и чисел. Сложная форма сослагательного наклонения представляет собой сочетание should (would) с Simple Infinitive без частицы to: It’s high time taxes went down.

Давно пора сокращать налоги.

You could easily bring the people you need together electronically.

Ты бы мог легко собрать всех нужных тебе людей через Интернет.

I should come with pleasure.

Я бы пришел с удовольствием.

При передаче дейс твия нереального, относящегося к прошлому, простая форма сослагательного наклонения совпадает с формой Past Perfect, а сложная форма представляет собой сочетание глаголов should и would с Perfect Infinitive без частицы to: 112

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If economy hadn’t been in recession our business would have made a profit.

Если бы экономика была в не упадке, наш бизнес был бы прибыльным.

§ 37. Употребление различных форм сослагательного наклонения Формы сослагательного наклонения употребляются: 1) в простых предложениях I should like to get this book.

Мне бы хотелось достать эту книгу.

He would like to join us.

Он хотел бы присоединиться к нам.

He could do it tomorrow.

Он смог бы сделать это завтра.

They would have helped you,

Они бы помогли вам, но не смогли

but they couldn't come.

прийти.

You could have done it.

Вы могли бы это сделать.

Why didn't you try?

Почему же вы не попытались?

2) в сложноподчиненных предложениях: а) в придаточных предложениях после безличных оборотов типа

It is

necessary important essential desirable possible improbable suggested proposed required demanded ordered

that…

Необходимо, чтобы... Важно, чтобы... Существенно, чтобы... Желательно, чтобы... Возможно, что... Маловероятно, что... Предполагается, что... Предполагается, чтобы... Требуется, чтобы... Требуется, чтобы... Необходимо, чтобы...

В этом случае сложная форма сослагательного наклонения образуется с помощью should для всех лиц: It is desirable that he should be present here.

Желательно, чтобы он присутствовал здесь;

б) в дополнительных придаточных предложениях после глаголов to suggest предполагать, to propose предлагать, to desire желать, to require, to demand 113

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требовать, to order приказывать, to insist настаивать и т. д.: The engineer demanded that the test be (should be) repeated.

Инженер потребовал, чтобы испытание повторили;

в) в дополнительных придаточных предложениях после глагола wish: I wish he were with us. I wish you had brought your camera. камеру. I wish he would tell us everything. Мне вечер. I wish he could come to the party. тщательно сделали это. I wish you had done it more carefully. рассказал;

Мне жаль, что его с нами нет. Мне жаль, что ты не принес свою бы хотелось, чтобы он пришел на Мне бы хотелось, чтобы вы более Я бы хотел, чтобы он нам все

г) в придаточных предложениях цели после союзов so that, in order that так, чтобы; lest чтобы не. В этом случае should употребляется для всех лиц: Send him out of the room so that he should not hear what we talk about.

Отошли его из комнаты, чтобы он не слышал, о чем мы разговариваем.

She put the letter away lest her husband should see it.

Она убрала письмо, чтобы его не увидел муж;

д) в придаточных сравнения с союзами as if или as though как будто, словно: The house is so quite as if there were nobody in it.

В доме было так тихо, как будто в нем никого нет;

е) в обеих частях сложноподчиненного придаточными второго и третьего типов:

предложения

с

условными

If I were not so tired, I should go with you.

Если бы я так не устал, я бы пошел с вами.

If they had a car, they would go to the country.

Если бы у них был автомобиль, они бы поехали за город.

If he hadn't phoned her, she wouldn't have come.

Если бы он не позвонил ей, она бы не пришла.

§ 38. Особенности страдательного залога В английском языке в страдательном залоге могут употребляться непереходные 114

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глаголы с предлогами и послелогами. К таким глаголам относятся: to send for посылать за, to follow by следовать за, to look at смотреть на, to speak of, about говорить о, to rely on положиться на, to refer to ссылаться на, to act upon действовать на, to influence by влиять на, to deal with иметь дело с, рассматривать, to work at, on работать над и др. В этих случаях перевод предложения следует начинать с предлога: The doctor was sent for.

За доктором послали.

His project was much spoken about.

О его проекте много говорили.

This reference-book can be relied on. положиться.

На этот справочник можно

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ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ 3 Ситуативно-обусловленные фразы (Phrases Used to Make Conversational Move) Exemplification for example that is

in other words for instance

Enumeration / Sequence first, second... finally moreover also in addition next then after furthermore later

in particular to illustrate before another afterwards again

Comparison Similarly Also

not only...but also in the same way just as

Contrast But nevertheless still in spite of despite

however unlike in contrast although in fact

Though Yet on the other hand on the contrary

thus so

consequently hence accordingly

Result Therefore as a result for for this reason Emphasis even surely certainly indeed Summary in summary in brief to sum up

because

actually obviously again

as a matter of fact true undoubtedly

in conclusion on the whole in short

to conclude to summarize

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1.

Сообщение информации (Information / Reporting)

The information I got was According to the From what I’ve been told Strange as it may seem According to the latest reports Recent studies have shown 2.

Информация, которой я располагаю Согласно (чему-либо) Исходя из того, что мне сообщили Как это ни покажется странным Согласно последним отчетам Последние исследования показали

Изложение по порядку (Ordering)

First of all To start / to begin with The first / second / next thing is (And) furthermore Subsequently Another thing is Moving on to Now let's look at / turn to (обратимся к) Lastly/finally As will be shown later This will be covered / discussed later

Прежде всего Начнем с того, что Первое/второе/следующее это (И) далее Затем Кроме того Переходя к Теперь давайте взглянем на Наконец Как будет показано далее Об этом речь пойдет позже

3. Выделение главной мысли (Highlighting / Emphasizing) Primarily Essentially The (main) point is Getting to the heart of the matter The real issue here is том, что That's just the point The interesting thing about... is that то, что The significance is What we have to remember is Drawing your attention to Of primary concern is

В первую очередь Главным образом Главное - это ... Переходя к основному Главная проблема состоит в Дело именно в этом Интересным в ...является Значение (этого) состоит в Нам необходимо помнить Привлекая ваше внимание к Основным моментом является

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4. Ссылка на другие положения высказывания (Referencing / Linking) As I mentioned previously/earlier Returning now to a point made earlier Looking back to what we saw As with ... that I mentioned earlier As we'll see when we get to As I've already indicated As opposed to our first statement Like / Unlike Let me bring things back into focus Going back to Let's not get side-tracked That's beside the point

Как я ранее отметил Возвращаясь к высказанной ранее мысли Оглядываясь на увиденное Что касается ..., о чем я говорил (а) ранее Как мы увидим, когда будем рассматривать Как я уже отмечал В противовес нашему первому утверждению Как и/в отличие от Разрешите мне вернуться к основной теме Возвращаясь к Давайте не будем уходить в сторону Это не по теме

5. Затрагивание трудных моментов (Introducing Difficult Issues) Frankly speaking Realistically The real problem / trouble is To put it bluntly Roughly speaking I hate to say this, but There is no other way to say this This is a rather delicate (sensitive) mailer You've just taken it out of context I'd just as soon / rather not

Откровенно говоря Если оценивать реально На самом деле, проблема в том Грубо говоря Грубо говоря Мне неприятно об этом говорить, но По-другому этого не скажешь Это довольно деликатный вопрос Вы это прос то выдернули из контекста Я бы, пожалуй

6. Сопоставление разных точек зрения (Buffering) Perhaps it's already been mentioned, but… Возможно, об этом уже говорилось, но Though some studies show that..., Хотя в ряде исследований показано, что others... …тем не менее, в других… 118

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Correct me if I'm wrong, but I may have missed something here, but I may be out of line here, but Unless I don't have the whole story From my lay perspective Please hold your objections till I'm done Just suppose for a minute that For the sake of argument, let's say that Roughly speaking Off the record While I'm aware of that

Поправьте меня, если я не прав(а), но Возможно, я здесь что-то пропустил(а), но Может быть, я не совсем по делу, но До тех пор, пока я не услышу все до конца Я как неспециалис т считаю (с моей точки зрения непрофессионала) Прошу вас воздержаться от возражений, пока я не закончу Предположим на минуту, что Ради дискуссии давайте предположим, что Грубо говоря Не для протокола (печати) В то время как мне известно об этом.

7. Добавление к сказанному (Supplementing / Linking / Expanding) And besides... Furthermore Also What's more Additionally Building on that Moreover Within the same In keeping with Analogous ly And another thing To elaborate / expand on Not lo mention the fact that

И кроме того Более того Также (в то же время) И более того В добавление к Исходя из этого Более того В этим же плане Придерживаясь Аналогично И кроме того В добавление к этой теме Не говоря уже о том,

8. Высказывание предположений (Hypothesizing / Postulating) Given that.... then.... In theory By all indications

Если учесть, что... тогда Теоретически По всем показателям 119

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Barring anything unforeseen обстоятельства If that's the case Unless In the meantime If, and only if In that / which case/ situation, we... Hypothetically / theoretically speaking The best / worst case scenario Excluding the unexpected неожиданнос ти

Исключая все непредвиденные Если все будет именно так Разве что Тем временем (между тем) Только при условии, что В данном случае мы Если рассуждать гипотетически (теоретически) В лучшем /худшем случае Если исключить все

9. Рассуждения в ходе выступления (Reasoning /Processing) As a result Consequently Therefore Owing to As a matter of fact / course Thus (So) In view of the fact that As would be expected It's not surprising that It would be safe to assume that Taking into account It should come as no surprise It would naturally follow that There are a few holes in that argument This may be true, but You are "barking up the wrong tree" That's only one way of looking at it With all due respect Aren't you mixing apples and oranges? Yes, but aren’t you forgetting I'm not convinced I can't accept that That's highly unlikely You don't really mean that I'd say you're on shaky ground there

В результате Вследствие чего Поэтому Благодаря Собственно говоря Таким образом Учитывая тот факт, что Как ожидалось бы Неудивительно, что Было бы вполне надежно предположить Принимая во внимание (учитывая) Не должно быть удивительно Естественно в таком случае, что В этих доводах есть ряд нестыковок Может, это и так, но Вы совсем не о том говорите Это лишь односторонний подход к делу Со всем уважением к вам По-моему, вы путаете боб с горохом Да, но не забываете ли вы Я не убежден(а) Я не могу этого принять Это маловероятно Не думаю, что вы имеете это в виду Мне кажется, у вас здесь очень шаткая позиция 120

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10. Сравнение и противопоставление (Comparing / Contrasting) On the one hand ... on the other hand Contrary to what we would expect In direct opposition to Diametrically opposed Measured against Similarly Analogous ly Yet

С одной стороны ... с другой стороны В отличие от того, что мы могли бы ожидать В полной противоположности Совершенно в другой (противоположной) плоскости Если это сравнивать с Аналогично Аналогично Однако (тем не менее)

11. Обобщение (Generalizing) As a rule For the most part As a matter of course By and large Inevitably As expected On the whole Generally speaking Typically

Как правило В большинстве случаев Очевидно В основном, в целом Неизбежно Как ожидается В целом Вообще-то Обычно

12. Подведение итогов (Summarizing) So, in a nutshell The bottom line is For all intents and purposes To sum it all up In effect To make a long story short All in all In brief So you see To put it all together So what we've seen is By way of summary

Итак, одним словом Подводя черту Если подытожить сказанное Суммируя все вышесказанное Фактически (на самом деле) Короче говоря В целом Вкратце Итак, как вы видите Сводя все сказанное воедино Как мы убедились Подводя итоги 121

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13. Цитирование (Quoting) In the (immortal) words of And I quote here ... As ... put it To borrow / lift a phrase from No one has / Few have said it better As the saying goes According to As X and Y point out / state X claims / proposes that

Цитируя (бессмертные) слова И я здесь цитирую... Как сказал… Заимствуя высказывание Никто не сказал об этом лучше Как говорится По словам Как отмечают (утверждают) Х и У Х считает / предлагает, что

14. Завершение выступления (Concluding) In conclusion Let me close by saying Due to time constraints Wrapping it up I see my time is up Thank you for your attention I appreciate your interest Thank you for the opportunity to

В заключение Разрешите мне закончить тем, что Из-за ограниченного времени Закругляясь Я вижу, что у меня заканчивается время Спасибо за внимание Я признателен вам за проявленный интерес Благодарю вас за возможность

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БИБЛИОГРАФИЧЕСКИЙ СПИСОК 1. Орловская, И. В. Учебник английского языка для студентов технических университетов и вузов / И. В. Орловская, Л. С. Самсонова, А. И. Скубриева. – 3е изд., перераб. и доп. – М: Изд-во МГТУ им. Н.Э. Баумана, 2002. – 448 с. 2. Слепович, В. С. Деловой английский. Business communication: Учебное пособие / В. С. Слепович. – Изд. 3-е, стереотип. – Мн.: «Тетра Сис темс», 2003. – 254 с. 3. Abbs, B., Frebairn I. Blueprint. Students’ Book (two) / Brian Abbs, Ingrid Frebairn. – Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1997. – 141 p. 4. Collie, J., Martin A. What’s it like? Life and culture in Britain today. Sudent’s book / Joanne Collie, Alex Martin. – Cambridge University Press, 2002. – 96 p. 5. Cotton, D., Falvey D., Kent S. Market Leader (Intermediate) / David Cotton, David Falvey, Simon Kent – Pearson Longman, 2005. – 176 p. 6. Doff, A., Jones C. Language in Use (Intermediate) Self-study workbook / Adrian Doff, Christopher Jones. – Cambridge University Press, 2002. – 136 p. 7. McConnell, C. R., Brue S. L. Macroeconomics / Campbell R. McConnell, Stanley L. Brue. – McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990. – 524 p. 8. Mankiw, N.G. Principles of Economics / N. Gregory Mankiw. – The Dryden Press, - 1998. – 783 p. 9. Powel M. In company (Upper intermediate) / Mark Powel. – Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2004. – 160 p.

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Учебное издание Доловова Наталья Николаевна Степанова Ольга Борисовна Аристова Елена Валерьевна Fundamentals of Economics Учебное пособие Редактор Н. А. Евдокимова Подписано в печать 10. 09. 2006. Формат 60 × 84/16. Бумага офсетная. Печать трафаретная. Усл. печ. л. 6, 98. Тираж 100 экз. Заказ . УлГТУ 432027, г. Ульяновск, ул. Сев. Венец, д. 32. Типография УлГТУ, 432027, г. Ульяновск, ул. Сев. Венец, д. 32.

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