Giant Planets of Our Solar System: An Introduction

Giant Planets of Our Solar System An Introduction

Patrick G. J. Irwin

Giant Planets of Our Solar System An Introduction

Published in association with

Praxis Publishing Chichester, UK

Dr Patrick G. J. Irwin Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Planetary Physics Clarendon Laboratory Oxford UK and St Anne’s College Oxford UK

SPRINGER–PRAXIS BOOKS IN ASTRONOMY AND PLANETARY SCIENCES SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITORS: Dr Philippe Blondel, C.Geol., F.G.S., Ph.D., M.Sc., Senior Scientist, Department of Physics, University of Bath, Bath, UK; John Mason, M.Sc., B.Sc., Ph.D.

ISBN 3-540-31317-6 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Springer is part of Springer-Science + Business Media (springeronline.com) Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available from the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de Library of Congress Control Number: 2005938845 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. # Praxis Publishing Ltd, Chichester, UK, 2003 Reprinted with corrections and issued as an abridged paperback, 2006 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: Jim Wilkie Project management: Originator Publishing Services, Gt Yarmouth, Norfolk, UK Printed on acid-free paper

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xi

Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xiii

Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

List of figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xix

List of tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xxiii

List of colour plates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xxv

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The giant outer planets. . . . . . . . 1.2 Observed atmospheres of the giant 1.2.1 Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Satellites of the outer planets . . . . 1.4 Exploration of the outer planets . . 1.5 Organization of book . . . . . . . . . 1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1 1 5 5 8 9 11 12 13 14 15 15

2

Formation of the giant planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Formation of the universe and primordial constituents . . . . . . . 2.2 Formation of the stars and evolution of the interstellar medium .

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2.3

Formation of the protosolar nebula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Collapse of the interstellar cloud . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Formation of circumstellar disc . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Formation of the Jovian planets and comets. . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Core accretion model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Gravitational instability model. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Formation of Jovian satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Bulk composition of the outer planets and isotape ratios. 2.6.1 Constraints on formation: D/H ratio . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Constraints on formation: Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Interiors of the giant planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.1 Gravitational data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.2 Magnetic field data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7.3 Internal structure of Jupiter and Saturn . . . . . . 2.7.4 Internal structure of Uranus and Neptune . . . . . 2.8 Migration and extrasolar planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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21 21 23 28 28 32 32 33 33 39 39 39 42 42 45 47 48 51

3

Evolution processes in outer planet atmospheres . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Thermal escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Jeans’ formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Diffusion and limiting flux . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Hydrodynamic escape . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Impacts with comets and planetesimals . . . . . . . 3.4 Internal differentiation processes. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Effective radiating temperature of planets 3.5 Evolution of the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . 3.5.1 Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Uranus and Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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53 53 53 53 55 58 59 59 60 62 62 63 64 65 65

4

Vertical structure of temperature, composition, and clouds. . . . . . 4.1 Pressure and temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 Secondary effects on temperature/pressure profiles . 4.1.4 Temperature/pressure profiles of the outer planets . 4.2 Vertical mixing–eddy mixing coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Composition profiles – general considerations . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Disequilibrium species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Photolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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89 91 92 92 103 110 116 125 131

5

Dynamical processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Mean circulation of the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Mean zonal motions in the giant planet atmospheres . 5.3 Eddy motion in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Turbulence in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Waves in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Vortices in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Mean and eddy circulation of the giant planet atmospheres . . 5.4.1 Tropospheric circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Stratospheric and upper tropospheric circulation . . . . 5.5 Meteorology of Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 General circulation and zonal structure . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 Storms and vortices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Meteorology of Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1 General circulation and zonal structure . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2 Storms and vortices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.3 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Meteorology of Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7.1 General circulation and zonal structure . . . . . . . . . . 5.7.2 Storms and vortices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7.3 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 Meteorology of Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.1 General circulation and zonal structure . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.2 Storms and vortices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8.3 Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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133 133 133 135 141 147 147 151 156 158 158 163 164 164 169 173 177 177 179 180 183 183 184 185 185 185 187 190 191 196

6

Radiative transfer processes in outer planetary atmospheres . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Interaction between electromagnetic radiation and particles 6.2.1 Fermi’s golden rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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197 197 198 198

4.4

4.5 4.6

4.3.3 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Extraplanetary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition and cloud profiles of the giant planets . 4.4.1 Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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vii

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viii

Contents

6.2.2 Electric and magnetic moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Molecular spectroscopy: vibrational–rotational transitions . . . . . 6.3.1 Molecular vibrational energy levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Molecular rotational energy levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Rotational transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Vibration–rotation bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.5 Inversion bands and inversion-doubling . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.6 Diatomic homonuclear molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.7 Line-broadening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.8 Giant planet gas transmission spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Radiative transfer in a grey atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Nadir viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Net flux and disc-averaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3 Limb-viewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4 Radiative balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.5 Local thermodynamic equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.6 Transmission calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Scattering of light by particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Rayleigh or dipole scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Mie theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Non-spherical particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Analytical forms of phase functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Radiative transfer in scattering atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 Plane-parallel approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 Spherical atmospheres and limb-viewing: Monte Carlo simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Giant planet spectra. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.1 General features of giant planet spectra: UV to microwave 6.7.2 Near-IR and visible reflectance spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.3 Thermal-IR spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.4 Microwave spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8.1 Planck function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.10 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

199 200 200 201 203 204 208 208 209 211 212 213 216 218 220 221 222 225 226 227 228 229 229 230

Sources of remotely sensed data on the giant planets . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Measurement of visible, IR, and microwave spectra 7.2.1 Detection of IR radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Radiometers/photometers . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Grating spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Michelson interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Detection of microwave radiation. . . . . . . 7.3 Ground-based observations of the giant planets. . .

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6.3

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232 233 233 234 236 241 242 242 244 245

Contents ix

7.3.1 Terrestrial atmospheric absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Angular resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Brightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Ground-based visible/IR observatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 European Southern Observatory (ESO) – Very Large Telescope (VLT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 The Mauna Kea observatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.3 Other major observatories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Airborne visible/IR observations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5.1 Kuiper Airborne Observatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Ground-based microwave observatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.1 The Institut de RadioAstronomie Millime´trique (IRAM) 7.6.2 Very Large Array (VLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.3 Very Large Baseline Array (VLBA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6.4 Berkeley Illinois Maryland Association (BIMA) . . . . . . 7.6.5 Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO). . . . . . . . . . 7.6.6 Nobeyama Millimeter Array (NMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Space-based telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7.1 HST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7.2 ISO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7.3 Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS) . . . . . 7.8 Flyby spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.1 Pioneer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.2 Voyager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8.3 Ulysses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9 Orbiting spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9.1 Galileo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.9.2 Cassini/Huygens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 Retrievals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10.1 Exact, least squares, and Backus–Gilbert solution . . . . . 7.10.2 Linear optimal estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10.3 Non-linear optimal estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10.4 Joint retrievals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.12 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

255 257 260 261 263 265 268 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 274 275 276 277 279 283 284 286 288 292 292 292 300 303 306 307 309 309 309 310

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

313

Preface

I can remember it vividly. I was eleven and standing on a cold, windy hill with one of my mother’s friends who had offered to let me view the planets through his telescope. It was only a small telescope, but through it I was able to see the disc of Jupiter with the two dark strips of the equatorial belts together with Jupiter’s Galilean moons. As for Saturn, the sight of it hanging there in space surrounded by its fabulous ring system quite took my breath away. This experience, amongst others, fostered a lifelong interest and enthusiasm in physics and in the planets of our Solar System, especially the giant planets. Ten years later I found myself as a research student in Oxford studying the atmosphere of Mars. Twenty years later I found myself on a beach in Florida, watching the launch of the Cassini/Huygens mission to Saturn, carrying with it the CIRS instrument that I had helped to design and build. I am now fortunate enough to be involved in several space missions to the planets, and the study of planetary atmospheres continues to fascinate and inspire me. This book is aimed at 3rd to 4th year undergraduates of physics and astronomy and 1st year postgraduate students of planetary physics. I hope it may also serve as a handy reference for researchers. One of the difficulties I had in compiling the book was in peeling away some of the jargon used in the scientific literature that assumed prior knowledge but which was actually sometimes rather arcane. Hence, wherever possible I have tried to approach all of the fields that make up this book from the starting point of an undergraduate with a good grasp of physics but no prior specialist knowledge. Furthermore, I have tried to include references to the major books and papers in the various fields which should allow an interested reader to explore further should they wish to. For the chapters dealing with current and future projects I have also included a number of website addresses which were very helpful in writing these chapters. In many areas presented in this book the opinion of the scientific community is still split and thus research is actively on-going. In such cases I have tried to objectively present both sides of the arguments and I apologise for any bias that may, or may not, have crept in. In other cases, such as formation models,

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there are a wide range of results and simulations and thus it should be remembered that there is considerable variance about the mean view that I have tried to present. I hope my reader finds this book useful, and while I can’t offer the exhilaration of viewing a planet for the first time on a cold, windy hillside, I hope he or she will share my enthusiasm for this fascinating area of astronomy.

Acknowledgements

I would like first of all to thank both my sub-department of Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Planetary Physics and St Anne’s College for granting me sabbatical leave to write this book between March and December 2002. I would also like to thank the UK Particle Physics and Research Council (PPARC) for supporting my group’s research into the atmospheres of the giant planets, some results of which are presented in this book. I would then like to thank all of my colleagues who have assisted me in collecting and collating the material that I have presented in this book including, in no particular order: Therese Encrenaz, Emmanuel Lellouch, Andy Ingersoll, Kevin Baines, Sushil Atreya, Bill Hubbard, Larry Sromovsky, Augustin Sanchez-Lavega, Maarten Roos-Serote, Imke de Pater, Dave Jewitt, Don Yeomans, Mark McCaughrean, Tristan Guillot, Franck Hersant, Uwe Fink, Jacques Sauval, Ashwin Vasavada, Erich Karkoschka, Glenn Orton, Julianne Moses, Gary Davis, Bruno Be´zard, and David Andrews. I would also like to thank my Oxford colleagues Peter Read and Steve Lewis for many long and illuminating discussions on planetary dynamics which were of enormous value in completing Chapter 5. I would especially like to thank my other Oxford colleagues Thierry Fouchet and Fred Taylor who both kindly reviewed large sections of this book and who made many helpful comments and suggestions. I am also very grateful to Clive Horwood and John Mason of Springer–Praxis who also reviewed this book and helped me to mould it into its final form. I would very much like to thank the various authors, journals, space agencies, and websites whose figures are reproduced in this book. Full acknowledgement has been given in all cases and every effort has been made in gaining permission. Finally I would like to thank my wife and young family for putting up with Dad often having to work late and occasionally being a little grumpy!

To my wife Dunja, and to Benjamin and Samuel, my two little boys.

Abbreviations

AAO ACP ACS ALICE AUI BDRF BIMA CAPS CARMA CDA CELT CFHT CIA CIRS CNRS COBE CONSERT COROT COSIMA DALR DISR DWE ECCM ELT ESO EUV EZ

Anglo-Australian Observatory Aerosol Collector and Pyrolyzer (Huygens) Advanced Camera for Surveys (HST) Ultraviolet Image Spectrometer (Rosetta) Associated Universities, Inc. bidirectional reflectivity Berkeley Illinois Maryland Association Cassini Plasma Spectrometer Combined Array for Research in Millimeter wave Astronomy Cosmic Dust Analyzer (Cassini) Californian Extremely Large Telescope Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope collision induced absorptions Composite InfraRed Spectrometer (Cassini) Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Cosmic Background Explorer Comet Nucleus Sounding Experiment by Radiowave Transmission (Rosetta) COnvection ROtation and Transits Cometary Secondary Ion Mass Analyzer (Rosetta) dry adiabatic lapse rate Descent Imager and Spectral Radiometer (Huygens) Doppler Wind Experiment (Huygens) equilibrium cloud condensation model Extremely Large Telescope European Southern Observatory extreme ultraviolet Equatorial Zone

xvi Abbreviations

f.s.h. FOV FTS FUV GCM GCMS GCR GDS GIADA GPMS GRS HAD HASI HGA HIFI HST IAU IGN ING IPD IR IRAC IRAM IRIS IRS IRTF ISIM ISM ISO ISO-SWS ISO-LWS ISS ITCZ JAC JPL JWST KAO KBO LBT LBTI LTE MAG MAMA MIDAS MIMI

fractional scale height field of view Fourier-Transform Spectrometer far ultraviolet General Circulation Model Gas Chromatograph and Mass Spectrometer (Huygens) Galactic Cosmic Ray Great Dark Spot (Neptune) Grain Impact Analyzer and Dust Accumulator (Rosetta) Galileo Probe Man Spectrometer Great Red Spot (Jupiter) Galileo Probe Helium Abundance Detector Huygens Atmospheric Structure Instrument (Huygens) High Gain Antenna Heterodyne Instrument for the Far Infrared (Herschel ) Hubble Space Telescope International Astronomical Union Instituto Geogra´fico Nacional Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes interplanetary dust infrared Infrared Array Camera (SIRTF) Institut de Radio Astronomie Millime´trique Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (Voyager) Infrared Spectrograph (SIRTF) Infrared Telescope Facility Integrated Science Instrument Module (JWST) Interstellar Medium Infrared Space Observatory ISO Short Wavelength Spectrometer ISO Long Wavelength Spectrometer Imaging Science Subsystem (Voyager, Cassini ) Intertropical Convergence Zone Joint Astronomy Centre (UK, Holland, and Canada) Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA) James Webb Space Telescope Kuiper Airborne Observatory Kuiper belt objects Large Binocular Telescope Large Binocular Telescope Interferometer local thermodynamic equilibrium Dual Technique Magnetometer (Cassini) multi-anode microchemical array (HST) Microwave Imaging Dust Analysis System (Rosetta) Magnetospheric Imaging Instrument (Cassini)

Abbreviations

MIPS MIRI MIRO MPG NAOJ NEB NEP NER NFR NICMOS NIMS NIR NIRCam NIRSpec NMA NOAO NPS NRAO NTB NTropZ NTT OCIW OSIRIS OVRO OWL PACS PHOT PPR PPS PSF QBO QQO ROSINA RPWS RSP RSS RTG s.v.p. SALR SEB SEST SIM SIRTF SIS

xvii

Multiband Imaging Photometer (SIRTF) Mid-Infrared Instrument (JWST) Microwave Instrument for the Rosetta orbiter Max Planck Gesellschaft National Astronomical Observatory of Japan North Equatorial Belt (Jupiter) noise equivalent power noise equivalent radiance Net Flux Radiometer (Galileo) Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (HST) Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (Galileo) near-infrared Near Infrared Camera (JWST) Near Infrared Spectrograph (JWST) Nobeyama Millimeter Array National Optical Astronomy Observatories North Polar Spot (Saturn) National Radio Astronomy Observatory North Tropical Belt (Jupiter) North Tropical Zone (Jupiter) New Technology Telescope Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington Optical, Spectroscopic, and Infrared Remote Imaging System (Rosetta) Owens Valley Radio Observatory OverWhelmingly Large Telescope Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer (Herschel ) ISO photopolarimeter Photopolarimeter–Radiometer (Galileo) Photopolarimeter Subsystem (Voyager) point spread function quasi-biennial oscillation (Earth) quasi-quadrennial oscillation (Jupiter) Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis Radio and Plasma Wave Science (Cassini) Remote Sensing Platform (Galileo) Radio Science Instrument (Cassini) radioisotope thermoelectric generators saturated vapour pressure saturated adiabatic lapse rate South Equatorial Belt (Jupiter) Swedish ESO Submillimetre Telescope Space Interferometry Mission Space Infrared Telescope Facility superconductor–insulator–superconductor

xviii

Abbreviations

SPF SPIRE SPW SSI SSP STB STIS STP STZ SWAS SWS TPF UKIRT UV UVIS UVS v.m.r. VEEGA VIMS VIRTIS VISTA VLA VLBA VLT VLTI VLST VVEJGA WF/PC YSO

South Polar Feature (Neptune) Spectral and Photometric Imaging REceiver (Herschel Þ South Polar Wave (Neptune) Solid State Imaging (Galileo) Surface Science Package (Huygens) South Temperate Belt (Jupiter) Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (HST) standard temperature and pressure South Temperate Zone (Jupiter) Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite ISO Short Wavelength Spectrometer Terrestrial Planet Finder United Kingdom Infrared Telescope ultraviolet Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (Cassini ) Ultraviolet Spectrometer (Voyager) volume mixing ratio Venus–Earth–Earth–Gravity-Assist (Galileo) Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (Cassini ) Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (Rosetta) Visible and Infrared Telescope for Astronomy Very Large Array Very Large Baseline Array Very Large Telescope (ESO) Very Large Telescope Interferometer Very Large Telescope – Survey Telescope Venus–Venus–Earth–Jupiter–Gravity-Assist (Cassini ) Wide Field/Planetary Camera (HST) young stellar objects

Figures

1.1 1.2 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.12 4.13

The giant planets as observed by the Voyager spacecraft together with the Earth for comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thermal infrared radiation flux emitted by the giant planets as a function of latitude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jovian zonal nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 4 6

Molecular cloud Barnard 68 observed by the ESO Very Large Telescope . . . . Hubble Space Telescope image of a young circumstellar disc (Orion 114-426) in the Orion nebula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wide-field medium-resolution false-colour near-IR image of HH212 . . . . . . . Variation of nebula pressure in circumstellar disc above ecliptic plane . . . . . . The Oort comet cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measured D/H ratios of the giant planets, meteorites, and comets . . . . . . . . . Definition of the planetographic and planetocentric latitude systems . . . . . . . Interior models of Jupiter and Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior models of Uranus and Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

Equatorial temperature/pressure profiles of the giant planet atmospheres . . . . Variation of molecular heat capacity of molecular hydrogen with temperature Variation of eddy mixing and molecular diffusion coefficients with height in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UV cross sections of different gases relevant to giant planet atmospheres . . . . Methane photochemistry paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager 1 image of Jupiter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equilibrium cloud condensation model of Jupiter’s atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . Observed and modelled abundance profiles in the atmosphere of Jupiter . . . . Relative cloud profile of Jupiter deduced from the Galileo probe nephelometer experiment cloud results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galileo/SSI images of a convective storm and the associated lightning in Jupiter’s atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean observed/modelled cloud profiles of the giant planets . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72 74

24 26 27 31 36 41 43 46

81 87 88 93 94 95 100 101 102

xx 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.21 5.22 5.24 5.25 5.26 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Figures Image of Saturn recorded by the HST/WFPC-2 instrument in 1990 . . . . . . . . Equilibrium cloud condensation model of Saturn’s atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . Observed and modelled abundance profiles in the atmosphere of Saturn . . . . Equilibrium cloud condensation model of Uranus’ atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . Observed and modelled abundance profiles in the atmosphere of Uranus . . . . Neptune observed by Voyager 2 in 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observed and modelled abundance profiles in the atmosphere of Neptune . . . Equilibrium cloud condensation model of Neptune’s atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . Close up of Neptune’s methane clouds showing shadows cast by them on the main cloud deck beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103 104 108 111 114 117 118 118

Conversion of thermal energy into kinetic energy by a Carnot heat engine . . . Zonal wind structure of the giant planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zonal wind structure of the giant planets superimposed onto representations of their visible appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Canonical zonal flow diagram of Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regime diagram of the main characteristic atmospheric motion as a function of the Richardson number (Ri) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taylor–Proudman columns and differential cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stability of zonal structure of Jupiter and Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vortex tube stretching associated with Taylor–Proudman columns . . . . . . . . Mosaic of four HST/WFPC-2 images of Jupiter showing the evolution of the Shoemaker–Levy 9 G impact site in 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager 1 image of Jupiter’s Great Red Spot and one of the STBs White Ovals in 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Southern hemisphere of Jupiter observed by Cassini/ISS in December 2000 . . Multispectral images of Jupiter observed by Cassini/ISS on 8 October 2000, as it approached Jupiter during its flyby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager 1 image of a Brown Barge on Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The merger of the White Ovals from 1997 to 2000 observed by HST . . . . . . . Mesoscale waves in Jupiter’s atmosphere recorded by Galileo/SSI . . . . . . . . . Standard Saturnian zonal nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mosaic of five HST images of Saturn recorded between 1996 and 2000, showing the opening of Saturn’s rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saturn’s North Polar Hexagon, North Polar Spot, and the ‘Ribbon Wave’ . . The ‘Ribbon Wave’ cloud structure in Saturn’s atmosphere observed by Voyager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Three HST/WFPC-2 images of Uranus recorded in 1994 in a methane absorption band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detail of the GDS and DS2 observed by Voyager 2 in 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . HST image of a new ‘Great Dark Spot’, located at a latitude of 32
N in the northern hemisphere of the planet Neptune recorded in 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . .

134 142

Population of rotational energy states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measured line strengths at 296 K in the rotation band of CO . . . . . . . . . . . . Measured line strengths at 296 K in the 2 vibration–rotation band of CO2 . . Vibrational modes of CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mid to far-IR transmission of tropospheric and stratospheric gases for a solar composition path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Near-IR transmission of tropospheric gases for a solar composition path. . . .

123

143 144 148 159 160 161 165 166 167 168 170 172 174 178 178 181 182 185 188 189 204 205 206 207 212 213

Figures xxi 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24

Radiative transfer in a grey plane-parallel atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculated nadir transmission weighting functions for Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . Variation of peak of calculated transmission weighting function with wavelength for Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculated nadir and disc-averaged weighting functions for Jupiter at 600 cm 1 Calculated limb weighting functions for Jupiter at 600 cm 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scattering angle definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mie scattering calculation of Qext as a function of wavelength. . . . . . . . . . . . Examples of different Henyey–Greenstein phase functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measured and calculated geometric albedo spectra of the giant planets . . . . . Calculated thermal emission spectra of the giant planets for nadir viewing . . . Calculated thermal emission spectra of the giant planets on a log scale . . . . . Calculated brightness temperature spectra of the giant planets. . . . . . . . . . . . Overlap spectral regions between thermal emission and reflected sunlight for the giant planets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microwave and radio-emission disc-averaged spectra of the giant planets . . . . Appearance of Jupiter at 2.0, 3.56, and 6.14 cm as observed by the VLA . . . . Grating spectrometer layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michelson interferometer layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transmission of Earth’s atmosphere from ground to space (vertical path) . . . Comparative sizes of the giant planets and the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relative apparent sizes of the giant planets as seen at opposition from the Earth with a telescope of ‘perfect’ resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relative appearance of the giant planets as seen at opposition from the Earth with good ‘seeing’ of approximately 1 arcsec resolution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculated disc-integrated irradiance spectra of the giant planets in the visible and near-IR as seen from the Earth at opposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calculated disc-integrated irradiance spectra of the giant planets in the mid- to far-IR as seen from the Earth at opposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The European Southern Observatory Very Large Telescope (VLT) . . . . . . . . Schematic design of VLT site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mauna Kea site in Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic design of the Keck Observatory, Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The KAO telescope looking through the aperture in the aircraft’s side . . . . . . The IRAM millimetre array at the Plateau de Bure Observatory, France . . . . The Very Large Array (VLA) in New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Berkeley Illinois Maryland Association (BIMA) millimetre array at Hat Creek, California. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) millimetre array in Bishop, California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nobeyama Millimeter Array (NMA) in Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Hubble Space Telescope in orbit about the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orbit of the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) about the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . Schematic design of ISO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Disc-integrated spectra of the giant planets recorded by ISO/SWS . . . . . . . . . Disc-integrated spectra of Jupiter and Saturn recorded by ISO/LWS . . . . . . .

214 216 217 219 220 226 228 230 234 236 237 238 239 242 243 250 252 256 257 257 258 262 262 264 265 266 267 269 270 272 273 274 275 276 277 279 280 282 283

xxii 7.25 7.26 7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37 7.38 7.39 7.40 7.41 7.42

Figures Disc-integrated spectra of the giant planets recorded by both ISO/SWS and ISO/LWS, plotted together on a log-scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pioneer 10 and 11 trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager 1 and 2 trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Current position of Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager/IRIS instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager/IRIS radiance spectra of the giant planets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Voyager/IRIS average spectra of the giant planets expressed as brightness temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galileo spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galileo interplanetary trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galileo prime mission orbital design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Near-IR Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galileo probe descent trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cassini interplanetary trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cassini spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CIRS instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CIRS focal plane pointing and FOV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

284 287 287 289 290 291 292 293 294 294 295 296 298 299 301 302 304 305

Tables

1.1 1.2a 1.2b 1.2c 1.2d 1.2e

Observed properties of the giant planets and Major satellites of Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major satellites of Saturn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major satellites of Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major satellites of Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of Pluto and Charon . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

3 8 9 11 12 13

2.1 2.2a 2.2b 2.3 2.4

Solar System abundances of the elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulk composition of the Jovian planets (relative to H2 ) . . . . . . . Bulk composition of the Jovian planets (as mole fractions) . . . . . Solar System D/H ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gravitational and magnetic properties of Earth and giant planets

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

20 34 35 35 42

3.1

Calculated exospheric escape times for the giant planets, Earth, Titan, and Triton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal balance of the Earth and giant planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

56 61

3.2

Earth ..... ..... ..... ..... .....

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

Mean pressure/temperature properties of the giant planet atmospheres. . . . . . Measured estimates of the eddy mixing coefficient in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refractive index parameters and depolarization factors for giant planet gases Pressure level of unit optical depth for Rayleigh scattering in the giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coefficients A and B for various sublimation and vaporization curves relevant to giant planet atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of Jupiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Composition of Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90 96 106 113 120

5.1

Instability criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

149

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

68 79 85 86

xxiv

Tables

6.1

Symmetry classifications of molecules relevant to giant planets . . . . . . . . . . .

201

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

La Silla telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mauna Kea telescopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Receivers available at the VLA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spatial resolutions of terrestrial and earth-orbiting telescopes at the giant planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conversion of angular resolution to spatial resolution as a function of distance

263 267 273

7.5

285 286

Colour plates

(between pages 166 and 167)

1.3 1.5 1.6 1.7

Jupiter as observed by Cassini in December 2000. Saturn as observed by the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in December 1994. Uranus observed by Voyager 2 in 1986. Neptune as observed by Voyager 2 in 1989.

2.6

Plan view of known trans-Neptunian object orbits in the Kuiper–Edgeworth belt.

4.10

4.14 4.18 4.19

False colour image of the GRS constructed from near-IR data recorded in 1996 by Galileo/NIMS. False colour picture of a convective thunderstorm 10,000 km (6,218 miles) northwest of the GRS recorded by Galileo/SSI in June 1996. Galileo NIMS images of Jupiter recorded in September 1996. False colour image of Saturn recorded by HST in 1998. Uranus observed by Voyager 2 in 1986.

5.11 5.19 5.20 5.23 5.27 5.28

Cloud features on Jupiter observed by Cassini/ISS in 2000/2001. False colour image of Saturn recorded by Voyager 1 in 1980. Highly enhanced image of Saturn’s cloud features observed by Voyager 2. HST/NICMOS false colour image of Uranus recorded in 1998. False colour images of Neptune recorded in 1998. Cylindrical map of Neptune between 90
S and 90
N from Voyager 2 data.

4.11


  





     

                          

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Composition pro®les            ›"    *         ƒ{{   "    @ 

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