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PETER CONNOLLY G R EEC E E , AN ID RO #:~ . .. AlT A. • • Con t en t s Greece a n d Macedonia Chapter 1 T he City St...

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PETER CONNOLLY

G R EEC E E , AN ID RO #:~ . .. AlT A. • •

Con t en t s

Greece a n d Macedonia Chapter 1 T he City States 800-360 BC 10

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4

The States at War II The Phalanx 37 The Phalanx in the Field 44 Armour and Weapons 51

Chapter 2 M acedon 360- 140 BC 64 Part 1 T he M acedonian Wars 64 Part 2 The New Macedonian Army 68 Part 3 The L ater Macedonian Army 75 Italy a n d T he Wester n Med iter ranean Chapter 1 T he Rise of Rome 800-275 BC 86

Part 1 T he Struggle for Italy 87 Part 2 The Italian Military Systems 91 Chapter 2 Rome 275-140 B C 129 Part 1 T he Roman Army 160 BC 129 Part 2 T he Great Wars 143 The Ro man E m p ire Chapter 1 T h e Empire 140 BC-AD 200 210

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4

Conq uest of the World 210 Army Organisation (D r Brian D obson) 213 Equipment 228 T h e Army in the Field 239

Chapter 2 The Later Empire

AD

200-450 249

Pa rt 1 T he M obile Army (D r Roger T omlin) 249 Part 2 Equipment 259 Appendix 1 War at Sea 262 Appendix 2 Fortifications and Siege W arfare 274 Appendix 3 Roman Military Costume 304 Bibliography 314 Index 316

GREECE AN D MACEDO:--IA

The City States 800-360 DC

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T H E C ITY STAT ES 800-360 Be T HE STATES AT WA R

Int roductio D Soon aftfi 1200 Be the great Bronu_ Age crvilisauon which had f1ourishC'd in Greece for several ceerunes ...-ent into a rapid decline and tinally collapsed. Barbarou s uibn poured southwards obliterating the last re mnants of th e xt ycenaean culture, and a dark age descended on G reece. T his book is a surve y of t he militar y system. th at emerged from this dark age. An au empt is made to t race t h~ developm~ nt of militar y organisation, tact ics and ar mament in Greece and Italy from t he 8t h cent ur y Be, when ci"ili.ation once more began to eme rge in Gree« , unt il the onsct of the second dark age when t he Roman em pire in the West collapsed. Both Greece and Rome had to face the supreme tnl. With G reece it WI$ .....hCII the Penian. in.-a.de:ntury , ...·hile Rome faced a similar cruci al situation whe n the gratest of the ancienl generals, Hannibal, invaded I taly 260 yea" later. Both t hese wan are examined in considereble detail to show how the t wo military syste ms rose to t he situaILon. .\toll of Rome's or ganisation and equipmen t was borrowed from the nation. with whom she came into confl ict: the Etruscans, Samnites, Celts, Canna ginians and, of course, the Gree ks , T he contr ibutic ns c f each of the . e sta tes will be examined in tu rn . Alread r by t he late M ycenaea n period in the 13th and t 2th cent uries Be central European influences were bei ng fel t in t he Aegean world. T his continued in the succeeding centuries and. b>· the time that Homer 's epic poems of t he .\i.ycenaean era, the l/iad and the Odyruy, were commiued 10 " Titing, pra.;ticall>· nothi ng of the ancient weaponry survived. For t his reason , unless there is adeat derivation from theearlier period, the Bronze Age ...i ll be ignored. O ur knowledge of the 8t h and l1 h centuries is very sparse b ut, by t he 6th, we have a conti nuous written history. T he hislory of the 6t h and 5t h cen· rune s is dom inated first by t he rise of Persia and later by the bl uer war betwee n Sparta and At hens. T he period is very well docume nted by IWO great wnrers-c- Hero dot us, who ",·as alive at the time of the Pen ian invasion of Gt'eece, and T bucydides, the greatest of the ancie nt historians, who "'as actually

involved in ue .... r betwee n Spana and Athens, T o t hese one mu st add Xenophon, who " Tore alVUIld t he beginning of mc 4th century Be. Xenophon's writ ings arc not in the same class as Herod OllIS or Thucydid es but he was a soldier and served for man)· }'e an with the Spanan•. He is t hus an incom parable sou rce of infor m at ion about t he Spart an military system. The~ e literary sources ar e supple_ mented b y a mass of archaeological evidence. An er a battle it was custom ary for the victor to dedicate some armou r in a sanct uary such as Olympia. In time t hese shrines became .0 clutte re d wit h armou r that it became neceasar}' to t hro...' out the older pieces. At O lym pia some were dumped in t he 5treams and dis used " "ells. whib t other pio;es ~re used to reinforce t he banks of the stadium. In rece nt years some of this armour has been recovered during exca'·at KlIIS.

The S tates a t War

When t he M ycenaean states fell soon after t 200 IIC, hotdes of savage tribesmen, G reek speaking but from the mountaimlU' north · ....e.tern region , moved down into sout hern G reece. T he most formid abl e of t hese invaders were the Dori ans. M any of t he origina l inhabitants fled fro m G r eece and settle d along the west coast of Asia M inor (Turkey ) in Ihe area t hat became kno",'n as Ionia. T he invasions and subsequenl m igrations came 10 an end about 1000 BC. This ....as followed by a period of settlement. Finally, order began to ret.um . The little states ,.'hich emerge
established. This last Slep "" IS only aochieYC'd on the eve of the Persian wa rs. Athens gained control of the whole of AUica dur ing this period, and, b)' 500 Be. she was becoming the cuituraj cent re of the Hellenic world and the mOSI pcwertul Slate in central Greece. Spana, on th e orher hand , had a very differe nt development. T he Spartans were descended from the Do t ian in vaders who had conq uered Laconia. T hey had enslaved part of the native population and subjected th e rest. T he enslaved popu lation were called helots, T hey were tied to th e land aod com· pelted to work t he state-ow ned farms which pro,'ided Ihe Spartans with their livelihood. The subject peoples, ca.lled ~, were allo "'"ed a measure of independence but were compelled to provide soldi ers to fight on the Spartan s.ide. The Spanans were com manded in baule by 1;\O·c herediw)' kings. By the end of t he 7th century Sparta had overcome " l essenia to the west I nd gained control c f t he whok: of the southern Pelcponnesu •. Over the next 100 years, either by coercion or persuasion, she managed to unite t he states of the Peloponnes us into a league known to t he ancients a. 't he Lacedaemonla ns and the ir all i e~ ', but called today simply the Peloponnesian League. In t he middl e of the 6th cent ury , th e tyra nt Pe isi~t rat us seized power at Athen. , which he, and larer his son Hippias, governed im errrutrenrly for half a cent ury until deposed by the Spanan kin g Cleomenn ",-hen he invaded Attica in 511 Be. 10 t he ,,'ake of the tyran ts ci,ojl strife broke out as democrat and oligarch st ruggk:d for power. When t he oligarch Is>.goras "'as thrown out, he appealed to his personal friend Cleomenes for assista nce. Clcomenes, wit h a small bod y of rel ainers , agai n invaded Attica, and so great was t he aura of Span a tha I he took the city wit hout a blo w and gar risoned t he Acro rcn•. When the Athenians discovere d t he paltry size of Cleomenes' party, t hey besieged the Acropolis and Clecmenes, in the face of starvation, .... a. forced to sur render, Fear ing repri s.ls, t he Athenians felt ob liged to release the king and his retainers. Enr aged at his humiliat ion Cleome nn re lurned to Spana and mobilised t he entir e Peloponnesian League against Athens. Accompanied b y t he rr

G R EE C E A:-JD MACE DON IA

other king Dema ratus, he led his arm~ to"'ards the borders of A ttica. In the non h T hel:>l:s and C hakis, Alhens ' ~'OlTlmcrcial ri"al, se ized the o p portunity to stri ke at Ihcir enem y and alw mobilised . hUI I:>I:fo"" the assault CQUld be launched d isse nsion broke out in t he Peloponnestan ranks , !o.1any of the allied Slates refuse took their &ide and the army broke u p_ T he Athenians could ha rdly have bl:lie,'ed tneir good fo n une and had the presence of mind 10 ClI.pitalise o n th" situalio n. T hey marched notl h and in lhe same day defeated bot h t he Tbebans and t he C halc,di ans, redu cing the lat ter to the st alUs nf a colony . Th~ bl:s continued the ,,'ar and " 'as latn jo ine d by' anot her of Athens' cumm ~rcia l ri" al s. t he island of Acgma. [t was d uring this war that Athem emerged as a mili ta ry power . Her st ruggl" wit h Aegina forced her to bui ld a na",- which , in a few short ye ars , was to become t he strungesr in Greece . T he ri se o f I' ",. ia Mean",hile, evems in Asia ",ere begin ning to have an elf~1 on Greece . AI the end of the 7th century lie the g reat em pi re of Ass yria ha d fallen and , by t he midd le of t he suc e«.. I n ~-I6 the Lyd ian empire fell and t he G reat King Darius overran Asia M inor (furtey ). One by' One l he Gr=k cities along the eea" fell to t he Persi ans. Some. in deSf"' nll ion , t ook 10 the sea . lne P"""""ans, like l he kg\"ndal} Aene a> . crossed the Aegean and t he Adriatic and fi na lly' settled al rhe colony' of Alalia in Corsica . How,,\'er Ihey were moved on by the F.lru.ca ns in ~35 and ult imalely joined the colon y' of !o. iassilia (.\br~ sc illes) on the southern coast of France In ~ tO, whe n all the islands along t he co.ast of A.ia .\ hoor were in Persian hands. Dariu s in\'aded E urope . Pushing u p t he west coast of the Blac k Sea, he cro>;,cd t he Danu be and imade d Scythia, Next T hraee was o verru n and .\-tacedo niu forced to submit. Only 'I'hessaly now , «x,d hel ween t he Greek states and Persia. In 500 the Greek slate, in Asia ,\ I m" r, led by Mil" IU' , revolte d and looked for help from t he wes t . Athens and Eretr ia on the wes t CQ;lSt uf Huboe a se nt expe ditionary

fo rces to Ionia which res ulted in t he saet inll end bur ning of Sardis, capi tal of t he Persian san ap~·. T he Persians rUl h l essl~' put down the "" '011 .•\li lerlli> was overt hrown and its pnpu lark>ll ooId into d a,'ery, By -194 the revcn " -as over and the Pers,ans prepat'N for a pumnve o f"'dition against GINa . An embassy was se nt (0 G reece demanding eart h and water, the traditional symbols of suhm ission. All hough practically all t he Greek states refused , " .::gina. which ha d t rad ing links wnh t he eaSl , su bm itted . Aegi na lies in the Saronic gulf " nly te n kilometres olf the An ic coaSi and cont rols access to At he n. ' harbouMi. W ith t he Isla n d under Persia n contro l Al hens woul d be: strangled . Aegina was a mem hcr of the Pcloponne sian League and Athens appealed to he r old enemy C le" me nes , The Spartan king to"k up t he Atheni an cause hur nnce aKain he Ca rne int o co nfl ict with his co llealo:ue Dema rat us. The enmit y which had smouldered between the I WO ' ince the abortive at tempr to invad e All iea some t 7 years he f"re now bursl into flame , Cjeomenes laid charges of illegit imacy against his colleague and Dema ratus " 'as depmcd. T he fonner king fled GR'eCe and toot ..,fuge wil h the l' eMilans . Cleomenes, freed of his partner, forcibly ..,turned A\'gina 10 its former loy'allies and pa tched u p an alliaOCe ,,-ith Athens agai m l the t hreatened lOva,ion . T he PeMiians om"iously in_ lended only a lim iled puniti"e o peration agalOst At hens and l':.-etria which had aid ed t he loman eevon. I n 490 the P ersia'" launched a seaborne anack . Er etria was sacked and the llcct moved dow n 10 t he ba~' of .' laratoon ..,ady for 1he sIri ke agains t Athens. The Al henians scm a ru nner 10 Sparta and marched QU I 10 meet the inva ders. W hat ha ppened at Uarathon isconfused and t he tru th will pro ba b ly ne'"er be known . The S partans delayed their march be cause they were ecl ebn ting a resli val and ar rived 100 late fo r t he batt leo T o t he ir ast onishment they di scovered lhal the At he nians bad decisive ly defeated Ihe Persia ns and dr iven t hem Out of Attica. The defeat at Maratho n serve d onl y 10 in itat e t he Persia ns. All knew fha t t he matl el WIS unsettled, but it was te n years hefore a """ontJ arternpr " as matJe" [n

t he meamime Athens was a ble to build u p he r lleel u nt il it ",as eq uai lOr he combmed fleels of all tbe ot her Greek stales. \X"hen it became obvious t ha t the Persi.an in" sion was imm ine nt. a C\)f1g"'ss was as5Cm bled at the i.thmus of U>rlnlh 10 try 10 'el tl e fhe imCTnal d ifrere ncn of the G reet Slates SO t ha t they oould present a united front. In l~ sprmg of 480 BC lhe Persian t ing Xe n:es, accompanied b)" D~ mar alUt, the deposed king of Spar1a. crossed the He llespont. H it vase army advanced on (irec<.--e " il h t he fleet fo llowing along t he coast. The ann y fo rced its Ih",ug h T hrace and down into .\ Iacedo ni. , bui ldi ng u p the road a. u advan\"f:d, Herodotu s says t hat th~ Th racia ns we re >0 o ve rawed that even in hi. o wn day they wo uld not dig or 80W the area th roug h which the army pa ssed ,

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The P cr sian a rmy T he ancient Greeks believed t hu! Xerxes' arm)' n umbered t hree m illion plus camp followers_ Herodotus gives t he total as fIve and a quarter million , bUI he is clearly a linle scept ical about how such an ar my could be fed, AI the end of the t92OS, General Si r Frederick .\l aurice made a detailed stud )' of Xerxes' route fro m the Helksronl, examining in pa nicu lar the pro bk m of water su pply, and concluded that t he P enian arm y could not ha '"e numbered more lha n 2r O,ooo me n plus n ,ooo animal•. " ~ms probablethallhe rain fan allhi t lime ,,-as conside ra bl)' hig her l ha n today' ( l)" L"Overcd with hide, wh ich were

T H E C IT Y ST ATES &>0-360 lie TH E S T ATI\S AT W AR

som e w hat SIm ila r in a ppeara nce (0 the

U." eOliafl . hid d., this was a ce ntralhand grip tv pc on It, wh ich was stitched a metal 00"•. Their weapons co nsrsred of a 'ho rt sp~3 r . bou t zm in le n gt h, a lu ng composite lin'" with hronz e- lippe d ITcd arruws and . dai/;ger w h ich hu n g on the rig ht . ide, The elite of t he !' eThlan anny werC rhc klll g '6 pe rsonal Ix>dygu a rd, the 10,000

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st rengt h w a, alw ays kept up to t hi, numhe r. T h" 'I cq uipm<'nl differed frum orher I'er. ian, o nly in t he ri ~h ne" of it, a~~"utre menlS. The l'er. ian cavalry wa, armed in t he same fa ' hio n as the infant ry ex~ ..pt that s"me wore met al helm" " . l lemdm u, cla,ms thaI the Per, ian cavalry n umbe red &>,000, bul 8,<XXl rna)' be a mo re reason able es t imate . H erodo tus gIves t he size "f the Persia n flee t as t.,207 triremes, includ ing 300 I' hoe nician "es,d" 200 Egypt ian and 290 loma n Greek It ,eems pro ba bl.. t hat the his toria n i. he re rec",
crosse d the Hellespont. Tllese force. ~-uul d ha"e Ileld tile na rrow passes 10 l he south and w~.., t uf .\ Iuunt Olympu, inde fin irely. Hut , for "o rne reaSahly the main rea..m for the w,thdraw·aL T Il~..,sa l y was a ba ndo ned. Thi. had ",rinus rep<:reussiuns among th e alh" , . .\ \ any of the non he rn I" wn, be lieved t ha t Sp una only inte nded 10 make her real stand at t he is!h mu s of ("-"rinth, and in fa" 1 many uf t ile l' e1o pn nn" . ian, open l~' advocated thIS line. As a res ult m any of t he northern ro wn s decided to suomit. In "uk r 10 halt t his defect ion it Wa' tinally' d..cided to m "ke a 't and al Thermop d "e, a place wr.o. " name has become a bywo rd for heroism.

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The d efe n ce o f G r eece F a<:ed with inva.ion, Athens and S parta ~"a<'l sP'O!'rmon{arche< Tn,. proboblv _ , . an -lmmo<'oI' , """ 011fle 10.(l(X} ha d buried rh.... d ilfncn"es, Athens had e",. p"'",,,,1 bod~\Iu.,d. of 'Il<> Per••an k,.... eve n go ne .0 far a. to pla"c h.... ent ire F,om s...... 511' "" nw", Be N""" In the Lo uvre military strength, ship. a. well as me n, Pa,,, und er S pan an command . It w'a. decide d Ul st<>p tile Persia n ar m y at t he Abova 1 2 3 Two a"owneadsarm suuth end of ,\ \ o unt O lympus , A furce ,... '1." stand ' hillock.t Th" nT>opyl"" Nal",,,,,1 of ro.coo hopfire s was despa tc hed and A!cn_ lOij,cal M u,,"um , Ar"""" S P."" .. in p"'it ion he fo re Ihe Persians Ilad eve n sh..-d boss from Sarno.

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At T hermopylae the mou ntains come in cl",e to the sea, leaving only tWO possible ro ute! south -one along t he CNS! and the (Mher a vcry di fficult route over the mountains . T oda y t here is a ma rshy plain berween t he hills and the sea, brou ght about by the silting of the ri,·cr Sperchrius ; in t he ~th ~n1Ur)· tIC t here was only a nalTow passage between the hills and the sea. Th ese hills, the Callidromus ra nge, streich in an easl-wnl direcnon down t he ecase and al t hrtt points ther co me very dose: to the sea . T he lint of t bese (t he west gate) is at the very beginning of the pass. Herodotus descr ibes t his as so narro"· lhat t here was only roo m for a single cartway. Here the hills are not very high and could easily be crossed. Beyond t he wnl gat e the pass wide ns. Here was situated the and ent vilb ge of Anthela T wo and a half kilometres beyond the west gate lay the village of The rmopylae, named after the hot springs which still rise there today. T he calcium car bonate in these ther mal spr ings gives t he land· scapc t he appear ance of cru sty grey rock. A great cl iff, know n as Zastano , to wers nearly r.ocorn above Thermopylae_

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Th is cliff is the ke~· to t he pass . A shon distance be}·ond the cliff a spur jUls out towards the sea (t his is t he m iddle pass). Along t his spur t he people of Phocis had const ructed a ..-all st re tc hing OU t into l he manM 10 stop the Malians in,.,.d_ ing Iheir CO!.Inlry. An }-one ",~shing to bn'lss this poi nl ....oeld neve to neg0nate the Zan ano cliff_About t hree kilometres fan her along the pass is a t hIrd narm'" poi nt (Ihe east gate) wit h t he ancient ,-mage of ..\ lpe ni built on a spur jut ting out into the mars hes . Here t he hills are low and easy to CIo. s. As me nt ione d before, th ere ....as anot her stee p and d ifficult route into cent ral Greece at the CS t end of Ihe range. T his rout e follo s the valle}" of the Asopu s, which passes t hrough a precip itous gorge. T oday the railway and road bot h follow th is route , th e for mer passing t hrough a tunnel on th e we, t . ide of t he gorge, whilst th e lalter climb. up th e hillside "n t he east of the ravine and then runs over t he hills above t he gorg e. T his route was guar ded by t he ancient citadel of Trac hi. built on top or t he stee p cliff. overlooking the ..-est side of the gor ge. "So commander

" 'ou ld auempr to force a passage at Ihis point in thefaeeoCdetermined and wellorganised opposition_ .-\ shun d istance off the coast lies t he long island of Euboea, which st retehe, for 1 7 ~ km in a south-eas te rly di rection, leaving onl)· a narro.... channel bet....een {he isla nd and the mainland . Here, unlike t he original position a{ T empe , i{ "as posMblr for Ihe Grttk tlerI: 10 p~_ '·ent the Pen ian na'-y bypass ing the G rttk army on the mainland . This, lhen, ....al t he area .,,-here the Grttks elected to halt t he Persian ad.-ancr _ An edvance guard ....a s imme di alely sent out to man the pass until tbe rest of t he army could be bro ught up. Cleomenes had met a violent end .e'"en years earlier and had bee n succeeded by his you nger brot her Leonid as. It .... as Ihis new Spart an king who marched nort h .... it h hi. h..,dyguard of 300, th e h'ppm , to hold t he pa•• a_l ow A model 01 Il"Ie p. .. 31 Trn.,rnopyl... o. ,t prob 30'" 3l>p"a'lld c 500 Be. Tho Po,...,.,. "",comped i~ I'" pla n on " '" 1011 T"'" 01\0<:"", w. ~ o. :A) I nd Il"Ie ~; nock _ _ 1""

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TH E CITY ST AT ES 800- 360 Be THE STATES AT WAR

With the Spartans were 2,800 other Peloponnesians. The war memoria l seen by H erodotus at Thermopylae records 4,000 Peloponnesians -900 more t han he lim ; t his may include the hetou who accompanied every S partan army . As they advanced nort hward t hey were joined by 100 T hespians and 400 T hebans. T his army was finally swelled by 1,000 Phocians and t he compl ete armyofthe Locria ns. Each grou p served under its own Slraugos, or gener al. T he G t eek hoplite used a spear abour 2_5m long , giving him the advantage in reach ov er his Per sian opponent. He was heavily armed with a round shiel d so-coon in diameter , a cuirass, helmet and greaves (leg gu ards). He also carrie d a sword which he would only use if his spear broke, He fought in phalanx, or format ion, about eight ranks deep. This phalanx was probably organised in unit s of 100 (lac/wi) whi ch were subdivided into four sm aller un its, each of three files of eight plus a rear-rank officer. The officer comm and ing each file fought in the front ran k. This system may have varie d slightly from state to Slate, and the S pan ans seem 10 have confused t he

issue by applyi ng the name of lochos to t he five major d ivisions of t heir army (see p. 41) The soldiers who joined Leonidas at T hermopylae wer e told that the;: were on ly t he advance guard for the rest of t he army. When they reached the pass they established a supp ly base in the village of Alpen; at the east gate and took u p their position at the m id dle gate T hey then set about repair ing the wall which t he Phocians had built. T his wall was exca vated ju st before Ihe Second World Wat; remains were discovered on ly on the top of t he ridge. Th e wall started with a tower and t hen zigzagged do wn t he hill , It m ust have com inued across t he level ground and probably fini shed with another tower in the ma rshe s, There is a narrow gateway next to t he tower on t he r idge, and H erodot us claim s there wer e severa l more. T he 1,000 Phocians wer e placed on top of t he mountain to counter any Persian attempt to tu m t he Spa rtan position by forcing t heir wa;: up t he Asop us valley. The combi ned G r eek fleet, consist ing of 21t tri remes, took up position at

Atte misium at t he no rth end of Euboea. Of t hese 127 were from Athens. This was not t he tota l m USter -ctarer, a further 80 shi ps were sent to Artemisium , of which 53 were Athe nian. T hey had been held back i n case the Persian fleet trie d to sail round Euboea , Thi~ num ber was swelled by volunt eers fro m Greek cities in Italy and desert ions from Greek i~ land~ held by t he Persians to br ing the tota l u p t o 368 , of which almost half were Athenian. The Gre ek fleet, like the army, wa~ under t he overall comma nd of a Sp art an, Eurybiad as, whilst each of the squadrons from t he variou~ cities was under the com mand of its own adm iral. The At henian fleet was co mm and ed by t he wily T'hemistocles, who had played suc h an important part ill building up t he Athenian nav y. The Gteek fleet, as it could t ravel fast er , may have taken up its position at Below

The p ••" oj Th e r m o ~ y l . e seen from {he 'Ia.t 'le nd' hillo c'. The cl,fls of Za'ta no, towering ne,rly 1.000m o" er Tlw mopylae, rise on the left. The aoe;ool coastli ne wou ld ~ a y e be-e n just {o thO r;ghl ol lhe mod ern (oad

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T ilE C I T Y S TATES 800- 360 80:; T HE S TATES AT WA H

lmemisium shun h' before t he land force reached Thermopylae . The site of the lemple of Anemi. , from " 'hich Artemnrum go!: in name, has 00'" been established with rea 'C<1llbk certainty. hs posil io n is IlUu1'ed by the ehapel of .~ Gcorgios o n the hiD. beI",een A.mini and Kur bat " . T he Greek a,nchon.ge can i1w:rdo~ be identifie d as me broad, o pe n beach II PC"'ki Bay, ",'hi<.:h is io.kall >· suited foc the pllrJlOSe. I);'esl of Pe"ki lhe beadlo str etch oul in an almost un broke n line along t he non h coast of E uboca , and t he Greek shi!>S "u,J1d have had am ple space to beach in a single line . Lookoul posn we re ""lab-lished o n Ille lIill•. O ne of these mu.t certainly ha"e been placed abo" e Cape ....rtemision , len kilometres cast of Pe"1S were also 1X"led al Skialhos to keep "" atch in case conditions were uesuirable for sigmlli ng, Two Iighl galley., o ne stalioned at P~'ki and the O1hct at 1'hcrmopylae, were used to maintai n commumcanoas between t he land and 1ft forces. Ha,;ng cstablished the'r position. t he t.ired<. ""tl ed down 10 a"'ait t he ani","! of the Persians. XerJl e. adva n ces into Greece Xerxes, ~an ",,'hile. was at Therm.. (modern Saloniki) with both t he fled and the army . When he advanoc:d imo The.saly the twOarm. of hi. force would be ..,paI\lted ..nd would o nly be able 10 rejoi n at the E u boean channel. At Therm a t he tinal plan. for the mv asion of the pemnsula would ha"e been wor ked out. A. t he army moved mm e slo", ly, it
~"

Map 01 ""ntral G'ftCO ' how, ng ,hot ' hoo" e 01 ""Of. The "",n fo ul n a re Cfqm Ancien' pia"" names a"" displ aYed on lla'oo COIl"'" T"'s d ,
'''''wn '"

in the .\1&lian gulf o n the loort eent h da y, after Ihe arm y had secured ancoorago there fu r t he fleel. Xerxes al read~' knew lhal the pesses into Thessal)" we~ no! occupied and he entered lhe plain ....-n hour o pposit ion. A, he ad ''aOCCd sout h his S<.'OUts informed him IMl lhe Span ans ...-ere holding the pa ss al Thcrmop)"lac . Herodotus reOON' l he " " ,If )' lhallhe Great K ing .ent OUI a horseman to reco nnoi t re lhe Gred< posillon. T hil SCOul adv'anoc:d to a posit ion from ",'hich he could sec l he ....'all across Ihe m idd le gale but ....'15 una ble to see into the Greek camp. It .... as the Spanan da)' for dUly. The La<.-edaemonians ha d piled l heir arm. outside: the wall and we re eithe r stripped olf eXelciSlOg o r combing their long hair. When Xerxes heard this he called D em aut u< to a. k him wha t it meant. T he exiled king exp lained t ha t it was the Spa rt an custo m to comll thei r ha ir be fore pun inll their lives at risk, T his .tor)' is probably a pocr yphal, bUl it illust rates the a 'w in which Ihe Spar tan s were held by t herr fello w Greeks. Xerxes reac hed Ihe plain of Lami a 14 days after Ieavmg Thcnna. He had cove red the 2llo km al lhe rate of 2Okm. day . The a rmy camped in fr om of Tl1Ichis and ,, '.i ted for the fleet to join them. Tbe Persian na" l had sem out len fast galln 'S to ~noilre the COUI. These ed vanced as far as Skiathos u nnoIiced and puun«d on t he llu-ee Greek galk)'S posted the-re 10 keep .... alch , \t'hen lhe lookouts o n t he island signalled to rhe IIttt at Pevki, Herodotus claims rhat t he G reeks panicked and ..... ithd re w down the cha nnel 10 Cha.lcis, lea\'lOg the Spanan /lank uncovered. Before re jC<;\ ing this o ur of hand, it mUst be remembered IMI lir e signalling at this time coul d only conve y a single message (see p . 275) and the Grttks m a)" have thought the d readed Persians were upon them , T he main Pe rsian fleet sailed Ircm T herma on the r.... elfl h day afte r the arm y had left. It rca ched rhe area of Keram idhi ju", nort h of Ca p" l'on and st" p ped for t he nig ht. l lere the be ac hes are ver y sp arse an d only the first arrivals could be pu lled cle ar of the .....ate r, Ihe res t ha\' ing to r ide al ancho r eijl:hl de ep. It was a clear. calm night but at dawn a storm got up and many of the ships were d u lled on the rock)'

T he sto r m lasted for three da)'S, but o n the fo urt h tlK: fleet ....... ..ble I" SCI OUI ap,in , round l he promonh>ry of .\ 1:ag nes ia and bea<: h at Aphe l"". On t he second da r of Ihe S10nn the watchen on the he igh.. of Euboca had informed the Greek flttl of t he shipwreck of rhe Persian lleel . Encouraged by this ne.n t he Greek shi ps returned 10 l hei r original Slation al Anemisium, Thi. ra-~Sl1gC' has been called into question b)' hiSlorians, and wit h some just ificalion. It is possibl~ tha t the look_ "Uti o n Skial hos, if they were still there aflcr the capture of the t hree ships, m,ght have seen a .....reck o r t ....'o. How_ evcr , even o n the c1earesl of days il would have been impossible to sec a wrecked galley frum a di S1an~e of aboUI ten kilomet re. , let alone in a storm . T he)' ~"u l d Iherefo re ha"e had no idea of the extent of t ile dam age. T his pan of rhe story rs pro ba bly an attempt ttl ace..sunt for I he G r eek fleet be ing back at Arte mi.ium whe n t he Persians reached Aphetae. 'I'he retreat 10 Chak is is probably a complete fiction. Herodotus has also prullably naggerated Ihe effeCl of the st"nn , Ihe P ersian fleet ",IS probabl>' ne " er as hig as he claimed. He kne..... l ru. t l he fleet at A phetse did not grea tl y outnumber the Greeks, so he has u ied 10 reduce il to a more real istic size by wreding a large pan of it in the storm. He cal mly ....TCI."k. anulher zoo galle>'s only a rouple of da~', later . COISt.

The ba ilie for Thermo p ylae It was well int" August when Xerxc-s reacbed the plain of Lamia, He hope d lhat when his ann)' .....as assemhled . its sheer size would cause the Greeks in the pass to Iosc hean and dcs,," their polIS . The Great K ing waited for fou r da ys, probabl y anucipanng the arrival of the lIeel . W he n Ihe)' did not show up, and rhe G r«l:s remained obSlinatel)' loo!!ed in t he pass, he ral her flamboyantly orde red for....ard his Medes and Cjssians (who wele , im ilarly ar med . but the lat ter wo re turbans) , wil h o rde .. to 'brinll: t hem hack alive', The M cdes launched a ,eric, of cha rges whic h failed to make any im_ pr~sion on Ihe G reek s. W hen Xerxes law lhal t ile Greeks were holding firm. he .ounded the recall and scm forward hi, pe rsonal bod yguard, t he Imm ort als, led hy their com ma nder H ydarne• . Ten

"

GREECE ....!';I)

.\iACEDO~IA

thou sa nd " ra"k troops " f the g reate$t ar m y that the ,,'mid had ever seen mUl'hed out w do the ir kin !!'. hiddinl!' ' ) '0 tho'" wlm wat"hed from the Pcrs ian l-amp a, they moved fo r"o ard, il m us t Ita\"e seemed imp"", iblc that they could fail. ...., tM I mmonals ad\"aill-cd. the Sparta rrs p",,,,,d th rough 1M "-all 10 m«1 t hem , For all Ihe aura that sUJ'To u nJcd t he Immort al••.tbeycould achieve not Itin.o: agamSlthe heavily armed Spa rl aos, III t he wntincd ' pace of t he !Xl"' t heir numbe r. were of no ad\'amage and. hoeeause thei r spears were .llOrler t itan tho<.c of tltc Greeks. Ihey " 'CTe unablc to enllage t hem at dose quarters. Herod olU~ he re records t he f....oun le Spanan Irick of pretener. i a n fleet arrivlC'll The Pe...ian flttt arrived at Aphctac 16 Ja~'s afrer t he army had left Therma, T he . ite ,,' her~ rhe !leel beached is uncertain: Herod otus saysl hal it wa,ab<xl[ 80 Slad~$ ( I ~ km;' from Artemi,ium and had a good supply of water , About ~o stllde' must he interpreted as between 70 and 90 ' tad," ( t 3-17km ). T hi, lim its the .ite 10 Oliw n or Plalama flay . W'. K . Prrrchen, who ha s .pent man y years I..mping over Greek haulefiel d" con", nei ngl}' argun in fa"(lIl r of the PIatania ' ite hoecarn;e of its large r water supply , !'latania Ba~' eun,i.rs of a ""rin of 'ma ll heach~-s se parated b~' rocky I'romontnrie'. The large, t of the'c beaches i' nnlv ahoU! 450 m lo ng. T hi, beach, whic h is just we.t of Plalani.., has a , pri ng. I' lat a"ia it self has a small Uream , Siroc~ it ,,'a, cs.~m ial fo r the P ersiaes to beach tMir galle)'. if lhe y ...-ere OOtlO lose any more 10t he weather, they wou1
ra

space In ac""m m",date the ",h"l~ !leer. xone " f the be aches at ['Iat ania i, deep cn" ullh for mnre than nne line uf ,hi p. , If the Ik el we re onlj' 450 strong. al1"w_ ing a m1llimum of j m pe r . hi p the line wo uld st retch fo r mull: tha n rhree kilo-

met res. Platania Bay it self could onl~' hol d aoout Ko galleys. and lite boay totbe ...-es t about 6 ~ , Thrs mean_ t haI the res t of l he !l""t mu. t have been beached . probably squmlron hy "-lu" dn1l1, along the t iny tx'achcs tn the w" , t "I' P latania st retching down as far as Oliw n Hay six kilomerre. west of Plalania , These bc ac hes arc very narrow and il would nnlj' have been pl"sible ro pull rhe stem of l he .hlp ck ;lr of lite water , The be aches . lope
great elfcct. The p""ian' feared that , if Ihey attal'ked , the (;reeks would withdraw inl<1 the narrOW S "f t he Eub<>can ch annel "' \file l ok m to the ea" lI ere, "'here the narrow!' arc o nlv t hree kilom erres " 'ide, t he}' could either stand and tig hl o r 'were st ill co m ing in. (T he figure or 200 shou ld he treated with eaut inn.) The,e Ihen sailed round hehind t he i.land an d . keeping sufficient ly far o ut to se a to rem ain out of sighl of the watch",,'t above Cape Ancmi. ion. 'lei off down Ihe cast e03M of Euboea. T he Greek Ioo!
"'0.""ow

1.101> ng ' '''' ' oill"v" posw"n, ollhe VO""'" for"",, du"nQ 'he ba!lle tor thermODvl..

A Leo,, ;das 6 Xerxe" C Gree , fleet 0 Pe",an

t"' l The Spa' ta n "."" aJ n"""""'P\IIH has beCome • b......"., fo< _(>Ism

THE CITY STATES 800-360 Be THE STATES A T WAR

ob\'iously been a bandoned as the G reeks only learned whar hud ha ppe ned fro m a deserter Th is post had ['robably bcen withdraw n after the t hree warch ships at rhe i, land had bee n captured. T be de serte r who informed the Greeks was a man calle d Seyll ias. rhe greatest diver of his day. II e had escaped by swimmingl he Euboca nch anncl. T he Greeks imme diardy ,em a fast sh ip dow" t hro ug h t he Euripus to in[ot m the 53 Athenian ship s which had been hdd back in anticipation of the Persi an move. F ifteen Per>lan ships had be en delayed at their anchorage farther up the ,0051 and did nol set out {() j", n rhe mai n fleet at i\pherae unt il lon g afrer t he other ships had left. T hese late comers did not reach thc channel betw een Skiathos and the mainland unril late 111 the afte rnoon , Whetl lhe ir view we,t wa, blind ed by t he glare of t he sett ing sun . T hey failed to ,ee tht ir com pani on s in the shadows at Platania Bay bU I did ,ee the G reek \'e"eb shining in lhe evemn g sun 10 t he south- west. .'vli
the exten t of the Pcr,ian anchorage to rhe e",1. If Ihere had Ix'en any , hip, e"t of Pla tan ia they were bou nd to h e seen, wherea< t he anchora ge at I'lat ania wa< shielded by a promontory at t he eas t en d, Unfo nun" td y, Hcrodotu,' para llel diar ies for t he fleel an d army hreak down al lhi, point and he appears to lo <e two days. -t he tleet arrived at Aphctac on the six teenth day after the army set out fwm T her ma . The Cvents ofth is and the succeedi ng t hree day, 'eem 10 have heen condenscd into two days. A. H.. Bum in his book Pa,
Greeks had probahly been rowing in a diamond form ation. The enem y ships, purting o ut from rhcit '·"rious anc horages, tried lom<' Iheir superior num ber s and greater manoeuvrability lO surround t hem. A< Ihe enemy ,hips approac hed, t he G reek ships, acting on a signal from Eurvbiadas' f1ag,h ip , turne d t heir prows outwards, at the ,ame t ime drawing t beir sterns together to form a cird e. T he n, on a seco nd signal, t hey cha rged the light er Persian ships head on. The Persians, who ha d expect ed an easy viclOry, had walked st raight into t he trap. Having mo vcd right indo,e on t he Greek ships, th~y were now una ble to manoeuvre and use t bei r supe rior seamanshi p; they were forced to lig ht o n t he G reek lerms. \X'hen, shonly afterwa rds, darkness began 10 descend t he ban le was btoken off, T he G reeks mwed back 10 Anem isium elat ed wit h t heir su ects, - they had capture d 30 Below The ,lte ot the Per> on a"c ~U!ag" "' PI..""" Bay at Ihe Southern lip of t he Magne,i an p ,o m o ~ t "'y . About 30 qal reys we re Moc hed here. The ,emai~de r w ere , tru ~Q o u1 a 'o~g smalle r bys to the west as far as O llzu ~ 8,y

'9

GR EECE AND M AC EDON IA

enem y vessels and damaged or sunk several mo r e, Herodo{u~ does not state the Greek losses hu t se veral of their ,hips must have be en sunk . T hat night a violent s<m'we'ler sprang up accom pa nied by to rrent ial rain . T he wind blew t he wrecka>:e from t he battle into the Pers ian ancho rages and it hecarne entangled in the ,hip" whic h were only half beache d , Alt ho ugh t he fleet at Aphetae suffere d con'iderahly , t he ir troub les wer e as nothin>: compared with the plight of th eir companio n, tr ying to round t he southern end of Euhoea . They ....·ere caught by Ihe fu ll fo rce of the storm and das hed on 10 the rock y Coa~t at the SOUl h end of the island. Herodotus , tates that t he follow ing morning the 53 At henian sh ips which had be en left to watch the southern end ofEu hoea saile d into Anemisium hring_ ing the news of the total destruction of t he PelSian detachment . T h is is impossible and clearly a day has Ix..,n loS!. I n all likel ihood no t hing happened on t his day' as both sides re paired their sto rm damage. It w(mld be t he following morning, t he ni net eenth, that the

Alhenian sh ips arrived bringing tbe new~ of t he shipw reck . L ate that afternoon t he reinforced Grttk lIeet o nce more rowed OUI into the channeL Thi, time , probably because of t he haze, t hey managed to cross the channel unobserved and swooped upon t he C ilician galley's which were st ill at thei r moori ngs, destro yed some of the ,hip" and then with drew into t he dusk It i, poss ible that t he Cilician squadro n was moore d in Olizon Rayand that the Greek Beet was able to sail unohserved past Cape Griba , roun d the we' tern head lan d and into t he hav to attack the Cilician squad ron before it co uld be manned , T his is feasible as they would have been approaching out of the setting ,un. The en d of T hc rm op r la c M ea nwhi le, at Thcrmopyla c the second day's figh ting had com e to an end. D ay afler day Leon idas had sellt messengers ,oulh ple ading fo r reinforceme nt s but it was no w clear t ha t none were coming. The Spa rtans were o n their o wn and their code of honour express ly forbadj; t hem to de, ert t heir posts. Xerxes and

his advi'e rs had pro ba bly bee n aware si nce soon after their arrival t hat the re was a route ove r the mountai n whIch could be used to o utflank the Spartans in Ihe pass. T he Call id rom us mountain is laced wit h paths va ryin g from st eep and narrow goat tracks to fairly wide paths. T he tro u ble wa , that the mountain was de m el y fores ted and it wou ld he impossible to find o ne's way across without a guide. T oday, whe n a g reat d cal of deforestation has taken place, it is st ill easy to lose one's way u p thcre, even in daylight . At last the Persians found a local pe~sant nam ed Ephialtes who informed them that t here was indeed a ro ut e know n as t he Anopa ea path, and that fo r a price he wou ld lead them across. ThaI night, as soon a, it was dark , H yda rnes led the Im mort als o ut of camp and, wit h Ephialtes showing t he way, hegan t he ascent oftbe mountain. Be low T h~ v,ew a clOSS the Euooe an ch a on", hom lhe Athe n '8n DoM ion at Pevk; B8y. The Pe";80 ancho'age to the fight of cent,e DO the oppoS ite 'ide of the , ,,ait i' as deafly v i s i bl~ as it to Ihe Gree k,

w"

TH E CIT Y STATES 800-360 lie T HE STATES AT WAR

All night long t he Pers ians toi led up the winding pat h until, at last, as t he sky began to grey m the east , the grou nd levelled off and t hey entered a smal! plain . T hey were plodd ing along beneath oak trees. Last year's leave, lay thick "n the ground and ru stled he ne ath the ir feet. Ahead of thcm there was a movemem and vokes hroke the sile nce , then they saw Greek hopl ite s ha,t ily donning t hcir armour . lI ydarnes asked who these men were, ad ding in consternation, ' Are they S partans? ' T hese were in fact t he t ,000 P bocia'" whom l.c'Onida , had detailed t o cover t he m"untain path , H av mg est ablished their identity, Hydame, arrayed his men for batt le and showered the Ph""ians with arrows. T he Phocians, f"rgett ing their m is_ sion, be came convinced th at they were the Immo na ls' prime larget, wilhdrew to Ihe top of the hill and t here prepared !() ' ell their lives dearly. W il h t he mute d ear the Persians ig nored Ihe l' hocians on the hill and pushe d on over the moumam. The ro Ul e taken by t he ImmonaJs ha' provoked a great deal of debate . In

rec ent yea r, P ritchett has made a ve ry de ta iled ' lUd y of t he , it e and has suggest ed a route wh ich se ems to satisfy most of the criteria. He rodotus claim' thal H yda rnes look with him t he men he comm anded, i ,e. Ihe 10 ,000 I mmo r tals. There seems no reason to dou ht t his. If the route were a narrow goat t rack wh ere the men co uld o nly m arc h in single fi le, t hen the co lumn would ha ve str etched ou t for ten kilo metres or m ore. T his i, unacceptable , and Pritchett conclud es thai one m ust be looking fo r a broad path wh ere the so ld ier' could march three o r fo ur ah reaSL There is one po int in Herodotus ' topography which is easy to identify : ' It begi", at the river Asopus wh ich flows th rough the tavine.' T he site of t he Asopus gorge can hard ly he in q ues tion . l ie continu es t hat the Persians crossed the Asopm before start ing the asce nt. Thi, m ndu sively pla~es t hem On t he eas t side of the go rge. T here is a very easy rout e u p the hill,ide a\xmt o ne kilo metre east of t he Asopu s gorge , T his is both the short est and the easiest route u p t he mountain sid e fro m t he Lamian plai n , l t lead, by wa y " f t he Chalkomata

spring to the village of Elcut he rochori, where the re are t he rema in' of an ancient fo rt covering t he begin ning of t he route. Thi~ proves th at t he path was in use in anc ient ll mes. Herodotus de scribe' Ihe Pen ' an, as m arching all night with the m"untain , of the Ocracans on Ihe r ight and those of t he Traehinian, on thcir left. O n me face of it t his i, im possible 10 reco nn le with any oft he suggested ro Uies over t he mou ntains, pa rticularly if t he Pe"ians crossed the Asopus before they started the a,cent , fm Trae his and ,'-Iount Oeta are hoth wes t of t he Asopu, gorge. However, since T her mopy lae itself was in t he terr ito ry of Tr actus and J\ Iount Octa mus l surcly be included amongst t he mo untains of the Oetaeans, one mu st conclu de t hat the mountains of Trac his include d t he northern pa rt ofthe Call id romus range . T his is admitted ly d um ,y hut there ""em , to be no ot her explanat ion, especially as Herodo tus say s t he P ers ians march ed 'all nig ht ' hetwee n these mount ain s. [f this is t he r ightcxplana lion , l hen the march woul d be in a southerl y d irecti on along the west , ide of !\1ount Callidromu" Herodotus also de' cr ihe' t he ro ute as pa" ing along the ha ck\xme of t he m{)un~ lain . Thi, is an accurat e de script io n of t he ro ute from E lcuthcrochori across the Ncvrcpohs pla in to t he pass between t he Liathitsa and C allid rom us pcab. Thi , ro ute follows the plateau iu' t hel" w the ridge of the moun tain on the south side .The Ph"cians,a ccord ingto H erodm us, were statio ned in a posit ion from which t hey could defend t he route over the m (mnta ins and the route 10 thei r own count r y. Thi, can he no ot hn place than the Ken opolis plain , w hich lies about Iwo kilometres from t he su mm it of the pass , Here the re is a sm all lake which today drie' out in the summer h ul may not have in ancient t ime' There i, also a spring wh ich would give an ample su ppl y of dr inking wate r for the 1 ,000 hopliles. The pat h from P hoeis joinslhe Anopaea route at t his point; if t he P hocians had taken up their positio'" any neare r t he pa" , they would have Le ft The plain of Nevropolis juS! \0 \~e ' ouln of ,he l i.t hitsa· C" II ,dromus pat• . Its P'Us i' ion .tthe

iunction of the "'ute to the pass oM the route 10 Ph"" i, ma 'e 11 1he most l,ke1v " Ie for th e Phocian po. it>on

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,,,,,ld never d ~""'f1 h" I"". 'I'll. , 00 Th,',!" ,,"' an d .100 Thd 'a," ,,,main,',j "nh him 1I"'1\.,J.>lU' 'u!:~~."" I h ~1 1.. .., "l ida' 1'",.",.1 II", The Nn, 1<' .la' '''Ih him ..".I ,,,hI< I h~[ Ill"" J~":n,,,1 h.,.·(•• Ihen",,) NolTk. .-\, I be·' " Ie lhc lT 1" , 1 m~...1 " "I':,·,h" r . l .c. 'mJ~~ " '''r1",,,,J 1"I,aw ~""I. ' I la,'~ ~ ~,,. ...I ,",,,·a"f,,>(. 40.1-: ,n' ,hall d tn" in H ~d,..,, · . lt "'"ulJ ul;~ ,ll" ! mm", u l, -cvc ral h...,r, ' " g..'{ ."-,wn f""n III" " ... i~h" ~ n J l h ~ :-r ~nan ' ir.l"nJ.d ." m~h Ih..· l'~ r.i~n> pAy J ... " r!,' h.:l< >r~ Ihe' Ji~,t 1 1~ \"Jnl: ~rn,'" Ih" " f lh. rl",un · lam [he I',·,_i.,n, ~1~ rl C,t l h" d ~ '~-':I1l. 1....." .1,,1,," .~" lh"l Ih,' .. \n"ra~a I'~r h , 'a111" d. .w n 111'" 1h" P"'~ ~ I .\ 1pcni T h,' ,ill; "I rh i, 1\ \\\'11 h." h~~n "'l "hli> h~d Wilh ,,>It'" .I ,g , " ~ "I' ~~ ,m in1\' Oil,' , id ~~ )ll ltin~ <1\11 il\h' lh~ m." ,h", alI,'''t three b l"lll.-t r,·, c·,,' 1 " I' l h ,' Phocian ",,111 at Ihe' ' i t c' of I he' c·,,, l ~a l e Th l'l" i, ,m <:~" d: ,,''' 'll l n ,-\l l'_'ni !,,,i n ~ <, \"'ll hc ho"k ,, [ / ,a ' )J l1 Ll ,It,d ,"1 J o ... n thro ug h Il ral:,,· , pili" II j, "I" ," t rakm I"nl\ allu ~", 'h· "Ill y h~,k II", I '~ ,~ia n , lh re~ In h"ur' h' n'1,"lI~k "ax,', lId ,t h~" k hi, aHack lInl ,l mid_ m,,, rOl n~, \\' h,'n hi, 1n " '1" " mn"J 'h. I'a" the :-'1'~ rl.lI" n" longer In ,,J I" d"k",llh,' ,, ~11 1> ,, 1 ~,h·.m".J ak, ng th" I...." h' ib ",.1,"'1 p"inl ~nd h...., ,i r"" u I' in n",,,, ~ll'hab.n x " ilh lh,' ligh l" " ~m,,'d lid,." ,,,, "rin~ Ih,: " "'~ ,. 11",,-

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lh,'~ " '\1 ~hl

"'nh ""'kl",, trc'''z~'_ Th .. I',·, ,, ~ n,_ ,,- c .lrC h'IJ . h~J 1" 1>,' ,lrn 'en "n WlIh """r)!,'" an.i d a,,-,hc,,-J "Wr the r de' ,,.' Ih"ir J~ad h' !l.el ~ : Ih" ( ;"...·k,. :-.'~'n m,"1 "flh. (ir",-\.: ' I'_a" were hr"h.., ~ n,l l "e h.'phl'" J",,\\ rh,';r ,,,,,,J, 3n ,1 n." " '-.I in d,,,~r. h..... king~' rhe ,,-~ "f f;o,.-.." lx·f,."" ,hem H.·,,· I.,"'" 01,13' tdl ~n,j Ihe battle r~~J ,..-,., h\> ""I""~' ( ,r" ek and P""ian 'lru~t.-,I I" " " "" " '" " , 'he t-.lo.iy . " " ur l im,... the l'er ' lan, "'''I'lu,,-'.1 il anJ 1~'uI II,",'" Ihc ( 'h·,.. k, Jr ~l!ged 11 h ""k "I(" i". :-." (he .1 '''~". I":r" ' l,,d unllll.",J,;,'m, ",,, u!!t ht Ih" ne'" that (he I mm,'n" l, h~J ""adl'.1 'he l\o.'I,,'m ,,1' ,he f'alh . Till: ('re,·k. "I,.....·" r~n'" a",1 ""l"".lred h'...a, J . Ih, \\ all. ' I'he~' f'a,,,·" Ih",u ;,, " Ihe 1("'''' anJ \\ II hd l' C\\ I" " 'mall hill"." k n""l( at-.'lI l r cm ali-,.-.- th, mar- Ill' ~"'UIl J ",h," ,' t hcv ("'''1<",1 a k and I'l'el'"c.'J ". ,I..., J'h. 1', r, i:tn, " ,· '!tlned rim \lIl( h the; \\',Lll 'md Ir icd m d"rnl>" 1 u p 111" hill, id" b\lI III ,'; " ','r,' ,ll' i""n ba ck , .- \ 1 tir" til c ( ;n:,,'" d..r,·",kd the; m, d ",', \\',,11 their ""'rJ,. but "' h"n t h,'" br" k,' th,', ,ll l~,·k. " thctr """i bn " wi 'h Ih" Ir li,t, ~n d 1.elh T h"" i< ',,!,lu on unril lh~\ ",..... """rwh d ",,'d by lh" ha il ,,1 mI>· . ik>, 11\ ",,,Id,,,· all " 01' ,nil. Ikr,,,t" lu, n...-""l- a ",ll" "f '"'' 'I'.m an, " 'h" at I h~ lim" ,,1 rh,' 1a'1 >l a",. ","" h'lll~ III u' ilh "l'lnhalmi".1l :\II',: ni. Th,' fir-I. nam,' J EU"1"', "Il k ar:llllg Ih~1 Itt..· I-'"r,ian' haJ ,T,,,,,,,·.l

ror

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• 'J

G REECE AND ,\.iACEDON IA

t he mountaill~, called for his armour and , though he could not !>Ce, ordered his IIdoilO Ind him into t he thic\: of the batde. The 5<'<:ond, Aristooemus, lost his courage alld $Iipped a",,,y w;l h the othe r ~pilti allies. \\'hen he returned to Spana he "'''$ di sgrao.' ed and "'''' onl)' able to red«m himself by his extrao rdinary courage alt he bame of Ptaraea the followillg year , .-\s for Ephialtes. , a pri...-e "'as put 011 his head, fi e fled imo T hc>.saly, feari lti t ha t the Sp;on ans "" ou ld hum him down, Yea'" later he retu rne d 10 his home at Anticyra, ",'here he was killed by a mall who had a private grud ge against him hm who neven hel ess claimed the re"" ard. At abou t the S
Icy whk h ha d been act ing as a liaison shi p bet wee n the Iorce in the pass and the fleet carne in bringin g t he tragic ne w'S from Thermop)'Iac. \\"hc n the sailors heard of the death of Leomdas lhei r heans sank. The)' \:new lbat there "" as no point in stay'ing, ll>c)' hauled in lhei r anchors and S-C1 off down rhe cha nncl lowa rds t he F,uriru~. T he y sailrd in thei r appointw order , with tile Corinthians making u p the vang ua rd and the Alhenians bringing up t he rea! T he ha ttered G ree\: flee t limped so\lIhw"rd , pa ssing t h roug h the Euri pus, down past the slle of the great At henian victory al ,\ tarat hon, around Cape Su oiu m and u p to At hens. The Petsi..ns had no t seen the G reek tleel slip ..way-s-once again IOC haze had cove red Ihe Ath.."nian movements , The y did m't learn of the tleet's de parture L1 l1 t il early t he followi ng morning. T he f a n of A thens The d ISaster at Thermopylae, and e
,'-

lt PSO(OOTA LI

road, h ut now t hat all oppos ition had been crushed, pa rt of t he army pushed th ro ug h the mou m ains and in\'aded I'hocis, The,' SlIcked ""er)" ,'illagt', loot· inl! and hurning Ihe temples as. the)' went. T he inhahi[an[s flw "'~ and soul h 10 the moumains OUI of reach of the pillaging ooldicr., ~ l ha t wrre Clughl "'-cre .hown no merC)', Phocis ",'as 10 be ma de an el<.3m pk fo r [he rest of GI'C«C to see and "'-cig h ceeruuv before the~' de..-ided to continue rhe unequal conresr. T he demo nstrat ion was nOi wasted T he towns of Boeotia offered eart h and wate r. the token"f submission. and Ihey Were spared but Ihey were compelled, in ac"COrdancc with t he norma l Persian custom. to sc nd co nt inllcnts to tillht o n the Persian side , Herodotus ' clai m t ha i the T he h ~n, surrendered at T hermo_ p,. lae may be true. as only the tuwns of The sp i"e "nd P lataea were listed for de struction : t he Th espians for t he patt they played at T hermo pyb e , and the P lat aean. for figh ting on t he Al henian ~ide at ,\1arath on and fo r se rvi ng wit h the At henian fleet a t Anemisium These Platacan sa ilors ha d disemha ri<.w at C halas when the flcct was pass inll lhroug h Ihe Euripus and made t hei r way- home so t haI the)' could help in t he evacuation of the [O""n. Hnth l he I'latacans and the Thespians were e-vllCWIIN to t he P elo pormcsln .

.-

....".. _ " I l _

POl""" ~ ~ ..... '"

_,,,,, 10 A""-,,, The G"", ' '",",_ boNcfIed '" ,.... ~l P¥I ~ _ .,.."... on tIw ..., (''IIhl) sOOt of "'" oJ...", and tile Pe<.,. n _ , w... bNct>e
THE C I TY S T ATE S 800- 360 ec TH E STATES AT W AR

The Persian arm y pre"ed o n south eastward, and en tered Attica. A then s was a scene of feverish aetl vit y a, the population tried to evaCuate the city . Most of the women am! children ,vcre ferried across the Sar<mic Gulf to T roeze tl on the nort h-cast cornet of the Pelopo nnesu s. Somc wetc ,em to the island ofAeg inaand the remainder, wit h all t he able -bodied men , were re movcd to the i, land of Salamis in the hay of Eleusis on ly JUS! over a kilometre from the Athcnia n coast. T he n ac ua twn was earne d o ut in such a pa nic th~t many of the o ld and helple,. were left to their fate. A few ' zealo t s' >Iayed behind and barricaded themselves in the temples. Earlie r, when the Atheniam had sent to the oracle at Delphi to ask f" r it. advice, they had received a rep ly which contained the sentence: 'Zeus of t he broad heav ens grants to the Triton bo rn a wooden wall alone to rem "tn un,aeked, that shall help thee and th}' "hildren' , Th i, int er preted by Themi,tocles to mean that t he y ,hnuld lake to t heir wooden ,hips , .\-l ost Athen iam a~cepted thi, interpreta tion, but a d issent mg minority bui lt a pali,ade arou nd t he lOp of the Acro p"lis and t here awaited the Persiam . ,\leanwhile t he Spartans had at la, t mobilised t hei r ar my and a"embled at Corinth under the command of the survi"i ng king Clcornb rorus They broke up th~ coast roa d along t he isthmus and threw up a rampart aero" Its narrowest pan ncar where t he Corimh ,hip cana l now runs . T he Pe" ian army cont inued ir. t hrust southward" laying waStC the ~"untry sioe ",hilst t he lIeet sailed down the coast burning t he ,ea,ide villages , T hey occupied Athens and capture d t hc A~ropoJis , bUl only afte r a dogged resisrance by its defenders , Th~y then lo oted and bu rned t he temple, and all thc other buildi ngs on the anciem "i tadel. On the isbnd of Salamis the :\ lhenian. m us t ha.-e b~"£ n a ble to sec the col um n of smoke that marked the end of th"l r city. The l'e" ian lIeet moved up the Anic coast and h~aehe d at the o ld o pen harbour of Phalcrum. The ( i reek fleet "la, bca(hed o n the east side of Sal am i, . There was a furo re on t he " land as the adm irals of t he \'ari(m , tle ets arg ucd a bo ut what t o d c) Th e , quadrons from the Pelo ponnesus

,m,

wante d to q ui t t he ir posit ion at Sa lamis and jo in up wit h t he army at Corint h, wherea s t he .'1.t henians quite u nder,tandably refused 10 abandon the ir fam ltie' on t he island . The mlStod e" in "pite of "ppos ition from the Corinthi ans, m'lnaged to con.- ince Euryb iadas, th e Spa rtan admiral, t hat if he left Sabmis the flee t wo uld d isintegra te a, ea ~h sq uadron looked lO the defence of its own territory. The b "ttl., o f S a l
Athens. Among t he minor contingen ts the larges t numbers were f((lm Aegma (30), Chaki s (20) "nd .\1egara ( 20 ), The subsequent ha ltle for mat ion im pl ies thal the Athenians occupied [he bay of I'aloukia, the l' elojXl nnesi"ns t he northern bay of Arapi" and the o t hers the ,0Ulhern bay of Amhelaki, for t hi, i, how t hey formed u p in ba ttle line , Aeschylu, in his play The Pc"",,,, give. lhe G reek numbers a, 3 t O, but he has probably red uced the number for effect, just as he has , urely g rossly exaggerate d the Pers ian numbers . ' 1-1 0 \\ greal was t he number of the Gr~,<;k ships tha t dared with theIr ra m, to engage the l' ersian h",t /' T he ans wer - 310 Greek Jga in' t 1,~07 Persian 'r he PerSIan figure is obviously not meant to h~ taken serio usly a, this is lhe number of ships given by He rodm us for t he beginning of the campa ign and . even if t he origmal figure were to be accepted, it makes no allowance fo r the hundreds of ships lost in t hc storm, along t he cast coast . To suggesr that the Ileet was bro ug ht u p to exactly t he same strength by reinforce ments is qui te ahsurd. T h,' st rength of the Persian fleet ma y be gues,ed by examining the Persian st rategy, Agai n and ag~i n H erodotus , tresse s t he su periori ty of t he Persian , h ips and se amen, so it i, dear t hat Xetxes d id not need to o utnum ber the Greeh to expect to win. W hy the n d id Xerxe, not hl
'5

G RE EC E ,\:-;:0 .\ 1..KEDO~I A

broul(hl on the battk]:ly ", nd ing a m.:S"sengcr to Xerxes 10 tell him lhat the (;r~,<:k lIeet intended to escape is r rul>ahly um rue. AllIumn was draw in!l on an d Xcrxes almost ce rrainly hOld nn ly planncd iln a onc_",ason cam paign. O n..'(: the lleel was destroyed nothing oould .top him in"ading the Pelopon ne.us . So Ix decided to lakC lhe m itiative and bring on the battle. Ha\-ing decided to force a confromaI,,,n ""it hin IIx srrans o n rhe follo"~ng morn ing. t he Persians set about p~rar ing the propo",d banlc area. T he main lIeet put out from Ph aterum and began to mll"e up towards the channel. S,,.'n after d usk the Persian, moved a' many soldiers as t he ~- ..-auld across to l he island of PS~·l1 alea . which la~' heIween SalamIS ..nd the mainland Thi. island lay in thc pIllh of the projected ~llle arC;l and man~' oltbe '....edt. from the battle wouad toe .. ashed u p there, Heu the soldiers could sla~ the (i rC'Cks and offcr succour to their shipw recked friends. Thc idenutica non ofttus island is hotly disputed. Il ammond claim, that it m u", he the island of Ag;o. Geurgim o p p",ite [' cram" in t he m idd le "I' t he

'Irait. whil S! PriICheU eome nds thaI II entraoce of the strair. occu pying the must he thc island of l .ipsokout ali atthe area from Salami. to M unychi a. entra nce 10 t he ,,·hanncl. Hammo nd N ewsl hat the P er, ian lIeet ha d mm'eo wou ld arrear 10 PUI must tru, t in up IIlto the ent rance to the stra;1 was t he a..·.....'unt s of ancient authors such as received in t he Greek cam p d uri ng t he Srrabo ,, -ho had probably neve r vrsitcd night. It was said 10 have been hrought the ar.,.a , Draw inll: ~",' nclus ions Irom in hy AriSlidcs. the Athenian exile. lheir descri ptions wou ld appea r to l>e ",110 managed to get throull:h rhe Penian ''''r)' hazardous . [flhe Peniansoa;upied lines frum Aegma so Ihal he could fill:ht Ag ius Georgios. wh ich lies directb- in for h.. ~'I)' in it. hourof peri l. The look fronl of t he Greek an~horagconl,· -thoul o ut s o n Salami• . ho..... ver . must Iu.,'e got some idea of ..'hal was ha ppening . from the .hore , the G reeks w"uld The <Jreeh oow Itnew rhal they had to "" nallll~' ha .-e ",cn thcm at finl lig ht. T hc re " -could ha"e been little rha t the fighl F. verything was 10 Iheir ad,·amall:e. In the narrow ,traits the P hoenicia ns Per.ian. could ha ve d, me to preven t their inMant d,. lodltemcnr, M o reover . v,co uld he unab le to usc thei r ,uperi" r t he i.land of Li r "" k"utali control. the , eam an, hip , J ust l>eforc first lil(ht t he Grecks entrance to the st ran, and it wo uld have been vital fo r t he Pen ian. to secure it dragged their galley. do"'n to Ihe waler . bef"re 11l<' ", ng into rhe channel itse lf. II boarded. ran o ut their oars and waited mu", he added that lhe wreclt. did drift for the ,ig na l. The trumpets sounded and the lIutes S1ruck up the ir rune , southward. after the baltk. Alter occupving l he i.land t he Per - Then. 10 lhe rh)'thmlC chanl of lhe,r sian. d C'< pa lched Ihe F.1!~.. tian•. ..-"" maJe up thc wes ler n wing of the f1eel , t o blockade the weSlcrn end "flhe Sal amis 1t>e Site of tt>e dec,.,Ye bon>e O! Sa emo. Th . ,to 01 ,he one,ent town of Salam; , o-n t he Heet. including the detachments at 1h. " ght P" rt 0' tho) ,sl" nd of L,p,okou'al , c.n C ynosura and C eo•• moved ;ntu Ihc be coea,'y M
\<,.,

"001II

....

T HE C IT Y STA TES lloo·3f1O Be Tim STATI,S AT WAN.

lur wnlt, they pulle.:! II t hei r oaf' and the galley5 beg"J.n to move out IntO rhe ~lunnel.

Xerxes had taken up hi5 posi tio n o n .' luunl Aeltaleos overfookmg lhe st rait. Here a throne had hcen et ccted for him so Ihal he could watch the hanle. T he Persian <;eam en strained at their ""rs and p ulled towards I he Greek lin~'!< , As t he I w·o tlcets do"".:!, t he G reeks m the a nt re backed waler SO t ha t rheir till<" bo...'ed . Seeing the G ree ks bad ing the J'ersian sai lors ....ere con,'inu:.:!l ha l they were going 10 htc.al: in flig ht an.:! , raising their war Cf)' , the!' charged into the ....lient_ and still l he cent re backed water . ,·..:cord ing to Plulareh t he~' " 'et'C waiting for someth inll rhar t he~' kne.... must happen. Suddenl)' t he l'eNian fic<.:t lurched as the ....'ell carne u p the d umne!. The wave ca ught th e Pers ian shif's from be hin". S"m~ of them wcr<' knod'cd out of linc, veering hmsd,ide on to the G ree b . The (,ree k sailn,. raised a g rea t shout _'On you sons of Greece! l-rce your native land , free your children, your wi ,'es, t he fan..,; of ~'our falhers' God s. and tho;- tombs of ynur ancesl ors. ~ow~"OU balt ic for ~"OUr all' ,

•

T hen tM~'o;-ha'K"d; their hron;ze. plall"d ram, darting thn>Ugh the foam crashed th rough the hanl:, of oan; and ripped into t he bow. of lhe I'e..ian shi~. It is rather ,hftkult to undersland Herodotus' description of t he ha tt ie fo r ma lion : 'Th~ l'lme nicia m (fo r t hey had t he western wi nK. towar ds Ekusis) were arraye d "pp<"'i t ~ 10 t he AIheni ans, and to the Lacedaem"nians the lo nians, on Ihe eastern .... rng, neaTesI the P irK us'. 11 ,,"OUld nnl)' Ill" poss,hle to use l he terms cast anJ "' es t ....inlt if he rs descnb iog t he pcsinon of Ihe t\ttt be fore it ente ",d the channel, and from (hel"'," <.'O nl in uing 10 use this dc..,ripllun for tbe Ion ian and Phoenic ian flee ts , -II i. interesti ng (hat he does nol use t hese l ~rm5 for the Greek lleel.) If Ihi. were Ihe c,",,,,,, Ihen Ihe des cript ion of the ....es l ....ing as heing towards lileusrs i, a lillie strange. However , it wo uld he impm, ihk to usC t he term, ea, t and west .... hen the IIcet is d rawn u p in a no n h to .out h lin~ and aJ,'ancing Jireotly westward s. It seems ce rt ain Ihal the ships from A~g ma were Malio ned in lhe ha ~' uf Amhdaki as Ih,s " The only po," t from

....hich they could ha,-., buochl"d II flank allack o n l he ·il hd ra...'ng Penians, II was also l he }' ho came 10 Ih c IUp port of an Athenian . hip that was in tro u ble . It folio..... that rhe Al henian, must ha,'e held pnsil io n nelll to t hc Aeginelans. i.e . Ihe ce nt re and right. and t herefore t he Pel0l'" nrl<', ian, held t he left wing , It sc em , to he agreed that t hero;- has been a general rise in t he se a level in the ar<'a around At hens. P ritchett '1lk>!e, man~' {'l[ample,; uf place<; t haI " 'ere aN"'e t he ....lIler \e el in classical rim..,; and are now belo iL Sewul ,"""iem quarries ha ve been discovered SUhmerged henell(h I....., (0 t h ree met res of ",·aler. The sa me featun: ....~ ot>se,,-ed ""Mn the . h,p .hed, al ua .... ~re ell~"""aleJ_ A ela... tc 1 shrine al Ihe "illage of Agio, C-,"'ma, a' also fo und helo"" Ihe water lel'el. The re is a ,mall reef 350m " n Ihe All ie coas t " pp<>site l'erama , in ..-[u" ical Below the bonle of

ceo" e of

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P!>oen,c " . .<1\1..... ,1> wn

GRE ECE AN D MACEDO N I A

ti mes Ihis m un bave M.: O ao island. Ik n , ""o this i~Land and I ~ mainland t bere wou ld beve been a sballo'" chan",,] ".~", the water was not d«p enoug h for gal"'ys [0 navigate. Thi. small island would made an excd lem point 0 0 ro which t he G ree ks could lock t heir left wing without fear of missile all ac k from the P enian infant ry o n the mainland o r of hc ioll out fl anked. T heir inferio rity in n umhers made it all the more im portant fo r t he G reeh t o avoid bein g ou tflanked , For this rea, On t he Corint hian Iteet of 40 ships was despalChed to prevent the Eg vpuans enteri ng t he WC$t end of the channel. T h ere can be no t ru th in Herodot us' S1ateme nt_almos t cert ainly laken from a biased Athe nian source -c- rhar t he Corint hians fled befOl e l he battle . This also undermi"". Ille argume nn of t """" ",'ho ...-ould ~ t ile bailie ana fart her u p tile channe l in front o f the island of Agios Grorgjos ,,-jth no 1od::ing point for t he n g hl ...-jog. This wou ld hi,·e allowed Ihe P ersian ship'" to break t hrough t ile r ight ",-jng at will. T ile G reek fleet wo uld have been d rawn u p in front of t hei r anchorages wilh t he

ha,·.,

Peloponnes ian I1«t of 49 ships occupyiog the Iefl ..i ng and Inling o n t he i.let. It is also inc:onsi5'l em to att emp t 10 reconci le Ae",hylus' figure of 3 10 for lhe GTttI: fleet wit h H erodOlus' 380 by suggesling l hat the missing 10 ships fOTmed Ihe Cori nt hian squadron which left before t he ban le. This w<)\Ild ha ve left o nly 19 Pe1o ponnes ian ships to form t he left wing. The Athenian fl eet of 1 80 ships cove red t he c<: mre wit h us right wi ng rest ing on the tip of th<: K am at<:ro promontor y, whi lst the ot her t i l ship. , ind ud ing t he 30 ships from Aegina , occu pied l he ba y of A mbe taki. The d istance from the i. let 10 t he l ip of t he Kama rero promontory is about l ,os o m , Alk:»>'ing a m inimum of 20m per gal le}the ships would have to be d rawn up in fow 10 th·e lines , Accord ing 10 Aeschy lus., :I S lhe Persians en tered the strails Ihe)- firsl heard t he Greek flee1 singing their ba ttle h)'m n and only later saw t hem . This has been used to suppan t he ,'ie..- that the Greek fleet was d ra....n u p in the cha nnel to t he nort h of Kamalero, shielded from t he Persian view by M o unt Aegakos. How-

c """"",., "" "-'''-', EaS

..;...111\

II

ever, al thoug h Burn and Ham mond both malte Ihis poi nt , neil he r actua lly shoo..· the G rcek tl«1 in this posil ion. Roth socw it piVOied o n t he Kamatero promontory in full y)ev,' of the Persian 11«1. If Aes<:hyhn is to be interpreted this '...y, l hen t he ba tt le wou ld ha w to he fought be l ...-een Arapis and Cape Eilato uri. A mo re lik ely expl anation is that t here m igh t ha ve " een a slig ht ha~e or it was st ill dark. Alt er na t ively, t he Persians may ha ve hear d t he Greek singing before t hcy actually entere d t he 51taits , H erodotu. later ment io ns a wes! wind which hie.... t he wreckage dow n the coast. T his coul d have carried t he sound of the G rcek singing the t hree to tou r kilometres 10 t he Persian fleet. T he battle was o n. Caug ht in Ihe narrow chan",,' t here was no room 10 manoeuvre. II _. ship against ship. T he Grceks managed 10 retain thei r formation but, for the Persians, t his was impossi ble . ~ ma.. of the Persian ships Wet"e jostl ed in the cn me of t he cha n""l, caught in l he dC"an at ing pm~ en movement as t he ...'ings cha rged . The Persians tried despe ratel ~' to t um about while at the same li me l rying to avo id ramm ing each o t her. Th<: G reeh were able to pick off the enemy sh ips on t he oUiside of the m asS at will. T he Persian sailors fou g ht bra,-e!y before t he gaze of t heir king. T he iavehneers swept t he decks of the G reek galleys as they In ed to ram t hem . Just off the promontory of Ka ma tero an Ionian ship from Semorhrace cba rged ou t from t he mass of Persians and ripped into t he hull of an Athe nian gal ley, but he f.,..e it could free itse lf from the wreck2ge a trireme from Aegrna rounded the promontory and caught I ~ Io nian shi p amid ships, " 'hile t he Ionian shi p " 'a s sinking, het complement of iaveIi neers . wept l he Greek mati~ o ff l he dc.;k, boarded and ca pt ured the u ireme. much to the delig ht of Xerxes. D es pite these isolated successes, the

~" Pe",a n l loot ente ,ed th e , tro,t w ith tho The Pho en,c,a n, sail ing in column to tM 01 L,o so kout a li (ne.,.,st ,he P" "'usl ond Ihe lon,ons '0 the ""'Sl of the .. let The Vwoold he >'e dolHOVod in,o h nol ,n ,he Sto .. , T"" r.!O(>Onn,....ns t oo-mod up """,,",to lhe PhOO'loe,.ns and the Alhe....... ~t" the Ion,..... w haSl the ,..t (e 110 Shop$) 'ay in w ar< ,n bay 01 Atnf>eoIo u. h om _ thov anacQd the 'WNlong Pe<s .. n S'IoOO

.a"

t'"

"

T HE C ITY STATES 800-360 BC T H E S TATES A T WA R

Persian fleet , crammed hel plessl)' in t he chan~l, ",as in a despet au~ posil>on. ~ bIInercd fleer tried to d isoengage. A s Ihe~' "'ilhdrew from the narro"'~, t he ships from Aegina la~' ...'aiti ng foc lhem in t he hay of AmbeLaki and , IS they p~, ca ugh t lhem m a d e.... taHng Oank a u"",k , T he Alhenians too, fullo",· ing up Ih e retreat , pla yed havoc amongst the fleeing sn ips. The victuriuus Gree k sailor-s showe d no me rc y to their shipwrecked enem ies , Grahh ing oa n; nr any other weap"n I har cam e to hand, t he y dubl>cd to dealh o r dro wned t he enem ~' uilo" a. t hey slruggled helplessly in the water. .\leaowhi1e, Ansndes , t he Alhenian exile, galhered logelher man~' of the hop hles "'ho were o n the shore .... tching tile sca hattie, and " 'itb these maruged 10 captu re lhe Isla nd o f Psyllalea and .Lo.ugbu~r lhe Pers1aIl gamson l here , tbus W iling o ff the last resort foc the wreck ed Persian shi ps , Those ...nd.s tha i d id flOC drift asllon: on t he island Iioaled do",n l he e <>asl and came a.bore on the pru munlury of ColilS a bout four kilome tr es $OIIl b of Phalerum . Alth<>Ug h the P ersia n fleet was f.. from being dc,troye d a nd . till p ro ba bl)' outnu mhere d t he Greeks, Xe rxes now realised lhal his hopes of a q uick campaign were go ne. He ha nck d ove r c" m · mand of lhe bulk "f his anny _po. ",sihly 150,000 me n-to Mardoniu. and rclurned to Asia, Mardc nius withdrew into Thes.aly and t here went int o wimer quarters. For a fe", month s at lca" iOulMm Greece had a breallung , ~, Xerxes feared l hal the defeat al Salantis m ighl encourage t he lcmans 10 revoh, so he \\~Ihdrewlhe fleet 10 Cyme and lhe foll"",~ng spri ng stationed il al

s.m...

The S p..rl. ns lJlobilisc In t he following spring Ar1 S1 id es and Xanrhipp us, another e xile w ho had returned 10 de feml his coum ry, ",c re elected generals at At he ns, M ardoniu s no w tr ied by d iplomac y to separa te At hens from her allia n,'e witb the Pcloponncs ians , offering her "cr y ha ndsome terms, Bu t Athens was full of bine rness over wha t had happened a nd, alt ho ugh unde r normal errcum"anccs she. like all t he other G TC'e1< stales , would TIOI shy a....a y from betTII )'ing a cause m the preferen<:<: o f setf

fj,..,

im erest, she now rejected t he P ersian rhousand Spanans, nearly \W'OproposalSOUI of hand. Ho we ver , .hedid thirds o f the lotal Spanan 1<:\1', plus usc lhem 10 tl")', WIlhout success. to focce 3S,ooo Itdou , imm.,.jiale l~· set o u t non hSparta into p romising more aid, ...'ard s. On lhe «'a!' the)' .....,re joi ned b y 17,000 hoplites from the non h-castem Summer had a rri" ed when .\Ia rd onius mO\'ed soul h agam. 1\l:"aiting Peloponnes us. until lhe ~ ...'crc ripening, be ad:\ \ardomu. im me<.ha tcly e" acuated "anced o nce more on Athens and once Athens, destroying what remained of again occupied it unopposed. And onc e t he city be fo re he left , E1eusis was also again Spa n a falled 10 co me 10 Ihe aid of put 10 the fla me , Hc now wit hdrew to her ally. AI Sala m is Al hens had ri sked Boeotia where t he cou m ry was much all a nd in su dning sa ved S pana , She mo re ope n a nd suit able fo r his cavalry. had alsn refused 10 betr ay the ( i ree k As .\h rdoni us started northward he cause b ut t his had lillie effect on the hea rd that all ad vance gua rd of 1,(Xl() S panans. The o nly Ihing that held the Spart ans had already reached :\\cgara, Greeks loget bc r was a fo re ig n c ne m)' , o n ly 4Skm flom Alhens. Mardonius not a ny Iovc for each other. Tbe G reek lurned a n J., sendrng his cavall")' ahead , resistance 10 Persia fro m M ara t ho n o n- made a ligblning strike againSI .\ k gala, ..aids is a ClItalogue of had planning , but wben he fai led t o lake the town and groo;s inefficiency and se lfishness punc- heard that the G reek aim)' was gatherNalcd ...ith OlXaSional acts of brillies . H ere paign t hey com pletely outmanoeuvred he es la blished a fon ified camp whicb H erodolUS d escribe. as about 10 stades t he Greeks, and then ma d e one missqua re (a boul 1,8oom"), which IS JUSt calculation whi c h "cos ll he m the war, W it h the re,,.,,cupalio n o f Athen. Ih" over fi "" times rhe sil,e of lhe Roman citize ns aga in crossed ove r to Salamis, ca m p described hy l'olybius wh ich hel d " lardonius once more tried to co me 1U l O,OOO infant ry a nd 2 , SOO ca valr y. This te rm s wit h lh" , e o n Ihe island . The suggests t hat .I,-Iatd"ni u.' a rm y m ighl Arhe nia ns sent an e mbassy 10 Spana 10 nOI be mucb more Iha n IlO,(Xl() men beg them to come to Iheir aid hUl, a. at ind ud ing cavalry. xtarerhon a nd Thcrrncpy lae. they were Herodotus says that Ihe Persi an keeping a religiou. f",t i" al a nd refused lroops were ranged along Ih e rive r from 10 move. In t he mea ntime Ih e)' we re F.Il1hr"" to paSI H ysiae as fa r as the fc."e ri shly bcig hle ning the "'all a"TOSS lands of Plataea_ It is unfonu nate that the isthm us, m aking u d ear to al i lhal o nly lhe site of Plalaea can be idenlified t his ..'as where lhe)' intended 10 fighl . with certainty ; t he sites of Scolus, Day af ter day tbey tcm pori""d, eac h day H~--siac and Erytltrae are uncertain, p utting o ff l heir d.«ision until the """I ; (h'er sc"cral ~"ears Prrt cbett has done this went o n fo r te n da~'s_ It ...as no! a tremendous a mount o f gtound",orl:; on until the Ath enians threatened to accepr the bat tlefield o f Phu aca , He has walked .\ l ardoni us' term s, which would place SCOTes of miles across the fields a nd hillt he At henia n 03 " )' under Pe rsian 000- side. t hai make up the hanlcficld sea rehtrol, t hus la~'ing the Pelopon nesus wid e for tra"...,s of ancie n t habila tio n. T he o pen to alfack a nd rendering the ist hmus me thod he has u >!Cd is called s he rdi ng~ defe nces obsolete, tha t Sparta act ed, scat chmg the grou nd , preferably im · Once the d ec isio n was mad e Spart a mediate ly after pillughin/-: , fo r fragact ed witb gr eal e nerg y. The enure ments of a ncie nt t iles and pots . \X'hc re Greek f,m; es were placed under the lhese are found in la rge numhcrs o ve t a com mand o f I'a usa nias, son of kinll; wide a rea, o ne can po:;lulale an ancient Cleombrotus (as Leoni das' son P lcisl- to..-n or villa ge" Til<: resulls nf his find arc h us was still a minor) a nd Eurya nu , ing> ha" e bee n publisbcd in t ..'o atticles . the son of D oreius whom C leomb rot us The first appeared in tlte A......,c"" Journal of A " M eoioxy in 19 57. The had oo-upted "" h is ooI lea~,

'9

GREECE Ar-; n .\ 1/\ C E D O :-'; IA

'""'-'OM, in uhkh he modified ""me of his "'t'''s. apl'Car,'d In a "ork entitled 'Sl udi,,,; In :\ocicnt the "<:sl of Plala,';I. Two of these are on t he northern slopes of ,\ Ioo n! Pa~I"''' which. with .\ Iount Cu h3<"ron. hmll' lhe southern ~ide of lhe baukfidd. aM a third rs on tlte river .... sopu~, L'" ng t he anciesn .oun-~, lhe tu'o ,il'" on the $lof'C'> of .\Ioum Pasl ... can be idcnntied wilh H,,,;,ae (ah.) . Ls l<m ea.1 of modern Er vthraij and and cm ErYlhrae (" I:><' ul one kilomeue wCSI of m.>Jern Daphne ). The lh'rd .ite o n t he A" ,pu, was found while t'xp re"I,' I"o" ing for S''<,lus, w h ,~h I'au, ,,nias desn ibc s a, ahout 40 sloJdeJ (ei.:lll kil" m" lre. ) down .I ream frum the 1'1ala,:a to T hehe, roa d , AI a p'Hm " X'l<:ll y 4 0 .rposile Plataea for a disl"rt,:" oj" "bout r zkm . The sile of the Pers ia n e;,l.mp "';,I.S probably on lhe hIgh I(round above S<.-olu", this "~,,,Id """"er the main road fro m Al h~ ns 10Then.:. anJ :l<."'Ule the Asoru. bridge. The A"'>ru~ ilself In t his area i. a faIrl y insignifieam Slream which Can be e,...,.""".1 ea.lly. .\lC"dn wh,k Ihe [' c1"1",n...." ian army haJ moved alon g Ihe i,lhmu, to Eleu, i• . where Ihcy were j"",ed by t he Athenia n, who cros sed oVer from Salami., Fr<>m here t hey headed n"rt h and foll<>wcd Ihe I' e" ian army imo Ilo~olia Onc"C past ,U num I'"rnc" they lurned west along Ihe '''u t h side of t he A",I"'" I Inodo lU' lell, u, Ih~t th,' n reck armv rea ched Erylhrae wh ere thq' learned ~f rhe Pe rsian I""it ion •. Ae<:or
01' Ihe mUles .wer t he m,>untain< im" lUll ~U''''"CSM\"C rca... ""'ith h,s 'Id the hilth 1!:1'<",nd ,'en,er><,."C. i, IcrmeJ the liyr hloeaSlrn aM d Id ",'I imend ro come oo" ;n mill ...-.1. aM l he ..>lher• "'h,eh was lra.xd by the ptain. he de.patehed ,\la,miu, wlI h Ham mond . a-o..""d a ,lightly higher hi. e"s·al'}'. Th" horsemen cros'ICd lhe I"l'" al:><>IIl 1..0 kilomelres fanher "'nt. m'er anJ charged ur II\.: hillside in Th i, ""uld hll.'e been the route 10 '<.Iuad ' c ns. cbcwenng the hoplitcs. wn h .\ kgara anJ "iII be so "d. I n his I"ICT arrows. The ( ,reek army. which "",,<,,d,ng 10 amek he reie..1 "d t he firsl roUle . daiming Ihal only lhe .\legara roUle "'as I lerod.l{ u' consisted of )8,;00 hel!"liln rl""liea" le , [ mUf an the f."'1 of the hills wil h the, r ....aek> to .... thc nia n fori al (i ,-phloca' iro at Ihe Ihe ditl•. Allowi ng f(>r a deplh of eight , south end "f Ihe pa., pro\"es ..-onclu- l he h"l'litc. alo ne would have Sl retched , ,"'dj' tha t it wa, in usc in Ihe 4l h cen- fo r about 1iv~ kilometrc,,;, The lightIUT j' ac. n,oth I'a,,~" were oceupieJ by armed Imop' wou ld plOhahl y have heen Ihe At hcm'lIl I(eneral Cha hria, in 379 , slrat~Il ,ea lly plal-ed " n t he wing, and l ie him«'Il' u':""l'ied Ihe ( iy phto",m rn alonl( Ihe va, iou, spurs t h"t jU lted out pa" hut Ihe Spa rta ns Fo rced the ir wa y m to th ~ pla in, T he o b", uu, ,i le tor the o... cr Ihc route th rough !'lal'l"a, i ,e. ri gh t wing, m ad" up of the S panan,. Ham m" nJ' ~ ,\ lcgara wad, would hc t WO kilometre, we.1of m"d ern If Pritc hett i. eorren in his idem i_ Da phne Wilh Iheir 35.000 lIeI"" e"verti ~a t i"n of ancienl Ervi hrac . ju,t wesl (>f inl: Ihe 'upply mule 10 Ihe eas!- The Ihphne. Ihen t he G reeks wo uld have resl or the h,'phle. would have be en ' learned' of the I'~ ",ian posili"ns tirsl "Irel"h,'d out pa.. an,'len! E rylh rae a, hand. k ll' from here one g..>1S a pd""r. far "sl he l'lIlll ridgc lhat jutsoul inw Ihe armc vie..... of Ihe whole Persia n line, In 1'1"", Iwo and a half k ilomet re~ wesl of flk:l Ihi, view can be seen from any Daphne. "'ilh a . tr(>ng connngem of po int "Ionl( lhe 1:>;o$C of the hills aU tile lig hl-armoo u o<' p;; en lhe I,lng ridge wa" 10 Plal.....a r akm fan hcr "-esI. The gis'in~ a birly "rong co"cr 10 t he left impl k al ion !Ild ha"e I:>ccn a....1e '" lir" sa,,' lhe Penian f"O'6ilion•• ,,'hich give faid)' grhles. p'e.... uJ''S an" I"",ibihty Ihal Ihey l here was one s'C'!)-- "-C';ll: spor iu" West entered the s'alley ....y either lhe ,\lcgaTa ". aeoem E~"lh r"" wocn: t he gl<>IInd or G)· phl .....a" ro pas",s aho....1 eig.... l to is ."",n, Hen: lhe j-coo he>p litC'> f",m ren k,lomel rC'! farther ".."t. E,'en if .\Iegar;,l. "'er" I"km g a terrible healing Ik rodulUs' .talement i!; dJSreg,u a tlank a!tack. espec'iallv a, .\ kgarians and ....reak Ihe force of It>., Ihey t hen proceeded 10 move westwa rd . ea"al r~' ch arges. Allain anJ again lhe 3l1:ain, ()ne must therefo re conclu de t hai s<.l uad rnns or P er, ian cavalry eha '1led in they marehcd u p the ...alley fwm [he up",n Ihe 300 Atheman, . showe rinll "aM, them wilh m i"i le', .\la,i'liu, himwl f. ,\l ard,'niu. ha d skilfullv ehmen t hc clothed in a 1'11fplc t unic , led t hc cha'I(C< ,il e un whic'h he wi, hed 10 figbt. II e ha d rid ,nil h" richly caparisoned Ncsacan ralk n ha,'k on hi s ow n , u pply lines an d h""e wnh its I(olden bit. In the t hi ~k "l al Ihe ' arne umc plac'ed a range or mounrhc hallie his ho..e ...a, caug ht III Ihe t " in, he t " '''''n Ihe (lrc"h and their "de hy a ' l ray arm ... , The animal reared source " I' sUP I'Ii~, which ,,'ould have 10 m ram. IhrowlIIg the Persian general. c...me from the Pd "'I"",n"·, u,, as .... uiea Ad"'e he <:ould gel 10 hi, teet Ihe had be en '~'M"malically ra" aged d uring .... Ihema"" we re upon hi m. '('l;"hile ."me

,,,11..

T ItE CIT Y ST AT E S 800- }60

I\~

T H E STAT E S AT WA R

grabbed hi, ho,,~, "rh~" th ru' l al h im wll h their SP<'U" o nly to d isc,w er t hat heneat h his purp le t un ic he wa , wearing a cuim" o f glid ed s~a l es . Fi nd in g lhat they co uld not ge t to h IS bod y, one o f t he Athenia ns sta h hed hi m t h m og h lhe ~ ye ami ", despatched him. I I was ,omc lime hd o re t he Persian ~a\'a lry reali,ed whal h"d happcn ~d . lX'he n they saw l h~ Alhe n ia m crowded ",und the co rpse in l h~i r u,ual sty l ~ , however, fOi everyb ody wanted to get a I"o k, th~y md~ ba~ k in rna" a nd tr ied to rec over rhe body. Th~ Athm ians yelled to the ,\ k g ar ia n, to come d ow n and help the m . r\ viole nt ,truggle raged "v~ r Ihe hody and the At heni ans ""ere almost d rive n from Ihclr pre y b ut , w h ~tl cont in gent ' fro m t he re, t o f th~ a rm y bcg"n to arri ve an d t ile I'er, ian loss e, mountcd , the latter drew ba~k an d halrnl alx' ut 400m away. T h<:n, s~n ng t hat there wa, nOl hing t h~y co uld d o , the y rctu m ed to Iheir camp to r~ p<Jrt to .\-hr " onius . T he loss o f their po p u la r ~ u \'al r y com mand er cau, cd m uc h d istless in the Persian camp_ Howeve r, am on g't the Greek<, t here w~ ,g re~ t r~ j oic'i ng . T hc body was placed

o n a ca r! and d ra wn alon g t hc ran k. " , thai all mig h t see iL .\1an y o f the hop lites h ro ke ra nks to co me li>rwurd an d ga ze in a we o n t he bod y T he G reek ge n~rah decided to ta ke ad,-antage o f Ih e d i, turbance in the Pe rsian ca mp a nd move the ir p", it ion The y marched d o wn to Plat aca in the p h m a hout r z krn far ther we st , Herod ow , ,aY' that the grou n d was tiller t he re in all wa y' , hut c' hiell y hecause the re w ~, a n ahu ndan t supply of wa te r fro m a fountain called G a rga p h ia. W he re (h~ y were il was impo" ih le to gel sufh cient wat er as t her~ we re u n ly t in y st re ·k ga ra pas! T he Sl le of th~ new wa te r so u rce, t he Ga rga p h ia fu u nta in , i, unctrt ain b ut it is ge ne rally helieve d to have bee n one of

t he ' p rlngs JUSI ,oUlh o j the Ag io , ]oa n ni, h ill about t h ree kilom et re' no n h-nort h-east o f mod~m Er ylh rm. Pritc hc tt co nv incin gly ide nt ilie, it wil h t he Re t,i spn ng , wh ich he says i, t hc m os t <:rme~ . Thucydid es ment ions it heing o n t h~ ng ht (ea, l) sid e <>f the ro ad Bel<>w The v,ew IrQm Ihe IllS: Groo< pos ,t,on ""or modem Dop h"". It wos !ro m he re that lho Gre e k, gOl t he" frr>t Vi ew oIl he Pers,an pOs't ;ons ,n ,he d,'ta nce. Fro m he ' e there ', a oa no,. mic Y;ew 01 !he Pers ,an line

3'

G R Ee C E A :-< D M AC E D O l" IA

from Plataea to Thebes. This means tha t u, 100, was in the area of the Agi<"I loan ms hill _ possi bl~' on il . D ifferenl religions have a habit ofbui ldi nlt shrines o n the loaTIX spot. and many. Gr«k Or'lhodox cha pe l overlies a P'Olr-"n shri ne. ' Amo nlt 10...· hills and in level counnf wou ld wtll d""LTibe a line slrelChinlt for some six kilometres Over the "" 'cral hilloo::ks o n Ihe Asopus ridge and aCI1)!;S the plam in front of Plara ea, wit h iu left wing Irn;ked o n the Pyrgos hill, T he Spart ans, ho ldi ng Ihe rig ht win ~ o n t he Asopus ridge, covered t he water su pply. N one would dare challenge the S parlan rig ht 10 t he positio n of honour o n t he r ighl wing. h UI Ihe claim 10 Ihe second moet hllIlou t ahle po$it ion on Ihe lefl " , ng waS ooll~' d isputed in t ru e Greek fashion het\u:en the Athenians ;md l he TegCllns (",'ho always """" ed o n l he left in the Spanan ann~'), It could hardl~' be d<M.tbted lhal Athens " 'QIIld win but it soo..." an im CT"" ting sidelight on lhe ancient Gr~b ...·00, C\'M! in t he Iace of a most form ida ble enemy where Ihelr very existence was al Slake , were prepared to squabble about honou r . In t he finallinc· up Ihe tight wing was held by the 5,000 Sparta ns and Ihe 5.000 ot hcr La ced aemonian s under I' ausanias, who Wa s com mander -in-chie f. T he 1,500 Te~eans were d rawn u p o n t he ir left, Thc lefl wing, o n l he Pyrgos hills , was held by At henians commanded by

3'

Aristide5 ,,'ith Ihei r fail hfu l allies l he Plataeans. ,,'00 supplied 600 ooplites, 11.""'1 10 t he m. Bc:t,,'~n the IWO "inp the 1C\'in from t he other stales "'-ere d rawn up. wilh the Peloponnesians o n the right next to the Spartans and t he others next to t he AI henians. The Iargnt of these units w'" from Corinth, wh Ich su p plied 5,000 men , The sma11nt conImgents were from Lepreon in T ri. phylia and Pale in Cephallenia, which senl zoo men each. Mycenae ami T ir ;:ns , '" famo us in t he Hronze A~ e, could m uster o n ly 400 betwee n the m. T he 35,000 hd"t. «erl'ed o n the ri ght wing wil h t he Spa nans; the remaining 34,500 light_arm ed troops proba bly sen'ed o n t he o the r ...·ing, Their role was to keep t he Persian ca\'alr~' aWI Y from t he flanks IS this was t he weakesl point of a hoph t" I Tmy. ~'hen the 1' " " iaRS had finished mourning t he dealh of .\!.asislius, The y too mm 'ed up the ri ,'U unlil t he~' were opposile tbe new Greek posrtjon. H ere ,\\atdoniu$ de ployed his troops alo ng the non h ban k, li e poned his crack Pe,,;an u OOI'" o pposile Ihe Lacedaemomans. lI is weaker Persians were piaLred o pposite the Tegeans next in line , The Spartan, pro ba bly fo ught fOUl dee p and the Tegca ns and oth er 1.acedaemonians po, sihly d id t he same. A dee p formation was unnece ssary against ligh t-a rmed Imops , and t he longer t he

line ...'as the less likely the}' were 10 be: o'Jlflanked. A1ro..ing I lin le Ins tha n a met re per man. t he«e 13 ,000 hopIiles probahly st retched OIIt fo r ahoul three kilometres. ~exi 10 lhe P enillll$ Mardoni~ p1aa:d his M edes . Si no: mese ,,'ere oppo$ile t he <;onr i ~Jl.ls from Corint h, Poridaea , O rchomenus and Sicyo n, consisting of 1l,900 oopliln who, being less confiden t than t he Sparlans, we l e prohabl;-- drawn u p eight dee p, t he .Medes would hal'e strel ched for a littl e over a kilometr e. J.ikewise the Hactria ns covered the me n from Epidaurus, Troezen . Lepreum, Mycenae, Ti r}"ns and P hli us, who were 3400 strong wit h a fron t of abeut aco rn. Next to the Bactrians M ardo.lIlius placed lhe Ind ,ans fa<.; ng t he connngerus from Hennio ne , Eretn:. , SI)Tll and Chalcist ,3OO hoplites wilh I front of IboUI 1 501J1.· SeX! to the Indians he d rew up l he laS! of his Asiln umll, the ScYl hians. These raced the 2 ,000 hopIiln from Ambracia . Leucas. I\naclorium. Pale and Aegina, co veri ng a littfe over 200m . Opposite the 11,600 Megariaos, P lat..... ns and Athemans on his right " ,ng. ...·ith a front of about 1,250m, he placed 8 . tow Mo""l or ,roe upper Asopu ' va lley 100" 09 south The Greek, probab ly en'ered the pla,n rrom 1M east (Iell) and .a w tn. Pe",an pos"""" as 'My app r<>ltd,.d Eryth.ae He,e ,he F'.,.ians tau"C hIld tDtI" f,tSt a""' ~ ""them

f,,.,

TH E CIT Y STATES ~ OO-360 lie T III' STATES AT W AR

his northern G reck allies, the Borol ians, Locrians , .\!ahan., TI1a.oalians and Macedonian s, plu. r,ooo )' hocians from lhoo.e P hocian to wns that had defa:ted. Herodotus add. to t ltis list the minor contingents from Phrygia, Th race, .\ \y.ia , Pxon,a, Elhiopla and Egypl . So, o::x-=luding ca"alT)' and Iighl -armed troops, the whole line covered ebour six kilo mclI'C"S. The OI\-alry were dra\ll'tl up separalely, ahn051 cen ainly on lhe ...-in~ opposilC It..: G~ckligh t·armed !rOO", . AflCr dra ...-ing u p lheir ar mies , bolh sides st arted offeri ng !a<.Tifi..." (:S hoping for a favo ura blc rupon.e from the Gods. T he fi nal b att le for eight days the two armies sal eyeing each olher ac ros. Ihe valley whilst the divinen< lr ied 10 produce favuurable omens for an aHack. This delay was of grealer benefit 10 the Greeks than the Persian s as su pplies and reinforcements werc now pouring imo Ihe G reek camps by wa y of the .'l.k gara pass. T his pass, wh k h Ihe Boo....,l ians called T reis Cepha· lac, 'the three he ads" can be idem ified with It..: p,a, s ofl hc M egara route ...'hich runs bel .....een Ihrce peat. arrhe easr side of M o um Cil haeron, Loukisthi, F ikhlhi and Karoums.ab, and from ...-hieh il must derive its na me. On the eight h da y .\!ardonius de,patched pan of his OI,-alry "'00 rode round the r ighl wing of the G reek army and occupied rhe entrance to the pa ss. capluring SOO baggage animals plus ~eral wagons ,,~ th !heir dri"ers and culUng t he G.-..ek .u pply line. Why the Grecb had not plao:d a "Irong ho lding force in the mouth of the pass defies underslandmg, but this son of negligence is typ ical o f the Greek dty stales . Fo r three day. more neilher army ffim'ed. alrhough by no.... Ihe Pe..ian ca.-alry ...·Cre constantl~' hara" ing Ihe Gree k lines . .... t firs! hght on Ihe elcvem h day aftc r t hcy had laken u p their new P()Si lion , for So me unfalhoffiahle re asOn the Alhenian. and Spanano de cid ed 10 exchange po.ilions, ' I'he rea. o n given by Herodotus, t haI the Spartans were !
and tt..: .... thenia n. on the left we re finding il much more d iffi= 11 10 wit hstand lhe COOOlam anacb of Ihe Persian ca,·all)·. So Inc Spana n~ 1113-" ha ,'c offered to takc over lha{ posi tion_ Mar donius rnponded by fJlO\-ing his ...T ack Persian n oopo on to Ihis ,,~ng a. well, makin g t he ...Iuatw n o n Inc Jefl wi ng a.round Pyrgos hill Ihar much W«'Se. So the S pa..n ans mo ved back again 10 d ra..- Inc P en ians wi th them . AJlOIl he r possible feuon, hut Ihis is lughly unli kely u the S panan. were no( prone 10 br illiant lac1ical m(WeS, i. lhal me Spartans intended to la unch a surp rise attac k o n Persia 's G r eek allies hopmg 10 knock lhem oUl before the main ha ril e. It is mo re than likely Ih al the ...·holecpirode is untrue and any way, hy the end of t hc day, everybody was hac'k to '
modern Erythrai. In from of t his t here i. a ridge of .Ii ghtl~· ltigher gro und t ha i snelcnc. our pa SI Plalaea on in CilSiern side_ T his i. flanked o n eilbe r .idc by tributaries of {he Acrois, "..hich ma~' in ancem limes have been m uch fu ller . ( T he . um mertime .....arer supply av ailable w day ...-<MIld be q uile imufficienr 10 satisfy tnc needs of a l oo,ooo.strong arm~' .)

lr was tkcided to pull bad as soon as it was dark . T he re is C\cidence tha t lhere "" e~ th ree roads running nonhwa nh from t he foot of .\!OUnl C ilhaeron 10...·ard~ T he bes . O ne, ...-hich desce nded from t he G y ptnccastrc pass, coincided roughly wil h the modem Athen. T hebes h ig hway ex cepl thaI it would have run more direCl ly no rl h from the pa.., whereas t he modern road 1.igugs down lhe hilt- ide and passes t hroug h El ylhrai, Th e second road crossed lhe ' lhree hcad. ' pa ss and Ihen fo rked , wit h o ne branch go ing 10 Plalaea and the ot her branch heading north "'ard. aero.. lhe A..,pu. ri dge. West of Ag ios Ioa nnis hillock il ....a. joined hy the Ihird road l'o m ing from I'l alaea. It rhen crossed l he ri ve r and headed fo r T he bes, T he pb n " 'as o bviously for the At he nians o n t he left wi ng 10 ,,-ilhdtaw on Plataea, for t he cem re to usc lhe ' Ihn:e heads' road , and for the S panan. on Ihe right ...-ing 10 ...-il hd ra'" along I he GyphlOcastro roa d . C haractmSlkallh t he plan ...... bungled . When darkness fdl m e <:ertl~, "hich being in the plain had been SO badl}' mauled b~' lhe Persian ca" alry du ring the da)', ...-nhdrew in great haste and eit her inrenrionall}' o r by accidem look lhe wrong fori<. and finished up at P lataea . They piled up l he ir arm. b)' t he T emple of Hera OUiside rhe waHs of the to...-n and cam pe d there. Pausa nia. , hea ring Whal ha d ha ppened , gave o rde.. fo r the n ght wing 10 wit hd raw , I lo....cver o ne lochagoJ na med Amornpha retus, who had nor been ~"On suited when it was decided 10 withdraw , no w, in Uue Spartan fashion, refused 10 desert hi. p""1 in t he racc of Ihe enemy . The ter m lodwilO.< here mu,1 mean a re gimenta l com1l1ande r and nOi a com _ mandcrof a l oo -slronglochos (.ee p ,4 1). I' au, ani"" and Eur yanax , his colleagu e, were in a quandary ; they could hardly remain when t he rest of Ihe army wcre withd ra"'ing but, o n rhe ot her hand, t hey were loathe to .aba ndo n .... mom-

II

GREECE AN D M AC. EDO:-:I A

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H

T H E C ITY STATES 800- 360 BC THE STATES AT \V,\R

pharcrus and his regim en\. So t he Spartan army remained where it was while the generals tried to persua de Amom pharetus to move Mean whi le, on the left wing, the At he nians who had begun to fall back heard tha t t here was trouble on t he n ghl wing and sen t a mounted he rald to 1'30,I,ania, to ask hi m what they should do. A, the hera ld rode up the d ispu te was ,t ill ragmg, WIth Pau,a nia, an d Euryanax pleading wit h Amompharet u, and, when t his failed, 108i ng thei r tem pers and shout ing at him . Amom pharet u" on t he other hand , was insis ting that he , hou ld have been ~otlSulted befor e t he decision was rea~hed. Herodotus says thaI Amompharetus commanded the !qd J('.' of Pitana, but doe, nO! ex plai n what it was. Th ucydide" on t he OIhcr han d, whilst still not explaining wha t it wa, ,uppo,~d to be, insists that there was not and n""'er had been such a unit. All t hat we can conclud e is that Amcm pharerus commande d a ,p~cial regi ment an d t hat he wonld hav... bee n present at Ihe nu t mal Sparta n war eoun~il jU'1 a, the prim", pil", wa, later m the Roman arm v.Probably he had bee n excluded as th e council would have bee n re'tricte d to the , I ralegoi of t he various G reek coming-em" olherwise it would hav e got ent irely oul of hand wilh the commander s of ever y regiment and battalio n want ing to be presen t. Whe" v<>ling t ook plac<' in the counci l pe bbles were caq into t wo pile, - for Ot against an action , ~ow Amompharetu s picked up a large stone with both hand, an d cast it down at Pau..Ilia_ feet, crying, 'T het e' s my pebble and I VOle for nu t fleeing fro m the foreigners' Pau,ania~

shouted back call ing him a lunatic an d out of his mind wn en t he Athenian herald asked him for his instructions , l'ausanias a,ked them to huld on an d follow whatever the S partan, did, 'i\;-'hen dawn broke the argument was slill raging. Pau,an ia, now did what he should have done all alung an d began to withdraw, lea" ing Am"m pha ret us where he was. The column formed up wnh the Spartans at t he front and t he Tegeans at t he rear . T hey wit hd rew along the G,'phtoeastro road, marching between the hillocks an d keeping to the broken ground,

T he Athenians , on th e othe r ha nd, withdrew aeruSS the plain towards Plataea. A, expected Amom phare tus, who had neve r helieved that Ihe rest of t he army wou ld desert him, now t hat he found him self alone, ordered his reg iment !u take up their equipment and followed. When the I,x,kout s in t he Per, ian cam p pointed out to :v\ardoniu~ what wa, happen ing he cou ld hard ly ha ve bdieved his eyes. The Greek positions were dese rted. Pa rt of the Greek army was visible , lou ng ing around in front of Plala~ a; Ihe Athe nians had d isappeared as Ihey were , creened I'tom him by t he Aso pus r idge , and t he Spartans were 8lru ng out along the A",pu, ridge with Amom pharetu, and his reg ime nt "raggling beh ind as if in full ftighr. \X'hen the Spart an, saw that Amom pharelUs .wa, foJluwing them two kilometres be hind , t hey called a halt to wait for hi m . I-Ierodot us say~ that t hey halte d by a str eam called t he .\lolois at a place knuw n as Argiopium where t here is a .h ri ne to the E leu~ian Demete r. Th is shri ne has to be at t he fum uf the .hills just we" of an cient Ilysia" . In t he field, ,ust below the Pa ndanass a ridge, on which Hy,iae probably stood , Pri tchett found cuI block> of .lOne whieh had been t ur ned u p by a t ractor- d rawn plough. He suggests co nv inci ng ly th at t hi, wa, t he site of the shrine of De mete r. ,\ \ ar donius was qUIck 1U take a<1wn tag e of th... situal i"n. He ordered Out hI' cavalry and followed up with t he whole of hI' infa nt ry lead ing his Persi ans aga insl the Spanan col umn, knowing that if he cou ld knod out Ihe Sparta ns t he wa r wou ld be u,-er. The re,1 uf the army he despatched aga inst t he Gr eeks near ria uca . Amompharetu' refused to run and co ntinued to march in an orderly fash ion. No sooner had he joine d the mall1 column {han the Persi an cavalry were upon Ihem . l'ausania, hastily de ployed his hopliles along t he fOUl of the mou ntain . Spartan di"'ipli ne and training weuld have ena bled them to form up in phalanx eve n unde r the hail of aero....s from the Pers ian cava lry, The Spartan, were pi nned down where they were and il wa, now imposs ible for t he m to move, Pa usanias sent he ralds to the Athe nians begg ing

Ihem to come t o hi, a"iSl ance and, If po, ,, ble, to close t he gap in Ihe line which had been left when t he cemr e reneate d to Plataea. It remained for th e Athenians to make the ne~es>a ry manoe uvres. In re' po n'e the Al he nian, began 10 move east wards along t he foot of the hills toward , the Spartan posit ion .\-leanw hile the Pers ian infantr y had moved out of cam p and erosse d the ri'-- el . T he Per~ ian ca mp wa, abum SIX kilumctre, from the Spartan posil inn and it m u,1 have taken t hem at least an hou r and a ha lf to ~om e up , especially as the great mass of t hem would have had to adva nce across the open fields . G rad ually the Pers ian infant ry hegan to mm'e in, , ett ing up t heir shields like a fence a short dis tanee from the Spartan line , From here t hey kep t up a constant barrage of missiles . T he Lacedae mon ian, an d Tcgcans crouched down behind their shields to shelte r from t he arrows and wailed for the order to charge " ausan ia" meanwh ile, had climbed up t he hi ll, ide and beg an fr an til-- ally ofle ring sacri fi ce" not dar ing to give the order 10 charge before the omens were fa,'uurab le. .\ 1.eanwhile, on Ihe left wing, the Ath eni an ma rc h had bee n baIted as the re, t of t he Pers ian army dosed in un t hem . On t he hillside Pausania, Ii fled up his eyes towards the te mple of Hera six kilometres away to the "..est ben eath the walls of 1'lataea, heseeehmg the godde,s to grant him t he omens he neede d but suI! without avail. Relow him the hc plites gradually hega n to fall om of line as the Pe"ian arrows found thei r mar k, and all the lime more and more Pel'\ian, were com ing up. i n t he end t he 1,500 T egeans, whose d iscipl ine wa' never as good a, t he S partan" could stand it no longer. Screa ming the ir war cry they rose up an d charged. O n the h illside Pa u,ania, kIll'''' t hat he had lu ac t quickly. He ran down , took u p his po, il;un in the fro nt ran k on the r ight wing an d gave the orde r 10 advance. :--l o doubt in order to av md the charge uf sacrilege, he declared that t he omen, were favourable , and Herodom~ does not d ispute th is. T he Spa nans rose as a ma n and , raismg t heir spears, ebalge d t he mass uf the Pers ians. Seei ng them co mi ng t he Per , ians discar ded their bo....s an d {(x,k up their spea rs. At first t hey foug ht o'"er 35

GREECE AND MACEDO KI A

the renee of Persten shields bu t soon lhe Spartans had In.mpled this down and they were tn amongst rhe Pers'allS t hrusli ng their long spear. huo the lightl y limed foreigne rs. The Pe rsians fought br avel y, gnpphn g wu h thei r opponents. grabbing at their long spears and br eal: i ng l he m ofr. They ,,'e re . however, no real match for the heavily ann ed Spanans Gradually they fell and the Spartans Cl ambered over their bo dies to get at the rest. Mar do nlu s himse lf. rid ing a whi te horse. was i n t he thie l: of the bail ie urging on his men. He was surrou nded by t,OI>O pic ked men, the flower of the Persi an a rmy_ The.e m en fo ught valia ntly chargin g the Laccda emoni an. and many a Spa rta n reU before them But the nee of lhe battle was inexorab le. Gradually the Spartan hoplitt'S C\lt their ...·a)· th ro ugh the 1,000. Fina ll y .\{ardonius himself ns struc k from his horse . So long .. he ..as a li ve the Persian••tood Iheir ground. but when the ntIL"S spread through the n. nks lhal Mardonius ...·as dead and the majority of his bodyguard wi th him. the army began to falter and gtve gro und. Soon their line broke and they turned in Dight. rushing head long fo r their camp wit h Its wooden wall ' ac r"~s the river, \\:'h en they saw the Persians fl eeing lhe other A, lan s also look to thei r hee ls, Only the Ilocotians. perh aps because of th eir age-old e nmity with At hens . co nunued the fight They she....ed great bravery and all 300 of lheir Sacred Band fell ' n the ballic. but at 13S1 they too bro l:e an d ned across the r iver to Thebe-.. The Persian rerrear ....as covered by the cavalry ",,-ho l:ept b<'rween them and the adva nci ng Grec h . T h is is 1I re mar l:able rnb ure 10 thelr lr3i nlnjt. discipli ne and d evotio n. as In mOSI ane'ent hallies lhe ho r-;emen " 'ere the firsl to flee . Even so. many of lhe fleeing Persi ans were CUI do wn by the lig ht ar med J.. lo" who "'ou ld no w have ru sh ed OUI a hea d of th e adv and ng phalan x, The Spartans, heing the n ea re~ l. W~te the lirst to reac h the Persian camp but they found il imposs ible 10 appro ach the palisade, Later the Athenia ns am ved and tbe "ruggle grew holter. For a long lime tbe Persians fought them off but Il nally th e wa ll ",,'as breached. The Tegeans ...ere me first into Ihe sloc kade and lhey

we re lhe o nn who plun dered .\\.a rdo nius· tent. once ine Greeks ",,'ere tnro th e camp the Persians pUI up no great re-siSl:rnce and ,,-ere slaughlered by the "en geful Greclu. The numb<'r of the Persian dea d. lusl as the number of their army. is obViously grossly exaggerated, Herodotus says that onl y 3.000 of those who ned In the camp survived. He also talks of ao.ooo who mana ged 10 gel away fro m rhe bailie fi eld und er Artaba zus. Th e Gre ek In..e s wer e sm all T he Lacedaemoma ns lost 91. the Tcgeans t1 and the Athenians 5 ~ . The,e fil:Ure s are pro bably True as II Is in fl ight that most casualties are sustained Such was the result of the battle of Plataea. The Spartan, bad avenged me de ath of Leonidas and ,bo"'e d memsetves. individually. as perhaps the gre3teS! soldiers In history. Persia nevee 3gain alle mpted to invade Greece and ....as herself ove rcome by the Greel:s of Alexander lhe Gr....l 150 ~-cars later

.... fler lhe reUeat of the Persians. the .... I h e nja n~ had masslVeI)' strenglhened t h e defences of rhe f r clly and constructed long ....l lIs slretch lng from me d ly t o the har bo ur It Pi raeus. Provided lhal Ih"'" long WlIlb remained Intl ct and food could he broughl in by sea, it " 'as im possibl e for Sparta to overco me he r oppo nent From the beginnin g, ho...e ve r, Athe ns su ffere d fr om bad luc k. W hen th e Spartans laid siege '" the cit)'. rnod wa, hrou gh t In fro m Egypt . T h ese sam e ships. however, also bro ught the plague In the cro wded co nditions of lhe siege Arhens ""'as deva state d by the di sease The Irony ...as that, t>e<:IUse Athens was orcrating a blo<:J:ade apinsl Srana. the Spart ans lhemselves never contracted the disease , For three long years the plague raged and carr ied off about a qua ller of tb e po pulation. BOlh si des were exhausred and in 42 I IlC a peace trealy .... as signed whi ch le n .'lhens hard ly ..orse off tha n when .he had

am en s ag ai n ' 1 S p a r ta Arte r the defea l of the Persi ans bot h Athens and Sparla Were free 10 pu rsue their empire bu Udlng which lhe Persians had so rudely Interrup ted Al though both sla teS followed an anti-Persian policy and op enly sUPP" r!ed any ant i-Persian activities in the eastern Mediterr"nean, it was only a mat ter of um e before once more Ihey were at each nther's throats, For half a ce ntur)' a n inte rmi n ent peace erjsre d bet.....en the 1'100 Slates. In or der to fight lhe PerSia ns at se a the At ben i3ns formed a lea gue of the man ume .lates; Ihis ",,'IS l
started.

In 4re. sen lusting for empire, Alhens embark ed on the most d isastrou s blunde r in Gree l: history - she deci ded to invade Sicily. Thi s nnrruna rcd in the ' lege of Syracuse, It should ha ve been easily acc omplished but . owing 10 the In co mp e te nce and Ind ec rsto n o f th e ge ne r al. Ntc ras . it tu rn ed Into an un m iti gate d dis a st er T he emi re exp ed itio nary force was Captu red. th e generals were executed and the rest of the army sold into slivery, \l
T HE C IT Y S TAT ES 800- 360 BC T HE PH A L A N X

The Phalanx 8th c~mury IlC Ih~r~ was a ~ulion in th ~ Gree k mode o f ,,'arfar ~. Th~ 'Iree for all' fighting o f the heresc age was abandoned and a far m ore disciplined .y$lem introduced. This ,,·a. the pllal a nx -a n orde rl)' ba ttle li ne se. enJ ranb lk..p willi rh.. men in me second and 5uc-ceed ing ranb co,·.. ring tile men in the trent ran k. so tha i tile pllalana was divld..d into files of men. one be hind anot he r. The phalan x ""a, composed of many short files and nor of a few long ra nks, Eacll file ...-as a unit and when a man in rhO' front rank f.. lI. his place was taken by the man in rh~ rank behind -rile next man in his fil e. The ph alan a co uld be drawn up In open "'der with two pac~, pe r man or doubl ed up 10 fo rm clos e order , The ne w fcrmatlcn wa, stre ngth ened by th e intr oduct iOn o f the A rgiv~ sh ield probably ear ly in the 7th cen tury. This wa s a round bu ckler which d id away Wilb rne age -old c~ nrral handgrip and "I"' fastened to th e left forearm; it wa, hel d acr oss the c hest cov er in g th e warner fro m ch in to "'ncO's. In close order . whic h ""as us ua l in bal1le. rhO' shield wu .... ide enou gh to off~ r peorecnon to the unguarded side of the man OIl lhe len. The de~lopmenl of !he pllabl/u "'"lIS a gradual process and In lIS early 'IellTS must hl\'<' gone Ihro u&h man)' cha ng~$. The ne'" ...emee ....as ca lled a hopille or armoured man. On the Chigi vase from ue middle of the 71h crnmr)' he is slu)'lo'n slill carrying t....o Homeric Ih row a ble spean, but m e vase she..-s thai the lDdloonal armou r of helme~ cuit:l$$ and ~a;·ff. all made of bronze. had al~ad)' been adopted, Gra dually the weaponry and armour ~re I mpro~d. By the time of the Persian invasion th.. bronz~ cuirass had been replaced by a jmen one ...'tuch gave bene r p rot~c ll o n and was a lot cheap'r to pro.Juce. The !hTO\\'lIblt spears were replaced by a long thrusting spear and a short sword, Wl\lI these weapons lhe hopliles could k~~p a lighl formation Dunng

th ~

F..rl y d .. ve lo p me nt 11 it I m poS$jbl~ 10 trace the ear ly d ev~lopment of the phalan x. We know only lhat the s)'$tem ""as fully developed by the time of Ihe 71h centu ry Spanan ~I 1)T1lCut wllo describes a warrior' s d ut)' as standing shoulder 10 shoulder wilh hls co mrades and avo id i ng in dividual ICIS of tleroi,m " 'h ich v.-ou ld d isr upt the fo rmat io n. Ttle Sp
unn

was considera bly larg~r. sugg~$IS Ibat the Spartan phalanx. and probably rbose of th.. oth~r Greek states 100. had evomd !rom a $)"St~m based on fik:s or ei g hl men and th at al ecrn e ea rli er pe rIod. poss ibly arou nd 800 IIC. the p hala nx WIS made u p of 100- sl ro ng I«ltci, cadl &xhoo being composed or two p.t~ fek".ty.n ..-hich ""ere in turn di\ided into twO , ~" ... ", i" i . Each ell"","''- " p robably consisted of l 3 1I0pl ite,. a ve teran feaf-ta nk offlcef (""'''I"''S o r u ,gid .." ",) and a commanding o mcer In battle th e ell""'''';'' would usually be drawn up in three flies eacll of eig ht m~ n. with the rear-tan '" officer !Iand ing clear af the back to make sure that the rear ranks d id their job. The ' ~O "!"I" ,d•. like all the officers of the phalanx. fought al lhe trom of the rit:!t l· hand l1le of his unit, W h ~ n dra wn up eight d eep . 111 0' wh ole loch". wo uld consist or 12 fl ies. It waS co mma nde d by

(e,."...o,,,,,.).

R,g hl The '.rcl1.,;c IOCM.' , lhe hypolhehcal orill'r'I3.l oM of !'" Prla~n, lrom wtliCli alllhe O1M.s

0Y0i_ . I! wa. ""'00 ~ o! too. eooroo!i~" MC!1 O!""-":;; was composed 01 Iii.... ~Ies ot

_ <111men ono • . - .-..- loura(lO$l:

o ."",agos.

37

GR EEC E A XD M ,\CED ON IA

a locJwg commanded by a pt1tU/to"ln, si mi larl~' fighting al Ihe front of tbe righl·ltioond fik of his unit. So " e ha ,'e a loo-strong 1«Jws with its offiCU\ fightmg in lhe from rank and ils ~ar _rank oftk'ers standing proud allhe hack. Th is ,,,,,,Iated position of t he rea r- ran k ortcers is illustrated hI' XenOJ'ho n at Ihe Ii,,tion al baule of T hym brara. wh ere the light-a rmed troops arc placed he hind Ihe phala nx and the 'rear ran ker s' d ra"; n u p hcl ll nd Ihe m to kee p lhe m in o rder. T he new for m ation wu adllJ'ted by all t he cit y states and , alt h" ug h de talls va ried from Slate 10 n ate, t he basic o rganisat io n alwa)" rem ained rhe same. T he Alhenian a.-m y AI Alhens, which " 'as the largC"'1 of the city states, all Athenian cit ize ns be t ween l he agC'" of 17 and S9 "ere liable fOf mdtlat }, .en.;o: . Dur ing lhe Slh Cl:n IUT)' AlhenS was abk to field ahout 30.000 hopliu:s of who m nearly ha lf "'e~camp.aign sol dier.;. The remai nder, I ~e under t 9 and t he '·eter"ns. pe r formed garr iso n duties, These nopl iles were d rawn from t he ",'calthier classes as ea"h man had to supply his own eq uipment which o nly lhe well-off coul d alfo rd . Ho wever, a sol d ier wh",,, father had been killed in battle was armed oil pu blic expe nse. As far as can be see n, the At henians retained the basic 'archaic IlXhos' and gene rally fought eigfn dee p. The army am.isted of ten dh'isi"n. (I" Xe..), t:"; t"h commanded by a ,ari
governed bl' nve ma gistrales ~rphors) who ,,'ere c1ec.ud annually. Th<e kings muslorigmall}' have had poIilical power but. by l he 51h cenlul1' 1lC, the rphors "'ere the rrue J'O"-er In lbe Slate and were ans..-erable only 10 thei r sUCce!>SOfS. Ea<:h king had a bodyguard of 300 00(">hlC'" wno, in splle of Ihei r name, mppns. we~ infanl ry, nol cavalry_ Ongmally both kings went on cam pai gn but . shon ly be fo re Ihe l'er, ian wars . it was restricted to nne. lf our knnwlcd ge of t he At henian m ilita ry system i ~ sparse, the absolute rev erse is true n must hold good fo r lhe I:>e-ginni ng of the o:ntUr}' 100, Spa na on lhe battlefield, E"erylhing at SpaTIa was regu lated The Spanans lhemseh-e. weere kn own as S parl illte•. They formed the core of by l he Slate. All Spartans ..·cre sold iel'5. the army. T he Spartan arm y was reo All ot her profe..io ns were forbidden 10 inforced by levies from the suhiect Ihem . Sparta n land was di vided up into perioed . By t he be ginning "f lhe st h st ate -o wned farm, operated by helm , . cen tur y helots were al,o 8ervinl< wilh 1he Each Spart an wa, B,sillned one of Ihese arm y as lig ht -armed skir mishe rs. T he farms fro m whic'h he d rew his ' U" e nco mhi ned arm y of t he Sparuatcs and ance, whic h leh him l'n 't' 10 de vore his p.-rioeci is rel'crred to as Lacedaerno nian. " ho le life 10 milita ry prowess, The T he SpaTlans had a "ra nge l;'< ln.tit u. Spanan syouern was self_perpe tuati ng; tion. A lt houg h t he y were Ulm manded il was because they were ,,'arriors thai in bal tle hr' t..X) hereditary kings who lhey overcame and enola,'ed the helou. could he, and oflen "-ere, rerno'; ed if who greatly outnumbered them. and in the people did not like them, they were o rder to rnai mam Ihis "atus quo e';CIJo'

lri bes. Each 01 rnese la:..... ... ,." subd ivide d Into IlXhm, but we koo... of no imermediete division betw«n 1M I".n. and 1M 1""IsoJ, At Athens, as in all t he oemocranc st ain. t he general (' ''''/egos) was elected. At Al he n. len were chosen annuallyone fo r each tribe. In pract ice. usually "nIl' t hree \'..er nwu h t he army, in ...'hich case eit her o ne ...as made commanderin·ch ief or e"",h ~'Ommanded in rora non o n se para te day. , The officers ,""em to have served in t he front rank and eve n lhe gene ral, aft er giving his orders, l"" k u p hi . I""it io n, usually at the rig hl end ofthe pha lanx

THE CITY STAT ES 800- 360 Be T HE P HAL-\~ X

Spart~n

had to devote hIS lik to w ldiering 50 that he cou ld keep the h~fqlJ do...n. The t r a in i n g of a S p art a n 00 )' The ~tat e regulated e\'eI) 'lhmg In Ii£<,. Expectant modw:no had to ~orm srrenuces ex.,,-ci~ to ens ure their children V,-en: "rong: imperfect babies wer e pUI dow n. At the age of sen,n boys were taken from the ir mothers , Iheir hair was cut short and they wer e fo rmed into classes where t he}' all lived , ate and ,le pt toget her , So that all were gove rned h}, t he same d iscipline, T he Spana ns d id 1'1 01 entrust the edu,:ali"n 01 their children tn hired teachers ; t hey nominaled a matu re and experienced citizen to perform t his ta,k, Academi c ed uc3110 n was min im al. EmphaSIS was always o n d iscipline and exercise. Children fo r Ihe II\Q5t pan went barefoot and naked , T heir food was sim pk and SCanl lo encour~e t he m 10 sleal . .'\lloough t hey "''en: punished when caught , the punishmem was fO£ being caug ht, not for stealing. so l lu.t later a wld i.,,- mighl be able to end ure fam ine and be a good forager , "\ 1t he age of 12 the discipline become much harsher, It W
another citi ze n, T hi, IS illust rated by the young boy who was t hrashed by his farber, not because he had been fighll ng bUI bccau!oC he complained that Uk'l(her ~' had hit him , Bra"ery ...·a. considered the ultima te virtue and cowudic<: lhe greates t vic e. After a balt ic the dead were carried home on their shi eld. , On the o lher hand....'he n runni ng a....ay from a battlefield , the first Ih ing a hoplile discarded was his cum hc rsome shield, so a Spa rIan mother 101..1 he r son to t et urn from baul e either c'a rryi ng hi. shield o r o n it , A hoy reache d man hood in hi. t wenti et h )'ear, when he became lia ble for mi1i",r ~' service . T h,· fittest youl hs wer e laken imothc army , T hose who were reje cted were graded a. inferio rs ; these may ha ve formed a pool of re place menu , SInce the Spartan arrny ",'as o rganised bl age groups, t he young men continued to I;'-e and exera . e logelher ; even when married a Spartan man li,'ed and ale in t he barracks ",'it hout his "' Ife, This separation of men from their ....ives encouraged ho mosexua lity_

's la<en 110m I

The Spart an a rm )Xeno pho n , in hI, ConSlillui" .. oj tift LaaJ"~"''''''<1''', gi" e. a ,-cry full sccount of the " rgani.ation of the S part an army in hi. ow n time around rhe beginning of the ..tit cen tur y tIC, It is unf" rt u _ na le that an ac count given by T h ucydides when he i. de.cn bing t he fint bat tle of .\lam ine. is so me what difk rent. T h ucy d ides Ireety admits that he had great d ifficu lly in oblaining in formatio n aooll! the Spartan arm )' and may ha,'e tried to reconstruct t heir

or gani, ation fro m a mixture of conte mpora ry and earlie r infor mation, x enop hon '. acco unt i. ti r.t hand and mu, t hc ptel"ned, All men between the ages of 20 and 60 were liable for militar y ,erv ice, Spart an hoplites were ar meJ in Ihe , arne fas hiun •• the other G reet. , h ut were ea.ily recr>gnisable by l he ir uni form searlel doo ks, T hi. red duak became the symhoi of Spanan militarism ,

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CeM'" a ~ vaH t"""d It Chog. ," En"". The hg",e .t,,;.... I 'ocenwUC'l'Otl cI I "00' " hom Ib:>ul 600 BC be"'" en me """""Iogoca, '""~ 7l/'l'~

39

G RE EC E Al':D MACIinONI."t.

In Xcnophun's ..l a )' t he strenll: th uf the S panan locllOS was t 44, being ~'Um · posed of fOUT 36-strong trt;:"" ) may ll<)( ha ve been supernumeraries In t he Spanan arm y and the ",'hole rear URI< of the phalanx may have consisted of t hem . ~h ttW_ ;a ",'as subd ,,'i.x.J into three files. and then aga in into six half liles. Each tile and ha lt file had Us bes t man as leader and its second-best ma n as rear ranker. T bc c' ,....,,<1' were co upled into 'li bies' ( r ulw.'.\~$). esch wit h u s own co mm ande r ("""u """' n"). T,,'o fifties were Sl milatl y iOlned to fonn ;I. lodws- t he . mallesl ta~' ical unu of t he phalanx_The Iod",. waS command ed by a ItXh",g.... The w ho le SparTan armv was com pos ed of six division• . Each d i,' j,ion ( mor a) was ~'Om ma nded by a !,<,I-..nh and ccntamed fou r /<>elwl. I n phalanx all the orncers and file leaders " 'ould he in [he Ironr rank The "ar;ous olfi<.'Crs e"" rn<:/r<1/:0I - would fight at t he head of the right hand file of the unit l hal they com manded . Alla ch ed to eac h me"" wa, a un it of .:avalty- abo called a m<Jra. T h;, was probahl y aO"ul 60 . t ron ~, Th ese cavalry units only ca me ;ntO ""ing dur ing the Pclcponn esien war toward, the end "f the 51h ce nt ury . T he fi rsl mor" ennt ained a unit called t he /rippel, T hi, cnn';' ted of the 300

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T HE CITY S TA TE S Hoo- 360 Be 'rm: PHAL A N X

hcpluc s who were t he cream of t he

army, They were selected from t he men who were in Ihe prime of life . Ea~ h yea r Ihree men were ~ho,en by the epho",; Ihey we re ~alled hipp"gret"'. T heir jo b was 10 ,eket 100 men each 10 make u p lhe hippei,. T hese ml'n ser ved on lhe right wing of lhe army and made up the kings bod yguard. It is f'O"ih le t haI only those who had son s we re elig ible for lhis unit, tor the Spart ans looked down on any man who had nO! done his dUl y and produced Ihe neX I generation of hoplites, T his wo uld a~eount fM Herodotus' rem "r k at the battlcofThc rmopy lae about the S partan troops who had ""'S. Sp" r t a i n H er od o t u s' d "y It see ms lil< ely that the S pa rl an army wem lhrough IWO reo rga nisalio n", OHe at lhe time of Xe no phon at t he begi nning of t he 4lh cemur y,and one per h"p, 50 years ear lier . Pract ically nothing i, known oft he army be for e t hi, ea rl ier reorgan" at, on , Howeve r, fro m od d remarh about loch,,; and the " bsence of the word "lOra from H erodolUs' account , cou pled with t he con'tam tradilio n in the an cient so urces t hat the re were five fochm III t he Spa rt an ar my, it does not see m unreasonable to suggest that at the be ginning of t he 5t h cem ury the Sparran army m ay h. ve been organised in five supe r loeha<. II is quite possible t hat the suhdi visio n' of t he' e , uper h :hal were also ca lled foc/wi - t he w"n1 "m ply means a body of men and in Ill) way im plies a fixed num ber. A parallel may be quoted in the incliscriminate usc of th e wo rd taxis , whic h In Xe nup ho n' s t ime could mea n an y unit of more lhan one f,xh",. These su per loch o' were probably territoria l lev ies on t he five districts or "illage> that made up Spart a. Itl prehisloric ti me ' each village may have been ex pected to supply one loehos. Grad ually, as lhe villages ex panded , so lhese units grew bu t cont in ue d to be called JlJChoi. Each of t hese units was commanded by a I",hagos wh o wa, o bvi"us ly much more senior than hi, nam.' ,uggcsts. At Plataca ill 479 , e a~h of t he live lod w f{OI wou ld have com ma nded abou t ' ,<X>O men. T hi, cxplams why t he I",;h~xo.,· ,\momph arel us felt that h." could challenge lhe aut ho rit y of t he mmmander-in-ehld Pausanias because

under no rma l ~'ircum stances he would have b een pr ese nt ur Ihe cou nd l of war. N o dou bl lhese su pe r 10<:1",i were su bdivided III a sim ilar manner 10 lhe later an ny. !'t om t he 71h century o nward s the Sp artan popula tion was eo nstanll y in decline . Iktween th e 7l h and the be grruung of t he 5th cent ury t he army slrc nglh droppc'd from 9 ,<X>O to a.ceo. A hundre d years later it had shrunk to around 4,0Cl0, of whom onl y abom t ,0Cl0 were S pa rtia tes , so l hat manum ined helots and pawed were having to be drafted into the army 10 I<ee p it u p to st reng th, T his dev aswl ing de cl ine III t he po pulatio n of t he Sparta n state musl have be en t he reason fo r t he successive reor ganis atio ns. Rec r uits in Xe n o p h o n 's time Xenop hon insists that there was no need 10 lram a man in lhe usc of hi, weapo ns, as from childhood one k "rn, to lhrow up one's left arm in defen ce. and t hat striking with a ~ pear is al,o nator"L Th is " pro b"bl l' tr ue. T he strength of the phalanx was never based o n md ividu al prowe' s bUi on o pe rat ing wgether in a d iscip lined fash ion. Xenop hon obv iously believed t hat practic e in t he use of spe ar and ,hield wa, all t hat was neces,a ry and certa inly moc k b"ll leS 1001< place. II mU ~1 also be true t hat every S parl an boy from the ea rl iest age must have plave d at so ld iers and lc" rned his m ilitary craft t his way. Ncvcrt hctess, hcplites mu,t have hce n tramed m lhe b",i~ movements an d il has be en ,uggested lhat cer lam positio ns co mmonl y a ppear ing in an re pre>cnt the,e basic movements. T hese are sho .....n on p. 42 , I . When at case the hoplite stands with his ' pe ar bUll on the ground and his shield rest ing against his t high. H oplites sorne umes retained lhi, posit ion in lhe face of the enem y as a sign of co n~ lem pt. 2. When ealleel to atte ntion lhc spe ar is raised to Ihe right , boul der and lhe shIeld lifted to cove r the torso 3. F rom hne lhe hoplit.· c" n come 10 Ihe 'o n gu ard ' posi tion by br inging the spea r forward unt il his rillh t arm is stra lghl an d the spear i, parallel 10 t he g round at waIS t level. This was lhe posit ion for t he un de rhand thrusl -it

AI>o, e An "'Qu ,• .tely mooelled IOle 6th ·centu ry bro~,e . t. luotle ,how ,ng • Sp.rlan .rmed lor b81tle . nd swathe d in h i' mil.lary el"" • . Tne tran,, ",,;e c'e,t may be. , 'g n ot ran . Wadsworth Al hen.eum H8'ltord Con nect 'cut

,.

G REEC E A'SD MACEDOKIA

was In t his S!an~e that th.. hopl ite adva nced to batik. The u nderhand Ihrust co uld not be executed under nm mal cond itions in close array a, one would have to open up t he wall " f shields 10 IhruS! at ....,.i,t level. Alsothcre would be a risk of striking t he ma n n..xt in file with the pointed butt of the spear. ~. The norm,,1 striking pos il ladl)· t rained arm y by' t hc untidy way they pcrfotmed thi s dri lL

Training started by leaching t he new re~ cruus 10 march in single file fo llowing t he leader. A Spanan youngst er stan ing his b\lsic lrai ning wo uld ha'·e alread y been inured 10 the Spanan tradition and "" oold only tt:a'·e needed 10 be knocked

mrc ohare· ....ll orders were grven by wurd and then executed on a t rum pet sound . Xcnopho n gin .,; a colou rful de"c·riptio n of a l~xi<1rch Irying to train ne w re",ruits , obv io",l... not Spartans, to ma rch in single file. l Ie lined t hem "p behind t he loch<1KOSand l hen ga,·., them t h .. o rd n 10 ad,·a...."", al which .....ithout ....al1lng fo r 11M. tru mpet.lhe man be hind 11M. foclr.Jg,x $teppcd for ward and overloolt him. "'ith commendable palience. l he lol"i<1.~h ex plained to Ihe ra.... recruit Ihat 1M. meanl all of thc:m and nOI just him. He ordered t he yout h ba<:k into line and gave rhe o rder a!/:ain, This time they all overt ook Ihe {oc/r~r>s. Having trained t he recruits to march in line the y were t hen taught 00.... 10 de · ploy into ra nh of va rious lengl h. The ~O""'lra of. sal·, 36 men i' dra wn up in !inllk file. Thc~· are numbered o lf ; l he first man (momol olr ch) comma nded the ....hole tile, Ihe Ihin eenth comma nded n um bers 14 10 Z4, and the I......nt)··tiflh man com mande d numbers 26 1o J6. On Ihe o rder to form up Ihr cc abrel " . num be rs 1 10 ' z wou ld " and fast and n um hen IJ and 25 wou ld br ing u p their squads on the left - hand side to fo rm a <:olumn three abrea'l and IZ deep. On a second o rder t he rear ha lf of eac h squad "'",uld move u p ak>ng-sidc its front hal f 10 fo rm a block six "" ide and s, x deep. T he: files <:oUld be d,."....n up e;lher in

o pc n order ....ith t....o Pl'CCl be l ....een files o r c100e order wnb o ne pace between. Since t here arc no mar kers. this drill i5 only practical if the leader of each ,quad .... heels his unil to the left and paces OUI t he d iSl anc"" he ilI need to be trom the fi rst file and then he d s to the ri g hl and Je-.lds his men forwa rd umil he is le\el ....i l h l he rnotft(Jlarch. Bn ngmg up Ihe rear half of c-och file is al..., lhe ~.lsiest ....ay to form dose order from open order. W hen dealing wilh a ....hole lochM of fou r rnotftOlWl 11M. drill becomes considerably mo re com ple x. T he dial/:ram shows four eI1<mWliai already d raw n u p in ~"'I u m n three ahrea" form in!/: up inw a hlod 12 hy 12 . If this was done in open o rde r t hen the rear half of ea~·h tile coul d be bro ught u p 10 form a closeorder phalanx of six ranh each of 2~. T o reform in column rIM. phalanx did an ahou t ru m and t he: rear ranker

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T H E CI T Y STATES 800· 360 ec THE PHA LA:,\;X

(uurtJ,rIJs) of the laOl sq lUd, ..hich wo uld no... be al Ihe nght end, led off and th e

could have bee n disbanded except for ill officers, file leaders and ouraglJi and other units fol lowed in their correct lhe t So be-sl recruils drafted in to make up lhe numbers. The rest of tho: recruits order. Xenophon teUs Us how , in order 10 would join lho: ca'·all')'. The remai nder pTa<..'1itt t his, a '"nard! u....t to march of tM d isba nded momOlUJ could be used his recruit s to lho: II1C'SS in phalanx and 10 bri ~ t he ot her ~;m up to IIxn ha"e t ho:m lead off in single file slre ngt h. The f)C\\' t1I<>-s,i<1 wou ld serve ,,'ilh lhe ngh l-hand /ocJwgIJ' leading . on l he Iefl side of th e mora in t he least \l;'ben lho:y had fi nisho:d lheir mea1lho:y honourable poo.ilion. H aying become had 10 come OUI in reverse order "'-tlh pal1 of the main anny lhe new recruits the left-hand ow'<JgOs leading and form could no w ta ke part in large-'\'e r and d raw up level wu h the fi rst IIXMs. was about too a year , Allowi ng for The deployment of Ihe indi\'idual l«1wt losses either in bail ie or fro m natu ral would he as lhey had learned in basic ceuses. one mal' assume t hat about 50 training. T o fonn up in ope n order t1. veterans reached retirement each year ranks deep t he rear lodlOJ would have to and that about 200 replacements were ccunr off70 paces to the lefl. The w hole need ed . I n order 10 make room for t he ...."." ",'nuld ha,'e a front of 48 m en ne'" recruill one ~;IJ in taCh """<1 Cln'e.i nl a d ISt ance of 94 pa<.-es . They

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muot also learn to dep loy ftom col umn of march to face either left or right. The exercise "" as basically Ihe .....me u cept t hat each /oclws, includ ing t he first, wO'I.lld simpl y ha"e 10 ...'heel to rhe left or right, come to a hall and then deplo~' into phalanx. ~,' also had 10 Ieam 10 perform OUIflanking n" ",emeDls . These req uired lu rning the wings fo........d 10 engulf the flanks of the enemy. These ltIO\'ements are oflen memion<:d in ancie nt batl le. b UI present a 1m of problems as it would be im poo.si ble for a phalanx 10 ",heel. FOl1 unatel ~' Xenophon describes t he maooeuv re in hi s fictional bailie of T bymbrara. H ere t he manoe uvre is carried out on bot h ",jngs, t hough il was usually only perfor med on one. The army is dra wn up in phalanx , O n th e trum pet blast the two wings tu rn outwards into column and beg in to marc h away from t he main part of the arm y, At a given di stance they wheel round a marker and begin 10 ad\'ance to ward' the front in col um n. \,t'h en all the colum n has wheeled on both wings the whole arm,' begins to advance ""ith the IwO wings like horns projecting in fronl . 'IX'he n the flank ing columns dra ... Ie\'e! with th e enemy line they tu m i nwards and charge. S uch a manoeuvre could be '"Cry dangerous if lheenemy an licipaled the movement .

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GRE ECE Ar-:n .\1ACEDOSIA

Mobilisation When the army mob ilised t he rp!rors announced the year cla"es thaI were 10 be ~a l1~ d up, engineers and craftsmen as well as soldier•. Everyl hing wa' regulated; if t he}' were going on a cam paign rhar ....3$ expeclw 10 13$t more t han I S dars, each soldier had to t ake ...-il h him i uppl ies for 20 day• . II was forbidden to buy an ything from outside l radas be fore this time won up. Ea ch S pan an was accompa nied by a !r"W/ ...-ho Qlrried his bal(gage. A hoplite'. rations "'-o uld in cl ude food for hi. !reler. T h e basi~ dIet was barley groa ls , of which he wou ld need aixJul II I,l:allons to la, t t he t...-o of t hem 20 day s. This was supplemenled by cheat:, onions and sailed meal. ',X·hen staning OUI on campaign hopiii" wer e allwA'ed to u ke a . mall amounl of wine "'"ilh l hem. Thi. ",-a.lo accustom lhe stomach grad uall}' 10 t be changeO\"CT from wine 10 ...'ater so l hat t hey ...·oul d not become: ill. Ration s were carr ied in a hav enack whi ch pl"O\'erbiall y stank of onions. Spart an fond was frugal_ and not just on campa ign; il was t he surne i n the mesSt:. at Sparu, Every body ale t he same food. Therewere Iluld not he neede d on t he march. These were acqu ired when rhe army reached a place where t hey cou ld for age 1>' buy food. The ""ldier also had 10 carry his bedding, .... hich ...·as kept to a mmimu m and somenmes ' trapped 10 hi••hield, and plem~' of ck>l hing. The soldias did DOl CI."1' lent. hUI improvised. buildi ng

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T he Phalanx in the Field

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I.", Jochos The IncmOl''''' de plov In the lime ",an ne r" , hOwo 00 tire p,evio u. P
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ervocece or huts whcre~·er they camped . T he tpltors also re gulaled the number of .... sgons and rack animal. thai ...-ere needed for lbe bagpge t rai n, .... hich had i" own com mandlOg offictt . Each wagon carried a ,ho"el and a matlock. and eac h baggage animal an u e and a sickle . The tool! were for the U !¢ otr he pioneers who were made up of reie<.·g frum the lillht infantry . Thei r ioh ""as to dear t he way for t h~ wagons. Amon gst t he equipm enl ta ken with l he arm y were medic al su ppl ies, spare harness st ra p for the men ', equipment, til" for . harpening ... eapons., '~ha\"C'. for lnm ming . pea r .haf" and spa re wood for making running repairs 10 {he ",'agon s plu. the neo:S5a '1' CIIrf'Cnler's

1001,. T be orficers were he ld respo n,U ti for l hei r men's equipme nt . Amonpl l he craftsmen "" 00 accompanied (he e:
carpenrers and leather ....o rkas 0( m iliIUy age. ,~ hhough non-eomhatanlS, l he}' were a regular part of the army. On the ma r ch

Before me Spartan army set out t he kin!! offered s"'critic'e at home , If l he omens were fa~""urah1e a fire bearer t<;>ok t he tire from t he all ar and carried it ahead of l he ar m,· um illhey reached lhe bo rder, ot Lacoma. Here lhe king .a.:rificed again and . if t be omens were "ill fa" ourab le, look lhe fire from Ihis allar and led the annyon . This fire ....-as never

T HE C IT Y STAT ES 800-360 Be T HE PHALA;\iX (]';' THE HELD

quenched . All t he sa~ri f,~i" l victims (hat were likely (0 be needed on t h£ nrn paig n were l ak£n with t he 3rmy. O n (he march the Sparta n 3rm y wa, led by (he cavalry and thc , ciriw c wh o fann ed out in a screen ah~ad of t ne col umn . T he ' C"iIUCwere ha rdy mount3incers fro m the nor thcrn frontier of 1.3ceda~mon, T hey wer~ lig ht armed and us~d for scou ting anJ outpost d uties. Of cour"~ Xcnoph on i" h~r~ d£,cr ibing the praCli £~ of his own day ; at t he time of t h~ PnS13n war s the ,out h~tn G reeks did not ha ve ca\'alry and t hi. d ut y wou ld ha ve be~n per fo rm ed "olely hy t he >eiriuu . Behind t h,'

Be low A va ,e pa ,n1 ing s ho w, ng a do nkey w i1l1 a wood_ lramOd pa c , From Atnen" c .475 Be M"s.um of F,ne Arls, Bos to n

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Be low Two hop l, t"" amJ a n a rch er pre p."n g lo go on com po gn. O ne hop llte ,s pu ttin g hi" Arg l>" , hleld ontO it' leat her COWL The , eene comes ir om " 5th -ce ntu ry "'. ," fo und at the G ree k colo ny of Paeslum >0 sout he rn Ita ly Paestum Museum

Above A S~ar,",) ho pllt. (c . 500 Bel w e. ring a Co" ntn ian hoimet, w h>ch ho pu lls ~ow n W UNO' h is face oofore goi ng ,n\o ba tt le. I,nen c""a,; and "nee ~over;ng greaves Ho is .r~ with a lo ng ,pear and a ,word w hi~h wou lO on ly no rma lly be u , od if ,,,e spea, i. ~ ro ken In 'M rig idly reg ulateoldio'S Allhough lhe l' w e re a rmeg in the same way a, ot he r Glooh Spanan M pl,te, WO re a ~ iS1 i ~ct >"" ,carlel cloa k w hic h be<;a mo 1he very svmoot of Soa r1an m iliw"m

GREECE AND MACEDONIA

Be lo w An .''''1' ma' ch
Below Whe n ad "anc ,ng t hroug h a d oh l. ,he lochoi redu ce the ir w ,dt h '0 fo ur. two Qr e""n . ingle file ac cord ing to t he oa"owness 01 th<1 ,oad '0 that tnev c a n ,eta in tne ir forma1l<>n

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cavalry screen came the baggag e tram followed by t he infa ntry, who hu rried on any stragglers from the baggage tram . The army only ma rched a short dis tance the firs t day so that if anything had been forgotten it cou ld be retrieved . '\-brching ordcrs were given by ho rn and not t rum pet. T hese orders were ba, icalJy str ike camp, move oft" and rest. Howe'·er , t he order to get up in the morning was give n on the trumpet. If the army had to pas, t hrough a defile the illfant ry d ivided into tw o co lumns and marched on either side of the bagg age train to protect it fro m attack , As far a, possible each mora accompanied il3 own baggage ' 0 t hat t he soldiers wo uld work willingly to clear t he way an d wou ld have eve ryth ing with t he m when the tim e came to halt . If the co lumn wa, atta"ked when pa"i ng t hrough the de file, each locho s would wheel to face t he threat If t he ground was broken they could cont inue to ~ dva nce in t hat form ation with gaps between the lach", or , in open country, t hey could deploy into phalan x. W'he n C yr us the You nger's expedition into Asia came to a ,udden end, Xenophon and t he 10,000 G reek mercena rie' serv ing wit h him had to make a tactical retreat . T his withd raw al, t ,300 km up the T igris and over t he moun tains of Ar menia to t he Black Sea, is " lie of the great military adventu res, II was described by Xeno phon in detail in his A>labasis,

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I n orde r to protect themselves on all sides thc y formed up in an ope n 'quare. This format ion is oftell mentioned in t he anc ient sources . Nlcias used it durinjl his fatefu l ret rea t from Syracuse, but only X enophon has taken the t rouble to describe it. The arm y is divide d into four parts : two div isions marching in colum n form the flanks and the other two parts marching in phala nx form t he front and rear of t he squa re, All t he light armed, t he baggage and non-combatants are in the centre , Each iodw, is d rawn up so that it can march either ill file whe re the road is narrow or severa l abreast in open count ry. T his shows the praclical use of drill. This exerci,e allowed whole lochoi to fall bac k when necessary so that t he 'Quare cou ld contract or c"pand .

Above An "'m y odva nc.ng th roug h a dofj l~ vnde r no, mal cond,tion,. The ba ggage 1
T H E C I T Y ST ATES 8oo~360 nc " 'H E PHALA:"\ X I N TH E FIELD

On erh.'OUnlermg lhe enem y, the army "'-ould puch camp_ The G .......1<s "ere 1lC'\~ as c"mows as tho: Romano of the ,'alue of a fortified cam p. Xenop oon g attslha tlhe Spartan cam p ",'as round. B~' this o ne musl assume that the unilS oft he army fo rme d a circular pe ri me ier and tha t t he baggage [rJl in anJ noncombaunts we re In t he midd le. It i. quite cle ar Ihal il ",as not foruficd c"en with a d itch . Oflen t he camp was adapt ed to the lopograph y and t herer" re Xenophon's statement sho uld not be taken too literally. l>ur in\l: the da)' cavalry uut pos, s were se t u p on ,-,,-un · manding hills, At mghl Ihese o utpost s ,,'ere taken o,'er by t he uiri l"" . ~o dou bt befo re Ihe int rod uction of ca.-alry l he~' performed t his duty in the davum e 100, Thc reason t ha t ca" alr)' are used is becaU,"" 1M,' Can bring informalMm more quid t.ly. Ol he r ""0111' posts were also "'I up at nighl command ing rhe a pproaches to lhe camp, The o nly detailed aeL'OU nt l ha l ""c "",'Cof a n arm~' on the mar"h is Xcnophon'. rel reat of the 10.000. In Ihis account , in which the ar my is ba sicall y' Spart an, in spil e of Ihe consr am t hreat of an ene my altack, no artern pt waS made to fort ify a cam p, T he)' relied o n somes to kee p the enemy al hay . h was 01'1 11.' when a lo ng-ter m occu pat ion was 'ntended Ihal a di tch and palisad e were c<>n' lru'-'1 ed . II i. amusing 10 note Ihat Ihe S parlans feared a sla"e re"o lt so much Ihal il " 'as conside re d more imporl ant 10 guald t he armS Ihan t he I"'rimeter of the cam p. T he cam p had nO sanila!1' arrangemenls and il ,,'as ms isted o nl}' l ha l ~ldiers relieve Ihemselves at a suffK:iem distance SO "" not 10 o!fend l he ir comrades , Ea.:h mora enca mped ~ a unil with sl ri<..'1 boundanes. Befo re breal:fas l aod su ppe r eac h day there ",as a compulso t y e"er~ise session, Soldtees were forbidden to take their exercise be )'ond lhe bo undaries of Iheir ",,,t.. . T he I:.i n~ ' s tent was prohahly se l up in the cent re of the camp or "n so me commanding eminence. Around it were grouped h,s slaII officers and those who were n.,.;essary fo r him 10 pe rfor m his military dut ies. T hey were known as 'those aboul t he lent ' . They md uded the poImw' chs, d iviners, d octo rs , an d three Span iales "'ho:;.c job il was 10 wail

u pon Ihe I:: in~ , T he king's bodyguard , lhe 3OO ltip~is, m us l also have bttn bi l. Ieled fairly elose (Q him, T he.c were also 1\.-0 pJl llni who could be sent to Delphi 10 cons ult t he o racle Inc:t<: , lhe lIute players who were required " 'hen the king sa.::ri ticed, and rhe herald s whose iob was 10 com''')' the gene l"llls' o rde rs d own the cha in of comm and when co ntact could 1'101 be pe nonal , fo r example aft er haltle had bee n joincJ . They were also used to convey rnessa ges h<:tween warring st ale, . As battles were oflen fo ught like duels , heralds wo uld somet imes he ,e nt 10 arra oge the ti me and pla~'C fur a batt le, Each morning the king offered sac rifice in Ihe presence of t he poleml1 rdu , Ihe l""hugOt , Ihe ~nu*omt:rS, t he com mandcrs of foreig n cont ingents and t he officers of rhe baggage Irain, AfteI this he ga,'e his o rders for t he da y, ~'hen ban te " cas immment lhe hophtes pol" bed their shields, prep.arcd tnc:ir ,,',,"arons and combed lheir long ha ir , which HerooJotu. sa)'S the SpanallS always did whe n Ihey we re going to pu t the ir lices at risk. The battl e T he follo wing mo rning t he king and all the Spartiatcs pla"'ed garlands "n their he ads and the kin!!: sacr ifi ,,-ed a nannygoal in sight "f lhe encmy whilst all lhc f1autl " s played . T he di" mcrs, withou t "'hom no G reek general wo uld go 10 wa r , "~Ildd read t he om ens and ad"i se the kiog whet he r he sho uld aHad , o r not. X o pio U>- general would d ream of fighting iflhe omens were u nfavourable. AI Plal;>ea the S panan general Pausanias refu-cd 10 tight c"en [hough l he PersiaO$ were attacking hi s men, anJ Xenophon free ly admits tha i he would not even move his men "" bile t he o me ns ""ere unfaco ura ble, e,'en though lhey were faci ng srarvanon. Of counoe oflen lhe omen. were fals ified 10 suit the wishes of t he genc ral. If he then at tacked and ,, 'on, t he diviners wo uld ha ve 10 say the umens were favou rable , if he IOSI, t hen of c" urse his impiety had ~a lled down t he ve ngea nce of the gods. If the "mens ",~re de clared \U be favoura ble, the S pa IlLates would lake breakfast wu h the garlaods sl ill o n t heir heads and Ihen lake u p I heir plaL'es in t he pha lanx , sti ll garl anded, ""hat"" er " rders Ihere we' e fo r t he

bailie wo uld ha"c bee n decided in Ihe war ooun~il by t he king and l he pol~ MareN . At t he time of t he Persian wars t his counci l probably included the fj" e ItXJwgoo, which is himed al b~· lhe action of the ItXhugos Amompha rel us who refuse d 10 o bey the o rder to retreat al the ha tlle of Plataca . li is argument with Pausanias impli es that he ,,'as nol COnsulted and Ihat he sh" uld have been, T he kin!!: would give rhc final orders 10 t he pale"'''''hl and t hey would pass Ihem o n 10 the ir !odwX"i, T he IlXh" f("j woul d in turn pa" them o n 10 , heir pc71leko"ur" and through Ihem to t he e'''''''oll1'ices 10 Ihe king's as he sung Il'" pa ean. As they approached the enemy IM,- Slopped sing ing and lhe officers calledOUl lO the fronl and second ranks, shou ti ng 'Come on friends, br ave men' , encouraging Ihem 10follow Iherr leaders in to banI.,. "Iltose in the rear ranb re. ponded to rheir officers, encouraging Ihem to lead o n boldl y. As t hey closed ,,'il h Ihe enemy the trumpet sounded again and the hoplileS raised t heir spears 10 t he all ack posirio n all'we Ihell l ighl shoulders . T he pha lanx ,,'oul d oo w usu ally hrea k into a run and a!!:ain t he comm.mder woul d call down Ihe ranks : ' \'('ho ....ill fo llo w' Who is a brave man' W ho will he Ihe first to st rike do.... n his man ?' T he sol d iers hearing Ihis repe aled il like lhe walchwo rd as t hey d osed " 'uh t he enem y : 'W ho "'ill fo lio",' ? ~'ho is a bra" e man ;"

GR E ECE AN D MACEDO NIA

Then the t wo phalanxes me t w ilh a gT<:at cra~ h a<; shid d hit shield. T he rea r ran h c rm...Jed fOlWard , eac h pressing agai.....1 rbe man in front and su iln d a nd subse q uent ra n h , a nd nol iU. l l he front ran k, joined in the fi!/:hlinll is c...'nl irrn" d by the rem ar k of Cyr us al Xe llophon ' s i magina r~' baltic of Th yrnbrara a bout Ihe phala n x heing 10 0 dee p for t he me n 10 reach t h e e nemy with Ih ei r wea pon s, As lo ng u the p halanx retamed ir. orde r casualties wo uld be fe w. b ut if it b roke and lhe hoplites turned and Ik d . Ihrowing a way t hei r shields. the n t he slaughler S1an<:<.l , Usually the Spanans did nol pu rsue a dduted encm~·. W hen the king decided t hat " icrory had been w-un , he gave the oecer a nd Ih e trumpelen sounded the withdra wal. T hey would l hen collect their dead . The los· ing sid e would bave to send a herald to negotia le a truce in order 10 recc.... a their dead ; t his became the fonnal admission of d deal . After l he victor y a lrophy' made up of caplu red arms a nd armou r d isplayed in the fmm of a man o n a tree trunk mig hl be set up . After many ,~"ones a pcrrnanc nt victor y mon u ment was set up . Cert ain choice piece. of aTmoill were inscn bed and dedicated in the shrines al Olym pia o r D clp hi . By Alexander', ti me, captured sh ield, beca me Ih.· ccs lo rnary dedi cation. M.ere e n ll r i e~

Greece wa' a poor country and from the car he.1 times hopliles offer ed their '''1,,·i~..,s for pa y, The earl iest accounts of G ree k soldiers .er\'ing as mercenaries comes "rom E!/:y pt in t he 7th-6l h centuries. They are ro u nd also se rv mg as bodygua rds to the earl y' G reel< tyTanl'

dunn!/: the same )Xriod. With the n"" o f I' e n l. ma ny' Grech fo und sc r\' ic<: .,.-'il h Pe rsian go'.e roon, first as bodyguards and Ialer as shock troops . The e m ploy me nt o f hired soldien with m Gre«e only really bo.gan d u n ng fhe:: war bl:tw~n Spana and Athens. D urin!/: Ihis confl ict boIh sides e m plo y<"d mercenaries. Af the end of Ihis long wa r , many' wldien ",110 had lpoon "'-'as o ne o f t he tO,OOO suc h men ,,'110 accompanied Cyrus t he Younger ;n his all em p t to USUTp the Per sian throne. T he hiri ng o r merce na ry t roops both inside a nd o u tside of Greece hcea me common d u ring this pCTiod , \XI he n Alexander in w d ed Pe,,;;a he was opposed at all Ih ret· o r his great balt les b y G ree k mercena ry infa m ry, Auxili a r y rroop s The phalanx , which was orig inall y seen as the ult im a te a nd only weapo n, gradu ally hega n 10 le veal its weaknesses , It was in finitely su)Xriv! t o wha r had gone before it, a nd fo r rhi. reason it was adop led by all the Greek s tates. Ho,,'· eve r , il could not be used ove r rough ground o r for hill figh ling and was use les s aglln'l ea" alry OT light_armed skirmisbers using gueri lla tacti cs. Al he ns hegan employing Scyth ian and C Ie1an archers in rhe 6r h cCt!lury, but it ,,'a. o nl)' t he imp'KI o f lhe Penian "'-'ars that f~d tile Greel< Slares to ~"(l(l.ider scr;'lU!tj a nd ahout the same number of ot her lightarm<:<.l troops includ ing a rchers a t Pia· taea . lhey had little o r 110 dfe~1 o n the P ersia n ca,-alry who seemed 10 be ahl e to Op<"rale at will, c h;rrging Ihe pha lan x and CU ll ing the G ree l< sup ply lines. It see m. incred ihle lhat in no battle o f the Persia n war is there memion of e,'e n a single Gre...k horse man. Th e Greeks ca n hu dl y have been unaware of' the effect t hat the Pe rs ia n cavalry mUSI have on t hem, Pe rha ps they were r clyinlt o n T hessall' and Boeotia to p rovide conl ingents o f hm.emen 10 keep the Pe rsian ca valry h usy. When these a reas fell 10 the P er sian s t he southe rn sl ales d id no t try 10 co mpensate fOT thi • . W he n they won 10spite of it. t he y' prob-

ably U-lO\'inced themselves tha.llhey d id no l need ca\"Blr,·. ea" alry a nd lighl infanny only really Clme into use in tm Pdoponnesian war in t he sec<.lnd ha lf of l he Slh crn ru ry. Illis ca\"Blry was lig ht armed a nd was neH:r used 10 shocl< ac1ion Xe nophon. 10 his J:w;x.k o n the an o f horsemanship, ad"'>ealC'J t he usee ..I' iavelins by rhe cavalry rarhe. lhan t be tradil ional ' I""'T. T he lig ht _armed soldier pa. u .u/fmu was the p<"ltaSl. H e ,,'a5 named afl« his wicker shie ld (ptItQ); accOTding to ....n . to lk it was rimless a nd C(wered ","-;t h ,,,,at o r shee p skin. ArislOIIe ",ems to im ply that it was TOund . but in art it is cresce nt .ha ped . It appea rs in S<;yt hian art and is clear ly the prime" al shield o f easle rn cent ral Eu rope, The pdt" is hd nll carried by t he figure. o n the la te M l'Cl'naea n '\l:'arrio r Vase . The pdl" i, s<>mel ime s shown with a sin!/:le ha n d~ Ilrip a nd sOnlet imes with the double h" plite Iyp" gTip; this lalle r i. pm bably an istic licence. Such a g rip wou ld be a p"sil;ve disadva ntage to a skirm ishe r ","'h" had no neig hbour to Pl'Ole<:l . The pd/<J al<.. had a strap for carr ying. Xenopho n gi ves a very amusing dcscnpnon nf peltas," clim bing ove r fe nces with their .hields on l beir backs gelllOg caughl up o n the pali ng and ha nging by t heir shIeld straps. The peltasl WaS of T h raci a n origi n and " 'o re l he trad ilional COSIU m<: o r his count ry_patl erned doak., highboouand Phrygian ca p. This Wa S a fox-oki n cap wit h ea r ftaps. He '"-or-.: no armour and relied on his speed 10 gel him out of Imuble . H i. '...." ap<.>n was the )a,'el in. H i. tacl ic was to run in. Ihm'" the ia,,,,lin5 a nd then ru n a"'a r allain bef" , e the ene my cou ld com e to !/:ri ps Wllh him . The Spartans tried 10 dea l " 'ith pcl t asts by oTde n ng t heir you ngest age grou ps t o g ive c hase . For lo nger-range warfare arche rs and 51inllers were employed , Archers ",e re mainly Scythians a nd C retans , 1J.,t h used comp"s ite bows mad e of wond. horn , hone a nd sinew. The construeli"n of t his type of how IS sho wn o n p. SO . T he C reta n bo w was 'l'g r)1.ent "ha l'cd a nd t he Sq lhian dnu hly co"ve x. S,:yth i,1ll hows had a range o f some whal over Isom. Shnger< we re much used from the Sth cent ury o n wards . The men o f Rhodes We re the Mt ; t he y could easi ly OUI_ range the bow . TheiT maximu m ra nee

T H E CITY STAT ES 800-360 Be

THE PHALAN X I N T HE F IELD

was probably in excess of 350m. Sli ng , n.0I could citn.er be of stone , clay or lead - rn.e last was probably the most effective. T housands of lead sling shot have been fou nd, includi ng tn.e moulds In wh ich they were cas t. L ead shot generally vary in weight between 20 and 50g, though rn.ere are iso lated examples both ahove an d belo w these weights , The maximum weight in use in the Near Easr was 18Sg. If D iodo rus is to be beli.-'ed, the fam o us Balea ri~ slingers used ston e~ weigh ing o ne m",,, (c. ascc. As Korfma nn pointed out in his article o n the sling, such a stone wo uld be about 6. 3cm in diameter -only slightlysma ller than a tennis ball, The lead shot, whi ch arc plum shaped, could cause terrible wounds , Xe no pho n describes how t hey elller the body and the flesh closes ove r them. L ight-armed forces had always be en treated as infer io r troops used only fo r skirm i~hing. T heir main purpose was to protect the all-im portant pha lanx from enemy cavalry and skirmi shers , T hey muaJly foug ht on the wings, hut someti m e ~ light infantr y fo ught fro m behind me phalanx . From the latte r position [hey threw m;ss iles over the heads of the hoplites. T his was o nly really effective on sloping g ro und fro m which t hey could see the enem y, In the fict ional baltle of Thymbrara, Cy rus lined up his peha m behind t he phalanx and t he archers behind t hem. H e t hen dre w u p his ""rago' behind tbem all to keep t hem in order. T hese lighr-armed specialis t troops were ma inly imported mercenar ies. States normally produced their own cavalry thoug h t his was often supplemented by employing Thessahans , Sparta [rained helots as light -armed troops and Athens tried to form peltasr units from her poorer classes. Mercem ary skir mishers were genera lly renowned for their unru ly behaviour , but when given tbe ri ght d iscipli ne and tr aining could produce remarkable results. In 390 ec a young i\theni an general, Iph icrates, with a highly trai ned and disciplined gmu p of Thracian pcltasts , defeated a S parta n "'<>ra, killing nearl y half their number This feat completel y changed lhe Greek attitude to peltasts and ensured Iphicratcs a place in military h i ~tory . In 349 At hens ev en sent an army agains t Fhi lip of ll--iacedon that

a

('

£- "I /~ I

~ VI 1~"'

was composed entirely nf pe ltasts accom panied by a small bo d y of cavalry .

Th e Th eba n rectt c Xenophon d ied about 354 ec, It is a tragedy for the srudy of tbe deveJopmenr of Greek warfare that he nevcr thought it worthwhile 10 describe Theban lactics, nor the changes that too k place under E parninonda s. He tries to

A bov e 1 r hr" ,.n. , nown on G ree k vase, • PIl lt• • ! (le ft ) ",meO w l1 h IVVo i. volin< and (right ) an Amazon d re ss ed as . PIl l'ast Wit h two jaW'lin, a nd a pella 2 _4 Va rious ty pes 01 'Phryg ian' cap ;Mw n in G'e€k art NO. 2. w h,ch c o m.s fro m th e temple Qt Apha i. on Ae9,na . sh ow, the ear tla ps t iea ba c" beh ,nd the he .a 5 A te ea sl,ng sho' w ith tM inSCf
That 6 A rec onw uet ion of a Th'aClan pelta't

GRE EC E AND

MACEDO~IA

show wh y the S partans lost the batt le of L cuct ra but never ex plain- wh y the T hcbans won. I t cannot be doubted rhat t he T heha ns had a great influence o n t he developme nt of Maccdcnian war fare, but , because oflhe lack of evi dence, it '" impossible to say exact ly wha t. We can only relate wh at is k no wn and t ry to draw a few conclusions , T he main factor on which all the ancient sources are agreed is that the The ba ns tradit io nally d rew up their pha lanx with greater de pth t han the other G reeks. A t O eli um , for exam ple, in 424 Be t he Athenians were drawn up in eig ht ranks, but the Thcbans WCtC 25 deep . At t he baltic of Leuctr a whe re they defea ted t he Sparrans, t hey were 50 dee p. T hi, 25 150 formation was aImosr ce rt ainly simply using t he ""omolIa, or pmtekoslyes in sing le file . T he T hcban army had an elite corps t of 300 picked warriors called the Sacred Hand . T hey are first men tioned by name 1 Gree k View of . SCYI~i.n . 'Ch"r f,om. plare at Detiurn in 424 BC bu t may be ident iin tho B, il iSh M",eum, fied wit h the 300 first and best of t he 2 A vase pain rong f' o m Bolog na ' how;ng • T hcba" s who died at PJatae a. T he no plit" sl r i ng in~ • Scy t ~i a n oo w Sacr ed Band a ppear to ha"e or iginated 3 and 4 A Creta n oow ano . " ow trQm a Gree k in t he heroic age . They were su pposedl y vase in the Lo uvre ma de u p of 1 So cha rioteers and t heir !i A recon"'"ct io~ of. Scyth l.n . rcher d rivcrs. In cl assical times t hey fo ug ht 6 The Scy'n,a ~ , ;nfIriai, ea ch of 25 men as c omple, o ~" r. l i o n . t heir nu mber suggests. They were as ded icated as the Spartans and a match fo r them , I n 3l!2 FlC the Spa rtans had treachero usl y seized the Cadmcia, the cit adel of Thebes, and put a gar rison into it , T his act brought about t he dm" nfall of Spa na, fr gene rated a surge of patriotic spirit at T hebes . In 379 t he Spattan garrison was throw n ou t and Sparta entered he r last great war. In the ne xt few yean t he Theban arm y, main ly unde r the influence of Epa m inondas , was convcrted into a first -class, d isciplined fighri ng machi ne . Epaminondas must be included amongst tbe grear ta,:tic ians. For four ccnturie, t he phalanx had dem inatcd G reek tactics . All innovations had aimed at prot ect ing the phalanx so t har the batt le could he decided in t he cent re . As long as rhis stare of affairs existcd Sparta must Will. Epam ino nda, pe rceived a 1 A sma ll \lOld rood" 101. bow . nd a"o"," C"'" (goryf",) 1
so

s

\J

TH E CITY ST..\ T E S 800-360 Be ARMOL'R AND WEAPONS

aJ"lIy s had ils crack troops 00 the rill:hI and from Ihls point th.. ~I of t he: army dr..... il. encoufllg,"",,"ot_ .-\s a ~ul l 0.llus , the: strong righl " 'ing al"'a}.,; o pposed t he weak left so lhal , du ri ng l he: bail Ie, In.. phalanxes ten
ou l of lhe rim on ..il he r side neXI to Ihe band gri p. This shidd hn been , ..nerall)' ~-ondemnnJ by ...,hul ars and dismissed as an am" i<: coevemion for a he:roic shie ld. BUI is Ihis .'ie", reall)' just ined? A few )'ears ago , ,,'lxn expenmeming .... it h . hid d t)·pes Irying to find o Ul hmo' a pikeman .... ould ha.·.. to hold his shield, I tried to wield a pike whilst holding an Argive shid d, Ikcause of the broad wedge-shaped l im and lhe angk of toughl y 4~ o ocl ween the shie ld and t he pike , it was imro"ib1e 10 g rip the pike with the left hand . T his could only he achieved by cutung a nUlch out of l he shield rim , which i. execnv wh at is shown in the paintings. or" Bo..or.ian shields.

A r mou r a n d weapons T he ..hidd T .... o rtl;l;n I ~'pes of shield we re in use in G reece during lhe ..a dy part: of the: Slh ccnnrry: an oval t ype ...-it h a scal lop CUI OU I from either si de, which is general!)' kno wn as t he Dipylon type afler a.:emelerr al At hens wh..r.. a large num he r of represental inm of it ....ere found, and a round type wilh a central han dgrir. T he D ipylon shidd is almo.t certainly a d irect descendant of t he Mvccnacan ti.gu re-eig hl ly pe whic'h di.ap p':ars from art soon aft er 1400 nc. T he cia,. model illu st rated (o n Ihe left) is of jusl such a shi eld and com es fro m lhe Diryl"n cemele ry , II ha s been argu.,d lhat Ihis later form does DOt r e ,"nen' a real shield a' all bUI is a he roic form used o nl y in art . TI>rrc: are IWO main o h jn:tio ns to Ihis : Iin l, priminve an lSta al"'l1)"$ drew hisl,,, ical

charael .... in contem porary coslume. and "'"COIld. the artist .... ho made t his clay shield knew exao..-rly ,,'hat he ""IS making fo r il o tl\"lously represent s a ",ick... shie ld wn h stret chers o n Ihe m.ide. II is inconc-ei.·able t hat such accuracy of t errnenl'lIion could have sUlvi'-ed for over 600 years wilhom degenerating into a sy mbolic fo rm with. for example, a small er""s o n the back. T his has have bee n copied from an actual ,hield . T he fact that i" shape d iffels q ui le cons ide lah ly ftom lhe M y_ Ce naean type reinforces ils authell1icity and suggests a pattern of evolu tio n . The earlier shields m usl OO" e had a reinforced rim 10 retain their figure---eighl . ha pe. bUI in th e D ipvlc n tn'" the stretchers OO" e dictated Ihe shape. There would be a natural lendenC}' for such a shield to a.. um.. Ihis sha pe: "" the ends of l he stre-tchen. ...'hich had 10 be fitted tight!)·. t hrust t hei l ....ay oul wa rds form fOU l poinu o n t he ri m . The conseq uent strain o n the ' pinching' at th~ .:elll re woul d for~.... it into a genll e curv.. producing l he two umi -ci rcu lar indent_ alion~ o n either side:. The implicatio n of t his argument IS Ihal ll( At hens, which survived the da rk -age invasion, and had an unbro ken connection wilh th e .\1.1'_ cenaean age, the fi llure-e ig ht Iype shield survived t hrou ghout t he later .\\ vcenaean era and Ihc dark aile that succeeded II.

'0

'0

8 elo,.. 1 '" wd pa ont'ng at e l I.A " ...,,,,, Tn.. ....,.",. wu dsortv coPoHI hom ~ _....

-

5'

G R EE C E AND

MA CEDO~IA

The round, ce nt ral-handgrip type of shield possibly originated in ce ntral Europe lil:e so mU<.: h of t he late My_ ceneean weapo nry. Ce nainly its presence in Italy as well wou ld indicate this. It had fi m made its appearance in Gn:e<:<: in late .\tycenaean t ime!l but it 1'.'&$ pl"Oobably the Dorians ..,tding in t he Peloponnesus around I OSO Be who made it l he pndominant type in the area. T ..-o late ex.amples of Ihis t ype of shield dating from the fint half of the 7th ce ntury have been found at Iklp hi. T hey are both made of beaten bronze but represent two d i~l inct types: one has a very pronou nce d boo~ covering t he ha ndgrip , " 'hieh wou ld ha"e heen flush wil h t he hacl: of t he shield, whilst the ot her has no boss at all and t herefor e t he handgr ip m ust have stood proud at t he ba~l:. T hese t wo m ust represent t he latest de velopment of the cent ral ~handg rip t ype an d woold already have been obsolete when t he y wer e made, for a ne w shiel d had evolved in the 8(h ce ntury thai , in a . hort time , was to supersede all prev ioo. Iype' : th is was the ho plite or Argive shield. T hi••hield may have evolved out of t he round, cemraJ- han dgri p type but, at least in t he for m of the eadiest a.-chacological exam ples. it is quite different . In fact , ilS only simi lari~' is l ha t il is round . It is m w::h more co nve x t ha n the earl ier shield and has a reinforced ri m , BUI far more importanll ha n t his is t he gri p which has co mpletely changed. A n arm band ha s been fitted to the centre of t he shield; the kft forearm ....",s pUll hrough Ihis band .o l hal t he shield ..-as festened to lhe fore;o.nn. There was ;0. ha ndgrip in rhe form of a strap near t he ri m wh ich was grasped wit h the ha nd to stop t he shield slipping down the foreurn. The ea rliesl recognisable repre_ sentat ions of the Ar give shield come ft om mid-eth-centu ry pottery such as the Ch igi vase (see p . 39). T his shows all t he bask cbat acte risncs of t he ne w sh ield which in no way resembles the earl ier t ype s. If was th is shield which covered t he huplite fmm ~hin to knee , and mure than anyt hing else made the ngid phalanx for mation pos sible. Because of t he placing of t he arm band in t he midd le, almost half the shield prot ruded beyond t he l~ft_ hand side oft he ..arriur and, ir the man on his lcft moved in clos~, he WI$ proeecred b~' t he shield

"

,

on::n.oc

1 An lypO ~""-~p_tound '" Oelpho . Seale ,: t s 2 HopI'leI WIth Argive """,,1d5 _ G_ k _

'" ..... Btob'" Museum

! An _ _

."_od

a 6t h· ~ ~ _

s.... l , 4 - . Sa.

1:6 • An 01 ..........( lypO Imm ..... (1nItCot" 'lomb 01 tt>e w".,,,,· '" V~

tc. s2s Bel T,-......,

."" "')S'

_ k..- V,..

"""OtIO.... -.r,'-ed .. G,.... ~ Romo sc.I& 1 6

F'~ .... n (. SCI(e , .J

S-B

of 6'h ·"" nlury Arg've , h ie lds

S Pilt of Ina e l bl~, plttemod lim of the ; h i~ld h om e lri (ef no. 3 opp<J" tej 6 A , ", ry,ng ' HOp a ttach nt. 1 and 8 H.ndg, ip . He ch nts The ; eetoon opPO"te ,hows 01....... ho-w these we'" fixed to tl>e w e>od.." CO<~ 01 tl>e sh ",ld a "lt II .., 11'>0 th 'c 'n".. of ti'>o sh ~d al th is poonl _il>S1 aboul 'em , 1 1nd 8 0,., .11 ftom O1ymp, " 01\"T'P'1

"_ m

9 A ...const,,,,,,,.,,, of a 6th-century Alg,ve ...e1d based.", , .... finds from Olvml>a

hlI... r-n

T HE CI T Y STATE S Koo- j 60 lie AR MOU R A.... D WEA I'O:'liS

overla p ,,'hich lIua rdcd his uncovered sidc. One of the g reat problems of t he phalanx " lIS this tendency to close u p towards lhe ri ght. Afrcr lhe end of rhe 61h cen tury , probably as a res ult of l he Persian invasions and the increase in , he use of Iighl- armcd rroops anncd wi rh mi5!Jiles, a kllher curtai n was sometimes au a.:hcd 10 rhe bouom of rhe shie ld ro prolecr rhc ..-llI"f'i<,,-'s legs from dan . and arrow'S , Aftcr a ba ttle u "'a. cuslomary for rM victorio us general to de d ica te an inscribed shi eld at o ne of the sa nctuaries. .\1an)' such shields have bee n found ar Ol ympia . The~' vary from seem to r m in diamet er . Some of Ihese shields havc a complete bronze fa~ing , whilst or he "l have o nly a bronze rim . All the nonme talli c pa rIS of t hese shield s have disappeared bUI many of the interio r lilrin gs ha ve su rvived. T he se fillings , such as t he handgrip all achments, wcre fixed W Ihc wooden core wit h nails which werc bc nt ove r o n the from so that they could not come loose. T his nOlonly "cry convememly tells us t he Ihickness of the sh ield , but al"" how it was made. T he ,, 'ooden core. probably of ha rd wood

such as Old. was made fi rst . All the fil li ngs were rhen nai led 10 rhe inside and rhe na,ls l urned over o n Ihe fronr .nct hammered tlK 'I);'hen all the inside pieces we re fixed in place, the fronl was covered ,,'il h bronze o r ox hide. The forearm band ha. N ,o fo nns: eirhe r a broad band ,,-ith a turned u p li p (J;. or a narrower band ( J] which would ha ve had a rawhide o r feli backing m the shape of the firsT In>c. T he broad I}'pe i5generall)' earlier, and t he narrow ba nd laler . Several of rhe shields from O lympia ha,'e filli ngs st uc k directly on ro Ihe inside of rhe bro nz e facing. These shields m ust have bee n made specially fo r dedications as they wo uld ha ve be en use less in bat tle . It has been sugg ested th at t hey wel e use d to ddleet blows bUl this wo uld de feat Ihe whole pur pose "f Ihe phalanx, where each hoplile was su p posed to prot ect hi s neig h bo ur's UJlguarded . ide , nol redirect missiles o n to it, T here is a . uperb example of an Argive haule shield in the Musco O regonano at the Val ica n. T his shield, which proha blycomesfrom an Err uscan

grave, has survived sufficiently im ac'l 10 permu a comp lele ICSloral io n Wilh ab'SOIUl e ce-naimy. The complele bronze facing ha s . u" 'i" cd \\;lhoUl d islonK>ri as well a. a oonsiderable amounl of lhe wooden con: and the thin lea ther ";Ih ,,'hich it was lined. This shield ilJusIllIles "-cll the technical difficullies of filli ng a brome facing to an Argi" e shield. Allhough t he front of the hronze fa.._i nll: ..-o uld ha,'e be en beaten into sha pe be fo re il was fine d on 10 the woode n core. lhe edge wo uld "'we 10 be fo lded OVe r afterwards. T he difficulties experien<:ed by t he u mo urcr arc re,'ealed in t he cross-section where o ne can sec bow he has ha d to pad Ihe rim of t he shield wit h slivers of wood In ifS o riginal fo r m Ihis shield wo uld have weighed aho ut 7kg. T he wooden co re of t he Argive shield was unly abuul o.y cm thic k in I h~ centr e and a reinfurcing p late ",'as often placed on rhe in side. Such plates can bc clearty se~n un rhe laiC 6l h---cenrury S iph nian treas ury relief from Del phi and o n Ihe C hilli '"asc. T he re is one fealure of Ihe Argi"e shiel d " hich o nly became o bvious after

lell and .bo_ Tha E" " s.;an .h,old ""1 h ",,,,,, ins 01 lhe wOOden co re and '••,h." I;ning;n l he M,,""" Gr&go".no, Va tican. Rome. This sh ield " probabty 4tl'> ""nlu ry 1 The ,nside of th. ,hleld shOWi ng Inc armband. wh,en wou ld have l>een Iin-ed WIth hrde, the hand g" o ar>
Scale 1.l0 2 S,oe ,iew arod section ollne . noel" J Th...· Qua".r lOp view Shov" ,no lhe e'mIJo8<>l1 and ha!\dQ" o 4 ReconslruC1>on of lhe nandg"p a!\d "''' SP'I(Mo'ng lhe 01 ""OOd u sed to !'ll l he 10m

""pS

l3

GR EECE AND M ACEDO N I A

making a copy of l~ Yal ican sh~ld and Ining it OI.It. The sbarp curve ba<;:kwar ds on t ~ inside edge of t he wooden rim firs snuglr over the kfl shoulder, w hich la kes a 101 of the weighl of I ~ shi eld. This means lhaf a hopli le could march a considerable distance wit h his shield ready for act ion without feeling roo muc h of a sirain on hi, leff ar m. The musl nOliceable fealure of [hese shields as seen on vase paintin gs is their decorative blazons. These show an alm".1 intinile "ariely_geome[ric designs, animals bolh real and imaginar }' , fis h, crabs, birds , limbs. vases, encbors , etc. T hese probably ident ified rhe indiv idual hoph[e, who could 001 be rcwgnised "'i t h his belmel covering hi. face. Leser, towa rds the end of Ihe 51h century. tnne motifs were repleced by a let te r or s~"Illbol ideIl1if~;ng a hopli[e'. cit)·, lhe lambda, for exam ple, for Sparu i. La<:e-daemon) and the club for T hem. Several examples of bronze blazons have been found at OI~"Illpia . These show mainly m ylhiel! bean s _ gorgons , gr iffi ns, eiC. They were prohahl~' made speciall~' for dedications as t hey "" ould have been defaced in the firsr clash of battle when , as the Spartan poet Tyr[aeus PUIS it, ' bu[h sid es dash, rounded shield altainsl roun ded shield', The motifs on bank shiel ds must have been painted , Body a r mO Ur In 1953 an Srh -century grave was discovered al Argos in the Peloponnes us. I n u we re t he earliesl G~k he lmet and " uira l1S yet found. Beyond Ihis find tbere i. a gap in ou r knowledge o r body ar II1Q\Ir slret" hi ng back 700 years 10 the b le t5 lh-cennrry example al Ikndra. T he Argos cuirass , like ilS forerunners, has a Irene and back plate, Bolh plales are simplr decorated in t he form of t he anatomy of t he rorso, with narrow em bosse d ridgo:s around t he arm holes, t he waist and t he hips. Around the neck, t hc arm holes and the hip s the bronze is rolled fo rward 10 strengl hen t he edge. The breaks in t he embossed ridge••how withou t a doubt that the Irom plale fitted over t he edge of the back plate at the sides. On Ihe right edge of Ihe froAl plate are two lubular projection,-Ihese were filled inro ccrrespondmg , lors in the back ptare and he ld in position with IwO pIns lJ:' befO£C the ""ira.. was pUI

on. The 1\0.'0 hah'cs we re sirapped {Ogel her b}' IWOloops al ,he OOllom of lhe left side (one on the fro nt and one om be back plate) , Under the left arm and al the hip the rolled -{wtT edge has heen opened up fO for m a channel which held Ihe front plate in posifion (4'. The shoulders were joined in t he Of'P'l' ile way with th e back plate overlapping l he front . Th e plales were held in posilion af fhe shoulders l>y [wo iron spikes on Ihe from plate which passed through eorresp<mdi ng holes found in fhe l>ack plate ( S) . A sem i-circular bronze pla te ca lled a mitTa (Ihis term is probably wrong but used for co nven ience) could be suspended from a belt to CO"er l he abdomen . All hough lhere ar e rome Greek examples of these, mos r come from Crete. Exam ples have been found 10 Thntcc " ; Ih la'tT \'enions of the bell cuirass sho..;ng lha l lhe }' "~ re: used logel her. In t he second half of the 6th cent ury the bell cuirass ded ined in popularilY and was su perseded by rhe linen corse_ let as rhe basic hoplile hody armou r. Howe.-er, Ihe b ronze cuirass continued in m e and gradually evolved into [he e1eganf m uscled cuirass . Alt hough il never enjoyed t he same popularilY as the bell corselel, probal>l)' because u wu so expensive 10 ma ke, itlasted unt il l he end oft he Roman era 1,000 years laler, and bttame parr of [he uniform of seniol officers. T he new cuirass came in IWO In"'S, eil her shore, fi nishing at the wais. , Or long 10 cover the abdomen. The mu sded cuila," was usually joined al the sides , and sometimes al l he shooldel'S, ,,'irh hin ges, one balf of the hinge being anached to the fronl plale and one to the back. There "'ere usuall y six of t hese hiniles- Iwo on each side an d one on each shoulder. I n order 10 pUilhe cu irass on, th e hinge pi ns were remo.-ed from one side (us ually rhe right) and from the shoulders. The corselet was then opened out as with the previous IYpes , When fi lled t he fronl and back plates would be drawn 10gerber and the hi nge pins in ser ted on the r ighl side and [he shoulders. On eil her side ot t he hin ge was a ring whi ch was us ed to p ull the fro nt and back plates logel her. A fragmem of a coilass in the British ,\ t useum (9:' has a d ear impre:1ISion of a buckle nexl 10 the nng

showing that a strap and buckle werr used 10 r ull t he IWO sides together. Some of lhese conelCis h&\'e no hi nges and were held toge-ther wit h rings and straps onl~· . Some 4Ih -cen IUr ~' cuir~es haw a Iefl- hand hi nge "" rending fro m the ar mpil 10 th e hip. Since ir would be imp<>ssihle to inserl lhe pin in such a hinge when th e cuirass was being worn, one mUSI assume rhar t he lefr side was juineJ before il was pUI on, Although t he developmenl of t he mu scled cuira' s can be t raced on Greek va""s, Ihe archaeological finds are ma inly Italian. In ,he 4fh cent u ry the full-length mU'l<:led cuirass was adapted for <;3.\"al~·

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A Il
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An All) '" .~ield. e. 525 Be. ..... t~. ,.. nfaro "ll pl.,. 10 0'''' ....... P' ~ , on for (he ..-m . - . on _ ... ~ from [hO $ol>I'ItI_ T......., II [)e

T HE CIT Y 51'AT E5 800-360

Be

ARMO UR A:'\D W EAPO :'iS

, 1 ..d Z h orn anrl l)«k ..._ at !he Argos bol l euor... Argos M" ,.,,,rn 3 M.,fIod"" of lhe CuII'53. Tfle tubu lar . "t.nalOm on t"
'""""

• Uod.,alrn joini"" of ,"<0 lell . ide. S ""lImd of join i"" ,,,, ,noul"",. ' A Iale tlek 0.."..... C 525 Be . from 0Iymp••

Orvmll'O Muse um

7 An , _.naf pia'" Irom en". 1 -11 Flagmen" ,llu,","',ng !he """r>og/I ,o0;‫ן‬II,

c,,"...

M""""m,

c,,"...

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l 55

GREECE AKD M ACEDO N I A

Above f ro nt VI@w of a 4 t~ . ce n lU f Y muscl ed cu irass fro m Conv@r"" no ned ' Ba,i in southe rn 11a ly It has 0 full. l@ngth hinge o n the left side. The mu , c11Od cu irass Meam e 1'<11\ of the un ,fo rm ot ,en ior oU,cers Sa " Mu.eum

Abov@ The oack View of t he .ome Conve"a no cu ir.., The '; g hl "de of [he eu "o" w as jome d m the no lmol fashion w ith h inges an d " ng, The s ho ulde rs had no hing@. ond we re p UIIe
Above A sM rt mu , c leers ond no hi nge, . Thl, 'YD<' w., otlen used by the CO",lry Mo st ",ch8eo log ical eXd mple. of mu , cl@d ", ". , se , co"", fro m Itd'V. Fro m Auvo . SOOJt h@'n ItaiV B'i li,h Mu,eum

Above A le COn, truCrr On of 0 full-length musc l@d Cul, w llh n ln ges dnd rrn g,

Aboye A ho plite we ar i ~ g a musc led Cu rra" sh own on o Gree ~ vase. c . 460 BC H@is _.,ing . Th raci,n holme' o ~ d h•• o cu,," ,n h. "lI ,ng f,om hIS s hIe ld to prot@ct his legs "g8inst mi"i les P" le ,mo Muse um

Ab o ye A full-length mu,cle<:t c urr~ " ,pee-oIiVO@S1gne<:t fo' ~ ho rseman . It is "" 'Y b,o.d i ~ ' M hips to endb le ,,, we"er ' 0 , il " ~ o rs. Only th(ee " "mpl@, .rek no w n, andall(orne lrom t1a iy P,ooably 4t h ee nlury. Bdli ~u ", u rn

56

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3 Greo '. c 450 Be. Vat,can Museum 4 Etruscan, c. 325 Be The S"CO!l h. ~ u. 01 the

Amazon. I,om T"oum,. FI",encII 1_4 Tho

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c

500 Be From Vulc< Berlin

2 .,ou""n. c 42~ Be F""" Too. 101.......'"

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A,cllHolog ical Mu.. um, 5 Dell" f'em 'ho M. ", ot Tooi .... ,1>0 Votoear> ( Muoeo Gf890"."",j st>owi"", llmelll' plo,O$. C 350 Be ' A ",. 6th-cent""" "oph'e puttmll <>II nl$ Ionen

<","."

G REECE AND MACEDOt-;'IA

me . T he bottom was swept ou t"'ard~ at the front and back "J tha t the wearer cou ld sit On a horse. Such a cu ira" is shown d earl y on t he equestri an statue of ~on iu~ Halbus the Younge r found at Herculane um, now In the :-;apks ."-i useum. T hree examples of t his ty pe of cuira" are known and all come from southe rn Italy . The evid ence sugge sts t hat they we re restricted to this area, but wit h so few examp les it wou ld he wro ng to '''Sume this . L inen cuirasses had probab ly been In use since lat e .'<1ycenaean nmes, but it was nOI until lme in l he 6th century that t hey becam e t he standard armour of the hop lite. A hnen cuirass was m ade of many layer s of linen glued togelher 10 fo rm a st iff ,hin aboul 0 ,5cm thick. The corselet extended down 10 the hi ps, t he lower pa rt, belo w the wai81, having slits to make it ea~ie r to bend forward , A second layer cut into ~ imllar 'Irips ( pu ty ges) was stuck on Ihe inside to cover Ihe gaps in the outer Ia'·er . T he shin , wh ich had no shaping t o the wais t, was wrappe d around the torso and l ied together on the left side . A V -sha ped pica , fixed to the hack, was pulled for wa rd 10 cover t he shoulders. \'a~e pai nting~ often show these ~ houlder flaps spri nging back when untied, illustra ting t he resilience of the male rial A few years ago I mad e a copy of one of Ihesc cuirasses. I t was dithc ult to put on because of its stiffness , but o nce o ne had got us ed to n, il was q uite co mfo rt _ able and easy to move ahout in These cui ra sses were ofle n made in several piece~ and t he PletYKes were sometimes detac hable . Alt hough the linen was considered adeq uate protecl ion , Ihese cu iras ses were often reinforced with scares or plates, and Ass yrian -stvlc lam cllat pla tes are shown on some later E lru scan examp les , The g reat advant ages of the linen cuirass were it s cheapness to produce, its flexibility and its lig htness , The cxample I m ad e had nnmelal plales and weighed 3.6kg; a bell cuirass whe n lined would have weighed about 6kg . T h is type of ar mo ur remained 111 usc untilt he introd uct ion of ma il 111 the 3rd century Be .

S hortly before Christmas 19 77 it was announced t hat a royal grave ha d been found at \'Clgina in Macedonia . This grave, whi ch is believed to hclo ng to

1 A ,ase palnllng (500 BC) showing hoplltes an"inq for batt le Vle n~. 2 The cut 01 a I,"e n 'shff shi,,' cui.. " Th i' was made foom laya" of line" g lued 'ogethol,

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3 an d 4 F,on l and l>ack "ews of tJoe ioon CUll"" recove 'ed f,om the so ' called tomb of Ph il ,p II at Va'g ioa in .Macedo ni•. Scholars d isa gree abou1 the date of ' hi. 10mb, The i, cU irass snow, a t
on

T H E CITY STATES 800-360 IlC ARM O UR

Philip II , ........ reported to contain an iron cuinau. H earing this I had It~ions of a muscled-type cu irass made afi ro n. At the Internation.al Congren of a ..... ical ,' rchaeology held in L.onJon in September t918, "'1. Andromcos , the ellcevator of t he grave, gave t he publ ic their f rs t vie.... of this L"UJraSS .... hich, «) my immense surprise, proved to be a tran, lat ion into plat e iron of a linen cuirass. T he torso is mad e up of four plates , ftom, back aod t wO side. , wit h two cu rved shnulder plat es hinged to th e bac]; plate . T he whole cuirass is de..-orated wit h em bossed sl rips of gold, It rrc>u mably had puryg .. of leat her or some Olher pliaot ma terial. Uofon uoately , this armour has nut j'el been properly published and therefore " -c have only t he pil."turc> to go b~' .

ult a n d

arlll guards

T he full-length ],o.... er leg guard or g~a" e only came into general use in the 1th century. ,,' t first it cO\'ered the lo,..-er leg only from belo,..- the h ee to t he ankle, hut was late r extended to cover the knee . The n n- and 6lh-<:emu ry greaves were often highl y decorated, The lat'" grea,'es, like the musded cuira.s, followed the anatom y of the kg. ,\ 1any examples of the se mu scled greave. survive in both U reeL-C aod Ital y. The m u>culationofthe later t ypes i, generally less sty lised than th e late 6th-cen tur y ty pe shown here, The Greek greave was pulled open and clipped on to th e leg, but in ILaly lhe}' w'ere often st ra pped on to t he leg. Several Italian examples ha"e been fou nd with rings for straps. .\ Iany exam ples of ankle guard. ha" e bec.n found ....hich co"ered not jun the ankles but atso the heels. These are the anklets that Homer is so fond of describing. T hey " ",", tied on. There ar e also a fe.... examples of foot guar ds ....hic h were fi tted to the sandals, These were made either m one piece or hinged at rhe toes to allow more mOvem em, Although thigh guards are shown in s<:ulpt u res, only one Greek example survives at Olympia. Thi s is really just an extension of the greave and covers onl y t he lo....er thigh. In an they ar e shown covering the middle of t he t hi gh, G UilN S Ior both t he upper and lo....er urn have b«n reco vere d from t he ""'a "lt iom at Olympia. Some of them I re

a xn

W F.APON S

,

A_ 1 _4 T... ~ t oIlte g'u,", 1 La,. 7th'''''I"" t,w como.... "" 'I) ioA, _ f l " e C.-

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d'spIave
5 UPPlIf ar m guard 6tI'l - . t.... I l ..-. arm g ....r ptOngS 01. l he fron l • Thogll guard. 611'1 ~ 9 f oot ~¥tury. It is Ikr>ged at tile loes and _ "'.. _ Iaoed ro _

.-

S- I f """ Olymp", orv""" a t.luseum. 9 from RuYl). s""' tern ' ...... Bnl"" Mu_m

left Broont flgu"'''' 01 a S(lirtan "'lniar. c. S2S Be HI i. "",." r-.g """'r ",m gultclland 'l'Iig h

Qua-d. 1>eS.de-s!>al1Cu"..... Co,m"'..n helme, and gr_

A_

eo N,l ona! _1OIoIl0Cll Muse"",.

ss

GR EECE A:\'D M ACEDO N IA

very daborard~' d<:<:oraro:d. T ho: uppo: r arm guard s far outnumber the lower . In proba bility t~ arm guards wen: very seldom used and arc cenainly rardy s ho....n in an. All limb guards were lined with Icalher or fabric. Thns.: made befo re the mid-6tb cemury had 1he hning rolled over the edge and stit ched through , T he com inuat ion of this met hud of fi xing t he lining suggests Ihat Ih"re wa s a co ntinuit y in armou r makinK hetween the M y<:enaean and t he Archaic era, and then:fon: we should ex pect 10 lind bronze armour in use r ight th rough t he dark age. All arm an d leg gu ards except greaves ....em out offa.shion all hee nd of the 61h cemury and tho: greave its.:lf ....as never as popular later m Ihe classical era as il had been earlier . The helmet Thete ismuch argumcntamongscholan O" CT the naming of .-arious tvpes of helmet . This conlro"ersy has nnl hing 10 add to our kno.... ledge of the G reek milirary system or of its developme nt and i, Iherefore ignored here. Terms such as Illy rian and Alltc are m ed here for convenience 10 de note a parlicular type of helm et and do not im ply the origin of Ihe Iype. T here are several forms uf G reek helme t but lhey all seem 10 ha" e evolved from t""o p rototy pc,- Ihe Kegel and the primitive Cori nthian. T he Kegc1 he1m ( II , whose name is German, meaning lilerall~' cone or sltitl k shaped, is the earliesl Iron-Age helmel ~'et fou nd in G reece. Theso: helmen are all made in five pieces (u d ud · ing t he cr<:sl holder). T he exampk shu"" n hen: is from a panoply found in a late Geometric grave al Argos , T he Kcgelhdm disappeared at the bcgm~ ninlt of the 7th century . From the Kegel evol"ed 1""0 new Iypes: t he Insular and the Illyrian hd mel. The I nsular helmet (3) Was po pular in C rCle ....here m any min iatu res of it hav e bee n found , T he fragmen ta ry example ~hn wn II bove , which is t he onl y One yet found , is als" fro m C rete. 11 is made in IWO halves (incluJ ing t he crest holder ) whieh are riveted toget her, Eaeh half f"rms one side of t ho: helmer. The early IllyTian helmel (4' is a ckar derintion of the Kege l type, u can be soecn from its general shape and rhe em60

"" " SflO BC

s bo/;s.:d ndge along its """"<:'I o:dge. The mai n difference is t ho: crest ridge acT""S l he lOp which became a characterisnc of Ihis Iype. It also ~ho..--s a l echnical ad"ana as" like the Insular he lm"", , il ;s made III [""0 halves. "'hich are ri"Cled log el her al" ng l he <:resl 'ridge. By the first half of Ihe 61h century l hcK helmets were bei ng made in one piece (SJ. The type su rvived do"' n into Ihe St h ce nt ury (6 and 7). The Corint hian helme l wa, hy far t he mos t successful G reek helmet . It eO\'crc d t he head leaving on ly t he cyes, nose and moulh clear . It had a long life, beginn ing in Ihe 8th centoty ( ~J and evoh'ing inlOa \'er)' elega m helmel during the 71h and 6th centuries. T he very early hel mets were somet imes made in t wo pieces like t he earl)' Illyrian t ype . One of t be ch.ara~"t eriSIie!; rhat de\'eloped duri ng the 71h ccntury was an indenta. lion in the bottom edge dividing the jawline fr " m lhe neckline (8 and •• ,. This waS conunued m rhe late 7th- early 6Ih-cen tuT)' type . A large number of examples of this type of helmet (9', have sut-Yived, hea r ing witness 10 its popuJaril y. It is know n as t he ,\ l yros type after an en mple that had t he name M yros inscribe d on it_ In the early 61h century th i ~ inden tat ion was repl aced hI' a more pusilive dart which may have bee n derived from Ih e llIyria n l ype. T his remained as a characrerisri, of t he helme t, 10 is a cross- breed between the early llIyrian and Cori nthian helmet s, ha" ing more l han one characteri"ic of each. T he c hec k guards of Ihe Corm. rhian helmet were very flexible so lhat il could be pul led down overthe cramum

500BC

,

Abo".. The evolut,o n of the Gr••• Mt""'t h om , he 8th to 'h. 5th ce nt ury. T"" ( e QO I · I IIVria~ group ar. On t"" le ft a~ d the Co"nth ,an · C h ~ t c i d i .n ·

Att IC group Bitt or> ,roe "go, The rttd I,nes lIi..e en appro. im..,. dating . t>ul " .....1 be borne ,n

..-...0""'" """..

rn,nd that tvPn olowly ,n some plloceo than ot.... " 1 From Argos Argoo I,! ....." 2. • $ 7 1$ . "" 17 ... .,1"""" 0Iy""".. Olympa M.-.,rn 12 Itom C...,n'" C""nlt> "'_

T il l' CITY STATES 800-) 60 Be ARMO UR AND WE AI' O NS

,

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13 From t"" ","crapol;. al Cam po' . 'an o d ' C.mp l, CMieti Mu "'um 18 From To
L. CWo's on G ,~_. n . ,'''' are of unce,la,n ""g ,n 8 , ,.... 10 ..~ ,n (he TO""lf 0 1 London 3 . "'" Ii . '. In 1.... Museu m IOf K "~ 't und Gew$
9 11 1. 1 & """ 20 a", in ''''' 6rn ..h Mu >flum """ 19 • in ,hot M........ m 31 Yor k

and still fit snugly 10 t he face . Iku usc of Ihi. flexibility the helme r could be pu~~d up o n to the lop of rhe head , ...'bere l he lkx ible cheel< guanh held il in position. ~s ":a~ bow t he hopIit( wore il ...h~n not in bank. .\Iany .lalun . ho\o' t he hd met worn this ..-ay a nd w met imes one can also s« pan of the Io<:tK undcrcap sl icking out from under 11M. dan in the rim of t he helmel . All metal helmets ~wre "'" inne r ca p for , al though a meta l helmet m:o ~' lPve pr()o tecnce from t he cut of 1I wcapon, il ...i ll not b ru k l he force of it, so that padding is ~"" m ial. On the ea rli er hetme ra the lining was oft e n folded oVCr rhe rim o f tbe he lm et and stitched along the ege ther i l s ). So me umes l he holes " 'ere fille d with im r }'eyes , F inally they d isa p peared altogether , leavi ng 0II1~- t heir vn liges in the incised decoral io n. This fonn o f he lmer , whic h is k now n as the Italo-Corimhian type, wu adopted by Roman oftkers in l he later republic a nd o nly d isa p peared in the 1St n n turjo' AD. BoI h t he Cori nthian and t he Illyr ian helmer had one gro:at fauli - l he~' ma d e heari ng impossible. Experiments " e re made wil h perforal ions : seve ral examples o f Ihi. were fo u nd ar Ol ympi a. T hese 1001< t he fo rm of a four-spol(ed wbeel wit h t he segments belwCt'n the . pol
"

GR EECE Al\D MACEDONIA

T HE CIT Y S TA TES 800·360 OC AR MOUR AND WE A P O N S

nose gu ard ', 1 91 ; this IS commonly referred 10 as Att ic. [ have no imentiun of arguing wh~ther it sho uld or shou ld not be called th at-in lhi, t><.... 'k an Arne hdm~t means one slm, [ar to the: C halaruan but wit hout a ~ Itua rd . There are no Greek examples of lhis t n''''; practically all the su rv i~·als c ome from l ta[} ,,'here u was vel")' popular. The Italian examples ~u.ally ha~'e fealher holders and often thin bronze "'ngs, One fina l type ofhdmel that rnusr be memi oned here is t he Thradan ( l O) . This r~'pe appears to have evohed fro m the Th racian cap, I n some respecu it is similar 10 the All ie he lm et but it has a peak ar thr front ,, 'hieh eXlends rou n d thr side , gi~'mg protection 10 both the eyes and lhe: <:an . It alo.o commonly , though 001 inuriah[}', tw. long chl:rk pieces usually CUI awa}' sharp ly at lhe <)'es lUId moul h an.l curving OIItward. along lhe jaw, These ched: pie",," " 'ere onen hight}' dc\.-onled " ·Ilh . for exam ple, a beatd and mousla~he . T he hd_ m"'- gained in.:reasing popu[aril}' Irom Ihe 51h century OIIwards. All rhese he lme" had crests of horse: hair. In most cases the ~"nl was fi xed di~I}' o n 10 the cre..-n of the he lmet and hel d in pl....~ b}' a pm at the: fl o m and ba.:k. It is O~l\"ious how this "'"as done on l he lIl yr ian t ype , but less clea r "il h t he majority of Corimhian types . In 'lOme examples Ihere is an at tach m en t al t he back, in ","'hjeh <......, the fr om could be held by a loop ove r the nasal. Some of lhe: helmet s from O lympia show quire a com plex sl'Mem of h" oks and rings ,,'hie h appear to be slu"k o n, [f IhlS is rbe case, then we may assume that many oftheothe: rs have lost their attachments. Crests rais~d o n a prop are a regu lar featu re in t he Archaic pe r iod ( 700- 500 IIC) in G reece and th ey remai ned popu Jar in [Ia[y until the tSl centu ry Ao. These crest supptJrt S were dela.:hahk and we re lix~ d to Ih.: helmel with split pins as shown above . 1IO

W~apo ns

The hophte's m~in weap" n was t he , pear. An ~x~ m pll' from t hc' dark allc was found in a gmv e at Verltina in t all A boaut.tully p,eS4lM,d a'3rY1l>>e 01 & lal. S'Cl IV II ~9, No . ',

6t h-oen,u,,! Co"nth.an hOlme\ was 1".,0<1 w .th the g,""...., (p Mun ich GIVPIOI."

j,,,,,,

Abo~ .

1 ... dola I o! a G. - . _ pa.fIlI"Il ..-.ow"........ ""'" 1'1"'" d oeSl 2 '" G'ee. ' a'oed CfeSl hOI"", f ' om Olvmp... -3 An tu.... '........ ~ f'<>I"'" Both 2 ..,., 3 ..... - . d I>\' Iplrl pons

11 0\11" . - 7 rt.e ..-.,.,., "' ..... G'ee. """"'" • &nd 5 T_ Ia", I,l..,...,_ (!Vl>e II I bforve .......,.,. lrom ..... :hN. e t 200 BC 1M ' he _Ie d a .om..... >Word from Italy I Eart,o GC-3btwd 0/ G,... . 'We "".,,, bone .ntav tl...., the CamPO"a1ar>o d. e".mplI "«".".,.os, e 500 BC (hoet. I,l """"m 8 Iron "",,",""lid of G_ k "'" . fr...., me C&mp<..-a""" """",pal .. Ch>et, Muoeum G,eek SJM!&f bull B" t•• h M""",m

' B,""'e

.\1ac-cdo nia wit h t he iron head and bun " ill in posilio n. T his spcar "'as about 2.3m long and "'o\l ld seem to be about the su ndard lengl h- t hose shown on vase paint ings a p pear to be between l and jrn long , By t he end of lhe 8th cent ury Ihe Gre~ ks had stop ped h uryi ng thei r warrio rs wilh l h~ir wea po ns, h ut t he practice continued in hal l'. Spears varying bet ween ] ,5 and 2,5m long have been foun rdinglO T yrtacus an d Homer were made of ash, also had a m~lat spike, somel im," made of bronze, at Ihe bun end Mark [e, in his article o n t he '\'Ia,e_ do nian pike and spear , estimated thaI t he weight of a 2,5m hoplile spear "'a' o n" kilo gram

• • T he hop[i(e alw ~...rri ed a s....-..rd . Find. from the d ark age .1>".... Ihat (he: [ate M y<-.: na ean t ype I I swor d which ,,'as of cent ral Euro pean o rigin contin ued in use h ut ....as be ing ma de in i ron. An cxam p[e from t he Kemmeik", has a straight <s ide d . dou ble-edged blad~ 75cm long, By t he time
6,

GREECE AND MAC EDONIA

Macedon 360- 14° Be Introduc .ion T he ce ntfe of developmcn' now move' ftom G . eece to M" cedo n~ tll c , leeping giant. T he rise of M acedon was due almost cn'i rely to t he enefgy of one m' n, Philip II. On his accession , ,, the rheone in 359 He he sel "oout bllilding up rhe mo" formidahle fighting machine the world had yc' see n. It was with this m. chine ' hat hi' son , Alcxandef 'he (;rea" was to conque • • n empi. e tltol .tTe' chcd ftom Eg ypt 10 Indio, Afte r his de' lh '\lexandd , empifc w", divide d . mo n~ st hi' ~e nerals . Thc", kingdom' i"sted umil one by one lhey WCfe , wal_ lowed IIp by Rome. T he pf ime "",,,'e' for ' bi' pe tiod ,.e D iodor us Siculu, and Polyh iu, . Dio_ dor us wtole in the lS t cemu ry !\C. His wor k ha ' quite jllSl ifia bly bee n severely cTitici'ed , i' ha' heen ' aid of him thaI he is os go" d or as had a, hi"omee' . For one very short period of not mme than

20 ye'ts, he follows the aecount of the hTilhan' H ieHmymu' of Cord ia, one of the m" sl fchahie histm ian. of ' be ancient world . W hat a il i, fOT the military histori'n th" l Hieronymus ' hi.,my has nol <Xlme down to us in ils origi nal li" m . Afrcr ' he dea ' h of Alex_ and er in 323, he acco mpanied fi rst Eume" "" , umil his death in 3 [6, an d then ,\n,igonu' . nd his so n Demetr ius PoIi orce'es on t hcif campaign, ' nd gives detailed acco unts of theif acrion, . UnforluMtely D iodorus' accoum is incomple,e aftcr 302 He and only fragments of the , ub",que n' Ix~) h
I""

T he M acedonian Wars

The r is e of M a cedon Philip wa' hTough' to T hebes as. hos· ,"~e in 36 7 IIC and loojl;ed in the house of Ep,minondas. T he gre" ' T heban', tactical vic,",,, wcrc no' w.
w,, ·tom kingdom '" '0 ,he most ' ", m ,d , b~

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M ACE DO!'> 31J.o-140 Be T ilE MACEDONIAN WARS

,heir h onk,,_ H a ,-;n g 'ettled t he nnnh

and .....e't , he sel . boUl establishing roUle, to {he east .nd south , Gradually he captured ,he lown, along the CO"", m an }' o f which ha d 'tr<mg cnnncetiom

with the city ' tales, and so opened {he roUles to T hessaly and {he Helle,pont. In 35 3 he . nte rce! Thc""ly and t he fol _

lowin g year

~"nquered

rn,,,, of it

I n the ,ummerof3 5z he advance d 10"'.rds T hermopyl... In pamc the Atheni.n. sern a hoi ding for ce 10occupy ' he p o" an d P h ilip w it hdTew O n ly n ow

do t he Greek, ""cmcd to h.". realised the gre. t lhre,,! that was h. tljI;ing o\'cr {hem, but {hey were far 100 busy fight. ing each other to do anything . ho ut it. P hilip did n n' try 10 advance ,outhward again for six years. I n ,he interveni n~ per iod he continued to .st. h.lish his po'i,ion in the ca."

re ducing t h e

' <>wn, of C h.kidice and lhe ThT""i.n coosl. I n 350 he g.ined ~ontrol of m uch

of Epirus on his south-west bordcr, and hy 34S the last of lh e Chak id i.n towns h. d surrendncd The Greek st ates werc becomi ng ever more aware of the gi.nt thaI was rising in lhe norlh, bUl lhey were no t yet prepared to hury their di ffer ences and do any thing . b<mt it. They needed a brealhing space .nd in 346 signed a non _ aggre;sion Ire. ly wit h P hilip. T his treaty , "' Philip' s insistence, expre;sly exd uded P ho" i, which was .ccuse d of ou tTages .gain" Delp hi. T he ink wa, hardly dry on the pape r before Phili p pas, ed T hermopylae and overranPhoci, . lIe was imo G reece, Ha\'ing established his fOOlhold , Phi lip withdrew to .'vlattdonia to '-'In_ solid .te his bor ders in the nort h, west and eaSl h"f m c cm har ki ng on the fin. l ~ onfti<1 . An uneasy pe.ce ex isted be_ tween Ph ilip and the Greek state, f<>r six years , By 340 th" Mac"<:d<>nian ar m y

h. d reached the ilIad Sea a nd was besieging Perint hus an d Byzantium , Iloth citi es had slrong tonnec" ion, wilh Athen" wh i~h now wenl 1o war In the . urumn of 339 Philip took advant.ge of lhe chaos lhat ,lill persi' led and mo ved in", central G re e~ e. Alhcn, pal~h"d up • ha"y . 1Iiance wit h her erstwhile enem y The bes and advanced to meel the threa!. In AugUSI 338 at C haeronea on the no rl h_we" txlcdcr of Boeotia, the com bi ned T hehan lAtheni.n ar m y ~ . me f.ce 1o face wilh lhe war-har dened veterans of M acedonia. I n lh e h. n le Ihal followed the G rcek, were hopele"lyoutela"cd . T he T heba n B.low It., b"l;OO;r>9 of the grea'e " c"eo' 0 '

oo"'1u.". A'e" nde ' ",osse,

"lilC' G"o;c ", ., t ho

the ho.., 0 1 h.. ca val", to the P. " ,.n, . w ho "'d ' o,med up On t ho oppos'le bon" w ith the " C,",I," on I
GR EECE AND .\IACEDONIA

Sacred Raod who were ol'l'o""d hy lhe crack M acedooian troops led by Philip's y
north and weSI, crus h i n~ all opl'O'itioll, Durin ~ the se cam paigns he was reported d ~a d and ( ; T e~ c e again revolted Ak xandcT tumed sm ith . gain and lhe G reeks surr endered, all lha' is exce pt Thebes, Alexander took the city and rased it w 'he ground I nvas ion of the I' e r s ia n e mpir e In the ' pring of 33~ a " ' mhined M.~-e _ donian/tireek arm}' of 30,000 inf.n' ry . nd 5 ,000 ca",lry was ferr ied aero" t he Da rdanelles into Asia, W'hil" hi' army was crossing Alex_ ander ' ailed fOT Troy. He wa, th o now Ac h i lle s ~ t h e champion of the GTeeks and , as Achilles ha d done [,000 ye.rs hefoTe , he ' acriflced in lhe lemple of Athe n. T he Persian' were de tenn ined to "op Alexander' , <'a mp. ign hefOTe it "arted . l-leyond t he G ra ni~ u, river the Persian e",'alr)' were drawn up in line backed by • phal.nx of G reek mercena ries, In tTIle T heb. n 'lyle Alexander had " Tengtb _ ened onc wing , w h i~ h he led himself, T he ope n j n ~ a!laek came from lhis win~; .[ the he ad of the Companion ~a v al r;- he charged aero" the ri ver . nd

srnashed , hmng h t he Ii ghter-armed Per_ sia o horsemen r he Per,i. n c",'alry btoke . nd fted, leaving the Greek mercena ries 10 [he ir fa,e, Alexande r sho" 'ed 'h em no mer, y. T he folk,,,'ing year w", spent in tb. subjugation of Asia ,\ Ii no' (T urkey), The Persian king motched nort hwards ",i' h a large army and Alexander mo"ed soulh , ,, meet him . Th e two . rrnie, met at I"us on the border of Asia Ivl inor and Syria, ARain t he Slacedonian ea",.lry ,,,,., hed , hroug h lhe Persi.n archers and ligh t_a rmed lr<~'p', The Grea' King did nO{ wai' to see lhe o u ,~ome hut raeed from lhe ban lefield in his chario!. Althong h a[ fir" the Persian army !i)ught hr. vell" t h ~ new, of ' he king', fli~hl dampened lheir ardoUT and the)' too
A'.,,"cIe" , " " ,nd ",os, oo, tly b,"l. A' , he Hyd. ,po< ,n 31 7 Be '0" Macedon.,o, _ ".

""n"on••d by a" Ind"" ,,"'v w, to 100 .l eDOa" " The po, I" , , dv," ceO "," 0 lock ed , h , e l ~, d"v'"Q ' ''e m b, e' ," eonfo"oo

M AC EDO N 360- t 40 HC T HE MACEDONIAN WARS

the """'st and '" cu t olf the Persiam from lheir tket. Only T yre, which was situa'ed on an island aoout 800m off the wast, n:fu 'edto ,ubm it . The Cil~' held ou' ro, seven months, When i' finally rell Alexander showed no mere'y to t h"'e who had held up hi, grand desi~n; he cr ucitied many of rhe men and sold lhe women into ' lavery , With their gone t he Persian fleet defened . Alexander now ad"anced on Egyp l whi ch was quick to surrender, and he .stahli shed t he city of Alexandria On the coa" dose" '" Gree"e . The M acedonian army now returned 10 Syria and from here marched ea" _ ward" c",., ing the Euphrmes ,nd 'he T igris into the heartland "I' t he Persian empire , T he Gtea, King had had a year and • half ,,, ""Ilect rogerher a new army, At Gaugame la in 33t Be AlexandeT again erashed r h ro u ~ h the Persi,n wing and again the king fled. T he Per,ian infantry resisted valian,ly, hut when subiected to a comhined ea"al ry and infanlry " ,",ult it crumbled and the Pe,-;;ian em pire fe ll .part wIth it. Alexander now man:hed on Babv lon which 'urrendered . Suso .nd Persep"lis aho Jell into his lap. Hea ring tha' Dariu, wa, at Ham.dan , Alexander hastened nonhwatds, Once more the Persian king tied. Riding day and ni~ht Alex_ ander pursued him . Just south_ea" of the Ca spian Sea he e,ugh, up, hut the Great King was de~d _ killcd by his bodyguatd All wa, n"w a"eomph shed but Alex_ , ndeT', rest less spirit would not let him "op. He continued his marc'h ea' tw,rd s, fi~ht in~ baules and founding " itie, . lie heard of oppo'i tion in the north ~n d turned in thi, direction , lie p"",d Samarkand and pu,hed on into Ru" ia tothe end of 'he known world . Here he establish ed ,norber town called Alex_ andria the Farthe" , He nOw retra"ed bi, 'teps southward' and wen t into winter qu."er> at Balkh in wha t is now northern Afgh,ni",n In tbc early su mme r of 327 II<: lh< army crossed the western SpUT of lhe Himalayas known ", Hindu Ku,h ,nd descen<1
1;"""

•

lhe thTone . H,ving ",cUTed a power refused to go any farther. II wa, dear h" e, Dcmetriu, immcdiatel y began 'hat the soldiers had h, d enough. Re- .ssem bling a vast army in order to fulfil luctantly he lurn ed sollth towards the hIs father's dream of once more uniting er,." and from there returned to Bahy _ lhe empire , Ion. Two years later he was dc,d He Fift y ye.rs earl ieT Philip II had estabwas not quite 33 )'C , , , old. li' hed his brother- in- law Alexander as kln~ of 1\'lolo"ia in Epiru, on the we, _ T he s lru ggle fo r power tern bordct of M aced on. Fmm here thc On the de.,h of AIe"nder his great em- ncw king had quickly e' t, bli,hed his pire fell t" to Be",""', wh"e toe d,.d in 32 5 BC 1<)< the conquest of India bUI hi' army

G RE I'. CE AND M AC E D Ol"I A

ag;ain.. ~kucu. at the battlc of Corupcd ium in J ~I. and [he followin g yea, Sclc""us aloo died. Ptolemy Philadc lp huo .",,thcT CcTaunus toot ewer Ll".i ~hu.· t ingJon, but ho laded until thcy "'.= 6nally defca tcd hy the ' >TeCh a' Delphi. They t hcn ret ired nonh....a'd' ravallinll M acedon;" a. thcy ""cn!. An ~ tillonus Gonatas, the oon of D cmclriu>, who had rema ined in "o n[TOI of the Moced"ni on ",,...,.. ion. in G 'e<:<" e arter the <:lI pul.ion of hi, father, had ncver givcn u p h"pc "r ' cgaining thc kingd"rn, :-.I"w , during ['yrrhu" absence on his aho 't ive camPllign against ,he Rom. n, in ."ut hern hall'. Antigonu. ma"'hcd into .\ laccdon , dofcated the Celts and seized thc throne, Thc Celts retrcated intn Thrace , where tl><~ remained in control of the c"Ountry fnT morc [han 60 yean. So me nf thcm cros..,d nve, into A.ia M in", and 6nally setllcd in Galat;", In M a "Cdo>nia An' igun... GORa[a. set ahou[ restorin. order aft<:< .he long ana ,d'y. His pessaly, lkoeo ,n 1..[ un,il ,hc Roman """'luc", in , 68 IIC. High' }'eo'" \>ef",c the dca,h of P)'lrhus f" ur AdUle~n to....n. had for med a lea~ue of defence against M acedon which WI< tn """nme known a. t he Achaean I.caguc , Dur ing ' he succeeding , 'ca.. ,i x nt hcr town, jnined .nd in oS'

Sicynn , one of M a<:cdonia ' . keys to [ne Pclopon ........, ...... libe""ed and i<>incd tl>< 1cal!"C. C<>rinth .nd Acrocorin, h "'.= likc...ue dc ,ached rrom the M.acedonian hogcmon~. Finally T l'Oett n and the ot her tn"n' of ,ho <:al and 'IOU, h joined so tha t ,he ",'hole n( the """, horn PeloJ- nnut .... uble 10 for m a united front agains, Mo.oedon , A K-eond league "'. .. formed by , ho: Aetoliarts in ""nnal {irre«, ,,'hKh .uc<:ccdcd in ""tending its rontrol ewe' lkoeo< "r Macedon in , he sou,h. An,i· g< Ruman.....e'" forced ,'ene in 2Z~. giving the m a r"", hold in 'hc Grttk pcn inoul•.

po"""

'0

C<>n fll e t with Rom" Den' Clliuo died in 209. leaving a }'oung " ," wh" Wa' 10'" 10 l>ecome Philip V, In the mean time hi, h.lf-cousin, Antig"nu> J),,,,,n , a..umc d p"weL I n thc sou, h a re juvcnoled S paTI a undcr its king Cleomen et had begun to makc in· road. into ,he poolse.. i,,", of lhe Ach:ocan league , Co ntu'}' i.. avowed aim. the leaguc turncd tn Maced nn for assista nce an d fonncd an . lI iance ....ith Anti/tOn,.. I>OOUn agains' S patU . A[ thc ""nlc of Sellasi. the Spartan. ....<:<e de_ d,;wly
'0

an independen' "a'c. Abollt z,o tIC Anal... ,he king of Per_ pmum had ...... n a .",at ~ict ory over tbe Celt., ""ho had mill""ted to A.ia. .\I inor and vinuany ruled the coun,'}' , fot'Cing i.. inhabttant. to pe~ , ri bu' e '0 tbenl. Durine .u.cettdi"ll ynrs he had estah-lished a """,II e mpirc OVCI" much of Asia. Minor bu, i, ..... -.n lost to the rising p""oer of AmiochU$ ,he Gn:a.t. :-.I..... lhe a>mbtna'ion of Philip in , ho ,,'CSt and An..<>ehus in the CUI, An alus af'f'COlled to R<;lO\'"I( foe help, In ZOO the lI.oman. , at las, free of H annibal and I'toI>ahly equally ,,'t"ofricd ahoot , ho efJC'<:1 nf the alhanee between Ph ilip and Amiochu•. d..d.rcd ....ar, Late the ..me .umme, a RoltUln .nny landed in IIll'ria and ,I>< ratc of M acedon " ... ",ak d . In 1 ~7 Philip "'at defcatcd at Cy n""""p h.I. e and r"reed ,n .oe thc Rom an line, Ant iochu•• s«kin~ to pr06, by thc "acuum left in Gr«<-.: af,eT ,he fill of M a<-.:don. invaded Eu,ope hu' wa. d, iven m it and defeOled by the Roman s. fi rst at Th<:<mol'ylac and later at Ma~ ne,i a in A,ia M in" , . In '7' Macedon, now under thc cx'mmand "f Phihp' , ",n Perseu•. a~ai n roun d it.. lf at war with Romc , The ncw t ing ..... s defcalcd at P,'d na in ",uthe.n M:lC(:donia in t68 .nd hi. kingJnm ..... . com'ened in' o . Roman pr'Wlll«. A hundred years later SITia also b«ltme • Roman pro" ince, and a llCnention af'erwards Eglo'pt fol......oed , "it ,

r....,,,,,

T HF. :o; F.W .\IA C EJ>O:O;IA:O; AR.\" '· TM Inr. n . ry E>..,n before Philip's aa:cstion. n . Philip imposed . n aust= code or ,nining .nd discipline on hi. army. compcllin~ , hem ,n m. ke rcjI;ular f" lI...,d ..'ute m~rd><:. with full cquip-.ment . nd bal/.lfage to harden t hem again.. , he rig"u," of ....a r. He banned thc u"" of wh...,l
·... ,1IJ~.\ WOOj Dq. pu. """'" " 'I ' "''':1 '" UJOJJ >r-w :»;>... ........J• .l..l l~'"" llnuop ' oc>q\" :>q' '\[Uoo put '........J. 1tu, -~ u, p....-. f'OOJI' tuUOU!W<X>:>q' ""... »'.ll .\u:>q~ u. 'l""-OW "'ll. ' .'~"1\" U! .'1ll1J~, \ ,. Dq' 4,,·" ' >q,:>:KI, ~.=I' ",'" "" punoJ >q 1I>q.. . ",,,,UOOPUV JOuOI.nl"uoo "'l' "",,, "' 4.1. '~·'o>:I l' 1I 0Jl u. Aql"~ II ,,>! . ,,1Id 0,'" II! ~p"W 1I ""'l ~""4 ,{ow Dm" ", ~IJJ. " { I ' n",,~, 1""01"1'"0' "'l '" '04 >Jn~lj "mqAI" .1 104' ooho'l"'l ,oll ln. "'I' '",'ncw ''"II' nlu! 40' """;U d» p ru- ~~p~I ·""" ~ '{'.IIIP'''''JlX~ .,O!q -Arod plllW II! ~1I1l.~ '1IOIU'h "'l' ""'1' '~'"""I 'I""w ..,.. xU.l"'Id ""'I') "'l' '"'II 1" ""1""1 ·{II.J.:I\I ~ ' ! II Xfl"" ->q A[Umu "' "''I' loq '.n,,'""ldwlu. "'I u~., lJ ~ "", u """.J 110111100 ·\ I.rqoq"S \ Wt ' t '~) 9 1 u»q -'II. _ulJuo PftI II ' "'II po. (W{ '9 .,) .. ",'" II '.{tp " 'I " ' " "'1' , w'-P .mq -·'1".1 ''''01 (wt " ',) . "q n, t , ,",, , ... _""",,~uol >q1 '01j"W'I')" ,~u.x'IV pu. d'l"'d JO .... c'odw~'u ,~,. '.n " c' 4" -<»q.l. .(""UD') ,~ !" p' pll"Il-{l," , '~1I01 • 4W" p'W'" s"", ~1!~1I"1" 4" "" 11 ' 4.1. "''I UI

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art ick M th~ .\laccd,' ni. n ,ari"" " calculated Ihat a 'z -cuh ll pikc wit h " , hah jUst und.' r 4= ill d iameler. w"uld w~igh . bout 6.~ kg_ and PoI!'biu.· laler t4 cubil 0... aboul Sk, . It i. mull " '011der thaI Pnlrloiu$ """,menU on ,I><: greal ,,-";ghl of II><: ",n·na. moking il dIfficu lt fnr tl><: phal.ngil~ 10 cal1')' 1"'1i..dc ... kc•. It sc~m' ,·crtain th.. thc .\h,-cn demanJ<:d. used ,,,her "",apo" . , TI><:}' coul d hardly "'" T1' on .iege ,,·.rfar~ ,,'il h the pike, al Ieaot cc-nainl}- ..... "~th a pike of ,hat length . s....-erallimcs bot h Diodnruo and Arri.on impl!' lhal 'he)' used ia'·elin• . It i. un,..," ai n h<.,W toc cOTly' .\\ 0<"'_ .Io nian phalan~ile Wa' armed. At thc timc of 1'" lybius he prob"hly wore grea"~" • helmct .nd ~;ther a melal cuira... if he "'a, a h om rankcr, or a linen cuirass if he 5eTVN tn II><: o<: " 'as mu.;h d ilf~renl l!' a<: day. of Philip . nd Alexandor, Cenainl y :"rri.n ref~", "" h~ li ~l\l er_arn,ed part "r Alex~nder '. phalanx. im plying that ,h~re must als<> b<: a h~a,'i"r-~nn~d port. II seem. puo,ible lhal 1"'- in lhe rear ranh_ ndudm~ ,he _<:J _ me" han b«n found of "'hi,'h tl>< Th<: form " f . bea. d and mounacl><. Chak~ dian and Allic helmet. al$O ron,inU«! in .......nd a conical ')'pe of I><:lmet of unk"",,'n p;uemlllC' "'Z> al.., popuJ. r a, , hi. , ime. Diod nru. Ott m, to imp!l' ,hal equi pmcnt wa•• upplicd free. Thi, .ppr.... l0 he supporled by rhe late 3rd-<:entu ry Am phipol lO inscrip,;on which tine. 10 be im l""'Cd for Ihe los. o r i' ems of ~quipm~nl . T h i. could only b<: optr.tbl" tf II><: equipmem " 'a• • upplied flff. A, C"o..,r_i"""""mg lerTi,,,,",,,, came undr< Philip'. h~ "''Z> .hl~ 10 inlroduce n~'" u nn. int o hi, ann)' .uch ., lho Paron ian, and latcr tho The>_ ,ali.n. , a"o lry. Al Chaeronea in 33 ~ hc w" ahle '" mUSl~r 30.000 infantry' and

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eigh' d«p he "'l" I"" lloo ca,...Il)' " "uld oc<..up~' one ",,.It, In o, hn word. ,wo pace. are allowed pcr horse in ,h . rank, T he mo", dfcc~ i\'< dep' h m u,1 h. ve bc<:n four deep. Bo,h ' he T he....h. n .nd fir« k honemen ....,re .rmed "" h . pea.., The 900 T ltracian aOO Paeonian moun,ed ...- outs " 'er<: armed ..i, h ja'elins. Their prime job " .... t o ocout ahead ,he army check for ambu.heo and to make conUc't ,,·tt h the e",ml' . Akx.wnder .1", uoed ,hem a grea' deal for , klrmi,hing. Fou r il~ i of Balk. n lan"e" .re al,o men, ioned Gran icu" Ac'Cordin~ 1<> Anian ( Ar> T~<:lithe, Ii"e iLn into "'pt>,m;lruo, ea<:n , .nd ,he allied cavalry . _ and a half nmn • • much. This probahly n:dccro the oompara'i" e ro~ ra'.... In , he cav.lr)·,.. in ,he inf. n' ry , then: was an order e called ou" oo k up the po, i,ion "I' honour. Our mai" "'uree of kn"wledge of caval,y equIpment d uring ' he 4' h ""n_ 'ury is Xenophon. who wrol e ..,me So ~'eon Wore ,he . ime of Alt-lUndc.. He rec'OmmeOO_ I a coval!)"man _hould " "elr a cui " ' th proIccrk>n for lhe ,high>. • jl:Wlrd for ,he lef, .rm and • Boeotian helme. ,,-i. h all_rou nd ,-i_ion. An excelle", example of on~ of I~ hel mets, mayhe " 'en l>e ll,"~ing '0 on.

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a,

'0

of Alexander'. lroope"" " ,," fou nd in T he a rm y in .h" fie ld Ihe T igris. T he .hig h pun,"",i..,n w.o In re. pe<1 ' Ihe army of Alexander probabl y , he puryge., The left orm ,'arri.. 0" in m uch the .ame way .. th. , guard, used i" ,he a b.o nce 1>1' a shield. de. cri bed hI' Xenophon 50 yea" earlier ' <:em, to ha" e l>ecn in vog ue only in hi. Orders are given hy tr u mpe'. T he army own , in ",me ,,,,pee'''.•imil., til <eTIt out .he.d and . •inc-e .hey are re. ha, tliscnnred a' V~rgin. ( k<: p. 58 ), fer red to eXI'IiI'tSi.. ing i. appea", he mlKlc: of linen. Hi,hone .he SOOU"• •tt'ormnitring partie>. lhe "'eo",. c"'mfro n but no pe~1 ral , The R.nlan Ian....,.. '00 ~oo Ii ghr-armed Ita lian 4, h. ""m ur y m u>cled cavalt y troops . In ,hi, r..pecI Ihe .\Iacedoni. n, cui.." (see p . 56) truly h"" e !>een in U\ ~ wcre far . hu.l or the G ..ek, . Pri,chet'. in Mac ed onia , ' here i. u nfon un.t ely no in hi. ar,ide 0" 'mu,". \l uo'e, many ..am pl.. wher e "rmie. . nd d ~<" cville n"" for or .gain" it.

rnoo'

''''1

"'''rd,

or

'0

,.tt

...bo..... tK1 _ .. ... ooraoo _

_

....... _"'_ f......."-- _ ............ -0-.._11Io_ .... _

0>0'"" -" """

-

..... _

..... ....0-'"10 _ _ - '

""""'" but •••,

,3... "'........ 0' . .-,.... , ' ""'" " , _"", I

2 H"•••,-._hom ..... _ _ G"",~ b
"'""0"" A'hltn.

~

360- t40 EC TH E NEW MACEDO:-.l IAN ARMY MACE DO~

approac'hed each "'her undetected be cau,e <>f lack <>f ""outing or Nher i nt elli~ e nc e system s, The most notabk example was a, M:ttltinea where neilher tbe Spartan, nor Ihe Arg;"e and allied army knew that the ,>! her w"' Ie," than hve kilometres away , Sc'ou" in Ihe ",me of intelligence ,e eker> " _'e m to have CXlme into use only about Ihe time of Xenophon , but even so t hey seem to have been litt le used in Greece , Although Alcxandn, and pre_ 'umably Philip, mad e g(~>d use of Ihe, e scouts , late r armies seem 10 h.,'e f. llen back into the old ways and Ihe Koman republican .rm ie, were no bf h<>lh armie, Se~ Ihe descriplion on p, 'OS'

T he army in ba ttle Alexander normall y dr~w up hi, army with the phalanx in the c'entre, the "ronge", c'a\-al ry, includ ing lhe Com panions, on lhe ril';ht and lhe wcake" on lhe left , T he hy pa,p iSlS were p laced at ,he right end of the phalanx, The ri~ht ,,-ing "-as fun her reinfor ced by lhe . rchers and agr"" ,," . Tbe whole line would usually be drawn up ohliquely Wilh the right wing ad" .nced .n d the lefl held hac'k The firsl au"c k wou ld alway, c'Ome from lhe advanre d right win~ with Alexa nd~r him,e1f at lhe head of lhe Compan;o" "a,'a lry Tbi, was Ale,"nder', vers ion of the Th ~han 1acl i ~_ I t was ad. pled espe cially for use a.o;ainst lh e fa" - tn()\' ing, lighl_ armed Persian tr"'-,p, _ Se ~ the plan of lhe hallie of Ga ugamela d i, pla;'cd on p . X2 , Arcian i, i" d ine d t" unde restimate lhe imp,,"ance of the phalanx in Alexanders b"tt les an d to lreal the 'truggle inlhe ""m re as a , id~ s h()w_ Only whe n tbe phalanx is in tr"u hle and Alc~ an de r manages ", relicve it docs Arri an report its aetivilies, T his musl be b
Lott ond owve 1 A ",c" cd eh.mhoo t. mell., """, ,.,, mas'ed helmet 3nd.,m 'hown 0" 0 reliet 'rom Ihe "ne'"" y ot A,henO" Pe,g,o,on, Tu«, y. 0 0W' at ~" I", 2 8roole ""w, 1 Nap le, Mu.-u m 3 BrO",O chomtron. K,,""u ho Museum 2 , nd J "e p ro b' bty t>o, h , th C_"'ury ' M m.d. ;" th_ ,.m. >oulh lM an "o« , hop 4 Horse, we O''"9 ,"cO, " ' ;O''' 'VO ,Md.. 'M"" on a pa,ntrn9 "om Ihe K."ol" tomb on BU'g.", (, "" ont Th" c_j

writing a life " f Alexan der and wi,he, 10 c~m "e ntr.le on the hero of his story, In fact lhe cav.lry is only lhe sledgeha mmer which ; ha llers the cohe';o" " f the Persian f", ,,~s_ It i; the pha lanx wh i~h rou" win Ihe batt k _ A k ~a nder may be lhe most successfu l commander of all lim~ but he can bardly b~J only pan of hi, army_ Thc<e ex_ ped itio"ary f<>r<;" were mainly light and fasl mo,'ing . Alex. nder normally com manded lhe m himself. T hey usually consist ed of half I he Companion cavalry, lhe hypaspiSlS, ,he ag,-iams , tb ~ ar ~h crs and " nc or Iwo 'axei., of Ihe phalanx

Q"""'

"'.n'."

~ Hor",m, ,, _ 0'; 09 a BO'3o,,"" ,,.,,,,,, , trom tho Alo,,,,d., , ..00ph'9 O>

6 BO'3 ol., " helmotlouM;"

Ih.

M"""m_ O,I" rd typo. To;,

"" "mOI.on 7 11etmet of "", d., , OOwo 0 0 m any

Tigoi,

to' "' of h.,moL;,

lal. r Holl e";"," moou ""," ",

Is"" P SO). A,hmo'. , " Muse um

Som.. ,mM II>
.-\ r' n

Aln a nder -I he e lep ha nu "' ~ I,-.,able changc thot ,,"'.... TM pl""c ,,([cr 'he death of Alrxanokr W•• lhe im n >duClion of ekphan ... A' ' he h..' tle (;augamda [he Pe";an arm)' W.' rei"f"rc'ed hy IS rlephan,.. T hi. "' ''' ' he hr" , ime 'hal European, had ""m,' up ogaimt w ar de pham •. 1" I"d ia lhe .\ \.."ed""i,,,, had '0 lace up ' 0 200 elephon" al 'he halli e of tM H)'da'J"" s , They ,,-.,r-e li ned up a[ Jom i"",,·o l. in fr"n[ "f tM whole ann)'. T heir print<: chiC<.' then. a' il was la[c<....... ' " 'h'{' [M ",,,·al~' . II........ do no( like tM 011><11 of drphon". Tho: .\t:la'donian Iigh' ,n· ranII')' fin' "" acked [lie drphon[~ .."h ""·eli.... trying [" kill ,he mahou" or dri"en, Finall~' Aleunde' ga" e ....ok" for , he r-ear holf orlht pholan . ",,",,'e up i"[o , he int....... l~ t>-...-ren ,he Ii...... to fonn b,..k ...... hield, r"""",ion. 1""""",. ing ,he elephant' w;, h a rna.. "r'rnn. and in thi' format ion J " ","e [hem t>a ,Im""t rxdu,i "e l~' a ~ ,i n,[ """all')'. O<"",ionally ,hey We'" u>cd in .i.Re warfare (or ."", h it"'- a' learing d,,",n palisades. \'0><-"" d,,~",n up for hallie. lhr ;n,."...I, t>-.....,.,n tM anImal. wcre filled ",;,h lieh[.onnrd ",",!". A[ I ~ bank or Gazo ( J IJ -.:) [he« ..... a u"il of 50 j.,'diJ"o<;('n•• Iinjlen and arc",," (of " 'hom a ' hird "'CTe ho..'· II>, . .., thc hallk or Ga'a op' ked d.,·;e," _ 1'<'" ib I}' .0 I[rops _ . " nnect cd hy chain, were throw n in frunt or them . I n ~ ~o l\C Alexander', kin"". n Pyr. r hu, i"" oded It oh ' and introd uce,l' he

m,,., "r

'0

Roman' [0 ,,,,,,,= hin. [ank• ..-\. ,he: ,,'ar ..-as < ...-..l ma1fily on I.ucania. d .. phan" rC<. '..... lhe lI ' han nickname of Lucanian 00"". All tho; clerhon[. "" fa. mrn[ie>neJ .."rc Ind,a". Ho..-",« . ror J>Iokm)·. ,-'>I[ "If .. he ..... in Eg>'r [. ,uprl i", ..-" re hard I" ,..,.". by and it " 'n no( long hef..re the Afrie...n elephant " 'a, bei ng u",d, Ii'" h)' 'he Egyp[ ian> and laler bl' , h. Conhagini an,. l>ol;-hiu•• in hi'
0' .

t1ofow ","""",,,

"""" by

--'" ..

:.,,," '" .~ ' ' ' _"II t.... :1m "'. . - . . .

'0

tIC. ' bOO... _ ~_ "~"'ll . ..... ..... to f_ a ""'" or , _ .. 1~ _ . '0 'all OUt of t _ _ " ,rna DOn["..-

""-

M ACED O}.] 360- '40 kC T HE L ATER .\ l A C E J)O :"; IA :\ A R M Y

an exam ple 10 , how thaI l'olybiu, wa, well infor mcd "' hi, admirers c1aimcd , Howevcr, in Tec" nt }'~a" it has !>een , ho,,'n thaI there was a ,pe" in k" own as th" !" rest d eph.nt wh ich was com mOn in Nort h Afri"a in l'olyb ill" J ay bm is now e" in~t there, T hi, specic, measure, about 2.35m at , he shoulder, wherea, lh e In dian mea,ure, iU>t under 3m and 'h e i\fri~a n bush type • bout 3.5m, Du ring hi, ac,",unt of ,he battle or Ib phia , l'olyb ius give, a vi,'id de",ription of d ephants Ii gh' ing cach " lher. They me t he ad on wi,h lu, b i nt erlod~d , Ea ~h pu, hed with all its weight, tr yin g to com pel the ot her to give grotlllJ . F inally ,he Stru nger would force the weaker one ' , tr unk to one side m d then gore hi m in t hc exposed ~ a n k Alt ho ug h the I ndians who oppm;ed ,\ l e xan d~ r did no t " , e lowers on thcir elephan ts, thc Indian d ~ p hant was large enotlgh to he fi ttcd with onc , TO""e" ,",ern fir" to have ""en u;cd b y Pyuhm when he in' -a ded It aly. T hc l'ort h ,>'fri _ can forc", ty pe wa, ral h~r '00 sma ll to carr y a tower , and ecrtainly lh c , ,,,,, haginia", never see m to have u' cJ them . However, at R"phia Ptolemy', dc-

no' "'

pham, cena in ly carricd ' hem . T hi, ,m ailer elep hant with its , ad dle back wou ld us"a lly h,,'e ""en r id den like a hor, e. I II 2 1H Be lhe d ep han t reached the height of its fame when Hannibal crossed ,he Alp, at the head of an ar m y which iJ\d uM J 37 elep h"n l< . How cver lh c heyday nf thc elephant was pa" and they fd l out of f,,'our. T he tater Macedon ia", seld om o,od ele phants and cert. inly the y played no signific"", part in the ir cam paign, . ' I 'hi, wa, pro bably bee'au" of the diffi "ulty of obt aining lh em,

''''In

The Later Macedonian Army S lo" of ou r know kdgc of ' hc ph" lanx and of lId leni" i" war fare in genera l "omc, from ,he I",er Hdle nistj " period ( 0, n o-,6 HB ~ ) . Ou r principa l so",ce j, l'" ly him, the mo" rdi abk of all the ""eien! historians on mi li' ary matt crs He gi,' e' m" ny descr ir ,ions of batt les in whi c'h the ,\lacedon ian l)'P~ of phalanx was used, and at one po int c,'en de _ , cri bes lh e basic structure and fun" tion

()fl he pha lanx , However , he nc,'er goe, fun her . H e wro t~ a separate tre ati", on thi s sub ject whic'h i. n() longer ."tant, and pm bably for thi, rea, on did Ilc\t elaborate on ,he sllbject in hi, hi" or y Arr ian in hi, AT)' T~a ic" "onfi, m, thc existence of thi, wor k b ut ~iw s no de tails, It is un fon unate tha' l'o lybiu' no,'cr m~n, ioIlS the title of e,'en onc " f the , uhordinalc officers of th e phal. nx . which wo uld gi,'e U> a fOOlhol d whe n ex.mi ning the wr iring, of t h ~ later tac"Clan' By th, ' " ,'en 'ur}' He Ile llenist ic " 'arfare wa, virt ually J c" d and the stu d" of .\Iacedonian taW ", had bc""",e a branch (}f ph iloso phy, Fro m thi, pcr ioJ ,,",lme, the wor k of A,ciepiodotus . I n hi, treati, " he givc, all "CCOUnt of the sm",tu re, dr ill and tactic, of an idealised phalanx . H e gi"C, a com p lct e bre akJown of a phalanx of 16, 384 men. which i, com posed of ',024 files. each <'f 16 men T he figure of t .024 is ar r i,'ed at bec",",e it is the te nth powcr oJ ''''0, Su ch a phalanx as this probab ly' n ~v e r existe d. Only a' , he ba"l. of ['y dna". 16,000 phalanx attc",~d . Within th i, framework A, dep iodolU ' C"n proje ct a

,

I 'e".oo," ' ;gur< ot .n . I,ph. n! w,th ,

lOW.'

"",ehe
p, ,,"", "G';""'M Rom"", m 100 Be It woo l" "" a;fl"'ul1 oo>" 've', 1o 'aem,,, m;,,, At""o 0' 'na ;. n. f' om Pompe;;. N. ""n"

A"",,o,og;c, ' Mu,",um.

~oo 'e,

2 P,,' ted d" t, I,"", C, ".n" Campan., ,hOW'"9 ' " 'nd,.n e,. " h,n, w Mu""m, Ro m, "Io'e m, , m, II ,nd 'Ouno b3C'

,O',

J '00;' 0 e"oh.nt w,m towe' ,how'n"o a " " e'

The H€tm,toge. len,ng,.d 4 '" c'eo"v ,,","" Od Af,;c,n . 'eOhant shown 0' ,h, 01, C,,,h,g,n,,n 00'" Note ,,,", e. " and ,.dd'e bac' ~ ". I"," .

"'v.".

• "

GREECE AND M AC ED ONI A

mathematical formula lor the ph. l. nx. A' nre, are c"upkd in 'w"s, fours, eights . nd so " n, he can reco,d th" n.me of every unlt and officer Arrian in hi' A" Ta ct ica ~ ;,"e , a n . Im",' i d enti~ al aCc ount dm'in eil he< (to m Ascieplodo!lLs or ftom a common sou",e T he basle un it of Asdep i"d otu, ' phalan x i' , h. ,yn ,agma (meaning literaily lh at which is put together) It consi", of 256 men (16 nit, of (6) r im • rear guard " mee r (ou'ago,) , adiutant (hY MrtI« ), herald (",a,ol",J.'x). signaller (" m e iop ~ o ro<) and • t' umpete r (sa lp i ng k " ,) T he'e we re all s upe rnu meraries a nd wer e not part of th e phalanx. The 'Y"'aKma was commanded by • 'ymamarareh It wa, dh'ided into two , ~x
,h"

(PTo"'''~ 'a,). Each file (10,10 0') h.d a h.lf-liie k ader

(h ,,'Ioch iu ,) , ' wo 4uarte T.fLie leaders (.nomorare h ,) and a re ar ranKe r (ourago,). It is interesring t" nott how [he tradi,i""al GrecKunit, ' hc Io>ehos and

its , ubd iv i, inn s, ha s ' hru n k, Th e p,n" ko" y<> is now called a hemilo,hion (half lochOl), the en omolia is " iil ' her e b u' of o nly fot" men , T he in,lividual .. nks ar e called alt erna tely front ranK (p rMo"a",) . nd Ie., ," Tl k (epi" a/C,). A compie'e In·man flIe would m n,i" o( raok I, lo"h ~go" 2 , epi" a" " 3,

""[,,1<,,

p"",,"ates, 4, ,pi"a"" S, enomorarch , 6, epi
[bc rear· ' ank omce r of the haif filel. 9,

h,milochiu , . W , epi"ate<. 1I , proto"ate<. 12, epi"ate', 13, enomotareh, '4, ,pi",aus, ' S, p m,o "~ ",, and 16. ouragcs, The "n omora n h' musr have been kn" wn as fro nt and " "r, as would tach _pi"ates. S(} [h" , evcry man cou ld identify his file

and rank In phalanx each ma n stood nex[ t" • m.n at Similar rank on either , ide, omc cr next ' 0 "mee" ,pi,w us next to cpi"~",, and so on

"

S , nragmal8,ch

Asclepiodotus cou ples two ,y",aKma
Abo, . n.. c:c 01 tt.. syn[agm3 , ,"" baOC " " pM"",,, ~

"'" of

'0_ _.

_ _us "as ""ti'v " the

tst centlry
""'••

' ""'" '"""'" " .. """"', of """"""" w"'~ "' ...... , .. ... ' of the remote _ 1>1d ,he st""Y 01 Mae""","" 1act>;O, had """"""'. ",...-en of

"""""""" ,_

t""" the """"'k<> 01 """""'" taeOCaI rr>l.Jg> the later Macede<1iao' US<>d ''''' sa-ne

"""" '""", • was _ ~

...., ""' • ..-npie( _ ~

. """'" an<) was

bya"""'!VW , The

M~

and

c
was ~

01""-" [~, """ consist", of """ was prolla<>i'j " .. sa-ne 0 = DI<:>c"""",

It'<.< locroi. _ L . '(}(;hOopS

MACEDO"," 3(>0-' 4° Be T H E LATER MA GE OO:"iIAN ARMY

I~'<.Y

fo,m~d

I "',n, (ku~s) commandt
".,,,.,...

It Ittma wonh rccord'lII all this to save !be hlIvtnC I(> tcfct It> !he <>nf:Inal wort. bu' 'I>cfc probably neve, ~__ such I phalan. as tbla , _ ollhc divisioos lod ome~ " a bo~ ~ 'be IY . ' ~ t .. ~ .. ~ p.obably h ~ po' betiu l. I"i~ed " b~ eoll~ elinl 'h~ ""lma .hlt co uld ~ found and mob.., u p 'host that could 001. '0 b udd u p I rlJjd m.,hem,,,ic.1

"'adc.

,n

~~m

T h .. A n.ph i poli o .... iIi ' ary cod .. In 191~ lod t9lS I r"llmentlry Ii.. of

."IIc~donian militlry ,elllllllioo. ~'hich bId b~~n found II Amphlpoll' "'.. publi'hed. Th IS In.cnp'ion. v,bich da'~' to the relgo or Phihp V (22t -11 8 scj. lim. omonll otb.. 'bin",. 0 , .. it, of fine' be lmpo.ed for I"" of equip mm ' and d i" ·iplln. , y ma l.. " .uch a• • k ep in g when on guard II al.o ", en lions seve ", 1 lower o!J1cors I nd tlnll,. TI,C 'y m affma is ,,""c, ",. n'IOll "d, no, i' it me"'iollcd b y Poly hl us, The G ree k hist o,i o" , howc"", rc~ularly "'en ,l" m a u tli' called s Hc liso u"'. 'hi. word for ,h. Roman .., .~ ,p l•. •,hleh ,.'a. t h ~ . maile.. ' "Clleal unl, of ,he legion. just as tbe ,).,,,.., .... I. lbe . m . II ~ .. "<:hcal unll of Mcl~piodotw· ph.l.n. The .pe... , 0' irs co m ma nde' ,be ,p.'""Io. i' 11.0 menlJ" n~d .~~ ."I li m• • on ,he .' mphi po ll a i n.c ,i plio n Th. le.m i)"'''''''' la neve, uO<'d '0 relation I<> the arm,... of ,he G.eek pe nin.uLa bu' i' ia ....nl>Orled In documents relolinl: 10 ,he He ll ~n i ali c Ifm iea o utsi d ~ Eu,ope S"",larIy. ,lit- ' IMi... Is neve.....n""ned oU l: thal a ,pd ,.. "'IS compo.ed of four " ",,«hi.. whleh ~ach lOaM up of fout I""hui. Th IS seem. ,,, be '<","'tI. bly ce rtain and one mo" th.ref{lte h" id in doubt Ih" In ld.pi<>
'0

'1'<'''.

.,d.

_t.

11 would seem ,hat

'h~

OlruC1\lre of 'he Mar~d on i l n philin . lbov. the .perT' " ... al.., "'Pnlsed on I fout-fold basis. i.e. foo' .p.i,..i ro,m~d a ballalioo (possibl~ ci lled I •• ,Ii.",.y). Ind fou, ba".lion. fotmed a " ra",i.. colo maod.d by • ..' ...., This h.. be.n . u"~"~d b~ F~~.I he c>e an' th~ I , re.y p., lod .yp.,.... Si ncc k no.... thol tb. Iryp....., ...... 'b~ admini""'li~e o fficer of tbe '.pn,... tho .. ,..-IrYP""" oulht I<> be ,he adm,n..tratiw office' of !be banalion. and ,be l'""........... !h:Il of

JYII'''PO''

,he

""'''ti' only "oub~ .. "h I Nsic "",,,p'•

Th~

of around

m.n la Ihlt .. ~ a,. be ~i nn,nll ll~t bloc k ,h. pmbkm. f""St'd hy As 'wo wlO~' a p halana o f , o,000. whle h wa. ,h. ha.1e ",e n ~' h of Ihe ph al. n. o f bo ' b A nti ~ " n u , D"", n . nd Philip V1 TWo tlnl" ap p. " tan"II' i" Rly in th e a nel e," a u, h"" b ul . Il h Th. ' il\'", . hi el d, o f AI" . lT dd, ar my, Ihe y arc never cleatly Id.nTlned ARain one ge " ' he f.eli ,, ~ ,h.. ev..ybo dy k new wha ' ,hey "" ere a" d ,h..e[o,e 'here was no poi", In ,,'asring Ume I de " ' l fyln ~ lh em The fi." i' 'he hroun .h ield,. ao d ,hc other the ,,' h il ~ .hiel d. P o l ~ bi u , men,iona the braun .bleld, in hi. Itcoun' of ,b. blo"l~ of Scllasill (. 21 IIC) . ·he,e ' he, app~" to be pa" of , h• , o. - -.. ronll phal.o ... but h~ docs not IIJVC the" ..renflh. Thttt \'C... II,~. they &pio Ippear. &J.., Ipporen1ly .. pan of lbe Ill.CJCO-"roOll pballn... M1ihp 11k.. }.OOO of .lIt-m (ImplylOll thli the unit ..... II,¥", thoro 1/Iu;) on IIi* .-in... expcd'bOOI 10 lhe ~Ioponne-sus Plu tarch .... n _ them q:a,n al ,lit- banle 01 Pydna in ,M .,. bu. lit- 100 add> no ~"JIllno'iorL ~ .-h". ""ield> N,n up in PlUll""" , occoon, o f ,h. baltl~ of Sell ..;. and again In blS OCeoun' of ,be b."le of Pydna On bo'h occasions ,hey ",~m be pon of ,h. phllon... I .. ould th.refore len,a 'ively '"u eo' 'ba' Philip', pbalanx "'as mad~ up or two S.ono·' IToog '''''''Ii~i called tho wbi" and b,azen shield. , eoch co n, b Ung nf five ,hil i~ ,,'hi .. ~ . oo o

'0

'0

'0

..\ r m o ur .. " d w eg poo s

As ha' bee n me n ti n ne d he for c, ,h e

Macedonlan pbalang'" " ... armed ,.i,b I lon ~ p"(~ tr..ri". ) ,."hicb ~i;Ji" , oaY' in hi. d a~ mu.u,ed I~ cubits (c , 6·3m) Thi a lel\llb I. noI quI'" .., OU'fIl:COIl' IS ..,me eOm me01l 'o B ...,uld IU",,". In th~ Mid d le AJ~a the Swiaa u>cd pi ke. S.sm long. lod pIke. liP 10 S.7sm in lcn g'b at~ ptUe"-ed in . be Sew ."""""00C$ ollhe T........ ol London. Pol~biu, . I II~ . lhat Ib~ .. . i,, ~ ~... -'ri&h1N II ,lit- hun end (presumably this ......... tha' il hod a beny ""od. !k!beo eocs on 10 explain how it ..... bdd. Tbe (ron, hand (lcft) 111">1'" ,lit- ",riss.. aboo, 4 onolaru formed up wi, h locked ,bl.ld, again" Po tu. ' elcphanl< in IndiaTh~ pik.. .-ere comt pil:e blOk•. The hopli'~ . ....o,d remlioed in us<. but 'he mo01 popular •...."d of th~ period "'.. ,h • • ppiJ, I 'in~l~..,dged " 'capo n ..."h I e""'ed blade: an .:nK i' In 'he Alh.... Archaeological .\luse" m, Tbe p ho lo n~ ITe w.. ar me d ...i t h a ' m ail, ",u nd 'b ie id (", p i, ) w hic h Asde pi,>
GREECE Al'01J M AC EDO!>: [ A

O " QW

Mac
, .,h-<;ontco, _

• • _0 ""'" V.... "'

~-.

1 "h--cer>l"', ' '''''' .n ' he A'......

....c-..g"'..............

1. 001. 101 01 2 . 3. •.5 "'.., t>u1,. P.... . - """"">e,-" "" prong 01 • poke ... ""'" ,... '''''''' 01 veo-".....

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....I AC E D O N 360- ' 40 II<: TH E LA T F.R M AC EUO;'li I.... ;'Ii ....RMy

hs.,... 'nen much of the ..'rill[h' of , heg..,.' f'lke, When used .,..I
,ha' il "'a. rimles., i.e, Iha l i, did nol ha" e Ih. b,oad ri m on Ih. in, id. edge , h. 1 "'"' ' 0 <: gnp, a, m bolnd and han dll1ip , A f~ .., )'can ago The .hearh ...... a" ""he d 10 ,he ",ooden the au'hor made a wpy of . his sh ield .~>r. hy four rectangula, l<mgu,," and a .... i' h a bronze fae'ing . imilar 1o , he one Iin le ,,,"er ' 00 do". cuI along Ih, edge found at PeTgamum, T he , hield weighed of ,he rD eral ",hi< h "'ere folded m'e r on ahou, Skg , Experimcm . ,h"w, d , ha' it In ,h,' insi de , "ould he handled ver y dli d, n ' I ~' u,ing I'lu' arelr sh ield' wcr. hung on ,heir leI', Argi,·c shield i, being carried, , he inside •11<", Ide.... and ...' hen I hey ad "onced they of ,he- rim fn. comfur,abl)' o\'~r ' he let'! broo,h, ,ht1n round to .he- fwnl. Thi. shoulder ' ni ng ,he ....righ' off the ann. has led ....... oommen.l1on ro 'uggc>' Il ,..... ,he ahocn a:: of , hi> ri dge on lhe . hM rhe .hield had no IDP. Repr<'\Cn'a_ .'.'""""""ian t>l'C' lhat made a car-l)ing .ions of . he ,\ t acedonian , hield ,ho", ....p ~' . Thi.....r .......Id oJ...

'0

'0

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_ _ ..

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[n Ih" "">e of ,he sil,· hicld, brigade , Ihe f....·c of , h, , hield "ul d have be<:n tinn. d iuS! a, Homa n ar mour and ..... al" "" were. T wo , hicld , were repre _ "" m"d on the wall. oflhe , ,,mb " I'l.yson and Callide, whic h IIIOS r....,mly d;s cover.d in .' \ acedonia, O ne of ,hese is bw nu or gilded a nd ,he- oo her i. I""in'. d ...'ilh lhe ro~'oJ ,ymbol of ,\ lacedon_ T hebearer of ,Iii••hield maj' ha"e been 0 member of , he ~""'-Ihe bripde of lD t"'" of Ih..e rem. rks he i. nm ref~ TT i n g 10 ,he 1t.vf'~'P"" bu' to ,h. Com panion in_ ronlry. T hi. " aria' ion of ."Iui pmem is .1", ""t; "eable in H "nnih.l's phalanx. where gro up. of pike", . " arc of0 of p;eces of their
'0

,ha,

GRE EC E ". KD MACEDO K IA

rank and file is calke"",./tylro< has bc. N y metal pl.'ed. Th.i. d,lf""ffl« i. amphfied when one l<'llodt the offic..n " 'C'" fined ' '''Oc'C ao mu" h a. t he nnk an wo", ' hem , !l cenainl y seem. unlikely, fo, ClWfIple, ' he men bchi n would rJoCOCd g",a>·cs . TI>e """Iprurcs . nd pain, in r of , he period, both G .....k and E, ru..,.n• • 1100-0< the ,,'ide variety of armour in u~ a, ,his lime . Resides . he baD; linen cui.... l)·ptCl l of .he daso>cal en, quihed cuir· "'"" alto appea, on lal"" F.rruocan """'plu..,.. On ,~ sculplu.... """' al.., find. varieties of pla.ed linen cui ......, owcntd .." h ei.her scaJcs 0' ",'Crlapping ",cungul. r pl.tcs (l. ..... ll..). l"hf: moa, f.mous ol , ~ i. , I\(, .' !.an from T odi in 'he Mu,co G regorianu a, the V.uean . The victory frieze from 'he Tem pI. of Alhe"".' Pergam um in wenn hke 'he ruira.. fn"" Ver_ gi..... Thi. frieze a1... t bows • Cc:llic mail . h'r(. PoI}'bius. in hi. description of.he Roman anny of this period'''Y' . ha. , he ,,'C.hhi... Roman. " """ tn.Iil. ..... he docs .... ""plain ...·hat mail it, one mun auumc ' hot ,he Greek, of his &,. • 1.., """" il The Thncian hel..... cominucd 10 be popular . nd is . """'-n on lhe Perpmum <'Clief• . Scvo:r:d (}"J'CS of high-crmo.....d I\(,lme"'T••l....hown. T~ tn.ly have bc'eloped as a defe....'C api..., tho . I..hing , words of ,he Cc:h• . T h i. l~'pc of h. lmet allo wed fOT a g",a, deal of padd,ng helwe. n lhe IOpollh e head and the helmel , Al Ih is period, which c"Oinc;de. wilh the mos, ogw es. ive I"',iod of the Ce!l k inv.,i""" Ih e' e w. , 0

'0

,,,-=

'loor" ....,

,ha,

,hi.

,ha,

~ncnJ 'endcncy I Oadop!. hilth--crovo'ned helmeu.

The eo m poK" lon of lhe . r my A ' • glance: , he composnion of , be lat... Helk nioti<: annin docs ..... tttm ' 0 hove changed m uch 51,.,.,.. Alen nde<', day. The "'ia~doru.n a nny of Anligo nu. Down and Ph il ip V .lill had !rypaJPlSlS, peh. ..., s1ingo:rs and .,ehers . upport ing lhe phalanx. Ho"",,ver , ,he"" do not olways sum 10 pe'f",m Ih . s.m. t.,ks a, in the eorlier I"'rio,j, T he hypa,pim now seem «, refer 10 a hoJy 01 "ajf officers (who undr rt ,",k ' I"'c'ial ' . ,k<) and Ihe a~"na, the king ', hodyguard. The Amphipolj••"Ode ..y. Ih.. lhei r lenlS ore 10 ho e''''''ed immedia,d~' . fler lOOse of lhe king and hi. immediarc enlourago:. The peh.... of P hilip', army appe.' .0 ho>'C compk lel y chaOlfcd . AI Cynos--ccphalac the-)' f<>rrncd up aJonpide.I\<, phol.nx and ,...en dntJblcd . heir depth. lI'albank has .uu«tcd, and I\<, Juts '<> hc ri gh., . ha. ~ rch.... "" ere in fact ItypaJpUu. II'hc1 hcr they"....., armed wil h pike or .par IS ,mpos,ibk to ..y as cl\<, 50IIfCCS a", con (f~ ,'-""""Y. U >'Y calb ,h= poll.." ,he word used by Desa, rOf lhe Spani.h lighH nncd l'OOps who, if H.rmand " right, . hould he idenl ified with Ih . lighlly d ad !Toops with round ou, ,:to. ,,'herea. in , he la'er Macedonian army i, was around t: 20, One . hould not make too much of , hi. _al ,he ballle of Chaeronca in J3 a . he J>rOp<>rtion " ... 1:15 . The rcaoon for the high proporlion of in Alexander's army " .... ,hat mobilily .... .. lhe key 10 the ron_ 'I....., of Pn'tia. [I ,,'as " ..II k"",,-n , ho, ~urcTiol '" .n y~ G reet inf. ntry _ thing Penia could produce, bill the pholanx coul.J unly def"", ,,'ho, i, could c. teh. It "". Phili p'. I'hol."" ,hoI won lhe banle of C h..,"'... a, and ~"'I lhe ma"ive build_up or Ih e .\ l ocedoni. n covall)' must ho credited to P hilip T h... wuld only he ""e ,c.,,,n for ,hi. -Ihe pl. oned inv •• i"" of Persia wil h it' va" cavolry re.ourees , Although

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cav.lry cominucd 10 ploy an important pan in JUi. for about 100 yearl, al,c. the death of Alexander ill Europe il quickly ......cned 10 ill subsidiary pos ition .. I'haIam:. Nnltd "';,h pttolam<. Epi..... and aU . he old city ".'n h>d .dopl:ed 1100 M .cNonian pholanx and, siJ>Ct t<;:ornc hcarit-r and conoequcntly leu ma.-u,..,.bk. In S)'ria and l':gypt II~ ol d uni.. of A1cunder'. army otiUlppeaf in .he La,c pd and ,,*"y and ""ntury . Both Antioch... and Ptolemy, .. ...,.,ld be ex_ pected. appear to have . n of cav.lry . lfyp.upiJu, too, ~re mentioned by PoIybi"s, but it would be .cmplina:falC ,os,,"n. ,,-hat ' My might be. Antioch". luo. tJV1'""", w ho . hooJd have b«n ,ai~d on the .-.hcm (ron_ tien of Ma..~d<'n ; no doubt {hey wcre r a i ~ d locally but ret.ined the traditional ""me of , he earlier t",op'. Aft er the dealh of Alexander, the vderan silver . hieId. regiment had come under llie control Humcne" on whose death they p. ..ed to Antigonu,. H e re we lose track of them , If they were a per n,a nent "e'eran unit . nd cons tantly rCC"riving re<;rui t, frQm . he veferan, of <>Iher units, they could have . urv ived . If not, they must have died out . A hundfed yea.. later Anliochu., the .ucccssor o( SeleU<;\l' who had deposed An'igonU$, had 1 ‫ס‬,‫ס‬oo ",ldie.. "anned in the Mao<:<:donian fas hion" """" of ,,'hom ""rre armed ";th .hieId._ 1lfese are dis""", from his 20,000su-ong phalan.s and 0 ... is fempled . 0 suggm lhatthne ~ 1r.YfJ
or

-

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The ....., i n l be lield On the march ,n hOSlile terrilory the

arm, was ltd by a rquJar nnguard of Iigh._anned t
MACEDON 360-' 40 Be ARMY

MA CF.nO~"lAN

elf"",ive okirmishen , as hi. ttarguard. T he baggage train was placed at the poin t (m heot from anyexpeereddanger, If the threat WiSS fro m lhe fronl, the bauale would he ... the back, and ,,'heo rctrcatinl i. would be at lhe from . J( an artaeI< WiSS expeered from one lbnk, t he baggage lrain would he plaoed alongoide the phaJa.... Oft . he (lIIhe. lbnk. \1:'ben IooLna for a I;3J'I1ping .i.., lY<J(lIIo<.\ ,",'as cno.en whid. offered . he best natural defences. PoIybi... enti_ cised the Gruk. for .heir lad of energy when amp'na. eom""nng them unf,vounobly wi.h lhe Romano. In light of thi, i• ...,.". unlikely lhat the Romano 101 their ide.. of camping from Pyrrhu. whe n lhey captu.ed hi. am p at Bene"en.urn, as u vy and l''''ntinu. rttOrd it . \It' hen n""",,, ry the M ace donians did ent.ench, "pe,;ially if they intended to stay at Ihe ..me .he for . ome time . Li ke the Roman., they con.tructed • di. ch .nd raml' art with a pah..de along the tol'. T he pali..de Itake. were cut branches with ""ut sh""," . ll ro und the main stem, l' olyhiu, il ..ty critical of those , a' he nyl that two or thrce otlOckers could logether get hold of one stake and rip il nut . When they had removed it , there w.. a gap lef< wide enough for them to break through. The Ma<."Cd<mian. may not have camped .. well u,he Rotnao., but the}' did poot pickers al(lfllthe apprNCheo . 0 the amp-a thlna that thr Romano do .- ....m to haw done. It " ... the re.ponsihility of the tm U • il ..... in lhe Roman army. 'lltr Ampltipol.is code .t=seo thal , at nil hl, inopeer;on, . houI d he nude without a Iieh. so a• . - to gi,.., adv""", WllmiJlllto the guard. 'lltr line-up for banle wu . til l bai<:ally lhe same u in the pre....... period, ,,; Lh
"

( ,RE EC E .... I'D MA CEDOI' IA

Plolemy, who appeared to be losing lhe hanle, wok over t h ~ phalanx who, en_ c"uraged by bi, prC'lCnce, drop, inlc,.,;pc rsed hc t w e~n them . Pyr _ rhus did this in Italy an d Antigonus

D oson di J it with hi, ,ih'eT ,bid d, at Selb , ia. Hefore bau le commenced lhe gene ral wauld rid e alottjl; in front of hi, trOOps Wilh his officers and friends Tcminding lhe 'ol die," of IhciT pO'l ac'hievements and exboni ng t hem to fight hra,'ely, p',inling out the advantaj1;es of "ielory, usua lly concentrat ing on the booty lO be won. In lhc cO'e of P' olemy and An lio<:hu" I><" h af whom had only recent ly eome ta lhe lhrone and lherefore could hardl y 1><",,, of the ir pa" accOlnp lishrnenlS, lhcy relied more on , hcir promise, fN th e future , The signal for baule , possibly a flag, was raised an d the soldiers shouted theiT

war cry sevcral time, . At (;abiene in 3 [6 Be , where two M acedonian armies face
I nl~,""

f'e"",,,

Abo•• T"" ""ttl. of Ga uga""," >lte, E W M",de n AI." "",,, d'"", up h', w'th the w ho le 01

1he C" mpon,.n

' ''"V

cav,"" (led by " 'm",'!) '" ' "

. d"anc.o 0 0,",'0 0 on H>e " 9ht W;'9 . nd ,oe <est

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M en.'.,",,,

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T"e b,"'e at R,ph,' (of'e, H H. Scull , 'dl fo" g o, ""t"",.n PlOlomy 'Vand " nMehuS ti l PlOlemv 10" 0" "" 'M' ""ng but won 0" h" "ght. r"" b.",%was won bVh" ph, I," , '" ,0. C€ot<,

Med.. ,,'"

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Ele~ha"!S

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•

M",,,,,,,, ,"'_"" ,

on!am"

An.'he"

C,,,"',,,

MACE D ON 360 - 140 Be TH E LA TER .\ {ACEO ON IA:'>1 A RMY

until the arm wa, "Talgh t, then he would loweThis pike umil il was parallel to lhe gro und., W.iSl level. T he order to eh.rge was given on lhe ' rumpe" If, howe,'er , the groun d "'a, " eey bmken and lhe army split up ., it was al SeIlasia, lhe signal ' 0 char~e was given wi'h flags- . white o n ~ for the infantT)' .nd • red one foe th~ ca" aIT)'_and would be rdayed hy the tr umpelee att ached to eacb ,peira , T he battle wa, normally started on the wings, When .dvancing in ba ltle (mk T, the phalanx had to be deavon up in open ord., and double depth , Thi s w", . chieved by lhe .h~r nal~ I",,/w, falli ng b.ck and mming into line behin column of m aech " , that all ' he o"ieees weee on one side of the colum n an d an lhe o!
up one pace . pa rt , T he y then lurned to face lhe front. If the cnem y appeared in thc Tear the phalan. had to turn abou!. T hi" however , would lea"e lhe ouraKoi in lhe fro nt rank an d the officer' al the back, T hi' wa, rcc,tifi ed by cou nterma'C'hing . Any one of three met hods coul d be "'ed to do lhi s, T he file leaders could stand ' lill whlle lhe rest of thc file fm mcd up in fro m of them , and tben the wbole fi le turn ed about face. Thi' was lhe M acedonian method . Aseleplodol US is "'" very h. ppy about thi, a' it appears to be a re'Teat. He ped ers t he method u, ed by the Spartans where lhe rear r.nkers slood fast and the resl of lhe file formed up behind ' hem and lhen faced about T hi' appears to he an a
Polybiu' Ii" , the advantages and di, advantage, of tbe phalanx to expl.in to his readers why the Macedonian, 10" the b. ttle of Cyn",ceph, lac, Under Ideal d rcum"ance' nothing coul d Wilh" . n fm the viclor y ' hleld' were u'u. lly ;n_ scribed and dedica' ed in a , heinc . Poly. biu' , 01 1, the amus ing 'lory of lhe dedicalion of the shields . ft er lhe siege " f M edion by the Ae",lian,. T he , i e g ~ w., . lmost ovet bu' , a, t h ~ dec,tiom were due, the ,\ctolian geneeal wa, frightened he m;gbt be re place d befo re he h. d ""1'tueed the lown and so lose lhe credi l for it, (T hl, is a very COmmOn rc. tmc in both Greek and Roman WarfOTe.) In m dcr to appea , e the cunent general, but at th e same time not detract fro m whoever might succeed him, a compm mi'e wa, reac hed and it was detcrm;ned to In, eTibe t he , bields as being won ' by lhe Aetolian ~e neral .nd the candid. tes for lhe next ye.r', omce' . Embarrassi ngly foe the Aw,liam, the ,i ege wa, raised . nd the M ed lonian' parodied the Aetolian resolulion in amusing fashion h)' using exactly the ,arne wor d ing for thei r shield" changing oniy the ' by' of the inscription to 'from' .

ITALYAND THE WE iiiuoo ERN MEDI

EAN

ITALY Al'D T HE WEST ERN ME Di TERRANEAN

The Rise of Rome 800-275 BC

-

-

ADRIATIC IlEA

S ATRICUIl

.

•

T il E R ISE OJ' KO ME goo-n 5 BC T HIi S TI-W(;(;U, I--O k IT A L \'

l"'rod I;"n T .... ri " f Rome ".-a. "'''I met.",..ic, It "'", a .10.,,, pam"aki"'l1 I'r,',:=> f......ght 'o.-i,h man}' ""It>o..i<., It ,no ,hi••10,,· proo.. ...., au.>.>mpanicd b,' long period!. of conoOli,Jalion. ,,'hich ...... ,he "",in ~ fOIl' lhe 10r'¥<""'Y of the ...bKqumt Roman em!'i.." 1...1}' "'U lhe Ii.......1 IIY bo",>cn'roI 0''-'" lhe ,,'hole ur GIft<:e, It 'ook Rome """" ~60 y. . . '" hling lhe "'hole of h ily un.kr her """,M. Once , h., h.qem<>ny' h...t ho:<:n <>1.hhd,c.J, the,e " '", """el any' Ihr""t o f i, b",""ing " I'. hen ,he .....~ .l " a, r" ..gh' belw«n R" m. anJ M I allie. in Ihe lit ccn' .. r~i iIC "a. no, abo.., "",,,,.iun b.. t ,,"er t he ,ight< ,,, 1' Ihe K"n' a" army. unlike thuse of ,he ( j" ",k" we", n"t an inve",i " n uf ' h< R"man. hut tho re.ult of a pnx-,,,, of ad"p'ion onJ aJa p' a""n , In orde, to unde..la"J lhe d",·"I"rme n' of the Roman army il I' n«... ",r}· to examine 'h< J'C"'l'ko ' M K,""an , f,....ght . nd ,,, ' f}' , ... i",I.0'< wh., Ih,; u•. "'lIhoug h L,,",' i•• grea' Wri'CT, he iu r<"" hif.tMan, "'u """"""-.tive and patriot he thro,n lhe blame for man,' of R<.>mc'. miotak"" on 10 lhe .."..... daoon ,,'ho " ....., "ruggling for rc«JlfIU, ioro, II. regubrl}' "",,'en up an,~ tung that i...nf.'..,..... bIe 10 Rom<: , .00.... lillle '1'l'I«iation "f tupography .,.j mili... l'}' t"'"1;"''' and f"",ly' . ub"uu,,,, con'<111I'''...r' · I........ for ancient ...... ..~ th ,-'Oml'k", oJi.re-ga , J for accu...., . ~ ..,..t of .U, """",'cr_ he or"n ..an.milO "",;oun" that he must kno,,· are fal..,. D;"n,..iu. of llalk . r""..... has left u' • " cr }' full accoun, " f the .a, I}'

'ue<:eUOn.

Lof' Mop of n..,. ..... 1an<1., 8m -J'd ,*,'",iN Be ~om .n-L ..", """""•• 0'. 0 "' .... ' ''O"ll'•. (kook colon 'es

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~

f....-.

" ';, h Etru"""n . hi p" ' rading ..·i(h the en' ... hieh h...t to ru n the gau ntlet of ,h,i< colon ..... T h .. , rade " ..r """n .Je>.•1opcJ into. l>ittu con~;",'1 bet" ....n , he '"'' nat;""., I n lhe do.ing ,·.... of the 7' h """",.,. the Erru....... for,-e.J thei. "'''y' acros, the T ib....-. "",pured lhe Roman ,;1I. g'" . nd ....bILohc.J a land roul......th thlough l..aliu m , ll'1C,' pr""""J on oOlnh"'ardo in t" Ca.ml"l"ia. b}"PI""ng Cumae an.J CUl1lng il otr from II><: in terior, In Campan.a they Clpu",d ""'... 1 of th" ~".I to...·.... including Pompeii .n.! Sur..,nto, . nd ""raNi.he",,,J hor found. tion '" the hund " J ," ' " under ito ' htee F tru"". n r uk.. K<>me llou ,i, h.d and hcc.me , h. riv~r Tihc " for , h" "'0. one of a gw up of hilltop ,'illage. lliat . prang up on " hid city in l ,atium, th e lef, bunk of , he , ivel at its lo west T h< Etr...e. n, " ached the su",mi, """"i ng po int, I'rohably in an altem p' of th and , ri,' er to .,ad" .. ith ' <"'e A,rezzo, He", also fo,<, d ,he I' hoe. " . n G'ed:.s to ..handon ,""tM' , i, 'c.-, , he ri"", T he Ih.i, eok",}' at AI.Ii . and '0 gained Arno ~<>"' . .."'.. '" ~ n le, tM T y'r- con, rol of tM island, lIu' ,,:on .~ of g1<:»1' ,.-a> rocnia n Sea at Pi.. ....hil>l th. Tiber !k»<" ......'h f" , .ookm hef.... " 'urning . hortli,·«! .... h .... ugh the}' had i....Ia1 «1 sou th -""" 'l<' ~o .... in... the..,a at 0.,..., Cum"" b, ' lh"i . th tu" oouth..·. rd. into Ikr ",,,,,n ,he... t..·o ri".n "'•• li trutia. Cam pa nia, toc,' h...t f.il<: Duri"i , he Sth ,..,mUI}' the population G ""'" ei' ,' 10 ito k"""" I n fact "'~:<.< or b ruri. ...... dt>perwd in,o a mulli- the}' .uffe.-.:-d a ><:no... def..t "" land at Iud. of "".11 ,·il"~. H".. a high Iron the hand. of ,he CIl......,an•. FourtttTl All" cull u'" ,kn.... . n •• \"ill.no·..a n ) ,...... Ia' er . I'fOl;>IlNy., , I><: i""igalion of , he Cumaean., , he t.' in. "",,11«1 fIouri, hed I n the 71h ~..n' u." , ..........,nul ruling an..t Rom<: npelle.J he. lO' ru""", ruler elal.$ emct,N in Etrun. A. had T arq u,n lhe Proud , 11Ii. ""'oIt ' pell happene.J in G Ift<:e , the}· uni'c.J the di...... for , I><: Etnncano as the Romano """,' elooe.J the ri,..r crossing gNU p" of "illaj(a to form weh l'O", crfui al}' "at..... Va i. an..t Ta, ,!ui nii_ 10 Il><:m. Il'ilh , I><: ...is....... . of T",!uinii .nd The li tru"""'" ....,.., g"",t ",af...... and rna,' " ,. 11 ha," """" to It aly hy ""a from y . ii. Tar'!uin ,"cd to oub to ,-.. l~· " ''''' er n .\ I.oJi,.rr'~"""" where lhey " lIi.. ml'h. [.... Po,,,,,na of e. m. in'" ~"n ~l<~ .... ith o.her OOn- hra C lu.iu m (C hiu.i) no < n , ~",d Ihe fr.}·, t~n.k .. 1'<>, ,hi. tr.de : th. Phoc nici,,,,s Collecting "'!Ieth lacg~ fo",. of "rcral i n~ f",m Ca r, h. ge on ' he nonh ElI ..,ca"" ulli nd me<~< n .ri", h. ~oa" of Africa ; ond th. (;,,,,,10.0 wh" had c" l<>ni""J , h. "",uth. rn '~" lSlS of hall' m.d< . 10l'i d od," nc" on Rome, hoping and . .. tern Sidl y, On. ,uc'h G reek to ,'ut h<.' gan 1..gh h. record. mIlCh ,he ..me ma'er"'l a. U"y, he has • marginally 1I",.,,,r apl'....aatio n or military' t""li<-. . nd. he<:au"" oc u'"'" Greek "'" ..., i, i. ofl"" .asier to ,·i.uali... the il<111. he i• .k-ocribing. L: nfonu",",dy hi. hi......" t> fnogme"'''-}' in lhe ....1}' 51h ""n' Uf}" ..; , h lhe mult lhal from c. 475 to the ou, break of.he h... I-'uni<: " 'ar in 264 ...• a,.., al.......' .nu rel}· ., , he men.' )· of I ..,,}·, Fonuna, d }' " .• ha "~ a , ubo,aruw an;~;",-al ""..,.J " 'hid he lp" uo to build up a fairl,' " ..""'" pt.."l u,e at lea" of 'M . r r . noJ ""a ponf}' of th" carll' l'<'''o.J,

,no,

''''1}'

"',no.

,h. E"..

c...,

,US,

ITALY A:-iU Til E WESTERN MEDlTERRANEAN

p",p. u , iom '0 hold ,~ ri,.." croo;si n g . A fore " ·...""uobli.hed OIIthe JanicuIum, a hill on ,he Elru.... n side of the river " .!tidl coo,..,1'<'d ,he aJ'l'l'<*'h 10 ,he

.hem_

bridll", ond ,he rit;zws anJKd selves 10 "i.m.and , lie anld<. In spi,e of 'heir J>!'<'P'8I'1I'ions ,hey were cought off pre Romans D<"I'er Sttm '0 hi,.., """'" '0 km>s "-;,h , he idea of """"'ina, Their h;"Iory i. ",,""'WI'ed "i,h disas,en ,hit COIIId easily hi,.., been a"Oided by propt'l" soo..,,;ng, 1l>e E.rusans aWOkhed unoccn, soonned .~ Janiculum and aohar>eed on .~ bridg
curiously bol h hI"e E1ru!lC8'l1 names, heroically held t.<:k ,he ene my ,,·hil.. ,hei, fdlo,,' a , izens chopped dolO'n tM bridge and so ....w . he ri'y. Bu, , he ..,.,..., enli,h'ened Romans fel, forcee army of Poneno marched on in,o I..aIium, ad....ncing 011 Aricia, the cent", of .he l .&fin ,..,.;.unce. 1l>e Gtttlr.s o f Cumac, m l;"ing that Ih;" ,,'to ,heir gm , opportunity, also the field. Cau~ht bct'*ttfl the ' W<> forces, ,ho E, ruscan army"'"

""li:

-""

\!:'i. h ' hei,land route cu, I~ Etruscans "'ere f,,,......,d to ma,n,a;n con,..... wi, h . heir s",,,hern colonicl bJ' sea. In

474 ,hey suffel'<'d yet another (TIlshing defe. ' a, I~ hinds of the GIftk. in • se. hlnle offCumae ,and.s a result ,be of Campania ""'" complc1:el~' iIola'ed. Ru. fate had •• tick '0 play; "i,hin 30 ~ hoch EIrus.can Capua ond Greek Cumae had fallen CO tbe SaIoni.es, FOI" • sbon ",hile Rom<. which had con.rolled Lalium undeT he, Etruoan ruIe~ f<>tlf:ht dnpen'e]y to hokI 011 '0

,owns

-

' -- _

. .... !""",,*, . "V ot 0..-.-

{0Nus01...."'''' " - "" "'" JanocuI..... ~

R.,...,. T...

"I''''' EIJUOCIn5 _

......, _ _ ...11'.. _ , " ' " _ ... ....., . ..... ""'" 00f\It0l ...... -.""'" II. ..

THE R iSE 010 ROME 800- z75 He THE S T R UGGLE t -OR IT A LY

ba "'PT~' , l>uI it "" as tho< u n ns who had defeated tho< Etru scans and noI the Roman. , At the beginruna: of th. 5th century, find ing her poIil;"" untenable, [{om. .....a. forced to , ign the Co"ion treaty of allianc. with the ",her Lltin town, a, equ.1 p.rtn. ... T h. nex, 1Io yea.......... r. ' p"nl by .h. La tin. llghli"ll fOT their ver)' ""i"e""" againn the usl""n hill po:opl..., . h. Acqui .nd Vobci, who ..." re being f<:>Tttd 00-..... ""0 lho< pLoiru; of Uti1,lm 1:»' lho< ""pension of ' ho< Samnitn. TItnc ru.ggN mou nt.in "",n hod gradually forad tOOr .... .y sou,h"""do lh:r""1lh 'ho< Ap"nninn, drivi"ll all before ,hern. In Ihe middle of tho< 5th ""n'ury . hory bum upon ",ulh.rn It ol}', ove r ru nni nJ C.mponia, Apulia . nd Lucanio. In .3' Ik A.qui .....ere defea' .d by the I...,in Leagu. and Ihe Vol ""i .....ere dr i.'en back. H}' the closing cu .. of the century lhe Latin I~e felt .",:ure enough 10 turn itt ."en'ion to soulhern E<1l,lrio. Tbc E.t","","",. mean....hile. b.J been tea1"chi", for • new outlet f.... lho:ir It"Ide . Aboo" SDO 1IC an EtTUs · can a>lony had been ......blillhW at Bologna in .ho< Po volle}' and • roul. opened up 10 S pina. a port at tho< hel d of the Adriatic, Hut , like the r""t. to the .out h , Ihi' ...... , ab", doomed, For ",me time th. CeI", of central Eump. had been forcing th.ir " 'ay throug h th. AIrs and se1llinJ in the Po valley , T hi. m'gtau<>n ga.hered ....." ""nlum ... , he cenlU"" ad.-anced SO . hal by .he end of u tho< Elruscaru; ""'" under prnou", from bolh north and south. R""",. DOW the dorn,nant pan .... of the u'in l.c:oeue, launched an all...,.... atta<.1:. on lhe litru>can IOWn of \"eii ...i titoed the kgiom lhol had beat .... t to opp>sc thc-rn and .....ud the rily on the hiU, . It waU ' urible .... bood for Rome and she lotI ber dominant pooi';on in . he u tin L<:ague. Rome recovered but for Ih. Etru....an' i, WI' , he begi nni ng "f th• • nd , The Lea~ue had lo' t in h,t_

hold in .o."hern Etruria and 'P"IIt ' hrtt y~ kWDquc-rinS II . This reCOntl ...... t brought the l .ngue in ' " colli' ion with T arquinii and ,everal other "f lh. Etrmcan cili •• wh" were beL~H"jn~ f•• rful "f the ~rowing po wer oflh. La lins, In 3 8~ an<.l .~ain in 386 Torquinii ""'k up . r m. hUI f. iled 10 dri"elhem hack. I n 359 Tar'luini i Iau .....hed an im'a_ >ion of u lin-oonlrolkd Elruria. T ,,'o }'eaJ"> laler Falerii ioined in and tho< fono...~na l"ar ,be ....., of the E.ruso:an fcdenllion aI... 'ook up armr.. .-\ pilil... ...-or er,.ued in ...-hich ""'h ';..1.. """ri1es.1}" ma...acoed pri""""", F inall)', in 35'. Ihe I.ugu. launch.d an all-out offen'ive . nd brought T. rq uinii and Falerii to Ihe ir knce' . It w"' ditlicuh for th. l:t ru scan, to mak e • concert e<.l effort "' they ...... re u nder p"", urc from I"'' 'h .ide•. In Ihe JIOrth Bologna " ... unable '" hold "", and by 350 it ,,'as in Cel.i< hand. and the Etruscan domina_ tion oflhe 1'0 "alle}' came to.n md, In lhe sou,h lbe Voltri ..ere ..ill a thrn' .0 'ho< League, which now lurned and fO«.'td them inlo . ubmi..;on. The Lague no'" controlled all of ...·n tem It. ly from southe rn E'ruria to northern Campanil . lIuI the q...."inn " f who gowrned La' ium _Ih. L<:ague or lI."me - re mained unre'olved. In 340 the final , tr UU I. beg.n, Ali er a hiller war la'ting th"'. ~eor< Rome em.rged a, ul\di,puled mnler and ,he hi,tOT}' of halj" ......· bocame the hi,tOl)' of Rome. T he \tit "'"1\" ...;th Ihe \ '<>loci had broughl Rome to faa: ,,~t h ,be Samni. .. oIong . he liri> nver . Rome had >igned a treaty ";Ih them in 354 to enli.. lhe" ",..I aga in.. their mUlual enemy the Vollci, I n 343 hoo'ili tin broke "'" "", ,,·ttn the lwo nation, 'hal wer e to 1•., for 50 yoar" T he fir" so-,'alled Somnile war lOla, hardly more Ihan • ",r ie. of ,kirmi,h. , . , lhe two protagoni". vied for conlml of Cam_ pania . T he main ",,,,!li,,! did not . tan fo.- another 15 )'ean, but it i"""il able. In 32~ the Roman Iabli.toed I a>lony II. lOreg<-n.... on tbe Samnite tide of lhe Liri. ri""r. I n retalialion rbe ~ni... mai""""'d a coup at "'oples al\d u:. Rome haJ been lookinS for an excuse and d.dlred "or The tint ~ ..rs of Ihi. war we", again eharacteri. ed h}' many inc" nd ",ive

r"""

tt,rmi,het; ,be Samni'n "'-ere rcloactant to _ the Roman infant!')· in the plains and Ihe Roman. were unwilling lO light th"'" o gil~ mountain..,,, in the hill" After ",ven ye,. ., of ind..i,iv. ,kirnli,hlng , the R"man, <.I« 'i<.led 10 m.ke a thru" int o Sa m nium itsel f . nd emhatkod u po n a venlu", thaI lOla. to el\d in ..I i " "," and ignominy. 3Jl T be ' 0 con.ul, for the j oornmined lheir enti", ror 10 tbe in"..iofl of Samnium, Thi' ",n,ure ","ulted in tho cape"", of the I rmy at the Coud,ne lOon.. The I"llionar.... ,,-en: 'pal"ed bout "'''''' COrTlp"11cd 10 Iea"e behin d all their belongins' Ind. clad onl)' in a tunic. to 'pas, under ,be Yrizontally al " h"ighl thaI com pelle d the R. KC'CPine ,he Roman arm in in Apulia and .he Lir~ "alley OCCllpiaJ, Ihey brwhed a,id. the C.... mpanian ar m y and Ihru' t north_ " 'Ird, . The Roman, hand. dov.. pow. r to a die"1ator who gathered .11 .,'ail.bl. f,,,,-c. and pre"e<.l , outhward , He <.Ii. patch.d half hi. troops un<.ler hi> depu t)' (tbe ma..er of Ihe 00"") 10 """er the coo" road (, he later Appian Way) ",'hil>! be htrmelf .,h"nced along the utin 'W&)' be1w..,n lbe hill•. The Sarnnite arm}' " 'Ilich had been head,,,, fo.-the 1....l1n 'It".y now chollll"d cou"", ~ .he hill ' and feU upon the masler of 'ho< hotx near Ter......~lII , T he Roman ~nn)' Wll. wiped"'" and it. .ommander killed. Rome'. "" uthem allie, now reb.II.<.I, The Samni1 . S

"""''''nod

"

ITAl. Y

"'~D

TH E

\l;'ES TER~ M EDI TERRA ~ EA '"

,..han<-nl in to Lallum......,royina: Cf'OJ>O an.d ra>'aging ,he <",un'rys id e .. far a' ....rdea within )Okm " f Rome In panic ,he R force' from lhe L iri, "a ltey T he Sam nil,·, ' here im mcd ialcly , ,,.. ,ed lhe river and auaeked the u'ea kened R<>man fo" e. The Roman. ,,'cre on ,ht r un, T o Ihe ""nh Rome' , ,,",o' Tal h ali.an allia wa>'crcd , I f lhe)' defect ed. R""",', arm!' in Apulia " ""Id ht "'" ,,11 A. ,h;; p<>e;r a.-ailable fo'Cn again.. ,he in" ad ing Samni,,,,, a"d tl>u'ing Ihem , T hey had C"me '0 near 'Ik",'itllll . hi" (:..rt""". Pe-rupa and Arrezzo ".en: for"" far . ht had onl)' had . 0 f."" he. enemi... individually . S
,ha,

'0

'0

i. al,"",,1 Impossible a.:t in unison ....1 s",n1lnum . he Samnlle and Gall i<: a.mie. f"ugh, a long dr.wn ou, hau k .gain" lhe kg i"", .nd los, The failure of Ih~ ElrU,,'a ns and lJmhrians 10 tU'n up fel r thc bau le rna}' h. " e <""t them.1I lhe ir Indcpcndenc'c, Whcn Ihe Samn i, ... wcre ddcaled . ' he E'ru",ons collap«ed ",'i'h 'hem , During the ' i.., half " f tht Jrd ""n, ur~, ,ht ....1 "f , he E"u",-"n <:i. ion ""'" ei, her I.,n,i In .65, R"man ooIonin " -.::re plan'cd ,n ,he ......rt land of E,ru l'ia an.d irs da~~ of grra'ncs. "'err ",'cr. Thc hallie of Sen,inum nor only mark cd . ht en d of 'be SOmnil'" but ai«, the bcgi n n i n~ 1' Ihe Roma n em pirc Ihe Cel,s , ulfered the w""t during thc yea.. " f expon,;"n northward. , In Z~4 . a. pan of ,ha, (lcncral "",,'e· m..." t>f ,be ( :':I,ic "'hieh ..... "" crth"",' . he king.Jom of Thrace ond pl unge .\b ....,donio in.o chaos. lhe 'k.......,., , be 'lame tr ibe " 'h ieh had ucked Romc a hundred )'' '''' befo.." m,w('d <>f ' hei r ' erti'or!' on 'hc ... d.iarie ,..,." north " f Ane"'llll, ~ro."ed the Apcnnine; and ra ided Etru .ia, The Rom an a, my whid, nl .,~he d nort h It' deal wilh the in" ade" . utTt·.e d a <'r... h· ing ,ld,·a. ,,'ith the 1,,« <'f '3 ,0CiQ men I n an ,",-1 ..f ma"i"e re.alialion l he Roman. cr"..ed ,ht motln'ain, inl o , he S.nonic "'""eland and d,,"'e the en, ire ,rihc: ou t of Ital!', 'n.e Hoii. ...ho had ""'l"ured Rologna from rht E'"""-,,n. and had «ell k d in ,be area. "".... al... ~" ..sed lhe .... penni""" hut "'err defeal ed in cenltal Err" r ia, T ht follo",in& year 'h"!, e ~ ,t>< m <>u nl. ins . gain anti were on,'. more dcfe.'ed, T hey . uc.l r , h< treat)" ".. hich [." ed r"r so )'" '' \\i'ilh , be (011 of Samnium . Rom c wru ru lled almos. the ,,'I><,le " f penin. s,,1ar h al)', Onl!, .he G rttk <:iii... of ,ht ..,."h rem.oined ou"ide , be Roman alliontt , In order <'>noohd a.~ he. "",i.;.", Rom<: began ... pu t prnsu.e on , ...... G .eek ..a' ... ' 0 Iry ." f<:tra the m int o alh.nce , T he immed,., e result wa, , h. , T.ran,,, app<:akd ,,, AIe, andcr 'he G rcat 's kinsman. I'yrr hu. , kinl\ of ['p i.". , In z~o " c he

'''bcs

ou'

'0

'0

,............ lhe Adrio.ic and lan.kd in "" ulhe.n Italy ,,'i, h zS.ooo cra~k ''''''J>'I .nd 1 0 dephan r; , II" aim " . , l' ,,-.::re dcteatcd h", al' ht"'l\h . he)' k..t oearl~' a ,hi, d of Ihtir arm)' .ht)' infticfed ".eh eas uahi... "n ~'rrh .... ,,'ho could nor enily fCpla<'C> hi< Ios>e>. , "", a ' l')'ntue •..,....." . h«:ome .be pto\'erbiol n p....oion fo. an """rn pe n>l~e gaIn . Thc follo..., n& yca. Rome de.pa lched 40.000 'H"'J>'I aKainsl , he in,..dor. T h i. timc I)'rrhm "a' ,upf",rTcd hy , he ' " " II" ,,,, 1t. Ii,Itl" T he ",c~",d h.mle la,"ed for lWO day, hUl it< re,,,11 wa; nlu~h 'he ",me a' ,he h"l. Dq>r""sed hj' his I",,,,,, . Ihe king ~n:,.",d ''''cr 10 S idh' help I hc G = ks 'herr al\tlinsl Ih e Canbagin ian. , Fearing 'h.... he CarThagi man. had arrange.! a ha<.rj' aUiantt " i ,h R~ . The Ep",,' t ....oera! al....... dr","e lhe Can bagini.an. from , he ..land . continlnti: lhem the port of I,il)'hae" m a, . he " .... ,e.n "l', Hu• r",-.::d wi,h ,ht P' '''p<:d " f a lrth ,,·i. h ' hc re m,,,nder of hi. for""" he "'as allaeked bj' ,he lIarri",n from Rhegium. wI><, inl!i",ed <'"n,i dcrable I",,,,, "n him . When. Willl the rem l"" '" " I' his ~alle fed arm y. l'yrrhm fin. lly arr i~ed a' Taranto. h., ",l l e~'ed log~thor what "''''l'' ht could and ad,'anced n"nhward. for a tina l conl...",.., ;"n ,,'i, h Iht Roman• . The Iwo R.-.nan .nnies ,,-.::re '''f'C' a. ing <el'an 'el)'•COW" ng , he rou' n In'O ""n,ra! h al)', IlInori ng .he arm)' hIm, be a, ,ht "-nit,,,. uf ,he 'wo R<Jnlan annin " a" oned near Ik no"e nte" tic marched 'h"'uxb ,he n,~h,. I><'ping ,,, 1I. 1ll tt>< """anlalle of I""il;<m hef",e Ihe Roman, reali",d he w., ~(lm ing. ~UI arri,..d " .., laIC and Ihe

'0

'0

,Ita,

""""S

""'''''' '0

"rue'"

T H E RI SE Or II. O ME Hoo- 27 5 BC T HE ITAUA=" M ILll·.... K\· S \ 'ST EMS

Roman. "",naKed '" Jcplo~' lheir forces bdorc he could ~l1a.:k, Onc-c mor<: ~.".hu. r~jkd l<> pin lhe ,icrOT} he ... Ndh' "C'<:\kd. Leam,nK lha' ,he "" hcr con.ul " . . """,,-.chin K. he retrea'ed '" Taran", and ....... ~her oct ... il for Eporus ; he had nn'c,!'ottn defea'ed b... he bJ "'" lhe " 'ar and "ilh i, l".... ,hird> of h.. army. The ~'rrhic ...., .. lhe key p<>inl in Roman milll~ry h....Jr}, Hanm bal c~ l')'rrh ... as oeoond ""Il' l<> .... leunder in hi, h"" itl' <>f le""",I., II i. unforrunar" ' l nu Iinl-hanJ rcpun of hi. ,:amp'"ln, or hi, trC"~t ik ,... military l"""lio.. . ha"e ,"rri.-ed, We ha"e onll' lhe ~e'l' un""li,fact<>r y aeroun .. <>r [.i"~' , l'lula,ch and D i""),. i,,•. I [a"; n,l ,u"';"ed 'he Pl'n-hie "'a, 'he 1I." "",n. "etC n,,,,· potent iall~' 'he fm em' '''l amo.mK lhe m,lilaT)' po"ers of the ,\ teol;' erra " ea"

The Italian Military S ystems Tbe lfe of Ko m u l ,,~ T he 'nmm ni, k , e, lahlished on t he hill. "r Rom e in ,he M.h .-em u,y woul d ha" e bc<.· n m u,'h lhe ,a rne a. ,hose of El ru , ia, .... 11 '''"e i n~ ""n<...,d h~' ,he \·illan<.wan c\lln.", ,,·"ich. 'houg" crn,,,,d on r~ ru"a ••p"'aJ a. fa, as ,he Pn "alley ,n the "'''th anol Campania in lhe ..",'h T he ""rr...... u( Ihe ,;me nr Romulu, footh, "" f" " l ,,'ilh .pca.., jo.-elin., ."..,..d>, Jawn and n .... Only lhe "'cahhle<' ,,-.. a""''''' , "hieh ..... g<:ncnlJ~' .... tn<1cd 'n helmet and cui.- ; ,he talte, beinl uwalJl' only a >mall bn:-a>lrUle f.-..uncm of an emt>.>.>c>J 1:ka\'C fOtlnd in lhe Gro" a G",micia al Vrii. bu, as fa, as the aUlhue k""".. Ihi, i, the <>nIl' example from ""mraJ Italj'. Shields, ...."'II "etC all of lhe """'1101 handgri p '''pc, "v ied from la'le hody.....- mmh al Caerc .bow. tha' ,hey ""ere a <"Cnlu,y later, T hey mal' h;,,-e been int roJu.,,,j ; n'o 1l~ ly rm m ' ''e ea" os pa" of ,he
.-_vl._vl. . .· -.v_ ........... .__-..._ r.......... _ _ CWr ..... ____

"om

Ccn,,>cn>.c<, he rna « hed in ' ri umph ,,,rr~' i ng , he king ', . " ,.." " as a 'rorh~' on ..i. , ;ghl .......lder, T he point '0 n" t<: her<: i, he ..lid not rid e ;n a cha,i... a' , he eU'lOm of the later 1T ; ~ m"h~to [, ....em. lhat lh. eha,;", .lid nol c"me ,,, fl." m" un,i l , he Eltu> _ can <"<> nq uc" lale ; n ,he 7, h ccnl U,y ~nol even , hen il Was ne" e, " , cd in batt l. but only fo, "ere ,"o nial Pur l"''' ', T he Hom an h ll >I\,ldi," prohably fough, in

,Ila,

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IT AI. Y A N D THE \1:' ESTE RN M EllI TE RRA1,a:Al>:

'hru.. "-npon• . Some have I<:>ni poin" .unable only' fo< 'hruOling ,,'hil... fC", ha,.., • oJigl'nly cun'ed sahre-like blIde 'ha' could M uS<'rm of. bulbou. di"". Scabbard. ro, 'h< . honer It>Ta, ely cngra. 'ed but a fe w have a punched de" ' ''t;" n ;n ;mit a' ion of st neh.·d lealher which w"' probab ly 'he com _ mone" moteT;al used !'" m.k ing >eahh. , d•. An antennae . wo, d, r"und al Ta rquinii in Etluria (51, wa' .. ill enca..,d in a fTOgmen,a l")' "x>obard beound «,.;ctho:r wi'h bronze wi..... The chare of thi. ocahbard " .• • n\lkk 0( bronze, and indeed "".."..1 "'her .....mp.... of bronze chaPM Mkmging ' 0 antennae . ,,-ords h",.., b«n found Thew a 'O<>dcrJ scabbard. " 'C'«' proboobl)' .....ercd "';Ih Iea'her . 'l1>e 'OP of ,t.. scahberoJ 0( both . ...-ord. anoJ Jaa' """",, , A f...· examples in bulle and bron han .urvived. The b.... ak in lhe de 'i"e de.ign iun I>;o
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TH E RISIi OF RO ME 800- 275 Be Til E ITALI AN MILITARY SYSTEMS

from m<>1t~n m~taJ. Iron weapon~ had to be beat~n ''litO ~ru.p<: as i. ,,-as imJ'<"5ible obtain ...lficicn, t~m p<:ratun: fo. II><: c"'''''1 of iron. I'll fact bea,.... " "apon, ar~ far stronger than <2St ones. Some JO Villal'loO\'an 'n'" belme.. ha<,.., bct-n d_rnd in Italy. MOtt than half of ,how ...., or the mctal <m,ed 'nlC . :_ Thi. ",a, . '11 CUllI""',ed f""", of • central European Wpe. h _ made- in t...." ~ joined aion& ,he edge of , be cn:ol. T bi, ,,-as. <: ,u rplu, lIKIal ""rr tl><: ,nun.. half'o hold ir in poloi'ion. The k".".. cdgr. of ,h~ cap at th. fro.... and tl><: bad: aloo ""~<. lal'f'rd and ,,'~n: ri, '"cd ' Oll.t l><:r. T he join' ".,.. n:inforcrd by ''''0 rccrongular plat.. ",h ich " '" ,e ri, 'eted on (see e~ploded dra", ing } I. T he", hclme.., likr aU the nth", armour of 'he period, " ere dr<;o r, ,~d wi. h 1><,.,••. T he Ihre'" long ,pike, pr ojr<;ling frmn ,he rein forcing plot . ' at the from ond hack were purely dcc"rative . The way ' hat thi, helmel wa. "',>rn, ",i,h the , pik.. at ttle f",nt and hack . i, dearl)' ,how'll on a figurin. fT"m Reggi o in Emilia (". Th~ douhle rim at . he ba,e of ' he hclmOO1 on th. hgurine ",. m, ,,, ,how a .hi<:y all had a , hick padded undnnr probably mad~ of fdt. Anotl><:r common form of hrlme! ..... the °bo:ll' type l SI. M _ examples 110.'. cas' broruc c«ol hoIdcn ,,'hieh ,,-nr drilled ,hrough '" ,g. a crest pin. T1u, . ype i,~..,.. common outsid< hal), npecially ''II 1'rar>lX -.l tbr Balkan>, onr can oJ... include: a b" tStb ........ 'ury ac hrlrno;, from 10' """",, ,n thi, gruoup . A uni'luc namplr from Fnmo ncar A""""" "'" • tube made from pla'~ bronzr ' 4' · The """,t common form of body armouT ..... t hr o.rnall rectangular bronzr r«'0ral(7and S). ~ may ha... been a>Cd on thr baci< .. wd l .. thr """'t. Se,'eral . ""mpko hav. been found ,..rying frmn ,~ '0 Hcm in depth . Hundred, of ro und p<:<:l'oral, have been di"c(",~red but ,b..e .eem to be of a , lilth' ]}' la"T da'~ and aTe di.cu,"ed a nd.. li,rUSCan armour, One or two cuira"e . of lhe Alpine l}'pe are

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in l,,,ly bUll h~i r pn>v¢nana i. unttrt"..... Tho: ¢I "bora t~ I",,,,,,ho ' n'" cuira.. '. ' .' wa. di""overed a' Nar"~ in Etru ria , " WaS fd I' .nd Te l. Tho: r..tener .,.",.i... 01. l'KI'angular pb,e "';,h , .." or ' ltree ri ngs rivncd ' 0 ,he edee and. rorrespond ing pl.,~ " i' h hoob on ,he edge. These two> r l.,e. were rivet~d 10 eu her end of . 1~'lher belt , Th... ~ belt ,'1•• 1" cvol" ed int" the , imple later ElTu
01 Italilln origin "",~ bc<:n found •·..yin' bee.wttn So .r>d 97<11\ in dill_ mc«r , T h"" , hid d., which ' hould bee ""'lOd to Ih~ 7th ce n'ury I'C, are made of em b<".ed bro nze and I'" ,b.blp pring from the . am. cent ral EU"'p" an origin •• th~ ,,'und centr.1 h and~ri l' shield' of dark-age G ree<:e. In ""nlral Eu rope exam 1'1", ha "e beeo foun d dating bad 10 ,he ~nd of 'he 5C<.X>nd millenni um. Thes.c ohield. do not Iwo,·~ • wooden .,.,.", .. might be nl"'dc-d. bu' .he handgn r . nd ..n r f..t~n
bank -in an ~mc-rgeDCY one mllh,...., .nylhing, • du..btn lid for nampl~·. I na"" remar ks Iik~ thi" and 'Ul(gc-s,it",. tha' ' hoy mij[ht be used to d~H"'1 hl"w" do litt le to promot~ th~ uncle!_ . tanding of . " d ent .....arfar e , Such a , hield .....ould ~ ' h",lutcly u..,le" in h.nk. Neverl h~,"s. these .h i~ldo m u" ~ ba"'d on functional ~xamrl~....·hleh " "rte f"')bably IM. In fact all ,he armour 01 thi' pniod may hav~ d~v~lopc: d from hid~ or "ic k ~ r rov~red .....ith bronz~ ' lud., which would . xpla'" tho embos, ing , T her< w. s an"'her type " f ' hicld .....hich h. d r rol>ably e x i ",~ d ,i n~~ tit< ll ro nu Age . T hi ,h~ lar~ o" a! body .hield " 'ith a ndl..... h.pc:d 1>0..

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knm',n .. floe ~I"''''. ",h"'h "as u,..d h~' I h~ legionari<'$ of ,he l:o,~t r~puhhc A >culptunl nop',"",n'a,ion of a .h,eld ,he whl<: h in all c.."'n'i.l. i. ide mieal la'.t H"m.n ....m ,m. " a, found in an ~ ' h · .ent ur y gr." e ;n Ihe necrop"h. of P"u;" alia Guardl ' ., Ve'ul"ni . in Elturi•. Hep",,,,n" 'i" n, of , ;m;l. r ""al ,h;"M, which la.:k "n~ ......mi.1 feat Ure. ,he 'ri""d b<>oo. hit,·~ l>«n found ,n ,he Po ,·.lIe~' and in AUSlfl.l, Thi' d,ffe'· In ,he ....' ..1 highlands of h oly.

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T he lil r useo.Ro m a n ar my of ' he 6t h ce n' ury A, ;n (iteee'e each EI' U,ean .ity h." ilS "wn aTm,' . AI,h"ugh Ihe se ci'ie' We'" "n ned in aleague, IhcyseldomoperOl.d 'OS"'her. "'hieh "ao 'heir gr ea' "'.ake~U" migh' combi"" f,,,. a "*"",,,lar ""pood ll,.,..•• nd lhe conqun' ol lhe fci r ellC1ll)' ri.h"ng each Illhe.-. In the 7th ,-en,u,~' ,h~ Etru""a n. . ili>p' ed lhe G,~d me,h"d of lig-h"n. . nd "r"ani,ed 'he" arm;e, in to r h.lanx"" One c'an say with conl;,k'nc'" ,h.. 'hey ad"r' ed I h~ ·.,ch. ;c t"" k",' wllh iii ' z x ~ Imrhle. and fou, '''''~N''''

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Thi. !i«flI' e-en"in .. ,he unns of lhe E'ru"""", R"m,,n ",m~' re ean~d ""nlUr.... l.ike , he la'er Rorrum. , be En u.... n' relied h•• ,'ily On lTO"P" eilh ~, COnquered by", in .lIi. n" ~ with the m. Tho,e wh" f.COUI an ea,lern reing a I~'rkal Ettu5Clln E'tuoan king , army. L: n.ler ,he T ""IUIIUU. Pri""", t he ... m~' """,i"elh \.i,'y and Din nysiu, of Ji. li" rn."u, give an account "f the reo,~ ani '.l ion " f Ihe Etru" "... i{"man .rm y by Sen' i'" TulJiu' in the middle of 'he 6, h ...ntu,)'. T he1r " in ually be iden'i,aJ deocrirtion. arpea, d,," 'n f""" l'abius Pi.." ... ,,'ho., ro•• • hiOlOl1' ot Rome around ~ _ H i. infonna'ion ....-n' '0 be based on II genui"" docullKnt. ThaI ~ carll' docum~n" ... ''''ri", of 'hem nlS'ed i. attested by I-'"I ,'blll' , "ho " r re'" have see n ' he Irea' )' .~.~d ...i,h Ca" ".II'O c, S09 1lC, He ,Ie,c, ih<:, 'his as "'rin en in a'ehaic I.alin which could only be p.rti.lly underslood , Ser vi", Tulli",. ,he , ..." nd of 'he

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o n 1M non hoem fro n, ie., 1'hoe C",nos.o ","'". a Im.>nu 0( c. ~oo 8C, lA'as fou nd here, T h i, .,,,,/.. i, crnboo~ 1A·"h ",..-nor 6gures ~'ing round Arg i,'c Val s in uSC a' , hi. "me, Th,' , hird d." was .i«, d i,'ided im o 2 0 '"emmie, and ar m ed as the ,""" "d da" hilt Wil h"", g r. a",s, T he r""nh d . " wa, ,imilady di\' ided in" , 20 cen'"rios. According l. i,·~' ' hey were armed o nly lA'i, h .pcar and j..-elin wMrea. Di"ny'ius gr,'e. ,hem ,he ""'fum. opcar and ,word , The fifl h cia.. lA"ere rocrn¢d in'o 30 ,.. murin; ac-cordlnll: 10 L i, ) · tM~' 1A'.r•• linge!">. ond accordina '0 D ionl·, illo both sling"" and ia.."hTte<'n. D.onl"'u. add, lhat 'he} fough' ou,side , hr h... of hank. Atlachrd '0 , hIo fiflh da.. IA n c '''''0 "n'unn of hornhkno·.rs (..,....iei....) and lrllmp',e.. (f" h' er,",). Thlo re m.,ndcrof , hr popllla'ion. ,1M: poores' <:i,i",n•• "'.re cx cm p' fro m mililary "".,,'ic"C. The army ...·a' di" id ed in ha lf h~' . ge , T he '·elc,. ns served a. a h"me g und. .. 'hey did in Gre""e, and , Ik>!.c in ,he primc of life we nt nn campaign , T hi, Wa' ' he , tr ucru r e of lhe Elru<,:.,. R"m" n .rmy wit h 2 x 4 0 li><:h", r,,,ming lhe phalanx . wh ich wa' ' " I'I'''''ed h)' 2 x 4 ~ ' "enl uti e, "I' progr."i,'c1 y liltl"cr armc<J who were hoI harmed and fnUlth, in l he "a di,ion. 1 Italian ' ly le. ' rhe di Ire...,n,"C. !>etwe<: n Ihe Iwo W U""C'

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arc m ln"n.l and ncc-d 01"' no doohl. on lhlo bf ,he description, F abi... Pictoc lA'roIe hi, hi"~ in Gtttk and one m,ghl t..- jUSlilicd lheref""c III prcfernnll l>Ion)..i...· accoun, 10 , hat of Li,")', It i. likely , ha, tM ",,-"Ond. lhird and fou "h d a,,,,, foughl on lhc lA'mg;~' lhe allie, had !>efo..., the Sc",'ia n rdonn" Howe"er , L j , ) , im plin lhat 'he)' formed l he "","Ond . ,hird and fOllnh li n.." .nd certainly al " ,me I'<,inl all Ro m.n "il;'em m U' 1 h. c' e hecn incotporated int o lhe ce nt ral lx>Jy "r tr ool"' , gi,'jng birth to ,he le~i"n of l he mi ddle repuhlic whh ilS "ari",,, type, of " 001'" ligh linlt in su,'ccss i,'e line. Ne,'enh<:l"", il i, ha rd 10 m nc,,;,'C how thi, could !>e d"nc with a ph.lan~ in lh e from line, Thlo " n' urin of the phalanx , al lea". rnu" ha"e been di,'idc<J into fou r ~Uu', \t" ~ an urn)' wa.' needed each c..nl uI)' p ro,'j
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T HE RIS E OF RO~tE 800-275 EC THE ITALI AN MILITAR Y SYSTEM S

of Rome, a large proport ion of the fir" class mUSt have gone wit h them T hi, wou ld ha\'e . e<;ou nted for Ro me' s much- reduced milim, y ~ . pab i lit y . J.ivy c1.ims th. , the ro und shield (in other word, the phal. nx) rem. ined in use until the intr od uction of p. y .t lhe end of the 5th century , T he king wa, repla""d a, " ,m_ m. nder-in_chief " f th e army hy tWO p.....et"" who ",mmanded 'he two h. 1ves of t he army . Around the middl e of the 4th century ,he pr.etorship w., ' upet _ , eded , The praetor who w mmanlk d the veteran, rna)' have su,." ived in lhe titl e of p ..... etor U rhanu" but his job beca me purely leg. 1. Cert.in ly by the 4lh cem ury Rome h. d no ' pe,:i. 1army fo r the defence of ,he cit 1'_ The tw<> chief magi" .....te' were now c.lled consul s. The n.me of prae'or conti nue d to be used for second t.nk magi'tra,e,. By the time of Polybim their numocr had risen l() , ix Ar m ament T he ",I diOT< of the ph.l.nx (the firs! d.,,) were armed in G reek f. ,hion with round Argive shield , b",nze cuirass,

gre.ve" helmet , spe. r and , wor d . Al,hough the Etrusc. ns h. d adopted the lactics .nd arm()nr of the ph.lanx, the native types of armour .n d ",e. p<>n> are found in Etru scan gr aves These includc axe head, ", hi,'h c. n hardly have been u,ed in the ph. lanx . P",sihly the inelu,i" n of these weap<>n> i. rr.ditlona L On the other h. nd they might h. ve been u,ed in , ing le comba" such a. that , hown <>n • scu lpture of tW(} hoplites frum !'akri i Vetere, . T hese are armed entirely in the Greck fa, hion except , h. t one wield, a , hort cu rved dagger. \);'hate\'e r may be the rea,on fOT the inclu,io n of t hese weapoll> , ' hey ,"<'rtamly m ukl not have been used in 'he pha lanx Thc use of fl.ii. n armour, which m ulct hardly affect the function of the p hal. nx, is well attcsted both hv ' he grave fi nd, . nd in .rt. A p. in,ing'from Ceri
(e. 52 5) shows a ,y pic.1 mixed equip_ ment : Argi,'e , hieJd, It ali. n hd met of K egau type (. ec p_ 98) .n d GraecoEtru,,:. n greaves Allhough
, SCOlotu,e ot Elf"' c, " "" "'or, ," complete G'ee , 0'0 001'1. From F. I.r', VOler., 2 W" no, """""9 co Clu",m ( Ch '" " )

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II""

I T A L Y A l"D T H E W EST ERN M EDI T ERRA NEAN

A complom Etruseln ponop/J _ lbw>d in ,he Tomh or S.... n Roo m. a t 0Mt1O ..... Lake 1loIs<:na- TIll> ........... or I 1yplCai Enusc.n mu.cl.d cui ra.., 10.. classlcll ~a vcs. Arziw s11 ldd and I Mon tcforlino h,lme ' wl' h Wpl, di.c check plec• • In neld or weaponry I considerable cho nge had Iaken pl. "• . A I ' h "u ~ h the hopli" . word remolned In usc lhe w•• 'upersed'd by • heavy lovelln

,h.

'h.

,pe.,

~l,

TII

poo boeca<M 1bc: primaTJ' o/fMUlW pon or 1bc: Roman IeVoo- It had • Ion& iron shank and _ all.toed to the wooden haft by I .oc ket, .pi k, ta"ll or • no t W1lI: wi' h ..... or IWO m ClS ·Ib••o
e.. ly In ' he 41 h c. n1ury 1houg h the . rchl,,, l"llicol . vidence i' uncerl.1n. Th ' ,p i\:c . to ngcd type fi r" ap r " " in n"rl h"n llaly In the .I1h century. The fl ' l-lln ~. d !YI" ..,m, to he d,plcted on

a . .II painting in 1M Gillloll 10mb " T.,qulnla. wllich do.... 10 1M period of Rom.', flit' coon"" with T.rquinl' ,n ,he tQid ,th century IlC. bur t~ orchaeoloKiul nampl. d.1inK to lh. lit.. J'd cen rury rom.. hom T.lamoo in E'rul1' . TIle origin or ,ht. lYPO remains obs
,.rlies'

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THE R IS E OF HO M E 800 - 27 5 Be

T il E ITA LIAN MI LITA RY SYSTEM S

Th

A ~"ui,

Vohd a nd

r cla .~ d

peoples Dur ing th , ear ly ye . " o f th e 51 h cent ury Rome c.me into violent contact with the hill, peop le of cent ral I,aly: tht Aequi and Vol,ei wer , iu' t two of the many ",a,like trioe. who , with the S. hines . nd S.m n ites , occ u pied the vall ey< of th e Apenn in e mo un 'a; n, which form 'he backho ne of the Italian peninsu la, st,e tch ing from the Alp, in

Th" .

[It< no rth all the w'j to [lte toe in [lte south Tlte peoples who oceupied the centrai sect ion of these mou nt.ins may be loosely grouped under the h.. ding of O,,'a ns Th, ,, peop ies would have served as allies or me rcen" i" in the Et ,u,c . n ar mies . Exe.vot lo n, a[ the 6'h -S 'h " e nlury nec rop oli S", , t Alfe den. 130km east of Rome . nd at C.m povalano di Cam pli ne.. Tero mo on ' hc c", ' ide of [ltc Apc,," i1,<,' Itave

produc
,

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So, e," 0' 'M,e M , . " ""0 fO"M In PO"""'"

a A 'ecoo"'lIC,'oo of • ",."'0, " om ' he c,,''''.' h","'.nds. Thi. tyoo 0' " moo, . od ",eapon. ·~"'-" d U3.<j I>y He m "" . A" O,i aod VOlsc,- H. wO. " . PO' """'''', _ , go"o,no , Oi' Ovl,,, ",e, " _"M "" ca",,,,, 'w o ,",0 " ' '''& S!"'a,••no a Gr",, '

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the blOC" . Th. '.. m • • , ing, """-''' "' • •

13 TM w.."o.- of Ca p.ostr ar>Q. bco""plat . and '''' o<~. TM ""'''''''

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14 Back 0 ' , he

' 2 " ""''''''''lICtiOO o[ the cc;"", seen f,om

pre,,,,,,,,,,,, 01 te, H,., aM neve< ' u" i_. i,

brim i5 w oo ' Dly g' osSly oxaggom' od sam ~ fig " ," ,

w,

ITALY ASD T H E lX' EST ERl' M EDI T ER RAN EAl'

>houI
=tw

hel-. with an e"",""",," brim . He i, a~ ...~th t..."O joIveh......·hiell IIave , hroWlng Ioopo, an ne and a , word which hc i, holding clooe 10 hi, breasl. ~eral example, of ,hese dioc breaslplOle, joined by a hinged metal band hove !'ocrn di,co,'tred a' Alfedcna ond Camrt", . lano di Campli. Othe r ex_ am ple, 1I.,'e been I" und., far ap ar! . s An,on.o, Ca.." a in Com pa"ia, an d Aleria in Corsica. TOOe are .11 ma de of 1:>TOIl7>: hacked wi.lI iron . The example $ho"'"Il here i. fn'm lhe roecro-po li,.' Alfedona. The di...... are ~ 3_ Scrn in d i.tme-ter (they are l e""nlly beI..""o J O and ~~crn ..i
-

al

A

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'0

The broad , boulder Nod , ...·hieh ;, )OCffl long. io ma& <JI .hltt plo'" <JI bronze , rimmed -;.11 iron. llIey "'" joined l"llet her ~'h ,ron lI inges {hat are rio'e,ed (o ,he pla,n . The band i, ioi""d to , he back Ji", with a hinge and I<) ,he front w;,h a hook. T he cui.... w•• held in p'"ilion by . har n"," ,omp<\ScJ of lwo h""d 'traps, ooe pa"ing "vcr each , h" ulder and 1><'0 omaller "rap' pa"ina under u
, ,

..

....... _ _ 50

.

. I>ov.·o on , he Capes_ lnno ...'&rrior. "I1lne .1,..,., ..hieh "'" obvMlu.ll· derio'w from !he earlier ElNllQIn examples, ore " .... Ul· .1CO)f_ .'w ...'ilh rou nd houo:s and • m~·,hical two-heade d fa" n , On ..>me eu mplc. ,lie Jec"Ora,ion io in";"".1, The iron b"" king, wllich lI ad IWo . emi-d rcular p;cce, cuI oul of 'he c-entre. is rolled over 'lie cd~e of th e dioc ,, " , he front an d hamme red no.. larger l hao

105...

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1_7 S 1 I,," _

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Vd_ """""" _ _ .. Rome

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Ope."" ..... va.o'»

" .0""""''''' ><.' Mu,..;m, f"""""o 7. S,mHor "" 'n," on tno Rologn• ..wi.

TH E RI SE Of R OME 800--275 8C T HE IT A LlA~ MILITARY S\'STEMS

These.~ clnr l)'

. hovo'n on the Capes-

nano ........ Many broad-brimmed hdmcu Ita,.., Iottn f<>llnd but"""'" wilh a rim ao " ide .. Ihat worn by the Capcslrano ",-.rrior. The p'cdonunanl I)"P" i. lhe 'poI' hdznI;t ,,'h>ch ;1 fQUnd al l "'-..- ce ntra! and nonhem Italy and around lhe head of the Adrialic in nonhcrn Yug<>.......... ll>ew pol helmc1.. ""'0'1 10 bear "'" ~lalion . 0 ,he "".liel VilbncNan

Exampl... <>f .i milat helmets from Austria artod Cud..""Im'akia su g_ gnt a cent~ of di.penion .round the had of the Adriatic. T he ea.liest!)"P" ( I , p . 102) is in Ih. fonn of. round cap turned QUI al the bnm. ll>ew helmcu ofte" Itave .....11 knobt ti\'fled on IOlhe sKIn and • erat hoIde. " lhe lop " i lh . ttach..... n...1 lhe fronl anJ Nd.. llIe type is common in central h aly and an ~ple " --U .....,n round ar Rome. lYp"' .

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d k"", " ' _ t'
SestO Calende

in

,he

foodlill. <>f the Alps , It " .... made in four pieen n,.."ed logethe1". like ,he earlier htlmeu theM lu" .., a cr..... holder .1 the lop and IIlaChmenlO " fronl and N<..ir., Thil I)l"" is probably .hown beina worn by lOme of the tirrureo on . he Cenou.

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20

rr

17

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, G_ eorn"o...• ....., d' 1 _ _• k""' ...._

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N um ber J i. a tl"P" reotticled ' 0 n,,"hem Italy and Yugosla' "ia, T he """" famoul nInlpk "''D foun d in a

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30 '''''' ~ ""... w ... """" ...... C.... ".,...lo<>o 31 3.2 Sw ",O ono'd. ,,.,., ...'" toor>e ''''ov. _ , _,.... 10 QtI , .... ",..,i", 01 e-""", A ll.........

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ITALY AK D T HE W EST ER N M E DI T ER RANE AN

N um ber 3 is unusual_ only lWO examples have been found. T his , peci_ men, which has no p, ovenance , is in Ihe M u, eo Gregoriano at the Vatican, It is int ereSl i n~ because of ilS broad bri m ,- the doseS! yel found 10 Ihe immen,e bTim of the ,--"pestrano " ",ue. 11 has a pronou nced CTest cha nnel obviously adopted from the lllyrian helmet. T his is a very nOliceahle characte ti " ic of the Yugo, la\'ian pOI belmcts . T ype 4 is common arou nd the nort bern Adrialic and in lhe Po valley. It is clea rly of the , ame fam ily a, lhe Negau lype hut i, gcncrally mueb broa dCT in the cap, N umber 5 has rece ived lhe na me of 'Cannae helmet' beca llsc lwo examples were found in Ihe region "f Ihe haltle_ field of " annac where the R" mans were dcfeated by Ha nn ibal in 2161lC, T hese two helmelS, which are in lhe Bri lish Museum, were long Ihoughl 10 come fro m the l>atl le and were used 10 cia" and dale ol heT examples , Fortunalely an exee llent specimen was found in a grave at Campo\'alano which pb ced il firmly al Ihe end of Ihe 61h c-.,ntury. T he 'e helmets , of wh i~h aoout ten example, exi" (half of lhem bave no provenance) would seem 10 be limiled 10 Ihe Adriatic ~"a" hetween An,'ona and Hari. T hey aTe characteTised b y an in,el ere st channel at the fro nt , a pro nounced wai" like Ihe Ne ~au lype and Iwo h emi.phCTi~al ho,"s which are ri\'eled to the , ide . T he ,e Ix,,,e' are made of beaten bron ze filled with lead and backed wil h on iro n disc, T he Cc rto, a , iwla , how, a peculiar helmet made up of Ix" " , or dis cs (6a), Examples of helmets of this type have been found in Yugoslavia (6), T hese are made of a wicker cap covered wilh bron7.., di,~ •. The gaps ocl ween lhe discs are filled with bro nze . lud, Cuirasses made in a similar fashion have also bee n found in Yugoolavia , T he last Iyp< (7 ), which is shown on t he Bologna ,iwla (7a), i, c o n i~a l in shape, It was nol \'ery IX'Pular and cert ainly nO! as effeCli\'e as lhe brimmed lype" hut a fcw example. ha\'e becn found T he one shown here is fro m Oppeano near Verona , It is made in lwo pieces tiveted 10geIher and has a ~a" bron ,.., topknot. T here arc two , mall bTonze loops on the inside for fa s teni n ~ a chi n strap , The othe r types

."

wete also held on by a chi n strap which wa, umall, ' allached to t he lini ng ,'ap and is often , 'i, ihk on the ,iwla. T he watrior of Ca pe'trano i, weaTing a throat ~uard : a very similar example wa, foun d at Alfedena, On his upper left aTm he wears an armband . Such armbands have bee n found in POSilion arou nd the left h ume.-", in t he warrior graves III Alfedena, which brin.o;s to mind the stor,. of T ar peia, t he Roman maiden .t lhe lime of Romulus, who betrayed lhe C. pi101 10 lhe Sabin.. in relurn for Ihe gold bracdets that lhey wmc on their left arms . There i, so often an underlying tr uth in the old legend" Even lhe sequel may havc a grain of tru th in iI, for Ihe Sabine, pTOha bly spoke O""an and they may ha\'e had difficu hy in undcT"anding what Tarpeia ""a",ed when she lX'i nlcd to whal lhey were wearing on theiT left arm, and o/feTed hn Iheir , hield s, T he warr ior of Ca pe" rano has no shield and no shield remain. have bee n fou nd at the excavalions. It th erefor~ seems mOSllikely lhat lhe non-metallic ' CUl um in one of its for ms was used . A d""or ated brcast dis" fTOm Ihe Anco na area further nor th shows a fallen warrim holding wha l must be an Argive ,hield . The Ancona area ha. produced abundant evidence t haI the full h(}pJi te equipment had been adopled there, but lhere is no similat evidenc~ for its adoplion in the central area , G re~ k arm"ur wa. having only the slightest infl uence in lhe c~ ntra l area . Of all the ~ra v es exea \'aled at Alfedena and Ca mpovalano unly one ha s yielded any G reek armour; Ihe unique OscoCorint hian helmCl (sec p . 6', ' 3) and a 6th_century Gt~ek greave (.ee S, p . '03) were fou nd logelher in a grave at Campovalano. T his greave is eKeep· lio nal, and lbe warr i"r of C aI'C' trano cert ainly doe , nol wear an y, Further nort h , pro bably under lhe influence of the G reeh . nd Etru.~ans , gTea\'cs hecame com mon p la~e and. pair were found in the famous warrior gra\'e at Sesto C olende , A very sim ple upper and lower ann guard were also found at AlfeM n. bUI Ihe, e 100 are unique. Armour uoually comi ' ted only of a cui" ," and helmet. Su . pended fro m the harness of hi, cui rass on lhe right side, lhe Ca pestr ano warrior has an elaboralely decoraled

swor d . An almost identical sword was fou nd", Alfeard, thaI have bee n found. T hc," SW'<>Tds are all of Greek hoplile lype probably ado pted from lhe Etruscans. T heir hlade length, \'ary octwcen 60 ancl ,ocm . ' I'he handles and the top and Ix)[[om of Ihe scabbards of these , word, aTe made of bone covered with iron . T his iro n facing ofren has pierced decoralion so lhal Ihe Ixmc ,how, Ih ro ugh. The handles "fR oman dagge", of lhe caTly empiTe are made in exact ly the same way. T his and the wides pread remains of hoplile swords fw m Ihe Po valley 10 Apulia and from Ihe Adriati,' [() Corsica, wilhoul ",unling the areas such a, Hruttium, Lucania, Ca m p.nia an d Sicily which came direcl ly under Greek influence, leave no c10uhl Iha' Ihis wa' also the primary sWOTd used by Rome and the I.a lin League before lhe introduction of the S panish lype in lhe 3rd century , On t he Capesltano sta lue a small knife is visible a11a~hed to t he fronl of the swt>Td ,eahhard . S imi lar knives, with a blade lenglh of 20- 25cm, have been found lying on to p of th e sword scabbard in the gr",'es al C. mpovalano. So me of the gravc' eon lained iro n daggers complete with their iTon scabba rds and chains for attaching them to , he belt. The blades (}f these weapo n. werc 25-30<:m in length Mo st of these daggers ha\'e four prongs projecting aro und the pommel, which seem 10 indicale a centr. l European origin. A wide variely of ' peaThcads have been re~ o ,"e fe d , betraying the many influences affecIing Ihe cen" al It alians , There ore ex.mples d early of My~ e _ naean, Gre~k and Villanovan deri\'ation whil.. ot hers are just a, clearly fro m none of lhese sou rces, T he moot characleri'tic of these lallet lypes are quad rangular and triangular , haped Thei , , ioe \'aTies fTom liny lTiangu lar javelin lX'ints less lhan Scm long to a quadtangul", spearhead over Socm in lenglh. All Ihe"" 'peaTS and javelins ha \'e poinlcd iTOn butts . A,t any spear· head, and bum were fou nd in pooitio n in lhe gra"e, m aki n~ it possible to est ablis h Iheir lenglh' , which vary between ' .6 and 2.6m Hefore leaving lhis perio d . omcthing must be said of lhe peoples of the Po

v."

T H E RI S E OF ROM E 800- 275 £C THE ITALlA:'\ MI LI TARY SYSTEMS

v.ney during the time of the Elfu",an expan, ion north of lhe Apennine" Ailhough they may only have had a mar~inal influence on the Elruscans, they had a g"aI effect on Ihe invadin~ Cell, who in lurn had an enOrmOu' influence on the Romans. Durin~ Ihe 6th .nd 5th centuries a vibraIlt cullure existed jm l sout h of ,he Alp, . T hi, ind uded the whole . rea of the Po valley and nort h_western Yugoslavia , These people had a unique art form known to archaeolo~i't s as "tula art. r he,e si'ulae arc bronze bucket' which were elaborald y decorated with em bossed fi~ures often including warr iors and chariots . These repre,en'a'ion" ~" u ple d wi, h the wea_ I"m, and armou r thaI have bee n found, make it po"ible to draw a fair ly accurate picture of the north It ahan warrior of the 6,h and 51h cenl uries In the north, to<>, Ihe 1">1 helmel wa, the mo"common form . It was gradually superseded by the Negau type dur i n ~ the 51h century. Shields of all , hapes and size> are , hown on ,he siuda., from round Argiv e type' , ,, oval and rectangular body , hidds . The iro n shie ld 00.. (' 4 , p 103) undoubted ly comes ftom a body , hield , I" sections show lhat lhe shield w", convex. The figu re from , he Arnoaidi situta (1 3 , p . 103) i, ohen identified as an invadi ng Ce il, and indeed it i, just possible that he is., but his heime!, Iwo spe ars or javelins , tunic and spined , hield should ' urely make him an halian. Howev~r, onl;' a ,hort time later bo, h lhi, lype of shield and h~ lrnet were he ing used by lhe Ce l" of the Po valley and wer~ uIlq ue>tionabiy .dopted fro m ,he Italian, . M elal euirass", do not , "em'" ha " e been u,ed and the C" idcnec of the ,imla. suggests Ihat "'en the linen cuirass was rejected. Bronze s
spears and ",>metim", an axe . "" hen two 'pears .re shown one rna,. rcason . hly ' uppo,e lhat lhey are lhrowable. Ch" ri,,!S arc a regular fealUre of warrior bu rials. On ' he si",lae , hey are usually shown in a ceremonial ~~m te xt and il ",em, unlikely that lhey were u.ed in hattie, e,pecially as fighting hor,emen of,~n appear on the si'ulae, T he Vace clasp show, 'wo hor,~men fi ght ing wi,h spea rs and axes. O ne w~ars a po' helmet but neithe! h. ve shield•. A similar un,hid d ~d ho,",e man arme d wilh an axe appears on 'hc C ~ r lO,a , i",la . T his suggest' lha, ar",md JOO Be eavalry did not carry , hields, bu' ' he , hghtiy 1m ", Arnoaldi " ",Ia sho"-,, a .."alryman , till wearing a I"ll helmel hut armed with two javelin, and . n Argive lype shield , T he Sa mn ;le . Wilh lhe defeal of [he ',loisci, who ()Ccupi~ d ,he L epini ,nd Au, oni hiih which hem mcd in La, ium 10 'he ~a" , the Latin I."ague ~ame into di r"Cl conlact wilh lhe S"m niles alon~ the river Li ri, . S, mnium wa, ,hat area of the ce ntra l highland, hmitc d by the ri"er Sangr o in the non h and the Ofanlo in the soulh and it "-'as with the people of lhis .rea Ih", lhe Samnite war s were fough,- However, , he area o~"upied by tr ihes direc~ l y rd ated to lhe Samnites was for greater. Soon after

500 Re , following ' he collap", of Etr u' _ <'an I">wer in the , out h, Samnite aibes pou red down into lhe coasta l plains , Outing lhe sueceed ing cem ury they ()Ccupied lhe who l ~ of the south fmm Ca mpania t" lhe toe "I' hal l' T he Elruscan colony of Ca pua fell 10 lhem in 423 and ,wo ye.rs la'~r lhe G reek city of Cum"e, whi<'h had piayed ,u, h an important part in lhe defcat of Lars P""ena a century earlier , was also caplured , Apuli. on lhe east ",a" had similarl y been oce u p i~ d . The Samnit", mixed wit h ' he local I">pulation, and soon produced independent tribes with a mixed culture slrongly influenced by ,he Greeks who h.d colonised 'he co",t.l area, bd Me 'hem. In the middle of t he 41h century, prohably in res ponse 10 the rapid expansion of the LatIn L eague, lhe Samnites tr ied 10 fot ce lheir ki "'nt ~n in Ca mJ"lnia to join 'he Samni" fedn a_ ,i on . I n 343 th ~ La,i n League, , imilarl,. nervou' about lhc expansion of the federalion, intervened 10 maintain Ihe indepe ndence of Campania and so bro ught on , he fir" confmnta,ion be· ' ween the IWo powcrs. 8elow

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T H E RI SE O F ROME 800-17S Be THIO IT ALIAS M ILlT AR\' S \ 'STEMS

lbc Ionl "-u th:a' bop.n in YO ;,; dividN by th< hi>< r . ide and in thi' re.ped the Le.l(u~ wos sucee.,ful The War l...ed only thr~ ~ )'~ars and ",os imm~dia'~ ly follnwed by lhe .. ru!Q(l~ beN'...,n Rom ~ and her alli'" for con,rol of the Lealf"~' 1'1>< main bc:p n in 3Zg and conti"u~d, ..,< Samni' e army in which h~ de.cr ibe. 'hem n for ming two regiments, o,,~ " med wit h ,ilver sh i~lds and 'he other ,,"'ith 8old~n shield' . Th~ '.ilv« shield. ' ,,"'Of ~ whi'e linen 'unk. and had silver «;abba.-d. and bald riCI-, "" hilst the 'golden .hi~lds· had multi-a>loured tunica ",-jth gold scabbards and baldrics. 111< 1IOld>en wore a brea.. plll' e ,,'hieh L vy con . 0 ' poIlIl'C (~..)" This QOUId be in,eroe..,1 . 1 lhe lOp 10 protect ,he ehcsl. and sroul< so-called Sarnnil~ aJadiators of his 0""" day. SCUll"u..... of lhese glad"l.,.. have surviwd ond ' hey carry who' i. clearly ' he OVOIIC~ I~ '" ,,; , h the lOP Cui off. Thc.~ a.~ unfo rtun. ,ely no undi s-

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THE RISE OF RO M E 800-275 Be T HE ITALIAN MILITAR Y SYSTEMS

the ea rly Roman sh ield which Livy o.lIs a ,emum. The re was a tradition in lhe laler republic quoled by Sallmt that lhe L ucanian Samni tes used shields mack of o' iers covered wi'h ,heel''; hide . T his shield seem s 10 be • light version of the SCUlUm. While Jl can hardly be doubled Ihal 'he coastal Sarnnile' adopled the Argive 'hield, what littk evidence ' h"Te i, pmn" , oward ' the u,e of lhe ,,","urn in Sam_ nium i{;elf and also in lhe highland lerrilOr~' of Lucania , T he fragmel1 ,.ry fres"o at Na ples . 1"" show, ;a"elins with 'hrowing loors \X" " io" are most commonly sh own e.rrying two ja" d in' , Sometime' the,e ate rather long .nd i' <,X lUld be arg u~el ' hat they are spears , bUI lhe simplest interprelation is t hat when there are two shown, a, least oneofl hem must be fot throwing_ Sometime' a single weap<>n lhat i, unque" ionahly a 'pear i, , hown . T he w. 11paint ing, c~m fir m thal all lhe main lypes of srearhead found at Alfedena a"d Ca mJXwalano were in use in lhe 4th cemury, induding the quadrangula r and triangular ,ypes. A dCaT repre,entation of the lau et lyre is shown on a pol1io n ofa funerar~' paintin~ fro m Na r les, Thi s . lso shows a kopl> , which see m, to be unique as nonc " f t hc o'her painling' of warriors show, swo,d s at . 11 All oft hc warr i"" depicted wear broad bells and helmets , usually of AHic lype, lOpped Wilh crest and fealhcrs _S<>me wca, gr~. ,' c s ; these are e"en worn by lhe oce..iona l h'm c_ man and a few wear a breastplate. T his is u' u. lly triangular in form and em\"",,"<1 with lhrec di,e', T he 'warriors' ,eturn' f resro shows w' Him. wit h ,quare peclorals, but this is uniq"e, T hi' painting olso ' hoI'S f10~ lype
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lhe ('" e~h_ The fact that i' may has'e been found in Sieily i' unimportant as it rould have been taken there by a Samllite rn ~ r ce n O' y . Every,hing about i' C'ri~, oul for recognit ion anel ,hn~ can be lill ie doubt thaI this is our only tr ue re prese mat ion 0 f a SamniIe warr ior , Wilh lhe a",h a~ol"gica l evidence we arc ahle «) confirm anel ' ometime< c10rify the evidence which i, el" wn hom paintings and seulplure An enormous numbe r of broad bwn ee belts have bee n found all over <'ent,,1 and s<,uthern h aly_ Whate ver eh e a Samnite, Campan ian , L ucanian Or Apulian might <>r migh' not wear , he wo" ld always ha"e his helt whic'h seemed to be the very symbol of hi. manhood , T hese vary fro m 8 IO H cm in b,eaelt h anel ar~ fa Sl en ~ d with l WO h,,,,b whic'h wcre in",n ed in'o ",rre'· pond ing holes at the other end of the belt , There were uSl1ally lhree p. i" of thcse hole, ' 0 that lh e hel t could he ad juste d . Thc h,,,,ks arc normally hcl el to the beit by a f1a n~e in.lhe shape of a palmelle which is riveleel 10 the bell. Although lhe'" palme" e' has'e a variely of fm ms _ threc of whi<'h are , hown in

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the illust rat ion (3, " and 7)- the vast maiori ly conform 10 I his ~ener al pattern There are • few which are lo n~ and nal, Ow (4) . T he' e are nor ma lly used in • gro up of four or fi ve in" cad of 'h e customary two . Som etime' lhe fl angc has ananthro pomorphicform and lhere are a few be.ulifl1 l examples whe,e the h""k ha' becn made into the for m of an elephant', heael and trunk. The, c mu" dale 10 the period im mediately following the Pyrrhic war , O n . few occasions the ho le> al ,h ~ othe r end of thc bdl were replaced by ring tastener< which were aho held by a palmen e flange (3) . T he belt was lined with leMher which was "itched throu~ h in the archaic Greek "yk Thc tr iple di"" cuim" which appe~rs on many Campa nian " a'e ' i. well . ttested in archaeo logy, About t 5 examples are known, i ndu din~ one from Alfteltna in the centr al highlands and onc h om !'a«! u m in l,ucania, ' howing lhal they were in us. bolh in Samnium and on the coast . The sample shown h er e i, fm m ,\I f~ ele na _ h is com plele except f()[ one of t he ,houl eler plate' Thi s example is f.irly represemal ive

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ITALY AI' '' T H E \t'ESTERN M EDI TE RRA~ EA:-:

,,'ith the .houlder and .ide plat... attached the front and bod:; plat". b~' nnp and hoob. The .houlokr pla'.....,,'hem'e. ,~-.urvin"archinged in ,he ""ntre. (TlloK on , he e:umplc a, Kar ln u ,,", ...., false n t~· are 1<><> .1Ion 10 """,,h tho: bad, p1ale.) The .JIouldn pW<:n <Ji ,he 10..,' cuirao.sd at Sapko are not only hincro in , ho: <Ji thi. I)'pe <Ji roirass has'e heen found. The finnl out_Sad in Tuni. ia, was probably taken back to Afri~a by one: of Ha nnibal' s ."ldien. The origin "f ,hi. 'ype or " .ita.. i. ob",--ute, il must lOJ'Jleho... be ' elot e.r1jer than lhe " nJ ri"nal form, I n fact ,me i. ~ne , he kft _hand and bottom disc " 'ilh ,he lonJ(ue to which ' he .ide plate ,,·u I llached . Al the lOp of ,he kf,_hand d, ,,, i. I f""gment of , he c " 'all r-in,in, to"",'n "' ' , he ,,-arrion' mum ' from ra...n.m sho.... ........ " 'oaring IqUite bter..tp!.a'", ,,-bic:h a.e moulded in ,he form of the musdn <Ji ,..., tOl'OO. $eo'"",,1 n;ampkt of """" survive. The bnl ~ i. a hrra>l and ba<;k plale in lho: Bri' i.h Mu"""m . ......... in tho: i1Iut''''''ion , B }' coml-'lring i, to , he frnco from P....,um i, i. pouibk 10 r«on"TU<:I il emnple,d}' . II i. only 29Cm deoop, which is faT ''''' .mall for tho: mu••:ula,u of a no.mal man. All , he o,he, """m pl", a", of • • imila, . i"". 11 i. ck...., therefo'e , thaI , he navel and ,I>< pectoral mu,d ... We '" ""v•• intended to fit ,h. ror.e'J'I",ding part, ofthe w.are" The 'wo part S were only in tended ' 0 cover lhe hack and chest above , he bro od bell .. ,hown on th. fresco.

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THE RIS E OF ROME 800- 275 Be THE IT AU A:'" M IUTA lt\' svs runs

Shollldtr pla'.... "" doub' similu to 'holot on 'M criplt di'" ~"'lfa •....., "",.., fa>'tnc<J to I"" frunt ~J ~k pl.:"", ...i ,h ,,·hil.. . i!h of tbtK old< rIa'n, ... hi<:h it. dtttrm;nM by thot Gthc'r ,,'hieh was rolltd 0\'.... , .... fronc .nd sticched throueh . TI'll<.-n of Ihi . art ckarly v;.ihk. 11e..·.u""' of tht l:kit of an au..... ra' t Pf<>'·t""n~.., CM da'ing of 'hci.c cui u ..to ;. ,..ory dIfficult . The wall paintine fro m P. ...' um must datt to I.... ,im(' of 1M Samn itt occup.:llion WO--l 73 tM.:. _"to"l "d,,,>I~r> wou ld prefer an earlie' J a't, "" r<=,hap. the euiu""," ,I'o" ld bt pl.etd in 'bt Ii" t half of the 4th eon,u , y, ThedtCO'. tionis undoubtedly the rcoult of O re,-k in]]uence being tra", (err ed r,,'m 'he mu ,ded euie." Hnwevc" e'-l ually certa inly these cuir · a, se. in an u nm u,ded f"rm must h",', originoted in Ih. ,:em,.1 hi~hlands , for Ih i. i' undoubtedly I nati"t form and Rom.n. WU t .. ill .. 'ea,i n~ t hem al , he 'i me of Pol}'biu. T wo L"e' enmpleo , prohably fTUm the Sa mnile " '.r r<=ti<>d, arc on , ho" at )\,;apl.... A, Ii ..., .lance 'Mse appear '0 he from • mu",led cui ...... butthej' .re 100 .mall roe thi••nd " ""ld reqwrc shoul&' and .ide Tbc)' are oho"" .......,.,ructC'd in , he illuS1ntion "" p. 106 .I.t.... y s.m."ebelmelullrvi,c. They ...., cnily ICalltni... ble by 'heir fra.hc'r holden. T her .re ...ual1r a modified roem of ,he GkCCk Chalcidian belmel .,ith ~ d ....l< ~ but no nose ,..,..-d and " ill therd'....c he ",rerred '0 .. s.m.ile Allie I • • ' . p. ' 07). ' fbco<: """c copied frnm ,he coasIJI G recb and from IMr. IiI'efC'd inland . rump le. com. from the roo".l a"",s. A......"", Mlmel " .•• al.., making in dcbul. D urin. ,he 4'h century lhe .\ ton lefor! ino ' yre of Celtic helmet

"na-

ha,..,

(sec p. l ao) ..'algnJ ....1I1' heingadoptN ouch u....rul purpow. It folio.... tllat .hroughou, I, all' and on.....1. peci men. 1M ehecl< p~ wu der,,'ed from lhe ha'.., h<-en fou nd ,n the cent nl high- cuinu and not " ice· ' " na. ·rltis i. ,..,....,. importanl .. llu. I,·pe of cheri: pi~ 1anJ.• . A Ii..... rumple ";Ih scaUoptd " ......k P"""" anJ Ii'·e·~ iron ha. alwo' "$ been con.idered to he of frat her ho:>lder Can he oren in ,he Cel,icorigln It i••ij:nifican, these LotI,·... It ;. "",",11 in , he ill~ nlion lobe> " ....e 1M 6m chara<1crioti<: of the Ot> p. • 06. tri ple di.. ched piece lha' the Cd" ahandoned , The d>t:d p~ <c helmet. attachmcn .. fo. " raps, a fa. h'on later T he IWo ll'heo A_ A protrude from adop'ed by lhe Rom.n•. the ,i d•• of , h ~ cuira.. to hold the & H:ul romple.e """ of ar mo u, have raSl
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T H E \t"EST Ekt>: M.EDITERRA:-;I'A:-;

of Lo ndon, co",i.. , of ~ win,.,d helm<1,

hrea' l _ and hack plate, grean.. and bell , T hi> is an nld nnd ant tha t ;, (a",d rom L""ania, T he g,ea,'.,., ",hich al' pes' to he of late arehai,' t)'"". though the)' are ","nainl¥ much late. than thi', ha,.., ",rap fa..eni"lt' at the had, "Il>c helrnct "of An "" 'ypeand ha, ..-jnlt' of thin . h<xt bronze. f",,'he. hoIdcn in lhe form of ooiled . flak... and a rai>ed ern t holdt-r , It i. " cry .i "'t lar to the hel",et wOrn hy 'he Capoan h"".,,,,an , 11<,,,,n op po, i, e, Thi, panoply "'u" be da'ed to ' he n..t h. lf"f ' he 4th cen'ury, A ' ''''''nd " " n" ply, enn.iMing of Winged be l"'et, triple di" eUi' a", .nd belt, WH found in n:<:cOl years at P....... m I.ike the pt"e'ioou. exa"'pIc the heltnC1 has "';ngo tNde of .h<xt h""",e ..-hieh ha,." fea. "'" tu,,", behind 'heem, Both bclmet and cui,,..,; .how .ign. of ~rat ion in d...ign .nd probably date 10 tbc pc, i,>0 near fl,ori co"'; of .. pair of bile e~ical G=k grn a G'e<:k "'t..d ed cuirass, "ingec "'..... decoratio n "n 'hee side "f , he cuir~ .., " 'hieh i. a popu l. r Samni' e motur ed "n the local ,'a,e pa;m i n ~ " T he '0_ called h al,,_Corinthi.n helmet seem. '0 h. ve ori,o:inate
han lurned up in lhe arc> and in one mi d_3rd---centur )' gr ave at Can",. a m u'ded cui, . " and CeI,ic hclmet were f" und together, To , umm.ri", : the ."uther n 1•• lian highland "'arrior in the -4th ""n'"r~' " '.. a fairly light]y armed ja"eltne-er or 'f'Carrnan U i""late the ' ''ltanisati''n and laet;.. of the S.mnite ar my fro m the jumble nf ."ntr adietor y informati"n ,o:;'' 'n in U,'y an d Dion,.. ius i• • fr uitl.... u .• k, Lh'" call. the d"i,;on. of , he Samni'e army legjon. whcRas. Dion""n.. call. 'ltc-ir banle Ii... a ",,",lam . whieh is ~uaIl Yu...nlighfenifill, In all probabili')' ne11he. ci 'hem had the . ligh'''f idea nf ' br Sarnnn" form. ' ion .nd they ,hc-tcf<"e fen back on , he ..od "i"nal lCrmi", '~'lP' , The Somni' e ar m. men' '"ltll''' '' tha' they f"ught in " k'n,e f" r m. t;on, T heir ahility to oUlma noeu",e and nu, ma,,'h ,he Koman. ",,,,H, m, ' hat they " 'e"" more lightl y . ' '''ed . nd """" loosel y .... ~"cd tlun lhe JcgX>n.. 01 f.,.the ( ired ",,",lan~ , Surpn,i"l ' hough if mal' """", .ina lheir Ilomrland ...... in , he highl andt, , he s..mni,.. produced the bes t horse _ men in Italy, I n the pl.in. " f Cam p,mi. a fm mi da ble cavalr y fore o evol ved and in the 3,d an d 2nd centuries the '.-IIm p. nia", f",m ed the t.ackhonc of the Rom.n ,,,vall'}', 5o" era] C.-II m panian and norther n L uca nian paintinll' sl>o'" ,hese I'1oon(:men, The.., li"" eum plc fn>m Cal'''''' ...·hieh un_ fununa' e1)' ....' ''''"cdduring , he Second lJ:'or ld W'ar , In this I""inlin,o: . he horse wars " cham f'"" , unnounted by fea_ , bers, On anoth", example f",m Pac. _ tum the ht"", wea" ,,,me frn-m of pcytr.L Exam ples of h. ' th types 0 1 . , ,,, ,,ur can be at "' . p le" Th e ho=men "'em to be arme
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T HE R iS E O F RO.\1 E gOO-275 Be THE H ALlA.'! :rl IUTA RY S YSTE MS

The Celts T he Ce l" or iginat ed In southern Germ,ny and I;- hegan to m" ve into ' he Balkan" and a' , he beginning of t he 3rd centu ry, laking ad"antage of the lack of strong governmen, in M ace_ donia and T h ra c ~ , t h ~ y ow rr an ho, h tnnntr ie, and spilled over in'o Asia .\ \ inor whe re lhey fi nally sen led in Gala,i a. The lau er are usua lly referre d to a' Gala ta. (Galatians) , During 'he 4th cen lury the G" uls moun' ed a , neco"i on of plundering .. ids in cent ral Italy. u sua lly 'hey wero deflected by , he stronger groups- th o Etru, can" L atins and Samnites-a nd were channelled into Apuli" , where it is po" ihle tha' they I(lunded permanent commun1ltes, T he Romans treated the Ce lts as they , rcated no otheT nali" n , They sy,tematically ma"acrod t hem in nmthern Italy, Sp ain and France , T ne reCnn · quo" of the Po valley after lhe H anni· balie war wa, carried out with such brutality , hat in t h~ midd le of t h ~ 2nd century Polybius could say , hat t h ~ Celts r~m"i ned only in '. few regions under lhe Alp" . M"" of our knowledge of the Celts unfortunate ly comes to n' only tnrough ,heir eoemies, the G reeks and Roman, lJiod nrus , th~ Sid li" n historian, paints

a ,'ivid picture of these warriors, de sCTih ing the ir colourf ul clot hes, long mou'tacno, and h,iT that wa, wa,hed with lim e to make it sta nd up like a horse's ma ne, I nitially the Romans were terr illcd hy these huge men who lowered above them , But l"" r, whe n they were able to recognis~ ,nd exp loit the C""llie weakne " e" they became C'lnlemptuou , of tne unruly barbarians , L ivy's accou nl of the Celt ic wars very much refl ects this view But contemptuou, though t h ~ Romans may naw been, under " g(xld general t he CeI" made excellent sold ie" , T hey formed half of Han nibal' s army which for 15 years d" mi nalrne a const,ot U".at. A I"t'. ove., fi gure" horn s or the f ronts of birds or centu'Vtale. to. Ro""o, io,oded ,hoi' four · l(x" ed anim" ls, li e carried " long horne lano io to. M"che, , ' ouod A.ico"a ,or' , hield as high a, a man whi ch might " ro"" thom out 0' ''' 'y

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be d..." "" ed w"h tigur~ em oo...<e
hronu . Chariots '«"' u.cd for fi;:.l"il18 alt"in.. Clvall)" . lX'hen tlgh'ing from I"s ,,...,..11<,",, c!>uil.. ,he ,nrm. ,h",,,· his ~,.., Iin s ti.., anJ , I>Mole. "'arrion ( hett Diodo.>r... m.... "'"" champion» ..""Id ..ep 0<1, ahead ,he li~. brandi. hing .I>cir ..-aJ'<'M .n fron' of 'hem to i"'ri", letml', and dWle"lte 1M ......, ,..I;'m of 'M e otm)· 10 single comba!. If tl>< d " IlJrnllC "'a' ac<:q>ted .he dumpi",... on , rue bart>aric f""hion. '...lUJd break imo song. ex,oIling ,he dc-ed. of hi. a""",,'o" and bo3s' ing of hi. ow .....'com r!ishmcn.. ,,·hil.. a' ,he ..."'" nme I""mng scorn on ,he c hallenl!"r. T he Ruma "s tw",'u",d . ...' ·e"l "f 'heir general. "'hi' had a,",er ' ed ,he challenge and killed a Cel.ie ch am pion in 'i ngle comha" They "'rre rewa,ded hy hring pc,miued !O dedic~" ' he ,pu ils (prima ' f'< ,lt a) in the ' em ple "f Jupiter I'c, el,iu. , T herc "'e'C al,o .«w ndQ and I""a ,polia , which dcp.:nded on ,he rank of t he winner, Ti, u, Manli us. in ' he 4lh cen' ury, ,e ru'edly "vercamc a gigan,ic Cell and m irpcd h im of hi. golden ' ''''lue, lh u. ""'eivintl- lhe c"lt""me n of T orqualu, The mo.,., ",..ewonhy of th... hen"" "'a' .\ l at'Cll. C1ludi ....\ lo rttllt" . who

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killed ,I>< G illic chid l. in Viridumaru. in single '~""Nl in 22: IIC. lie "en' un hecome R""""s ......, ...=sful l!"nc,al . tl-l',n.. lI a nnibal during his Clmpaill"" in haly. \I'''''n I>< had killed hi. enemy, ."" C.d'ic "..rnor cu, " lJ his heaod and hung i' frunt his hone 's ned . He ....,.,ld . hen .. rir l he body and hi. oqui,e carry oil l he bloo.J__nerN .poi," ..hil.. he s" ng a racan .,.."" ,hem. '1''''' . poil s ""re ...,Ied 10 , he ....II of h is house. T he htaoh of his fl'lOS( disungu..hcd """"";", "...,.., cmboolmcd in ado' oil. T he head oJ ,he cons,,1 Luciu. Poo,,,mi,,s, ,,'ho "'I' killed 1:>y the Celt. in 'he 1' 0 Yalley in 2 [6. " 'liS d"rla~'Cd in I le...ple. The cxca,·~,ion. carried ,lU' II En.remo."" ha,'C r",...,.led lha' 'he "",'ered hc. ,Jo "'e'e fa r more 'ha n meTe , r" phies and hrt:onlC pan of a relig;ou. r;' ual. Al En tr emont bead, we, e d i s rl a~' cd in nic h ~s a",und a .-.: , em"" ial ~ .t ,'w ... . llef,,' e m,,,,ing on 10 a dotai led exami,,,ti,,,, " f Ceh ie eq uipment it m i~hl he helpful '" make a few commcna alx,u' (:': hic warfarc in general It w.. lhl: g< ""..1"rini"" " f ' he ancient o" th" " lha ' lite Cell• •It,,wod no app' eci, ' i"n "f 1",'1;" ,,,. ,,,a,el\Y, Polybius "''"''"'''' . hem "f h.,'ina: ""ither a r lan ,>/' cam l"'ign ,," r judgemen, in ",,,...:un na: i, . and add. ' hal they did ,,'hate' 'CT .he heal " f I"'" ion a>m-

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Ito,..,

manded . Thi• .... v giYe Ihe impression tlta' , he Cel.. f""ght a. a rabble. bu' ,he inel", ,,,n of " andards anJ 'ru mpet' alff(>nll l ite Celt,c .",~t. , I>:' '''n on ,he areh of Oranl!" I fairly rigid orga ni... 'iI.... and C........·• description of pol., rteranc ,he <>Vt1'lllpping "'odds of , he Ctll. m , rtftr '0 a do.c:_kni' pltalln. ,,·h...-h """ i' can""" ......, bet.. ,he n...rmal Celt ic formalion• s........ , bar , hey could <:vcn c ..... ~ too, banle liM. poI~·b"., · O\O'n dcacripoion oftl>< ballle ,-'( T elamon .."",Id ....... to s" r ",'" ,h.. v..... . Hc-rc lhe Cel.. ,,~ Clugh, herWttn Roman armit;o and hned up bod. '0 back " 'i'h ' " '' Ii"", facinll each ....y "" 'ha' ,he army' ",.. four Ii"'" deer , Pol ~·t>i". is full oJ adm ,rali".. f" r .hio Ii...· " r and ...y'. [hal Ct...,n in hi. do~'. 7~ )" ~~ bIer. i' was
."unt.

,wo

THE R IS E 01' RO I, t E 800- 2?5 pC TH E IT A U A:ooi .\ U U TA R \ · SYSTEMS

urn'. hooh . 00......".,1> and ,hei..hidd. ba"lIIln, O«'ic<:ahl" 'h;o" ........ of.he

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",pn>o;" u'io", of Cd' i~ an""' ,,,mcIlU of wa. ; " . nd;lTd•. hOTlls and lrumpcts. T ho: ~ nmm o .... Sl form or Ir ump"l u,,,d by ,h,' C"lt. was lhe "arny~ T his wa, • k'l\~ in,trumem wil h it. mou th in 'he f"rm of' an animal ', h• •d at righl a"!ll... t he ned: or lh" ,n"rumetll, 1"..., .. ~ .ho.. 'n o n , he (;und,-suup cauld'on an d on ,he ar.::h a' Orange. ... c.am~'X ho:ad ,,,.. found a, De.Hord 1ft Scolland . O rigi nal!)' , his h.ad a """'..bIe jaw' anJ a ,,'O<>Ikn '<>nguc "" ,hat ..-hen " ..cas bIolA... " ,m..1J h.a,'" em",a! " ",uc"OUl n lliina sound. TI", 'uM of" GUTI~'x " " . f nd at Tan e._ ,hall Bridge in '-i ""~>l hi,,,. The " '"" of thc ' -n i. a"".."d 1»' P"I~t'iu . and i, ' '''''''n O il a ",litf from ",mllio in n,..,hcrn Italy l ie." ,I>< hornblower i. 'huwn wit h a m und . pinod ,hiold .imil"r 10 ,he ty pe u>cd hy , h" ~av alr y . T ho ,am" ,eulplure ,huw, a " and"rd be.",r wear ing a hor""d l'elliau helmet and carrying a Ji'l in" li,'d }' , haped ""ield, A , imilar .h ield "'0 he ••,,,n on ,he 'om!»,one of I Roma n aoxilia'}' ,,"ndard hca,-er from Il lod ril " "' Wall. The oddt)· ,haro::d .pear"""d at . he I<JOI of the Bo<mio .. anI"a! (rum 0.11 ie >1"'"...-

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cunei... "", , ho, ,he .trange . pea r~ heaJ•• or whieh ' ,'''eral " -ere f....nd . t La T tnc (l . .. " must "" f",m Sland" , d•. Fl a~ , Similar to the Roman t,,~· iI/~ . arul ani mal 'land.,d, . imila' lu , he Ruman 1"llion. , y emblem" al~ ,h"wn " n 'he .r<·h . t Orange and leave I ; {{I~. doub' ,hal lhe R<>mam inheri,eJ Ihem f",m lh" Ce l.. The..... wae fou, ')'1"" of o.lrie sold lcr, hca,~' inl ,,,,' '}', Jillh, ,nfan'')', ea"alry and cho rio«",,", All rou. ' ~'pc> ar~ .!leo,a! b}' PoIl·hi... . The hca,"}' infantf)', KOOI"din l '" all , he ancien, sourtt>. " "'" primaril}' . ..-ord>m<-n. The " lh. inbn' ry """" prnu"",bly ",,'dineen. () ",nl·,i ~ Jes..,riheo ,he o.lr. ,,·hi.l ing ,hcir •..-<>rd. abo' e t hei r he.d•• ,id~ .nd , Ia.. h,ng , be ai, fmm .id~ ' hen , trikillg downward, al ,heir ~ne_ n"e' as if choppi ng w,~~J. It was ,hi. u,~ "f tile ,word th" , , orrifiod ,heir opl'"nenl' . I h" , ner, lll~ R"m. 1IS soon 1~ .. n~J to de.1 wi,h lhi<: l'ol~'h i u, ",," lha' 'he}' we'e train<'d h' 'ak~ 'Ile fi"" hlo'" ,of lh~ , ..""d " n 'he , im of ,he .h;"ld. "'h,eh ,,·a. ,~," fon.-ed " 'i,h an iron ... il'. \\:·bell , be ........d ..rock the trinfor-ccd r im i. ""n, dowhk hh a
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......-1< him ,,·hil... he ..... d",.. mad. The f)· al", found , hal .. , he o.lr .Ias d ,,'i,h hi••" 'ord . he ,,-as able to brc. k ,he blo ,,· " 'i,h hi• • hiel d and go in

under nea,h i, to , hru. , .. ,he ..mna.;h . I'olyhiu" ,k.cripe;"'n of , he ,..-ord MnJinll i. pro hah ly c ~ a!lller. 'ed. Thi, m ~y . " mclime. ha,'. hapI'Cned hut C"'lli" >wur d, wcr o ~en" rally better ,Il.n Ihi" I h",'. ,,-"~n a 2.ooo-yo. r-old . ",,,rd whicb w• • dr<'d!«'d f",m ,be lake of l'eucha,el a nd ",hieh i., ill<;i d" " lally, fro m ,he period Pol rbiu. i. Jcoc"'h,ng, ""n, .1"""" douhk and then 8n t - l . PoIyb1u, alw mcn"on' , he o.hic f...hion or " ·.",.inS . nnku in bou" . ,he rac."k,. or , .... ,ype round in Hrn. sn " " '" ,,-.xn on . he ri ght arm """ '0 be ch;o lknged .., ,hcy " ""Id ",-",'c r h;ove " ayed on a man', atm . part icu larl )' ,he upper ar m , " 'hil,, he wield"d hi. " vM d. Hi"d"ru' >lro".. Ih" leng'h of tile Cd' ;" , word com pa' od to , he , horle, . wo, d. (p , ". umably "r the (;ro" b and R"m.n. ). T lli, exall.!l,'ra'od lellgtb of ,I>< . ....... d i, aloo rcflee,cd in 'he mller onclenl .ource•. H.."'.......r, it i. not " nti"'h' 1ft><." , ror a' 'hc ,i me of o."ie . .. pr~~'. c. 4 ~O-2 50 ao;, th"ir."""d. ..·....... ,enenJly compara,i'-el)' .!>on ..i,h I blade length or 6ocm. " itich is no IonJt<'T ,h.an , ....... "",d b)' the E'ru.... ,.n. and Romans of . he ..me

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ITALY AND T H E W E ST E RN M ED IT ER RAN EAN

. 250· 120 8 long~r

hlade did nol come imo fa.hion un. il 'he la,e J .d to lOt cenlune. IOC. Hundred' of Cellic .word. have bee n found of whic h a . m.1I .. mpl( is • hown he",. T hey Ofe grouped by the tradi'ion.1 I.. Tone daling >y>lem,,'ilh approxim.'e dalC$ The sword. from Lo Ttr'le I (c. 450250 IIC) have hlades thaI a", ,.,......lIy ~ 55 _nd 6sem long, Num~r I, which has a bbde of lloem. is ..,,,:epo 'ional. Th..... 'WQI"ds a", .n douhle. edged and poin.ed and are of cul~nd thru.t 'ype. The mosl characteris' ic f... 'ure of 'hese .... Iy weal""'" is lheir pronounced dlape . Daggers ....... abo common dunne Ihis period. Theei. hladt. vary from broad, almos' . ....nlrUl.r, •...,.... fO .hin uilello Iypes anod .... ,.........lIy l S- JOCf" in length. Dunng . be I.... Ttnc II period (c. l<;O--UO lie) ,he . _ d developed into a weapon ....... csdusively for slash,ng. The poim beam< rounded and gradually ir>crea'IC:d in length umil blades of 7S-lloem were commonplace . Such a •.....-d. comp!ele wi.h handle , would "-cish a tilograrn. Alrl>o<>@;h the early dlape form. con.inued in ,be Ralbns, in .......em Europe ,he chare was modified .o fol_ II-.: dolely the contour of lhe •...."d. Hundred. of 'bese . word. have heen dredged from ,be lake a, Lo T t ne in Sw inefland and although 'hrte are rqoonol dltr......ncn ....hich .ho..- ma,nly in ,he scahbard, lbe Lo T tnc Iype may he accc-pted .. T<:J"'C><'",.,ive orlbe period. The scabbard., ...-hieh are u.uan)· made of iron, .'" COnslrue'led from lwo pla'eI. T he fron! pl.t~, "'hi"h i••IIShlly wider lhln the back, i. folded ove. il along lbe sidc-<. II i. reinforced by a deco.a,ed band around the lOP and a " hare which act. n. ",infoldng n m .111'0.. bou "", . OUTing lhe I .... Ttll< II I period (c . ra0-50 1lC) Ihe k nll' h of the hlade ""ntinu.d to incre... and IIOIn< uample. arc a' lo ng a' 9O<'m, Al' houjlh pointed ' ''''lid. ex isted, the predominani Iy pe "'a. ft 'H, nd~d T h.: k'ng ,,,abbard , hown in this group i. rmm Britain, II, ....hb.rd . hare i••le_,I)' derived fro m Ih e L a T~n . ty pe but its gre"' len~th of ne. rl)" S4cm . ugge. ts I bat it , hould be placed in 11'0" lat.. period period . T he

,

. .

,

,

"

•

._1

,,.

•

• t'"""I> <

r1 .~~

l _U ! .. _ ' o' t... c.~.. . _ ~ n 1 Z . "" J Sw<>o-d, oM sca!lt>a,,!>

!,"" '.. M"""' ...... '" ' '' '''''

5, Genna,"

"'""u m

'h.

4.5 oM 5 0 _ _ """ ",,,,,,,,,,,I, I""" ...."'..... ot f,,,,,,,,, St G"",o,n Mu,"um 7 _ 7. 5""'Q '"0 "'obb" d La Tene B.",I """'0"', Sw;t_,"""

"om

7b boc k", 7 a ,how'"9 ,""",0""" loop

1 . " d ~ $wo
,-

11 '"

,..

'"d ll b SwoacI< '"

',"",,",d I,,,,,, [_on. C...-nt>e>10n
' 5"0"' "'" M, ,,.. vallav, F,an"" Ho''''''. "'"",, '

70 10D '" tM co.'" of 7 a

16 F,OO'

8 Co.... "I a 'W"'Q f,om ' '' "ce. < 200 BC

1 6. Sc"'pt,,," I",",

Po'.''''''"', T" , kO'

T HE RI SE OF RO ME ~OO -2 7 5 Be TilE ITA U AN M ILITAR Y SY STEM S

T he conquest of Gaul by eacs" in 55B<: , pelt the end of the Celtic warr ior nn the m n l in~m of Europe, In Brim in a Celtic ,uh<;ultur~ ,urv i" ed f(}r " nolher 150 years. T he swor d hl" de, ITom thi, period (La T ime I V) ar e ~en era lly ,hort er than in the prev ious era , "arying fro m ~5 10 75em . T he ,worel '~ah b arel from Em blelon in Cu mh<;r land ( u a ), with i" , mall twin - foot ed chape, i, lypic"1 of th~ p"riod. $ w(}rd hanelle" which wer e no rmall y m.de of woo<J or leather or , orne Olh er per ishable mater ial, ha" e almost always el i ", p p e ar~ d, T he t.. dition. 1 sword handl e wa, in Ihe for m of an X, "i tt echoing l h ~ ~"rlicr Ib l" ",, anlcn nac type, . A handle of , hi, lypc i, shown on the victor y fr ie, e at I'ergam um am()fl!!' I h ~ spoils laken from the Gala_ tian, ( ' 6 a ). A .imilar shape i. ea, y to· .dele," on lh c C"rly sword from I ialstall in Au"tria e' 6i an d on lhc La Ttne II sword from $ t .\ 1.u r le, t' o,"", in ,he "'·Iam e v. lley , l'r. nce ( ' 5). T he handle of lhe ' word from T horpe B ridlin~to n in York, hire ( q ), Ihou!!,h latc, " ill echoe, Ihis tradition al li)[m. Some_ times this type of handk w" mael e in the form of a man with his arm , rai sed . The later L a T t lle IV hand les, such as the exam ple fro m H od Hill in Dorset (' 4\ often show a
~• o ~

1'. . 'A bovo on d

'\.

right

11- '9 C, It" c..It cia, ,,, Toov.", , II f,om I• • " ,.,

"",\>

17 F,om E"" 10 oo"he'o Ital, 4th_3' d co,,,"'" Be E,,< Mesoum 18 f,om c. Ten• . 1,d_2n d ",,"," 'V Bf Neooh; lol Museum 19 ' '' 'eent"" 'ype 0' hoo' ' ,,'ene' Rom'W-.e , G.,,-o, oiseh.. Len" .l mu, eum

M,,",

20 R", 0"

,e, b ~" d "om nO',"em lta'v , hOW"'" the ,o"",n"o" lo(>p M,I," Mu, .u~,

p.,,, 0' ,wO'd ch.""

21 22. 23 hom L. Iene

~ . 4 5 0_ 2 ~ 0

25

Be

25

(0<

'''' '''1

0.250 - ' 20 DC

'"

3J

24 "etho<> of at UiCh,ng thO ,wO''' 'hO longe' p;oco of to.", (231 "jol oed lo 0"" of m• '0""" p"' e, bv a thong wh ;c" pa"e, through the 100 D " n me ""abba'" Toe '"",'d " ploced on ,,.. ' ;yhl "''9 ".net the 1009'" p'oce o' cha;o p,,,", 'ouM t-eh lnd lh.

'u,"""',,,"

O, e.. to hook up", the " on1. AD 100

"

34

39 45

Ah ov"

25- 49 Ce"'c ' P'"" . nO., ,,elin, Seal" 1 8 25_29 S pe " M ' ~ ' 30 31 $po., butt> 32 J .V, ;1n h e, ~ 26. 29 " 0 30 f 'o", the Mat'. are, 0' F"ooo. 51 Go"".," .M" ... ,m ~ 5 . 27. al ,o ~ a2 O" gio u,,'nown Sl Mu, eum. 33_36 5",,,,ho,d, f,om l . Too, ~ooJch;", Mu,"om ]1 SpoarMM h o m the M"oe "e, 0' f ,,
28 f ",,,, no"hO,"

".IV G.,,,,,,"

e,50 BC_

<. 120 -50 DC

.

5' Ge"."," Mu•• um. 38_44 5ee.,head '

.~"v"." " the " to of Coo, o( , ' ;og< 0' Y,'clngelO''' a' AI",a '" Cen"" f ,anc. S, G"'rr>o ," Mo,eum 45 See", 0011 " om A."" $ , G. ,rr>';" MUS. 45 J , vel; " O
'"

I T A l. Y

A ~D

T H E WESTERN MEDITERRA SEA l':

_pea.. lhal ... usN , Spear and ja,-di n

n:pbccd lhe dlain "";"11" daor ~ of.1Ine ~b.ps_ comrlel~ '" ilh part of .he kolhe. hel" ha ~~ bt.:n rccover<:d from lhe 10k<: al La '1'..... . They an: " . ually in lhe fOnIl of • ho"k ,.-hi~h f"I~""d ' 0 a . ing al lhe <>l< allhe othe, ~ 1 1 ) . "l"h~ eu mpk' from I.. which ""m~ f.n m the La "("..... II period ' n: m""h .impkr, and an: u."all y in the . hape of. ring ",ilh a ...... a"oehmenl ( I S" Lat~, it ...."OI~ ed imo. mo.-c <:orw~n,i..nal book ,.-i'h an anoehmen' pia... In ,110: , hird reri<>d the hook ..... oft"" ~ lone and 'IOm<1l""" I\ln~. b.1I in il' decoration il bo«nys ," evoilll ion f..,m lhe rinil ra..~...r of ,110: prr>->OU' period (I,:. T he C~II ..'•• renown~d ••• • wo,d._ m.n .nd }'.I Diodoru. d= .ibc, the

........ are abo """"anlly ~nl in ",aniot buriab. Thi_ ~n.. a con>icad. and butt. ....e .. di"""",red al La "1".."" , l11ese are .....r1y 3.s m IonR and cnuld ...."'. be "" ",lin•. To confound ma"eh r,,"btr lhe)' 01 1 had .......11 hc'aJ~ im!'l)ing..hat n>en ........ orthe heads""" and . - "',..Ii.... Th i. d, rf",ul,y _ IDS l<> be ,murrnounlabk. for In . man ..·ho u a . pear. "'hieh i. """ di,pooabk , hi nrd mil" be a _dary " ... p.m. The only .~m d u. ; o n ,hal .-an be dra,,'" frum ,hi. i. tha' althoullh ,he Cell m.~·

A _ a<>d . .hI

t

1 2 0nI ", .... - . .....,. d'OOlvelI,oI "'_

h"""7'p """

Sw"'''''od 1 rho ',on' '" "... 00' ."'.Id "--" "<1 ,,'. "' ....

_ ""'" Tho '''I ~ '" " "Y h (/","o" S;m,,,, "' "" c.,..,od "",,h ''''''

-r..""

'M "on ",.p"""" < 2SO BC. St.", 1:10

u"

,pea"

r...,..., .poan

_

Tho _ . !O

(II ....

l . t _ _'" _ " I I ....

!O

"

Q'_ UmM"_. """ 'ho ....

h... ....... ''''''''' ;" 0 ' 0...." oM 1"".,><1

ha,,,, h«n I'fl maril y a . _doman. bt .... nn' nd"',rtly so. llio<;m long Thc«' ' l"' . th cad, C"me in on alm"'t infinite ....i. ty. I'h<"c Ihal are m"" , }'p;<'l lIy Celt ic ,well nUt a' , he base and 'hen C\lr~~ conca~ el }' ,,,,,..rd. the I""n t. Diodoru< men , ion. a type or "" ..lin lind ,,; th an und ulalin(t' ed(t'e ..·hich bt .. ~.. "'" only ....... lhe 6nh but '"""Itb it a. well. S""h >pear_ head. (""" .... . ha,·e h«n found on borli La T ....., II and III ';1... ~""....r the Celt. """'" "p .pim.< , ... Romans they .....m '0 ha~e ad"pted ,he .. ,,:k~t ed type of pil",.. , Exam!,"" or th"", have bt.:n found a' min)" Celtic

.""at_

f".. _ _

f,.,,,,, .....'ho""'" ll... ,

3 S<>o_ <:..'" . . - ""'" Or~ ," _ _" t"... 01 ~"""""",

v"',"'"

To,'.,.

.. Cor"" ,h,o'" c" ,Oed b'y tOOl «>1<1,.... ",...It_ on • • ' h· C"o' ",. ",""'ord

THE RISE OF ROME 800-n~ Be TH E IT ALI" :'\; .\ II UTAR Y S YSTEMS

oil.. in sout""m Europe . Thi. milh, explain " 'hy Ilim l .a T~ne uo men · li"l\ed above i. f,,' m . iavetin , 'I(·...,n Diod" ' Il' ""}'. rru.t Ihe ('...h ie ohield was • • !.,JI •• a m.n , ..., i. gr"". ly u .agge.." ng. T he remain. of Ihtoc ohield. " 'Ore found a' La Ttne . These are m Ions. Ttm ..."",ld llj)Jlnr 'n be: fairly repn:scn,ni" e of d", lhiclds Iho-..'n in Cd'icoculprllre ....hich , _hen ....ing on lhe ground. """""' "I' 10 a hnle above Ihe ......i.t. The ,h",e exampl.. from La T ene , ,,'hieh have now .. nfon una'ely f.U"n I" piece" were maJ e of oak. They wcr. appro ximalely •.2cm Ihkk in Ihe ce ntre , ,apering , tighl ly " "' -OTd, lhe lide. T wo of Ihe I hidd . ha,'. an h ahan ' ype . pindle boos . On rhe ,hird Ihi. pan IS m...",s· T he cenlre of lhe:

.bou. ..,

. pindle bolO i. hollo" ied 0111 ' 0 .llow bIInle . The Celli< , h,eld. ohown on , hi: , he hand h > grasp lhe ru.nd k . This ' i<:lor y frico<~ al Pcrx-am um appea.. 10 handle i. m.Je of a sepa ra", piece of ha" e • hide r." ing, Thi, WOlIld have wood u'uaU y rei nforced wi,h. ,,,ip of covered bolh f"ml and !>ad I>f lhe: iro n which wa, nai leJ 10 the shield a' . hk ld and ha"e I>c"n do ubled up .Iong eilher enJ , A reeta ngul" iron pla' e the edge to reinfor"" Ih e rim . An ~x· wa, na iled . eros, .he fronl r lhal lhe Ltt T ene eu m pko "" ;Ih hide """,ld ..-eil:h 6-- 7k& (Ihe wood ...-e..~ <;Oftred ...; Ih hide , Of pouib/y at>oor 4kg, the hide about zk.1: and lhe felt , .. boo..~ -.rood ",,,,,,Id hove sph, iron Ilo5s 250ll). The an.:ien.. m llSl have ",'hen . "u. k with a oJ",hing . word . bttn ....,11 aware .ha , oak con be hardSimilar I->a .. wooden . hicld. wcr• • 1", ened by b.J:j na: . al\.. her ,hield. The or igin of lhi. Iyp<: of . hield i, were moM ,p<:cially for I->u, i.l, and ol->"'ure The , imilarilie, be, ween Ihe other c-eremo nials a' Ihey obvious l;- Roman ",.m"" and lhe ('.chic ,hield are """re ,n pr imilive Ure<:ce and It aly. .... rem. r kable Ih., ,hq' must hao.~ e I h~ 'I(' hao., is cen.in is . hal .n uncm'e red same origin , The e.rl;"';1 evidence fo.. "'"O
230 _120 10<:

.

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. "

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.... M.m '" f'.....,. S, ,,",-0 ... _ 11 ~ hom foo-.. Vugosl . 12 l J 1. ' 1\anOg"" 1><",,"_ La T......

"on

_"'.~ e- ._. _ _"""". v_

n.. _ _ a _ _ .... _ _ ... r - _ _

_~F<.....,.

_ _ bo O

_

...... d ........... JusI _ _ "10'1 .... ore <:on _ "'" honroo, . " "0 bu.. ' P'.... . ..... _

f""""

wi",

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-.

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_ _ _ .... .... . " C - - ' . _ ..

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.. f,...." So

~So- Goo"." ' . .-... from ......... n- '" 11<>0I ~ ""'" of """ 11<>0I _ _ S, Germaon

M _ .l. '«ln '_ ·_ """'Jw,..a P<-1,.ca .. ' .... ll.,... Alp<- T... . - <:om""'" ia

on

y~ _ ..,;.

19 B',,"," ·bon.. f". ..... loo nd

" ..."", 'i" .. I Mu"um

C..doH

",

ITA L Y A ND T HE

W ES TE R~

M EDITERRANEAN

figm es shown on ' he Holst.., s~ob b"d , .Il h.ve a back peak to pro tect the neck, c , 400 tIC , wherea' ' he e\'idenee for ' hc They ar. generally refer red to as 'h< SCutum preda' es this by som~ 300 ye.". ,\lontefo " ino type . fler th~ buri"1 Th~ ()nly poss ible co nclu' ion i, that the ground where , h~y were fi " t fou nd Cd" adopte d ' he It alian ' hield when T hese can dear ly he traced h. ck 10 • the;- in vaded holy ;n the 5th century tn '" ()f helme ' ' hat was in use in F rance and from h er~ i" use f,lte red bock and Au'tr ia dllr ing the loter 5th cemur ~' . cro ss the Alp" T he Ha l"a11 ' cahbard ( I , . ). T he,e were bron ee helme" wit h c'Quld well be an e' po n from , h ~ Cel" . n elon~'l:l umber; traces the d cvelopm~nt from the simple 5, 6 and 9 ore fro m Se nones graYc, and strip boss of the 3rd century Be '0 the mllst d>te to 'he period hefm e 2 ~Z Be, el"borote butt er fl y oo"e, fotllld in when ,hc,~ Cel" wer c d riven Ollt by the Bri..in in the '" cent ur y M' . Alt hollgh Romam. T hey ore generally da'ed to all ' he bo"c, ' hown, exce p' ' 9 , were the lale 4th or e. rly .'lrd cen tur y, Th~ fOll11d on the '~ ll1 t i nc n t of Eur ope, in helmets from the Sen o n~, ' graYe, are most coses s;mil" exam ple' ha,·c heen llSU" lJy m. de ~i , her comp letely of iro n fou"d in Br;t.in , or of iron and hrome, thOllgh 0 few T he ma jor;, y of Celt ic shield' were co n tinll ~ he maJ e entirely of bronze. oval, bu t ' he archa~<>1ogic" 1 nam ple, Several ex.mpl es h.ve . m ultipl e ere" .nd the repre""nutiom , how that they holde' m.d o of iro n fitt ed 10 the lOp_ could also be rectangular, hexag()nal kno t (see no , 6 ;,. f hi' pre,"mahly held or round , T hes e ,.me repr esent. tions f~a the" a' the , ide' and. horseh.i r ,how the 'hield' J~coratcd wi' h sym - ere" a' the top T he cheek pieces of bo h , anima h or gc~,me ' ri c desig n, these helmets o, e near ly alw"y, of tho Diodoru s elaims that these mot ifs wcr e tr iple disc type ( Stt 6 1 which m u
'0

A,1>o• • A, Celt"

ch.F" om G," I., th ' ' ;'-1'0 of C,o,., " . W OO" a n ito o 001",,, . od "" , , h" t H" long , w ",~ o,"gs 00 h i, 'ig h' " ip. Swond,. B"' ,'h Ce " "" ,h li'D" ",,,heO h,i' ao ~ , k, o ",,,OPed w i" wo, d Tt-, Q"" m'l",i" pf Ce'" wo'e 00 armo ur. T'ev I, me ",,,hed the ' r Oa,r. oomoi"g it b." f,,,,," the I",ehe." to ,t-o n.,,,, of the "C' . ' 0 that it ,"", mbleOe ho" " "'ane. Th. st , Ie " 'oawn 00 ' 0"_' of coi" •. ThO '''e mpt to m, k. the h,,· ""d uo "'. th " of " ang,y

,·,i,"""

e" ce O<J,ng l, ",i'D i'i"" ' "d ,n. y "'OV,,,. the "" 9 '001 he" et" " C' ",, on he l"",,, The f
"""de

w.,.

T H E RI SE 0 1' k O.\I E 800-n~ Be Tim ITALIAS M ILI T AR Y S\ 'STE.M,S

Bolo", 1 _17 Tbo ......,_, 01 ,... ~ "o mot a..o.... ,_ .......... COt'>< "om on . _

.... n" _"""\0",-.
2--6--

..
" 200 lie

100 lie

_. ":~ ~~. /

~- -.....,-

OJ...,.,. """ nMo....,," I,l""'o/"",,,,, a.....

1 """ .""'.,, " om • En....... """"" .... """ '" ' - ViIIo I,l,-..o

• IIn;.nzo _ . . . - "' .......

.

0"'" - . '0....,.,10 .......... t".... v_ (........).

........t"".... ...... Moo.

F."""" S, Go,mom M. _ m

11 "ouod 'oo"ood b,w". C. oo. " "o ....,mot Cr. m"". Mu,"" ", 1Z I,,,,, "._, " om CO....""10 in ,,,. 11. '_

,-,. """ - ""'" A"", , . _ "" 1) ."", _ " o m

",

yugoo ......

_,,_I,l..........~ .............. 1 $ 80-_ .... mo, 'o.'" _ "'" (S. . . . .

_..

1 B,oc, . nolm., hom Som",e ·T"" ,,,,, F,onee St~m .m M, sev..

...

2 11<""", ........., """" 0..""_9 boo .......... ~

J _ _ """'

" • &on>t

Au..... V-..

... ".,

f •....,.

~ l1< otI1O _ , _ . _ ll'

"""""0..........

i B'""", """ 'on .......... "0"' " ,. ~

""",,,,,,,,;, .t Mooteto" ,""

A"coo . Mo",,,m

L,u.) C••""'.·.... ·S_ " y""," 11 I,,,,, .......... ' ,om Pol! "" , ~, d "",

,w,tzo"",,1 '""en M".."",

1 7 Iroo _ , ""'" G,,,"IOSro, Tie"'O, .. "" S..... AJ... Z..... cn M_

1.

Boonzo _

' ......... 80-

""',., ... ' ...._

,. _ _ '"' l

....

_

_c-.

~_

20 kon ChH. - " ..""' ........ s, a--n

",-

._11

*"""'" 0" ,,,. ..en., """ 0.10 ' " noo

21 ' '''' hoi...., O,an",. .

,"

[TALY AND n lE W liS TERN M EDl T ERRAl" EAN

Altl>ough Ihe Cell. had been almo;l dri,'.n OUI <>f hal )' b)' Ih. fi",' quartet ofille 2nd ",n1ltty II<:, ,he :.t""",fonino Ill"< .Iill lum' up in lhe " ~ll~~ of ,lit ....Ipo. The .umplt> found htr<: ( 12 , ' 4 1 ace . ""lu.i\""ly made of iron aRJe eharaet...."..,..

The .\Iun,d"onino he[mn " .... ,he mosl . u""",..ful . y"" ",.." . ""'ign

a> ,h, CooJ us In" .f... 0 '''-<:en'u')'

nample found in J'n""" Although il ".... never . , I""f"lla. n .1>< .\Iontefonino'j"I>¢. it, "OC' bttarnt ",id.. preaJ in 'M 'st c..,mury 1lC . R"" .mum in Asia '\Iino. An ",ampl". Ih"ugh il ~." u ld M an im port , h•••1.., hee n found . , Amf,._ ville in nor lh" rn Fr ance

""".me

a

.-

5 1 ...,.,'

"'._"' •

....'''''' ""'" ~....,n,,,, ..,

nthe .......

Ih. " .,"". ......,"

""'"

1 8<""", ,.,,,,, """'COl _ !rom ...." .. T"" toll.. bu' II..........

.. ,

ottoo<'""..,n "'" ocl 01,"," "'''''''' . . - ...... _ n 10c nd on

f,"'" .... ""'. _

......."on "

s.-..,., ........." "',," "",n· "'.

...,....n

'101, e." ... ~'" 2 "",n"om oli"',,., .......... 8<,', . h ... "...., m 3A

ronf, ,,," ',.nc. >how '''Il .

11.... ·"'••ho>d h. "

c.l' "" th

.. C."" N"O," " "'" ....,mot j,o m the Alp, Th"" .1"'0", """,,,.1 '0'h".,,1,.,. ".1'." """ "c.p ' f", ,no "0" " ~\IO 4 . In. I
of f ,

"lI'o.CeIb<: T"" "'••,,,. _"0'" _no 00'"", 0""""" ~'"

<..',,"'" ec

""'"'" .. ",.wed on, '"

'h. "' " _ on 1 00.." of ,... "." "",pol l • """"''''''' <~" . .. ........"" '"

j ",,,,

N'"",.

8 " bolt , ,• ." of ,,,. ""'" wom "" ,... ",.n'", 01 G, o••n f,om A"" ,. ,n C"" '<:a Th" " no"

C. "'c 'vpo

9. 10 T",o " "",,"0 noOd' f, om S••nte ·A"""".

' '''I e<

N'",., "".."m

lIor""" M ime.. rca.llinl" ,hose des cribed hI' Dtn eumple ofo hor""" ~ial hellner ..... found in lhe Thamco at \t"' 1<' 1oo Rridge ( Ill . II d mcto deoora'cd ,,;,11 onim. l. .. dncribcd ~ lliolample hao come '0 li~hl. Thi. "'.. found at C iu...... i ,n R"mania. It io . helm", of ,he Ra11na '}-PC: II } I ,.,i,h a bird nn .op. Thio b,rd till. hinged ou,_ '''tlehed " "m", " 'hieh mus' h.ve flapped up and wn . s lhe w. .' e, , alk'ped in..' ban k. Som e 4th ." enlu ' r Celtic have !><en diSUlV.." d in n,,,thern I'aly which conla,n Elfu'con Ne,au 'ype helm""

bea"",'

t....

"a,"e,

T H E RI SE OF RO ME 800-a75 RC THE IT AUA:'" -"' fLITAR\" S\·STE.\tS

Tha'I~ Cell. adopo:td lhe Scpu ~l_ mel i> wnfirlmd by ,he .ll~~' of

""'....al nampln c( a Cellic for m of S egllu hellmt in ,he c.mral All"tlC ..•.. ' 4· 1'· 11:). In the , . 1 cem ury IIC IWo n.w appellr, T hl:y are ct<»ely rd ..t•.l and are generally rde " ed to a, ,h,· A~en -P"rl type, . T he Agen type ( ' 7) a c·op r..her like a !>owler ha, with. hri m. T he P"rt h.. a . imilar cap hut a .leep n.d guard ",hich iHi veted on (•• I, Bo,h a ....... type of d >ttk pi....., " 'hieh ...' n l,ner .dop(ed b}· ,he Roma... . T~ Pon Iypc ""U I~ direcl ancn'orof tl>< "I-em,ury AI> impcril.l GallIC I<'gion_ orr ~Imet ( Ott p . 22~ ). E.umpln of thne hcl......., which 1I«'.....Je .... 'irely of iron. hay. been foond in ",,"hem Yugool.Yia. ,he cenlnl All""" K gion , Switz.r lllnd ond centnl and .o", h_ ,,"'coter n Fnnee. T he peo.;uli..r Ihing aboot their provenance i,"ho , il i. ..long

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, he fronlien of the Roman dominion> .. lhe bqinning of ,he 1st cenl"ry Be. A , .. -em tury Celtic chec k piece from Alcoia in eentnl Fnn<..., {' OJ . how. an 0'10.1 m,x 'ur. of ,he d .... i".1 h alian ehe.k pice. decora,ed wilh hossco harping bac k", the old tripl. dis<: type , Simila' characte ri"i., appeal 00 the carlie< chcck piece fro m nonhern Yugo,'av ia U ' .>. Helm cts of ( ireck/ltalian conical, ype wilh Cellic dccx>f~ti"n, . " ch a , I . 1', I l l . have ~ l so bee n fo on ,op i• • Imos' iden,ical ' 0 those .ttolA·n on I~ .." h of Onn~ , f.'·.n in ",,"hem hal y 'here ~Imc, find. are rommon. , he v , .....ion'y· c( Cell. "''QUld have ....orn no atnXMJr Diodofu" tdlo u. , hat theoc ""Trio" lime_washed llH:i. hair and I~n rom bed i' b.o
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rrune. s..-'cnl coi n>, .uch .. ) . p . 12a, .tto,,' ,hi...yle. Thi. an.mpl 10 make the h~.. .,and 01' lik. an an,..red alumal i. exceedIngly primitive and mal' po;n, '0 Ihe origin of honchoir """,to on helm. " . Some ,,~tue, from ..,u, her n Fr ance IA'Cst uf the Rh6ne , shuw an extr a_ ordinar y' headgear like a h,,,,d wi,h " or.. t un it (see below). T he, e rna)' he pre_Celtic and <:enainl)' .hJ1ltSl l h. Celt. IA'' '' probabll· '·.ry rare. A pan from a f. w bronze for """"- , here io noIllinl1: from the eor ly pe.iod (,. sG-a so acl. The 4'h--]rd cen,ury' "al"" from Grnan in ,he SO<J, h of Fun« ( s«: 5. 6, 7. p, , >2 ) .......~ ...." Trior wearmg .... ha' appears 10 be eilhe r. ' quare from and

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back pl>lle "'hi,h is " rapped on or a comple,e cui,,... deco,," "d in form . This . h lue ",,"not ~ co,,.i
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same are a (sec p . 121 ) p robolbl y origin_ Oltf ,.-hia il • prc..eclric tlo...· The ""ample , 1Io• .-n on p . III i. from A"'ria in Conicl. A round)OO Be mai l ..... i n ~ e n t e d _ In . pi'e of , he Celts' disto"" for armour, most of 'he ....idtnce ('lOin, s 10 them as ' he in'·cmo. of ,hi< i.. mo>' . uCtts. f,,1 form. Stn bo rde." "m.il •• Celtic . T he

.arlie", ",main. come from Celtic gra,-"" and the Celt. were the gr• •, iron WOlke.. of the andent world . Severol statue, of w.rrio.... from southern Fr an,,, which have bc<:n t"ought 10 'how pi~.k in ' >r leather cui" " " , , h""I<1 be re~arde<.l . s dcpi~t ing mail. The me "I' mail, which was very ex~n.ive 10 makc, wa' pro bably te'tri~ted 10 lhe .ri.l<><;r8c>y. The variou. >lalue. "f mailed warrin,.. from ' olilhern h ance and norlhem hal y show lWO 'y~s of cuirass : lhe tin' wilh a ca ~ ' ha l hangs ",,,,r 'he shou l
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and lhe far end must how ho<:l«d behind. similar roon.e on . he <>the< .houle f"",. oI. l hc shin , ~ is in II"" M.h II>e fw enc", ohooo-n on the sculplures from fthy ' o Pol ybi.... !>cause they.nll f.......' in lhis fashion whcr~ t he "'her Gouls did nor. They wore the ir troUOCn and light d "",ks. T OO on
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Ily' ttlc ' ''''''' of Ca<'sar , tic Olts apronr to h.jttrt funy' d="",,, U1 slu" and .~

Poly'hius, In his accoun' of ,tic ~,'~r'" ~,n, up ." .tIc bank of T~lamo.>n. oars ,ha, ttlc lia.!he arm ~' had 2O,lXlO ""\1llry and ehano... Thi. is ,1"0< I.., ref~r~n,..., ,,, ehariol. being u<¢d in wal far~ un , he European "",in land. T hey ar. nul encountered again unt il '.-..:sar invade, IIritain in 55 llC. Oiodoru. tell, u' ,run ehatio" ",,,,re drown hy 'wo horse. and carriN a dde'", and a warrior. I n hallle ,he ",. r riM ,hrew jae'd in. fro m hi. chariot .nd ,hen descended and fOUll:ht on f,"'t, Cae.or·' aecoun, of 'he Bri,i.h cha,im, i. , ,,,ry . imilar , Bo,h au,ho,," m. ke '>r.e im por,an, point: ehario.. "",re u..d again" ""valry. Thi. sol".. a 101 of problems, f...- 0 ... could 001 fi,h, again. , infan'." in this " ",,y' Ucel" in . kirm,.",,", Caesar CXpln'" gm, admi,.,nion rcor ,he chariol:cen' "" ill. tie onn' . houlde,,". Ses-'1'lI1 chari<>( gnt,.. . !>a" e ~n d,ocovercd in France. (;nfon una' el~' mos, or ,he ,,,,hiclM appea r I" have ~n dlOman,led before buria1. .\\ony ur , he me,al pan. of ehorim. have ~n pre'erved in ,he.. gra" ... Amung ,he•• ar e art icu la,ed hamessings (""e p. ' 34, 5 . 6 ond t ) .' which con onl)' hav. hee n ",cd ff ring'> w.re fou nd In",l wi, h , I>< hones' m,..t ha,·. l>e<:n fu.ened the ginh ....I' ,,,id. ,h..., , race rei n•. These gra'... con,a,n many mher bi, s and piccn, indudi~ linchpin' for hoIdi~ o n tM ,,·heel. I' 4. ' 7i and rei n guides ('.rr~u) ,,'hieh "",re attached , hr )....... . A "cry .."'" ~'ed yok e and wheel compkle ",~, h iron lYre ' 4 ......., o.Ircdlf"d ftom ' hr lake a' Lo T~nc in Swi,urLond. The ~ie<;n ''''''''n h.~ are nf '·ariou. do, .., T he aim i. '0 " j. 10 .how lh. oon of pi.... "oed in Ih. conSll'UCfion of a " ha, io1. Pi..,.., sand I J , ah t.uugh uf dilT"",n. do.., obvio... ly ""rfurm ,he .ame f.. nction. Un,il recen,l)' on. had '0 rely "n c" in, 10 glv. ",mc idca uf the form of C.ltic

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ehariol•. Thr-sc .hMo· ""hide> " 'i,h ..hat appean be •..-0 . . mi-cin::ular lidn. A fe,,' ~"Can "ll0 rou nd a, PIOd ",, ;n nonhern 1t. 1)' ,,'hieh . b",n a ehanoc or a "miLor '~.pe <:aff)'iog , ,,,,, men and a ,h",ld whicb ;, " andi ng on irs ,io.l< ;n .he chariot . I n ,h i. relief bo<><\ , ide b)' . id• . A CeI,ic ""rrior must , herd"re h..", ,,""" hchind hi. driver a. ,,,,,,"'n un , he coin of Hll5,iliu•. TI>e lon, chariot bo x req.. i",d for this a<XmJ nts for ,he doubk .ides and for lhe la~';ng k ngth_ " "'l" of a " 'atrio. in hi. chariot, as hr " .... in 'M French burtah . After ,hr «>nq .....t or Gaul . O l, ie ca... lry became .hr ma,m ' ay- or 'M Roman arm )·. Yet i, has ~n ' ''lll!'CSled , hal , he Cel.. had "" 'N. covalry and 'he~' di.""",nl.d and fougb, on foo,- A' .hr baule of C"nna. (2 ' 6 llC) ,he Ceh. , Spaniard. " no.l Roman. ce r_ ,ainly did ,hi. b", i, may ha". been nee"".r)' beeau•• uf lhc exc..,d ingly c'amped ,pace in whkh ,he)' we.. figh'i ng . T hc commcn, uf Hannib.1 a, , he b. 111e uf Cannac «curded by I.iv)' ,eem. til ",gge.' tha, ,hi, was no' n",mal ~,ac!i",, : wh"n he w., lold ,hat Paull... had o, d.'ed his ca,'a l,y di,moun' , lIannibal commented he migh' a, wdt ha,-. deli\-ered 'hem up in ""aim . Thi. implt.. ,hat d i,muun,ed CI"al l")' " 'ere u..less. [n IN, h i< i. hard concci'·.Ia..... numbers of co...I.,· di.moun, i ~ '0 fttlb'. If ,hr Ronun. had dol"< , his, PoIlN .... commenlO abou' thri'lIdorn of . he G ift\: 'f'C'Ir ,,'h.ieb did Il<J' ..",...,. in ' M charge would ha,-. I>ccn mnningkss. The O l. ic CI~ all")' emplo)'ed by ,hr Roman. in ' hr early .mp". is regularl)' depict.d fi, b, ing fro m """"t>ack. 11 ,I>na bl. ' 0 conclude from ,hi, pcN"••ive .~ i de nce ,ha, ,he Ceh. indeed prod uc. d lNe cO\'alr y. M any Celti. hur..bi" ha,'e bITn fuull d. These are u'uallj' uf ,he , naUk ')'pe T hesclIlpm r. " n 1', III (u) , how,

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a ""'-an !I<'n-;ng ,,; t h 'hr ,\ u.... .Ionian f"...... at ,hr hallie 0( I'yd... ( , 6lI 1lC). The round . hi-n,..' lhe Grttk... ,h;, " ",<. The 0 ... uoed , he ..me ' j'pe of-tdl, a. 'h. I..er Romans. Thi. ' l'pe of saddl•. ",i,h pommel. a, ea~ h cornu . a ~ pea .. on ,hc Gunde..,up cauldron and more d • • r1y "n the J ulii monumenl at S, Remi da, ing from the latc, , " century lie. Thi, e"mmem"..,.. a h,,, le invol "; n~ R"man, and Celt " On. "f ,he hor..,. h.. fallen and , hro wn "I rider, The falle n rider mu st br a Cel, a' Roman triumphal monumen.. depict ,hr d.a,h. of Roman I<>Id..... h fnll"",.,; ,hat . 1>< four_pommelled oaoidle .......-n '" "",Ipout. i. Celtic and ""'" Roman. n.e Gundcouup CI..ldron al.., . ........ ,hr discs ,hoi ,,~ u"",,, 10 O l,ie hones-. Some of .1>cK, made of .. IWI', hov-. b«n r nd in nonhern llaly. Thcor f>Ir<Jpled by , he Romam .

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The Ca " ian Ifea, y of ~90 "1: ,ro.:o, Ill". ..d R"me in , he l.a,in Le ague .nd for , hc next ,60 years ,he , hored , ,'ommon mili ta,)' de,'dopmen, wi, It o,hc" l.a,in " . les . W hen Rome mad, her bid f" r 1• • d....h1p of ,he I.uftu. in , he l .o, in \t'"r " f 340- 33 ~ , l.iry . "uICS u, .ha, ,he mili' ary organioa,ion " r ,he La'i ns and Roma", " .... iden, ical. ~o do..b, hr is rillh, bu' when he "l'S' hat 1"1,,, faced pri_ pUla in , he baule M,.,,, a link carried ......)'... , bey "'.... ha>-. l>e<:n a' """""i,e end!.

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Italie ""al .h,.1d (....'_l The phalanx had been abandoned and ,hr I....... .... now .plit up into ,hree It TlIc rrar Ii had's companie. ( d"... each t>divid.d into ,hre. p.'" (w~"I< ,·am. ,h. }'(lunger and Ie" di"in~ui,hed men (, ,,,,, , ;,) . nd be hind th••• ,h•

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I T A LY A ND T HE WES TER N M EDITERR AN EAN

Ihe Allia and it was pro bably for thi, rea,on that it wa, dhcm" inutd .nd the whole ..my was ..med with the I" ge a c"incidenct ,hal Uvy s iegion, from which 'he hopl;te, had di"lppeartd. eonsislS of 4S units (1.\ Q,di" " in 'he , .~ r line and 15 maniple, t ath in Ihe midd le and fronl line), Allhou g!l the veSliges of the old class 'y" em " iii remain. cI. " es onto'wo . nd th ree seem now 'n he grouped '''gether . nd divided by . ge and not weaith; the younge>! form ,he hastati, those in Ihe p, imo of lifo the pr incip" .• " d the oldesl the "iarii Th e rorarii
T he battie stor ts wit h the , kirm i. heL' (lev,,) Hying lO br ea k up tho onomy f",mation with tlleir light lavelln, As the enemy advance. the lightly armed n oops wit hdraw thr ough tho gaps and IItC ha"ari char ge, ' hrowin~ their heavy iavelin, and rhen dn'i ng in wi,h thei r swords, If this f, ib to broak the enemy, Ihey retre.. Into the g.ps between the p,;ndp« , ",hn ' imilarly eh'lYt. If both lines are bealen, they wilhdraw <>n the /riar;; . nd retire ' hrough lhe gaps in the line. n ,t ,,,jar;; 'h on clost the gaps 3nd tlt o who lo army retre ats . Livy ', suggestio n that the rriu r;; ai, o charged i, probably .n attemp t to disguise the fact th3 t the e. rly Rom an arm y some limes lost h' ttles The old Roman adage. '1 0 ha " e come lo ' he , r;ar;;' , mo. " t ' hat things had reached. terrible state, \X'hil' l the ha" u ,i aod p" 'ncip,, wore ngIHin~, Ihe tria r;i knelt on one knee "';th their left k g forward. Their large oval shi eld , re" od again" Ih. de·. ,",0 1 unless all eise has f3iled di d they enter th< hall ie I' i' no leworlhy lhal lhe " 3ndards were with the r"r iint . so th. t i f lhe units opera ting oul fm n' wore ' cattered. lhe)' knew lhe o,din" on v.'hieh to fail b, ck. Livy doc, not tell us whether there were one or ' wo cen ' urion, 10 e ach m. nip le of pnnf;Jf'" and ha .<J~li, or in r'e! nOnC Dur in g Ihe firs t 2 0 0 years of the rep ublic Rome prob.bly suffered m3 ny dereat> Th ~ palriOtit Livy usually sa ys lha t bad w031 hor '" opp od play' '0 account for the Koma n, not gaining a vicror y The ~ rt.tes l of lhese defe at' was Iho d i, a" or at the Allia ( 390 Be). The se defe ats , , nd the Ali ia In p. n icul.., m.y 3ccount for the mongly

detens ive eh araCler of lhe 4th-century kginn Tht mort mob ile to rmalion of the h~,,~ r ; p,ine;p « wa, pro b"h ly . n answer to lhe fasl-moving ar mies of the Cd t> and $am nites Th e I,,'elineers at the f", nt m3Y have beon p. Tl icul..ly desig ned 10 wilh ' tan d and h'eak the force of the Cdtic char ge

'" W ",,, t'" """,,";,Ml'"nc'ptiS we,e Iogot'09, ogn, k~ ,,,to too< arod too' .hields ' 0' ''" 9 "1lainst U...... t
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o,,'1e ",h 9' P' b€'w_ ".o" 0' It,. un ,,, to "" 0" the " '" '0 ;,t10,"n""ge. II ""aMn, ''''' orint'''''' 3nd ,,""31' " ",' d w"no'3w dOwn ' '''' "'-,.,. ""'''OM ''''' "'dines 01 '''3m,. "Na", arod aceemi. The OfI1ines would , _ close ,he g",,' 3nd ''''' army oould "" '",,raw _ ,nd 3 ""ogo of _a'S. B~ l ow, How the OfI1"",s m,ghl close Ine ga ps by ,rlO"';"9"" the 'e81 000' "00>

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Rome 275-140 BC

The Roman Army 160

Be

On :1 June tM Ie the Romans defea'td

.he Ma cedonian. a, Pydna . nd reductd ,h. homel.n d of Philip and "'ltunde, '0 a Roman pro' i"" . , "'flor the battie a n" ,nb" of Grteh who had ' ided wi'h M.e. don w... b,ou~h' Rom. fn, Que"innln~ .\monK rile...... llIe hb'onan Polybios H..... placed in ,h. cu..ody of the SdplOfo. ~ • clooe mend of Scipio .'>fmilianu•• nd accompanied him on hilt CMBP8J1tBS In orde, ,ho, bi. G[ .n,I'ely fmm Pulybiul

'0

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Kcc r u ;t meDl and o rga o ' ''' ' ;o o A' 'M bcpnn1"l of nch y...r """ cblC1' "'.,i....... (con.ulo) . 'ere e l. cl.d V. d.. no, ma l c ' , c u mOla nce. u cb consul _u ld b..ov• .. llio di.pooat twO 1, , 10 no ' 6-ao.000 infanny a nd t.Soo-2 ,sn" caval,y Abolll ha lf 'he infan,ry ond on'-Qua".. nf 'he cavalry w..e Roman cllizen . Th e r... ' w..e drown from Rom e'o ailies, In tim.. of eW,' mc danger the "",,,hilled con, ul. , ..ml.. were pu' " nd. r ' he eo""ol of a d,c"'"r wb" u.ually h.ld olft"" f" r .1 . mon tb. A ..co nd ·i n -co mm. nd (...t .." .... e••,,'.,,) .... 01>0 nOmll>lt'ed. uo.wly by 'M d>C>ltlOf AI,.. , h. ir .lee Uon tb e co nsu la oppoinltd 2~ mill",,,. .l1bunts. T. n 01 tlint ~ ••","', rnbu on. .-i,h ar Ieul ltn m rs ..,rviC", 'h. OIb.. J 4 n.od only ,,, have ....,n fiv. yean ..,nrIc~. Th. fi... tw o .. n,o, 1ribun~. n"mina,~d "er. "ppnd and so on, .. . raul! . a<S. As _ ' he Grttb. i...... a priYiLt.,. ... ~ in !be army and only _ ""'" o.. n.d ove, a ce rratn ..nouo, "e,e IlalM loT >Cf\I1ce. 0I'l an .ppoin..d day etC h y. .. . 11 c IU z. n• • ligibl e for milit..y .~rv i ce .... mbl~d on ,he Capllol He lt 'h ey were divIded "cord ing ' n p",pe"y T he p'''" •• '

dozens _'. Itn, ... "'~ na...,.. 'The ""XI group (th~ -";tb • ""...... or 0 ....' 400 d..cbm •• ) ..,,,,.d in the 'nfantry, and th. rich. " •• ",~d io ,h~ Clvalry The 1,200 men needed for 'h e ,"volry "'~rt ,.Ie"e d hy Ih. c~n .or her" .. Ihe ~.ner" 1 ~n r " l m e n l b . ~ an Th re e hundred of ,helt we re . "ached 10 • • eh I'gion. A ca,,"lryman b.d to ...... fo, ten ye..o and an Inf.n ,ryman for ,6 yea.. before h. reached 'be.,. of 46. [0 um. or ~. , danger a .. infantryman migh' ho.... 10 ......, lor ao yeats. ~ thooe .UlPbl. fo, 'nfanny >ervi"" hod be.n .epar,u.d 'hey ..... divid.d in,,, ,h~" "U>.. F,om n ch Inbe four m. n "'ere ..I«led of about Ih••ame age and build . nd btoogh' before ,be trlbll"es. Th~ Iftbunes of lhe I~ g i o n had n", ChOice. , hen ' hc ,,,'ond and third, tb. f" urlh legion taking Ih~ one that wa. !tn. \l'h~ n ,h~ ..cond gtoUP of f"ur was brough' fOnl;a, d tb. . .cond I'Kion hod nUl c boice ond th. firs, legio n look ,he man that "'.. I. ft. So th~ ... 1«‫ס‬0o ronhnutd unr~ 4.200 had been d .... n lor each Iepon, In lim.. of n ceptlonal danKer lhe legio n .,rt""h .... raiKd ,,, S.ooo. II m... , bt p" in 'ed Oot lhat .Is. .. b... Polybiu. st" te. ,hal ' he leilon .tr. n ~lb ...... 4.001I Infantry and 200 c..alry an d ,h. , ,hi' was ra ised to S,OOG inf,n try .n d 300 c, ""l ry In lim •• o f gre.. d a n~. r. It . ..ms unfair 10 day that f'o lyblu, i. co n" adicling him.elf, U 'he.. flKUIC. mus' ha\lt' ... ri.d con.idenbl,. Once . h• • nrolm.nl had b.... compl••ed . be oalh . 'U r. ke n One m Iec ted bJ rio. t" b.. nts to co m. r" d ond ..... r ' 0 obey hi. office nd .."".... th.i, orde far .. in hi. power. The o'he 'he n com< fo""a,d on. 01 • 'im••nd ''''Ort th.t they would do ' he . am. . . th< ftrst man ('Idem in mi l Th. ,,' hunc. then g. Y< a !>IO<'e and d" e where .ach I . ~i on was ' 0 ...embl. '0 that ,h ••old lers co..ld be a.. I~.d to lh.i, ..nl.. WIlliS! 'he I• ...,. ",os .. kJ n ~ plo"" lb. con.uls .100 .. nt ord ... '0 lb••Ili.d clli.. O1,"n~ 'he numbe .. or trOOPS ftq~i ..d and rhe d.y .nd place " r ....mbly 1lle """'I magi'"'''' chost the ftcrull. and .. at Rom. OWOIC 'h.m ,n, They tb.n appoin,td a commander .nd. paym.>Ier and despatched 'h.m When 'h. y anived a' 'b. rend..vou, Ihey we .. " n cr mo rt d ivIde d Int o

n",

groupo ..cordi"l '0 __ I,h and _

. In

each • .~oo·>Iron ~ lellOn lh. younK'" and 1'00"" 1.l00 fo rmed lh. I!~hr armed (wlim), Of ,h. o,her 3,000 ,he ~ " u n ~ . S1 UOO formed th. first line of h• • vy Inf, ntry (ha" M i) . tho. e in th. prime of Ilf. form. d th. second line (p.ine;pe,) . [.0 1.~on ."ong an d tb. otdeS! formed 'he ' hlrd line (,,".rii or pilr) _ Re~rdl ... of lh..... ot lbe letion. the .ruori; weft al..ays _ ..",ng 1lle olh.. 1rOOpf _ft increaoed prnporti(>tuoltly. From .och of th.... voups. -";,h ,bt nce pllon of ,h. ~d"•••. ,h e 'n bune. . I"" ,ed 'en crn' u" on......o in tum .ach nomln ote d 0 p. rtner who ""as .1.0 called 0 ce nturion Were caUed p, ia. 0" 0.1 po"" i" r, ' he elH ' ed Ce nturl"," he lng lilt p.;o, centurion), The fin t centu rio n .ltcted In the le~l o n (p.;.. . . , il".) had . . . ., wit h 'he tribune. on the milillry cnu ncil. Th. cen,urlon o "He cbn.. n for lh.l r ....dine... Th. cen '.."on. ~.cb aI' _ po' nted a ....gu ..d Om etT (.....ri..) Polyblu. catt. ,Ilem ". ,,,,~i, .quati..g them "lIh the ·...' ·ranke..· in ",. Gftd ..m,ca. The lribun~. and crnlOriou. divid. d .ach d .., (Jt4Har;, " in, ;, .. a nd "i 4d ;) in to lt n unllS (m. n lpl.. ) wh l
."0....

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T bu hl v, a legion of 4,l OO in(onlry divided in,o 30 "",nipl•• 'en ......., ... Itn pri.< i~. and Ita ' ...4 ...... The '''''4,i .nd p";"".".. had tbe urn. COmpoaltion, lao h.o...,. ,nf.nny and 40 IIgbl-a,med ""Iiuo. The '''·4 '';'' had 60 heavy Infan ,ry . nd 40 V" il" fo ch man lpl. w•• eompoa.d of two cenlUrl•• but th. y had no S1. IU S Th. , malleS! I. ctical on i, w.. ' he monipl. , Th. ce n' ur ion' "Ppolnt. d '''''0 of th. be .. and bra veS! men •• uanda,d beare.. h .. ~ ~;f....) The Etr u" a n _ Rom.n a,my h.d r.. o cenruri •• of trump u .nd ho,nblo ..en ",hi ch all o d lust obou. on. p~, ce o' uf)' Th I. no men,ion or ' hio gro..p 'n Polyb'u.· dcK"f"iOn but h. rtgulorly memlnno nump..... (, ,,bi,"u.) and h",nblowe.. «Dnr;e"~,.). II .... m.< likely that ••ch mani!>le had a 'ru mpeter and a ho,n blower

" 1''''''

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(k.a>ionally one mample '" ha>ta'i, " "e of pn~,ip<' and o n. of 'n'a , ii "l"'faI.d 10gClh.. a, a uni ' ca Il .d • ""horl. PolyblU' and Uvy bolh u~ lhl& .. ,m fo, lh. lin , 'im . In Ih. lal.r 'la~n (If lh( . « ond Pun ie .. u wh... il io I'lcn U>Kip<1 and "0 ma'" Th~ old ", ,,,,ii h.n dio · ~ a1~th<-r. rcduci1ll1llo: 'tmIC'h of ,II< Iqion ll'om .bout 5-000 to ~ ..IOO 1b< l.zoo 1idI'-onnW """,.." i and /nn, no..- ull~d .. ~I"n .. ~ dl.tril"".d

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TI>< ... nipln of 'nan; .... stiI 60 ~ The p.i. c.p.. and 1I.. " .. ,i have M~n doubled. rdler'i n, lb~ n~'" ..,...U,V< opi n ' of the "'~ion ..lI lch 10 no lonl~' filhtin, for ilS Hry n" , . ne ~ bu'
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pons

OI1th a ","-and · th",.l _ d (xIa d,. ' 11""........ ,,·.1 1b< r..-o oartirsl rumpko dahllll 10 abou, I1 S -.; <:om< from nillI.d,n 61em and 66.m Ion,. _~. It, n.m~ impliu , 'hiO .....mn originaled In 5"",n. rrobably • Iong-poim..... ,..,tsIoQ of ,II< ,..,llIC .........-.:1 The adopllon of thi....ord muot h.v. occurred dmi,. ,II< S«OIId runic .... u ,h~ Smlh~1 , ,,'n rd•• rc
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RO.\\ E n S- I40 Be THIi ROMA '\ A R.\l Y "e

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guUing a nJa[] described by Livy in th e ' econd .\ \acedonian war of 200-1 97 6<:, Polybius doe' not mention daggers. but ,evernl examples whIch are clearly de" ved Iro m Sp"nisll prolOlypt, ha\'e bnn fou nd i[] the laler 2nd·een1\lTY Rom, n camps e,,'"voted around ,,'um ant;a In SpaIn The "", of p ila in me ali bi, timc differing in Ihe m"'hod by which the iron "'as attached 1o th e woode n haft. They were either sockete d or had a nat tang " ,c tired wil h o [] e or two ri " e" Th e , ,,de ted ty pe h. d , lon g hi' IO IY and wide sp read u, e , Exa m pl es have bee n found in Cell;c g,",'es in Non hern I[aly and i n Spain, Ro m an Iypes vary from a,l,m Lo um lo ng, The w ry , h,," tYI><' i' pTObahly 'he i" 'elin of the "eli", (h aHa ",li' a , is ) whic h Po lybi us desc ribes as bending on impact so Ihal il c. nno, I>e thro" n back TI,e e. rlieS! ex,mpl.. of the n" ' tanged type were found at Te l' mon in southern Etruria, pro bably from the banle to ught there ,,, n s >lC Th ~ , e were ;,ery d lOrt weapo ns , o, - 35em lo ng, Sim ilar s ho rt "",ap<J n, w,n found al Smihel ;n Slovenia (c, 17 5 BC) and Ephyra in Greece (t 67 .d , Longer e""mp les up '0 ;7cm were aiso lo und at i;mlhel and . n cxamp lt 740m l o n ~ wa, found a[ ~ um . n l i . in Sp. in (153-133 "C! , Many of ,h" e have the ' ide ,dges of the flat tang bern over to lock ,hem i",o the woode n hall The earliest "amplc, have J . n
skin, This type of shield is sho wn o n seve,al m OJ\um t l\lS of [he re pub tl can period A., in the ear lier p<:ri(Ml it i' """I " 'ith a spi ndle sh, ped boss and a lon g spine, .1 shield of this 1)'pe "'"OS found a, Kasr El Harit in the Fayum in EgypI I[ wa' iJ e[l [iHcd ", Celtie b'1I i' undoUbledly R" m, n This shield, which i' u Sm lo ng and 635cm wide. is made of I. mi" aled birch ~ I []e or [ ~ n tbin pls nb of birch wnod varying from 6 to JOCm wide were laid o ut lengthway, an d sand",iched bern'ten ,wo I, ytr> " f narmwt'r "ri r' laid hnriwn"lly The, e three I, yers Wete glued together to form the wooden co re of ,he shield .11 the ,1m i[ is ,Ilghtly less ,ha'" "emm,etre thid, -,welti ng '0 'bml1 '-t ern in the ceoTTe The whole shield " 'OS cove re d with sheep's wool felt which wos do ubled O;,er . I"" g Ihe ~d gc JI,d "itched [hmugh 'he wood The sh ield h" a horizo nTal handgrip which i' held with an overgrosp. Th is grip is 11iustrateJ on m, ,,}' Roma" , eu lp' ure, Po ly-hiL" . dd, that the , hield had an iron bus' an d an iton edging on ,ts upper and lower rim, So mt }'eo" a~o I made .n exacl copy of

~igM

S FI.' ·IO"lI"d pdum from Rorwa Dlas " Spa 0 5 "",""" """" '" " pikim ['om R"""""., In Sp" o, 7_9 SocM' od p',a from Ron,ob'. slN, maor,. ,n

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Ro m'" w• • poo, of ''''' 20<) ';<'("u" IlC Sc, le ' ;8

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the F,y um sh ield wh ic h weighe d somewhat over lo kg ThiS wtlgb l wa, Je d ared [0 he riJieul"'" o n the ~" o u n d , Iha' nobody ,~) u l d h' ndle a shield of thi, weight. Recently the remain, or. ' hleld we", round a, D!>"ca,,"r. A r<,on" ructio n or Ihi' I\,m
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81o,"",•. 13- " D,gge< " ,d , cat>ba'o "0'" Numao" .

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ITALY AKD TH E WEST ERN M EDl T ERR ANEA};

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<:onlinn.d by Anian in hi. A 'S T""liaJ ...· hen he " )'1, ' .•• in Roman Ityl. one gra.vc to pUne, lhe left Iq , T he P«fQr<>J~ il • deooendonl <Jl the 0<1""'" bretilpla,. 0( the 411l oetltwy . SOM 0( these: hilv. bttn found but rem.ai... ol a cirruIar ')l'C wen: found .. S"tnantia. WeaI'hier Iqionaries _ . mail oItin . "Ibe <:UI' or lhew ohi.ru, whidl is ";milar 10 the linen CUU--, is """"'n un , he 000<}" <Jl Acmili ... Paull". at Delphi in Gre«t'. 11Iil '"" let up dt.r the Roman dd..t of ,\ I...-..donia. in , 68 (1(;. Thew mail I h,n l wen: .Ia:<:dingl~ heavy, weighing abou' '~kg. 11>eir immen... weillht i. relIect.d in lhe ...- coun' of ,h. ban i. of Lake T ..... imene wh.re ,he ooId;"... who tried 'u I wi m 'u .. fety were drowned by the weight of , tw:ir arm uu,T he h,"'''li and primiMs wore a bronze h. lm e, decora'.d with a ring of three upright bl.,·k or purple feat her> abo u' 4scm high . Polybiu, ,aY' ,ha' ,hi, wa, tl> make every man h,k twice hi, normal heigh t. The ~"{>mmOne" helmet in use at the time ...·a. the M on'd .....' ino ty pe cum in Germany ...... found al Co_ di Puillia. h ","'as to this t"""n many of the I.gionaries fkd the di....t.r .. Connac in 11<;. Thil helmet appean be CIa<1ly risht for the da'e and i, is a"rxtive to thtnk ,hat it belonged to one 0( ,he Can.- Iqionlries. Thil 'ype ol ltd met had a hole in the ,opknot. "Ibe ''''I'l-nut: ..... filled ..illl lead and a pin 10 hold. honehatr err..< ..... i.......ed ,n ,he 109. Bomeallt Ille peaked ned- guard . . . a .iouble ring .."",hment. Two It raps ,."..., a,,,,,,lled to these rines, .. hich <;tOIIed ...nder tile eIlin and a"..-:Ilcd ' 0 the hook . at the bonom of the ebft,k pieces, holding the helmet linnly in pooition. The monu_ mentl lhow lhat lhe halo-Cori nthia n helmet wao trm in u"" Ind ,he di.cov.ry of a Sam ni'. Attic helmel ofth. tot century AD .t H.",uloneum .hoWI that thi. Iype of helmet wo. al", still in vog ue. A I'Odded ClIp " r lining wa, WOrn under the helmet. A Celtic type of Monter" r tino helm.t in th. m u.eum at Lju bljiana . till ho. the re mains of ~

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felt ca p inlield lJ'ar-I) about ')Oem tn d ....... er, "Ibe javelins (.....,... od.,.ulJ ) an omaJler vcniom of ,he th.in ,w,.,. They have • small head . S- JOo,;m ....... "Ibe wooden shaft is n•., cuhits (e. 9O<:m ) Ion& md a finger · s wid th in br,,"Jth . The ... I,,~. wttrr J1I1 armour other ,han • p1a'n helmet some"nte'I cover.d with . woWs . ki n, Or a o.imi lar d iotinguilhing mark, so that the centuri"n. oould recognise them from a d"tance and judge how ",. U lhey fOUl ht.

ROME 27S-140 Be IH l M-A :'" A R M Y , 60 Bl.

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C a"alry a nd I he a llies 'ow The 300 caval ry Wed " p . ith. r r.n or he deep depending on circumst.'ln.:e:t. T he Ii"t ..,le<:ted deeuri on of each 'ur"", commanded th. unil. The horse-men ","'.re arm . d in the me f..hi" n as lhe G re-eko lI'ith ~...i and ro und .h;"ld (pa rMa "IW""' )' Th.y carried a Iturdy opear lIi , h a bun l pi k. ,,'hich ... ""'_ - . on. could be "",d If , he lpe.r brolr.• . , Roman cavalrymen olto'. ..n on , he 'R.",.""'" ... Looa ... _ • . .e.... - _'". . . ,F"""" . , .. '"icl0I)" monument of Aemili ... P.ull". ....... _ 1 . 1 Delphi (1 68 eel " e wearing mail 01>CaI oItiru al..-I identical ro tltoloo of the Jeg;onarin excepc for • oplil . , lhe rhillh 10 allow them to ";t on a hone. "Ibe di"inetiv. Italian ca\"ol.lry . hioeld ca.n be seen on many 0 - . "......10. H..ing orde",d tlte legionaries to 1.1.1.1.1.1. iot. arm {hem",l...,. in acoordance ...i thtlte ullin in whi<:1t tltey ........, ",mng, the that ","'h.n au.e hed 01 ,'-' " ne ref. n a legit", un. m.an. aoom ....bo• • " ,.",... 01 can '... _ to,OOO infon"y and 1,. 00 cavalry. _
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I T A L Y A N D T ilE

\t' E STER~

M EDITERRA NEAX

Genalnl)' lhe: u.in allin had t h e _ orpnioalion as lhe: Romans , I n a normal t..'O-1egion arm )' , he: kgiom fO"i11l in lhe: ttnt ", and , he: , .." aU;ed bri~adC'S (aL~ waom... ) foughl on the: wings. on~ he:ing calk d I h~ right ""ing and lhe other th~ Idt . f.."h "'ing WaS ""mmanded b}' Ihr<:~ pr~f~,:t, nomi n_ at~d by the oon,u l, Fr"m the all ies the hest third of the eO\'alry and the best fifth "f th~ infantr y wer~ sd e..'1ed to f<>lm a picked unil called lhe <-"lra _ ",di",,"ii. This w.. a ~rac" force: ""'d ("" sptrialas, ignJnnariea had been pa,d. A Koman infan, ryman ;n Polybi u.' oIs a da}', The lI."m. n fOOl .ol die r got an .ll(\wa nc~ of aboUI 3S litre. "f corn . month and a horseman ' 00 litre ' of whea' and 350 lia e' of b.a rl~}', .\ Iost of thi., uf "uune , wen' 10 feed hi. ho= and groom. A hed char~ for Ihi. ,,-a. dcduc'l~d from , he pal' of bo'h l he infan,ry .nd , he caval ry by the Deductions "«4: also mad< for c1o'hi ng and Tq>Iac<:_

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ment ann. The all;ed in fan try olIO m:ri>~ lhe 35 liu".. of rom. bu' 'hor _ 'alryman onl }' recci ,~ 70 IiI,.".. of " 'hao, and 25 0 Ii,m of batley . H ow~ v ~ " thi s Talion

"11' all",,"l~d fTC<: of d,ar.~ to the allia

l'... lnlng O n thdr a,,,,m bly at the place and da'e >ti pul ated by the . on.u!, lhe new I~g ion. l.-crc pu t th 'ough a rigorou. ,raining programm ~. Nir>9 RC, hc initial~d a r~!rai nio g r rng,am me for his arm}'.

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0.. ,he 6..... do y , he ooIdicn had to run oil kilom~..".. in f\ll l armour. On the oeoond lhey po!;.hed theiT armouT and weop0n5 .nd had .m.. ; n.pecrion. On ,he 'hird da}' Ihc}' T<1lt~d, O n Ih ~ founh d.y ,~' had " .... pan, drill, I'ract ic ~ 'wor d li~hting was done wilh w,~,dc n swords oo"ored wit h loather T o avo id acci don" ' ho , wor d had. button 00 ' he poinl. They al'o prac ti.. d lhmwing Ihe ia"elio. which ,im i~ Iarl}' had a bUllon on Ih~ p<~n'- On ,he 6fth dal' lhe'" w• • • nolh ~r . il_ kilom'CIl, h they had a. -hcT ...... day, and SO on. On t h e lDan:h 1l'hrn- the r-ct,..inin, proeramme .... . cnrn r llakC'S rould he " -rapped in . hundle .nd ~orri~d on lhe . ho ulde.. The ""lum n wa, ,,,uany led by Ih~ tx"",,,.di~ or;i, ~e~ t oamc the r ight wing of ,h~ allies and ~bi" d them their b.a~~aKe animals, T he}' wcr~ follo wed by th~ Ii'" legion wi' h il5 b.a ggag ~ hehind. S OXI cam~ Ih c oecond I~gion follow ed by its bagga!l" 1'1... ,he b.aua~ of ,he Itfl "ing of ,he allies ,,'hieh formed the n:ar[(U"N . The a>rI'ul ..i ,h hio bod}lluord, maughl up lhe rn., of its ov. n t....g. de and at OIh~r ,imn rod.. on ,he R.nko of ,h~ baggaj(~ !rain 10 k..,p ,he . oiml ls Mgelher and to ocr..,n th~m If dang" was e~ pe<:le d from the ",or the txlrQordi~ Qrii form ed the re"r~ u a rd .

One m.... assume l ha' ri,her .. ' -an "" ra'JUlIrd ,he 600 CO\·.lry of ,he ' x""" "IIi' ions on . lterna\< day, or>< dl}' Ih ~ ri~hf wing aod 'he Ii'" le~ion led and on I he ncxt the left wing and Ihc ""m nd lOKion wer e at , he from, Thi' manoeuvre enahled each in its lurn t" ~njoy lhe adv a n,age of the frt .h w.t t , and foraKe. I n lime of dang<'r whe n the ground " 'U ,hem $0 ' ha' , he-y could ,urn ;nlo billie orde' wi'h lhe Itt:u/a'i fonn _ ,n, ,he fronl h"", the """"'''' lhe """"'d .nd ,h~ 'ria"i , he rear (.... r . ' 41). In ' hi' co", ,he ba_ _ would ~ on , he left . iM of ul.'h Iin~. If the cr"""',, .. '0 'ha' INn,,,. """'ld .hi' ....' 'hei' a. l a. R_ _ ...h_."- ~._to ... ..... , ... co"", The _ _.... ''''' 'Q ",ojee c...,,·,",,, g<> m.·' "o'. .... II ~ "",, 'od ',om D"" '''''"d i" . b' o".....""h·. wo.k,h"" . , Po"" ..,;. whe"'" hid booo o tokon 2 A, F,.U5COO .- to bo .. p ....d "om 1""'''''1An ~_,"_ 3<0, "",otic ".n,""al 8C Viii. Gi..i. M _ ....n .... t>t . - on t+>e otu.....,roo ''''''' Oouno , ROM E 27S-' -4" B<: TIl E R O ,\tA :"i .".R .\l \ ' •.., 1M' . n aek "'.. , hre..encd ftum thc loll , the red 1I. g .... s pl.n ' c<.l . nd a lin e .... s w,""ld foem up on th c left a n.J t..." d 00 1 p.ll.all.1 to lbe Ii"" of the baggagc would Ix on the right. T hi' ,rib""",' ten". Beyond , hi, line the oppeIn '" Ix a ~el<>pmc-nt of lhe: Iqion> encamped. A, the cen,,,, of Ihi. .' I~d",rllan s~ ..... ,l' umi"l into blink line the lribu ne ><:'l "I' h;' .......")'''1 line could bc5t ..., adlieYed if the "",rument W_l t" mca<.. re oot the: maniple.. man:hN not in tile but in re.. of t he ,'Om p , T hi, i""uu ment rank_ a. ,he ,\Iacedoni.n. did when enahled him to du... up a ree,. ngula. going in, ,, 1>."le_ :«, Ihat whe'n thcy gri d and ", m.ck ,,'ith 'I"" c, ,he turn e-d to f..." ,he enem~' the fron t rank two main st reets . T be lirst "f Ihese (V ia "',," in position and the lil... did no( p,,·r!Cip.;Ji,) un he• ....,..n Ill< Iinc of the hI"e to dcpIo}'. If the: CCfl'Uri« h:od a . rib .......' ICO" and . he line ak'ng " hieh ten file six rank basi< fonnation (sec lhe k gion. ""CfC he d no"n up, camp Iaterall!'. The >«Und divi ding the 1'. 141), the: n the S<>Wicn would maceh ( t' " prat,,,",, ) un from the poi n' six ahee..t, ",hich is """,,'Iy ,,·h.. ' hey d,d durinR t he cmpiC<' The . cmy whe.e , h. lro"", w., pl•..,d in front covered . n a,-er.lle of ahout .1Okm • of the P'~"'''''' '''' .t , ight . ngles t" d. y, bu' when I,.""''''t)" ,·ou l<.l m,,, h the "' h" r " ccel, d"..." thh,ugh the much fUrl l>CT th:on ,h i, . Am"ng.t ,he middle of the camp. On,,, t""'" ,wo pionecn "'00 a.:<>.>mpanicd the nn_ ","ds ""re .,..tahli.hed he could ma.k guard ro make sure the mute "-as dear OOllhe It"" for ,he dllCh and rampart. ~<X1I'Ially • mudling camp " ..... ..'C'e sr«ia1i... in brid~ building PoIyhius mentI",," t""'" ",I>< "i nter of deep. T he eanh "'0 ' pikoJ Ul' " n , he ztgnc . in,ide , f""ed wilh l\lrf .nd k '-elled off to form . low .a ml'''!' T he ,wo legion. T he ca m p eon"'ucled the f. on t . nd rear defene", As the o.>Jumn app","ehed tl>< enemy of Ihe amp a"d the alii", 1M b 'eral puoition one of the nib""", anJ u..- defeDtt>. Each maniple "liS ollourd • of ,he Offlturiom ...-Ito .."re spccilkally OCClioon of lhe lkfencn, The a nt .. rion> eho.ll"'! Wl.h the duty of scl«ting ,he rhecked tlu. the: wod " 'as done pr.... site of 'he e"""",pment ""Cre oent on pe.ly " 'h, l11 t"" tribu"",, su pe.yise<.l , head to .urye y Ihe ground and mark ,he ''''crall ,,,,notruelion " f each ,ide, ou' Ih e c. m p. They would h,,,k for . When r nca m pinll in the face of the suitabk .. rel<·h of open land .bout . nemy , for more imr<" ing defcn,,,, hod 800m ........ re, preferab ly on ...ise <.l to he eon>tructed groond . T he site should no( .>lfcr CO'"Cf T he hagpge InUn " 'u plactd behind 10 lhe .......y and had to be dose to lbe line of the rampan (""/' _). The .'alCf. wli..., ""',ahy and half the heaty H" 'ing decided ",here the <;antI' infan,ry, drawn up in blIn le array, ,hould be sited, Ihey oelccleoJ t he Spol were p laced in fmm of the line. Ikhind which h. d , he be" general view of the this human rampalllhe ot her half of the l"C>' of ,he com p and plan,e<.l • whit. he.vy inf. ntr y Se' to work throwing flog on 10 1' of ;t. T hi. would be the ,il. up the: defence•. The kxionarles dUll a I",nch , h= 01 tM """.ul's tcot (p'M,,,,'i,,,,,). T hi. """'" .....".)1> , he period " 'hen the two me1res deep anJ foor " i de . The earth cb;d' rnagmra>:es " "re called prac1on. fr<>m the dileh " ... pIIcd ur on lbe Around this while lIog on ...... . bou, imide and I,,'dled off . , a beigh, of 30m sq.... r. ,.... mca.u.ed o/f, abou t t ,.sm . T hc f.onl of the ram",," On , he , i<.le of ,he p,at' ''' ;'''' best wa, face d with the turf fmm 'he <.Iite·h, Thi , ditch (jo,,~ ) and .a m p' rt (agg er) , uit e<.l fot w. ,erinll on <.l fon ging • red lIag wa. planled , T hi. ",,,ul<.l be , he " ret ched for all\'ut 700 m A, the silk ..'here the k gtom ""eTC to enc:unp. const.U<.1ion of Ihe r.m part pt"OCe<:drd Fih cen """res from lhi. oi.>mpleted. Each ",Id i.. carr ied two 01" th.« bach tt> , he pr~<"'''h'''. A hu nd red feet in flOnt of the tri ~unes" ten" anmh e , " akes which he emb< ddr d in the to p ....',,'i ,,,n '0 ..,tt, " f the r. mp... 10 f",m a fen ce, ( I n . c.m· port wi,h • ],ooo m ein.·uil 40 - S0 .ooo .. ake....."uld all",,' hcl,,«n t 3 and ,6 to a """re. 11>csc >takes "'CTr cuI from trees and usually had I"'" Ih "", or at lbe mool fool Ia'....l branches. all ..." h sharpened poi nl>on one , ide. ~' wcrr planted '" Ihat the ~,aneh .. intertwinc<.l in such a way , hal ;t w.' not easy to "'" which hranch !>ci< ,ns ed 10 which ..ake; no. "... i, e.,y t" I'u ll '"'" one by itself. A. the)- "'t'rc planted ,·efl' dose toget"'" il " .... difficult for more lhon one a"ack.. to .... hold of . he same .. ake , and the!' """,ld g:osh ,heic ""noJ. , ry ing to oJ<> '0 O O" e the d. k ncc. wrre 'ecure , the w ldi.rs could set up thr com p , The 1a~"Ul of , he ",,-m l" w"' alway. lbe ... ~ and ",'er)' man kne'" ",a<:, I~' " 'here 10 pi'ellll;' te nt. 'T1Ic IWO IcgX>no encamped beyond the !",'lCip.>Ji, and on cit"'" .ide of ,be The eavalf}' ,,'cIC rnc"",ped ,,""" b)' ' u r""" f.ei ng , he ",'~ 1"a~'on~ . the Ii,,, W r m a being neacost thr p rueluri" m and tbe rampart_ T he thr tentll neKt """,', "'ere encamped bact '" hack 10> ,he ca,..lf}' "i,h II>< li", manipk """'est tbe ""atl....t_. Th... the JWi..... of ..... 11 Ieg;.,n Wt>Uld be the nearnt centurion 10> the general'. trnt. In ftunt of ,be Icn" of ,he """,n ran another rood 15m wide . lo ng which the p ri~ dp .. were <Jrawn up facing t he ' .....' ii and hack to hac'k with tbe ""'<:m), Tlti. for med anothe. latrr.1 ","d called Ibr <, a qJ<J"'''''''. All of these "'ccl> were marked out " i tl> .pea... The space beh,nd the tribunes' ICO" on ei,he. side of the 1"_ '''''''''' ".... used ror , he mark ct ([""",) on one ,insul', ""l.ue>t wcre encamped ""yond 'he ~,,,..,,""'''' and I"'h'" on either side. They wo" in " " " tant attcnd.n,,, 1"-'''"''. '0 ,,1... ""',,'i. '" I T A L Y ASD T H E WESTER!>: MEDl T ERRAl'EAS on the ~om u l. T he ""t or the ~ .val , y and infant ' y or the exm w rdinarii w... encamped behind 'he /W!Utorium ; n I similar fa, hion [he Ofl><.. ,,~[ h [I\( """olry faci"i . be 0<11'....1 road. On ..,her side 0( lbe u""_.n-.tf, in reat" comen of tbe camp. any fOf'<'ian " OOPS or l lli.. who ~ come in ~"' e"""mped , For • "andlrd _.iz~ d . , my of , _ 4,200-st , ong lellio,,' plus allies . , poe,", '0 'wo T he ex~ avalion of manIple block. 01 N umantio ha. given u' " ,me idea (If how [he "",nipl.. cnutmped. r he t WO cent uries en,:amped facing inwards along ritbcT 100ft sq ua, e w. s al1" lled to each maoiple or [U' '''a. T he /ria,ii were allowed only 100 h)' s of', Fo, leaion. which .....,.., 5,000 s'rona • pro poni<matel}' larger ~ was .llo..-ed. "I1>e first I....t at ri,l\(r end of"",h maniple •• ha[ is ne:l1 to II>< «»d, was occup;e.J by' ho< cen'urion. If lbe lwe consuls comt>ined forces . Ihe two a,mies en""mped back to bad wi'h Ihe IClIio"s a[ eit her end of the comp , --.. . "'.' ..- ......... .. ... . . ..- ,.. .,. ," . ..."'.' ~ ...." 'n!;;; " . ",,- ., u . _ ~ , . , ·,~ ~ ,., . M .,.. _ ~ . , . . u ~ . ~~ _ . , ~ ~ '' •• .."w ' I§;~ ""~ . ... .. ___ .... ....._,.,...~ . g...::.;,. ~..... ' --""Il'r "'-..." .. • .. •. ...• . . ..,./ . ..... , , .". ., .. . . · ..." . ,.. .. ~ ' '' _ ~ ' " . , •• • , m,_ • "'H ~ • • ~ ., • • "'----:'f'''''' ~ ~ ~ . _ •.·.u·.-.,...·•• •_ .•'/ •. •• •_ _u·. ,_.• ••, • ••• ' .. • • n .....-•• "u. .. , ~ ,' .. --., ., .. . . •• •• . .. ,,-., ., ~ . ' ." ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ · ,l " ~ ::11: · . , 'W, •.-"..,.!: ~t...._~ ,~.~.~ I.. ~ .. ~ .. ..... r,;, . ' r .. , . ........,.. ..-.._ .........- .. .,•.,. . ... ..... , .. ..........",. •...._.. ....... ... . ... ••••••r" • ..... .-, . , . .... ......• .......... ,, ~ " " .:'. ",' I r"..... .. l '1! .. --'. -... :; ~.~;o . ~·-"· ~ "''\ ~ ' '' ' '' I: ' ~ ''''_ . ' ... .~ • ,,, • .. ~ , ~., ••.• , ~ ~ -" L .... • •• . , "" !I'! . ..........' . . . . .. . . •~~ ' m •• ~ . ' ~ . ~ • •~ , - ~ . _ ~ . ~ ." ~ ~ ~ ''Y.'t: .• "'" •" .. ".~ ~- • ' ~ ~ .' . ~ ~>~ ~ - • , ,,.,.. h c, C~ ", '''' ~---"'V '-" ~ ~ '. " n . _. , , ' -' ~ •• " ~ • , \.---~vr--~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ." < h~ ••• • .,... ,> • • ...... p ••- " ,~ ' ''U '~ _ .. • - . d~~ "l " .:. R OME 275- 140 Be T ilE R O M A:'O ARM Y c . 160 BL -----• S. 'ow A c, mp for 'wo 5.000 " ,oog 'eg,oo, ., d<"" ,jbe(j by Poly bi", It "os .boo' 800m --0:; 3 _ """'''', It ~.d throe " ," " " ,,', " ( V'8 pM«",,' i, pr""' ",,~, ,nd vi. Quin r8M ) 'nd I"", ."" ,i. (P"". decum8na. pat,. "",,, c,fJ'ji,, de,,,., - "pe, 3T","'u, • pMa pr,oup.J'S " "",,. aM pal'" pr.." ",,~ ) T"" lOb of gu.,ding the "" . " " wos oe "or",.d "'' '0.<. "" 1 _3 TM 'h,,,,, m,," of <>"'p.en",nce " "" d by th < Roman, ThO ,.moan i, lig ht . M th. ditc h " " , O,<.>Wn 1 CI, o;C" '" 2 Ag" "" , " w ho we,. QuO" e rod wi," , h." man," "" . 01lw du, io, w,". ""ri ormed by the o..vy ,nf, ,,,,y. h eh 'e nt .. Id oigh' moo As quO',", 0' ,o. man,p", ""OS , 'w ay, "" d"tv on 'V .00u' 20 te n" were ,equ i' '''' try the gu.'" • ,boo" • . " " CB"'W,O/l',' "'" ",J • . . ... e..": i.Ai...••_ & n .• • ':. '.'~ : ; ~" ••- : ':': :~ ~,';,\.':.:~;;:. W.'.:;:,\';::. .. .. .•.. _...'.. " ~ . .. .. . , • ~- ..... -, ......... ".. _..... • • • • • .4:.• ........ - .. .. , . .... . 'J' b_._. .. . , . ....".- ............. ........ "". .' m .. ~" m " ' . _.~ - ~ ~ ~. ~ , w Abov ~- ,h.""'"'""., · . u .. m~ :- ~ o' 4 T"" j ,It " man,pl. h.,wi " om the second I. gion e"oamped ;n an are. , bout 4 0<0 , quO'. The centuri"" , ' ' On" (" d) .,. " ,.,. head of " ~..,-- ., . _ . .........."" ... "u "' • • • • ....-._ • ..... '. \ .. . '.1 .• . ...... .. .. ... ...... . . ... . .. --, ~;•..• • . ,; . , " . u ... , • Abov v/- - - - - Ali," , /I • -. ~.~. J TvP!" 01 ,ent< , "own 0" 1 ,.,, " ', Col" mn. ~ Ei got -m3n I. Qioo", y· t.nt. 6 Oft.'oe" ' ent. . J Gon. ,.", t. o, a Two ",on t. eO' _ ' from Numa"'" Rom" ch Gorm, o;,ch" Zon" , lmu,eum, Main, ." ITALY AN D 'HIE \X'ESTERN M EDITERRA NE A N .-.,.....,_ ......... -. -... _ . . _--,- , _ " - - ' _ . ·..""'"9 ..... _ "--,-""-,,~ -_ __ ................ - . ... 1 -) lio'o.on "".. .._ .. $o>WI T... _ · _ IIIII , • R , , .. ........ ..hoeloon 01 ono 01 II.. _ _ block> ""'" .._ , S<>a _'h "'" ..... - . . ' ' ' ' ' ' T......... to< "'" ..._ _ a' .... I>a '_7t ..... _ bowoIJe , r.... 0«1 " ... _",;ng __ , ~ --'T ,.- . .... «:1>"0 "me> '" .... lacao 01 ..... - . . . 7 ... """" '''POn hom N"""",;•. >pa;" C- ~ r .<,- H - r- H - ';~ • • .- - • t. • ," .... , . . . - . _ .., _ 1.... RO ME J75-[ 40 Be Tli li HIH1.A " AR M Y , 60 O( "l ua.., ,ncludlng IU )' ....'P"'. T I",y "'..,.., m:odc of "'~'M' and M id ~igh, men and 'MIf "'luip"",n" Otti,..,n' ,en,s '" ",-ell", ' huoc: of 1qJonor.... are ,ho""n an Trajan's Column Al'O\Ind , he .. hol~ a",. marked ou, for ,he ....mp a,. d, .. ance-of zoot, from lb< 'en', , he dneh :and palnak "'..,.., f~, cons'"",,~d Ca m pdu.;oes Ai l... en,,,,,,,,hlng ,he amp ,he lribu.,.,. admini..ered 'M o," h indi" idUlllly '0 ill ....i, hin , he camp includ ,ng ,he .~,..,.. Each ....n .""'" >leal ""' hing fro m the camp .nd '" hri ng an)~ hing It< fou nd the ' rihu"", . Th~ cam p dUllC'S ....e re d1\'inipl '" nf p.i...i~. and T"" manipl", from e"'h leg,,,n ",n e re>pon, ib le fo' k~l" nll 'he "''' p.,-"",pal" d.an, a, 'he ""Id ie.. ga' he,ed in , hi. loo- fl -wiJ e ,hn'nughf•.., d u, ing the d, y. rhe ' w" maniple. had [0 " " . 'ha' it wa< " " epl and w",e'eJ carefu lly. T h' ,"" of lh,' remaini"g I ~ man iple' wero a,,;gned hy I", each of the lribune•. Th",,, manipl.. a"endod lhe ,ribune in lur n " n a Ihree -day w la. T hey we, e ,..,.ponsihle f'" pit"hing hi, lent and levelling 'he g,ound around it The)' had 'n r~n,.., ' ound .ny of hi' baggage tha' n«Jed p'<>ltt ,ing and . upplied gUll,ds f"r ,he fron' and ,..,..or of hi. ten, where ,he tt.>nes uwe kept. Each ....n'pJe of ,n.,.;; h.ad ' 0 supply al"""d r"" 'M ,..""" of "" ..If)' behind it. Beoidn keeping a Iookou', this ~ kep, an el"e ..... ,he hones ' 0 see , ha, 'My did ..... iniu,.., ,he"""I,'''' bceorne en,~nckd , n ' heir .<-then or ~ Ioose.nd ell...... dJ.. in ,he camp Finall)' each manipk in """""ed suard.........t ,hecomul's"'nt The ~" ••• "'00 "'''''' free from ,he dut.... of 'he he.,")" infan[ry ('S'en , hough ' h<)' we'e t>tJle'ed ..." h 'hem., ..= ttlpon.. bk for gUll,d,ng ,he ram ran . The C3ffi1' h.ad fou r ~ntr.n,.., ••, lhe ell,,,,,,,i' ies of """h of 'M [.....,. main road•. At each em ."",.., , he,,, ".,,, a guard of len "," us. IIe' ide>. ,he guard, . tread}' men' k,ned , . , nigh, ,he,. "'e'e u,ua ll)' th"", pieke.. gua,d ing the " ore, " the qu" ",,,.-iu,,, and ,wo a' the [e"l> or .ach of the I<'Il"te. aud ",he, mem_ be" of 'he milil ary ""u nc·il. l'olybi'" due' not id" ntlfy ' he"" tent" but they wOre p,,·,umal>ly behi nd the tr ibu nes' ,0 '0 10..>,,,,,. '0 ll"""'" u_'" ,e " .. . ""' ''g', ,1>0 v"lun,ee n be1id~ 'he ~,,,",,... and 1_.... A gUllrd ""'" 21$0 1<1 over eaeh m.niplc:. Eac h guaed """.i1ted of roo ' .....n. one r" e .ad, of tM four mgh' 'ntelln. ...., . uppor." ..... _ heven,ng , he hornI>kno..... (c....-.....1 :and Irump<'cn ( r....a:.u.) ....... n.J<.t ' hotir 'tl>lrurn< nl1 ouls,d< ,he -.oul't'em. On 'his signal lhot ,,;uu d ftorn each nuni['le "'00"'" , ,, ... nd 1M hnl ..-.,eh " ... brougl>l 10 the t of h,. man,pIc: . The- 'ribtlne ga, 'e each gUllrd. _mall ", I>Ie, (u n ...,,) ",'i, h . n ind,,·idua.1 sign on i' and dismiucd him to hi, ""',. On. m.n " .., .d.'Cted from [ It< , en[h maniple of e."h cI.... 0( ",f. n[l)' . nd [he temh ,urn", " f 'he c",·.II)', . 11 " f which we'e hille'N a, ' he I.. end " f , he camp undc' ,h• •ampa", T his man "'as relie" ed of ~uard dut i... Each e" eninRat " ",'el he ,,~, eepm' ed to the duty tri hune ,,, receive the " ·ate hw"rJ . "l'hi. w., in",ibe,l " n a W'k>den tab l<'t. He rel u rned ' 0 h is maniple .nd passed lhe tablel in fl\ml " f wi,ne"" w [he chid cen,u,i"n "I' ,I>c next manip le. I. ikewi'" he p.,,~J il on 10 the next maniple um il it n "" hed the commander of , he fi " t manipl" Of ' U T", ,, , who '''u,,,,,d II ' 0 , he !rib" "'" b<;rore da'k. Th. ehief dn.",i"n "f 'he /i"t,..,...... of caval, y in eac h kgion h.ad given o.den .... Iy in 'he !1"k>rning 'o .....e of hIS 01''''''"' I" "'leel f"u, ins pect ' M nighl guard• . Th.a' ...'ening the _ rna.n had '0 g''''' noli,.., '0 lhe leading dent'ion of the- "" ~t ,...- t h.at i' ..... hi. dUll" I" P""'id<: ,he gword i",p«.~on r"" , he ... ~, dol". The fOW' " ........... d ..... lou (Of lheir ""pccti,.., . nd .hen .....,n' '0 ,he n i bu ... to M:<'ive "Tillen ""de.. from him .I.,,,il\(l ..·hal ..... lhey ""e'" 10 vi';, and .. ,,'ha, ,i"",. Afl er Ih i. ill fou r er..,."..,.;! , he ",,, pl....pah.• • nd ....ited out.ide the ten, .,( ellM' tM p"""" ",u.. or h" feU" " , een'urion. "'00 ,001< it in turn '0 10U nd lhe night "·.t,,hes . At the appointed ' i"'" a hor n ""' nded the beginning "f "", h ",·a, ch . Du'ing ,he fin ' walch 'he 1""'(>Cf "'hose du' )' i' """, ",'OOm panied by some fr iends •• wltne' ''''', made the ro unJ" ,'i,ili"g 'he 1""" men, i"neJ i" his orJers an d ."lIc'<:'ing 'he """"'" from eoc·h gu,,,1. If he rounJ a m. n .,Ieep or a"'ent hi. 1""' , he .n ,,""pen '" 'urn "..,,,lin ,k>n. 1'",,,, called hi. friend. t" ,,'nne" i• • nd WSC' , T he tribune imm"diolel)' ."embl ed a court martial of all ' he lribunes , anJ th e gu. , J wa, tr kd , Iffo und guilty he wa, conJ emned '" ,uner the He wa, led oul and the tri bune touched him ..... ith a cudgel. IIi. comrade' 'he" be.[ 0' .toned him'" d.ath. If ' he failut< to eon"", ' he It..... ~ w.., the fault " r the troopa..... offence- th.... tim«. This punisluncnl ",. .. . Iso """ed ou, for """,...dtee, for th""'ing a"..)' one', ' '''OI'd or . hidd in banI •• Of f'" J~·, n, . hou, one', OOU 'ase in b 1"81""""'" """i"", _.1In mert, ,1>".. '" ITAL Y AN D T H E \'(' E ST ERN M EDIT ERR AN EAN """ld otter _ r,fie""" each morning and ha"e lhe orom> r""d by ,he aug........1to ......"t>m!"'nied lhe ;ormy bcr""c offering banle. \I'hen t>auk had bo.l and his en,eloping mo""men" which wa, ,perine.H)' de.igned , ,, de.1 wi,h , he l e ~ i on . , . how. , hal up Ihi. point Roman RCl>oro l. newr con.ide red . ny Nher I&<,ic. E..en .f'er the time of IIannibal il w•• nul abandoned , as it ""'l"i",d no lacl........1 ability on . he pan of ,he gc.....l. Roma n armies W O f) baltIC'!! becau~ rhe lelionary " ... lhe ""'I soldier. \I'hen d","·n .. p 1'"" boltk lhe Joa.'all made "p lhe linl li , lhe ,.-...cip6 the o«ond and lhe , lhe thiTd_ All in lhe ~lh-entl"ry Iqion dC'!Icr:ibN by Livy , PP' "-ere Idl be,,,«n ,he manipk'O equal 10 lhe "wlh of a maniple 10 •har , he li.... """It! inlc-rchange_ The ,,"valry ...,,", ' im,larly d ,,'n .. p ,,;,h '.-eo bet....".,,, .he , tV"ing lhem room in whi< h 10 whet-I d ma""".......,. Th< .pa..-n bet,,-..:n the mani pl" prcscnt the """'I oeriou. di fficulty in undeAI.nd,n, ,he manipul.. formaThe d.y o r h,"I~ E"el;' da~' a, da....n lhe tribune• ..,- ,ion. Did lhe """ali and "n..a1"~ ..,ally ""ned al lhe con.ul', 'enl. \ll'ocn ' ocy fip;hl wi,h gal'" in lheiT li nc •• Polybiu. , had ",ceived hi, ordc.. for the day, by default, ""em. 1<> , .. g ~ e '" m did thc)' thc,' Tcla v~d lhcm 10 lhe centu rio ns and d ose thc gap... di d the Inarii d=ribed dec"urion~ ....ho " 'e re waiting at , he bl' L ivy (..,e p. 118), Som e commentr ih.. ne' te nts, T hey in ,heir tu rn tato" have . " gge\1cd lhat , he ",Idle., tran, mill ed lh e c'On. ul'. orders do wn «l in eoc·h manlp le ', huffled' outward , to fill the gap. , Thi, i. com plet ely unthe ra nk " nd tile lr in"""d of "'hea, and 10 pi1< h ,heir ,en.. ouI1ide lhe ,am!"'n. on an unpro,,,,,,ed 'poI. ,"feer tbe bonk of Cannac ,he .un-i,",," "'e.., all pOl' on a ra,ion of barlc:~ and f......"e\I 10 camp oul all , he ,'""r ':""'nd , Tribu..... a1... had lhe righ' io li..., mpul on a Roman 10 do hi> d..ly"..-te of a p li'·e 'n"'. L ike ,he .\l.Kc-doniano lhe Roman. had a .~""cm of "",,'ud•. t'o< plJ.amry ,~. aloo g","" JUld "",,,'no. Tl>t:-oe ".".., a,.-a.< wall. A man who ,",cd the life "f anolher ,oldier . wh etheT eiti>;en or all}', wa' ,:",wne d with an oak wreath (carm ll' ci~ica ) h )' the man he haJIk who I\ad ""-.,,ivcd it. TM.., "-'-", also ",,,...-.u gi,'cn '0 ....., who had d, .. ing"ished ,herr=h'C'!I b~ I..... r COlI'" in .ktrmi'...... A man ..:"", had ndoed an n>otDy on such .n ~ " .... ded • • peat. An infan,ryn>an,,'hohad t illed and ..riJ'PCd an e...my =ei\'«! • cup. H....... t... ppins> ""..., ."..r.tN to .he ,,",·.11;' for .imilar f"",o, u'..,..,... I"" '0 ""'IIi,,,, '" '0 dency In ek••e up loward. ,Ix: ngh' .......h n """gh, .he proteclion of hi. nc-illhbou.o .hield (a n, urion. """'" ehooc:-n fr"m ....., who """,-,ld Sland thr:O gro<Jnd 10.lo,,,hi. happening). SecondI)' •• he soldic:-r-< ........ Id Ila~e discn~ from the ......m y.nd ' "".. m..' bact again hero« lhe li could inlc-r<:hange. When lo.....ing r Ih.c: "","'er to p"'Mom . . - dtouId consider ,he ma~k (pM'"""' ). They cXlUld h..-" been e.lIed righ, and len as "'cre tlto alliCl:l hrip"'" The problem wo.. ld ee,uinl)' he solved if lhe c""'uri,,, w.rr lined .. p ...ne hehind lhe OCheT. wi,h tlto ..,ar cenl.. f}' mnvtnl up inlo lhe gap to form .n .. nbroken Ii.... as sonn as lito NUIe bc-pn , AI lhe Nuk of Co........ Pulybiu llla l lhe .i<:plh of tlte manij\ln " man)' Ii....,. thei< widt"S""I> • dncnl"ion ........ld he ino;:on",,;vabk irthe ""n,uriM......" d...,,'n 01" .ide by '0 ,m Th<e m . n ;" I... in b .ttle .~n .ucmpl ,,'ill he made ho:n:- to r=nnstNCl a ..anallie sequeno:. On mte<J'inll rrom ,he camp """h legion f<>rmN up in 'hr« unbroken Ii.... "~Ih lhe ""nl .. rie> . ide h)' .ide Ikfo", bailIe ,he ""MOll """uld add ..... hi. ''''''I'', rcm,nding them tha. the}' " 'ere fillhlinll for lhci, fann. lITld rr ealliltjl lheir Pll'l vi<"lOrios. Hc wo uid ", uall y hdinlc lhe enemy, pointing out lh,,;r defca.. at ,he hand, of the Roman•. On a ,i Knal the ",,"triM cent uri es turned ahout face and feU in hc hind thd r pri"r centuric<, <>pcning ROM E 27 S-140 Be TH E R O MA N AR.\1 Y ,60 Be -• - -• - - -• -• -• -• -• • • • ,"" . • • • • • • • •• • • • •• •• • • • • •=~================== • • • • • • ""'.'••• ','"'",,, P""C,""'" 1 v"",., =J=) =) =) =) =) =) =) =) =J • • • • • • • • • • •••••••••• • •• •••• ==================== - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• •• z A<>ovo A m. 'wl. of " i",ii " ,>w n " p io " " .d.,d 10'"""0" w ,' h, " 00 ' of te o B. fo w A m. n ,p'" of ha".,; "rown up '" ","d ,," fo, m,1'O" w't" , h on t of '<0 "lXmOpe, mao ,p'e would , o on ' the " me fo rmat ion UHUUU -- =1=) =) -- =1 1 - UUUUU uuuuu -------------------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -------------------aUUU~U . uuuuu .. . .. . . ... ... UUUUU ~ UUUUU UUUUU tUUUUU UUUUU UUUU~\II UUUUa\ll 4 · 4_ · T he ma~ ipul"' ••ct ic Ph. ... 1 The leg.oo "d"wo op on th" . I," " w,H, the N.II"""' """'",,., a!oog , ide the ",iOT eeoM 'e, l he 'e" h.,,.,, . '0 " tho 10 0'" '"" ,no Id.ni" too 0 " ,"" G,".r the ooSl.nIX ceo""e, w 'thd 'aw ."d fo<m op ""h ,od thO" {mo< eeotu , ie" Ie" .og gap, '0 , he I,ne, Th< "" I,tes I. ". tt,. " " " " .pl.' .M form u p i" f,ont of too leg 'o o Ph..e 2 The oo,,'e i, beguo by , he ,. 1"",, who /Iv to Oie, ' op , he e""mv fo<m",,,,, . ' " ad.. ,,,,,,, The, . h," ' . 'ir. '" ro ugh the ga ps: /he oo" a,i close the g ' P' an d ch.. .., 4 · L #l . Ph... 3 II pos,e',or oO,,' wio, di"'" g,ge . od 'oo ""n " . h.",,,, ga ps The ' heo w" M,"w ""oogh to. g. p' in ' 00 1'''00'1>'33. woo '0 tum 010'" 'ho" g' ps . od CI",1I" Ph• •• 4 P-" ""'''''' If tho a' • • 1", be.,o o, the" !>Osterior ceo tu' i.s ,. """ " g , p, The y ca" Mw ' ''he' "'Of". "* "i""" '" ITALY AS D T H E WESTER S MED ITERR AS EAS I",.,. up tilt gaP' in , he It"hcn .he "anal '0 p~pa~ for I>ott le ",as aiven, . he ",hits lef' .lItir manipln, pa OKd . h",ugh . he gaps and , an fo,war d to han." .h e advancing enemy , hu rling" "a n' shower of ja" elin, . T he purl'<"'" 01 th i, wa' '0 try to b'eak up ,lit enemy format ion in anticipation of lilt eha'i<' of lhe !>eavy ,nfantt'}·. I'ol ~·biu. dn<:rit:>n , hi. mal"llXUne at .he bo"k of Tebmon. '«'"hon both 'ideo had ligh.ly am>ed .""'P' in fron., 'hi< ,..;tic ..... ""utn.lised and . ho hanle bepn ",ith a ' kinnish. ~ ' he n ,he enemy cam< wi, hin range of.he !>eavy infan try , the lrump ,,,In .. ,. . .- The ""', eenourin of ,he Msft"i _ . """'N up '0 e"- ,he ga!" and bq:an dashing rhei , J'i1<> api_ . heir ~Ido as if impaOen••0 gel to gtip" " i' h ,he e"'my. Therrum pn.bbred, .heMs,,,,, n.,w 'hei, ,,-at cry and, cheered on by 'he of . he army, ru.hed in hu,ling lin' ' he ir thin an d then their ' hi'k "il". In the eonlusion . hal lollowed th i' hail " I' heavy ;a,'elin., .he Ii..>l ali drew thdr s"'ord. and charged into th e enemy, th rowing the whole weight of . hei, bodi.. again" ' heir .hie ld, in an a, temp' .0 knock 'hei r OpponenlO olf balance. Then, allowing ' he ir k>na . hidd, '0 rest on ,he JfOUnd ,,'hih. ..itt leani ng . heir k f. ohouJdcn .,.;",. .Mm and 't'}ing .0 [orce .he enem~' bad, 'My foug h' from behind 1M . hidd. Sometime' . his fin , charge "'.. suffieien, '0 b..ak .11<: en. my line. If i' railed, .h e trumpets .o u nded the recall a' "'" n ... h" moment um w", dissipated , T ho ""SI"w.- centuries di""ngaged and began to ,ctrca' u n,il the y " .."..: level "'i, h ,he rea' of ,be " .....'eent uri.. ; ' hen 'My turned . 0 ,he right, p....cn' ing 'heir .hield ';dn .0 lhe "",mI' and movN ...,..,.. behmd lheir ~ """" . uries. ~n .he whole: Ii"" retoea,ed and ~ .hrough the ~P' in .M p,,1fci~s Ii"" . The pUtci~" who "..,~ 'he cream of ' M a.m ~·, now d .....d a a", and on the ,rumpe' bla" cha,~d in , h" , arne way, U.u ~ny thi' wa' . utft"lent to , haller th e cnomy, who ..." uld In. ,h¢t. '" turn and run. TI>t "",..Iry and ,-.Ii", ..... ,.,ld 'Mn hunt o;k,w'n 'M tl""in~ . nemy. If, h" ....... thc wo,. roughly hondlo,l ,nd the h. " le 'cemed to be I" ", , th o 1i~ ," ~I ; wO\lld hr~ "k t"nh, pa" lhrough ,he ~'I" in , he '",,,ii and rcfl>tm behi nd 'Mm. N O'" ,be " ,i,......~ "",,uld be gi"on tho "'okr on ,he ltumpet to ret '"", .nd w""ld ..copen ,he gap<. ~' ".,..ld then ..i,htl..." , throul!'h 'M '""no, "'00 """Id """'e up .0 make lhe- retr",,' easie r. Ono..., .hroul!'h the ,he "rutO'",. would fill 'he PP< in the Ii'" of It."'~li , T he """en,,, ""ntu,;" of , h. , he t ri~ F;; would now mo," up 1<, d o.. . heir rank. and th e wh,M . , my wou ld ",,,o.t in K,,,>tI " rde. heh ind " hod~ e of ,,'hen "'e ~no'" .ha. ,.ooo-stronl!' Ie'gIons w..,~ UoN _ Tela"""' . Conn.. and Py d n~-'hc legion. d, lIer had to "'i, n_ ... nd I particul.lly violent charst ,,' h" P<'crs , The maniple """ld he d, a"" n up in open o,de', allowing .ix f"'" per man, or d~e orde' "'i' h ' h"'" feet pe' man Thed nll'olorm e"-order from Of'en order ..... prot.bl y ......."1ly tM Am<" .ha. of ,he Gn,dt._"",,-.ng 'M rar hal( of...,h lik in'o.he .f'"CC' bel,,'ttIl 'M file<. It i< c lea r lrom PoIy'bit." contpati..", be, ,,,,,,,n ,be phalan, and ,n" legion ' ha' the klllion~f)' norman~ f"ught in ope n or,je. wi' h ,i x r"", per m.n a, h. , ay. t ha' each Roman n. d '0 f."e te n pike" 11 folio.... , h.t lh. fl." n,." d "'" ",d.. wa, thd . oquival, nt ' pc'''. If du, ing ' hc hau le an~' "f 'M ol.he ,\Ia"" do nian h.·ked ' hidd', "'helt ma niple< bec.me ....ttc<ed. ,h. 'IOIdi... 'he" " ... a hoplite .0 "'e~' one and. "-ould <e(",m a"",nd 'he" ..andard< half feet. Although Pol}'biu...... '0 be as .bey did., G..-""illm in ZI711C. cor""" ahou. ,he .,,, feet pe' man, ,,'hea ~ qumion of ,he okpth of . be ,he Roman, ",,"' f'" 'M .....sed breaIrhey did a' the T ~bbia and man iple< <emain' unam"..,red. '«'"ith 'h""'f:h, 60 hea,")" infan' f)"o a """'Uf)' ' her e are a, Can My m...' hav~ fonn«! up only .h"", p...,:tical forma,ions-three In do,", OT"der so 'hal ,hey could .... deep, si" deep and u dee p. These are .he" ,,',,;gh, .0 it< ma~imum e-tf..." each rorm standa.d of .-itth' me n '0 a lik, " 'hich !>ea,'y' "u- in.ide hIS ohield " i ' h the ..... a sllb-uni, of .be R""", n ann~'_a hroadened pan , a' ' M ;Unction of.he """'........_01. len' (ul, 1M memben met.1 and 1''00<1. hoobd over ,he ' OP of • file muM ha,.., ,barN. lent , ,, of 'M sltield, The haf. could be held In et>COU lag<: comradnhip ; modern mili- pIac~ agoi".' ,he 'hield "i ' h ht, Ief' 'af)' manual. call thi. ',mall -lfl'OIIp 'humb. I hav e . ried Ihi•. The hmo>dcned d)'no mi",' . l''''''h m.n had hto regul a' j'>l nt "",ms to he d..illned for jll" ' h" placc in ,he ra nk and fi le ;u,,~, h. had purr<-: , Huwever. i' mu" be ad m itl~d in thc cam p. O nosande. " mfirm, thi' th . t i' wa, vc'y difficult to h"ld ' he h.ft when ho . ay' how wonder ful it wa' to in p t" o with my thumb, Perhap. th,,.., , ee lhe ",Idie" run and up their Wa' I thong on . he pi/u,n, or perha!" place. in lhe line, A, he WI' " 'rit ing in ,he ",,,~' i n g . trap "n the .hield Wi< the '" een lUI"}' AD, he COIIld hardl .. be "'rapped round . be ",IIIm and gra.ped de...-ibinl!' an~'lhing "'M' than lhe in ,he shield hand, Roman .rmy, '1M man ,,'ho Kn'ed in '«'"hen ,he pJ ....., ,trro..'n,.M IMa ,he from ",nk, a J'O'i 'ion of honou,. 'hIA iron npectN .0 """'It ".... prot.Ny'."" , he <mior toIdier of Idien wcr. hcaed to inerc••c 'he depth 01 and rendered ' hc shield u"""ntrollaMe. the file. "I lia,'ali and p,j,,,,p<, f, om ' ix to ei ~ht , O n ' he .hr"e o,,,.,ion, er, ",m""" In''''''. '''ke .haf, RO .\tE Zn -l40 T ilE RO.'IA."i AR.'I" ' " T HE G REA T W AR S R~ no..' """, ,,>lIed , he " 'hole of renin.uw h al )'. The Iqtions .... d f~d up to the .\I...- edonian phaLlnx undn" the DJmmand of one of , he e rro.,n , ge....r.oI. of tbe a"'-->en, ....,.-Id a"d had tha' they "'e'e ellUal .")'thi ng Ih., wor ld '''old p, ,>d o, e. In the ..lUth ,h" Roma" , n" ..' p;,,,,d ,he "rai" of ,l,tn,ioa to Si.-il)', h ..... ine...i,. hk tho' Rome'.npansion ..,."h_ ..-ards """,Id Mna: her inlo heood-on coIl ~" ..',h , he gtn'n' .......1 0( ,he .hI,,,'" '0 .e,,,,, """,,0< k_-.. ... ,he !"Iamen'....... .. ho .....1 """"d the ' ''''''' of .\In., . quan., of. """,,,ry .., her. ~narin, The S),,",",,"'o, had dcko'.d the Mameninc, and wc, e ' 1ll lh e !,,>i"t of 1. )'i" g .iege 10 Me" i" . when the ea"bagini.n. .... ho ...e re a""iou. to p....~, the "rai" frum falling in to S l""""""" hond., came 10 the aid or the th",•• ened town and threw a gar"""n in to it. At this point ( 264 IIC) the M.meni...... tIOI ",.hina: to he OlX\If'icd either I» S)ucu.. or em.,.,..• • nd ""';"1 """', much f=dum the I""'n of Kcggio on the opposite .ide of tlte ., rails .n;O)"d ••• member of the Roman . llianee , ,,,hm ill ed Rome. Romc knew tha' accept ' he . " hmi"ion " '.s tant.m<><>nt to decl.ring "'a, on boIh S)ucu.... nd Canhagc• btl, nn·.... he1c>. deri, .... tc , d o,'IO n, '0 ru.h into .... r an d m.de only a half· hurted attemp' to SlOJ' lhe Ruman, entering the t",,'n. On.." ,he K<>tnIns had arrind ,h. M.meni..... ,hre..'ou , , he Canlta&,nian carmon. Car111agc re'ah'lled by sefld ing • n .rm}· to lhe i.land, ,,'hieh m.n:hed .lunK Ihe .ou th roast , ~,ined fo""s ,,' ith i•• er"w hile cnemi.. ,he Syr. cu, ans and ad,'on""d on M <,l ina , M , an...hilc a ooo,,,l., .rm}· .....1 ...i'·ed.1 Reggio .nd " '", ferried """"" Ihe o" . ito. The """no ..... no..' set for ,he Iona:a, and '0 '0 Be ec hiHere" wa, in Rome' . history . O"'er the next 120 yean K<>me "'as to " '''l';e Ihrtt ,,'an apin.. ,he Canhaginians in ..·.....h she: ..... 25"PX' and ,,'hieh ended in the compkle ""'rruclion of Can""!:,,.nd he, popul.tion. T he e.rl;"'1 accounl or ,he...... n is liven by ,h. ('H,e k hi"OTian Polyhi"s, who wrole ah<," t the ti me of the th iTd "'ar. Polyhio. had con.iderahle military "'rerie~ .nd a dear onde1"st.nd,ng of " '"' eg}·. nd lactics. L:nfonun.alOly large portion, of h" ..-od ~ miss,,~, Lis")' liy... an almosl """tin""". account of ""ento from the beginninK of the se,,"Und I' onk war in ~ 1~ do...n h' 167, ho' af,er th., his work is a1 , 0 I"" A' ha, hecn pointed ou, oarlior l--ivy was an a , m_ chair hi"orian ,,'ith no I.:tics. Much of his ....teri.1 is dra...n from PoIyh,..., bu, he of,." suppk-......... ,he G...,k tuuoriao from ",her inferioT """rca .nd 'his """,."tI"at.. ""'n htow M." 'M"" OQ '''' ,M.". of to. Iorot Puo," w" ," I.. l Rom< 0:0010"" _ """,,_ """'" A~OCI, ...., Soc;"' ..... Soo-d>n.. R_ 's _ d _ ......... _..,._-~ ....- , (JIIfl'"",,A' .,GAH,,. .:. 'TA.. rrs "F , ,,ySOI UM . "'SSI~" (""",• .,Ai '. • '" 'I! P O" O~U1 pU. 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''l,L ''l ' nI'" P'I '"' muwoli >\11 u>w pue p<X>." p' UO' - " ~ S U " JO 10'11 ~,\I"" W J1>'1l 'Ill.~ P~UI"J I - [[1 -a ',n,,,,,,, """ w ~'II W ,~ !d, " \ll!." ~U" ld :l'UlpJ""'l" p>SI," P sue wo}! ~Il' ""'I''''' UO IU I:l'"'llJ "J >'11 "Ul ~~" ~) U~'I~ ou po,,,, .I'll' ,"', ,, p"u~uodx> _UI Il 11M l"\ll :,Iu "' I~'"tI ' p'\I~u n"1 '" ," ' UI\I' 0'" JO l'~II " ' 'IIUOW O'"'U!Illl ''' pUR P P" W 0 st p ~, n ," OU ' "," sl'll P;'lnld "~ "''''-l pue pu nm:l'u UUJ pU'l ro'Il' ' LUn,1 ~41 Je ~UO AIP jS 01 :lUI""" ,' OJ~ ," muw"li ' 41 u>'I," 'ISllU J j ~S ISJ!l ~'ll :lU!Jn O 'u" ~Il ' '" '~"I 0'1" IGnW "~'II SWJ~I len b~ uo ~, odw,,' 01 ~J~ ," A~IlIJ ' I"'l l ,u ~ wo li ~'II 01 , e ~p ,~,,, ' I '''01 u''''-l P~'I , e\ll 'U ,"01 mww ' wo' P~U '"~" U~,," PU" "lell pue " l'~I S -'0 <)'00' ~IlI SU' ~8A"' 'II"" I" S~"" ' \11 p' W"'U "" !l ~IU"d ' 41 pll" 'I " \llO ~ 'I ' uQ '"",,, ' \II JO 'l~u , ," ~A~ I\lSg 01 P"'I ." ou , uewoli ~Il,L '''IPU 'lJJ p~AOJd ~""\I ~S!'''''\110 l\1:l'!W Il "!\1'" '~I "~ ,'U"W JO >pnl!"" >\lj p'U ~pJ"Il PU " H I )j n poJd J ~ I U nO ~ "'-l 01 <' Flj ' ''lJO 0' 11 '" 'p,~o'd ' JR" JO ~ORlduowwo~ B 'I ~no\ll '1' " 1" )nJq 'I'll ' AJ'~"I' I '" " URWOli 04' " l ll~j A,,' ~Il' pUR ''' ~ AOJ . nO!J" R P" 'lIU' mq ,lb!, ~'II ~SI"' 01 p,m sumuTll"'! IJI3J ' \ll 'u ,"WO)! « 9<) '"~,' :,IUI,,,olloJ ~'l.L "U"" l-\' WOJJ ," OJP4,, '" 'll' ''l '~Il"WJ ! ~' 1~I " u l " IJ" PU" UO"U1Il" ' \I' Il'!'" l e~p 01 \lllnou~ :l'U(lJl ' 11"J '~OJoJ U"jUj~~Il 'J~~) JOU u e.n~V-J ,'S JO\l I!~N '.1.10," Sj'l j!l w'Il 1 ~ ~" W 01 ~1" lnd L1l ~w 01 P~"OJ <1''I ~ ' ~Il.L 'p OJn,,, '"'I'" S!'l 'll1'" '~ UR ! J"., I" U>lJe OJ~ 'l~T4M " UO' UP" ' j AI,u'.J ~41 UO' I"AJ>Idood ' '"\II JO " '''pIlIOJd 0\11 'l~' ~OJ ~J Oj~J~'l' ~'O," S!H ',uol"e " ' \11 01 "','IUUU I",' "U,' jO sp'~p"e" I~nsn 'Ill "Idde 01 ~1lleun '"." Snt q,'I0,] ~1,10od "'~'l l \llj'" 'U'W~A!O,' _w "'l jO o< n"~ > g ' ,nw, x" w 'I' l" P 'Il'~ SR" 0'1," ,nlln",] ~'I' JO "O 'PU"' ~ ~'II PU" "UP,'" JO m )jIA ~Il 1 ' , nlln"d < n 'l ' w~ v J" u"" ~'l1 ' OM Oil '" ' ,nu~IIIW·'V ",d"s J" pU~!JJ ' '''l' e 'WR) "'-l pUUAI!WRJ o!d !~s ~'II 'II'," p'pJooq m" ~ 'l ~ W O }! l\f ''''' 89 1 ul "UP,' ,] JO ~I ll~q ~'ll J~lJ~ 8u, _um,,' nh J"J owoli ol 1'l8noJq u''''-l pOll uuu" '''Il V OJD ~Il,L 'm l'l '\ I" d j OOJ" IlJ . '.';P P ld wo, P>JOU ~ I OJ" ,"" m ,,, "\11" ~'Il U.>lJO pUR ;>" u' p~'OJcI u,~,~ s,' e·" I" " 1l~"jPv-'d '! ,n!q,'lod " pnl' SI'II uI ',,",u' Pyuoo _'U" 'I'! '" P;)l[U :>q ' 4 u", , n ,q" lo NV3NV"tIli3U03W N li 'lJ.s3,~ 3 H.1. (lNV A'lV.LI ROME 27S ~ t 40 Be Tll ii GH:EAT W ARS T he follo"'lng ) 'eaf an ~ll~m pl by ,h ~ Romllns 10 k"""'k ou, I}Kpana mulled in d , _ , ~ r anct apin Ron<: _ lrlt ..... hotIt a navy. I'r<wioiom "-d 10 be "-'kd the length of Sicil y. r.. nning lhe Cart hagi nian p .. n,lct. 10 fc-ed lhe armies beoiqing Lilyt.norn. I n an aucmpl to """ify matt.... l he Roman. lauo.:hcd an a" ad on Mounl Er io<e, ..' hi~h rion a""" ~ DKpana. and a plured iI, , hu. OO'-mng lhei r ",,-n . uPflly rou,~ alonlthe north coo.. ann , Bo'h "d", "'~K eKha",,~d anp Th~ Ia~ k of . .......'n. in the " ..r w" ha,;ng a dc..-.ltoing clftct at Canhagc an .hou. <;>;nari.. who had been ocrvinll in Sicily demanded their pay, a nd when il "'as not fort h",wrnnl m.., inied , The Cartha[l1nian rovt'rnmen. kill of Hamikar llarca ...,.,1d ha,.., been .. u ....ly ddUIN Hamilar rul dovI-n . be '~I ""th .. n cr nnhln........ I n .be wnfuoion RooM anr>n'ed Sardinia in q nical dioreprd of the 11'Cl1}lhal she had j\lOl .worn. Can hagc's sit ualion ...... deore n,~ . S Ol only had . he loot .n her ~ off ,he Italian """"' but in .... ~ffon. 10 KUin her posi.ion in Sicil~ .be had been comrell~d 10 diven all her reoouroeo 10 , he i.l~n d and ,n conocque""" 1"'1 her v~rnmc n t ...hich had bellay~d , he ar my in Sici ly, " !f"'ed hi. serYi"". f" r , h~ r<.'<". 'nq .. ~" " f Spain . In 237 h ~ lefl hi' naliy e land, ,.king hi' y"u n ~ ,,'" II"nnibo\ wit h him, He never returned , . nJ mc, hio dea' h in acti on eigh ' year, la' or, ofter roc<>nlj..ering , h ~ '"ulh-e." of lh e I be'ian pcnin.ula_ The Grock .~,l"n j' "f Mo"ili. (.1.1" , seill~ .) in ."..th. ,n r ,a""• • 1", had in'e,n ," in Sr ain. T he M~ ..jlio'.. had been a' Ic"l port ially r",pon>ibk f.,.t h ~ Carth. ginian k..on in S pain . Th~ colony ..... in . lloa......, wuh Rom e and lh= can boo 1",1e doubt 'hal Rom~ had "1"" """"" '0 ~;gM T.... t~." . 0' ..... _ _ " <:o<>lIo<:I in _ p......., w., 'he -, " ",""'. ~ ""'" r>oW COO""" II....., S,," v, S.."'o" ...., C<><. 'C. C",,"_ <:o<>'"lI. NO" " ""'co """h ."l.,n S.."."" '"" B,,.,,,,, "10'''" '" IT .'l. L Y Al>.' D T HE W ES TERS MED ITERR AS E....N ell<:Ol.ll'aflC'd ,he .\ \a".iliol. in ,hei , ha..., had Spani.h •..,n'lHlI:. Thi. m a comide, ahk elfee< on ,he •.,., in Sicily and may ha~ bee n , he cause llf Cart hage' , ,nabil;ty to p . ~' her mcrce n. r;cs afte' the w.r. ~o ,,' . , the Pun;'; armies , hru" nonh waTd. in'o the Spani. h hinterland, the M , ,,.jliol..,. found lhei, ",,"tal trading Pl>SIO eul off from ,he in,e nor. I f lhe Canhaglnlans were ' 0 ,d" an~ hc)'ond the E b m , the Ma "i\i<>t e ~ oll>nie, at Rhod c and Emporia<: (Am puri..) ju' , oouth pI. Me anwhile in haly Rome con, inued het gr. dual eKpamion n<>n hw.rd s. The legions ~ros.ocd the Ar"", and ad.'anced &pinS! the Ligurian•• who OIXlJpied . he whole of ,he .... hoo, d from . "" AtnO '0 ,he Rh6nc:. By n o ' '''' Rom.... h. d g. i...d control of the roo _t a. fa r a. La Spez;a. On lhe ea.t ~~,"Sl, "".id", the c"lon~' ,,'hich had been foundcd .1 & 00 Galliar (Scn iplli,) ,bOll, 1&~, . SC<'Ond coIon~' !lad been ..... blishe '0 '0 .. ,,6 Roman••ftee of . ny other commi llnent , "'=c .bk 10 drtooe ,,,",ir en,ire re.o\"en to , he Wlr. The Romans were t horoughly . 1armed at Ihe in~ a,i"n but h.d had plent y of ti me to prePll"'. Four armies we" , put into the field . l'-ch con. ul had I four · legion f""", con.i..ing of I bn le 0\"'" 5o.tlOO inran"y and ) JOO ca'·llry . One of ,""'" . rm ies " ... deu,ned in Sardinil where it h.d been camPll'Ini n8· Rimini T he other wa' di. patched c,wer the Flaminian ro ut e ..'u,h . A , hird Ifmy of a , imila, .i"" l uorded k ome ilselr ...hil, t , rou " h, compooed of 5o.tlOO fOOl and 4 .000 l1one , dra",," from lhe Sa b in....nd Etruscans under , he command of one of , be ptae'o.., ~ o vcred Etru ria and wa' pro!».h1y en _ cam ped near Arezzo . Here for , he lime ...., .... the immense number of """I" . hal Rome w.. OIJIOlbk of '0 '0 fi,,' fio:ldinll· T he Celts d id not " .. ke at Klmini , .. had becn C1lpeeted, but b" rst ' hrougb the Apenn ine, into Ellur;a and a"acked ,be arm)' lhere , T "" legion . from Rimini , rri•..,d ill" in lime . 0 pm"'"1 I ~ and Celt. ",i 'hd",,,,' .0 the ",,"I with lhe arm)' from Rimini hOld on their """I, . On reach,ng the coast they start ed nott h ,nd '" Iheir astoni , hment the ir advance rOtage.. fell in ,,·ith Ihe army of ,he ot hcr coMul ..·ho had cros..-J ""er from Sardi nia ' 0 pj...nd " ... marching ""'th I"".. .-do Rome. Near T ebmon. I-Iokm nonh of Rome , -10,000 Celt. feU fillh,i ng hra,'ely to , he c nd , T he , hrcal nf yet a!k., he. ,n"aSlOn " .-. . ovCt. The koman. """,-",j it " -otlld be rhe ..... T he legions now invaded the Po ..aile)' i...lf In ,he fi",. campaign ,he Roii. who Ii"ed SOlIt h of the Po, we,c blOu8ht 10 'Mit knen , T M follnwing year ( U 3 ) ,he eon' u l F1a_ mm,u. , ",ho " 'a, later killed by Han_ nihal II the bau le of l .;de T rasime... , crooset her ter m, than uncon dit ional . ur",ntkr, T lie nc'" ~'ear ]0,000 (;...... i (t"" <>net ,,'ho rough' nak«l ) croucd , "" Alps to assi" their kinsmen in I"" Po ..alley . The RomaO$ I.id .iq;e 10 , he I n,ub.., n ' OW n nf A~..,trae, .." r ,h of the 1'<1, In an atte mpt to dra w off , he t"" Io-giom , he Cell. '''dC'd t"" Roman . upply depot I t c...~ ~ "'W of pjacenza. One or the con....l. , :\tarcuo Claud,us M . " :,, lI u. . ru.hed 10 ,he telief of the ",...n wi, h h.. cavalry .nd ligh t_ar med trrtncipal ,own . he I...ub.... . urrender<:-d un""ndilion.lly. In 'M rnllowi ng '''·0 yea" expedition. ...ore ..nt to dcal ...-it h pocke" of re.i" ance at tit<- hea( n o aliltal~ Cl al,mg the 1'0 ; on. on the nort h hank Cre mon. in the ,~rril()ty of , he In'ub..... nd ' M ot her o n ,he "",t h bank at Placen' il in the terrilor)' 011"" Boii. S ince the anncxatK>n of SaNrnia, Rome haple-o of the eastCTll Adriatic . of ",.""", ,Itt: JIl,'ria... ""'" ,he larges'. we.. acc'''I<>me d to Iivin8 by pincy and lheir light "aI 19 ·' (I,mhoi) " . re the .... ou rg~ of trade.. in the lTe•. D uring tM ond half of t"" 3, d century the p<>"= of III)'ria !tad hc-R-un ' 0 in<.n.ot and ...i lh il lhe art'tlpl't<:t' of ,"" piralCSN one of ,he {; t eek "" e>. whote ... power had decli ned tragically dun ne Ihe 3td c~n!Ury, wa. c. pahl~ of deal ing ...-ith , he ,i, ultion Even .\\...·edonia. , he ,rad i,ional peacekeer>or of thc ""nh. ..... both incaJlOlole .nd unwilJi"8 ' 0 int......... Rome .......... IUCIan' 10 he_"""" in,"'~eted , ."" sent .mbaHadnn to Ill)' " 10 advise ...._ 'raint . IXlten thlS em bau, ..... "'butJ«I bl' the 1II~'rian '1~n T~u ". Ro.... in,·.ded (229) and gai""d cont",l of th.. a' "'0., .e<;- ROM E 275- t 40 BC T HE GREAT WARS part of JIIyria lying opposite Brindisi which is roughly oqui valen t '" the c'OOS! of modern Albania. This wa, Rome ', fint real ",- e,,~", acquisition andopened t he gare, t(} the Greek pen insula. II I.-aS to he im,.luable in yea" to come, In 2ZQ tro uble again Hared up in m yri. whieh involved both lhe consu ls , nd was not ' en led until 2 19 The scene wos now set for th e momentous .,'en" of 2 1 8 Be which plunged Rome into the greatest war in her history , The war with Hanniha l i, the w",e"hed of Romon military his tory Rome entered it as juS! another Me d iterr.nean state but em erged 16 years l.,er as the greatest milit ar}' I",wcr in the worl d, II was the climax of Rome' , military achievement, N ever a~ a i n was , he pUl t" , ueh a tc."t The p . epa r a t io ns fo r . h e second war Hannihal wa, d eCIed commander of the Carthaginian f", ,,~s in Spain in 2 2 1 Be. He wa, about 26 years " ld , For yeats his fat her Hamikar had dreamed of C'mtinuing the war with Rome. W ith hi, th ree sons, H anni bal, Hasdruba l and .\ lago, h ~ muS! have >a, up lare many a night aro und th~ ~amp tire di,;eu"ing tactics and how the migbty Roman legions could be hrou~ht '" their knee,. In the'e di,c u"ions a mare~ y had begun to ",-"h'~ \X-'ilh Ilamikar's deat h his plans were , u'pe n d~d, H i, ,u ~ce"or Hasdrubal had been" man of di plomacy hUI Ha nnihal was ca" in the same mould as hi, fath ~r. For yea" ' la re,'anc he' had bee n planned and now, with most of Spa in secnre, Ihe time of rccknning was approaching, Doubtless if Ha nnihal had ocen in c~, m m a n d in 22 5, he wou l,] have in_ vaded Italy dur ing the Ceil ic war , He knew that if the Romans invaded Spain they could e xpe~t ,upp"rt from m. ny of the conquered tribe, whic h ",'ul d d" great damage to lhe Carl ha~inia n posi· tion. b -en if the C. rthaginian, won they wOllld gain lilt le. On the olher hand , if he could march a Punic army into h all' the , ituaIion wou ld he re' -er",d .nd he c'ou ld expect support from Ro me', tra dition al e n ~mi "" th~ Ceils, Samnites and Elfu the e"" wa, pan of an overall strategy Hannihal mu" ha,'e alte. dy planne d hi. march on ltaly; thi, was not ,,,mething that could be done on the 'pur of rhe momenl, as so many commcnl . ](m hO" e sugg~" cl, but required ~(ln.um matc plann ing. The .. kin~ of Sagun tUm in 2 19 was the hr" "~p of thi. plan , In the . pring Ha nnibal lau n~h~d a fu ll,ca le anack on the town and after an eigh t_month , iege it fell, The Roma ns sen t an ulti matum to Carthage, " ",as reieeted an d war was declared in the ,pri n~ of 21 S. I n the autumn of 21 9 Hannibal hod gone into winter quarter, al N ew Cart ha~e, He had di, mi,,;ed hi. Spani. h ~" '''0'' '" 9 C.,m oq ,","" . " ,,, hom. A ";u mp,,.t mooumont fou nd ,n Tvn" " Th. Cu ;"" i. p ,pb, bl,- 01. ,1 The , " 'e ld O"' he "9"' " No" " Af,;o.o . nd prooobiv w" ",ed by t ho l ,by · Ph oe n" ion p h. la n , '".ze '" IT A L Y " I'll T il E W' ES T E R" MEDITE R R" " EAN '0 '.... fOTc.... i.o...n ,o...ns for ,he ,., n,tt and prepared 10 han,J .,.,..". lhe go.-ern_ ment of SPilin hi. younge. br ot he. Hud. ub..1. He fin! tnaIiflllC" from lhe Ilalcaric i.lando 10 Africa. 1'« I.... I,fIllC", a.55O <::oval!)' and a , elcphant> . 1bc IOCCIlrac}' of these figurn, and ",hen, i• •nnte0,000 African infan,ry, 1OPOO Span"h inf.n,ry, 6,000 Swni _ dian cavalry an,J 6,000 S pani. h "",'alry, the expe-ndable ekmen,a being S pani.h. The "",jon'y o f ,Itt 't'OOP' lighting f.,.- tltt <:.an""',n;'ns "'ffe foreign "'""""""' There "-ao, hmo.",..". a n",,1nn bOIh infanlry and cavalry ..Ito..-tte 01 half-aste Liby-Phooenician Mod.. Thi. informa,ion i. given by oay Ito.. PoI)"bius , b,u he do<'s _ many. The .n."", ma~' lie in ,he l>arrad<. for :zo..ooo inf.n,ry .nd 4,000 ca,....ry ,,·hich. "';x:o«lJng to ApptaIl, _ b,,,I, into lhe ..·.U. ofCan hage. In ,he 4' h ""n,ury Canhage possessed. ci'i""n fo= includ ,ng • S»<:t'C'd Ba,,a lion hich "'U a,500 st rong, bu, ,hi. " 'as d ,d nded af,er ,he ~Tush i n.g def.., a, ,he banle t>f the C rimi.u. ri"er in 339 IIC, I't" '0 '0 '0 ,., build,ng h... been di"""''''Tef cuir.....,.. and .hidds. The cui......., which are aim"," certainly "",ii, .re t>f the .ype worn by Hd lmjS(ic offict-n , The . hield. are oftwo typn : lhe .....1r""m tlKd by ,he 0.1,. and SpIlniud. ; .nd • hilheno unk"",,-n .....nd form """","'ha, simil.. 10 tltt Arci'" . hidd bul wilh .n imct c~"..1 dioc and • cun'C'<,..'n in ,Itt form of , roph",. an,J are OOviou .ly .u pposed to ",present ,..ptu k1! arm •. T he monument i. prooahly a "0/'<'0'<'" cdebu' ing ' he " ictory of the Numidian. and their Roman am", <: , h"'e u, ed b y the Lih yPh""n;,ian " T he L iby-l'ho"n ician infantryfOTmed a M acedonian_, y!", pha lanx OrRani..,d , if Polyhius i. ' n be laken lite rally. in,o 'P'eral '0 11""""0'. ncc",ion, Polyhiu' n:-fo... In lhe lightly .......,.j ptkemm in Hannibal' , anny. Thnc ........ ....,d to perform jobs .-maIly rn,ri",od 'n ,Itt lightly armed troops. On , he ..... hand ,hi, ma~' n:-lIe<:t lhe tilthter armamml 01 lhe oUr cap'urcd f...... , he RomaM_i .e. the mail .h'n.-....:i l'C' PoIybtus ron,in"", '0 n:-fn '0 lillht-.nnehe, iflll , hal ,hi. don noc impl}' tha' it . lig ht pIt. lan, .. 00 many ha"" .uppose< .ymhol. ap""ar "'~""'" The bulk of , he Car,haginian "m y was mad" up or f" re ign mercen aries. T hey ~ . me f",m many sources: Cells, Sponia ROME Z7S-'4C111C THE GREAT W AltS Apon from . he l.i~_PboenM:ia..... troops IltId one ,"'OUld ""'e .1>< African '1'\Xlf'O tha, Cartbag(' f'tnpected ,ban to ......e " nde-r lin;'n <>Ili<xn. 1I~. i. i. dear cnU.ro in numhcn " ..,..., ,he rernukabk Sumidian covall1' Numi(tom PoIybi...' o.:,:' ""n' oi .~ oiruh "ith noodo: rn ~r;'. 11M: camel had not )'et b«n ,~ mmallie ,ri "",m<....,.1>< Carthagian. only <~, m man d< d at bo<:k, T hey useeJ 10 its ad \'~ nt agc, the "'ar ,,'ith H .nnibal, The eh~ngo .... , Han nibal'. rela. io n. hip ",i, h hi. troop> .bo<>l", o l~' deci,i"e. lll' l>< IWO)' told by Dio<\
< wi,h • I~tg< tl«1 he wnuld not ba~e pursUIl oi. fleeing e...my, ....t the batik C'\ClI pc:d ~It~eko b)' the Roman n:t,.y, of Cannoe .hey u....ble '0 break The Roman. probal'>ly t>lfered lerm. ' 0 Rome', allied cavalry , but Ihe momom the btll k of Han nibal' , . ,my wh ich had that thi s had b« n achie"ed by , he Ne n lef, heh ind and , hen , Iaoghtered Ce lt, ond S""ni~rd' the I'ur>uit ",as Icr, ,hem 10 the Numidian. t~ Co,,"'- .""",n' m, ic"'''''''''''''' ,ha, '0 . . ""'I" Abo•• A._ 0"''''''''''' (II. P_.,.. " "",oj,..., 1>000<1 "" tho ,,".. f< ~"'" _ W ....., ,,," _ , , , _ '" """" T"'j'o', ' _ bod.. "'" .., T,," _ _ _ '" """"" t" ,," ...... .............. _ _ ....., __. 'hO ..., log'" to - .... ... 'Mh-......-... .......... _ ,__ _ _ _ _.buI _ _ ..... ,_ . _.- ,,_ _ ,__ _._.01._.. ~ e.:-...... -::.;~::::. ......... _ .. . . - , ' '"" too- .... s..on- _ CotI> ..... ,.,.,.., ...".., _ " _ _ 0f'C0 -.."... _ ........... ",,",~soc ~ ........ llC .... ~ R~h' .. y .., _ _ ""T ".'T,," _ _ .... " "0 o><:eIlt • _ ....... ,"" ''Il_ ," ,,01"'<""0 AIl_ " "'_ "'gpo< ' _ ,op "P",· 0 poe ... T"" _ 0 ,,, ,",, •• .01<10 '" , 0. ""'.... t,," "' ''',''''''' 01od. , ". '" ,,," _ "" w "h "onh A'","" 'ypo Tho." '''"'''mod by.,,,,,,,,1e,""" Nooth M,« .o "'"'p,"'" ", ITALY AND T H E WES T E RN .\1EDlTERRAI' EAN , , , tc e Abo"," Sp,""h we,pomv 4 '" _lnd "',," ,'., BC 1 A "'un,on, ' o.' vy ,"'" i' v. '," w " h b"""d omnl f ,o m Almed,o '''. 2 Pilum t, ,," hom NcotU'Q' 3 S","he,d h om A'med'" '''' 4 F.lc~'8 " o m Alm. d lolll, (CQldOb,) 5 Su.,g o, C " , - "" ~- , h" ,, ,w o ,~ (g liJdius h, swmenN) " o m Ag oll., de Ang u l1a ,.,"'nhe,,, 6 D ,g ~ ., 100," Almed,",II. 7 Sp.n "h d agge, " om Nom, o,' , B '''d ~ $oe" be '" 10 Ko'fe of ,h. 'V,," 10" WOS f" M '" ,he 1, le." ".o""d All we,ooo, 'cole T'8 A oove , 1 Tom"" o',e of , Sp . n ,, " me rc.n.,y 'how ,og h" , Cr Tu ol,; a '" Th~ ~um idia ns wer e like mounted pelt,," . T h ~i r l"c'T; c wa, to dart in close to the enem y, throw ,h~i r iaveli m and then retre.t , makin~ su re ne\-el to c" me in,o co",acT. Again .nd a ~.in the Cart h"ginian' u, ed The ~umidi. ns to d' aw e ne mies on to unf, vou ra ble ground or into an amhush , The N um id ian" . re !X'r trayed on T rai"n ', Colum n in Rome wh ~re they are seen purs ui n ~ I).c;.ns , T he ir horses h ~ Ye nothin~ but a neck "r. p, The r iders h"w a round ' hield . nd short tunic but we"r no armour. Sam ple, of iro n ;.\'elin heads and " sword with a hlade appro xim . ,d y 60cm lon ~ h. ve been found in . 2nd.centur y tIC pr ince' s gra\'e at b S"uma... in Aiger i"_ ,\fter lhe Afr icans the s"ldiers mo <1 \,.Iued by ' he Ca rt ha~ in i a ns were the S paniar d" These were dra wn fro m ' ou' h_ea<1e rn S pain and , hould mo re exactly he referred to a, C.e ltiocr iam _ • m ixt ure " I' Spanish and Cel' ic m,,'k. S panish infant ry and c.-'alry for med a , mall bUT important pan of Hanniba l's "rmy Of ' he 20 , 00::> infanTty who rc", hed Italy, 8 ,00::> were Sp" ni,h T here were three lyres of inf" ntr y B. ,o w 12_15 SCulptu 'es " om O,un, In ""-"hi'" Sp",o ' 2 S w O' ~ ,"" n wito Ce ll;C!'lDe , h,.16 .,,,, "" ,, ,. cop. 13 C,p 01 " '" ,,"'" t,pe ,_ "''' '' O' wiT" SpaOI'" ' ~ ""d_ 1.le'" , , " "oe'''' hoOO , S HoOO " I " ,oil'" t,De , 6"''''''0' 'OOw' on , ""e h om l l'" gr ou pcd under l he ge neral head ing of Sp.n i,h in Ha nnibal' s .,my ,wor ds· men, i. velineers .nd s l in~ers . T he latter <'ame from The Baleat ic i, land' " ff the ea" m a" of Spain and werc renowned for lheir ,kill in s li ,,~;n g heav}' stone' , Polyh ius " ale' ,n., the , wt )T(hm ~n were ar m~ d wiTh a larg, shield of Cd ti<' ty pe " nd > , horr ,ul· and -thrust sword, They wore , hoTt white tunics bord ered Wil h pur ple (by ,hi, he probably mean, cr im, on), Scu lplUre, from Osuna in , ,,ulh em Spain show "-"Trio" ,,-ho fit Po lybiu,' description well. A seoond type of infantry who were probably iaveli neers are me" ' ioned hy D;od oru, _ Tn~ y are ar med wit h round shield' a" d "ppe" to be the s.me as the light ly ar med troops c.lled w n rw i by C.e,.r, Li,'y u sc, lhis wotd to describe !he pe lm", of Philip V', ",m y_ T he, e are ai'" shown on l he O,u na relids_ Their shields h.-'e a eentr. 1 bms and ' hey wear louse moics which come dow n to ju W", "~~ ) ,~ '.' ) ROME 27 5-<40 BG THE GREAT WARS h" pani,mi" was the point ed ",,.,,,d (~j. Ho wever, tin: com mone" type found in Sp. in "'as the elegant cur ved fa/caw (of) Thi , a cu t-a nd -thr U'1 wC'pon. T he average length of " fa /caM hlade wa, on ll-' 4s cm . It i, d car frn m a fragment of a statue (not shown here) tha, Ihe sword was suspended on the left side. The, e ' wotd, ",metime, h.d • ,hon knife .,tac'hed to the , c.bhard A l.rge numbe r of d. ggers ha\'e also been fou nd (6 , 7 ). T hese are the fore--r UnnelS of the Rom an dagger T he Sp-.m i,h al,o u,ed • shon pilum but the mo,t extra,,,dinary "'e. po n was the ,mm ion I '), T his was. barbed javelin made emi rel)' of iron , Some of , he ,o ldie" on , he O, una rd id, ar c wear in g a most str iking cre"cd he.d gear, T he G reek geogra pher S, r" bo tells u, lha, ,he I berians wore cap' of , inew f hi, i, mo " likd}' what i, , how n here T he ere" pro ve' th. t il c.nn", be the sold iers' hair. These hoo ds are very similar 10 those shown On sculp tures found in , outh· we" France (s"e p. '22). The G' p' show n on u and I } seem to be a , im plified versIon of these hoods, T hese are w" A bo • • 20 R.con"ruc,ioo 0" SO""" "o,,,,m. ,, af ,ne lime ot H" n'b. 1. H, ",e"" , ioow c, p " n'" woi<e tuoie v iermed w,," O,m' OO H, i, " med w"h . 'Gund G"",,, I Modg,iOs hie'd 'p,,,, . no falca,. Abov. ond I" h Abo• • Q'• 11 " 'Ome figurine 3'd ·con,u'y S""oi, h "" ' '''1m" _"''"9' , ioo", c,o , nd " me" "," h lOuM 'hi. ld ,ed 1,1",,,,. V.leooi. d, Don J u" " us" um, M, a"d 18 , ,"''' ".--IV of 11 ' hOW'h9 ," und 'h ..ld " "h ,en" , 1M,"'w iP ona b'o,a ",,11 19 Sou'pt "'e 0' 0 110"" , ,,,,,,,,i09 i" b,ia li ng , nd ",,' d'. brao,"t F,om EI C'g." He,o. 41 h "",tUI\I Be. 5' E C""''',dD Colleo .on. M,,,,,d 21 Reeo' ''' "O'oo ot , S03n" h Inf" "ym,n 01 ,ne "me of H. oniDa I H.oo",, 1",embled ,om< 70.000 SO, n" h ,"'.nt'y" the "'" 0' hi, c,mp.ign. h.s arm,-' moot exoend 'OI, elomem He "",." , " new h(H)d "" ," """ohai' ",eS! . nd. w"i ,o tuoie I'imm.d " .t" cnm,oo He " .,med w"h. Ca",be,i. n ,p ,o.d "".1 ,h ieLd . ,"unioo , od 1,lear. He m, o" ."e,o" ,v",v h, v. ""'" "'" >1"'9°' ,wo ·edged Sp, ni, h ,wo,d 22 ,M 23 Two type, 0' S""oi, ,, OIl found . , Ago," " , Anq"". ,n weth'''" S".io 'pe". ,o,m. '" ITAL Y A ~D TilE WESTERN M E Dl T ERR ANE AN worn by the ~aetratl: A few bron7.c belmet, have heen found, but they arc \'ery ra", Spanish cavalr y, like 'hal of lhe Roman< and Ce ll', i' rather m nfu,ing to a modern reacler for it is quite dca' lhal lhese horsemen ofte n dism ounted and fougbt on foot , Sometimes a horne would carry two m~n ancl on~ w(}uJc! jump <>if to figbt T he Sp.ni,b hor, e_ man used a sma ll round , hield wi'h a c~ntra l ha ndgrip I ik erhaIof the ~a. l ra IU.< (, ee ' 7 and . 8, p . J~ ll . Th ~ rid er i' dr~"ed like an infantryman and appea rs '0 b~ we~ ring the sametype of headgear. I n hi, righ' h. nd be hold' a/alca,a. T h~ borse (19) , ho w, lhe bridling and a .addle blanker held in plac'e by a girt h slr ap. Sla tues also sometimes ,how rhe He llenist ic type of saddle. Horscb irs are u;ually of [he sname type and come in many fonn,. Th~ ring ( z}) and cre; cent (zz) types are lhe most common . II is dear fro m the many representati(}n;of elephants on C",lha~jnjan coins 'ho' th~ war e1~ph.n" used hy lhe Puni,' .rmie, were Afric .n. T he C.rth. ginian' hunted the fore" elephan' in I>Iorocco and . lso on t he edge of the Sah ~ra de,ert at the ""'is of Ghad.mes some 800km so u, h of C.rth.ge. T he,e elepha nts were introduced du, ing rhe first war wllh Rome at the lime of the 'iege of Agt igento in 262 8t: and were ," used ~ g. i n" inf. ntry a, well as caval ry, T hey shattered ' he Ro man morale and for a long lime the Romans would not face them, Tbey won th~ir burel, in 255 wh~Il ,h~y tmmpkd Regulus' legion' in' o the dU81 on the B.grodas plains Fi na lly, d"' ing lhe siege of Paler mo in ~so, the Romans caplured some of lhese heast' and " , regained ' heir confidence . The'e elephants, like the larger Afric an bu,h elephant , hod . saddle b.ck .nd th" Carlh'!finiam rode lhem like a hmsc. Having ,ubjugated lhe area north of lhe Eb ro, llannib.1 left H.nno 'here Wilh . g.rri",n of to,OOO foo' and J,OOO ho"e 10 keep lhe road open , Leaving behind . 1I ' he he.,'y haggage, ind ud ing his siege equipmen' , he pu, heJ on .cro" 'he Pyrence ' wi' h so,OOO infantry, abou' 9,000 cavalr y and the elephant s, T he Romans also planned 10 fi~ht the war o\' erse. s on two fronts, and lh~ two cons ul' for 2t X 8e drew lots fm their pnwinccs. Tihe,iu, Sempronius Longu' drew Af'iea .nd l'ublius Corne liu, Sci pio drew S pain . \'\' hilst enrolling thei r legion; the y ga\'" ",d~" for lhe "'t.bli,hment of ' wo ",lonies in , h ~ Po valley at C,emona and Placent ia, Each of lhes e reui\'ed . boUI 6,000 colonist s who wer~ ordered to report , bere within 30 day' , The two colonies had hardly hee n e' tahli ,hed when the Roii and Ins ttbres, in .tltic ipal ion of Ab ov . Tn. ,e",,' ," of. C a ~ h ," g i n , an co< n jmm the " me of H, en,bo' '''''''''09 '" Af"e," el.oM01, . " "y ,de"" f;. ble by '" " ,ge eO', . nd " Mle wek. f .om ( ",.ge " Be'ow Map '''"'''' ''"9 ,"e camp" go o' Se'"'o ,od H, on ,b. I ;" the .uWm" 01 ~ l S 8 (, T"" Po vallev oil ROM E 275-!40 Be THE GREA T WA RS given first , wit h a full ar ~ume nt in ju " ification" the end , Scipio had arr ived al the mouth of the Rhfme whi le Hanni bal wa' ., ill hghting hi, way t hrou~h nort hern S pain, Here he ",aited for intelligence of lhe , ilUalion north of lhe Ebro. He knew tha I Ha nniba l had crossed lhe river , hut lacking reliable intelligence he felt una ble to allempt a landing, The nex, informalion ,h., Scipi o m :ei,'ed wo> thaI Hanniha l had cTossed the Pyr ence, and was advancing across ,outhern Gaul, apparently to attack Marseilles and knock Oul Rome', halfway hom e Scipio de<:ided '" remain where he wa, and mee l the invader in fr iendly terr i· tory, wilh M arseilles behind him and wilhoUI o~er"retching his line, of com munication with hall' Hannibal, meanwhile , was following lhe coast ro.d loward, lhe RhOne, This road skirted lhe m. rshy COast a, far ., L unel , where il vttred north_ea" to_ w.rds N lme, '" avoid lhe marshe, of the RhOne delta befo re turning due east to approach the R ht>n~ at n~a u e a i re. From hete the road foJJowcd the ' -alley of ,he Durance in lo the Alp" cross ed l h ~ M ontgenevTe pa" and desce nded lhe ,-alley of lhe Dora Riparia into Italy. Hanniba l's spies had infor med him tha , Scipio wa, "' lhe mouth of tbe Rht>ne , and in order to .void encount ering him while he was tryin~ to cross , he river he continued in a n o rt h . ea S! ~ rl y dl re ~tio n, planning 10 cwss nca r ;>,vig_ non and tracking dow n the make lhe crossing in lh~ taee of m ch ",riou, possible mu le, and hn c con_ formi dahle op!"" ition, and on t he lhird cluded lbal, wilh lhe exception of a night atier his arr ival , e", off a delach considerable deviation al tho beginning ment of his army wilh n., i ~e guide, 1 gel Dnra Ripar ia 10 the ate. of T urin imu po,ilion '" allack ,he for"e on ' he A reconstr uction of t hi, cr",sing is ea st sid e of the river. Hannibal's arrivaL rose in re" olt and an acked the legion thaI was slalioned lhete under lhe comman d of a praetor Polyhim rders 10 this legion", the fourth . It can therefor e only b<: lhe legion of thaI number from the previous year which mu st have bee n otdeted 10 winteT in lh ~ Po ,-a JJ~y A, this i, lhe hr, t legion ment ioned in connection ",ilh lhi , war, for lhe , ake of d arity it ",ill be called lhe fir", and all , ubsequent I~g iom wiJJ b<: numb<:Ted "on,~ " uti" ely in the ordeT of their enrolment , h is possible lhat H annibal engineered the GaJJic revolt 10 h"ld up S<'ipio' , preparati ons. T he consul wa, obliged to dispat<-h one of the leg ions he was enrolling (t he seco nd) to the Po " alley and raise a replaeemenl fro m lhe allie<. Th~ Roma n, ' manp"wcr rc,ou«",s werc enormous, and lhcsc were 10bc the decIsive fae,or in lhe war , D uring the threa, of the Gallie in" .,ion in 226 lhe Senalc had o" Jcreel a survey of lh~ir n;",urc", which lOa, Teco rdcd by 1'011'_ bius, T his showed that Rome could dra", upon a pool of 700,000 infantry anel 70,000 <'avalry , Of lhese 150,000 infant ry and ~ ~ ,ooo "a'-aITy "arne fro m the regions of Samnium , Lueania and Calabria, all lhree of which were IOSI to lh~ Romans a h ~ r ,he hallic of Cann.e. It was early summer before the two arm Ies , et oul. Lo ngus, with t OO quinQ uere m~s, saileel for Lilybaeum in Sicily wilh his lwo legion" lhc lhird and fourt h, ready for lhe inva, ion of Africa. Scipio, with 60 galley" sailed along lhe cooS! of L iguria 10 M arseille, >TIel dm ppcd anchm off lhe eaS!~r n mouth of the Rh(me with the hft b and , ixth legions , A lill ie hdorc dawn on the fifth nighl H. nnib. 1embarked his men , filling lhe hoo" with his Ii ~ht ca,·. lr~· and lhe canoe, with his liglu infan" y T he lorger boa" were pla<'ed upstre. m to break lhe curr en l. T wo men al the back "f cae'h hoot held the lead rein< of ,is or seven horses which were to swim behind , W h ~n lh~ barharians , aw lhe Carl hag inians pr epar i n~ to croo>, the;poured out of lheir camp and thm nged ,he river oonk Ih soon as lhe prearranged smoke signal appeared on the op pmite bank , Hannib.1 or dereel hi, soldiers 10 pull out .g~inS! lhe curr ent , T he reS! of lhe army cheere d on their comrad.. whil" the natives on the f.r han k 'C'rcamed lheir war erie, and pranced aro und br. ndishing their sword, and bragging oft beir pa' t deeds. As lhe ooats .pp ",ach~d the shore, part of lhe det. ehme nl already on the far , ide of lhe river a!lacked lhe Ce ils in lhe rcar whilst lhe rest SC I fire to ,heir deserted cam p. T.ken "om plclcly by , urprise the barha rian< Hed , lea,'i n~ lhe landing unop!"l",d, D uring lhe remainder of l h ~ day Ha nnibal managed w gel the reS! of hi, men acru" . nd p il<'hed "am p on the eaS! hank of lhe river. There remained only the problem of gell ing the eleph. nts across lhe Rhone. T he following morning he di'pat<;hed 500 of hi, !'>: umidian c'aval, y with orders 10 eros, lhe Durance and chec k the whereabout< and numbe" of lhe Romans Meanwhile Som~ Cch ic chieft ains who had ","'sed lhe Alps 10 meet lhe army we' e introduced 10 lhe soldie". They eneoura~ed the trOOp', telling them of the welcome and lhe Ixx,ty lhat . w.i ,e d them be yond lhe Alps, and pfOmi'ed 10 lead them by an ea,y wule across ,he mountains, Amid con Hicting Teport' Scipio had , ent our his c",'alry I<> reconnoitre . When the K umidians encountered them lhey naturally wilh_ drew at to p speed to repofl to Hanniba l. T he Ro m~n c. ,'alr y, interpreting lhi , wit hdrawal a, Highl, claimed a ,'ietory and pursued the :-J umid ian, to within sight of the camp on lh e ea" ,ide of the Rh6ne befor e returning at to p spee d to make a Teport lu Sdpio, Ha nnibal , b<:lie,-ing lhat his !'>: umi· dians had fallen in wilh lhe cav.I ,~· , a een advanci ng ahe.d of the k gio"" 'B ITAL Y Al" D TH E W EST ERN M EDI T EIl.RAN EAN Bol o w Tho _ "" t>e"'11 , , _ 0<''''' ,... -... _""" "9 '0 """'biu' _ >I t.-""o ,... ,_ and " ' _ . . , , _ ....,. 'h." Quo" _ ' ... ",ot.' Tho ..""""" _ . u""",,,,....... .- " '210 fo r~ d '0 mne. '1uiCd ''''', i' ..... . imper,",i"e ,''''' ~ Iooc Sdri". So he ordered hi. infantry, ,,-i,h ,h. hlllQlllll" ' '''in. 10 p re.. on up Ihe RMnc a, lin' lithl , He ,hen '0 """Ie .1"" ""I' • ~ ros , . 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' 'll , u" 'l d., p U" ~mMo' '1 1 "4 "~1 0'll 01 , n!q" IOd lnd 01 ll\l!lllM :>q 01 S\l'~" ApoqoN '1" "" 1\;) "'II JO ' "'OJ ' 41 PU" '~hU '41 JO l.Jld"p '41 '''p'' om'"~ ouo u~'1'" ~Iq ",,>dw , ·' Ium"oo " ow ln '.I""!' ' 'll JO P"'l O'll llllOI" 1l1l ' ~T~'" pu~ "".," ~'11 q un' l JI" 41 lIU1Pl0'l .'q '4lUOJq 01 P~~" U"W "U" lld~p .14' 1~'1' 'n, ." " ,,1.1 ' 'l'!' U! , n!1] -hlOd " ln0l.J "W .Ip41 ll\l!U-"o, p '''O'~~ ""'''J I~4 "'hlJ ~1.J1 011" lluU:>d WnJ l TPJ "4 .~," "'u\ ""oq" ITALY A ~D T H E W ESTER S MEDI T ERR A:SEA N pas""d t ne Cel(i~ 'I rong nold' a I (;norg~' and Embrun which had been paid off (he previous winter and was approaching the junction of (hc (iuil . Here the}' were met by nativ e" fm m higher up tht "a lley , tarryin~ olive branche, and wrea, h, a, signs of friendsh ip, T hese were pm hal>l y willow hran~hcs, which arc plentiful in t l> i, area wherea, oli.'e lree s are not . The nali, 'c, otfe reJ guide the . rmy along the n e ~ t part icu larl y difficult stretch of lhe roUle , Han nil>al wa, , m picious bUI felt il be st to .c~e pt (I> eir offcr. A , a precaution he placed lh e ca" alry.t (I> e head of (he co lu m n and lhe infant r y at the h ac ~, wi(1) , he I>aggage train in (he ce ntre For , everal day' (he ar m y had been marching lhrough open ~ oun t r y, I>U( now the mountains began to ~rowd in again . On (he eighlh day of the .,,;ent they r eac h ~d the poim ju,t nor th of mod ern I'Ar gcntiere_I. _lk osee, where the D urance pass e, th' ough a narr ow go rge, Here the ro ad take , to the hill_ , ide' and once more lhe lroop, were , tru ng out along a narrOw path , T he ar my wa, carr yin g wit h it an im me nse amo unt of go ld Hl P" y for lhe 'n mer cenarie' Hannib" 1 planned 10 hire in Italy, Fo r sa fc ~ e e p i ng thi, " 'as l><:ing conveyed by lhe Af, ican infant r y. Tbe nali,'" had obviou sly go t wind of lhi, anJ c'ho,e t hi, spot for an am hu, h , \X·' hen t he ~avalry and mU<'h of the b a ,o;g .~ e were alr eady through lhe mo ,t difficull seclion of the g<>tge , lhey attadeJ fw m th~ hig h ~r ground , lh row · ing slo ne' anJ Hllhng hou ldns Jown the hillside. Beyond the go,ge lhe ro ad ag. in descends 10 (he valley, bU l here " huge meky 'p UT iut, oul from (he eastern ,ide , k " ,'ing <mly a narm w pass.,o;e. When the cava lry and l>aggage had passed ,his point and du s ~ was l><:gin ning l() fall, l h ~ Cells charged down into thc vaHey, ~o 1l i n g the army in half and leaving lh e infa nt ry, and Hannibal Wilh it, trapped in the defile , T he nighl wos spent among the b..e rocb . On the following morning, in fear of the ~avalry, ( n e Cd t, wi,hdrew and the ar my drag,o;ed itself \l P to the broad ope n sum mil of t he pass w me 20k m away. Here they encam ped for twO Jays to allow th ~ slragglers l() catch up. The ascent had taken the Pu nic ar m y nin c days. Snow had alr eady gathered on lhe sum mit and m",ale was very low, To raise their 'piTi" H annibal poi nled down the other , ide of 'hc pass t" ward, h all', indi cati n,o; nol onl y the di, en ion of the Po valley , where th. Celts awaitcd them, hot also lhat of Rome itse lf. In later year<, ,hei r mem ories undoubledly c1o\lded hy (he lrauma of thei r e~ perience,. lhe soldieTS belie"ed th"t they h. d actually been able to see hall' and even Rom e itself from lhe w p of t hepass , The nex, day the Puni~ ar m y b,,,k, <'am p and l><:gan , he descent. T he path was naHOW and once "gain ,hey haJ to pass alon~ lhe edge ()f a ravinc. F ro, h fall, of ,now had covered the lrack and all who mi ,, ~ d the ir fOOli ng were da,hed he.dlo ng down the precipice, In places fresh , now had f.llen on "'p of lhe snow which re mained h om tho previou s wi nter Here lhe " ,ld ie,,' feet a . t" ", The Me 01 the '00000 .m~u, ", t ho D""o"" p" "" ,hrough , 0." O'W " O'go The ",." . ' pu. i, on lhe '. ft. Thi , wos "'hero H.o' ib, I·, " my wos 00 ' ,n 'wo b y' w,,,,,. d.,. ,mi """ C..,ie .ttac k RO." IE 275-\40 Be THE GREAT WARS wa, f"lIo wed by heayy ,ain. T he rainfall rcacheel hcigh" ullknown , ince the lee Age . [n the sou thern Me diterranean the arid land blosso med , but what was a blessing for G reece , It.ly and Spain wa' a di, a"er for the rc,t of Europe r he rainfall reac hcd a di max about 400 Be. At first the lowlands bec ame mar,hy, then the y flood ed, T he prehi, w ric tr ack; becam~ impa" able and Iran ' !,,"t \(~)k \I) t h~ wat~L The much lower tempe ratu re n ot only caused a lower rate of evapotation al low Ie\'els but also caused a , imilar dttrea,ed rate of de_ic'ing at high I ~ve k A, a r~s u l t , whik the marshes adva nced m t he valleys lhe glacier, increased on the heights. I n Switzerland the eI\ormou' rainfall thxled the lak~s: II<x1en,ee " )Se ten metres, an almost in,'redibk amoum when it is consi dered thot it feed, the Rhine . T he lake dwe ller, were for ced to aba ndon their \'illage, and n~\'er returned . .... II over Eum pe tribe, d riven fro m lheir homelands began to move ,ou,hward" breakinR in a , ucc essio n of Wa\'~' on ,oul h~ rn E uro pe. Th~ Celtic j"""ion of S pain and h all' w'" T h e cli mate the most stri king result of thi s moveBefore ~""mi ni ng Hannibal's route lhm ugh ,,"'t hem G aul and aw)!;s the mem o T hi, miRtalion wos not ha lted .-\I!", olle must "m.i d~r th~ cIima,e of unl il the co nq uest of G aul by Ca~' ar in the period Re~ent l y , in ordn t tify the "t cen tur,' He. hom thi, period [ak tng Hannibal over a , 'ery high pa'S, on \\'ards there was a gradual increase in it has t><." n claimed thot,he climate was temperature which reached a climax mu,h the same a, il i. tod a;-. B UI i, thi , betwee n H= and 1000 A U , The tem_ perature then began to drop aga in, claim justi fied, In 1966 selttted papers of the djs - br i n~ing on the ' Littk lee Age' wh ich occupied the period between the t 6th l ing u i , h~ d m.. eoroloRist H, H , Lamb were publi,hed under the litle The and 19th centurie, . Ciumg;ng CI;"'~l< . The", give u, a \'~r y It is q 'un k through the thin ,'-",ering of fres h , now and slid on the packed snow benea th , In contrast the hoove, of the • nim.l, broke through the packed ,now .nd they blaggered imo the valley of the Po. I." 217. All this filS in well with Lamb', descri ption. It is aga in" ,hi, hack_ gro und thaI One must examine Han_ nibal', ro ute to It aly. The h istorians T here ha\'e h \'aries from the , cholarly to the rid iculom , T he C"tntnerllaWrs yary widel,' and i nclu d~ suc h people a, Mark Twain, Na polel>n and Sir Gavin de Heer, who was once D irector of the N atural Hi,wry Mu>eu m in L ondon. The aUlh"r ha, 'pen t many ;-ears tracking down th" e various itineraries and feels that the time i, ripe for a new approach to lhese 'ludi"" Both Polybiu, an d Livy gi\'C an accc'unt of the CfO" ing . It i, gellerally agreed ,hat Li\'y's ,"coull! i, corrup, and that he is pmbably mixing two c<mlradictm y , ourc·e, . h i, impo" ible to rcco n,'ile l'olybiI,' bi1' the, e r"ule' led from T uscany along lhe Lig '" ITALY AND TH E \1? li STERN .\ IED ITERRA NEA N ROM E 2" 5-140 RC T H E G REAT WARS then contin ued along ,hc COa >! l() Sp ain. T ho route over the Alp, to Spain was superseded in about itS BC hy the Rom. n Vi. Domilia. Th is po ses the que" ion weTe the Vi. D omiti• •nd the Tome of Her~uks one and the , arne ' T he suggest ion that t he Romans eut an en, irely new route thro ugh the Alps when they buill the Via Dmnitia is d early ludic·ro u,. T bi, wa, ne ither pr"Cl i~a l nor the lhmlan way T he easiest way would have . Iready been e". bli, hed hy " .vellers and merchants who had ' ",dden thi, route for ttnlUries. The Romans would merdy have improved and paved wha t was . lrc. d y there. T his ro.d is the lowest , widesl md eas;est TOu te thTt)ugh the Alp<;, I! is also the shonest m ute to the Po "alley T ra\-d ling along ,he Via Domili. t he distance from Kime" on the we" side of the Rhone, to C., .le M onfe rrato, in the Po valloy where an the toutes would meet, is 48 1km, The ,hone>! toute via the Col de Larche is appr",i matd y 500km. Travelling up the lse re '-alley and over the I.ittle St Bornard, the C1apier or thc .\10nt Cenis passes would stretch the dista nce to over 6ookm. The,e are all the low passes in the westeTn Alp;. T hese fi gures OffOT a simpk cxplanat ion of the ro ute followed by tho Vi. l)lero n), Ca turi ge' (Ch",ge,), E bllrodun um (Embru n), Brig. ntio (BTian, on) on ,he western side of the pa" and Segu' io (S m a) on t he eastorn side . 11 have Cd tic n. mes and thelefore mllst ha"e been lheTe hd ' >re the Rom a'" built their roule There were abo oppida nca r Ap t and Mom Dauphin and two mm e octween Manos que .nd Si'lero n Thc,e foc'u,,, make Out an ove r",he l m i n~ c",e fm the exi>!cnce of a pre- Rom an route along the Via Dom,tia T ho pseudo Aristolle writing in ,he second h. lf of ,he l rd ~ e n t ur y BC _ loft Th<> d<>s<eo, ',om the Mon'ge n" v," p", fo l>o,.,.iog the p,"cip ito ", _cent the re is, perm"en ' '. nd, """ or,. where '0' rno<:lom road i, prQ,ectod t>y , ,,,nc r." CO"""" (I,tt ' M m,,,,-," of p'c'u" l alx,u t the time of Ilannih. l_ m nl'Trm thi , whcn he rcree. t() an Alpine route on which one h, d to pay" toll to the CdlO-Liguri, n people living along it. J"hi, mu " be a Tefere nce 10 the , arne sou, hern route , a, the l. iguTian, c" uld hardly oc e(}nnected with a nOr( her n mute. It may the refore be st ; ted t h.t thore wa' a wd l_k nown rOU,e fro m Spain a CTOSS t he Alps u' Ita l;- which ",as in use "t the time of Ha nnihal and that it followed the sam e route a, the Roma n Via Dom itia. l'o(,'biu' Vol. ! , p. 373 and Vol, []!, p. 76h), T h ~ rOule of t he Roman t o. d ca n be d early traC'ed on the we>!ern , ide orthe Rh6 ne between ...I,mtpd lier and N imes. H ere it fo llows the ridge of high gTound ; kirl ing ,he coas ta l ma"he, .bout nine kilome tTe' fro m the pre, ent coa.lI ino. \X' hen we take into acrot",t the clim. t ic cond ition, de, cribed above, the pos ition of the road is n", ' urpri' ing. E.'en tod. ;, the coast is m. " hy Tbe ,'oa" line i, consta n ,l}' c ha ng i n~ as the Rhone bring. down an estim.ted 20,000,000 tonnes of sill • Pu lybiu s' tb r ee ~ h ec k poin'. y~ar . M ost of tbi, i, caTried westward , In hi, acco um of ,he journey from the fm ming red, . nd lag()()n, . 11 ,h~ w. y Pj-"Tenee' to the Po valley Polybius gives along the ~O"' t to S pain . I n prehi" ClTic u. three ~'heckpo i nts: th e h rSl i, the tim.. the coas t would have beon milc h roaJ fro m the Pyronees 10 the Rh6 ne; nearcr , he road, the 'ec"nd i, a >!t etch of land called the Polyhim gi,-e' us • , et of Jistances ' Island' whi<'h lie, he tween the RhOne lm tbe maTch. C nfonu natdy lhe, e aTe and one of its trihU,"Tie" an J the thirJ very '·. guo and are only ro u ~ h . pproxi· i, the pass by which Ha nn ibal entered mations , The)' are given correc"t to the h al)'. Pol}'h im gives. graphic descTip- neare>! 200 stad" . lie gives distanco, tion of the , ccond and ,hird check- for each part of the mut e which when point s .n d idem ifi e, , he Ii",. dded up gi"e a total d ," anc'e or 8,400 from Ne w C . rt ha~o to It aly, I. The road t o the Rhone !-l ()wever, eb ewhe re he g,,'e, ,he dist W hon H. nnibal p lanned hi, inva, ion anC'e a' 9 ,000. T hi, is pro hahly hecaus e of It. ly there ean be lill ie douht t hat he his breakdo,,-n fi guTe. were . lway' an intended ,,, u,e the ro uto of Hercule, undorestim. te, prompt ing him to add a acTt'" tbe Alp, u, re. ch the 1'0 valley_ litt le at the end ", make up for it. W hen During the winter of 2 '9~ 2 Ih BC the de, ,,,ihing the roa d fm m S pain to the tri bes a l o n~ the roUle WeTC conlacted river Rh6ne, Polybiu , commenl, lhat and paid ()If, the Romans had measurod it ,,-i lh a Very lin k can he ",id ()f Il.nnibars mil" l,",. c,'ery eight <1",1«. march over the Pj'Tcnee., but aCross I'm ,he pe riod 2 '8~ Z I 7 all ,he , outhern Gaul we ar c on much ' UTeT di "a n ~e' gi,-en by Polybim aTe In ground . Polybiu> says that tho road mu ltiple. of eight . ,.,,,d,, '0 '" I TA LY A:-!U TH 10· "'ESTER~ • ,M EDlT ERRAN"A . N RO ME 17~ - t 40 Be TIlE GREAT WARS Polj'biut ' rcf"..,nce to ' abou, four day,,' march from tltc oeo' it no! helpful. h is dJifocuh II. bohe~ ,hal Ite it 11.. "8 thi, n a _urcmmt from , Ite mou,h of ,be R"'- '0 , be c:rown8 poin,. h mll$l Ihtrcf...., he a rflCTCl'In ' 0 . he point when- ,he a.... y loa. " , h. of lhe """-- Tlut poin. may be 10Clued ncar old Lund, for ..... 'h~ of Ihis poon. , abou, 5oI<m from lkaUQIJr" , .he RhDn.< delta thru......... into the tel. II'" Qff abo disooum ,be s.ugation ,be army Jef, , be 00I0Sf. I' Aiguco Monn . PoIyblus mak... U qui'e ck2r Iltat lbe army ..a. on . he Via Domitia. T o reach Aill'un ,\ tonn it ..""ld have bc<;n nn......ary 10 m ~rc h ,6lrn """, h before "an;n, back """.td.,1K RhOne. A funhet problem i. r<»c d hj' the prcei.., e.tenl of . day '. ma.ch. Al only on<: poin' in Poly!>iu,' acc"OUn, i. a marching I'"c"" liven, )u.1 bef",c begin_ ning Ihe ..cenl we learn ,h., the ar my matched lIoo IIcJd.. in ten da\" , Allowing fur ",'..ee,; on III Ihe " catc", 200 ' lad.. , 'hi , tepte,,"I , . t.'c of be' ween '] an d '7km pct d.y. However, I his fig ure i. no, vory helpful .. Ihe army wa' probably foralling befnre beginning tlte . ""enl. T be only c"""lmi" n one can dra'" frum , hi, i. a nega'i ve onc.~~ tlte river CfO$ting could 001 be more ... """" '" ... '"" INp pl ,.... ~'*'"_. ble arm}' Icft lbe .,...t , U"",'ever, ,hit ' hcory hcgs a number oil imJ'<"1aIt. q"""tion>. I. 1l>cre G~ • .-.dinl P'J'M here . ·hieh Pol ybo would turd}" ha" e mentioned. 1. Suc!>. prcritc """",phial poin. .. rhe apex of t be delra """ld hardly have failed be r«:ordcd. I· ScVaUC<'nfh-<:cnlury maps show Iltal ,be area bc1""",n Ileau".....:: and Aries ..... 600dcd , Ikarinl in mil>d lhe at lhe lime of c!ima,ic W noJ Ilio Honrublol• •hit undoublcdly its aJk.icn te. 1I' lKn ,he Roma"" huill 'he' d frum t'imu . o At..... il had 10 be <~;"d ""..... the ma..hn on a via- 'ha' I." of,,,,, h low fI-ont ""',. _ no ,.... .......... _ 1 _ ) T _ " " ''''''' M"""", IN" pl , .... Spo.n (,oeI) ~ , ......_It"', ~-.. _ - . - . " " ' " "' .... r.g to ..... "'Il'*~.-.:I on IWP !Icvon ._. '0 ~ f' onc ~ .0.,,,, "'""",r.g It.. lwo ,"",0< 01 "'.""... _ , .... -" ," _ " ""'''' ,,' ,,_ ,,,,,,.. _ mo,, od '" >oM "'.C, • ,-,d "'on"",. '" ' 'otO m".... "" "m k.o OIOCkl ,,,,, "''''' '" ,.... ....n'"''''. ,', I T A L Y A l>: D T H E W'ESTERl>: M EOI T ERR AN EA l>: du,'. S" In,,:~,,fthi.l>Ow n:maino bu' in ,h~ Ik'h <:nI'''')' il "-ell-kr,own fn'un: . T he bridg~ ..... soulh-,.-est of Bdl , TM lnx length of this bridge i• • n,,",~d bl' its name 'Ie Porn d<-o Arca' (flo< Hndge "" Ard,••). The ""mher "" the . rd.n ~}" irn_ pn:»cd the Iuca.I population i" 'Pit~ of the fact I.... ,he Pont dll Gald, wi. h i.. complex .. l1ICIII..., "r a",lIn, .."2> less ,han ls.km ....y, " bridgc hn,.-cr:n ~imn and Ar ln i. n:f~rn:d to in the 4th.-antu. y Hordeaux or J~rusatern Iti"",,"ry undcr ,h~ nom. of A.rariu• . 1X' h i l ~ on lht .ub;c.., or rk llctr', RhO"" • •"",ine, i, i. ",m t h commcn'ing on hi. 'ugg."ion lhallhe rive r DuTane<: , ", hi,'h "0'" 11<,,,,, imo the RhO". iust ."ul h of A,ign"n , j'llined it south of Ari es . 1 ,he tim e or Hannih. L T he C ra", Ihc .re. > hne south of Beaucairc. PoIl'bi... I~lb ... lhal lhe di.tan<:e from Emp:..'x (Arnpuriu) '" the RhOne was , ,600 .....us. He abo "a'n that ,be Via Domi.ia wnl of lhe Rhl>ne had be<:n _urC'dcarcfully by , he Romans . Thy, lhen , docs he DOll give ,he occul'll.e ~I\ll'" bu' wnlinun to '""""" To Ipp.mllmalion. ? .\ 1001 scholars believe lhal lhe ,"Ommenl aboUI ""n:rul mea.'u.c-menl ....... Iddcd ...h>cquCTltly by ~ilhe r Pt>Iyhiu. h,m..lf or a la'e. edi,or. Thi, rails I" convi""" at Polybi ... did no, £h. njtC lh~ ~ i/;ure or 1,600 'u,. J f • ,". 01.0<'" <> ~, c .~ .' J P"". R;g ht Tho R,*,< ",,, _ pas,, "'o "01""11 ,I>< doH. '0 ""'"' tho !let",. "'" t>u,ldo"9 (, nown ' uh>e""e otlv., , • , 'I 4 •, J ~D 'M Romon ," • ,. ,,-. I • ~ f -r -"", , " 01.0, ... C lARASCOh .. Pouth 0' 6. ,"0.i,o· To""""" of S'A, .'f'/('Qf .. 0' " RO ME ~75 -[40 B(; TI lE GREAT WARS ,ho, doe "1. ' cros' IRB place, I b nniN I ",ok he mon, h, [ 0 reach Italy from Ca r1a,«na. ll e [he rerore left csos""d a, , he The di.. a "C' from f..... pooiac (Am· C--anagena. abou[ [he midd l. or M ay. p wia» ' " lkaucaire can be p " ged 'Iocre is ... , " ... y h" wuld hn e kaCbc-d from lbe Roman im perial itinerann. , he R hOne by e". ly J"I)'. A' "." di. _ It i. ' 9'J R< n mlln ur 29 5km . ru<..-.l earliotf Pol)'''' ''' 1i>'Cd in , he S,n bo, ,he ""'n' J'C''''npher. eo.l i- houl.e s..- i"", Amllhanu., the adopoc-d mates i, aI ' 94 Roman miles . A' ";gh' great , ....nd..... o( ,hi, 5<.~ pio . lie u4&n ,,, a mi le , hi. is . herefore rell ,ha, he had ,he u <>Iyb" ..• approltima'" family line. 1111. Scirio.nJ Aeonil,""",' ligur" of , ,600 2IJo..~ rur a ...,unl grandfa, he•• Aeoniliu. Paull"" .......'ion of 9'J .,;,~ ""'Yo ,"" " 'ere an in[etlral J'forl or ,he d",..,er , hal ~.., t'O\lld boo as m""h as another oven.><>I;. Ro. ne in ,he early )'C" ~ of . hi, 2OItm. The """, P'J"ibk ",,-,"ina pbc<: war , 8 .., ,he family t. aJilion, " 'OIlld ..""Id be Aramon. l>u, , hi, " 'O\Ild """'" _ "''I",p[ I'C'<\'OIIIil'oiht y for ,hex mi. '" olfe. no advan' a,., over Ikauo.:aire. !aI<.. and ••:a pq....,. had 10 he found, Above ,hi. i, ,\,viII""'" wh",h i. ,Rkm A' [he N Il Ie of , he T rehhi. and a[ funhcr ,twn lleaucai re. Thi> brings u, Ca n""" , .. wO , ha ll lICe, .he o[hcr ,othe ah. ..I,,' e Iimi, of Poll'bi".· fillur"". conoul wa. I>LamN ....[ the Rh one and II is j Ul! ove r ;rokm fr.. m Old Lund _ al T i" inu. histury had be r...·rin en. • re.wnable fou r day. ma«h. ·T he "" "I~"ding p,>!yhiu" I b nnil>ool did « .....,n fn. I lannil>al' . choice of crossing not hear of ScipiO" pre""ncc a' the poinl a' Avignon he . in , he movement mOUlh of.he RMne un'il afle r !>e had (or ra,her la"k nf m,>Vemcn') or Scipio. •w.,ed ,he ,i" er , I lere h. i. on"e ag. in Poiybiuo ,elis us , hal Scipio ,c' , ail in r gini a" bt, a hair ' , h,nd!h . If Scipio f.miliar wilh l><>t h lhe newl}' introouced reached [he Rh6"" earlier , !!>cn HanJulian t'O k-ndar and ,he earlier Ro.....n nihal knew al><:, an on ,he 23'd day cros""d.!>c RM ne al>o." ·e in <~,nauen"" af,.... [he . un had en'"",d tl><: ,,:<,. 'S[ella- ,,'i,h ,he Dora......, ' n place , ha, ",'cr nun uf T auru. and enJc-d 94 da,.. La' . r. he'''ttn him",lf and [he Romans. "rhi. " .... olfu.....lly 9 M ay [0 " Augur.{ , "".n 2l"""i ng rur lhe d."K.-i,~· o f doe 1. The h ,land r-cpublJcan caknJar , •....rll· sommer' can "" hen HannlNI'. Sumldi.n. fe ll in be pu""" [hII, tbe lq:ionI "'. re close of J"ne , A_her problem .. puoN by ,be lxhind . hem and rur [hr. raoon he limine of Ihnn,I>aI ·. am,-"I ,,' . be .ba~d hi. rlan ... rol""" ,he rou ,e RhOne . Poly"'''' .. ~-. ,...., he reached or Hen:ule-o anJ ,"" ead .umed up!be sumrn.i. of the A I", 'doo<' on . he . .,.."m . ry [hr",,' off Scipio. ",,-[i ng of . he Pkiadn·. Th. is anothet s..-iP;O arrived a' hi. eamp ,h""" ool a' , he RhOne a"'a C. ughl be["'""n , Itn<' [wo rivers ",as ,,,lIod . he · 1. land·. It ,,·a. a popuClOMin, a"",nd ,he end of ,\ u8m ' Polybiu. ai".. u,. he ;ml""" io,, ' ha' lou. di . Ir i<1 p"",t""ing an ahu nda""e Scipio arri ved ., ,he RhOne deha at of corn and deriVing its name fro m its appTO:<:ing Ihal it> has eline wa, 1Udt., """ di d he ".,e arm~' or R........, S,....,. ,.,.,2 '0 '0<: '0 .0 '0 ool.",..,. '0 form.d 1'0) ' an 'aIm" .. ll1KCC'l>si bl. · range of ""'un,a,,... The ' loLand', l,ke ",'cry Dt he:-.- aspet~ or Hannibal'. ,, '. n e. hat co....... mass or ron'roveny. 1\ '1u",k gla....,. at . he map .ho.. [hI"here i& one oo"ioos can,b da",_. he """" ""'''''''''' ,he RhOne and , he I....... ~C\"'" he ..... ""wra! commen,a,on ha.." arguc-d lhat . be are-a lay ..... Wftn lhe hgun and lhe Rhiir>e. Th ei. main "'gumeT11 hin ~ on old namn (~ , he Eyguel. among ,,·htdt ia lhe name fobri. "h",h is "cry u milar Skat... Ru[ il m.... be pnin. c-d <>U[ ,haI . he I.a ll n name fur ,he l"Ore ..... I........ ..hlCh i, ju", as .imilar. Li,) · olfe.. "'" help in ,his maner for he ,,,lI. , he river 11'00 Aror, [he La[in name for ,1'00 S.....,.,. T hi, i. ' l'p"'al of Li,) ' ...ho h... exchanged a name , hal he one he J.x," nn. ; Prof"."" kno",< H. H, Sculla.d 0 d,"'.n 0 . more . xa",pl.. of [hi. in relation to Spain and ~M, h ,\(rica 111 hi, hook Scipw Aj,.i"",u" S~lditr ~"d SI~l<Jm~~. One can . 1'0 di,te~anl Liv~"s list oj tribe, , hruul:h which II .nnib. 1 p",scd. Au e", pto havc I><:en made to lomte !hc", hy com parillll. hem ' u !hc arc.. ul' G . ul Juring , he R,,"'a" " mpire . Thi. i•• poillll... u erci.. a. t !>ere w., a ron,in",,,,. mi~ra!ion do"'n t!>e Roo"" \'Illq .. ~,,,:h tri be pu.heJ. he nex, une f"rth.r do,""n T he. e muS! ha,'c also been in.er- lfiN I ...... A. ,he .im~ of HanniNI .... ca n"", e"en be cen ain ,lUI, , he IId " e[ii had o",:u p;" d S..·itzerland ..,i, h [he " phno,'a1 , ha[ IOu", haee ,,·.H '0 1',,, It". a""" '0 "".. H annibal in••• 'w ned Ie a diopone in ,he ' ls1anJ·. This hi. led oome """"""",,[on w r"",,"1 [be area bn"... n ,he I ...... and t he RM ne .. duri nl!:' , he .m('li", ,his ...... , he hoIne or , be .-\llobrt:>in. and Pol)'billl ""pressl~' Hannr l>otl later had ,rouble ,,';[ 1'0 [he .-\llottrogn. Hu[ a. " " ....,·c """n, i. is Im!'<JN,bk "'). ..-here , hese tribesmen ....~." .. , he limo or HanniN L So i. be.:"me. a or dc><:ri p[ion, Pol,·bi" . ,,,, mpa,,,,, , he 'IsLand',' . ize ' 0 [h., of [he ~ l le De lta. " 'hich in hi. <:,w""n [he RhOne and . he Ist r. i. al>o.,ul 5,000'" km and [he ar." be',,-een [1'0 " RM no ond the Aigu"" km, Tho d.fenders is onl;- abuut of [he •...igu"' h lalld' ",gue unmn",n · cingll' !hal oin"e """c "f the e" n ' endc,.,; ".... ,ha, """,.ion 100'" I T AL 't' AND T H E ~' ESTER l' MEDl TE RRA l'EA N ro.. II>< •....nd · :u~ .. btg a. t l>< S il< llelta II>< oizc an I>< illnorN. 11 " impossi ble '0 com"",n. on ,I>< P"f'tlla. ion-o"" con only poi nl 10,1>< a~. A, fo.- th ~ abundantt of cum, w hil~ il must I>e admllt ~ d lh:.>t lhe Aill"e. a,..,. is mo"e fe rt ile, Ih~ lse..~ arc a, t><."ause of its .i,~ . p",d u e~s a far gr.'Mer yiel d and in Roman limes it suprort ed t he pow erful and nume",oS A Uob~. T I>< lUI and """" imporlanl part of I' ol)'b,u, ' dcsaipl ion i. ,h~ ,..,f~,..,,,,,,, to an i, " nd. Polybiu. sal" il dc-ri"ed its """'" fro m i.. '''UlI1ion, T t... Is. ", it one ohl>< Ihftt """n . n hularics of I'" RhOne ; It... SaOnc ....., II>< l>uranee: Ixi", IhI: ...1tcr lwo. AU It... 0Ih5> i. anl::le < ·. Imool inacces.ih le' ,anlle of moun,.i .... Ihey do nol eKi" in n:1. ,ion 10 ' he ,' igue' , It, def~nd e" lal k vaguely " r Ih~ Haronn ie, but do eK plai n how Ihey lill'olybiu,' de,eripli"n a, they are e""sed by a mu h i'ude of pOlh. and pre,ent no son of bart" r. Howe,,~ lhe lsere i,land is a vinua l fon \loot of t he In_ . nllular area i••urrounded b)' It... l sen: or lhe R hOne . The l ap beo ..ft1I It... 1"'0 ri,~ i. blocked h)' II>< Chan........ ;\b.. if and II>< .\ Ionl du OUt. In addilion i. .. p....ecIed by II>< La k ~ of Bout,n and if< ma.."'" ..-hlCh "'en today ocrveh 10 . h< bonk. of Ih< R.........,. ""t ] . Th~ paS5 Every 1"'' ' frum Ihe (;,,1 de La'ehe 10 I h~ S implo n in Switler lan d ha' bee n .dv,"'. ted , It would he I><' t h bori ng and fru itl e.. 10 exam ine aU lhe claim•. Relw" en Ihe yea.. I c;t. ~ and 1973 my wir. and I .,oo.cd and e"a mined aUl he t ~ d and pa.... ,,'hi.h ha,'~ been all II>< mmo.. fIll"OCII ..·hich h.,·~ been pUI f.......-..rd as. . t... .i,e of It... linu ambo.h. fi..l ...'~ m uot deal ..ilh I I>< heigh. of Ih< pau. PoIybtu> sa), 1"'1 tl>< """... of the Alp' ...-.:K '''''''''-em'CKd . 1I 1h< )"CI" rou nd. " ·... n hi: mne-s ' hit .. at~mcn. h< mool be incl uding .... 10..''''' ras-scs , u.h as t he .\ lonlg e"",\"Te and th~ L ittle S, Iktnat d a, these an: lhe only passe, in Ihe w ,," l ~'n Alp' that we knn '" We'~ in u," . 1 Ihi. time, Thi' w"uld accnrd well wit h I I II, l."m h·s ."gg.. ," 1"'1 I'" '00"" \e><el ....... f'f')bahly.""", Ip:x>m 1o...,C1' . han il i' .oday. TherefOk HannIbal's pass. which .,ill ~ lbe ~-io... }"n r's.oow lyi ng on iI, d, .... 001 h'1\"~ 10 be hllth. I' ,>lyhi". c1.im. Ih., I>< himself e'o>""d " h e paso' . II i' de« ription of Ih e .ol,lief< ,Ii di n~ O il Ih~ congealed , n" w corro borate' t hi••' ;t is 100 \'ivid to hoc , ""'nnd- hand . l'rom the Greek hi"",i.n·, ...;o" n' u it I"",ihle 10 d ... .., ..,v~ r. 1 du." Olh e ide n, ilY of II>< pa," , The ' ix main d ..... are h'led helow ' I. T he ...... should Ito,·• • ddik ...i lhi n • do )" , maKh 01' i.. ..."''''il _ Th;, mUS! be ..... lhan :t<*'" as all lhe """""" 10 be di"'.....a- ....ilh lhe ncI de 1.ardIe _ltow a SlUp cli"'b immed,alcl~' bet"", ..... hinl Ih< ,umm". a. T I>< 101' of Ihe p;o" . hould he larg~ e"''''lIh 10 .now an arm~' 10 pilch camp. } . T he ddeent 'houl d he at lea" porliall)' fa<'i n~ nm lh . ' , now and ie. wer e ~ n "'() , m l e r~ d on Ihe dc,eent , 4. T he 1" " should h.v~ • prttipitous " jew .,• '- , ..- "' ''~ I "''''''' .''s -,.< • ," d ~ .,: ent . S. T he far ' ide of II>< p;o" . """ld he Ihlft d.~,· ma... h (<4 ~-9Ok m) from II>< fbI l.Ind , " 0 ... ' hould be aN< '" OC'C haly frum lhe of , ... pus. Only Ih< """en main claiman.. need on be ~""m i ... d here. ( A ) The Col de La ..,he (alt, 1.9';ttm ) til' only ..-I,,;"'" 2 and S. h . a~" run. fm m no rt h_....... . o IlOUlh-e••I. , II;, l'h~ C<>I d~ la T r.'·. roelle (alt. 2,9 14m ). T hi. i. lhe hieclion 10 this pas. i. il. allil uJc _ m'..... than ',ooom hig her lhan . ... M,m' l ~nn· ..e . T o ..,•• h II>< Tnversetl. 0 '" h.. ' 0 1"" lhe ml.lCh lo..·~. ('..01 dt I. Cr"ix (alt. 2,27,l m ). Al lh ~ top "f lit<: T rn e,"cttc i, a na " ow hIRe wilh I"" - 1 ho _ _ ""' rNvonl_·..·_ " ' M .... Ii ,..... __ ( a N. _ _ _ CW _ _ 2(Ikm) .... Dur..,. _ _ h""" _ ,,. _ OUI - . _ _, ,"'" (AI '"9"..-_ tho _ OUI on ~ ,,. ,00<1 o""v wO' " ' 0 f_ """"..... H "oboI ~ '" 11<00_ ou,,..-.:I ,~o< n 'ho'ot> oj , .... p ,." wno,. no c,m""" h twO dO'" ROM E J 75- ' 40 tIC Hili «HEAT WAR S """"",I}' ro"m fo, ,en J1eOl'le '0 ""'"I' Icc, aJon.o an a,m )'. h IS also "eIl' ddficull '0 I" , ,,fy a ' ''rtt-day march from.he: ~'.".n . ilk of .he:~. to 'ho: lUI "..,.."d, 0 '0 l!>an )Ol.m. c: 1M M"",~", (all. IJly:xnl. Thit il lhe: pass ...........I\ic" the: Via Dou, ~m th of ,he: pau. Tfn. ddiJe has ..ttply slopi". . id", along ..."i<:h ,ho: rood runl. 11 il f.irly U ' ) '0 J"LSS but ..""Id ho: v.".y dang.".".,1 "'ith an e""my on ,he ,1,,1"'" obove , Of all ,he delil.. diO<;\OOKd this bnt filS [he dtsnet! in ",lo,i"n '0 I"" .\ lon'ge""'""'. The", il room for H.nnibal,,, cam p his onn y on ,he p"ss, The axis of ,he pas l il direc,ly """,h_ non h. It has an u,,,,mell' precipi'ous de..en'. ,E) Col du Clal'ier (olt. J,4NJm), Thi, fits only c"ndi,;,,", • and J T he ,,,,,..ing i, made t",m ,he nor th- we" 'n ,outh·c",'. H the I'rcvinu, year's , no".- 1'"""",<:<1 n.. n.. ... i,," .bou, 01I di mh tM pa,h up 'M d ill f..... from ,he valley of ,he Ambin. It has I Sleq) bu, no;>( I""ciri'''''' ~ n' . .\\y w if~ and I ..... ou, ....). ~ndinc Ihi o pau In .he a",,,mn of '96lI, fin.olly ~ndi ... by- , be dried_ Ul'''''''''' b<: . from no poin' on ,"" lummil is i, poslibloe ' 0 ...., ,he Po 'alley. Onl)' by lrekklng along ,he hillside .o :\1"",. Aria i. this p.""iblc. One ~ "'alk fwm 1M for . ide: of ,be pass lo , h. ' II.. g,ound' in 0 f.....· hours. b 'cn if one in'''l'r~'' ,h~ 'fIa, ground ' to mcan Ihe plain "f ,h~ P" , it canno, be more Ihan Hkm di"am and is on , he lui,·. '0 fl... (F) T he ,\ h'nl C~nis (a lt , J,oll] m). T hi. p••' Ii.. unly no. J. It i, adi~cen[ t" the (~ Il d" Cla r ler and in alig nmen' is similar, Th,,,e who h••'e arllued ,ha' Ilann ihal c r o,,~d Ihe CI.pier m ust uplain why he did n", u,e the .\\on, Ceni. which i. ho,h lo,,-..r . nd ~", ie r ; nm dnco n"" ha,'c '0 pol" ' hmugh • defile 10 reach it. Evc n if H. nnibal h.d "'" off Ih"'ugh ,hc Ambin delil~ and bod <·Iimbed "I' thc cliff l:.cc, be " ."..ld 'hcn .. ill have found il easier 10 e,ol' Ihe l -ill loe .\\onl Cenis (al' . 2, ,8>01 ) .nd dc:oc..nd bl' [he .\ lon, Cenio rou'c " 'hich .urcll' be would bo,'~ d.orK. 0 , I"',bop>. lik. ml'sdf, Hanni bal ..·. n. <:1"" Oal'''r bcc:msc be had been IOld , ht:r ~ "as I good ,iev,' of h aly, G 'IM l-ill loe S, lkrnard 101, . ".88m). T hil lito condlt ;""1 ' . z and j . It is ahotl, ')Ol.m fro... ' M fa, .. lk of . "" pass IG ,"" l\M " ound , ,,'bi<:h is '00 far for a ,hrtt-dal' ","",h. I n ,he sum"",r of an exl'Odilion of army ~"" nttn un 'm "'tIT Hj' a I',o(M. tnt. Accordinll to [M znO.", ll""flnpher S'rat>o. PoIyt>;", knew of only r ' rou,es ,hrough ,he Alps, .nd "" Ii , . "I1le rou, ~ ,hro"ll:h ,he I.igurians. 2. Th~ rou'c ' u ,he Taurini which lIannibol uoed 3. Tho: "",'e ,h"",gh ,he Sal...i. ~ . The r"u [~ ,b"'ugh the 'crri"'ry or lhe Rhae,; . All allrtt Ill... Ihe.., pa are listcd {mm ",'u'h '0 n"rt h_,he fi , being , he "" ....1 ,",u te (i,e, , he ",,,, ,hern branch of ,h~ ro u'e of H e r~ u k.) and thc , hi, d the L ill k S, Ilernard . T he rOUle th. t llan ni!>;>1 " <" ('.en; •. Ihe C lol' ;er or (he .\ \on'lIenevre. h,":.uK unl) ,be><: thrtt pa.... Ioe. d dirccl l~' '" ,he Taurini. It is unthu'k.oblc lha, PoI)'hiu,. ,he g...., tra"dkr and e!\\lui"" . should be ig"",ant "f 'M "",Ie of lI~rculcs. Fur,he,,,,,,,,,,, he only k""".. of """ rou'c '0 [he T.unnt . It folio.... ,hat his routc ' 0 ' M T aurini mus, ht: 1"" roole <Jl H.".cuks. l .. " .• ha'·e....", earl...., ,"" route 0[ H~n'Uko could """ he O\t t ei,her ,"" Cbr»er or ,he ,\10", Cenil. "I1le.don: rou'. z "'hieh H.nnibal uooed mu.. be ow, , he .\ Ion' cgc.......",. HI" ' ''' ('lItabhl hcd ,ha, ,ho: ' h lond' " as p.obably beI ...... n ,he I.....c and Rmn.. and , ..., ' M _ " 'as almost certainly 'M :\Ion''''.......",. ,,~ "'" Ioef, ,,'i, h an aPP".-.ntly in,urmountablc problem. 110,,' did Hannibal lie! from """ '0 ,h~ ,,, he,? T""'" il • fairly "raigh,{or",.rd """ ~ {rom Gf~nobl~ .t , he ""Slcrn end of thc i,land to Hrian~o n at ,hc f,,,,, of , he ,\ Ion,g. n;;'-", but ,hi. involve. « ...,ing , he Col dll LaUl.r~' (all , J ,o~ ~m ). Thi, i, • V~fY difficuh 1"" and I'oi)'hiu' <xpre"ly "a' e' th. , I l. nnih. i did not ' ake a dilli, ,,1t or un kn"",n ro ute , There is ,bern, he,,,,,..,,, ITAL Y .-\ ~ D THE "'ESTERS M F.D1TERR ASEAS onoIhc-r roult ..·hieh a, fi..., ~lana ...,..Id appnI' unl ikd)' rnor il ;",-,,1,.... 'UTnin~ """h...,... ~ Gt>k and ~l'O'I.in~ ,he 10'" fIoI)'a,d (all. ',248m ) 0' Man", (alt, ' ,263m ) pa"t < and ' 0 tJ'O n tie-l<'ro ". llcy and c""'. h)' ,ht n.pier, Monl Ceni. Linle S, Ber"".d: or. >ceonJI)'. ,,, ' ur n ""'-'Ih and ....;o;n .ho rou'e ol llC1'CU1n and cr_ , he ~Ion.gcnkfttl: ,he: ·ri,·t,·. ~I ueh .... hccn maJe of ,he ·ri ,'e,·. Some " 'an, tU make i' ' he Rh6 ne, " l hcr< 'he Sh r. , and o' her< a mix,ure of lhe R hI\ne and at>O! her ri ver , T he JI""",n, " ·ri,,... . Wi lh 110 l.,., '" rar •• G renohle "'hei us gi,.... ,he 'OIai from the .-roo<_ ,nil: '" ,he Mlli nninll: of . he aI )'bius ' correae.! fi~ilI. i imercstinil ,,, note ho...· od .", oommc-",alO" Iu,-e been ron--cd to w e Hannibal <We' unn",'('>,-"ry p••""" in orde, to lin d ••p<.'" is .... , uita ble , ite al"og ony " f ,he ''''''"",, Those woo c""""'" tht lwrc_AK """e Iuve claim .Iu, ri,he. ,..., headland ot ,hoc Vercon a, 'iorcppc 0' the ju....'tio.m of lhe I" re and ,he Arc wa. mo•• h)· and , I>c",fote the "",d had t" go over the hilk Dc '0 ,.ion 0' '0 '0 Ik-er ,a t ... lIonnibal ,"'er , he Col de Gri"""", in 'JlUt ot ,hoe fa<.'t tho" if he COI1u nuai along .hoc om"", vollc)he ,,·"uld get , he .. me pi..." by a muc·h e..icf, Iu, to nq"' io. e ,hoc dilficull gorge< ol the D rac and il " as ........., ,lut , ..., Allob""lC' 'occu pied ,he t t y poin', ab,"'t ,hoe •• vinc. F.om .he ~,,,.~.. "I the Drac the a. my made go"d p'}' ambo.... Jor. r."", ,hoe .ri""" ..... , lhe 10f' ~. he ~•. ' Illi. ,hree I" fou, da., ..' .... reh ..""Id Iu"e !>rough, them do,,·n in,o lhoc "allty •.r ,lit; Dur. ..... I"-",.ihl)' nca r Eml>.un _ . distanc"" of ."" " t 9Okm. From I", .\ tur<· 10 , hi. poin, lhe m.rching "'''uld h"" e been CD)' and mainl)' .l>mu~h <>J'On '0 '0 ~<1a nd . For ' '''<> da.y. more thoc army marched on witoou, , n,uble, Thi. would ba" e hrotl ghl lhem ,he lJurance Jenle ju<, no"h " f I'Afgenti"'e-l.·H-e...:e abo", 5 ~km further "p lhe ,'aile)'. Thi. "'t is ideo l for ,hoc second ambu.h. Tltc road 'ak.. I" ,he hilk ond run. alon, .he h,lIoi.le at",,"e thoc gorg<:, AIonIL , hi, ",ad the . , m}' would hn " h<;cn '''' Iohed ou' , o- t~ km, lI ere 'he Ce lt. al{aeked and ' oile d bouldc.... dow n tM hill.ioc. 11c)'<>nd the If<'tllC lhoc road apln dnttnd< to, he ,·.lIe)· and i. immeJialdy flinched ..,.• pn, mas of rod tbo' ;ut> from the caSlern hill•. T hi. "'" uld be 'he IX'int . ' ",l>ieh lhc af my "'a. cuI in l>alf. It i. "''''' h climbing up lhe "'C'S' em . ide of ,he ,'alley.nd . iuirll on ,he hill_ide ,heou, . ok m . wa)·. P"lyhi u' give, u' the di' t. noe f' om the M~in ning of lhe . '0 "v.. ou, .1.., "" ou, alUM argue tlu' thoc lb. gn>und of Polybiu. alUM be k>co.'e.! anY"" hc-r< bey"""'al h y 3okm , All tho di"an,:...- fn ,m Eml"-",iat '0 , he RhOne c....ing. from tM Rho'o "" n"".i ng , he ' lobnJ' and from ,he 'Island- ,,,,be lIa, lI"",nd-a.e at , '''' muimum of Po' ybiu. ' "" ima'''''. This c~ ....IJ ac_ Counl fo' ,he fae, ,h.t I'ol yhiu. ' , ,,,,,I distance rrom Cart aKena is <;1 .000 m;4 " and ..... 8-4ot1, whi~l> i. 'M ""01 ol the individual .lis.....,..... '0 Th.. b .nle for t he I'o ..a ll.. y It took Han nibal t S days 10 en,.s ,he Alp" nu rinlf lhi . time he had I"", nearly l>alf his army and even n"'rsc . He rc<XIl'dcd ,Ilt num her ,ha' .......hcd Itaty in an ,n_ sc,ipti"n on .. column a' Lacinium in lhe of Iraly T here wele 12 .000 Af, ican and s.ecc Spaniy 110 """,n. all .,..uahies_.hcr<: musl ha1tC hccn many d...ertiorto_ Tht ann y phl"ically exhausted and mmale was low. I'len and ani mal. n""ded ,ee m whi l" he r« ' ed hi. men , \X' hen all rcnua.ion failed he lounched.n auack on Ilonr chid and .......-.ro , Ilt porulalion. It rnwr:-d a ...:Iutary Icuon and att the other lo,:.t ,ri""" l\ocke in mind he ,.:I......ced aIon~.he ",,"I> bank of ,he Po. Sc~p10, "",.n ",hilt" Iud ad ' 0 I'i.... , e' " " .ed tht Apenni nes and taken ovcr ""mmand of . he two legion, ,ond ) in . ht 1'0 ,·alky. (firs, and Scipio.\'. aim " 10 hold Han.. ibal un,i] ,hoc o.rrr.-aI of hi. coIlcague, ..'110 had already"""" .-calle.! from SfCll)" h wo' decided '0 check ,hoc Cart hagin ,. n advano, a' lhe Tiein" . i,'er. T his i•• t,,,, "':L' ""iou, '0"'" '0 RO.\lE 175- ' 40 DC T H E G REAT W AR S powerful .ri bu.ary of I h~ Pu which a' Ihi, t im~ of .h~ y~al "'uuld h a,~ pre.. nted a comiderable obs.ade , T his p'"ihon is reinforced by • 'pUT of ' he Apennines ",hid l iu," OU' ' oworUlh . ide a. Slndella . I~a,'ing unll' a nar row plain be1""«!l .he riVtt and ,he loU.. I n lhe pdern Pia"en,•. The co«,ny ,,-•• be"egcd by lIaodruh.a1 in ~7 .nd .roy~ by the GrIn in 2«>. ~n , he R""",n. ' "'>0" T anaro ' 0 Lomel k, (Roman LaumelIum ) ood then oon. in ued alun g lhe n"rth side of Ihe Po 10 join up wilh Ihe r"ute "f Hercule. nea r Turi n. T he 'I re. ch 'o f . he 1' 0 hetween .he TicilKl and TonaTO ia .he must convenien•• pot for a ri"er """,",nl. ; at any ", her point i• ...,.,ld also ineol•.., ""'inlr: ' 0 """" ri, her ,he T ici no ... the Tanaro, ..... 01 lbe major ,ribu. otin of the Po, TI>r: obvious posi,jon '0 place a colony .... 0"1 ,he ri ver """",ing to p~1 . be ("",It. , endinK reinforc~me m • •0 Iheir kin, men "n . he ",mth side or the Po Wh en th~ Kom an. t",i11 lhe Via Aemilia al Ihe beginning of the z nd century I'C, ,he rou,,", of .he old road was follo"..,d from Rimini a. far o. Fid~nza, rrom ,,-hich poi nl a.pur COMl.ruct~ ' 0 link i. ' 0 , he colony a, ......... It IS harpoeD plain where Piacenza nuw "and . , could "'ve Wilh'lood Ha, J ru h.a!' s , iei', Furthermore, Ihe pl,...:i n~ of C rcmono al the ""legi, po;iliun al Ihe iUnCli"n ofl hc p" a nd ,he Adda . upposes lhal Ihere . hot.ild be a . imi lar colony al Ihe C\'~n ...."'''''''''''' m.. r~ ..raleaie pus"ion al .... june'!;on ur ,h~ Ticiuo. W·hil.. i. m uol be admincd .hal I here i, no .r~h ae o logical justifica_ .ion fur a colony 01 Straddla , mi litar ily I'" allumenl i. VOT}' " " "'g _A su"'~y of ooltOC of Rome', Olhel flonl"" colonieo, , uch .. S in u..... and L.oc<:ria. ""un" thaI .... could hardl )' ... ,.~ ignored a pooitk>n like Stndoolla. F ur_ .her.......... Jl PIacen. ia .... al Pia..-.:nza. Polybi ",' "' n. of lhe a" bocqucnl hatlk of Tr~bbia mak... no """",,. On Ihi. basi s , be aUlhur has no hesitali"n in pla"i n~ 1'1.~enlja al S"adclla. S~ i p j o , who had mMed up ,n Pla"en_ lia, buill a bridgc "f 1><",,, " ,,"'.. Ihe 1' 0, and mov~ hi, ltOCn ",'~r to Ih~ ~ ..l NrU:. of . he Ticino. Wilh I'" 6,000 a>k,o"" holdJnI I'" """lh . ide ur ,he " ,..,. and ,be "",in arm)' holdJnll: ,he lI ""h tho d;""oo""" 01 tho CO'''e " ;bes " ," ".. "", . Rum, " r_ ..,,,,"" ".. "'-'"""'" . Ulno W'v to thO Ad" " '" .,.,..1 ., Ai"",. I ~ n ~ Be "'" """"'"" lough! • lull ·" ' " _ _" "'" Celt< ITALY AND T HE "" EST ER r-< .'VIEDITERRA N EAN Scipio. T o unders'and "'ho' hoppened ne~' one mu" look a' ,lie chorocter of Scipio He had heen made to Im k u!te rIy incompc' ent at 'h e Rh6 nc and lie w., determined tha, i, .hould "'" h.ppen again. Scipio kne.. lho, Hanni_ bal .... ad.....,.;-ing by ,he rou'e alone II.. ""nh bank lou' hi. KIf-confie Apenni.....nd in.... de Elf".ia, So, in"ead of holdi"ed camp a bout 10-JOl,m _ of ,I>e ri\t'Cl" - probo.bIy ;lnf CUI. of Lomdlo, N",,' momi,. Scipio ,ook h.i. ca"alry and .-diu. and ad... nc<:<1 ca u,iously. The ....,... "a' now for a cla..ie H .nnib.li c ambush of ,he ,y pe ,ha' o,·..took G rac'Chus and Marc-ellu, later in , he war. l'olybius . ay. th., Hannibal w.. also ad... ano:;ing ..i,h his c....alry and 'he armin fell in wi,h .,...h ,ha, K' ,ha' .. ,wu ", her. Here <>na: again poI}'!>ius i. whi'o wa.hing Scipio'. hlun"e... Poly_ hius admi .. ,ha, the R" man , \\/'C re sO surpri, ed ,loa, ,he , •• li' tJ had n" , ime '0 ' hrow ,h<:ir i"'eli", be Numidlan. outflan ked ,t.. Roma no and a"acked ' Mm in ,t.. l'nr. This suggeso. in f...: ,he NumidiaJu, ......, aI... pIaccd in hidina. The oonsul "-a. wou ndc-d and his ca valry rou,ed . PoIyh".. a..ures u. , ha" hey inllio,ed ...."n i rea.. on [he enem y! T he Romans ne d for ,II< T icino, c"".. d over and ".rted '" break up Ihe hridge. Ha nnibal pu rsued ,hem a. far ... , t.. ri...er bu' gave up wh<:n I>e found ,he br~ unllHble. Scipio no" oom pk,dy lost his lKl"W , He gave up his posi'i<>fI on , he r lci...... crossed , hr Po and camped .. PIar:ent . 'ho, ,los..,. ,ho, .\IC3IIwhile Uannibal, ,,'100 rnIised i, " " ,,10.1 be impossible '0 J'l'""ition, "'_ ''''a, ed " p.'ream .nd c·r"..ed , he ri,,~r o'" of ",ach o f , he Romans. All th e local Celts no ", U""ked to join , he Cart ltaginia n army, T",o day. la'e. Hanniba l appeated before Placentia and 0.1",..- "I' hi. army in bailie order. \l;l>eri Scipio ref" sc'" baltle , he ("..arl haginian pitc hed ""mp .hout ten kilometres we" of ,h e minny, Sh"... ly before d.wn on , he foll"",in. """rning. ,ho (".drs ",rvi nll' ",i,1s Scipio de ......ed 10 ,he enemy. In typicol Cel," .. yle. before rhey "'Cn, [...,. killed ....... of ,he Romans and cu' oil" ' hei r J>ea,h 10 rake ..'n h ,hem. '11Ie Roii . ...100 ,,,",, pied tt.. area .o,nh of ,he Po immed ioldy beh ind x i pio, now ,Is",,,, in [heir 10' ",i,h H~nni l>al Scipio realised th at his I""ilion ..-OJ ,,,m pletely "nten able, If [he Hoii mo,,"'" "I' behind h,m he was !rapped, T be foll" ",ing ..-nillJl . ju", before dayb reak. he hroke camp and ret roa,ed '0 , t.. Trel'o l'o ia river lu" wnl of Pia,.......... F...... hne.ihl>e ....... ltapper>te Puw> llclla Scoff.... ' n (ie...,. and ,hen along ,he "0'''' '0 T "OCltny. h [o w M,p of m" " .. "",weeo l onltllo 'no f;deO lO ,,",wm~ the """ ,I",a"". d S""""'Ia r ... "' • .nomo" , <>ad ' 0Il '" c'. .... ",_0>." ' _ ,... Po _ _ oons o! ..... r""",,, on """ 0'< ROME 27S- 140 BC T H E GREAT WARS As ,,~>n ., lI .nnibencd he sent out hi. N umidi. n ,'a"alry in pu", uir. It wa, fort u nale foe the Romans thaI the l"um idians stopped to bu m tbe deserted Roman camp bdme st.n ing theie punmi t ; mos t " fthe Romam managed to ceo" the river , befN e the Afeican hors emen caug ht up -r-, with them . T his retreat on the T rebbi. 1 \"; would be inconc·ei,'. ble if PIa"cntia t~ ~~, w~rc at Piacenza , for tbe T eebbia i, . bout five kilometres west of t hat to wn. T he Rom ans now encamped on the low hills west of the T ttobbi. ne.r mo,k rn > Rivcrg"o, c(wcring tbc ir ow~ line of retreat . H a~~i ba l m,wed up his ~a m p and pitched it aboul eight kilometres west of the Rom.n position . A few doy, laler Sempronius, wit h the thi rd % and r"urt h lcgion. , rea~hed Scipio', camp , ha\'ing c<wC' ed an in," edibk 1,780km from Lil ybaeum (M arsala) I, " ia Rome and Rimin i in 40 days, an . verage of 44k m per (by . To a~hi eve this thc army had b~~ n di. bandcd and told to meet at Ri mini by a certain date . Som e ti me later oneof those cum ulative skitm i,h., lOok place in which ~.~ h side keeps o ~ ,e~di ng ,t,oo. ot tho as a tactician would dC"idc thc day C, no, gini, ", and Rom, o, 0 0 tho T,. bp,O Th, ceOU' w"" tM . '. Oh , o" '" tront 01 , i'he, T he Rom an, considered the Car- eight ""to" th, ... w. H, nn,"", pl, c," 1.000 Ib n'. He pl<>eed oi, AI' i hom the 'eO'. tho '"9'''''' peon ius wou ld respond to a lill ie ' M 109,,,,,, '" '0. ceOUe , nd [ho ,II••, 00 the moo.goa to b" , k th'ough tho '.''''• • od encour a~ emenl. T he space between the " ' 01" The Ro",. " c, ". I,y 'NO" 00 tho ' igo' .'co"" 1en; oursc•. If he a ofkrcd hallIe here the Romans would _A"~"Punic have 10 ad\'ance into lhe plain with theit left wing resting on the hil)' Dur ing the night H annihal , en t out t.poe infa nt r y and J ,OQ() cavalr y undet A lii", Le9"'''' A lii ... the com mand of his y ouJl~ er bf()ther Ma~() to hide "long the >leeam bed. where th ~y cntcred the hilh At da;-break he , en t out his N u m i d i a ~ ''''\'alr;- to heat up the Rom" n cam p and then ordered his whole ~r my to bre akfast and stand b y their . em,. Hi , plan was to draw out the Roman, and pc~ _ cipitate th e full-" alc ball ie for which a ho was prepared and they were nm , l ie could har dly ho,'e expected his pion lO , ' ~ J W s, \ ; ; \ /V '0 I - - ," . R A ~E . A~ ITALY Ar-;D T HE W ESTE R:" M EDI T ER ",~r j .nN hAl'hough J>oh. -hius h.,oe "e Swl! lhem I he mu" nO" !'h ' l' lkemen menttOn ':o,ermgfo,"-.: ea,a ln on drawn h" up hehmd lhe \.re <e nt ahead were d, a" : hlht the \oRhl'" arme d ' r n,me aneach to JOI n I e Ime I he Hom. Polv_ lhelr loree' .I hc mfant", o" dra" n up Ihelr ' l'Ua " h,le had ' hat th e, CltlZen i' ",""h t e mthe centre hm, ooo men) order, t ul 16.000 men,' legIon< . aho Ill ed 'Ic~wns (ZO' hlCh had ondthefou'a I he e. ,alr y, ,, ' ursutl crn"~orce R'~r';"t o"d s ~~hlnd thIS screen. hiS mfamry arm~ nibal dr~" u p . camp Till' Ha m n in "rom , ' " j 1'h". lme. (,f aho ul d f a ,mg Afri~an" con"'le : niords. Cells ani~ f' onl of 20,~ S~' hi'a"u"elephams He p,a~e ' he cava Irv _ be\'ond , on I e ailed from ," r awn upon the heen m,d," ns . ""' dT n hor<eme n "I th e u I he Roma b h " as a k \\ln g' \\ ,,' e ,,,e " b< ,u' 4 .000, .. , hceause mhc re" " " ,.. ~)"""u, h A"~ ..,UI . nu r S!.. litt le unden lhe earhe ' have !>een of l","e, , , them "0" " .. 0 lCu \\ere z~ PC' centd the remam der a" In Homan . n Roman cO, a and the T he lhe riRht veliw a, on the infanl ry dr.wn 3.000 , ·, d auea v must I were p' ac >d lhere lue, h us"a Rom. ns st"'- h d happened 1o A, 1 C d whal a he;- had ha,'e won~e:e ,I>"'t whtle ago ~ed an d them On y up , Now. soa hcen , getting . ful'IIa,inC it "w"", hi,, be as , ucce" paW ale d andand - ··...io sl, . full com m . had o,er . :-.!umidian' S ~~:~g~~m~;~~:::e~~;;:I~,e;r~~~~d ~~~ advancmf · fol!(}wmg up ' nfam ry, hi, ca,'a ~} finally the cnt~r~d'th~ no.'ellte< an 'd ian' rerreatcd a le ionarie' r he Nu ml d D"v.n th e g f th e b, mons follo"'e .. lCV "ate" d Into tHe hc s"ollen plunge 'e n , hl",, ~b .. W IIL,ch had Sn"" wa I ' Cv the n,ght bled ram durm>: ~ os thev slUm "heor the ",m" • RmR a mR m I 'he " mer droR and th~ , hIng e, , ~ed d"" n ogam unnl J h e , p,un b 1 th~ mer k g, nug h' 0 tbn agam tntO the t~ nd sh,,'c n ng. 'oa ke" a k al last. d p the far ban h Romans clamhc rc u hal ,a" that t e ard a W h~n H anm h' threw fo'" d ,h~ mer e ,kemen hod of about 01 h" ~O'ertnR I gers anu~ d ..", "I' t ° 1 ·500 eithe ' wm g C j ,hnger~)PS "' Ln~ '"}~"t h "e~.t~our " m~s r~ ~ l .~ a~fc, f lillie" I n~t n, z: .".~:g LI~f~. o~lhe~ , '" RO,\i E 27 ~ - 140 llC TH E G RE A T W A RS lhoeir piw in' " ,he d~n"" rna.. of Celt, and Spaniard. , S""'· lhoe ma.. ,~~ly· 'Upon<>< Carrna,;inian ca~a1f)' &I"" ~har~ , uri rring , Hanru bal knc..· .haI hi. cenlK could nol hol d ou' long api..... ,he, mighl of lhe Iegiom. Tho S um ,d ...n. and Arli<:1m had &1~)' .U: ~n 'boo p u.~ o ff , h~ " inl" S o,,' M :ogt>'. 1 .000 ' -alry and infamr)' came our ..,( hidi ng an.! chllr~ ,he Roma n ,",u, . hl'<>' .' ,"g . ho: I~gw n. 1m" con(u.ion , Th~ 1-400 Inani ",ould ha,'o abou' fac~d I" r'1lft1 'boo an""k, T he Il.oman> m . ",, ~ed 10 mainu in lhoe conle" in I h~ •..,nl..." bu, ,h~ all i~s "" ,he " 'ing, , . ".cke d by 'he dephan" in f",n' anJ Ih~ I'ikom~n . nd S umiJian. in , h ~ Hank>, "' ~ r o . toaJ ily dri" ~ n back ","'ard' lhe ri "~ r , In the cen"e tho Hom an. fi nally cUI ' hoir ",ay t hwu ~ h 'h~ S panish and Cdti,' infant r y, Seml' « >" iu" "' ho "'a, in ~omman.! hero, tht>ugh l ' ha' he had won bUl ' hen fou nd him, d f cu' off .,_*cd from lhe K" " I' ,II<: .tmy'. h "''' raining hea~ily- and ,·i.i bili,y· "... '-~I) poor, A. ,II<: Roman. could Oft no " "l' 0( g~'ing back 'heir comp, ""poociall)' ,,-ilh ,he '·icf.......... Con ha[tlnian "''''all)' roaminc . he fidd , 'hc-l' ,..,.ired in do"" orde. I'laom'i.a. O f . he In, <}' u ltd .0 . ... ro» ,he ri,'CT . ... ,ioIen' norm hlId bknton ur ,,'hidl "",-~...,d lhe R,...... n ""Kal. and '1lC Canhaaini.on., lind,n. lhe, ru" ui' ,"" dlffi<.'u h , ...,.u.fW '0 '0 'ha' n", immedi.o'd)' kno"" ~, Rom. '" S=r ",m u' haJ claimed a 'iClOI'}', but i' ""'" becam~ oto"iou> a' , he '''-'' annie-> "'~'" ,hUl tip al Pla<:enlia and Cremona. A, long a' ,he c..nhagmian ""....11'}· could ",rna in in tl>< field. , Ix: t" ." armioe'a .....ld l1< c..rthaginian . ............ , ~ ..·~r~ ...n, Sicily' (....-cn'h and ~,ghlh) and s..rdin;" ( ninth) '" stop .he c..rtha{llablish ,hc:m... l~e-> ' h'imtahl~ loyaI.y in c~", 'hel' .hould de(C'C1, alk>,,; ng Punic " ""!'" be: in"ud",.:~ d in'" ",ulboorn '0 "r h~ly A, , he .. m~ t i m~ ,h~ e"n,u l, I'OT the ",mi ng y'","r rrel' 1ho """" " ,,". 0' , ... T""mo"e ..en j ,,,," t h< Th ~ l n ~hl "n of cen . ..llt .l}" T he IfuO, itu.' ion In the 1' " valle>' "'as '0 e. " " do Tr>t p'omOnto Po" ."" ,,,,, Tno s,to <. ."".od bv tho au tho . tootOO b"t1o " ,no "'''''''''',,''v 00 ,," ;c~ bo"'"" ' no "',,_ 01 P" '''l''"'''' now """," '" ITALY AND THE WESTER N MED ITERRAt-:EA N Arezw, where lhe 11"0 ~ons u l, wcr~ {() lake up ' heir positions. Polybiu, ",ys nOlhing more of ' he lr oops a, Placemia . nd Cromona. Livy, if hi, ,CCOunl of 'he winter ope ralions can he he lic\'cd , ,"~., ' hat 'he troo ps from Placentia crm;,cd thc Apennin ~ , into Elru ria .nd lhose at Cremon . made their way to Rimini, In the early , pring ' hc two con '" remaining ele phant , and his brorher Mago 'he rearguard , The Ce lrs had bee n plaeed in ' he centre as lhey wete the most unreli ahle tn~,p' ,nd here the cavalry coltld m. ke , m e 'hat tb ~y did not desert. T he ,\pennines were ctossed without pm hlc m' , but i' wo k 'hree d. ys .nd nights to ~ro" rhe swamp' . Mo" of lhe hai:gage anim als ~ollap se d . nd died in tbe mud and al nighl the soldiers mad e u, e of the' e dead animals by climbing up on to t heir packs <0 thal the" could sleep ou, of the m ire Hannibal had • severe altaek of ophthalmia whitst <'w>sing lh e m,,,,hes, BUl lhere was no time 10 "op for treatment as it was essent ial to get the arm y Oul of lhe unheal thy "rea as quickly a, p<"" ib!e. A' a resu lt he lost an eye. Once a~ro" ,h ~ marshes the army camped fo r a few day' while ' he scouts un dertook. thorough , un'e)-' 01 the surround ing cou ntry, Hannih.l used the opportuni,y 10 make careful en q uiries <"OIKernin g ,he charaCler of lhe c<,mul l'Iaminioo. PolybiU< , ay' tha' he foltnd him to he a dem .gogue_ . n over-co nfident mob or ator Wilh no ta lent for lhe practical « md ue" of war. lIere o n~e again Polybi", i, reHeeling the view of the Sci p i o n i ~ f. mily. M uc h has been made of the rashne" of Flaminius but most of i' i' pmbahly l\( , itiou, . In 22) HfO Flami niu, had won a gr cat v i ~ to ry over the I nsub res , Polybius was una ble to deny the victory bUl gave the credit to the tr ihunes, This baltle is sign i1l<'anr a, rhe Roman' did not u, e rheir n", m a l t a~ t ic , hut oppo'cd the Ce lts with a front rank of spearme n, T he credil for lhis innovalion mus t go 10 the c<>mmander os it could hard ly have been earried out by the tribune, on lheir own ini tialive , In fairness to Flaminius he was probably no beller or worse th. n the average Roman commander of hi, day. T be princip.l weakness of lbe Roman ar my throughout lhi' war was l1S inefficient system of scou,ing. Flaminius seems 10 haye been en camped be' wem Fie",le and ArelZO, H an nihal ad"an~ed up the Am o ,'. lley toward, the Roman pos ition and when tbe ~ ons u l refused balt]e b}'p . ssed hi' camp and pusbed on ' ou thwards, laying wa" e the " mntry,ide . nd huming 'he farm' in an endeavour to draw Flam_ ml\lS out. r he ~onsul, who bad alread)' sent word 10 his colleague to join him. now gave or de.... to break camp . nd follow the Cart h'gini . n . Polybiu, ,",,, that Flaminiu'- tr ihune' begged him 10 rem. in where he was until hi, <"lIe. gue arrived , A man of Po lybius ' experi. n" moot have known that lhi s was non",n",. Flamini'" had ", remaIn in cont""t with the C.rt haginian a mt ~' bUI avoid a ballle before his colle. gue arriwd and this is clearly what he tried to ,10 T he Greek historian ,ay' thar H, n· nibal was advancing . long the road to Rome, with Con ona and it< hill' on hi' left and Lake T ra'i menc on hi, right. The road ran th roltg h a narrow str ip of level ground with a range of hills along either side . T he head (}f thi s defile was oycrh ,ked hy a ",ecp hill whieh was diffi~ u lt to climb, Belween the lake ' nd t he hillside was a narrow passage gl\'ing access to the defi le and here he prepared an "mhu'h. T he fir" pan of thi, d~ "crip'ion i, only p'",ibk if Hann ibal i, on rhe nort h , hme "f lhe lake Recent ly the Ital ian archaeo logist G;ancarlo Susi ni made a , horo ugh ' urvey of 'he nort b , hore H e was able to ,how rhat mu ch "f the low_lying I. nd al the north-we 't corner of the l. ke was under waler in Roma n t;mes, T he level of the lake wa, !owned when. , " nal conncering the lake with ' he ri"er Nestore wos buill in ' 421. The shoreline has bee n furt her eXlended os > re, ull of silting ~ au,ed h ~' the " ream, that !low int" rhe north ,ide " ft he lake W hen these factors .re taken into consi deration , lhe hroad plain al lh. nortb·.." corner of , b ~ lake a,"umes > quite dilferent ,hape The 'pur on which Tuoro stands i' now in the centre of the plain bUI in Roman time' it julted oul 10 the wate r' s ed ~e , di\';ding the plain in tw<> I .m grateful to Lt . .I .klvin . nd hi, learn for bringing to my atten lion . n old map covering the are. from Arezw 1<1 Lake T ra,imene supposedly drawn up hy Leonard" da Vine'i prg i ". to ' uggest that the Chi,na valley and RO ME 275- [ 40 ~c THE G REAT W AR S , l AKF THASIM[ Nf .~ ~ A model of " , nonh ,ho'O ol l eke T""m<>ne ." ~ p...' ~ ue of tne pl"o of COItoo, The ligh'" ,''ow, the "" " ,h" we', 0""" 0""'" w"" Tne "'. o' tne battle i, berween T"010 ,no p= ,gn,no Con'.. M,O at"i boted to Leo nO! if the height 0' the " ke was 2<)6", in" e,,' o"he p,e.. nt 26 8m. as the 'o'mo, i, .he ~ e, g hr of the waters"ed . , ,"" "",th _"" ""'"," of , ne '' 'e Rig h! The di"',b, ',o" ol Han " ,b. I', trOOl'S " o ng "'e MI, ioo, \0 , "" •• Sl of TuOIo " , .. on',..,y ",,' th, Ce"""g ,n,," wou 'd M ve drawn up hr> force, i" M eMed li oe . 'on g th, h,l" " "' """. " ' ""y ,no,, " , hQw n he,e, he concea led ' hem " tOe v" 'ey, out 0' " g"< o. , he Rom,,,,, H. could h" d'y ~ o v e ,el,M M.he mrst th. , '0'" op " om ,o. I, ke ,n , he . " Iy O1Ol" i"g, ood wou ld oe",' " , ve deployed oi. troops" oll ,f i, n" , """0 , 0.," d" " "9 ,he " ,g hr m, ., •.... . ~ \ , } -, I ) • ~,---_ J •'- -', { - " c" m M ONTW H seU~ '" '" ..... 0.." e..ooo d" _'lI""" .........., .., """ .... ..., 01 M' .., "'" PO'JOO1M<' ",,, ',p " """1""101 So .",,,0 "',l "'~II '" 01" " ""'il.."'.L .... ""'I" _, oqw' •.I. 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'l wo. lnoq. ' ! II ' OI"~"lU(}1'I P'II" ' Jnd . 0 ., Ul" ld " 4 ' JO pu, ".~ "'l l IV 'llnod ' '''PI.''' ' l! " "'pW0II~ 0 u.w "nl plIO lIuoIlRI1-XU01' ~ "'>OJ '''''4• ' >..tl' WOI[ ~ 0.... , lnoq" u["ld 0 OIUI popu:>. "" U''l' puc Ol-J"'I boH .~u ~ ••"'1 "p ol l'llllu ptel'" " "'l' ~ ... '11'4 "'I ' J~IIO p;>.,"'{ ....,W J.JOll' 'IlJOU "'-1' Irq... JO ""P' u A'1II f L I 'd uud.... "'U. 'uu lI"'" d )O I"'," ,.nl ",d. Ol~ ·~ I U0 I'I ~ 1I1 01 , ;)&[)p UI ",woo Inq >U11 p~].'Jl,ud ' ,!u"n s ' WJyu", , -1'"0' w nw,,,,,w ~ ~ I ' no P"-" I puo ~ """''' . J .L ~~ JO J$~ """lUUll "'ll JO .'~... n• • ~ "",,,pod,,, ".U'API'< "r) JO '''''-1'-' . ", JO ~JI 'P • PI""'" "':>lfI ' I/ll",,! wnw [""", J""fl '" "''''... ... ~ ... 'I)Ol{ J[ " 0P""ll. 'w 8 ~" ' ! "'-''0 [P l"A ~4 1 JO pu" 1/1.1<'" "'lll" P"'lSJ ~I .NI ~I ""'''4,' ' ''''W" J" U'>lI O." ]3 w nw!u[w " 41ill\ " ~ "l ONII ' ql u;>;>,,,,"4 pO ll"' I" " • ., ~'''l l "" P~U!.,. n. "4 IOUUO' '''A '.''''4 ''''lL '~~"l IS ... ~u" ~,~" " u w""-'.L Jq S'r:IS V"lI"lI3.L I W1W ~"lIli.S3.1\. 3 H .L cxv x-r....LI ROM E ~7~ - t 40 Be TIlE GREA T WARS 1CC1TI5 cq... II)' unlikol )' ao lhe plain al , he "".1 el>f)·. thl::B thi. could just lil Pol ybi...• d<5cription. h :01"", mak.. ..".....m< 01 ~1am in iu.· action<. \l;'tx:n lIannit>.J . urvcyoI' TIt< pau tx:yond "-ig_ naDO. Hul h< kr......' lha. ,hi:: Roma... ..."",10.1 nn'. r . nl'" thi. wilhoul lint ocoulinl i•• honMJghl~. On IhI:: ",h.. hal> 'ha' ,~. An ,- . . .".,t ~"'" '''" t""" 04 H..,"'boI ""001, wouIwn bc-h,,..j ,110 ch lO~' ;O. ' "",g o' .,,,ppo;d '0 tM Only ",. ' it ",,"g oNy"" ' "IOId to' p(Qt~ t i ,," narr<>l'I' . Iope lhe mi..ik .roops (ianlin«n al>n laCl in an'i.:ipalion of iii, col league'1 arrival. cr.....d .1>< plain and pooaoN lhe- Tuoro . pur. A heavy mi .l was rioi... from lite lake ...-hich obocured'he hilkidc , Hannibal could llOt han <:oUnled on ,iii. and and Spaniard. bloclr.;ng their path . TIt< Roman "''''Illn, 1yole m ....... 10 inefficient tha"he n l>;wrJ.......-uwho mode tip the Roman ,.. nguard c:amc in,o conlaCt ...·ilh lhe Canhaginian foro:.-. bdore ,hey reali..d lhaltlte)" " 'cr e ' here. At I1nt the Roman, thoughllhallhey had fallen in with the "unic ..,,,rg uard . but Ihen tru mpe" echoed along Ihe hill s and the "'a' CI)' ...... ra ised o n all . ides .s Hannib. 1 relayed d" wn lhc Io nc Ihe order to cha. ge, The fro nl of t he Roman col um n " a, e.ught in an ••'aull fro m Ih ree side. but somehow manaiff'd 10 break throug h, The reO{ "f Ih e col um n w. s . t Ihe mercy of the cavalry. T hey h.d no . ime to form up in ballk ordCT o r probably even 10 . hro w lheir pil~ bdore lhe horsemen Were upon lhem. U vy gi ,... more credi' 10 Flam,nius 'han Pol~-b,,,,,, lie oaY1 lhat Jolaminius lried ' 0 bnnaordcr ' 0 ,Ite lqiom. hurryina lhe point <.. her< lhe IOldi en ......e hard prnscd and utiing iii. men on. Finally he was recogni1ed by Ducariu"'one of . h< lnoubnan ca valry. TIt< Ill. ubra ,hinuIII for after Flamini ' cunr-ilm in .heir bomclando ynn earlier. Shouting 10 iii. axnradco., Ducari daohed ,owardo the consul . TIt< ur. armour bearer ,h"",,' him..,lf in front of Jolaminiu. bu' ..... . (\I' down. Then DU<1riu. 'urned o n I.... Rorna.. commander ""'" ran him Ihrough . The Irian. rallied aro1lnd the dj'ing a>n sul to ' lOP .1>< IllSubreo deopoilon8,h. body . T .... Ro ma n, held o n f" .thr"" houn bUI the Celt. bad cu, off lhe li ne of r et.... 1 .tlhe T""ro . pur and .he... was n"e""oro, Gradually Ih.y wer e d r;" en bad t" ,,·. rd, the ma"he. a. Ihe water', edge. II.... , ami d'l the cwaking frOlls , they Iighl -~rmcd '0 """'Dge '" ITALY AN D T H E W ESTE Rr ....mbled in ,h~ rttd. ar>d .lim~, T he eanhollinian. ,hor,ed in af,~r """m """ing ,hem down as ,hey 51i,ltcn:d around in ,he mud. Othen '.".ded fanh<-r ou' un'il only 'heir head. wen: ab<w~ ,he ",a none. ''''m '0... .nd ' ool< .helle. in an E,ruoo:;an villa lle. On the foJlowinll day 'hey wen: .urrounded and .urrendered. Hanniboll hIId Ion abou. men , mai nly Ccl... Abou' '5,000 Romano had f.lIm .nd • oimilar number had bcc:n lab"n JltISO'Wf. Hannibal rcIeaoc-d all lhe all~ PI iMN .... 'Iri,bou. ramom. ""inr ,... hi. • .. r ... with ,tic RomaM .nd nol .heir allies. He had done . he ...... af,er lhe boInle .t ,tic T .. bbia. hopi"ll' in , hi• .... y 10 .. nder_ mi~ the alliance. Ar.... ,he boInle Hannibal ordcTcd • ..",,,,h .o be made f('lr ,he ocnior Roman """""" "" thll' he mi.h. pry thoMn , he las( honoun. About 30 ....... r=m.....-cd '.5"" bu' ,he...... IKl tr""e or Flamini.... M aybe , he Ccl" had .. ripped the body and ..moved hi. head, or pc.ha"" ,he /T' 'IIlwn ....." 0( the disaU... """'hcd Scno'e "TIC ......bIe '0 conccaI or oorl~n , he ,*,",'. '11>00 ci' y pract'" ...mrnoned ........,.. or .he people in ,he forum, """"'t«l ,he ","rum and said oim ply, 'W e hllve been defea'ed in a ~ Mtlle' . 1lw <:TO\O"n of Ihi • ..-.:ond d'...",r arrived at R""", only three days af,~r the fint. l .ivy ",110 ... or the rdati""" ......ting al the 01. lhe cily """'nJ for TlC'A of ' Iorir loved ....... ' One """"",n .. ho had been loid of .he dao'h 01. he. "'" ....red .0 her ~ 10 Jive ven, '" her """",,". flu' .. to oI.'en ha.ppcn5 ,he report _ """"1I , When her ..,., artiftd home ,he .....n ...... '00 m uch for h<-r and ohe nI' dad . l1e had f..- grc hopes for """,hem h aly. Tkn: m have ben! ...",e ,he.., who rememhered , he da~.. of I'yrrh..o M yean before. Fmm the R~ .he '0 'Iu" p'''' Lon M "" 0'''''''''.. ' ........."ot'"\i " " """',,",9" '" 211 Be, TN> m.., ,,*"... mor'od., bII>o ,,. H. " nlMI '. more,," _ ,",<>Ugh It. ... to Apuh .od , _ ' " C. mp.nl••od Oar' ". ",,,kod .., RO .I.1 E 27S-t40 IIC THE G REAT WAR S Truu"c... Iakc he continued IUs rnan:h ...........do lO join .he Ranu"",n \I'ay and .hen w v&n<>:d ~ lhal lot Iri<-d .0 toke Sro6eto bu. ..... ~puloed_ A. Terni , 15km "",,",h of 11........ , he ,urned ..... lh......l . cros>ed .he Sdla di Comopau owr .1ot Apenni..... and arrwcd a' the COlI" .... r lIe~ he r"'ted hi..... n and ~ oye much_needed an enlion 10 hi, ",,",,", ",hich had suffered 'errihl~ from th. exert ion. " f , he previou , year. Al Trehhi••no.! T ra,imcne H annihal had caplu red an enormou, amount "f Rom. n . r mour . nd ",eapons , Selccti ng th. most f uilah le pieces he rearmeo.! hi. Alr ie. "" pri"" ipaJJ)' ,,; , h ar mour but p....,..,., abo """"iN)" wit h ...-urdo. A. """" as . Iot Pun;,; ann)' had ~_ ropera.ed .ufficiornlly lhey con. inued •heir 1om of pla<.ing ....al po..'e < in tlot hands of one ~ _ T he man ""'" choo<-n for Ihi. onero us ta, k ""'•• Quint... F.biu. M . xim u•. lie .... I1UIde di <"tOtor for .i x mon lh• . H. had ,een ..rv ice in Ihe firs, war ",it h C art hage , and , ince Ihen he had heen oon,ul l",k. and had he.n . " ,. , eled a triu m ph f" r hi. vk tor y over the Ligurians , At th. time of hi, Ji<1atorship h. wao about 60 y. ... old , lie .... a caulious nun aOO!hi. ~elwd heavily in hi. appoin l"""'" The ~ of .he army had reached a ''el1' low ebb. aOO no doubt befiu. "'' ' given a. hi. """""d_in_ in-eo mmon J (ma. ter of the co,'alry ) M arro. M inuciu. Ru fus, who bad .0 h I""" Mop ol "",11" '0 C, mp.o" '"""""Ill'" "'. ," '0 '"' ' , n~ ,'" ""'" ,mpo'''o, 'owo,. T" Roman ood L. ho 001"" " , .... mo,''''' '0 ,"" ><. oo,n. , , , _ P.. ~.,..,- 'no ~.,..' "'' p l..o "" .... of ITALY ,'''D THE WES TE R:s" M EDITERRAN E AN serwd " con,ul in n , b L Fabiu' im medi.. dy hegan ra isin~ four ne w legion" t he 141h, 15th, t6 ,h an d 17lh A, "~ln a< , he Canhaginian, had m(wed oill of central haly, F" biu, or dered Geminu, to march sour h and join him ", Nami on lhe Via Fiamini~ Geminus had with him 'he t 2th and t 3' h legion, plm the remnants of Sci r io's firsl and second (c. 30,000 men), T here was no co.'alr)"; lhe, e had been I" " afler lhe hattle of ·I'ra,imene. F>hiu, marched non h 10 meel him at t he head of lwo of lhe hasli ly rai,ed legion< , the '4t h and '51h. The otheT ,wo remained at Rome. r hi, i, the aee"unt given hy l. ivy, but Polybius ,ay, he 'ook all four new legions. This cont radiction between our two SOUTCe, has c.used much confmion fm it affee'" not only ,his year bu' . 1,0 the fo llow in~ one. l.i,'y and 1'()I"biu, >r~ h~re d rawi n~ on two ditlerem SO ur~es bm il seem , possible thaI bm h lhese SOure"'S h. ve a wmmon or igin. Polybius ' Source kne w ,ha, the dicta' or ha d the nud eu, of ,i , legion, in his army but failed 10 mention Scipio's defeale d lroop, .nd lherefore gave lhe diclalor all four new Icgi(ln' Livy ', , o ur~ e, on the other hand , ac""unted for t he remnants 01 Seipio's l e ~ i o ns and therefore only had to rai,e lwo more. The oni~' difficully is tha ' L iv;- ptomptly f",gel< Scipio's legiom and ta lb of four legion, at G~runium whe re the army wimered. Fabit" look ovet Geminu,' leRion" which Ra,'e him a IOlal of aro und 47,000 infantr y and 2,500 eavalry . Hc ,e n, the eom ul on to Home with OTdCTS to ' ake ",'er the navy and o'gan i,e the defence of lhe co. st, of southern Itaiy, Accor din~ to Li vy, Fabius n",-" led hi, army ac",," countr y to T i\'oli and Palc<'rina to ioin the Latin Way south of Home. I'or some unexplained re"on he wished to by pass Rome, Wa, this beCfi.u,e a Rom.n commander w" nor allowed to en' er Home at the head of hi, troops and f'ahi us wa, obeying , he lener of lhe law ? He .ppea" to ha\'e followeoul nine kilometres fro m Hannibal'. pos ition Th e Carthaginian immediate ly led out hi, army and offered ban le but ,he dietalor declined. It was Fab iu,' inten_ ] ( o • , 7 Ab o y. Mop ot th e """ leOOi09 from Cam """ia to ,he vau", of H,. Voltumo .. v" " no Hooo ib, I', t.'o , "',th the o, eo i, , ho",o with , bm w " o" ow , th. """ , h, us' w"h , ,,,d .",,"' P",.. , ion '" rdme ha"k hu ' w follow the ( :art hagini an around , hum ing the erop' and cutt inR off foragers and straRRlers and ,hus gtadua lJy w~a ring down 'bc Car, haginian arm;- whih t at the ,arne timc "i,ing t he strength and morale of hi, own troops, many of whom h.d only re~ell1ly enlisled, II would be wrong 10say tha, they were raw teerui" since mosl of thcm would have nort h of the Volwrno ri"er, Fahiu, followed one or two day,," marc h I:oehind, Ha nnihal l:oelieved thaI here in Campan i", which ",as de nsely populated ",ilh many wwn" Fahim would not be ahle to Ie, him h urn and p i lla~ e with impun ity , He was wronR, Fahius took up his posi lion on 'he hili, overlook ing th" plain '" that th, allie, wou ld no' think lhat the Roma", had entirely de,erted the m, bu ' h, refu sed 10 de,cend int o the plain. Hannib.1 d id his be" w lur~ the dictalOr down and laid wan the Ie\'el gro und beneath the hill, He reali sed a, once the d. nget of his position and >raye Fabiu, no time ~ O.\-IE ~7' -L~O RIC TH E GREA T WARS '0 nplolt " SummonillJl the com"",no;k.of the army IICrvan. ... heordercd him '0 p 'her .. many faggo.. ,.. pol4'bIc and ......... l>k ahou' Z,OOO of ,he .trunsrt' pIouah oxen from , he many ' ..... they had "*PfUl'<'d , "lbco, a1lina (<>get her (he ann)' ......an. ... he poInled out a hillod. between hi5 camp and .he ,cih", , hem (ha, ,,'hm ,,,,,,. ~veJ , bt ordt. ,hey""",.., ~ri,.., lhe <>Un up (I.he lOp of . he hill as fu.......w~· .. (hey 001I1<1 Hannil\al or dttN h.. ooI mo,'inl! b u' ,hen '0 !Un alonl! "n ei, her . ide of ' hem and keep ,hem ma",e~ "'ltether, On reaching ' he high IIr"und 'hey wer< ordere ~ 10 ""euPY , he ridl!" ;n order to 'h row blKk .ny H"",.n .d.'ance. M eanw hile Haoni!>-al h;m",lf a, 'he head of hi. heavy_armed " 001'" mod . 0 dash for 'he pa... They we,.., rol lowed by ,he e"'olry, (he n ,he ca", ured con I. and finally ,he S pa n,ard. and Ceh. \'l'he n ,he Homo n. in , he PO" " ·er. . ...>kened by .be" ""Ollie>, Ih el' saw tlte maos of charging up ,he hill .nd ad.·.nced meet .hem. He'Te lItey ......... . hrown ,n,o complete confu>i<Jn by 1/'1<' p,"~ n . nd lhe oxen. Fabius coul ..-e ,han from hi. amp. T rue . o hi.char er he n:mained .'here he _ un,il daylight. .\ Ican.-rule H. nn,bal, w""- dl'-enion had been more • ....::«Ul'..1 .ban n'en he could h<>ped . foreN hi. ...-..y lhroua:h ,he poo" .... 'i.., bol-h his afTllJ and hooc)' Ihr-oua:h ,n,act . "Ibc fin l light of do ...·n r",·..1ed ,be Romans from lbe pus dn "'n up on ,he hill ~'c the p, kc.... n. H.nnil\al im medialell' ><:nt bad: """e or hi. Spaniard. 10 ....i" lhem T hcoc a" ,""ked ,he R""",n, . killi ng ahl'ut , ,000 of ,hem and .U"...·' ng . he pikcrnc n to wi. hdraw. Thi. i. 'hc gi.. "f 1' " lyhiu" = u n'The problcm i. I' olyhiu. > vaguen« , . boU l wher e (hellC evenlS look place. He im plies that lIaonibal len lhe Fal orn;. o p1.,n hI' lhe . ame r oute he had u,e~ tn ente' it, U nt'"rmnarely he i. r-' '0 '0 '0 ,,,,,,he> '0 ,,,h Ita,.., very " ~ue on thi. poi",. He >al" thai aftc . k avi ng Samnium HannlbaJ Lra",r>ed the pa.. ncar .he hIli called "'nhianu. and """"loped he<jde lhe n"", A,hym us (VoI. u"",), En bian us. 110",,,,',,-, is «IIil~",ly un_ known . 1 '; ,")· rb<'n , he Cart haginian'. rou'e Ihrough (he d'Jy _ mi>take, as i. io . i" ... cd on ,he ",her oide oJ the Vol tu""" in cen. ral Campoo m_, He m;,h, be referrn ng 10 Caia, " (Carano) 0.- Callif.. (Cal, .,.;) 0.- .. ' me unkn""'n town of a .. mila r na.... . Ao SO orte n " ; I h l..i,")·, ...·e arc kf. in .he dark. T he Roma n hi ,ha, lI annihal ....'anted to g" ' " ('.a,inum (C. ..ino) bm Ihe !lu i ~c mi 'undcrolOod and led him '" Ca,ilinum (Ca pua). T hi, ,eems highl y unlikely and Po!ybiu, certainly ~oe. oot ment i"n ;, . T he tTu, h may be lh al lIa" oih.l ...-.' tryi ng t" c" nvince Fa bi u, lhat he ...-a, morehing on kom. and headcd up the Voh urno valle y ,hro ullh the J i" ri" . of Caiauo and Alife tow ar~ . C. .. in" . When Fahiu< rrfu.cJ t" he drawn he turned '-Outhwe", pa..inll th""'llh ,he hills ju>! oo n h of ,\ lon'c .\10"",,, 1010 the Faler nio" rlain. lie (hen ...""",d .he ' crri."r y of Ca lc. (C. lv;) and finany cam ped on . he ....nh . ide of lhe V oIlUrno. In o.-der '0 solve ,hi. problem one q ..... ion has 10 be a>1.cd . From.he nonh .ide , >( the Calore rivc...... i. pouiblc ~,e . ,he Falernian plain by a diT«1 'ou.c? Both Livy and PolybLU' ola,e Hannibal took TdeoJa ITdco" ! ,,,' lUch os un , he Al.... h.ide of ,he CaJor., ri,.... a""".......,n kilomenn from ilS jur",.-uo.. "'; Ih lhe Voltu"",. In order ,o ..t,·a:x:c iolo lhe F_lemian plain along the nonh hank of ,he Volturno he ..."",1<1 ha" e fir>( .0 ........ , he Volt.."",. h i. doobi~ ful that ,here ,,·u . ,.,..j along ,he nonh ..dt of , he Vollurno. A opur (M on. e Il.aggdo) iu" out fro m the main ra nge of hin, at ,he no n h .ide of .he VoI. ur"" and pindleolhe " vcr al the poin, ...-he,.., it emc... lhc plain , H..~ ...'ec n herc . nd C.i...", .hcrc i, ..'me very lo...·-Iying ground ...-hich hn now been drained, Thi. ma ke. it unhkely firs, thaI lhe,.., wa. a ,oad anJ .,,,,,nd , hat Hannibal wou lJ ha"e co",c thi. way , lf lh i, i, «' the n Hann ihal had "" olte rn al i,-e hut '0 ,ha, 'oenter lhe plaIn from , he nort h. Livy All'" llUC' ,... m pktcly ha~-..;n:. He rb<'n ,he R..m an. hIo<:king the road to Calhnum (Cap,,"! with Cap,," (Sanla .\lorio d l Copua \ "",ere) ... be1., boock. In ", her ..." "do HannibaJ .... .. , '); ng '0 '" ......th...' atdo, hut afler he broke , ~ l..ivy puIS H. nnibaJ in a m I' .. AMe p km fun her up ,he VoI.u""" ThIS IS "''Y " Ma.isf"",,,,,,,, bu, Ahfc io ,he unly " ••d "",n• .;,.~ ha,..,. At'er Hannibal bad eocap:d Li.... sal" ,hal F abi us .1... .....,.., .hrough I~ pas> and elk.1lmpcd in _ Iof,y si rong pooll ion a""'" Ahfe . s., 'c mu.. 10.... ro.- . hi. pas' liomc_ .....he,.., ithi n aboul 'skm "f Alik T he most lik. ll· poo;, i,," i. the gop in lhe hill. at Pic"o,'ai ra"". A. this i. ,he ....i""'" and co.."" ro Ute " .... 10 he the "nc Fabiu . bloc ked Ilut there are se"eral o, he r ",'" ' e. , IX' hy di~ Hannibal nn, u,. onc of ,he . e ? The anliwer may lie in the ...."rd. "f Polybiu" 'F. hiu< ' ho ug ht that gt Ic al>le «l capture t heir "'~I' y', If Hanni bal ....aOlcd hang " n t" lhe enor ma u, .mo un t "f !Ix" h. h.d . m.,sed , ,hen he had l<> take an ca,y r""' e. Otherwi« he might find hi. arm}' .t retched out and al the ffierCj' " f the k "mono. The Roma n de,achmeo' of 4,{)(l() ",'ere probabl y encam ped on . he nonh_ wcot . pu r of M OOle I' "",, (.\ \ont",na di Bru no) ""., look ing.he pa.., and , he maIn army a, . he end of .\-ion,c Caicvola """ering , he Via Lallna. Han_ ni bal m us t haye camped on the flal belo...' Mon, e Caic-,-'uIa and dn"en hi. di yenionary " xcn UJ> ,he .".nh-.....,. . ' pur of .\-IOllle " ..... The Roman gam....., """';nl .....nd '" in,en:ep' the oxen ..." ",1<1 ha,.. rJaced the""",,·co bet..""n ,he pi kemen and Hann ibaJ", final posjlion ",""r Alire, T o ,..,li",.., his pil:emen lhe ean.... m.n """. ou, ru, Spaniards a" "",, (he Romano fn"" lhe reaT. Hannib.al "".... """"",oed the Apennine. , moreh,.., 1"'"' .\-Ioun, Li buntOn . No moun'ain of ,hI< name i. k""",.... Howe',-cr, i, ha, bcc-n ougg",tcd , hal;1 ,I>ould read T illur no n ( Lal in T ife,nu. ). .\I on. Tifernu. (m,>dcrn Mon.agna del Mot""' ) ri se. ahlwe Alife. I, i, the hig he.. "",untoin in , hi. an:. of .he Apennin",. In rooi, ion and . i' e oo th , ugge", , hal it i. l'" lyhiu.> L iburn on. Ila nnibal h.d hecn lo ld lh at he woulll fi nll ab" oda", earn a",u nll '0 "'CO, '0 .,. " 'l~;t .. ~ a e ~ii -O"" fI;>"i"1: -'"'-~>'f'--~ 'E-::t~~'" :>_:1;1 ... 21l11 ~"~ti~~f. ,;~el~r~ gI!i·"···. - ~ -"~ go:i_.s,_:;'I2."" -l l"-'··ij"l·-jll." ~~i~~2~~~"~i~ ~i~ '! -<§<., io;;g~~t~~~" , ~:~~ Ilal'-.rlr;l? II! i,·,I!.'.-lll~,,1 ~~~~![![il?151'~li nlHii.<"hi.l:r[ ""' :"''''' '' °"1"1,. r;io!., . -"'I""' ·" ',- -<"r 'jl"_p ai"~~li~a~~ii;'s 1!!·'~t~~:.2~lllt ~~~ -a- .. a ,'1."2 e-' z i,:t, ,, ~ .. '2 :i! " "" sx s . o~a~i:;,.~ ~~~'8 ~~~~ 1i~ii ~;=l~.:t.~ _ .. if .. ~ ~~ ~if3~ ~ ......·i· iUi i l • I• ... • " .,. a !l. !I. ~ ~J tt~ 3 a.ir~ h- .--llrr-' "[[i-:' ~l ~ll: r: ~~[ I HII ,~~i.~ .l,j,r J lip HiH e, , --- 3"='"".·1--" • ! = l = l i r i .~ ' ~' Oo'j-Q - •c if~. - ~1"~ - ,hlii .1'<' Ln~lh!d. -~ ~ > z •:j -• • ~ - "z• e • -.; ••> ti z ~ RO ME 275-'40 BC THE G R E I\ T WARS L ueera , whic h probably follows the tr.ck of the ancient road , This would cenainly accord wiIh Polybim ' topo_ grap hy for the ens uing c'ampaign, T he easiest w"~' to get here from Alife is by skirt ing thc north side of Ihe M onti del Mate;e by way of !semia and Boiano, and then taking thc road to Ca mpoba"o and clescending the vanc y, or lhe Tapino and FOrl ore. As usual thc Rom. ns followe d, keeping lO the hi.o;h ground . From Ca mpobasso lhey prob.bly followed the roUle of the modem S S S. n nilic. ( Rollle 81) along t he hillwp', '\'\eanwhile Hannibal had encam ped ncar Gerunium . The town;people refused his offers of alliance , .nd he "",med the town pUlling the inhahi_ the ,word , Be did not de'troy lhe town but kep' its walls .nd houses intact so lhat he could usc it as a corn m.ga"ine . He lhen c". bli,hed his winter quarlers in front of the town, fortifying the eamp with a trenc h and palisadc . Having ' horo Ujl;lily defended h" po,ition he sent ou t , wo_thirds of hi, .emy w ga, he r in rhe corn . T he o,her ,hird of the army guarded lhe "n" '0 camp and covered ' he foragers . Thi, was normal praclice. Caesar did rhe ,arne Ol Alesia, The Romans had now arrived in lhe area. F. bim had been ree.lled 10 Rome 10 presid e o\'er , orne relig iou, ceremonies and his master of the cavalry , M inuciu; , had laken over comm.nd , Poly'bim ""y' tba' when M inuciu, bca rd lhal Ha nnihal was encamped ar Gerunium and foraging in the dislricl, 'he turned and de",,"ded fmm the hill, by a ridge rh" slope, down to tbc town. Arrivi ng . , a height in lbe terr ilory of Lar inum ( L arino) called Ca lena, he enca mped lhere .' . Just befor e the SS Sannilica re.ches Casacalenda it is ioined by • road which f"lIows the cre" of the hill '0 Hon d '" (all. 606m) . AboUllhree kilometres beyond Bone fro there is a spur jutting Out 10 lhe south_ e",L At the end of this ,pur i, • hill called M onte Ca lvo (. Jr, 409m) , T hi, hill ovedooks the Fortore river and is , e\'en and a half kilometres fro m the suggested site "f G~runium. l' olybiu, "a'ed that this hill was called Calena and wa, in lhe lerritory of Larino" In nonhern Ca mpania lhere was a Roman town called Cales with an adjec tival form ofCalenum ( U vy VIII, 6) . T he na me ha, been corrup' ed 10 the modern Calvi. It is hardly ,tretchin.o; Ihe bound s " f po" ihility to suggesl ,hat Caleno hos bc...,n corru pted to Ca lvo. It i, al,o imer~" i ng to nole that th~ town at the olher end of this rid ge is called Ca.acalenda Larino is I 7km from M"nte Calvo (ts lerritory wos pm_ hab ly bounded by !he Biferno and l'ortore rivers, in whic'h "",e Monte Ca lvo would be just wilh in its borders. The model show, the are. between Monte Ca lvo and Colle d'Armi (( ",runiuml. The manoeuvres that follow are .n object lesson ill t a~tics ; a leXI book le" on " n how 10 draw an opponent fro m an una"ailable po,ilion fir" aer"" a river and secondly into an . mhush. Leaving one-l hird of his soldiers to forage Hanniba l ad\"anced 16 < d"" ,,e (c eo, ,") . Hs "",bar, ,e cond =op w" . 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I "'II VOllOJ' "'''' I1'q "'" ..nl»lI 'll''1 "'II p>.1nide> OU.WO"l/ "'I ' 'I" '" -" ,.o ,.o"'l.. ul 'u"",,~lilI"'I" P o. sd O(lJI I"""-'" ·\ II'Ia' l "4 p>q.>lM ,p on"",u ' l'" 'fIIJ""I.'.p '... 1I.w"""" 01 u>UI3ll.'d IXICI'r ,no ,.... '"I'q"u .1"".\00 -"'l"'n ·'llIu, p""",,\, '1I'"1d "'I' WOJJ 11" 1""'......11' plno.~ "'I ""'ll ..". 1'>1.....""'" r-l1ll"'11 JI "(C' 11"1 ....,. >.1"'11 Idwlt> ...". l>q l u»'''l>lI. ' urqd "'II "' U>kJoJ '"I ' ~"". I"'" .' >[1'''"' J.JuUO.~ '"II ptJ>:>I:>p 0> W>ti. JOJ IITDIJIIP .I.JJA " "J'"W 'I I) dWD lIowo H "'I' wosJ •••. Jl"4 • puc JnoJ 1""'11- ~luO ,,,,,,,,,0011._ ld puo .. "'I' 'I".... . f ', 11''1 ' UO pod",."", pu.",munJ,,!:) wosJ { w ~ f "J '," '1' "'''IO"tJl" ""'.11 II"'"' ....." p.' 'ill"" 0>,,",'' 1 '''''I' """''''ll Il""""'" lIul."""'.'" n."'".,. "'>'" N V;IN v a aa.r.rctaw Nlf3 .1S3,1l'. " H .1 (IN v A, v .L1 RO .>'I E 275- ' 40 kC T H E G REAT WAR S man ner of a w m in the fir" war _. n om inou> choi ce . Two new consuls were elected for the f.t eful year of zI 6 nc, I ,uci", Aemilius P.ullm and Gaim Terentius Var m. I'au llu, waS the ~ ," n d fa , h e r of Sc ipi o Aemili anns and is a mem her " f the ~roup of people whom Polybiu, will nur criticise, T horefore Va"o becomes ,he sC'p"g" al for lhe impendi ng disas' cL So m uch malice sur ro unds ,he name of Va"o , hat it i, impo, sible a' this di"ance to reco o" struet a rca l pcrson , All one can do is to point out thc ' , was recalled . Hc and Regulus were' apfX,imed ~"oconsuls and placed in comm and of ,he . rmy .t Ge ru nium A Ie" }' was "a iled to rai se the exi sti n ~ l new Iegiom O H' b and '9' hj were dispatch ed to , he 1'0 \'. lIey under tbe praetor L uci us I'ostum ius i'l lhinus and tbe 1.0, h and 1.1S1 were left al Rome for tbc defenC'e of tbe ciry T bis massi ve display of 'treng'b wi, h t 6 legions (c , '50,oooj in the field can on ly mcan lh.r the Rom ,ms had decided figh ' a pitc hed bau le wit h H annibal whcneve< a fa\'()urahle op port nnit y pre_ ; e",cd itself, There can be lill ie tr m h in , hc rradition of • conniet betwee n I'au llus and Varm, , he laller wanr ing '" fight an d t be ( )fmcr wi,bing 10 m n_ ,in ue Fa bius taclics h was well into tbe summer wbe n Hanniba l brok e ca m p and left Gorun,u m. He marcbed , ou, h_ca" abou' look m to tbc river Aufi dn, (O fan' o j. lIere he seized tbe citadel of C. nn.e which ,he Romans were us ing as . foo d " ore , "an,ferring , he supplies to ,he C.rt baginian cam p as they requ ired them, \X·' hen tbcy hear d or lbi, tbe pro _ con,ul<, who were now within a day and a balf', march of J [annib. I's position (c 40-S0k m), , ent me" . g-e, to the Senate to as k for in" ,hat this was the first timc , b. t two con,nJ. r ar mies , '0 of l'lUr legion" bad bee n cmnbined in one ar my. l' olybiu< records ,hc us e 01 four -I o ~ i on coIlS \llar ar mies du ring t he Gallic invasion of 225 Be. stony com men [a"''' h" 'e cr iticised l' olybiu" hg ure<, arguing tba' thc Car_ ,h a ~ i n i an army coul d never ba\'e , urro unded a kom. n a, my of 80,000 me n at ,hc ban k of Ca nnae. Bu' l'oly biu>' figu res are cnt irely ,'(l", i" ent and no one w"' bene r equippe d 10 e 'n I"" 8. low A 'OO""'"O"i< map 0' the .,eo """",,"" S.n Fe'd,o'-"~o , od C",n... Toe cootoo" 0" " 1m ,"'. ,v.I, . The dykes '0 coo[<'" [he 1[oooiog 0' the nve' ". m• •ked io '00 The ~ o " e d blu. I" ", the oo",blO 'lid eo"''''' o',M ,j,.. The ',oe ,Iooq ",",ch ".. Rom. ns d«w up ' he" fo":,,, i, O1.. 'ed w,t" 0 b'Qk." "'><0, "0" m,," ITAL Y A~D T HE WESTERN MEDITERRA NEAN cornul. broke camp and ad,-.nced on Can...... O n lhe oeoond da)' they <:am<: in .igh, of Hann,bar . posi'ion and encam ped . t • distance of aboul eight kik>mol"'•. T he topo~tal'h}' of tho en,uinll ca mpailln and hall ie depe nd, on two r,,,:lnrds from ,he Apennines at the 111.· om end o{ 'he plai n of Foggia, The ri\'Cf Ofanlo, after IeoIving .he Apenni...... l\ows. alone the north edge of thnc hills. The cit:adelof Can..... . ir. upon a hillodr at .he.--o hem ediC of this range owr_ looking the river , T he difficul,y i' encou nl ered bocau.., 1'01}'biu, qu ite dcarl}' place. the ball le near Cannae on lhc " mlh . ide of the ri vor , As lhinl!"' . re looay . hi, i. impos.ible for the river al"""" lap" ,he hill •. T he o r.n,o has changed i" cour", m. ny u..... and i' i. .herefore me.ningl.... to au empt tn delerminc: . he ';,. of.he banle by rV1r ' hem to fo'ake on '" , be """h';de of , he ri ver . The follow_ ing momi"l !'aullu. " .... in command We a", !'""n lbe ""m po, , uggesl lho' Hannibal' , camp lay north of lh< n ,..,r. Certainly Polyhiu. place. i' on , he no" h . ide , horll y hefore the ban le amI nevcr men' lions ll ann ih.l e r o ssi n ~ the river , So, a,"uminll t hat I lannibal wa, in _ deed " n 'he nor, h .ide of ,he river , whe ro 1"", hi. <:amp) T he Cart hagini-an had ar rivcJ a' , he Ofanto ,,-..=ks before the Ronuns and tbererore would hove had plenty of ' ime 10 ..1ecI lhe """" ad""n'......... pos.;tion for hi. C3J0p Hannibal ,,'as a highly intd ligen' genenol , and although he " ... aI"-.ro " i lhl1ll tn O>lpk>il hi, enomieo' mi..ake<, be . 1" 'oY'lried to make l ure lhal hi. o",n posili" n wo. ' ecnre. Iko ri ng ' hio in mind, there i' only one , ile on ' he north ,ide " fl he Of~nt o whoro he wou ld have campo d, T hi' is the spur on whic h , he lando. This io !la'_,opped wi'h . Iee p ';dea on lbe """11.·......1 and ....rh-east which is Iarred b)"the ri ...... The """.... ..... lido IIope< ,..nd)" doom 10 tbe plain, gi vi"ll .....y 1Io<:U'5' r...- hit ""....Iry. F...... hen: he couJdlorage,,;th im punity. The: Canhall:in;.n could hardly ba,~ ""i"ed such a si' ualion, fO! no' only i. il . trongly defended whil" giv ing e.. y 'e'CO" I " the plain , hu' it al'o covercd ' he valley of 'he Of.n lo, hi. line of ' etro .l if any, hinll wont w",ng. Wi,h Hannibal ><cu rely encamped hen: i' is now ",,",ible ,,, sile tbe Rom.n cam ps (.... lbe mo p). The positioning of the (2M p on lhe .....'h bo.N. rIOw mak.. ,o " op Hannibll f...-agil1ll on ,hat ';de 0{ . he ri""r and is clearl y put of tbe CNOnIll Roman Ifra,OJ}' . Thi.. makoo "'",••, ..... of t be , bc-ory , he t",o con,ul, ""I<: in biller confliCf. H.nnib.1 " ... now CUI " ff from lhe plain on b" th ' ide' " f the . i,·er and it ....,.,. i," 'ha' ..... only a manor of li me before hi, provi.ions ran ou" The time hod come lO !\gll'- He a..e m bled hi. a= y to ,i'" lhem ,he u. ual encoulaging .pooch al>O'l be al* to outflank them Pol)"biu , 10 corrobonIe thi' ch<>ice of . ite hen h< ...,.. , hal the k "",an. pl"""d ' heir mani ples c....... ,ogel her rha n u.ualand made lhe del'lh of oa~h ""'niple many ti me' ~"'.ler lhan i.. flOnl. Tho , h" pooh "andard ha"",ij princip€t m.n iple he fore 'he gap' Ofe ek....,d ~an vary from . ix rank. "f 1(> ' 0 14 ran k. of five. It must he lhi. I." figure, 24 ""nh of li"e, t" ,,'hi<:h Poly_ bius is rd"cr-ri"l. I f lhe legion Olrength _ 5,OOl), the depth <>l ' he 1t ,..'nlI.,. .. "ad. ROM E 27 5-' 4° BC THE G REAT WARS AbOve Th..... lI!<'je'd of C.o o,e ,..n Iro," ,ho ",. of , o< o'd 0"' '''' of C, on... , Toe mod,m " II,ye of SO' f. ," ,n. Mo, wh." . K.ooib, 1 Ab o• • ' tie battle'i ",,"nodC' '"D," "" , e. lo" , ,,,.. ,n ,o. d.,,.,,o. to ,0. let, 1"" >""lIe, Aoman camp woo l" h,.o ""'. " " fl !O the "g h< , M the I. ,g e' c,m " '0 the d i" , nCO " O ,he ' ight l h. Rom.ns ".nd', v''' ,qe of S," fe' dmando 00'" TO. '"" 0 ~om ao cam p i, olo.. !O" 10 t" .." th, Ca"MQ''' ,"" f",ager, .nd "'a'O'i09 parties on the oo<, h , de 0 ' to" ' ivor , TM I..,., ~' ''''' O d'." up tho" f",co, be_on Coooa. ' M 'M S. n fo," io.ndo "pu' wi," ",. i, ,ig" t w'" g ,,,,,kOd on , he " YO ' , od mo" left 00 the oill, to oouo"" ,no C,,,,,"',",,,, camp " 00 to, ' 0 0'0 " d. of t tl. ,,"", (, ight) to prove"' Hann'b. I', " ""p. fO" Q,oQ sou," of ,oe ri ,." C,"n.. ,, " the 00,"",0 TM Ro m,,, aro oo "'. " 9 ht f, ciog sOo' o ITAL Y AND THE W EST ERN M l::[)] T ERRA N EA N .- -" ,"---- _ _ c_ _ ---~--~-- 0, ,, - - ' =- - \.,C---~~-- I "f e-..... -, ............'.-. ..... T.......... "'-_.- _ - .... _- ..... ~ "" h. \AllIe """'_ ... s-.> T ",0 _ --== -- - , I I T 10\1"1 _ _ _ n -. _ .............. _boc> ..... ~_-"'O ,~- .-",=;;;i>1 ,- :e=- - ---_ - I ~;=--==----- - -- P .. - - --, _1IlJ"f_ 'n ....s"''*'" , c...o ~ """""'" 10 DoNI """" .... ,..........,_ _ _no .... '"'''' to """' .. 00'" to do s_ ceor.c: __ bf9tI '..' ~omon _0"""" 0aP .. _ up _ ~ ,,.. I;ottoc: ...., ~ .... """"""'" , _ .... IJOP .... 'oil .... ' " ot ' hod ......... ....-. _ .. . , combo_ and. I I CIJ~~> ~·.._-..,-.."U_"...,..a - - 27 = Ph. . . . log,,,,,, 'n the ce"". " ... O"",,,nUO '''''' " , ,,. u n"~, thoy .,., ,,",,0'" The Celt"~ ood S P' " " " c".>ry "OW char",, " 9' 0 0' ," the ' ..' bo'''''''''" ,... """.n,••'''' RO M E ~7S-1 40 II<.: T H E G REAT WA R S .ph, in pr"' ' ion of ,hree all >ed 10 ""'" Ronwon k1 break OO..n 10 lhoul 1.600 K nand 4.1loolllied. Alloooing for glps bd....,..... , hot •. . . -.Ihot Roman e lOIal Ro,nan fronl """",Id ha,.., bttn a lin" <>Vcr 3,OOOm. The pla,n had a ""'>.imum wid,h o{ .bou' , wo kilorn<'~, The " 'id, h of ,he Rom an 1'0'" ,;ould I>c ;t\."OOffirnooaled if Ihe Ruman. lined up diag,mally fad ng ",u ,h ( k . map). P" lyh,u, do", indeed placc , he Rom. n, f.c in~ , ou, h. Ten ,hou'.nd I(oman' were left to guard lh e cam p a" ack 'he Carthaginian " 'ith (Irde," camp during lhe b..tlle. T he c 9.600 0( Ihnc in II>c anny and Ihi, .."OUld >Cern fi, in ..·ell ,,'ilh PoIj·hi...· appro.i"",'ion . Contra..,' popular opinion hoIh in ,he oncicn, and lhe IIloO<>o>ing , hi, ute , he Koma n, I>clicv.d Ihalll>cy ....d ....ultal i..d Hlnniho.l'. e....lry , The d,vi,ion of comm . nd i. m,,,' rc,n li"ll: , T her" wide 0( t he n n :r .he da) ' b<:fotC. \'I'1Iom Ilannibal >a ...- ,he Romano lin _ ing up he senl hi• • hn g~n and p;kc..... n """'"" 'h. , iv.r. drawing lhem up in I line ""''''.. ,he plaIn. Ikhind ' hn c.""..,rJl1tl force he dTCw up ,he re.. of hi. lroopo. On 110. lighl. u nder ,I>< hill ••nd OI'I",";tc 'h~ alli.d hOlse, he plac..,d hi. ~um idj a n., It i. p" " ible to make a fairly accurot. . .t;m>lc of ,hei l num _ '0 '0 '0 ben. When he am.,cd In haly .lbnnibal hada ' Ola! of 6,ooocavalry, part Spanish an mid.."" ..·ct. ~ 10 ,he allied cav.lry n"rnbcnng .boool ~,lIao lhey can"", ha•.., bttn much Ina ,han , his number . A reawnablo: esl i""". would be 4.000. Th. Spani. h caval'j·. ,,'hieh mu," herefor< num ber .1x,tIl 2.000 plus ' M Celtic CO" al,y, which, .i",,~ hi. 101>1 caval lY numl>ered 10,000 muM ha,·. Ix",n 4 .000 SllOng. wc,c dr.",n up nex' 'he rivel , Becau •• "f , heir numbel . which ,,'as four ,ime. lh. t " f lhe " 1'1'" sing Roman canlr y. they m uil have becn dr...," up in fou' line., T he Carthaginian infantr\" con.i..cd liul. mo, e lhan 40.ooo .....n of ",-'hieh alx"" u ,ooo ""re African anc phobnK ..... .hou, ~.ooo Slrong. lhe Spani.h ."",,1,. men abou, s,soo ana~~ lha, l lanni""l linro u p hi. Spani,h and ('. .hi<; ' ''"OI"d.m.n in ahernale speir~j, O nce bef".c P"I)'biu' me n. i"n. Ihi, 'ype of {orma.i on wheT< 'wo unequal for ce. wer. lin.d up in .I'erna'e ,pei,,,i. T hi. wa. a" he banl e " f Sdlasi. , wh. , e thc I lIy, i. ", "nd Maced"nia" 'h,",en ,hield, f<>rmed up m"'1 . " ume tha' in , hi, f., hi"n, in this con' cx' rpe;r~; i. u,ed a. a general te,m fo, com pany. bu' c,'cn "" i, must ....,.• a .i,e Iimi" Pol)'hiu. UK> il ,,} rk...:ribc maniple--. (...·cn of .ria.ii ), ,herefme i, could be a• • "",11 .. '00 men. n o..'",,"'. he could har(1)' u.. u for a uni, as Iargc IS a lhou...oJ , which he .......Id ha,.., called • ,1aJia.,Ity. One ohould probably 1"" In u""'ord limil of ahoul ';OO- Iflhe Sparu>h uniuwen: J'UI . , • oonv.niem . It..... h t expendable of hi. 'roups, 0., 'ainlj' he ...., ""all)' 'h,~ ,i me. a. many 0.11. in Ih < ban i. a. hi, S pani.h and Africa n e",u. hic. ,'Ombi...d . 1, is Ihcre fOT< proposed , h. , pc , h.", half , h. CellS fOlmed the cen". " ft l" line .nd , h. t the alternaIe companie. "r Spani_ '0 "r 0". ... he had .Ira..." up the Cehs and Spani_ arcf",. Ih. ctllek Afrian , roops wcre h"'Ullh' in'o "",tion. pro" ing kyond a ""ul>1 lhot Ihc Roman f" rc", g,eaI1y outnu m bn.d the Carl haginian, The Afri,'.n pik.men , who u p ,ill now had i><." ,n drawn up wi'h ' hc ligh'_alm.d troop, ahcad of 'he .rmy 10 " " a•• covering fo",•• weTe wi,hdrawn and formcd up in col umn behind tl>c caval'j' on .ach ..'ing ..'ilh Ih. fil. leade.. in each a .. formi.... ,hot inside file 00 lha, ., I n 'h.ligh, of lheil .ubKqucnl ""'noeIl'·.... 'hi. i. lhe only "",..N. inlcrpn:\ltion. Cannac onl y .......... nne face 0( Ihis unoquc ban " f...-ma,IOC'!. bu, il aho had "' I'ed "cadil)' t-:k along lhe The Romans d ragN. ,heir ad_ '-cnane. {rom , heir hoAC$anc ",her w,na ,he Numidian. , ki, mi,hed wi, h ,h. aHied c"'al,y , t""ing 10 draw 'bern awoj' from ' he kgi,ms hu' wit hou' ' "eC.... T he Rnman , now dccidcd '" 'hrow in their ICllio n, het'o ", lhe , ituali on on the ri,'" n'·... '" ITALY AND THE \l;'EST E RN .\ 1E D ITE RRAt-; EAN right wing gm out of hand. T he trum_ pets " mnded the recall and the t·~Ii,,, began to retire. The le~ionaries now be~an to clas h thci' pi la against their shields whilst th ey waited f", the or der to Charge , Hanni bal also ordered the recall of hi, ligh, _armed tr oops, a nd the Ce lts and Spaniard, hraced thems elves for ' he onslaugh t. Once the vdire, had po"ed thro ugh the gaps , rhe advance wa' ,ounded and the rea r centuries oj the liaS/a'" movcd up to do,e the gops , The tr umpets SOll nded t he charge , h"'h , ide, raised 'heir war cry, and amid" the deafening cbm(Jur of horns, tru mpets and camp o" the twO infantr y forces rushed for ward T he Cd" and Sponiardsra ised their shields and brac" d them' ch'c' to receive the first "o lley of {nla which wa, qll; ckly followed by the seCQnd. Sh aking t heir , hields to dislod~ e the bllekled ja,-d in< the Cd" and Sponiards threw themse lves again" the legionaries wi'h 0 re"e rbe rat ing thud as shield hit ,hicld . For a while the Ce lts and S paniards held t heir formotion, but borne down by t he weight " f th e legion> they gradua lly be ~ an to ~ive gro und On the river bank the Roman cava lry were boing pu,hed relentlessly hack until at last they werc soporoted fro m the k g;on, and a ~a p "'-as opened . T he rear for mation' of the C. rthaginian c.v. lry, led by Ha sdrubal, hu rst t hro ugh the gap , Le.ving tbeir fro nt line to com_ plete ' he rOut of Ihe Roman" t hey gal_ loped ro und behind the leginns and t hrew them , elves on ' he re. r of the allied ca"alry . Shatt e,ed hy the . ".ult ' he Itali.n horsemen hro kc ranh ond ' "altered. T he legion, hi' deepe r and deeper into the Carthaginian celltre ; the con,'ex formation disappeared ond the wholt line was now boing pushed b.ck T he C'entre hegon at first to buckle and then , as the legionarie' crowded int o the 'a lient , to ca" e in. Paullm, when he saw the hopeless , tate of his rig ht wing , reali'ed , h., all hope now lay with the legion< . He rode ol,mg the h. ck of the line and di' mollnting t hre w him, c1 f into ' he 'hick of the light . Hannihal, WO , knowing thot . 11 depend ed on the contre holdi ng for just . Iin le longer, enlered the Jr a}' ' houting encou,"gement to his men. Step by ste p the Celt, and Sp ani. rds were forced b.ckward , . Hanniba l hacl acoompli' hed his m. Sler Dian, T he legionarie, had pushe d his centre hack '0 far that they had p.,,,d between the African pikemen ()n either wing . All that rem. ined wa' to e' ec·utc the CQll P de grike. T he pikem en now faced inwards, turning from column into ph.lanx, _ncl ch.l)(ed the Roman Ilanh T he Roman cO" al, y "'-as now in fljght on !>()th wing1' . l.e a vi n ~ the 0lumidi.n> to mop llP the lta li. n>, for which thev were best fined , Il..druhal recalled hi; Ce l" and Sponi.rcl,· and cbarged the reaT of thc legions. The maniples were forced to turn to meet the a"ock ftom whatever direction ;t came. In t he , entre the pr",,,,re wos " If ond t he Celts an d Sponiarcl, were ah le to cou nter.n.d . It was the bloodie't day in Rom. n hi" ory. Paullus died fightin~ in the ranh . T he proconsuls Gemi nll' and Re~ulus also fell, .s did ' he former master of the horee, M inllciu, Ru fu" who probahly he ld the rank of a tri hu ne. He'ide' the'e both Ihe consul' s quaestors .nd 80 sen_"", were left on the field, I n pressing forwarcl'" far the Roman, had lost contact with the for d and there_ fore the 10,000 men left in the la'ger camp on ,he other side of the river CQltld do not hing to help them . The enormous ca,u_ltic<, which arc ,'or iou,ly' reported ot figur es betwee n ju Unfort unately the "" cc'Ceding part of Polybius' account is miss ing so that these figu re, c.nnot be CQrrobor.ted by , ub,eqllent e"ents, Althoug h L ivy'" f,gure, are eonfused, they do ht in with t he ,uh'e'l " ent 'clea' ed withollt ran'Om made up , simjlat nu mocr. T hi, would bring th, total surv ivo" up to a!x,ut 25,000 and the death roll down to arou nd 5 0 ,000, which wa, the tradit;onal fi,o;ure. Among those who e'C'apcd wa, Gaiu' T erentiu' Varro. Polybill' , in the crue llest of epitap hs, once again r RO ME 27S-' G R EA T W ARS II", l.aun It"a}' in cue l lanni bal . hould bort" , ,, him, 11_"n;Can",ium (Can"'a di Pugl i.), where b.al, apprC<'iatinll the " ron~ t h "f its ' he remnant s of the ( ;.nn•• legion. h..d ,itua' i" n, lef! . 11 hi' b"oty and <'ce" ga,h ered . lea"ing Varr" frce ,,, ret utn N IIII_lIe he..", Ile n"w ,pli, bi' army in t" ,he CilY· A diclaI <.>r ...· a. named . lie "''', I"""i"ll one h.lf "",-," te lhe alliorpn,oed a Ie>~' ,,( all , he men <>Va , he ance of ,he highland, ,,·hil.t he took lhe ... nI " and , ..." OC''"' legions " -ere <JI her half and sl i" ed t he nonh.ide of ro.-t (22nd and 2}1'd ). II>< Picm' i"" .....,."'.aino, I>nc:.rnding In ,""'" di re "nns II>< Senate de- ;nt<> Campania he- made • (>Cd ,,, ..... " m ' he Roma n' f"r a ran""" • ..,nd , he a hle ' 0 dcr ach ,he ,,,,"'no of Cam' ''II ",prncnL..i,·es oi ,I>< prisone... nd pan,a. Thi. explain> hi. appa",,,,I)' on amboouo """" ,he Cuthalini.n ~ . His di"'J'P<>I nlrne n' a' :-Japles ..__ .... bas~ bet,,", he rcachc.J Rome. ""'" " " " - ,,, , I>< .mba..-lnr ..__ ,he mi' iga'ed by the defection of the """'nd ..me a. that gi' ."n "' p}'rrh"s 60 yea.. city of h al)' , Cal",a. " 'ho", ,he J'l'I'Ular bcforc _ ' Rome ..ill n,,1 cd ' 0 acccp' 'hem, e"en 'h"ugh ,hey ..."re pr-cparcd '0 pa)' lheir ovm ran""". HonniNJ sold them to the G red o!a"e dc&Icn bu' more 'b.n zo ~.",.rs Ia,n• ...-httt Grcctt amt 1,Indcr Roman in _ ll."" the Carlha~ i n ian .ide , M "", "f Samn i"m t(,I1"wcd ' " i' and in Apulia ,he ke}' 'own. " f Ar pi, Salapia , A"'-'oc ond Ilerdonca ....en~ 'he "'''fal. ,,, '0 patr y 1" ""0.1 , he UP:'ndlIncy and 'hnw open their ga'es. :-Jol• • too, ...,me<1 a likc1~ candidate bUl •• at Naple' the olig......hic p. rty ,hu, the S. ,e , on him . ...I •• n...hile M . rcellu. had ,.ken ",,'er 'he '''''-'I'' a' C an", . , f"'mcd ' bern in", , ..." le~io", and then ",,"" ed the Apennine. into nonhern Ca mpania, lin king wi' h ' he, ween M on,e .\ Ia" ioo and lhe <e. by ....hKh the Via Appia p. "eson i" .... y t" H" me . If Il _nn ihal . "cmp' ed • hre.k,hT _ _ ....' ..' _ '" Cann_ vn..ty ... _ y.,.,.....,"' 01 Gao......, "' ng R...... _ - -_ .. "'" ... tumo '~ "-' '" I TA LY AND T HE \l:'EST IiRN M Ii Dl TERRA~ E.'I.,," ,he oolon)' al S~ Auru nca ( Scua Aurunca). "1M ""Iy bridlt" KTOSS the Vollurno ',.-a al Catilinwn ( ll lOdt il' Ctpua : ..·llIeh held by a g&rn>n -..",d " 1..ooU down to a"'''n the d...u "'..·• arrival_ Soon afTer hi. arrival .\IarttIlIlS ..-as approached b)' eTwoys from Nola .... ho ",.rned of , he d. nger of a uprising whi ch ....ould ,urn the town ()\Ierto Hannih.l, Unlil the dictato, arrived, l1<'we,er, !I,·b,cellus could do nothing. At Rome Ihe dic tator, .\ la rcu' Junius Pera, had ,,",en fra nti cally try'ing 10 ,ai'e 'ullieienl ro,"e, 10 meet the cri'is , Onl y the two legi"n, ,.i,ed f'" Ih e defence of the Cily lhe p,,,,·iou•• prin~.•he >0< 10 and 2 1st. " " '" ~operly In.i,,,,d He added to thc'sc lhe fc3d of lhi< fottt of about 2S,OOO men he oct out for Cam' poon... Dna Iht d ..." taw.. had arrived M .r_ ecllus " ':ils fr« '0 acr.. Ctm pania had ~n an aUy of ROllI<' si""" the ~ l h century and the I"" had IIC"er b«n at .... " wilh lhe rn.,1t thaI no coloni... had b«n ...lahli. hed sout h of tht Volt " '''''. & "erol rok>nin eo,-cred , he "'" tn ..,ut h in'" Cam pania and the'e " '•• ,"'" col" ny al Ilcnevemum (Rene""nlo) in the he• ., of S.mnillm . A.loni" R"me had f'ie ndly t"w", immediately ,m"h of the ,i"er, in pa"ielliar Calatia nea, M "ldal" ni 40 km f, om ]knevemllm, it wa, ",,,,ihle to march im o S .mnium wi'holll fea' " f hreakin ~ " ital lines of rom mllnTca"On . A .imil", s}'stem of colon ies and friendl)' to wna n i.ted in Al'll lia, t he colon ies being . , !.ucer ia f Lucen) Venu. ia (\! enosa) and 8 ru nd ,_ sillm (Rn ndi. i). These al~ Ramon llrfIlics 10 penetn te deep into (".a.n"', gin ian-held tcmtOf)- " i t hout J"lll ing their .upply It..... at risk , ~ bc<:amc. okcisj,,,,, facror in .he "'.",...'1.< , he Campanian 10"'ns <>f Capua and Cabt;", ,,'hi.;h had (ol lo".-ed Capua' s lead, ......, in <:an hag,nian hands. the roll te 10 Ik""""nto ..... brok en. Thu. "'ben M arcellu• ..,.. oul 10 relieve: ~ola he had • t....ofold pur""", Nola eOllld nol be 'eached b)'. di ..ct route-lhe roa d soulh of Ih e V"hllrn" wa' in lhe hand' of 'he Carthagin ian. wh<> en joyed a ma" ive ,upe, i<>, it}' in ..,..,Ied pop"I., '''' ",",..Iry . To confuoc lI. nn,haI , .\Ia= llu, "ithdre..· from T ea"" and prubobly u king.he rou'e .·hier lhe Iliferehia marched behind the hill ' to Ihe cast ,)/' CapItO, passing th rough lhe termory "f Sati""la and -rrebula and emergin~ im o lhe: plain at .\laddaloni . F rom here he er,,"sed the Via Appia and dug in on the ridge ah".-e Can<'ello ,,'hieh O\'(tloo k, Ihc . neient Ca m paoi an 'own of Sue"" la ah" m u km f,om N"I •. T h,· Appian Way to Hene... mo " 'a, "" w ""-'I"'ned . T his "'as a " " tegie move "f pa,amount impon .""", perhal'" lhe single m"" significant let of the " .". This camp . bo\'e Cancello, " 'hieh became k"" " 'n .. Castro ClaudTana after i" founder, p""'-cn,ed Hannihal tiling O\'e r the " 'hoI<: of Cam pania .nd rommunication' " 'ilh 1Icne>·"",0. 11Ie camp ..-r.; <>CGlp;ed pemu....ntly until Ctmpania ,,-r.; n:ciplu,ed , \'{"i.h M.,oonus enampcd ab<,.." S"""'ula. Hannibal rcali... d ' hoI .here " ... lill ie ehan,,,,, of N<>Ia defn"ling and '" decided 1o m.ke a",,, he, a" e\llpl on ~ap l .., But on .pp,,,,,eh ing lbe port he f"u nd lhat lh e Roman, h.d mO"ed a gatTi'on in h )' se•. T he Rom an contro l of Ihe ,ea wa' a maio' fae'"" and in , pite of the general dd<'<.'li"n in the "'"th ali lh e main p"rts remained " nder Rom an control Hannihal "''',/ lll,ned 'out h to NII<-c' ia (N ocera) "'hiea...., he had i.....f1" :ieltt tlOOJ'S 10 p ,nson , hem . M arcdI... mcan..-hik no:cuted , he: ino' iga' on of ""...., at Sola and lhen reti"'d t" hi. camp abowe S.......,la "'hteh ht (onified hef"'" . he o"",,t of ,,·,nler. T he twO roads from k ""'" to",," ther n Campania. the Via Appia and the Via I.a,ina. co",'erged at Cal.. befo," . he)' c,ossed the \! "Iturno at Ca.ilinllm. T hi' "'as Ih e only b,idge .,'''''' tlt e VOltll"'o .".1 wh,,"ver hel,1(:"ilinum eonm,ncd ""'oud the m ...... 11Ie ancien' ,,,,,"'n OC1C\lpocd rnughly , he ..me position .. TIS tt><> in a oharp bend '" the ,i'·er. "1M conf 01 ......... it brou,hl about t>ea ancitm c.pua ..... Jeauuyed by .he S...-... ill the 11th centul')" and its inbabitanlO emiRroted 10 Ca,ilinum, ' aking lhti' ""me: ,,'ilh lhem. H.nnibal no w mO\'rd " I' to the to" 'n and whe n ho , aw that there w.o no chance of l. king il b~' a"alllt he drew , iege line . ",und it to prevent suppli.. gellin~ in , Then. leaving ' ume;ont f",,-c, 1<> hold t hc' c linc ,. he W"m inw wint er q u."e,", at Capua fou r kilomel ''''' further d" ", n 'he road , T he legend that lIannibal". lroop' wem ooft dllr;n. thei r ,,'inter in lhe ~eohl"'lo of CapItO hoo heen dehu nked '" man~ lUlt". lhat i' " 'OII1d he pointleu le' .1 11 on il ,""", "I1>e-y ....." r won anoo ..... ..cal bank sim pl y' beca ..... lhty ........, """'" Ii,,,,,n """,her "l'f'O"Iunily . In lhe carl l' opri ng of 21S Hann' ha1 rdurncJ to lhe:.ic-Ke ofCasilinum , Tht bl"':lr.adoe ..... beginnTng .0 ...~ tIS dfn"l and the " a...-ing garn..,n ......, .......hing rht end of t hei r endurance. The di..,al<>r had """ ,ned 10 Rom e a"d 1"iheriuo Scmpron iu, G"",chuo, the ma" e' "f the 11<'",e, had taken "'-cr. H• w., " nw tlling lo ,i01""'1 pnioon of hi, """'II . Livy's _ n' of lhe """,to of .ht year 31S it .., conru>ecnce hut no ",,,ncr had he been elected th. n he and hi, tW 1'.". RO.\-I E 21S-140 lSC T HE G REAT W AR S .... ft ~, 0 lot <>f ITIUk up rhei r _iriom in Campania ... rh .\u.-""lIu. 01 Ca.I'" Oaudillno , The s"nore had dea\'i".:cot Si,"'ilr .nd ..,,,re,,,~d 10 Cllmp om in Ihe open unlil rl>< w.t in halj' wa, ove•. T II<:ir pla<~ wa, takm by rhe two k gion. fro m Sicily (7rh .nd ~ th) . G ra""bu' h~, k up hi, p..,.itinn ro\'cring the Appian "" . y a' Sinue. .. (.\ I" n draw>ne) ..'irh ,he t" ,o \q:....... or voIunreer ,10..... , !'abin, . he l"klal'er ' <><>l< "'~ . Pen'. ann)' . nd CO'"~fC'd ,he 1..0' i" lI'oy ., CaIeo I CaJri~ So fa. , his i> ",_bit. bu. ..·ha. toappe"" nell i< ludicrou._ In . pore of the r...r ,hat the Catthaginiam held th~ ricer cr....ing at Qo,ilinu m, Livj' matches F.biu. or.1I p<"ple ac. o," rhl; Vull urno and then under H.nnibal' , n""e to Ca . tr o Clalldi.no. where he di.pl.ced i\-\a,"~l1", " 'hom he ordered to garrison N ..lla. The . t<>ry of .\ 1• ...,11...• ,.ic't0f")' "" ~r Hanni _ bal bc-neoth ,he ..-all. of S'oIa is "'lually t>o:t" ...... .. Pol ybi ........-no 'Nt ,,'hen Hannibnology " '"mg, and b""au.., he n.rratc> his year by ~'ea" he found him""lf wi, h an empty ye. r fo, 2', and hod tn ]""k aroun,l for something ,,, fi ll tlle gap . At all ev~n," 'he . i'u.tinn in Campania in ,he ou' Umn of 2 " had 00f c~d sinox . he .pring . C'<~n". h<no"eS'~r, did tue J'lacr ...·h"'h .. ere ' 0 ha,~ 0 mome-n.ou. dfCCl "'" the .."'. l'Iulip \" of.\l.ai:c'dnn rlUcd Hanniballefl c.m~nia and """,oed ,he Apmnines to in Apul... G racchu. ,,'nh hi. . .." >lave .lcgi,m. rulk.w~d and wen, in'o "in,~. qua" ... al tIM: Rornon colony of Lucctia ( L u.. ra) . '0 hi"",), T,,,, '0'0 ."'PI !'obi"s . nd .\lat~~lh.. " .... el"'"Ied <,m.ulo fo, the f"now lng y~ a r ( 2 t ~ ) , Hanni h.1 had heen held in ch""k 'he p revious ycar alld it w. ' d<..ided to make a .u pre m~ erro" to g~t tke "I'pe' ""nd in th~ "'ar. In aocor dance ,,;t h Fahiuo' .. ra,~' i, "". agrttd to open Upthe ...... on ... ""'.., . fron' . ... poosiblc, knnwitli tha' Hannibal ..-j,h hi> limited < abl~ 10 protect .11 hto allies. Six AnI' kgion. "'«l: nioed, bri nging the ,..ul to 20, . nd lhe k« l. of tOO "".. ohips laid dl''''n. O nc ~ .g.in hI,th oollsul , Were to op" rate in Qompania . .'..-Io... llu, was gi ven tbe nnd ;md 23, d leg ion . and Farnu. 'he 201h and 2 ' st . I'. hi" o· ton, ... p.......r , " .... ..,nt Apulia ,,-j , h ,he 7th and 8th Iqion> .0 j..-.in Gracch", "" 00 ..... already tl><,.., ..-j. h ,he I"" .l.a,~ Iqions. This hrough. ,he n"mber 0/ \q:ion. in "",,'hern Italr to ~igh, . The Po valle)' had he<:n lef, "itho", r"""" ,in,.. lhe dea ,t> of I' o" umiu. Albinus t he prev io", yea.: tWO new kgions (nt h and 2 Rt h) we,.. , ent the,.., to keep ,h~ Cehs b"sy and . 101' them ... nding r~inro,,~ments to Hannibal . The ''''0 Can"",,, legioo. wer~ in Sicilr .nd a funhe. legio" (~t h) had t -n ""oed ' be JlI"C"iouI summer and sent ,.. join d~ nin,h in Sard,nia which ,he Ca,thalJ'nlanOw.... ~ tty1 n l 'o l"CCOVCT . Vatro, whi> had he<:n poo,~d to Picenum " n lhe Ad,i,. i....ick or llalr north.., ,, of Rome, h.d ,.i",d a legio n locally ( ~ 6r h). 1\ fun her legion (2, th) was I''''ted to i"i n lh. Ad,iat ic H« t whi<·h w•• nnw at 8 r und i. iurn ( Brind i,i) 0" furt l>< round t" ~y for ..ilnn 10 mao ,he new ships . T o meet , he emCf,~ n"Y ,n ,he w.. lthi~. eili.~n. agreed '0 provide and pal' ,a ilor..t their "wn expense. T he Capu.ns , al" med at ,he pr~p.r 'ti"no being made It Rom~ and oon ,·ill<.--cd ,ha. ' bey we", tbe targ~t of this ma.. iv~ huild_up, ..,nt tneSSC"i<"n '" Hannibal bcUing him 10 corrot ' 0 ' heir aid. In HannibOCd lhe Apennines and Pllet.ed camp ...... .\\ount Tifl'a. 1loIh de Sa"'' l l> and Kroma~-.;. pla<~ thi> Cllm p on tlte hill. iu. t to t h~ ea" '0 a' res.,......, ,ive h,m a.c<~ ' " the p1aJn bUl i, .Iso ''''''''' th~ bold " >U' e h j' which M a,cdl u, had reach ~d ea"r. C laudiana . He hod taken up this ..me r<"itk", the pre,'iou, ~'~.,- and hod ",v~rely disrupred the Rom an .uppll' Ii..... ..'ith the "",,,I, th.1 F. hi" . had massed . upplies at OaOOJanll in the a"tumn ...· hen HattlUbal had re'l'fC'd Apuha. Fal:>i... " " , t "-ord to Graa:h... ' 0 hand O\'Cf hi. position at LU<.~ra ,.. lhe )'tJUn~. F.biu. and '0 mov~ up ' " the Homan colony at Bcn....·enrum. , hus cuning Ha nni bol]'s supply Jin"s, Hen: fo, the fir" 'ime we see th" Rom.n 'lrat~ g}" of oonrain mcnl. s',on after a. ri' ·in, . , Henev~n", , hi, .... ".~ !""Hi off handoom~l)'. H.n"" ,,'i,h an a.my of ' 7,000 infantry. mainl}" B....m iam and I...... nians, and ,,200 l':""h African caval,,·, ,,'as a,h'anang doIo'n ,he valley of ,he Calore, prnom_ . b1r maI<~ a renda,,,,,. wi, h H.nniboll in Camp. nia , It w.s ,II<: ~ ..t oppo,tunity th.t the Rom.n, had had to en~aM C port of H .nnibal", f","c, wi,hout their fam ou' l~ade " Hanno en_ cam ped on ,he bank of the Calor~ a bou t <4·skm n., ...- Ikne' camp "I' wit"in I,snnm"'- H onno', J'O'ition and J'l"CJ'OfC'd r.,,- biI "k . ll~ raised ,he ~ of the . Iac.... promising .hat if ther fou ght .. ~II ft'C"Cdom would he ,lxin " Th~ foll""'ing mu rnlng ,he Iwo ., mi" . engaged . The banl~ st a"ed well for , h~ Rom,n' hu, ground to a h.lt heca u>c the , I.v.., who we", p,,>hahly of Celt;" " rigin, stopped figh' ing to eo< off , he head, of their f.lI~n ~nemico a, proof , ""t 'he}" had killed t""'" and then tried to con,io.." ..; ,h these llOfY "",. venin tud-od "...xr their righ, ....... ~n he reali..,d what " -as happening, Gracch". pro mtsed tl>lund in theit wa)". Arre, the banle. ,n accordance ...; .h his pr..-.m_ i.... Graceh", gran,~d frndnon ... , hem """ion, in lhe all reprdlns of bank. In Campania flannibal made y~' an" , her ~ffort to 'ak~ Nor. , but onox .lta ln .\I . , ed l"" who "'. s enoamped.t ea..", '0 '0 ,,,,,,h '0 ,hei, '" ITALY AND THE \'('ESTERN M ED ITERRA N EA N '0 am" aoud,o"" , ","""ged frustro.e him. T1>cCanhoiPnion had corlier heard tha ' he might tit' .ble ' 0 Eel pos=s;on of T ....n'o, . far grcalU pritt, whic h ,muld ope n his lines of communication wi,h boo:h Can""e .nd Macedon. He left Campania in the .utumn and mardtcd east "","8f'ds d Ir<X>I'S lI(:I'OSS to Italy. H e had sailed in,o Ihe Aegco.n wi.h. f1eel of 1:W ligh' ll"ileys .nd rc..:-hcd ,he Bay or Aulon""",..i'e Rrindi.ion the Alhanian cno", Th,. olfC1'Cd • large "",u.."l harhour ideany sUi'ed ror ,... nsponing his men """",s u. ,he heel or hal}'. He", he .., ized ,he ,o"'n or Orieu m and then ro wed up ,he river Aou. (Vios;o) lay , iege to Ar<,lIonio, lX' he n ,he new, roached Br indisi . he praetor M. rcus Vakrius Laevinus emharked , he 25. h legion , c",",ed .he Adria,ic and threw . relieffmC<'of ' ,ot>Oin'o. hebele.guered ,own, He .hen hlockaded .he momh of ,he Vi"" a wi,h his ganeys, c u nin~ Philip cou, '0 off from , he ..,. , The Macedonion king wu for«c ..-<>nc. H,ero's 1 5-~-oI d grand--""" Hieron ymus as«nded , he ' hronc. By skilful dirlomao.-y H. nnibal ","~d '0 detach lhe imp",ssio""hle you'h from , he Roman .lli.nce and open up. ne"" rron, in S,cily . T his beCarthagc's "'ar , all ,upport "'a' ,;ome f" m' Africa, leo"ing lIan nih al free deal wi,h hi. in",..,o_ing prohlem, in hall', Hut har dly had ,h e war begun ,han Hieronymu . wI' a"a"i"'ned. It wa, Rome', chance re"erse , he ,i tua,ion . nd ,he Senat e di_pa,c hed Mar"" llus with th e n nd and 2)rd I.gion. to 'he i. land . T hey had .c,~d '00 , lowly. The ~-- r;jG E, '" """0 '0 '0 '0 Sj'racusan, in • fi, of .n,i_Ruman rer_ vour had .Ieeted . , leneral. Han nibal', .......Iffl", Hlppocratn and Epieydes. and 1Ift>' ""t • .000 me.. under HippocraIn 10 -'*C'S. '" S)"DCUW. H ipp:>cra'", "....j these roren 10 ... VIlt'C the bordenof,1>< Roma4 province, deliber· .tely 1<)1"1 10 provolre ......r that orouJd lale onme '" ,to< prnturo otr Hannibal in Italy. .\ brttlluo probabl y arrived iu Sicily in Ito< .utumn '" at . and spen' II>< "";nler Irying ' 0 ~ia'e a .... kme nt . In . to< ,prinl Map ,11,"'''hng"'" ••,.",,,,n ot ,he w" to G,.., o and S,e,'Y T... ~ oman' man" ,,- "'_ ltuov" ""'" ',n l,io Ph,'ip V cl 1",,,,,"lI "" . 1I 'anet cl", """ by 0 ROME 275- 140 Be TilE G REAT WAR S counte rproductive an d only 'erved to harden ani'ud,-"" lX'hen Mar<'ellus ,aw ,hat ' he Sy,"c'u, an, were " ill not pre pared to come toterms , he gave hi' men five days to prepare and then m(wed in on the cit y, He divided his fm ce' , which were ,'ery limi'ed as hc wa, forbidden ' 0 bring the Cannae legions OUI of the Roman provinc e, giving the command of the land ope rations to Pulcher whil" he took ove r 'he fleet. With on ly two legions a full-scale blockade was imptl"ibie so he de<:idedto launch a ,imul _ taneous a"aull on the ci,y from land and ' eo, Puichet wa, 10 attack fmm 'he north whila! !\,ja'cellus came in fro m ' he ;ea, Their attempt> were foiled by the genim of the grea t mathematician and enginee r Arehimedes , who had spent the latter year , of hi' life improving the defences of hi, adnp'ed city with ' he r",ull ' ha' ' he wall> bristled with machine' ' bat wroug ht havoc amon~st the besiegers, A full aGcoun ' of ' hi' epi, ode is ~i ve n in ' he sec,i,," on scige warfare (1', 294)' Marcellu' left P"kher to carryon the , ie~e a, best he cou ld whilst he set ou t wi' h a third of ' he atmy 10 recover the other ' ' he c~,e ofTaranIO the los' w.s not tot. l a. 'he Roman garri, on 'here took refu ~e in the citadel whieb ,rood at the end of . peninsu la an d blocked the e ntr. nce to 'he harbour . Han nibal's attempts to ' ak< 'he citadel were fru Slr.,ed as it could he supplied from 'he sea, Finally he th,ew up an earthwork ""mounted by a wall across the peninsula to cut the citadel nlIfrom the rest oft he lawn , T he T arentin., were forced '0 drag 'heir , hip, across the peninsula '0 get 'hem to the sea, The oon'ul , for 2U were Flaccus , a contemporary of Fahi'" Maximu, who had been con sul twice before, and Pu lcher who had been released from his du, ies in Sicily by Marcellus so that he could run for 'he supreme magi' ltacy, Two new city legio", (34th and 35'h) were raised , bringing the total number in ' he fIeld up 10 25, a quarter of a million men, T he twO legio", which had ' pen' the previnu, year trainin g a' Rome wcre ptl"ed to Etruria in casc Ligurian reinforcement s tried to reac h H.nnihal. T he r..oure'" of ' he ,We were so " rained that the c,,,,,,,1> h. d grea' ditticuhy obtaining t he reeruits ' 0 hring tbe exi"i ng le ~ions up to strength, let alone form ' h< 'wo n<w legion, . T h e t ide 'urn s For three yea1:' the fiel d, of Campania had been hi d waste as Roma n and Car_ ' haginian 'y stematically de stroyed the cmps ' 0 de ny each other forage , As a result Ca pu. was beginni ng [0 feel the pinch and sent n,.",e ngcro'" H.nnibal beggin g for su pplies, Tbe C.rthagi nian sent H.nno north with orders to gather in su ppli.. in 'he ,'alley of the Calare near Beneven' o where the C.m!",nians were to collect them, Haec'u' m:eived int elligence of this from the colonists at BenO" ento and marched inlO the Apennines , If the Ca mp.ni an, ha d , howed mme energy in collecting their sup plies all would have been well, but before they could tran,fer 'b e , up pJi" 10 C. mpani a Fhccu s w"' on tnem , Thc con, ul " mmed Hanno' s camp, capturing tbe ' upplic' and ' aking prisoner many of Hanno 's , oldier' and Cam!",nian" Capua , dep ri"ed of suppli.., faced " arv.,ion, and the Roman' were quick 10 exploi, the 'ituation , Pulcher joined hi' colle.gue a' Iknc.'ento an d with the 20th, 2"t, 29th an d 30l h legion, they moved down ;n lO Campania inten t on destroying the corn, wnich " '" now ~ree n, and i"" esti ng the city in the plain If they were to ope rale in the " p<' m","ges were sen, to the procCl", u l Gracch"" who was still campaigning in L ucania with hi' legions of ex-,Iaves, begging him to join them with aU hi' ea" alry and vel;"s. G racc hu, ,een fort ified by Fabius !vlaximu, a few years earlier ' 0 as " , en,ure ' upplies reachi ng 'he armies operating in Campania, Now a" other fort ified ptlsi,ion was established al the m"uth of the Vollurno. W' i, h [heir lin.. of ""mmuni_ cation secured from t hree directions, , ...,i linum to the north , Puteoli 10 [he sou, h . nd the fort at the mauth of ' he Voltumo 10 the we", 'he "" ,,"uls set about 'he inve" m '" I TALY A :" D TH E WESTE RN M EDI TER RAN EAN lhal a J"lrl of , he " "all ".,IS "'" '" high as il ~mC'd and by co" m ing lhe COlI...... or ,he "'''''"''' he ...... abl<- 10 ""ima,c its oolh'. ,,'hich " 'a> ...-ell "",;~d wi,hl n rnch <>l 'M 1<>rw:s' ROIIl1I1 Iad_ de... On informillll Ma rce11u . of ,hi. a n;lh, ."....i t ...... rJanncd for lhot f""i.... 1 of D ia na ...·hotn """" of ,hot .",,,,.;.,. would "'vc been Jri nki~. Thi. ",guh ...... a completc . uccns and Mareell... p ined con,rol of , hot Epipolac pIa,nu, Cu, off rrom ,he: ,....-n. ,he Eury""'''' fort I""> ., lhe ...-a' cnd of lhe: pIa' n" """" .urrcnf lhe pla' n". The Cartha_ ginian a.my had tJ1<>Ytd up ' 0 ,he oou, h >ide of ,hc cily, r re" cm ing Ih e ROm;ln> from >urrou nd inll n. BUI rlallue broke ""I ;n Ihe l'u nic cam p, which W'IS In [hc "nl>eah hy mar"'y atea. and , he ann )' ...·as al"""", wired ou' whi)" lhe Roman. on ' he plale. " were nol .. riou,)}" alke 'ed, Th. Car, ha~i n; an, made a 10" onem)', h\ relie ve ,he l<>... n and scm '" a Luge fleel of 130 ~11eJ." and 700 pt...·iou l j..,..r ... Ih i. "'O"ld require the brinl' ,he fO, aI '''1'1'1)' .hil'", bu, ,,'hen lhe ROm;ln flee' lev}'inl nf fnur more """'ed ur 10 in,erttf'l,l>em ,he Ca"ha- uJ" o as, an al"""t imponib1c la,k con" sidering Rome"IOlrained re-sourccs , ctt\OI-S ~ fO ltl",an .......hip.. w he comr1eldy "'·e ~ by the Rom an TbI: rrime nbie<."Iiv. for [he ynr 2" na'"y, changed cou for T ... nto and ..... ' 0 bc Capua ,,-M... ,,;x Iqion. "tt< ,he lramJ'<'f11 "" umed 10 Arrica, ....n concenlra'ed . H "", <>iN I, ; n an art"",,,, hope of "'lid ....1 ""'" gone and soon 10 .ai~ ,he ~ .<.TOO>e'd ,he Armni.... af'('RItd> , he- S}-roo:tnam <>pened and n:occul"'"'d hi. old p""lion bchln-ord",..c ,heir .....wt. bur by now ,he- Roman. wne pKpO-rrd fot around Agri ltC'fl' o , ,,'M... the remnan'. of rhe Co" haFtn[an and Syracu"" n him. Thcy . pln 'hc:ir infa n'ry in lwo for~1 had pthertd. """",incd in a" .... ...· ;'h ..n....If ' 0 lluard ,he inner lina ul Pukher ",h;l.. lhe .\ Iareen ,,> advanttd in'n ,he arra and "nder lbe consul Centumal u. defended , he ou[e. defu[cd the m near t he ri....r Himera. T he ron(lwin ll: yn r, 211 , the aIm}' Ii..... """in" f bnni""l The ca.-alry " ... " renglh " ... again b"'''llh t "I' 10 25 ICl ions , T his ",,,uired re placi ng , hc Bel_ [wo , Iav. Iellion , which had de""rted. I, ,... '''''''0 of , .... _ _ of C....... w",<" nao ,...., 11"" '" ' 0""""'1.., ,,,,, of , ;, 1PO' ob,ect... ,n 11 t cloim. , hal Ih. 7' h and g, h kllion. were llul " '" C. "ha9'" ''''" """,.,"'" prO'ffld deSIroy cd hy I lannihal in Apulia [he "".""co"f'" '0 '0 '00. J",...:"... ROM E '7l ~140 Be TilE G REAT W ARS sent OU, in,o th~ fi~ld , ,he allied to the nonh uno.kr the Cched an a"ad:: on . he ou'"" linn " 'hil" at .he ..."'" ,i"", ,he ('"..apuam _led , he Inncr, Boal ",-;,I>.1n:'" Ilis foron . ""'· ina their r~,,'i.h hi> ,.....Iry , , he Roman ~n in ,he rbm >hou.ld 'l Ua.:k •hem . Supplyill1l hi. ""'n ..'i.h t~n day" " n ion> he f......;.,d lhem the \"01' urno during.he nigh. and ad n,-....l up . h~ l..a, in "".~' '''....rd . Kornr , hoping '0 dra... off .h. ICllions th., " r" . ur_ rounding CapUll, W hen of this . rriwd at the cit)· .here ,,·a• • rr.mie debat" in lhc Sen. ,e a. man)' "r 'he mem"" " cri ed ou, for th~ r~call of Ihe legion, . Ru' h l-iu. M.. im". read the .it"ati"n ""recl l}' .nd . ent a me"a,ll;e to the ,,,mman.t<-n al Cap"a telling them to hol d h" 'k a , ,,II;eicn' for ce to maint ain lhe si cg~ and se nd the res, fo ' the defen,.., "r the cit)' , l'laceus immedi..d y di'pat"hed me"enge .. to the IOwn. al"ng the Appi an ,Ii' . y. tdling them to ho, 'e . uppliC1l rrady. an d then ""t off post ho"e to race Hannibal to R'Kne by ,1M: much Ionlt"r ro ut" .Iong the _. lIut I bnnibolr. ad"ance .... . ."", he " ........,'in' ,1M: ..."m'l)~ide .. he ..'ent. ""I'inlll ' 0 ~I'eo.o, ~ , ~k m ""ot of ,he ei, )·, L vy'. d "im ,ho, l-1a..=•• ,,'i,.., orJ" r"d ban k '0 lIanni""l and on bot h 0<."".ions the ""a, her J'Tcvcntcd i, i•• of eonr s<. I'if"io, ic non","", . Thc Cartha _ ginian knew , ho, hi. hlurJ had been ( , lied and n:tur ned 10 ""uthern Italy, leaving Cap"a tr Ihmwi0l' '0 'n,,,' '0 o;k>''''''ro '0 .ha, ".. '0 """'" them""I,..,.. o n t h ~ me'<")' of.he Roman. " ."" haJ not .""" n much deme,' c}" el....'ooe, A mee-ttn~ nf .he Capuan Sena ,,, " ·.. alled . nd the ..... i<...,.~' ,-or.ed for . " ..... ndC'T. s.omc, a8of,hem .... hohaJ been he"'ill' in,·nt.·ed in the def<xtion rommittw ... ic~dor, The follo".-ing da}" .he J upite, p .e "n ,he not . ide of lhe ,o".-n " '• • •h.......n "f'Cn.nd the Rnm:rn ' rtfOP' rnrerrd, Th'i). "'here , hey " ..... publicI)' o.;ourgrd and heheaded try' ,he liefo"" ""i,h. he (aU of Capua .he (l(her Cam p,onian ' ''''·n. "h ich had ddect"d. Cal• •ia and A.dla• • Iso . urrenden:d. Seven,ee n of , heir K n. ",rs " " r" e"e (uted and , he rna.. o j' the ('"..aml'ifnian l",pulation eit her di. plao;ed or !l()ld in'o ,la" er y, T he e" hilara,ion fclt in Rome o"er the reeapt"'" of (;om pania was marred hy ,hc new' fm m Spoin 'h at thc tw" Scipi" It r" th,' " had heen killed and thei, arm ie. ,'irtually ,,'il'ed out. " ""ill he remcmbered that when S" irio mi"ed Il annihal at the RMo~ he had _~nt hi, hr" ,her (J oaeu' with m,," oflhe lice. and ,,"'0 legion, on to Spoin G n. eu. landed at th e .\Ia" iliot e oolony of Emporia< (Am puria.) j" .t ",...h of , he i>}'r ~n ce-s , I, i. ,'el1' diflic,.h to <--om_ m<: nt on 'he caml'ifiltn. lha t follo" 'ed ltecau"" Pol )'h iu. ha. rollo"'ed the Scipionie tradnion and U " y ha. followed PoIyhi" •. It i. clnr ,ha, , he Roman. had ....... ' ....' CO» but n. e><'~n' i. un_ eat",n . , i. I"'>bahle that the for"" "'hich Hannilt;rl haJ Ief. " , hold the area <>Ot1h of ,he F.hro ","M......-. hu' ,o.uggn' ,ha, i, " ... deri.iycl!' bora'en in.he . U' umn of 2 t ~ ..,.,.... hig hl)' unlikdy, M,,,r ,he ,,'i, hdra_ 1 of , he Carthogi niaru Sc~pio « ,.hli.htM<:.i , he 10m ,,'i,h hi. 8ec, of ~ galle)~. follo",.,ng him up the """" , Scipio ..,i~ed .he cha""" to k"""k ou' the Can haginian !leet . launched a surpri se att.ck .nd defea'cd , hem off . he mou,h or , he F.hro. de,"o}'ing , ix g"dl_ Icy_ and cap' uring 2 S, Later in the year. after rcco"erin~ r,, 'm Ihe wound , u,tai ned al the amhu,h ncar .he Ticino, Puhlim , ailed t" ioin hi, hr<>thet with 20 more galley, and x.ooo men T he 'I"r y Ihat .he tw" Rpm.n hn)thers '0 .rr"""'" croo>r<J ,he Ebro.nd d u rin ~ the au, umn ad...nced •• fa r oouth a. S...."ntum """"s improbahle . I n anI' ~,..n' . in " S thel' are .ull campaianing norT h of the Ebrn " 'herr the}' .." .uJ'P""l'd to ha"e gained. a re.1 ,·ic"l'.-y· ",..,r Hasdrul>al <X\Dt~mplate Barca. I. i. i"'''.....'in. tho.thi. " It", only ..... jor ....'....., tha' lIalidrul>o.l ff...."j bdOf<' hi. dea,h a• , he .\l~.. uru. "ij(hl )"""rs Iat... . E,..". , he grn t s,'ip;., Africanu. ,,·a. unable '0 def""" him deri ly. S honl)' rd. Hasd rubal " ... co.Iled '-i< M ric1l lo pu, """'n a XlI mi dian r... "It , li e"'.. a~' rrum Spatn for three }'e. .. and d"ring , hi. , ime the Scipio hro ,hers ma)' ...~ll ha"" made ron,iderahlr inroad. into Pu nic Spain and r",..p' ur ed Sa~ u n t u m H. '>dr uh. 1 wa•• hle re_cnte. , he fray in Ih e .p.in~ of 2 t. and th" fortune, of th. Scil'io. changed. They had split , hei, ar my to m. ke . l""o -p"'n;:-druboll "'a' ahocnt from Sl'ifin from 21.4 - ' 12. ,his argument ...,ms ba..I.... , Th" r"",nants of , he Rom"n fo"", retn""" d '0 ,heir ltir"" nonh of the Ebro and ,he posi'ion. n:"ened to ..-hat 'he}' had been ....·en )"ars "",Ii~r, Afler ,he fall of Capua the praetor X er o """,i,..,d ordo... (rom the Sena,,, .0 ..,Iect 6.000 inf""'I)' and }011 ""nIl'}' frum ,he '''-0 .... ion. lIno.kr hi. rom_ mand and W~ oIli" f rom Pu ,eo!i for '0 .f' '0 '0 '0 Spain, AIf";.. on .Iw ", her oide of ,Iw Adria, ic had I'roern>ed .........-ha, dif _ fen:n,I)·. I n 1 '1 P hili" agai n in,-aded Ill~'ria ""d managed figh t hi. '""y to the here h" ClIp' Un: ,uo" .. '0 '" I TA LY AND T HE WE STER N MEDI TE RRAl' EAN .\ lorw. Ooudnl•.\~I h.. r<1umtm..1 for .ho: followi nl ynf. Hi. oolk.... ".... M .n:u. \'alai... I.-,.;n.... and Galba lhe wno..1 for ,he p"",·iou. year had 10 be """ U r«>con... l lo lll yna.o '""~ him. Fo r lhe: Ii",. ,ime ..n"" Hannibal had "",er<'e<:n the prindl' al l h e~lrc of war, wa, hal "cd , T he Iwo Ie~i,,", (22n d and 2 3, d ) . e, v· ing in Sicily were ~I,o di,"h~rged . Tw" new cily lellion. were raised . h,inlling Ihe num""r of legion. ser ving in h aly and 1M W ia<" nl i.la nd. ' 0 2 ' . The ""n,,,, of .he: wa, n' ''''' """"d .o Apuba . " 'hieh .\ b ,cell ... received a' h.. province . Looevin..., . m, othe:r con.ul . ..-n ,l,wn lhe: job of moppinll .. p lhe: .... cerll"CO of ~ .tane<: in S;aly. He com _ pIel<' ,'" Ques l of Apu lia, """"'" and Ar-p; in , ho: """ h had Ilttn reo;:aroured .-be-. and Manrn,.. IJOVIi m od< SaIoJU 011 l he Adrialie ...... 17km """h·" "'1 of Can...., before .......inl ;n. o S.omnium ..-OOe "" cap{"red , _ of Hannibal'. . upply baxs. A _ d army of ."'" Ioginn.' (71 h and Slh) "nder G naeus F..lvi... Gon l.. mal" . mov<'o llIe of Gon"". .ix yeo" bef",e . Hanni!>ol. heoting thaI Ce ntumalus wa. al Herd"".,• • rac-ed up f",m lhe toe of h oly and cough' the Homan unaware' , wil'ing nu' ' he .. my and i" geneu l T he Iw," ICllions had been in ' cr'; iee . ince 2 '7 . nd h~d . penl . hc lost .ix yea.... in AI'..lia. T he rem _ non" of . he arm~' CSCOpe .\Ia",,"l1 ... follmvcd. Here ' h.c Conlta!tinian "'t'n, in'o ..;nr.r Quon.... and .\Iart't'llt.. remaIned wilh hi. ,~ do'C by throughou' !he ..;n,,,,. The 1_ ""","uI. for >09 """' bnlh old men , I'ol>i ....\Iaxim u. obIained lbe "'P'"",e mqiotracy for lhe firlh time and ~11l\X"t1., fresh from hi. conques, of Com~nio . wa. mod e comul ror ,lie fou rt h lime. Two new legion. ....r. rcuir. d '0 rerl."" I h. ",v~nl h and ~ight h. w.re d.manded and "",cord ingly f.om t h. l .alln and Rom. n COlOnie•. f'0{ len ye. " a mi nim um of Iwo legion . 1, lu, recrui .., '0 hring rh e eXi. ,i ng legi" " , " P to , trenglh. hod been demanded annu· ally. T he ... te w.. exhausted and II of the ~o ""Ion... r~ fu ..d tn .end lheil Qoo,a . R~' an C110nnou. efforl Ihe """"'" ....y lmopo were rai",d and '''''' ""... kgionJ. . lhe: ~Olh and 4'" '0 be called ur during lhe .....r. ""'" into Iraining II 'I 'I""'.' ,~. -....... - ... - n ... ...- '" l .......,.....", ...... .... _ ___ " _ ~ " , f """""""' ....._ . - ""'_ no<..,,,,- b.<, ~ town "" .... _ ""'" _ """"" ...... ROME 275-1 40 Be T HE GREAT WARS T his year;' was ",s"ked to complete the rttonqoeSl of the Ad ri atic' ,, ,,,,,t Marcell us kept hi, com mand and Flaccu, re'umed to his . rmy in Campania T hese two armies wete 10 launch a twopronged inva,ion of l.ucania to keep Hannih.1 'K~upied whilst F.bius laid , iege '" Ta,anto , Marcellus, followi ng his tactics of the ptevious year, ~ on _ tinued to dog Hannihal', footste ps, skir mi, hing with him whilst Flaccus ad,'an~ ed along the valley of the T anagw taking Volcei near Duccino. W ith Hannib al prcoccupi ed Fa bius ad,'anced into t he heel of It aly, takin~ the Carthagin ian_held town of M anduria and relievin~ the threa t to hi. ,u pply lin es from Dri ndi,i . He thcn ad "anced on T.ranto , whic'h he besieged by land and ,ca, moving his sie~e " 'eapons up to t he walls of the lown on , hips a, M arcell us had done at Syra _ cuse. J USI as lI.nnih. 1had rcc,i,'ed the town by SI,.lIh "> it was betr ayed to the Rom an, T he town was s.cked .nd JO,ooo of its populat io n sold into sla,'ery Hannibal marched tu the rdid " f the city but arrived to" late. Hy sheer per, i"en"", t he It om.ns had now regained half oh heir lost territories and Hanni bal was restric,ed to Lucani. and Brutt iu m No . "empt was made to rai se any legion, the following year, ....\.rcellus w"' elected cons ul fo r the four th tim e . Iong with T itu s Qulnctius Crispinu" who had served as praew r in Ca m pania the previou' year. Maccd lus returned to his old ar m y, the 31st and 32 nd le ~ions , whi ch h. d been wimering at Venu,ia . C ri,pi nu , took ,Wet the 27t h and 2Ht h in Cam pania and thcn crossed the Apennines and lO" k up his position about 4k m sout h- eas t of M arcellu, . Li v;" , d aim that he laid , icge to I.ocr i in the very toe of It aly hefore joini ng Marcellus seems moot un likely. However, Locri wa, probably lhe Roman aim. lX' hil" lhe two consub occupied Hanniha l in L ucania, the Itoma n fleet wa, order ed 10 cross over from S icily to hes iege Loc·ri. T he strong garris on from T aranto, which had been Ie£! there hy Fabius, was mdered to mar ch down the coast and attack t he to wn fro m the l.nd , ! lanni",, 1 detached 3,000 cavalry . nd 2,000 inf. nt ry who lay in wait for the It"m.n colum n, whi~h was advancing wi tho ut ,couting in ~h ar ac t e r i s t i c fashion , .nd . mbushed it bene., h the hill of Pe telia ( Stro ngoli), kil ling 2,000 and c.p'uting l ,y :", ; t he rest were scattered in Hight . Hanni bal w.s in north-east Lucan;. and the two consu l; were do gging his fO"'Sleps . They were <'arryi ng out I>br_ cdlu,' policy of the previou. two yeaTS - cr owding Hann iba l by moving their ca mps as dose as possible to hi; po,i,ion 10 re;trict hi, for agen< . T he Cartha_ ginian had <'am ped one e" ening .n d the two crm,uh had ar rive d , oo n afte r him . nd encamped oppo site , Between the two camps was a wooded hill. Frompast experie nce Hannibal knew that the R"man, were likely to try to occu py thi, hill as it was nearer to his cam p. During the n ight he sent ou t some of his Numi dians to lie in . mb u; h near the hill. T he following mo rning bot h c"n,uls rode ou t fro m the ir ~amps to surv ey the ground . I n inc red ibly slipshod fashion they too k Wilh them. tin y e".·ort _ Polybiu; say' tha t i, crm,isted or ~o cav. lry and abo ut 30 ~e1iM plus the ir 24 hcwrs. T hey rod e up .nd over ,he hill to exami ne the par t of it th.t wa, in_ " isibl e from their cam p' T he N umidian, <'limbed the hill obliquely to get b over comm.nd of the rem nan ts of the Roman force; there and dur ing the following year remained in a strictl y de_ fen,i,'e ['",i tio n . The Senate determined to 'end a gene ral with prr><:" n, ular author ity to take ove r the war in Spain, fearing th.t Ha,druhal might lead a second arm ;' in", Italy at. time when they were just bps and raising the ir morale. On rece iving the inf<>r mation that the three Carrhaginian armie, wer e in widely dispe rsed win ter quarters, no ne wi thin ten days marc h of the capital New Cartha~e (Cart agena), Scip io em ha rked on an exploit worthy of Hannibal him self. Marching out of cam p earl ;- in the 'pring of 209 and tell ing no "ne where he was headi ng, he made a dash south and arrived under the walls of New Carthage bef",e the Cartha~inians realised what had happened, I n One day he to" k the town and completely r""ersed Rom.n for tunes in Spain, fOT the impressio n that it m. d, on the Spaniard s c.n hardly ha,'e been less than that made on rhe Ca rtha ginians . It w"' a hr illiant stroke which raised tbe morale of the legion, to ,uc'h a pitch that they wou ld now follow him anywhere, Duri ng the ,ummer Sc ip io launched a diplomatic offensive to win OVer the I,><:al Spani sh tr ibes , ~'he n he advaneed ,outhwards ag.in the j(>llow ing year he did so from. secure power base and was now 'upported by Spanish . lI ies, H i, ma roh probably followed the COO" as far as Valencia and then Cut ac''''' ' lhe heights of Chinchi ll. and de,"ended into the valley of lhe G uadalquivir . 1I., druhal Barca had taken up hi. p<" itio n d ose to Baecula (Ba ilen) 12km '" IT AL Y AN D T H E WE STERS M E D IT ER RAN EAN " "., ",f I.ina..... near the Spanisll sil"er mi..... He IIod been planning tojoin his broTher and IIod been ""t>cring in ,he mi""...l ~TU'l of Spai n befO£e ....ting f.". l' aly. 11Ie Punic um y had , al:en up a "ron, pothion on a tun "'"eT" Iooling ,he ri, .... Guadiel.a tribuw-y of the ~olquivi' . Hasdrubal ...". ron_ sidcnbl)' oulnumbn'ed by Scipio's f"""" and "'hen ,he Roman tried to draw him in,,, Nllie by an ou,fla nki ng D><>'/(Cn>en ' "'-;Ih II,• ....Ii.e>, Haodrubal di~n gaged and wit hd ~ .... north",m:l. Scipio """, Id e1a,m • tactical ...ictory bu, ,he WIl y Conllallinian had not only """"ped alm""t un....thed but had also oultna"""uvred Scipio. wllooe principal objective ...... to k... p him tied down in Spain , Ila. druN I now headed for ,he c-cn,,,l re/t'un of S pain and Scipio ""a, in nu po.i tiun ,u follow lIim. T hcre were twu P',.. ihililie, upen to him , fiTS! , 10 retrea l tu tile roo" and roce lIasdruba l to the P yren.... ; nt. , ec" ndly, 10 ignore him and CunCe ntrate on hTeaking u p the C arth . ~ini a n I"'we r base in Spain. Rightly ur w,,>n)!l y, Scipio elected tu du the latter. S ew, ur H..druhol' , . ""ape from Scipio and hio m..ch north ward , must ha..e ~ached Rome by tile autumn of 208 T here """ Id he Hnle doub, as 10 hio in,en"",no. It could IIot dl)' 1Io" e 1Iopperled at • ""one mu me nt f.,,- the Rumans . Wi th F abiu. and J-laoccu. well past tlte ./te for ener(tC'lic cam paigning ond ,heir onll' . ..........ful field rom_ mandrn, M arcdlus and GT-acch=, both dead Ii",)' "'-ere hard pressed to find leaden car-ble of dcahng "ilh tI>c sifUa, ioo . 11Ie tas k fell to .\wcu. Cla udius S ero ond Marcus I",iu, Salinat"' . Sero had !lC'ncd under ,"weeU", and as p ou, Lac"i nu, had in....e<.l 'N[ he remrn 10 Rome but acc:ording ' 0 1...,.,· he refused to sha..e or trim his hair and ,,'Cn' .boo[ in tattered d ot hing. Inexa.pe...tion the censors (Ifdcred hi m to . ha' -e-, """,rn to lite Sena'e and . 0 perform hi. public du.y . Thi, ..... the man wborn . he Sena'e ehuoc as colleague ru' "'ern. To make malter. " 'OCK the t"''O men ha' od eadl other but j... ti6cd this by .. ~in g . hal they Id each u y .0 rhe "'her in the ice of rhei r countT)'o N ",-en heles. , tlte Senate tried 10 effect o rCOOfk.~ h .. ion her"", , ~· ..t out for thei.ptm'il>CC5. T...,nt y-.hree legions ,,-e-re bTOught intu the 6cl d for til e romi ng cam paign. The ,w t.ul. hod t....o e""h, T here " -cre four ;n Spain un<.ler Scipio ; Ih e [WO Cannae kgk,n. Wer e otill li,'ing uut their exil. in S icily ; and [he 9th and 24t h re _ mained in Sardinia whe.. lhey had heen , inco 2 [ ~ ( i n faclthe 9th had been ther. . in"e 2 t 7). In llaly it,e1 f ther o woro I S : 27[h and 2 ~ t h in Bruttium under Flac_ cu' , 3~th and 37th near T a' anto anel 2" , 11 at Cap". , T ile co",ul N er o wa' 10 toke o,'er ,lie tw" kg;on. , 31" and 3znd , ;n Lu".nia. T h i. meant th.t ,lIere " 'ere ""ven k /t;"n. to hold Hannibal in lhe ""uth. In the nnnh lhe~ were , ,," in Etruria : Varro'. rom mand , tlte 3Rth . nd 39,h, <Xl\-e-ri ng tile route Ihm ugh Eu uri • • • !-l aminiu. had done ten ' ...... bd _ ; ,n .lIe Po ,..Iley ( 34th . nd }~'h) ; and • fu" her t" ... u ndet the ron~ suI Salina..... (<4ot h and . t..)_T he.. last lWO Iqion. had had no militar!" .,.peri_ ...... • nd had <>nly been enrolled t" ", ) 't"2n bcfune. since ,,'hen . hey had been .... inned at Rome. '1''''0 ""'" legions. . znd and <4}rd. " -ere enrolled for the prn<ea ioo of the cit)·, U'"l' . lso sa'", .hat ,Ite . Ia..e volun,een ,,-cre recalled to thei r ...ndard. , bu ' this i• • hee, fiction N"",,,, had been brought from ,\ w sciUe. the r«vio us ' utunt n tha, Ha. d ro NI .... .. re Gaul . nd l.iguri., flu, Ihe Roman, "'CTe romp letely unprepo red for the ,peed wi,h wllic h he (lO!Iscd tit<: Alps. U vy makes i[ q uite dear ' hot he r" nowcd the route U'IC<.I by lIannibal, h)' whic h he m,," meon up tll o Dur. nce '-a lle~' and ove r [lie M ont/te n""re pa". T h. cros. 109 wa' modo "ery earl !" in the ~· e ~ r. P'><.; bl y "' ca rl)' a, M ay, which r uk . om any n,"t h-",,,,h pass , ,,ell a, the "",,)0 ''''0 .\ton t Ceni, ",r Oar'"" for Iltese a~ impa... ble 50 e..ll' in the year, The .\lon,gent\"re and the Lan;1te are thl: onl )' praclicable rout... a' this time of tlte )'ear , On .m,~ng III , he Po ,..ney HasdrubtoJ laid 'iq<: ' o Plattnt;" . prnblbl!" encou"'JC l he local Celts. but railed ro take the oolony. H e had ....t four Celtic horocrncn and I"... Sumidians IIOIIt h ...i th ter r", hi. brorscmen IIod made ,heir .... .)' lIOII.h 1010 Luca.n,a. but heari"!i Ii..t lIannibtol had alread)' made hi. ....,. nunh they had tcied lo fol.......' him. Poo· . ibl y beca.... "'ero·• • rm y " ... DO'" folJow;n, Hannibal . they had """,-cd down ."",..rd, . he coasr, where ' hey fell in wi,h'he Roman lroop1 near Tar,tnto and ""'~ aplured. 1ltey " -ere imme-diately ""nt under • strong guard [0 NCTO' . camp. Nero "",<.I Haod ru ba/'• le"er .nd w n. i' on to the Senate, ain g ' hem to reoo c&\'alry, tdli ng them to take unly lhe ir arm" he se t " ut rrom hi, com p. lie lIeaded up the Ofam" "a lley to"'ar d, l.uconi., informi ng hi. tro" p. that they were g(\ing to ott ack the '0 ROMI:: 275- '40 Be TH E G REA T W ARS nnr..1 Canhaginian-held . own in Lu_ "" nfora:mcnts . He oen, ou, """U'1 ro cania. 1X"hen he Ilad pul . ulficia n di._ ,anc~ bet....ttn him...lf .nd Hannil:>al he ,old IIi. ""Id ie,-,; ,he '",,1I. 1Ilal'lI~y"'..,..., mar clllng nonll '0 ioin up wi, II tile oilier "on.ul al Sena Gallica (Scnigallia) al>ou. 400k m up ,he Adriatic <"..t. Hef"'e he 'ct ou , Ncr<> hael , en , m" " enlt"r, '0 ,he tr rri",ry of La rinn and <>f ,he Ma rro_ ,'ini , F rentani and the I'raclu" ii along hi. P"'~ line of marellidling 'hem br ing .uppli.. do",'n 10 lhe roa.hide. The fao 'Ilat Lu""u " 'u omitted fro m rhi. Ii.l indicates , Ilal S a o in.ended '0 m,,,,,II ,II,,,,,gll ,he Apecnninn and 001 dcsand . o.he ~'unl il he had rachcd UrInum ( l .Mino) from ""11,,,11 poi nt he «>Uld rnar<; h ,jo,.'n lhe ~al~ of .he Cigno_ B}' this rou'e .he di".ncr from Can"... 10 Scnig>llha i, aboUI .P 5km . AII.long ,1>e rou'e .h~ pecople brougll' • uppli ~. down ,he l'1:lIOJ ,ide !IO. ha' the 'o ldie," would no< Ii..·c 10 h.I, in . hei r r",e nort h...arel, . EvnY"ne reali'ed that ,hi. wa. ,he most criti eal a<.1 of ,he war . nd Ihere w'" immcn. c enthu.iasm f", the ' ·cnlurc. Alo ng .h e rou'e re, ired pr,w e ,·c, cran. and young..e.. eager ,heir "...nil fell in behind the ""Iumn. S"cr-o ~p'e d a1l1ha, "..,re tit for OCT_ ,ice . On and on ,hey dad,ed . Soon lhe M I. ...... bellind lhem and lhey ...-.creed on lhe roas'. They pa. sed under ,he heigh t> of Vas.o ermm ed b}' ,I>< ,,,"'n of 1I..",ni um and on along the endlc.. roas. mod. A ,,'~k .f'er Ih ey SCI ou, lhe}' were approa<:hing Se... Glltli<.'O ,,'ht r~ Sali""IOr wa. camped wi, h hi. ..my, Ncro di.pa,,,hcd mn""ngeo ro sec whe,her hi. colleague wi.hed him 10 cOme im o ,'amp openly "r , eeretll'. Salinator 'e m baek telling him to c"me in under cover of darkne... It wa, a"an"ed th at ea,'1i ""I dier should be r= i" ed in,o rhe 'enl of . man of .imilar rank so tllal l here . hould h< no increase in lhe .ize of ,he camp. Al""""'y four legk'n, .., ote "'c'3JJlped the..., as ,he .w,h and 3~r h kgion. had ,,,. hdrown btf"", Hasdrol:>ar, ad.·at',e" ro join up ..,.h . he consul. HasJrul:>a1 hlm..,l f had prn.$'ld o n ,jo,.'n ,he """"t . nd " .... en camped only 500 m a" 'ay, I n or der DO< 10 Iosc: rhe ad.-.nrage ,Ilat they had pined the con,uh olfered hallie 'he following mornil18, lIasdruhal imme_ diately guesseel , h. , "'met h i n ~ 1<'" wmng . Hi. immc"'e experience ,ol d h,m lh at the arm y had re..i' ·ed '0 '0 '0 ,f , he Roman .......p Ilad been enla'led hut ..irh neg&' ive rnul' 1. H",,'.....,r . ' nig hrfall hi. ........IS broogh, in the , igniticam informal io n tha' til.<: call for Ihe sell ing of the eveni ng "'a,,,he, had heen ,",unded onc'" in lh. praeto.'. camp hUI t",iee in the ,,>n, ol, ' camp , The neW, " '.. ou1. T he Homa n. , who were ..icklers for for mali ty. had given Ihe game '''''~' . Under co<-'er of d:orkne.. lIasd ru hal. ",1>0 mu.. ha,,, belic>..,d ,Ilal ......nhing had Ilappened 10 hi, brother, broke camp and . toned 10 ret ..... During lhe march hi, guides dncned him and II.<: ..... u""l>Ie 10 ti nd ,be ford IOCfUSS lhc ,\ In.u"" Ii.... . It ",us, ho, lready been " 'ell inlo ,he founh a,,,h and Ib 'uld find Ihe road. A, h... ligh' the Homan. I-ably in lbe early afla"""n. and ad_ ". ",..,d " 'i, h hi. foru, dra",n out in hallle line, H ..druha l ..,alioed that he had h> light. A rr"gmeDl of Polybius ...,.'O.d, , he ly,,"le but we h..'e reJ~ on l. ivl'" thoroughly "",ati ,fa«",y ac','O"nt of the topography f,,, ,he lo"a, ion of the b. u l. , ile. The mos, likely I""ition i. on I he so" , h .ide of th . ri ,·.r n.ar ,\lunlemaggiore, but , hi, i, hy no means O<'f1.in. Polybiu, "'Y" ,Ilal Ha.drubol d...,,,· up IIi, Celt. and Spaniard, on • " er'" nann", fro n' ,,'i, h . he 'en elephant> in fror.. of them. In thi. f"""",;on he fell upun lhe Roman ~f' . '0 'roop>. ",·ct. '0 . pttl hcally for , hi. purpose . TM ehi..,l wa. hammcrcCC ""nain information . lI'hen finally ...,," came tlla, legale, from ,he vic",,,i<>u. arm, ' were eomin g down the Via Flaminia rhe cntire population pou..,d <>ut of the "ity, They lin ed the rood for near l}' fi,'. kilomet...,. as far as ,he .\t il, ian hrid". and mobbed rhe Jcg:a' .. a' they en,e...,d , he cor y. In Apulia !'cro now st ooped 10 an"", of panicular callo"'...... lie had bl'ouChr "i'h him ,he ......"..,d head of Hasdruhal "'hieh he ,h..,.. before tl>< ""tposts of H anni bal's C*mp. H. nnibal inm Italy. In Spain Haruments he n~ded in 1,.lv. I n the co rly .um..... he left hi, wint.r ·qWlne.. a, Gade. (Cadiz) and mo'"cd ..." nh, r-.;_ <:roiting as he went . H" encamped at llip.o ju,., nonh of modern Sc>;lle. Sapo<> -.J'·anccd ,jo,."f1 Iht yol.. y of the Guadalqui"ir and encamped "Pf'O"i'e him . The Rom an arm l' consl.."d of 45.ooo infantt]/ and 3.oooh".... of wbieh a little .... ,Ilan Ilalf " ..,'" It.lian. Ha, drobool G i.go may h..'e . lIgbtly OUt numbered rhem. Gi•.o;" regul_rly olfered hatti e fairly la' e in the J ay wi, h hi, l. ihyan. in rhe ,'e nl'" an d hi, Spani, h allies on the IT AI. Y AN D T H lO \l' lOST ERN M lOlll TE RRANlOAN ...."J' d.... n ur l'> broup:h. <JU' hi. '"""f'I and linN I hrm up " 'ilh hi• Icpon•• n . .... ""n, ,,, and h.. Spullardo Oft , he flu. he d, d. to. 10 b ,...n "'''« -.,..----"'--- --- ..... _ , """'-"'lI "" ... "V'" T_ -~----......... , ro.o logoDn .............. _ •be ...,. , .... ,here .... 1" .1e ~hancc ol _ _ _ oIt '_ had bun prnm' a, boIh .hr T rd>bIa and Canna< II.. had Oludicd Han rubel'. t.l.1e ......... ca rrlully and ~.... ~ d 10 Inm. 1lIc d,tIi""Il~" ... """,. ' u a.brt .hnc la<.., io 10 ,he Rom.on Icp>no, .. hoch dod ...... figh. In phaWa. ,,..,. . .n _ hine he """ld ha "C ' 0 Iea.n by nrcricn<'e H,..·' n..... 'abh.hed I n "''''>e " 'lI h G ilogo ....... rudy, lO. , ly in.hr ""..... "ll:. no Juub' ,,·i.h lhe T",ht>io in mind . h.< bTe-A fo"ed hi, men . led ' h.<m ou' of ""mrand dro.. . hrm up in Ih " O(fposit.. • • • • • • • • • • • • • •, ",de . ' " ,he p.nk",. daY'. Th" "'".. the I"ai"n. ...... " n .he ",·in~ . ond ,he Sp"mord. in ,he: .... nt •• . H• • h. n ",n' II nu, hi. covol. }' and Ii~ h' -a.m..d "''''PO; '0 bu , " I' , h•• ncm ~ .a ml', Lik.. S.m pro ni", l."n~u . u y ca rli... U n · d. uha l ....' ..d in ho leoJin~ ou' hll a. m)' bd"'" , he~ II.od ..a'..n Ind draw· in K ' tlcm "pi n ,tlci. ulual f"' mation S.:ipio tlcld h" ,..",nd . I..... in~ , tic CIvll l)' I nd lia h••I.......<1 ,mol'" ' " oklt· m"h. U..... det""" ,,,,,d.o make H..• d ruNl I'I~ fn. hi, im"",uo, i!)", keeping him COMlln'l~ un.kr .h......' olllla<.ir. to ,ha. he could """ c ha nr:<' hi. ronna,ion A. ,he da}' -.lvaneed and .he ~ ol ......,rntunm, !"qt.n 10 ,..II on lhe Ca.' haainian ,.... '1'". s..' P'" rcalled hi, liah'-arn>ed ' fO<'I'" and cavalry ",.!to I""'oed , h..-" h , he ~ l'><no..... n.he ......,rk'> and rrl.........d toehind l he Iep>no ..... h . he Nltln ,n fron' and l he _"" .... ,ha. a.. .. .. I • 1 laaaa =11= • • • . L: I i , l I •••• a===i= = - - - - - J 111 11 = = = 1 1 = .=.~== = = = = •••••••••• •••••••••• ' 00 • RO ME '75-'40 Be T H E G REAT WARS hol'$C1'T1en bcllind. A' fin" he began 10 ad\'ancr di="1ly on Haod",haI '~ """i_ tion, bu, ..hen he .... aboul1OOffi from w enemy he orTecedent explain it ? Aecordi", ' 0 I'oly"'i... th e two culum n. adva""ed ,apid ly on Ihe Car'h~ginian line whilS! the Spa niard, moved f"rword .I<'wly. A. the wing, 'u Balow "'a" , ;OY,, "'" 01 A' "", T !>o ,11 ,,,,,, ..,. ,_,Sc,p"" "" I<>r;,j9r ,,,,.,,,_ 1,,,,,,, ~ ()"".O C.., ", no ,.. ""ed ~Qm l , ~ ("' ) _110_ at Cope ~ ..,,,,,, ",,,,,,, ~ not"" 01 Col'.,. approached Ihe ""em y the infamry ...hetled in 'd~ and lhe cayalry and wJi,~ ou' d. ," oulllank Ihe Outhalinian winp. A. far as the heavy in_ fanlry i. concenl<'d Ihi..."OIlI d have oettIIi,a,O'd lurniltJ the column in-a-ards and , hen depIo yi", into lin< Ihroug'" -s", f...- itthey . im ply ...heekd from a>lumn into bn< tbe , riarii wrouId fini.h up a. lho: front and tho: Aoo>,,,,i at the back . On •..., ",her hand, if .he cavalry an d wlr..., in column, . he y ...·oll1d fini.h ..p in thei r correct onkT ; if ,hey depluyed Ihroulh .~. ' hey woul d finish up hack '0 front, ...uh the ir officer. on th~ Ioof, in.,...d of the right and wit'" Ihe wliu, behind . hem . Thi. i. exactl y whal happened, for Polybius "'y' tha i i, did nol worry Scipio much ''''at the<>ld. r ha d be. nrcve....d . Whatever may be ,he ru l lru,h behind Ihi. man""uvre , th e Carth'lIinian fore•• wcr, lOuted <'n t he wing. and driven hack to their ca mp. T he p,uhlem s ('<"cd hy ,hi, battle are enorm""• . Wh.re, fot ex. mple, were {h. C. rthogini. n cavalry w...il. thi, extr.ordin ary man"" " \',,, was toking pI.." on th e winll'? T hi., like all Poly- "'''''''Ied bi",,' billie. in ...·hk h a Scipio ....., in"ohrcd , lea,," many llnan.wrrcd queslion . , lhe incvi.abl~ l'I:Sulf of . h. IUsforian". peni.,ent marriageof th e Scipio:nic uadiUOIl ..., h , he f aa• . T1>cTc remained only ,he moppingupoperalions as lilt' Canlqini1... had DO army Ief. in lilt' field. By lilt' end'" 206 Scip;o ..... ready .o return 10 Iialy and detnaIld fM I:OtI..,I.hip. During this rime in Spein M ha d mad!: t:OOlaC"l "'~fh the Numidian kinr Sypha:< and a princr calkd '\ bsliniua. Once more lit' nted «l emula,. Hann,,,,"l. Hi. plans ue no leo. than ' 0 cross 0"... . 0 Afri<:o and lead a Numidian reyolt api..., Carthage_ In Italy Hanniba l had remain< d omonl, he Rr,," ;; Ihroughout Ihe year. H. had not ,.ken the field .od the Ruma", h.d betn ClOref.. 1 no, to pro-vok. "'im . The Luc. ni. n" rea li, ing ,h.t th e Cllllhoginion. would no longer com. to ,h eir . id, . urre ndered , l.aving only , he ' '''' of h aly " ill in Cartha~ini"n .... nd' Scipi" returned to Rome in the aut umn . He wa, th e darl ing of the people and whe n he let it be known th. t h. w.n, ed the <;(In,ul.h ip, with Afrie. .. ...i. province, his wi, h woo gnnted. But many mc: mbers of ,h" Sena te ,",, ,re opposed 10 ... i. pla n•. The opposition ,",',", led by Ihe 'lins Fahi... Maximu. and FIaccut. For 100 many year. ,he)' had foug "'l a defe n.ive ....r and the y ....".e'C1TIfied Rl lhe prospect ofa second Regul ... lytnl dad on the sand. of Africa. They could hardly stop Scip;o in the face of popul•• t:y ad ITALY AND TH E WESTERN MEDIT ER RAN EAN stood the,. pli. ht . ~or yean th~)' hod ~d th ~ s..na,~ ' 0 . 11ow r~ ' 0 ,ak~ • 1fIOr~ lICtivt poon in ,h~ ..... and now tho ' ,hey "'ere n:ttivc!he chance dear their names ' h~ y rnpondN wi'h ~n, h .... asm . The rnf . . ,he rcar ""'" tpns' in prepoo""ions for ,he expediOon. MtaJI"·1Wc Hanniba" , ~"OUnges' broIhc. M as<' oai.. d from the Balearic i1lInd. withan Iftny of ' 4.00<> """'. H~ CIf'Iun'd Gt-.- and flied ro open a oecond f""". The Romans. wit h four lqions in , he Po val"y and t.... O in Eturia, ~ con,~ n , .0 hold . heir lines . IM:..., for the preM'nl. AI'hou.h Mago n:ttiYN mnf~_n .. from C.rlhag~, h~ ..... un able '0 oIl•• in any help from ,he ~h who Wff t "ill .ulf~ri ng from ,1M: crushing dcf<-.., 01 ,h~ M ~ ..uru, . Thi. ~"<"a . also . aw . h. wd of ' he war aiai"" Ma.:.d"nio. which Rome h.d only eorout.gN to k~p Philip o<cupied , No lonier fu n ni • Macedoni.n i,,\·..ion th e R"man. lefl ,hei • • lIi~s 10 ' heir fa'c and . wo.e • unilale ••l peace lr~ aly with Philip . 10 the .pri ng of 204 Scipio sel sail from Lil}'baeum . Throug hout the w.r ' he Roman lice' had maM raid. 00 th ~ '0 '0 African cou'lo k~p , he Carthaginian. bu ' }"1 home .nd 10 p....·w, , he,m oend in• ..,inforcemen, • •o Hannibal . On OTIC of thNc raids in ~ Laffi nu, had en coun.ercd and deslro )'<'d 11M: Punic 1Ieet. The Carlhq;nia n nom ~lfort dutinI the .... t hoad been dis"",l and tm. ""'. the!inal blow. When Sci pio ..ile-d to Arne. .nIh a guard of only 40 quin'1lKiC"'''' 1M: .... no! laking an lind"" risk. 1m at my landed .. Cape: F arina aboor n km norrh of Canhoge. Scipio's hope:!. Ihlt Syphaa ...." .Jld join him had been duh<'d , Hu dtubal G isgo had ma naged 10 secure an .lliance: ..i, h , he, Numidian tin. and _led it with . he hand of hi. MUliful dludtter Sophonisba. the Salome of Canhage. How_ eye. , Matsi ni... jrnncd him "i' h a troop of 200 c.....IIY. Scipio ha.J an ini' ial . uccc", when he managed '0 lUl e Hanno into.n . mb u,h and killed 2,000 of hi, 1' {l the {own an.J ,,·hich become known .. Cu,", Comelia , Here ' '''' his 00..... " e dashed •• he ...a, force d '0 wilbdn " 'IM:n 11..<1",""1 C;;. go . nd Sy. phlx wi' h two armin mo>-<'d up from ,he lOII,h and c-nampc:d about , ot::m .""'y. Scip;o_ fora:d ' o aba ndon lhe . iqe and mire i....o winter <juan... withou,. occure basc. Dunn, ,1M: ,.;n. ... he made !he ""'tence of tSeflOIia!in• .-hil...waiting the opportunity to S1rik~. In . he spring he launched a ,u.prise ni",htalla:k on the ,wo Cartha.,n..n amps, ,,",ling ti. e III tltem an d in rhe confusion wiping 0111 """,,,t of lhe lwo armin. G;sgo ..,01 SI·phl . ...:.pe:d ....ilh • small body of men, and ";thin a month the Carthaginian' ~te ........,hlin8 a ~"" • •my in the Grea , Plain, abou' l20km to ,he we.. , T his is an open, lozenge_ohape.J ltaCl of land al>o.,u , 30km long and t 5km wide ea u2h' belw..,n the mountain, on 1I.'ow 1"" G•• • , Plo,,,., 100" "" .,,,,h ""Il' 500k , I In,. '• • "'''''" p i, ," """""'00 a ...,o.odn ) H Se ,poo 0.1..,,,,, ~ , ,," " ... G;ooo ,n 10] Be , ,n M ' "'' 000 ,"" ,;etOO/ RO ME a7S-''''' Be THE GREAT WA R S ,1>< upper r~a<:Itc. of ,h~ M ierda ti,,,.. A. """'" as I>< learnl nf ,he Canhagi nian wnoenlraliun Scipio Id. fW'I c( hi. r",en 10 OOftlinuc , h~ G r('a' Plain. and dre,," up hi, fur~ .. ahoul 1.4oom from the Ca n haginian """i , ~'n , T he • nnies . kirmished for do), before dra';ng up in bornle ."""l·. Scipio lin~d up hi, 'roopo in ..... _ I faohion..-jt h ,he: lotH,,,,; in ,he: (ron' ,lhe 'n....ii . ' < Carthoaini,m ..iDllS_Once ' hoor were (In r Scipio d~ploycd his pn~'~1 .nd ,n'an; on the "';ng., surrounded ,hr Cellibrri.ns . nd CUI Ih<:m,o pi~"" in lr ue H.n nihalic;tylr , T hi, wa, S~ i p i o >. fi....' dedsi..~ la~l ical triumph, T hree ,ilDoCll he had tried " , duplica,e Hannibit'. oult\anking Ibccula, Ilipa and ...,.. al lbe Cnn, Plai.....-\r 10>1 he had f"",nd .he' ...."'-.::r-llOI lo """ lhe wing. of hi. infanlry bur 10 deploy his fn'i,u:i~, .nd /n'an'i. Afrer , he balli e Sci pio deejded 10 di.'i d. his f"rt: ~, l'rt a ~. i n . P. rl of lh e arm)' ..... d~'ached 10 complele rhe cIef""r o( S)"J>bax, ""hilsl Scipio. af,er omdinl hi. booly 10 Cas.... Comc:li>., aJ.'aDCCd "" Carthol" i'self and T"mi•. This etreclively cut Canhage's of "ommunica,ion with ,h~ in· lth(}C k, 0 hundred yean bd'o. r and aJoo by Regu lu• . From Tuni. Canhage could be ,'rangled, a.peciaIly a Rome controlled ,he ..... A conoerted elfon br lhe: Roman••, rhi> """""nl would ba~ brough' the: ...... • (I""". Can hos e had al .~ad y decided,,, recall H. nnibal and an ~mha"y w"' di,· pa' ehed .o him . Thr win' er of 103- 202 .... spen. by the Carthaginian. in peace lIqOIia'i<>nI ""hieh ........, panlr poi"" and panlr an .nanpt '" buy .ime in an,icipllion oi. Haruu!:NoI', = ou. '''''0 movemc-n',.' ""* Ii"". lh.n 's yran and wOO O<>w 4S )'~an old. Polyhiu, implie. ,hat he hrotlghl • lar ge number of hi> ,·ere.ano oul of I,al )' but Ihi s highly unhkely. HI' no.- I>is army was rrollably r-.::duccd to ohour 20.000.. Si ....' " 207 he had been con tined lu lteo RrUlIii, blocka"'ed b~' hoth l.nd "n d ,ea. I n . 11 pro bahili' y he r~lum od It> AfriUl wi,h only Ihe remn" nU of hi, Aftican troops, pe.hap. 4.<>00 of lhem. "' Zarna hI' '-.::trran., ..-ho f<>rmed , he 1ft, hnr , ~11ed Ihtir pkn .0 MOf' t ho< Carthaginian frollr Ii"", f,om falhng back on . hem, Provinllbal they"""", in fact hi. Afrie'"n pik~men. S UMeq""n' eve n" . how lha' hi. N umidian cavalry WCle no,," pra<:f ie. lly non-exi", ,,n!. Diodo"',' :tCCOUn, of H annibal'. m•• sacr~ uf ' he merce.... ies " 'Iou "''QIlld """ <:f"I>O'S Afria wi.h him is obvkxnly f.1x for llwy bad srl'\~ Itim fairhfull)' fur DlOtt 'han 'S yean and Iti. oo:her Il'OOpO ..-uuld ",,'·e. ha.'e agre<:d , ,, kill ,heir COmr"Jcs , H "",-.::vcr. ,hi. " or y may com. in . ger m of truth . Ih e Romon, pmhabl y olfe",d ' e'm. to lhe ,~"",inder of Hannib. I'••r my and 'he'n mall$a<.'1'<:d ,hem . Certltnly ...., .re """r. , old by U~r ...ha. ha~ 10 rhem. n.c lfO<>p1Wl had been ......;ng in liguria und~. Hannibal' . youngest brot l><. M ago 01.., so i l~d bad 10 Africa . M ago, who had been wound~d heforr he lefl , died on the vo~'ag e. Hannibool l. ndcd .luplis M inor near JI\Odcrn Sou_ nokm ,oUlh of Car· lha&e ..1\ere he' ""a joiMd by • bOO)' of 1,000 Numtdtan cavalry . f"TOm her-.:: he' """",d lin r Had",meru m and rhen inland , c..... ping nea, " pia"" ""lied Z"ma fi ve d.y. ' jour ney ( IOO--lS0km) we" of GlrlhaSe, """m. ""'" '0 '0 Ceo '0 -~. Th. ba ~ 01 ,,'" G. .., PI. ins , Tho . - ,... ""'"",1 1o<mooon ThO c.~ "'""'"_ e -..... _ .... .,..".. _odbo "'" _ --~_ roqnc Ha nnibal had probably moved wc", hoping . 0 pthrt more N umidi. n cavalry. Scip;ohad also moved ..-.::a. IO meer J',lasini<sa ",'boo had inheri,ed IIw kingdom of Syphax aM was flO "" able [0 l upply 6,000 infantry . nd ...ooocavalfJ·_ Acco . d ing to Polybiul, afler muking a rendezvou' with M . " ini"., Scipio ad "a""ed to a lown ca lled Marg. ro n which cannot be idcn,ifird , U"y call, , he: plaa:: N aragara (S idi Y"",wt on .h~ border " 'it b AJ~). It may be lbar PoIybius' nome has I>ttn cor"'pl~d bu. il i, ""... mor~ likrly . h. , U vy h:. . ,ubsrilu'~d a nam~ he kno",.,. fo. 0 "" Ite docs n"'. I h nnibal "dv. nced 10 wit hin 6km of Scipio' s camp .n d her ~ . frer a n . borr ive mttline bet"'-.::en the ' W<> com m.nde.... , he: bank ..,," foughl. The .ile oi. Ih ~ toa,tk i. unknown. Kromayer and ScuIW'd .dvoca,e. si,e u km ..,."h·..-est oi. FJ Kr f which filS IIw ba.. l.. ,opognphy "",II. Tlti, ,ir~ i, shown in lhe phologr.ph on p. l Q.l hUI it remain, fur from cert. in. Early on I h~ morning afrertheir meeting hol h .id~, oc acwunl of Scipioni<: bottle . houI d be Irnled ';rh caution, H. nnibal drew up hi. army in ,h rr~ lin.... I n , he (ron, line "",re 11,000 Li gur ian, C',tlIic, H" I... ric and M oori, h mercenar y in fant ry. T he.e muU ba"e been mainl y <:offipooed uf the: . roops ,\ 1810 ...... bri~"ll bad; ",·I> m, any . ... -- -- ,.. "'''''II.' Ro "'no> 01 .... e.t"" _ on .... _ _ '0' ITALY AND T H E W ESTER N M ED ITE RRANE AN and nati "e Cartha_ ginian" no doubt forming a phabn , . At the rear, an ll mor e than 200m tim her ~a c k, 'wa, a third line m. de up of Hannibal's vetera"" It is thi, third line which causes Ihe greaIeST probl em ", we cannot e ' ta~ l i ,h whether , he,e were the remains of Hannihal'. (c. 4 ,0(0) Afr i_ can" The Cart baginian <'. vatry were placed on the right wing and the 2,000 Nu midian, on the left, T he Roma", were drawn up in their normal three lines except that instead of beilljl; in quincunx formation wit h the middle line (primi".,) covering the gaps in 'he fro nt line, the maniple. were drawn up one be hind the other lea ving ~aps through the legio"" T hese gaps were filled with the veliu, from all three lin"•. I.adim wi, h the Italian ho" e wa, pla<-.:d opposite the Ca Tl haginiao cavaIry ; M assini"a face d the other N umid_ ians whom he om num bered ,wo to one. T he Roman forc'e, pro hahly numhered ahout 30,000 infantry and 6,000 ca" alry . Afte r the N umidian horse had skirm ishe d for some time Ha""ibal or dered 'he d cpha" ," to Charge. Scip io had heen waiting for thi, hefore he made any Li~y-l'hoenieans move himself and now or dered his wli"s to ad"anee 10 meet them . The hlast of the trumpets ""d horns which signalled the charge of th e vdius frigh,. ened several " ft he d ephanlS who turned an d seallerett the N umidia", who were followin~ them , M assini"a , t"k i n~ advantage of the confusion, raced i" and the Carthag ini.n light cav.l r}' hro ke lea,'ing their lef! wing exr<,"ed . T he rest of the elephants charged the ""lilts who retired throug h the gaps in the legions , dr aw ing ,he ekphant, with them. Othe rs fleein~ to the wings were mel wi,h a showet of javeHns fro m the ca,'. Iry . nll fled the field in termr , Ch,,,,,,ing thi , moment of m nfu,ion lhe Itali an ca" alry charged t he Carthaginian horsemen who also bro ke a" d fled . T his m. y have bee n part of I l"""ibal' s plan for he wa, greatly outnumbered by Scip io' , cavalry which now left the field in pursu it of his horsem en. T he infantry line; now moved in o n each <>ther , wi, h the exception of Ila""ibal's rear line which remained where it wa,. W hen they came withi" range, the ha,_ , hidd, a" d charged , T he Ron, an rear rank , followed up d o",ly c h eerin ~ on the ha.<1ari. The fi r" Carthaginian lin< held for a while and the" bro. e and ' urned on their ,eeond line which had failed tn . upport them . Since this second line must have bee n a p hab nx the pic_ ture is a little confused . T hc ",cond line charged the IwSUll i but the centur ionsof the prim i"" , seeing their comrades giving ground, added thei, weigh t and th< second Carthaginian line in their turn hroke and fell back on the vetera", who lc" dkd their pike' to , top them breaking up the ir for mation ."d f(}lcing them to retreat toward, the wing•. Sd pio reca lled the ha,'lali who w... following up the C.rth.ginian fli~ht and regrouped hi. mcn for the f,na l assault He removed hi, own wounde ll from the field , then , d and lriarii on either wi n~ and clambering over the bo dies which Iiu ered th, 6 e 'Qw The pI" o to tOe , ootO of Eo Kef ",en f' ()rn the h,'" a""". the town. Th" i, " te l, voUiOd bV Scull.,d ood K,o ma,.." OI ,he ",,"'. of Z.ma, whe'" Scipio "",.."'d H"",,,~ ; " 101 ac S",p,O 9' ;0"'" " ;umph to ' 'Oe ""0<\' t"" ROME 275- 140 RC TIlE GR EAT WARS ballkftdd . M ad,'o.n<:c0 ~ tlxm .I.bou, S,oooMrong. Thi. wuld be COITecl but tM ,rue ~ probably is much ""'U. The plwlanx manag<:d to hold ,be .......... at M)' un,il LIcliuo, ""urruoa wi, h 'M Roman ca,...Ir}·, tun>e1J 1M ,Ide- ohM haI,k. \'l'hen he ..... all ........... . Hanni_ wi t1cd wi, h a (ew IIonemen '0 Hadru"""um. PoIyhiuo ' ca. ... ll y list , 2(1,(10O Canhag'nJan. ckad an.d ...mila. numbe. "'"ptur~ , ,. Ir_l y CLIIUC"".ed to gkxif )' Scipio. II i. I""hly unlikel~- ,ha, ,ha, Old ""'''''1. a re ""nl~ 1"hc Roman, had won • i'''''' nCl<>r)' and the Canlnoi: inians sued for pe"",,,. Scipio ..'as received ....pI"."...I)· nn hi• ''' )"COn ...•"'.<.1 we., QU' ............ ~----- • """rn ' 0 Rome and i",n •• d . ,numph. Ru. for hi, army , be .....t ...... not 0\'' ' . Tho: Canna< kei<>n-""" had not ....... their horneo for mon: .han bu' I hey ,,"'.., ' ....... ferTN <.Iirectly to (0Teece. ....1........ as 000<)0 as ,he ..... r ,,'i,h Hanni· bal WI.' "".r ,he &na.. had staned 10 in.crle« in Gred poli.o. i....i"!': ..Jti_ rrw-a to Ph,hp " 'h>ch "",.. I.ed in ,he declararion of , TIle people had noo: anudlo¢l bu, ,..",.. finally pcnuaded in,o i. in . he . ..mmer of 200, In .he .u,umn or the same rear , wo ""'er.n lqions , rTl*k up mainly of ·, 'OIun. ecn' from ,he African army, Ian.kdon lhe lIlyrian~,. "f.. nulf",ing ",'me inilial K.bJ"ni"n hills . After following p••• lld rou lc' rnr 'wo d.ys J-hmin inu •• nc. mrcd probahl}' ne. ' Ph.... lu. ( l'a,..I.) and Philip near SknlOu..a . I. had rained he" 'ily during Ih. nigh. and ....hen Ph,lip Kt again he found 'M 8"in8 diff...... 1t owing ' n the mi.. ,hat ",,\,,",d ,he hjll. , H. p;,ch.d camp again , di,pa'chi,,!,: a """eri ng fnrce .oncrupy 'he . ummi.. of,he hill, whkh ..,para,ed him f....m Flamininu" _ _.... army. Flamininu., meon..'hile, ,,"Sencamped j...t .he ",her .ide of.he ridge bul bolh "u . una....... of the ",her', prnence , Dunn8 the morni"!': the Roman d i.pa,ched )00 """alr}' and ..bou, ',1)00 wlil~' 10 reconnoit.." "Il>oK reaching , he lop of.he pau f. Uin ...~ruan (O\~"lI' f<Jr'<'e and a fi""~d . ,.he lopoflhe hiD. When , he Romans bepn 10 be puohed back down ,he hilll-lamininu' t ou. SOO IIone and U XIO foo< to ppon , hem. Thi. I't'\"ened lhe sit uation and Philip was (<>reed .0 ... nd up Rimnra:"",nlS. T ...... in ,heir ,,,rn d"",'e uhled his phalanx and pella,lS (. he, e ....ere proh.hly Sl"'"men and nnt ja" eh n,,,,n) '" lhe .ijthl In h,I"e t he Ieng.h nf.he line .nd make room fn. his Ief, winl. The " " 'al. y and ligh. arm.d who ....... al",ad}' '''lI'aged w... wi, h_ dra,,'n and formed .. pon , be .igh. ,,·ing. Flam,ninu. place .... . . I . I • • • I •• I I . I •• II • • • • • • I . ••••••••••••••••••••••••• -"-~, . '"'$ 1:_ -_ ....... _,_ .."' .... bitt.. o' z-. Tho _ _ '" ..... coni.. llano __ .... Cortftogo _ _ "" """ II fI.. _ .,... '4' " 0 _.. .-o... . . . . . u"",," ,. ' on ,n f,o.'. ">tn , on , " o n ~ """ e-" H • . . . - d,_ ,,,'. . ""'~ .... .,..,....., ', L'.. ·PI'o;>tn....n. " "'. _ _ .. ........ 'n f."", _0 OIOO"n" ",,'OgI1< . .,roo -, .lfI.< 1 '., ..........., .... - .... " ' _ ... <>ugh _ .... _ .. 'ho"" rho....,."" - . . , . ....... oH ..... ConhOGo"'" _ _ """ .... ' " - ' _ _ rho _ """'. tho twO Imol ..... _ "'''0"' , ;' _ ... _ _ _ _ _ _ _~W ~ .. "''"'''0 ....... t>I , _'ho tug;,,,,,,, .... 1»'" 10"l>oI' _ on H ... ThoM ,_ _ from dto....",,,,,, " - ""........., """'''II "" on to ,Nt _ S<:,,,"O ""'" _ /'"'''' ond """,,_ on , 'ho C.., ...... 'o.... f",... , -.n hOi n\lf ,,, ""non, un","'00 '" ,..,. .. 'ho f l _ < hold on lty ITAL Y AN D T H E WES T ER I' MEJ)lTERRA~ EAN right wing, told his troops there to agent Hamik ar w"' sti ll in northern sland fa" and advanced with his left Italy when Cart h.ge surre ndered and wmg. Philip, realis ing that events had he refuse d to aee<:pt the peace of 202. In over token him , ordered his p halanx to 21XJ he orga nised a Gallic revolt to Cf hi, left wing, threw himw lf at the head <>f hi, right win~ and charged the M aeednnian left wing which was still forming up, T he half_",semhled M acedon ian line crumbled befor e the onslaught <>f the elepha nts , The Roman left wing had h}' now been pushed ",me way down the hill, ide hut the right had reached the summ it , One of the tTib_ une" seizing t he initiative , took 20 maniple_ of the triam , faced about and charged obliqud }' d<>wn the hillside into the rea r of the M acedonian ri ght wing . T he action w"' dec isive ; the phalanx, unable t<1 tur n , was cuI to pieces. T he Romans followed up the iT victory , cutting down the M ae<:do nians where the y ,,,,od even tho u~ h they raised their pikes to surrender. Some had not e\'en reached the summit <>f the pa" but the y were also slaughtered by the lcgi<1n_ aries. Philip esca ped fro m the field with a few horsemen but the ~re"tness of .\-lacedon was ovcr . Pol}'him ,ay' tha t aho ut ~ ,ooo .\-Iaeedonian. were killed and at least 5,000 ~aptured , As this battle does not im'olve a Scipio or a Paullus, these fi~ure, are hkcly to be coTrecr, T he Roman losses "'CTe about '00T he Romans had no wish to occupy M acedonia and by t94 all the Roman tr< ~,p s were evacu ated, Hut within tw<> yeaTS Antio ~ h u, of Syria, tr ying to capitalise on the "aeuu m lef t by the fall of M acedonia, invaded ( ,reeee and the Rom "n s were co mpelled to Tetum . Th~ le ~ions drove the S}'tian king fro m G reece and the n ero"c~ ",'eT into Asia M inot .nd defeated him decisively at Ma gnes i~ _unJer.S i p y l us in I 'jO, In the Po valle, ' the Romans had set about t he final C Li~urians we« al,o conqueTed during the next decades, so that hy the middlt of the ~ e n tur \, the territories of Rome and Marseilles were contiguou' , Hann ibal, meanwhile , had tr ied w lead a political life at C arthage but hi, ' D•.;ial teforms gained him man y enemie•. In t 95 hi. political opponents , in collu HOM E Z7S - 140 He TilE GIU iAT WARS M ule of Zarna, ra.he. than fall into R"",an hand., h. "",mrnin.d suidde. In M:oced<>n P"'hp V died in 179 1nd he "'••• ucceeded by hi. oon Perwu. ..'110 tried to th.","" olf ,he Rumz n alii.nce. He "" a. defeated lIy Aemiliu. Pl ullu. , .he oon of [h. ,.,nerol a. Cann... in ' 68 , and .\l...cedoni.a ...· a. broke n up. Ew n $0 .\Uced<>ni.a mad e one Wot efron , but after the final defeat in ' 4 ~ it Ioo.t it. tndependence en,irely ani became I Roman provin.oe. Carthage remained at peace ...·itll Rome for more ,han half I cenlw"y. bu, in 149 a. ,he inuip,ion of MaWni... and ,he Roman ttMOl" CatO, ... ho " ... an i"'·......... enemy of C..anhage, Rome declared a completely un pnwolr,ed .... r 011 lhe Phoenician city. At.. r I , hreel~ on ot ,he Paull... otCannae. "T1>eci.y " ... ploughed into the ground and i,. popula'ion sold inoo L1a~ery . Although s.,~pio toad driYttl .he Car'I\;>ginians 0'" of Spain, i, ..... a fun,," two cen,uries before lhe peninsula .... fmally poocified. Three ...."......, fOUl ht ,n Spain in en the '.-n ot S umanlia " 'IS 'aUn by Scipio Aemili.anu. I fter alon.lls;"'" in ' 33, orpm ...-..._01_ l hoo banI. of C\I 1 1 .. _ ... II. , ,- .- .-- f) • . - .,.~ ~ I ~" " " """" ... , ... ••• ' h _'-CI ... t .. FIon>o _ [0 _ ,_ _ t",,,.. w '''OJ PM,p ""'" "'"""lI"d l<> got .... "I ""........ "" '" [. . [OIl 2 ....... ,"'.... "0 al' "I Col _ _ "" '" "0"' _"Il '" on h.. ''9"l - _ , .!t.,,,",, , ,t ",,," the """" f '.... "'nu. OOYnTOl ""I lor","" "'aca 0 '" 'ho ,,,""..... , ""'"0 ,... "":1"""'" 'M ;" ;" , too. ,... <><;0\1 notth ',om a_. '""' bol,. pi"." w". / " on Ph,',p·, ca"", wa, ""'on" ' ... ' ;dOO ," t... " ;,,,,"'" H" on I,," ' ;000 ,n tho ee" " 3nd ,h. """,,. w.,loug h' "" oolow S al<>w Map 01 t"'.,.a "It ,,""'". •• • , , 'm \...~-/ ""........ """ t" Romon '"" 1 .. Macaoon"'" I",,,,,, t.. A _ .... . _ , --"'~ ~- • ""-'ird ~ , :: ~~ h. "" ""'" ..... '" ,. . 'odgO -_ ...-. , __ ,""',"' ,r.. , 1 , , 1 - • ••UJ...: /d -=- .--::0;:;"..- ' - .- • , , 'm '" T HE R O.\tA~ E MI'I R F. The E m pire 140 B C-AD 200 Inlrod " <;t;oD Ounng ,he second hair of 'he 2nd cen'lOr; 110::, Rom e made f...., I""";torial gaIn•. Her grip ,i,lh'enord on Spai n, S,>rth Afric a an,} G,eece and ,he con_ 4UCred southe'n G aul to ..,c",e the Ion,} ,,'ute to Spa in, A 'e,ie, of m ilita, y ' ef0 " ... Iin le """" , han . lord ,,'1>0 eolObli;he<:<'l' le during 'he Jewi'h ""'Oil (\f ~n 66 -70 . and Vege'ius. ,,'h(\ ''''rote a manu. 1 " f milita'!' <:><'Y of lhe ." cenlur; AD and aJ.o.l><><*on Gcn nan)' duril1Jli lhe oarne l'C'"io.>d . i> the """,t lI'li.1l>1e sou 'ce. He ..... son·in---I. ..· 10 Agri<~)I •. who ... . """cr n,,r of B'itain f(lf .even yc.", and c...mpk'ed the <'On_ quc" of lha' counlty, All h"ugh Ite wrote a life (\f hi, fOlher - in- law, he fail, 1" . how any c1 ea! in'igh t into milil a' y maUe.. and all 100 ohe n f. lI, baek on ""i ue gener.l;"a,;on, and Ita :cptffl ' er_ minologJ·. j OKl'h",. who " 'rol e .n ltCCOUnt of lhe je,,'i.h ",,"Oll, i. "'" I rel iable ooura . nd ,....d)· e>:a&etft' es . espttially when dn<."ti !>mll: his _'11 nf'loj" "iain<' , he R"""'n< bdo<e he eha"lleri. n Wilh • til' _ 1'01"= ' mind .nd h. , 0 1" 1 in ( om mon ,,'O,. ""h .he b,e He lleni' ''c ,..:ticaI "Til"'" (, hi, i, .,.,cndcd '" n... lude Atrian). He "If",... mao, of un"bted fact. colla:ted f" \II) oil period. of R,,,,,.n hi"or}" and c"n ' herefOfe onh' he u""d 10 , uppl)' de, . il. Pocudo-H}'ginu, gi" e. the m<>" de_ lailod .ccount of (." Ir. mem ation ,in<'O p"lyh iu', l ie descri he. a ",. 1or im. gi· nor y f(lfce whie'" in cluded vit!uaUy e"ery 'l'pe of Unil in lhe Roman a'm)' .nd gi,..... 101 of in f'>rma tion, o(ten d'flkult in,erp"" . ab<>u' ,he organi· ..'ion or t hcoc um" . F rom .-\D' OO I" AD 200 lhere is no adc-quole hiOlorical "",,-..d. I nd e-'en fo< ,he otlld,· 0( T roian', arnpai~. "'" "",~ 10 "Iy al"""" " 'hol l)' on ,he ' ri"m_ pltal coI"mn ,,'hich he set Ul' in 11."""" T he """"" . pi ral 'elid on lhe coI"mn ......' ..d, ,he emperor', campa l,l{n.again'lUI 'he ar m y "n cam paign. T he hi""'ieal nar rali"o i• • u~men tcd b y 0 wealth of .rchaCl'lo~ic. 1 o,'idel1ce, Alth"ugh thi, i. for Cae,. , ·s time. fro m thc !'C, i"d of Augu",,,' . ,,'hen !'Crm anem campo are heing e1... 10 build up • "eCJI .e''1Jratc pict ure " f the o,gan;"' ion of the a,m)' du'inll: , he empi,e, T h. '''''l i<>n, 'In ' he " r g. ni, ation of lhc R' ''llan im pe' ial army h. " . hecn W';l1en by lwo leadi ng <eh" I"" in ' he Held, Dr Bri an Doh'on and 0, Ro~e, Toml in. '0 '1''''''' Con q u esr of t h e Wo r Jd Dy 14b IIC Rome f""nd hendf'inuall)' in oon trol of the " 'hole of , he .\ 1edi'ff_ ro......n "".... " i'h La..,., r-n. of Grcccc. Spain I nd ~orIh Af rica tmdc-r hc-r direct conlrol. Thi. W20 IUIt"" mull oloonx , ra. plan bUI had e<>n>e .bout hcca..... or ,"" i",,:t'edible ,.....-cess of lhe anny in waro ,,'hich a' lea.. r""" 11.""", ', poi'" of vie w were not of he. ow n making, Wi, h the deo"ueli"n of Canha~e in ' 4b 11<: lhe lC..ilor y "r l" umid ia, unde' lhe ru le of 'he pr"ud do,"ondants of .\ \""i ni"a, eX'ended. hu t i' was w., only • maUer of lime .....r""" the)' como inlo conflict with Rome. H",nllllCl brokeou' in", and i' .... ""'eral yean before 'hey "" IIC ,'''' h . lia......1>0 had for . Ion& . ime bttn &gi,a". . for eQual " gh.. wilh the Romano. ,001< "I' ann, 2nd ,he .....i.1 wa. began. .\Iariu, " ... no"- in hi< mid." x,ie., bUI It<'Venhde.. he offe'ed hi. ....... ic'" and I'I. yed ••ign,lkant p.n in lhe , uppTe"ion or the !evolt . AI_ l h"u~ h the haliano we"" dd eated , aft", lhe wa, 'here wa. " gcm' ,al eXlCns ion of Rnlt, .n ci'izen,hip In ali luliaIl' south of ,he 1'0. M ar iu. " .•' rClJ"",s iblc for faT_Teach· ing re rorm, in'he arm)' "'hich laid the bas.. f,.. ,he profcsoional ...ndil1Jli a.m)· of ,he ad)' prindrlll1e. .\tati",·, mili_ lar}' ""I"',.'ion.~. is marred by hi. <:ontlicl "ith lhe ....."""'. Sullo ,,'hich resulted in lhe finl of R""",'s ci'il "It"'. He dieu n~ general who had ' e"'ed unde' S ulla, ,et oul on "arcor< of conquo't in lho "a" , L lleul1l" dd'e ltled Mit h' idate. th,' king of p,,.,lU' (n"rlh-eo" em T ur keYl in ?l and , he (olk""il1Jli '."ar invllJ<:d Armenia. In 66 P" m!'C'l' .l>CC«ded ,(\ L ucullu. · com· ....nd and ooml'kted h.. opn1Itions in ,he E.... brinllin, SlT1.l and Judaca under Roman control , On hi> ""urn h.l)" hc "'.. granled. lriuml'h bul mel oomidct-able oppooi'ion .0 hIS pbns in lhe s..""'e ..-\. a mull hc formed an alli_ ance k"""'...... lhe fi...llriumvirare " i th ,he n'mg r->Iitician (ia,,,. J uliu. Caco.a, and the w.al,h)· bu.inc..man era.."., T hi' . lIionee ...,:ured lh e con.uhhip for Cae.ar in 59· I n lhe la" q" arl er (\f lhe 2nd ""m",\" " p"", inee had !>ccn c"ahlished in '0 THE EMPt RIi ' 40 Be- AD 200 C O :"Q l:E S T O F TH E wO R LD """'hem GIUJ ,,'hidl had IHuuSh' """"" dqtr"" of oecuri' )· 10 nonh·"nl h.ly and enabled R"",e elo'abli.h a land ro u,e l(J Spain , T he Cell s rema,ned a ",," ,,a n, 'htea' , h""'.e<:ure 'hoe provine-.: of Gaul • ,he .,:ampaigning arca for hi, procomubhip a nd ..... ly in ~a he set "'" on one of lhoe greal co""," of <:ol'ls Hrilain and German)', boIh of " 'hieh had a puli,kal ralhe r Ihan a mili, ,,y purpose and re,ulled in nu p<:nn anenl >eulemcn,- T he Gaul, made a eo"corled eflo n u nder Ve' cingelorix drive ou , ,he kgion. bu' ",or e b, oughl 'he ir knee• • , 'hoe . iegeof AI'-"S;•. H)' S' G aul had b«n ~ dllCN 'u ,he ""e of. pruvi~. The relalionship beI ... ""n Caesar and Pompey had bem " 'ained for """'" ""'" and now Pompey side..t ...-i' h 'hoe Scno'e. "'-ttich "'. .. Irying 10 Iimi, Canar's ever-i.....,."...,ng po"..e r, pre_ "' l'i"'"ng a second civil " ."r , The ...ar ""n, reO on IlI yei•. "" I><-re Pompey had "" up his "". dqu.ne.... . C..a<.-,;ar """"""d lhe AJ'ia' ic and loid ,iege " " mpcl" S army a, l)yrrhae'hium ( Durres), W' hen Pompe y b1'O ke ou' Ca e.., fuU" ...ed h,m illlo T he ly .nd dcfco 'w him nell' pha, ... I in 4a . II ,,,,,k him a fun her . ".., yean 10 complcle ,he ",·enh1'O. of I'" remaining Pompeian forces. like Sulla. Canar """. had eomple'e of , he empire. bul like his pre '0 '0 '0 '0 '0 """'rol rw.n.e Ilself. 'The SOW";, " bo uocuplC'd , he Val d·Ao..a in ' he hal"n Alps, ,,-er-.: " ill in arm•. Augu",u. pu , dovo n '''''''' poeke," of re.iSlanee, complet ing , he conquest of Spai n and ,e"ur in~ the flOn,ic ,", " f " 'UIhern Egyp'- T he va" area .ou, h of 'he llan u!'oe w•• al"" blOu gh' uo>d<: r Ruman con,rol. Al1emp" "'e.e made 10 u ,end ,he empire be}'\>nd 'he Rh ine u far a' , be Elbe, bu' in ~D 9 ,be R n ,enera! Vvuo ",i. h IIIIft legions "' amhushed and hi. fOKe ",'iped _ , in 'he Teu'Qburg fon:>l , Aug....lu. " 'i, hdre"" h.. 'mops he hind ' M Rh;ne and 1Od"ioed hi. . ..ec",,"o ' T iberiu. nUl ' 0 Iry 10 e ~'e nd , he empire fun he•. Dur i n ~ hi. 'eign August u, reo, gan_ i. ed 'he arm y and put il On a p" rmanen' profc" i" nal M si. , lie die'" li" e yea.. .fle, Ih. T eu,uhurgcr....ld d,oa"er . nd T iberi u. , hi. predecessor'. re_ '1 u'-"S' , anem p,ed no fun her """""""'- "IIC '0 T hco final a«eninns I n 4 1 Cbud,u. hearne emperor and, f""li ng 'ha' ht nttdeanube line and ~ ,," h Atria ",-j,hin , he em-- """'ro!. Although "0 lirm f""," en " -er,, "" es,abh.hed and fu n ber CO,,'1....., ..... al.... y••nvi.. ~ed. 'he legi"n. had no", come 10 0 ha ll . long 'he lin. nf ,he Rhine and the Dan uhe in the mmh where perman.n' camps had bec n e hh.hed, Allhe end of, l><- la.. eivil r Augus'u' had inhe rned a!>ou' 60 legion•. H. reOue-ed ' his numbee lOla and . uboe'1"""fiy lost 'h''''' in ,he Teu,ohurge, ""oW dion' e•. By ,he end of Nero'. (AD 6lI) ,be: numhe ' haJ again risen ' 0 lll. of " 'hieh l5 " -.:re "a'ioned alung .he f,,,n, ie" of ,he empire. I n , he Ea.. ' h"'" (' '''' Ullh ,here ,,-.:re no'mallv' fou r) legion. "'ere g.rri""ned near An_ 'ioch in Syria . nd ,w o m,,,e ...cre sta,ioned in Egypt, T hre,· I< gion., in- dud,ng ,I><- fou rth S)·..." l.gion. "-.:re on ....,i'·e .er"icc in J upe 12 leaion . were encam ped . i,mg ' he Rhine· Ihnube fmnt;.r. l'''i'Cd in" ode no" h-"o' l Eu rope . :\ ' 3th wa, I'<""ed in Dalmatia (Yu[l:<" la,·ia). Of .he r-.:maininll .ix kgiuns Ibn:<: ( DrIC prriwned in Spain. and lhere """'" Iq:io:ono- in Gaul (Ihe f""rtll fIn"'h lqion)and Italy prepu;ng for an Eatern campaign planned b)' ~ero hu, " 'hieh "",-er came off. These f,""'" ,,-et••upplemen,,,d hr a roughly . imil• • num ber of auxiliar}' , rool'"' drawn fro m ' he I'<'pulal i" n alon~ ' he f'ont iers , T h" rc " 'a, a . cl oa,·k in Bri'ain all<,u, Ml N;, wh.n ,wo of ' he native tribe . r".., in r.....ult unde' ,he legenm.ry Q u""n Roodi"." and sacked .....·eea l Roman 'O"" no, bu' ,he rebellion was ...il)' .uppressed. In 66 Rome had 10 deal "'"h , ... much If'l(JfC ocrious ' .....- j'h revoll . .nd tbe emperor :"ero d"p"' d .ed Ihlft legions undet lhe command of \" eor-ian '0 qllCll'he in.urreetion, I n 6lI Sero commllled .uicide and . no,h., "",,-et " m ggk heglln in which ,he E"l e,n and W""le, n kgion. eame in", ,~'nlli ct, The Rhin,' Ie gi" '" supp..>rled the jt<wernor of I."w« German)'. Vi,e!_ !iu. , and pmd . imed him empero r " n 2 J.nu;l1'y 69· Si. mon,h, lale' , he Eastern Iell-ions h.iled V",pa;ian "" em· pcrt>r and g.. ned ,he .upport of ,he l>anube legions . The ''''"0 armies met a' Cn:""""" in n<>rthern Iw )" and af,er a bailie ' ha' la"ed ,Itrough lhe nillh' ,he Eastern legion. em~ ,ictoriou. and Vcspa".n he<:ame emJ'Crot, The ne w emperor lind hi, ' wo ""n. ruled um il '16 bu , did n'" eXlend ,he empire. T w" years laler the last " f ' he gre'l Roman mn4 uer<>r' . Trojan , cam e to the 'hrone. Hef",e hi' aec""ion he h. d hee n g,"'e, ,,,,, "f .. 'u,hem Ge,l1'I:lnv' and prefe11"Cd 'he mililary 10 ,he poli,""1 Io fe. In 10 ' he e~ ,he Danube in.o Dacia (P'IO<.krn Romania) " 'hieh had been in conllict "ilh Rome for some lime and ," reOuced " ,u ,he ..a".. of a prov·ince . In 1<>6 he annexw Arabia . ,1I..s romple,,"ll Rom. ·••i rcui. of ,he .\tedi' err:anean. The Ea" had bee n Ihre. 'erted M' Parl hi. for ne. rlv' tw" ce murie' and T ra jan decided l<> ,eule malletS there, '0 fi,·" }...".... TH E RO MA N EMPIRE In 1 I S he 'ook Annen..., cor>qUC'Oto , Fron';....... e-,. blia lwd Traian was ~ by Hadria" ",'110 embarked on an en,i.ety differen' poIky of ~ida,,"1 ,he borden '""'" aban_ do.ung ~ prm-incn ."",h as lbose beyond ,he E"phrat.... Had rian Jnllia"'d ,he building of of ''''''hlc in ,he F........here a rival cmpn-o. had bftn proclaimed. A•• com~ promi... he formed a buffer e in the Oonubc I1'CI by .... ding i_R........n_ ioo:d tribcomcn 'hcno ... ho """'" undc'r ot>lillalion '0 defend rhe fronticn. M.rc\d Aurc~ ucoecdcd. by hi. _ O>mmodus ho.bIndoncd rhe problem. oi the empire in flTOUr of more p!aoural:>k """,,ito Ind fell ,be ......in'. blade in I \U. .... f'c' hi. dea'h thcno ...... _blc for power .. hich ..... only broullh' I.. an end in 191 ahcr S"l"imi... ScvcnI., lhe CO''Cmur of UI'J'Cf Pln""",ia, marchcdon Rome and dd",,'c-d ,wo ""he, daiman.. '0 'hoIhrone, the Il''''ernon of S)Tia and Brillin, s..",n ar,c. hi. lCCC>.ion the Panh;.n. again ;nv.ded Ihe Eo" ern of rhe Rrit;. h fron'''''' up in,o &O,l.nd whcno ,he An""'i"" Will w.. built, and tho- pulli", do...n of revolt. i" I"In. of tM empin-, no si&nifican. caml"Ii.gno """" u ~ n During ,be reilln or his ."""".... M"n-uo Aureli"" ( ' 6 ' _' 110) ,he Romo" annie> agai" advanced ;'1' 0 Mc«lJ'O'*"'ia and made: i' a Roman vr<Xf/CWl1l'e, oocc m ,,,linu. '0 "> " ..- " . "...... ~o , ," '..-" ~"""" ~" .. ~" •' • ' · ""'~ ,...oY~'"._s ='A~_ ....w,,"" ..."V""' .....,.,,"'''" ".'VIG_ • .,N. •, ''''''' ' 0.,....,...",8' ,.""",,"M.,.,,,,,,,,,.,.,,, _.,.. ,"""'",,,._,,'" '. ~, • '_'G.,,,,,,._I·"""~ '"""",' ""-" _._.,' _ .- --' n ." ..,...,.", ..... """'.,. " ,_ '" . _ ,,,.~ ", . _ •• .... EGYPT .."'v c...- _'•• """"' _ _ ~S"" . , _ N ,._ -.. T HE EMPIRE ' 40 8C- ~l> ~oo p",vinc~' and in retali.ofi"n Meoop<>,amia "'as for Ih~ lau , irnt con'l u~rtd by fh~ legions bUI allain wi,ho,,, a perman~n, ""lll~rntnl. Army Organisation Dr Brian Dobson T he ne..' le llio n . Original!}' lhe .nn~' of K<>me had l im p!}' been i15 cilizens, called nu. 10 fiJh' " " h fhe weaponland armour .hey could alford. When oome order "'"" hrou,hl infO fhi., a minimum propcn y 'lualinc:"ion "'as es,ablilhe yean' >erVi<x in all. He " ... expcaed 10 p""'Wt his.,...., arrnouI. Ahhough he "'as paid • small amounl fOl" his lirnt in lervKe-, lhil ..... more in ,he ....ure of expenses ; hil ma.., lOUr« 0( ,""""'" 1A'as his fum "" his b<W_ inlefUlS .. ,ha, .... ,hc-n:f""" II is hardly l urprisin,. lhal he ..... "'" keen on ....., ptrinds 0( ..".. vice. e.-cquenLly re.;ruj.ina: beam< in<:nal.ina:!r difficuh .. ,he of ..-u "",,'cd furthc< from hon>t and lhe periods 0( campai,ni", beame""""" Those .. ho " 'CI'C ""'-nU,t(! .....,., fornC1 "Ci•• fing fOl" di 'Charge. T.,.... rds ,he end of ,he and cenlury BC Rom< became in volve-d in a Ioncdr."..,-ou, "... "llairu. ,he Sumidianl. This ...- u "'as so unattr"'1i~ lha, il boo<:am<: al"""" im~iblc fO!" Rome '" find any reauilS for her Iqionl . .\Uri ,he ROO'I¥l <:' '''" ul in charge 0( ,he ·ar.....nda I""",, dilfu:uh circumsta""es he thr~w lhe legions llpen lO any voluntee. whoroulddaim R"",..n c,.iunship, reprdl~ .. of ",hr,he. he ,heat...,.. 0" ....., '" ,.. ~""'"" ..",•• ." on ,.. I" _"'" AO """"""lI ,00 ptov..'>COI and , ~ .. " ol>I<' "", oJ.he """"",",61 AO n _ """"' Vospo, .." Itwo Syr.a" and o<>t Egvo'''''l """a <-om<>"g"'''lI '" J""..., 1>V""'Il<'Ow"' J....,.,. ""OI' R;9M 'l>OI"_ t ... cOllor!" ''''' ""'" ol C...., to. ""' ,.. "ovo been AI, Iag ;ona"a' ... naw "mod ,""," ' W{)O'~ o • OP',0, S T ~ w b'C • aM CT • "."'" """. C • e<>r" ,COll ",to "!J''''''' '" T H E R QMA l>; EM PI RE ownw J'rOI""' y. Tht poor tlocted '" ioin II>< legi"n" Far from """king an ""rl~' d,oehargc from II>< arm y' , they hoped 'ha' ,I>< proptT'tl. qualifialion had """" .I read)' con.odttobly k".... ...-.d. Hut ... did gi"e an "'= ~...- impo<1_ • ....,. ' 0 II>< vol un' ''''' , Already some ""'" had made rmy thei r carttr a; ",Idie. and <:\'n rion , Now .... onl)' "",lifiCl'ion ,,·,,'ha' of citizen.hip_ 1'1>< vol.. nt""r ~e ..lly f"J]o"'w II>< great gnK". . I• • nd idenl ified hi. fonu nco " 'ilh 'ho"" of h .. leader. Fon ....... " '","e made of plunder. nol f'll)'. and ,he man who had devnled hi. life In the arm~' had n" farm 10 ....hich 10 relu rn. T he ""reran of ,he , .. ~"n' .. ry IIC looked 10 his general !O pro,' ide him wi' h land on discharge. U nder lhe "Id .y.tem Ihelegion, were re--enro lled for e"e ry eam paign and Jug h Ihe)' " illl a< ci,;1....an tha' a soldier made anl~h,,,, from pay alone, It " -.. • •• t>ou, "tnt ,ha,. funda_ """'lal relhlnking ,he sha por 01 tl>< te-g;on Iiri. place, The manipleo of tnQnI .......... ised 10 II>< same strength .. . he Nul",i.nd priM!'" .nd coupled ..; th them 10 form cobort•. Thu. 'ht ,,'hole Iell:ion """. con.....ed of 'en c0hort. in.lead of)O maniples. Al'hoogh ,he !eg,on ....ained the phased commil ment to banle en.hrined in the old trIlln· ipular u.c.ico , tl> h. ve lo.t . ny s i~ n i fica n ce f'" Nule , The n.mes lived on, n<,","" heb s , hI identify centurions .nd crnturoe&, .nd in com p and ron.... II>< crmune. ....:te .. ill paired. After .1>< _U1 .... ar all 1t.1..". Imnl sout h of.he riyc. Po " 'ere IRnted Roman ritittnohip. Thi. mean, lhat diotin<:lion bet..-eoen Roman and allied IeJljono " 'as abolished, From ,hn. point one Iotgion means euctly ,,'hot it sa'" .nd does nol imrlYan equal number of ooId..... from ,I>< cities .llied to Rome. T h ~ .enJenq' t" eliminatc differenti- t'" , j I ,hi. .hou. '" Ition wilhin lhe legion and ber..-een legion and .aJ.a (Ihe legion of rhe allies' .....COlfM'd funht. by the disappearance • ....,. of ,he liJh...rmed uirmi.1ten (nli ' ...) .nd of rl>< Iegioonary ca,..JI}·_ The chanll" io .. gni"""t ; rhe old legion . "i'h ilt cavalry.nd the addirional CO"· alry of i<s . llied complement and lilin infanr ry . art illery . nd enginttn. had combine-d all arm' , ~"'" .lt hough rhe Iepon .... in """'" " ..'.. an eve-n more I .- A .... 01 ,'0...... "om .... Oom,"",~ . "'o<1.-....e1O<1 0.00_, _ _ " T a'" __,•• ... ~ ",,'n 'I'M' ".ad.,d 'OUM oh_ "'d no......"" • •, _ of nos ,.,~ 1"1>0.. I'OO"g '''''o<:''''C o~...,,, ""'d U",i' .."" '0 I"" "", " " PO'"oc.o l CO_fl , TN ge .,<.. '"bo''''' po,i."". • _ ,,,,, . n old.. m.n .1,_ 2_' T"" " "•• ""'" 100M oolow , ,," C.o,'01 I... Hd' ," R""" 1ho c,,,'. .. :2) and tho hOI""" 141 oanoo'Y(3) 01 t" .r. 'hooo 01 a "Po"'"Iv ' _ to<, Be \10""'" TO. oon,""on', F"" holt T HE E Ml' lIUi 140 IIC-AI) 200 AR M Y () R(l A ~ IS A T I O ~ efficieru in.rrumen, or ,,'at in ,he hand. or a ~niu ••uch '"' rhe re " "'" tasu ror which "'her asaiotance had to be oough" The IqI;IIln ,.,.. ., iU commanded by .i. ,nbunn. The offic'C h:ld . unk in impor,anc", oo,,'cver, In earlier dal~ i' h:ld been held bl' men .. >enio r as exCOJUul•• bu' il " ',", ""'" generally held Si~ , he lime of ,he Han nihalic..-;or Rome had u.ed ,he otandard milirary ~. y",,"3 men " '00 hoof>c'd 10 enrer lbe a .... ' e of .pcciali... of.he .\lc.:lnctnneafl_Cre_ Senare or ",I><> .im ply " .... mihtu)" hfe, The« " ""e only 1JO pIaceo Wi RaJe.ri,; ~ S umidian ligh' hone. Bu, "","' large numben of a J'ca r .. f'IdnI"" (mint m um .oae ] 0 ;' fo< ca. ...]!')' "..,..., ""IU,red, c.ev.r used ca.-- me n en,c-rins ,he S.:nare. As ,be", " "'" ma ny mote ,nhunn. ,be 'eu, all ""I...... alI')' from Gaul .nd Getmany. indudi"l!' trian. (t he 0C
<'Id ordn of lI.oman ama Ge rman ( and Sumid!an) .pcciali~·, canll')' ",;.h ligh, infanuJ ligh' ing tocrac)'), milfh' ,,;ml'l)' like the mili,...y life ; i' " .... poo., bk to SlaJ' in , he army' alongside ,hem. Spooin I''''''''ide<j ca....l " as .n ollk..". for many )"a", Abo.... the and inf.",,,. h<"h he..·y and Iigh. , rnbunn " "..., the p"'fe<.n , " 'ho might nne ..-e'" ,,,uri,,,. ""n-eu izeT1 and command ""nlry I.p.ae baggage ,rain, noI appoin'ed .i nglc "" m mand, (nut in on ])' ol fered • g",al teml" "ion 'he p.i.. likc the "'bunc. ), gencr,Ur to less enemy bUl al", .I" wed do"'n the army. permanent po'i'iun' and ar the will of Marim made ' he leg iunary rurry hi, the w m mander. Sef\'k. a, trib une and e,sent ial . upp lie, un hi' back an,j be- prefect f,,' med naturol "epping >lone, cause of ,hi, legionarie. !>eeame kno wn ' he nex' ".ge, I,,,aw,, as 'Marius" mute, ' . Baggage trains wer< The loRa'e ",-- •• nu,malty • 'enator, nor ehmina' ed, bu' , hey wcre ",du,'cd whieb in tbe 1•• t "emu.y "f th. re publi,' in ,ize and belt er ' egulated me.nt he muor ., Ie... ha"e held 'he ea.:-, ",.1 ."'hen. _"""'1> '0 '0 '0 ifII'Ji""'. mag-i........, · of l.i ke '" man)' of 'he pooto in t he Roman . rmy i' had bccl in exi"e~ • lone li me, The ngh' 10 appoint men ,.,I><>m powen and reopomibilitin mig h' be delegated ( , he .....e ..._ d_fOOI •• kp'e) " '.. nonnaIly gnR'ed 10 • oomrnandc<, Such men den"ed theil powen from 'heir com ~ mander , The lop,... of Pompe)' and Cac.at formed • 'ilh' group of experi_ enced 1Oldien. for the ~ part , , hougb 1ODSC1i rnn, .. wi'h 'ribu....... leu su it.ble peopk " "..., liven . ppoin'me n.... Icgat.. for poli\iCll rcuoru;, (::acr.a. of'en p" e a lega,e w mmand of • legion. or numlsenof legion . , or of rhe luxiliary a .... lry, or .. >me ocher c harge, There permanen' rel.,ionship of Ieg.,c legion . bu' .ueh mcn ""re et...-Iy more . ui ta blc 'han , be trin"n.. of Caesar'. da)' to unden ake leading the legion onwar, The con,,,I, had ,ueceeded the king '0 w., "" '0 Bolow A "0"" I,,,,,, T"J. n', Col umn ,~ow , n~ 'O\Iioo"i. , . "". t\C I,,~ wl>d..... , .,i..i.. ' r"" ' ~i on or ... or. u , ,~ w lC<.r b"k. .. ,,, '."""'. ,"" .' ''0I,,,,,, 'M """Co r"" w. n " .".. of 'uri ", TH Ii ROMAl" EMP IR E 5 • commal'lden-in-d,id". Norc lhot pl".aI-lhot republic did nO< know. ~nlt~ com...... irl. n<:qJt in tM direst eme,gency. E" cn in Ihc f....., of Hann' N ] the consulo continued 10 change annually. bUl in addilion 10 the ••min lhey rai.ed or lo"k <>Vel" olhe, armies we. e kcpt in being under ex_ magiotrat e. , con. ul' or p, ""tor•. wh",t author;ty wa, t X1C nd~ ,,, This ox'enoion of . he """""" of lhot oertior magi"ra'es PfO\'C'd t he ca.icol .... .). of providi ", """",",,,," f"" .he pro" i""", Rome hotpn.o lC1_ ltag"t to h"ld him in theck. Cae,a, w " , , uc h a pmc"n d,." r"'mn",,,",,,-uCi ".. ~kkH ('. ."I for len )....... wilh 'en Iq)ont.. mJ lhen lu"",d WNI had bttorn<- hi5 01'I-n army ap,m. Rome. kill;"'" of I h ~ early prlncl ... ,~ T he legion of , hot <'ally ~mP1 re w". nor very d ilf=nl f.om ' hal of Cac<ar'. ,im•. Cn h"n, I I" X .. ill <:<>ol ained around SOC> m~n each, or~oni,.d inw <en' urie' of about &l m.n . 1I"w ,i. T H E E M I'I RF. ' 40 DC-AD 200 ARMV O RGA~ISATlO :O; COhOrt / II 120 i"",..,,_~ ,,," _"""",,,,'0' "'''''.'. e" hort was e xpa nd~d of citiz.ns in 'he p"",i nc~,_ ,ons of 10 abo ut 800 m. n xnd r""rgani sed inlO l~gionar i .s, xuxiliaries' sons whose five im'ead of ,ix e~ntu ri~" A{{ ach~d fat he" had gained the ei t i z~ ns h ip for to the l~gio n """r. 120 1K",em~ n who their child",n and me n from Ih~ comgran'ed dti2ens hip _ who aC1~d a, seOulO and di' p;ltch rid~n . This mun i"es brough, ,he: manpo....er of the l ~ g i o n up ....ere prep,ared to ~,in up , Iraly gO! off lightly. New legiun, ....ere t" be rai..,d abou' S,500. The Iqion, con . inued 'u be re<:1' ui, ~d 'he"" bu' in p,".1iee thi. rarely ha pexdu,ively from Roman ci' ''eus. Ct'i_ z.... hip had b«n ,...n,ed.o .JlIt. lions ~"'" Many uf.be I"t!;'.." origino'ed in 'he at ,be end ol ,he "'PUbl ic, and .....s rival arm,... . pa lO'ned hy.he 10 )...... of ,pt'Cadinll >lowly in tbe ",-.;... Spain .~,'il ...-.r ,ha. rage d berlO=n SO and }O and 'o.." .....n e.. ul, and Ihe ol d ' provin- roc. roo- 'bi' Teao<>n """"" Je-eiunary numcia- ( P ""'e "",,j, made notable con' ri- be......'" duplic.'ed ( tbere: ..'ere: ""-1u_ butions to the Iegjom in the W""ern ally .h"", 11" rd Iqinns ). When. kgiun P"""~, In .he F.... ' recrui.ing . ",.. dn'royed ,he nu mber " 'as ltevet ~ problem .. Roman ci.izenship noed ocai n. The t h,..., A ' an Jeg;uns spread ther. in .he.-mt"""-y. H.... it .... XV II . XVI II .nd X IX, hidt were .....omary for non-ci. iuns 10 be ..- dn,royN a. T eu.oburge",,-aJd in AD >}, cnnted in,o .he Iq>ons, bc1ng ,...n.ed " ............... replac..-d . T he numben ran from I to XXI I. T ... jan adJed a XXX, ci'izenship "" .nrolmen,"Ibere ........boo. }O of the>.e Iegiom hut u'et \ ' es pasian empcTon te nded <0 ...-ltic:h ,he ., eam of .be army. number""'" Ic:gions I to II I ; aI oneti me Their job ",.. primarily' OIf~nsi,·~ an d there: ""i:k fi,·c Ic:cio.... numbered I II. th. .. ...... brought in, o ,he field roo- fue· L"gio.... had na ..... a. ,,'~II as numbers, titer oonq ....t, to pur dt"'·n. revolt or T hese miglll date Net . u ' he ir beglnto re",,1 an tn,-..ion, ning> or be gi"en for valuu r in banle or These Jo-odd lellion" retained OUt luyally .u the em""ror of the man)' I.gions of 'he civil wa "" we.. now to ha v•• ""l1\'Ulnen' existence The life o f . legIon ary A Iegionar)' had lu be a Ruman citizen, M~ n ~n li" ed for. fixed ""rind of yea"" and v"lun '"".. we" pr<:e" gi,'e n the citize nship ,. rv. in the un its at Rome de"'rihed on enrol men!. t f ho h. d ,h ~ opport unity below, Bur tho.. ",as • growing nu m!:>« he wOll ld he wi' e '0 hri!l~ a Idt ~r uf C~nl u ry AI> the 1i"'1 '0 ...-= .~- A tot. til ooo""v A D !egooo on po,_ " ThO ~ .WO "'0"'" e""",," 1",0 . ., <:ohort """ f"'" 0 ••'''..... 0/-." ,&0 ..... """ the _ _ "I ._0-_ _~_ T· _ .."" C · ~ .... . . - rn:ommendation. If """""P'ed he received " small .um of money '0 = tra"elling expenses to the legion. When he amwd at ,he run..... he took rite mili,M)' .... h . He ..... 'hen posted tu a centUf)·. 11M: oath wu r :""". Vear', o.r. The ..... recrull """Id need much 'raining and e x ~ before he could be reckoned . he "'lual of ,he '~CTan Iegiu""r)'. ll e mil>! be taugh, mareh : during h" ~..,.n of "'rvioe he lO"nar)' had '0 drill une<: a da}'.) fie ..... gi,'~n • g~ neral training in stune slinging, s...-imming an d riding , H. Ie.rned hi,... '0 n ul' on to horsehack and tn mount and di, moun, fU lly . rme d, with shield, from ei' her , ide _ qui'" • fe." hefur~ stirrup. appeared. .0 '" THE ROM AN EMPIR E For weapons tr aining . st . ke . bou t th e height of a man WaS set up. The recruit Wa' . rmed wit h a wicker shield and wooden sword , bolh of twiL"<: Slandard weight, and allacked lhe Slake, learning to thru't and not slash with his ,word . Once t he fu ndamenmls had been instilled , mock oo.ttles were arranged for which hCllh sword . nd pi lurn had their point< covered to avoid serious .c<;ident' . Pay had been raised by Ca e,ar. It wa, not raised "8ain until the tim c of Domi_ ' ian 150 years la,er, and then there was • further gap of a century befo re the next inerease, The pay was ahout th rc"" times that of an auxiliary infa nt ryman, .l! houg h ' he auxiliar y ca,'alryman' s pay may ha,'e Ix;en d o'e to that ofthe legionary infantTyman. Latge monetary .wards were p.id after a vicwTy, or when a new em pero r came to the th ronc. T hese ri.e, and gift s (donatives) are often eritiei-ed by historians. but as opport unities for booty dwindled , omc o(",.,iona l supplement s to pay might wen be necded to make army Jife attractive , Soldiers C although w ld icr' adorncd thc;r armour I" ith gold and sil\'e r Savings were d ~posited with the ' tandard bearers, who han d led ray and savings in addi tion to thcir otheT dUlies. Some were C('I mp u l,ory - de d u~ tion s whi,'h were set off against debts for food etc., or half of any donative' to be kep t for the ,ol dier against the day of t etirement , An official regulation stated that " ,ldiers were nm allowed to marry , and enlistment wa' on e for m of divorce . I n fact soldiers contractc d marriage' which were techniCltlly illegal but a~ecptcd a' binding by the prople most concerned , The ,;oldiet could leave his prope rty to his ' wife' b y will, which C stayed on with tbe legion for four years but h.d some privilegc' and th~ir dutie' red uced, But the strain on t hc 'pc,'ial trca'ury created to pay gratuitie' on di,~ha rg e wa, such thaI , ervice was extended to 2 0 ordinary plu' fivc a, veter_ an, and even 'hen disch arge was delayed. Thi, bclped to provoke the mutinies on the dea th of Augustus. Concession' mode then were soon rc" oke d and ser,';ce hccame 25 or 26 years , The idca of part of thi' bei ng a, veterans with limi· ted dutie ' seem, to have di,appeared in time , G rants in land tended to die out in tbe 2nd L'entury ~D_ ~.'he n 'hese took the for m of settlement of groups of soldier, ;n military colonies they were unpopular, as soldieTs pTd erTed to , ett le down dose to their old ba, e" and land was not ea,;ly "" mc by . [n IIritain two old legionary forlTes""., G I"uL-eSln and L in.'Ol n, hccame mili tary colonies in the " t ~ cn t ury ,\]), Each legion had three main lypeS "f sIandard, The aquila (eagle), whie h had been inlroduced by ,\hriu " wa. the . tandard of lhe whole legion, By Cae' ar' s timc it wa, made " f silver and gold, lI e low TM " " "'09 o' 'e9'ooa,y 'oc'ui" ," ''"' ". quima "a. Ba'iOe' m " c~ ;og, t"" roc'uits w<", ", go, ' 0 , i ~ . , ho<se fullv a'"""",, • TH E EMPIRE 1040 IIC-AD 100 AR." ' · ORGA~I SATlO~ l.ft . "d b.l" w bUI during Ihe em pire il " .,,, made en· lircly of gold. The ca~le never lefl cam p unleu tbc .. hole legion 1lC'lOMibilily of lhe KTUor ~n IUrion (pri-.- piJIH). The'" " " '" $li11 $Ian< zodiac. There "Off aI.., . pccial lbgo. called w xlJl4. One hc_ Ion&ed 10 the kgion, bearing ito name, and ol hen " " '" used by dcla<:hmc nts ",.-ving away from .he logion, giving 'hem Ihe name of vexiJ111 i"n, . "I'he 1",1", el rry ing lhe ..andard. were poinl ed al the boItorn ..., lhey could be .. ""k in the ~ and Ilsohad handJe>; ...;th ....hieh to pull th<m up. I n I ron lhe OIlnd."" ........, k epl in lhe . hrine ,n tbc pnNf""'. Religion " .• • • povI-.:t!ul infl......,. on tl>< life of lhe legionary. A . a I{omln ci,i.en he w i . expected 10 honour Ih" go,h of I{omc, p."ieullrly the g"d' of the Capitol, ] upitcr, J uno I nd M iner va. Tbcir ,,",,"hlp incorpoute<>lditn, aJona: ...ilh 1I'1t old tnd"ionaI f""ival. orlhe cil}" of Rome. Another Important element in Ihi. official ",ligion Wi' the worship of Ihe ..andl rd" In m<>pel. ; in II>< Roman Irm)' the ."">dard ..-as I cult .ym bol and irs t.- mi gh. mean . he d,.bandlng or the un" . Finall)' then: ..... ~ to ,he em peror and ,,",," hip of the andemperor. , Their binhday., a<: of f... t . he em pero... " " re .u per men. 1111' the "ffieial religion, a"",,,,ialed ...ith Ihe head""."e... . hr ine and rhe parode gro und , only ponly met a ma n', o«d•. lie woul d have hi. own and' , I favouri re ew..lCIland ( R oJCfIIn godo had been identilKd ..-j, b d>c Grm godo. ...·Ito " -en: much moce .hatply defi ned ). Local god ' " 'er-.: also Ito"""r-.:d by the "oldie.., and Ihey " 'e", de..ly powe.. to be reck"ncd w;l h on ' heir """'1'" 1 Port"' 'd '00,," .' IIoon A......... he> ",8om t_ .....,..,"'._ ,t..... .... _ on t._ ', ~ CoIunw» J --..,.,.,., '" .., ...,.. _ ........ - . . '" Go-.. lol..... • 'Io<:onoIr'-"'-' QI _ 5 ... . t«I _," 0 ......,.., _ ""x_ _ f gWt -.,...,.110 Mu....."'. !A<>'''il'''' e A " Q;on e, p"eOtn. lound ., w_ " "'bO',' . 1or> -- . ",-- " 1 • Pont"." ~ ono '" 11>0 NgIn "'" I>r e'....... on ~3 Be Nom t,," ...... '" , .... p".,. Po """,Mil<. "" T,."n'. Col"mn , cod v.,...... • An "'I/"d.., , "0"", on ., THE ROMA S EMPI R E 0" 11 ground . Ofren they were identified in the soldier'. mind with god. of . imi" lar charac'trri" ic, .J rn dy kno"n to him, Som e rt'li ~ion, made thoe lu m p from loo:;.al eult to em pirt'" wido ...,Iigio n Amona the ooIdien .""h ....,re lhe " "{II"" .hip of Jupiler DoIi"hm ..... orig"..II)' • Syrian 10(1, and lha, of M ilhras,.1so from lhe bu., lI~i " fi. m• • nd in ~ny ~ . .. Ih ere wa, Ihe tr e" mendou s horr ier of the otlkial military rt' Ii~iou. colenda r, in volvinil' I he worship of pag~n god•. A llnlll dernen. was underlying ,u rer " stition, fear of.he ",'il eye, of witch<:rafl and ill-Iud: , l:nderly;", .11 rt'lipous belief, i• • hows i"df "hancteriSlic:ally in ert' mu", have bettI lime 10 ,'i,i••he ", her atlrOCli" ", of ,he d,-il ""n lement, which 'prong up " u"ide e'Ver y legion.ry fort rc" .nd which Wa, ,·irt u. lly . garri ,on town. There w,., M "'ttkend, 1m , pre.umahly thoe greal fe." ,i~.1> of lhe military Cliendloe included ><>me leisurt'. Lea.>"e ..... gran'cd , _ " times in return for a bribe, and a bla nk lea,.., pus (on pot'ery) has been found. Probo.hly ,he bat h""""'- ........ convenicnt pb<-e 10 galher, From rhe mid111cem ut}' M>N lh- I>ou... see m to been provided fOI legi"nary for "C1Isa, and they also hecame "andard for ~ux iliar y f",n, T he;' offered " Cam bath, and dry heat rooms, Th••team ha'h. we lerm ' Turki, h' are descended direcdy from ,I>osc of Rome Ihrough Con_ .tantinople. There ..... also provision for exerrisc , A later """elopmeru "'. dub room. for junior officers' dub<. An amphi' trt' ..... abo ptOYided outside ..:II., bUI " 'hether {hi. ,.... . he fo r" used for driU and ,,!tidal o<:x::a. Km. rather ,han ror gladiatorial comh. to i, no' d"ar. hi,.., The officer; A legionary signed on f" r as yean , I~ e might hope ,,, ri"" to the l'lm k of « n_ luri"" in thi.lim• . T he c..,n' urions wert' ,he only officers who pe,mane ntly commanded legion:ories under lhe kgionary c:ommancler. All the highee olfi'incialll""ernoo., IIlo:>uVI no _ , """"1" ponr...-, ""'fC"'" _ . ,.ho, pont"';'" andpiJ... "..,.,. The num· ber of the COhort was pla.oed befon: ....h name, for example d«i_ Io<>""',,, por.eribr, a traditionallitle which in IH,ieal Roman fa, hion t ee.U, the long-dead manipular le ~ io n . Pre, umably the Cen_ ' urion wilh , he greatest ..nimi'y commanded hi. cohort, l hough th is i, left obscure. A c:entu rion might . pend hi. whole , ime in ,he army in ,hot: same legion, but i' "'...,; pos.sible ' 0 chlnge k gion., oflen " 'hm bodies oi men ....,rt' being Innd et'l'Cd, perhaps to make up heavy 100.... of ..ained ,roops, as after the Boudi ca ,..,bellion in 6 ., T hen • .ooo men were . ent to bring Ih e badly m. uled nimh up to ' trenglh , Some centurion, ,eryed in a num l>el of legion" T he movement of office" was a sign ifieam fa" tor in ' he spread of new religions , A centurion could easily be rttO@:n,Kd by his armour ....hich w. silvered . He ""'"" grea , which had fallen out of g<:ner.oI , and the: ernt of hi. bdmet ..... nrrned i, nn I}' acros.lhe Imet . H ......".d s """'" on rhe left an4 hi. dagger on the right, whic h i, , he opposite to ,''''''' of lhe legio nary. T hi. ha, led some poopie to . uggest th.tl he cent ut i"n, uid n", uroe I h. cur ved .." r"", a. il would have been e ~tremely di/ficull 10 dn.... lhe .""""<1 from lhe Idt . Thi, wu c:enainly oor ,he """" in Cacur'. day : .' ,hot: siege of l>lo".hadUuma centurion named s..e.. ....hilst 'tytng to defend a redoubl received 1:10 holes in hi••hield (c.:sar expllcilly u'" , he ""{II"d ....r"m ) and is pro moled from the eighlh cohon '" 1" ;"'''' 1',1". for his gallantry, Centurio ns were oft.n hrulal; many a legi"nary could sht,w ",a.. on hi, back from Ihe ..,n.ur;"n's vine CIne ("''''I. This rt'fte<:1ed the ..,nturion'. di..iplinllt)' role, They .....,...., expected to be I>anh di"Opli""....... and in mu,i";'" ,'''''' ...... rhot: pnmt: lMge1' for ,he men', vengeanee. On the ",her hond, it m"" be poin,ed out lhal in defeat lhe om. urio", .uffered. di.proponiona,el~' he~v y I"""". fllr , hey we' . picked as men who would "a nd rheir ~", u n d to t he end. l .cnturion. were not ahove takin, hrihes from Ieg;onaries who wished '0 .void ....... duty_ hyntoen. fo.- ..... made by soIdiet's to lheir eenlluion.1.-l bec:ome "" firmly estahli.bed that ...... lhe empe1'<Jl' fd. u""hIe ,n pu' I "or 10 i. for fear of aliena,jng . he O.,,,uriom. T he em pe-ron Iherefon: """",..,d ,he on", from .he men by [>livi ng rhe centurion. direc" , thus , ecuring Ihe allegiance of the army T he first OOOOrl was divi ded in to 6"e ,hi, ",di.,,,, 10<>"",,,, POS'""'" /taJ,,,,,,,, T H E E M P I RE ' 4<' aC-AJ) 200 ARMV ORGANISA TION dream of ""C1'Y lqionary, but 10 manj ' il was unattainable .. lhe to.lle 10 i' through . ... cemurionale demanded tdunlion and admini"rati~ abili,y "" ....,11 .. courage. The rank ..... held r.,.. ooe )'eU ar,er ...m.;,h . he cen'urion eit her "",red or rrMWed on 10 beloer dUngs. The mInimum ace .... llOfTtI'l1ly 50Some ..... n KfUd for owr 40 years .. soldier and cen,urion ,,-;.holI. e-= n:aching , he dizzy heigh.. of .... prirnipib,e , Reti<emml brouahl ..i,h " a luge gratui'y anrU. The pn_"ua>" formed an an$,octac y of mililary sen/icc. PJon>oove Ihe c.nturi" na« was • gTOUp of se mi_profe••i""al officers. The tribune. came lir ... The..., wer. "ill six of ...... to each legi"n. T echnically ,hey "" ere all ,quiW, but the senior ranking Ia",lut;i... WUf' the broad band "'hieh .ho.... d lha' he " 'as accepted • • a candidate ror th. Se nate ; the ",he,.'fi>.., tri bunes ...-ore Ihe narrow purple band. The , ......... lolielav<... would be under J j , ,he m,n,m"'" ac' for "",enf\ll lhe Se....... _ .... , The tribunate """"ld have been 1''''''' 10 him by the pnwinciaI ...."ttIlOf, "'M mi&h' be a ...,ta.ive, or poosibty in 1np;>nK .0 a requeu f rom the Inbu...•• friend' .,.. polltrom-Ihc Roman,.",.1d ran on a reo:<>(I:nited 'oI dboy The ,..... 1alidat>W "uu1d ha,'. no pret'iou' militaf)' experience, and would Iea>'e . ... armj' af' er one ,our of duty (rarely mOTe) of perhops one or lwo yean '" begin hi' career in . he Se nate. Ten yean later he might ret urn to th••r my to command . kg;<>n, as ".., .hall see. T he live other ,ribunes, h.d a different car«r , B y Ihe middle of ,he znd century An il wo. cu stom' l)' for on "",,,,tid u,,iw h",'e olr~ady ",,"'cd OS r ed""t of on auxiliar)' infantry regimem, A. he mi~hl well have " Tved a, , eni"r m.gi,,,al~ "f hi' h"mctown 0' .0 .s ,Tibwru. - " • , Abo". _ ''lIM <>On'"' ' ' 1 T... , _ 01 ,... T Col....... "'-u' 0' ....'.,., XV Apoili"."r ,""""," ..... CU""'. ~._. ,,,"'..... c<M ' ed ....'''''', ' rod """ co"" , f.om C..n",,'um K u~"h;""" . L, nde , ,,,,,' "" m. Bon~ 3 To" ~ of, ,,""' /";/'If'''' """'" of ;'0" , no b ",,>d.. ~,- " 0..., ........ ,"11 ,.. ~- .."""',"'" '- ' fOf ,.. ~"'''",'''''' 01 a laQ_ , "" _ ,ut,.,.,. 01 """"'" 1.tO , _ '" _ ,,,,. Out probobIy ~od ..... _ .,.......'" _ _ wo, '" _ " " _ _ 01 ,.. I"" _ _ hom ......... ""'" _ 10 _ '-- '0 0:":' I~ .~ ~.~ .s: PO'''''''' pJw , , • net""""" . ""!i"""I,,,,'' , , -- IH.o.I"u, ~ "O" .""r ._. , • , • • . -•_.• -., -_. ~H....M •• '" THE ROMA~ E M PI RE ." 1 ~.., •• before appoi n,mem (minimum age 25 or 30) , he would he an older man wi,h some military experien"' , I n the mid_ 2nd "'ntury there were only 13 1 ,'aca ncie, a, kgionary trihune for approKimately 2 70 w mmander, of 'h e 5oo-" rong infantry or mixed auxiliary regimen," , enab ling governors to avoid appointing men wh" had proved to be incom petent, The be st of the 2]0, , orne 3 0 ' 0 40, would have been appointed by the em _ peror 10 command 1,0000StrOng infantry and mixed cohot! s, T he future career of anguSlicla,'e tribune. will be refe rred '0 under the w pic of cavalry . I n the legion th ey had adm;ni"rative , es ponsibilities, bein~ " ",cerned primarily with the tr oops welfare an d daily rout; ne a, duty" lfico" , Above the tri bunes was the lega' u, lel!'om" who was a senator appointed to hi, po, i'ion by , he empe' o" not by the provincial governor. He would normally be a man in hi, thi" ies, who ha d prob abl y served as latid. ve tribune ten year, 0 ' ' 0 earlier but had h. d nOcontact with ,he arm y , ;n.." In some pro\'inces he might combine the comm.nd of • l e ~ i o n with the post of p, ovincial gO\'er_ nor , thoug h in this ca," he would norm_ ally have .Iready c'ommanded a legion d .c whcre. He wou ld lean heavily on his centurions , panicul.rly his pr mlUs pilu" but even mo,e on a new olflC"et CTeated hy the fir" emperor, Augu't"'. Thi s wa, the camp prefect , a man who had already bee n a prim us pilt<, and h. d come direct ly from , hat pOSt lt 'i xt;e" with a, man}' a, 4 0 yea" in 'he k gi"n; behind him . Helow the centurionate were all the posts and tr ad.. necessary to keep a le~ io n operatin~ , of which Ovel 100 ate known , Thele were few dist ;ncti"ns ba, ed on pay The fir" privikge a post <>I tlade might ca,n was immunil}' from fatigue; and ot her burdensome dutie, _ a man beeame an immt Abo.e A ' 0000"'001' 0 0 or ' 0 au, ,,i,,y or ,ho ' YPO most co",",oolv ,,,p'"'oo on T"ioo', Col"",o H. 0 ma.1soi".M. h'ome c"'" b' llCed helm. t, wll iee" " , od''''"e w"'" ' M ' b. y 'ought .n mue" tho ""'" "" no", ,, 'hO log'oo", Aux;, ia" un its " "" . 0, iOOO311,' 'po" " i",o tn "'" p,ov;nco, H. i, "me . nd E.".," ",che" T H F. f. MI' I Il.E ' 40 Be_AD 200 ... II.M\, O R GA~ ISATlO:"l >a,'ing., ~nd helow him , he "PI"', who 'nok ",'e' if ,he cen,unon fdl and ,.... ~r<>bablj' n-.. ,,,,,,,erne.! ,.·"h ' rolining, The-... " 'on both on duuNe pay, ~nd ,he 1n0 ,.. • compk'ed b~' ,he on ' I Ply . ,.,hoK or,S'",,1 rnpoo."bdi,ie> "-en: pri",..,paI1y ~ned ,.i ,h guard du,ies, The "",.:In" m each or!Ktt'••ulJ,.-as ,he _jia.." ..., l"enoll~' ,hot bn>cll'ed ...... as , he ~1 'hough' mas a gift, ... btw/i04...... ,. allaChcd all otIi~ ....... bu' onIl' ..,niur olfla,rs. do"'n '" Ihe .-ank of ","4"'''' ,...,........... had a """"OJ........., ..."" headed , he ,.Ti'ing _ olfla, "'hich deah "'lI h ,he: copious 110' " of documen t. , h.iI. a.1cri.,ic of Ihe R"" maO army. The H.o"",n arml' &eocrated an enormou. number of documents, Many oflhne. " 'nllen on papyru•• haw been found in tile M iddle f "" t, From ,he,e we can id"ntify d,,,,umen" relll,ing 10 the medical . u mina' ion of r.CTui". di,palch "f re>:rui" 10 their uni", dut y r""ers , daily r""",d, "I' wa",h~ wot .I,. h"ad,! Uart".. g u. rd., depa rlUres. a"ivol. , and ",,' oal ."englh of the unil. Annual return. w"n' in tu R"me , how _ ing both perman"nt and '"mporary ,...,. '0 accn>;OllS and o.n and ' ho: number m effecti"es i.. WI' com piled for each ""'n, i",ludlng hi. pay and sa "inlt' r au..ri). '>'!.m y IqJonuICS mia:h, be ~ ' b< .......·in.;;.ol to"('n'IoI}r'. oIIkc to fonn an adtIi' ionaI >talf lhe<e, including the .~........, , n """, ionersl, _ _ ''''''''"' (tun uren) . nd j"'-"larU (in. d lige ncc oIfi<xn). 10..,."... (JJIIg1tIar... ) "'ere al00 ~';dc-tI. The pital (.,..J~,...Ji""ri_ ) had II . n"' n If under ,he OP'IO ,-ak,...J"""", T hn.e " "OUld include bandagets and m"di... l ordrtl"'" (a , {>",ni and _did ). T h" re " "rc ' peeiali" offi""" , u" h • • d.." t.. rs (0.1", called ",.d id ) .nd ",~hll«li_ In I he H.om an ""tid Ihe laller pc.formed . he job of ,u",eym•. huild"... en~jnccrs and 'rlil · IeTy "ffi,. .". an ,1 liko tho d,><.-" '''' thero seem to have be"n men .. r dineri ng Tanks wit h th" ,am e ti'l" , There was .1", a mass of ". de,men. wor k", in ""ne , limber. Itl. " and ti k Thoogh there . ""m' h> h.,·" been. generous .ll<><""ion of or, iller y to the kg;.. n. any .pc",oli.o';"" in iI. oper.t;on wa< not rell ""'ed in lilies . Building and re pai,il1ll lhc " • •i"u. "ng;ne'" wa. a and hi, ta.k for 'he Finally', there ....e..., 'ra-i.li" "... rinar)' officers ' 0 loo k afte. , hot I.gion '. anll" .I. , Originally .uprnn" .u' hunty' had r..,ed ,,·;th , he kll1ll: ..... then ,.it h the con,ul., ""ten.kd 11) C""'CT procon. ul. . I't&e'un and proprac',,", They had .. milar 1""""'" e"""J'{ prac and l"''Pr''''"n n nked below· con.ul> and ptt>C'<M\>..I. if 'Mi. annie> "'f"Cnted in combination, Thel' had POW'" 0\' " cttuen. and """-ei';.e,,, in pea.. . . nd ,n " 'lit' ; J"U...,I~· milit. C)· .uthon ,)' ,.,os unkno'...n. ...bo\'e ,he Icgionarj' Iega,es came only- ,hot emperor pr0consular pow , ,.."""" '~i"",,' (. p h• ..., ..f . ..' ho. i'y) included of , he: prO\';""". (It""ltraphica.l di ,ioion.) containing 'ro(Iro, .... l'ompe ~' and Cae_ 50r h.ild on,:e <1<"'e, he <:<>nln,ll" d hi. pro,-inc.. by al' p<,inling l'Il. 'i, who had 'he p<,we" ..f I" 0l',oeto... (l' Ii"" Auga"i prQpr.",,,. ). t" take "harge "f 'he individual pro,'in,-"" Ea"h " f Ih" ,,, was the ,uprem" milil.r~' and civil .o(h" rily in hi, p"",inee, c'"",rolling the le to leave Ihat '0 ."'hi,,,,,,,. ".If I..,.. ;,"... 'ha' "" Ii mos, ,~~ A d',"","", m _ at IW<> t>I"". P"l&. ,,"Oed ""'h " "9' . "",.0".,. l ""n g"OI;og c« ;zsn'h ;p '0 M" cu' Spft p.m 'i",.. "II h i. '"rm of scn';",,-on nerage ' hn:e ~'ea,..-uunc I" an end, The p",.,-i""". ",,,,, divided broadly be",,,,,n 'ht>sc Mid before lhe consula'e .nd ,00.... .ft... In lhe lim: ca,~ ,."", pnn'incn " 'i, houl legion. and prom x n ",-jlh ~ lqinn, oormall~ held by' men In ' heir la,c ' hinic-> had al",ady comnunded Iegions _ p"'\'l"""" hotld .t'er 1M <X>n.uIa' e migh l hold ,...." '" fon' Icpon.. and men reached ' hem oflen in ' heir carly to mi ddle foni... L:nder ,he em pire men tended '0 rn 1""" n.. ~'OtInll: ag ... Thc . u " m a . y IIni" The term ....xilr.. was applied 'o.U uni .. other ' han the lca::i"n. and ,lie old alii"" It ineladed " a"ol,y and aU ' H"'. (" unit< "f , imil. <size .nd or gan_ i..ti" n, <: "n"" (eq" i/e'). T he,e units , whic h we, e called c<>ho"•• came to he m,>tlcllcd on the legi"n_ ar)' "ohorl. i,e. "X c" nlurle.- oommanded by ",n'urion. _ ond oon.istinll: of .bou' sec men . T he ir equipment bct:~m e " andard"ed. and " n Tr.jan'. Column the auxiliary infan tC)· fight in much , he sa me roan""r a> th" legio naC)', Archen " "re . lso formed inlO cohort.; .hnltCn con"nued 10 he used. ,hough .p patcnrl~- in "'para.. f", mo(ion •. In ,he >e<:ond half of , he ' u "" mul)' ~ D bia:gcr ,·eniun. of Ihn.e IIni.. ,.'CCC inlrod",-.:-d,.' .ht>tll , he same lImc 'M lin. cohort ,n.1c-pon .... ""'-TCaOCd ;n .ize, "!be)' ,.-en: composed of 'en centurin. OOI'rnpondinl lhe double ""nlum of , he ...,modelled finl Ieg:ion_ 01)' co/s"... "me aUJ(ililC)' cohort. " 'er" origi nally T>li se,J In the p..o.,·i...,.... Some " 'ere ptlS,.-d .""~', bu' othen " 'er. SI."Oned d ose hom". moo, I'IUllI.blj- on the II.hi Ole, A dangero u. m utl" j'on the Rhine during the " ivil wor of6<,l1ed ' 0 " ransfer of uni.. . ,,'oy f,,' m I h., .rea, bOl lhe new on• • ,,,.ming in "'etc ~cpt up lO 'lrenglh by l"c.l rccru i,in,. "'hieh Was "u't"m.,;, for the ~uxilia e"c rywhere in the " m!,i"' , Only for the ,peei.lis! orienta.! "reher. were recruits , oughl ;n the lan d, wh~re (he uni" were origi naily r. i 00' 'ha' '0 Ii,.., '0 "; T HE RO MAN EMI'I H.E only' I'd~1' to the orig,naI.1ft of"""",i,· ~,. Iklow ,lie r.onk of ct'm"ri':m tlie au~· iliar}' cohort had a .imilar bUI .i mpl~ 1' ."...."Iu,.., 10 tha' of ,h~ legion. The cen· 'urion. were drawn fn'm the ranJ:.s and ,!""nl 'hei' live.;n Th~ ..m. unit , Thi' w. , comm. nded hy . n eque." i. n pro ' the fir" "ep in • ~aroer whi ch mi~ ht lead him. vi. ' he le!,i"n' r}' tr ib· unale ' " • command nf • ,ooo·stw ng auxili. r}· ~n hnrt, to. ca,'.lry comm.nd He ,,~ Id come tn ,he army f.....h from ci,·ili.n life, po..iblj· af'e r holding the ..,n,or 1tt.af'lS('>. The ~ ,,'as in , he JI"In' of , he prm·incialllO'-=-. The larger unito "....., commanded bl' ,rtbtl"'" ,,'ho had prnieJ on I r-air of bronze .heel> known a. I J,pi""",. Hu nd red~ "f ~xamplcs ha,-e been fou nd. and ' her al<' ,he mai n """ree of our kltO"'ledge of ,he .""jl;'r}· uni... T he . ux,li.r" inflnTry_ man "'as. proboobly paid onll' about. 'hi'd of ,....mowu lhot a Iqponar}' fttoeived. Like the Iegiononn, I'" auxiliat" sol· ..h~-n " ....., not .110....<'<1 l<, marry. How· C-VC', ,~. did form I",'ing I.oociltion> w hi~h W~I<' I<'g.rd~d "' marria~ by In con~~rned. and ' he emperor .""ep,ed Ihi' by gramin~ dt izen, hip ,,, 'heir ~hi l · ..lr~n as wen as to the a u ~ i l i aries th~m _ ", Iv~" T heir " m, w~", Ihu, em ;,led 10 enli" in the leg;on. , ,hou~h ,hey m; ~ h , prd.. ;o;n ' Ilei' fa,h.... I<'gim.n.. Du, ing . he znd cen' ",y I'" num be' of ci'izens . nli"ing in ,h. ,;uaili~ gr ....· .. ~i1r· c.'·IIr}· had .t.....)". b«n , he "...n.., hnk in lhe Roman .rm}' and many ha,,1n ""... Iool "". dire<:! "",,,It of Ihis, Hannibal'. Sr-anish, ("..ellk and African cavalry ...- cr. ,he kC'l' 10 hi. \'ie1otic:> .l T.-.bb,und Cannat, d n ving , he Ro..... n and h . lian cav.l ,y riKht olf ,he field of hau l. and leaving ,he flan k. ope n to a devastating attack by hi, pikemen. AI_ lh" UKh Sc ipio m. de Rrea' u'" nf lh~ Nu m;u;an. _ ,hc key foct" , in hi. vic· r.."."' '0 '" s 101')' O"er H. nniba.l - the Romano eon· 'inlloO:'d Infield .nn;'" ...i, h.n inadeq..... ...,·.Iry arm. A, tM ca..·.lry " .., pan of ,he leginn i' hod '0 M dra ",'n. '" .he main, from infe'i'" h.li.n w ura:•. In , he >«ond half of ,he znd ~.ntury IlC 'M Roman. ma,l. t he m"menlou, d. ei· .ion aboHsh ' he leg;" nor y ca.-alry and en,ploy foreiKn h""em en, raiseu in th. aroas "f nren tion and led hy their "wn chief. or Roman comma ndcrs (prlU/",'i "I ui,u"'), just as the Carl h a~inia ", had '0 ... Ii)' the '51 <;t;Olury IlC Ih. praeticr " ... general .nd " " find c.r..u em plo)~ ng b<>Ih Galik .nd Grrman ca"'all}' uni.. -a.u", Pomf'C}' during lhe ci,~l .....-. Ea, ly ,n the .mpi,e I..... cavalry un,1O had been o'pnioe'd imn ..,g;m.n.. (0I1. T he.. ~I~. w ~r. di ..'id. d in'" ,6 ' N r ",~. ( e " n , i " i n ~ uf 32 ollicers and mcn) and 24 'Nr",~ , "" I'<"-·I;v, !>urin g the """" period lhe command. "f Ihe large' e.v.lry uni .. dC\'ol v~d on . srl..."1 !trou p "f .ho'" len co",i " ing "f Ihe pic'k " f Ih e m.n who had al'eauy el1 mmanded lhe " ' dinar}' caval ry r~g i melll " From , he c'avalr)' JX'SlS t hey m;~h , K" on to ,crve in ,Ile im reri. 1 adm ini,,,.,i,,n. I;a.;h aI" had in own flag ( ",,,, liN"') and nc'h n,"'_ had • "andol'd. The ~ n be.....· The rank of decurion in lhe ,"'_ ha," odd no",": ohIpi~ (.....blr-paj· man ) eorrnponding to . ... ..,."" in ,he etnlury; and ....,...pliurINJ ( II times pay rnan ) <:or1'npondi ng to .he .nsc......... The 'NT8U al had an exU. offic<-r, .he ......~'''', ... 1>0. "",ponsihili. ,ito p.....umabl}' lay wilh ,he I>onn. In all "'her .....peC'1. ,he p..... he lo'" dea,.ion in , he ~I~ ....mhle ••impl.r vers;"n "f ,h,,,,e "f ,he I.gi"n. The dccuri" n wo' nor m.ll y promot ed rrom ,he <'lOb. btl, dIre<:! commiooion> ,,, , hi. rosr ......., occaQon,oJly obtained. penicularly in J'f"'·i....... "'here no Ie""", "'........ 'io... d and t'" gm.-emor hod no ""n.uri"",,,.. ,n Ki...., 'wor· wa. very iml'f".~d b y (rt,r· man mi x.d caval, y in w hi ~ h IiKht-arm.d infantr ymen ran alnng wllh the horse· m..· n. ho lding <>n 'he h"" e' , rein in "'de' to kee p up. Similar pra~,ice, were he fou nd;n :'I«w u, _,~,IU ...hich .re found in lhe nnpire, TJx-s,r ........ made up of ,he nnnnal ..t.bliol>men ' of the auxiliary ,nr.n.ry cohon•. .. ~ or len CCl,urie-s, rlu, 1.>0 cavalry ,n 'Ile ' soo' uni. and 1-40 cavalry in .... ' 1,000' unit . Thi. ""v.lry i. often does· CT,hrd mistakenly .. """' nted infan.l}'. M"u nted infan,l}' ' ide '" ~ll ie and di,mount to figh' , hu' Ihe . aval!)' of the .q"ilal ~' were hriKadcd wi'h , h. -;dr}'mCO in ,he 011_ bu' . hey ......., cav.ll"l...... n. c..... '0 '0 ",h,""" The cohort. in Ro m " ,i""" • hum Iirot ""","ul had u lieton ho aet.d .. hi. penonal bod}" guard. 'n...e men ... rritd bundl.. of moJ•• nd o~ .. ol'mhnl of , he con.ul's po,,'• • of lif. and dea' h nver the ci.izc ns. lI o w ~ v er , il w.. frnI's ,en, pitehed. B~' the end of , ... reptlblk it ""'" ....... for.1l genenoI. '0 have. Prae'orian Cohorl . The .mperor AUIU"'U' u>ed thi. pI<'ced.nt to ....hli.h an imperial bodygUlird of nine P....."'ri.n Coh"n., some 4.~OO men , He k. pt 'hree ;n Rom e. billeted in pri"a " h"",..", and stat;l1ned as. T HE E MP I RE t40 Be-AD 200 ....RMy O RGA:-lIS AT IO N the in ....;ahbouri"ll towns. In 2 I)C " ' " appoimed two commandcn, pr__ f u:t' pr I"'" _ of E,)'pI,oI'i~naIly prestigious of Ibc noa-ocnatOliai (C and lbe Gund' s inlerventiona in lhe busincaa of mobna and lUIIIIai btlt i. n>1C 10 1.000, and perhaps even 1 , 500> in t he early l rd cenlury. The ooldicn "'CtC m.ainly from Italy and a fe..· neighbouring provinces, and .. a result the O<>hono wct"C markedly dlfferenl from .he Icgiono, .. lbe lan cr ~ly . 'ett """"iled ft'Olll men of the prov. in<:ca. Then: a >harp di ffettncc in pa)', " 'hieh 31 limn lhal of lhe legionary. There wu also shoner and pl....uner acrvi(;t-; only 16 y'ean compared 10 .be IC'llionary'o l S- l 6, at>d not_ mally in Rome -relatively fe w ernpewn look the Guard on cam paii". T hings chang"" 01 Ihe end of . he lnd century . The Guard had been d......n into whal w.s only the second ma,or civil war , . nd in an unfor grnable epi sode put Ihe em pire up for auc' ion. ARain their <'and idal' had no success, and thc eventual vicwr, Seplimius Severn., di' banded the Guard and reconst ituled it fro m men of 1m D anubw. Icgion.. Henceforth .he G uard .... "",,,i'ed from .be 1cgioJu;. £eno'o", m;ah' Lomcm lbe fate of the youna men of Italy, IcfIIO become brigmds, and blc-neh ."he . ia hl oflbc men from the fton<;cro , btl•• her<: _ an dement of kJ&K" in ,"'" chance, apnono ....". ""to on''' ' '',"'oo AVRI:UVS VtCTOM . vS M'l CO H and "andard. proc laimed Ih eir . pecial "atu,. Their dre.. uniform , like that of Xlt VR6 _ Ao,. I,o' Voco",on u' . "'"','" of I"" o' be" C'h he 'met coot;,,,,. t"" ' '''' O'ty go"m. w<XO tio n.1 type, ",h"inll' lh. armour of Ih . "'d;I,"o,' "OIJ~ ', ,," n ""'01". Mo_ republi can cr O. The cohort on dUly at G '.~ "' '' nQ, V.toem htow F,go''', hom the toe'"" the palace \l/ore "'!la•. Thei r . tand. rds C. ".,.IIo,,. ,., ,,,t," ,"" V"" ,,"" Ilof' ) w,ln ~u "'''" 01 'od••"" .... . "d carried imaReo of 'he ~ml"'ror and hi' Pr.. t"',," Gy. , _ I"gnt) .... ""'''0 ''"' ramil y, CroWfU and ,·k lOri.., ~""" ,o,,. , ",,,, oc~,. '0 ""_t "'I" "'I"" '''''''''rIg • \ THE RO.\1AN EMPIRE Sp ec'i, l . 1", were the promotion pat_ tern, in the C;u..d . Normally only men who had complered 16 ye." of service and h. el been retained as ",,""a,i c.me into comieleration for pro motion to <'en turion. T hi, w", not the only reaw n for rete ntion a, """ cati ; . ftcr 16 yea" se r~ vice men "'ere stin rd alivdy you n~ and had a "a riety (}f skills t hat might justify their continuing in ,en'ice with a ,pe<-ial ,"nk and pay . f;vocali promoted to thc tank of <:em urion migh t go to the le~ io", or stay in Rome, I f they st.ycel in Rome they would ,en'e in turn with thc ,"giles (see below), the Urban Cohort' an d the Praetorian Cohorts. Po", in Rome were guareled jealously, No <" nturion in Rome came from the ranb of the legion;; only men from the G uard, and some dir ect ly comm ;" ioncd centurion, trans ferred to Rome fro m tho legiom , were eligible, T ho d;r""t!y C~Hn mi"ioned <:em urio n, w~re exempted A b ove A 010°"90 of ,ol~,"', " om tM " '" 01 Dom,tlo, Anooo ,,"'bu, '" the lou,'• . Tn;, «I•• t p,o b' OIV hom the to"t h, lf 01 " . , ,, cen,,," Be, ,how, Iog;nn.,,", '" moil , "',,' """"'"9 ov.1,"e" l'rom , erving with the Itast glamorous Iegi<>n in name m organisation . Some corps , the vtgil,,,, b ut went to the Urban centurion. tes, those or ",cenari", and Cohort,. A fcw 'eni", , oldiers, wh" princeps in Rome, were . lIoweel to pro_ from the hegin ninj(, or those who had ce T H E E MPIRE ' 40 Be-AD zoe A R." ," O RGA:'IlISATlO:'ll ....-cd for ,n. """''''ed rank of pr.-.> pohu . Ttli. cuncd " 'i,h Jl an endu...., n,le of nnl '.J>n-f'J-u, e~-1'"_ pihn. ) and alar~ , ...wity, double tha' of me 1'"_ (Je,u"" . t'rom til<' pr._pJ, ,,-ere '",,-",uned the mbunCll who QDI"Jt. ""'nded ""'-t, in Rome, <~iles. U r N n and Praetorian. T"'~' "'ere truOled men. centufiona'e, T h" did , ... cream of no' prevent 'hem from bccominll in· volved In ",n.p",..,i,"" 'hough ",me a' Ie. " ,"ould c1.im noble moti.'e, . IJu' lhe m~ juri l y played Ihe pan allolted 1<, 'hem. I'rd~e " of Ihe G uard might h~v( begun a. ell ue" , ian otrice« '" .. cen· tu,ion,. T ll<:y c~me to the p"'t , a••ingle or ioint commanders, from the p,etee. ,ure uf ElYpi' andior ' he t.;giln. The Ur N n Culm". ,,-e", al.o ..ationed in Rome. bu' they ....,re . >Oft of ~i<..., fuon under , com"",nd nf me 6 11 pm"'" (16114 « bo ). This puN ,,-as reurved as an huoour for dIS· ti""'''1Ied Kt'UI'on at .... end of theU careen , 11M: l: rban Cohort. ......, formed at 1....._ limt as the Guard . and oneinaJ nurnben,' X_X II . to!· Ioa-cd on from , ... Guard m hort num· ben I- I X. After. n", in numben under Cbudiu. I'<'duced hy V"'p....n .0 four ".tioned in Rome. X - X n . nd X IV, oooort X Il l . Olationed in eartluollt' unde r the procom ul of Africa, and ,~,h"" I, 'tat ioned at I.ugu , dunum ( L yon.) 10 gua rd the Irn l'Crial min, there , I n lhe 2nd cen lur y the'e ',,"0 uoi,. ou"ide Rome Changed pI.."", . T he Urhan Cuh",,, were recruited from Italy. Til<: n umocr of men roo<: from 500 under Augu"u. '0 ',500 under Seve"'•• pn>hahiy follo"'ing the changes m ,he ( ' ...rd , Tit<: onl~' ....1· 10 1""""'" lJOI"I for , he L:tban soldiers in Rome "-as ~' e ' ran.fer to ,he Gua.d. A man applied '" Had ria n for a ~ tn lhe Guard. ked hr.....ght. anJ ,,-.. then 'old ro JO tnto .he L'rban Cohort•. If he " -" alf"O ; lhe Vrhan ""ldie.., I>o"·",'er• .., ·ed zo ~'U". her "'een ,''' . 6 year. of , Guard and Ihe 25.-'26 of 'he lc"¥;on. ary. Pay , like "'tvice, ,,·a. in'enned ia,e he' wcen Guard and legio"" half lha' of the G ua.d. I , 'ha' oft he legionary. Cen· 'urion' aod tr ibune' wcre f", the most I'" poart promoted ttntur>on••nd . .. bu"", .""""",i,·ely of lhe ...,,160 . l1>e nr;Jn ...-etc a ""m;.mili'ary force foolkkd by Augu.,,,,, primarily as • fire.figh.ing...,.".;ce , .Ilhoulh ''''y al"" performed 'it<:fu ....~i<..... of nilfh' ~ice. T ... y " ffO formed im o """en 0000"', orig;""Uj' of 500. laler of ' .000 men each, . he ""'en being rel.,ed 10 lhe 14 di",ict. of Rome . O .;gin.]])' ,hey ,,-ere •ecTuited fro m frced ,I. v.., Onl ~' the head of 'he p, efect' . writing· office had hope. " I" promo'ion ; f,,' m lhe mId· 2nd ,'emur y ~I) he could hccmen ,,'1>0 had become """"" ; tTibtl"'" " 'ere former pri_'piJi. Their comm.nder " ... ,he: 1"_/«'''' <-wu....,... ho mil;h' ha,.., """'Id • .., :l 2 3 • G , • _ _ _ '" "'" ' .. .,.".,., Ie s.c' ,8 ' Fiot , _ _ ....... v-.c..., __ ._ol._.. . 2 _ _ '" • fIot _ _ '""" _ ., F.....,.. Ono ~ .... . - . .. iuSl _ _ ., ,,,. ''''y.."..." ,,-ao •• s .~~ ,hei. '0 I ~,- _.,ftOnoe • Soc• • ,"" """'" "._.,.,...,from t,,,,,, """"" Ffaoce 5Oouno SM Abo • • .on.,.",. . "t•...,,""",,' " ...._ ' ,,'.l ... ,,,'" _m,,_ "', _0om, 'Nom ", ng<"" Al, M _. _ ~ _.,F,_. P ",",os>""" """.... n n.... -~ ... ,.,...,. " " " , . _ " -,....-.oa __...,_en... - . _.- Dawar"- """' ........ in "a I THE ROMAN EM PIRE bc<:n an equnllian officer Of a pm-. poilu and oefVC'd in ,.......... admini.· tTali~ posl. (pnXtlratonhips). According 10 ...... he had 10 Sl ay a"-uo all nighl. Equipment t:nfonUDalcly " '" have v.....· little ..... i· donee abo..n lhe arm. and armou r ofthe nl century tIC. Thtre i. onlyone sculplure lha . unquC"'liotubly .how. legion· an C"' or lhe 1.,. rep ublican period. T hi. monument. kMwn 1 ". .I .. ovoIoJ,.,., "'__ ......,.....,. ......... _"11'" I... 'II _""" Be ond t t" _""" AD . _3 I .. IOC'''' .00> or CooIu. ""'" It d...",,",' ,~ ",. "" '101,," ""'" ".n,"" ,.,,,,h ,... M",,'ftfo c"""c'"''',,,, ,,"'" ' M 1m",,,, ' G, II•• " '" '0 pm T H E EMPIRE 140 Be -AD 200 EQUIPMENT seum , Paris, shows a group of soldie" possibly being di",har ged The group com prises four k gionaries and an officer, probably a tribune . The four legiotl3rie, all wear mail shins st ill CuI in the form " f a Greek linen cuira.. and all carry the apparently identical large "vol to that used at the tim e of Polybius , One wears a Mom efon ino type helmet and the other th rc-e ltalo _Cm in, hian type' T hey all ha\'e long h",.,;chair crests hanging from lheir he lmel', but no leathers. :None of them wea" greave" Allhough no arehacologieal exam ple, of bod y armour for , hi. period have been f" und , seveea l helmets have survived_ It had been ~ U stOmary for soldiers to , u pply their own armour , and for ,hi. reason lhe ligh,. armed velius were draw n fro m the poorest class. When Marius threw open the legions to all Roman citi zens regard less of wealth, the army was for ced 10 take re, pon,ibi lit y for arming new recruits , e.pc-.;ially a, they all n"w required the equipment of the heavy infa ntry. T he author ities re,ponded by making avaiiable cheap mass-produced ar mour for which de _ duction. were madc from the ",ldiers' pay. T his changc of pra~l ice i, well illustra'ed by the sur viving exam ple, of helmet ' fro m the period. Thes e have a baltered appearance, often be ing a,· . ymetrica!. Praeti~a H y all the ' urviving cxamples are of the Momefort ino type , """,m, htow a olow 4 -6 Fl ee., of I""c~ serl"",m. ,. I,,,,,, Co,b,;d"" Mu' . um of AotiQUit;.' . l'..wc,,11< 4 M,m , hould. , uo;, w;'h b,on, e JiU;ng, 5 Cho" a" ~ " ppe' oock u" ;, 6 Su och 0' g;' d'. pla,o, a olow bot.,. , A ,. conW ucM o 0' '0 • •• In'''''';01 G,II;C""''''<1 fouod " M., o, 2 A p,,,,,,,",, ,,,. ,, hokl. ' of the '"po " .. ~ ""tn tn;, "","",, 3 T.. II. ,,,",,-po of e,." !>old., r a , and arc \'ccy , imilar to those produced in the previ ous period except for ,heir cr udeness , E\'ery shor t cUI had been e' plaited in their man ufacture , thc cheek piece hinge wa, of'en held to the ~ap by only . ,ingk rivet inst ead of the custom ary 'wo , T here is an example of the ltaJo·Co rin,hian type in the Hermitage M use um at Leningrad which may date fro m thi, peri od. The officer on the Ahenoba,bu, relief wears a ,hor( mu,ded cuirass , haloCori nth ian heimet and greaves, He al, o ha, • round , hieid , , pear and , wor d which he appea" to wea, on ,he left , idc_ U nder the mu, d e<1 cuirass he wears a tunic probahly made of leat her with pu"yg., (strip, of leather or fabric for the prOIection of , high, an d ,houl ders) hanging from the wai,t and ,hou lders , T hi, wa, ' he t, aditional dress of the Hellen istic officer and WaS worn OveT hi, military tunic. There i. a >culpture in the Louvre which ,how, <me of t he, e leather tunics compiete with iIs p"'yges d raped over the tr un k of a tree , Around his waist the officer Wea" a ' a,h whi<'h i, knoned a' the front with the loo, e ends tucked up at either side_T his is the G reek 'ym bol of high rank an d can be , een worn by Alexander (p. 72 ). T he officers , hown on Traian ', Column are simil arly dressed, confir ming that the Roman, had adopted ' he G reek unifor m in it, cn ' i r~ ly for , heir senior officers , f .{'i9' 7 A group of log;ona,;o, _ " ; "I1 I"" c~ ",_",.,. .hown on T'alao', CO f'g"'., .,. .,.mpl. , T HE RO!l.t A~ EMPIR E The French excav.tions in the , 80u's at [he site or C• ., ar's grea t skge at Alesia unenvered ma ny weapo n, .m nng which were a d,gg" and se,""rai pi/urn he, d, Fragments of a swo rd were found a [ O' un. in Sp" in which w"' hesieged hy C. .., r in 46 Be , T hese c, n be reconstr ucted with reasonab ie cer tainty to prod uce. iong-point ed , word with . , Hgh tly w. is te d b l. de 64- 0SCm in len gth It is tbe , .me le ngtb as th e Smihd swords bul . bout tcm broader. A wd i preoe" 'ed ~a l t. ngcd p ilw n k 80 oc) was found at Va lenci. in Spain, T he side edges of the ta ng were not tu rned up ; no pil u m after the 2nd <ent UTy ~" has this fea ture Th e gre , t genera i Marius k 100 Be) found tbat Ihe long flat-tanged pil u rn was nor always he nd ing (I n im p. ", . nd lh .t it was be ing tbro wn bad by Ibe en emy. He there fore remo ved o ne ri ve I . nd repiaeed it witb • wood en dowei wbitb ,plinte red on impact. This could har dly h.ve been . chieved if the edges of Ihe tang were still being turned over to l o c ~ Ihe iron int(l th" h.fl E. rl y in th e pr inc ipa te s pe cial wotksh(}l" al,p e", [0 have been sel up to pm,lu« armour in [h" vari" ", pam (}f the emp ire, Such works hops mu,t h ave ex isted in G. ul for th ere is a d" ciJodl y new Gallic influellee pres",,, in the helm e" found , I o n ~ the Rhine '-ffJ .~" A ~ ceoon"'"",lion of 1"" C"'I>rk!<Je t>oof< t, pe "" t a"" hinq. , . A't T"" m.'n''' ' ' Od.' ")9"'''''' """ I<me8 sOg~,",". oM", ""'I W. MI<J lhe SIlO""'''', COO".OO"PI'<" ,""e' Piece' 00 a.ch .,de "'. ,1""tM IQ l. aIOO, "'aps. Tho two n."., "'. thon boc""" logoln",. Tho g"dl. DI.,.. .,. <.mila", ,i""tOO to loalOO' w.ps on """h oi,," and thon tacO o,e;o;_ to tl'e shou'do' unit witl> l>0oi<>, AI[bo ug h S(lme e .. mp les (}f the I" ditiona l Montefortino Iype, "i ll cnme t() light in the ea rly lSt centu ry AD, two new type, [u rn up wb ich are clea rly derived from the helmelS th. , wer e in use in Ga"l in the 1st centu ry Be, Thes e were tbe round capped bronze helme t with small ncek guar d, usually referre d t(} as the Cno ius typ e, .nd . n ir on helmet with a deep ne ck guard whic h ()f i ~ i []l[ed in Ibe n(}rthern Aipine . " . This is "sua ll y called the Port Iype . fter an e""m ple found at Port bei Nid. u in Swi r2e rland (see p. I , d The type , der iv ed from [he C(l " lu , he lm"" , re tai ned so me ch.r ac ter is tics (}f the Monleforti no inc lu di ng the top~no t, though thi, nnw h.d a slil in i' [() hold the crest, which W3S .m ched to a metal to ng ue held in pi.ce by • pin passing thmugh the top (}f the ~ttob The Port helm et, which d" velo ped in[(l tht typ" known as Ibe imp eria l Gallic helm et , retained most of the characterisrics (}f its G. Hic pred"ce"OT e xc ept fOT .n enlarged neck guard which by the midI, t century had become characteristic of a ll Rom. n infantry helmets The mo>[ s ign ifi ca ntly Cell ic fea tur e of Ihe,e helmets was the che ek pieces, wbich owed n(} lhi n ~ [ 0 the ear li er Rom an lypes Anot her fe atu re w" , reinf",,,ing strip acr oss the front of the cap w'h ich hel p ed 10 protect lh e foc e fr om a downward ,word , loch. Thi' featur e . Iso app ears on late Ilelie ni" ic belmets, By the second qua rter of rhe , st cent ury .W , car gll ard s h. d be en added , . 11 the fe.t ures that wer e to Ch. raCleri , e the Koma n infamry heimel for the next two com urks h.d now been established TI,e hrom e C,mlus t)'p" di, . ppeorcd in the midd le of the 1st cemu r)', and f[om [hen on practi ca lly all the Rh inel and kgion. ry hel me" "'" made of jron in t he , eco nd hal f of the cen tu ry reinforc ing br. ce s wer e added to tbe erown of [he helmet. A[ fi rst the" were ju, t two fl. l strip , of hronze. but I. ' er they were replaced by tW(} thick b.nds , When the ch. rt (}n p. 228 was firs t published the re waS no examp le of .n imperial G. llic helmet with tbe, e thick bands (7) . nd one "' " forced ,() maKe. t"nunu, connediM hetween bdme[" J' .nd t2 on Ihe chart which c(}m e from opposit e end s of the empire . nd are separated hy abo ut 30 years But in tbe last few years several ex. mple, of the T H E EM PIRE ' 40 Be-AD 200 EQ L:IP M E NT im~nal GaJUc 1Ytlt. u.. sam~ .. 1)-pe ~ but """UI crou b ~ UI:t " . b.I~ ~n rool"K1 Thos probably ,n r«p<>= [0 [h~ book n. publi.h~ A ~ ~, ~J J",pt";,,1 R"",•. by H Russtll Robinron in 1915. ,n .. Iu c h he po",ula,ed sucb a helme' and ..h,eb s~em. '0 hH. p[om p,ed mu,~ums '0 loo k in 'heir _rooms lor UIlpublWocd bd....... Wo rks bop s io Ita ly con'inued [ 0 prod~ Iw:l...... wIlleb .... ~ somtti~ a !)' ridial""," ~umpl. of such a h.lm.' I' provided by 9 fl.l m .. ""n"nuod '0 be II.d OIl ,n tho sam y ~. two ""ach.d '0 'h. neck gu.>rd which <"",~d und.r ,he chin and ....,r. h~ d 10 ,h. 1'0'0 ch •• k pi.ee. Mo" imperial Gallic lypo, h.v. 1 ' I'" for lh, in, . rti",n of , upp " " which ",as ",,," lly y· ,h . ped, lhe a .. t l>< ing n"d belw.." ,h. t"" arm' The" was u,· u. ily. l",,,k _t Ih, fmnl . nd b.o k or Ihe heim.. to hQld It in pl,ce, C p until ,h,' middk or Ih, IS' century the legi"lla' ies con'lnued 10 wea r ,he heavy m.l i ,hlrt weighing ' l -I Skg In the EoS! It m.y havo been worn lor much l<>n~ ... but in the ,he ",me Celti< "",' lubllp' which h.d dev.I,,~d lhe n." hdm.ts bopn III p,oduee .n entirely ne.. eon.ep' ill bod y a,m our Tbi, .... . ,h. finl . rti .- ""'P' , Il nlOlVIV,loAIo = '''''' """""¥'lI'o .knus D w.. if> 11<..." ",m 0 "",'..,"" from iogoDn 1'11' Au?-"'. '" ''''' 2nd _ lory "l) &~"" a." W,,, 0 " ......-n , S ,_. 3 F,or< -..- '" ' SCU1"'" ""'" CUo£'SQOOO;nS _ . - """'"""'II .- _ " ' 0 _""'" _ ...- __ to or- .. .." .._ '" , 'h. Tow". ,h. """hod. 'h., "'_O.nd G-S Tho"" 'oP .... <>vol· _ .co'"", """'" or Mooinz . l .,o 'o! _ ,"'"' ac ... ,,_ _ r..0OI ~om ~ _ . won bOO' ;,om 0 ""u'''''' w"h """"" . . -, rI., 'OP .na t>;, "" ""'... louM al "'air" . E a, l~ tot oalll",, "'D M,tlOIm",";""",, 1 • 119"' "_oIol ..... SC<= """0m La_om",""". fA.", .='-~' AlK>• • • F>ooon"".,,,,,," 01 ' hO .._ of 0 ' " """'cry AD <w '"", boood Of' lhO .'''old r,om DlK. E", ape., ThO " "'" oI>iek;I, ""d . mO,.1, im (5) ""',,... ' ha 0 " ,. ,," , ape. . .. mplO ho<)"- ra,,"i(jo OIWO on '" THE RO MAN EMP IRE _p<>n. , 1_. Aomon 01 ,.... 10' '*"uov AD SUIo LlO 1 0.... of ,"" nOl·1M>gO " ''''',unci''''' '_"'0 .... ,_, ...., 2 W-.gh'" _ . - "" ..... C...-..... ,..... ~.,.c.n , 3 lono'poIftlOod g/M1Iw of .... """ 'Ol ~ ..0 f""" A..... ~ 4 5<. _ to.- .lorog·"",n1ed ll"Odt"" 10Ynd ," .... An... II"'.... "'useum • _.poIft*l _ ' $»o _, , _....., _ lM>o .....'" ""'" ' - - . _A,,_.l_ • T_ _ ...... "" K u G. Hambo¥<;I • " " l' •_ "'u_ "om Elo<' ,,"0. " "om,~ bo<' 1"'-"'" "",h 3 H",. <10< Pl..., S _ 17 B _ Ai."".." Wun_o ' _ ".""",""m, s ,""g", '8A",,,,, '''"". "",,,..,., boc t 8,,,,,,,. """-' nlOod "" I. .' ...... AGZ"' , .... '0' e.'d '; , I."."", "om Ho""""" 8 Top of ,"" ocoobI>or ""'9- 'tIOl_ n'><:.... U""""",-,_",, ... ,,", too"om '" ,... KOt>t>ord ,_ , ....".,'''.''0_ La""",",,,_, 10 . nd 11 TOIl and ...,, '" 1t DocotalOod """ Obotommorgau d_'tO!Yl P,.""'""><:",, S".'...mml""O 1'.20 21 S"'",d , o d dogo-' bo l" of '.... ""y , " =,'urv A D. An p ,O¢fl "'. '.lonn«! zz SWC<" b. ldr ic 'OIl " ,ggor ""1, m'd · '0 1 3_15 B. " """ " . , pl••• 'od dogger f,og from dw bIO f""nd" A,,"''''~ p,,,,,,"',><:ht I" . '" c. n' ",y AD S' .." "mmlung, "'u"ich w," "'u"'cn bt", T H E EMPI RE '40 IIC+AD 200 F.Ql:IP.,"E"'T ,," ~ n .. of rhe cheal and .!loul"". unit> we, e held ro ge,b~r wll h deco.. tive h '",.... 0.. on••JWIlp le 1M hiD&<: bd broke o and ,h. owo piece. h.d he.o nve, ed lOllem.r, provl na wr the hing.. .... cr. purely Mco" lI v~ . od h. d DO funClloo Fragm. nt> from N~ ws " . d of ,h . ,. me d.,. 0... m c.ntury) do no, app"" 10 have Ihe", hinge" The n. rro.... b.nd, on Ih~ shoulde" , ..alS! and upper back "Ol' "vtr.d 10 l e .,h~ , . " . ppiDg aDd ,h . .... ill b.nd. ..e'e lac~d ,ogtlher., ,he f,OO1 and boKk. 11><: re<; ~ red CUUU>tS weigh IbourN Or!&Inally this armour ... klie¥«l 10 bot' f,o,," , he J nd un""1 AD. bu ' f.. g....n" a.. beiog fOund On many carb<1" oil... lioob from the wais1bao .. Icrli:~ "P"~,u, Early in " .., ..t c~ntul'}' AD lh~ oval ,.,p lacr d b~ • • borrer r~clanlul hi~ld .,hlcb "'ain~d 'h~ sam< na IM. AI. tlrslthls ..... "'" the old o"al " .., .... . horn off a, ,h~ lOP and bonom. bu' "'~' 'h. "d........ also squared off 11><: only .urvtvilll . lWIIple comn from Dura Europos in S)Tia and is da,.d to 1he 3rd <:en"''' 1d>. ThiS shi.ld ..... construct ed in .uclly ,h...m. "'ay as ,he Fl yum shi.ld, lIti nl ml de oflhree II~rs of ,h,n "lip, of plane wood abuut 2mm thic ~ glued acro.. e""h " thef to form I curved piece of plywood, Th. b. ck .... . s sr"nglh.n.d .... Ith . Irlps or wood which 'O'er• • 1. 0 IIlued On. Th . h.ndl e " a. form ed by thlc k~ni n g lh. ""n," SIMp. Th. shield - . ~"""",d in !eaIMr.IM finnt .,,"" the.. cowred ",i th a layer 01 bncn and 1M ~ bound with lh~ rawIIJdr sritcMd tIImu&h r!>t ~ hem usoed in anger. 11><:... Is a par3llel In ,h. Praeto rian Guarli "Who "'~,e .till uaiflll W 0\110I "'.., .... for parades . , 1M .nd of 1M 1St ""nlUl'}' AD. Durinc ,h . 1St and 2nd centuri.. AD tht rim of ,h. teclangul.. ..~ ' um .... as C.n... lly reinforc<:d " 'ltn bronu. MolOY pi" ,.. of this binding have be.n found , .nd th. y confirm ,hat th. ~ dge of lhe , hleld 'lol a. ab ou' 6mm ' hlc k. But I' ,e~ms likel y that. IS In the .. rli ~ r period. I h~ shi. ld 1II1S lhic h n. d to I bou t one c. nll m.". (n rh. ce n ttt . Reco n. tr uc tlon . of the tt~ ra n g ul.. . n ..... , ulinC Ih~ Du," .hield .. a model and addtne b,,,,,•• bindinll and " " IrOn boss.. ....,;gh s-sq. If the """'<1 (n 1M ""nlre n-re 10 be lhlc kened. m~ ...llIh' ...ould ri"" 10 .boul 7,S k&- All .umpl.1 o f , h. ,~ .." ,," ,y~ Ihi ~ l d. bOlh C.lt ic .nd Roman. hlv. a honzontll handgrip ..'hich cln lit ,..,n on mlny mon umen ... It I. h.ld wilh .n ov.rerip an d gen .r.lly used wit h. mai~h l arm. The handg.ip was prot,,'teJ by .n iron or bfOnU bos,. Th. It.n, ltlon from th. oval 10 'he r« tan cul. r shi.ld h ,,·. Il 11I ust" ,~ d in m. chanlllnc boss shape on p. 131. Th . r.c e of lhe .hi.ld ...... derorated with a pain1ed dtal(tll. TaCiJus. descnbitl& the ........J bank of CrclOOOl In AI> " ' ",lis _ 1•.-0 IqIorwks pi<:Ud ur , h. shield. of ,h.l, fllle" ~n~mi.. nus sbklcl II touch ligh.... arid more nlmsy than the fay1Jm and 1.I Tm••umples. ...hlCh _re about lWKe as ,hick in th~ eenee. 11><: ~labon.1e decoration on 1his .hicld. on _. 1bt bladr: ltngth r... , _ cO a ...._ milO...,. _ ,.". IOOo>t _ a....,., '",,,. T". ..... ...... m_ .M" and. hld,nll lIthlnd , h. m. mlnall.d ro inllltra1e 1be ~"."ny b...... "Wllfre they pu' a CllIpult ou, of Ic1lon. /u. 'his "..... n!&h' "irll only the moonliJlI! to I t t by. i1 $Ullll" " that ,h. lall:' 1Il0!!fs pain' ed on ,he .h ield , .... e'e a recogni, abl• tdomine. lIon .ymbol " fa unit, The pilu rn r.mained In usc thro ughour 'h e lot and l nd centu, ie" Re main, of m.ny pllu. bulh of the s()C k~ t e d and nal10 nlltd ,ypes, h.ve b. en fo und ....lth h. ld. lI~nOl. lly be tw• • n 6S . nd 7)cm lonll. The best pre"" rved u a mpl., of me n.Hang.d ,y pe com . f,om Obmlden in nonhem ~nnany. H..., not only Ih~ iro n but Ibo pvr of 'h~ """""'n sbaI'I llave .urv!.-..d, ~ are oirnUaf 10 rlIf: hn..,. """ ol1be previous periods...."h m. Da' hlIII Mld in'O the "WOOd~n .hln by ....0 nv~lS. Ho" ·ever. 'h.y ... much Iigh, ~ r In conmu elion ,h.n the cu mpl., from Numan,i., and w h ~ n ,~c o n , ,,u C! .d ..... Igh a littl. Ie.. ,h. n ll it h.d .voh'ed into a .hort bUI still longpolmcd 'h'" " ing wea p"n ....i' h a blade l e n ~l h of SO- 56cm. Thes• •wofd. weigh .oout I Kilov.un and ,h~ sc. bbard abuut half 'hOt amount . Th. sc.bban;! is usually mlde of ' IVO . he ... o f \Y ood h. ld togtillt' by a l>ronu froIM 11><: from of rhc ...bbatd is on.n lOOt ond an.,. 0' ..''''" ..,.... of ",o'no, '09"'''''' aM " lQ(l ",m ''00 stud. ' from « '0 "scm 11 O\llU btll. 10 the o"lIin al Spa ni.h . ...o.d and shoul d really nO lon ger lit ..f. ...d to Ua l l.Jd i", h j'I',,,,i.~ , ... , ~ve ..1 daggers , urv!vt from th~ '" e~ n , u ry All ....hich var y Iiltl. in . h. p. , althlltJgh some h",', I lltl ~er poin" th.n ot h. " Th ey are ,,1 11 very . Imllar to THE ROM AN EM P I RE - " ~ '~ ."._''''.'' """ ..,... """"'" _., v..... 'or ow:! the _ ""'" l,l........ "' .... " _ .... T'...,·.-....... _ ......... E...- """" b\o 2 _ AD 2 3 .... ~ _ _ '" . ... .... .-..ro""", _ _ .... It.. 0 onPo _ ""'"'" e - o/w1 the Th ......... , , , .• " '" on.'" ' ' ' _ 1_ .T.".....,_ _ ........ """ ..... ""' ''' ............... 2 ..... (It , .. lhtir Spani.h .tI<-'e'OIOf"S. Tit<, blad< IrngIh ,.. n ... fro m 10 to z 5cnt. Tbo ocabbard. an made of bronze or iron and .'" u• ..all)' hillhly dca>n.red "..ilh .ilver inlly, About r"" urnc time n tho: ....... . ...".d ..... in.roduoed a dilIrrcnt daQn ocal>hard af"f'C"". Th" i5 mad< (rom an c~ br....., fron. and t.d: platC riW1N to a wooden I>ast. Tbo o:!a&et< -.n. to haw d.... pp:ared from ~ <'i<'ct of Ir-at her u'hieh ,",T'J'f'Cd round oJ.. f_ and " ... "",'n up at Ihc httl. This " 'n ..ilehed ' 0 . .....vy solc mad< of """cra! tal·..... of hid< sbod "irh iron studs, ~ ......vy sandal. _-agh<-d a un.llc-m dashingacn>ss ,'''' P*'W\1 ltmp le cotl n yard , skidding on his iron ..ud. and falling flal on tlis Ii".., "". I • Au . m a ry "" ..a iry . nd inbnlry If "'" httn ' ,,""tcd by many authors .har the Romans did f10I =plo!' armou",d eav. lry un, il . he begi nning of the ~ nd <..,n tury ~n . This is an O " ' one. is not ,urprisi n~ . f lnwevet, legion.ry tomb_ THE E .\1PI RE 1.-0 a<;-AD 200 EQl: lP.\1E:"iT "ones of ,be 6..,;, h.. nJrcd)'earS of.be empirc 01... do no( .ho,,' mail, and )"et .h.c:rc i. no 'l\lCO.io:n ,!>at , be l ~ of ,hi. period U "Of'C a COIl' of mail. Tbe ""nlrymcn on the Aem .Il ... Paull ... monumcnt are surcl)' u'clUing <'uira,.." ~ut in exactl)' .he ...me f..hi"n ", ,he kgio"a,ies, who arc ccrlainly wearing mail, and .herc i, a h,,",cman on .he Ahe""ba,bu. , chef fm m .hc time of Mariu, wh" is w.aring dca, ly dcpicted .....il. A .'ery de.ailed iCulp' ure fm m Man . UlI in .be Po .... lley, da.ing f,om Ia.e ;n tbe reig n or Augunu. , .oou'. ' wo ""•.,.trymcn, one in mail ""d one in =Ie """"",f,.nJ < Sth-4th cen.urin 1IC, .bows .!>al parlially ar moured a"alry u'ao tn u.., .lIrougho.>u•• h.c: d ...ical period, ~ uri"a1 of the RolWlani, • Sanna_ .ian ( !:'.a.I. ~ " -cre . ..,.. pl..-at,i, !tea.il)' armcd ca,'oll)' ,,·i. h both man:old hone awcrcd u'i,h ar",,>u r, Romc' , '<:spatl.., ..... of course ", beg in em ployiog t hc,c hur",men. Ahhough ,ume un; l. may have eX;' led ea,licr. Hadri.n formed the ~r .. regul. , unil <Jf ,· ~ , ~p h rat lt. T he.., new unit> ...crc ormed u;,h a hca" y lance (' '''' ' " , ). At the <>t her e nd of ,he """ Ie ,he Rom a... em ploy'ed NumiJi""", rom_ ple. ely unannour<:d :old rid,ng ...-;thout a bridle; and a1'1O """"n",d ard>c.,;, G""'ka. ....ry had ...-om 1....... ...i ,hd>cck piece> or ned< It d. to allow all-round vio.ion and hearing, Tbc R0man a"a1 1)-maD, _-c"er , wore a hel...... , !>al "",,-c.cd th~ whol e ... t>d. Iea" ing only , he cy.... nose and "",u, 1I ... i.. ble, the u n bring complc-1ely cndolcd , In . h~ lnd cenlUry, like 'he I~gionary hel me... "avalry helme" were reinforced wi,h ""'" h'",e, Toward, the end of the 1M cenlUl)' a rcinforci nl .. ri p U'" a1'1O of.en applied to the f",..,head, T1>i. came 10 I poi nl fron•. Bod y armour ...'a. eit her mail or oco.le, The mail , hi,.. ,hou'o nn e.,.alty ,ombolOne, nf ."he lhe 10• .,.n. ury!\D arc , DOl: owpn.;ngl)' , denvcd from {he Celt i" cuira.. wilh i" .bouldcr a pe: (sec p . ' 2}). 'Ill i. ~'pe u-cilhed I bnu' l(,kg, The cape: WI' brld 10 t he " h..t by a pa;' of . ...; ..clling ,he QU' To p lei< • Roc""..""" .,.. oll ~ ~_ ""'" Butzr:.:l>, "' .... Darmsto _l _~ lit. 151<:1lll oa-.,. _ . """"""' ~-7 ~ '*""" "'"' - - . - 1>1J II<JrNn .... _ _ ,_.- -"" " " '_ _ ~oS""lI<JrNn -...c..glon .. _ Tha_ - " " !Dr _ _ .... 1I<JrNn OC\Itll_oI .... -'Y _ ."'_ Celbe__"".. . . . . ~oICelbeOD!l", """"",,",," S, Remy", _g btJm ju" all..- "'" _ of CI&oaor T!>G _ . _ "".Roma-n. llomantvPe _, """"tbOCa!T"'1> dod no' ,how ,...., own men t~ e being ,,, THE RO MAI' E M P I RE S...hapfii hooIts which alJO...-M tho< . lIoul<1<:t p~ to move caoilJ . The sllin " "liS split at the hips, as in the ~ publican pcnod, to mabie the rider <0 sit a 110..... . On T tal&n', Colum n made from otrips bronze ........, found althe: lal. I..-century fon al SC"..tead in SoDI land , I n the .....ly nnp,re 1Ioon<'< .."Orr _ armou' but ........, """"'""'M ..ith pendant. and disco (PlwltrM ) mad. of tt nn.d bronu . Many orth= h..... bttn fou nd in u cavat ions all 0" •• tho< empire and ar. to he >«n on numerou. Rom an "",ulpturel and tombstoneo. Tooe are also or Celtic origin and appear on the G unde' trup cauldro n (. ee p, "4). During th••• r ly empi re. when th. or ma in ...u ree of ca"alcy in ,he \J;' eo' ...-a. Celtic, the Rontan ca'lSllcyman =cd a lon g •...,..d (' ''''' M ) wi' h a bI""", len gth of 60 ' 0 7QOfII, which i. dnrly deri.VM from lhe Celtic lon& ' '''"OI"d, and a fiat ....al or .......' imeo ~ . hidd ...-lUch i. equally clearly Cdtic on';n. \J;'he:n nol in uoe t he: . hi.ld anied alonpidc oome1imeo under the: saddle blank« . Joseph... claim. that Veopasian'. f....tcn> ca"caIry <2'ri<:d .. 'lu iVtt _naini n& Ih ..... or more dan. ",ilh pointt .. large u 'I'C"" : prnumably Ihi. 'l..,ve. "" a' atuched . 0 , he: hone and not the: r ider. The saddle . uddc nh· appca~ for the: tinl time on Roman "",,,I pc" .... of the: early empire . 1I,,"'evet , i, can he . ho wn that the ..ddl. , like moO! or . he othe' eq.. ipment, wa. I lm"'t cen a inJy of Celii. or igin, In hi. com mentar y on the G i llie wtr lIy 'emarks thll Ih . ('",rmln ' "'m ed ,he ,,'e "f ,he or I'" """","" "'"II' eo , ...... oaddl~ . Thil WI' I ' I li me w!>en Caesar was almoo' n d u, ;ve ly employing Celtic "''lSIlry .nd the",forc implieo t ha. the Cc,h ...oed the: oaddlc. The J ulii mon.... ment at 5, R~my in F nncc, which dat" to very . hortly .Ita ,he """,hem ~th ofc..-. QDntme ~ateo.n unknown benk inYOlvme Romans and Cel~. 0... of lhe ocuIplurco .now. a ",nlry bettie in wltic h one of t he: honn has fa lkn and 'h.....n in rider. nee """"'"' unq"""ionIobly has a saddle or Roman wilh f<>ut pommel, . nee fallen ride. m,," he a Cc,1t, fOT Romam 'n"" d id 110111'00* . heir _ 'n men being killed on their triumphal monumcnto, S 'irrups ....re not in " oe in ,he ancien, wor ld. Attempt. 10 • • "'Cia'c , he: in'tud UCIion (If tM ..ir",p wil h . he: Sannatia n. ar e im~.ible to ,u'ta;n , The d lim thaI I duc,i"" by at le. st three , -w."._.s--.._ N... , " ' - A_ _ CooIbc _Il1o ... _ Z ' -, ,_ ' - "' .., Tho -'"'" IlOt _ _ IlOt ~"'" .. ... ......... .,., _ ' _ .~~ 7. ' Tw ' M me••u", " S, (l.,m"n ,,0 . " , _ _ • " . . ~ 10 ~~ 3· a r ,o"",, ..""'" -"no.. """'"" ,,;~"" noo>.. .. ,""""";n no • t>a<. oJ ,.... wt>><"l __ hoO'''' or> '0 ,1>0 .,mplO ,,'w ""..... • , f .." ,, ,,,,,,,,, H_ . Yor" h;'• . Y""'h". ~• • A, Yor' . Sealo 1-1 3. 3. F,oo, .od _ . oJ Oho"". 5 So POnd. n, w"h ""d I,,!>oId ;1 '0 ' .... M uMYm , ° n.. h.~ , h.",... ' Pood. n, T H E EMPI RE 14C BC ~AD 200 EQUlr>MEST ~ c.....,, _ _ n .._ . c 1 75All P t ~ Sl_ _ twor.lo _ "'''''''0- _ n Thoo ......... II.. ""'_ 01 - . """ ...... coulcl onlY " - .~- boi " .~~ 11 C'OSS_IOC" "" 01. e<>m<><>o"o ""'" 12 Hom noc' ~"'" 13 Porl of . , _ Scoto_ .,'ow. t>d two .,,,,,,, _ . f,om D",. [ u'''''''', c 3W AD 14 f " .!>r. nd . "ow"'od I,om Scotl."" - on'" i ... 2.... .... - . _ .. fIo _., _ T,_', A,..,..... ----' • .~ ~ Abo. . EII"",o su'o "mou< se."" .,o 100"" ,n mony ,,,y'og be ....... n I ,no !>em ''''''' ' T1>O "'010' .....". W".., sown '0 , l, br le bo< ~ 'og ' '''''''Oh tl>o con,.. "",., Sea l. I \ ,i,.. '090'- ''' 'n C.",O fa"y mo d w .. m_ ""nohOd ill , no bo1t"" ot , "o ""0' Ou" "O It", emp"o ,h. buotod ""0' WO" rop,"""o "" ,h much . "on w.,. I .~ ~ B'""", nu'""'" w"n ""rvenn n ...,o ,"",' € ....." , o,II. ,on' wpo, of Rom.n "" """ " um Pi' Toi , m oY 1>0 , ho " po of COVO'''I """,po' c. IIM . "'U", T HE ROM AN E MPI RE centuries, for Antiochu , the Great em _ ployed WlaphraCli , T he re is no Roman sculpture or painling that could possibly he interpreted a, 'howing a sl irrup , T he fir't mention of them i, in the S trategi _ kon of Ma uri ce , the By,anti ne emperm ( AD S 8 2 ~ 1'>o2 ) , and ,he firsl example, were f" und in 7lh _cenlury Avar ,o;raves in Daeia T he earli e" O\'idence for "ir_ r ups come, from China in lhe Slh ce n_ tury AD , T hey WeTe probab ly brought to the lX'est by the T ut h and A,'a", per _ haps arri,'lnl'; in Euro pe in Ihe first half of the 6th cen tury . Spur" in C(ln".,t, were in m e t hTOughollt the empire, and m, ny examples have been dIscovered, A large number of horses hoe, (}f Ihe lradi lional nailed -on lype have a!so heen found, Example' weredi,cm'e red al lhe Belgle 1,,'eJ at Colchester and il mal' be ." umed , hal th ..e were of I. te Cellic origi n and adopted by the R"mam . T here wa, al,o a type of detac'h,ble horse shoe known as the hippo-sandal which was s" apped 10 the horse 's hoof, T he pur po"" "r ,he hippo_, anclal i, un_ clear. Hmh typc, "r , hoc are mainl;fou nd arou nd civil settlements and were the refore probably used for drau,o;hl anim.ls, T l1ere were two 'ype, o f bit in usc, thc ,naffi e type with two ring, to hold the rei ns and l1arne" , which was of tz , T" Roman "my on I.. Mo'ch " de,w b€d bv toe J ew"h h."",ion Flav,", Jo>ephU 5 1 Con1H>gent> of ,.. light '''Med mt,m,\, , nd cav,l,\, """ 'ch soout '''ead " , p'ecoU1'On og.'n" .mQu,", 2 The vongc " d COMpO'OO 01 one legion plU' , fo"e of e,",I,v A, '" Polybiui c1,y. to. I. gion, d' ew lot> 6, ,,. to dec''''' w h'Ch On. ' 00016 f",,,, 'M v'"9UO'6 3 TOe c'"'o ,u'Yel"''' compo,oo ot IOn m.n hom .>co CeOlu'Y. Tn i. mo" m,,"" 00< m,n "om eo"" te n,. E. ch m,n co"'. 1 " ,' owo , ,' Olu' 'OO i"' ''om. n" O..,."MV fo< m"kinQ ou' ,he c,mo 4 Toe 0'00'"'' c"'o' who," job" ",os '0 c1. ar 0' b,ia go . ny ""u,.1oOmcl., 5 The ".,wnol ~'Qgag. oM "," of ~ i , lio" . o. n" .coom""o i.d by, " ",og mountoo e'co' l 6 Tho gene'a' "d.ng w'th h" bodyg, ,,d "'oicl1 ",os 6..w" t'OM tho 'ao '" at the 'u .. c,"al,y . n6 i"'an"y 7 T,," comb'"ed ",,",onary C'v"' Y. TOe'e we'e , 20 of """ 0 to o.ch I. gioo S The mute' c",ym ~'M 6" m, n". 0 , ioge oog,,,"'_to,,,e,,. '3m, ealaOu'" etc. 9 T,," ""'"' offi, .,,_ IOjJates, " ,buo", ,od ,,,",..y P..t.ct> w'th en at p·ck.d "oop, 1 0 T ~e leg,on, E' Ch logion w" he,d, 6 by ,,' • • Qui"'., 'o trOuod. d by the ot,,", '1"""",', Ii ,,,, ."oo,-r, " sland"d <>ea,." 0' ,.. ",,"'00 It '. un""," ," w,," the' thO "0"''''''. '' aM o",nblowe" p'e"" ded '" f"" ow"" ,,," , ,,M ,,d b€, .." as ) o, . " h,," 'wO 'ccouo," ditte, 00 tht> ooiot TM y M • • "'al'S ,oow'n i" tmot on T"j.n·, Column. Beoi"d the "umDe'e" and en"9"' c,me the ",,,Ching "~x ab' . '" and ,eOl ,n ",de' by """ , "" nlO non'. JO' . """ ' , e,<"IIv;a1'S 0"" co"'""oo, t ut , 1I0w;og , mioiMum ot two".ces '"'' "X men e,ch leg ion "" .."0 be "'U"Q OUI "",, ,,, 'e. " ''''0 and. h,lf "I"",.",,, '0 ,h.. one cootu" on would te ,mahl. to ' ••p 0'<1&' Each tegio" was 'ollOW"", tty its 0"' 0 t>agg.go tr,in 000" 011"" by to. 'eg,oo's s.,"'"" . Tho,e 001 m.ndiog the , mm,l, m",he 51,nd.." """..". 12 The ,,,,,g",," oom"",,,,, of light an6 "e,,,,, i"',ow 3nd, co",,ea'e" .. , &y '0 buy uo the o",one" oJ wa' , nd' e o"~ '''II''''''''''' , • •• i' .~. , ". , THE EM P IRE t 40 8e- AI) 200 Til E AR MY I N TilE FIE LD Celtic on"n, and an Italian In"" ...· hich i. far <00 (:Omp,"", to de-scribe (""" illu,.rauonon p. 2J6). The auxiliat)· infantry vHied from lighl-armed troup< ,,,,,h .. . he !>lingers .00...... on Tn"an', 0>lu",n, "'00 " -ore 00 armour at all and. if the arti.t is 10 be t>clin..,d, 00 shoM ""h<:r,IOfully arm«l troup< ...hoo,e armour " . . idcn.i.c:o.l <0 lhat 0( the lqioonarin but of inferior q ... lity :.he onl)' d,tr=~ " .. tile USC of oM lb.. shi~ld ,at her lhon the """,_. Som~ ~ scak a"""", made by oc...-_ ing ........lapp'n, row. of ",...al soli... on 10 a h n~n undotprment. Sales " aried in siu fro m 0 .... to fiv~ ~nt im~ttes long . Th~ CuI of Ih~ CUl taSS ..... much the ,,""'e .. the mail .hm •. Hdm~t< ........ u.ually eh~ap bronze ""...ion> of .he eurr~nl k,ion ••y Iype•. The "'~.pon. of th. ..moo •• d infa nt ry we,~ u,uall)' " .word , imil . , 10 the I.~ion " ry glu<Jiu, . ndo sbort . peo" Arche", who ore ",ually of Ea"ern or igin , arc sho"' n on T,aian', Colu m n w.ar ing mail . hirt. which ate just a longer ve"i"n of the eavalt, ' type They used the c~> mp<"i te how wbich "'., much .maller than the English longbow and m,,,l~ of wood 'l",ngth.n~d on the inside of Ih~ eurv~ with horn and on tbe out,;d~ wit h ,i new, A pair of bom nock. to which the ..,i ng w.. anached ",infor ccd ~h ~nd. Many ~xamples of thex nod,.. ho,'~ bttn found on Roman mili~ sit.... '.i" The Army in t he Field 0 .. t~ m a r<:h The J.....'i.h h,st........ J....-phu. In hi. _ .. t of the J.....,.b orvolt ( AD 66- c. 73 ,' ~"",. a rcmarUblc _ n t of d.. Roman arm)' in the tield, .. i. remarkabk beausc il.oo- the c c-co_ tunon.. still '~porI to tb~ n ibun",' and Iben go> with tllem to 'e<:~ i v. tb.i, "0" RighI A ....... 1,""" T,... o', C",,,,,,,, '-9'~ '" ""' """" ;~ 0<"'''. b< ""'... T....v mo.,mod ono W 'Y too, ,."",no' bo lor'~ '<>g. on 0 ""I. 0". ' "", I ,h",,_ OId~n from the ",,,0 .... ""_ SoMItbled "1lJ.l"'ll ~i,"~ thei, ,,'Ott: or denfor lhedoy.l fil has btto decided 10 bmok camp, they " 'Ii, for lhe signal 10 he ,iv~.. by the trumpn=_ 0 0 It>c fint trump"" hlo .. t he t~ts ... ~ Slrud and . he soIdien gather up l hei r equipme nt. On the second the tenlS and usnnbk fo. lhe march. J.....phus· d...,:nption of . he legionari es ' eq u ipm~nt w '0 to carry lhei, equi pmenl, fro m ,,'hich 'he)' rccrivood ,he nicknam~ "' •.' Uri", · mules' . Eac ll kgiona.)" had .0 cart). a ...w, ba.krt, p",un (dol. ,,;, . ickle, Iea,he. sttap, and a ehoin. To lhese ,houJd be adde-d an ~n, .~"du ng tool and lun cu ner, but It ........ ld be " TOOg 10 .uppos.c: . haI each soldier carried oJi '" . hese i •...,•. Besides these he had to airy do)..' . attonS. ~ on the nuu-eh ar~ sbo\O,,, on Ttajan', Column (0« below). "I1>c-)' airy ,II"" THE RO!,IAN EMPIRE t , ! I l • THE E.\t I' IRE 1.(0 DC-"" ' OO THE ,-\ R ," ," I '" T ilE H ELD id • • '~1 'h. ' hield haoJ • Iea'he. OOHr. "",'er. 1 exam ples 0 1 "h,.h h..,. .....n found , T hn e ha,'. a ro und lK,k a' ,h. f""ll tna'Y CI.ri... I ",ok "'i'h a cros.boo. a' , he lop [0 "'h",h hi' ~ .. ,ic,J, A""......[ Ihi , I,,~ can Ix idenufie.! a ~ III' ("..' n ,,}, eot.'ng pol or huo:kn and • Iea,he. bag " " h a handle f...,' Cl lTyll. clothn and pcnonal hek"'ll",g. , T h . sad:; . , 11>< "'p pr<>bahl , ' h"ld. hi..." on. ",hieh mi ~hl in an emergen..,' ha,'. '0 be CDI>ugh for ' 5 oJay. , Th" ",'Idi," " has ic' die' "'h"n "I' cam paign "'I' "'heal haked in ' h" lo,m of ",1,,'lemeal h,<cuilS, Thi, ",as 'uppl.men,.d hy .....u n, eh""", and oour " 'in,,, all 1'« _ .....-ed 1)'1'' '' of food, lX'ho:n in cam p 'ho: soIdtcr''>1 y (I n [he third ltum!""" , iR",,1[h" "rall glce> ru,hed '" ' "ke " I' [hcir p",i' i" ", i" 'he r.nk>, IId"r" "'!l ing O U I , a herald , ' . nd ing 10 hi' righl of lh. genera l ,' 1'qu lt"d Ihrc. l imc' ,,'1><1her ' he sold",," "'er. ,.ad~' for ,,'a' and [h,,,,, ....... Ih• ..sld..... ,.....",-..1, ' W. a,e rca.1)", ~""". in 'hel' .nlh..., i;tsm . """,oJ 'hei, rijr:h[ l ,mlumn ,hen ..., ou' "'''h .I<:h 1' hi' p"'lIion In Ibc tanh, The auxilia,~' ca"al,)' anoJ infantry pc,f,,,-,,,,,d lhe ioh> Ihal in I'olyhiu' um" "",.1 10 he d"". h,' lh. ex"",...J,",,,,, _"'o uling ahcad "f [he a" ny and " li ng a, I><,dygua rd I"r ,h~ g~ncr" L It i. inlriguing to 1\1>1,' ,,"' ~1><>Ul JOkm PC' day' under normal..-.-l" ....... al'houxh '",,<:cd of 5<Jl.m PC" b<."', 0.'., and m<>... ar. recorded , T he pi"n_ ".rs ,,'c , • •qu il'ped II' deol ",i' h all (lh>[aclc., ' f'h,-re "CK [h",. mel h,"is of "''''' ing ' i"cf' , If a 'i" er ",a, f,"dablc bUl r"1-I1"", ing. halfth" ca" . 1' y " nlered Ih. ",atcr ul',,,eam and ' h" , ~ hcr half downst"..m , 'l' h" glOUp UI"'I,• • m brok. ,h. I,..-~. of ' ho: ~u rr~ nl "'hil" lho><: do.""mtrnm <.. ughl the men or ""luipmen l earned a". ~ by' [he ti",,, , If ,he ri".r "'-as '0" deel' '" f...-d. ,he hrid", h"'l.kn .., ho rr...-cheJ " 'i' h II>< pi"nttn , u n·Cj'.-.! 'he peoblem and d<-I."ided "'herhe' It> "" n.... U<:I a I'lk hrloJge or a h'idge of 1><"15, \l:'h.n a "'I'll ,·.mpaign "'"' en,'i,ag"d ,,'i[h ' ho aim " f h'ingin.o; the arca undcr direc' and l,,' ,m anenl d a ~' ",,,,..<>1, a more perma".,n[ , ..u,~ u re mig!\! be huih, '''ch a, I~' ""n"ru,'1"d hy T ra jan '" cr"" 'he Danube " ' Ih. It"" (;a'c" This "'"' ' ,500m IOl1g and " 'a, huih "f zo ma" i". ""nc piers ~om high and .om wide , ul' l'orling a w,~>d,' n ' uPC" ""''1u," The "'".. normal hridg" was ''''''' ''''''1ed of w"oden pileo ram me,j m[o lhe ri ,'.,. bed in pai .. ah",,[ "m af>lrt , 'I1Ie-se ....... joined by' ,........._ heam>'" f""'" a ocnn of u n[leo " 'hich .ul'P,>ned ,he mad"...y, Caesar". hridlt< .......... [he Ithi".,. " 'h",h .... .. probahl,' a' Cohk nz "'he'" II>< Il.hine i' ~h"", half a kil<>m et, e wide and up [0 e, gh, mel"'. deep. ,,'. , of Ih" 1)'1'<', The regu _ " f the'" hrid ges i, attested hy lhe I.,,,'. hold"', 'h" 00\'.' .. ""'''he-s " ... Kt<\f~ ~oon , ••,. .. . Cal"""' """"' ''\1 ''''''''''l . ,,_ C...., """" TOo . ""' , Ih. " "'" hOI "" ~ ofl , ,,,, ,, ,""y,no h" hel""", 0"" ''', , wm" , nd CIOI" '''lI '" h" « u"'", 0".' "'. "'"," '" T H E ROMA K' EM PIRE di,eO\'ery of the supportin g piles at mor~ lh. n one point on the R hi ne, Sc\'cra l iro n points from thc.e pile, were di",,,vered in the R hine at H<.mn. A det. iled descri ption of the constr ucti"" of Caesar', hri dge i. gi \'en in the caption 10 the illm tration on p. ~40. If the cur re nt was not tOO stro ng, or if the Ti v~r w"' too deep fo r a pile brid~e , • pontoon bTidg e could be buill. Arr ian, in his A nabasis a/ Alex ander, de",ribe. Alexand~ r'< bridj(e over the I ndus wilh the com ment th", he doc, not know what me t hod Alexander used but th"l he wHl describe th~ long-eSlohh.hed Roman method which wa, used to bridg e ,he Rhine, D anube, T igri, and Euphrate,. !loats, he adds , arc the quicke" meth,\d of brid~ing . At a given si~ nal the hO.llts were allowcd to dr ift down strea m "ern first wilh a ro wing boat cont rolli ng them again" lhe cu rren , while thcy wer e ma",,",,uvred into p' "ition, Pyra mid · shaped wicker " ate , filled wi, h Slones were lhen lower ed fro m the ho ws of eac h boot to moo r ,hem a~ain" the "ream , As each !x,a' wos man squar e, pl u' two fee t for guy_rope" and held eight men {a ccm'ub,miurn j, T he c. m p di ffers co",iderably f",m that de"-'ribed by Po lybius . Many perma· nent legion ary fortre "e' ha\'e been ex c. v"ted which gi \'e . n idea of the basic l. yout. Ah hough the centurie, are " ill encam pe d in pair<, rec.lIinj( lhe old manipular ,y'lem, and no do uht ' he prior and posterior centurie, are , til l c~>uple d, the barrack blocks ~enc rally form t he perimeter of th e c.m p, Thc barrach were buill ah<,ul 30m bad fro m the ra m part, well out of range of mi ssiles. Eac'h ce ntUrV block wa, com p'"ed of ten OT cln'en ,," of d"uhle r<~,m, which OCC\lpied .h<,ut two-third, of lhe block, Eac h do uble room con, iste d of a bTge bedroom ahout 4·Sm , q uar e hol di ng cig ht legion"i e' with a , mailer room for lhei, equipment . At lhe "ther end of lhc block were the cen · tury office, . " d the cent urio n' , living q u. rt ers . A, in 1'01ybiu,' day the camp was divided down the middle hy the -via ",-a"~ria , which led straight from the p<,"la pra lhe poria dewrnan", , o. called because it wa, nex' '0 the tenlh manipl.. in l' olybius' cam p, was called the ,'ia dwmrana , T he camp wa' still di \'ided laterally by the ~'i" principaii" where the , oldier' had for medy ", sem hled, but no w a ,p•.'<.·i. 1build in~, the ",-incip,a , which was pl.ced on the via f" incipaiis facinl( down the via Jeam"",a and back {(I bac k m , ide by side wi, h the pr"" ",i"m . wa, prov ided OS the opera _ tio n< cent re of the cam p . T he tr ibu ne,' qtt an cr< 'l ill ttl.l ned theiT!(,r me r posilions along lhe v w principali.'. These pe rm anent cam p' were orij(;nally lim_ beT_buill, but hy thc mid _" t cent u ry M> in (;er many, .nd by thc end of lhe cent ttry in Brit ain, they were being rebuilI in stone, Thi, rebu i ld in ~ in " one reHec" lheir accepted pe rm anen ce and nOl , orne new threat . T he,e com~" were like smail town<, com pletel y sclf·,ulli" cieIll wit h ho, piral. , wOTh hops , etc In ba tt le Little can be , aid of the basic legion ar y tactics of the ea rly em pire, A' long a, the weap"nry remained ,he ..me One mu ' t .., ume ,ha' the legion ar y con_ tinued to fighl in the "m e fa,hion , Ait houg h lhe shiel d had been , hortened , ,,, , Abav. 1- 5 ."'!'on"'''- tool, 1 $,o.,o l,om "" ""n,,. c,""",,,•. 3 < ."", , 4 f urt cu'lo' hom N"",,,••d 5 Reco"" ' ''''''''" of ' '''' 2 Pic'". Idol"bra ) 1'0'" t n"."Ch'og tool "om ~ un,,"g d,gg,ng tool. " Abo•• "om ",,"'.-.o tt 6 Le3',,"' ,,",old 00""' 7 Tont 'eat"e' hom [ho AOlan'"" Wall 6 P, Ii,ade ""e "001 Had,•• "', W,II ~ 10 6uo'" a"d moss ,.n " om C'omana 11 f.qu'o·. ,gh' ch.,n I.om Nu",.nt,. 'rue E MPI RE ' 4(> llC-M>,OO Til E A R M Y IN TH E FI ELD " - 1122_'. T"' _ "" , ... , _ _ --_ _.,T ... ~ Ion ....... ....... _ """'" "" ' - a l " " " > 1_ 1 _010"0· _ 1 , ..........._. _ Z L..,.. ,J -. "' .,....._ '--' _"" 0_"'''' """'" """"'-'_ ""- , lI' '''''''' _to Bnon_ " _ .. w _l J J _ o _' 1,_ _ lI' ' ' w .. _ n. 1. A,..,.,.-...._01' ..,..,., "' .... "'" -.........,.,.__-. .. . ,. ... ' ... _lOOfIII .... ..... f ... _~. _ - ... ,_ 0..,.._ .. .... Ion .. . - ,""' .al,""'-'w.. .... -.. ...... _ _ """", ,"" 10 '«>II • __ ,- ~ . _g .... '0l Z _Go" ._11_........ "... (_) Tho _ k b _1On\I "",,_ ... ., A l>o~ . ThO ;n..' ,"""". <,," o leg",,,.,,•••, off,,,,,, .,,, '1000" ,"""" too "'" to. 'ar oM T'" qllo" , ,, oM ,,,,,,," '. co,,,,,,,,,n', " ,"" r,,,,,, T H F. ROM .... K EM PI R E in ..." ' st .,....'01)· ",", ,houlder guards had boom oo·tloped '0 comrenu't. A, lim probably doM by i"l 'M mail sh.irt ,orowr ''''' ,houkkn, bu, la,,,, i, "'~ ;>o:;h;.,..·td by ,he: in•...,. duaion <>f,he: 1oten dont b~· , h ilhdraW1l1or ,...., po, ....,...... c.n ' ut i•• . Th mi-cylindrical te >",t u ", in 'M 3rd ""nrury mark , t he tnd of.his mt' hod of cha nging linn. [Jurin8" Caoosar', si.S" of AI""ia ""t "",,'M pJ,,,.. heing used as a drltnsi,·. w""'ron, ""hieh gi\.~ a derp:-r insight ,n.o ,"" RomanpOJ....and sword n>nh<>d of lil!lh'i~. 11= Caoosar 's Jq:;onarin art ,ryi"l to hold bad ,he Gauls ..."" an btnki"ll through the:drltnca , "I1>c-y have obviously th"""'n rhe:ir light.r pol" ""d an: us,ng ,he heavier onet a. ,pea., hold .he.... my at bay un,il ""nfurormen.. an be brought up. \I;'''''n , his hapP"n, ,he:y 'bro.... rheir po'l" and dooc in wi.h , hti . ",vord, in ,h. ,,"u al la,hi"" One ,hould "ssume that thi' .... ony· o,her "I th-c auivitit, of ('--,,<,. .'s army a•• innovatiom . T his defen,ive m•• h"d " f t1gh,inll had probably been devn ~ is ,he 'btnk'hmugh' f""",,, ion k........ ' 0 ,he sold"," n ' M ' pic', htad'. Thi. _ fooncd wi,h one cohort at 'M fro n, (presumably ,he tim ) with ,he second and thltd in ,he """,nd line, ,he fou rth,lif'h and oixth in ,h-c ,hird line and ,lit four ""horts ,n .ht r....r line form ing a ....dgt. In IItne..1 one must a..ume lha. tht army .ontin....d ' 0 ligh. in 'implt furmalion" a, ' h. y had in the rcpuhlk The s ~ 'tt m (If comma nd pr.c'i ,od hy . he N"ma." durinll the eorly prin<'ipalc , ,hi, _ '0"" "'''".d- '0 '0 no, .- 1 --4 1<1 cenl..... _ _ I _ " " " " _ _ v~ .. ~ ... ~ .... . - . Os.....,.,. 2 l ....... "'"""""' 3_ •_ _ ' ,,_ g u o o l _ I I _... _-""t",,,,_, § ·, o )-d- "e "'"", _ _ ~A~ ' f ~"'" 5" ..... "0. _ ' . '_ ",..' ,,"'" ~"""""9 7 Bad 01 . ''''''''' "'""'", ',"'" ~"""".no. '" '' n",ooc. "',ooooloo"''' ,,",> C" " unlum 9 O,agoo st,oo.,d f,o ", N, . " ..b;ebe, Cob 'en, Muse" m 10 ( M ",f,oo "0'" S'" "b,og 01""" ". I -~ "''' ,I..V crow"",, 1 C"""", C<""" " ' _ of 0 " ... Z C"""", "",do! of g ' .. 3 COfOM M,,,.I,, • Corona ,~lMi, S C",on ' " "",,, 3-5 ... go ld obsi T HE EMPIR E 140 Be-AD 200 TilE ARt"'\' 1:"1 T HE HELD in ,,-hieh QIlly , h" r"lular profeMional office.. comman.kd a[ century ",...,,1, precluded an~ pooaibililY of imaginali..." -.K:S tbl"ll larll" hadI<'S of <mops. Roman commanden rdicu,ilyon uioOCIl'Tn, """", ' 0 be dn"-n """"'" ffOnl t.... apb.. oi lI" ll l uch .' Scipio and c.e.a, than , nonnal pncticc' of ,.... army. ,n,.. Aflu tbe b.nl" Aft"r. Nlll". 1<.....1 eu",omarilj' "'" ..rded wldi",," whoo.c p<1'form.1nc<: ~ been "x"mplary. I n ,he ",publiesoldi",... could loot for "'ord 10 ' ....ir .ru.re of [I\<: bo<"~ qui,. al"'rt fro m decoralion, for '-alour . Iluri nlli Ih" "mpir. this had to be modi fi"d .. , ....,,, w" r. far f.w.r oppor luniti", for r" ward, uf d,h., ~ind. It became cu,h,m,ry for the empcw " in order he p hi, m,op, happy, give pca""1;m" pay-ou," (don.,i ,''')' often [h. equivalent 10 live yea,,' pay . Such I"'ymc nt. wcr. made when a new em _ pcw, came to [h" thronc, I n the ' u' m" il f"l1" winlli 'he dea, h of N"ro, when four empcroro came '" I h. throne in , wift ,u."Ceo.ion, lhe played a very lffiportan, rnk. T he Pro«o,;am were olfe",d 'en yea ..• P"'Y ,,, support G alba' , elaim ' 0 ' .... thtone , \l;'l\<:n ,he bribe ...... not fonhcomi"ll ,hey murdtred him '0 '0 do"_,iv,, -~ !"""""ona o! ".. ....,"'''''' M.. c.... , ....'" 01 'Oll"'" XVHI , onow... h~ corof'd "",,1iH ,na ',"",oj, WI< >;I 1ed ,n ,'" v"u' d,.. " .. .,"".._H. _." 00.' ''''Q_ afte, a reign of onl y fuur mon,h, Om ing lhe repuhlic mihtar}' de"or at;ons had been wun tarad y on indh'idual merit regard Ie," uf rank . D uring , he empire ",,"aill r~ward, were r~"Ti"'ed 10 eo" .i" rook . and lhe tradi,ional reasoll for 'he award was often ignored , T hus Ihe e",," '" could onll" b< a..'arded to men of ron.ular rank and no Ion~r had any connection " i,h ,he>e:oOf .h,po. T he ,...."""<Jb"'.Ji<m4hs. a,.-.rd .""",/i, ,- _ ..1_ """""''''' Go<m.nv A..,,,, ... ...- '" ,, 1_ "",,, IlO' T~ .w"'_'0 App..ontly o f c."", ",.g'", <>om"""" .- f!>ay _ _ 0014,.., 1"' ''~ G".."..... 0... ,"", ... 0<1 .. '"'\IOU 01 d.-nn>y - " ' " -0>0\100 _ _"" "l7l' .. _ _ "" h, .. m lOng ........ ·fike ..... T HE RO MAN EM PIRE Abo•• A "li, 1 f,om tho> T","pioIlo So,.,""," Rom< , '><)'W i"" , " . "" hom • " iump" . 0.1 0 Be. I'>'i " ophy w"'ch" "'en c ~ "'e" , ""u l"", " ,q" by . ight Ieg,oo, ,,,, On the rigo, is . lUbic." .~ . A ",,"e I,om the triu"'pool . ,, " 01 T"", . , Rome Comrt" rn "," "'g h" ",cto'Y over 10. In ,he " '" mph, 1woc"" i"" ,00 "'<>'0° ' '' "' " e « " , i"9 tne f,om 'he te", ple . ' J.", ,, I, m In ' '''' ", nl' e ell" be_n J""" ".O''''. t"" , e",," O'ongOO T"" placard, being car, ied ,n " .. _ kq'''""d would nave C~_ 18b 'a ""'"" 0" " '01>0"' of ,oe " o'b'" All to" , oldie" " e onar"""" ond we~' " 0"" W","", T H E EM PIR E 140 tI(:-AD 200 TH E AR .\ l l · I~ THE H ELD - or di.honounbk di""bargc. Tho: grea'· bu. mi gh ' aloo ha"e heen "''Ofn for ",t di,honour .ha, could happen to a .ports, Since mOll Ieg>onal)' hel me" ...·bolc untl .... .. d..bandmcnt . "I1I.ishar- haJ cret. h<>lden. even though cres ts pencd ' 0 four of ,ho:: C>CIInU1 kgion. ~c. worn in hattie, i. ...'ho::n Vnpa..o.... ' U of .wards ...... per_ skJlJe.i d colourful exhibi.iom rerformed bdon: ,ho:: whole army and .ooO; formes! by tho:: """alf)' u,inS d umrn)' pia...., in fron, of a furmal rar-· Jose· ja"elins, Fo. ,hnc cxhibi'ioo,.....hieh in phus dncnbn sud> • parade, adding """'" tnpe<;t, mem bkd med ics'al ,ha, ....,h man who "Ci,·cd an a ard tournamen". hoch horK .nd man ""ere ,",,,, ob,.. ncd . f\$C tn nk. The Je ;,h elabi,utely a.""",red , A mult it ude of I • hi"",;an al", Si,..,s an "",-oun' of a fou .· •hi. ca" alry . por .. e'luipmcn' . u n-i~es monthlj' pay paradc during.he ,iege of from all "'.., . ,he empi.c. Thc g=>'est Je rusalem, He ", obviousl}' "e.y im - lin d of , hi, 'yre of e<jui pme nt eOm'" • pr...sed b)' it: ' A ,• • Ihei r custom , ,hc from a lrd'~entury . ite at Straubing in ,ho::ir ar m . f",m ,hc ca,e, in B;s" a.ia. Thio oite h.o. p. oo uecd 'everol whic h u p till nuw they haJ h<:<:n ' t." ed , helmets, a reaves and hunc fa~e pi""", A ...... of preservation. T.. v'''''''''''.,e" r"ld' . T he and fem ,lIe '~'re' , ,u~~esting per hap, pay parade lasted f<>ur d'}', - pro b. bly th "l lhe Con' e'lant> re prese nte d G reeks one day fur eac h (>f 'he four le ~ion. , and Am.~"n •. Thc drawing on p. 245 Jov T, .... os _ " I I t.. "'_ _ h on _ iO "",,",ry sport. equipmen', Howe..r. the, e ortgtn, ...... M "II'" on _ tword1 a.,t.l"1l hom is • ¥Cry elabon.e hebntl wItieh , if i, , _ • _ _"II 0 "'''''''''' """' .., ..... ..u e.., worn. could only """ be<:n The triumph " ' - Cd for puade• . I. os• • nciden'III)'. ,he During the repuhlic. rornmander ...·hu l """' t ,!". T I>IJt'I . _ ....,... la,,,,, s...,.'i'·inS cumplc o f the tr-aJi· had ...'Oft. d«isi"e ,'ictor~' could expe<'1 _ " " ' tno ..... oboo 01 _ 01 J _ tiona! halo-Conn,h,an 'ype helmet , ro be .".... ded. Inurn ph. This ,ietO<} c...-... Of' c.."" T... _ s.o.n., ~ of body .rmour from rhe celebno'ion ...... enshnned in the "cry ("'11>"'_ - ' \ I ' _ on~".., ~ "'" t>r ",-....s. '""'", .... lrd oen'lU)' .u> ha,.., su,,"'I'"Cd . These arc binh of Rome. ,houj;h i, ",,"Cd much of ,, prubabJ)' from ",",...Iry parade arTnOU. its delail ' 0 , he Ernnam , AceoN.ing .'".~.:;,;;;~ ........., no ""'m' l """"I • • ''''''1'' ,,,,>k ".te '" I. . • • 0' t"" ",IS _ r x. _10<1 "'" "'" "' (__ .- .. T HE RO MAN EMPI RE the famous l<1l'end , when 1{'\Inulu. killed ,\ n on , king of th e C.nin,n" . , in •ing le ~~' mhat, he 'tripped th' d..d chidrain of hi' armour , hung il ,,"or an < trophy .... 10 hi••houlder and kd hi. mm in f"'OCC'"'Iion . ingi"ll """lI' of tnumph. Thi. " ... Ih, origi n or Ih~ lriumph . Tho< Euu5am in'rud ....~ II>< CNnoo: in'o I I>< procn...... and -"" ,I>< basic <1Tno of II>< m_ f'lw'fW, Tho<~ ~ also ....p<>mibk ror l l>< name it...lf .Ad for II>< ' l'pe of pmcr..~iI" N. U'ilh Ih~ eJlP"'!' ion of tl>< ~mPl'" .1>< lri umph J ......,lopeJ in oompl~ xit)· and • pl,ndour. Ahhough d". il, m,ght ,'ar)' ...ith ditr,..,n, "i"mph"",,,. • ",gular f"nn.t " 'u follo....d. AI th~ h~ad of II>< pr"....,"ion w~re the magi,,,.te. anJ I he ",na'o"", They wer" f" llnwed hy h<,o,)-' la k,n fro m the enemy, wi1h painl i n~, '" ,." model' of lhe hOll ie' an d Ihe "a r 1m ,d "ilie, . Then eOm~ the < carricd • """ptre aoJ . n oIi v~ bru>< chari .t_ man' , The chari ..,d by thol: llOldien "..,ann~ oIi"e -n:atm and ' houting, . /" T..·.. -rJot'-behoid tl>< triumph. Th" procn.ion "'''und through I I>< of R'>me, p...ing thro ugh tl>< t""O ,iTOU"" hd"r ~ coming ro unJ th" Pa1aline hin and up 'he Sa cTed '1lia;- to th" Forum, I ler. the ,·hief pri" mer ..... nor mally led ,,11' to "~ecuti on ......Ieon" "red, Abo... I ... "."mph 0+ T" u' u"," ,to wav ''' ou-;;IO tho t""",,,,, 0' jew> H."oo;) ~""'" ,.. l'","no.." """'" "" , "" SK,. V" ""~ ' " f",,,.m 10 It>eloot of IDa Caoilol H..... boog,.. to .... CI_ '-'''''..... while ,he! p"""",ion cli mbed rl>< Cap;toli "" hill and I>< priooner had bftn ex""uIN T hen ,I>< J"nenJ oacrificN ,I>< ...hll• 01" n ou..i<\e ,he T em ple of J up; ,., 1be ~Iri>n,ion of ,he n-iumph ...... reOInctN 10 ","'nd' ,,'ho had '""'" a """'_ pin, \''''01)" "'.",. a r<Jre181' n>nny l>Urilt/l lhe empire only , he emperor and hi. family ....,,,, al.......,d Ihi. honour. T he re """""..,r, a Ieo""r f I...... calltd an ",.,., i " . " or this lhe! gton.-ral ....,.,_ lked on , he! Alban moun, ...,." ral md.. ."uth of Ihe ,iIY , and ent.red Rom e .ilhe r " n hor.. had or on f""t the f"lI"wing morning 1"'le.J of an "I iv, ",r• • lh he ",me a crown of my"le The Later E m p ire Th e Mobile Army A ll Dr Itoger Tomhn The Danubian .....ars of Mareu, Aurellu, exposed Ihe .....eaknesses of lhe defensive '~'slem he had inheriled . Ne ..... legion s had to be raised 10 defend haly's non h_ ern approaches. 'field armies' had 10 be ;mpr",'i,ed, officer; found and promot ed unc~mve nlionally. Valerius M,, _ imianus, "ne " flhefe..... senalo" 10 <~,m e fro m Pannonia , is a forerunner of lhe great Danuhian emperors of Ihe 3rd cent ury : he .....a' an experienced cava lT~ officer decorated by M OTeu, Aurelius for killing a bar barian chieftain ..... ith his own hand" .....ho rose '" be leg~t e of six legion, in lu rn . The tirs l , oldie,,' em_ peror, ho.....ever, Septimiu s Severus, had seen no aClive service untii the Danu hi~n legions pr""l~i med him in ' 93, bUI the need lor miblOTY ,uppon took him on expedilions far beyond the fro nt iers of Syria and Brilain , On his dealhbed he i' said 10 ha," advised his sons to 'e nri ch lh e tr,~)P' and de'pi'e eveTyone el, e' , fk inc'rea ,ed , oldier;' pay ~ nd , upplemented il Wilh donatives : their m a rri~ ge, were n()W l eg~ l1~ recognised; 'he w-~alled righ' w we~ r a gold ri ng symbolised lhe opportuni'ie, n()w opened 10 them of risin~ into the ~en" 'UTiona'~ ~n d beyond, even in,o the ad mini strative po," tradi'i<mally held b~ equestrians. The legionary army was ina eased by one- temh , by raising lhree new Par/h,"" legions commanded (like tbe Egyp'i~ nlcgion ) hy equestrian p r~ _ fects ..... ho bad been primu, pilu, lwi,e. T .....o of them garri soned Ihe ne..... province of (nort hern) Mes()polamia, bUI [he Sec~>n d wa, "a'ione d in a fortress ncar Itome. T he "ld Praetmian G u.rd w.s disbanded fOI having procbimed one of Sevcrus' opponents; il was replaced by <en new cohort> of double (mini. r)') strength drawn from legionaries, most of them the Danubians who seemed ' 0 uncou' h lo ,hc Ruman sena'orial ari, _ '""racy The new 200-450 tr ibe s coalesced imo lwo confederacies, bolh distant anceslOrs of modern Euro_ pean nati,m" ' he Frank. " n the Inwer Hhin e, and , he Alamann s to lhe east of the artificial front ier (limes) lhat linked the middle Rhine '0 Ihe upper Danu b<: East G erman people. like the GOlhs and Vanda ls moved sout hward from lhe Hallic , pressin,o; othe r tri be, against 'he Danubi ~n fron ' ier, and the m' e1ve. 'h reatening Dacia and the lower n anube . In lhe ea , t lhe ram shackle Parthian empire fell to an aggres,",' e Persian re_ ,'i"al , whic'h ied to an im'asion of Homan Me.o potam ia and Syr ia a. lhe first ste p towards the rec(",ery of lhe we" ern terrilories of Dariu" Alexander S~v~ru " 'he grand'on of ' he great Sever u,' sister- in-l. w, was murdered by his troo ps at M ain' in 235, .fter fa;lin~ 10 cha" ise ' he Alamann, Hi s suece" or , M axim inu" bad b<:c n a Danubian pea 'anl . He was lhe first of 'he ' Illyrian' emperors , men of obscure "ri~ins bm undoubled military geniu, who doggedl;' fought invaders .nd eac h ,,'lier '0 rest" re a measure of Slability _ but at. fear ful cost. Du ring 'he period 235- 84 Ihere were alm')';t 20 em pem rs who m uld claim to c" ntm l 'he capilal Rome, nol to mem ion nomi nal col_ league •• nd countless u, ur pe r; , hu ' ex_ cept for D<..:iu" who fe l! in !>anle against 'he (i",hs (25')' Valer;an, ..... ho died in Pe"i.n hand s (afler 259/60), C1. udius, who died of pla ~ue (270), an d Carus , who wa' " r ue< by a t hunde' bolt perhap, of k gi0nar;, manufaC!UTe (2g 3), 'hey were aj] killed by thei, o..... n sold iers, or someone else' s, M uch lhe longest reig n ",as tha' of GaJlienm (254 _ 6 ~ ) , a man of , om, culture (he fou nd time '" patroni se a philosopher ..... ho was planning an utopian cily on ,he Bay of Naple' ) During ,he'e '4 years lhe Al,manns conquered tbe territory heIween Hhine and Danube, an d 'he Goths Dacia, 'he \'(' eSlern pro,'inees prodaimed lheir own ' Gallic' emperor; in lhe Easl, lhe Persian, ,,~)k lhe cap ital AntiOCh, and were "nly d riv~n Out by ,h ~ ini'ia' ive of a Roman pTOtcc"oratc , lhe , ara,'an ci, ~' of Palmy,a, Gallienu, controlled lillie mor e 'han h aly and its nor, hem ap proaehc', ,h e Da nubian prm'ince' (interm itt ently), and f\frica, h'" his ij] _ d o~ u m e n ! e d 'refor ms' forged the weapons u'ed b~' his successots in a rapid military r""o\'Cry , A med ie,'. 1 TH E MOBILE A RMY source credits him with being the first 10 form ca v al r~' units , " he Hmllan army ha" ing becn pre,'iousl y l a r ~ e1 y i n ~ famry' . This is an exa~ge ral i o n : independent cavalry for ces had c()ntribuled to S..'erus' "ieI",ie' in , ivil war. Hut we now hea r " I' a ~",' alry at my under a , ingle commander; and gold eo;ns were struck al Mil an to honoUT , and no douh' repay , ' he ' l ~)yalt y " r lhe Caval'y' , T hese rth- western approaches: they were .urely paid 10 legionary detachm ents ..... hieh remained I"y al after their parent "ni" proclaimed us", pets, ' Senaw ' ial' sources are hostile to Gal _ lienu; , prob~bly hecau'e from c. 2[)o he cea'ed '0 apr<,in' ,he traditi" n. l le~ion ary legales; instead, alilegiom are no" comm anded by eq ue" Tian prefec'" like 0" II'" 0" . ,M"P "'I ".'l'w ·' I ll'U!'~J'OU ! '1~!'1." '~'W.m u' ",oo,no pO. AOOIO"O'4' ",,'. ,", OW," PO"'" OW.. 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" lI l ''I~'' 1"~U' I 0<1 "u()I>bl ~"¥'"t>" ~.l'll ,snJO '' "S JOJ"''l l ~~" U" ,,"u "e,,, aaiawa N V\-liO}l C1H .L T HE LATE R E MPI RE An 200-450 THE MO BILE ARM V raised by D iodetian and atlach~d to the comi"''''s : th" e are the eadi e" >eh,,1(u (m" unted (iuard,) and the crac k Hqt Comiln The permanent field force' of Diod etian and his colleague " howe,'er, weTC ,m an hy bter st andard" hut the y could he supplemented as req"ired fro m lhe t\(,w reinforced from ier armies, Th ", an Enplian papyrus " f 295 record' the issue of fodder nO! only w the Cmni"" but al'" to a, many a' ten pairs ofle~ion ary detOC'hmenrs, probahly incl Uding lhe pair f", m Daeia Ripens i, ( XIII ti, ,,, ,,,o and V A foadoni a, permanem , and returned them to fro n_ lier dUlies when con"en ien'The logi'li c, of the army were part of rcli"m, wbi,'h laste d th ro,, ~ h om lhe lale- Ro man period , D urin g the 3rd ,'e n_ wr y, lhe c urrency (and 'he Te laled ' ystem uf taxation ) had collap,ed; lhe arm}' re4"i' itioned laoour and suppli es ., needed , .t a 'fai T priee or n,me a, all, Diod etian regu1arised lhe "y"em 01' le,'ying lhe food' tuff" raw materi. ls and manufaC'l ured g,xld' (clol hing for exam ple) required by lhe army in 'he form of laxal ion, hased upon a , urvey of [he empire's resource, . The I'rae_ [o,ian prdect w uld 'hen Teekon whal wa, needed fm the eoming year, and calculale wltat each laxable unit "ught !O P",Y; ordeTS could the n he given through the prov inci.1 g" verno" to 1<"'ally eleeled offiei.I" who eolle alllhorising the b su e of mHi ,.r)' ration' Th us " Ilkia]; are orde,~d to pay a g. "i""" which can he identified as lhe ala / H ib<m",m , two mont h" rations "f b.,ley and "'heal : the totals are given, and sugge't thaI ' he ala nu ml:>ered only tl6 me n and lheir horses. T he seconJ fragment c'on,i'" of Idler, rece ived fro m the pm curalor of the I.ower T he_ baid . many of them . uthor ising cash pay men " '" mili'ary unils in ea,ly 300 : thos on 30 Ja n"ary the procurator wrme to Ihe m aregu.< (who rece i"ed hi, letter on 9 Februa, y), o, deri" g hi m 10 pay the a/a lllibero"'''' 73,500 denarii (pay) and 23,600 dma,ii (i n lieu of rations) due on , J anua ry ti" the I. " li",r month, of 299, The mill ' g",und ,10"-' hut ex,'eed_ ing fine: Ihe m altgus even ackn o" -ledg'" a re4 ui,ition for hides 10 repai, a e.valry ti)rt', g. te " and inf' ltm' the beater th. l i' has been ' nihhled hy mice and m",ilated '. D iodet ian had dom inaled hi' 001l e a ~ u e s . W hen he aodicated in 305, and reti'ed 1o a fort ress palaee on Ihe Dal" matian C()~" , a serie' of civil wars followed, ti-om which Con" an!ine 0 06n }, lhe , on of (; O"'1Onliu" emerged in .124 a, ,,,Ie emperor , A li ~ h tn i n g eampaign (312) elimi nated ,\laxe mius, ' he "'" of Ma ximian, wh" had hd d lIa ly e" en again" (;alcri", . ( :on" .n tine, who had used only . fraelion of hi, avail.hle for ce" gave the credit 10 lhe Christian (;od . "lore p"" aicall)', he m on opol i,~d a new infantry uni', the auxili""" which was 10 provi de the ' hock troops of the la' e- Roman army, T he firs l aux:ilia were proo.b ly rai'ed h I' O","an, iu, or "Iax_ )I1n. n the y weee the Corn",i, ' he ' horned men ' who are apparent ly depiu ed on ' he Arch of Con s slralegic point s. Le ~io n ",y detachment< were wi'h drawn for good : some of [he m kept their old name, li k ~ the Quinta M"cedoniea, the longe" -lived of all legion' (it w",' part of J u"inian' , army in the 6th centur y), oth er> 1(x,k numeric.1 name<, like /'t';mmli or U nMcimani, 0' name s from a pre,'iolls >t . [i"" , like the Di" i"nst', whic h h. d been a delachment of S<"Cond l"'/ita ' t.t ioned at the Cologne hrid gehe. d of D ivit ia, ' Pair ed' with Ihe llititen,., are 'he FU"K"C""i, which had presumably been the garrison of T ongr.. (Tungri) . T he old Praelo, ian Guard was' di,sbanded, no doubl bec ause it h. d fO\l ght for .\iaxem ius , b u, also hecause il was now OO" )Ie,, theT< wa, • new mohile army. Th e ' ok of imperial gnard' was now filled by lhe $Cholae, crack cavalry uni" 500-'lron g (at lea' l in 'he 6lh century), of which ! h e r~ wer ~ a dozen by the end " f the 4t h ce nlury T hey ,,-ere followed by eaval, y ~'exillalionts like Ihe elile CQ",i"s an d !'ro"'''''' unit> drawn f'om 'he ;a rne ,o ur c~, a, 'he wailia (Equius Con ",'; e'e .), .nd m. ny units wit h title, al'o found in lhe fro ntieT armie' (lla/", arae, S labl" ia" i etc,) which recall lh e c a " a l t ~, arm y of G. I_ lien u' Some of th e latter helong '0 numhered , equence" lih lhe well- paid trooper of VI S tabltsiani who di,_ " ppea,ed wil h his , p lendid helme' into a ' wamp in c, 320, or h. ve titles which «"Ca ll a tim e in g.rr ison (E qui ,,, Dt likely expla""tion is Ihal th..e are fron tier "nilS d,awn fro m C,allienU< ' ,, " al,y army, which were withd rawn once more 01' Con " .n line to s"'ell hi' mobile army. A hostile critic of Co",,.ntine ae,'U"" him of reversing 'he " T.r egy of [l iocletian , which had m. de lhe f"' nt ie" im pregnable : mo" of lh e army w", wil hd rawn from the fro ntie" .nd poste d in cilie' which did no' need . garri''''' , • ourden ti" the eilies concerned, and demoralisin g for the lroop' , Thi' crili_ cism misrepresen" the new ' tr ategy, which w", abo ..",nti. lly th at of Con"ant ine', , u,'ce'"',, . It was im possible to hold ' he front i., line a~ains l all attack , Si ll"" external enemit , retained the initialive and could alw.y, COncentrale ,upe , ior fotc,., l""a[[}'. !n"e. d , Ihe , ereen of g.rrisons ill the fro ntier zone woul d _ in lheo'" at le",t -eheck minor incu rsions, and hinder maior inva, ions '" THE ROMAl' EMPI RE by bolding fOTtified 'own, .nd ,upplyb.,e" .nd 8IrQn~poi nts of . 11 kind' alon~ lhe lines of communication, Thi' would prot ect tbe civil popu lation, den)' h ld to tb, ~nemy, .nd g.in time to eo n_ cenlrate mobile forces for counter. ttack, T he in-'aders would eithe r be forced to di, p,,,, c ' W eT the countTyside to for~ge, where they could be hunted down piecemea l by ' mall mobi le delaehments; or if the y ma" ed togeIher, they could be bwught to ha llie, wben the Roman mobile army, bener armed .nd disciplined and regu larly provi' ioned, had a good chance of winning aga inst n u meTic~1 odd,. Once defeated in the ficld , inv.ders could be pur,ued into their homeland, and reprisal' would follow until lhey made peace, For the emperor himself, this "Tategy had an impo rt. nt ,ide_elf""t : he could retain persona l "on tTo l of the empire's bes t troops and lOsure himself a~a i nst usur pers, T he drawback. were the dangn ' hat ina"tive tn,o p' , whelh"T on the I;-,}Otie.. ,>r in reserv e, would deteriora te ;and the slowness of communications . No army , h"wevcr ' mohile' , could move faster t h ~n i" infanlr)' ""uld m.r" h (. pproximatel y t5~20 m;les a d.y). [n. vitably, mo bile arm ies multi plied durin.o; the 4th century : ' his , hon _ ened the empiTe', re.ction time, hut di"i ded its strengtb and ;n" reased lhe Ti,k " f . n usur p. t;on. Const. nt ine wos succeeded by his sons, Consta ntine II (337- 40) in th, We", Con st.n s (337- 50) in Iwly, ~nd Constam ius II (337-6 t) in lhe Ea't, Co"'ta'" SoOn elim inate d Conslantine II , only to succum b 10 one of his own generals , lhe commanding officer of the ! (JI);am and ll"culiani, whom Om_ >tantius Jdea ted aftc r • "cry blo (357), h. successfully in" aded i" home terr itory , before re helling ag.in't bi, cousin (360) . When CO""an tiu, d ied of na tUTal c. m e" j uli"n found himself ,,,Ie empen ," (36 , - 3), I ns tead "f 'oking oUlSlanding probl ems on tbe Rh ine and Danube, Julian decided 10 te. ch the Pe"ian, a lesson by . llacking Ctesiph"n: the cxped;tio n was a disaster, and j"lian loot his life in a ski'mish dUTing the re" eal. The new empeWT, jovian, extr icated the army by making con"e"ions to Persia, but died a few m,mth, later , T he army repl.ced him with. dour fron tier emperor in the tradition of lhc Jrd_,'entUTy 'Illyrians' , Valentinian 1 ( 3 ~ 4- 7 5) , who co-opted his younger b10ther Valens (364-7~) a, Eastern emperor. \\:-'h ile Vale'" m.dc. dcmo"'tr.,i"n .gain c"nc-ealing hi, p r c ; u d ice ,~.n d • military hi' tor;an of more experience , Un_ for tunately he sa w him 'e1f as a 'da"i",,!' historian , whicb i, why hi, b. n le , cene, are full of blood . nd c1O'mitia i, . ' list of high office", . n illu' lr ated man u,crip t of e. 395 wbic h s" ,viv" in severo[ ( ind irect) copie" whose internal chron_ ology and pu rpooe are still malte," for d i,pule. [t i' arranged by "haple"' , . ach one devoted l<> • m.jo, offi"ial. wit h a ,c bemat i,' piClU , e of his responsibi[ities , thus the M ast er of the O ffices, who wa, responsible for lhe scholae and the ar m, factorie" is « prc,cn led by spea rs, shiel d" ~ helmets, m. il coat s and othor arm OUT With in these chapte" the ,"'otilia list' offkes in b"' h h. lves ofth. empire, including the commanders- inchief of tb e mohile armi es wit h lists "f t hci, regim ents (ar ranged 010", or Ie" hI' ' enior ity and type of unil), .nd lhe f10mier gene ral, with of lheir regimem s (and wheTe they are stationed), Both Eastern . nd W.stern ch'ptc" con_ lOin a gTeat deal tha' is earlier th. n 3~5 (whe n the empire w"' divid ed in thi' way), but only the Weslern lists h ~ ,' o been ' update d' the' e.fter, d uring th< , upT<;ma<;y (395-408) of lhe gtoner.Ii,_ simo S tili,'hQ, and e"en [aler , The Wo" _ ern chapters includ e . n un iq ue fealUre, a breakdown hy army of all mobile uni " T he, e points suggest tbat our COP)' of the ,';'oti,ia might have come from the file, of the Western mmm .nder-in chief ' his "afT issued offic.rs wiIh their eommi" ion" for which they rece ived. fee, and wo" ld have needed . Ii, t of appoim ments , T he fi na l dr.ft su,v ives of a petition to the empcTOT by Abinnaeu', th< new ly-appointed prefect of an ala in t he Egyptian Fayum Ho com plains to Constanti m 11 (337- 6t) ,hat , alihough he h.d been appointed bv the cm pcrm him'c1f, when he present<J the '..cred len..- ' to hi' immediate SllperiOT, he was told tha' other men had already presemed , imil.. len ers of appoinlment to ' b< sam. command Thcy had heen obtained i1liei!ly Ii-om lbe central b" reaucroey, Abinnaous "''' confirmed in his appointment (c , 34')' Ii", TH E LA TER EMPI RE AD . 00-450 T HE .\ I O B lLE AR."l' fo" Unald)' for U'. ,inc~ I>< k~rt t h~ lett"'" he ,ubsequtnlly =i~N, The crovo'n of hn arttr, onl)' ach;c...N al,.... J6 )"*'"" """'u, occup;.-. Of><' Ii~ in the En'....n .'"..,i,i.> ; 0.., H ,34. Aid q>o;~I" Praela.-'uro,.,. nwm.iw1d, T he 'official' ~iew i. ,,, p plem~nt ed by coin" a few bui l din~·in.cript iuns, and at><,~ e all by the T beodo,ian Code, a lVeat comrila.ion of n "ac>' fn.... im_ pcriallqi1ia,ion (Conot. m inc to Theodosius II ) arrangN chfUOl>looe:ically by' '.-.pia in t6 b<* \ '1 1 i. devoced to Iegi.lallon . If...... i.., tb~ anny, .nd to a t",..ury uf mJOU'~ reg ulat i"n. and Il;d inten,ion" A . inll:le cha pte r, for e..mple, com ain, I ' extra,,,,, rela, ing to ' dnc""", and ,hose wh" harbour them'. Am mianu. i••uppkln<'n'ed by. num· boor of inf..nor htSloria.M. includIng hi. cun'=poruy li u""pius ' G rtti a:wunt of , he .. 'h ..,noury. whi<:h partly ."","i~". . , >econd·hand. Panc~ ",. a fa,,,,,ri te la l~- R()man li terary ge nr e, ar~ s"metimes helpful. , hu, Li bani", ' ob ;tuary of ,I>c em peror Julian (3S~-t>3 ) use. ~ yc· "i!ncu aero"n" of hi. wt cam. PIlgn, .nd S'ilicl>o·. publiciSl . ,he poe' Qaudian•• ~ in ~cnify;nl . he na..... of ""'"C'O mobtle ...-guncnl1 ,,'hich ,uJ'J""'$'Cd a re'"oI, In 398. lm porla nl detail, tu'n upi n unlikely 1'1"".. : a m m _ pkte list " I' n" n·mmmi"i"ned ranks in a c.o.~ al ry un il/" ,i" i. j(i.-en hy SainI Jerome in his i n~c<:, i~c against ,he Hi1hop of JCN sak m. Cladma,,,,,,..,,, , . nd at><'ul t ,OOO in each of two Iegi...n . , These 41h-centu r}' limi,· aNi " -.;rc grotlpc:d in,,, arm..... OOVeri ng one or """"'II J'Werful mobile ar my. T hc ",'hich .u",ojv·c in the SOlitia ar<: full of chronological probInnso thus lhe garrison of Badnan' , \l;"all ...,m. 10 ha,'c ,utvi~N yj"uaIly onl""l from the ca rly 3rd cen· ' ury, w'heru . the g. rri.on. " lt he .\ laim ""etor cannut l'>e earlie r , h. n c. 31\8 The Jelle," ,".-cd by Abin"oeu, contain vivid glim p",. u( t hc dUlie. of . n office r of in the 340'" no, ,hal w·c can auume the ';n,cmal sceriei and u. urpation, commit_ ted in the luc aliti e, hy ' he lOU " inH u· enli. l men ' , ...rit c. a petit i' l()er, (Abinnaeu., a ooIdier of">mc 40 years' ellpc:ri. enee, " '•• al.... a man of propc:ny "i,h """"'" rcn" in Alexandria and farm stock of hi, .....-n•• nd ,"clearl)' .........fthe uhi,! uit"". 'palrun. of Ja,~·R(lIOan Tom"" "' ... ....... l uc.arus _ .... 00' "","", _ _ ,he .._ ...><;ie'y ,) IIc recei ,·.. appeal, (ru m the _ v;,·, im, uf hu rglar;e' , fro m "",'pie who B.low Tomb"""" oj on "o""ow n sokl... I,om I".nb"' c.o.O 214 ha"c h.d ,hcep ()f pill' "ok n . One "f hi, " wn men i. aileged 10 hav'c been drunken and violent , anoohc r to hav·c IN a png ....hich the ,,"001 of( I J sheer', t-:b 11M: la. t-M om an a r my. An 337-78 .nd d",,·c off si" P'P, A dergym.." Coosta""... , as ....c ha"e ...,n, d"idcd int....ceoo for a soId,er ur ' he same namc • lbe anny imo mobilc f' lK" (c-.. ,,,,,,,_ ....1>0 has dcsc"ed: Abinn"",,' should ,., ) and r",mier lro0l'S (limi'''''n). The excrci", hi. C hristia n duty of forgive. lalter, with the help ,,( inferi"r t" " ,p. in ness, .... no the r clergyman a.k. li lt a I"an tl>< ubiquitous smail st rongpoin" (bu,· "f the nets ker l a, he.dq uartc.... , to calch ,.). garri'''ON fon, .nd fonified to"ms SauJIcs which hav'e heen eating the in!be frontier zone&. \l;'i, h a (~w cxcep- crops, O ffieial lct tcn ""luire Abinnacus lion" ,hey <>D... ~~d of new·.. yle u ni<s 1<> provide es<:ort. for Itt eoI1c<;oon. l<> of <"",'n ("""""'i..... raluad k>ok aftcr 1...-0 craflSln<'n CUllinl limber on the Danuboo) and ""xr/"•• or old·style f,,, a ca... lry <-c"ill,,'i.. , to help <"Ofttrol legion. , "I", and w l.uns . Are h ac~,logic Ihe ilJici, traffic in ..>do. T hcse intr iguiltll: ally there i, gTOwin j( . ,'idenee Iha t late d".:ume01' , h" u ld nut he h" w· J(oman for". '" a' least their ga " i.uns, ,·'·cr, lu ' Ul'l'o rt the "Id-fa.h""'cd idea ...-.;.e oflen .maller tha n ,heir <»U nter· uf the 4th...-cnlUry I,,,,i,,,out' as an hc",dof the carl}' emrire, Th~ I)ioclcti· ;,ary 'pcua n' mili' ia' . Gallic p m sons, ani<: aI", . ,ttich apparntd}' numbcttd " i. true , coIlarrsed duri tt« ,he early , 16 (or t '8) men has already been roc,,· 350'" but the fron,ier legion. tral'J'Cd ' ionc<)ur. -""II ;IW' ;;. , 1\4 men in Ih. Coh"" X l ing pf li,,, , 11_-''''''' - 00"''''' .,oIe '0 "'..... ",,,,I, 1"'"' ,,, THE RO M AN EMP IRE the Persian e ~pedi t ion (3" 3), and ,hort ly afI erwards units made redu ndant by J(wi . n', ' utrender of lert ilory '" Persia were aJ ded to lhe mohile army of lhe East under the cumhef"ome , itlc of legIOn" p,'",uUJc<>miU",,,,es, A, late ., the j th centu ry, , orne 30 gar,i,on unil' from (,au l, m"" of them sun'i,'"" of the collap,e of 'he Rhine fron , ier in 406/ 7, al,o ,o;ained lhis lille , but ,h i, mu' l ha. e been by now . des perale expedient Cm"'lart~se" lhou ,o;h ' he y mi,o; hl well have famil ie" did not h,,'e fixed sta liom like lhe limilan. i. U nln , they were on campaign, lhey were billeted in lown" where they were entitled lO onclhird of lhe ,,'. ilable .ccommodation a sy"em lh at ca"sed friction wi,h (heir ci,'ilian 'hos ts'. Con'lant ine ercated two comma nders-in-chief, thc Ma"ee of C .valry (m"!li, ,,,,. , quilu"') and Maslee of In fantr y ,"'''gi''er p,Jitmn ), who ab_ ,o dx:d (he Praetorian prefect' , military fu nC'li" n" althou gh the prefec t remained responsible for p",,'i, ion and supp ly. In practice it wa, nm po"ibk '0 keep all mohik lnx>p, a' t he emperor', imm edia'e disposa l: we soon find 'regional' arm ies, lhe most im portant bein!i' lhos e of G.u l, Illyric"m «(he Dan" hian prOV ince, ), a n d ~ he Eas l (b ased on Antioch), commanded by • Maste r of C,,'aley in lhe absence of lhe emperor. Sm.ller mobik fm ce, wcre detached a, requ ired, u ' ''ally under the command of a eoum (w me,) , like lhe fo ur units ' ent to Britain in 'h e emagcncy of 367 , Africa acquired a moh ile army of its ~ > w n , and by t he time of t he NOIi,i" theTe were ol he rs in Brita in, Spain and T hrace . Thc"Odo,iu, I (379- 95) gamped the E. "ern for ce, in'o five aemie', two of t hem a' hi, immed iale disposal, all of th em commanded by " .'vla"er of Sol_ diers ( "",~ , ,, ,, mili",,,, ). Hi, purp"", m. y havc been political, 10 a"o id havin~ • single cx,mmander-in-chief, of the sort thar de"e loped in the We", where S(iJicho (. s Master '" and ,orne legion, and ~'ex illa ' ;o n " , seem s 10 be an honorific ralher lhan of str alegic , ignilicance. S ince lhe lists con'ain many "nits of re...·en l dalc, i, is ['<,,,ihk to e" imate ead ier army ' lrengt h" ahhough unit strength' need nol h.ve bee n con"a nl. 19norin!i' p,,,u dacomifa''''''' and ,' fTiean un i", Valen_ tinian I rna;' ha" e found ahou l (50 "ni" at his accession (364). So me check i, pos, ible on the .'II01i" " liSIS, Many units .,e ol he",'i'e known; and wc happen to know th a' Stilicho musteeed a' least 30 uoil' in north Ilaly in 405, H i, apparem weakness in cav. lry, howeve r, and its .hsence fm m ' be " pper Danuhc , i, p" zzhng he may han mohili""d un its of "quires from lhe fa>n tier armies , as seems 10 have been done earlier, when required, T he powerful Sp anish aemy is ab o p"zzling we bear no' hing of it when ' bere was fighting heee in 407 and late r, Worsl of all, we know litt le about unit strengths, The onl y certain ftgu'c i, thal a " th.cenlur)' Ic""l" n" mhered 500 men , Ru' lwo Danuhian c'.val,,. uni ls in ,\ te' opnt amia in 3 5~ totalled only 700 men ; and a mohile c,,'. lry "nit "f ' Unnigardat' in l. ibya in ' be early 5'b een'",y numhcr~d only 40. Th e, ~ figures ,hou ld he com pa,ed wit h , he D iodet ianic ones from E,o;ypt : E qui ,,, PrDffUJf i of abo ul ~o, Iiqw'res S,,~ i l1a,-ii and an al" of ahou ' ' zoo Infantry units "'ere e,'ideml,. larger , T he s. me s ~ u r c e suggests ',000 for a pro,'incial legion , 500 for. detachment. At ,' miJa in 359, Ammianu, (who was ' he' e) e" ima'e, the bc,ieged a' 20,000 in n"mbe r, indudi n ~ seven le~ions , The old legions , already weakened ill lhe coutse of (he A~ MY C AvAl ~y • • ,;n."""" I---J!C!'.".... A"";•• Court lll """"I') n ....., ,,,- Low .. O..... I') _ ,. .. A..",.. .~ .- ~" lJppo< 0., . . . T....... ~. B,o"", " , , . " , 1..,h" ,.. . .", " • " 3rd een(ur:'i_ h ;' ' ht ,i me of the ,\'orilla have bee n broken up into numero us det.chmen ts : Third j wlita , for ex. mple, g. rrisons four fort' as well a, i" old base al Rcge n,hurg, in addilion 10 pro" iding a ' legion' fo r the ne orest m<>bile a, my. Ammia" u, twice menti" ns J e· ta chment s of 300 me n from (um pe.: i_ fled ) m"hile " ni" , once 500 from 'leg ion,' T he emperor H~n~rius (395423) is said to have withdrawn f,,'e uni " fro m Dalm.tia whi ch lmalled ",000 men; ,ix " nit, of inl,m' ry, however, sen! to hi, aid Ii-om the Easlern empire shordy . fteTwaed" tNalied only 4'<XIO, The impression on e recei ve> i, that m~hi le infant ry un", may have been between 500 .n d t ,ooo men stmng, and cavalry "nits weI] bel~w 500, wi,h [he c,cep' ion perhaps of lhe " hoi",. T hi, im pression i, reinfor c" d by Julian', ""If· e"ngr atll l ati~n al t.king 1 .000 G crman prisone" ' in two han le, and a sie,o;e' ; in lhe , iegc 000 Frank, were painstakingl;' stan'ed oltt oftheir refuRe in lwodeed i," fons , and sent to Consl anli us for seevic" in lhe E,"em arm}'. Elile units were ,m.ll anJ peeciou,. J ulian ' s army at S lrasbourR (357) numbered only ' 3,000 men, in 363, wit h lhe whole empiee '0 dn.w upon, and no ot her commitments, hi, I wo aemic, foc (he invasion of Persia totalled on ly " 5,000, The~e fiRure, for fits t- ralc tTW p' a'-e of course onlv • frac, i,m of ' he empire' , paper strengt h e.low Un.! 'treng,", 1"'ANT~yt.g; ..... •• .,• . S..,hol ';" of the lore "w ~ o e 395 ,cco,d;og '0 NOli", Dignim"m. wh'ch co",, '", 0 b.. ,kdowo <>r ,11 ,he moode Un.!' '" the W. , .. Po, .. bly 0"' co,", ;, j, ~m the t;le, of tl'e We,"'n C ;o·C "• • ", ,• .. .u,;,;. "", .. .• _ ud_ "~ .• .,• "" ",, ", " "• . T HE LATER EMPIRE ~D 200-4 50 TI lE M OLll1.E AR,\t y lire have a 6,h..:cn,ufj· figure for ,he am'\" of D""'k l1an'. r"'ltn (da, e unspecitied) of 3l!<,1.704. The . , h_eem ury max i_ mum is likel)' ha,-c been ,n ,he I'C(tion of anodlCr 6rh-ccn,ury .""ima'e for ',he old ..... 1'. ...... 645.000· Son. had folJ,o,,"Cd 'heir fa' hen in'o ,he arm}' S1nce ,I\< arly empire, D i<>dctian made hicd re_ 'nU" from landowncn as a kind of ,ax, lbc difficuhy of lindi...- rccrui.. made Vak n.inian red """ ,he hciCh' 'lualilka' ion from (Roman) '0 f7"; he found hi. ",,'n ....d..... ""re harbooJri...men liahJe '0 mil"ary oc""ce under , he guise of· ....b llve.. or ·ocr..-am". Amo ng Ab,nnoeu" wrre.pondel>CC i. a d erg}'man', pica f," hi. brol her-in-l. w, , he so n of a ",>ldi• • "'". ,k-cca>< d and , he sol. , uPJ'<'" of h i. widowed mo'her, \\' ho has beeo call.d up . Relea' e him. or, failing 'hat , 'plea,e ,afeltua.d him from going ah,,' ad wi'h 'he d 'af' f", 'he comilwUl, and may (,od reward you for your chari,y', The army al,o recrui,. d non _Roma,,. . m,,,,lly Ge.mans . Some of ,h.m We'e pri",ne.. of war like J uhan·. 600 F. ank•. man y We'. "01un,,,,,," a" ""'ed by a muc h h igher "'andard of Ii.inll, Some of them rose to high rank . •0 ,I\< command of ncof Valen.' g. ....-aI. w... an Alomann ki...- "'00 had been kid ....pped a' a d,n...r pa ny by or-der of J ulian ; ,he ""a. S,iJid.o hnn>l'Ikcn at ,he """n of ConII in 3H proI...,ed .ha, ,hey "-ere 'men dc-voIed '0 ,I\< empltc', and i' is ........,.. bu' 'fUC 'hal ,,-c almooI nc-vc. hcarof, ....... hery by German-born so!d;.n, Th. chatlllCd after Adrianopk ( 37S), wl\< ..me feeling of ' belong i",,, and ar'er 3\1~ became increasingly of 'heir political and m,Ii'ary p "'·er . " 'hich ,he}' u> 'liem, Tlicy WC'e , I", i.. ued wi'h rations which increased a. t lle)' ro,e in ,. nk. h was , ugllC'ted '0 V. I.n,in;an and Valen. '0 ,'0· h", .....'i"" """""iou. 'ha'" migh' he w......h rellting men w·oo had achieve d quin, uple ..' ion. , to " '-C expe~ an d enoouragc tc.:ru;,men1. Tlo. pap'lCn, ,n k'nd w.., ' upplcmcn_ ' ed O}' the ...,..l>rr l>rry (" ipntdik_) paid in ,he bronze 11 change minted in ..a.. qUllfl(i.in du ri...-the . , h ccntu ry. an d O}. d<>na,i ,.... pa id by .1\< emperor on accnaion and live-}-nJ' anni,..,nalin. lbc ...-en.ion """",i"e became sranda, di..,d in 360 as a """nd of .il' -cr and li.e (the b'e- Roman gold coin li.e-.ix.... ,he weight of the old ""'.... ). and live ""iJr .her..,fle•. Imperial g>f.. 10 oIlic-cn "-c.... abo manufaclurcd , in_ "nbed .ilver pb"e. cold and . il.e, -mcd-alliono•, gold an d .i I'-c, be It-fin ifig> and hrooche.... ma,k. of 'ank-and special ,i l.e . co in. I'.ol>o.bl)· for ""rJ. ,emi,_ ~u"'." Sain' Jerome u... all Ihe non-commi.. io...d . ank. a, • me,al'hor of ,h. di"anc-c he' wc.., n a demon and an angel: reuuil . rrwper (.~,,,,) , 'ir'ilo', hiar _ clrus, '""'mar'us. ""e",,,ri,,, , ,m alor, prio,ie",·" . , ""mm.nding ollieer (lri~ ,,~u. ). T h•••cruit "',e , lowly. by « niori,}' wilhin ' he " nil. A late _Roma n "emel <,,,,) of ,he lldldt' .........._whodlCd af'er 35 }-can' at ,he "C" of 60, Abin " ',," a ~ .".;." of 33 yean' ia in a """'alry <>nolan"...· prrnm•. he aut"""'tica.II)· beam< a I""'tetor Jo-t"ia<>' .he 1".... ,te,,,", rrom' he ....ign of Diocktian became a kind of . IaII college in whKh ocniot ",Co. p.epared for . Afle. ,hree )·ean Ab"m""u. beam< ,he p....r""l or an "'a_,,' licn he found ' ha' hi. ,'Ompetitors had used T hu, 'he inll"" n"e 10 'ake a ""nior mem her (pm"i..-,-'''') uf , he pr.... ,,,"'..., in 3">3 w• • 'he f,,' ure emperor Jovian . a' , he alte of 32- il "a n be no win,';den,'c , h.. hi. father had just retired a' 'hcir ""mmand ,ng officer, ,h~ Co",,, /l"","'''"",m. Ammian'" him_ self, who wa. a p"'h'cl"r in his . arly 20', mu " ha. e h. d e"" nect;" ns. The ,arne """icc ."".t-cu'. c_. i. lrue ',f higher command., Job ...;us .' Iemonu., ,he of ,he Tangiers ann}', had '''''ed 2S )-can in ,I\< /"""", lleforc he hccame ap<"'«'''', The rU' UTe ..... pe ror Valen" n..n. tK"" ..'er. " 'OS aIread)' command",. a ca.-al." <>erilLuU> a• •he age of 36, and ,he fu....... em pecor Thcodooi ... ..... a .ax a ' ,I\< "Ite of 28 IkoIh ,,-ere . 1\< - . , of gcnc.. l$, \'alen ,inian', fOlI><. <.iTalian, like ,' Iem"'ius. i. <>nc of ,he fe..· pri.ates 10 adu....'e ,he ran k of ~., Offiee.. could make 'heir fonune (G ra, ian, a pea.. n, ..hen he enl isred, beamc a Iandow·ner), bu, mus, tc<.nulS_ ,f ,hey 'u",i _ed 20-2~ ye...· >enice,. "'OlIld re' ire wilh a rnodcot com pet ence at .e,eran •. Ve'..an. were e"'-'Ouraged 10cul" ""e derelict land, for which ,Ii..· tc c-cived a .mall IIranl. T he.. "1,,, re~ eei"'d some ,.. "",..ss;on., indudi ng a limiled ex. ml" ion ft<>m the Ii"e-}'early ,ax on "" mmere. which wa, used to Po)' ,h ~ don a,i •• • of 'heir " Id c~,m r. dc> _in_ arm. , A numher "f l<1uce pen"'''' guilt y "f ht",,,,h.eaking: • ,'eleran's doughie r, an," her 'lando wner', rcqu~"s ac' ion allai"'t a dd.,or "'00 ha' be~lcn hr. up " 'i' h 'hr hell' of ' he "ill....e policeman \I'he n 'he demanded ,he mone}' he ow-cd her; a "eteran promi.... '0 reimbUfW Abinnacu. ror an)' money he rna)' ha'" '0 ~p"nd Ol ""'" '0 .c,.-ure , he pmn>OIion of hi...... ,,;,hin , he local .!>ou' "'a, The . rmy in .Clio.. lbc ann}' " .. the uh,mate,th0u8-h "'" ,he only, " of pol" oarl """,-cr and puhtic "'y. Thi. "·...pnholiscd ill the aca-uion ...-c _-'unnuanu., Valenlinian. "·00 had bee;' "hoocn in condaee b}· oc..iot ottic:cr>; and ci.il ...,,'an... \I", pde hy him.. l!' in • gold.n carriag. !lhllering wi' h iewels, wi'h pUlpie .il k d roll'''' "a" dard' hissing in 'he h,cc"c' ,"....l"' ''d, Armoured infan_ try and dih,m",ii, <...al,)' , h. , looked ,,, THE II.OMA~ E M PI Il.l'. Iikt """""" 't em· according to an un...liabl. "", .~. b)' I"'ro. in his full robco or bonlNfn5. ftanktd by hi. guard•• i. a f'YOuti,. making tho: &101« eflCllm p ""..ide. mn. _ harshly for I'oli.;".,.l di. k>yahy ; cavalry 'antiu.· t tll . y itllo R"me. Aurdian "".,- officers had . he i. hand. lopped off. ,ht awed a (;e.man deleg;ltion by r.,.. ivin~ . " rv iv" " of a lell:ion worr c1ultbcd [0 it on a pl'lll<"m with his ar m y Urawn up dea!h 'i n the anci.", fa. hion" des. rter< in a crr,c. nt on either sidt ; hi, ~ene.als wer e bur", alive M l". t the ir hand, . We're "n th.i r h"r""" . nd he hin d Wet e Amm ianu' . wh" nor mally condemns the impe.ial Slandard" ' gold .a ~l ... ' inclemency' when h. find. i' ••eem. pietu.e. of ,ht empemr, the nam •• "f em barr a'scd at having to defend thi, u a:,menu picktd in gold lelle.., I II '...luII'}· vigour ' . I nd a cri[ici.m "f t~ " n . il,... _pJattd II """" , of the«: '''''11[. in"",...ti"ns· . La,t· ; In trHiltOn, eml"'m.... ad.....tiotd th.ir Roma" ItKi.la,ion i. full of such th but .. a ruk . .. a i ~ <_.,,,, ~ c~ne o lhei. men. Julion l le rortida:t ' n a common ooldief ...,.,ld "a)""ble be .....[ed ,,-j[h indisha, piscd•. S,<>I'iM ........ tol d of both crimina'. brutality"They ..ill enlrenchComantiu. II and Thcodosiu. bru:iflJ!: ttidllC'lrd him " ' reduce a serin of lI""d I.adership. would tight te....." i· funified [0""" on ,he "'ay. Oropi" de"". Iy and u.""lI y " 'i, h . uccns allain" Ja}.. due to ftouding . ,h. army reached ndd.. \ll' ha[ " .. hear ofthe ma,n[tna""" O ..iphon in[ac' , T he main P.",ian of discipline mal" no[ be [ypi<·al. The fore.. " "ere I"" OIl' <.I""'.' '00 . '0 _IS '''1'1'''''.'') CDMl,.. ", ."" .iege - , .,.._.. "' X[ C_ s. F •.. " ' _ 50"_ .....-. _ _ ..... __ ' "-.10"'0_ l"-""" """' _ ~ l>I' 0 ""'*_ THE LATER EMPIRE ~" 200- 450 T H E MO BI LE ARM Y , he putp",e , Instead he burnl hi, r..",,, (Iilerally), and tr ied 10 penetrale fu rthcr ea, t , The,e d.~isions were so extraord inary thaI le;:. nds were soon Invenl in a ss. when bi, army ran out of biscuit_only 10 find it wa, tOO "a rl y in ,he ~'ea r for tbem to be able w live off t h" ~ ountry? T he poor performance of the ca"alry is a marked feat ur" of lhe Persi.n e. _ pediti on , In tbe advance to Cle, ipb"n, J ulian twi ~e pu ni,bcd cav"lry uni" which h. d broken whe n c. ught by surpri' e, Ihe hy 'd<"imation' , ,he ",cond by rcduci ng the m '" inf. ntr y, 'w h i ~ h i, more laboriou, . nd lower in r.nk ' , Shortly afterw.rds lhe infantry actually Clitia and other sour~es make it clear that c.valr y WaS regarded. , the seni", ",,,,,icc . In 355 the Alamann, attacking a m' H:hing camp dr ove ba"k a sortie by lhe S cu /a r" , only to be dedsi,'ely repuls ed when i, was reinfor ccd . by a , <-con d ,choi a and the f"" ' eow""h' Ie, thro ugh a Persian army unoh<erved . In 357 Julian, with an army of t 3,OOO men , ~"nfi- () nted an Alamann host of 3'; ,000 nea r S trasbou r~, hut his men and their generals were confiden, of winning . Thc I/."man ea,'alry was massed on the ri~ht wing, opp"sed by Alam.nn "avalry sfiffene d by light infantry, a lactic wh ich , ,,,<"'ar had learned fro m t hcir an<'e" o" !hc Sucbi . """hen the arm ;e, met , the ,ribunc of the Cala phTac" w.s wounded , . nd the I/.oman cava lry fell b. ck upon the infantry in con fu,i,m , (After ,he ba"le J uhan i, ""id 10 ha,'e hum ilia!cd the uni t e<>ncerned hI' paradi ng it;n female clothing .) The Alamonn infant ry now made a serie; of charge" c'ulminaling in " ne hy 'a tiery hand of tri hal nobility , king' indudcd' , which cuI ilS way 10 the I'ri",,,,,'. This le ~ion, however , stood its ;:roun d like the inf. nlry ' wall' later rec<>mme nded by thc wri ler Vcge';u" and Ihc Ab _ man ns faltered and gave "·a}'. [n their retreat to the Rhine they su ffered 'everel y. Stra,b"mg wa, an infantr y ,·ietor y. T he Alamann, wcre higger, Ammianu, commen ts , but the I/."man, were bett er di;ci plined , Late-Roman infantry wa, " ill "eady but ada pta hle _whether mopping up Isaurian brigand , on level grou nd, stor mi ng hilllOpSin Alamannia , or charging the Persian archers hefore they had ,ime to ,h, ~ ". rhc famou, hcavy_armoured ~a,," l ry (cI;ba" a riiJ , on the other hand, , cem, to have been in" elfecti, " and eXj)< nsi,'e- the ,' im,na list, fout f.ctories which manuf.ct ured their plate armour. Cli/><>,,,,,.ii _de,i" ed fro m a word fm oven , referr i n ~ 10 their appearance or what it felt like [0 wear one of their suits_were tits ' u when lhey charged , ,hen surrounded them .nd knocked them 10 Ihe ground wilh d ub, Thc unit wa, anni hilated , Constantiu, JI is said by several source, to have taken a personal imerest in them : Li banius maliciou, ly con' ra"s hi, cager_ ne" to outdo the Pc" ian, in t hcir own armoured "a"al ry with lhe failure of his coumer-offensive s, There is in fact no g ,~ >d evidence , hat d,/><>,w m werc effe,, · ti" e .gain" di,<'iplin<'d " pp,)';ition ; "' pa'adc'lH~)P" how",""r, lh e}' made a deep impressi,'n upon Amm;anus and the PC"" Claud ,an, W' ithout "irrups and unde r- horsed, th~~' ar~ a feeble amicipa tion or medie...l "hi"alry. The battlc "f Adria""ple ha, b<:cn ,ecn a' a "i~!Ory of cav. lry ovcr infantry and a revoluti" n in warfar e, Unfortuna tely Ammianu,' narrative eke' ou ' , orne vital faCl, with m.sse, of 'm lour , and it is difficult to;"" whal rcally happe ned. First Valen, madc the mistake of dec iding to fight before his nephcW' (;ra lian arrived with th" Weste rn arm y. Fau lty int elli;:ence ma~' have u ndere,t imated Got hic numbe", _ Valens is "id to ha" e been jealou, of hi, ncphe,,'. ,\ , at S"",bourg, the I/.oman army made a long march in lhe heat of the day and aHi"ed, hun~ry and thi",y, withi n sight " f lhe G mhic wal"'" cirde . Thcre wa, a dela ~ while thc C;"th, rcnew cd pre· " iou, negotiations , if only to l\l1in time for the return of their c.val,y (O"rngoth' and AJans) which w", "ut forag_ ing. S\eanwhilc the Roman army ad· vane ed in ~ o l u m n , its ,ighl wing olm"'t en~ a ged, the left win;: SIil l coming up ., fast.s it <'Q uId , A truce wa, being ncg<>_ tia' ed , when ,orne Roman <'a,," lry (pre, umably on th" r i ~ht wing) m"de an insu bordinate anack which colJap,ed , Fi~htin;: bec . me general, and a' thi, momen, ,hc Gm hi" ,'avalry arr i" ed Ammianu, unfort unately does not say where its first blow fell, <>n Il' that the Ruman left wing had now reached the wagon>, when 'i t wa, de<ertcd by the re" or the <'avalry, overwhelmed by wcight of numbers like a coll.pSl ng r" m part, and thmwn back. leaving Ihe inf. ",ry c x pc ,,~d ' T h", e" Ihe dcci, ion to assault . field fort i fi~al io n (which i, what the wagon circlc "i rt ually was) while the encm y', p\lwerful ca"alry was une'Ommin ed T hi, 'd""ision' w.s forced up\>fl Valens by the undisciplined and incom_ petenl ca" alr}' on hi, right wing. T he left wing, advan"ing haMill' , was caught un prcpared by a de"as,"tin>: ch. rge <>n T H E ROMAN EMPIR E ito flank or .....~n from behi nd . Iea' ; ng the infantry. alrtady deployed in a crncenl round the wagon circk and fi8:h,ing hand-Io-hand , tn.ppcd . We knn w ftom Lillani... lhat tM'" ""ere pool "","em. P 'c 'M di.anc, and that cowardice or lad- n( lr.I.ining ..,.., Mld ,.,.p;>nsibk. TIm would """'" 10 be a fair oomment-on tM Roman ca,,,l.,· ..hil;h bt 1M bank. TM dKli_ of Ihe ROlDan AU arul ~', J78-4~ The In ,rwd ,nfan,ry lost at Adrianople wuld not be KPI~, The new emperor Theodooius I (379-9 Sh " .I>ooc desa-ndant. " .,,-e fi8:ure head empero r> in En' and \l'"" un,il l he mid- sth cen tury .allow~d ,he Gnrh. to setl le in the Danubian provi""", under ' beir o wn chiefl ain. , Whcn T beod<>- 54) and Rio;i r (4S6-7~h who llied 10keep h ai r and foosaed , h¢ S 'ni,. of G ibraltar, 10 pur .ue an "'II:y of conq......, acros, , h¢ ..., intact J'f'O\'lnces of lhe "" ..,,,", emp;",. In 4-4-4 Valen' inia n [II ["Z 5 ~5 S), tbe grand'On ofT heodosiu" adm iu ed economic and military lIank .up'CY: ' ~ci,hcT for ",cNi.. nor for the vetC' an arm~' can ' hose supplo", suffice lha t are del ivere d wi' h ,he ire. 'eo, difficult y by , he ex hausted taxpayers, and il seem , ,h., fro m ' hat ."uree the supplies an: nec-e" ary f"r rood and clothing cannot he furni, hed . Un le.. 'he ' oldier s sho uld be ' \lppo r lCd b ~' "a d in~ , wh ich is un· 'ha' worllty and . hameful fo r an armed ma n. ,hey can scarcely be vindico' ed from ' M peril dal. deaa:ndcd on Rome .oJ sacked il again . The Eastern emp;", ",,,"i"ed ,he crisi. n<>mically .. ron~, and its lerrilot)· escrpt in Europe ..... v,nuall y f"" '0 it los' l he 'erruory which alone could . uppon . rqular army, and '""" forced '0 rel y more and more upon barbarian I N ",lri. The"'t years We-tt very roo_ fusal . ~'" 10nI before ,be no.... _bar_ barian army r. IX , be pm..,., ....1'_·' _·00 &,-.. u .. teO" f""""'" Ono." .... ~_, Dco, E"'"""s.",o:l 3<0'*" ...... AO. T...... _, '" " """-,, c. ,;,. • ' _ 'e bI, n'e' t .. ""'. ,n ,00 m'l"," fo' 0'''''''''' ,n t'" w.' w OO """,u' T"" e".ph<,c' WOle ,<,. , ~ ~' oh< c.t.""",,, """"'"11 ""'O·_scole COlI" w," >hown ,n • paom"'l! "om ' '''' . ~ .. 0..... E...""", n·.. f_o on .... 'eft _ or, • ..... """" Bolo c"'Y ... Q9OftOI....- .- ~ ?----- TH E LATER EM PIR E ~o 200-450 EQ L'lP MENT defer>oe 0( ,he t"",,,er, but "'hen ""'t CIIStom lapoed the milita.y uni,s "'Cre abollshe Equipment From ,he , ,,ne 0( l'ol~-b1us ' 0 the m[lI1 oi. Seplimi". SeY<:1"U> i, is possihle '0 ' ....., a con, inuous <"'Olu. ion 0( Roman milit.ory ajU'f'IT'C1I' . TIle Anoh of Septimius SeYenas a, 1l.<>fIX i> , he Ia,~ monumen, shov.in, 1DrK" SlfJWN'''''', an.J" marb the endof an era in Roman mili'ary hist.....y. From the middle of ,he znd •..,n'ury , he nm. "" km" ""socia,ed ",i,h ,he 1"'Ii-mary b"l,i n ,,, ,.lisappear. 1'1«.., by pi"" e ,he old "·.",pons and armour " '....e al\and"ncd . TIle scmi _ qlindn.:.l u;J;U"" Ix".n to be pl'1ascd out dunn" the 2nd Ct1"\tury .nd by' the middle of ,he }. d i, had disappeared. alwgell..... ' 0 he ll;~ by ,he onJ. a""dial)' .hidd. A, the same time as th is chanle "-as ,akin, pia<..., and .lmost cer ,ainly connected ,..,,1'1 It . , he posi,ion of ,he o~ SOIbbard ..-as "",,'ed from , he riJl'l' to the left side. Round shields af'r'nr on :se>-enl of the monumen". T hese are sorne "r a rim reinf""",d "-ith hide .nd not the ~ustomary btonu-. Thi. " ..s sti lched on in lhe man...... of the Faru m shield. From the jrd ,~ntUf)' the use of bod y' annou. declined Thi. may lone been . ","ull of , he slad:ennta: oi. disripli"" ,l\al a.ccomparueeoome 'oo tol, ' 0 belr , he ,,-righ' of lhe ir armee-Ieng ' h e:g"" at Dura , Sc>mc ,,( ,hese a.. hooldee 'o:cn in . 5 t h ·.~m ur~· c"p~' o ( V",gi l', Am.rJ, C. taphr. ct, ,n scale , him . .. . 1.., , h" wn " n t he Arch of Gun.la tltit,. >1 H"m<. where , he,' arc Ihe "niy . "ld ie," wi, h ' he exception of " lIi"e" we.rin" bl"l<>50 ·orn by ,he X or_ man knighlO, 01"" have weighed Z5 '" JOke. TIle sh<>uld be diffettnl-,-",eJ from , he d iNJaori... or ' ",.." man' ,,-ho "'a, far more hea..,I~· armed. hein, oo,·.... ed from head to fOOl in • combi...,i<>n of p1at~ and ....1e armour. Three ~ from either "",,,. ,,,,,,ph,,.,,... ''''1'fC" - ~-~-_ _ . . ..-.,,- Fl>_ ...... ~. ","'-"". &no t 2"" · '" _ )od 'osnoury - . .....-01 ... _ _.. _ clNfty ... pM"''' or <~ . >Oett ( _ ....... 'st·,*""",...--"" '10'' ' ........... R_ A .......... '''''''' Ii ON....,"' ....... "'" 1<>un _ ," ...,,,, ''''' 4,,, "..,' , , _ be. 00 """,""",P "" ' ho ••' " ",po. l." One of ,.... 10.' ""eo ",..":I. 'ouod a1 h.>O. ,..,,"""" "m " 'le t>o<"",. ,h,"," 00" wh,eh" O",m ,,," '.me "''''' ot ,"i.'dw'S lou,"'" 1,1 ,,", S,.,It",e"., M","um d"~"'" Ou , . ~uropu. w,. , ,,. o",, SC,,., 14 T..... , "~"' 19" Dura . These "'....., mask in . ,,'" main piol.-.:s con"'"ng 0( bnlRze or i ron ""aIn ",-ired. ' ''l{C1 he. and .,itehed to a linen ba<.:kin" . These ''' <1 pie<...,. co,·.... e T H Ii RO M A:-; EM PIR E TM ....d ..eologic;d C\;e}' ha,.., a "",,11 ncct luard ...·hich i. made as a >q>anll< pte<:C ... ually Olnched . 0 . toe lining and not d'rect ly auached '0 ,he helmet. TM chttK p;eee., which a~ . imil....ly anad>ed '0 the lini llll. come down dit'C<.'1ly OVer ,he ears and ha"" a ""mi-circular piett ,'\It 00' so thar , toe """arer can hear, ''hesc helme.. rnay hl'·. been in, rod....,eJ ;n,o ,he ar my by me.e'enari e< of north· ca"ern ,,,igin en'eri ng the em pi. e from the Dan ut><: region, Many ..f the m"" u. n,e nt, , how what at firs, glance al'l"'ar to he heim c" similar '0 1~le -da"ica) anJ I kllcni,tic t}'pe' whi,'h cur ved Ii,, _ ,,'a. d I" he '''I' in ' he for m of a Phrygian cap , Vegeti,," mention. , he Pl n",m il n k l ,he. cal'" worn hl' Ihe soldien, and ,hil i. otwiou.lj· wha, is being lhown in wch """...... as ,be Re d Sea cr.... ing from ,he ca'acombo on the Via La, i... and in , he church or Sama Mana .\t:q[_ Ia., '0 '0 ;o.ned along the '"Tnt. The ned:: gua. d n attached to the cal' 1))' .. raps and t>uckles - , he budk at.....yo bring on , he ncct guard . lIy lbe beginningor'be ~th cen'uC)' the caps or '''''"''' belmell ..." "" being made in four segmen.. riveted to a fra me, .........illl! a de.r evol o, ion ary line.o the SI'<'''II...ndm or , he ea .ly medi.....1 period, Both the in_ fantry and cavalrl' . ype l u, ,,ally have a sli, alo ng the c.own uf ,he eap hol d a cte" . During , he la' e ~nd and early }rd ce nturies ,he ~I"""" Wa, gradualll' superseded hy lh e 'f'~ ,ha. A"c<" d ing Vegetiu" h l' the time of lJiodetian al the end or , he 3rd cenIU'}' ali legi<mariC1l usegne at , he La t>e .....,...,. l)r<>No _ 1<>ox>d ,n . bog" Deu,..... n , h. sold ier, was al,o Ji,catJ . d·to be . e- '0 '0 .- ., 'n,,,,,,,". ",_ .on "".n.... - . _ no ....,,""...'" . ~ "" .,; gion: a, Rome. Sc>'Cn1 .....-y elabora.e e~pIes of , he Inlere; .. ')l'" of hel""" ha~ been f""nd. 'n.e.e have chttk pieces ... hieh completely cover the ears and a.edearly all elvalry helmet., The-j' ~lu"I'lI'e well ,he . """....lor . ra,OI het...-e-en the legion• • nd the ",,,'airy. I ' """ml moll IiKell' , hat this type of helm e, ""a, OI' igin. lly adopted hy ,he ca" alry and was I" e' adap,ed Ihe nude form " , ed hy , he inf.ntry, T he.e helmc" are ba,i<'all y of thc 'arne c" nst ru ctio n as Thc infantry f". m: th.· cap i, mad. in ,wo pie"e, '0 A bo• • , ... ....... .. . I'll"'. I."", ,.... . , ~ · """ t "'" UOows ,I>e PO""""'''' OIl' ""ic.~ " .. worn bv I,ll"....., >n v.""t<", ,,, .-._t,. . . A .., _ ."' Au"'. n•• 'M od " rv~'h·_ ""''''."' "rv~"'"....,_ Cone .... '" ,. to ,.... ""'" mod,.." 0' _ •••, S"""QOnl""m. being mode " Q"",o" ,,""'.... 1..01. 'Q' T HE LATE R EMP IRE AD 20<>-450 EQUIPMENT pla..-..d "",1'0 a lea'her belt " flen "'.....n arou nd the luI" ,a'her .h;m ,he ",-";st . The .WQt"d "" as .u.pended fro m a b"""" baldric about '~"1Tl iox , I n tho> -lth <"cn_ tury , mlluenad by tho> mass,ve inll UJl of bubulan mctnnann. hoch belt and _Ii<; ...,,~ .hotr><,lon.,d in fa _..,..r of tho> ~,maruc belt. Dta.~'.ppcan ,n other a""", ; ,he inrant')" of v ~I"" day "tt<: still armed "i. h thl'l~' the ,,~ po n ",l'o ;ch i.. h".... n on ....'eral lOmb"ones of 'he 3rd <'C n'ury . Althuugh Tough!}' fini nl{ Velte' iu.' d=rip'ion, il ha' an ,,,",~ d weig ht , pl'e, umably of lead . bd lH'Cn Ihe wooden 'haft and 'he shon irun he>d. The v:i nally coiled a v"i<'lll",,,. had > head , u rn long and a I"" " ,k n shah .... hic h measured j U' 1 ""'1' • metf<, Vege'i"s unfortunately dues nu, ti" <1"ihe' he third weapon, Ihe pI"mbdld. H. ti<>c•. howeve" lell of tl'-o Ill y, ian legion. "'hu untin Di"dha,,,,,I; be<;. u~ .!>cit skill " 'i,h ,his " "'>1'<"1. T he t,,·o na""'" im ply ,II... i' ".n • btlrbed ....e.pon weighted ,,-j,h lead• • nd lhe~f"re wi' h much ius'iti,,,,.ion it hao bftn ide-ntim d ,,-j, h the .~ barhed "".. pan with • lead ....-righ. which hao bem round on many JTd- and .. th~nlury .Un. An example from ~'roxnC1" .. OXlmpklc "-;, h barbed iron head. Icad "..,ilh t and pan of ,he "''doboo. one centimetre •hid . Ncutron nd>oenph• • hew.. the head "'....phl lOde1ed. b.arnpln ha' -e alsobeen found ",,1'0 opiked 1_ •. Vege_ 'ius .. ~~ ,ha• ....,;h IlOIdic. arri«lli"e of these in .he hoIlo,,· of hi• • hidd . R<:con_ "rue1""" ""ere made 11.,' ,he lat" R""""U Rubin....... and cxl"" rimen, ••hew...,d ,hat ,he " 'capon handled m"", cffici "l}· ""-'ilh a f1e.;hed .haf. 'l4Cm long. I ' a. also f"und 'hal lhe rang. could l>c gf<.. l)' ine· ~>..:d l'oy the u.e of a thong, V~lt c l i u , m al' l>c righl in hi' d• ..,-;p lion of the ~trul"'~ an d , p;,u lum, whi.h weI'. in u'" in hi. d"y, bU! in regrelling ,h. 10., of the p,lum h. ' alb uf i' having a head 27-~9" m long . Th;, i, d ead}' not the pilmn " I' the ~a , l i .. empire. .. "r , " e la,' • ~ • • " i • I • I ~" r f eo I" 10 V 11 12 ~ 01 . 1 1-1 . ~ .... .._ __ 01 _ _ 11<,.... """ ~om """...... ."' ........ 11 .. Jodem.___.. t.oI"'lI' ~om __c_J ~( ' .51 I ' 20 --......... '" a 3o 010oo I ' 21 --.....",01. J! 7..., 8 >eaIe 110 1 I " ltd'''''''"", _,,,...., ....... fiom Ken, l it PO'' ' ot • ltd ..,..., ."" """"d hand ,. 2 2. 4 t n · ,~", ,,,,, _,,,. t,om CoIoQno 3 3" " """10" " " - I,om 4 5 .5 l ' d """I"", <....... I",,,, 7 4Ih'''''"1"'' en..,. from CoIog ". (1 .2 oj 8 Plvmba lO ho .~ from W'o • • ,,, (1 2.2) <."."<""''' 9 ' "''00' ",.. 8. SecMn of tho ",,,I w"g h' 9 H..""" ",.,,,,,, "f • plumbo,. zz ". AI'I'cl"D I X , war at Sea Naval "'mare pbl'ed ....... ~ im portant pan In . he mili<ar~ hi"ory of ~ and ,., 10'lL" in ,he Ollc",1 lrd century 1lC, of Rome. W i. h<>u, her nav~ A,he:m " " uld n",..,r h.'·e been ahle form he:r ove...... ' empire , T he . hip, cl<,elik d by H"mel in ,he (JJy>,,-v are almo" e"'l ta inly , hm e "r ni. " wn day, the R,h cen tury J\C . These ,hil" or. offwo types : Ii ~ht. fa" ,h ip, "f zo """ and heavier ,,'a..hip, with 50 oa.. ( pntu lwn u "j. T h""" arc unq ",," ,ionabl ~ galley , anJ not canoes a. thole I"n. ,,~,h Iea,he:r Ioors for holding li,hed spruce. \\' hc n . t ..,a the boa. could he ancoorcd wilh . large ,tone .i.J tv a ro pe, S tone anc h"... wh ich were u'ually ju" a ,i m ple cur " " ne with a hoi. in it fnt " ' ach ing ,he cah l<, h. d .xi"ed oince ,h . 1lr<:m'C Ag• . An exam ple from C~' p rus ha, a larlle 1>"le for toc h;"'"OCr and two.maller hoi.. wbich wer e fined wi,h . h.orpcncd .rake< , Th""" "ould dill in,o ,h<;..,a bed and 00 ~ve ,he , hi p . '<'CUre mooring TIle much more efficient admirah}' • nchor ,,-u introduced ahout 600BC bu. d ,d _ completel~ rhe ........ ' l-pe ,,'hich continued in "'" rillh, do:»<-.. un,il the Belleni••ic age . At night , "'he,,",,,er p<>M,hle. ,hip' " vuld be dragged up the bea '0 ous' could ""I ~ be u..e.t ,,'hen ,he ..-.nd "'*' in lhe righ t di......-.ion. The mao" which in.o a " .., made of .pruu: , " ... . .... box lined to . he ked of the , hip. The rna... and ... il were al"o )', taken down hef,,,e If'"ng into ballle, When ,he ,hip w.. n"t in use ,he rna" an d rigging wcr. taken fro m the , hip and >tored 0. 1"" •. l.ike , he , hip. r">,,, T hera. II"m,,', , hil" were .te..,n·d hy one or two .. ern oars and had. r.m at , he fronl. The . hips in .he OJ.,"uy arc moo, frequently d=ihed as hlad, but, on ,he OI.her hanJ , the po.>,,, ..."""'Iimes refen .o them a. red_ or hlue_f'IIinled. 1b< hl. d , probabl y refen ' o.he .arring or ..... ked, ,,·he.-cas ,he 01. ...., colou.. .....)' .ses...-.i be the pan. of the , hi p .1>0>." .he ,,'. ter ""·el. One mu" I"I<'t fortm them, but .bey in.'ariably . ho.... a curved Olern like • am< cha'.o;teri."O$ . 1", appear on • fire dof: m..J< in , he form of a pllcy from ,he S.h-a: ntu'}" " .. rrior·. gra ve . t Argos, T l". liTe dof: adJ. one .......11 p;eee of in(o""ation ; it .hov... tha, ,he p""" hom " 'a••ingle and 001 double . , had previ"u.l~ l>«:n .upposed . Theohip< . OO...-n on Ite.,metri. !'Ott.,y a" ce"oi"l)' gallc ~' . ro ....ed hy men whn face th. rc.r of 'w ..... . hip. Orten . hole pin. Ciln be «nfu,i"n j, evengrea... whe n he appar _ ently ,h"..... cowers al Iw" le,'el•. Thi, " "'uld prOhahly he in"'r prcted a. on. at .ach ,ide "f the , hip, level of "' I n "ther ,,,d'. lhe an i.. i. depicting a galley ,,; ,h a . ingle hank of oa .. and not • bireme. The .itualion i, aAA'"".,ed b)· .he fact tha. p ",bahl~ late in .he S,h cen, uf}· . he hi"""e ..... inven' ed_-m i. plley ..-i1ht"", hank. of OiIn " ....1....... certalnl~ """ doped hy. he I'hoeniciam and later adopo:ed ~' the G'ttk• . Then: i, no.-.-,n to bel;"" , ha, , he Greeks • ••hi. primiti,-.. "age in ,he;r """elopmen, invented the hi,emc , This improvement involved i~rt ing • ..-coM "f o ar> operated by 'ower. at a . lightl y higher Ie-d. I\c<;au,c of th. la,'k "r evidence , he J,·.. il, nf thi , . "'le m . re im pos.ihle to w,,,k " Ul. II rna,' have been just the ...me., ,he later '\tt, '""" late. lice.. be<:am< 'he .....im ' a)· or ,he Pc",ian navy . The Phoenician. ....ere . 1..,.Y' ,he pr inci pa l enemies of the G reeks at sea and thei r ma.i,ime cnl" nics " .... ron"antl y at wal o,'cr trod. al" ng lhe ",h"le len~th of , he .1"'.. . "II" ,00, 8 . ,OW A,.....,,,,,,,,,,,,,, '" on B'h,OOO' " rv W·oo~ 110'''''' "''''''''0 _ It f<JlOCOS'1o I.l_ _ 1lO1 bv H"""" _.bod ," ,am _ . l<> " " _ ' ' ' ' r"" _ ..... '- 01 ..... W AR AT SEA .\Ied""rn.nean . Peace bet"..",n ,he ,,," ....,.,. " ... es lObI" heJ only af' er , hey boch f,,11 under Roman ruk. At.", .he lint P......... n im'asionof in ~\IO IIC A,he-rIs bca""" mvolnd in a n.a..-.l_r ,,~,h ,he .. land of Acgin.a in ,,'hi<:h.he off wont . Thi. ''''ult to AII,,,n"n pride promp'ed her di""n her re!IOUr~"" 'he building of • modorn llox, . \'('hen ,he P""ian. in,-ll<.kd again in 4lto. although 'h" could no, maleh .h. ' kill and . xpe ricn "e "J 'he PIk>< niei~n >camen , AI he,," could put ' 0 'e a a na" j" of 200 "f 'he l.. e't~S1yl e trirem," , Thi. wa. more lhan all ' he "' her ta'e. """'bined , \X-'ithou l , be A,b .ni.n Hee ' 'he Pc",ian na,-y could no, h..,. bc<:n " 'i' h<:. oolhi"g could h.o~. ' '''f'pcd . he m in"ad ,ng ' he P.lo[>Ofl........ 1 liM......._ on '" ._ """IJ' The- wo'h . formed a Iuguc ,,'i,h ,he m.ln _ Zf,_ "' _ _ ......"'ll~ of.he Acgcan k"""'n .. ,Ite • _ _ ....h _ Confc-dc-nc}- of Delos. £.:o.;h """mber of th i. ~ oon,nbul(' of . he ",Iter memben of the 00IIfeder";lI_ By ~20 IIC , he .....,nlt'lh of Iter ftox, had ''''''hed 350Th" 'lUlln' i'ie. of 'imber n""d.d for Ih. building and ma in' ena"",,, of ,hi. p"'Nbll "au>cd the defo'."a'i"" of c·.n"al G rc«'e , an d ' he '''il c'''''ion ",hi,'h i. l h" perennial cu rs. of Ille mod e' n ( ;r ee k fa,me , "'"' no,i,·.'ahlc a, ". rly a. the t;m" " J 1'1' 10 . Alhen' ""nlrol of t ile "'. la""d f"r H ye'l> .n d the ...,nown of he, ..II"", ..... '0 C Gr"""" ""m" '0 '0 . _-- . ..,he". ,int. ".,.. l 8,h ",""MV ' ..... ...-goo as S t". 00g. '" 'ho 100., '" 0 ~ ..... p w-..o S....... ' 6Ih ,"""'-"V -""'ll "' • . . , . . . _ 0(,,,,,, H"", .ha, Abo• • "b"..... in 'OU~" ... !,""' . ~," ' - '" 'y , ... po;o,;og "no" ".,d,,,,. crow tI., ,n ,no '"0,,. of , Of. !"" '"~ too ,,,I !Joo<', .o J APPENDI X I Wh. n comprll.d 10 raioe ,h. ' i.g. of Srncu.. 1n ~I S >h. had 10 ob2ndon ha lf her no..,. Th. nn.ol humilialing defeo, cam. t.n yoots la'er It Acgospo tamo i Thi. defea' "'. IlOl ca....ed by any Iac~ of , ~i1I but ,h••, Wh. n ....h.o. finally f.ll ' b. Spallon. coo· foscatC ",tI...".... lb. ,ri• • m • .~ , som. tun. during ,b. b'b «nm.y a thi,d banI: or "'.'..... had been :lddcd 10 the bi,.m. 10 p.oduc. ,h. fa mous ,h..,m. By , h•• nd of the cen,ury the " iTem. had h,cClm. the sta nd..d """,sh ip of the Me"". r..n,"n Th.", i. "'ill 0 VClt deal ofrontro~ ...y s utlClundiog tb. tri •• m. but c"l ai n f"",m" or. c1.I' It IIIIS ......" d a' ,h"'tt levels lIIith cone man to each CIa' From ,h. ple, ori. 1 evl Jc na alone it is ahundomly c1e.. thai the trireme \IIa, ro... ed . , th .. e le vel s and a cha nce rema.1: hy Thu{'ydld,', - 'I, wa, decided ,ha' .ac h ,. ilm tal:ing hi' n.,. cushion and " . ,., trap ,,: _l'rovcs that ' hcre was on. man ,,, 01\ "a , W. le arn fr"m A,hen ia" n. ... 1 ,ec",d, ,ha, ,he, e " ar, ,,'ere betw.en fou' and t,s m 1""1(. Ship shed' ., ,h. Mhenlan ha, oou, of Pimeu' hI " bee n . xcavl ted and Ih... give maximum dime",lons fo, 'he 'hlr". 37m long and 3m "i d. a' _om. in<:,,,,,,ng '0 I ..-i d, h of about om "' OU1·'igger ,~, ." "eoN ,ng to ,~' h cnia n ,ecoru' ,he.., ... .. n .--... b"'~I~ itu) .ach "de a, ,he 1 ' I.v.l The en .-.m:.d t/kif 'tu-ouah porto- A1'bouth lItn< ..... nor r•• abo'o-. level ' he)- must ha~ t>e.n . , a .lInkl.n, b.ip,t above ,be wat.rlin. 10' hd" ",.-ing boa.. to .hp IIndc""""b tllcm Thi' is ,be lXtic the Syracuuns .mploy'" to an . cl: ,h. .~,benisn ,.,..... It tllcir be....... dulin g ,he lICIl" or Syracuse The ocrond binI: of ,o"'-'e" (ay,,,,, l ..... al,o 17 in numbe' Th. ' o p ban I: of Oa.. me" «"'''''''r/«) .....-cd ,hrou gh on out-rigge' Thi• ..-n . n ext.ndon beyond 'he ,i.l. of the 'h ip "'hleh g.ve ~tca,cr le""lage ' n ,h. 01", The.e '.-cTC 3 ' 'hani" ro""'''' on ....·h ,id., As in 'he previous cra. ' he .hlp • •, cr.......d by hlO,d b. .. at th. 'u' Each ~alk lY had tv.-o a"" h" ", ",hi"h hun~ rr" m the c'Iheads on eiIhe< bow, "nd '''"0 I.n ding ladders which c, n "n. n h,' 'cell . t the , ear of 'he , hlp _te. '-. _ _ ............_01._ t . F,~ "' a _ .""' ''''' _ '' 2. n.o -.. oIa _ _ an .. E. . . ~.-.. _Go.tIIo-.on:s. CCWO " ".., SoMo _ , Eort, SIt> • . Ccwo _ _ e..-v OC- _.c 3OO1C- ,. ....00<1 _ _01.'.. -_oI. "'· 5. Ccwo 0I_ ~,"*" . . - - .... " WAR A T SEA T here were 200 men in a tr ireme ', cr eo; of who m ]70 "'ere rowe,", These were d" "'n from lhe poorer cla" es but lhe,. ",ere noo , laves. A( lhe ballle of Sal.mi> each sh ,p h. d 10 m.rlnes and four ",chc" , The new also illdu ded • nauti ' t, who piped lime for lhe TOWeTO, and 15 deck ha nd" The ' hip ,,'.. commanded by a Irierach who wa, appointed by ,he . dmiral. O,'eT rca, o,u hk dista[] ce, a" d ur\der f",'ou" ble condi tio n, a tr irem e could ho pe 10 cove r 12 km per hou r. There are numcro us cx. m pk , of lo n ~ dlS l.n ce, bc ing covered a t hen er lh, ,, Rkm per hour . O" e r ,u c h dist.nce s th e th ree banks mus t ha ve taken il in lurn s 10 row, Acnc", Ihe T. <:tici. n. ",riling "' lhe 4lh ce nt ury. ree'omm eod, ' hip, " the quicke " me rhod of mo" ing troop" The rccomtruttcd trireme. ()Iy",pi~ ,. buill in the 1980'" in ,pit e of a , Iigh l d," ig n faull, achieved a speed of nearly 13km per hour ove r 2k m wilh an eslim ' led top ' peed of r8km pCT bOLlT The main weapoo of the trireme "'as I" b,onzc -pla <e d ,a m. b ut w use ,his rC4uired gTe. 1 skill, During tbe Pcl opon" es i,n "'or the Cor inthiom , like tb. ;~~~ 7 =-- - Abov. S"QW 00 0 opp o , I' . lI---, o _on;""", ,,," o, ",, ,,".,y " h_(;"n'~,, tr,,"rr;e, Sealo ' .' 60 " S.oo v,"w, 9 PI"" " OW 'O S"c"on 'hO"'09 po""oonS OI 'OW~" 6, So $1"" . ''" '." , '''''''' 01" y~''''' 'com 3"",,""9• . snowing '00 00'''.09 01 1M caL 7 R••, 01 ~ "9 '" gall"v rrom l "tO'lS, RhOdeS, c.2oo , e "_"'9 "ai" APPES DIX , """,,,,1;'- b le. R<>man., f"", n.J.1 -.oIY<>f inc , he pf , he A. he n They reinforced , he bowt... of galk)"O I nd crnhed . he m 1n' 0 , he bghle. A, henian ship', ~nc v.ill wi, h bru.e force. The Grttk . hips foughla. ~II mi. ;n 480 lO-.::'e almos . lotally unpro'''''''ed. They " 'tTe ""ly partially dcdled I nd , if ' he repr=nla' i"". I re no, mi._ I. ading , .h. row,ng bend....s of II 1t"'1 tke uPP<'. bank "-.::'e complet.ly " pen , l'r<>tecled onl y by the decking ab•.>Ve , There WI' nO .ail ing along the . ide. of , h. d..k_ thi, may ha," been to make b<>a,ding el,ier. fly the .nd of .h e ~l h cen' u. y, . owers must ha,'e had ....". .hei. ,1Ia. prote<;1ion .. . be 5)...".... n. had.o gel .. nder l he oars 10 au ad: lhe A.henian """"'" . Ilroueh lhe .., IIooko. T he Grttk " ""d fo r a Ihrtt-banked p llty was ~ , S ow . bet-.:: Ippeared I w _n Ind I !",.,u r.., i,e . f"",._ and ti¥e -l>anked <.Tlfl , ' Sixe1' make an appearantt lboul 350 tIC and by the end of .he ""n, ury lhe number of bank. IIad " oen pr"8"iti"ely to 13· t'.a rly in the 3. d century ,,-.:: en...o un,er a '. ixteen· .nd by the end of th., .""tury I 'fonj·'. Thi. multiplication of bank. or 00." ha. mystified o<:"ola" for centurie. and "';11 no do..hl "" n, inu. to do 10. T here i, ee"ainly no difficulty in r.. on"ru",i n~ them On paper, In t864 (ir..er pul'>lish .d hi. I) , V"trum Rt ....·" ~ u l; in which h. illu"nted hawa II the.e gil ley. cou ld be ro wed . lie multipli.d n ri _ r nl ..' . I n lhe Hd leni1fic 1"...00 . he fu nction of galley. ellanged ; . " ips WttC increas_ ingly dC1igned a. hea", ly armoured tioa. ing pla, fonn. 10 carry catapults and m.ri ...... T""'e . hip. " -.::. e fully dec ked I nd thei, side s eo m ple.elj' bln,:ked in. About 400 Be we firs. he.. of galkY' wi.h greater ,owing c. pacity than the trireme . Accmuing to modoru , the development of Ihe.e Ilr~". galley. w., pioneered in lh. ,ci.ntifi" wlrflreest ab_ lishmem , of Di..,ny' iu ' I at Syr. cu , e. • • -_ - - no'",01 .'... -' , ........... ..... ...... -...g - - "" ....,...g -..... ..-~ ~ -,_ - -~ I Sowonol I .. J O _ am ~ _ -- . . . . . . _oncI. _' ''-'''11''''_ 01 .... - . • _ _ Mel"'" '" ..... Meo,_ ", .. ...... "'""'" .. I Tn.. goO'" _ l ~m l<>o"Q .nd 19m W> 5 Tr.o _ 01 . " ..""",.,,; \>0''"' I,,,,,, S.mo'hrIlCO, c.200 Be The ... , po 'n ''''' OUH.Q\I&' " 0 ,n "".., . "', $Iaq"",'" "'u,""m l,.",. • \X'AR AT SEA .he bai< principle of.he tnmne so ttu,. ,n hi. .fO-banker hi. tnp "",-en sat abu ut Ism abo'..e waler 1c'o...,1 and ..,c1d_ .d OIl.. abuul 7Sm lU(\jl Laughabl. thuullh G raser. l!>e"rie. maj' be, Ih. altornalive ad" a nced b)' hi, crilic, i, eq ually lud icrous. T h. y . uggeSled Ihat n"ne " f lhc,e ga lley' evcr had more lhan une level "f rowe" and lha ' ' he ·rem..' "r ' rei,' refers to the numbe r " f men wI><> pulled each o.o.r. Thi. i. fine for anythi ng up "'elgh' but become'lotallj' rid"",I""" a' figur... a, " r hej""d . 6 . The .........,r to the prohIcm hao 10 lie lIomev.-"""" bc't...".,n . he t..-o ooIutiom Sculpluln of Roman galle)" ."""" dearly ,tul••hey " ""e ""''Cd at """'"' than one ""..,1 bu' 'he)' ........,r .J>o,.. more ttuln ,Itrtt bankllofoa",. Here maj' lie ,Ite keJ' Thcoc ,h,l" are iu't larger ve.. ion. " f'he bireme and trireme, It is probable n" 'hi p ever ""d more ' han thr"" bania , The nu mbo.. refer til Ihe h >l al nu mber uf n'en rowing each "ertkal group of· ".n : fllr e.ample, a ', ix' could be rowed in the .a me fa.hion . , . trireme, " 'i' h 1\<'0 men per oar, ur a' a bireme ,,'i th three men per o.o.r, [n the '7,h and 'H' h cen,une. i' ,,'a. found 'ha' eighl ...... a rnuimum num _ her of men ... ho could handle a single oar ellio:ien,lj', On ,he tnmne pnnciple _ ·,"-...'),.f....r· .. ''''refOf'C <:on<:t:inhle ,hou.h *,nuttedly unlikel)". .,,,., moo' f.........lly menlioMd " f.""", gion.. ;" .he ' lix.ce n'. Pencu., .he las' king of .\h,..,don, had iuot .""h _ gallej' a••he rUg.hip of hi. no,'}- Thi. t)'pe i' m<>s' a.:ccplat>te a, a t>ireme "'itll eigh,- man ""n , Such a galley ",,,uld have '" be at lea" u m wide ,exduding the outrigge', T he galle,-, di"""ercd in Lake Nemi in Italy are tv.' ,·e Ihi. widlh and may well h. '·e been these juggern.uts. T he galley reo.>nstrucr;on ,I>o"n here is ba..d on I"·,, bank, of eighl-man 00f'>, Obv"",.lj' a f<>·..... Iteprcocnla.ion. from ,he Helkn'''ic period sh<>vo' gallej" " 'ith t"'·o bank. of .,.,.., boxh ",.""ng from ,he .......ilQlC1' . The mus, fa.....,... of lhese i. .he hue of ,he Victory of Samothraec. Thi. "". an outrigge r wi'h oar I><>le' grouped in staggere d pai.. _one up, ono d""'n , Th i' w"' prot>. hl;' Ihe ."anllemenl for heav ~ lO. ll" ys. 'ha' : The booule tactics of ,he Greek lIee~ " ..,re compa"ni""l)' .imple. Victory " ally depended on the abili ly of ,,>, Herodol... h.. '-.ry lill ie gu. p or ' ho principle. of naval warfare and hi••cCount of Ihe banl e of Salami' lac.s in,ight , However , 173 yea" laler a !>;onle wilh exactly th •••me namc wa, fought o lf the town of Salami, in Cyp rus. T hi' bail Ie, whkh w. , rC'COrded by H lemnym us "f C..ordi., . nd the bail ie " f Chi'" in 20 . for " 'hich ".., have Polybiu,' ...-.:oun" gi"e u. _ romiderable imighl ,n,o galley ,,'arlare , lJ nf<>lcmj', king " f l'.ll)'pl , approached ,,·i,h. lIce' of ",me ' 40 1l.1ley. and 200 transpon. ca rrying more 'han 10,COO .old len in an allemp' , o rooi"" the ,ieg. , AlIl't" lem y', galJe;-' were either q uadrireme, '" quinquere me" Demetriu, with abou t 1'10 ships laun ched hi. lI oct and prop. rod to m"'" Ih" ana,'k, T he ma;ori')' of hi, ve.sel, would appear '0 """e been trireme. " r .malle r galley, bl)( he al", had a fair num be r ofl. ..", . hil". Ikfore puning 10 ..__n ,he nutng " ... """"""Cd an d m.... "'''·ercd. O n ,he """'.. of hi••lIip> lkmc1riu. moun,ttng catapult. ca t>le of di._ dlOrJln,arrov;"ssem inle h . Heal><> pu t ""..,ral stone-.hro"·e.. _borI.rd and a ,uppl)' of mi..il.... T hen . Ie""ing len of hi. qUl n'luer "",co 10 hloc kade , he nar _ row entrance to Sal. mi, h.rbour." 'hal th. 60 galley, in there could no, ;.oin th. h.lI le, he pI)( to , ea , Dilldoru, give, d,·I. il, only of Dem ,·tri u, · left wing which Wa, made up of two lin« wilh 30 A' henian quadrireme' and ""ven Phoeoki.n '..,'ens' . , Ihe fronl and ten qui"'lU<:remtl and len ·Ii . ...• hehind. De me, ri"" ""mmanded thi. " 'nJ in one "f the ·on'ert". The ligh,er . hip' fortTloCd .he centre and . he In, of the hell,)' p l_ le)" made up.he n gh. "'ing, Prnuming'ha'lhcre """" a' cen... and Demetri",' m.....h he'''ier kit wing. When .he flee" "'ere dra..'n up in battle Older booh lid... offered praj''''' to ' he god. be""",hing . helt help in the coming N Ule , the . ilnalmen leadi ng th. prayers and 'he erew, joining in th e re'l"'n,... \X'hen Ihe prayers were over Ihe two Ike," he ~. n to ad_ "anee with rhe sign.lmen . ou nding out 'he " m ke to the rowers . \'(-'hen about soom separaled lhe l1oe" Demetriu, cated ,he lint in ..La}... A .imiLar .,gnal ....a' ""';l\C'd b;' Ptolem)' and the l..-oReer.cJ<.ed. A. they apP'<*'hed ,he 'l\Impeu """nJed ,he eharge. b<> ""';..-d 'heir ....ar eri... and the ....-o II"".. duhed upon oach other. The "Millery and the archen """ned ,he N llle and, a'the}' came in,,, ranJ'" the iavd inee.. . 1'0 di,char~ed ' heir mi, , ile., T he 5<,ll1iers me of the ,hi p. met prow t" pro,,' and .... ~re forced to had< " 'a' er '" 'ha' . he)' could ~har~e .-in. A. do.. quarters lhe ....Ti""" ",..,re ahle ,,, rake I'" dec.. of ,he encmy ship ,,-;.11 I....r ml.. iJe.. \X·...n a galley manaecd .0 ram _n OJ>"ponent am idohil" and t'" ,am had bccome lirmly lodgcU, tM man""" lap< aborl.rd Ihe ..ride n .hip to light i . hand'ohand. Someti..... 'hem. rin of .ue h . stri reril , and many a ma'ine mi, _ judged .. he leapt toward. the approaching enemy ' hip and f.ikd I" Jet a lirm arip on tM rail. Th ooe whu mi.sed Ihe rail "r 10'" ' bet r fOOl:inl on tM ,tippery fo.o.m-_ked de d< plu~ ,nl" ,he "'" " 'here Iltey ",..,re di...."hed h)' ,he n>e on lhe .h,p ab """'n '" APP ENDIX I iom ~ a lle y s wit h bo..... and , tern orna ments and towing the captured E ~ y p tian gaiky, returned in triumph to his camp, The battle of Chios , fought ,06 years later het.....ee n Philip V of M acedon and Atulm I of Perg amon , adds some fu rther details. T he t..... o fleets ind uded 'tens' , ' nines ' , " eights' , 'sevens' and ' sixes' as .....eli as the more oon\'entional q uinq ueremes and a host of li ~ht er ships , Alt hough Polybius gi,'es no de_ tail, of tbe line-up <>r of the prelimin_ aries to the bat1 le, an d eve n the resu lt is in doubt, there are some very enli~hten ing descriptions in his account . The most noteworl h I' performanee .....,,, given by the Rhod ians who were th e able' l sailors of their day, They had perfected the manoeu\'re of breaking the line. To do tbi, they would charge head on and at the lasl mome nt \'ecr .way , pa"i ng along one , ide {)I' the enemy galley and if possible s w e e p i n ~ off its oars , Thi, manoeuvre necess itated shipping theit oar<; , A, they ca me Out hehind the line ' hey would rely on , heir gr eat er , eamanship 10 enable them to tur n their ganey faster than their opponent s so that the y could ram them wh ilst they were st ill turn ing, catchi ng the m ..... ith a , hatte ring b low in the unarmoured flank or e\'en in , he " ern, T he R hod ians had also developed a , echnique ..... hich enabled them 10 dip their prow" an d they uo ,e lS of o.,,", iffor. back stroke so that the ste rn ofthe galley lifted and the front plu n~ed down under the ram of the opposin~ ship wit h the result lh at any dama!:'e to th e Hhodian , hip .....as above the waterline whih t the enemy ship , uf!ered its dama~e along the bottom of the keel. These ' ..... 0 tech niques ~"m _ bined must h,,'e had a deva statin~ effecl "' their oppone nts did not know which one 10 e ~pect , D ur i n ~ the batt le Philip', flag,hip, a ,'a" ' ten', charged a ,,-ih , miolia whi ch was in its path. T he,e , hip, were a sort of light undecked trireme , T he huge g. lley ramme d the li~hter vessel with gr eat force in the fl ank. UsuaJJy such a light galle}' wou ld have heen , hatte red by the impac' and probably broken in two, but on this occa sion ,hc prow of the ' ten ' stuck fast undet ,he outrigger that , upported the "'I' bank of oars of the smaller ' hip , Di ' abl ed in this way ,he was attacked b}' two tri reme, and su nk, Thin gs were e"ened up when one 01 the opposing admira" charged an enemy at full 'peed but badly m i,j u d~e d his collision course , lie missed hi, target by the narrOwest margin and "' he swept past ca ught his ri ght-, ide oars on the stern of his intended victim losin g not on ly all hi, oars but his tu rre ts too , Anot her galley suffered the indignity of losin~ its ram whe n it charged, lea"ing a gaping hole in th e prow. Su ch damage w.. of ,'our,e fatal and i, could only be a marler of minutes befor e the , rippled ship san k, Th"e two ac<"un" gi\'e a con,i derable in, ight int o anc ient naval warfare A b o"," t"" A. ". , v,ew of h.. OO"' " e. " C. "Mge " >oW''' 9 'ho ho<, o, h"" " ,0 lo, oogo·, h. """ pOnd" Th. ...., w he,. the oot,,"" QO. ¥> '''0 'UO" se, ",all "'ve C3n be ",,,n ,n 03" 1><"0 Muc" of th" "e, hO' t_ n ' ",v..,.d . nd . 'co",,"" , nO""' v;M;c.,.d , he o.,cnot;oo of ,"" G,,,,,' "'''o".n "-",,,.n Petow A ,.coowuc..d p'.n of the ,, " "" '" tt>< m"""y ,,",Wu' . 1,., 0 , Hu" r. o, c'v";oo, In ,t>< m'dd'. "e th<> a ,",p ""m"""" , ". 'Mwn in h'",' • '.• • ..~/'~~ 0" Reconst 'ucted ••",1 v;o" 'hO'M ng he ' h.,,,,,",,,, c 400 Be At""", , nd 1 M.m h.,oo", (ra" "",,,,,) 2 'ono, h>'",,",' 3 l e. h. rt:-oo , 4 'A "nye ";, h., b"", , WAR A T SI::A H.. ..bo.. n f.ndoocd harbounaPJlC'lr ,o M "c dcvdoped in ,he M cdi,nnncan d ..ring ,he 6t h CC1l'.. ry IOC_ Hcrodof Phalcrum iu.t """Ih Oflhe Pi,xu. h.., ,atly' in 'M ~,h , a, the inst iga' i<>n <>f Themi"odro, , h, harbour was mov,d '0 , he I· i. a,·... . On , hr nOr1h , ide "f,hi, ro"k~' I',,'m" nt<>ry i•• IOTge inl" wh ich I>o.:came Ihe com mercial harbour Can,haru. and "n ,he south . ide ,he.e o, e ,wo m""h , ,,,,,lIer inlets , Zea and M unichia, which t>«.me ,he mili'a. y har· boun . T he ...·hole arca was . "'......nlkd by ......11. or heavy' limesfone blo0 1M' , hey could be d oocd ...'i, h c,,"ins . The moles .....re . ..r""'K.n.ed by "",lis wi, h ....."". a' , be end. T he en_ Ih""" 10 fhe Z... harbour " .... reduced 10 only 35m . S lU p shed.. ,,'hich ....re reilly covered sbp••.-.. ~-.., ...-c« bu,l', n . he , wo mili,M}' hart><>un. Tl..-.c: shed. ..ttc grouped in foun o. eights. Thoc)- OU' "".1<. .... .re juS! under 6m ...~de and ..bou. -som long ..nd .... re OCJ"lf"ll M r mihla, y, i, dcscrihed by 'M Greek hiSfor;"'n Appian who i, p,,>hably d....._ ing on a los, "".. of P,>lybius ' IU""'Y_ The ," ... har bours ..""e rlaoe:d Ooe behind fhe orher, ",,,,,.a' ed by a double .....11 . The front roo "" lIS for com mercial shipping. II had.n .... tr.nce abou':>om ...-ide ...·hich could be c.....d ..~ , h Iron d ""ns. Behind .he a>m tn """ In .he ""n.~ of the military harbou• 'on> .n island o n ...' hich ..GOd .he Idm".l's headquanen, ri,i~ high .bo>~ ,he surrounding build, .... and forn fia no.... and """bling . he oorn "",nder .0 ..... ",hat " ... going on out ... ...... Rot h ,he island and the ha. · bour it",lf ..~re lined ",i,h .hip .hed. .nd >to."..ufficien, for 200 galley... T ..... column. stoo<,\ It 'he entrance ' 0 eac h .hed ...hich gave the appearance or • "",'&1 .-.... __. ....... SI\Od .. Cao1 01 . *"",-u<:Md_ .. ~ ~- "" 01 .... a _ o I l).-H R H...... ...,S C G _ APP ENDI X I cominuou, portICO ' 0 bo,h ,he harbour and ,he island . Thc,"" arc ''''0 ronds , one hors<;;~ an d , he <>l ite, ktZtn~c-shopc d a' ,hc !IOUl h-co.. """",,of , he'''cof Can ....gc. ~ hove Iong ..... n though, ' 0 mark , he SJle of the ancien, harboun. Bu, in rttnlt )..,.,.. much doubl ho. .....n cu, on ,hi,. A, ~''' 'y ... t \l76 ,he Ia,c French npct1 on Clttlulgc. Pic1Tc G n,..., publ..hcd the ......... d voIu...., of hi• .U _I J 'A " .",,j,,,i~ Ptm._ in ,,·hieh he pooreJ -..:om on Appian" dncrip,;"" ar>d alw on , he ougg m ;"" , ...., ,he 'wo pondo m.orked lhe site of , he .n,;enl h.,tx.",rs. BUI eYen heforc ,he book .. 10 pms. Brili.hnch........ ..,n' • • ... __ ..... 01 • ~ _ _ on • c "".......... coon ""'" Spa... c l2~ ec ~ ....,..,ng ' ho ''''''' of • lIt' _ tho do>< ..... ~ r _ d on """" ' ... _ e.- ""'" • • w: - I 01 _"""' c... 1 ..... 01 "'" '-" 01 .... ,".. 01 ....,_ lot"•• _ . " ' ,... C _ O ~ o/ . ... f SotcIoon 01 _ _ tot> F Secnon 01 ........ , ..... 01 tho ' . . ot ..... _"'C' ''''''''''''''ol ",0 _ 111 .....- ", .. birr> nt> ..--.. o/"'0"'ll . - '" ""'" "lI ..... .... G ..... H Stoc-. oI .... ' . . ___,. J S- _ oI t _ -...--.. _ .-.t -...0 on '-" '" """"" ... ' ' . - . . - 0/ ' d«l_. 5 • -....... "-""l '_ng ..,........ WAR AT S EA logical te. m under the kadersh ip of Dr Henry HUrSI was beginning excO".tions in lhe cent re of lhe hor.cshoe. Pierre Cint., dicd in July 1974 beforc ",cing ,,'en the ear lie, t res ults of the,c exc.v.tion, which esl.bli,hed lhat the mili ta ry harbour ".s indee d lhere and vindic.ted lhe des",iption of Appi.n, 1n the ~"<:ntre ()f the hm"",hoc Dr H urst unc"()"Ored t he foundal i()n, of • large bu ilding wit h row, of rccl a n ~ul a r stone blocks radi ating from it. T hese row" whi~'h arc 5_9m ap.rt, can ()n ly be the foundation, of ,hip , h~d, and the large huild ing is the ad miral' s HQ _ Over " hundred year> ago , he French .rchaeologist Beuk fou nd , irn il.r row, of hlocks on lhe north ,ide of the p'>nd _ T he north edge ()f the I. rer lI." m. n har!><.lur ha, . Iso been fou nd , If lhi , ~" i ncided with t he earlier quay,ide lhen lhe harbour would have h. d . ciTeuit " f over 1,100m , , ufficient fOT . h()ul t60 . hip . hed, . A, thcr••re 30 on the i, land II ,u pports Appian 's daim th.r lhere were ,hed, for 200 gallcy, T he fleet. or Ca r'h a ge c.rthage', powerfu l fleet g",'e her control of ,he west eTn M editerranean_ 'We know fro m Pol}'hi m tha t the pTinei _ pal figh ting ship of lhe Ca rt haginian na\'y in lhe 3rd century wos lhe quinquereme, Ihough lhe Carthaginian, a], o u.ed ,ome trireme' and 4u.driremcs_ One of her Heets h.d a ' se\'e n' , which had been captured Ir om Pyrr hus during his i"" a, ion of Sicily, a, f1"l<, hip. T he militory harbour al Carthage h. d sufficient hou.ing fur 200 ship' hu t dur_ ing t h ~ fiT" Punic war Ihe Ca rt haginian na\'y wa, oft en well O \'or lhi , strength, In z 56 Cartha ~e was . ble to put to sea a neel of 3So decked w.rsh ip" T here wne pmhably , uhsidiaTy fleets peTm a_ nc ntly ,lalioned al ,uch place. as Paler mo and L ilybaeum . Cerlainly a milit ary hahour has b<:~n excavate d at ha\'e !>ccn adopted by Philip V during the , ccon d Punic war. There i. , how_ the early CaTlh . ginian c()lon y of Moty., off the west coast of S icily, which was ever , no liter. ry e\' idence which indidestroyed by D ionysi", I in 3n ec. cale, lhat C.rthage u, ed these types in One of the mo.t remarkable features lh e , rd century . T he fa" li~ h, vessel of the tleelSof CarIhage . nd Rome in the !>clonging to H an nibal, ,he ' Rhodi.n' 3rd century Be was the enormous .peed ,,'hich , o",tantly ran the R"man block"' which lhey could be con.trueted , In ade of L ilybaeum, was . qu inquereme , 26 1 Be Ihe Rom. n, buill their fir" neel We Can dedu,e thi, Irom the fact Iha' of 120 , hip' in two month, _Seven years the Roman, constru cted. Heel of quin_ I. t" Ihey huilt a .." ",d tleet of 2 00 in quereme, u.ing lhe 'Rhodian',' ,'""e1 three mont hs _ In 197' t he hu ll of a a, a model. Quite apart from this the C"rl hoginian galley was discovered in estimaled . i. e of lhe l.ilyhaeum ship th~ ,hallow water just nonh of lhe port approximately 3Sm I"ng and sm wide of Lilyhacum T hi, , hip, "n d a not h~r without the outrigger- is very large wh ich wa' di"~l\'e rcd nearby, have oce n The , hip sheds al Carthaxe which mu " carbon dated 10 the period of the firsl have held qui nqueremes were only 5_ 9m Punic war , T he matly , h ipwr i ~ h t' s wide , m..king, on lhe , imber, which are " ill The main interest of the L ilybaeum "i ,ihle impl}' that the pieces were rna" ship" of which only the keels ' u"i,'., i, produced , offering an explanation of th eir . lruelU re , Thi s has h ~"e n u.e d f{)r the speed with which fleet. could be lhe reconstruction ()f a 4uin4uererne assembled , shown below, T he superstructure i, S()me of lh e pieces of lhe lwo ,hips oo.ed on a Carth,ginian coin fro m Spain fro m l.il}'ooeum are , h()wn here T he and • carving from CaT t h . g~, hot h large piece (. ) i, the ste rn of the first , hown here , T he,e , how un mi,t akably .hip discow red, lhe other piece (z) i, an o u,rigg~r ju" ochind the eye with a pan of lhe rom of lhe sew nd . The ked dec k ahov~ it . T he coin . how, oval is of maple, t ha ib, of ookand th~ pl.nk _ shields, no doubt Cdliberian , Sl rapp~ d ing and tusk _li ke p ieces of th c ram are along lhe r.iling , The ram ,hown on of pine, The . hips were carvel built, i,e , bolh lhese repre'en tatio", i, the G reek lhe oulside planking was ""emhied lype whi ch wa, atlached to the bil~e fj"'t and th e rih. i m~tle d " ft",ward, " Tl ngers T he type u.cd on [h~ Lily_ T he planb were ioined ",geth" with haeu m wreck more do,e1y ,",emhlc , n. l we<>den tenons which were held in lhose shown on Tmian ', Co lumn, which place with wooden dowel s. All the probably aCCOunts for the assumption , hal t h~ ,hip is a M u rn ~_ Med i t~rro n co n ships so far foun d w~r~ asse mbled in this way. The planking Polybi us impli e, tha, CarthaginIan wa, nailed to lhe rihs fr om lhe outs ide ship , ea rried the ,arne numlx:r of n ew , nd the nail bent o\'er on the in.ide, T he me n as the Roman ship, of the ,arne joints were eoulked Wil h • pu ny- like period -300,earnon and 120 marinessuh"ance and lhen Ihe h ull wa' oovcred with Ie.d sheetin g and the r" m e n~·a ..d in bro nze, The excavator Honor Frost a . low be lieves lhat bol h the se galley, were Aol;c! o f a gal'O, ,,'nth 1M"" oook, of "''' h om liburna., the type ()ffast light , hip' used 0",• . c )() ~ C " coo ld "" . oomo,,",.me. '" hy the Illyri.ns . T his type ap pe.r, to D;q,,.,, ., all tn. 0'" COffiJ ,,;gge, h 4 4' t-(- 'W APPE"'Dl X I ....hotn ht .. ~ ,,,,,-, t htir fItt' of 3S0 galle).. Md a <;n"- of I SQ,OOO. method of rowing a Canllaginian l Roman qU""l""""",e has ca uoed e. - · ........ """' 1'O\"1:n )·. !l """,, certainly I'lO< rowed aI one Je-'e l ".-j,h Ii,." meTI '0 an oar as T tfn advocales ; eq""Uycerla>nly it "".""" rowed a, fi,." Ienl•. T hot.... a'" ..ve",l ....p......,n' a' ion. from Ih e Roman republican period which ,how gall~ rowed aI l wo or 'hr"" leve" T il<: lrire me had '70 oan with 61 row e.. a" he highest level and 54 at eae'h of lh e I","" " levd ,. [ t i. known fro m 'he excavati"n. of , hip . hcd, ' ha' quad rireme. and q uinquere me' '"' n.. au. .ha, ,hi. '" each .0 .he OIn of lhe upper banko. ..-beTe ,he boa' ...... WIdes,. and one per wr at . he 10",.. kvd. Since a tlir Md I c,.".. of :we:> or which 170 "'' '' n , one """-lId expttt 170 of . he JOO cr.... member-. of a quinque,."me '0 be """"n. 'me re<:on_ ..ruction . hown on p . 170 has "1 t,.,oman oars (S8 at the hilfhestlevd ar>d S4 in ,II<: nd blo.nk), and 46 one-man oars at the lowe" level, givi ng a tOlal of 2'70 ro we.., The •• r ly Rom a n lie••• W ithin thr"" ~'ea .. "I' !hc ,tart of the fi rst wor with Ca rl hage i' h«am c obviou, tu the Rom an. th. ! ,hey wou ld I>o'-e to build a tleet . Up until lhen thc:y had made u.., of . hiJ'1' belolllfi ng to lhe allied of "'a,na G . aceY Ind Etruria. Bill none of tllocK " a, es "" as u.ing quinq~. Tho:: Roman< modelled ' htir galle y. on " Cartha_ ginian ship tNt " ......randed on I red' and ca p ".t.. fi,,' .- A _ _ .... _ .. w",, _ .._ , .... "'> ..... ...... n _ _ - 5 *""""_.. r.... Ig o.eiug _ __ _ .. _ n...,.......... ocoor. H .... _ _ d'w,,~,_'._&C '-a .._ _ .... " " " - .... w .. _-"~<:oUId~ _. ~ w"" ...... _ .. 01 """ . ..... __ \1l'AR AT SEA sea. Al thoulh Rome ....111«1 aher fleet of G..",k tril"CtnCS. lkauoc , he lI...s an.! ,I>( Romans realioe.i tha' , hey ..." "ld ' o.he clem en,•••he corned on dogged!)' ........., of foreign ongin . I>()' we.., not be "., match for the Punic ..,amen . So unlll she finally ,",""'l ied OOI1. ro l of . he orpniocd as legions hu' ... au"ilial)' the)' eom peTWlted by d" nlopin g a oea fro m the Canhallinians _T he ('..... Ita· uni .. and for this rea",,,, ' emained an h,,"ding plank ....ith a Iona: iron .pike at ginian navy " 'er e !IO humiliated b)' ,he inferi." ·.., ..,icc·. Augu"". "".hli, hed 'htee penna_ 'he end ....hieh s"'ivelled on a pole Roman. dur ing 'he lin t ,,'ar that the)' moun' ed on the pro.... of the .hip . T he neVe' regained their contiden,.. . In the ne", na,'al has,"" o"e at ]''''''01 Julii .ail".. nic knam ed Ihi. the ' raven' I lann;!>alic war th" Cart haginia n navy ( Ftt ju.) near Slarseilles t<> contro l tho tried avoid coming in'" eonHi", with ",,"at, "I' Gaul and Sp.in. anothet a' (. <>...".. ) ;"'><:au< ' plank' had Adriatic with '00 liblmwt in the .,.,-Iy The Ital ian lI...s """n superseded ,he a knee- high fence runninl along each oum me r of ~ .6 bu t turned and lied in tIcc1 at rOl"um J ulii "'h,,,h ""'s gDduall y ..de. and ...-as raised by a pulley anoehed di_der " 'hen .he Romans dispa,ched ru n du,,·o. ThooK lk-c. s ...-ere commandoed b}- p",the top oi the pole. As . he gallc)- came ' en quin<.!"""'mes &pin.. him . Rome ..aned , he WI>d ,,"'....i,h reas (~'Mf.CII) ,,'1>0 rc.."Ci.ed thc:Ir dooe to an enemy ship , he 'plank' "'-as swivelled round and dropped on 10 the Can hale "i' h n o . hi ps an.! l>C''Cr stood orden from 'h<: emperor and not (rom in ,he ollgh,co' danger of b Ing "",,,oJ , he Se"" e. There is no ..... idence , hat ~I'" . hi p ""here lhe . poke >luck in of the >ea. I'or 'he tir .. half of ,he ~nd sla" e labour ""s uoed in the galleys. •he dc<.:t. and loct.cd the 1"''0 sbi", ltCther , The mID.... then motImed the cen. ury Be the Roman. "'lained a . ub- ei' ber in 'he ..,public "r the em pu e . plank , ""ting the rim . of .heir . h j.,Jd. . ' an,i. 1 noV)'. but aftc' the destruction Seamen we", also soldie... and proud of on Ih e knee· high fencing i\k, and Syria n. The HeelS we.., 'It~an"ed in much we« com ple, ely prot,"'ted . Thi' de,-i"" (hoy s. w no point in main' a;n ing a Ace' 'he .. nte fa,hi" n as the au"iliaries. T he tu rned a na" al bau le in'" a Jight be- a, the M edi ' enanea " w'•• " t pea"" , .a il",s ' en 'ed f", 26 years and re",,;ved Iween mari nes whic h 'he sUI",rb Roman From Ihi. poi nt she began Il' r"ly almost • gram " I' Roman dti«n'hi p on di, · cha,&", M arine,. wh" were .1'0 au, ili· infantr)' WCTe bound to win. enlil'rioc.i by provtnciallloo.illas '"''Cre C'O ' ab!ished off the elements. Cn-uinly , he """"" is no! Cil icia n pi.,,,,,,, and in ')'O-6lI the)' ra'-- S)'fia and r,g}'l". 'Tloe.., ""er<: abo ' u l>menlioned aft er 'h<: li nt "",r ""rh Car- ogc-d the . . -to of lIaly. sinkin l a con- oidoary tIcc1s in . lie " lad. Sea. !he ' hage and .....,er again did she ..,lfer su la, lk-c' a, Ostia and copouri ng ,,,-0 En~Ii.h Channel and on tlie Rhin e and praetors ...·i' h 'hei. li"',," . Th" ""ulted Danu.... oucll appo.lh"ll \oo.sn. in a purge of rhe pirates by Pompe)' I ndi ,-hiua! ships "=e commanokd b}' Bnideo ' h<: q uinquel"l:1l'lCs Ih<: Roman> al"" built two <.i"C'O' "'hich , hey ,,'hieh ""to..,d peacc to 'he Mediter- mn-""h.; ,,-!uadron. ....e.., commanded u...l a. flagships. These we", proba bl)' ra""an, The ~oo gall eys wi'h which hy "",,,,,eI,•. T his name had or iginally "", . i,,,, quinqueremes ....i'h 1... ·0 ro"ers Pompey petformed 'hi sra, k mu>l ha"" meOnt a ,ap' ain of a (,rcrk ship but b)' at ea"h "f the three le,'els, bc<:n . upplied by the Gr".'k . t.te' . Dur- the time of l'olybius it was ,,'c<1 gcner· When they em haThd on ' he im'asion ing Ihe civil ....ar' the 11c.' Ia, like the ally f"r " " -1u"d ro" com ma nder olld as of Africa in 256, the Roma'" d re" up legion ., m ultiplied '" that after the ,u,h thc term was inhe'ited by the 'heir . hips in four line s, calling ' hem 'he bailIe of AClium in 3' tic. A"ltu5lu, wa, Homan•. Quin"lucrcmcs feU ou' of favour in left with .h(Wnd , thir d and fou'th legion. T o " f the«: lines , each ltd b ) ' a ' six" Antony had had gall eys up to a 'ten' in the im pe, ial llee ... ahhough ,hey con_ formed a dart " i th a sligh' (lOP a' ,he . i"", AUILUOlUS "ioel)' kept no!hing 'inued in use. The quad rireme beame fronl , The thi rd line formt'd 'he base of la...,r .ha n a ' six' ....hich beamc hisflag. """'" common but dunng Ih i. period 'h<: Ina",le. Behind , he thIrd li ne ,,=e shi p. This may '"'. .II 'h<: ship , bar is the muot p"pular . hip " ,.. the .rireme. pIace-d .he hor-se lhn5pons an.! hehind oIoo'.'n on.h<: Prae T he n>le ollibfc..,n Car - ganq , from the Donuhe 11"", ,hown 011 T hi' II"", of 330 decked .......hips wa, thagi ni.n in characret . Captain, wcrc Trajan 's Column ore in all p,obabi]ity the la'l(e" ' hat ' he Hom" n, ever pu' '" called "i"~" h" after the c" ", manders /o"""'j~< , ThooK tint ships "''Ue .10",· an.! d um.y i,. ""••. '0 '0 '0 '0- '0 '0 Ii"",,,,,, m APPE N DI X I Fortifications and Siege \Varfare ~ dlY OI a'" I',,"ifiauion. and oicge wartart art In_ exuial>ly combined. 11'>c ly S1imubles changn in 'M "'Mr, and lhc1'efon: 1M 1_ art 'rta'ed r. ,hu here. Early Greet: fortificolion, ~ oorly denved from ,heir Bro nn Age pn:dc.."C"SOn and i, i. n =...ry 10 go bad ' M ei,.dd. <:>f I he .\ Iyccnll (an er•. T he.., eiI.deIs wu e nOTmoJly buih on hilllnp, and . ur rounded by w'U. which followed . he c" n' nur< of ' he hill , M y_ ce nae i1 self has wall, which . re lypical of . he aRe. T hey ar e on .veraRe 6" e metr.. thick and huilt of m..,i" e or one, som Olime. weighing as much .. 'en mnn«. T he wi n , are pie rced h)' tllm gl'es , bol h bu ilt a' ri gh' angles 10 . he ....'all so .ha•• he e"",my ",ould come under aua" k fro m the ....'all before .he e"le could be reached. A bootion ....... buill OUI from , be far side ohhe go" 10 .M tkfcnde... could bombard ' M e"",m)'-, unshielded .ide. 11'>c ......n. art oJ... p;e-ra:d by "0'0 narrow ..lly port. from which attach could M matk on ,he enemy wi,houl opening , he main p .... The ",..ll.ofTiryns ha~e p llcrics wi.h vauhed roof. buil, infO ,he "",II. which also .how evidcnccof mud brick halliemen.. ,oppi ng ltu:m. Wi,h"u' , he stimulus of ma' ure .iegc warfare 'he 'ySl em of fOrlific.. ion. , howed no deve1opmen" in the 6cx> yea.. ,h.. follo wed the fall "f M yce nae. T he f,>co l point of town de fene", .....as " ill the d tadel or aeropol;, . T he , . hee n, ury ...... 11 , of Emporio on .h e i,l. nd of Chio••re .1""", ideo,i.al in con,:ept 'n 'hooe of Ihe Bronze Age h u. in tM . Ire ngt h nf.he fnn ificalinn. are inferi,,,. O nly in , he 6, h <:enlUry wert seriou. " ''''''p's made 10 funify whole IOWno. Under pn:nure fi..., fro m L y'd,a and lben Pc-ni••• he Ionian Greeh ....re compelled 10 imprm'e ,bcir f,," il>ao_ '0 .h,,, t~. When lracing ou, ,he ..-:oil. 1o cncompau a ''''''n 1hc1'e "''0$ • lendency '0 'ry 1o make u. of no. u,,", defe......."",h .. dilf. or "«I' .Iupes. Thi. of'en m.....' incrcaoing lhe area of , he ' own. These wall. ....".e u.ually pierced wi,h narrow sally I'"r" enabli ng Ihe defendero h. launch ."'....k> un .he bes.iegers. !'-u lie r wall, were ~()n>l ru"'ed ()f ruhhle maoonr y 0' " 'e n mu .'one ....".., polygonal bJod;.~ of being used, allhough mud hr;':lr. proboobly rein use for bo"Iemm... The pnncipol inl><>'ill'ion ...~ .he inlrodUoClion of proie'lO'Cn rom.. frum ,he 6.h-ttn' ury .i'e a' Burunku k on , he "''''ern coast of A.ia M inor , A' fi... 'owen wc« only used at weak poin" and at galeway. bu, b)' the ~ 1 h cent ury regular ly .ps<;eCW ltarhour a' Pineus. To accompli,h ,hi, ,he AIMn;"n. bu,lt a ......i'·e ....II round ,he Pilant••nd linked lhe horboor ...· ilh ,he '0'''' by ,,'all. f,,"ificd a. inte...·:oI. by' ....... non:y These long ...-:011. encluacd a corridor .boo• •oom ..ide and 6,~ long, OtheT G reek m.",ime .'a."" . "",h .. <:orin,h fnllu ... 'Cd . he A,henian lead, but ahhough ,hi. ')'pc of defence might be elfecti"e . g.i nst Spa"" i, oould h. rdl,· have wi. h",:w;xl • co"""nlra,e d Pe"i.n · "'Re. D uri ng Ihe laIc ~ 'h . ndearly 4. h Ce nluries A.hens huill a series of fro nt ier fOTI"''''' .0 sc~ure her ," mm un;""t;on, . nd "' a Ii,..., line of defence again" anack. T he for" e.. . t Eleut her.e (Gyp h'nca"ru) i. ,}'pical " f .uch fOil •. II i. built '0 crown a "ccp-sided hillnclr. <:>n ,he SOlllh side " f , he ra' he'''''ccn Moun' alhacron and Mount P....., guarding ,he t'OIId from T hebes 10 A,heno. h • ..·. n. , wbich arc 'W(> met.... 'hid. are fa....d ...' ,h nxtangubr block> " f gre y "one and filled wilh rubble, A series of r........on:y 1o,",," proiect in..-ard. anide wllert . he . pproach ..... e..iesl, 11'>c ,"".." were en'ertd from , he iMide of ,he fun by a d""" 1 ,t><"«<1 leveL T ...·0 doors.I firsl -"" or levelled nul on '0 Ihe haillemelll' • • ei,her ,ide, T he SCIll'}' walk could 01", he reac hed by step' direcI ly from . trcc' leveL I n the early 41h <:ent ut y th e !(}w.'n would h. '·e had mai""'" I.,. '-Ione "",,,'..-.1. .- I ... ...., ..... , ft _ at c T.. _ _ ... ... _ ...... 01..- I ROfv9On01 " .",.. 2 c...I"' .. 'oelongo,", " .",.. <", '0....,.,.. - ""0U\JfI_ ...... .. 1...... _ '... moo' _",,,,,,'«1 at ,... M _ _"" tort " ... .."'" A _ -.-on ~ ...... - _ ""'" ,,"ok _ "11 T~." _ at _ _............ _ ,... .-. at_ Gooo"""_,",,, 1IfI ·............ ron_ .. ,_OtIC_ FORTi FIC ATI O N S AN D S IEG E WARFARE fta' pla,fmm, wi' h c"rendla' ion' a' 'hc 1('1' T he ' ower marked X on 'h e plan faces direc,ly up the pass and h.s. loop hole in the nort h w. 11 giving. perfec' view oithe head of'he p'SS. T he founda_ ' ion ' of 'w" w.,,,h towers have been found iust to 'he west of 'he roa d a' the summil of the pas<, The,e woul d have given an cxeellen' panor.mic" "iew of 'hc plain of'hc A",pu,; any lroop movem"n" oould have been si~ na11ed back to lhe fOr! and from lhere , ran,mined to Alhens . Signa lling hy firc '" ,moke had been used fro m the earliest limes , O ri~ i n a ll y fire signals had been reSlricIed 10 a sim ple heacon which announced 'ha' some expee'cd event had happencd . Acnea', t he 4,h·century wri ter on tac'ie" had s ug~e ste d a system by which 'O"e ral different me'sagc, coul d he "ansmined Thi, m"hud e A ,"oon, " "" ;"" 'owe,, " ,owe, ,, ... I'v of 'he of pM w.II, . no "". Gyp" """' ''" No" '0 ,he poo1 of , he Th. ",n"y w.,k could b€ mounted MhO' hom '00 lOWer", 'he Q'oo "d wilh a ro a Abov•. t PI, " ~f ,.... W, ·",,"'" 'y ' ''''''' c", 'on, w,'h p,oJec ting 'OW""" Bv'vn,,,' _L,,i.. 2 PI," of ,h. " h·"""",,y AH,en"n l,on,,"' Gyph',,"." '" h'" w;'" l"T,.·".,., ' ;90, II;og T.... po' (A)" f"'.d wate' ' nd ,h. II, ,,, {B) pl'ce • ,nd" . ,"co,.1; ;go.1 >!o OP. d . Too ",'''''g< '' "'0 ~f( ' M ,od ,"" w.,e, i' I., 0"' Betow .,••, Md.",s TOe Bar . "'" loc' f'om ' he " 0" G b., (A) i' r>u,1 ch.nn. ';o the oppoSlt" w, II (B) 300 " 0".0 ;n'" " Ol~ (e) Tlle loc, ;"') b3' (VI" "" . d oy" "'r> '" AP I' E:-J lJI X 3 'ignaJl~r in ,hi. ca... U'C' l;'·~ {OKlo..., "'hich he ,aiTeme n". Vcry I;llie ad'anet .... . made in g~te w.y de' ign Iief" re .he 4'h cen'u')' The old ....I yeen••• n type. wilh modific.,ion. T<mained in u,e •• ueh as [he overl ap type of[en o.!efen, led wi' h a tower at lhe end " f the nUl,i,le "'all, T hi' form was usually o.! e, ;gneo.! to expo, e the enemy'. unohi do.!eo.! righ' side. When gate' were cu t -cd ,,-j' h_ oul • key . Aenea., , he taeti<.ian ...riling in ,he ~,h cen'....-y IIC, ...m< of Ihe method< uoe4 b)' ,ni,on , ,, ""hodn..- ,he pin and ins;". lha' • commander mU<' insert {he pin h,m..,lf 10$ ~ had been kno,...n.o file a ....xeh in ,he pin and tie • ' bread around it ... , hey could pull i' ou' La•.".. Oohm had . prinkled fine ""nd into {he cra.;b around the pin and {hen , by .hakin& ,he har 1I01<eI...ly, ,he ""nd had wor ked n. w.y d<m'n so . ha, , he pin rose. ""'>ther melhod " '•••0 hi' , he ulkknide "r the boor wilh • malleI 10 make 'he pin lump up. On many O<."CI ,ion, one read. of the ba' !xing ""wn thmugh to let in. host ile force. 'ha' .0 .........ha, In,,,,. Ii"' '0.""". COU"". Siege , a e , k " ,he e1' y . ....OS The com plexil y and , ize of the .\-Iy_ cerulea n fon ifieatj" n. , uggest an eq"ally ,ophi"i,'a ' ed ' ; ", natel}' no ' ........, 01 , hilico'cd la<:1ics appr." in HOlne r. "has been,_'cd tha' 'hc"-oodcn horw by "'hich the Gre-eko gained ~ ,0 Troy ...... ballrnn~nm. It i••ign ifican, ' ha' pan of ,he wall had 10 be knoo.--kcddo>o'n tOJr' ,be horw,hrough . Piclure. primi' ive banering ram: a kIOlg beam "-ilh a rt"'fon.-ed head .... pended wi,hin • """'rne quite sophi'tica ted In (ir.." "" howeve" ", haleve, knowlcd j(c hao.! ex; 1""". I"" - _OV.-"' .... ' - ' of . . . . - " .;oo 1 Gale _ _ "" _ _ 2 Gal. ft ..._ t>¥ _ _ ~ O¥eo\op lJoO'~ - -... , --0_ s. [_ __ , D A ~ _ """"",, .......... _ ...001 _"Il M,ojojlO toe _ _ 01 .... _ ~_n T _ ..-. cow<ed _"'" .,.,..... 01 "'__ ,_w""_ ,... _, 1_.,,,,'" • ' so , _ .r bI, , _t. T... dolo,.... . on , , tho ,. m. 00_ MfonOOr' " .... m¥>aC,lC(l ,,, c.,e" hoI dow" . o" n W""" .t1""'." try to P\JII" M•• nwh ,l. IWO """. '''d;"" .,. [WQ "n...,m,",,'g II,• •,,.,,,. T.... .....,~ od' we'. a,,,,,,,,, ",ay. _ _, ""... _ "'"""n...n. n ' O<>'Wf1 '0 tho [Ole FORTIF IC ATI ON S AND SIEGE WARFA RE GkC<;e un"l ,he m,d-~,h cen, ury. I n ,he u>t the: Au yr.. n !ladn ion. w= continued by tho: Pe.,;Wu. Thei. mound. and m'ne> ate "",ntioned .....·era! """" by Her<>Jol us . I n G'ee« the..., ·as DO.;gn of enho:r of these t...-til.::> bd e the >econd hai r of lho: ~Ih cenlury . b~n then the ~n soeg.o t...·lle of the Guri::....... tho: bIodaf the .iege in ...·hi< h tlte met hods applied "''CTe en",<:Iy Persian, l ni, i.ally , I>< Spartan. el«"leJ. " oclta de around the town 00 , hat nu " ne could escap<:; then tltey I>t r ucted 'u <XIntain the mound, Thi , Iyp" of timb", wall can be , cen on T,..jan', Col umn . ~ c" 'he ' p"'-'e h<;t,,"een the timber wall, wa, tilled with earth, r ubble and wood . The ronst ructi" n of this mound , from which the S part an. I>op<:d to ",orm tile ba" le_ men t>, ,,,,,k the S part. n, 70 d.y. and ni,h... The Pla,""...... """m or.d by heighteni"ll the furtitications ....ith ....·ooden framework wit hin ....hiJn, briey aloo ' ned to hinde. the buildi n, of ,he mound by kno...king a hole through ,he boI..... of the wall ...·he..., rhe mound tuuched it and drawing ,he earth intO the I....·n, \Jl-he n ,hi{ Sp0rUn5di,iegen the:y ""n, T h. Sparta", now brough, up b."e, _ ing ram , ....hich .hi",k do wn the , uper _ strue"tUr. that the 1'10'.e.n, had neCl.d on lOp or , he ....all T he defenders roun,,,red hy lo....ering n,~"es<wer the b.nle_ ments and p ulling up th. r. n" . T here "... noIhing """el in thi. taerie - the defen der• • re doin, ...octly ,he ..me thing in the 91 h.,;en, ury A" y"rian bao ",lief .......·n Of'f'O'"i.e. T he dcfcnden aloo hu na: ,reat bam. <We, lhe ba,lie_ men.. ,,,,,pended from poles by d-...i..... Theo<: ..~'" dropped On the ramo in an a..~mJ'l 'O "","k " lh Mi r heado. I n dnpention the Spanan. no'" uied 10 lire lhe t.... n bj' Iobbinl bu ndles 01. b....h.."UOd from .he mound ",-.r lhe ..-all> and then throwin, in su lphu r and pn~h before ..,.Iing them on lire. "I1>e ..i nd carried Ih~ Iir~ Ihrough , he ,o"'n and the Pla t..,..n.....re onlj· ...ved. b)' ~ n opport une , hunden'orm. \Jl'hen lheir attem pt, ' 0 fi r~ lhe citl' fa iled. Ih e S parlan. g"'e u p all hop<: of raking II by "or m . nd re"~rted to 'he u.ual G=k ..nd R"man taer ie or build_ ing a ...all "ou nd the t"wn tn ,I''''e il (lU' T he}' di ,mi. sed Ihe I.rgor pa rt of their arm y and hegan di~ging the trend,•• , Fi r" Iwo ditch.. were dug .Ix"" eigh t "'etr• • apa,., O n ,he inner , ide of . aeh dit,'h a wall was hu ilt of mud bricks made from th. ea,.,h e ~_ cavated fr"m th. ditch••. T he 'p.eo between ,he twO 11 ' ...., roofed over , ,, for m • .., nllY afk alx"'e and living Qu. rters bek, w. T h• .., ntry ...alk ..... fort ified wi, h banlemenll on ei,he, . ide and ' .... o-.. orey ere c""" ru eted at t~m in«......I$.•\tOOt of the P1at..,,,ns had ......aped bef",e the siege began "nd ..A _00<1 _ at 1 _"II _10<,101 _tr""""" at a ",,_tog , _ ,_1_ """' • ."...... at .... ..." hod 10 " , , _on __ '0""".. . • • •• ..-..-._.-.-..--' . .....- "'" .... '" .............. • _ _- •• •• • • ••• • • • • e ->."",_ at .... _ _ .... _ """'" _ _ 10 __ "'" __ ' -_ _ ~ _ .... l ...., , 11'00 _f'I,oo....,. .. _ _ .... coo ...' (" ""' _ _1 _ _ ~ , .. _ ..... .... tlrick> . -" '_oct ""'",,, _ _ ... . at .... _ , , _ Z , _ ...., ,'.. ""'" 1 APPEND IX z a gom..,n " f .(llo mm, a" d ' 10 W('lmen ." p..,pa.., Ih~ f<><Jo<1, rvrWned in .he T he)' held ""'I f('lf ."'" l"',. .... H alf lilt carrioon mana~ neape in ,h~ la,~, """"M of , he oiq:e by climb-ing ""cr 1M Spanan $W:lIe ..",11$ one dart: rainy nigh" b •• ana.X>n, . !>c)' sur_ ..,ndered. vn.kr pm."",, from .he "I1Ieham, ,he Spuum ~xccu,ed all 22~ survivo.. and told ,he "''''"'''''', woo along ...i.b ,he _ n had bo.-n~ all 'M rigou.. of Ih~ long si~, into sl..,·ery. E I ~ v ~ n yea.. .. ft~r , he fall of Plal,""", .....hem dtcilkd 10 .. n"",,~ Sicily. The upedi.ion culmina'ed in Ih~ si<:g~ of Syracu~ ",'hich .hould hav ~ bttn """ily accompli. ...d hu" " ...ing ' 0 Ih~ .upersti.ion, in,,,mpel'''''' and ind.c"ion of 'he A.henian g ~nc:nl Ni,'ias , 'urned in,o an unm i.igarok no prec.u1>on. The A, henian , made a hrilli;ml . Urt , drawin, Ih e Sy racusan ca v. lr}· northwards ""hile , hey sailed oouth ",'ards f" r a ....b<'lrne ,nv.sion. Hili in spile of • ';ct"ry in the Nttk tha, f" lk>a-.::d, Kicias fai~d '0 npl"i, his succes. and ",;,10onl)' ' ' ' "Tl. "'"' '0 It ...... not un,il lhe follo ..; ng Sum_ mertha' S icia. again apJ>rt*'hed SynoctnC. Anlici "",nng an A,heni.n _ult .he S)ncusans a"",~ a ............. of ' heir ,rtI<>p$ in , he pWn """Ih of ,he Epipolac p1a'eau. Siciao heard of ,he .....;...- and ,he night before il " .... due ' o W e plaC\!: hecmb.art:ed hi$'roops . nd ...ikd .0•.I!h.....rds. Onc~ ..pin the Athenw.. made a br illian, Itarl . They land~d thei r arm}' jus. tlOrtl> of the plal"'U and while ttl<: parade w..s tu ing place '" . he ..,."h S!"nned.he h,1L O ne. ",tobli.h.d on Ih. pla,eau, .he Alheni.n. ..' al><'ll" .......ring , he north and s",,,h a"""nl' . Th. y built tw" fort" ,h. L abdalum and the round fort, fr om ,he latter the Ath.nian, hegan I" con_ strw:, douhl o lin. s fro m the in, our .nd oo," h across Ih. manhe"'o . h. G1'\"ll' Harhour. Here . IIe Srr~ lried 10 i m ped~ ,he ,,'Oou•. The Attl<:ni. n. again a" aco:«I , carrying doors and I'lank. h. lp ,hem as Ih.y e",..ed Ih. marshe. palisade, On,'e mort" the A, heni..n. ",.rt" .u",,,ssfuJ and Ih. Syracusans ..,ired wit hin ,h. ",all . of the d, y, leaving Ihe besieg.r, to ,~,ml'l., . ,heir lines undi,' u rbed. At Ih. ">t1them cnd the 'wo wall, di" erged h> ,x>nl.in , he Arhe ni.n naval bas. "n ,h. edge "f the Gre.I H arlxtur. Pil" wetc dri\'en in,o the h.rbour bed 10 I'mteet the . hip>. gainst . n ack fro m ,h..... Now , h., , he A, h.nia n, "'.r. in rontrol of ,he ..,a aod had i",Ia,c.J Sy racuse fro m tit<' inlerio r, the ,;ty's fa'e ""as $C<1l1ed Hut ~ iJalum fort . He rhen con' tr uet ed • w.1I iZ - Z on [he skelch} a<'''''' the' hillt" !,, m..king it impossible ,h. '0 """"" ,h. '0 ,h. for Ih. A,henian, t"oompl.,. their ",.,,11. T he Athen,an•• hould now have p«t.d up and eone ""me hut , hey decided to _ it throultl> ' 0 the bitt~.cnd. I n '!'it. of t-.::eriving rei nf~nl> lhe Alhenian. failed to mri<:ve lhei. pooi.ion . They "ttC def.... ed by .1>< Synocmans boIh on 10m'" .nd in a sea ""ttk inside lhe G1'\"ll' H ar hour . 1M S}·racusan. capluf'<'d lhe AlIIenian ..O<~ t.on (N . N . :'II I ('lfl the 10Uth .ide of lhe Gm, Harl>our and ...1 FO RTIFICAT ION S AND SIEG E WAR I'AR E In. execulood l he g~nerab and lhe of.he ar my ..... shu. up in li>e quarries , ..·here many dlood i n appalling condll....... The MUVivon "cr~ lat~r ....d inlo .lav~r)'. 1l>es.e '''''' oicg~ ar~ excellenl ill...,,,,.ion. of . he OIa'~ of Grttk si~g~ " .. rfa~ in lhe la,~ S.h cccn.Ul)". By . he lx'glnni ng of l he . , h cccm ury lh~ ti .... ~.I im prov~m~nl' ""' ~ mad ~ in .iege lechniques , Th~ n~w advance. ",.>1< pla<~ M t in P~l"S ia or Gr= hUI i n S icily, \'I;' h ~n lh e Penliam invaded Greece in 4~0 11<: l he Carthagin ian . had la unched a sim ult aneo us and ~q ....l1y vain al1ae,,".,1n ,,'hich had ~n "oed .. Plal_ impoasiblc. s."...,n )'<'lO afler . he def...., of the Athenian• •he Syncvoan. eli1. llti. m an 10 fC\'t>lulionise Grttk siege tact . Dionysiul ~I.bli.hed lcin n ilic warfare bboralone. al S),,,,,,,,, offering large ~ward s fo r ne w i nV~nlioR$ . T he ....uJl .."u l ha. when he lai d sieg~ 10 the Cart haginia n port of M m ya in 397 h~ wa, .. m~d Wilh lh~ m o .truction ,locK bo" .. could I>< made .0 ""en croortnouI po"..... Tfx;f only failIn, ..,," ,hat nn ~ W2S 1U'Onll ~ ......,h .0 d r.w them. In i.. euliel. torm . he calapull ....... intpl)· a croosb",.· ~"" r hltn.lly a I> .._ """Ie., ,to. _" h. .lid~ r T ht m dimum r ange of ,h~ com po_ , i,e hand bo w using a h~avy wor arro... ..... prob.ably in 'he re gion "f [So200m , although it was claimed that m"r e , ha n lwie~ ,his r.ng~ ..as a< hi~v~d ...i[h spccial ligh, .rro..... E . W. M a.._ d~ n, i n hi. Gr.d and R"",,,,, Ar/ iJ(try. 'UllllC.t. Iha. [he g",,,,,ph< hand 00.... of [he en~ my, The in.-enlionof.het U.i",.... - _ _ _ oISoo_· _ _ ;:, ;:,s~:::-,:::v.::~~ ,., -., ~ - ~ y -y "",, _ .. " - APP ESIlIX 2 po..'e, of .he ho... ",...ld he i""Teasc d be use d 10 .ho..... ~i'ho:r bolts or .. 0 ...... ma..i,...ly. Allhough ,he", i. "" di rect l'""ion .. 0...._'11. .0..·... moke ,heir fi.., .uPf'OI"''''fl: C"·tdence, il i. p<mible ltuol a!'PCara",.., during Alexander". siege of . """" latter .......e Dionysiu$ ne'" Halicarnu sus in 334 Th. mai n rur· " -UportS , ~ of ,he ca,arult. " 'a. '0 keel' ,heA.,he Syrxu..n. widened 'MelIUse_ def.ndcn off ' h.¢ hanlctncn". \l;'ho:n .....~, .~ hrou.Jth. UI' . hei. I",,-.:n, pre- ,...... ~ Ia'e. Alcxander laid siq:. ol1lTUlbly ...'ilh lhe elIlapullS in .hem ...} U h.¢ (Ked by " cr~' . imila. prob(ah hl>ugh I>;o&,,.u. does no( sa}' fO } Inn.ln , hooc nl<1't'd by Dion~..i... and kerl Ul' a ",,,,...n, ~ "l"'ins' a, .\t",~.... T r ni' ua,ed on an [he defenden on . be t>attkmen.. '0 island o lf , he e-, . 00 Alcundor . ...-ho ""... ,he .."",ken on lbe mole, As lhe did "'.. ron,,," ,he- ..,.. " 'as forced 10 S}Tacusan. d",... ,he .\ IOlyans build a mol. en OIl' i'. erected rna,.. on ,he w.lI. ..." h }.",-dT he Tyri........ ho had ..;, h.. 00<1 an ann. ,ha, . ..." nJ OIl, ,,·a.d. high above A..yrian ''''l'' ,..' ing •3 y...... beliC\..,d , he 'o"'en. Al lhe end of ,,,,,,," heams ,tuo, Aleunder .,,~>b",ul(h , up hi, " " nc_ Wwn. "''<~\de n ho.",rding b.idges wc•• ,h",wc" .n ,t \"cd ,hc'c '" , haKc 'he r un out fr,' m , hc "'wC'", wbich wc'c ...,,11,. '1'" ,," ulll e. , hi, th e defende.. .ht,u ' 'he 'am. h.ighl as ,he houses, so crcLled mult i-' I">ked wh.e1 , on the lhal , he .o ldi.,," "ould ge, " n 10 , h. .... lIs ...hic h " " ., ed mechank. lIy. T hese building" .\ I,,,)'a f. 1I wi,h , hc mu. 1 'ri nlting ..'11..,,1. dc. tro ycd, dclk<:led or ,I.ugh,. . .nd onl}' ,J>o.e who sough' h,,,,e III.. f"" e of 'ho: bolt. fro m 'he "anc' wor~' in ,he '.mr l.. , u,,·i.-. d be ca'a l' ult., T hey . 1,,, r 'aced r.dding on sold in,o sl.."ry . An)' G rerl:. found in ,he .... 11 . ' 0 ..,ften , ho: ellec, of ,he ,h. ' o" 'n " ..... erucir>N. , ,,,.,.. . No, "''''lI. ~~",,,n,,,,,d to ad,·......., .\\......&.>oian. hesi~ P"", n,h u. in 3-40 , he T~·r ians prepa trd a fire . hir ",ing a ca"al l)' ,r-a",J'Of1" fined "'ilh I"" masts IIC., ,hel' wn"-rucled ' ''''''' ' ' Ilo cubit< ., , he ffOll' A double } rdarm ..... (e·35m) high ,,'hich ""'" a"""', lhe ''''''''" on . he ,,,,,'n ......lIs. ~ " ...11. a"ached .0 each !nU' fn "" ·hio ""cr. for all hi. Use of ,he la",,, 'ech- .hip ...·c re buill ur and ,1>0 hull fi lled ni'lUCS Ph ilir 's f.''OIlrite " .... ron "'as ",'i,h dry b.an<""'.....00<1 , tuo"t!lp. pi' ch bribery , When f..."'d ,,·i.h ,mrret/;nable and .ulrhur . 1,.., ,"cr n of , ho: . hi p ...... fon ir>cattOflS , Phll,l' . ,ked iC gold could ..'' ';ghlnant de,·.IOl'ment in d i '''''~~>n 'he~' ,ow.d it OIl' . od ran ;, ,;,,~ ..,.,fare Wa' , ho: U. e of a niller~' fo. . gro und nn . he .nd of ' he mo.>Ie. T h e deren<' a' well a. offence . T hc Pmo_ eTC" of, he fire . hil', tuo"ing se' il aligh,. ,hi"n. h",J no ..' ill..y of , heir " wn but . ...am 'o .. f.,~. A. , be ~'ard, burne d Ih e horro...e,J ri""•• f,,'m H}'zall1ium, Hl' cauldron. . .,nal""<1 in", ,he fltc. in_ m'''' a n. ... 'Yf'<" of c.t al' u lt had ."ol...d erea,i oK ,he hl. , c. ,\ , ,,"ult cd h ~' a coo_ po",er~d ,',,' h)' a 1>"... bu' h}' ' pring> "f " . nt h.il of mi" i1o, fm m , h. 'I' y.i. n , ...i"ed , inew '" h"i •. T ho,e was . Im,,,' .... "'hips AIc~.nd,·, .. a, fo,"ed '0 withno lim it h> lhe , ixe " C ,he, e ' orsi" n draw and watch hi••k ge to....rs hurn. J m ' wlt" n hi, 11."1'« of t.king Tyre mach ine. " nd ,he ,.me r,ine'ipk c" uid '0 """=, '0 '0 ,owe,. , '0 '0 ,ha, see med a' ,heir k "'· 1'01'0, AI. ....nder tuod an .Imo.,,' unbell blc ...-oke of Iud . ~ P....... n flCfl oom]>OSCd m."tl~ of Phoenician .hips; " 'hen ,ho ........ heard 'ba' mo" of P hoenicia had sufTendor-ed. ,he flee. d,';n'egr.llled and ,he Phoenician and C}l'floI squadron. oIIetcd , ............ion 10 Alcunder. N ",,· 1>0 con,roIled the ..... Alexander ahotl' w>.knin" ,he mole so i, ld hold ....,... and enp ~ eng' ..... ......., oon"ru<:ted Itn ,he- 'pOl ~ of ,hem ..... ng placen"r uc'ed w,~>den 'o"'e.. on ,he ba n lemcnt. facing ' he mole and dr orrod bouldcr; inlO'hc . h. llow water ne"r , he fo", nf ,h. 1".11, to "or 'he , hiI" " I>m inlt in do'e , Th. ~,ts try ing 'n dea, th" ' e r<>ck,. which had ", be " ncho, ed unde r 111.< .... 11 • • <'. me unde, attack from ht't h lhe 'own . nd from 'roci .II ~' prer.,~d ..m"ured galle\, s which br<\ke th rr>ugh t heir ,ables , mak_ ing i[ iml"",.ihle f"r ,h.m lic c1mc unde, 'he ..,.U•. AI. .. nd.. r",,,,mdod bl' covering seve•• l of hi. 30 ""red g .lIe~'. " 'i, h r'"t"".,i\·e armo ur .nd plac",d ' hem in (r<>f" of t hc .hip' lba, .....re rotric>'ing rocI<• . T yn an. rounl0 ..... y clear ,he .\ 1"",,donian. brough. up oJups ..'i,h rams moun.ed on ,hem . he ..--alls, A, fin' ' he~' mauld nol ha"e be<: n •• med w;l h ,he '~';"a. The ,,, II... ,hil" wcre ordcred to I"unch • ,~m .."'rt.d att.ck .g.in" o, hcr I", int ' nn , hc ,,",. il ,I> di,perse ' he 'ha, ,ha, '''''"en '0 .11.. -n.e '0 '0 ,..., • FORTIF I CATl O~S r the siege . Arrian ... ~~ lhat lhe)O,lXlO sur;;\,OI"S ..·...., ....d into .l....,ry ..-1'111" lliodo.xwo claim> ,hat all the: men of mililU)' ag e "'er~ crucilkd ar>d the rnt .... d ,n,o.l.vn')' . This sie, . pro',iOn a ~ illU>lra.ion of , he u>C 0( arrovo'ohoolen on . he ,o,",'oro to k.,.,p tho: def~nankrntn.. and OIOM-lhlm',," Mma: used from the [UUUnd ,o u..ke . he .....11•. Catapults and battering ram. lA'ere 01"" moun,ed On 'hip". an inAO\'.ti"n fOf'<:<:"d b ) ' , he prookm. or besie,in, an island r,..-trC'•. """.pull" Abo... I I. " ....' e.,_"- m. """V bow 19"' lfophol"..). II .. ""'" "'.. Orawn Oy p l;><,"Il )( '0""" tho """'y, Yon '''' g B"Ow , .~~~ I~ ..... " _ , , d thO ~...,._ ....-. _ r _ ''''"'0 "" " ""'~ '" _ . .., , _ "A '00 The H r ll eni . t ic P\'r iod After lhe d. al h uf Alexande r, a, Ihe gen eral, r"ugh l for . upremaC}', gr.al a,hane'O. wcre maM in the con" lim.e'.. (T he llc. ieger) laid , iege to S.lami, in C}'pru, he hlli lt a tow er <;>0 cubits (alk lU l 40m) high wi, h nine "ote)" , T he base of Ihe l"wer was 45 euhilS (c. 10m) "'l Uare and il rrw"ed on four ""lid wh""J. eig hl euhils (c. 3.5m ) hig h, Thi • .-a, l lowe r ,,'as nicknamed 1I,I,poIi. (lh. eilY de.lrO}'er ). The (o"'.r " 'a. lillN ,,'ich . aupuhs: hea,)' Slone· Ihro"'e.. ClIl"'hle of throwing ston.. "'Cighmg lhr"" lalenlS fe. llolg) "'ere AN D SIE G E WAR FARE pla«d un che k........ floors; he''',' boltshome.. in lhe middle ''''rej~ ;and light arrow·.hoo<e.. and $lone-th"",,'e.. al lhe: lop . The t"",,, required :lOO men juslloopenue che: madun... The t>ea,,' Slone---chruwe.. lore a""Oj' lhe banlemenu. \ea"log .he oenll)' " 'alk full~ uf'<"'SCd II' lire, ' Pouihll' the ..-c mle......ing and be-sl-de..,n hN .iete in lhe ancienc ",urld Demetriu,' anent", to we RI'Iod<;s in J05~. An accounl of both lhe siCj[C uf Salami. and Rhod.. i. giwn b}' Diod"t"U. r<JIlo" " llg . he C}'e"ilr>ess aowum or Il ien ml'moln or Card ia. For lhe ,iC\le of Rhod.. Demetriu. prepao.red c""o penlhou"", one for hi. "Me·lh"...'Crs and Ihe other for hi. hoh·.hoo1.l ng c,u apuh., Eac h of lhe", " 'as mOlJnted nn lWO cargo v.....I, fast ened " 'get her. li e . 1"" huil, ' wo four"ore}' lOwe" which " "..lOpped Ihe lowers of lhe harlk'ur and , im ilarl y mourned Ihe.. on I"'i" of b"alS A floa li ng lk~,m wos ~on "ru~ ..d of '4u OT~d Ing> s. udded wi, h spikes to prevern lhe e nemy ships f, om ramming those ca rryi n~ . h( ,j(~e ","chine,. Demel riu s' aim was 1<> .apture .he harbollr and eu ' me Rhod ian>olffrom their co,n .upplie. roming in h}' ..a, In . nlieira, ;"n or .he -.iege .he Rhodian. had begun heighlening fhe " ...11. along lhe haroour . T he}' pla<;<,d 'wo pemho..... o n 11M> mole and Ihree upon cargo .hips near ,he boom or.he .mall barbour. Iillin. lhe... ",;.h boll- and Slone••h,..,..'Cn of all emetnu. tnarlaf:ed to ..ize lhe end ohlM> mole about 150m from the c~' }' .....11, lIere he csubl;.hed an aniJlef}' bauer}' ,,'i.h ..,x> men and ca.apullO of all In"' · A. der OO"er of .IM> ballerl' on Ihe mole he broughl hi. oeahorne entrines inlo .he harhour. Frnm Ih.... he u..d hi.ligh. bolt·.hoolen. " 'hich had . he greatest range. 10 dri"e nlf .he "<>fkers ,,'ho ",'e re heillh lening lh. " ·aU. , Then. using hi. ''''''e·.h,,,wers. he de1;.royed the enem}' machine, and Ihe wall ,,,,,, . hey w~r~ huildi ng across lhe mnle . T he firs . allempt 10 ta ke the ha,bour proved lln,ucc'C" fll l . nd one of .he floa, ing ~nll i n~s was destroyed by fire, D.me'riu , wa' fore'Cd 10 wit hdraw 10 "''31 ", I APl'E l" D IX z ",pai. hio m..,h",,,,. \l:'~n I>c re' umed the a"lId< , and i, o«med ' hot he migh, take ,he ltarbour , , he Rhodian. Iauncltc:d a dnl'C1"'te ..... uh against hi. d ...t t ",mo"''''1 !loo'ing VIginn ",i ,h their tltrtt o « _t pllc:}~. Soo"''e",d ""th miooi!n they craohed 'Itrough the opiked boomo . and by "'l""'1c:dly rammini ,he lioo"n, enJinn managed tn oiM. ,,,,,,ol,hc:m. The 600.tingmaerne''' u. now built an eno.""",. tIoo 'ing Nne. y Ihree limeo .. ' all and ,hr•• limc:o a. wid. a. Ihe l' ",vioUl one" l>1ll i, was w,ecked b l' a SlOrm as h. wa. tTying 10 b,i ng it inlO ,he h.rbo u" Du ring lhe "", m , knowing Ihat Demo«;u. '",uld be unable to send in ",info'"cme n", lhe Rh,>dians lau nched an alla,-'k un the bau ery at the end uf the ", ,,Ie and captured iI, thus regainil1jl; c<>n '1'emetriu. did a. ordiJUlry. li e """" constructed onot:her H~ept>liJ <,'en 1a,It"" thon Ihe one he had used a, Salam .. , In hue w"" almost SO cubi.. (c . urn) "'lUlre. The frarne "'.... CI;>lt!I.rucled of sqUired limbers and bound ",'ith iron , Rors "''C1"C p[aa,d across lhe a n"e 0' one cubi' intcr.-.al. '00110",' opace (or lhe men ..1>0 "'''''''0 push .he tOWC' ("""'ard . It "'... mounted on eight oolid " 'heel•• eae h nev1y a me're thick . ..·hlCh were W'..::n::d "',h iron plaIn . The wheel , wen:: on pi'VI' so tha••he machine could move in any din::c>ion. 1lIc framework of the to"'er """ made orr<>tl' u!,nght timbtls nearly 100 cubi.. (c. 4Sm) long placed at each corne, of the ....'" and .loping in"'ard. so that the tOINer taIlOred about ~o cubi .. (9 m) sq .... r( al the ' op . It w oo di ,id( d in,o nine n",eyo, T he f, ont and . ide. were eovered wh h ;,on p!at(S nailed lln ,,, pr"l eCt the I" wet ftorn fire missile, . Ther( were po"r" al the front at each level e,we red by shull ers which were 'a " cd mech ankally. T hese shut· '0 'wo. '0 ," ...bO 1n 1... _ "vht ,_ oj, , , _ wM m_ ,........ uHd IIy A., . . ,,,,,..., IIy " "" ' " ~ om ""'''od ".-- Of ' 2 A cuI _.., to 0I\0w ,.... "P""V' 3s.-n.o. ""'9"''''. uto",, " " ,'" Itom M,,,,,,. ,n "". ' 0,5 ' '''' "on "'mO,", of. ,m. II ,,,. ·H. lleo,,t,c c" . Pu l' IO, n .I FORTIF ICAT IO NS AN D SIEGE W AR FARli .en "......, ~ from hi01 to provide nccllcn. proo.ccUon agaJR>' .tone mlS' sileo , "..... h SlOtt}' had ' '''0 . i de ••air· "",), _ u pand onoc do.l1. T!>c .owe. ,,'as mewed by 3 ,.j00 me n, some ,noide and 0I1>cn pu.hing a, , he bad :, All"",· inlt ' 5em ca.:h for ,he . hi~k ...... of , he hot.. ..:n ... tbe hot..., ,,'hi ~h "" ere OflC c'uh i, "part , it ...o uld be poosihle squ ceze • littl e o,'e. 30 ." fig O. •hi. reprc-scnt> .hree ,hifts. Ac-.:ordintl ' 0 . he Roman enlti""" r Vitruy;u. ' O"'cr " .... dcs;atICd by Epima< h~,an A.benian a",hi. """ Un · fortunatel y he gi ,"C$ a differen' ~p . ion .... . hc ._..,r, ..., 'ing that i, ..... I1 Sf, ,~ l and 6of, ,,-ide. ,,'Cighing ahout 110 tOfUlCt" H e 1oJ,d• • hat i. ...... """"red wi. h p ula. ob"i<>uoly goo hold of , he Y.-n ' na '0 ,hi. • _ _ . ign. a A " 'J)II·l,...- """ " - ' "om 0 ...... ot _01 .... ' n """"", ........ "" to. (lO ,_ ...... co-.... _. ~ "" "a 'lI U "''''''_ co"""" COI'"<1 e><:<"'''''. "'" ow"' ot , he " 1'' '"0 ' ' Tt,. .. wo," ,,~"'.ood by '"'O lrlg '"" 0'00'. ",b·,""",," "rig' ., m. too ."., oottom dcs<.'Ti plion. Thi• • uuJd far bener fi. the Salami. IId q>t>lu , Pe.ha ps the Roman engn_r d.d no< r..ai.., . ha, ,he n:: .-erc n•.., d ,lf~[ machines_ \'i. ru,'iu•• q ""', na rrom a Ios[ wod by .he en,;nccr D iadc. who accompanied Alnantkr on hi. am paian•• gi\'C> [I><: ideal dimensions of . iege t_,,,. T he . ma llest to" ..,r, ....hk h h ~s len stOK}'S, .bould be 60 ~uh " . ( c, 27m ) high and r 7 ~u bi .. (c . 7, sm) wide . , , he b. se. T he lO p should be 20 PC' cen ' na rrn wer t han ,he base ( c , 6m ), T he up,igh' limbe" ,hal form , he fram e uf the tOWel shoul d be ahou ' 22<; m rhi,'k at 'he ba... 'ape.ing to 15<m ' lth e wp, Ii i. large", lOwe, i, twice thi, height , with 20 storey"~ and ho, a boa.. 23.S cub". wide ....i' h • " mila. con[ r",:t ion of 20 pc r ccn' at .he top, The uprights ha.'e to be 3QCm at the bonom • • p in co n" "",ina '" ' scm at [he .op. Th;. :W->lorey lOYl"" , ,,;,h it. b8c leu lhan one-fift h of il1 height , • ...,Id he Yer)' unotablc , Deme.riu. ' , with i.. ba... half " . he i.eh., seem. far It'lOn:: r..ai" " . l)iadn ' [0",..... ,,'h k h were """'en::d ,,'ith n ,,'hide , had baJ con ics . round e.ch Sl Of'C)', He . dd, an interest ing detail ,n , ho[ , he-se ''''', R 1<,""" wen:: collapoiblc an d could be oaken on ....mpa" .... Demelriu. w.o prefW ed pcn.hotKn to prot"", . he men ...·hile .hey filled ,he dn~hn, and 10""""" .he t arn•. ~ pa.... gcs "......, con structed in """,.ble ready for [he .....ult o n [he w.II , . VClt'fu u" ..-ri. ing in , he 4' h ce n'U ' )' Ml , " }" ,h = co\'cred gallerie. were huil[ in ..,..ion, 'jm long , 2·5m high and ju", o\'e. 2m wi de, and there i. no !'Ca.on to , uppu.. rh•• ,hey ""mid he different a' ,he ~nd of ,h e 4, h c""' ury ~C, \x'hen every,hing wo' !'Cad y ,he hesiell'<'"' cleared an orea oh<.'u' 600m wide lead ing up to [he wall" ex_ p",i na ""ye" to"'e,, and [hc in[crve n,ng of wall, Thc)' 'hcn !>egan mo~_ ing up the cngines . pl""ing the Hd li, in the centre wi.h four pe nt hou..,. on oi.her ,ide con",,",ing , hem ..,;.h ,he Ct>\'Cn::d pa~ cs 50 . ha[ , he ..,Id'en could llCt (0 , hei r post, in sare ty. The)' w.o broullht up 1\0'0 e no<mow pe nt_ howe. in . 'hieh ,he battenn, tom. . 'ere """"n[ed . Once again Demeln u. had built , be biggest and the he-sl , E....h of the ram. " .... [20 CUbilS (c, s..m ) Iona .nd ,heathed ,,'itb iron (Diodoru. com _ """ion. .ha, """ i"", APPEr-:D IX 2 pare' its blow to that of a ship's ram)_ T he ram wa' mounled on rollers and powered by 1,000 men . T his dcscrip· lion has met with e<m,iderahle , cept;. cism, hut what tbe critics ha\-e nol taken into con,ideral;on is that the ram moved on rollers and t he primc purpo;e of its le n ~ t h was to increase it, momenlum, As it was nOl suspended there wa. little chance " f il bucklin~, A dc.cTiptio n of a ram of this w rt moving on rol lcTS, abo drawn fro m the wrilingsofAlexandcr'seng ineer Diade" i, gi\'en by Vitruvius. T his ram had a housi ng 32 eubi" (c . '4 .501) l"ng and aoout 8m high with a low pit<'h [(~)f which was surmounted by a tower abou t 2m ,quare ,nd 8~lOm high with three storeys , The lower lwo "ore ys held IXIts of WaleT for extinguishing fir..,. while lhe top floor contained a small c,.tapuh . I n' ide lhe hou,ing ' hc rom itsel f, whic h wa, pu lled backward, and for· wards by ropes., mo\'ed on rollcTS _ Ear lier ram, w" ul d ha\'e been sus· pended hy ropes or chains Ii-om lhe roof of t he homing and operaled like a pendu lum _ T hese primili\'e ram, had a limited stroke with a deCTea'ing mo· menlum al lhe poi", of impacl. Ro ller ram s had a " m"ant moment um and much greater pcnctral i"n . T he housin~s of the,e machines, whi<'h were called ",rwises, were co.'ered with plank. of ,,,,k or ,orne other low-combustion wood <werlaid wit h a la)'cr of green wan le, T he housing was <,,,,ered wil h seaweed or st raw soaked in vinegar and 'andwichcd be,ween two layers of oxhidc Vilru vim .Iso include' a dcscri plion 01 a ma"i\'e lortoi' e ram bui h by Hagetor of Byzantium It wa, 18m long, 4m wide, 11m high and mo.'ed on eight whttls each 2m hi8hand 1m thick. T he ram, whi ch operate d like a pendulum, was su spen ded fro m a frame 12.Sm high an d operated by ropes, It was over 3 1m long and made fro m a squared ti mber 3oc'm wide and 22_5 cm deep at lhe fro nt , increasing to 37,5 by 3<x m al the hUI! , The head was covered by a beak of hardened iron and lhe 4.5m be hind lhe be,k were ,h calhed wit h iro n plates. ThTee rope< 15~m thick ho und t he ram from head to bUll and these were bound 10 the ram by Ol her ropes, The whole ram wa, then wrapped in rawhide , B. low Too H elepolis ' 00 9" .' uQn_c,od siege to_ of Demel""' POhQ'Ul'" It "., mo", t>a,. "w.,,","_Om nig h , nd h. d , 21m squ'" dh'ideo onto no"" '",,''''' ct>mmed w it" cat. p"I" D iade" Sle~e engines also included hme" which were u, ed '" kn'lCk holos throug h the wall, a, oppo""d to Tams which shwk the walls down, Diade' oore r was housed in a IOrIOise aooUl22m long. The horer i"elf, whi ch was a long beam pre,umably with an in m point, moved on rolkrs along a wooden tro ugh and was operated by a windlass and pulleys, \1;'h en lhe Rh"dian' ,aw which part of the wall w.. to <Xlme under anack, they immed iately be ~a n buildin g the cu', tomary internal wall. T he be' iege" ~"mmenc ed undcrmining lhe outeTwall and the Rhodia ns responded by d iJl;ging dO"'l1 on the insid e and br~aking into the mine' , prcvenli ng lhe ""ppe " fm m doing an ;' furrh eTdamage_ Hut the force of De metrius ' machine s was irresistible, and under remo"e1ess pressure fm m the engine, the walls began 10 crum ble The rna" of boll., hooli ng c'atapuh, in • FO RTIFICATIONS AND SI EGE \lI-'Al the H.I."",.., dr",,'~ the d~f~nde1> back from lhe bI,. "'nu:nl. and, a> at Salamis, lbc havy <;:&l. puh. in the Iov...,r .,<>feY.. of ll>c tovo..,r slri Pf'<"d lhe cr<:ndla,;o". from ll>c ...'all. The l..-gesl oh hc OC"cn ...-..1110"'''''' thal had <:onIC unoXr .I do..-n and il a whok Slr ttel> of the curt . ,n ...-.11 .., .lut . he defcndcn a>Uld no Ioongcr """" c along the ...ntry ...'alk from one pan of the ...-.11 to &nOlhcr , 1M Rhodian. Iaun<:hcd an a11-OU1 ."...,k on the HJopoh, onunoonIns nigl>l . bul faikd ' 0 ..,' lirc '0 i•. Dcmelriu. , fcarl ng for 1M saftt y of I>i$ """,..roo. off' prlng , pullcd i. back oul "" rangc. Bu, as soon u il " ""l-cpilc hc " .", prtp,oring 10 e<>nlinu~ ,he a.." ,uII .he Rhodian. buih a lhird creseem wall 10 Nek up an ' hc PM'" of thc ou,cr ....all tN' ....c.. in a danll:erous wndi, ion and dug a d«p dilCh hehind Il>c p,orI of . he "'a ll tha' had coll apsed 10 SlOp ,he eng ines he ing hrought in to the town, Once a ~ ai n . when the lI the breach in ,he ...",11 durinl lhe nighl, bul al· .hough a despera,c ."cmpt ",'as madt lo uk<: the cily lxMh by .... and land , .he: follo "" nl momin~ it ""a> ha,cn bad:: and Dcmelri...' commandos dri'..,n out "¥"In . Dcm<1nu. had >hot Iu. boll and und<:r prnsLU ~ from .he: ... her Grcd Slatn carD<' tolurn. with the Rhodians. Vilru,·i... ...w. something lo Ih i. S1nf)', ,,,,,,,*h " m.y .....,11 be: apocr)'pIW. Ac<;onl' ng ' 0 hi_ accoun. Diognctus, who had OfI... ., bttn the t",,'n archi.CC1 of Rhodes, wu bcgg.:d by lhe inhabi· Ian.. . 0 d....i.., a m<0 1I - "".1>0<1 ""_y.......... 0".-. _"11 1 , , , _ , ronoooo ' .... 1....... _ _ _ _ "" rwo _ til __ • .".1> l "_ , "'os """'" 01 _ _ ..... _ ~ los..,. "_"'lI -~ , bvYnr...-s _ _... d1. _ ..."' _ _ _---..,-, ..Tho ~ , - _ , _ , .... _ _ "..red ..... ..... A"",v. v", vv",,' ","I rOo, "'" ,,,. ,, ' 0 "'O'CO""'""' '",,,,,go "'0"' "..... 2, m!or'Il.od "'os "PO"''''' b, . ...,,,,,n AP P F.N Dl X 2 Arl~r , I>< siege . he Rhodians " .." di d Demetrius b,- oelhng hIt C'fl[IJR<'S and using .hoe money 10 e~ one of tIN: &ven lJl'onders of ,he World, the Col....... of Rh<>t near ly . thousand y....... b<,fo,"" ' hoe ..... bs ca pru",d the IIland ar>d !iOld it olffo. scra p ;n 6 72 AD. T radit ion hu i. 1M! il ..... 0010.1 ' 0 . J_ from £mesa ....ho ,hen carried . he ptecn ...~. on the bad. of 900 carnch. -n.c SIeIJC of Rhodes ma.b ' he end of ]~j~~~~; 1 ..,.. ' i a n era , N• ...,ragai nwc"' ..,dlmor mou. ~ mad"""" u>ed . N inety )""n later Philip V pme~d " ...hh and the more ron_ ,-.minnal fo rm. of . iege w arfare . He gene. ally drcum valla'ed. lo wn wilh . ditch and palisade hero•• com mencing the , je;:e. When h. laid ,je;:e 10 T hebe, in Ph thiol i. (ZI 7 Be), he di,'ide d his army; n th ree and joined the ,hroecamps wiIh a '",nch and douhle I'OliUour erl1~. Once • 1000'n " ... w r rounded Philip used hi. cl.lapul<s .nd . Ione·.hro"'.... .0 hold back . he defcnder$ ..1\il.. he moyed up hi• •iegc equipment. A. F.ch,nus ( 21 ' Be), haYing e....' ted '0 make ho. ••",ul. oppooile IWtl 'owen. he ••" u p a ram rom ple'e wi. h a ' helter in fronl of each towe Tand cr e;;ted a galle ry from one ram to ,he " , h. r ru nning p~r . l l d tu Ihe w. ll; thi , en. hled his men to move fru m one PO" to the ot heT withou. coming under fi", from , h. won., T he.. WOTb looked Y.ry . imilar 10 . he " ...11 • • lhere " 'ere " 'id erwor lt lOlA"" . !><we Ih. ra m shed. a nd also wider boonlements alon.tt . he ' OP of , he gallery. F ro m lhe ground tIoor of lhe ra m men k>'On.d the «"ound so lha. , he rams could be ~ d fonnTd On .be floor abo»'O, in addition ,,, .... ".r ion . nd (l(he r fin. -fig ht;ng ' Quipmenl. there were e.ca pult., AI lhe lop, ....·d w;lh the " ",'n lOwers, IlOldi.... we", poo.ed 10 p. even. the <Jot. nd. rs int.rr.r ing with Ih. ram , T he whole ..r ue_ luro wo, de fende d by lhre<: calapult .hed, _ .~ •• hall eri•• , Iwo of ..one••h",we," and lhe ot hcr pre ' m n.hl ;' "r h" lt -shomers, UnJcrgT rep!J'.IKm hy rai.ing great pile. of ex"h durin g [he nighl , When Ihe ci, izen. saw Ihis I he rollowing mo rn ing , , he king informed them thaI he had undermined the '0 c" " " ma ry 60m " f , heir walls . nd [hey ' " n endered , The and en[ . mho.. tell u. of many way. ofdeah ng wit h mines, The ear li..t of .line eomeS f",m llerodnru. when he i, de\ around 600 IlC. \ll' hile .he Persians unrunze ,hickl againot lhe pound. h liNd• • dull e d" g in fro'" of I he wall, '0 that the sappe.... could 'I,,' gel to the wall wi. hou. revealing . heir po!lition. He furt her lIdv""",.. . ha[ a ...... 11 built of l>eavy be erected in Ihe di.ch, I f , hi, lut ""nnol l>e done .he defenden .hould collect together ••upply of lop. and rubbi.h. \ll"hen . he m,......rrear in the ditch [he rubbi.h .hould l>e tJtrooa.n into , he lre nch. . .. .Iith. and then """ered <We"o smoke OUt the sapre"· These coun'ermeaoures had been g.eally reli ned by lhe bq(lnn,ng of . he 2nd ce ntury 'i\' be n in ' 1l9 IIC [he Roman. laid ,ieitS' '0 Amlmao:;ia in Epir u• • nd tried [0 "ndermine I he w.II" at li"t they romo,'ed the . ar th in secrot ""'''''''r)' FORT IFICATIONS AND SIEGE WAR FAR E f...-_ ...... ........... r ~ I ... _oo'll __ --_ ..... _.... _- by an und ._ linal1)' thoy could no Inng~. di>gUiuc tho ,.;,in, matlnd of ~an h from tho to"'.,,', _ IOP ol'" ...-... """'" inhlbi'ant., The defende... immedi ......... _ ...--dOICh _ I ... :nely dug • ' rench .lone , he imide of _ f_ _ .... £popoIao _ ,he ""all and lined the .ide nooarntto the ..........." ' p .. .....11 ..;,h """y thin pLo'n oi bronze ; by ,.. _ .... loIt_ol .... _ _ p!acine ,he,. an agai...t the pla'es ' hel "-ere able ' 0 .... r 'ho mine.., 'IlIey 'hon dug a 'unnel under 'ho ..-.II .nd broke inlO the mi...... W hen , hey WC1'~ unabk ,n d";ve , he """_ I>uvt~ , ~ lid wi'h holes in it over 'he 'op. The jar ...... filled with fine feal he.. and p;etts ofbumil1&~h.rcoo.l . The defender, 'hon lilled ,n , he 'P*'" around , he jar, tea,ing only r,,-o 1'1<>1... , hrough which pikes " -ere thrust to 0l0J' lhe ROInan5 gc"il1& near. An iron tube .. as titled in,o tho hole In ,he bonom end oithe jar and a bellowo a"klted. \1:'i,h lhi' tho defcnden pumped ~O, smoke through lhe perfora'ed iron lid into tho mine and m.natred to d";,-e ou, lhe ""- Ace_ aloo I UI& nany mc-rhod. oi dealing ..i th e otginc>. Bcoid"" the 1011&",",ahli'hed ploy of c,uching lhe ram in a noooe and dra ing il up, he .1.0 ,ul&""" .u.pendi ng o e r ' he ....allo huge boulders a"ached '0 heam, h,' grappling h<>oh. TIuc", ",~r~ to he aim ed "'i, 1t lona plum b lines also at· tachc coun ler",,' the enem;' ram T o"'ers ' hould he unc arc no< .... mplc ... they may seem. The)· muOl be euclly the ";ght length for • particular wall. If lhey are too Iortg lhe defcnden ca.n ptnh 'hem "",'" bad_ ",,,,ds foded .tid'- Tbr; bdden mu" reot &pi...t tbe " -all at such an angle Ihltthey "ill ..."her O'o'e rhalaoa: on ,he one hind not break under ,he ",-cigt" of .h e climhen On ,be Olher. 1 'hc )' m"'taloo he ."tIici~ntly " rong in relation to their lcnglh . Atlhe siege of Cattagcn. th~ ladder< "'-ere so k>ng ' he)' broke under 'he ...-eighl "fthe d imbe... . T here are many instances " f soldie.. ",,,, nti ngthe courses of "One, in a "'all to "'ork OUI ' he height. Poly_ hiu, pnin" oUI Ih., the heigh' of a wall can be worked nul with the use of trij(Qnomct ry and ,hal once having '0. . , ""h. - .ha, API'El"l)]X z <"'It~l'lh,heoJ th~ hcillh t of the ,u ll the LaoJoJe'" , ho uloJ he: m~oJ~ 2 0 I"' r ""n' Ioo~r, 5<>. if ~ nil i, t~n cubi.. high , h< Iadd<, . "'-,. doJ I'lc ' 2 cubi.. to allo,", for ,h< anlll< uf inehne, Th< G,eek hi.· t",,~n tdlo ",-", th< brill"", h" , ~.,-ntk: Philip \ " ....... " rfe.-.:oJ th< " ha....~ of eap.\ ld i' aQ I'l~' ' I'<'anent of .".-pri"" he ",,,,,1.1 han ' " an ad: imme.Jia'c1l', he otdeted 1'1" boJoler bea..... for".ard ""I~' to hnol to 1'1" ...a'l"'tation tha, the la.Jolen ...-.:re u." '''''tllt 'u '00 '''''fI, H e lle n i.. k fo r ,ill ea tio n, w., '"l', ,\1 ""I' 1"-"" '" ... ~ ) ~ - I' , " ,'0C""""'" '" _ .........---.-_ . . A _ 01 .......... _ .. p _...... ( _ K'oodwnl r - ~ M T , ,> , •• .' <" ~ "" ~ _ on ,- . -w·_"·.·to " . __ _h. . . . ' . . ._01 .v_ _ • ~ "", ~ w•• , '" _ T here " ·a. onl" one n-~I an, wer '0 ,he: new ,i'1Ic ,""h ni,!"," anoJ thi, ,,'as 1o kee p ' he ene my awa\' f,,' m th~ "'all , ; ",,,-.: he " I' UI , he "all, defence h" pdc" , T he' im l' ,,!\,emenlS th., took 1'1.,0 on th" 411'1 .nd , ' oJ ""R' uri", RC ,,'etc m," nly c" ",~'m "d wilh kc><: pi"l1 the c n em ~' al " ,I;,t" ""e, C. laptlll ' "" " loJ 1>0: ",ed for defe n" e as ".,,11 a, otfen"e . _noJ fm m the miJJ k of the 4th ",' nl tI,)" wall' an J ''''''0 '' were dcoignClI to h.,]oJ ." ille'y·, Ik>l h W eTO pierced "ith h11'ho,lo:'l and . " illell' po''', The u'wer< w~.e "tien as manl' a. rou ' II I Ii"e ,,,,,ey' . hil h with ha,'.. art ille')' ~, ~lnoJ."'~" k>'d and hghte", The highe, the art illety piee-n a' ,he ,uuloJ he: ta,,,,,oJ ,he Il"'>~ter " 'a' it' ,atilt<' , ... T'n"hed " ..,f "''''. ...plac",J th< u10J "",nel1atl(1n. a, th< "lJ' o f ,he '"""n. pnmartly ,,, ['1\>1"'" 'ho: .kfcnde,-;; (,,,m ,he ",_ " 1'1",,,-.:,-;;, T h< t""" " ha.l p<>stem !r..... ,h,ou&h ,,'hieh ...11i... <XKIloJ M ma '0 make" ol,ffieult '0 l>,ing up """e e"ll'...... The outer dltc..... " 'e-re ,",ualll' fron,,,,J "'11'1 p.oli<.aJe> 0.- thom hc' " " re ",,,'e.-.:d hole. and art i· ficial ma"he. ,,, the machine. , T he cily' wall. " 'ere ,hid.ned and hei~ h len ed , ' I'he o ),j ,'",ndlated h. "lemen, . were "'1'1 ""oJ hy "' '',n ,,.. 11. ,,'ilh . hutto",oJ art illery' ."d loo p· link" Va ult ooJ n~ ",\S remi ni,eo", of ...... _ .. s-.r , I , • • r: ,,*.l.V ' : \. , z-« : ~ Abo•• T... """ h .. t • •, Sal"',.. ""'''~, 001W<>< " ,: B • "".II.. v bon"", ) got,., • An "oc_, "",,,,,"0 5 T". (P'"O''' g... ", Svrocu.., O"twor k.... roO" "" '0 "." At",n, • •'n s..e,,,,,, '" t ! """''''T58-1 ",,,..,. "'.'" at V.. ' ~I '"'" 1 w.,,, 00:lm 'hod 7 I... 'oe< ul t'" t." w . . . ., V.. ' I FORTIFI CATIO NS AND SlIiGE \l?ARf' AR E ,~~ A ,~ _ .....1._ 01 to... Elf........ VO'i., ' .. ,.,.. 01 ' .. Rom _ . 000 Be ' n 'own is.n ,I>< ~'9'oo.->d _ , on 'ho "-';100""" 'own '" " l.n I • • 0<1 10 H....".,.(".. ~ ,_ sect."", of to... , ,.,,. , of ,,,,,,,, , Walt• • , V.;i ' T... IVPO ulO .., m,o. ' "",Q'" of • • nh 9 T... ty po "o,,, n~ g'O"nd u'" on 10 , .. 'V.. u'" "" "I,,., ",ff To" I.co i, Cu' ' W", . '" '0. WIll "".,, On ' op r "" ' poco "'h .n ~ ' no WI" t, ""o Rom<; c YJJ Be _ '"-.... " "'0"" blown ,nd "" o,.ed '" APPENDI X 2 Tiry n. wen; built into the 1".11, for lhe troop, quarters , and at Cartbage ",' en elephants were ' tabled in lhe wall,. T he gate' were massively reinforced. T he norlh gale A' Selinus in S icily ho, a e<>mplex ,y"cm of outwork'! for cing a wou ld-be attacker to eun thc gauntlet before re. ching the gales. The entrance to these outworks was defended by an anilkey battcey The mo OriginoU}' it had a tr iple portal , hUl one or lwo of lhese were I. ter b locked off. A , imilar blocking of I';ates . ppea" in lhe fon, along HaJtian', \11;'011. The E pipolae gate was lhe weakest poinl of lhe Syracu , an defences an d wa, reinforced by a fortress, the Eur yalu" buill on a 'pur juu ing oul from the plateau ju,t ,outh of lhe gale. T he outworks in front of thc Epipolae gale forced lhe ollackers o\'er lowards the Euryalu' fon , bringing them unde r fi re from the anillcl)' h.lteri.. there , Li ke the I';.te , lhi , '-ortre" wenl lh mugh ,eve,"l sta ge, of de\'e lopment . The last i, prohably lhe work of Archimedes, the greale' l engineer of the ancient world. T he famom scicnti. l had been gi\'cn the job of impro\'ing the fortificalion, of hi, !Own and covered lhe wall with a wide range of ingenious machines which will be di,cussed when dealing wilh lhe Roman , iege of Syracuse Archimedes ' greale sl military aehie\'e ment is probahl}' lhe Euryalus fort re.,. T he centrepiece of the fort is a mas sive calapult balt..y raised on five solid stone pylon, t 1m high On top of lhesc were mounted huge Slone-lhrow- • Abov' COO"" c 300 Be which w., , .'" larg. , c""erio g two sq "" . >;10"'",," Below M, p o! Oncr oo, C'OU. ,how,og the r<Md. , "" p" h> th.. ",II follow the R"""," """'""'''On 9"d c Abo.e 1 2 3 ;ng cat.p ul" which , because of their eleva led pos i,ion , could outrange anything lhat lhe enemy hrought up. The." faced westwards along lhe 'pur by which an enemy would have 10 advance in order to auack the forlre",. T he ,y"em w" not C(}mp leled when lhe Roma n, captured lhe lown in 2" Be. Even , o, ;t is notewon hy that they neve e mode any allempt lo ca pture the fonre., or the Epipo lae gate. In f"mt of the geeal hauery wete lhree rock-cut trenche" the furt h"'l being about , 85m fro m the bau ery. T his was " ",bably 01 lhe maximum range oft hc catapuh, so that an enemy would have to cro" thi, under fire bUl out of hi, own arti llery', range. From lhis poinl he would ho,'e 10 cros, two more di lche, and wall., e.ch defended by catapull" before reaching lhe m. in ban ery. Tu nnel, were dug connecting lhe Epip(}l.e gale with Ihe forward defen,",,' "0 th. l t he defendees cou ld wilh· draw to lhe fort oe the town if t he ou ler defence> were tokeu, Ear ly forti fication, in It a ly M ost ofthe vilbg.. of 8th -century Italy were ,ited on hilllop' just as lhey were in lhe resl of Europe. T hese villages co\lld usually rely on Sleep , jopes for lheir defence , and lh i, wa, often reinforced with pali,ades and ditches Hundred" of ' uch village s crowned lhe hills of Etruria. With the rise of lhe Etru,can ru ling class in the 71h century , gro up, of ,·i11.ges were united into formid.h!c 'own, and the ram part' of lhe earlier period were grad ually replaceJ by le..ace wall,. Exc.vat ions . 1 Veii, 12km north of Rome , have re\'ealc d 'e\'eral stretch" 4 Q''', ' ''u,co · Hom. " . rch.d at San.. M.", d; F, II.", 8 elo w W, It 0' po'ygo". 1m.,O"'Y, SeQo" ~ . o 'h" m.,omy Qatew, y, o" eo h.d , 'op,og we 'e e" her po;oted . t the top or h.d , 'Qog " nte' oc w" u,"". s;"., ''''' 100 m Above [J''Il"m 01 ,.,. lome" ,owo at M,n,u'"• • • tvP;c.. Ron',," COIooy O ppo.I'e C....,' . block"'. lin. , .." untO A<..,., ,.. p 193 '0" compl. " d" ""Pl; OO 01 th. rOCM«1"., "I b'C"cum" ".Mo ,', 'I'"/!'t "4, t Z' l ,,,"', I.''''''J H 0 ~ ) aql ,x>C'"",>80/ 0 ."1. 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II llu"(I'\U 'PIs "'l l UI s nlnw<jl II dWl' d»" ~'II u, ' '''pup P'" ...1'"'1.... 11'1"" P"!l • '1 '1" p ~ p ", ,,uox> "'''-'' ' "'U~n ... -,uoJ "-U... slJlll "",,,,..dlQ pu~ :>U IIU~A V lJu'pnp", ''Ill'll WR J, pun ,ml "[[I"" '1"11 ',,"'Iqld "'Il ,nlulJOI(J 01 JUIPJOX>V ..... If''''OJddl ><j l "''''l.Xr. 'Juo, wg, " . ~I'" :>ql 0' dn puo llOI""'" U' w:> • • X • • lnoqt' WJOJOI p~llUn ~11... ~g ~a.. ~I pull """" JO "'PUN J'"lnlJul""" JU p"J.-..uu p"'dnnoosl" """" UR "'ll to' '11111 J-:lIlto -UOJ :>JI ~~ . ~. UlWOli IftIlJ "'P OOJOJ:Hl,ml 'I'> O<[ 'JU pow "'ll 01 ""l0JlW "'I I JO ,no - ., '1"'11·" 11'4 JVll ~'"P """lL 'nnl-t<j' Juop - Ipd "'I' ...... ~ JO ~ ... pullJuu JJ:w>:>lJn U,.... """'I ·""If'oJ.[l.• 00111'4 )0 dnoJlJ I JU ItlO ... ->d 'P"II rn80'z - S>" """J h "UI.. '~>OJ 'I"'" ''I' ''I' '.0,,,..,,, M(I ~UI01t "'"'" UDall ,:! "'ll , ~" .tn" ~q p~.upp " .........,. un '1''''1''''' I~.\ 'I ,I.. p"".""" 'm-"", ",,:" n-":-I J"'l><>,(UIW ,~r I '...."0' p"P:>.l~ so." punotU I !Un"llllnq ""'A II """""13 .'-lRUJ 01 UOWWO:> lJu',p." p tonoJ """'1<:>'\ ~.\I'I U:>'''''' )O U>lJI OK 10 WJOJ ""b'"n • ' . 11. ·. . ~I :>ql )0 run'~u ><jl SNOllV:JIdl.Ll:IOd :>.10<[... ~."'" • .)J:>.. . """"~pp "".1\ ' APPENDI X 2 the land, they conquered which ,en-ed "' both military and trading outpost" T he ulins and Romans followed 'his praclice but the prime objecti,-e of their colonics military-to keep a foothold in enem y terr itory, The largest and most famous of the Etru,can colonies wa, ' .-apua in Campania. Li ke other Erru,,-an .nd Roman colonie., Ca pua was built on a recrangular grid, II was e~ceed i ngl y large, covering two ' quare kilomelre, . It is inconceivable that the original set tleme nt waf; so large : It is 80 times the size of typic-.l R" man colonies , uch a, M inturnac and Ostia. Lat in an d Ro man colonies were usually p laced at "r>tcgic points in conquered territory , often covering routes inro the area. Although Li vy hSl' 40 colonic. in I taly at the time ofthe second Punie war, they were not placed systema tically ; after the w"' many ncw colonies were establishe d, especially along rhe e,,,,,,, giving Rome quick aO:C55 to any parr "f It aly, Durin~ the second Punic war Rome's c"l "ni" were "ne "f the mo" significant str"tegi" factors fOT rhey enabled Roman arm ies to operatc deep in CaTthaginian-held terri tory without breaki ng the ir lines of communication and provi ded strong_ holds and storeba'e s on which the armie' could falll>ack. How ever, colonies had only been e"abli.hed in oonquered territory with the re, u lt that at the time W", of Hannibal there were none in C"m pania which up 10 that time had not been at war with Rome. This caused serio'" complic"tion, for lhe R"man< when Campania defected to the Cartha· ginian, af'er the battle of Cannae in 2 16 as they had no 'safe hou"e' in the area , During the repuhlic when every eligible citizen was a ' old ier, lhe "" lonie' were established from those on thc mi!i[,jry ",II bu, later lhey were formed from retir ed ,"eterans, and the d i" ribu tion of conquered land among the 'oldiem was one of the rewards of ser· vice. T he colonies of the imperial period had the added purpose of Romani,ing the "rca. When a C ,.so ,jAY;; , , Abo.. bic"cum, a"at ioo .,ound Alcsia bose« on to. recem ro_.',"va' OO of the ' ito. Tn. number 01 ObStac les '" fron' of of ,"","",t . nabloo . '0 comparat"ely few mM the tradi tion 'hat 'he siege ofVeii, like th.t of Troy, ",ok ten years and the Rom an' are supposed to have only fina lly cap tured lhe town by digging a runne l under Ihe walls. Therc may be " gT"in of tTuth in thi ' 'tory for the walls of Veii were u ndermined hy many drainage tunnels (cun iculi ) which t he Et ru,CanS ' hemse!,'es had built and hh:ked olf when they con'tructed the tcrr ace waHs. It is quite poss ible tha t the Romans ~ot in throug h one of ' he.e. T he ea rliest siegc for which we h. ve any accurate b e heklt>y . iron 6p'k. ",om Aiesi, To".. w ',om FO RTIFI CATI ON S AND SI EGE WARFARE tan<:e ftom ii, T hese "'"OUld « joined by linn of t""",hn ar>d rampan, cunina tM town off ftom lht ' urrowtd.ina <XMlnuy and Pl~ntina anyone from ao:aping. I f tM"" "'... no e""m)" ann )' in 1M field lhi. would be, ,ufficienl, but if tbm: "'... any poosjbWty of "'lief from the ""•...x • sccond line of rampan. and dnchn Id be, e..-abli5hed facing outwardo. Bc1 «n """ lWO lines 1M'" ..... a br.-.l thoroughfare, often "",,-en! hur>d.-cd mel "" ..;de, facili t. ' ing rapid lroop rnow:menu '0 any pan of 1M fonitica'iom. Fort. and pidc. pool' """" placed at int ervaU aIon& the ...hole ~;rcuil 51> tlta l e~er)' point of . he Ii""" .........to;hcd . The Rom. n. "'",'e keenly a"'are tltat it ..'as a' imponam to bonle up the whole popul., ion wi' hin • be, . icged . ow n a. il was to pre~en' help fro m re""hina 'hem , The mo re peopl< there were within the lOwn the quicker the pang' of hunger ...ould begin to tell, T hi' pu," in t<> pers pective Caesar', 'e_ fusal to allo w the old men, women .nd chil dren to lea ~e Ale.ia , fot this could only 1cnllthcn Ihe , iege. Bicit . umvonation t>ecame ' he "an_ dard Roman lYlIem. lt admirably , uited ,he dogged Roman . n...."!« and ..... uoed a' the lI..at ,ieg.. of LilybacUln , c.pua, N untan'U1 and Ale,ia , U ,ually an .ttempt ..... made '" We Ihe 10000'n by storm ~rst .nd ... t>en Ih i. failed i' ..... OUI . U nle.. he ....nted. quid< ICSul• • Roman <;Ommandc, prefe .,.ed lhe loiter ,e.;hniqUOl' ; if ,he ",..'n surrendcrc:d ,he boocy fell into IU. h.ando, ....hctno if " ..... stormed . he ooId~ ".rvnl plundered i,. 110 hen bes><'a>ng a pan such as Lily_urn« Canhage i' ..... im~bIc '" clooe ,he Ii...., AI Lilybaeum , he Romans lried ' 0 fill up ,he harbou' enlrance ..;th canh b.n i' ...-as carried .....y by lhe cuITen' . IX'hen Sci pio Aem.hanu. laid .iege to Canhagc in 14 7 he conot,,,,,ed his Ii..... of ~alLs,ion ..-ross Ihe iothmu. whi<:h ;ain, < harl>ou. on the U"' ' ide. T he only com plete description that we have of hicircumvanalion comes fro m Cae,ar', . ielle of Ale"i. in centr al Gaul in ,2 RC. Ale.ia w.s . i' oated on. lo",ngc_,haped plateau I,500m long, ',ooom wide and I,om high. The <:cu picd by Veranlet"';,'. anny of abou' Ilo.,ooo men which had recend y broken OU' <Jl tA......,;. and retired 10 lhe appermdy imprqnah~ position ., AIesia , 110hen arrived he ed lhat , he pooilion ..... unauaibblc and dcOded .... a blodadc. llle hill of A1ffia i. pan of a much Ia.~r platea" " 'hich Ita. been eroded by tWO .. ream. lIo\O;na to the oonh and ooulh of , he ' O\II'n. 1l>c1e ha"e Iefl l" " d« p .·alle}.. " 'h jeh .."...."e the IOwn from Ihe .urroundi na lUll•. To , I>< ...... , of , he ,,,,,'n Ihe Iwo valle)', merge into a br<>ad p la.n, Cae1ar encamped hi. legion. around the to...'n and traced out the line of hi••icge wo.-h. T he inner line. ,,"'.. dra wn along the fno ' of the hill. ' 0 ,h . ""rth and the ,outh of the ,o...n and then ocro" th. plain at the west end a",' ut ] ,skm fto m the IOwn. T he outer lin e. e, tend",.l along the 'op of the hill> tu the north and 'ou, h and ao;:m" t he pl. in o"" ut 200m beyond the in ner line. , luving am pl. room f ot lroop mo.'emen" . Along lhese line, c.e, . r ~"I ron" ructod 23 for.. to cover hi. worke.. hefore li~i ng orders to begin digginlt l>< ttenches . T he legio n_ ar i.. first dua a vcoical-.idcd trench abou,';x met"" wide .... ..,..the plaina' the fooc of , he plateau, This "" U to p..hil" ven( any att... ~ on ,he ooIdi tMY W ClC ert'Cling ,he main ""k. in lhe plain , Four hundred me,,,,, behind 11U. t..nch , he lqionariCl d ua I"" ditches fi"" """"" ..." ide and itere _ible filled , he inner one with ter. "Ibew ,.... t"""'hoes wete c:x.. Ddcd all the W")' along II>e fOOl of .he hills that wrrourtoo:;kd , he , ow n un,illl>ey formed a <;Omplete ciKuiI 16Ln long. The ean h ftom these ditchn " 'as piled up beyo nd the au t..neh 10 (o<m a oampan which ~ned "" lIh a pah.. doforti~e d h)' 10000'on ~~ ry 2sm. Poin' ed " ake. .."'re embedded in , he top of . he rampart 10 In.t lhey proiC<-"ted Jtorizon,.ny to prevenl an y attempt by the enemy 10 ..ale i', I n or d.. to free Ih. ma jorit y of hi. n o0l'" fmm ' he joh o( guarding the lin e. '" tn., they eould "" ll""t forage and ti mhe r, C ae..r con. tr ucte d a ..ri., of hoohy trap, ahead of the lin o. , T hoy d ug trenche' I ,sm deep in which were '." shar pe ned h"nch. , c..e....- to form a hed~ of .p.m. I n fronl of t~ lhey d Ull eight ro w. of circular pi" .."h pot n'ed stakes ""'htddcd in them. llle toldien nidnamed 'hese ' lilies" beca.... of their .imilarity to the lbv.-tts. These ..'tIC 'hen COVCICd ...; ,h brush,""",,- 10 tude < ' lilies' the IOlJ"POf'C1'1'••"ppI...... Pompey ..... beina wppli«l daily from . he """ ..·hich he """trolled , Pompc)'" anny ...... superior in coval'}' and 11U, "'...s makini it dlfficuh for Cacut'. trt><>p< to fonge . ea...r d<:rided to circum.-allate hi. position , H e hellOn by con"ructina for ts .... the hill. around Pornpc)'" pooi,ion whie h would he ;ained wilh rampart. and ditche. . \t'hen Pom pey realised wltat Cae.., wa' doi ng he established 14 .-cdouht. al a. great a distance a, I'<",ihlo from hi, ca mp to form a d,cu it of . hou, 23km, knuwing th.. Caesar wou ld have \0 include the"" wit hin hi, lin e., rom pey ', aim was twofold . First it ~"" e him a .man . rca in which to '0 c..e....- '" API' EK Dl X ~ f0 dug thei' , ampa,1S so Pom~y ATC himede., Dio.m,--o;iu. 1 had walled in bogan con'tru~ting inne' line" tr ying to the Epipol.. pla'c. u a' the beRinninR occupy a, many hill , a, possible and of the 4rh ,'entu ry , but the defence' had been bruu lth t up Iodat e by Archim cdc< f,,,dn~ Cae"'t one~ ' lIain t o p theseted>nKj...., IaJder and a p1otfonn pJa«,j at , he 'Of> The}' preferred methods ,,'hich oc · proIected at t he fronr .....J sides by 'IIrid~ r screen. ..it h room for four ploit~d the boondl.... ntCIf;Y of tt", fob ",.. 10 d ri"e away the lceio.,tu')'_undcnnini ng and the build · soldie.. defenoJen while the ladde' Wa. being in~ of ,am ps-. nd in thi' ar... they placed in p<"itiol1 agaimt the wall. .,.., ueelled the G r..,b , The Rom an. pr<'h.hly came into I;<.lll- ladde' WI< l. id horizontall y .1"nR the ract with ' cienr ifi c rcc h n iq u ~, for lhe dou ble R. lley '" , h.. il p,, ~ ,u ded boti" l time ,,-he n lhey i n~aded S id )' and yond lhe prow R" pe. were a"ached to mu" ha" e karn~d m uch from t he the fo ,ward end of the ladd., and it wa, (Oreek. and Canhaginian, d u,in, th~ n i..d inl" p<"'itio n b y pulle y. ll1ad>ed fint Punic " 'a" Thel' uf I jJ )'haeum. .,.., IWman. expericllol:Jed on either side , Thi. dc-\ice ...... nicktheir veate.. problem...hoen bes..-pnl named a ........... by lhe saikln bear...... p>rt. ou~h B Lil y~m and S)Tl>CUse of its . imib rit}- ' 0 the harp-like mue' again" . uch low", in bm h the fir., . nd second P unic wars were when lhe town was eithe' . urprised by I . ud_ den ult••""h a, at Plnormu. Ind N~ Carthage, or "'a, in ""me .....}. bet no}..,d either b}' luity "f , he gua, d. '" by u noigh ' forwa'd trea<:he')', It " .... ""Iy in the 2nd c"'''u'1' tho' their red>_ nKjUon ....,,.., suJliOentl}· ach~ to enable them ' 0 eI..... harbour "'i'h a mole. .,.., Ro""'ns' ..ther un.occ-.-.. fu l at_ te m pt' a' ,ci ~nt ilic wa rfa,.., a,.., well illu, tr ated at ' he , ie~e of Syr ac'u"" in zrj , T he examrle i, pe,haps. litt le un- eae..a,'. '0 c..e.., ""tn- f., ". w""'" i....."""'n' of that ...""'. A, """" .. it ...•• moved inro pooi'ion the soIdien pulled down the wir;ker sc reen. on the . ioJ•• " f the platf"'m . nd mounted rhe " 'I ll. whil" the , eOl nf the ''''''p' fol_ I" wed thcm thruugh the ,amhuca The Rom.n< had not allow ed f'" Archimedes, for a' they approached the the}' ...... delu(f<'d with missll... from , he cuapulrs tturl , he great ocienhad pbced on the ,,-:ails. 1'bese "'""'hi.... threw at fixed nonges. some long and "'"'" short. subjecr ,"f: the Romans ro a wnstanr bombard· ment a' they advanced. n.... brough. rhe Roman ad, ,.nce to • hilt, forcing Ma,c"']]u. to b' ing hi••hips up under "'Wet "f darkne.., I n thi' way he man"lied 'n get im ide th e fi xed range or the he. " y . n iller y at Ihe top of the wI ll,_ hut Archimede. had . Ikowed for thi.ton anoJ turd pierced rh~ ,,'all, ,,;,h I<>ovholes at the .....,1 of the .":oders. 1'bese ...... m. nned hy " ,chers . nd .null ohool i n~ ca," pull. nio.:t.nomed ' 1COl'_ p.or,,·. In "pitc of the continual barrage of n iw hi. m;"i1", ,\ Ia..,ellu. tried ...""",,:tU, X ow cra"", which hilhe"o had bren out of .iiht tcared up above tM wan, and ,win~in~ oul 'l>eiT. r mlike bo.m, dropped huge " " ne, .nd lum !" of lea d on to the ' a",h" w " The bri m. were , wu ng Tou nd on • ri~'" and the ",el ~hrs Imvc,..,d by pu ller. at the end ..,.U. .i" .1"""" bol,_ '0 - A_ -_ e-.. 'oong _ ........ . . - . .... _'--~- '- - " to bon "' _ _ ,_ I'ORT I I'I CA Tl Ol':S AN D of tho< bnms, T hn.c c'OUld be manocunN ' 0 hit It..: "''--',d '" Iterec'er 'M Romans inN lO flU'" tho<m . OthN enlr'fIn hll rlo:d 01.-. large et>OUgh to dm~ tM told ,en boock from the pr.... of 'M . hi p and lhen lov.ercd gianl grappling ""'.. . a"""bed ro e h.:oins. Thc>c took a lirm IJflp on the . hil'". ..'hidl ..-e.-e then ul'"'dcd by counl",.t>.lanccs. l1'>e gnlrP!ing """"". were: lhen .-ekasN 00 'hltt lhe 'Jnl'" feU ~-'l'" eirher- copsizing or lillin g ..-j,h war",.. ." :oreellu. ..... com ple1cl~' otlleLo•..,d but made li~h, of ,he . i. ""lion .. ~'in~, ' Architnedc. ....,. my >hi p" to ladle ",a ,ut",. inro hi. ...i"", C"UI'", but my ... mbu<.o. Nnd i. ~d Out of the Nnq...,t in disgra<£ . The k oman. "~re fmeed 10 a!>andon their at1emp" to 'ake 'he lo"'n by . . ..ul! and in the end they ~.ined acce>s '0 'he ''''''n by ","ahh Scip io' , a"auh " n N e'" Cart hage (Ca rlag en.) tltree yea.. later is part;cu · larly i n ,eteOl i n ~, n,ll beca use of "ny new 'ec hnique hul b<.",au'" it pr",'ide, the d <ar pict ure of Roman m tl", Might , pilla"n, wu forbidden. When lhc general ""....dere:d that lherc: had been .uflkint, .Loughter, ,he tnlm peu ""'nded ,he rc... .ll. SoId ien " '" '' ockc_ tN from ea.:h manirk (SOe ....., guard in """"."""" ..... a counlCuurl , All ,he booIy " ... <»11«l.ed ' ''llet hN, wid oil" and . he proettd. di.tribuled ......,Iy arnongot the ....dicn. 1'1", a>ntrol led pillaging pro'idn a llUph,,, 'llu ation of RotrIe legion _ aric. were forced Ii> captuTe each huilding a. l he~' wenl, T he "",Idien fough' from l>"uK ' 0 house u, ina: p13nks to ero.. from r<J<>f . o roof high ahove lhe Rarro'" alley"·a)'• . On,:e 'hc~ reaehed the Byna they ",' tire 10 all ,he hou..,. .,DOd S I ~:GE W ARI'ARE .If""", aJon~ Ih~ .hr"" The fire sp"",d and the ooldlen pulled down ,he ho""'" whof 'he old people and children had 'aken rduge. Some " -ere burned and e OIr-eeI . had ' 0 be clearcd 00 lhal . he I""'P'" could """'e freely and tho< "'.' ....' ; dol" .nd nia:h.. 'hesc """"'" of 'error cortlt nuN ,,'i,h.he lcgioonarico fighting in . hif". lI'hen the I'll.... " 'as finall y 'aken man~' of lhe remaining Can ltal,n,a... burned lhemsel,·r:s .Ii..... in ,he 'e"'rle or Acoculapiu•. The .-col "ocre ",Id into .Lovery The "'hole 'own wo. de'lfO}'ed and ploughed into lhe grou nd, and ..1t w" ""'Wn "'" as to make lhe llrou nd unc'ulti".ble, Thi. puni, h_ ment was al." melcd out to Numantia ' 3 yea.. 1. IC r, and to Je rusalem in ~" 70 T he la.... " f , ie~e ",arfare eh. nged litt le Ih""tlth"ut hi,""y A f.ilure to 'urrender hef"r. the hatt. ring ram tu uched the w. ll lef! a tow n eomplelC ly at ' he mer cy of lh e be, iegers. N o on. ;n ' I>e town w., ;n .n )' do uh. .. to the elln _ Bolo,", A 'OCQfIolr"",,,,,, '" a _ , 0' Hodr...... Wall on _n e.-".," _ng , caollo .. wr.eh" on _ d..'..... ' ~m 'a ..-.l.,..'" ,n "'" ',"_,,_lor'-"r thO "' ", ~ . ! ~ ~ ! [ 1 ~' i l i i i ~ 9i!I~ 11It l l i ~ i ~I ~, f ! [ i ~ 1 § 1 1- gl- ~ ~ f l • !,l~ r~ l. l; :rt l~ ~2. !:'1~- fi !2f"'~~! ~ ~ ~ . .: /" ~~ :. _,- s a c ~ ~ ii. ~ ~ ~ P 8 .§ ~fi ... ; ~-~ S' i I d.~~:.:l • ;r ",;J J lii ~ ~J ~I--~ ~ ~ !~l i ~~~_. t~II I I~~= ~ : Ji:r~, f; !i~; J, ~:~~ ~~ ~i~l ~i'~ ~ ~i i~ ~g §:r 1f !o ~"' i~ r ~~~t f[ ~g ~ l '! ~ ~ ~g ~ - . O ~Q ~ ~ ~ . ~ t'! __ __ ~~ = ~~ ~ ~~. ~ o ~> ~ . ' .!~ c -. :r' fo, -- c~. ~ ~ ~~~-.~ ~:r~ 3_ • • ~ ~s:rf i~ ;~ 3 ~~'. ~c ~"'- ~ ~, . '" - !-.~I~ Ji~," I-!it SJ ~ ~I;:,_- f~l~f j l~= , ! ~, ~i ~~ -5' -! :r ~~ I ~ !-~ . ", 7f 0! ::rI~ l ! i r ~ l i ~~ I :l if! i~_::r _ ::r _ 2. :r~ .. _. _ " .. :r '" --, , _ Q ~ ", ' ~ ~ O :1". -. W v· ·, . "' · - ~1 ~ f ~ ~l f ~ ! '1 ~ : ~ ~ i ~ l~ l! i r 6 · ~ f ~ ~ i ~ ~ a i i ~ " ~. ~ ~'l l l ~ ~ ~: J ~, _,! g~~'S'- rl '" ~ Q n,- C ",,,," ~ ' c " i~"""" ~~~ ~". i" ~~ ..§ ~,,.!S~ ~;r~i: a i !ll ""'" ~ I I· ![ ;~ :>: I.:.. ; I -gil ~ ~·J f~~ ~~~ i~'fl ~t t f l r:~~ I §~ , ~ •i i]l: if. t~,~ "~ 3 ~ "' - ,"- -<: :> ::r ll .." " jf " - ! a il . , i1 ~ ..," ~~O~~ ,,~ 0i I ~ ~'::r<:~ 0_ 3~ "<:"o S " ::r ~ - " " " ' ,, ~ .:.._ ~",~i ~~ ~ "~ ::r _ ~ ::> 'i. ~ "''''''' g f~ ~ ,,>\X,,;::"" •~~ . ,, ~ 2":0'.- , 2, ;:' - "' - "" ~ '"- " i!~~ '"; . ,~ &; ., . '" ' 3~~ ~ § ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r a~ ~ [ f [ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i ~~ ~ J ~[~~~~o ~ ~ ~ ;r ~ ~ ~ 3 ~ ~ ;r~ s~~~~~~B ~ 'm ~" "",.. a ee "" i it,,",~ ·, h . !f"7"' ,·lrta. §~~2..;r; '::! ~ e b8'~ "i ;r -. l "" ilfi!;;'~~a.~ I .. "' ''1 ". , ::r ".:> ~. ~ ;::- ", ""', ,"- ~ '< ~ ir -g1 10 - e, :Ol: ;~ 1 ~ 19'1 1 ·,", :~ r- l· l ~i " ~ l "I ' _ . :O ~ "' 2. ':i ~ i " ll. ";?'" i it~~,~ ~ ~ ~ "Si3~~ ~3 ' :7" ~· ~ ;~ l"fa;r i :i:> ~:> ~- t~ - I~ 2.!, ~~ !~ § 2; ~ ::r . ~ '':''~':'' ~ ._"" ;l. ~ !l : ;';' .. ;' '''''::1.:.... a;rl.; .. - ''' ;:l; ~ a :o;;r *f" s; ~~3=,~~"~"" ~ o : ; ~ ~ ~ ~ i~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ i g ~ l ~ ~ ~ i~i~ ~: ~ i [ ~ ~ r a~ ~ ~~~ ~!~ i; ~: "~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ ;r [ ~~O;' ~~i~ 33a ~ B .g '" '!l,a 5 3 a !fQ. ""~,, g' ~ ..... is, ;!.Ji -] ~ ~ ;.:.. ~ S f; ~ ~ ~!l ~iH· !"~ ~ ~ ~ ". iif.:.. r a a e ... :;<" .:..~ ... ",!lj" ::r ::r il a e s "s"''' '' hill " ,' , 1 ~ ~ l "H ,'II' ,. le ~ 1 ,iii ."a" 2 "~ if;. § Q. S"Il ,• . "it , . a iHP ~i l l h! p! + H • > ~ "cz -" • FORTI FI CAT IONS AN D SI EG E W ARFARE loose tn. foundatiu... <>f tn. I"""~' and bri ng it do1wn. By In. middle of th~ lSt century /IC .......' ofl n. "vtli... d ....."ld IlaJ falk n '" RorrK_ I n Europe tn. only ~ncmia re:maining in arms .... re: tn. barbarians <>f tn. nonh. ,••-Ith ,n. ....ull thaI , of tn. >iqn ""'" , he ""'KI cen,"')' re: aga;nsI. hillfonl _ Cacoar gi,.... I full iIoOlXJUnt of lhe ,echniq...,. he UI<'d 10 beoiec~ one of lhe hiJlforn of cel" ....1 GoouL Thi. ,,-as A,·aricum ( Bou rgc-o). ,,·h.i<;h ...... lilUaled on I . pur juning oul into lhe mltd .CK . Thil ' pur fin' I Iope> dow n I"",....d. tbe mll'$h« and lhen ti.... '0 a hillo.. k at ill end, T he to..'n i'liClf , I ur_ ro unded by " 'hat Cae... r calli a Galli.. wall (.....no. Gallia<», was on thi' hil· lo<:k_ v i llic Wi ll Wa' b uilt wi'h I .< .. whi..h were built inlo .he .toneW<>rk at the front .n d b. ..k, T he "" ft filling .nd lim ber lacing made it virt ually iml"'rvio u. to batt ering ram' , The inhabitants , believing that til<: ,,,wn was una" ailable, were pre-pared 10 defy Cae.or, but tl> a v,",,, ram p. Two siege re: oonseted on ,be 'pol and mov ed up as . be mound ap~hed lhe .....111. The Gau," fol~ tbe ... uaJ procedure and lried 10 undermine lhe ramp w hile al lI>e sarne time encting wooden tun'etl a..-..ed wi.h luoo on ,n. ..-all' opp<>-."e_TIley abo Ia"""hed frequcn. nigh, ""'''1'$ ".. .. t>ov. ' ;aM A te,.",... (,.. ,v r... '0 o,ft.,. " w 'ou" Th" for"""ti"" ,, ment'O""" b'I Po;yb,u. "'~ o comO... . ,t to 0 I"od 'oot Iou< ' 00"' ... '''owo leg,,,,,,,,,,,, t"" a"ad" in ..-h" b lhey lried to tire . be . im ber COIllallung wall ot the ramp_ The amount of wood require:d for build inll these nmps and ocber siege equipmenl ...... enormouo_ The J...~sh Iu"orian JooephU1 rema'*ed tha' when the Romano beIie,ed leruoakm nola single trtt ...... left lIandJ"ll ..~Utin a rsdi ... ot ISkm _ I n 35 daY' the Iegionarieo had <:<>nJlfU<"ted an motmoiltialed. siege warfare, for tl tiution' in tbe West began d',dine fro m the middle of Ihe 2nd <:emury IOC and lilt le advan..e " 1", made umilt he ba rhari an invasion s of the late' em pire. In the II I alld 2nd cen. uries AD the ddcn~e s " f both town, and camp' u",all,- ron, i, ..d "f a w.ll '" rampart fronted by a di tch . T he gate ' were defended by " ,we," whi..h we re normally rectangular and did not pro tr ude be_ yond Ihe li ne of the wan,_ T he ddenc", Wd"",ion ot tbe ponrolli$_ The d ' annels for these gatn an be "",n dearly on man~' Roman ar N I...... , AosLO and T Iier, for ~umple_ The origin of ' his , -tt}" ......... inflO"·.tion iI unk"""'-n_ It io '0 '''n, tin l mentioned during the seoond Punic war whe n lOme GanhaRinian soldiers "'00"""" Iryin&: ro reaprure Sabpia in Apulia l fter u IlaJ f.lI~n to the Romano were ' lOpped b~' , he portrolliu nd lho:ir eoape rot 011'. F rom tbe rune ofHadrian ' he Rornaru hepn to think moee in defe""i"e ' el"lll$., bul ""en 10 the fortificalionl of ,he period are tT"IOI'e ,mprc-ooive for ,n.ir oale than 'betr Slf\'t1I1h. From 'bio period come Hadnan' , Wall and the ,__t ..hain of CtltTlPI and fonl along lhe Rh me - Danube hne. Hadrian's lX"all sh<J,... no advance in defensi,·e ,I>inking O\' er Ihe ~Ih cenlury ac. but i ' ...... adequale for the I'Urp<>le for "'hiel> il was built , T he Ihiekn.... of this wall. ..-hi..h otre:lched for nearly l wi<m , ,·.ried hetwt<: n iu" under Iwo and iuot OVet Ihree motre . ; it mu't originaUy have bee n ab"ut five metre:. high. It w.s defended b~ Ho 'm all m ile_c''' le• • bout t,~oom .p"rt and o.ho u, ,60 ."r",,, Two "f Ihe"" "'oro placed belwee n each mil e_<'lStlc .ht' ut 500 m apart Along Ihe fro nt uf the woll t here wa, a broad berm and " dilch d gh l melte> wide and about Ihree deep, Behind the wall was a ,paceiboul Hm wide bou nded by .. di... h lbout 6,5m deep known as the .'all"",. T his di" h has no mil ita ry signifiance . nd mu•• have been dug s"'l' civi lia"" approa<;hing tlte .....ll and fota: lbem 10 u lhe au. horised appr"""h«. Tl>e n fun berSlre:n gthened by fon" ,....raIl)· buil' as tride Ihe ..""l.,approolmao.ely lokm intervals_ Alon g I.... Rhine a Itring orton. ...... <:omlfU<"ted 10 defend lhe ..",t hanI:. 111ese ......., integra,ed wi'h tbe kgion~ '0 At>ovo A """,_ ""..'od go ller, .. do"",,*, b'I VOQ.t;u, II " 0' I"""" 2 ~'" h'O" oM ju", 0_ 1m w,,," Th..o goll."o, _ <0 u",d 10 ge' om " p IQ tno w" " o"" og . ' >0" '" APPEN DI X " fonr.....,. along. he ,,-n, .ide of lhe ri,.." , T., ch.nd ';gnal "",~n " 'Ct'C' al", "'I.bli"',~d SO,ha' lhe ,,'hoIc ri'..,r (rom Bon n .0 lhe ..". could he ' UP"'l"·nN. The rivC'! Danuhe ,,-as ,imilar ly (onilied from Reg~n.burg , he' g lad< Se. , A dnch .nd pali.. d~ ".~~ ""nor""".-d from. poin, ius' sou, h of Bonn 10 onl' .... r R~r<' n.hu rg 10 join.he 1"'0 n"~n. Th... ~ fonifica.ion. " n,'ched for .I><>u. 4sol<m and like Hadrian' . Wall "'e~ ~ info,ced by a rOrt e"ery eigh' 10 len k il(\met ~' . In pla" e" a' il approached the llanuhc, lhe pali,"de "'", rq,laced by a ",. 11 ",it h lu reelS similar ' 0 .he Bri, i, h ",.11, at}' '0 T he ear ly p r in cip a l., R"",an . ieg< technique in ,h~ urly prin eip."., i. 00, illus,ral~d by ,he , ieges of Vnpa.ilI.n "nd T il u, d urinl1 .he J..... i.h ~·....It of .'D66--c.13 , Thr« of l hese , Ioui'll&. Jen=km . nd .\ la>ada• • re- described in .........,er ro' , hese e.nhworh. l ,napa' a ",as" mounlain fort r.,... in ( ' alli l.,., ", hich underw enl a so-day , iege. The . iege "''' underlaken by tllree legio n" V Macedo~ica , X Fre1m,;, and XV Apal/inan'" ,uppol1ed by ">Tiou. auxilia' y reg imen" . A,' :LlTding to Ihe l~wi.h hi"orian t he Ruman. had ,60 ealal'ul<. varying fr<>m n l' id bol< _ , l>ooI ing m""hines to one-Iaknt (e . 4Oke) stone- Ih"",," . T he Roman. ref.....,d '0 boll-.hooti ng mxhin.. as and 10 "one-Ih"",,"," .. NIlis"",,, Ho",ever, during lhe empire- ,he ......n'''i of l hese names ,,-as I"e"cned, so for daril y , he}' "ill be: n::r.....,d 1o .. boIl-.ltoooi:e.. and Slonl'-Ih"",~n. \·~l eliu, "")" 1"'" io hi. <\a)' <>ulden on ,be ,cr«n, (plu" i) under which the mound buildc.. were wor kin l1. The. e ,creen. were ma '0 "",,1*1'. Ia,~r u..,d lhe artillery in 'M same " .. y '0 pro<ect hi. ram ,,'bJeh " ... of tl>< primi,i,'e . ... pem.ion lH""· JOKJ'hU5 is keen 10 ducrib<: 'M etrea of lhe Slone,bl'OVl"Cf1 "'bich carried ..... y lhe banle""",,, and broke a"'ay ,he angle1 of ,he lo" ·e"'. A nun " . nd ing on , be ,,-all, had his head kflol;>C'1<~d orr and the force carried il a di..an<:c of Ibr« ..i>Un'errneasUT"" ,.",.e in~enled by bim.. If 10 meet lhe e""" 8~1>C}' . "Il>e ram " ... proIea.-d by hurdle1 and would h.a'·e been app.neche A'". '_ B 11>< _ C _ aJ _ _ 1h1t_,o_ l. A b.eao:h "'OS finally opened in lhe 11 and p np" }" ~ ........-d up inlO lhe gap j.... . . Aleunder had done .. T )TC , V..pasian Ol'J. , This rorrna,inn can (n ."ad< --_-.._ "' .... . -o..,g,.. _ A070O"W'V _ "' _..,..,.. _ on _ ~ - "' - FORT I FI CATI O N S AN D SI EGE WARFARE be for med up by ~ny numher of men as therc is onc less in the front rank than t hc subsequent ranks, There are .rorics of chariots being run aero" ' hese formatioIls to tc.r th~i r st rength Th~ d~fenders poured boiling oil o\' er th ~ tortoi se to break it up and tipped boiled fenugreek (foem"" graecum) ove, the gangway, ren dering it too slippery to negotiate . After the fall of Jm apata and J"'~ phus' desert ion 10 the Rom.n" Vespasi.n withdrew from the ,,'ar to devOle him ,elf to the struggle for the thro ne and pb~cd his son Titu, in charge of the W' r. W'it h his army reinforced by an cxtr. legion, XII Fu1mi" a l~ , Titu, .d vanced on J crusa lem . So many confl icts raged in j eru.alem th. t there wos hard ly time to fi ght the Rom.ns , G roup, of religious fanatics h. d entered the Ww n and were fighti ng with each other ove r how the war , houl d be woged, D uri ng the, c 'l0orrcls port s of the city werc borned The IJ.me, engulfed thc gr on_ ories and ,'a" hoa t d' of li'od were destroyed. [t wa, only when Titus began the o"oul! thot any a" empt was made to unite the J ewi,h for ce, lon g ~s P '00,"' b [j,oc',,"'n', Da l,ce .. SO'" 0""" " . 11 " ,to t" '.. got" ono p'oioc"ng toW€" . Betow All;"""u" f",' of D,onvs,., (Du. " Qu",um) ~ g yPt. bu'" l>Y D;ocl. ,;. " The cit y was com po,;e d of live parts, each with ilS own wall. T he fir" of thcse parts was the oid town, which was buill on • sp ur with stee p cliffs to the east and south . Above thi s 10 the west wa, the u pper town where 11etod the Gre.t had buiit hi, p. lace. T o thc north of the old town wa, the massively walled temple enclosure, and adjoining both , he temp le and the upper town wa, lhe middle to wn . Ikyond this sp rawled the ne w town. T itu , mo"e d the camp of the 5th, 12, h .nd t5 th legions u p to the walls ofthe new town .nd here laune'hcd his . "aek We. kcned by internal " lu.h l>le. among the defender!; , this ",,,, or soon fen int o his han ds . The main camp was then move d within thc wall, of the new tow n. Fiv~ days lalcr the middle ' mm ai,,, fell T itus now divided I>is force" with two legions to ana ck the old town and two the ,emple . A ' 'he point whe re the mid d l~ town " 'all ioined th ctemplc, Ha oJ the G 'eat had ereded • for tr e," which he had name d Antoni. in honour of his bend adOt M ock Antony. At Ii "t th~ Roman, tried to construct earthworks in order to get the siege machines up to the 10\·cJ of thc for tress but the dd enders undcrmi ocd t hem . nd the}' coil.p'cd. T itus now surrou nded th e city wi, h a rampart aod pali,ade ; once he ha d secu red the whole circuit, he beg. n to re-erect th e earth wo, k> .g. in" the An_ toni. fonre," T he defcnders failed in an o"e mpt to fi rc tl>c earthwor ks and ' he batteri ng rams were brought to bear on the walls, T hat night the w.1I Came down ., . rem it of the C',m 'aot b.tte, ing and the net work of tunnels th.t the defenders had dri,'en under [he ir own fortific.[ions in an attempt to m lla p ,~ t h~ earth wor k> . !'o" ceing that ,hc wall might be breached the defenders had t. ken the norma l precaution of e..cting an inner O" e. For two days th ~ legion_ aries 'truggled in '·ain to take thi s wall which defied direct assault and the bringing to bear of rams, On the ' econd night a small party of k gionaric., induding trumpeters , ,e.led the walls ; thcy disposed of the sent ries and so\tnded lheir t",mpets, giving the signal for T itus to le.d.n attad on the w. 11. T hc defendcrs, believing thot the w.11 had already been taken , left their posts and retreated to th e temple, Mo, t of the fortress was now desttoyed <0 that a t .mp m uld he pu, hcd stra ight up to the temple platform and the toWets . nd ram, brought u p. For five weeks the temple held out. T it us endea,·outed to sp.re i, bu[ when . 1I ., temp" to ob, . in a , urr cnder had failed .nd the battering ram' b. d proved im pOl cnt, he gave oTde rs for the g.. os of the tempie eoclosure to be fired , T be fire 'prc~d to the porticoe s and m uch of 'he outcr endosure '1'"' dest royed , T wo days l.,"r , . f'er vicious ha nd-to- hand fight ing a'ound the out er COUrt of the tempie, the Romans burst in to thc in ner <,mrt D ur ing the fIghting 0 Ilo mon , oldier th rew . forehrond ioto the temple, igniting the furniture and drape s within the shri ne, .nd the wbole buildi ng was reduced ", ashc•. From herc 'he Rom. n, were . blc to o"i" ,he ' wo legion, hesieging the old town and it was copt ured Only t he m. ssively defended upper city remained in the hands of the insurgents . Th e legionariesr.ised c. n hwork< on the wc" , ide wbib t the . uxiliar ies COndUe1Cd a similar ., so ul! fro m the east, I n t 8 days the works were compicte, 'he engine' were brought up . nd the town stormed Thc siege had last ed five momh s and the popul. tion had experienced . ll the rigours of starvation. I n the last day, mothers ate said hy Josephus to h. vc coten thcir own children. T he city was turned over to the w ldiet< .nd wben they h.d we.tied of , heir killiog and pilb giog it was set fi re. Titus then ordered the rema ins to be razed, leavi ng only t he three highest towe rs and p. " "f the w.11. T be w.1I was fOTthe enc.mpment of the g• .,ison . nd the towers to remind the people of the sta ture of the city tb. t had once ' 1<>od there. After the fall of J erusalem, T itus returned to Ro me lea'·ing to successive Rom. n g,,,,crn,,rs the ,.,k of mopping up the rcmoining " entre, of rcsi"once The last of thcse was the fort of .\l asad. , pe rched on a column of rock rising 400m . oo\'e the western shore of the Dea d Sea. The job of reducing thi s mountain fastnc", '1'"' gi,'en ' 0 legion X F retmsi" whic·h was re infor ced with aoout 4,<XXJ .ux iliaries. T he Rom.n legate Silva first sur ro unded the hill in the normal Roman fa, hiM wit h a w. iI ne. riy two metres thic·k fort ihcd with to wers evcry 'w ,m APP E:-lDlX z Z~ -lom. II i. for~.". ,,~~ diopc=d in ,,;ghl caml'" around ,he Moe of Ihe hill. The,' ,hen oe1 .boul lhe tuk of con"ru~~",g an enonnou, ramp on the ....,.t >.ide of ,he h,lI up ,,'hi<:h t!><1' " 'inched II"", .....e en~...,., The de_ fendcn. ralher ,han h< aplured by lhe Roman.. oomml1led,uicidc. Thio.iege, lhough wry m,,,,,,, in oaok. tlzo left behind the claom:! C"\~dence in tbe ",bole field of ..........t.oqe ..v fare : although unn<;ll.vated, tM hn.. of circumvallauoq, lhe campa Ind the <ernaim of.he ramp I re lhe~ for all 10 !I«. Fortlficadon.. AI) 1 8~-178 ( Roger T om li n ) W hen Ihe empero. [)iodCl i:o n oN i,a' cd in l05, he ret ired ' 0 .. ha' OUT "",rees p'''. " n" real e~.ernal th " ond the pnce' ful- na,ure <>f Abin u' mu'in< • •he "rengl.. howling a,,,,,nd the Roman ~ mpire' , Ihodetian and hi. ce..on to V. lem ini. n I ( 36.( - 78) embalked On ..n en",mo" , p"'gra mme of bui ldi~ and reeon" " .elion . [)iocl.. i..n envi••geoJ powerful fro nt ier a, mi", of now e.."a iTy " nil_, Ie8ion" ..nd i n~",a""d numbors "r dlu( and e"h,)\l' , all of which needed f"rtif,ed l>a",•. Con"an tine weakened Ih.,," ar mi.. in o,der w < mobile anny' , ~'po n .., Late_ Roman fortifiCll ti.nn i, emrh.:olicall~· defrn.i'·e. Thi. i. not a ,rui.m, Mauoe ,he fortified I"""" of 'M rll' ~mr,re often made lhei, (ilte"';,~ .. p;>Uit>k:. and built ,..all tha' "-ere rublic monumenU, 10 ad,-eni", tMi, J""ooperity. 11>< fort. "'ere aloo . i, ed ~eni,'rly, ' 0 ",,",roI lTJO\..,men" ..i .h .""~ .. thaI p«>jec<ed abo\-e IMir ramra"' for ot>oe...•..'ion. no( be~"1>f\d ,hem for enfilading ti~ . The anny of the early empire "a,ned to mtt. i.. oppono:-n.. in tbe ticld, in the I..te empire . hi, role ..... r......-ed fo. the C ,lie u....l p......;.,., af'er .he rci['al .... Ie·. haile)". J u ", U 'M f"",n... ",,,,,et}" en,~".w a defence in depUible . S' fort. ,,~tt ,iled on dt,,·•• ed ground, ..,-der. ably a pr.,,,,,,,, even if i.. irregulaT "",lin< ,m",_d the .."'" <>Utlin< on the '"11)''' _ue- p'" - o ~. Abo v. h ., In'..e,.., Duo,pon' I., ",,,,,ga ry, w;!I' 'a n"Mood '''''''''' 1M ...... g.,. 101.. of """',,",,'O - I ''''''''' ooi~ by COO," "!"'" " "" <11 ...... ~ .... t-..., . . . ~..,. _ - "I _ ... V _ " , :wl C orl_"", _ _ _ on "'Y_ _ """" _ _ "~OO4 , r1 L.J FORT1i'1 C ATI ON S AN D SIEGE WARFARE d<{~"""" Th~ ... rm... V_K<.~ ion di'eM of ,h~ "",l~' ~mpore ""I<: ,ureo=dcd b)' ..ide tlal'l>uIlOmN dilchel.. lIoo,k d if pot.Oihk. M:1 runher from ,he ,,·all.., ... '" <:«a,e a ' killin, """",' llke ,I>< bs" of • medr.'al .;nile. In , he H)'ZlIlnune period one find. dooubk "'alls- ,I>< 5th cenlury L.nd '«".lls ,hat made Con,ul1Iinopl< ,mJ>h:, ...blt fuf .., man,· "",,,urin ..... , he n-. fan-.. _ and even. bn:as,.....,..t; Ofl , I>< inne-. faa: of ,t>c di'ch. An n rly imt.l>CC <><XU" a' It>c sic,c of A'ludcia in 361 , " 'here the derenders defu,ed .n alternp' '0 c-roo.s the duch by makin,:. ""ni~ undcT ""'...' of 'a ,uri fc lis·. La,.._Roman """USa l"", rt:qUiTro a idct bcTm for ..ability : 'My ......... no' , t>c "" 'elled .. mbankm ~l1Is of 'he early' empire, bu' ,hick cu rta in ...alls of conerere rubb le fac"Cd ",i ,h ma.onry', agaIn like a medieval ea" le, T h..r.. is a ",ide >'ari..,y of huildi!\~ ' <:ehnique,' brick facing, like Aurdi.n' , walls at Rome; small a,hl. r ",ilh h<'nding-eourse, of bri ck, , ee n ar its m,,,,r regular in ' he Diod e_ lianic ",ail s "f Y ,nk ; . nd nften m. "mr y i, fr.nkly irr~~ular, The use of " !\-. ged ma, erial is cx,mmun, induding monumenlal ",-'ull" ure. and '",nb" onM , Ci ly ",ails in p.r1i cu lar betra,· im p, ,,,,,...'ion . " d h e. by' """'eri ng d,." icall l· reduced c~rc i.., wm ~ [ im ~, 110 mo re lIun a '''''add' , or bl' ir>coT_ pont,in, earlier buildmgo, like the " ..ns of Rome. Some G.Uic perimele.. i,,co'po""e lhe ompI11lt>c.II<: ••• kind of bastion•• fe.' ''1<: ..·hidl,. a1fddl' found a, T ric-r 'here , he latllC encein' .. " ... buill .tlct "C in ,he late and centutJ. Thts amphi'hea're ....· Ihe ri... &lid fall 01. 'he Gallic mobile army : heft: in 306. ...hile Trier " -as his line< <::IIpi''', Con_ stan'i.... 'hr...... F rutkish king. to the " i ld century Iale, . in the m,~ioon of 406-07 . i, ...-as the lasl I<:fug ~ of.he l'Of'ulation l>' lI"el<:n, '<:ehniqucs arc found " 'l1h,n , he &lUlle ci'cuit. At lhe Saxon shore fon of Richborough. Diodetianic in Slyle b.., da"l\Jl; perh aps '0 , he reign of Probus. 0... c",n stt dunges of pane rn In ,he ma.onry· be_ ,ween Ihe work of Ofle build ing g.ng and . he ne><' . In lhe mai n walls of Ni"".a ( h nik), or alx' ul lhe ...me do[e. one can see " ,me D -.hared I" w"n of ,imher· laced c"O"er«e fO<.'e d ",ith bri"k, on a roundo"on of c<>iu mn drum., others ,ha' ate ,c...'.n~ular, hecau.e they ",ere ,It., ''''0 bcas,.;. buill of magnifice nl ••hl. r l.ken from a public buildin,:, pe'hal" ,he lhea're. T he pfO j«tlna bas, ion, ,,'hich dom i_ na[e .., many l.le-Roman encei"'.... sometimes a ' modc-rnisalion ' .dded (.. in Brilain) ' o . n u;'11n, ,,-all, pro>idcSitiorn. for anillcr)' . \ll'hen J ..lian rt:bmh a Troiani<: ou'POO' ,n Alamann 'ern.o'T in 3n , he " .. .,.reful ' 0 install 'an illeT)' for lhe ..'all,'. ~ "~e . .." kinds. (he haJli.." and ,he ·""" pion'. Tht haili"a. me,.1 pa"s of .... hich han hccn fou nd in '''-0 late-Roman OU' POOlS acTOS' ,he [J.~nube, ..... ,he ..me ....he 'field anilI..ry· nf Traian's ('.olumn•• ''''n-armed lonionenglne lhat hTCd bol .. ; , h~ Slon~· liring MJI",,, ..... m. to h""e been obsole' e in , he [..c_Roma n period, .bolIgh p ari. of 0 ... dal ing from Ihe lirst half or lhe 3rd centu,y have !>cen round on ,he II-le ""l'<"amian f",n,i,r., H •• ra . There is a lo"g .uny in • G rr< k ,nur..., of • gunner in lhe r ei~n of Probu, ",ho . hot a man peering out or. I',,"ern gale , Anecdote, or "ear mi.", in Ammianu< confirm ,h a, l h~ bal/i'la ",o<.n effective ",eal'<,n : ol\<,h .imed al Julia" killed a " ,ld ier hy' his . ide; a d ien' king or the Persians klOl hi. son in lhe ••me ""y a' the siege of Amid• . A' ,h, .. m, , iege , by mO" ing li,'~ 'liltht' /odlli'I"'. lhe Romans ..e re able gun down 70 Persian arrhers " hu had ..,i:ted ,me of I h~ 1<" •.-...... The idenlily- of lhe gunroc.. remain. a prol>lcnt : lhel<: are ....."sol laIC-Roman unu. of lul",,,.,·i . b,u " 'e 01111' hear of , hem .. an [nranlry' csrort of J lllian on a haurdou. ,.......-country jou""" ., and on a fragmen,.ry· hulldll\jl: inscription from , he Crimea . Tht Dilher <::IItapuh found in Iale -Roman . i<'gcs is an inno'·a.ion , lhe •..,.".pion ' (or '''''''get' ) " ... a one_armed ' .....ion el\jl:iroc ,ha, huried a Iarg.. st""" ball . like lhe medic"al mangonel. Amm""nu. has a gruesome "Dry' of an engi"""r ,,·Ito ..ood behind one ,,'hen [( ba.:l:lired. and "'''' "n..,!>cd 10 an unTCCOln'.. hle pulp. Tht 'scorpion ' .... crucial.l lhe .iege of Amida beea""" il red uc" d ""'eral Persian ",wers. hUI ito drawhack " ... Ihe Yi b",_ rion, ..'hich meanl II had 10 hc liT,d on a ",lid, . e. ilien, pl., fo,m. .\ l a" l· rorl' and fonre..es "'ere sim ply ·hrough' up 10 '0 • new 'l'pe (If Ing:le '""" r in , he Tcig:n of Con... n,in< which ,......andard to """'. fon ., ,I>c fan-.hared 10"'er (it looks more Ilke .n ""ehead ) lhal projectro f.r enough 10 pro"ide enfiladIng: lite down boo:h >ides, ~ .. arrhacol<>gi<::lll ",ide""" of many roc,,' fons being built. and <>QCasionally an el'~- " 'i lnes. a<:n>oJ nt. Tht emperor V.lens in e . 3611 decided to plug a gap [n lhe """,,, !>anube I'' OIItier , ",hel<: " ..... ~.iNc for rair mo re likrl~' hi, infor m" nt , ,a", ' the di.ciplined " ,Idie" ofte n ",or king u r 10 ,heir neck, in ",'ate r' [0 e.i~a~d hI' I.. urian hTigand,. 'a ...alled end o' uTe b ~' lhe .... , where supplies ar.... ill ' ..",cd 1',,, di.",hulion '0 [he soIdie.. defending ,he ",hole l..urian sector' . h mu.. han """n lik.. Vddidrna ncn Inn.hru ck . • quadrangle ,om >quare wi'h proicClin~ ,"""....nd a .ingle fortiiicd PIC , ~nd"''''Ig:. roun l·a.d ,,-jlh • larg e I ..... ~· on ..;,bct . ide. Per ha ps . he mos, ehaTa<1cristic feature of. la",._R<'ImOn f ron' ;"1 i. ,he /JvrgIH. a frcc-. "'nd' I\jl: lo"~. ""."'. of ..·hidt ha"e been U<::ll.... ro ~ , he S..is. Rhine , , he I)anube hcnd nortb of A'luineum . and .be Iron Ga,... sector. The ~' lill ,he gaps he",'een fons. each DIIC in .ighl of the ....,,,. like lhe .... lCh~ '"""rson an Iron Curla," fron,i..r. They' are .mall ~ual<: .."""u...., soIidlJ built. and mon: lhan one "orel' high. ,ince ,hey nflen ,"Onlain lhe ba.... for ftoor,u ppons. On< "I' . he la'l""', which happens '0 he mentioned Ily Am mianu" i. Robur r SI TCn~l h') on the enem~' bank ,,,,,,,,,,i'e Ha.le: il ",.•• [3m sq ua. e with lu rrets al lhe corners and ",all. 4m [hick, buill on a 'raft' of ""nCrr," and beam" and mu" ha,'" h'ked like " medi eval "">tIe kCt' p. Some ~I,,~i are prolected hy an oulcr hrea't",ork like a m I,_'ann' '" API'El" D1 X 2 '....U' k ~p , for cxampk ,he ,_".. on , he S<'lnh )'.,.-k altil. Of course the bin,... " ... no! a Iotc-Roman in,"C'Il'Oon. Its n ,ioN.le emerges from ino<."ripliom of ,he Danuhe ""'<:t.,.- south of Aquin. cum ; CQrnmodus in ' SS 'fortified , be whoit' bank with cn'irel)" 1>C'oO"~' and "rongpoints in .uitablc pbcn. to prevent d andcollne crossingo by ra'de..•. It "'*' In nllC ntiaJ clemcn, of bord« con,roI. whi< h had the mer it of being fairly cheap, in 37/ the /nJ.rg~, ' Com' m e r~,, ' (' whic h is why it was built' ) l<MJk a wor king party rrom ,he Fi r" M Url'. legion 4H days to build . A ,peeia l kind of b ~ r~~, ,,'metime, found em the enemy hank " r t hc Rhine and Dan ube ron,iSl, of I ""ntral tower with two wing. wIll, end ina: in ' Utl'Cf', which proi"" in,o ,1>0 ri va , It occm. to hl"e been inlcnded "' I llnding place, presuml hly f" , the pa,rol hoco,s men,;""w by Ammianuo and ",he, ..,.,ren. Then:: is an e),,wi'...... k'COUn t of one bcing built oppou'e ,he ton at A1trip: ' '';th bolllcmcnts s.urrounding i, . . . and frequent openlnp t,om ",iti . nd ot her missiln "'CfC hurled upon them. Then:: " .... panic ,,'hen a Roman 'scorpion' diocllarccd a Slone ball, "'"C'Il tbough no one " ... hll. Aflcr tM> da~ .hey P''' up, regretting they had noI follo,,'C '" • ,,-en garrison , hut rallied il against Aloma"n anod:: ; afl" • mon,h ,he Ger· mans P'"C up, 'mullen", ,hey "''CfC fool s 10 havc ,"""'&h. of ~ng a .",,-n'. The Danubian ..pilOl of Sir· mium " .... ""1)· " eakly defended in 374. when ,''' Quadi .nd Sarma.ian. o·..c rtan Pannonia, b.lI . ... guvrtn<>r ck3n:d 0'1' .he ditc.... and rcpooircd ,he ,,-.l is, and . he invadcn. ' ,,·110 had Iinlc skill in these refinements of "'artare' , tur ned aside. Valent; n;an's pri nci"",1upronen" the Alaman n I:i n~ ,\ I",'i. n . was par · ,jcu larJ;- for midable because 'hc would even atte m pt walied t"wn' . )'e1when Ju lian wa" pl'"inf1s f"r ' ''"0 month, in mid",i n, ... 3S7 'S, bcf<>lC "a"'·a.ion f",,,,,d , hem 10 OIl1t'Cndct.) \l'hen J ulian arri"cd in Gaul , some 4 S G.lli<: as "",II as mi.- fon. and ''''''en, had fallen to , he In"aden : comparc . h;' ,,;.h . he 70 resrorc tuld " 'hy the Gcrnu.ns were .., ~ fuJ. Some I"".... "''CfC strong enough to resi.1 "".filhl .nod::, accord,n, ' 0 Julian '. poIl'lq)'riSl Libani..., but ,herr inhabitanlS could DOl """.Utt' outside the ....11.. inoidc whicc and held il until J ulian arriv«l w;'h • re lieving for ce. In 36g, on ,he eve of Volent inian 's offensive , AI.monn roide.. were ahie to hreak int" Ma, n,. du ring" C hr;" ia" fcsti, 'al hecause th. .. happened to ... no garrison. It seem" 'wo .""-no, c ''''''-no t'" f_·'''''''' " on'- . ... o"d toI>._....... otched " '"'!rom , C"""ob.al,,,.. lou,"", , ' .~~ 0,,,,,,• ., ~ umon , . A "<:<.n, ~uc , ,,,,, 01 ,.... 0.",.. Ch e,toboIl",. , I,.. D,.',,"1t B• ." (< Rocon.~""'"", at a" ~ 01'.. n., p" """''' _'''''' t"" .. .. I. OM ""'" <>nO .,m_ ""","",' "one, '01_" '" mot'" I. W M.. odon IbolIom l " .. ,"tr O FOR T 1Fl CAT JONS AND SIEGE WARFARE therefore, that the barbaTian invaders lacked sophisticat ed siege 1C-chnique" and were forced to rely u pon , urprise, blo<:kacle , and ,he demoralisation of ",,,,md- rate garr iso n,. The Western province s only '"w real ,ioge, during civil war, like Iha' of Aquileia in 36'- Thi, ke)' city, whose resisran~e in Z3 Hhad hrought dow n the em peror Maximinus, was held again" th" usurper Julian by soldiers loyal to Co mtanti m II Its surviving defences are no more impre" ive tha n tho,e of a legionary fortress of 'he early empiTe, and it is diffic uh to appreciate the diffi eolty the oc,iegers foun d in approaching the wall,. Tbey tried in, tead to at_ tack 'he riverfront, by buildi og wood en siege towers on three boats lashed '0gether; but the defenders fire d inc" ndi_ aries whicb set tbe towers on fire, and they fell over. After furtheT .esi"ance, AquiJeia surrendered only whe n its defenders had ocen convinced that Con_ " antiu, was dead. Alm ost all the sieges de, cribed by Ammianus occur on M..opolamia, wh" re both Rome and Persia were the heirs to eenturie. of expe rien ee. Tbe fron tier was roug bly midway between the two cap itals Antioch and Ctesiphon, rellecting the difficuhy bot h sides expeTienced in advancing fTom the iTbase, into the oppo sing network of fortihed towns and mili'ary strongpoint' , A cam!",ign like the Persian offensives of 359- 60, /listat 'hey had ca ptured from the Romans I t years before , and do not seem «) h",'e ha d the 'scorpion' , But the u,e of lhe'e weapt'"' w", , ubordinaled to the prime obie~t of gell ing dose eno u ~h to storm o,'er , or break through, the enemy" walls. There were four pTima ry weapon s_ allofgreat ant iqui,y, with appropriate countermeasureswhich could take a walled town. T hey were battering rams, siege mounds, siege ",w~ rs , and mining. Ideally lhey were used in conjunction, rhe Tam be ing pcrhap, the mo" elfecrive. T he problem was to bring i, safely to the ang le of a projectin~ tower. At the Pers ian siege of B"za bde (3&0), a Rom. n barrage which included iTon b.,ket, of burning pitch hu rled by ' scorpions' ma de this . Imos t im possible , At last the Persians gm • ram into position by fire. p[( ~ ) ting it with wet bullhide, demoli, bed ,he tower and broke in. T he Romans in their attempt to reCaPlUre Hezabde the s. me year used a hug e ram whic h had been emplo}'ed b;' the P"rsi.ns a eentury before ", destT()Y Ant ioch , and ab andone d during tbe ir retreat. It was elaborately fireproofed with wet hides and malerial, and by sm"aring the timblIis"", mou nted on each had gi"en them a deeisive superiori". in hrepower when 'he Pers ians mad" an other sortie and succeeded in setting ,he mound, aligbt by . tuffing burning coals into tb e bTa nch es and reed bun dles they contained, Siege towers eould be used in much the same wa}' 'he Persian, at Amid a moun ted a ballisra on lOp of each . In J ulian's siege of Pirisaboro (363) pre!"'rotions for building a siege lOwer red uced lhe gar_ ri, on to , urrende r. Certa in featuro, in Weste rn fortifie.tions -,he u, e of pile foundations and the raising of floors in t"wers_ have been seen as precautions againiege tnb ni'l ue, praUi,ed in tbe mid-4th century, T he detailed narr.tive of Ammi. nus, an im'olunta ry participant , bffomes even more vivid when <me see, ,he b",;a1t waHs whi ~ h still su rro und modern Di}'arhakir. This dusky enceinte has been enlarged and repaired ,i n~e 359, but the im pre~ nable east face, ' beneath which yawned roch so prec ipitous that one could nol 1m . dow n without vertigo·, suh " antially remains th e wOTk of Con'lant ius , In 359 , he Pers ian, WeT< alt em pt in~ a new " rategy, su~~ested by a Roman def",,_ 'or , of by!",ssing the frontier fortTo", of N isibis and advan cing up the T igris '0 de scend on Syria from 'he north-east. The Roma ns were decei'·ed ; but unfort unately for lhe Pers ian strategy_ an d for Am ida- a Roman gunner aimed his bull"'a at ~ elient king and killed his son who rode h,. his side . The Pers ian arm}' was bou nd by its code of honour to ",'enge his death_ at the c,)';t of 30,(lOO dead an d 74 day, delay, which sa,'ed Syria, Amida was strongly held, by ;t, regula. garr ison of the Fifth Par1 hi,~, four othe r fro ntier legions, and a pair of auxiha which had heen drafted from Gaul f()T , upporting the usu rper Magnen tiu•. T he latter played no real P' r! in the siege (Ammi.n us' description of them as ' legion,' i, a literary archai sm): the i, sort ie, were as destr uctive to them, d ve' as to the Persian" T he five legions, howe"er, fought tenaciou.ly and skilfully, and migh, have saved Amida but for bad luck At first the Pe,..ians tricd to ,torm lhe waUs with the help of elep han ts, ' hidwu, with their wrinkled bod ies., m",t gruc.o me ohigh" '. They began to raise siege mounds . nd iron-plated 'owers wilh a balli,w on top , T hen a Roman deserter betra}'cd an under· ground passage which led down to tbe Tigris from one of 'he towers on the ea" side. .<\ fo r~ e of 70 Pe,..ian archers erept into the tower at nigh l through the passag"; next da ~' they ope ned fire, ",vcring an atte mp t to storm the walls, bUl were dri,'en off by balli"a liTe. The Romans ach ieved another,ucee" wben the fire fro m their 's<-,o,pion, ' hrougbt down the Pers ian siege towe" Bu' disaMcc " ruck whe n a moun d raised ins id e the ir wall, _ t" counte r ' he Pe,sian mounds-collapsed , bridging ,h e gap between the w.H and the Pers ian mound . The Pe"ian, thtew in all their IT(X'P' and stormed inw Am ida, Street fighti ng c~>n t inu ed all d . y, but Amm ianus prudently lay low until nightfall, when he , lipped ou, of an u n~uarded pt," ern and ' returned beyond all hope 1 APPENDlX l R oman Military C ost u me \ \ ThIS...nes <>f pamlinp , 10 illuM..,te Ihe devdoprnen. <>f Roman m,Ii'H)' cosoome (rom lhe u • ...,mury a<; ' o .he 3.d <:en'u')' .\P, "we pain.ed by . he auu" ,th the help of If, Ruuell Robinson for . he RomlSCh-Genn.onis<:hnZmlralmu""..... a. ,\\lUlll' and = on eli.pLoy . he«o. Sumbcn . 8 and I' have been added 10 'aU lhe series through 10 lhe bcyinn,n, or lhe Sl h ...,noory, l'umbe.. 1- 1' _ pI.Ibh.hed I>en, b~' , he kin.! permiWon of .he Romis<:h· Ge rmanitchet Zen.ralm",,",um, '\bin~. ~'hen: po..ible Ihe reoonSlTUoinm _ haW;<.! on arcMeoIogial ,,-,iden..., an d ",nfi rmed by .""lp.ural or 0100 .n i. , ic eviden~ . Th. archa..,logical evidence incre..... in quali. y an d q""n,it ~' u p un[il . he "",ond lulU of . he ." century .nd . hcn decline. rapidly 50 that for ,he be'l pet i"d we know cvery qotili/~ il seem, be op{ioniI ,,'hich " 'ay round he: "'ea" .hro!. Doher .undard beaten """r lhem on the rig ht The anilTllll K 'M ..urn b)' sundard Mare.. seem vary according 10 rank , -aIm wnr bon loki M and ",hen " 'ear bear ski ",. H~-...- Prac "e,,,,, .0 .0 ,kin" can _'hf~, ,".n, _ Se--eral i,em, of equipmenl mn..n he:re are nor: included in Ihe rlUlin bod~' of the boot . T he helm... worn by the ca"alrylTllln I') i, r"""n..ruCled from pie..." found It Koblenz- Bube nheim in German )'. The helm... wom by the: archer (I ') i. from Bry."""· et, (Ka raaa""h) in Hulgaria, The cuira.. worn by ,he legionary (141 i> recon "ruetcd from frAgment. fou nd at l'ewstead . SeOllan '" R ighi Lo t. 'OOUI>h<:. " 1Oogl""0'l' " mod ;,-Itn o,at ,"V' Hm , o' v,1o M,,"' ofo'h"" n. '01M, "'",' ,""' , , ;,-" pli. 'M ,wOta ROM AN M ILI T ARY COST UME , ,~ ~ ot '.. I. . "'" 01 . . lSI ........... All 0 --""-"" __ _....... "' ... ,_ _ "~. ,,_"' ... ,..-.-"0_ .~ ond • •- . . .... cres_ APPESDIX 3 . ~ .... _ _ 01 .,.....,. f.......- -1.. - . / > 1 ) ... _ '" - '" .... """II" 01 r • "" .... _ ,0<>0 of,"""",,""""'" ," " ,"""';M " eN""''' ll ogh ' _ ", .... _ _ _1.. "'"""""AD ....... _f« Oppm'. .............. __'. _AO__ _"'_..... ........... _ , 1.-- ....... IOIt .. _ _ _ .... G.-.. Ol,-... _ .... ..,. , ~ .........., - ... '" l\o»>.I$ .... '" ,..".,....." "" ,... _ _ 01 F........ • • , APPEl"DlX 3 ~, - .... """"' ........ "" - "" -'"'"""""""*" --_.•....,., -----_ ...-01...·- ... ~ .... 01"" _ "'''''''' n.o.e _ .. _ _ ' ; .. . .......... .0.0 ••_..., .,..., ..-, """,,,,,,,,,,, E-. • "",,,",",,", R,;'" A ~"",,",,,",." 0,,"'1"_2""""""'" AD • ROMAN M ILITA RY CO STU ME at ..... _ _ ...-at ..... T_ _ ...,.2~ ...... ..,T....... _ __ 1bno;Joo. API'E N llI X 3 ... """"""'" ...... ~ of ,.,. _ ... 1",; ............ _""r.•,..,.CoI....... rho ""'.......... """"" "" .... ~ ,."n ... "" - . _"".- ~---" ~"' ......... " '" L.U ... p,....,."" 11"._ at .... Zr \6 " •••,,,,,, . .... , ...... '" .... Loo "" M _"", 1........ no .-..:0 "" .... ....'<1 .......... on .~ ~-Il ...,g'" _ ,"", - '" c 100 ..0 6'/ 0Q0N n" ",. """......... ~ ...... 'fIe~" """ ,n.oI ... ,,~, ,. ROMAN M I LI TARY CO ST U M E " '" A.,.._ "' .... _-)r~ - " " ' _ "'_~ _al .... ..,.,. " - So-outotog >l.. _ .. _ .... O""E......".. _ of tl>t A PPES O l X ) - . ......,...0<1 of , .. ..... . 30" """..... .... '''''"'' '110 P,,,,,, OU," f",,,,,,,, _ "" R Ogh' A e...,rv o!l.co' e .4CXl AD .... to "', H.. "'Ply"" 01 S,,''''''' '" Acknowledgments Bibliography TI,e ' lllhor would like [() ,ha General w. Ke nd ri~ k P ritc he ll Professor II. II, Scullard The late .I-\ r H. Russell Robinso n of the Tower of L<md on Dr G. Rirc hic Dr 11, Hurst of the Briti' h Carth' ge Expedilion Dr U. Schaaf! 01' the Romisch Germanisches Zentralmme um, ,\ \, im Dr L Srcad or ,he Rom.no-Bri[ish Der aUment 01' the Ilritish ."Iuse" m Dr V, Maxfield 01' the Uni' -e" ity ofExcrcr Dr D. J Breeze Dr E. Kun, 1 of the Riimisel\ (;ormanisches Zentralmuseum, M.. inz Dr H, G. Horn of the Rhcini,c !Jcs L"ndcsmu, oum, Bo[m Dr K V. DecKer of the Mitlelrheinische' l.,nd.sm u,eum , ,\ l. inz .\\r .\\. Hass.lt of the Insti,ute of Archaeology Dr M. Rox"m or the In,,;,u' " of Archaeology .\ \r M, Macdon a The Greek and Roman Department of the Brili' h M",e um The SOCiOty for [he Promotion or Hellenic Studies The S" oiny for [he Promotion ofRmnl rt S[udie, Lieutenant R A..\1 S..\\d vin and the membe rs of Exp<:dil inn Alpino Ekph. lH All photographs are by Peler Conno lly oxcept the I'ollowing' I JTL 4' 62 Snark International \Vad sworth .~thene aum , Hartford , Connecticur S,"" 1l s". I. ,l1 us.. du Bardo, Tu nis, photo \'(.'illi.m (;ra ham I47,148.I 50IlL Khdnisches L. ndesm useum 161TR ,\\acd"nald Educn< ionalillaymun l);'lIliams 196 Servil io Editoriale Forogranco n6 B .~l i ch ael Holford/Brili' h Museum 1'1 Stu dies in Ancien t Grak To pngra p hy V niva ., ,, 1964. Arms a nd Arm ou r of the Gree ks T ha"''' a" d }{,,,lsan 1967. E. Konz e Bcnc ht Olle r di e A\lSgrallu ngen in Oi ymp ;a. Deu isches Archiiologische' /m t ;t m . P. Ro u ss el, M. Feycl Le ' l{e~l emenl Miliwi rc Trcuve 3 Amph ipoils . Reve"ue Arch i"lofl ;q~ , 193 4, 19.15. I' . W. Walb ank A Hi'toric" l Co mmemary on Polybiu s Oxfo rd U" h 'ersi'y P r"" 1957, 1967, 1 979, Ph iiip V of Ma ce don , Cam bridge r ~4 0 M. M. Markl e T h e Mace donia n Sanssa, Spea r and Rel ared Armor: Am erican .1ounl al of Archaeology ( 8/) 1977. V. Bianc o l'eroni Die Schwen er in Halicn (P,iih isrori, che Bronzer und e) M u"ich 19 70 , H . Henken Th e Ea rliest Euro pean Heimel s, Peabody Museum, Harvard U"h'ersi,y / 971. V. Ci anfarani I\n tic he Civiita d'Ahru zzo. De L~ w. R o me 1969. H . H. S~ u llatd Th ~ Erruscan Cmes and Rom~. TI,,,.... ""J HwJs.>" . SCipIO Afncanus' Sold ,~r a nd P<.>liri~ian. Til".... ""d IIwd, o" 19 70 , Th~ EI~phall1 In me Gr«l< and Roma n 'X'orid TII,,_ , ...,d H w4u>" 19?4E. T . Sal m on Samnium an d Ih~ Samnites, C....h..,'l" 1967. Roman ColonlSl,ion und~r Th~ Republic. TIl...... .. "d f( ..dJo" 19 69. 1.". !khaa lT Friilat~n~ullhch~ GrabfunM mil Helmen vom Typ Berru. and Kellischc Ei.~nh~lm~ au s vorromlscher Zei!. J"h tio..eh <Us R o", ;scll (, ,,,,,,,,,i,, h,,s &""../"'.......... M .. ;,, ; 197.l, 1974 II. G. 1I0r n . C. H. KUKe r Die Nu mlde r, 1/11';" ;" 'h" L ,,,,d,,,,,,,,.,,,,,. /l,,,, ,, 19110, H. Sa n d ",. \li eapons of thl· Ibe rians, A rch .. , ol"iia (~ 4) /913 A. Sc hu l ln Num a ntta , M""ieh /914 -11, J. Krom a ye t a n d G . Veil h Schlachten-atlas zur an nken Krie g. gesch ichlC. Go,/r.. / 911. T. Fu n k P1ac~nria and rhe Bank of lh~ Trebbia, ]o>......t of R.-." SluJ~ / 91 9_ J. Harm an d L.·armt'e el Ie Soldar i Rome de 107 i <;0 avanr ~ M A , (if 1- /'i=ro 1967. D. J. Br«u a nd B. lIo b . on ""drin's Wall, A lh _ J.""" Pc"pi.. &>alt, 19 7&. CII"p'''' j ....d 6 trill. , h,h!wll''''''Y' G . R. Wa t.... n 1llc Roma n Soldier TI", ..e... IId H w ~ 1% 9. II. D..\1.. Parker The Roman Legrens. Orford 19111, G. L Ch« s m a .. The Aultilia of the Roman Imperial Army. Oxforo /9 14. H. ku.~11 Ko bi "'''n The Armou r or ImpcTlal Rome. A ...." .." d A..."o,,, /"Tt .. 1975. .\t. I. Roston~~ lT The excavarion al Dura Eurnpa. 6,10 .... 'M. 1916. J. Olde n s le in Zur Ausrii.ru ng rnmischcr Aulliliareinhei ltn . B~riell, d" R~ ..i.d-G"...".."iscll." K.>....i..w" ( 5 7) 19 76. H, Klu mba ~h Sp:uromische (ia rdh d me .\I"..icll 19 73. J. S. Morri so a a n d R. T. William. Gr«i:. oared Shl!'" 900-3U ':' C....hridt< 19611. L ea.son Ships and Seama nship in the An~iem 'X·orld./'n"ee'_" 1971. H. Fro.. The Puni c 'X'reck in Sicily. l",~ ,i,,~ 1J"" ,,,,,I of S a" ,ie..1 A " Il oI"IY I'"r ] "". I .."d 1'01. 3 .. " " . I. G. ll~dli I.e N.v! <.II M~ni. lI" m, 1950. II. lI u rl l T he Excavarll\Tls at Ca rth . ge (The Milirary l'I\l r) . 7"J.. A lII iq" " ,i" J()"m,,1 19 7~ ' ''''' I/. F. E. Wi llie r (jre ek F<>rtilicaTions, R,,,,,I. dg. "" d K' /f" " 1'.. ,,1/971 , Ii . W..\b rode n The Campal~n of Gaut.mela f .w J- H. W u d I'cr k in s Veil. the H"'I\,l cal Topography of ,he Ancient Cuy. 1'''1'''' "j 'Joe Brill./o S"/o",,I .. , H,,,,,"e 09) 196/. -"'. J. Jonn Roman rOrl ·Defell ces 10 ." " 1' 7· B ...",/o A r ,ns. J. f . Coa ln c ' 81 TIle Tnre me Tn. ls 19 88 Re,..,., .... •11. A~ttl,, · H:w (1994) . The Late-Roman Army A. II..'1 . Jones The l..or~r Roman Empire ~ 8 ~ -602. (196 4) , esp. ell. 17. D. 1I0 lfm an n Dis Spatr(xn ,sche Ilc.'cgungshcer. (196'70) . II . I. Be ll E. W. .' brlde n Greek and Roman Anillery: Histo rical Development (/969) . D. Baa tz 'gecenr rinds of enctem artillery'. 8 m a"" i" 9 (/978) Forlifiu lio n s "d. Tod d rue 'X·aU. or Rome, ( / 9 78)_ S. J oh n son The Roman Fons or rhe Saxon Shore. (/976) . Conlr~", of Roman Frollrier', Studies, Colleel 'ForlrilkaUons in the norm-western Roman empire from rhe 31d ro me 5th centones Atf. ] RS 6/ (/9 7 f ) ;' , Index Poge " umo. " '" '>o'd 'ef", to ,II""" ,,,,, , M,n "ev' 2 ,2_3. 155 Abydv'. , ;ege of 186 _ ",,'i116_7. 127 .1 18 128 130 A"" n ae. "ege of ~O . 14 0 ACh,,,,M,193 Aero o 148 Ac,opOl" , the 11, 15 Ae'o"," ' of Sp" " 90 Ad,;aoop lo, "'1:le of 2 51, 15' · 8 . "ege ot 302 Aeg"e, " I, od•. """. of 14 5 A"f);n, 12,lGJ Aeg o,powno " of 16 4 A""u, B9 . 101 Aet,u, 1 58 Ae'o l',n l . , g ue 6 B "')em.> 10. 19. 00. BI agge' (ram o"t) I 3 ~. 13'l :143 "1Io'.nes n BI AIIf;ge" ," m {Ag r geoto) " ege 01 I 44 1 ~1 , 196. 192 - 3 Aheoobarbu'. Go ,,", Dom ,"o' ' 59 u-.",. ~Ii'e 114 81ae sociO'um 1 34 Alaman ", 149 . 250, 152 . 2 51 Albro", . Lv, rbus 226 118_9 Amb"c" . ,;ege 01 286 · ] Am,da, """" ot 303 Amom ohareM 33 -,. " 4 7 Amph ,,,,,,;, m,';"'" <X>Oo" . G'ee, 162 26 3 . Rom, n :172 " o" , "";c'" 69 '''''Y .ngusPcI,vi,I2'-1 A"OP~' p>lh 20. 21. 2l AO" Q""" 67. 8 1 8 3 Ao ,;och u' III 68 . 8 1· 2. 200 Ao ,o oy. 21 1 Apo""" ;', "ogo 0' In Aw , n 144 ADU';' 105. 'eOOOo " "t 01 I 96 ot 301 , 30 3 .q,, M", A.qu,'.,..''''9<' A,,";, .,co,,,,,,,, 213 arc oype"H8S 77 .,g>">sp'df,,. "'" ; ,1"., ,Mid' Ar;m;"um I ~;m; " ;j 146 A" "'de' 26. 19. 32 Ar;"tOdem " ,1 4 An""",, 110. 111 a'milla. 24 5 146 An ',o 70 . now !lead' C'eto o 50 G,",,' SO Scyth,," 60 Arta',.,u' 36 Anem" lum. b""o at 18-10, 20 . 24 A,". p,,,,,,,,u, 7, _6 , " B.by''''' 67 8 .g-,6" P ," " ". b , " l. 0 1 152 CO'" >' 11 4 . 11 ~. 11S C, rt,goo" ' 08 Now C"'h,g. e"th.ge. " atTle " 144 , oe" 'u <" "" by $o, p,o A. m;r;.n u' 10 1. deleat ' 0 $ 0"0 19 5. 191 · 8 . ' 99 - 10 1 Poo,o wa, 14 3_5 . ;"va<,on '>y Pu""u, S" p 'o 10 1- 5. n, ,,,, 27 1_ 2, 'ecooQue. t S"",,, I ~0 -6. 14 7, <0<0"" Pu n '" w ar 147_205. , ;_ of 193 29 5. ' ;01/0 tact ;O' 179 CaM 149 , 100 C"i';o""" , .""e of 190 . 192 ( ",.nd e,67 C,,,'.O ~ e " \, 116 ( " ' ''99 ;0 , "''''0 at 146 C.180l>r8O" 135, rae-a. 259. 259 , 3 13 ,"" pull' 179 _80 . 281 18 1 282. :183. 288 bal/i" a 301 ( "0 :t07 6"". H,m,lc" 140 , 14 7 6arca, H" d'" b,1 18 7. 148, I 07. 182, I 87. 18 8, 19 " I B7_B 6 ar " , , ;. ge of 28 6 274 b,"er;og l'! 6. 2 77 2 80. 28 3_4 . 285 . 2 B6. 187,303 o.lt, cingulum jeD. Rom, ,, {;mpa r,, ') 232 13 4 R" m,o (" '0 1 160_1 261 S. mo ,,, 108 109 10 &. 110 ",,, ,oIiCl8r,us 123 6eCChi.,i 15 ' bra, on , h;eld, 77 b'.."olat",. 10 1_2 10 1 E'M co· Ro m," 91, O". n 101 _1 , 10 1 102 . ",,,,,O', le I 3 1. 13 3 ROO'," l'ep u~ I ,CO") 13 1. 133, S. m";,. 10 5 107. 108, ' 0 9 . 109. " 0 _11 V,II,nov," 91 C,"d ;ne Fo '.,. bI<,. 12 ch .",,,o" , 112 11:1. 23 5 Ch."O" , C.I " o 11 4. 124. 1 25 I 20. 0"" 0 100 Rom.o (, erlvl 9 1 Ch.; ,ob.II ;, ta 302 Ch'Q' va,e 37. 38 -9 ,1.5 3 eMiarch 70, J6 cMwc·h y 7 0. n Ch'o' . ba't1e of 16B C',;O"" 17 3 C;1y state' . G ,,,"" 1 I - I 2 36 CI,"d ,n 10 3 Cloud,u,ll1 149 . 2,0 Cloombo"m u, 1O OMmeo.. ' 1_1? 14 , 68 Clibanarii 10) . 258 1 5~ . 81so see coraf}hr/IC,i c""'ate " " me of H"o ,t»' 10 7 cohort,. P"" o<; '" Coho'" 21 4-7. :1 2~ . 15 1 Rom.o 214_ 8 . Ro ma n {C"",,,;. n ) 213 11' Rom. n (;mper;. ') 1 I 6 · I 7. Roma n l'oO"b l'o,n ) 130. 130. COOO'" 21 0 _1, " lJ'f8S 126. 221 - 8 CO l d. L"cM 104 Col d. I. Trove" ette 164 · , 1 o~ COlO. rE cMlI. 160 Cot du CI,p"" 1 6 ~ COl Ou Mom Con " 16 5 Col do Mo nt g eo ~v' e 164-5 (01<'''"' 0 1 Rh""" 286 comim e nses 153. Z54. 156 , 300 C"", modu' 111 Com P'"''''''' 'h. 68. 10. 71. 73 , 79 A" I. M,oo ' 66 , 68 ,,",o pus 14 . 21 AtMo, 11_1 1, 13, 25, 29. 36. 6 ~ ·6 , .,my 38 fO'O ;ficII1 ;0 0, 274 0' '''' 161_8, , , _ '"C"O' 178 _9 Analu, sa. 268 An ,," I I August'" 21 1 n 4-0 A" ,. ';.n 250 A"'e" " . M,· w ' 1 12 'uXo' o 97 0 ' c, 0 1 03 . IOo va""" ".y(> b" """ "m, see ou,,"", et br;a ges, Romao 240 14 1- 2 B" ", n 1 11 burgi 301-2 B,,,nl;"m 55 C" " ". G,;"J "'; "s 110 2 ' 1 2 1~ .1 93 -8 196.197 caw8,,80 C,I,"-,. 18B C, I" " ' 90 . 19, C"';"h.n., 69 C"ore v, IIey . b.,,, . on 19 1 ," I1 ,Op, 74. 2 92 , 193 C,mp, o;, 10 5. 112 . l B9. 190 19 1· 1. 1931 9 ~_6 cam p , . Rom. o I 35 -80. 1 3 ~ ·1 . 138. 242 , :143 47 C.n o,e. bat tle of , 16 . 149. I B3· B. 183 18 5 $p,""" ". C. p. " " oo w.,,, o, ' 0 1 _1. 101 104 e . pu ' 105, 189 , 190 , 19 1, 19 3, IB4_0. 200 1nl93 f,," 0' ,evo" p""., U,b'" L>vn"""""". _ Como-ltonlall 89 ~_ ... 0 - •. 103 . do...... _ ~m 2~1·2 Cono GoNl Cono 2!oQ 252 " 2»-'. 15e eo.- 25J. JOO M 2(,1 Cons 2'~1 '. _~" fl . ""' ,_ _ M. " ""' , _ In 119·30, '". )1 0 """'" 1 ).1, U1 e-251 eo-....,.. ... 152. 1.,. 211 """,1<1, Carl "OII'...., 1.. 7 . 148. Coo4t<: 122 123_5. coM_ 19- 80, 97. 99, 100. 100 '''' _ 5S-8. W . 12. G,,,' "","" 0 , 5 , JI , M, 9 7. """ r.8_9 , se 80, ......, U . ~ .. . 6 7. S8. MI .8 70 . 72. 80 9 9, ~ "I9fIlM"'" 2ZI 2 30. 231_3, 24 4. 2~9. 308. 000.., 10 1 10 2 - J , pi """ I,nen 80.99. Qu,". d 80. 61 R"", .n IC,"," ", nl 214 Aomon {,mp.o",,) 221 237. 23 9. SQ8 .,,,,",,,,·R_ n (1" 0) 259. A"",on {IOpUol,con I1 33 13:1 2 27 . SO"""'" 10 7 l Oll. ' 09_11 , 11 0 11 1 "''''... 1''''"''''''''... 1 80. ~' ''''''''''on 9' !1 9J_4 . t3 C...... 81. 68 . lOb C _ ~ .....,.. ot 611 IJ. 80. 8J. :IOb_6, ~N' 15, 19 13 0 _ . CoObo 118. " . Oa<.on 103 100. - . <e-....., 227 IIoman <.--,",j nt. 23:1_'. _ .:KIt IIoman I....) 260. -.t_...... 131_3. !IO-l. 6 lro, 111 11J, fqu<_ C"""... IS -" -~ Domoo-alUO ,n" ,;",, "' ",",.. I S, 16 13~-~. 17 ~ , F. t>o... 191 ' _ 95 22.. f,_ F.............. n. . . ..,. 178 _9, 178 FIocc. , 193. 19S. 196. 197. 198. 201 au"""",, 20!>-8 148. 172. 11~ ......,ca-. ......... 21.. (""""-' 288 _' 190--1. NO Itl , ."" 188-90 ""004 .'" 17" 270 276. _ . 2119 290 1111 2&l. 2IZ 2M li7-8 JOO-l._ 190--' zw.. 1~. '- " -,. -,. -,. -,. 0 - -.. 1168 _ ... 1'.11 Ooodo• .., 2!1O. 251. 155 JOO 131 2S1 J02 _22J ~IS"""") " ~""l!>O GoII_ 20i·!oO ~ " ' ...._ 31. 33 :JoO _ _.171 2f1 m Ooogno..... 285 ~tow.VO 276. G.~•. lloonv>o'" I 279 G.... 210_1' < 1 _ 223 12 4 Oo<" n' 11 Down. Ant,V"J' ee. 81 G"•. t>o" .. '" l1. 10 Gom,,,,,, 172. \76. 118. 183. 19 1. 1811 Gonoa 102 G.. manv 21 I G. ,"" ,"m, b." .. '" ll11J 18 ' _J, 181 locat;oo lloonv>o., ton 2ft JOO 0.,.,.,..... ot ..0I0e0t......... 87 o.-op,n. (T"""n,) ' U -S Dvc.rou, ' 15 Du". , iogo 01]03 bo'" 0' ..." ,,, AJ:>o , e-4 - 5, 16<1 ''''-' '• ..,,,'• • RhOne ' , 9· 63. 1110 161 l i Z ' I~ , ,," AIO' 1 6~- 6, '""" ' 0 ' .. RO'>6<>o '59 " '''''0152. 18 1. III, 193. m ..._ .. AI...... 2. . 281. eo""",," 268 269-10, H ' 2/ 1, M<>tvo 27 1 Samoo 269 ... o 'Pu'" """' . voc.,i 116 \ 30 o' """'-0. .,.,... 61, 161. 2 81 -~ I",. '06. 1"'·8, '''9. 152 Pp , . 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