Handbook of Research on E-Learning Methodologies for Language Acquisition Rita de Cássia Veiga Marriott University of Birmingham, UK Patricia Lupion Torres Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Handbook of research on e-learning methodologies for language acquisition / Rita de Cassia Veiga Marriott and Patricia Lupion Torres, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-59904-994-6 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-59904-995-3 (e-book) 1. Language and languages--Computer-assisted instruction. I. Marriott, Rita de Cassia Veiga. II. Torres, Patrícia Lupion. P53.28.H365 2008 418.0078'5--dc22 2007052786 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book set is original material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication.
Editorial Advisory Board
Clarissa Jordão Universidade Federal do Paraná, Brazil
Peppi Taalas University of Jyväskylä, Finland
Felicia Zhang University of Canberra, Australia
Piet Kommers University of Twente, The Netherlands
Gavin Dudeney The Consultants-e, Spain
Steve Mann University of Warwick, UK
Jacques Viens Université de Montréal, Canada
Terry Kidd University of Texas, USA
Jeannette Littlemore University of Birmingham, UK
Vera Menezes Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
Panayiotis Zaphiris City University London, UK
List of Reviewers
Adail Sebastiao Rodrigues Junior Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil
Irene Mamakou University of Peloponnese, Greece
Ademilde Silveira Sartori Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC), Brazil
Janae Gonçalves Martins Sociedade Educacional de Santa Catarina (SOCIESC), Brazil
Alejandro Martins Sociedade Educacional de Santa Catarina (SOCIESC), Brazil
Jenifer Prettyman Matthew Bolton College, UK
Ana Maria Carneiro Costa Silva Universidade do Minho, Portugal Astrid Gesche Queensland University of Technology, Australia Beatriz Regina Tavares Franciosi Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Brazil Betty Rose Facer Old Dominion University, USA Bryan Carter University of Central Missouri, USA Christine Rosalia New York University, USA Edemilson Jorge Ramos Brandão Universidade de Passo Fundo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil Euline Schmid University of Education Heidelberg, Germany Fabricio Ricardo Lazilha Centro Universitario de Maringa (CESUMAR), Brazil Gerson Pastre de Oliveira Faculdade de Tecnologia de Jundiaí (FATEC), Brazil
Jing Wang Allegheny College, USA Kevin Wilkinson Anglia Ruskin University, UK Lorena Llosa New York University, USA Lucia Izabel Czerwonka Sermann Centro Universitário Franciscano do Paraná (UNIFAE), Brazil Mahieddine Djoudi University of Poitiers, France Malinee Prapinwong Indiana University Bloomington, USA Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Italy Marcos Vinicius Santos Kucharski Universidade Tuiuti do Paraná, Brazil Margareth Murphy Griffith University, Australia Mauro José Kummer Pontificia Universidade Católica do Parana (PUCPR), Brazil
Renata Chylinski LaTrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
Snea Thinsan Indiana University Bloomington, USA
Ria Hanewald LaTrobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
Victoria Russell The University of South Florida, USA
Robert Zheng University of Utah, USA
Xiaotian Guo New Vision Language Centre, UK
Rosângela Schwarz Rodrigues Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Brazil
Yasunori Nishina University of Birmingham, UK
Sarah Guth University of Padova, Italy
List of Contributors
Abdous, M’hammed / Old Dominion University, USA ................................................................................. 339 Akayoğlu, Sedat / Middle East Technical University, Turkey ........................................................................ 291 Alastuey, Mª Camino Bueno / Public University of Navarre, Spain............................................................. 480 Altun, Arif / Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey ....................................................................................... 291 Barata, Ana / Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal ............................................................. 497 Baturay, Meltem / Gazi University, Turkey ................................................................................................... 186 Boyer, Jeff / University of Florida, USA ........................................................................................................ 132 Braga, Junia de Carvalho Fidelis / Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil ..................................... 22 Camarena, Margaret M. / Old Dominion University, USA .......................................................................... 339 Carter, Bryan / University of Central Missouri, USA.................................................................................... 443 Carvalho, Carlos Vaz de / Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal......................................... 497 Chaka, Chaka / Walter Sisulu University, South Africa ................................................................................. 539 Chylinski, Renata / Monash University, Australia ........................................................................................ 387 Daloğlu, Ayşegül / Middle East Technical University, Turkey ....................................................................... 186 Djoudi, Mahieddine / Université de Poitiers, France.................................................................................... 352 Elseth, Dayton / Mohawk Valley Community College, USA........................................................................... 443 Facer, Betty Rose / Old Dominion University, USA ...................................................................................... 339 Gesche, Astrid / Queensland University of Technology-Brisbane, Australia ................................................ 524 Grigoriadou, Maria / University of Athens, Greece ...................................................................................... 456 Guth, Sarah / Università degli studi di Padova, Italy .................................................................................... 424 Hanewald, Ria / La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia................................................................. 104, 387 Irala, Esrom Adriano / Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil............................... 307 Isharyanti, Neny / Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia................................................................ 271 Jarvis, Huw / University of of Salford-Greater Manchester, UK ................................................................... 367 Juhary, Jowati / The National Defence University of Malaysia, Malaysia ................................................... 151 Laine, Päivö / Seinäjoki Polytechnic, Finland ................................................................................................ 497 Leffa, Vilson J. / Universidade Catolica de Pelotas, Brazil ............................................................................. 39 Li, Zhuo / University of Florida, USA ............................................................................................................ 132 Liu, Feng / University of Florida, USA........................................................................................................... 132 Llosa, Lorena / New York University, USA .................................................................................................... 322 Mamakou, Irene / University of Peloponnese, Greece .................................................................................. 456 Marriott, Rita de Cassia Veiga / University of Birmingham, UK ................................................................. 120 Martins, Antônio Carlos Soares / Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Januária/Fapemig, Brazil .............................................................................................................................. 22 Matas, Cristina Poyatos / Griffith University, Australia ............................................................................... 253 Murphy, Margaret / Griffith University, Australia........................................................................................ 253 Nishina, Yasunori / University of Birmingham, UK....................................................................................... 204
Nyongwa, Moses / University of Manitoba CUSB, Canada ........................................................................... 165 Okada, Alexandra / The Open University, UK ................................................................................................ 84 Paiva, Vera Lucia Menezes de Oliveira e / Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais/CNPq/FAPEMIG, Brazil ................................................................................................................... 53 Pérez-Paredes, Pascual / Universidad de Murcia, Spain ................................................................................... 1 Petrucco, Corrado / Università degli studi di Padova, Italy ......................................................................... 424 Plana, Mar Gutiérrez-Colon / Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain ................................................................ 409 Ramos, Andreia Ferreira / Faculdade Luterana São Marcos/RS, Brazil ..................................................... 120 Rodrigues-Junior, Adail Sebastiao / Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil ....................................... 53 Rosalia, Christine / New York University, USA ............................................................................................. 322 Sánchez-Tornel, María / Universidad de Murcia, Spain ................................................................................... 1 Santos, Marcus Vinicius dos / Ryerson University, Canada ......................................................................... 165 Schmid, Euline Cutrim / University of Education Heidelberg, Germany ....................................................... 69 Schultz, Rosa / University of Vienna, Austria ................................................................................................. 509 Seppänen, Ann / Tampere Polytechnic, Finland ............................................................................................ 497 Simon, Heli / Seinäjoki Polytechnic, Finland ................................................................................................. 497 Swertz, Christian / University of Vienna, Austria .......................................................................................... 509 Toifl, Katharina / University of Vienna, Austria ............................................................................................ 509 Torres, Patrica Lupion / Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil .................... 120, 307 Viana, Vander / Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ................................................................ 219 Wang, Jing / Allegheny College, USA ............................................................................................................ 237 Woungang, Isaac / Ryerson University, Canada ............................................................................................ 165 Yildirim, Soner / Middle East Technical University, Turkey.......................................................................... 186 Zyngier, Sonia / Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ................................................................. 219
Table of Contents
Foreword ...........................................................................................................................................xxiii Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxx Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................xxxiii
Section I E-Language Learning: Theories, Tools, and Pedagogical Resources Chapter I Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context ............................................................................................ 1 Pascual Pérez-Paredes, Universidad de Murcia, Spain Mariá Sánchez-Tornel, Universidad de Murcia, Spain Chapter II The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities ............................................................. 22 Antônio Carlos Soares Martins, Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Januária/Fapemig, Brazil Junia de Carvalho Fidelis Braga, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil Chapter III CALL as Action .................................................................................................................................... 39 Vilson J. Leffa, Universidade Catolica de Pelotas, Brazil Chapter IV Investigating Interaction in an EFL Online Environment ..................................................................... 53 Vera Lucia Menezes de Oliveira e Paiva, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais/CNPq/FAPEMIG, Brazil Adail Sebastiao Rodrigues-Junior, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil Chapter V Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL.................................................................... 69 Euline Cutrim Schmid, University of Education Heidelberg, Germany
Chapter VI OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning................................................................... 84 Alexandra Okada, The Open University, UK Chapter VII Learning Objects: Projects, Potentials, and Pitfalls ............................................................................ 104 Ria Hanewald, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia Chapter VIII English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR ......................................................... 120 Patrica Lupion Torres, Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Rita de Cassia Veiga Marriott, University of Birmingham, UK Andreia Ferreira Ramos, Faculdade Luterana São Marcos/RS, Brazil Chapter IX Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming ................................................................... 132 Zhuo Li, University of Florida, USA Feng Liu, University of Florida, USA Jeff Boyer, University of Florida, USA Chapter X A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges ............................................................... 151 Jowati Juhary, The National Defence University of Malaysia, Malaysia Chapter XI A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development ............................................................ 165 Marcus Vinicius dos Santos, Ryerson University, Canada Isaac Woungang, Ryerson University, Canada Moses Nyongwa, University of Manitoba CUSB, Canada
Section II E-Language Learning: Developing Skills and Competencies Chapter XII Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material ................................................................. 186 Ayşegül Daloğlu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Meltem Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Soner Yildirim, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Chapter XIII A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle ........................................................ 204 Yasunori Nishina, University of Birmingham, UK
Chapter XIV EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics......................................................................... 219 Vander Viana, Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Sonia Zyngier, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Chapter XV Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills .................................................................. 237 Jing Wang, Allegheny College, USA Chapter XVI Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication ............................................................................ 253 Margaret Murphy, Griffith University, Australia Cristina Poyatos Matas, Griffith University, Australia Chapter XVII Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting ................................................................................. 271 Neny Isharyanti, Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia Chapter XVIII The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC ......................................................... 291 Sedat Akayoğlu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey Chapter XIX The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English.................................................... 307 Esrom Adriano Irala, Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Patrica Lupion Torres, Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Chapter XX Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing .......................................................... 322 Christine Rosalia, New York University, USA Lorena Llosa, New York University, USA Chapter XXI The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes .............................................................. 339 Betty Rose Facer, Old Dominion University, USA M'hammed Abdous, Old Dominion University, USA Margaret M. Camarena, Old Dominion University, USA Chapter XXII Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices .......................................................... 352 Mahieddine Djoudi, Université de Poitiers, France
Chapter XXIII Computers and Independent Study: Student Perspectives .................................................................. 367 Huw Jarvis, University of Salford-Greater Manchester, UK Chapter XXIV Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy .................................................... 387 Renata Chylinski, Monash University, Australia Ria Hanewald, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia Chapter XXV Frustration in Virtual Learning Environments .................................................................................... 409 Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain
Section III E-Language Learning: Methodological Approaches and Future Tendencies Chapter XXVI Social Software and Language Acquisition ........................................................................................ 424 Sarah Guth, Università degli studi di Padova, Italy Corrado Petrucco, Università degli studi di Padova, Italy Chapter XXVII The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning ..................................................................... 443 Bryan Carter, University of Central Missouri, USA Dayton Elseth, Mohawk Valley Community College, USA Chapter XXVIII Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education ..................................................................... 456 Irene Mamakou, University of Peloponnese, Greece Maria Grigoriadou, University of Athens, Greece Chapter XXIX WebCT Design and Users’ Perceptions in English for Agriculture .................................................... 480 Mª Camino Bueno Alastuey, Public University of Navarre, Spain Chapter XXX The LAFEC Experience for Language Skills Acquisition .................................................................. 497 Heli Simon, Seinäjoki Polytechnic, Finland Päivö Laine, Seinäjoki Polytechnic, Finland Ann Seppänen, Tampere Polytechnic, Finland Ana Barata, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Carlos Vaz de Carvalho, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal
Chapter XXXI Language Teaching in Live Online Environments.............................................................................. 509 Christian Swertz, University of Vienna, Austria Rosa Schultz, University of Vienna, Austria Katharina Toifl, University of Vienna, Austria Chapter XXXII Adapting to Virtual Third-Space Language Learning Futures............................................................. 524 Astrid Gesche, Queensland University of Technology-Brisbane, Australia Chapter XXXIII Portable Handheld Language Learning: From CALL, MALL to PALL............................................. 539 Chaka Chaka, Walter Sisulu University, South Africa Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 554 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 595 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 608
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword ...........................................................................................................................................xxiii Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxx Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................................xxxiii
Section I E-Language Learning: Theories, Tools, and Pedagogical Resources Chapter I Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context ............................................................................................ 1 Pascual Pérez-Paredes, Universidad de Murcia, Spain Mariá Sánchez-Tornel, Universidad de Murcia, Spain Pascual Pérez-Paredes and Maria Sánches Tornel investigate the e-skills necessary for foreign language learning as part of an ongoing research project sponsored by the Spanish Ministry of Education. The authors first clarify the terms “skill,” “strategy,” and “computer expertise” in the CALL domain, then discuss the adaptation of course book material used by English language students taking their CEF C1 level in the Lengua Inglesa III 2006/2007 in order to produce more student-centered and constructivist computer-mediated e-material. From data gathered from a questionnaire investigating “e-communication,” “computer use,” “FL-specific skills,” and “Attitudinal/strategic indicators,” the authors draw on feedback and analyze their e-skills model questionnaire. Chapter II The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities ............................................................. 22 Antônio Carlos Soares Martins, Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Januária/Fapemig, Brazil Junia de Carvalho Fidelis Braga, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil Antonio Martins and Junia Braga discuss social presence in blended and online learning environments in light of the Complexity Theory and the Community of Inquiry Framework. The authors analyze the affective, interactive, and cohesive dimensions in computer-mediated communication (CMC) within two learning communities. They discuss the conclusions relating to the pedagogical implications based on the corpus analyzed.
Chapter III CALL as Action .................................................................................................................................... 39 Vilson J. Leffa, Universidade Catolica de Pelotas, Brazil Vilson Leffa discusses the dichotomies that exist in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) for individuals working on their own or working collaboratively and interactively as part of a community. Arguing that to focus on one dichotomy only would be a reductionist approach, or an “or” approach, he proposes instead an “and” approach to CALL. From this perspective, he points out that CALL could then focus on the action of doing something via a mediating tool, and thus become the “CALL Action Approach.” Chapter IV Investigating Interaction in an EFL Online Environment ..................................................................... 53 Vera Lucia Menezes de Oliveira e Paiva, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais/CNPq/FAPEMIG, Brazil Adail Sebastiao Rodrigues-Junior, Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil In this chapter, Adail Rodrigues Jr. and Vera Paiva seek to take the discussion on “footing,” originally presented by Goffman 1981, one step further by applying it to online environments. They propose that footing “is the element that clearly shows how learning is taking place and how interaction unfolds while interactants are contributing to meaning construction.” They consider the categories of social footing, teaching, and cognitive footing, and give examples from their corpus of work by Brazilian EFL students in an online academic forum to illustrate their argument. Chapter V Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL.................................................................... 69 Euline Cutrim Schmid, University of Education Heidelberg, Germany The potential of interactive whiteboard technology (IWB) to support language learning and the teaching of English for academic purposes (EAP) is investigated by Euline Schmid in light of Bax’s theory of the normalization of computer-assisted language learning (CALL). The concept of integrated CALL and the invisibility of technology in the classroom environment is examined against the claim that IWB supports teacher-centered approaches in addition to highlighting the need for devising appropriate teacher training programs. Chapter VI OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning................................................................... 84 Alexandra Okada, The Open University, UK Alexandra Okada examines the open learning movement for language teaching and for fostering language-learning communities using the software tool Compendium developed for the project OpenLearn by the Open University, UK. This is used for knowledge mapping; flashmeetings, which allow for videoconferencing to take place (offering resources such as whiteboard and voting system); and MSG,
“an instant messaging application with geolocation maps” similar to a “personal radar that shows who is online and where.” The application of these free tools for language teaching and an evaluation of student participation are demonstrated. Chapter VII Learning Objects: Projects, Potentials, and Pitfalls ............................................................................ 104 Ria Hanewald, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia Ria Hanewald provides a theoretical view of learning objects and repositories, exploring their potential and application in language education. She discusses issues such as pedagogical neutrality, language, content, culture, quantity, and quality in relation to the production of learning materials, introducing innovative resources and collections of repositories online, and encouraging practitioners to contribute to these. In addition, she discusses the features of learning objects in light of the issues raised, her goal being to foster leading-edge practice and stimulate future research in the area. Chapter VIII English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR ......................................................... 120 Patrica Lupion Torres, Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Rita de Cassia Veiga Marriott, University of Birmingham, UK Andreia Ferreira Ramos, Faculdade Luterana São Marcos/RS, Brazil Patricia Torres, Rita Marriott, and Andreia Ramos give an evaluation of the Learning Objects (LOs) used at the Pontifical Catholic University of Parana, with specific reference to the LO used for English language learning. This is delivered via a Web-based student support system called Sistema de Apoio ao Aluno via WEB or SAAW, which is a development tool offered in the university’s virtual learning environment. The authors discuss the findings, which are based upon qualitative feedback from postgraduate students and the conclusions drawn from the results. Chapter IX Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming ................................................................... 132 Zhuo Li, University of Florida, USA Feng Liu, University of Florida, USA Jeff Boyer, University of Florida, USA The potential of e-gaming for foreign language learning is investigated in this chapter by Zhuo Li, Feng Liu, and Jeff Boyer. Following a discussion of the use on traditional games for language learning, the authors examine the role of student motivation in order to situate e-gaming in the context of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). The challenges encountered within the concept of e-gaming, such as game design, teacher training, and assessment, are also explored. In addition, a number of online resources for use by the foreign language instructor is provided, highlighting the potential of these for foreign language teaching.
Chapter X A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges ............................................................... 151 Jowati Juhary, The National Defence University of Malaysia, Malaysia Jowati Juhary reports on the implementation of a nonlanguage learning software (NLLS) as used for the teaching of English to a group of 118 cadets in the National Defense University Malaysia (NDUM). The author discusses the main findings of a quantitative survey, which highlights the technical, theoretical, and pedagogical challenges faced in this project, and discusses the implications arising from this practice. Chapter XI A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development ............................................................ 165 Marcus Vinicius dos Santos, Ryerson University, Canada Isaac Woungang, Ryerson University, Canada Moses Nyongwa, University of Manitoba CUSB, Canada Marcus Santos, Isaac Woungang, and Moses Nyongwa examine ‘Pliant’, open source software for webbased courseware development and ‘Academia’, a web portal based on Pliant. The features of these tools and their feasibility for e-learning and language acquisition are assessed via the findings of a case study carried out in Translation Studies in a course on Localization, developed at the CUSB School of Translation in Winnipeg, Canada.
Section II E-Language Learning: Developing Skills and Competencies Chapter XII Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material ................................................................. 186 Ayşegül Daloğlu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Meltem Baturay, Gazi University, Turkey Soner Yildirim, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Ayşegül Daloğlu, Meltem Baturay, and Soner Yıldırım focus on Web-based vocabulary learning via WEBVOCLE, a project funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. The authors examine this concept in light of its positive attributes. Based on vocabulary learning and retention theories and the constructivist approach, the emphasis is upon learner-centeredness, contextualized knowledge and meaning construction, opportunities for production, and ongoing/periodic recycling, which takes into account how vocabulary is learned, recycled, and practiced. The effectiveness of WEBVOCLE is analyzed via qualitative research, and the implications of the findings are discussed.
Chapter XIII A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle......................................................... 204 Yasunori Nishina, University of Birmingham, UK In this chapter, Yasunori Nishina proposes the idea of using data-driven learning (DDL), Parallel Corpus, and Moodle for Bilingual Lexical Studies in a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environment such as Moodle. More specifically, he argues that EFL students benefit more if they first base their studies on parallel corpora and then move on to the use of monolingual corpora. Using examples from Japanese and English of Error Analysis from Learner’s and Native Speaker’s Corpora, and Translation Analysis from a Parallel Corpus, the author demonstrates how Moodle can be beneficial in the study of corpus linguistics in the bilingual classroom. Chapter XIV EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics.......................................................................... 219 Vander Viana, Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Sonia Zyngier, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Vander Viana and Sonia Zyngier examine the use of corpora in the EFL classroom. Via an analysis of the British National Corpus (BNC) online database, the authors give examples of how this can be exploited for language learning and teaching, in addition to advocating its use as a method for developing student autonomy. Chapter XV Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills................................................................... 237 Jing Wang, Allegheny College, USA Jing Wang investigates the use of online/off-line hyperlinked dictionaries and authentic e-materials by Chinese EFL students. By introducing a series of studies and comparing and discussing the achievement of beginners, intermediate, and advanced learners in terms of their reading comprehension and vocabulary recall, the author argues that these e-tools are better suited for intermediate-level students. In the conclusion, she proposes some e-activities supported by e-materials and considers new possibilities for language tutors in the teaching of EFL to Chinese intermediate-level students. Chapter XVI Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication............................................................................. 253 Margaret Murphy, Griffith University, Australia Cristina Poyatos Matas, Griffith University, Australia Margaret Murphy and Cristina Matas focus on how to assess linguistic politeness in e-mail communication and how an awareness of e-mail politeness can assist e-teaching practices. By implementing The Tool Kit, developed over four years, e-mail excerpts are assessed using a 10-level criteria to give a Total Politeness Percentage. Limitations of The Tool Kit are discussed as well as its application for second language teaching online.
Chapter XVII Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting ................................................................................. 271 Neny Isharyanti, Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia Neny Isharyanti analyzes the synchronous exchanges that take place between non-native speakers of English when engaged in two communicative language tasks aimed at promoting language acquisition. The tasks are a jigsaw task and a decision-making task. The author analyzes the types of interactional modifications in the negotiation of meaning from the transcripts taken, and compares and discusses the results achieved. Chapter XVIII The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC ......................................................... 291 Sedat Akayoğlu, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Arif Altun, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey Using computer-mediated discourse analysis (CMDA), Arif Altun and Sedat Akayoglu focus on the types of negotiation of meaning in exchanges among Native Speakers (NS) and Non-Native Speakers (NNS) of English in a synchronous computer-mediated communication environment. Two research questions are investigated: first, what types of negotiation of meaning exist; and second, whether there is a difference between NS and NNS of English in the negotiation of meaning functions. The findings of this study provide both parallel and emerging results that are consistent with the existing literature and could be further explored to advantage by teachers/lecturers preparing their students for online communication. Chapter XIX The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English.................................................... 307 Esrom Adriano Irala, Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Patrica Lupion Torres, Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Esrom Irala and Patricia Torres analyze and discuss the use of the AMANDA program (Environment for Mediation and Analysis of Argumentative Discussions) for foreign language learning. This intelligent system, which mediates group debates over the Internet in a mainly automatic procedure, issues reports enabling the teacher to follow the discussion and to evaluate each student’s participation. The feedback from its implementation with intermediate- and postintermediate-level students is discussed, and possible ways of implementing AMANDA in the language class are suggested. Chapter XX Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing .......................................................... 322 Christine Rosalia, New York University, USA Lorena Llosa, New York University, USA In this chapter, Christine Rosalia and Lorena Llosa introduce an instrument used to formatively assess the quality of peer feedback in a second language online asynchronous writing learning environment. The Online Peer Feedback Assessment (OPF Assessment) is explained by means of examples from peer reviews, and its rubrics are introduced and examined. The authors suggest that the OPF Assessment can
potentially be used in a variety of contexts as a formative tool to improve not only the quality of peer feedback but also the writing proficiency of both writers and reviewers. Chapter XXI The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes .............................................................. 339 Betty Rose Facer, Old Dominion University, USA M'hammed Abdous, Old Dominion University, USA Margaret M. Camarena, Old Dominion University, USA Betty Rose Facer, M’hammed Abdous, and Margaret Camarena of the Old Dominium University explore the potential benefits of podcasting for foreign language learning and study habits. Based on qualitative and quantitave data derived from a pilot project developed with an Italian beginner’s class and a French advanced-level group, the authors examine student use of podcasts and the effect of this on their study practices, acquisition of language skills, and knowledge. Interesting conclusions are drawn from the findings, enabling the authors to make suggestions for the future use of iPods/MP3 players and podcasting in the improvement of foreign language learning and education. Chapter XXII Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices .......................................................... 352 Mahieddine Djoudi, Université de Poitiers, France Mahieddine Djoudi presents an approach to listening comprehension in foreign language learning using mobile devices. The author first situates mobile learning (m-learning) in distance learning (dlearning) and contextualizes listening comprehension within the language skills. He fully discusses this approach, which incorporates the use of information technology, the Internet, and mobile devices in order to examine the course management system (CMS) and its functionalities such as Podcasting Tool and Interactive Logbook. In conclusion, the author suggests an approach to the evaluation of listening comprehension. Chapter XXIII Computers and Independent Study: Student Perspectives .................................................................. 367 Huw Jarvis, University of Salford-Greater Manchester, UK The use of computer-based materials (CBMs) by students involved in self-study in language resource centers (LRCs) is examined in this chapter. Huw Jarvis specifically investigates the use of CBMs by undergraduates and postgraduates, both native and non-native speakers of English, in the study of Arabic, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and English as a Foreign Language (EFL). He discusses findings from a qualitative and quantitative study carried out in 2005 to support the conclusion that LRCs are effective in the development of both language skills and learner autonomy. Chapter XXIV Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy .................................................... 387 Renata Chylinski, Monash University, Australia Ria Hanewald, La Trobe University, Australia
Renata Chylinski and Ria Hanewald discuss the development of an online portal that aims to support teacher autonomy in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) programs. Designed to promote professional development and centralization of access to all CALL material across four campuses, the project had three stages over a six-month period: concept design, platform design, and project evaluation. Their findings, based on the qualitative data gathered from the research, are fully documented. Chapter XXV Frustration in Virtual Learning Environments .................................................................................... 409 Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain Mar Gutiérrez-Colon proposes a theoretical viewpoint of the problems facing students engaged in virtual courses in addition to discussing what is currently believed to be characteristic of a good e-learning environment. Based on the findings of a questionnaire at the Universitat Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona, Italy, in which EFL students evaluated blended courses delivered using the Moodle platform, GutiérrezColon reaches conclusions as to what can motivate or demotivate students to e-learning.
Section III E-Language Learning: Methodological Approaches and Future Tendencies Chapter XXVI Social Software and Language Acquisition ........................................................................................ 424 Sarah Guth, Università degli studi di Padova, Italy Corrado Petrucco, Università degli studi di Padova, Italy Web 2.0 technologies and social software for language education provide the focus for this chapter. Advocating their benefit for language learning, Sarah Guth and Corado Petrucco offer an analysis of two projects carried out with advanced English Language students at the University of Padua, Italy, in which Skype, a wiki, blogs, and social software tools were used. The assessment criteria implemented and the challenges faced when using networked technologies in formal education are fully documented and discussed. Chapter XXVII The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning ..................................................................... 443 Bryan Carter, University of Central Missouri, USA Dayton Elseth, Mohawk Valley Community College, USA Bryan Carter and Dayton Elseth examine the use of the 3D virtual reality world “Second Life” for language learning. After considering the role of distance learning, social learning, and e-gaming in education, the authors report on two studies. The first was conducted with students on a Composition Course over a period of two years, and the second with a group at beginner level learning German as a foreign language. Both studies took place at the University of Central Missouri. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the future of distance education and its challenges.
Chapter XXVIII Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education ..................................................................... 456 Irene Mamakou, University of Peloponnese, Greece Maria Grigoriadou, University of Athens, Greece Irene Mamakou and Maria Grigoriadou describe and discuss a student-centered Language for Specific Purpose (LSP) course developed in e-Class, a learning management system. The authors introduce the methodological proposal, which is based on social-constructivist pedagogy and on collaborative and project-based learning, and discuss its implementation based on qualitative and quantitave research findings. Chapter XXIX WebCT Design and Users’ Perceptions in English for Agriculture .................................................... 480 Mª Camino Bueno Alastuey, Public University of Navarre, Spain Mª Camino Bueno examines the implementation of an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) course on Agriculture at the University of Navarre using WebCT as the virtual platform. The author focuses specifically on the usefulness of student input at the end of each of the three years implementation, commenting on the observed changes in organization of content taking place in each course. An evaluation of the results achieved from both quantitave and qualitative research is given in conclusion. Chapter XXX The LAFEC Experience for Language Skills Acquisition .................................................................. 497 Heli Simon, Seinäjoki Polytechnic, Finland Päivö Laine, Seinäjoki Polytechnic, Finland Ann Seppänen, Tampere Polytechnic, Finland Ana Barata, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal Carlos Vaz de Carvalho, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Portugal The Languages for eCommerce Course (LAFEC), as presented by Heli Simon, Päivö Laine, Ann Seppänen, Ana Barata, and Carlos Vaz de Carvalho, is part of the Leonardo da Vinci program. The course focuses on the acquisition of language skills for trainees in initial vocational training and those in the labor market in the specific field of e-commerce. It is offered to students from participating higher education institutions and developed in a virtual learning environment, Moodle. LAFEC aims to develop the writing skills necessary to convey information in e-commerce Web sites, while considering the needs and cultural background of the target audience. The authors detail the six modules comprising this methodological approach and follow this with a discussion of the challenges identified in its first implementation (October 2006 through April 2007), based on feedback from participants. Chapter XXXI Language Teaching in Live Online Environments ............................................................................. 509 Christian Swertz, University of Vienna, Austria Rosa Schultz, University of Vienna, Austria Katharina Toifl, University of Vienna, Austria
Christian Swertz, Katharina Toifl, and Rosa Schultz discuss the design and implementation of LANCELOT (LANguage learning with CErtified Live Online Teachers), an online language training program for teachers funded by the Leonardo da Vinci Programme of the European Commission. LANCELOT implements an e-learning methodology known as Web-Didactics, which allows students to choose from different paths when learning a topic. The three strands of the LANCELOT course (technology, language teaching methods, and intercultural communications) are presented along with its tools, methodology, and assessment criteria. The feedback from its first implementation is analyzed and will be refined and made available to all interested parties under the Creative Commons License for public use. Chapter XXXII Adapting to Virtual Third-Space Language Learning Futures............................................................. 524 Astrid Gesche, Queensland University of Technology-Brisbane, Australia In this chapter, Astrid Gesche discusses learning within the concept of “third spaces in hyperspaces.” She compares learning in conventional third spaces with learning in virtual third spaces, considering the effects of aspects such as cultural diversity. She addresses the question of data and information privacy, and proposes three fluid and interdependent categories for teaching and learning in online virtual environments: Affective, Cognitive, and Operational. Chapter XXXIII Portable Handheld Language Learning: From CALL, MALL to PALL............................................. 539 Chaka Chaka, Walter Sisulu University, South Africa Chaka Chaka’s research area focuses upon the topic of “handheld and portable language learning aids.” The author first reviews and discusses the current literature on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL). Second, he examines in detail the latest research on pocket PCs; mobile phones; PDAs; iPods; and Nintendo DS, PSP, and J2ME for their application and potential in language learning. In conclusion, he argues that the future of m-learning lies in Pen-Assisted Language Learning (PALL), and outlines future MALL trends. Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 554 About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 595 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 608
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Foreword
E-LEarning (rEsEarch) and ForEign LanguagEs: an introduction In this opening piece, I attempt to offer an introduction to the Handbook of Research on E-Learning Methodologies for Language Acquisition, edited by Rita de Cassia Veiga Marriott and Patricia Lupion Torres, from the perspective of a nonparticipant observer. I am very grateful for the invitation by the editors to share my comments on their ambitious project in this way, and I will do so not only on the basis of a careful reflection on the chapters featured in this book but also against the background of my own personal professional engagement as a teacher and researcher over many years, the latter in a leading specialist higher education institution, inter alia with the fields of foreign language (FL) teaching, learning, and research, as well as FL teacher education and development with particular reference to digital technologies and their application for (FL) teaching and learning. In so doing, my main points of reference will be the chapters of this handbook and their individual and collective contribution to the field. Partly due to lack of space and partly because the historical overviews and literature reviews featured by individual chapters already offer an engagement with at least some of the key literature in the field, I will refrain from providing my own topography here. This allows me to concentrate on the following observations: FL teaching and learning can be considered particularly suited to the use of technologies, new and old, with the focus in this introductory piece firmly on the former. Among other things, the skills and processes involved in FL teaching and learning align well with the characteristics and potential of digital technologies, be it in relation to traditional uses such as drill-practice (e.g., to enhance memorization of new lexical items); the systematic capturing and analysis of linguistic data, both at semantic and syntactic levels; or skill-based work around modeling to improve pronunciation, be it practicing listening through digital artefacts or speaking through the production of digital audio, practicing reading by accessing authentic material on the Internet, or developing writing through computer-mediated synchronous or asynchronous communication tools, to name but a few. The possibilities for the application of new technologies in FL teaching and learning are extensive; the list of examples given here is only indicative but it should suffice to support the previous assertion. In fact, I want to go further than just assert a particularly good fit between the characteristics and potential of new technologies, such as their communicative emphasis, multimodality, distributed nature, interactivity, and so forth, and FL teaching and learning here (for a detailed discussion, see Allford and Pachler [2007]) and instead posit that in view of the increasing proliferation, if not to say ubiquity and functional convergence of technological devices, FL learners as well as their educators can ill afford not to engage proactively with new technologies in the twin processes of FL learning and teaching. While this is not to argue that new technologies have reached the state of normalization, Bax (2003) argues in his oft-cited piece on the past, present, and future of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
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(i.e., that the technology has become invisible and truly integrated). While invisibility, or rather ubiquity, appears to be increasingly the case in the life-worlds of many learners, particularly of young and teenage learners in the so-called developed countries (Bachmair, 2007), these technologies have far from infiltrated the personal and professional life-worlds of their teachers. I focus on the term ubiquity rather than invisibility since although devices are becoming increasingly portable and wireless networks increasingly allow for anytime and anyplace connectivity, they remain physical entities with potentially disruptive influence on the ecology of formal learning situations. Wireless connectivity cannot readily be equated with true integration (Bax, 2003). Another, in my view, very important dimension that Bax’s notion of normalization ignores or, at best, does not explicitly engage with, is the ideological baggage embedded in technology. While the notion of ubiquity runs the risk of the ideological undergirding remaining undetected, the notion of normalization bestows upon it mainstream status without really examining it critically. In Kress and Pachler (2007), drawing on Bruce and Hogan (1998), we argue that all technological tools embody certain social and cultural values, and we note that it is important to understand how technologies are designed, interpreted, used, constructed, reconstructed, and so forth. Although this current piece is by no means an attempt to deconstruct Bax’s (2003) very helpful critical reassessment of Warschauer’s history of CALL, another important notion that warrants discussion here is what Graham (1997) calls “dynamic obsolescence,” (i.e., the problem of hardware and software constantly evolving and becoming out of date). This fact works fundamentally against normalization. The current—and future—trend is firmly toward mobile, visual, and social technologies (cf. Web 2.0) (for a detailed discussion of these technologies, see Kress and Pachler [2007] and Owen, Grant, Sayers, and Facer [2006]). Suffice it to note that these trends arguably require new explanatory frames for the processes, context, and practices of (FL) learning and are associated with an entirely new set of technologies. For a discussion of these technologies in the context of FL teaching and teacher education, see Pachler, Barnes, and Field (2008). The pace of change is relentless, and it is inevitably difficult to do it full justice in a medium-term project such as this handbook that took two years from conception to completion. It is very pleasing to see, therefore, that some of the contributions (e.g., the chapters on Second Life, podcasting, handhelds, and social software) engage with new technologies, tools, and applications explicitly. My assertion is simply that there is a huge new research agenda emerging and that the challenge for researchers as well as learners and teachers continues, despite the publication of this very helpful and commendable volume. Although the current volume offers a very useful and impressive array of studies, in view of the preceding, it can at best be viewed as work in progress, and there remains an urgent need for more research in this constantly evolving field. In developing this new research agenda, one could do much worse than reflect on the efforts to date of various academics such as Bax (2003) to analyze the developmental trajectory of the use of new technologies in FL teaching and learning. Kern (2006), for example, asks the very pertinent question whether CALL should still be called CALL. In my view, the term is in need of a reappraisal, and I concur with Kern, who, with reference to Egbert (2005) and Warschauer (1999), argues that with the proliferation of tools, the focus on computers is no longer appropriate and the term CALL suggests a dislocation of technology from the normalcy of learners’ and teachers’ engagements with FLs and as “outside the ecology of language use.” The question arises, therefore, what should be used in its stead. The term e-learning appears to be used by contributors to this volume in the same generic sense as the UK government in its 2005 e-strategy (DfES, 2005). Another widely used term, at least in the UK context, is Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). My personal preference is for a more generic term such as “digital technologies,” as this allows for a wider range of use apart from information retrieval, processing, production, and communication. It seems to me to foreground that which is substantively different from older technologies (i.e., the digital format of the content and the possibilities that affords).
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What, then, of the importance of the contribution of this handbook collectively to the debate around the use of digital technologies in FL teaching and learning? In order to be able to answer this question, a closer look at the individual contributions is required. One thing is clear and can be stated with some confidence: the handbook brings together an impressive range of topics and types of technology from a wide range of contributors based on a rich diversity of contexts, languages, learners, and ages. This affords the reader an opportunity to familiarize himself or herself with a wide range of interesting examples. As it is not possible to provide a detailed discussion of all the contributions to this volume given the sheer number of contributions as well as the limited space available for an introduction, I shall confine myself to glossing and commenting briefly, in no particular order, on a few papers with particular emphasis on the newer technologies. Ria Hanewald discusses the potential of digital learning objects; in particular, by examining the tension of neutrality vs. certain value orientations. She argues in particular that while free digital learning objects in digital repositories are important to prevent the marginalization of language education online, attention to the cultural situatedness and pedagogical framing of FL learning and teaching are important, and therefore, particular attention needs to be paid to the conceptualization, standardization, and application of learning objects and repositories. Very useful about her piece is the introduction it offers to a range of selected online repositories, even if it is left to the reader to apply the useful criteria for evaluating them presented in the latter part of the piece. Chaka Chaka coins the acronyms MALL (Mobile-Assisted Language Learning) and PALL (Pen-Assisted Language Learning) as replacements for CALL. The chapter offers an attempt of a multidimensional definition of m-learning and envisions a future in which various portable and ubiquitous computing devices with new types of functionality leading to portable and pervasive, personalized, context-aware, just-in-time flexible language learning. Euline Cutrim Schmid discussed the use of interactive whiteboards (IWBs); in particular, what techniques in their use are available and how these facilitate the integration of multimedia into the curriculum, cater to diverse learning needs, enhance motivation, enhance interaction and collaboration with teachers having to guard against an emphasis on teacher-centered approaches, and an undue acceleration of pace. Betty Rose Facer and M’hammed Abdous examine the impact of podcasting in relation to the reinforcement of content through provision of self-paced access to authentic material and the improvement of pronunciation and vocabulary as well as of oral and aural skills. They describe the application of podcasting very much in the context of an alternative way of curriculum delivery, although they acknowledge that podcasts present a real opportunity for knowledge creation and dissemination by students. Sarah Guth problematizes the relationship between emergent social software as an extension to network-based approaches and FL learning, and stresses access to sites of real and authentic language production and uses they afford. She posits that the focus is on activities rather than applications that focus on the creation, sharing, and managing of knowledge. Alexandra Okada emphasizes the potential of open source educational resources and attendant knowledge mapping techniques for FL learning, such as concept, mind, argument, and Web mapping. For a detailed discussion of these techniques, see the Special Issue of Reflecting Education (http://reflectingeducation.net) on the topic published in 2007. The chapter outlines some open learning communities and their features, such as open products, integrity, transparency, nondiscrimination, and noninterference. As with a number of other areas in this volume, it will be interesting to see some of the concepts and notions critically discussed in future papers. Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana discusses the use of VLEs in FL learning from a student perspective; in particular, the frustrations at times experienced by learners, and with reference to relevant background
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literature, she identifies good and bad practices. The discussion tends to focus on the potential technical and general stumbling blocks; a consideration of these factors may invite the reader to consider how best to teach aspects of listening comprehension online. Margaret Murphy and Cristina Poyatos Matas focus on the issue of politeness in intercultural e-mail communication, and they present, on the basis of their research with Australian and Korean subjects, an instrument to assess politeness and consider the pedagogical application of their instrument. The authors note the limitations of their instrument in terms of subjectivity and potential cultural bias. Interaction-based research in the context of online communities is, indeed, one of the main foci of the volume. In view of the prominence of this theme in the literature, this is not surprising. Adail Sebastiao, Rodrigues Jr., and Vera Paiva offer a conceptually interesting piece in which they use the notion of footing; in particular, social, teaching, and cognitive as a frame for trying to understand and explain online interaction. They argue that in view of the lack of prosodic segmentation and paralinguistic resources bound up in talk-in-context, there is a need for interlocutors to make their footing visible and explicit online. They interpret footing as the indexing of utterances to facilitate knowledge construction. They also relate their discussion to Halliday’s (2004) transitory model. Arif Altun and Sedat Akayoglu in turn investigate the functions of negotiation of meaning across native and non-native speakers using computer-mediated discourse analysis in an attempt to provide a taxonomy for text-based synchronous CMC environments. Junia de Carvalho Fidelis Braga and Antonio Martins use Garrison and Anderson’s (2003) inquiry framework to explore the role of social presence in blended and online learning environments. Jing Wang examines the use of hyperlinked dictionaries in developing reading of authentic material for learners of Chinese. The study notes the variability of findings across proficiency levels, which is linked to the nature of characters and words in Chinese. With reference to Hubbard (2000), they use the term meaning technologies in relation to hyperlinked dictionaries. Last, but by no means least, for current purposes, Christine Rosalia and Lorena Llosa offer a very useful discussion of peer feedback in online writing. In particular, they describe an instrument developed to assess the quality of peer feedback. In order to enable the reader to make better sense of the diversity offered across theories, practices, methodologies, and contexts, the handbook would have benefited from a more substantial editorial offering an explicit frame of reference against which to read the various contributions. The handbook offers a collection of more or less systematic and inquiry-based reflections on pedagogical and didactic practices, which are, to a greater or lesser degree, aligned to certain theoretical conceptualizations drawn from (a combination of) constructivist, social interactionist, as well as (inter)cultural and/or semiotic approaches (Pachler, 2005). An extended foreword would have supported the reader in the process of meaning-making and categorization in this respect. This diversity of perspectives, in my view, is not necessarily a bad thing, and with Egbert (2005), who made the point in the context of research into technology-enhanced FL teaching and learning, I would argue the need for plurality in theoretical and methodological, pedagogical, and didactic perspectives. However, it is somewhat surprising that those few generic explanatory frames for technology-enhanced and online learning and teaching that do exist, the most prominent being Garrison and Anderson’s (2003) framework for research and practice and Laurillard’s (2002, 2007) conversational model, are conspicuous by their absence in all but very few of the contributions to this handbook, as is, by and large, reference to the fora in which they tend to be debated, such as the Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks (JALN) (http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/jaln/) and the International Review of Research in Open and Distance Education (IRODL) (http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl). My contention here is that reference to and critical engagement with the world of educational research and practice more generally
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can only benefit the advancement of our understanding of FL-specific practices and processes and is a challenge to be taken up by future volumes. Let me finish my critical commendation of this volume by reminding us all that what matters is not technology itself, but rather how it is used. As others have rightly observed before me (Kern, 2006, 2000), technology-enhanced FL teaching is not a methodological approach in itself but must be seen as embedded in particular teaching methods and conceptualization of FL learning processes. Any research into the use of technology for FL teaching and learning must, therefore, take cognizance of these teaching methods and assumptions about how language learning takes place and treat them as important variables. It is, therefore, hoped that this volume will provide inspiration for further research into this important field of study.
Norbert Pachler Institute of Education, University of London, London Norbert Pachler is a Reader in Education at the Institute of Education, University of London, where he is the co-director of the Centre for Excellence in Work-Based Learning for Education Professional. His research interests include foreign language pedagogy, teacher education and development, and new technologies in education, and he has published widely in these fields. He is currently co-editor of the Language Learning Journal (Routledge), associate editor of the London Review of Education (Routledge), and editor of Reflecting Education (WLE Centre).
rEFErEncEs Allford, D., & Pachler, N. (2007). Language, autonomy and the new learning environments. Oxford: Peter Lang. Bachmair, B. (2007). M-learning and media use in everyday life. In N. Pachler (Ed.), Mobile learning: Towards a research agenda (pp. 105–152). London: WLE Centre. Retrieved from http://www.wlecentre. ac.uk/cms/files/occasionalpapers/mobilelearning_pachler_2007.pdf Bax, S. (2003). CALL—Past, present and future. System, 31, 13–28. Bruce, B., & Hogan, M. (1998). The disappearance of technology: Toward an ecological model of literacy. In D. Reinking, M. McKenna, L. Labbo, & R. Kieffer (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 269–281). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Retrieved from http://www.isrl.uiuc.edu/~chip/pubs/disappearance.shtml Chambers, A., Conacher, J., & Littlemore, J. (Eds.). (2004). ICT and language learning: Integrating pedagogy and practice. University of Birmingham Press. Chapelle, C. (1997). CALL in the year 2000: Still in search of research paradigms? Language Learning & Technology, 1(1), 19–43. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol1num1/chapelle/ Chapelle, C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition. Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge: CUP. Chapelle, C. (2003). English language learning and technology. Lectures on applied linguistics in the age of information and communication technology. Amsterdam: John Bejamins Publishing.
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Davies, G. (1997). Lessons from the past, lessons from the future: 20 years of CALL. In A.-K. Korsvold, & B. Rüschoff (Eds.). (1997). New technologies in language learning and teaching. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Retrieved from http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/coegdd1.htm DfES. (2005). Harnessing technology: Transforming learning and children’s services. London. Retrieved from http://www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/e-strategy/docs/e-strategy.pdf Egbert, J. (2005). Conducting research on CALL. In J. Egbert, & G. Petrie (Eds.), CALL research perspectives (pp. 3–8). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Garrison, D., & Anderson, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st century: A framework for research and practice. London: Routledge/Falmer. Halliday, M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar (Third Edition). London: Arnold. Hubbard, P. (2000). The use and abuse of meaning technologies. Proceedings of the Ontario TESL Conference. Retrieved May 10, 2007, from http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/phil/MT.pdf Ioannou-Georgiou, S. (2006). The future of CALL. ELT Journal, 60(4), 382–384. Kern, R. (2006). Perspectives on technology in learning and teaching languages. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 183–210. Kern, R., Ware, P., & Warschauer, M. (2004). Crossing frontiers: New directions in online pedagogy and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 243–260. Retrieved from http://www.gse.uci. edu/person/markw/frontiers.pdf Kress, G., & Pachler, N. (2007). Thinking about the “m” in m-learning. In N. Pachler (Ed.), Mobile learning: Towards a research agenda (pp. 7–32). London: WLE Centre. Retrieved from http://www. wlecentre.ac.uk/cms/files/occasionalpapers/mobilelearning_pachler_2007.pdf Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching. A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies (2nd Edition). London: Routledge. Laurillard, D. (2007). Pedagogical forms of mobile learning: Framing research questions. In N. Pachler (Ed.), Mobile learning: Towards a research agenda (pp. 153–176). London: WLE Centre. Retrieved from http://www.wlecentre.ac.uk/cms/files/occasionalpapers/mobilelearning_pachler_2007.pdf Owen, M., Grant, L., Sayers, S., & Facer, K. (2006). Opening education: Social software and learning. London: Futurelab. Retrieved from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/research/opening_education.htm Pachler, N. (2005). Theories of learning and ICT. In M. Leask, & N. Pachler (Eds.), Learning to teach using ICT in the secondary school (2nd Edition) (pp. 189–206). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Pachler, N., Barnes, A., & Field, K. (2008). Learning to teach modern foreign languages in the secondary school (Third Revised Edition). London: Routledge. Thorne, S., & Payne, J. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, Internet-mediated expression, and language education. CALICO Journal, 22, 371–397. Warschauer, M. (1999). CALL vs. electronic literacy: Reconceiving technology in the language classroom. Retrieved from http://www.cilt.org.uk/research/resfor2/warsum1.htm
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Warschauer, M. (2004). Technological change and the future of CALL. In S. Brown (Ed.), New perspectives on CALL for second and foreign language classrooms (pp. 15–25). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved from http://www.gse.uci.edu/person/markw/future-of-CALL.pdf Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57–71. Retrieved from http://www.gse.uci.edu/person/markw/overview.html Warschauer, M., & Kern, R. (Eds.). (2000). Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice. Cambridge: CUP. Zhao, Y. (2003). Recent developments in technology and language learning: A literature review and meta-analysis. CALICO Journal, 21(1), 7–27.
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Preface
Language teaching has seen the development of a variety of methodologies and approaches over the past decades. These have included the grammar translation method, the total physical response method, the silent way, and the communicative approach. These practices have involved the use of a range of tools, including the cassette player and VCR and DVD players, and have concentrated on the development of language skills, grammar, vocabulary, and communicative competence. They have also, in the main, relied upon teachers and course books as the principal sources of information and guidance. After the birth of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in the late 1970s, foreign language teaching and learning saw the introduction of the use of micro and networked computers and the development of hardware and software designed specifically for language instruction. Since the end of the 1990s, with the popularization of synchronous and asynchronous communications and the Internet, a number of CALL research papers and projects have focused on the use of e-mail for language teaching and the establishment of cross-cultural communication activities (Chapelle, 2001). More recently, CALL methodologies have gone a step further, this time to embrace not only the new technology but also methodologies and approaches brought about by the use of the Internet and virtual learning environments. These take into consideration the needs and interests of both students and institutions within the context of a technological and democratic society. It was in this context that the idea for putting together a publication germinated. The initial thoughts of organizing this book stem from several research projects carried out by the editors on computer-mediated learning. From the first investigations, Marriott and Torres sought to propose methodologies that would develop a student’s critical sense, methodologies that would overcome the more traditional teaching methods centered in the reproduction of content. They were also looking for innovative solutions using information and communication technologies, aiming to give support to their own methodological proposals. In 2004, Marriott created the Language Learning Lab (LAPLI)1 (Laboratório de APrendizagem de LInguas). LAPLI is a hybrid (50% face-to-face [F2F] and 50% distance learning) methodology for intermediate and advanced language learning students, developed in a collaborative virtual learning environment (VLE). Involved in its 12 activities, students research on topics of their own interest associated with linguistics or education and select authentic material from trustworthy sources online, saving them in the VLE for all to access and work on. They work at word, paragraph, and text level, and are involved in several activities such as concept mapping2; questioning and answering; creating grammar exercises; and developing summaries, reviews, articles, and PowerPoint presentations. Learners work individually, interactively, and collaboratively among themselves and in small groups formed according to shared interests or involvement in the activities. LAPLI’s activities are designed to challenge students to go beyond their limitations while developing their fluency and accuracy in reading, writing, and oral skills. LAPLI is based on Torres’ distance learning methodology LOLA3 - The Online Learning Lab (Laboratório Online de Aprendizagem4) was created in 2002. Both LAPLI and LOLA are based on
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constructivist, collaborative, and meaningful learning approaches, placing the students in the center of the process, developing their autonomy, responsibility, and social skills. Following the development and evaluation of these proposals, several new research projects have been undertaken, which has led to an increase in the number of publications in this area. It was in light of these new investigations that the idea of editing this publication took shape and the Handbook of Research on E-Learning Methodologies for Language Acquisition was conceived. First, let us explain what we mean by “e-learning,” “methodologies,” and “language acquisition.” Elearning means in its broadest sense to “explore new approaches to learning supported by technologies” (HEFCE, 2005), involving the innovative use of information and communication technology (ICT) for F2F, hybrid, and distance learning initiatives in order to be able to “transform learning and teaching” (HEFCE, 2005). Methodology is perceived in its general meaning to encompass “approaches, methods, techniques, procedures and models” (Harmer, 2001) within which theoretical and pedagogical approaches combine, supporting and guiding the use of teaching resources available, and a set of procedures designed to achieve the expected learning outcomes is found. As for language acquisition, we understand this to mean “a natural developmental process of gaining knowledge and mastery of a speech system in a living environment” (Pham, 1994), whereas language learning, also covered in this publication, is “a largely conscious process that involves formal exposure to rules of syntax and semantics followed by specific applications of the rules, with corrective feedback reinforcing correct usage and discouraging incorrect usage” (Felder & Henriques, 1995). Therefore, in this Handbook of Research on E-Learning Methodologies for Language Acquisition, we gather research on innovative theoretical and practical approaches to language learning and teaching in the area of CALL, using current available teaching resources for F2F, distance, and hybrid courses. The 33 chapters are written by 60 prominent, internationally known authors from all six continents of the world and cover both language learning and language acquisition as well as language teaching. They cover a variety of topics such as the use of computer mediated communication, Web2.0, social software, mobile learning, virtual learning environments, e-gaming, mapping techniques, hyperlinked dictionaries, interactive whiteboards, corpus linguistics, learning objects, virtual reality environments, and podcasting. They report on research and studies focusing on the theory and methodologies for the learning, teaching, and acquisition of languages online, fostering students’ foreign language competencies and communicative skills as well as their autonomy, responsibility, and social skills. The Handbook of Research on E-Learning Methodologies for Language Acquisition covers the areas of pedagogy, methodology, assessment, current and future challenges of online language learning, and teaching. It is divided into the following three foundational areas under the e-language learning umbrella heading: Section I – Theories, Tools, and Pedagogical Resources; Section II – Developing Skills and Competencies; and Section III – Methodological Approaches and Future Tendencies. This publication aims to contribute to the education of language students, novice teachers, academics, and researchers who not only wish to keep abreast of current developments but also want to introduce innovative methodologies and approaches into their own practice. It aims to promote insights into current e-learning practices and methodologies for language teaching, learning, and acquisition, and to foster the development of both theoretical and practical issues concerning learning, skills development, interaction, communication, collaboration, and evaluation of foreign/second language education online, encouraging professional discussion and progress in this fast developing field.
Rita de Cássia Veiga Marriott and Patrícia Lupion Torres Editors
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rEFErEncEs Felder, R., & Henriques, E. (1995). Learning and teaching styles in foreign and second language learning education. Foreign Language Annals, 28(1), 21–31. Retrieved from http://www4.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/f/felder/public/Papers/FLAnnals.pdf Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching (3rd Ed.). Harlow: Longman. HEFCE. (2005). HEFCE strategy for e-learning. Retrieved November 2007, from http://www.hefce. ac.uk/pubs/HEFCE/2005/05_12/05_12.doc Pham, L. (1994). Infant dual language acquisition revisited. The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 14, 185–210. Retrieved from http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/jeilms/vol14/ pham.htm
EndnotEs 1
2
3
4
For information on LAPLI, see Marriott, R., & Torres, P. (2006). LAPLI – The Languages Learning Lab: A methodological proposal for a hybrid course in a virtual environment. In P. Zaphiris, & G. Zacharia (Eds.), User-centered computer aided language learning (pp. 133–151). Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing. For information on LAPLI focusing on concept mapping activities, please refer to Marriott, R., & Torres, P. (2008). Enhancing collaborative and meaningful language learning through concept mapping. In A. Okada, S.B. Shum, & T. Sherborne (Eds.), Knowledge cartography—Software tools and mapping techniques. Springer-Verlag. LOLA was awarded 1st place in the category “Research” by ABED, the Brazilian Association for Distance Learning (Associação Brasileira de Educação a Distância) and by EMBRATEL, a Brazilian telephone communications company, in 2003. For information on LOLA, see Torres, P.L., & Marriott, R. (2007). The LOLA strategy and e-learning knowledge management. In T. Kidd, & H. Song (Eds.), Handbook of research on instructional systems and technology (pp. 656–669), Volume II. New York: Information Science Reference.
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Acknowledgment
We would first like to thank the many authors who contributed to this publication for their enthusiasm for the project, and also the Editorial Advisory Board and the reviewers who gave so much of their time. Grateful thanks are extended to Norbert Pachler, not only for writing the foreword but also for his guidance during the latter stages of production; to the editorial team at IGI Global for their support; and to Janet Schofield for advice. In addition, we thank our families for their support throughout the process: John, Rita’s husband, for his insights and encouragement during all the writing process, and children Rebecka and Nicholas for their understanding and patience during the endless weekends dedicated to the book; Patricia’s husband, Gilberto, for his support and dedication, and children Tattiana and Patrick for their love and understanding during the time spent away from them. We are also grateful to our mothers Maria de Lourdes Silva Veiga and Maria Helena Ribas Lupion and Rita’s brother Fernando Cesar Silva Veiga for being there. Finally, our most heartfelt thanks to four close family members who have enjoyed our happiness and encouraged us from the beginning. They are the late José Schwansee Torres, the late Kenneth Kolbe Marriott, the late José Lupion Jr., and the late Jose Irineu Ribas Veiga. We are sure they would be very proud of the completed venture.
Rita de Cássia Veiga Marriott and Patrícia Lupion Torres Editors
Section I
E-Language Learning:
Theories, Tools, and Pedagogical Resources
Chapter I
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context Pascual Pérez-Paredes Universidad de Murcia, Spain María Sánchez-Tornel Universidad de Murcia, Spain
abstract The research we report is a pilot study carried to test English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students’ reception of an electronic foreign language teaching (FLT) task. In doing so, our aim was to collect information that can allow us to refine our own e-skills model, a model that adapts to the specific learning context of our students by focusing on the objectives, competence, and learning activities that our students engage in, in their everyday learning experience. In this way, our e-skills model is field-specific and context-survey-driven. The factor analysis results suggest that, although our four-factor solution explains much of the variance, the original dimensions of e-skills in our FLT context should be reformulated and further adjusted.
introduction: putting E-skiLLs in thE broad picturE Within the context of the European Union (EU), e-skills have become one of the main areas of discussion of the so-called ICT Task Force, which was created in June 2006 to foster a debate on the use of information and communication technologies in all major types of activities across the EU. In
the words of the European Commission, the ICT Task Force is “one of several actions undertaken to create a more favorable EU business environment under the Growth and Jobs initiative proposals for specific actions, such as designing a long-term e-skills strategy and promoting interoperability.”1 A report produced by this group in October 2006 stated that a “steadily growing demand for people with ‘e-skills’ (ICT skills) is a long-run trend for
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Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
business of all sizes and sectors [where] non-ICT related professions will increasingly require at least basic user e-skills.”2 There is, therefore, a strong link between a “knowledge-based economy which has made education and training a lifelong process rather than a one-off activity”3 and “technology-enabled learning (e-learning) [which] can significantly contribute to lifelong learning and make it a reality.”4 Although e-skills have been successfully implemented in other professional and academic areas, it remains to be seen what the potential for foreign language teaching (FLT) is. In 2003, the European e-Skills Forum was established by the European Commission to promote the effective use of ICT and its successful introduction in all major areas of human activity, especially in the business and industrial sectors. As the focus is the promotion of enhanced labor policies, education and training are key factors in this process. In the European E-Skills 2004 Conference5 held in Thessalonica, Greece, e-skills were defined as encompassing a wide range of capabilities (knowledge, skills, and competences) whose dimensions span a number of economic and social areas. However, the ways individuals interact with ICT vary considerably, depending on the work organization and context of a particular employer, or home environment, as the Synthesis Report of the E-Skills Forum reckons. This notion of variation will precisely be of great interest in the following paragraphs as we want to shed some light on adjacent or related terms by surveying the FLT and CALL literature that has dealt with them. Moreover, we want to create our own model of e-skills, a model that adapts to the specific learning context of our students by focusing on the objectives, competence, and learning activities our students engage in, in their everyday learning experience. In this way, our e-skills model is field-specific and context-survey-driven. One of the major challenges of our research is to try and narrow down the usefulness and epistemology of the e-skills term in our field by:
(1) analyzing existing work, (2) submitting our e-skill frame proposal to the learners’ evaluation, and thus (3) in the future, building a data-driven construct that can serve as a starting point for future research. Concerning the first area, once we have discussed mainstream FLT practices, we want to make an effort to outline a notion of eskill in FLT on three different well-defined areas: (a) new curricular needs and the transformation process (Timuçin, 2006), (b) the well-known normalization issue first introduced by Bax (2003), and (c) the new model for communicative competence (Kenning, 2006) and the need to establish a social context for the adaptation of ICT skills to continuous change. This component of our research is distinctively part of a theoryinformed process which seeks to define problems explicitly (Widdowson, 2003). Regarding the second item abovesubmitting our e-skill frame proposal to the learners’ evaluationwe want to feed on the discussion above to later on submit to our Common European Framework (CEF) Level C1 university learners of English a framework for the understanding of e-skills in their learning process. Our drive here is to adapt an e-skills scheme that meets the specific needs of the students mentioned previously. This scheme goes beyond the widespread user skills approach that covers the utilization of common generic software tools and the use of specialized tools supporting functions within industries other than the ICT industry. We will first stay on more familiar ground by going deeper into the research carried out in the field of FLT and CALL.
background FLt Mainstream context Existing terms such as skill, strategy, and computer expertise have traditionally been and still are of paramount importance to the field of language learning and teaching. In particular, the concept
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
of skill is broad and appears in several different domains within FLT. In general terms, a skill can be defined as “a special ability to do something well, especially as gained by learning and practice”; expertise is a “great skill in a specific field,” while strategy is “skillful planning or a particular plan for gaining success in a particular activity.”6 Other definitions for these terms are shown in Table 1 (entry number is provided). The different definitions vary in their appraisal of the actors and activities that these terms involve. As the definitions from Table 1 and from the Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture show, these three terms are well related. If we take the term skill, we see how the terms ability and training are in the core of most definitions. This goes to show that, as we will later see in the discussion of skills within the FLT context, those who want to achieve ability in a field need to go through the appropriate training and practice. As for expertise, it is clear that the notions of great skill or special knowledge
are common. As inferred from these definitions, there is a relationship between skill and expertise, as there is a question of degree that differentiates them. Therefore we see that expertise is situated along the know-how ladder in a higher position than skill, as expertise is related to the mastering of a skill. Our third term, strategy, is related to the military field and has to do with the development of a plan to achieve a goal or success on a particular activity. The most frequent terms in the definitions we collected are success and plan or planning. As students are expected to achieve a certain degree of mastering of the languagethat is, developing certain skills or even achieving an expert levelstrategies will be instrumental in the process. In FLT, skill is used to refer to the four basic language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Mainstream FLT authors (Hedge, 2000, among others) devote special attention to each of the skills separately by considering their main features by offering models to manage them in
Table 1. Term definitions Skill OED
7
Expertise
7. Knowledge or understanding of something.
Strategy 2. The art of a commander in chief, the art of projecting and directing the larger military movements and operations of a campaign. 3. The office of a strategies.
COBUILD8
…special ability in a task, sport, etc., esp. ability acquired by training. 2 2. something, esp. a trade or technique, requiring special training or manual proficiency.
1. Special skill, knowledge, or judgment; expertness.
2. A particular long-term plan for success, esp. in business or politics. 3. a plan or stratagem.
WEBSTER’S9
1. An ability that has been acquired by training. 2. Ability to produce solutions in some problem domain; “the skill of a well-trained boxer”; “the sweet science of pugilism.”
1. Skillfulness by virtue of possessing special knowledge.
1. An elaborate and systematic plan of action. 2. The branch of military science dealing with military command and the planning and conduct of a war.
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
class. In this traditional approach to the study of skills, a division into receptive skills (reading and listening) and productive ones (speaking and writing) is common. If we bear in mind the general definition of skill, we can see that, up to a point, there is a link between the way in which Hedge (2000) conceives the development of reading skills and the concept of skill itself. This link is seen in the two senses in which Hedge conceives reading as an interactive process: from a top-down perspective (schematic knowledge) or from a bottom-up (language knowledge) perspective. In the first case, reading is seen as interactive because the student links words or expressions found in the text with his schematic knowledge, or as Hedge (2000) quotes from Cook, his “mental representations of typical situations…used in discourse situations to predict the contents of the particular situation which the discourse describes” (p. 190). Therefore, if a skill is a special ability obtained through practice or learning, we could say that practice has a clear influence on the development of schemata in the mind of the learner, and consequently on the development of the skill as a whole. Further, the richer those mental images are, the greater the possibility of establishing useful relationships between them and elements from the reading task, which would put the student in a better position to develop the task successfully and eventually to achieve a good command of the skill under consideration. From a bottom-up perspective, reading is an interactive skill because of the fact that a good knowledge of the language system makes the student able to recognize lexical items or syntactic structures he finds in the text, helping him to make sense of it, as Hedge (2000) states. In this case, we see the importance of practice and learning, the two ways to develop a skill. When acquiring reading competence, the greater the knowledge about the language, the easier to identify and understand certain words or structures in the text; in other words, declarative knowledge plays a great role in skill developing (Williams, 2001; Ellis,
Basturkmen, & Loewen, 2002). A second relevant aspect in her view is the purpose of reading. There are different categories of reading depending on the intention of the reader, such as receptive reading, reflective reading, skim reading, scanning, or intensive reading. Each of these types of reading involves the use of certain strategies, for instance skimming is largely based upon a top-down strategy. Traditionally, reading tasks have consisted basically of providing students with a text that has been assessed by means of comprehension questions. This is an interesting area for researchers that want to go deeper into the new models of communicative competence that emerge as a result of new communication paradigms (Kenning, 2006). What used to be considered a static skill could now become a more complex and evolving concept that requires constant re-definition and skill scaffolding. Certainly, not all the skills are managed in the same way by FL practitioners. Hedge (2000) points out that the writing skill is “often relegated to homework and takes place in unsupported conditions of learning” (p. 301). She goes on to suggest the need to raise the students’ awareness on the existence of certain strategies, and to encourage them to develop these strategies whereby they can become more efficient writers. It is in this context that strategies and skills converge. As we saw at the beginning of this section, a strategy is a “skillful planning or a particular plan for gaining success in a particular activity.” Hence the importance of developing these strategies10 to gain a good command of this skill in particular. As happens with reading and listening, practice and the use of declarative knowledge of the language serve as facilitators in the development and improvement of writing. Besides, research shows that attention to form can be integrated successfully and is effective in programs where the emphasis is on communication (Williams, 2001). If we move from mainstream perspectives, such as those of Hedge (2000) or Oxford (2001), to those maintained by Widdowson (2000, 2003),
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
we find certain disparity in the way of facing skills. In the entry for Skills and Knowledge in Language Learning,11 Widdowson diverges from the traditional view of the four-skill division as the touchstone for language learning. This author maintains that, although this division is “well-established” (Byram, 2000, p. 549) in determining the objectives of language learning, it might not be “well-founded” (p. 550) and introduces the concepts of mode and medium of manifestation. Widdowson states that the division of skills in productive and receptive skills is merely based on the channel or medium of manifestation, aural or visual, and that there is a need also to consider the mode of interaction and not only the roles of the participants in communication as “physical producers or receivers” (p. 550). Consequently, the author defends that literacy in a language has to do with the ability of the student to act according to the principles that rule different types communicationthat is, the modes of interaction, whether written or oral. Again, we find some grounding to re-define the notion of skill as a dynamic concept. Widdowson (2000, 2003) holds the opinion that learners should be taught how language is used by native speakers in different social contexts and that an appropriate way to attain this is by means of task-based learning. Tasks are intended to put the students in a position to use language in a real-like communicative situation, hence the focus on the adequacy of language to each social context and not only on the linguistic code in isolationas structuralists defend. Nevertheless, this position poses the problem of the impossibility to teach the appropriate for every communicative context. In Widdowson (2003) we find a discussion of the limits of the well-known presentation-then practice-then-production (PPP) scheme and classroom task-based learning. Despite the pedagogical implications for the design of material and methodology, which evidently lie outside the scope of this chapter, the fact that real issues and real activities enhance language
learning leads us to a felicitous occasion when we suddenly discover that most of the e-skills are, by definition, real tools that real people use on an everyday basis. Widdowson’s authoritative view matches the expectations posited on the socio-cognitive model of CALL. Authors such as Kern and Warschauer (2000) stress the role within this paradigm of computer networks that allow for “interactive human communication” (p. 11), and the incorporation of “online activities for their social utility as well as for their perceived particular pedagogic value” (Kern & Warschauer, 2000, p. 13). Some CALL-specific terms that we will review later fall within this paradigm. While the scope of skills in the phrase language skills remains ample, the status for expertise, or more specifically, computer expertise (CE), is similar. However, despite the gradation of this concept, it remains central in the area of CALL as it is an essential requisite to the implementation of ICT-based learning. If expertise is “a great skill in a particular field,”12 computer expertise is, accordingly, a great ability in the use of computers. It is now when we see a more clear reflection of what we posited in the previous introduction to the concepts of skill, strategy, and expertise. From the discussion above emerges a model for understanding these terms which, a priori, is independent of the CALL teaching model (see Figure 1). So, how skilled is an expert? How expert should students be in order to show CE? The following definition taken from Ruiz Madrid (2005), which quotes the U.S. Department of Education, is clarifying: computer expertise is the group of “computer skills and the ability to use computers and other technology to improve learning, productivity and performance” (p. 133). In the same work, we find a division of CE according to the foundations of the NETS (National Educational Technology Standards) Project. The NETS Project has been conducted within the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) and aims at defining “standards
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Figure 1. A framework for understanding e-skills
for students, integrating curriculum technology, technology support, and standards for student assessment and evaluation of technology use.”13 Among these standards we find14: 1. 2. 3.
Basic operations and concepts, Personal and professional use, and Applications in instruction and learning.
The first heading includes “running software, managing and manipulating data, publishing results and evaluating the technology”; the second includes the “use of productivity tools, telecommunications, assisting devices for problem solving, collaboration, research and lifelong learning” (Ruiz Madrid, 2005, p. 134). The third heading is more oriented towards the integration of “a variety of software applications, and learning tools,”15that is, towards the application of “computers and related technologies to support
instruction.”16 Different studies have incorporated CE in their analyses: Sahin and Thompson (2006) report low levels of CE in a study of college teachers as a factor that deters the implementation of CALL in the curriculum. Beatty (2002)17 explores the notion of expertise in the area of collaboration and states that “determining expertise is classified as a collaborative strategy because it helps to clarify what each partner knows or does not know about a task. Learners who start off by determining expertise are better able to collaborate because they are better positioned to evaluate what they and the other person knows.” Expertise here is seen both as necessary and an element for rapport-building in peer or group work. However, it seems to us that the very fact that CE is negotiated and established plays against the interest of CALL as it indicates that normalization is yet to come (Chambers & Bax, 2006). It follows that, in the field of CALL, expertise performs a similar role as skill does in the field of FLT.
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Finally, two additional concepts related to the area of computer expertise address the new online collaboration paradigm: electronic literacy and skills of electronic literacy. The former, coined by Chapelle (2001, p. 2), refers to the “communication in registers associated with electronic communication,” while the latter comprises “the skills needed for successful interaction online: for example, how to participate in online discourse and how to access the technology” (Simpson, 2005, p. 327). Simpson’s study is much based upon Vygotskyan theories on language learning through social collaboration, as he proposes that this social collaboration cannot only be applied to language learning in particular, but also to learning in general. Accordingly, in the same way interaction allows students to improve their language skills, it can also have a very positive impact on their skills of electronic literacy, helping them to enhance what Chapelle called “electronic communicative competence” (Simpson, 2005, p. 330). There is, consequently, a link between both Chapelle’s and Simpson’s concepts, since skills of electronic literacy can be placed within the broader area of electronic communicative competence. Once more, there is evidence of the importance of the impact of new technologies in most basic aspects of our everyday lives, and of the importance of developing students’ electronic skills to an optimal level that allows us to get the most out of the ICT resources available for EFL. Simpson’s study was grounded on basic concepts of Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory. Vygotsky considers collaboration as the key to learning and proposes the need for scaffolding, that is, “the process of supportive dialogue which directs the attention of the learner to key features of the environment, and which prompts them through successive steps of a problem” (Mitchell & Miles, 2004, p. 195). The point Simpson makes is that this scaffolding or collaboration can be extrapolated to the acquisition of the basic skills necessary to work with computers within
the field of language learning. Thus, he splits skills of electronic literacy into the knowledge of discourse management and the knowledge of technology, encompassing “both access to the technologythe computer hardware and an Internet connection, and also a technical capacity enabling a participant to download particular software, to log on to the system and to join an online group, among other things” (Simpson, 2005, p. 337). Both types of knowledge can be achieved through collaboration in a computermediated communication environment. To finish this overview on computer expertise, we should briefly mention the present-day situation and the new needs of students. Chapelle (2001) draws our attention to the fact that the evolution of technology has an effect on language learning and, therefore, current trends should take into account the new needs of students. One of the authors who has devoted his attention to the way in which the evolution of technology has a direct effect over students’ lives in general is Warschauer (1999). He maintains there is a direct relationship between the use of ICT resources in the classroom and multi-literacies, including electronic literacy, which all language users need in the Western World. This position represents a step forward, as Warschauer considers literacy in new technologies as something that most students live with in their everyday routine. As we infer from the three perspectives we have mentioned so far, great advances in this field have taken place over the past 20 years. We see how we have moved from a position where the main interest was the access or lack of access to technology in a educational context, from an intermediate position concerned with the use of such technology in everyday life to a more recent trend which assumes that the use of technology is common to most students and centers around the specific needs of students using ICT in an educational context. This is to have an effect on the way e-skills spread across education as they become more visible. In this respect, research
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
shows that the more familiar students are with computer use, the more readily they will incorporate e-skills into their skill repertoire (Fernández Carballo-Calero, 2005). The last concept we are concerned with is strategy. As we have seen beforehand, a strategy is a sort of plan designed to achieve an aim, specifically a skillful planning or a particular plan for gaining success in a particular activity. We assume here that this concept is strictly related to the field of language learning in general and to the field of CALL in particular, for adult students use, conscious or unconsciously, certain plans to achieve their goals when learning. In a similar way and more closely related to the topic of language learning, strategies are defined by O’Malley and Chamot, quoted in Vinther (2005, p. 253), as “the special thoughts and behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information.” He adds that “a strategy for learning must be positive, since the objective is to point to elements which purposely and encouragingly help the student forward towards the goal of accomplishing new understanding and competence.” This remark is worth mentioning, since it clearly reflects the nature of the term strategy at its most essential meaning. If we go deeper into the field of strategies within language learning, we see how Vinther (2005) considers three different types of strategies in his analysis of students’ use of CALL: affective strategies, cognitive strategies, and memory strategies. Affective strategies are the student’s emotional thoughts or utterances as a result of the student’s interaction with the computer. Within affective strategies, Vinther differentiates indirect statements (sighs and laughs) from direct statements (verbal utterances). As part of future work into CALL-based tasks and e-skills, the individuals that took part in our research also were invited to express their cognitions as regards the different activities being completed. Cognitive strategies are instrumental in integrating old and new knowledge and restructure information, and
include reasoning inductively and deductively, guessing from context and analyzing. In turn, memory strategies are usually the first step in learning declarative knowledge and “help learners link [in a simplistic, stimulus-response manner] a new item with something new” (Oxford, 2001, p. 167). So far, we have tried to go deeper into the definitions of skill, strategy, and computer expertise, three concepts of huge importance that often appear in the literature of CALL. Our aim was to delimit each of them independently, and to clarify some of the possible relationships and overlapping among them that may sometimes cause problems in approaching the topic of instructed second language acquisition (c.f., skill and expertise distinction is neutralized in CALL). Our own scheme proposal, evaluated by the learners themselves, seeks to offer students and the FLT community an informed proposal for the effective integration of so-called e-skills in our own FLT context. It is this evaluation on the part of learners that we discuss in depth in this work, together with the description of the process that we have adopted throughout our experience. Based on the discussion above, we decided on the rationale for our e-skills model as integrative of two types of ICT skillse-communication and computer user skillsas well as FL-specific skills and attitudinal/strategic indicators.
aiM oF thE studY and Working dEFinition For E-skiLLs As the main aim of our research is to establish the foundations to understand e-skills in the FL classroom, we have integrated the discussion presented above into a model that can be submitted to advanced learners of English. This model subsumes the previously discussed notions of skill in FLT, that of (computer) expertise and that of
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
strategy under the same heading: e-skills. One of the main tenets of the e-skill approach is that it does not exclude non-ICT practitioners. Rather, it includes all activity sectors and is user oriented: e-skills are “the capabilities required for effective application of ICT systems and devices by the individual. ICT users apply systems as tools in support of their own work, which is, in most cases, not ICT.”18 From this, it follows that there exists an array of capabilities that matches the efficient use of ICT systems in performing tasks that are field specific. The challenge was to generate an appropriate e-task instrumental in identifying these context-bound capabilities/abilities (Chambers & Bax, 2006). We want to emphasize the fact that e-skills support individuals’ work, which presents itself a propaedeutic value of interest and in connection with Widdowson’s (2003) notion of learning English as a pedagogic construct where personal investment is a most crucial feature. Based on the discussion presented earlier, and in the specific context of our research, the operational notion of e-skills that we have adopted can be formulated as the group of abilities that encompasses both top-down as well as bottom-up language processing in a digital learning environment and which are instrumental in the process of FL task resolution.
sEtting For thE rEsEarch The target population informing this work is a group of third-year university learners of English (n = 9, mean age = 22.0) who are taking an undergraduate course in English Studies at the University of Murcia, Spain. Before leaving tertiary education, these students will be taking two further years. Their curriculum is one that emphasizes a balance between literary and cultural studies, on the one hand, and linguistic and language on the other.
rEsEarch MEthodoLogY As already stated, in this work we report on a pilot study carried out to test the students’ reception of a CALL-based task in order to collect information that can allow us to refine our e-skills model. Based on Timuçin’s (2006) guidelines for the implementation of CALL in FLT, we believe that this process must be: (a) teacher driven, (b) student oriented, and (c) context specific (following Chambers & Bax, 2006). The steps that were taken are summarized in Figure 2 and discussed immediately after.
Analysis of Subject-Specific objectives Our research analyzes the feedback of students (n = 9) taking a compulsory course of English language (CEF C1 level) 01D6 Lengua Inglesa III during the 2006-2007 academic year, a course where CALL-driven classroom instruction plays no significant role. It must be said that this is the last English course that these students will take before their graduate studies and, accordingly, they are expected to achieve the C1 level mentioned above, which posits a great burden in terms of study hours and exam preparation. As the e-skills model is highly dependent on the field of application, we set out then to identify the objectives of our academic subject where eskills could make a relevant contribution.
Identification of Related E-Skills The first group of objectives is specific objectives related to the analysis of the language as a code. This is a very comprehensive block encompassing both theoretical and practical objectives of a lexical-grammatical and pragmatic nature. Thus, the acquisition and use of advanced vocabulary, the noticing of nuances of connotation and denotation, the command of different communicative
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Figure 2. A framework for e-skills model refinement
domains, and the difference of formal and informal registers are areas covered by this first block of objectives. For these objectives to be fulfilled in a CALL-driven environment, students are expected to check word meanings, identify specific contexts of use, and find collocates. Among the varied electronic resources existing, the ones that are more closely related to the development of this first objective are online dictionaries, online thesauri, concordancers, or using the Web as a corpus. The second block of objectives is specific objectives related to reading. Here we find direct reference to some aspects covered before in the background information section, such as the one concerned with approaching different types of reading in the communicative process. For these objectives to be fulfilled in a CALL-driven environment, students are expected to find both general and context-specific information, get the gist of the topic dealt with in the text, check word meanings,
0
and interpret prosody. Among the varied electronic resources existing, the ones that are more closely related to the development of this second objective are online dictionaries, encyclopedias and newspapers, and online corpora. Table 2 shows the subject objectives where we found that implementing CALL-based activities would be feasible, as well as their corresponding, well-delimited functionality. These functionalities have been described as micro skills (Pérez-Paredes et al., 2003) as each of them requires some sort of specific, well-limited learning and practice for its mastery.
Experiment design Once we had decided on the target objectives underlying the e-task, we went on to adapt a set of activities from the subject course book. To minimize the impact of the novelty of a CALL-
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Table 2. Language course objectives where CALL can make a contribution
E-RESOURCES
FUNCTIONALITY
Online Dictionary
• Check meanings or uses
Descriptor: dictionary Search
• Find similar words or words within the same Online Thesaurus Descriptor: search & find a suitable word
semantic field
Concordancer
• Find concordances of words
Descriptor: search & build hypothesis on which
• Find collocates
words co-occur together
• Find contexts of use • Interpret prosody
Webcorp
• Find concordances of words
Descriptor: search & build hypothesis on which
• Find collocates
words co-occur together
• Find contexts of use • Interpret prosody • Get information on reading, speaking and writ-
Online Encyclopedias Descriptor: search & select useful info
ing topics, facts, and so forth • To solve doubts • Get information on writing topics, facts
Online Newspapers/Magazines/Journals
• Observe the register of different types of texts
Descriptor: search & select useful info
based task, we decided that we should keep this adaptation as close as possible to the original format of activities in the course book. In adapting this group of activities to a CALL environment, our main goal was to move the focus of the traditional classroom-based book activities from a pair/group work, teacher-managed setting to a more individualized and constructivist computer-mediated learning environment. A rationale for the e-task that we designed can be found in Figure 3. For operational purposes, we decided to focus on the reading skill as the starting point for our task. From the perspective of the researchers, the
fulfillment of this task should require putting into practice the micro-skills in column 2 of Table 3. The task matches the reading skills can-do statement for ALTE19 L4 / CEF-C1: “the student can read quickly enough to cope with an academic course, to read the media for information or to understand non-standard correspondence.” The students were given no indication on the resources to use, their URLs, or their names. In this way, we wanted to give them the chance to approach the task in exactly the same way as they would have done if they had to complete it either in the classroom, where no reference resources are available, or at home, where they are free to
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Figure 3. A description of the e-task
decide on the references and materials to use. One of the issues that we want to address is whether our students perceive CALL as normalized (Bax, 2003) and do it in the very context where their learning takes place (Chambers & Bax, 2006, p. 467). In so doing, we purposefully stressed the gap between classroom book-driven activities and our proposal for a CALL-driven implementation.
data-collection tool and Administration of the Task During the fourth week of the second term of the 2006-2007 academic year, students were instructed to access the computer lab facility and invited to sit down at computer stations that had already been set up by the researchers in order to avoid tedious computer starting operations. Nine students out of a potential total of 12 attended the two-hour lesson. It must be stressed that the students had not been informed that this task would be carried out in the computer lab. The collection tool we designed for our research is found in Appendix A. The tool reflects
the dimensions that we consider of relevance for the e-skill model we want to evaluate. As in the case of other experiences (Timuçin, 2006), we designed a questionnaire intended to collect the students’ perception of the task and their view of the skills involved in its resolution. The questionnaire was administered immediately after the completion of the task. The questionnaire reflects our e-skill rationale (see Table 3). The questionnaire gathers information from well-limited areas discussed earlier in this work. First, we find the ICT-skills components relevant to our field, which include e-communication ICT skills and computer use skills. They differ in the role and purpose given to the computer. Second is the FL-specific component, where we have included items that measure the use of computers for academic purposes (5), software use, including a browser and a word processor (16), perception of difficulty of the task (17), time management in connection with the task (18), and creativity in using resources to solve the task (24). Third, a group of items point out to the sort of attitude
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Table 3. E-skills rationale Relevant ICT Skills:
Relevant ICT Skills:
E-Communication
Computer Use
FL-Specific Skills
Attitudinal/Strategic Indicators
ICT SKILLS
Items
COMPONENT 1
COMPONENT 2
COMPONENT 3
2 4 6 7 8 9 10
13
5
COMPONENT 4
1 (never) to 5 (several times a day) Likert scale description Items
11 12 13 14 15 19 21* 22*
16 17 18 24*
Likert scale
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)
20 23 25* 26 27 28 29
description
and CALL-oriented planning manifested by the learners in approaching the e-skill task: we expect item 20 to play no role on the use of e-skills, but the rest fully address attitudinal variables such as perceiving computers as time savers (23), preferring working with computers to traditional study methodology (25), enjoying e-tasks more than book-based tasks (26), considering the lab a useful tool for learning (27), having a desire to engage in further e-tasks (28), and relating the e-task to new ways of approaching the FL experience (29). The values of the items with an asterisk are reversed when computing their means.
rEsuLts
2,4,6,7,8,9,10. The questionnaire can be found in Appendix A. In an exploratory study like this (n = 9), the median is even more revealing than the mean itself as it gives us the typical distribution of answers. The analysis of these tables shows that the items that obtain lower scores are those that involve the use of computers in the university context: items 3 (I use the university computer labs.) and 5 (I use computers for academic purposes.). The educational institution itself is not free from
Table 4. Frequency scores for e-skills component 1 Mean
Median
Q2
4.22
4.00
Q4
3.44
4.00
Q6
3.78
4.00
Q7
3.56
4.00
Q8
2.00
2.00
Q9
3.67
4.00
Q10
2.11
2.00
descriptive data Tables 4–7 show the mean values of the scores for every component and item. For every component (1,2,3,4), you can find below the mean and the median scores for each of the items. For example, Table 4 shows the mean and median values for the items (Q) in component 1, that is,
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Table 5. Frequency scores for e-skills component 2 Mean
Median
Q1
3.44
4.00
Q3
2.33
2.00
Q11
4.11
4.00
Q12
4.11
4.00
Q13
3.89
4.00
Q14
4.11
4.00
Q15
3.44
4.00
Q19
3.00
3.00
Q21
2.33
2.00
Q22
3.22
3.00
Table 6. Frequency scores for e-skills component 3 Mean
Median
Q5
3.11
2.00
Q16
4.00
4.00
Q17
3.56
4.00
Q18
3.11
3.00
Q24
4.22
4.00
Table 7. Frequency scores for e-skills component 4
Mean
Median
Q20
3.11
3.00
Q23
3.67
4.00
Q25
3.11
4.00
Q26
3.56
3.00
Q27
3.89
4.00
Q28
3.89
4.00
Q29
3.89
4.00
Q30
3.89
4.00
criticism, as computer facilities simply are not up to standard, according to our survey. It is interesting to note that for item 8 (I use my e-mail to communicate with my teachers), the mean and the median are the same, which posits a great challenge on instructors in our research context. Item 10 (I use videoconference (Messenger, VideoCam, Skype, etc.).) shows that computermediated videoconferencing is still in the process of becoming a major communication channel for our students, while item 21 (Speaking while doing the activities made me feel uncomfortable.) shows that multitasking, a feature of professional e-skills, is still a problem. In the other items, the medians are 4, indicating either high frequency or a strong agreement on a positive polar statement. Scores for items 18 (I had enough time to complete the activities.), 19 (The performance of the computer was satisfactory.), and 20 (The design of the task was attractive.) point to the fact that students would have liked to have a longer period of time to complete the task (18) or would have liked to use a more cutting-edge PC.1 Item 22 (I feel lost when working with Internet resources.) did not cast a polarized result, and neither did item 26 (Working with a computer makes the activities more attractive than working with the textbook.), with a mean score of 3.56, which shows that while having the computer expertise to manage a computer, students see CALL as distant. Item 29 (This experience has opened up new ways into learning English.) shows that close contact with a CALL-driven task may encourage learners to further use e-skills in their everyday language learning.
data reduction Method In order to corroborate the existence of underlying, latent dimensions in our e-skills model, we performed a factor analysis to identify whether our insights actually are translated into the questionnaire we designed. Factor analyses are widely used in social and empirical sciences to identify and
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
reduce the dimensions of a given construct. By performing this analysis, a multi-faceted problem can be better studied and understood. Lim and Shen (2006, p. 217) used a principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation “in order to identify relationships among items, and therefore, Table 8. Rotated matrix, four-factor solution PA Components 1
2
3
4
Q1
,306
,773
-,391
-,157
Q2
,799
,398
,007
,396
Q3
,805
-,102
,295
,271
Q4
,388
,326
-,155
,356
Q5
,931
,030
-,095
,035
Q6
,784
-,209
,278
,100
Q7
,684
,147
,472
-,083
Q8
,630
,018
,300
,682
Q9
,678
,593
,067
,121
Q10
,154
-,363
,709
,492
Q11
,744
,215
-,149
-,162
Q12
,166
,006
,147
-,796
Q13
,326
-,027
,743
,075
Q14
-,332
-,739
-,007
-,053
Q15
,819
,184
,115
-,408
Q16
,216
-,190
-,921
,188
Q17
,230
-,049
-,078
-,660
Q18
,286
,234
,795
,343
Q19
-,341
-,139
,402
-,622
Q20
,021
-,051
-,048
-,450
Q21
-,062
-,167
,782
-,276
Q22
,757
,392
,027
-,149
Q23
,114
,767
,291
-,301
Q24
-,723
-,301
,176
,230
Q25
-,088
,753
-,153
,132
Q26
,042
,807
-,097
,391
Q27
,378
,804
,138
-,025
Q28
,243
,720
-,100
,341
Q29
,033
,617
,283
,564
Q30
-,316
,710
,342
-,479
the subscales or factors which could be taken as summary measures of the items.” A principal component analysis rests upon the identification of linear combinations of variables, the items included in the questionnaire, looking for a maximum variance in each combination. In our case we performed the same statistical analysis although we specified a four- and a three-factor solution to gain insight into our questionnaire dimensional nature. Table 8 shows the rotated matrix which emerged from the analysis. This is the starting point for the identification and classification of the dimensionsthat is, the factors that explain the construct, in other words, the dimensions that make up our model. The loading index is the correlation coefficient between the item in the questionnaire and the factor. For membership purposes, it is irrelevant whether the loading polarity. All items above obtained >.30 loadings in at least one of the factors. This is the factor structure that emerges from our data. The second component underlying our proposal, Relevant ICT skills: Computer use, appears scattered in all factors, while components 1 and 3, Relevant ICT skills: E-communication and FL-specific skills, this latter to a lesser degree, retain many of their original members. Factor 4 presents little coherence and is a candidate for reformulation.
FuturE trEnds Felix (2005) has pointed out that the focus of Computer-Assisted Language Learning research has increasingly shifted from an interest in the learning efficiency and new technologies to an interest in the very process of learning. This is the area that will develop more significantly in forthcoming years. As formal learning becomes more influenced by social work and entertainment collaboration frameworks, it seems essential to incorporate
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Table 9. Members and loadings for Factors 1–4 FACTOR 1
FACTOR 2
FACTOR 3
FACTOR 4
Q5
,931
Q26
,807
Q18
,795
Q8
,682
Q15
,819
Q27
,804
Q21
,782
Q20
-,450
Q3
,805
Q1
,773
Q13
,743
Q19
-,622
Q2
,799
Q23
,767
Q10
,709
Q17
-,660
Q6
,784
Q25
,753
Q16
-,921
Q12
-,796
Q22
,757
Q28
,720
Q11
,744
Q30
,710
Q7
,684
Q29
,617
Q9
,678
Q14
-,739
Q4
,388
Q24
-,723
these factors into e-skills models that reflect more faithfully the engagement of a new generation of students with new technologies. These, and particularly the spread of Web 2.0, are to have an important impact on the range of skills that learners bring to the foreign language classroom. New models of e-skills in FLT should take into account research frameworks such as the one included in this chapter, as well as learners’ technology use prior or simultaneous to instruction and the role of collective knowledge and collaboration. In this way, relevant contributions can be made to a new communicative competence (Kenning, 2006) by dealing with the traditional marginalization of technological matters in the descriptions of communicative competence in FLT.
concLusion This research presents the results of a pilot study where an e-skill model questionnaire was answered by language students so as to help our understanding of the relationship between nontraditional skills and new CALL environments. By doing so, we intended to assess the e-skills dimensional structure that underlies the completion of language e-tasks designed by FLT instructors and implemented in CALL classrooms. The results suggest that, although the four-factor solution explains 74.9% of the variance, the different original dimensions of e-skills in our FLT context(1) Relevant ICT skills: E-communication, (2) Relevant ICT skills: Computer use, (3) FL-specific skills, and (4) Attitudinal /strategic
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
indicators should be reformulated and further adjusted. Our original components do not appear to cluster around corresponding dimensions in all four components. In particular, only components 1 and 4 appear to cluster together significantly. It must be stressed, however, that the population of this survey is by no means representative in terms of statistical significance, and accordingly, the factor analysis should feed on more informants in the future. The results also suggest that CE fails to become substantial as a component of its own. This might be an indication that using computers outside the FLT context has become normalized (Bax, 2003), and depending on the group of students, it might not be an issue any more. At the same time, it appears that the attitudinal/strategic dimension manifests itself as strong and coherent. It might be of interest in future research to explore the correlations of the different factors and the individual items to fully appreciate the nature of their interweaving. Again, it is crucial that we develop more substantial research that makes use of a larger sample of informants. Our research presents a framework to implement e-tasks, or group of activities, in instructional learning environments where CALL plays no methodological role. Figure 1 presents a whole model for e-kills refinement which ranges from the identification of the curricular objectives of the course where e-skills are to be used to the very moment when instructors and researchers are presented with data that can allow them to refine their initial stands. On a general level, the e-skill rationale presented in the background and literature review of this work can serve as the starting point for researchers to start implementing their own datadriven construct. For us, this is the beginning of a process that will take us to conduct further research in both the components of the e-skills model and the data collection instrument.
acknoWLEdgMEnt This work is part of an ongoing research project funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education: “ESkills for Advanced Common European Framework of Reference for Languages C1 Learners of English as a Foreign Language: Identification, Implementation and Evaluation.”
rEFErEncEs Bax, S. (2003). CALL: Past, present and future. System, 31(1) 13-28. Beatty, K. (2002). Describing and enhancing collaboration at the computer. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 28(2). Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://www.cjlt.ca/content/vol28.2/ beatty.html Chambers, A., & Bax, S. (2006). Making CALL work: Towards normalization. System, 36, 465479. Chapelle, C. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R., Basturkmen, H., & Loewen, S. (2002). Doing focus-on-form. System, 30(4), 419-432. Felix, U. (2005). What do meta-analyses tell us about CALL effectiveness? ReCALL, 17(2), 269-288. Fernández Carballo-Calero, M.V. (2005). Does familiarization with CALL improve students’ attitudes towards CALL? Porta Linguarum, 4, 69-75. Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Theory and practice of network-based language teaching. In R. Kern & M. Warschauer (Eds.), Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 1-19). New York: Cambridge University Press. Levy, M. (1997). CALL: Context and conceptualization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lim, K., & Shen, Z. (2006). Integration of computers into an EFL reading classroom. RECALL, 18(2), 212-229. Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford, R. (2001). Language learning strategies. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 166-172). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pérez-Paredes, P. et al. (2003). La redacción como proceso: Recursos electrónicos comentados para el inglés académico. LFE: Revista de lenguas para fines específicos, 9-10, 217-250. Ruiz Madrid, M.N. (2005). Aprendizaje autónomo en el aprendizaje de lenguas asistido por ordenador. Un estudio de casos comparativo de las conductas de los aprendices en el contexto de inglés como lengua extranjera. Castellón: Universitat Jaume I. Sahin, I., & Thompson, A. (2006). Using Rogers’ theory to interpret instructional computer use by COE faculty. JRTE, 39(1), 81-104. Simspon, J. (2005). Learning electronic literacy skills in an online language learning community. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(4), 327-345. Timuçin, M. (2006). Implementing CALL in an EFL context. ELT Journal, 60(3), 262-271.
Vinther, J. (2005). Cognitive processes at work in CALL. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(4), 251-271. Warschauer, M. (1999). Electronic literacies. Language, culture, and power in online education. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Widdowson, H.G. (2003). Defining issues in ELT. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, J. (2001). The effectiveness of spontaneous attention to form. System, 29(3), 325-340.
kEY tErMs Computer Expertise: Refers to the mastering of the use of computers. In the context of CALL, this term is tightly connected to the abilities the students need to have in order to be able to work efficiently with a computer in the process of language learning. Among these abilities, taking the NETS project’s division, we can mention those related to the management of basic software, the use of computers in the personal and professional contexts, and the capability of using computers in instruction-related contexts. E-Skill: The group of abilities that encompass both top-down as well as bottom-up language processing in a digital learning environment and which are instrumental in the process of FL task resolution. E-Task: A task designed to be performed on a computer. These types of tasks appear in special formats, such as hypertext formats. The process of e-task solving is closely related to the use of electronic resources, as students can turn to this type of resource to overcome possible difficulties they might find during the completion of the task.
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
Factor Analysis: Data-reduction technique used to interpret underlying dimensions in a construct.
7
8
Normalization: Based on Bax (2003), a future vision of future development of CALL in FLT. Skill: A complex term whose scope spans different domains. Within the field of FLT, skill refers to the four basic abilities students must develop to achieve a good command of the language. From a more general perspective, skill refers to any ability acquired by training or practice, allowing individuals to perform well in multifarious types of tasks. In this context, a skill is an ability that is acquired through practice and by using declarative knowledge. Strategy: A plan designed to achieve a goal. Thus, in the context of second language learning, we can take the term strategy as a plan the students devise to solve the tasks and challenges they are presented in the process of language learning.
9
10
11
12
13
14
EndnotEs 1
2
3 4 5
6
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction. do?reference=IP/06/1635 Task-Force on ICT Sector Competitiveness and ICT Uptake. Working Group 5 Skills and Employability (p. 5). Ibid. Ibid. http://eskills.cedefop.europa.eu/eskills2004/ index.htm Definitions from The Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. Second edition first published in 1998; sixth impression, 2003.
15 16 17 18
19
The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Ely House, London WI. First edition 1933; reprinted 1963, 1970. Collins English Dictionary. Fifth edition first published in 2000; HarperCollins Publishers 1979, 1986, 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000. http://dictionary.reverso.net/englishdefinitions/skill Webster’s Online Dictionary, http://www. websters-online-dictionary.org/ Among the repertoire of strategies, we can find planning, generating ideas, organizing information, selecting appropriate language, making a draft, reviewing it, and editing (Hedge, 2000, p. 302). Byram, M. (2000). Routledge Encyclopaedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge. The Longman Dictionary of English Language and Culture. Second edition first published in 1998; sixth impression, 2003. “What is the NETS Project?” http://cnets. iste.org/index.shtml Standards for Basic Endorsement in Educational Computing and Technology Leadership, http://cnets.iste.org/ncate/old/ n_literacy-old.html See 14 See 14 Electronic document European E-Skills Forum, E-Skills for Europe: Towards 2010 and Beyond, Synthesis Report (2004, p. 5) http://www.alte.org/can_do/alte_cando. pdf
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
appEndiX a: post-task E-skiLL ModEL QuEstionnairE Name : BLOCK 1. GENERAL QUESTIONS 1.1 Rate the following statements according to this scale: 1: never 2: from time to time 3: almost every day 4: every day 5: several times a day 1 1.
I use a computer at home.
2.
I can connect to the Internet at home.
3.
I use the university computer labs.
4.
I use computers for leisure purposes.
5.
I use computers for academic purposes.
6.
I check my e-mail…
7.
I use my e-mail to communicate with my friends/family.
8.
I use my e-mail to communicate with my teachers.
9.
I use Microsoft Messenger or similar instant message software.
10.
I use videoconference (Messenger, VideoCam, Skype, etc.).
2
3
4
5
1.2 Rate the following statements according to this scale: 1: strongly disagree 2: disagree 3: neutral 4: agree 5: strongly agree 1 11. I can perform basic operations with a computer (run programs, play CD-ROMS or DVDs, copy CDs, scan documents/pictures, attach files to emails…). 12.
I can use a word processor satisfactorily.
13.
I can use search services like Google satisfactorily (i.e., I know tips to improve searches, etc.).
14.
I can typewrite, this is no problem.
BLOCK 2. YOUR EXPERIENCE WITH THE TASK 2.1 Rate the following statements according to this scale: 1: strongly disagree 2: disagree 3: neutral 4: agree 5: strongly agree
0
2
3
4
5
Understanding E-Skills in the FLT Context
1 15.
Operating the software was easy.
16.
The instructions were clear.
17.
The level of difficulty of the activities was adequate to my English language learning profile.
18.
I had enough time to complete the activities.
19.
The performance of the computer was satisfactory.
20.
The design of the task was attractive.
21.
Speaking while doing the activities made me feel uncomfortable.
22.
I feel lost when working with Internet resources.
23.
Electronic resources save time in comparison with other resources.
24.
I would have liked to have a list of suggested Internet resources.
25.
I prefer working with a textbook and with traditional resources.
26.
Working with a computer makes the activities more attractive than working with the textbook.
27.
The language lab is a valuable option to complement traditional lectures in the classroom.
28.
I would like to do more English language learning activities with computers.
29.
This experience has opened up new ways into learning English.
2
3
4
5
2.2 SUGGESTIONS
Chapter II
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities Antônio Carlos Soares Martins Centro Federal de Educação Tecnológica de Januária/Fapemig, Brazil Junia de Carvalho Fidelis Braga Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
abstract The discussions presented herein emerged from two empirical studies in progress:“Online Learning Communities in the Realm of Complexity” and “The Complexity of Learning Environments” in the Graduate Program in Applied Linguistics at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil. One of the major pillars of both studies centers around Complexity Theory. Initially arising from the natural sciences, Complexity Theory has been gaining ground in the comprehension of human and social sciences. This chapter presents some ideas regarding the role of social presence in both blended and online learning environments, in line with the Community of Inquiry Framework (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000). Moreover, the authors hope to contribute to a better understanding of patterns that emerge from social interactions as well as of the ideas embedded in learning communities as complex systems.
introduction The Community of Inquiry, as reported by Garrison et al. (2000) and Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, and Archer (2004), who provide a detailed report of social presence, sets the stage for this
chapter to discuss the emergence of social presence in blended and online learning communities in asynchronous medium. A great number of studies dedicated to the investigation of social presence, in the terms of the Community of Inquiry, focused mainly
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The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
on quantitative methodology to interpret social expressions in a qualitative manner (Heckman & Annabi, 2002; Rourke & Anderson, 2002; Rourke et al., 2004). Considering these discussions, our chapter presents a complementary contribution that aims to analyze, in the light of complexity, the content of some messages exchanged in blended and online learning communities. By qualitatively analyzing the manifestation of social presence in this setting, we attempt to show possible patterns that may arise.
coMpLEXitY and appLiEd Linguistics: transdicipLinarY diaLogs At first glance, complexity is a phenomenon that encompasses a great quantity of interactions and interference among its agents. For Morin (1990), complexity effectively includes the interweaving of events, actions, interactions, retroactions, determinations, and random events that constitute our world, full of phenomena. Complexity has its place in science due to research that has attempted to explain questions which challenge all conventional categories (Waldrop, 1992). Davis and Sumara (2006, p. ix) argue that “complexity thinking has captured the attention of many researchers whose studies reach across traditional boundaries.” Examples of phenomena under investigation in the education arena include: •
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How do social collectives work? The assumption that the actions and potentialities of social groups are sums of individual capacities has been challenged as it is becoming more evident that collectives can exceed the summed capacity of their members. What might this mean for classrooms, school boards, communities, and so on? What is the role of emergent technologies in shaping personalities and possibilities?
Children are able to integrate the latest technologies into their existences. What might this mean for formal education, in terms of the pragmatic activity and with regard to common understandings of the purposes of schooling? In this direction, Complexity Theory in its transdisciplinary nature can assist in better understanding the events that take place in blended and online learning environments. A complex system is dynamic, non-linear, open, and presents emergent properties. Moreover, this type of system is capable of adapting, which leads to self-organization, and ultimately to the emergence of new patterns and behaviors (Holland, 1997). An adaptive complex system is made up of agents who interact dynamically and adapt with one another as well as with the environment, as they seek mutual accommodation to optimize the benefits that will ensure their survival. An ever-increasing number of articles over the past years have sought to analyze the second language acquisition process, as well as the language learning classroom in general, in the light of chaos and complexity theories (Cameron, 1999, 2004; Larsen-Freeman, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2006; Paiva, 2002, 2005a, 2006a, 2006b; Parreiras, 2005). Although other works had already reflected on the implications of chaos and complexity on teaching and language learning (Bowers, 1990; Connor-Linton, 1995; Lewis, 1993; Van Lier, 1996), it was Larsen-Freeman (1997) who brought these theories to the forefront of Applied Linguistics. In her article, Larsen-Freeman (1997) draws attention to the many similarities between complex systems found in nature and second language acquisition. One of the implications of this perspective, she writes, is that it discourages reductionist explanations of teaching events and language learning. In discussing issues relative to inter-language, individual differences, and the effects of instruction, Larsen-Freeman (1997)
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
contends that in non-linear systems, such as second language learning, the behavior of the whole emerges from the interactions of the parts. Thus, by studying the parts in isolation, one by one, we will merely be discussing each part as opposed to the manner in which the parts interact. After the publication of Larsen-Freeman’s work, several papers have reflected upon the implications of complexity in understanding the relations between language learning and teaching. In Brazil, the first to study complexity in Applied Linguistics was Paiva (2002), who sought to understand the process of foreign language learning as a complex system. This perspective would be further developed in her later works (Paiva, 2004, 2005, 2006). In this same manner, Kramsch (2002) and van Lier (2004), using the “ecology” metaphor, sought to re-think teaching and learning through complexity. In 2006, the journal Applied Linguistics dedicated an entire special edition to Complexity Theory’s contributions to Applied Linguistics, demonstrating this theory’s role as a system of interpretation for studies seeking a broader comprehension of the factors involved in the second language learning process. The basic notions of Complexity Theory will be taken as a viewpoint to understand the role of social presence in investigating online and blended communities, especially as reported by Garrison et al. (2000) and Rouke et al. (2004).
onLinE and bLEndEd LEarning coMMunitiEs as coMpLEX sYstEMs Technology as a mediating resource for the construction of shared1 knowledge is stressed by Lévy (1993), who contends that cyberspace, unlike classic media, introduces an all to all type of interaction, where participants can be both senders and recipients, thus leading to a collective intelligence.
In this light, Palloff and Pratt (1999, p. 5) argue that distance learning is invariably active: “the keys to the learning process are the interactions among students themselves, the interactions between faculty and students and the collaboration in learning that result from these interactions.” Computer-mediated communication (CMC), particularly computer conferencing, has become a versatile medium for the delivery of both distributed and on-campus education. One such advantage is that text-based communication offers opportunities for reflection in terms of the Community of Inquiry (Garrison et al., 2000). The creation of learning communities is one of the most debated pedagogical interventions used by educators and researchers to contemplate philosophical change related to knowledge construction. This line of thinking suggests that we construct and maintain knowledge through negotiation and not merely by examining the world. Other key aspects embedded in learning communities are those involving interaction, the relationships of reciprocity, and collaboration, essential components in the process of constructing shared knowledge (Cross, 1998; Wenger, 1998). These precepts of learning communities align themselves with the assumptions found in the literature regarding online learning communities. Joint enterprise,2 the relationships of reciprocity, and the sharing of common purposes, vital aspects if a learning community is to function productively, have also been identified by Rogers (2000) in online dialogs. According to Harasim, Teles, Turroff, and Hitz (2005), the words ‘community’ and ‘communication’ stem from the same root, ‘comunicare’, which means ‘to share’. The authors emphasize that people are naturally attracted by the media, sources of communication, and community formation. Paiva (2006a) adds that technological resources provide new opportunities and challenges for the learning process such as collaborative instructional projects, which boost the collective intelligence.
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
Like online learning communities, blended learning communities have arisen to combine different instructional modalities. The concept of blended learning, as explained by Graham, Allen, and Ure (2003), refers to combining instructional modalities (or delivery media), combining instructional methods, and combining online and face-to-face instruction. In this chapter, the term ‘blended learning’ will be used to refer to educational experiences which combine faceto-face conversation classes with online classes, thus reducing the time spent inside a classroom. This interaction seeks to maximize the potential of both environments. Both blended learning and online learning are imbued with elements that are common to those found in the notions of complexity. The life of a learning community, like other complex systems, is sustained by the interactions among its agents as well as by the relation of interdependence that emerges from these interactions. Moreover, learning communities are open and sensitive to feedback, and are constantly exchanging energy (information, input ) with other systems. Other properties of the systems such as redundancy3 and diversity, as pointed out by Davis and Sumara (2006), are also described in the literature on learning communities. The sharing of responsibility and the relation of reciprocity, as described by Wenger (1998) and Cross (1998), may serve to illustrate instances of redundancy in such pedagogical environments, be they face-to-face, blended, or online. Respect for diversity, on the other hand, is considered by Wenger (1998) to be a crucial element within a learning community, as it is by way of accepting new ideas and embracing the changes and challenges brought on by different perspectives that a community will develop and learn. Literature on complexity thus can trigger relevant insight into understanding online and blended learning communities alike.
thE coMMunitY oF inQuirY ModEL: sociaL prEsEncE The increasing interest on the part of higher education institutions in computer conferencing led Garrison et al. (2000) to propose the Community of Inquiry framework. Assuming that within this community learning takes place through the interaction of the three core elementscognitive presence, teaching presence, and social presence the Community of Inquiry framework, inspired by Dewey (1933), attempts to serve as a tool to investigate the quality of the learning process in text-based environments. In Garrison et al.’s (2000, p. 4) terms, cognitive presence is defined as “the extent to which the participants in any particular configuration of a community of inquiry are able to construct meaning through sustained communication.” The second component, teaching presence, consists of two general functions in the educational experience: (1) designing, usually performed by a teacher, and (2) facilitating, a function shared by the teacher and the participants. The third element, social presence, is defined as “the ability of learners to project themselves socially and emotionally in a community of inquiry.” Although this definition may embrace the affective and social aspects of social presence, it lacks the common purpose and cohesive aspects imbued in the notion of a learning community. For this reason, we adopted the expanded definition proposed by Garrison (2006, p. 2), for whom social presence is “the ability to project one’s self and establish purposeful relationships.” The main function of social presence in Garrison et al. (2000) is to support cognitive objectives through its ability to instigate, sustain, and support critical thinking within a community of learners. As Rourke et al. (2004) argue, communication theorists seem to agree that setting the atmosphere for discussion is an important element in all modes of teaching and learning based on peer
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collaboration. Based on these issues, the discussions regarding blended and online collaborative experiences presented herein will focus on the aspects that appear to promote the emergence of social presence. The longtime attempt to understand human social interactions was set in motion with the development of modalities of mediated technology. In conversational analysis, reports from Schegloff and others (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974; Schegloff, 1968; 1973; Schegloff, Jefferson, & Sacks 1977) sought to understand the nature of telephone and face-to-face conversations. Rourke et al. (2004) cite a variety of reports in communication theory which studied a number of machines, including facsimile machines, voicemail, and audio-teleconferencing in organizational settings, through the concept of “immediacy” from Mehrabian (1969). This concept, developed to analyze face-to-face interaction, refers to “those communication behaviors that enhance closeness to and nonverbal interaction with another” (p. 203). These behaviors involve nonverbal channels, such as facial expressions, body movements, and eye contact, which lead to more effective and more immediate interactions among the interlocutors. Rourke et al. (2004) examine many early works that argued that the critical difference between face-to-face communication and computer-mediated communication was the absence of social context cues. According to Rourke et al. (2004), however, recent revisions of social presence question to what extent these results from previous studies can be generalized to all media and to all their applications. One difference between face-to-face contexts and online contexts, highlighted by Garrison (2006, p. 27), is that “communication for social presence in an online context is less frequent and more deliberate and intentional compared to a face-to-face context where physical presence more naturally stimulates expressions of social presence.”
Garrison further points out that an online experience does offer opportunities for reflection in a manner not at all possible in face-to-face environments, which require verbal agility, spontaneity, and self-confidence to address a group. Thus, an online learning environment reflects a “group-centered” pattern of interaction as opposed to an “authority-centered” one in a face-to-face environment. Moreover, there is a greater tendency to lean on the commentaries of others in online environments as compared to the turn-taking dynamics in face-to-face environments. In this manner, according to Garrison (2006, p. 25), there is evidence indicating that “online learning may in fact have an advantage in supporting collaboration and creating a sense of community.” Rourke et al. (2004), in one of the key works on assessing social presence in computer conferencing, propose three broad categories of communicative responses: affective responses, interactive responses, and cohesive responses. These categories, although relabeled to better reflect the nature of the emergent indicators defined by the authors, correspond directly to Garrison et al.’s (2000) original categories. In this chapter, the term dimension, instead of responses, is preferred as the events under investigation involve more than simple responses. The affective dimension involves personal expressions of emotion, feelings, beliefs, and values, and includes indicators such as expressions of emotion, use of humor, and self-disclosure. The interactive dimension includes communication behaviors that provide evidence that others are present, such as agreement/disagreement, approval, and referencing of previous messages, as well as involves indicators such as: continuing a thread, quoting from others’ messages, asking questions, complimenting, and expressing appreciation. The cohesion present here encompasses communication behaviors that build and sustain a sense of group commitment, such as greetings and salutations and group or personal reference. The interweaving of events, actions, and in-
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
teractions in the notions of complex systems is present in the interrelationship of social, cognitive, and teaching presences in a Community of Inquiry (Garrison et al., 2000). Although the categories and indicators suggested in the Community of Inquiry model are in a certain way presented in a static and non-realistic manner, when we consider, for example, that the selection of text segments used to illustrate the indicators in Rourke et al. (2004) is fabricated, the ideas embedded in this model appear to signal the presence of agents (learners, cultural artifacts, contexts), offering possibilities to identify several qualities such as dynamism, self-organization, emergence, and so on, which are common to complex systems. The next part of this chapter will present an overview of classic and contemporary thought with the aim of promoting a better understanding of the core ideas of complexity.
contEXtuaL issuEs The discussion presented herein has emerged from the analysis of two distinct studies: “Online Learning Communities in the Realm of Complexity” and “The Complexity of Learning Environments.” The first study discusses the main characteristics and functions of online learning communities as well as the emergence of social presence, teaching presence, and cognitive presence in terms of Communities of Inquiry (Garrison et al., 2000). This study’s core analysis focused on the interaction of 50 undergraduate students who participated in a 20-week course for pre-service teachers at the School of Languages and Literatures, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, in the first semester of 2004. This course involved theoretical and practical issues of teaching and learning a second language. These students were divided into small groups of three to five participants and interacted in an online environment without the direct intervention of the teacher.
The second study, a longitudinal ethnographic work, discusses the content of the interactions of 08 undergraduate students in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) academic writing course at the School of Languages and Literatures, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, during the second semester of 2004. This study was designed in a blended format so as to give students the opportunity to interact both online and face-to-face, and thus focuses on learner interaction and collaboration in peer-review activities in both face-to-face and online asynchronous classes. Rather than directly comparing the learning environments, or attempting to discover which is more effective, this research focuses both on their possibilities and constraints, as well as on the value of their combination. In keeping with the perspectives of this chapter, a special inquiry was formulated by choosing two distinct scenes: one related to blended learning and the other related to online learning. Regarding the online experience, the corpus of UFMGPRAT English 1, one of the subcommunities investigated in the study “Online Learning Communities in the Realm of Complexity” was chosen. Throughout the course, participants made use of a discussion list to carry out the tasks assigned in the teaching practice course. For each task, the instructional design involved: (1) posting an individual contribution to the discussion list, (2) discussing these contributions, and (3) posting a collective contribution to a forum for feedback from teachers and members of other subcommunities. In the second study, activities alternated between face-to-face and online classes. Face-toface classes entailed reading and discussing theory as well as presenting seminars. The online classes were conducted in an electronic forum where texts produced by students were posted. Also present here was a discussion list via e-mail intended to resolve problems and doubts that would inevitably arise between one face-to-face encounter and another. For the sake of analysis, the data from
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
this study’s online and face-to-face experiences is presented separately. Enlightened by complexity theory, this analysis considers blended learning as a unit, as all events occurring within both online and face to face is intimately interrelated.
(2) Ellen: I am a bit stunned…I got home from college, wrote, sent and…The msn disappeared…I couldn’t believe it…I almost cried. (original text in Portuguese) (3)
Findings This section will be dedicated to pinpointing evidence of the affective, interactive, and cohesive dimensions as well as patterns that may emerge with the support of social presence.
affective dimension Regarding the exclusively online experience of the UFMGPRAT English 1 subcommunity, it can be observed that emotions, feelings, and humor seem to be expressed emphatically, as can be found in excerpts 1 and 2. Any divergence that could otherwise have been resolved by means of looks, tone of voice, or any other resource typical of a face-to-face interaction tends to be expressed textually: (1) Lisa: …Gee, sorry if I offended ya. Didn’t mean to say that all your sentences were bad. On the contrary! What I meant was that we had (in all) a lot of sentences and we would have to be more selective because if we flood the students with visual aids we may end up not getting the result expected. As I said before, when I answer e-mails quickly (most of the time, unfortunately) I end up simplifying the text and it gets a tad too forward. Please don’t get me wrong. I’m really enjoying working with you guys! Expressions of humor and self-disclosure are also constant in the interactions observed in the UFMGPRAT English 1, as illustrated in 2 and 3:
Ellen: I am going to have to punish you… (laughing). (original text in Portuguese) Concerning blended learning, expressions of emotion, feelings, and humor can also be clearly observed in the participant speech of this community. Excerpts 4 and 5 illustrate the presence of the affective dimension, especially expressions of emotion in the face-to-face experience. In excerpt 4, for example, the emotion is expressed not only linguistically, but also non-linguistically, through pauses and laughter in short statements, which are typical of face-to-face conversations. The teacher’s manifestation upon facing a student’s difficulty in performing one of the tasks proposed by the course is immediate, which draws direct correlation to the concept of Mehrabian’s (1969) “immediacy,” which contemplates communicative behavior related to the specific proximity of interaction possibilities in the face-to-face experience: (4) Nathalie: Ana, I’m in trouble! I don’t know how to do it. Ana: You are not, Nathalie! Nathalie: Yes! Ana: I think you’re… Nathalie: I don’t know. Ana: I think you’re in the right way. (Laughter) Ana: I think you’re in the right way. Write it on the board please.
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
(5) Chris: People are trying to convince me not to talk about (laughs) things that I want to talk about. Expressions of emotion can also be observed in excerpts 6 and 7 in the difficulties the students encounter in performing the tasks. In both cases, non-linguistic elements can be observed, such as pauses and laughter, which aid in the expression of emotion:
It is interesting to note that this message was sent to the teacher’s private e-mail account and not to the discussion list as shown in excerpt 8 sent by the teacher to the discussion list. This event seems to show that, in affective terms, the students preferred to interact directly with the teacher since the proposal of the discussion list, in its course design, had the objective of offering opportunities to resolve problems regarding the completion of tasks.
interactive dimension (6) Chris: We are supposed to continue mine because this is my best. But I’m not going to talk about drama (laughter) ah please help me! How can I do this thesis statement? I’m going crazy (laughter). The interactions observed in the online experience in blended mode do not demonstrate the marked affective dimension seen in the face-toface experience. Yet, due to the absence of certain non-verbal resources typical of a face-to-face interaction, the affective dimension tends to be more linguistically marked, which may indicate that this dimension is more marked in text-based online interactions. This can be observed in excerpts 7 and 8 when one student writes the teacher an e-mail about her difficulty in drafting a composition: (7) Amanda: I am in doubt about how to do my composition. I have surfed the whole Net and can’t find anything. Please, give me some help. (original text in Portuguese)
The core of the interactive dimension is related to the evidence that the other is involved in the common principles of the community. In this manner, indicators, such as using the reply feature to post messages, quoting directly from the conference transcript and referring explicitly to the content of others’ messages, are all types of interactive responses in CMC (Rourke et al., 2004). Of the 189 messages exchanged by the PRATUFMG English 1 subcommunity, 55 present these indicators, mainly referring to the content of others’ messages and the reply feature to post messages. Evidence of complementing and expressing appreciation, indicators that communication is being reinforced in a text-based medium, seem to play a key role in the process of integration in the aforementioned community. Upon demonstrating appreciation for the work of their colleagues, participants of the community express their interest, engagement, reciprocity, and commitment to the proposals of the groups, as illustrated in excerpts 9 and 10: (9)
(8) Ana: Amanda I answered your e-mail but it returned to me as undelivered mail. So, I’m sending it to you in the text factory. I hope it can still help you.
Ellen: Lisa a nd Julia , cong rat ula tions, your texts are very good and I’m sure they’re gonna be useful. I totally agree with what you wrote.
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
(10) Julia: All the sites are interesting (some I knew others I just now visited) I thought the bloglesworld was great and I suggest it be on the list. (original text in Portuguese) Two other indicatorsexpression of agreement and asking questionsemphasized by Rourke et al. (2004) were also observed in the messages from community participants. In addition to the expressions of agreement, it could also be observed that expressions of divergence can instigate, sustain, and give support to critical thinking within the community, one of the major goals of the collaborative experience. In excerpt 11, for example, one community participant manifests not only agreement but also intention to produce knowledge through her classmate’s suggestion: (11) I agree with you about treating the cultural transversal plurality theme suggested by Lisa. Okay, I’m going to base my part on it. (original text in Portuguese) Likewise, the manifestations of divergence, although categorized as indicators of cognitive presence in the model formulated by Garrison et al. (2000), express displeasure and, as in expressions of agreement, may give rise to the development of critical thinking. In excerpt 12, one participant reacts to a long list of expressions suggested by her classmates. These phrases, part of the completion of one of the group tasks, served to facilitate the interaction among the students in the classroom: (12) I think that we have to make a selection of the phrases from the whole because we can’t bombard the students with phrases, right? (original text in Portuguese)
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In blended learning, it can be observed that, in the face-to-face environment, the interactive dimension is also manifested in a non-linguistic form. The “evidence that the other is attending,” for example, is perceived through looks, gestures, and so forth. The elements of the interactive dimension that most commonly appear linguistically in this context are asking questions and expressing agreement, as we can see at the end of excerpt 12 as well as in excerpts 13 and 14. In excerpt 13 the student expresses her agreement with the ideas from a classmate, while in excerpt 14 Nathalie agrees with a commentary from the professor regarding her text: (13) Chris: Ok Ok I agree with you. (14) Nathalie: Yeah it’s kind of confuse… In excerpts 15 and 16, we can see examples of questions that appear frequently in the interactive dimension of the face-to-face classroom: (15) Angélica: It’s a good idea? (16) Angélica: How can I improve? In the online experience, the interactive dimension is much more linguistically present than in the face-to-face experience. One common indicator in this context was complimenting and expressing appreciation, as exemplified in excerpts 17 and 18: (17) Your text is much better now. Congratulations!
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
(18) Angélica, your text is very good with just few mistakes. Congratulations!! In this context, which involved the peer editing of their texts, the students frequently wrote commentaries complimenting their colleagues or highlighting the positive aspects of the text before making any corrections or giving any sort of suggestion.
cohesive dimension As pointed out by Garrison et al. (2000) and Rourke et al. (2004), the cohesive expression can be exemplified by activities that construct, develop, and sustain group behavior all at the same time. It can be observed that the vocative cases were constant through the entire life of the PRATUFMG English-1 subcommunity. In addition, there were a number of moments in which the community participants addressed the group using pronouns that refer to the collective, such as “we,” “our,” and “us,” as well as the use of the verb in the third-person plural in messages written in Portuguese. Another indicator of the group cohesion could be identified through communication using phatic expressions and salutation. Many times the community participants spoke to the group using expressions such as “Hi everybody” or “Hi all.’ Also observed was “Hi, Powerpuff Girls,” referring to the cartoon “The Powerpuff Girls,” “saving the world before bedtime.” It is interesting to note that this nickname was not defined in the interactions that occurred in the course discussion forum, demonstrating an intimate identity within the subcommunity. In addition to this nickname, the participants of the UFMGPRAT English-1 group constantly search for motivational and cohesive expressions in the language, which can be considered a new indicator of social presence pointing toward the development of group cohesion. These manifestations can be observed in examples 19, 20, and 21 (original texts were in Portuguese):
(19) Lisa: United we stand!!!! (20) Ellen: A big hug, all for one and one for all!!!! Go girls. (21) Lisa: Together we will overcome the difficulties. I hope so…I’m going to continue to try to resolve these little problems and I hope that they will not hurt us because we’ve worked hard, right? This attachment to group cohesion can be interpreted as a need for the group to ‘stand on its own two feet’ until the end of the course. This fact seems to be related to the pedagogical proposal of the course which established the “own life” of each subcommunitythat is, autonomous communities without the direct intervention of the teacher. The social expressions that emerged from the participants’ interactions in the aforementioned asynchronous learning community seem to offer collaboration and support to the emergence of patterns such as the negotiation of meaning, the overcoming of conflicts, and the development of group cohesion. One of the major joint enterprises that emerged from these interactions within UFMGPRAT English-1 is distributed leadership. The community participants chose to alternate leaders so that each member could participate equally in group activities. Thus, the role of the management of a learning community, many times taken on by the teacher, is distributed among the community participants. Although UFMGPRAT English-1 was the subcommunity investigated for the discussions debated in this chapter, it is important to emphasize that the emergence of distributed leadership occurred in most subcommunities from the course for pre-service teachers, original corpus for the study “Online Learning Communities in the Realm of Complexity.”
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
In blended learning, the cohesive dimension is not as linguistically marked as it is in the faceto-face experience. Vocative cases are inevitably used, as can be seen in excerpt 22: (22) Ana, in my essay I used this. Nevertheless, this use of vocative cases occurred only when attempting to call the attention of the other since the face-to-face conversation dynamics offered diverse nonverbal resources to indicate to whom certain comments were directed. One very common element used was to address or refer to the group using inclusive pronouns, as shown in excerpts 23 and 24: (23) Angélica: And the name (opens the folder and begins to flip through the pages) I bring it for you… Ana: For us (laughter). (24) Ana: We’ve seen the classification essay right? We’ve seen the process analysis essay… In the online experience, even in the electronic forum where the tasks involved only the edition of texts from classmates, the students commonly used the vocative cases, as demonstrated in excerpts 25 and 26: (25) Angélica, these are some suggestions that might improve your text. (26) Amanda, your text is very good, but I think the use of “that is the way it is a valid experience” in the second paragraph is not very clear, maybe you could change the words.
discussion Both learning communities investigated, blended and online, contain characteristics commonly found in adaptive complex systems. These characteristics can be observed in the corpus investigated in this chapter. The results presented herein demonstrate that the communities are in a constant movement of statethat is, dynamicity, which can be illustrated through the events of the aforementioned divergence and convergence. Emergence can be considered the most preponderant aspect in the investigated corpus. Distinct patterns of leadership arise within the studied contexts. In blended learning, leadership centered on the teacher appears in face-to-face classes. Likewise, as reported in a number of studies regarding classroom interaction (van Lier, 1988; Tsui, 1995; Chaudron, 1988; Dalacorte, 1999), the classroom interactive dynamics are, essentially, centered on the teacher who, in general, controls the turn-taking dynamics. In online activities in the blended experience, there arises a more decentralized leadership. In this context, the presence and coordination of the activities by the teacher occurs, but not at the same intensity as in face-to-face classes. These findings are in accordance with studies that indicate a trend toward a greater participation of learners in online classes (Sullivan & Pratt, 1996; Warschauer, 1996; Paiva, 1999; Fernández-García & Arbelaiz, 2003). In the online community where there was no direct intervention from the teacher, a pattern of distributed leadership emerged. It is important to emphasize that the aforementioned management patterns were supported by social expressions: affective, interactive, and cohesive. These expressions, in addition to being interrelated, as defended by Rourke et al. (2004), manifest themselves in an interdependent manner, and are based on a constant interweaving in an attempt to comply with the diverse common purposes of both blended and online learning communities.
The Emergence of Social Presence in Learning Communities
Another emerging aspect is the fact that social presence is more linguistically apparent in online interactions than in face-to-face interactions. In face-to-face interactions, diverse non-verbal paths, such as looks, facial expressions, and gestures, play key roles in marking social presence or “immediacy,” as defined by Mehrabian (1969). These results are aligned with previous studies (Davis & Thiede, 2000; Martins, 2005, 2006) which indicate that, due to restrictions in contextualization (Gumperz, 1982), common in face-to-face interactions, expressions of emotion and politeness tend to appear more linguistically marked. The results also point out that the expressions of affection, expressions that involve efforts in interactions, and interactions that address the collective, aid in the development process of group cohesion, thus promoting the collaborative experience and opportunities for the construction of shared knowledge. In this sense, the discussions based on the data presented in this chapter follow in line with the findings from Garrison et al. (2000) and Rourke et al. (2004), which indicate that social presence may trigger and sustain the construction of shared knowledge. As the purpose of this discussion has been to prompt some reflection on complexity thinking and social presence, we hope that this study will serve as an incentive for future investigations in other contexts, as the discussion presented herein is based on a small sample from two distinct case studies which was specifically investigated in this chapter.
guidELinEs For FuturE rEsEarch In this chapter we have presented some differences between the processes of socialization in online learning and blended learning. However, further inquires on this topic are still needed, especially those conducted regarding the characteristics of
social presence with different learners and in different learning contexts. Although social presence has been considered to be intrinsically interrelated with cognitive presence, as well as with teaching presence in Garrison et al.’s model, this chapter focuses on social presence only. Therefore, further studies wishing to examine the remaining components of the Community of Inquiry model in both online and blended environments are to be encouraged. In the discussions presented in this chapter, the Community of Inquiry has been scrutinized under the notions of complexity. Considering that our focus was on emergent phenomena in both online and blended learning, research into other characteristics of complexity in learning communities is valid. The use of Complexity Theory as the foundation for the study of online learning is still quite recent, hence an open field for further investigations still exists.
concLusion Initially brought to the field of Applied Linguistics from isolated initiatives, complexity thinking has gradually established itself as a consistent epistemological basis for the understanding of contexts and events involved in teaching and language learning activities. These events, as regards the process of second language learning, much like the universe as a whole, are complex in nature. The complex nature of phenomena has led classic scientists to establish methodological procedures that reduced the phenomena to the investigative conditions of the time. Scientific and technological advances stemming from these efforts established the reductionist view of classic science as a reliable paradigm. The emergence of another viewpoint allows us to investigate certain aspects of a phenomenon, which in many cases is not in fact contemplated within a sole paradigm.
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This idea aligns with Halliday (2001) in the sense that second language teaching is too complex and multifaceted to be analyzed according to one sole perspective, be it what it may. In this light, Larsen-Freeman, (2002b) emphasizes that one of the contributions of complexity is that it enables us not only to review our concepts of teaching and learning a second language but also to perceive the underlying concepts of the more traditional paradigms. In this focus, we share Demo’s (2002) idea that knowledge and learning are considered activities that are imbued in non-linear processes, both in the process of formation and reconstruction as well as in its internal interweaving, due to the fact that they signal typically complex phenomena because they are not exhausted in logical alignments. The discussions related to social presence in both blended and online environments presented in this chapter aim to reiterate the social nature of these types of pedagogical interventions and the potential for the use of CMC in educational practices as far as the construction of shared knowledge is concerned. The creation of blended and online learning communities must therefore be guided by a perspective that embraces instructional designs that, in turn, foster social interactions, considering that out of the issues of effectiveness, interactivity, and cohesion, there may emerge patterns such as reciprocity, commitment, as well as different patterns of negotiation of meaning (e.g., convergence and divergence) and patterns of management (e.g., decentralized and distributed leadership), elements that may trigger the process of critical thinking, one of the major goals of the collaborative experience in the education arena. In this light, the issues herein presented enhance the value of social interactions in textual asynchronous environments and acknowledge the complex nature of blended and online learning communities. As these issues involve both theoretical issues and important practical pedagogical implications, we hope the discussion proposed
in this chapter will contribute to research on elearning methodologies for language teaching and learning as well as pinpoint issues and challenges for others to address and build upon.
rEFErEncEs Bowers, R. (1990). Mountains are not cones: What can we learn from chaos? In J.E. Alatis (Ed.), Proceedings of the Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics (pp. 123-136). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Cameron, L. (1999). The complex dynamics of language use on tasks. Retrieved November 10, 2004, from http://www.education.leeds.ac.uk Chaudron, C. (1988). Second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cross, K.P. (1998). Why learning communities? Why now? Retrieved June 10, 2006, from http://www. doso.wayne.edu Connor-Linton, J. (1995). Complexity, linguistics and language teaching. In J.E. Alatis, C.A. Straehle, & B. Gallenberger (Eds.), Proceedings of the Georgetown University Round Table on Language and Linguistics (pp. 596-604). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Dalacorte, M.C.F. (1999). A participação dos aprendizes na interação em sala de aula de inglês: Um estudo de caso. Tese (Doutorado), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil. Davis, B., & Sumara, D. (2006). Complexity and education: Inquiries into learning, teaching, and research. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Davis, B., & Thiede, R. (2000). Writing into change: Style shift in asynchronous electronic discourse. In M. Warschauer & R. Kern (Eds.), Network-based language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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Demo, P. (2002). Complexidade e aprendizagem: A dinâmica não linear do conhecimento. São. Paulo: Editora Atlas.
Kramsch, C. (Ed.). (2002). Language acquisition and language socialization: Ecological perspectives. London: Continuum.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D.C. Heath.
Kuhn, T.S. (2005). A estrutura das revoluções científicas (9th ed.). São Paulo: Perspectiva.
Fernández-Gracía, M., & Arbelaiz, A.M. (2003). Learners’ interactions: A comparison of oral and computer-assisted written conversations. ReCALL, 15(1), 113-136. Garrison, R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical thinking in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2), 87-105. Garrison, D.R. (2006). Online collaboration principles. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(1). Graham, C.R., Allen, S., & Ure, D. (2003). Blended learning environments: A review of the research literature. Unpublished Manuscript, Provo, UT. Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (2001). New ways of meaning: The challenge to applied linguistics. In A. Fill & P. Mühlhäusler (Eds.), The ecolinguistics reader: Language, ecology and environment (pp. 175202). London: Continuum. Harasim, L., Teles, L., Turroff, M., & Hitz, S. (2005). Redes de aprendizagem: Um guia para ensino e aprendizagem. São Paulo: Editora Senac. Heckman, R., & Annabi, H. (2002, November). How do ALNs change the role of the teacher in case study discussion. Proceedings of the 8th Sloan-C International Conference on Asynchronous Learning Networks, Orlando, FL. Holland, J. H. (1997). Ordem oculta: como a adaptação origina a complexidade. Trad. José Luiz Malaquias. Lisboa: Gradiva.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 18, 141-165. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2002a). Language acquisition and language use from a chaos/complexity theory perspective. In C. Kramsch (Ed.), Language acquisition and language socialization (pp. 33-46). London: Continuum. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2002b). Part one: Commentaries. In C. Kramsch (Ed.), Language acquisition and language socialization (pp. 88-95). London: Continuum. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2006). The emergence of complexity, fluency, and accuracy in the oral and written production of five Chinese learners of English. Applied Linguistics, 27(4), 590-619. Lévy, P. (2003). A inteligência coletiva: Por uma antropologia do ciberespaço (4th ed.). São Paulo: Loyola. Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. Hove Language Teaching. Macgill, V. (2005). A history of chaos and complexity. Retrieved May 20, 2005, from http://complexity.orcon.net.nz/history.html Martins, A.C.S. (2005). Interação e discurso eletrônico: Práticas sociais e identitárias em aulas online. In J.M.C. Quintino & M.I.A. Muniz (Eds.), Estudos lingüísticos (pp. 9-35). Montes Claros: Faculdades Unidas do Norte de Minas. Martins, A.C.S. (2006). Discurso e construção de identidades no ciberespaço. In L.C. Travaglia, E.S. Bertoldo, F. Mussalim, M.A.F. Rocha, & M.V. Araújo (Eds.), Lingüística: Caminhos e descaminhos em perspective (pp. 1-11). Uberlândia: EDUFU.
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Mehrabian, A. (1969). Some referents and measures of nonverbal behavior. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 1(6), 205-207. Paiva, V.L.M. de O. (1999). CALL and online journals. In R. Debski & M. Levy (Eds.), WorldCALL: Themes for the new millennium (pp. 249-265). The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Rogers, J. (2000). Communities of practice: A framework for fostering coherence in virtual learning communities. Educational Technology & Society, 3(3), 384-392. Rossi, P. (2001). O nascimento da ciência moderna na Europa. Tradução de Antonio Angonese. Bauru: EDUSC.
Paiva, V.L.M. de O. (2002). Caleidoscópio: Fractais de uma oficina de ensino aprendizagem. Memorial, Faculdade de Letras, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Rourke, L., & Anderson, T. (2002). Exploring social interaction in computer conferencing. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 13(3), 257-273.
Paiva, V.L.M. de O. (2005a). Modelo fractal de aquisição de línguas. In F.C. Bruno (Ed.), Ensinoaprendizagem de línguas estrangeiras: Reflexão e prática (pp. 23-36). São Carlos: Claraluz.
Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, R., & Archer, W. (2004). Assessing social presence in asynchronous text-based, computer conference. Journal of Distance Education, 14, 2.
Paiva, V.L.M. de O. (2006a). Comunidades virtuais de aprendizagem e colaboração. In L.C. Travaglia (Ed.), Encontro na linguagem: Estudos lingüísticos e literários (pp. 127-154). Uberlândia: UFU.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E.A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking in conversation. Language, 50(4), 696-735.
Paiva, V.L.M. de O. (2006b). Autonomia e complexidade. Linguagem e Ensino, 9(1), 77-127.
Schegloff, E. (1968). Sequencing in conversational openings. American Anthropologist, 70(6), 1075-1095.
Palloff, R., & Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace: Effective strategies for the online classroom. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Schegloff, E.A., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language, 53(2), 361-383.
Parreiras, V.A. (2005). A sala de aula digital sob a perspectiva dos sistemas complexos: Uma abordagem qualitativa. Tese (Doutorado). Belo Horizonte: FALE–UFMG.
Schegloff, E.A., & Sacks, H. (1973). Opening up closings. Semiotica, 8(4), 289-327.
Prass, A. (2005). História da física. Retrieved May 12, 2006, from http://fisicanet.terra.com. br//historia Prigogine, I. (1996). O fim das certezas: Tempo, caos e as leis da natureza. São Paulo: Editora da Unesp. Prigogine, I., & Steners, I. (1984). A nova aliança: A metamorfose da ciência. Brasília: Editora Universidade de Brasília.
Sullivan, N., & Pratt, E. (1996). A comparative study of two ESL writing environments: A computer-assisted classroom and a traditional oral classroom. System, 29, 491-501. van Lier, L. (1988). The classroom and the language learner: Ethnography and second language acquisition. London: Longman. van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy and authenticity. London/New York: Longman.
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van Lier, L. (2000). From input to affordance: Social-interactive learning from an ecological perspective. In J.P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 245259). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cognitive Presence: Defined by Garrison et al. (2000) as “the extent to which the participants in any particular configuration of a community of inquiry are able to construct meaning through sustained communication.”
van Lier, L. (2002). An ecological-semiotic perspective on language and linguistics. In C. Kramsch (Ed.), Language acquisition and language socialization (pp. 140-164). London: Continuum.
Cohesive Responses: This category encompasses communication behaviors that build and sustain a sense of group commitment, such as greetings and salutations, and group or personal reference.
van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning: A sociocultural perspective. Boston: Kluwer Academic.
Interactive Responses: This category of social presence, in terms of Community of Inquiry, refers to communication behaviors that provide evidence that others are attending, such as continuing a thread, quoting from others messages, asking questions, or complimenting and expressing appreciation.
Waldrop, M. (1992). Complexity: The emerging science at the edge of order and chaos. New York: Simon and Schuster. Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13(2), 7-26. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
kEY tErMs Affective Responses: This category of social presence, in terms of Community of Inquiry, involves personal expressions of emotions, use of humor, and self-disclosure. Blended Learning: Refers to combining instructional modalities (or delivery media), combining instructional methods, and combining online and face-to-face instruction (Graham et al., 2003). This term has been used in the e-learning literature to refer specifically to educational experiences that combine face-to-face conversation classes with online classes, thus reducing the time spent inside a classroom. This interaction seeks to maximize the potential of both environments.
Learning Community: “…dynamic whole that emerges when a group of people share common practices, are independent, make decisions jointly, identify themselves with something larger than the sum of their individual relationships, and make long-term commitments to the well being of the group” (Shaffer & Anundsen, 1993, as cited in Palloff & Pratt, 1999). Social Presence: Concept defined by Garrison et al. (2000) as “the ability of learners to project themselves socially and emotionally in a community of inquiry.” Garrison (2006) expanded this notion, defining it as “the ability to project one’s self and establish purposeful relationships.” Teaching Presence: Involves designing and facilitating the educational experience (Garrison et al., 2000).
EndnotEs 1
The term “shared” is used in this chapter to refer to the type of knowledge that stems from “negotiation and/or exchange” in the solution of problems.
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2
3
Joint enterprise in this context is seen as a result of a collective process of negotiation that reflects the full complexity of mutual engagement (Wenger, 1998). Redundancy in this text is used in Davis and Sumara’s (2006, p. 138) terms: “In social grouping redundancies include common language, similar social status, shared responsibilities, constancy of setting and so on.”
Chapter III
CALL as Action Vilson J. Leffa Universidade Catolica de Pelotas, Brazil
abstract The objective of this chapter is to offer a new approach for research in Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL). It starts with the assumption that CALL has traditionally emphasized unresolved dichotomies such as tutor vs. tool or individualized instruction vs. collaborative learning. It is argued that a unifying theory, capable of incorporating these conflicting views, is needed. For this purpose, Activity Theory, based on Vygotsky’s ideas and developed by Leontiev, is proposed. It is suggested that research in CALL should focus neither on the individual nor on the community, but on the mediating tool that links them in situated context. CALL is seen as a cultural artifact that needs to be naturalized by the language teaching community.
introduction Mainstream theories in foreign language teaching tend to emphasize either the individual (focusing on such aspects as individualized instruction, learning styles, self-directed strategies) or the community (including methodologies such as community language learning, collaborative learning, study teams). The introduction of computers into foreign language instruction seemed to have contributed further to this dichotomy,
raising awareness of the differences between a student working alone in front of the computer or interacting with others in a community of learners. The basic motivation for writing this chapter is the assumption that an emphasis on either the individual or on the community results in a reductionist approach to the problem, incapable of addressing the complexity of CALL. What is proposed, then, is to emphasize the point where they intersect. For the individual to interact with the community, he or she has to do something (ac-
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CALL as Action
tion), through some kind of mediation (tool). This is described here as the “action” approach. CALL as mediated action introduces a new paradigm in language teaching and research, putting the focus neither on the student nor on the teacher, but on the relation between them in the learning community. The chapter is structured in two main parts: (1) CALL as divided theory and (2) CALL as mediated action. The first part reviews classifications that have been proposed to explain CALL and its development, starting with the tutor/tool dichotomy and evolving to the concept of CALL as an invisible technology. Whereas in the tutor perspective, the computer is still seen as a traditional teacher, conducting drill practice with individual students, in the tool view the computer is seen as an instrument used by people to communicate with each other. The movement from tutor to tool also signals a movement from a focus on the individual to a focus on the community, with an emphasis on collaborative learning. The second part tries to build the concept of CALL as mediated action, using the Activity Theory perspective: human beings are different from other species because they create tools and are modified by the tools they create, thus evolving and producing history. CALL is described as a cultural artifact, with resources of its own, including higher interactivity and connectivity. It integrates with other components in the learning community, transforming the way teachers and students work and think. From this collective perspective, teaching and learning become a unified activity, distributed not only among the community members but also on the artifacts available in the environment. The main objective of the chapter is thus to describe CALL as a mediating tool, standing between subject (usually the student) and object (usually the content to be learned). In this chapter, we argue that change, and consequently learning, will be more easily implemented if the emphasis is neither on the teacher, as has traditionally been
0
done, nor on the student, as proposed by studentcentered approaches, but on the instruments that link student to content, and the whole learning community, including teacher, other students, rules, and division of labor. We believe that an emphasis on the instrument, for its capability in binding all the elements in the community, offers a more comprehensive view of CALL in situated practice, with more possibilities both for teaching and research purposes.
caLL as a housE diVidEd The idea of CALL as either an individual or a social activity can be related to CALL classification attempts, three of which are detailed here, not only for their historical impact on the area, but mainly for their relevance to the line of reasoning developed in this chapter. They are the magister/pedagogue distinction, as proposed by Higgins (1988), the CALL phases described by Warschauer (1996), and the approaches suggested by Bax (2003). The acknowledged need for a theory to explain CALL (Levy, 1997) has led some investigators to propose different theoretical frameworks, which resulted in different classifications. One of the earliest was postulated by Higgins (1988), who viewed the computer as playing two opposite roles in CALL, either as “magister” or “pedagogue.” Thus, the magister: wears an academic gown to show that he is qualified in subject knowledge. Visible in his top pocket is his salary check, symbolizing the security of tenured appointment. In one hand he holds a handkerchief, symbol of the care and concern which (we hope) he feels for individual learners. In the other he carries a cane, symbolizing the authority to evaluate, praise and censure. In front of him is the book, the symbol of the order of events, the structure which is imposed on him by the syllabus makers and which he will impose
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on the learners by means of the lesson plan. (Higgins, 1988, p. 13) To explain pedagogue, Higgins resorts to the figure of the Greek slave, who was used to assist children in their daily learning activities: So think of a man in sandals and a cheap cotton robe, walking five paces behind the young master. He carries the young master’s books for him, but no cane. The young master snaps his fingers and the pedagogue approaches. He answers the young master’s questions, recites a poem, translates words, plays a game, or even, if that is what the young master demands, gives a test. The young master snaps his fingers again, and the pedagogue goes back to his place. He hopes he has given satisfaction, since otherwise he may starve. (Higgins, 1988, p. 14) According to Higgins, a computer is a magister when it plays the role of a tutor, controlling and guiding the student through a series of drills. The interaction between machine and student is typically conducted through exchanges, as in the IRF (Initiate/Respond/Follow-up) model proposed by Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) for traditional classroom discourse. It can be easily seen that the basic classroom exchange, in its three sequential moves, is faithfully reproduced in the CALL environment: (1) computer sets the task (initiate move), (2) student tries to accomplish the task (respond move), and (3) computer evaluates (follow-up move). Considering that, in this case, the machine is not a mediational means between teacher and student, but an actor in the exchange, we can argue that there is an attempt to replace the teacher with the computer; the one-to-one classroom interaction is seamlessly extended to one-to-one computing, with an emphasis on individual learning. On the other hand, computer as pedagogue inverts the master/slave relation between student and machine. Unlike the IRF model, control is
now handed over to the student, who initiates the exchange and tells the computer what to do; the computer responds by trying to accomplish the task. The student finally evaluates the results and may or may not be satisfied with the job done by the machine, now seen as an obedient slave, ready to make things easier for its master. When Higgins proposed the magister/pedagogue dichotomy, in fact based on a previous paper (Higgins, 1983), the Internet, as we know it, was not yet available. Today, with Orkut, discussion lists, and distance learning, the pedagogue metaphor would certainly serve the purposes of collaborative teaching with its emphasis on the collective aspects of learning. Warshauer classifies CALL in three phases, which he refers to as behavioristic, communicative, and integrative. The behavioristic phase is characterized by the heavy use of drills, following the audio-lingual model, with the computer playing the role of tutor. According to Warschauer (1996, p. 4): Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as ‘drill and practice’ (or, more pejoratively, as ‘drill and kill’”)…A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities. The communicative phase emphasizes the use of authentic materials and interactive activities, with the computer playing different roles, not only as a tutor but mainly as a tool for students’ discussions, writing, and other creative activities. Through the use of authentic materials, the emphasis is not on teaching the language per se, but on using the language, taking advantage of materials that were not produced for students. “In this role, the programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language” (Warshauer, 1996, p. 6).
CALL as Action
The integrative phase combines multimedia (integrating text with graphics, sound, animation, and video) with the impact of the Internet (allowing language learners to communicate with other learners 24 hours a day). The use of computermediated communication clearly favors collective learning over individualized instruction: It also allows not only one-to-one communication, but also one-to-many, allowing a teacher or student to share a message with a small group, the whole class, a partner class, or an international discussion list of hundreds or thousands of people. (Warshauer, 1996, p. 9) A third classification for CALL activities, of special interest here, was proposed by Bax (2003). He also uses a three-element categorization, but defines CALL as restricted, open, and integrated. The restricted variety is related to Warschauer’s behavioristic CALL, but is not limited to the underlying theory, since it includes activities that cannot be described as behavioristic. The term restricted is preferred because of the limitations that are still observed, considering, for example, the software used, the feedback offered to the students, and the role played by the teacher. By contrast, the open variety is more flexible in all of these aspects, integrating them with simulations and games. It is on the integrated type, however, that Bax differs most from Warschauer, and offers an interesting perspective on CALL. Whereas Warschauer sees integrative in terms of technology, that is, the ability to integrate text with audio and video, for example, Bax describes integrated in terms of socio-cultural aspects, emphasizing not the ability to integrate, but rather the ability to be integrated. The technology, which is visible in Warschauer, becomes invisible in Bax (2003, p. 24): This concept [integrated CALL] is relevant to any kind of technological innovation and refers to the stage when the technology becomes invisible,
embedded in everyday practice and hence ‘normalized’. To take some commonplace examples, a wristwatch, a pen, shoes, writing–these are all technologies which have become normalized to the extent that we hardly even recognized them as technologies. In theory CALL has gone a long way, developing from Higgins’s (1988) metaphor of the magister, placed in center stage, to Bax’s (2003) idea of CALL as an invisible technology. In fact, it starts developing from the center (computer as conspicuous tutor), moves to the margin (computer as an obedient slave, walking five paces behind its master), and finally reaches invisibility (computer as a naturalized tool). Along this journey from visible tutor to invisible tool, there is also a movement from individual action to social activity. Computer as tutor usually emphasizes individualized instruction, with the student working alone in front of the screen. Computer as tool, on the other hand, tends to emphasize collective learning, with students forming a community of learners, working cooperatively, exchanging ideas, and learning together through continual negotiations. The development from tutor to tool goes hand in hand with the development from individual learning, with an emphasis on cognition, to social transformation, with an emphasis on historicity and collective learning. In classroom practice, however, the historical development of CALL does not reflect the ideas defended in mainstream theory. Considering what happens in the classroom, the tendency is towards stability: (1) keep things as they are, not as they should be; (2) if change is inevitable, improve from what is available, not by replacing things; and (3) merge dichotomies instead of strictly adhering to one side or the other. In mainstream theory (Kuhn, 1962), the tendency is in the opposite direction: (1) new things must be proposed and tried out, because there is no evolution without change; (2) scientific revolutions depend on paradigm replacement, not on their improvement; (3) dichotomies represent incompatible, mutually exclusive positions.
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The concept of development as substitution can be detected in the idea that we have moved from computer as tutor to computer as tool, replacing one by the other. This is more a theoretical construction than a practical fact. The development of CALL, as the development of most cultural artifacts in the history of civilization, is better characterized by the idea of evolution, where old artifacts are not replaced by new ones, but incorporated into them. It seems that separation is a theoretical necessity. If we want to investigate CALL, we must find a way to divide and classify it, describe each one of these parts, and then hopefully relate these parts to one another, creating a system or a model. We may devise categories such as types of CALL (behavioristic, communicative, and integrative in Warschauer’s terminology or restricted, open, and integrated, in Bax’s). We may also create dichotomies such as tutor vs. tool or individual vs. society. All this breaking up and possible reassembling is part of the theoretical procedure. We may assume that the theorist’s job is to make all these things visible, so that they can be described and analyzed. In classroom practice, however, it is the opposite. As will be explained later, separation does not work. Using CALL with students is like taking them on a journey into invisibility. Software and computers have to become transparent so that students can see through them; they cannot be in the way between students and the content they need to learn. Tutor/tool or individual/society dichotomies are not adhered to, but ignored or blended together (e.g., Hubard & Hiskin, 2003). The point made here is that both adherence to the fragmentation paradigm, where parts of the whole are separated and analyzed, as done in theory, and adoption of the blending model, where things are put together, as done in practice, are misleading. It can be argued, for example, that the different classifications proposed by different authors are different because the criteria they use to classify them are arbitrary. Although we may
defend the idea that science is after all a subjective truth, dependent on the argumentative skills of the author, the possibility of having innumerable classifications is problematic and may be characteristic of the early stages of a new science, still in a consolidation process, as is probably the case with CALL. Different classifications may lead not only to an excessive concern with the parts, in detriment of the whole, but also preference for some parts in detriment of others, which may result in a blind man’s view of reality, taking the tree for the forest. In a dichotomy, when we chose one side, this side becomes the whole and the other is erased. On the other hand, adopting a blending model, in which both the whole and the parts are considered, is a practical necessity. In the classroom, for example, the teacher cannot always address the whole group; sometimes individual questions from individual students must be answered. Integrative exercises, such as summary writing, may go hand in hand with discrete item activities, such as gapfilling and multiple-choice tests. In CALL terms, computer as tutor is intensively used in some courses, along with collaborative tasks in which students work together with other students. What is needed is a theory, robust enough to incorporate both sides of the dichotomy, no matter how they oppose each other, no matter how apparently incompatible they are. Such a theory is based on the idea of mediation. The concern is neither the individual nor the community, neither the student nor the content to be learned, but the relation between them. Learning does not occur directly but through a mediational artifact, which stands between student and learning as a bond, cementing them. This idea of mediational artifact as cement is important because, although we cannot change either a person’s nature or the nature of an object, we can change the mediational artifact that links them together. Considering, for example, a student learning a foreign language, it is obvious that we cannot change either the foreign language or the student. We might wish to erase
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some verb irregularities in the language we teach to make our job easier, but that is not possible. We might wish to have different students, but that is not possible either. We have to take language and students as they are. The only place where changes are possible is in the artifacts we use: books, learning activities, computer software. If we want to change the way students learn, we have to change the artifacts they use.
caLL as a uniFYing tooL This section addresses the main point of this chapter, which is to present a unified theory for CALL, merging long-standing dichotomies such as tool vs. tutor and individualized instruction vs. collective learning. Unifying different points of view is not an easy task in any area of human activity and seems to be even more difficult in the area of educational research. A view of available literature shows that researchers in education tend to group themselves in different scientific paradigms (Piagetean, Vygotskyan, Chomskyan, etc.), surrounding themselves with a shield that automatically blocks out all the others. Any suggestion to mix different paradigms into one eclectic approach may be discarded as “intellectual obscenity,” according to a saying attributed to Krashen (Barasch & James, 1994). The attempt to describe CALL as mediated action questions this feudalized view of science and offers a multifaceted perspective, viewing research as bricolage (Kincheloe & Berry, 2004). It is proposed that what is traditionally defined as static, lifeless, and a-historical, frozen in space and time, becomes a dynamic, living, and historical entity. The parts are no longer isolated from each other, but integrated into a living organism that reacts to the surrounding environment: what functions as tool in one context may function as tutor in another and vice versa. Describing CALL as a unifying tool in a living organism is obviously more complex than describing it as a
static entity. Previous views on related cultural artifacts such as books, classroom lectures, and language teaching activities have to be revised and reconceptualized for a post-digital perspective. What follows is an attempt to describe CALL in this direction. Due to human tendency to anthropomorphize objects, the tutor/tool dichotomy can be applied to many cultural artifacts, including books, television, radio, tape recordersand CALL. Books are of special interest here, both for what they have in common with computers and for the differences that set them apart when they are anthropomorphized. Teachers are familiar with books and can easily integrate them in their classroom activities; they know exactly when to treat them as physical objects or psychological realities, and know exactly when they are talking in a figurative or in a literal way. As regards computers, however, they are unsure, mainly because the boundary between the figurative and the literal worlds becomes unclear. When they say, for example, that “a book is a teacher,” they know they are talking metaphorically, but if they hear that “a computer is a teacher,” they may not know how to interpret the sentence. Is it a metaphor or can the computer really act as a teacher? The differences between book, computer, and teacher are dealt with here, considering the notion of anthropomorphization, resistance to new technologies, and the need to appropriate the new technology. The basic idea is that a computer should not be seen as a substitute for either book or teacher, but as a technology that integrates them into a greater unit. Considering that the tutor/tool dichotomy is confusing, it is replaced by the words teacher, artifact, and tool. No difference is made between the words tool and instrument, both seen as mediation. As mediation, a tool can be either an object (book, computer) or a subject (teacher, student). Both books and computers are cultural artifacts that can be anthropomorphized, but there are some differences in this anthropomorphization process that must be taken into account. First,
CALL as Action
as regards books, there is an association between object and subject that is not found in computers. Books, unlike computers, are individual entities written by people, which makes it easy to associate any book with its author. We may say that we love Shakespeare, Chaucer, or Charles Dickens, referring to the books they have written, thus erasing the difference between the author and his work. There is no need for the author to be present when he is read; he can be represented by the work he produced. Literally speaking, author and book belong to opposite worlds; one is a subject, the other is an object. Metaphorically speaking, however, they share the same subjective nature. It is also important to notice that no reader is diminished and no author is depreciated when a book is referred to as a person. Computers, on the other hand, are not individual entities; they are artifacts manufactured by a few big companies and registered as trademarks. They have general characteristics (more or less memory capacity, higher or lower speed), but they cannot be easily associated with an author, as happens with books. We may know that Steve Jobs is the maker of Apple Computers, but if we say that we love Steve Jobs, we are probably referring directly to the person, not to the machine that he made. The author is not visible in the computer. Although a given computer usually leaves the factory with a specified serial number, that number is restricted to the documentation; it is not used in our daily interaction with the machine. Computers are not born with individuality; they are produced on an assembly line, all alike, within the specifications of a given model. Individuality is added later, when we buy them, adding accessories, and mainly with use, when we customize them to our needs. Computers do not come ready-made for use, unlike books that come ready-made to be read. There are no metaphors involved here; they literally grow with use, reacting and changing to our personal wishes and needs. Computers are not prêt-à-porter artifacts.
Anthropomorphization is easier with books than with computers. We accept without any sign of discomfiture the notion of a book as a dear friend, always ready to help us, more than we do with computers. The metaphor of a book as a patient friend has probably been used since the days people started reading books. The segment “book is a friend,” for example, produced more than 26.2 million hits in a Google search in early 2007. Some examples: • •
•
•
“A book is a friend.” (American proverb) “A book is a friend; a good book is a good friend. It will talk to you when you want it to talk and it will keep still when you want it to keep still; and there are not many friends who know enough to do that.” (B.A. Billingsly) “A book is a friend you can trust, a friend you can turn to for advice and inspiration whenever you like.” (Anonymous) “Each book is a friend that converses with and teaches me.” (Warren Wiersbe)
Being friendly and trusty are subjective characteristics that are attributed to an object, through anthropomorphization, as we have traditionally done with animals (Easter Bunny, Mickey Mouse) and toys (Pinocchio, the Hardy Tin Soldier), including, lately, household objects (SpongeBob). This process of anthropomorphization is seen as something natural. In the case of books, it is also seen as desirable, based on the assumption, in most cultures, that books are essentially good and should be loved and respectednot for their physical reality, just leaves of paper bound together, but for their psychological content. On the other hand, as regards computers, they may easily spark feelings of disapproval, whether anthropomorphized or not. Some examples: •
“Most schools would probably be better off if they threw their computers into the dumpster.” (Michael Fellows, computer scientist,
CALL as Action
•
University of Victoria, British Columbia, 1997) “When I put a child in front of a computer, what am I subtexting to the child? Please go hide…I have something more important to do. I have something more important than you!” (Clifford Stoll, astronomer, writer, leading authority on computer security, in a lecture at the Buffalo Arts Center, 1996)
A Google search, using the same string above, but replacing book with computer, produced only 26 hits for “computer is a friend,” as compared to the 26.2 million for “book is a friend.” Out of these 26 occurrences, only one put the computer in a clear positive light: For me, computer is a friend who helps me do my work easily, gets me connected with my friends around the world, helps me plan the daily memo, guides in my son’s school projects and what not!1 Considering that we are used to attributing human qualities to animals and objects, including books and computers, the question that begs answering here is why we act one way when we refer to books and a different way when we refer to computers. When we say that a book is a friend ready to teach us, we are treating the book not as an artifact but as a teacherand that is totally acceptable. On the other hand, if we treat a computer as a teacher, not as an artifact, that is usually seen as undesirable. We see it as commendable if books are metaphorically treated as human beings, replacing the teacher, and we encourage students to read books, which is as solitary as playing with a computer. As far as anti-social behavior is concerned, there is more solitude in front of a book than in front of a computer screen. There are certainly many explanations for treating books and computers so differently, although they are both cultural artifacts. One important difference is that a book is a static,
physically inanimate object. We can attribute human qualities to it, but they are not really there; they are only in our minds. The black marks on the page mean nothing by themselves, unless we give them meaning. When we say that a book is a teacher, we are speaking metaphorically. Computers, on the other hand, are dynamic, physically animate objects. They react to input, analyze the data we enter, and can provide different answers to similar questions, generated by a random seed working within certain parameters. When we say that a computer is a teacher, we may be speaking not only metaphorically but also literally. When we interact with a book, the interaction is not really with the book but with a representation of the book that we have built inside ourselves; the book remains untouched as a physical reality. It does not interact back. When we interact with a computer, the computer changes physically, as a result of our interaction; it may add new information to a data bank inside the unit, for example, and then capitalize on this information for the next user, literally becoming a different computer. Unlike a book, the computer interacts back. This ability to interact is not well understood yet and may generate fear, which in turn may lead to resistance. Some people believe that artificial intelligence will turn computers into amazing thinking machines that will eventually replace human beings (Shneidermann, 2002). Computers are interactive machines that can be programmed to simulate some human actions, using algorithms that compare the data entered by the user with the data stored in their random access memories, thus providing automatic feedback based on these comparisons. It may be striking to some people that computers can simulate rather long conversations with human beings, playing different roles. One of the earliest programs, exploiting this side of artificial intelligence, for example, was ELIZA (Weizenbaum, 1966), in the role of a psychiatrist. The excerpt2 below reproduces a possible dialogue with the machine:
CALL as Action
ELIZA: How do you do? Please state your problem. Person: I spend too much time with computers. ELIZA: Why do you mention computers? Person: You are one. ELIZA: Does it please you to believe I am one? Person: Yes. ELIZA: You seem to be quite positive. Person: I suppose I am. Although the idea of artificial intelligence as a replacement for human action has generally been seen with skepticism (Shneidermann, 2002), the fear still remains in some quarters. It may be difficult, for example, to separate the metaphoric from the literal in the ELIZA excerpt above, when we interact with the program on a computer screen and receive immediate answers to the questions we pose. Consequently, what should be seen as a simple preprogrammed algorithm in the machine may be seen as intelligence. When fear is associated with the difficulty that people meet in trying to use the new tools, the result is usually resistance to their use. People who feel that they are excluded from the community of successful users will tend to play down the role of a given tool in that community. Sometimes, however, resistance may be found in the initiated themselves. Plato’s criticism against the use of writing for its undesirable effects on memory is a famous historical example: …your invention [writing] will produce forgetfulness in the souls of those who have learned it, through lack of practice at using their memory, as through reliance on writing they are reminded from outside by alien marks, not from inside themselves by themselves: you have discovered an elixir not of memory but of reminding. To your students you give an appearance of wisdom, not the reality of it; having heard much, in the absence of teaching, they will appear to know much when for the most part they know nothing, and they will be difficult to get along with, because they have acquired the
appearance of wisdom instead of wisdom itself. (Plato, trans. Rowe, 1986, pp. 275a-b) What Plato said of writing in 400 BC is very similar to what Postman, a well-known cultural critic, said of computers in 1992: “It is important to remember what can be done without computers, and it is also important to remind ourselves of what may be lost when we do use them” (Postman, 1992, p. 120). One possible explanation for why we are ready to accept the metaphor of books as teachers is because we are not afraid of books and know how to use them; books have already been naturalized, “normalized” in Bax’s terms. We talk about books as we talk about the objects we use everyday. Centuries of contact with books in our civilization, the years we spend in school learning how to read them, the way we see them displayed in bookstore windows, buy and borrow them, exchange and discuss them, all this has contributed to naturalize books as part of our daily lives. We are so used to books that it causes us no discomfort at all to refer to them as our friends or teachers. On the other hand, when we see how computers are used, either in fiction or in real life, we realize immediately that they are different from booksthey interact directly with the user, answering questions, providing feedback, and so forth, with no apparent human intervention. Some authors have defined this human-machine exchange as interactivity, as opposed to interaction, which is human to human (Wagner, 1994). The computer moves from a simple bearer of messages (e-mails, academic texts, encyclopedias, etc.), to a data processing machine (word processors, presentation programs, design applications, music making software), and reaches subjectivization, simulating human actions. “A computer is a medium in which a variety of methods, approaches, and pedagogical philosophies may be implemented” (Garrett, 1991, p. 75).
CALL as Action
We live in a world where the border between subject and object seems to have become movable, making it difficult to decide whether we are receding towards ourselves, relinquishing the human in us to the objects that surround us, or expanding our humanity and incorporating these same objects. When we wear contact lenses, for example, it is difficult to decide whether our eyes end before the lenses or continue beyond them, creating what Kuuti (1996) referred to as functional unit. The point is that it probably does not matter: we do not interact with our lenses; we interact through them. They are artifacts like telephones, books, and computers. Likewise we do not interact with these artifacts, but through them, no matter how sophisticated they may be. We may talk to computers as we talk to other objects: metaphorically. But we may also talk to computers as we talk to people, that is, literally. A computer is both a book and a teacher; sometimes it acts as a book (just bearing text, for example), but sometimes it also acts as a teacher (providing individualized feedback, evaluating tasks, etc.). Either as book or as teacher, a computer can always be seen as a mediating tool. A good student does not study for the teacher but uses the teacher as a means for reaching a given objective, the same way a home builder uses an architect to design a house or a sick person uses a doctor to get well. A computer, either as a teacher or as an artifact, can always be seen as a mediating tool. A tool does not exist by itself; it was created for some purpose, empowering people in a community to attain a given objective more efficiently. It is apparently obvious that people, including both the individual and the community, should be on the foreground. But this may not always be so. When we do research on how people learn, for example, it may be more productive to put people in the background, so that the tools they use can be brought to the foreground. If we want to teach a child to ride a bicycle, having a bicycle is essential for the child to acquire the skills of riding. We have to sit the child on the bicycle and
do some amount of practice. The child’s behavior will be shaped by the use of the bicycle, to the point that it becomes an extension of her legs and arms and she will be able to ride by herself, without any help. Learning to read or speak a foreign language may require the acquisition of different skills, but they can only be done with the mediation of some kind of tool. Tools are important because it is only through them that we can change the individual, the community, and the world. “Neither hand or mind alone suffice; the tools and devices they employ finally shape them” (Francis Bacon, as quoted by Brunner, 1987). We do not need surgery to change anybody’s hand; we can change the hand by changing the gesture made by the hand. In the same vein, we do not need surgery to change people’s brain; we can change it by changing their mind. And this is done with the mediation of tools. Mediated action has received a lot of attention lately, as part of the Activity Theory paradigm in education. Vygotsky and Leontiev are the main historical references here, complemented by contemporary authors such as Kuuti (1996), Engeström (1999), Wertsch (1998), and Cole (2003). For them, learning is mediated by tools (both psychological such as language, strategy use, etc., or technical ones such as books and computers). The subject who uses these tools is not an isolated individual but a member of a given community (EFL classroom, language lab, etc.). The members in the community (teachers, administrators, etc.) all share the same objective (learning a foreign language). For the community to subsist, a set of rules must be created, dividing responsibilities between its members. When a new tool is introduced (podcasts, RPG, iPods, etc.), it must be mastered by all members in the community, according to the role played by each member (a teacher’s knowledge of an authoring system, for example, may need to be different from the student’s). Any action, any task in the community only makes sense if viewed from a holistic perspective and cannot be separated
CALL as Action
from its final objective (shared by everybody in the community). There seems to be a considerable difference between what is actually done in CALL and what could be done. The reasons for this difference are many, including restrictions from the technology itself and human resistance to its use. In terms of technology, we are still working with an emergent system, lacking in fundamental aspects such as interoperability, standard compliance, and hardware interconnectivity. In terms of human resistance, we tend to compare the computer to the teacher and then rejoice on what it cannot do. Adopting a new technology implies a new way of working and thinking. Producing a learning object to be used on the computer is not necessarily more difficult than preparing an activity to be used with paper and pencil, but it is certainly more complex. A computer program is not a replacement for either the book or the teacher. It has resources of its own, including higher interactivity and connectivity, which have to be adequately exploited. In a socio-cultural perspective, CALL should be seen as a cultural artifact that integrates with the other components in the learning community, including other artifacts and other members (teachers, students, etc.). From this collective perspective, teaching and learning become a unified activity, distributed not only among the community members but also on the artifacts available in the environment. Introducing a new tool is always a challenge, subject to more or less resistance from the members in the community. It usually means acquiring new skills, from the operational (more automatic) stages to higher intentional levels, with the result that by doing different things, we end up thinking differently. When any new artifact (pencil, television, computer, or CALL) is introduced in a community, not only the whole body is involved, but the environment as well and everybody in it.
FuturE trEnds Looking ahead is a general pastime in the area of computer-mediated communication and learning, as can be seen in popular books such as Gates’ (1995) The Road Ahead, Negroponte’s (1995) Being Digital, and Shneiderman’s (2002) Leonardo’s Laptop. In CALL, even components of some current models are sometimes projected into the future, as is the case with Bax (2003), for example, who described his Integrative CALL as something that “does not yet exist to any significant degree, but represents instead an aim towards which we should be working” (p. 22). The future is a challenge because the more unpredictable it is, the more the need to predict it. In terms of CALL, and in the line of reasoning defended here, the trend is towards the idea that computers will be instrumental in the formation of different kinds of communities. Learning to speak a foreign language is acquiring admittance into the community of the speakers of that language, which can be done with computers, through local, regional, and global networks. In the early days of CALL, the emphasis was on the individual and consequently on individualized learning. Later, with the introduction of the Internet and the socio-cultural perspective on education, the emphasis moved to the community and collaborative learning. Considering that computers are instrumental in connecting individuals and communities, the trend, in terms of research and teaching, is to move beyond the individual and the community and focus on what has the potential of introducing the individual into society and society into the individual, along Morin’s (1990) hologrammatical principle. This principle states that not only the whole contains the part, but that the part also contains the whole. Thus, for a language student to be part of a foreign language community, this student must appropriate the language and the values that constitute this community. The community, on
CALL as Action
the other hand, to be ecologically competent to allow for interaction between individuals, needs to develop some cultural artifacts that function as messaging tools for individuals and communities to talk to each other, incorporating the parts into the whole. There is a big difference between CALL as is and CALL as it can be. CALL as is still confines itself to the individual-vs.-society dichotomy, favoring the part in detriment of the whole. CALL as it can be focuses on what links individual to society, accounting for both the part, which contains the whole, and the whole, which contains the part. The trend is clearly towards CALL as it can be.
concLusion Summarizing, the idea put forward in this chapter is that CALL is not aimed at replacing either the teacher or the book. The idea that computers should act like human beings, the humanoids in science fiction, or the agents in some versions of artificial intelligence research may be interesting as entertainment or research projects, but not very useful in practice and is being discarded (Shneiderman, 2002). The basic idea is that we need tools to help us, not humanoids to replicate our actions. CALL has often been described in terms of dichotomies: tutor vs. tool or individual vs. community. These dichotomies can be referred to as the “or” approach, where either the individual or the community is excluded, which is a logical impossibility, since one cannot exist without the other. Another possibility is to go the other way around and emphasize both the individual and the community, reasoning that we may refer to it as the “and” approach. Again, this is problematic because nothing is left out and would probably result in redundancy and duplication of effort. What we propose here is that neither the individual nor the community should be emphasized, but the point where they intersect. For the individual to
0
interact with the community, he or she must do something (action) through some kind of mediation (tool). This can be referred to as the “action” approach, in which the emphasis is neither on the individual nor on the community, but on the relation between them.
rEFErEncEs Barasch, R.M., & James, C.V. (1994). Beyond the monitor model: Comments on the current theory and practice in SLA. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Bax S. (2003). CALLPast, present and future. System, 31(1), 13-28. Bruner, J. (1987). Prologue to the English edition. In L.S. Vygotsky (Ed.), The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky (vol. 1). New York: Plenum. Cole, M. (2003). Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Engeström, Y. (1999). Activity theory and individual and social transformation. In Y. Engeström, R. Miettinen, & R.L. Punamäki (Eds.), Perspectives on activity theory (pp. 19-38). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Gates, W. (1995). The road ahead. New York: Penguin Books. Higgins, J. (1983). Can computers teach? CALICO Journal, 1(2), 4-6. Higgins, J. (1988). Language, learners and computers: Human intelligence and artificial unintelligence. Singapore: Longman. Hubard, P., & Siskin, C.B. (2003, May). Another look at tutorial CALL. Proceedings of WorldCall 2003, Banff, Canada. Kincheloe, J.L., & Berry, K.S. (2004). Rigour and complexity in educational research: Conceptualizing the bricolage. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press.
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Kuhn T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kuuti, K. (1996). Activity Theory as a potential framework for human-computer interaction research. In B. Nardi (Ed.), Context and consciousness: Activity Theory and human-computer interaction (pp. 17-44). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning: Context and conceptualization. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Morin, E. (1990). Introduction à la pensée complexe. Paris: ESF. Negroponte, N. (1995). Being digital. New York: Alfred A. Kopf. Plato. (1986). Phaedrus (trans. and commentary by C. J. Rowe). Warminster: Aris and Phillips. Postman, N. (1992). Technopoly: The surrender of culture to technology. New York: Random House. Sinclair, J., & Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse. Oxford: University Press. Shneiderman, B. (2002). Leonardo’s laptop: Human needs and the new computer technologies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wagner, E.D. (1994). In support of a functional definition of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 8(2), 6-26. Warschauer M. (1996). Computer-assisted language learning: An introduction. In S. Fotos (Ed.), Multimedia language teaching (pp. 3-20). Tokyo: Logos International. Weizenbaum, J. (1966). ELIZAA computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine. Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery, 9, 6-45.
Wertsch, J.V. (1998). Mind as action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
kEY tErMs Activity: Minimal unit of investigation in socio-cultural theories, involving a subject, an object, mediational tools, and the community with its rules and division of labor. Activity Theory: Socio-cultural theory initiated by Vygotsky and his colleagues, based on the idea that human activity is situated in social context and mediated by psychological and physical instruments such as language, dancing, books, or computers. Cultural Artifact: Mediational object used by a member of a community to interact with other members. Examples of cultural artifacts are pencils, books, iPods, computer operating systems, and so forth. Distributed Cognition: Cognitive theory emphasizing the idea that cognition expands from the individual to the community and its artifacts. Distributed Learning: Decentralized instructional model in which teachers, students, and the resources are located in different places. Sometimes a synonym for distance learning. Learning Community: Group of people who share common educational goals and typically work in a collaborative, non-hierarchical fashion to achieve these goals. Learning Object: Reusable learning unit, usually digital, that can be combined into a bigger unit. Mediated Action: Use of cultural artifacts (pencil and paper, data projector, computer programs, etc.) for the purpose of attaining a given objective such as demonstrating a theorem or learning a foreign language.
CALL as Action
Orkut: An Internet social network created by Google, in which users display their profiles, receive and send messages, post testimonials, and create communities.
EndnotEs 1
2
http://www.indusladies.com/forums/technology-for-you-and-me/2914-computersmere-machine-mans-best.html http://jerz.setonhill.edu/if/canon/eliza.htm
Chapter IV
Investigating Interaction in an EFL Online Environment1 Vera Lucia Menezes de Oliveira e Paiva Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais/CNPq/FAPEMIG, Brazil Adail Sebastiao Rodrigues-Junior Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, Brazil
abstract This pedagogical and methodological chapter aims at contributing to increasing Web teachers’awareness of the different ways teachers and students can make themselves “visible” in the virtual environment by describing three categories of footing in online educational forums, namely, social footing, teaching footing, and cognitive footing. The categories are explained in line with the definition of footing, originally presented by Goffman (1981) and extended to online environments by Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007). The data stems from a 60-hour online reading and writing course for undergraduate students of English as a Foreign Language in Brazil and was selected having in mind the categories discussed throughout the chapter, with special emphasis on the role played by the teacher and her students during the course. The analysis has shown that footing can be clearly perceived as an interactive category for online environments by means of textual analysis, with special focus on the transitivity model developed by Halliday (2004) and the social, teaching, and cognitive presences investigated by Garrison (2006) and his colleagues.
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Investigating Interaction in an EFL Online Environment
introduction Face-to-face interaction has been investigated for a long time, with a main emphasis on speech acts (Austin, 1962), talk-in-interaction (Sacks, Schegloff, & Jefferson, 1974; Schegloff, Jefferson, & Sacks, 1977), and conversation (Grice, 1975). Another seminal work in this research field is Forms of Talk by Goffman (1981), especially his work on footing, which he defines as “participant’s alignment, or set, or stance, or posture, or projected self.” Goffman advocates that changes in footing are marked by shifts in tone, pitch, volume, rhythm, stress, tonal quality, and code switching. He says that “change in footing is very commonly language linked; if not that, then at least one can claim that the paralinguistic markers of language will figure” (Goffman, 1981, p. 128), in which gaze shift and facial expression play a part. Online interaction, on the other hand, differs from face-to-face encounters because it lacks prosodic segments and the paralinguistic resources often found in talk-in-context. Although we defend that footing is a phenomenon which can also be studied in online interaction, we contend that new categories are needed in order to understand how it works in this new environment. Online education has been using different kinds of online conferencing, such as messenger, e-mail, chat, and forum. What most interests this educational field is the kind of context where students and teachers interact in simultaneous modes (one to one, one to many, and many to many) at anytime, anywhere. Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007) have investigated which roles the footings of participants play while they are interacting with their peers in online academic forums. According to them, “within online interaction, interpretive resources usually present in a given context are transferred to utterances produced by interlocutors in virtual interaction” (Paiva & Rodrigues-Junior, 2004, p. 175, our translation). We can take, as an example, the use of capital letters when virtual
interactants intend to emphasize specific feelings. Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2007, p. 156) offer an example of this transference, when one of the students of an online course writes “Subject: HELP!!!!!!!!!!!” The capital letters and the exclamation marks point to the emphasis the student gave to her problem, as if she were crying for help in any difficult situation. Moreover, nearly all paralinguistic features easily identified in casual talk (due mostly to the cues immediate contexts provide) become linguistic and discursive elements often used by interlocutors when they are virtually communicating with their peers, like, for instance, emoticons, interjections, punctuation, capital letters, and so forth. Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2007) have also given close attention to the generic structures of online forums and to which extent these generic features influence interlocutors’ alignments and their positioning in virtual interaction. One of the main findings Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007) have presented is the fact that online forums comprise a myriad of hybridized generic elements frequently perceived in the linguistic and discursive choices their users make. On this basis, this pedagogical as well as methodological chapter deals with the way interlocutors in online academic forums build knowledge as they negotiate meanings while exchanging information with each other. We posit that this meaning negotiation becomes easier to grasp if interlocutors make their footings visible and explicit to their peers, by utilizing linguistic and discursive elements that necessarily lead to this explicitness. We also intend to explore furtherbuilding on the work of Garrison (2006) and Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2001)the interactive elements often held by interlocutors and the discursive resources they bring to interaction as a means of overcoming the absence of contextual features within this sort of online communication. The chapter, thus, seeks to be a step forward in the analysis of online academic forums and their important roles to knowledge
Investigating Interaction in an EFL Online Environment
construction, whose interconnected parts are split into five sections: 1. 2.
3.
4.
5.
The introduction, in which we present the aims of the chapter and its structure; Theoretical background, in which we discuss and extend the notion of footing (Goffman, 1981) and the original and in-depth discussion we have held around this issue (Paiva & Rodrigues-Junior, 2004, 2007); Method, in which we present how data was collected and the context from which it stems; Analysis and discussion, in which we present some strips of online interaction and the roles footing play to the understanding of this kind of virtual interaction; and Final remarks, in which we present the conclusions we arrived at for the moment.
Footing In his seminal paper entitled Footing, Goffman (1981) introduced the concept of footing into the social sciences, opening up interesting possibilities of looking at social encounters and their interactants. Footing is more commonly related to participants’ alignments, their social projection, and the way they represent themselves while taking a role in a social encounter. Duranti (1997, p. 296) also posits: “Footing, in other words, is another way of talking about indexing…the process whereby we link utterances to particular moments, places, or personae, including our own self at a different time or with a different spirit (e.g., emotional vs. distant, convinced vs., skeptical, literal vs. ironic).” Duranti (1997) goes on providing general applications of the concept onto contextual features. Interestingly, however, is the fact that footing is naturally related to language, or “languagelinked” (Goffman, 1981, p. 128), with special emphasis on phonemic clauses. Duranti affirms
as well, as we could have noticed, that footing is a kind of interactive process whereby utterances represent the constitution of the social encounter in line with major contextual forces that undoubtedly play a part. Still, when we pay close attention to online interaction, utterances as well as other semiotic elementsfor instance, emoticons, capital letters, sounds, and so forthare the only discursive signs capable of capturing the effects of interactants’ communicative intentions. Whenever there is intention, footing appears as the “process whereby we link utterances to particular moments” (Duranti, 1997, p. 296). Bearing this in mind, Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007) attempted to develop a methodology to analyze footing in online educational forums, with particular interest in how students responded to each other’s claims as the activity unfolded. In general, Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007), by focusing on discussions about online educational forums, found out that: 1.
2.
3.
4.
Epithets, adverbs, pronouns of treatment, capital letters, abbreviated words, and so forth, play a part for the establishment of footing as a significant element in online interaction. Given its dialogical constitution, online educational forums naturally demand from its interactants the construction of discursive structures that necessarily lead to the manifestation of their communicative intentions, as the interaction unfolds. A discursive topic is usually presented as the point of departure for the interaction, which in fact determines the subject of discussion and the interactants’ responses to it. An online educational forum is a hybrid genre, since its formation encompasses a range of generic features from academic articles, essays, e-mails, and chats. This generic feature is an example of the complexities usually encountered in online
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5.
educational forums, because the whole interaction will be subjected to the limits as well as possibilities this mixture of genres raises. Finally, lexico-gramaticalization, more specifically the transitivity system, as presented by Halliday (2004) in the continuum or cline of lexico-grammar, plays a significant role in the identification of footing in online educational forums, and its active participation influences the construction of footings in the ongoing interaction. Contrary to this position, Goffman (1981, p. 128) considers that “sentence grammar won’t help us all that much” to the investigation of linguistic
aspects of footing. Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007), on the other hand, have shown that lexico-grammar helps identify the linguistic hints that signal interactants’ footings in virtual interaction. Halliday (2004, p. 170) explains that “[t]he transitivity system construes the world of experience into a manageable set of PROCESS TYPES.” The transitivity model is formed by six interconnected process types, defined in Table 1. Another point that merits closer examination is the power relations commonly achieved when footing is under thorough scrutiny. In his paper, Goffman (1981) touches very slightly on
Table 1. The transitivity model
Types of Processes (verbs)
Description
Examples of processes (verbs)
Material Processes
They construe “a quantum of change in the flow of events as taking place through some input of energy” (Halliday, 2004, p. 179), with mostly an action performed by a subject onto someone or something.
appear, emerge, develop, cut, modernize, brush, sweep, open, close, leave
Mental Processes
They construe “a quantum of change in the flow of events taking place in our own consciousness” (Halliday, 2004, p. 197).
see, notice, believe, expect, wish, hope, like, hate, perceive, think
Relational Processes
They “serve to characterize and to identify” (Halliday, 2004, p. 210) general nouns, be they human or inanimate subjects.
be, become, remain, taste (like), turn into, represent, constitute, express, signify, stand for
Behavioral Processes
They “are processes of (typically human) physiological and psychological behavior” (Halliday, 2004, p. 248), regarded as a mixture of material and mental processes.
smile, cry, laugh, listen, dream, breathe, sing, dance, faint, talk
Verbal Processes
They “are clauses of saying” (Halliday, 2004, p. 252), usually contributing to the creation of narratives by setting up distinctive dialogues and reported speech.
praise, insult, say, speak, report, announce, question, inquiry, ask, criticize
Existential Processes
They only represent “that something exists or happens” (Halliday, 2004, p. 256).
exist, remain, stand, lie, emerge, grow, erupt, prevail, flourish, ensue
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this issue by discussing hierarchical relations between interlocutors. In this chapter, however, power relations will become all too visible when students interact with the teacher in the forum, since the teacher plays the role of moderator and consequently filters the interaction in order for it to serve the course’s aims. In this case, it is rather important for the teacher to be a “sage on the side,” as Warschauer and Whittaker (2002, p. 371) put it, and not a “sage on the stage.” It is true that students are eager to learn, but for this to happen they should be brimming with confidence and self-esteem. In what follows, these points will be viewed with critical eyes, principally because learning in online educational forums derives from the collaborative interaction between teacher and students. As a consequence, footing is the element that clearly shows how learning is taking place and how interaction unfolds while interactants are contributing to meaning construction.
cognitiVE, sociaL, and tEaching prEsEncEs For the purpose of exploring further the notion of footing and its relevance to educational contexts, let us now consider the categories developed by Garrison et al. (2001). The authors state that in online education there are three essential elements, which they define as cognitive, social, and teaching presences. In our view, these presences could be interpreted as stances of footing, given their role to the construction of meaning in interaction when interactants are discursively construing the social encounter where meaning negotiation is taking place. Garrison (2006), inspired by the work of Dewey (1933) on reflective teaching, defines cognitive presence as “the exploration, resolution and confirmation of understanding through collaboration and reflection in a community of inquiry” (p. 4). In another text, Garrison (2006b, p. 4) explains that “cognitive presence is the process of collab-
oratively constructing meaning and confirming understanding in a sustainable community of inquiry,” highlighting the importance of facilitation to maintain the construction of knowledge and interaction by means of discourse production. He adds that “facilitation focuses and guides the progression of the discourse as well as providing timely input and information, and summarizing development.” We can identify cognitive presence when students exchange information, connect or apply ideas, counter argument, collaborate, monitor, reflect, and so forth. Cognitive presence can also be identified as a kind of footing, that is, the ability to project one’s self as a thinker, one who reflects upon what is being learned. In this case, mental processes play an important role to the identification of cognitive presence as a type of footing. An example extracted from our corpus clearly shows mental processes working as textual elements that ‘translate’ a cognitive footing: “I’m sorry I see [mental process] that I misunderstood the task’s purpose.” The mental process “see” translates into text a feeling of sorrow of one of the students attending the course. According to Rourke, Anderson, Garrison, and Archer (2001, p. 51), “social presence is the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as ‘real people’.” Later on, Garrison (2006, p. 2) describes social presence “as the ability to project one’s self and establish personal and purposeful relationships.” We prefer the latter definition because the former gives much attention to the learner without, in fact, taking into account the essential role teachers play in the process of learning. Moreover, Garrison et al. (2000, p. 89) explain that social presence comprises three categories: emotional expression, open communication (e.g., risk-free expression), and group cohesion (e.g., collaboration encouragement). The authors (2001, p. 58) divide them into three categories: affective (emotions, sense of humor, and self-disclosure); interactive (reply-
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ing, referring, asking questions, complimenting, expressing agreement, and expressing appreciation); and cohesive (vocatives, inclusive pronouns, phatics, and salutation). As we will demonstrate in the analysis, these categories may be textually represented by mental, verbal, material, and relational processes. One example from our data clearly shows this representation: Hi John, it was [relational process] nice to read [material process] your message. It was [relational process] touching because it is [relational process] authentic. Brief but straight to the point. I hope [mental process] you manage [material process] to see [mental process] them soon. Bye...John. The student expresses her various footings toward her ‘classmate’ by employing different kinds of processes, like, for instance, affection (It was touching), cognition (I hope, I see), and actions (read, manage). These processes also point to softening strategies commonly used in online forums, through which interactants construct their discourses by means of modalization and politeness. In our opinion, the categories Garrison et al. (2000) and Rourke et al. (2001) present can shed light on the notion of footing, since any (virtual) social encounter abounds with moments of collaborative talk, encouragement, and affective expressions, mostly represented by politeness strategies and lexico-grammatical elements, such as verbs (processes), epithets, prepositional phrases, and the like. Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, and Archer (2001, p. 8) define “teaching presence as the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes.” According to them, teaching presence is markedly present since the beginning of the course preparation, and “continues during the course, as the instructor facilitates the discourse and provides direct instruction when required” (2001, p. 8). Taking these authors as reference we can say that teaching presence has
three categories: design (setting curriculum and methods), facilitation (sharing personal meanings), and direct instruction (focusing discussion, establishing time parameters, utilizing medium effectively, and establishing netiquette). We would like to emphasize as well that teaching presence is clearly perceived in educational environments, mainly in classroom settings, due to the influence exerted by curricula, evaluation, teaching methods, personal meanings, and focused discussions on the construction of meaning negotiations in any educational context, and virtual education is no exception. Material processes, or processes of doing, seem to often appear in this kind of footing, since the teacher is expected to provide general instructions and give support to her students. Outstanding features of this kind of footing are represented by “disguised imperatives,” which commonly appear in declarative sentences and are generally constructed by material processes, as we may see in the following example: “Each one is supposed to select [material process] one of the suggestions for [the] next task.”
thE rEsEarch contEXt Our corpus comes from a 60-hour online course on reading and writing in English that was taught at Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil, over 15 weeks during 2006. The objective of the course was to offer authentic input and non-artificial opportunities for students to practice the English language. Those students were prospective English teachers, and it is usually difficult for them to find opportunities to use the language outside the classroom, so the Internet was a useful tool to bridge that gap. To promote online interaction among students, the syllabus was designed to integrate technological and communicative functions to the maximum extent possible. The activities (introducing, giving advice, writing and reading different genres, etc.)
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can be found on the course homepage at http:// www.veramenezes.com/rw.htm. The course was organized around a discussion list where all the interaction among the virtual communitystudents and teachertook place. The discussion list was hosted on the Yahoo!Groups site (http://groups.yahoo.com/ group/readwrite/) at no cost, but with the proviso that advertisements would come together with the messages. All the messages exchanged during the course were filed away on a page created by the software. Figure 1 shows the appearance of the course homepage and Figure 2 the discussion list homepage as generated by Yahoo!Groups. Students were assigned weekly tasks, and attendance to the course was only registered if each task had been posted until Wednesday. As the objective was to produce meaning, feedback focused on the content and not on the form of the task output. It does not mean, however, that the form was not important, but the university program offers the students different kinds of courses in which they have the opportunities to study the form in-depth. Students were told to keep a copy of each task and choose, at the end of the term, five of their
best tasks to be graded by the teacher (20 points each). They were told to keep in mind that it was the process rather than the product which would be analyzed for assessment and that there was no reason to be afraid of making mistakes as they could edit their tasks as many times as they felt necessary. The theoretical basis for the course is anchored in the sociocultural theory and in the strong version of the communicative approach as described by Howatt (1985, p. 279): “The ‘strong’ version of communicative teaching…advances the claim that language is acquired through communication, so that it is not merely a question of activating an existing but inert knowledge of the language, but of stimulating the development of the language system itself.” For Howatt, the weak version could be described as “learn to use English” vs. the strong version’s “using English to learn it.” In choosing the strong version, that is, using the language to acquire language per se, one must emphasize the following aspects: student-centered teaching, with the teacher as mediator; focus on the content with an emphasis on interaction; the concept of language as an instrument of communication and
Figure 1. Reading and writing course homepage
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Figure 2. Reading and writing discussion list homepage
not as a formal system; use of authentic material; and total tolerance for errors. Interaction through discussion groups encourages participants to work in a cooperative way and at the same time allows students to preserve their individuality. As Littlewood (1981, p. 93) says: “The development of communicative skills can only take place if learners have motivation and opportunity to express their own identity and to relate with the people around them. It therefore requires a learning atmosphere which gives them a sense of security and value as individuals.” The sociocultural theory was of paramount importance to the design of the course. First, because it sees learning as a cultural phenomenon, and second, because of the notion of a zone of proximal development, which Vygotsky (1978, p. 86) defines as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through the problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
0
with more capable peers.” Although the concept was developed to describe how children learn, it has been applied to adult learning as well (see Lantolf, 2000). We would like to add to Vygotsky’s ideas the notion of collaboration developed by Freire (1970), in which this theoretician presents dialogue as the basis for his pedagogical proposal. Albeit Freire also takes into consideration the role leadership plays in the construction of knowledge; he clearly sees dialogue as the effective means by which educational actors furnish the collaborative transformation of the world.
thE corpus Our corpus comprises 1,241 electronic messages exchanged among students and the teacher from August to November 2006. In order to select some excerpts which can exemplify the different kinds of footing, we used two different strategies: we read various messages and selected some of them
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to illustrate our discussion, and we also used the search mechanism available in the discussion list when we had in mind some keywords, such as processes, epithets, and nouns, which worked as discourse markers for footing.
anaLYsis Our analysis will identify the kinds of footings that display the three different, but interconnected virtual presences as proposed by Garrison et al. (2001): social, cognitive, and teaching. In general we can see that the students’ footings oscillate mainly from a cognitive footing (ask for help, share doubts, justify mistakes or absences) to a teaching one (give information, clarify others’ doubts, give feedback, express sympathy), since the course is not teacher centered in order to promote collaboration among the students. Social footing overlaps the other two, mainly when the students address the participants.
(Good Morning teacher and “classmates”; Hello Professor Vera and Classmates!; Hi Professor Vera and colleagues!!!; Dear Vera and classmates; Hi, Vera and classmates!) The teacher, on the other hand, keeps her identity of a teacher by consistently starting her messages with Dear students, unless she is addressing a specific student. Self-disclosure is another way to project personal identity. One of the tasks was named “Message in a bottle,” in which the students were supposed to write a message to be thrown into the ocean. Most of them wrote poetic or philosophical messages addressed to anyone who would find the hypothetical bottle. Nevertheless, one of them decided to review his own dramatwo daughters living away from him in Japanby writing the following message: (1)
social presence
I still hope that you decide to come back to Brazil someday…before I die. I still bring inside of me the hope of seeing you again. If you happen to read this message, please, get in touch. I love you and I never forget you!!!!
Social presence is manifested in the virtual environment by means of different kinds of footing. When we read the messages, the first example of social footing we noticed was identity footing, which was generally perceived when students used either their student or their classmate identities.
This message was a starting point for several other messages directed to this specific student, who was held in deep affection by his classmates. This action of publicly demonstrated warm affection worked as a trigger for another kind of social presence, which is called affective footing.
Identity Footing
Affective Footing
Students display different identities when greeting the participants in the online community. The different greeting forms are hints for one’s identity footing. Students identify themselves as members of an online community (Dear all; Hello everyone!; Hi everyone!); or as students by addressing the teacher (Hi Professor Vera); as classmates (Dear peers; Hey mates; Hi + name of a classmate); or as both student and classmate
As soon as his classmates got the message, they showed sympathy by sending messages as the ones in (2), (3), and (4): (2) Hi, John1! Your “message in a bottle” is very touching! I hope your daughters “find it” and decide to come to Brazil! Cheers, Mary
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(3) Hi John, I didn’t expect to read this kind of message!! I was so touched that I cried!! I hope they come back at least to see you!!!! Best, Mary… (4) Hi John, it was nice to read your message. It was touching because it is authentic. Brief but straight to the point. I hope you manage to see them soon. Bye…John. It was interesting to observe that most of the affective messages were from female students and that male students were more economical in showing their feelings. In (4), for instance, one can see that the writer evaluates the message as a piece of writing, as if he were not touched by the classmate’s drama. However, in the last line he makes a wish giving support to the student. These characteristics are translated into text by means of transitivity, more precisely by the use of relational (“I was so touched”) and mental processes (I didn’t expect). The transitivity system, therefore, works as a means of textualization of footings, since online interaction uses primarily texts to represent emotions, feelings, and wishes. Students express different kinds of emotions and they show the change of footing by using capitalization, repetition of characters, emotions, and punctuation. Capital letters work as a device for calling careful attention, as presented in (5), or for expressing prosodic features and intonation, like, for instance, “THAAAT” in (6). Repetition of punctuation and emoticons display feelings, as shown in example (7), where one may recognize whether or not the sender is happy for having received compliments from John. This example is interesting because capital letters indicate rising intonation, and the repetition of the letter “A” indicates vowel elongation:
(5) P.S.: I’M SO SORRY BUT I COULD NOT JUST POST IT SINCE THE PICTURES WOULD NOT APPEAR. AS I DO NOT KNOW HOW TO DO IT, I SEND IT AS AN ATTACHED FILE. DO NOT WORRY BECAUSE IT HAS NO VIRUSES. (6) I recognize I’m not THAAAT poet, you know… (hahah), but I…can I say I really tried to touch your hearts. (7) Good morning, John!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Thank you again for all your compliments!!! :-)
Interactive Footing Interactive footing examples can be found either in the teacher’s or in the students’ messages. However, given that the course is a collaborative one, many examples can be taken from the students’ postings, like compliments (examples (8) and (9)) made, respectively, by a student and by the teacher, as well as agreements, as shown in example (10). By the same token, the act of quoting others’ messages, like in examples (11) and (12), are common interactive footings in our forum: (8) Hi John! I found very interesting what you pointed out, that knowing how to scan and skim is very important for us as internet users : ) (9) I must say I am really impressed by the quality of the texts you have been producing. Several aspects have called my attention: creativity, rich
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vocabulary, accuracy and literary quality. It is a privilege to work with such a good group.
Code switching appeared in an interaction among two students in (14):
(10)
(14)
I agree with you that they exaggerated in the effects in some parts of the movie.
Sure John! And, u r welcome! ;) See ya! Ni hao! :) haha
(11) John, I think we have to produce the graphics ourselves…As you said in you message, the sites just show you the models. (12) As Professor Vera said, your summary shows how motivated you are! Cheers, Mary. In examples (9) and (12), the use of verbal processes, respectively, “I must say” and “As Professor Vera said,” indicates that the teacher gave rise to her feelings (“impressed”) by using reported speech, which shows that changes of footing are discursive-dependent as well. In the same way, examples (11) and (12) reproduce the words of another participant, expressing somebody else’s opinion. According to Goffman (1981, p. 151), “when we shift from saying something ourselves to reporting what someone else said, we are changing our footing.” Another change in footing is done with code switching. The teacher in our forum sometimes switches from English into Portuguese in order to force the students to pay attention to the course rules, as we can see in example (13): (13) Por favor, lembre-se de que quarta-feira é o último dia para enviar suas tarefas. (Please, remember that Wednesday is the deadline for the tasks.)
Example (14) is particularly interesting because the author changes his usual footing in the forum by using typical abbreviations often used in informal contexts on the Internet. This somehow individualizes the interaction between the two students and keeps the teacher away from the interaction. At the same time, the student closes his message with a Japanese greeting, an index for his peer about the experience he had in Japan, by adding emoticons and a paralinguistic representation, both representing smiles. In other words, both forms of code switching project a footing of intimacy between the participants and help to build their social presence in the educational forum.
teaching presence The most expected alignment or footing of a teacher is that of the one who gives instructions, as can be perceived in instance (15). This “instruction-like footing” serves as an attempt for the teacher to project herself as someone who has the obligation to help the students, to assess the efficacy of the process, like in example (16), to help students to utilize the media effectively, clearly seen in example 17, as well as to set curriculum, as noticed in example (18): (15) Mary, Welcome to our online course. All our tasks can be found on our homepage: http://www.veramenezes. com/rw.htm
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Just click at tasks. Do not forget to read our instructions. Any doubt, just get in touch. Cheers, Vera Menezes
Mary, We have received four identical messages. Please, do not send it again. Vera Menezes
afraid that, I am sorry are used by the teacher to assess the students’ tasks and tell them that they have not accomplished the tasks as previously expected. By the same token, modalization serves as warnings to the students, principally when they are not observing the time parameters, as readily observed in examples (20) and (21). As far as we are concerned, by choosing these markers the teacher displays a friendly and polite footing, projecting a positive image of herself:
(17)
(19)
John, If your classmates’ tips did not help you, try another free server for blogs.
I think your first choice is too small to be called a scientific article. What about finding another good text to send to your classmates?
(16)
(18) (20) Each student is supposed to select one of the suggestions for the next task. When we analyze the examples from the data, it is reasonable to assume that the teacher, besides giving support and detailed instructions to her students, exerts her power by constructing her discourse using imperatives. Although power relations are present in her discourse, the teacher also softens her imperatives by means of modalization, as we can notice when she utilizes polite expressions like “Any doubt, just get in touch” in example (15) and “Please” in example (16). Even utilizing softeners to filter the force of her arguments, the teacher provides prime examples of her power over the students, which leads us to figure out that teacher footing is closely interconnected with power relations. Consequently, teacher and students express and negotiate their inter-subjective footings in the virtual environment through modalization. Those markers show how the participants in that online community try to protect their faces when they modalize their utterances. Modalization is recurrent in teaching presence. Discourse markers such as I believe, I think, I am
I am afraid you are not reading our e-mails because last Tuesday morning I sent a message reminding the group about the deadline. (21) I am so sorry, but the deadline for the task was Wednesday (yesterday). You should have sent your doubts before. Please, do your tasks earlier in order to avoid problems. Using her power as a teacher, sometimes she does not modalize and changes her friendly footing into a more authoritative one and makes straight assertions, as we can see in example (22), an interaction between the teacher and Mary: (22) Teacher says: (a) Mary, This is not an article, but a book review. Mary sends another text and writes in her message:
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(b) I believe this one is an article, right Professor Vera? The teacher confirms: (c)Yes, now it is an article.
cognitive presence Modalizing also appears in footings which project cognitive presence. As we can see, in example (22) the student also modalizes (“I believe” in (c)), but it seems that, due to the power relation differences, the student’s footing is different. When the teacher uses “I believe,” her option is to project a polite self, which did not happen in her interaction with Mary. But, when students choose to modalize their utterances, using “I believe,” “I am sorry,” “I am afraid,” it seems that their footings work as markers of humbleness or insecurity, as noticed in examples (23) and (24): (23) I’m sorry I see that I misunderstood the task’s purpose. (24) As to my second question, I’m afraid I did not make myself clear regarding my request on the words “skimming” and “scanning.” What I would really like to know is if there is a specific word in Portuguese for each counterpart in English. Nevertheless, when the interaction happens between two students, the footing displayed by modalization is again of politeness, as we can see in John’s reply to Mary in example (25): (25) Mary, Thank you very much for your feedback! But I’m afraid that if we plant a tree for every mistake we make in our lives, suddenly there won’t be any space at all for us to live in this…
Cognitive presence can also be identified in footings which project one’s self as a thinker, one who reflects upon what is being learned, who wants to learn and collaborate. It is interesting to notice that cognitive footings are generally translated into text by means of grammaticalization, mainly by the use of mental processes, like, for instance, “I’m sorry” and “I’m afraid.” In contrast to what Goffman (1981) has negatively stated about the role grammar plays in footing identification, transitivity serves as a means of textual basis in the emergence of several types of footing in online discourse, mainly social, teaching, and cognitive footings.
concLusion The analyses undertaken have clearly demonstrated that footing is a social and discursive category that is only easily identified in online forums if textual analysis takes into account the presence of other elements within this category. The elements we refer to stemmed from Garrison’s (2006) work on social, cognitive, and teaching presences. However, these elements per se seemed to be insufficient to demonstrate how footing is present in online discourse, which made us draw on grammaticalization, with special emphasis on the transitivity model developed by Halliday (2004), in a bid to pinpoint in our data the prime examples of footing. The data have shown that three different but interconnected types of footing are usually found in online educational forums, that is, social, teaching, and cognitive footings, each of them playing specific roles to the construction of knowledge within this virtual environment. As we could have perceived, the most common footing in our data is social footing, since students were concerned with ways of providing feedback and support to each other, irrespective of the teacher’s support. By the same token, students were able to adopt and improve “corporate”
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identities, that is, a shared sense of mutual support and confidence. Teacher footing was also present in our data, mainly noticed on the instructions and information given by the teacher. This kind of footing is of particular interest when one is attentive to power relations within online educational environments, which in fact leads to the role teachers play while performing their footing of instructors. Some special textual elements are common to this type of footing, principally modalizers and polite expressions, in order to soften the force of some words used in this footing modality. Lastly, cognitive footing was identified in our corpus as a means of softening the force of some arguments made by the students throughout their interaction primarily with the teacher. In this modality saving face strategies were employed to secure students against possible “harms” during the course of the interaction. This is also true when students interacted with each other, since their aim was to maintain complete harmony among them and to provide a warm environment for holding their discussion. This chapter, therefore, is expected to be a step forward in the investigation of footing in online contexts, which points to the need of future research on this issue. Besides, some other aspects such as gender and age differences might also be compared as far as footing is concerned. Course design might also be another influential factor in the elicitation of different virtual presences in an online educational forum. We are still learning how to behave in online educational forums, and research can show us what is underlying this online environment.
acknoWLEdgMEnt We would like to thank our colleague Rita de Cassia Augusto (Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil) for her comments on an earlier draft of this chapter.
rEFErEncEs Anderson, T., Rourke, L., Garrison, D.R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2), 1-17. Retrieved May 5, 2007, from http://www.sloanc.org/publications/jaln/v5n2/index.asp Austin, J.L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D.C. Heath. Duranti, A. (1997). Linguistic anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogia do oprimido. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra. Garrison, D.R. (2006a). Online community of inquiry review: Social, cognitive, and teaching presence issues. Retrieved March 19, 2006, from http://www.communitiesofinquiry.com/documents/Community%20of%20Inquiry%20Issues. pdf Garrison, D.R. (2006b). Online collaboration principles. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(1), 23-34. Retrieved April 18, 2007, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/jaln/ v10n1/index.asp Garrison, D.R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2001). Critical thinking and computer conferencing: A model and tool to assess cognitive presence. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(1), 7-23. Retrieved October 27, 2006, from http:// communitiesofinquiry.com/documents/CogPres_Final.pdf Garrison, D.R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical thinking in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 1-14.
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Goffman, E. (1981). Footing. In E. Goffman (Ed.), Forms of talk (pp. 124-159). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Grice, H.P. (1975). Logic and conversation. In P. Cole & J.L. Morgan (Eds.), Syntax and semantics III: Speech acts (pp. 41-58). New York: Academic Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar (3rd ed.). London: Arnold. Howatt, A.P.R.(1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lantolf, J.P. (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative language teaching: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Paiva, V.L.M. de O., & Rodrigues-Junior, A.S. (2007). O footing do moderador em fóruns educacionais. In J.C. Araújo (Ed.), Internet e ensino (pp. 144-164). Rio de Janeiro: Lucerna. Paiva, V.L.M. de O., & Rodrigues-Junior, A.S. (2004). Fóruns on-line: Intertextualidade e footing na construção do conhecimento. In I.L. Machado & R. Mello (Eds.), Gêneros: Reflexões em análise do discurso (pp. 171-189). Belo Horizonte: Faculdade de Letras da UFMG, 2004. Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D.R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing social presence in asynchronous, text-based computer conferencing. Journal of Distance Education, 14(3), 51-70. Retrieved April 8, 2007, from http://cade.icaap. org/vol14.2/rourke_et_al.html Sacks, H., Schegloff, E., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simplest systematics for the organization of turn taking for conversation. Language, (50)4, 696-735.
Schegloff, E.A., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language, 53, 361-382. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Warschauer, M., & Whittaker, P.F. (2002). The Internet for English teaching: Guidelines for teachers. In J.C. Richards & W.A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: Anthology of current practice (pp. 368-373). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
kEY tErMs Behavioral Processes: “Processes of (typically human) physiological and psychological behavior” (Halliday, 2004, p. 248), regarded as a mixture of material and mental processes. Examples of behavioral processes include: smile, cry, laugh, listen, dream, breathe, sing, dance, faint, talk. Cognitive Presence: Garrison (2006), inspired by the work of Dewey (1933) on reflective teaching, defines cognitive presence as “the exploration, resolution and confirmation of understanding through collaboration and reflection in a community of inquiry” (p. 4). In another text, Garrison (2006b, p. 4) explains that “cognitive presence is the process of collaboratively constructing meaning and confirming understanding in a sustainable community of inquiry,” highlighting the importance of facilitation to maintain the construction of knowledge and interaction by means of discourse production. Existential Processes: Only represent “that something exists or happens” (Halliday, 2004, p. 256). Examples of existential processes include: exist, remain, stand, lie, emerge, grow, erupt, prevail, flourish, ensue.
Investigating Interaction in an EFL Online Environment
Footing: More commonly related to participants’ alignments, their social projection, and the way they represent themselves while taking a role in a social encounter. In other words, footing “is another way of talking about indexing…the process whereby we link utterances to particular moments, places, or personae, including our own self at a different time or with a different spirit (e.g., emotional vs. distant, convinced vs., skeptical, literal vs. ironic)” (Duranti, 1997, p. 296). Paiva and Rodrigues-Junior (2004, 2007) have investigated which roles the footings of participants play while they are interacting with their peers in online academic forums. According to them, “within online interaction, interpretive resources usually present in a given context are transferred to utterances produced by interlocutors in virtual interaction” (Paiva & Rodrigues-Junior, 2004, p. 175, our translation). Moreover, nearly all paralinguistic features easily identified in casual talk, due mostly to the cues immediate contexts provide, become linguistic and discursive elements often used by interlocutors when they are virtually communicating with their peers, like, for instance, emoticons, interjections, punctuation, capital letters, and so forth (Paiva & RodriguesJunior, 2004, 2007). Material Processes: Construe “a quantum of change in the flow of events as taking place through some input of energy” (Halliday, 2004, p. 179), with mostly an action performed by a subject onto someone or something. Examples of material processes include: appear, emerge, develop, cut, modernize, brush, sweep, open, close, leave. Mental Processes: Construe “a quantum of change in the flow of events taking place in our own consciousness” (Halliday, 2004, p. 197). Examples of mental processes include: see, notice, believe, expect, wish, hope, like, hate, perceive, think.
Relational Processes: “Serve to characterize and to identify” (Halliday, 2004, p. 210) general nouns, be they human or inanimate subjects. Examples of relational processes include: be, become, remain, taste (like), turn into, represent, constitute, express, signify, stand for. Social Presence: According to Rourke et al. (2001, p. 51), “social presence is the ability of learners to project their personal characteristics into the community of inquiry, thereby presenting themselves as ‘real people’.” Later on, Garrison (2006, p. 2) describes social presence “as the ability to project one’s self and establish personal and purposeful relationships.” Teaching Presence: Anderson et al. (2001, p. 8) define “teaching presence as the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes.” According to them, teaching presence begins with the course preparation and “continues during the course, as the instructor facilitates the discourse and provides direct instruction when required” (2001, p. 8). Verbal Processes: “Clauses of saying” (Halliday, 2004, p. 252), usually contributing to the creation of narratives by setting up distinctive dialogues and reported speech. Examples of verbal clauses include: praise, insult, say, speak, report, announce, question, inquiry, ask, criticize.
EndnotE 1
In order to protect the students’ identities, the male students will be named John and the female ones Mary.
Chapter V
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL Euline Cutrim Schmid University of Education Heidelberg, Germany
abstract This chapter discusses the concept of integrated CALL by drawing upon data collected for a PhD research project that investigated the impact of interactive whiteboard (IWB) technology in the English language classroom. In the first part, the chapter presents and discusses data which indicate that the IWB technology represents a further step towards the integrated phase in the development of CALL envisioned by Bax (2003). According to Bax, this refers to the stage when the computer becomes invisible, embedded in the everyday practices of the educational context in which it is used—that is, the computer becomes normalized. In the second part, the chapter discusses one factor that inhibited the complete normalization of IWB technology in the context investigated. The chapter concludes by making suggestions for further research.
introduction Several authors who have attempted to analyze and understand the history of CALL (Levy, 1997; Warschauer & Healey, 1998; Bax, 2003) have pointed out that CALL has developed in various ways over time. Thus, in the 1960s, computers tended to be used for pattern practice drills, based on a behaviorist learning model which assumed that students learn through imitation and repetition. Later on, in the 1970s and 1980s,
CALL software began to be based on cognitive approaches to communicative language teaching aimed at allowing learners maximum opportunity to be exposed to the target language in a meaningful context so that they could construct their own individual knowledge. Some examples of CALL software in that era included text reconstruction programs and simulations. More recently, advances in technology, the expansion of the Internet, and the increase in computer-mediated communication (CMC) have changed the way in
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Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
which computers are used in language learning. Thus, in the 1990s, these developments, combined with a new socio-cognitive view of communicative teaching, which placed greater emphasis on language use in authentic social contexts, contributed to a shift from a focus on learners’ interaction with computers to one concerned with learners interacting with other humans via the computer. More recently, Bax (2003) made an important contribution to the analysis of the history of CALL by proposing the concept of Integrated CALL. According to him, “this refers to the stage when the technology becomes invisible, embedded in everyday practice” (p. 23). In fact, anecdotal evidence indicates that it would not be erroneous to say that teachers who make use of computer technology long for the day when computers are so integrated in all aspects of classroom life that they can go almost unnoticed, vs. the current situation where they are usually relatively obtrusive, involve specialized training, and so on. Bax (2003) sees CALL in relation to other technologies in society and stresses the possibility that computers may only become fully effective in language teaching and learning when they have become normalized. Bax (2003) also highlights that only the use of ICT (information and communication technology) in the language classroom would not be enough to normalize ICT in that context. In order for this to happen, teachers and learners would need to feel comfortable enough with the technology and use it as an integral part of the teaching/learning process, “without fear or inhibition, and equally without an exaggerated respect for what it can do” (p.12). Therefore, before reaching the stage of normalization, teachers and learners need to go through a complex process of technology integration in which they need to adapt to new ways of teaching and learning. This usually involves conflicts and challenges, which if not dealt with probably might inhibit normalization of new technologies in that specific context.
0
Chambers and Bax (2006) point out that one of the barriers to the normalization of CALL is the fact that computers are usually located in dedicated computer suites, which are not “owned” by the teachers and are not readily accessible by them. Countries such as the UK and Australia have tackled this problem by equipping classrooms with IWB (interactive whiteboard) technology. This is a relatively new technology in education, which has been used in many education institutions all over the world as a tool to bring the functionality of the computer into the regular classroom. The IWB is a touch-sensitive electronic presentation device. Fully functioning interactive whiteboards usually comprise four components: a computer, a projector, appropriate software, and the display panel, which is a large free-standing or wall-mounted screen up to 2 meters by 1 meter in size. Figure 1 illustrates how this technology works. The Promethean TM system (the brand of IWB that will be used in this research) uses electromagnetic sensing technology with an electronic pen. The company has also developed a whole suite of software and peripheral hardware to complement the use of an interactive whiteboard, such as “ACTIVstudio” software and the “ACTIVslate”1 and “ACTIVote” systems.2 The first interactive whiteboard was manufactured by SMART Technologies Inc. in 1991. Since the early ’90s, classroom adoption of IWB technology has grown steadily in many European countries and throughout North America, and it is becoming increasingly commonplace in educational institutions, from primary schools through universities. The UK was the first school-level market to substantially invest in the use of IWBs. There has been a considerable investment in the installation of IWBs in schools in that country. The percentage of primary schools with IWBs increased from 48% in 2003 to 63% in 2004, and secondary schools from 82% in 2003 to 92% in 2004 (DfES, 2004). In 2005, the UK government allocated £50 million for the purchase of
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
Figure 1. How IWB technology works: The computer images are displayed on the board by the digital projector. The images then can be seen and all applications on the computer can be controlled via touching the board, either with your finger or with an electronic pen/stylus. In addition, the touch-sensitive screen captures everything written or drawn on its surface in real time. All annotations can then be saved to your computer.
IWBs within the primary and secondary sectors. Other countries such as Australia, Mexico, China, France, and Portugal have also invested heavily in the installation of IWBs in schools. Mexico, for instance, recently set out an ambitious plan called Enciclomedia (Spanish), which equips each fifth and sixth grade classroom with a computer, an interactive whiteboard, a printer, and a projector. One of the main advantages of IWB technology that has been discussed in literature (Smith, Higgins, Wall, & Miller, 2005) is that it enhances and provides a more integrated environment for the use of different forms of CALLfor instance, the greater possibility of doing concordancing in whole-class mode, or the exploration of Internet resources, CALL software, and multimedia resources by the group in a whole-class setting. For this reason, Cuthell (2005) defines the IWB as the first ICT tool designed to support both teach-
ing and learning in the ‘traditional’ whole-class classroom. He argues that when ICT resources are concentrated in computer labs, integrating ICT into lessons (and consequently normalizing it) becomes much more difficult. The facilities are “owned” by someone other than the class teacher. As a result, ICT is only used sporadically and is “made a discrete activity, rather than one that is woven into the fabric of teaching and learning” (p. 2). Recent research findings on IWB use in the UK context (Moss et al., 2007) have also drawn attention to the important role played by this technology in opening up the possibility of integrating technology more fully into teaching and learning in every curriculum subject. In this chapter, I discuss the concept of Integrated CALL by drawing upon data collected for a PhD research project that investigated the impact of interactive whiteboard technology in the English language classroom (Cutrim Schmid,
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
2005, 2006, 2007, 2008). Firstly, I discuss the potential of the interactive whiteboard technology for facilitating the realization of the integrated phase in the development of CALL envisioned by Bax (2003). Secondly, I discuss one factor that inhibited the normalization of IWB technology in the context investigated. I conclude by making suggestions for further research.
LitEraturE rEViEW iWb technology research The potential of IWB technology for facilitating classroom language learning is attracting increasing attention. Ioannou-Georgiou (2006) recently stated that IWB technology is currently competing with iPods for the number one spot in terms of attention in the CALL-related ELT field. In the October 2006 issue of CALL Review, the journal of the IATEFL Technologies Special Interest Group, four articles discussed the use of interactive whiteboards, offering a range of viewpoints on this technology. In the same publication, several prominent CALL theorists, such as Warschauer and Bax, said they expect that as the price drops further, IWBs will become commonplace in classrooms of many ELT institutions around the world. However, because IWB technology is a relatively new technology in education, there has so far been very little detailed classroombased research concerning the teaching-learning processes it is capable of stimulating in the FL context. The research reported herein (Cutrim Schmid, 2005) represents one of the first attempts to conduct a more rigorous investigation into the impact of IWB technology on language learning processes. The research investigated the use of IWB in English lessons in the higher education context, and the findings reveal several perceived pedagogical benefits of using the technology in
this context, such as helping learners to adapt to novel ways of teaching, learning, and working in the information technology society, and creating higher levels of active learner participation during the lessons. Another academic study on this topic is the work of Gray, Hagger-Vaughan, Pilkington, and Tomkins (2005), who investigated a group of language teachers in UK secondary schools as they integrated the use of the interactive whiteboard into their classroom practice. Their findings showed that the IWB has the potential to enhance teaching by supporting classroom management, pace and variety, and the drawing of attention to grammatical features and patterns. The teachers investigated also felt that the use of IWB had positive effects on pupils’ memorization skills and writing development (p. 1). Most literature (across the curriculum) is positive about the potential of IWB technology. Thus, some of the advantages associated with the use of IWB technology that it identifies are: a.
b. c. d.
e.
Facilitating the integration of multimedia into the curriculum (Walker, 2003; Hall & Higgins, 2005, Gray et al. 2006); Catering to diverse learning styles (Wall, Higgins, & Smith, 2005); Enhancing motivation (Levy, 2002; Becta, 2003); Enhancing interaction and collaborative learning in the whole-class setting (Cutrim Schmid, 2006a); and Modeling ICT skills (Goodison, 2002a, 2002b).
Two of the reported drawbacks of IWB technology use are: a. b.
Supporting teacher-centered approaches (Goodison, 2003); and Increasing the pace of teaching (Cutrim Schmid, 2005).
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
As already pointed out, a strong claim that has been made about IWB technology is that it facilitates the integration of ICT into the curriculum because it lends itself well to whole-class or group teaching, and it is easily assimilated into the everyday life of the language classroom. As Moss et al. (2007, p. 92) point out, the technology is less disruptive in the classroom because: 1.
2.
3.
It facilitates ICT use in group settings while allowing for clearer teacher control of the shape and direction of that interaction. Its nature makes it relatively easy to install in individual classrooms with minimum disruption to the use of the existing space. It is easy to use and more likely to find favor with teachers who otherwise struggle to incorporate technology into their classrooms.
Dudeney (2006, p. 27) strengthens this argument by pointing out that the main difference between using a computer and a projector in class and using IWB technology is that: “IWBs make the computer invisible, as all interaction with both the hardware and the software takes place within the familiar confines of the board itself, which is something teachers feel very comfortable with.” Therefore, the main argument in favor of the use of IWB technology is that it facilitates the integration of new technologies into the curriculum because it allows teachers to use ICT in a way that does not change the ecology of the classroom so drastically. Technology integration is a core topic in CALL research and has been the theme of several wellestablished conferences in the field. For instance, the 2006 EUROCALL conference, entitled “Integrating CALL into Study Programs,” focused on strategies, tools, pedagogical knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for the effective integration of new technologies into language learning environments. Therefore, CALL practitioners and
researchers have long stressed the importance of recognizing language learning technology as an essential component of teachers’ array of teaching approaches, and not as a discrete activity, separate from everyday learning. In this context, Chambers and Bax (2006) urge CALL practitioners who have not managed to fully integrate ICT into the curriculum to ask themselves the following question: What are the factors which inhibit normalization in my own institution/and or classroom? Having reviewed a number of areas of literature in order to introduce the focus of this chapter and situate my research in the field of CALL, I will now move on to describe the research context in which this investigation has taken place and present the research methods used in this study.
thE studY aims of the study The study reported in this chapter represents a classroom-based investigation of the potential of interactive whiteboard technology for supporting language learning in the teaching of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) to international students at Lancaster University (UK). The study was carried out in the summers of 2003 and 2004. In order to address the purposes of such a study, two main research questions were formulated: 1.
2.
How is the classroom teaching/learning process affected by the use of IWB technology? a. What kinds of interactions are produced when the technology is implemented? b. What kinds of pedagogical goals (e.g., to enhance collaboration) may the technology help to achieve? How do teachers, learners, and researchers perceive the introduction of IWB technology in the language classroom in terms of teaching-learning processes?
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
Apart from addressing these pedagogical aspects, the research was also aimed at making theoretical and methodological contributions at a broader levelthat is, to the development of CALL research and practice in general. Thus, in order to do so, two other research questions were formulated to guide the study: 1.
2.
Does the IWB represent the beginnings of the ability to realize in practice the integrated phase in the development of CALL? Are the classrooms investigated an example of normalized CALL?
rEsEarch contEXt and rEsEarch MEthodoLogY research context All subjects involved in the study were enrolled in the eight-week version of the EAP/Study Skills program, whose main components are: (a) academic reading and writing, (b) listening comprehension, and (c) speaking skills. The students are also offered a number of “complementary courses,” two of which“Using ICT for Academic Study in English” (in 2003, Study 1) and “Web Resources for Learning English” (in 2004, Study 2)provided the sites for the research. All units aimed at exploiting the use of IWB technology to get students involved in novel literacy practices and helping them to develop their academic skills and learning strategies through the use of Web-based study resources. Therefore, the lessons were a mixture of upper-intermediate English language learning and development of awareness regarding ICT learning resources.
interactive Whiteboard use As Walker (2003) points out, one of the key issues to grasp when working with an interactive whiteboard is that the image the students view on
the board is actually the screen of the computer. This means that anything that can be done on a computer can be shown on an interactive whiteboard. In the context investigated, the large IWB screen acted as a focus for pupils’ attention, and the teacher and students used it as a multimedia platform and a wide range of ICT tools were employed, such as language learning CD ROMs, digital videos and audio files, normal computer programs (Word, Excel, and PowerPoint), and Web-based products. The software that comes with an IWB enables the use of electronic flipcharts that simulate traditional white- or blackboard presentation. Flipcharts are a design area, or blank pages for creating teaching materials. The number of pages that can be used is unlimited. Flipcharts can be prepared before a lesson or they can be generated during the course of the lesson. In the context investigated, the teacher made intensive use of the software that came with the IWB, the ACTIVstudio software. By using this software, the teacher had access to a number of tools that enabled activities such as: a.
b.
Handwriting, color, and highlighting: The teacher could use as many as 16 pen colors to write on the board, and all annotations could be saved and/or printed and used in future lessons. The highlighter and pen colors were often used when the learners were involved in collaborative analysis of a single piece of writing. In the IWB-based classroom, the teacher could project a students’ first draft paragraph on the IWB (after scanning it), for the whole class to proofread. Handwriting recognition: Handwritten script could be converted to text, which was important for the clarity of presentation and for promoting the teacher’s organizational skills (e.g., for creating a record of the vocabulary introduced in each lesson and printing it out afterwards for the learners).
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
c.
d.
e.
f.
Dragging and dropping: Objects, including text and pictures, could be moved around on the IWB screen; the teacher used this tool mainly for gap-filling and matching type exercises, or getting the students to rearrange digital objects on the IWB screen (e.g., rearranging a room according to the principles of Feng Shui). Hiding and revealing: By using the reveal tool,3 the spotlight tool, or the white-out effect,4 the teacher could ask the learners to predict or guess any content on the screen by revealing it bit by bit (e.g., images of famous people/paintings, answers to questions, etc.). These tools enhanced interactivity, and encouraged foreign language speaking and pupil involvement in whole-class teaching. Web browsing: Since the classroom had Internet access, the teacher could make plenty of use of Web resources, bringing the world to the classroom and creating a more authentic learning environment (e.g., by using a listening activity with daily news from a Web site such as the BBC, accessing online dictionaries, encyclopedias, Web-based videos, etc.). The teacher could also overwrite the Web sites to emphasize linguistic and cultural elements, and create snapshots of all annotations for future use. Hyperlinking: By using pre-designed electronic flipcharts, the teacher could provide learners with enhanced input through hyperlinking. The designed flipcharts contained links to various kinds of resources (e.g., links to Web sites, to sound, video, or image files, and links to other flipchart pages, which provided further information about a word/idiom/grammar concept). These links could then be activated or ignored depending on the actual responses of the learners. This allowed the smooth integration of sound/text/image with the aim of facilitat-
g.
h.
ing the memorization of lexical items and understanding of new grammar concepts. Snapshots: The camera tool was used to copy selected parts of a homepage, a picture, or a file from the computer directly to the whiteboard screen. This allowed opportunities for developing ideas around a single picture and also enabled the teacher to build up a bank of resources, as images could be placed in the image library of the software. Searching for resources: The software also provides a resource gallery with maps, pictures, diagrams, and audio files which could be searched and dragged and dropped to the electronic flipchart. Because of this easy access to images, visual input was often used to facilitate understanding of difficult concepts/words.
The IWB technology was thus used quite intensively in all stages of the lessons. Several electronic flipcharts were designed for all units; the teacher and students used the ACTIVboard (which replaced the traditional whiteboard) as a presentation device and as a platform for integrating different types of technology (e.g., video, sound, multimedia, Internet).5
research Methodology Twenty-nine students and thirty-three students were involved in Study 1 and Study 2, respectively. Students were from all over the world, but most of them tended to come from mainland China and Taiwan. In order to be accepted into the program, the students must have achieved an IELTS score of at least 6.0 (postgraduates) or 5.5 (undergraduates). All the students in both studies were postgraduates, apart from one undergraduate in course 1, and their ages ranged from 20 to 36. The investigation involved a classroom-based qualitative study of the researcher’s own lessons and teaching. As teacher-researcher, she was
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
responsible for designing and implementing the course, as well as collecting and analyzing the data. All the lessons were video-recorded, and after each lesson she wrote field notes that were mainly descriptive, but also contained some of her thoughts regarding the impact of IWB technology on the pedagogical process. Six critical observers in Study 1 and five critical observers in Study 2 were involved in the research. All of them were experienced language teachers and academic researchers with a good level of expertise in qualitative research. Their role was to observe lessons, write field notes, and fill out a questionnaire at the end of the lesson. A questionnaire was administered at the end of both modules to find out students’ overall response to the course and to the use of IWB technology in the lessons. In Study 1, the teacher-researcher also ran a focus group discussion with 12 students who volunteered to take part in it. In Study 2, she carried out semi-structured individual interviews with 10 students who volunteered for it, and each interview lasted for 30 minutes on average.
rEsEarch Findings iWb technology: Facilitating the normalization of caLL In general, the research findings indicate that teachers and students perceived the use of IWB technology as a further step towards the normalization of CALL in comparison, for instance, to “computer lab work.” As Chambers and Bax (2006, p. 470) point out, “for normalization to take place, CALL facilities will ideally not be separated from ‘normal’ teaching space.” Therefore, the fact that the IWB could be used in the “normal language classroom” (as a whole-class multimedia platform) was considered an advantage in terms of making ICT more invisible and normalized in the classroom.
In the context investigated, the IWB technology facilitated the integration of ICT into the curriculum because it enabled the teacher and learners to have easy access to multimedia resources, which were widely used during the sessions, and also to online resources, which were an important element of course content as well. The work with Web resources was well integrated into the syllabus, in the sense that it was seen to be a central part of the language lesson, and not something that was done as an “extra.” In other words, there was not a clear division between exploring the topic and the language, and exploring Web resources, for instance. While the students were learning about topics, such as “university life in the UK,” they were also learning about ways of finding information about the new words they were acquiring, by using online resources during the sessions. Another important aspect in the process of normalization of CALL pointed out by Chambers and Bax (2006) is the issue of room layout. According to them, “for normalization to occur, the classroom will ideally be organized so as to allow for an easy move from CALL activities to non-CALL activities” (p. 470). In the context investigated, the layout of the technology facilitated this process. For instance, by using the IWB technology, it became easier for the teacher to alternate between CALL-related activities (e.g., searching for information on a Web site) and nonCALL activities (e.g., having a group discussion about a certain topic). In fact, this was one of the advantages of IWB use pointed out by students in comparison to computer lab work. When asked whether they would prefer to work in a computer lab or with an interactive whiteboard, the majority of the students said they would prefer the latter. Although some students emphasized the importance of working individually, most students enjoyed the experience of working with ICT as a group and could also identify several advantages of this approach for their learning process.
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
For instance, some students cited as an advantage of IWB technology the possibility it gives the teacher to have a higher degree of control over the students, since the students tend to follow “their own ways” when they are working individually on a computer. Thus, one of the students said:
4.
1.
8.
S: I think with this technology the teacher can have more control of the students, than 2. with the computer, because the computer screen is a physical barrier between the 3. teacher and the students…I prefer the computer because if I am not interested in 4. that topic I can do other things, but it’s not good for the learning and teaching. 5. T: Ah, yeah, for the dynamics, because everyone is doing different things? 6. S: And the computer screen is a physical barrier. 7. T: Physical barrier, you mean the computer screen, because you can go anywhere? 8. S: Yeah, and the teacher needs to have eye contact with the students. (Individual interview with Lauren6, Study 2) In lines 3-4, the student indicated that she would prefer to work from an individual computer because she could “switch off” if she was not interested in the lesson, and “do other things.” However she pointed out that this kind of arrangement would not aid the learning process since the computer would represent a physical barrier between the teacher and the students. This issue was also addressed by another student, who had a good deal of experience in using computer labs. Thus, she pointed out:
5. 6. 7.
we just play games or talk to each other, so I think the whiteboard is quite good for learning, to concentrate on the course, it’s quite good. T: Ah, cause everyone… S: Everyone is committed to what the teacher is saying, what the teacher teaches, this kind of things. (Post-course interview with Jane, Study 2)
According to this student, the IWB classroom enabled a kind of social arrangement that encouraged students to commit to learning processes that were initiated by the teacher. In line 7, she pointed out that by using IWB technology “everyone is committed” to what is being taught. In other words, she highlighted that the strength of the technology was in its potential to support group cohesion (by having everyone involved in the same learning activity). The IWB technology was thus seen as a tool that facilitated the normalization of CALL in the context investigated. However, it must also be said that other parts of the research data point towards a variety of factors that inhibited the complete integration of this technology into the pedagogical process. In other words, in spite of the progress that was made in the direction of normalization, the classrooms investigated were still an example of un-normalized CALL. As the data will show, the main factor that inhibited normalization of IWB technology in the context investigated was the teacher’s (mis)understanding of the concept of technology invisibility (Bax, 2003).
technology “invisibility” 1.
2.
3.
S: It’s interactive between students and teacher, I think that is quite good, and I think in my country we use other ways, everyone has personal computer, and the teachers sit in their seats and we sit in our seats and the teacher says anything and we just don’t care,
Throughout the process of technology integration, the teacher believed that the best way to make the IWB technology invisible would be by means of preventing technical mistakes and by making sure that nothing went wrong with the technology. In other words, she believed that if the lessons went on according to the “script,” it would be easier to
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
keep the technology in the background and not in the foreground of the lesson. Since she realized that when technical problems came up during the sessions, it was much more difficult to achieve this goal, she tried to minimize the possibilities of technical incidents that could disturb the lesson or draw students’ attention to the technology. A good example of this kind of attitude was the use of the ACTIVslate on the course. Some students in Study 1 highlighted the potential of the ACTIVslate for getting them more engaged during the lessons. Therefore, by taking this into account, the teacher decided to subsequently give the students the opportunity to use the ACTIVslate in order to encourage active participation. She used it for a fill-in-the-blanks activity, for which the students would need to use the drag-and-drop tool of the software by using the ACTIVslate from their seats. However, since it was the first time they were using this remote device, they had some difficulty in handling it, which disturbed the lesson. In the following session, she decided not to use the ACTIVslate anymore for two main reasons: (1) because it had disturbed the previous session, at least from her perspective; and (2) because a critical observer would come to observe her lesson on that day, and she wanted the lesson to flow as smoothly as possible. Therefore, in that session the activity was carried out in a different way. She asked only one of the students to go to the board and do the exercises with the help of others. In Unit 4 of Study 2, she also had plans to use the ACTIVslate, but she gave up on the idea during the session. The following field note reveals the reasons why she made such decision: I had planned to use the ACTIVslate, but I didn’t. I even thought of offering it to the students, in case they wanted to help those who were on the board. But in the first session, I was so worried about the time that I thought it would make things more complicated. So I decided not to use it. (Teacher’s analysis questionnaire, September 3, 2004, Unit 4, Study 2)
In another session, one of the students clicked on a wrong button while carrying out a task on the board and created a tickertape (i.e., a word or phrase continuously moving across the screen), so the word “to cram” kept moving on the whiteboard and the teacher did not know how to fix the problem. She even tried to ignore it, but the students kept looking at the word moving, and it was disturbing the lesson. To make things worse, the student who had caused the problem kept apologizing. So she decided to close the flipchart, the software, and start everything again. The following extract of her field notes reveals the way she felt right after the session: The students moved the links and I ended up losing the sound file for bell ring, then later a student clicked on it and suddenly there was this noisy bell and no one knew why that was happening, this made things a bit confusing for the students. (Teacher’s field notes, August 26, 2004, Unit 3, Study 2) Although this incident did not really disturb the lesson, as the problem was solved in just a couple of minutes, this is a good illustration of the “risks” that teachers who share the whiteboard space with the students may have to face. Because of incidents like this, the teacher started to limit students’ access to the whiteboard during the lessons so as to avoid technical problems and consequent focus on the technology. In addition to that, she opted for not giving the students clear explanations on how to use the IWB technology so that they could focus on the content of the lessons and not on the medium (technology), which she thought could distract them from learning. Therefore, her own understanding of the normalization of CALL in that context involved developing expertise on the use of IWB technology prior to teaching in order to avoid the occurrence of technical problems. However, she did not consider the development of students’ expertise as an important aspect of making the technology invisible and therefore normalized.
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
On the other hand, the students had a different understanding of this concept. For them, “invisibility” or “normalization” of the technology involved two main aspects: (a) being able to operate the technology efficiently, and (b) being able to use it as a means for self-expression. During the interviews, several students emphasized that they wanted to learn more about how to operate the whiteboard. They thought they might have taken more advantage of the technology if they had learned how to handle it appropriately. In the following extract, one student pointed out that not having the ability to operate the IWB appropriately could create a barrier for some students, which could lead to less active participation during the lessons, since the students did not want to “embarrass themselves” in front of the whole group: 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
26. 27. 28.
T: What kind of suggestions or recommendations would you give to this person so that this person would make the most out of these sections? What would you say to this person? S: To pay attention very well on how to use this technology, first thing, and hear very well the instruction that you are giving (laughing) T: Yeah, what do you mean by use the technology, to learn how to use the technology S: How to use the pen, how to… T: Why? Why do you think this would be good to this person? S: The incorrect use could be a barrier for us, for example, when you make us to go to the board, for some people it was difficult to use it, so it could be… T: A barrier? S: Embarrassing. (Post-course interview with Lauren, Study 2)
In this other extract, the student explained why he/she thought the students should be given
more opportunities to go to the front and use the whiteboard: 29. S: Sometimes you choose to click this word and sometimes we click not very strong and 30. it don’t work, like this one, and sometimes you just write and the word becomes a typed 31. one, and if we use, perhaps we can’t, we can’t use very…very…how can you say…very 32. familiar? 33. T: You’re not very sure of how to use it or of how things happen. 34. S: Yeah. (Post-course interview with CJ, Study 2) In this sequence, the student made reference to the fact that some students had difficulty operating the whiteboard during the lessons. In line 1, she pointed out that when some students tried to use the drag-and-drop tool, they did not click on the words strongly enough and could not move them to the desired position. She then related these difficulties with the students’ lack of practice in using the whiteboard, since the students were not given enough opportunities to get familiar with the technology (lines 3-4). In line 2, she also mentioned the use of the handwriting recognition tool. In fact, this tool was only used by the teacher for writing new vocabulary on the board or for brainstorming activities. After eliciting contributions from the students, she used the electronic pen to write on the board, and the handwriting recognition was deployed to enhance the clarity of presentation. The students, however, were never given the opportunity to use the electronic pen in this way. Thus, the data indicate that the students wanted to feel reasonably comfortable using the electronic whiteboard. However, since they were not given enough opportunities to learn how to use the technology, they did not perceive their classroom as a context in which CALL was normalized. There-
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
fore, in spite of the potential of IWB technology for facilitating the normalization of CALL, as discussed in the previous section, this potential was only partly realized, as they could not become fully skilled in the operation of the technology in order to develop “ownership” of it.
FuturE trEnds IWB technology is a relatively new technology in education. However, the financial (and pedagogical) investment that has been made in this technology in the last few years (e.g., in British Council language schools all over the world) seems to indicate that it will occupy an important role in educational practice in the years to come. Therefore, more studies of this kind need to be conducted so that more can be learned and discovered about both the potential of the technology and the possible challenges that might be involved in the process of IWB technology integration into the curriculum. In my view, future research should place special emphasis on the alleged potential of this technology for supporting teacher-centered approaches. Several authors have drawn attention to the fact that the IWB technology can be used in a way that merely supports the continuation of traditional approaches (Goodison, 2003; Armstrong et al., 2005; Moss et al., 2007). Although this can happen to any new technology that is integrated into the classroom, this would be aggravated by the fact that the IWB technology can be relatively easily assimilated into existing ways of working in comparison to other technologies, such as that of the Internet and iPods (Armstrong et al., 2005). In other words, instead of using the technology to create new practice, teachers could simply adapt the technology to handle old practice. As Moss et al. (2007, p. 96) point out, “The clear advantage IWBs seem to have in terms of uptakethat their use fits quite easily with existing patterns of whole class pedagogymay also be their
0
weakness.” Therefore, although the literature on IWB technology has been positive regarding its potential to facilitate the integration of ICT into the curriculum, it also warns against the danger of this technology being used to reinforce traditional pedagogical approaches based on one-way knowledge transmission. Referring again to the concept of normalization, it is important to highlight that Bax’s view (2003) of Integrated CALL should not be understood merely as a process of technology assimilation into existing ways of teaching and learning. The concept of Integrated CALL goes beyond that, and suggests that normalization will only occur when the potential of new technologies are fully developed, when their use is fully integrated into the syllabus, and most importantly, that they are effectively used to enhance language learning.
concLusion and rEcoMMEndations This chapter drew upon the concept of normalization (Bax, 2003) to discuss the potential of IWB technology for facilitating the integration of ICT into the language curriculum. The findings of this research indicate that the IWB technology represents the beginnings of the ability to realize in practice the integrated phase in the development of CALL. Two points have been highlighted in the discussion: (1) location and access (the IWB is not separated from ‘normal’ teaching space), and (2) layout (the IWB allows an easy move from CALL activities to non-CALL activities). However, in spite of this potential, the IWB classroom investigated was still an example of un-normalized CALL.7 The teacher’s (mis)understanding of the concept of “technology invisibility” was analyzed as one of the factors that inhibited the normalization of CALL in that specific context. As Chambers and Bax (2006, p. 472) rightly point out, teachers’ (mis)conceptions of what CALL is, and what the role of the com-
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
puter could be, may represent an important obstacle to normalization. It is thus hoped that this discussion will assist other practitioners aiming to move towards the normalization of CALL in their own settings. This discussion also indicates that the design and implementation of appropriate teacher training programs is an essential component of an effective process of the integration of IWB technology in the language classroom. In fact, a number of CALL studies have highlighted the key role played by teachers in the realization of the claimed educational potentials of new technologies (e.g., Cuban, 1986; Warschuaer, 1999; Meskill, Anthony, Hilliker, Tseng, & You, 2006). However, relatively little is known about how teachers interact with technology, what their needs are, and what factors influence their adoption and use of new technologies. There is thus a clear need for studies that focus on teachers’ perspectives in technology integration. The findings of such studies can be used by policymakers, teacher trainers, and others in providing in-service technology training programs that better address teachers’ specific pedagogical needs, concerns, and interests. Chambers and Bax (2006, p. 475) emphasize that “if CALL is to be normalized, teacher training and development may best be offered in collaborative mode rather than in ‘top-down, expert-to-novice mode’.” However, research findings on the use of IWB technology in schools (Moss et al., 2007; Armstrong et al., 2005) have shown that the quality of training programs provided to in-service teachers is still not ideal because they are not always tailored to participants’ needs; they are mainly based on one-day workshops and they do not provide appropriate follow-up and ongoing pedagogical and technical support. These authors also draw attention to the fact that without appropriate training, it is unlikely that teachers will either be aware of or be able to exploit the potential affordances of IWB technology to create new practice. Since the integration of
ICT into pedagogical practice through the use of IWB technology is a relatively new phenomenon in education, there seems to be a need for the development of technology training programs, which on one hand need to have a sound theoretical basis, and on the other need to be designed from the investigation of local teachers’ pedagogical needs and practice.
rEFErEncEs Armstrong, V., Barnesa, S., Suntherland, R., Curranb, S., Millsc, S., & Thompson, I. (2005). Collaborative research methodology for investigating teaching and learning: The use of interactive whiteboard technology. Educational Review, 57(4). Bax, S. (2003). CALLPast, present and future. System, 31(4). Becta. (2003). Primary schools–ICT and standards: An analysis of national data from Ofsted and QCA. Coventry: Becta. Chambers, A., & Bax, S. (2006). Making CALL work: Towards normalization. System, 34(4). Chapman, D.W., & Mahlck, L.O. (2004). Adapting technology for school improvement. Retrieved February 25, 2007, from http://www.unesco. org/iiep/PDF/pubs/F165.pdf Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom uses of technology since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press. Cuthell, J.P. (2005). The impact of interactive whiteboards on teaching, learning and attainment. In Proceedings of SITE 2005 (pp. 1353-1355). Phoenix, AZ: AACE. Cutrim Schmid, E. (2005). An investigation into the use of interactive whiteboard technology in the language classroom: A critical theory of technology perspective. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Lancaster University, UK.
Interactive Whiteboards and the Normalization of CALL
Cutrim Schmid, E. (2006a). Investigating the use of interactive whiteboard technology in the language classroom through the lens of a critical theory of technology. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(1), 47-62. Cutrim Schmid, E. (2006b). Using a voting system in conjunction with interactive whiteboard technology to enhance learning in the English Language classroom. Computers and Education (doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2006.07.001). Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com Cutrim Schmid, E. (2007). Enhancing performance knowledge and self-esteem in classroom language learning: The potential of the ACTIVote system component of interactive whiteboard technology. System, 35, 119-133. DfES. (2004). Information and communications technology in schools in England 2004—first release. Retrieved August 23, 2005, from http:// www.dfes.gov.uk/ Dudeney, G. (2006). Interactive, quite bored. IATEFL CALL Review, (Summer). Goodison, T. (2002a). Learning with ICT at primary level: Students’ perceptions. Journal of Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18, 282-295. Goodison, T. (2002b). Enhancing learning with ICT at primary level. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(2), 215-228. Goodison, T. (2003). Integrating ICT in the classroom: A case study of two contrasting lessons. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(5), 549-566. Gray, G., Hagger-Vaughan, L., Pilkington, R., & Tomkins, S. (2005). The pros and cons of interactive whiteboards in relation to the Key Stage 3 strategies and framework. Language Learning Journal, 32, 38-44. Ioannou-Georgiou, S. (2006). Editorial. IATEFL CALL Review, (Summer).
Hall, I., & Higgins, S. (2005) Primary school students’ perceptions of interactive whiteboard. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 2, 102117. Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning: Context and conceptualisation. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Levy, P. (2002). Interactive whiteboards in learning and teaching in two Sheffield schools: A developmental study. Retrieved December 5, 2002, from http://dis.shef.ac.uk/eirg/projects/ wboards.htm Meskill, C., Anthony, N., Hilliker, S., Tseng, C., & You, J. (2007). Expert-novice teacher mentoring in language learning technology. In P. Hubbard & M. Levy (Eds.), Research in CALL teacher education (pp. 283-298). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Moss, G., Carrey, J., Levaaic, R., Armstrong, V., Cardini, A., & Castle, F. (2007). The interactive whiteboards pedagogy and pupil performance evaluation: An evaluation of the schools whiteboard expansion (SWE) project: London challenge. Institute of Education, University of London, UK. Smith, H.J., Higgins, S., Wall, K., & Miller, J. (2005). Interactive whiteboards: Boon or bandwagon? A critical review of the literature. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(2), 91-101. Walker, R. (2003). Interactive whiteboards in the MFL classroom. TELL & CALL, 3, 14-16. Wall, K., Higgins, S., & Smith, H. (2005). ‘The visual helps me understand the complicated things’: Pupils views of teaching and learning with interactive whiteboards. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(5), 851-867. Warschauer, M. (1999). Electronic literacies: Language, culture, and power in online education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57-71.
kEY tErMs ACTIVote System: Wireless response system enabling students to respond to assessment and other questions. Results can then be displayed immediately on the ACTIVboard in graphical format. ACTIVslate: A5 graphic tablet that operates remotely with the ACTIVboard, enabling teachers and students to take control of the IWB from anywhere in the class. ACTIVstudio Software: Software used in conjunction with an IWB. It enables activities such as handwriting recognition, Web browsing, window annotation, dragging and dropping, and so on. See Appendix 1 for more information on these tools. Electromagnetic Whiteboard: Has a hard writing surface and requires the use of special pens that give the function of left and right mouse clicks. These pens emit a small magnetic field detected either by the frame of the whiteboard or by a grid of fine wires embedded beneath the surface of the board. Electronic Flipcharts: Design area or blank pages for creating teaching materials to be used with an IWB. The number of pages that can be used is unlimited. Flipcharts can be prepared before a lesson or they can be generated during the course of the lesson Integrated CALL: The stage when the technology becomes invisible, embedded in everyday practice (Bax, 2003).
Interactive Whiteboard: Touch-sensitive electronic presentation device. Fully functioning interactive whiteboards usually comprise four components: a computer, a projector, appropriate software, and the display panel, which is a large free-standing or wall-mounted screen up to 2 meters by 1 meter in size.
EndnotEs 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
The ACTIVslate is an A5 graphic tablet that operates remotely with the ACTIVboard, enabling teachers and students to take control of the IWB from anywhere in the class. The ACTIVote system is a wireless response system enabling students to respond to assessment and other questions. Results can then be displayed immediately on the ACTIVboard in graphical format. The reveal tool is designed to work in a similar way to the traditional method of using a piece of paper to mask off parts of an overhead projector presentation. It can be used slowly to expose the screen in one of four directions (down, up, left, and right). Using a thick pen on white to hide words or pictures. In class, the eraser tool is used to reveal the text or image again. See Cutrim Schmid (2005, 2006a, 2006b, 2007) for more detailed information on how the IWB technology supported language teaching and learning in the context investigated. All names have been changed in order to protect students’ anonymity. This statement does not imply that all IWB classrooms are examples of un-normalized CALL.
Chapter VI
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning Alexandra Okada The Open University, UK
abstract This chapter presents new methodologies designed to facilitate language acquisition in open learning communities via open educational resources and knowledge mapping. It specifically focuses on the OpenLearn project developed by The Open University. This offers a virtual learning environment based on Moodle platform with free educational materials and knowledge media tools such as the instant messaging MSG, the Web videoconferencing application, FlashMeeting, and the knowledge mapping software tool Compendium. In this chapter, these technologies and mapping techniques are introduced in order to promote open language learning. Ways in which teachers and students can make use of these OpenLearn tools and resources are discussed and some benefits fully described.
introduction: thE opEn LEarning MoVEMEnt and LanguagE LEarning Open content resources have been growing rapidly, opening up new possibilities for active language learning. Free innovative tools, open access content, and collaborative learning strategies provide new opportunities for learners engaging in widening communication and collective construction of knowledge (Willinsky, 2006; Cedergren, 2003). These new resources
and new methodologies can bring new ways to foster meaningful learning. The Open Content Initiative is a growing movement in the promotion of open learning which involves institutions, universities, researchers, teachers, and scientists in the free access to world knowledge resources (O’Mahony & Ferraro, 2003). Its aim is to provide free access to quality teaching materials from the public domain from which open educational resources can be customized, improved, and shared with local communities. These can be personalized to match
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OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
local contexts and cultural aspects such as language, level of study, pre-requirements, learning outcomes, and so forth (Downes, 2006; Dholakia, King, & Baraniuk, 2006; Jarman, 2006). Open learning communities are defined as a set of people with common interests who interact collaboratively in order to learn together. There are five important features in an open learning community: open products, integrity, transparency, non-discrimination, and non-interference (Reagle, 2004, 2006). Open communities are open to receive new members, share information, reconstruct knowledge, and learn together developing open products. Participants ensure the integrity of the process and their contributions. They are transparent in self-organizing, making their own rules and defining their process. They do not discriminate between people, individuals, or groups. Members can interact and work under their own understanding or conceptualization without interference. They are active contributors (Aigrain, 2004; Stadler & Hirsh, 2002). Open learning environments can be considered a new methodology for informal learning. Academics, teachers, and students alike can benefit from the Open Educational Resource Movement. Teachers can select high-quality materials, use free tools and resources, and engage their students in open learning communities in order to develop skills such as:
•
•
Selecting extra and relevant learning materials, Managing their own learning, Contacting new fellow students, and Developing learning communities.
•
More specifically in language learning, open communities can be very useful in promoting meaningful learning. Students can become active learners by:
•
• • •
• •
•
Communicating with people from different countries, Practicing the language in real situations, Sharing their personal context and creating meaningful opportunities for learning, and Using technology collaboratively to improve their understanding together.
Knowledge mapping can be an efficient strategy for educators, learners, professionals, and researchers to deal with a large quantity of information on the Web, select what is relevant, and make connections structuring knowledge in a meaningful way (Okada & Buckingham Shum, 2006; Okada, 2007). Learning requires the ability to organize relevant information, connect it with previous knowledge, engage in critical thinking, and construct arguments. Students struggle with many of these skills. Knowledge cartography can greatly facilitate these processes of learning, research, and knowledge management. Well-designed maps are effective resources for building knowledge. They act as a concentrated database and are powerful graphic tools for classifying, representing, and communicating the connections between all kinds of information. Through knowledge mapping, learners can: •
• •
Exploit the mind’s ability to establish relationships between thoughts and ideas; Build graphical schemes that enable understanding through spatial relations; Link arguments and relevant information together in flexible structures; Re present opi n ion s, alter nat ive perspectives, different contexts; and Reduce search time and reveal connections that might otherwise not be noticed (Okada, Buckingham Shum, & Sherborne, 2008).
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
In this chapter, some examples from OpenLear n an open educational environmentare analyzed in order to illustrate knowledge mapping techniques and open educational resources as applied to language learning. OpenLearn was developed by The Open University in Moodle, a course management system. This project was launched at the end of 2006, and open language learning communities are still developing. Thus, data at this moment are not enough for a case study. However, the intention of this work is to present possibilities and introduce new strategies that can be useful to foster language-learning communities.
thE opEnLEarn proJEct and opEn LanguagE LEarning rEsourcEs Project “OpenLearn” (http://openlearn.open. ac.uk), sponsored by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, provides free online learning material taken from The Open University courses. It also offers free knowledge media technologies on a large scale, connecting learners with learners and learners with educators. OpenLearn also aims to help teachers reconstruct their own materials from existing open educational resources, downloading, editing, remixing, and publishing new courses. The intention of OpenLearn is to enable a basis for worldwide collaborations over the development and dissemination of supported open learning in several fields including language learning. The OpenLearn based on the open source Moodle platform consists of two virtual learning environments: •
LearningSpace (http://openlearn.open. ac.uk/) hosts a list of open educational resources. It is an area to access free educational resources organized in units and areas of knowledge. These units are initially in
•
•
English and based on The Open University’s courses. LabSpace (http://labspace.open.ac.uk/) is the laboratory area to download LearningSpace materials to remix and reuse. Both areas integrate new technologies developed by the Knowledge Media Institute (KMi) to foster learning communities.
Through OpenLearn, students interested in learning a foreign language can access materials in their own time and find peers from different countries all over the world. It is an opportunity for informal and collaborative study in areas of common interest. Participants can learn at their own pace, alone or in communities. They can manage their own progress by keeping a learning journal, by discussing the topics with other online learners in forums, and by completing self-assessment exercises. In this way, participants can study high-quality materials free, develop their online communities, and manage their own language learning process (OpenLearn, 2007). The target audience of OpenLearn comprises governmental and non-governmental entities interested in promoting continuing professional development to: •
•
• • •
Public and private higher education institutes interested in Open Educational Resources (OER) partnerships; Academic teachers, tutors, training course designers, graduate and post-graduate students; Educational researchers; Professionals interested in specialization courses; and Anyone interested in learning.
In October 2006 OpenLearn published 900 learning hours in the LearningSpace; currently its goal is to make a further 8,100 hours of material available within the LabSpace by the end of 2008. The Open Educational Resources, published
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
mostly in English, are grouped into different categories: Arts and History, Business and Management, Education, Health and Lifestyle, IT and Computing. In the Modern Languages category, there are several language courses including English, French, German, and Spanish. The OpenLearn courses denominated “units” are self-contained and offer a mix of multimedia and Web-based materials. These open educational resources include texts, activities, quizzes, forum, videos, presentations in Web conferences, and knowledge maps. They are designated at a particular academic level and take from 3 to 15 hours of study time. The initial materials published were constructed from current OU courses plus other Web-based materials. However, OpenLearn expects to increase its OER through collaboration with interested participants willing to contribute to the open learning movement. OpenLearn integrates three free knowledge media technologies in Moodle: the instant messaging MSG, the video Web conference FlashMeeting, and the knowledge mapping software
tool Compendium. These free knowledge media technologies are accessible to everyone in LabSpace and LearningSpace.
coMpEndiuM: a LEarning Mapping tooL Compendium (http://www.compendiuminstitute. org) is a knowledge mapping software tool, initially developed by Verizon in 1993 and then by the Knowledge Media Institute at The Open University in the UK. Through Compendium, language learners can represent their thoughts, ideas, and information. They can select and connect interesting resources and structure their knowledge of the content. Diverse mapping techniques can help learners to model problems, connect concepts, and map arguments in discussions. This knowledge-mapping tool can be used as an individual or group tool to summarize discussions in forum, chats, and Web videoconference; and to develop brainstorming activities to explore new ideas,
Figure 1. Compendium—dragging and dropping information to facilitate reading and interpretation through icons, comments, and tags
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Table 1. Open content initiatives. More examples can be accessed at http://www.hewlett.org/Programs/ Education/OER/OpenContent/ MIT OpenCourseWare (USA)
http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/
Rice Connexions (USA)
http://cnx.rice.edu/
ParisTech OCW (France)
http://graduateschool.paristech.org/
CORE (China)
http://www.core.org.cn/en/index.htm
Japanese OCW Alliance (Japan)
http://www.jocw.jp/
organize key concepts from text, and structure arguments to write essays. Figure 1 shows an example of Compendium task. Compendium allows users to include any kind of files in the map, for example video, text, Web pages, figures, tables, graphics, and sound. Its key feature is its ability to categorize information through a set of different types of icons which represent questions, ideas, pros, cons, references, notes, decisions, lists, and maps. The tool allows users to develop their own sets of icons and groups these using stencils. Each icon in Compendium can be classified by keywords called “tags.” When the map contains a lot of information, users can search by tags and types of icons, which facilitates the construction of new maps based on specific themes. Knowledge maps are a very useful strategy to select, connect, and share meaningful information from open sources available on the Web. It is a way of integrating different viewpoints, interpretations, and meanings facilitating the process of sense making. (Compendium, 2007; Buckingham Shum, 2005a, 2005b). There are many free language materials not only in the OpenLearn project, but also in other open content initiatives developed by academic institutions, indicated in Table 1. In order to learn about specific topics, teachers can remix the most interesting learning resources by selecting, ordering, and sharing OER from different sources through maps. Then learners can visualize a meaningful sequence of different
possibilities and navigate easily through different resources, saving a reasonable amount of time. They can also download these maps and gather more language learning materials from various sources by dragging and dropping them onto Compendium, sequence them into their own learning path, and publish their maps helping their peers with new combinations. A learning path map is similar to “my favorite list” or the “del.icio.us” Web application. It can easily combine a sequence of the most exciting Web pages about language learning. However, this graphical representation is a more attractive and meaningful diagram (map) than a simple sequence of URLs (list). Moreover, it has the advantage of offering more possibilities: multiple sequences, extra information, personal comments represented by symbols and classified by categories. There are many mapping techniques used to create maps, such as mind mapping, concept mapping, Web mapping, and argument mapping. Theses mapping techniques can be very useful for teachers while designing learning activities, and for students when planning their tasks and answering questions while developing reading and writing skills. The next section will discuss further information on some mapping techniques. The examples illustrating each technique are from the OpenLearn unit, L550-3 Business English—Presenting the Decision. These maps were created by CoLearn Community and can be accessed in the LearningSpace (http://labspace. open.ac.uk/colearn).
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
knoWLEdgE Mapping tEchniQuEs appLiEd to LanguagE LEarning Mind Mapping Mind mapping was developed by Buzan around 1974 in the popular book Use Your Head. Thoughts are often difficult to represent in a linear order and initially appear without logical structure. Mind mapping allows ideas to be represented non-linearly, using keywords, sentences, and pictures in graphic form. The elements are connected by lines and arrows, with short descriptions. Mind mapping is a useful technique by which to generate new ideas, like brainstorming. Through mind maps, students can generate a large number of keywords as an initial step for solving a problem. This technique is helpful in developing creativity, and learners can organize their initial ideas related to a subject to develop a project, write an essay, or prepare a presentation. For example, Figure 2 shows a mind map constructed to answer the activity: What questions
could you elaborate about relocation during an interview? Using Compendium, students can map their initial ideas, bringing in as many keywords as possible. Then, for each keyword, they can elaborate a question.
concept Mapping Concept mapping was developed by Novak in the 1970s based on Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning. This constructivist approach emphasized that learning with understanding only takes place when new concepts are connected to what is already known. Concept maps externalize a learner’s current knowledge structure, helping them to see connections with new information and make sense of it (Novak, 1990). Concept mapping is a mapping technique used to construct relationships between concepts. Learners can create concept maps to show important keywords from a Web page, explain their meaning, and connect them to other definitions from the Internet and to familiar keywords representing their existing knowledge.
Figure 2. Mind map created with Compendium, questions about “relocation,” Business English (http:// kmi.open.ac.uk/projects/osc/compendium/mmap/)
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 3. Concept map created with Compendium, questions about “relocation,” Business English (http://kmi.open.ac.uk/projects/osc/compendium/cmap/)
For example, the concept map created through Compendium in Figure 3 shows keywords used to describe “reported speech.” It represents a network of key concepts and the relationships between them.
dialogue Mapping Dialogue mapping was developed by Conklin (2006) to solve wicked problems and share an understanding of these during discussion. It is also derived from the Issue-Based Information System (IBIS) developed by Rittel in the 1970s to solve ill-structured problems. IBIS is a rhetorical grammar with three core elementsissues, positions, and argumentsall of which can be rendered as textual outlines and graphical maps that grow with the conversation. Dialogue mapping is a sense-making strategy useful for structuring reasoning based on questions, statements, pros, cons, and conclusions. Dialogue maps can be applied to prepare and present a set of arguments, develop a logical line of reasoning, and facilitate critical thinking.
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Learners can create these maps with Compendium to organize argumentation in face-to-face meetings and online conversations such as discussion forums, Web videoconferences, chats, or from texts and video clips. Dialogue maps can contain many kinds of resources such as videos, pictures, audio, graphs, text, forums, or Web conferences. Figure 4 is an example of a dialogue map. Figures 4 and 5 show the process in which a dialogue map was created from an audio clip about “interviewing for relocation.” This dialogue map was a useful strategy for taking notes and recording the main statements made during the conversation. After constructing the map, students can export using “outline view,” which shows a linear sequence of arguments. They can then produce a text using reported speech.
argument Mapping Argument mapping was developed by J.H. Wigmore in 1913 to help in the analysis of legal arguments by showing the evidence for each claim and how it is related in the structure of the argument.
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 4. Dialogue map created with Compendium, interview about relocation (http://kmi.open.ac.uk/ projects/osc/compendium/dmap/)
Figure 5. Report speech generated from a dialogue map, outline view in Compendium
This mapping technique is also widely used in informal logic and in the teaching of philosophy and critical thinking (Harrell, 2005; van Gelder, 2001; Van Gelder, Bissett, & Cumming, 2004). Therefore it is another technique which can be used to develop critical and logic thinking. In an argument map, statements are organized in
a coherent structure based on claims, reasons, and objections. In order to develop reasoning, several questions can be asked: What is the main preposition? What are the evidences? What are the reasons for and against? Through questioning, stronger arguments can be selected and a better conclusion can be reached. Argument maps are
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 6. Argument map created with Compendium, outline view and reported speech on relocation (http://kmi.open.ac.uk/projects/osc/compendium/amap/)
also an efficient way to represent the key line of reasoning because they extract the logical and coherent essence of thinking, leaving out what is not relevant or what does not add value. Visualizing the process of thinking through argument helps students reflect on content and develop better structures. Figure 6 shows an example of an argument map about moving from small towns to big cities. As we can see, through this argument map created in Compendium, learners can draw their reasoning by structuring claims, objections, and reasons.
Web Mapping The technique known as Web mapping developed in response to the rapid growth of the Internet. The huge number of Web sites and overflow of information can cause users to become lost in cyberspace. Web maps enable users to record
their navigation using icons, hypertext, and hyperlinks. Cartography tools permit selection of what is relevant in cyberspace, indexing and retrieving hypermedia Web material (Dodge & Kitchin, 2000). Web mapping is a useful technique to group and share important references from learning materials and from the Web. The example of a Web map in Figure 7, which was created in Compendium, shows interesting Web sites relating “Business Englishpresenting Decisions” grouped by categories such as activities, videos, Web pages, vocabulary lists, PDF files, and maps. Teachers and students can select not only material from the OpenLearn environment, but also from other learning resources available on the Web, such as concepts in Wikipedia, videos in YouTube, and pictures in Flickr.
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 7. Web map created with Compendium, interesting resources about Business English—Decisions (http://kmi.open.ac.uk/projects/osc/compendium/wmap/)
FostEring opEn LanguagE coMMunitiEs Open educational resources and tools are not restricted to academic or scientific institutions, but comprise all learning communities. These include communities of practice, knowledgecreating communities, groups of peers, and all individual learners interested in learning about similar topics. However, there are challenges facing open learning communities. These challenges, such as finding new peers and interacting to keep the community alive, and managing their own learning through assessment, are discussed in the following subsections.
Finding new peers to interact and Learn Language together In addition to Compendium, OpenLearn integrates two other knowledge media technologies, FlashMeeting and MSG. These tools can be used
to find new peers, foster language learning communities, and promote the collective building of knowledge. Firstly, MSG is an instant messaging application with geolocation maps that allow students to find fellow learners. Like ‘personal radar’, it shows who is online and where. With one click, language students can chat by sending instant messages. A key advantage of MSG, compared to other instant messenging systems such as MSN Messenger, AIM, and GTalk, is its full integration into the LearningSpace and LabSpace environments. Participants can see who is currently online and can immediately communicate synchronously. Participants can access a list of contacts automatically generated in MSG based on the courses they have enrolled in (MSG, 2007). Secondly, FlashMeeting is a Web-based videoconferencing application. This new media system offers instant meetingany time, any place, and any platform. The applet is implemented in Adobe Flash, a widely available and highly compatible
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 8. FlashMeeting is a Web videoconferencing application offering instant online meetings
Figure 9. FlashMeeting Memo applet showing a peer-to-peer event (left), chat (right), and timeline (bottom) (http://flashmeeting.open.ac.uk/)
type of browser plug-in. It is incredibly lightweight, efficient, and pleasing to the eye. Based on Flash MX Server technology, through FlashMeeting it is possible organize, record, edit, and share virtual meetings. Meeting recordings can be annotated with comments and tags. Every part
of the meeting is a URL, so any event, comment, text chat, or speaker in the meeting can be directly referred to (FlashMeeting, 2007). Figure 8 shows the FlashMeeting screen where participants were discussing the OpenLearn project. A language learner or a teacher can book a meeting and the
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
system generates a URL. This URL can then be shared to the language learning community by e-mail or via MSG. The replay is browsed by navigating through the names of the attendees or via the timeline which represents the length of each broadcast. There are different kinds of FlashMeeting events such as seminars held by experts, video lectures on a variety of topics, Webcast talks, interviews of e-learning specialists, moderated project meetings, peer-to-peer student meetings, and many other examples.
Figure 10. A FlashMeeting maps in Compendium
resources for open Learning assessment Through FlashMeeting, participants can exchange interesting URLs, questions, possible answers, arguments, and some possible conclusions. FlashMeeting allows participants to create labels to mark specific segments in the meeting, and they can also type keywords in the FlashMeeting chat log. After the event, the FlashMeeting Memos generate a set of metadata, available in an XML file, which can be imported into Compendium and turned automatically into knowledge maps. Through these maps, participants can visualize a summary of key information exchanged in the meeting, including temporal and conceptual references: •
• •
Figure 10 shows several Compendium maps related to a FlashMeeting about the OpenLearn project. These maps introduce an overview of the Web conference: attendees, who spoke when, chat, URLS visited, whiteboard, voting, keywords, and meeting files chat. The map in Figure 11 allows the user to keep track of who spoke when. The map in Figure 12 includes all URLs shared and visited during the event. Users can click and navigate on the Web sites suggested by attendees in the meeting.
Figure 11. Keeping track of who spoke when
Figure 12. Mapping the URLs visited along with their time during the event
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 13. Mapping questions, ideas, pros and cons discussed on the webconference
Students can use these communication channels provided in FlashMeeting differently, which also includes whiteboard, URLs, lists, and a voting system. Through these graphs, it is possible to identify participation according to: • •
•
The map in Figure 13 presents questions, ideas, pros, and cons discussed on the Web conference.
All the elements in the knowledge maps illustrated by Figures 10-13 and created in Compendium are automatically linked to the Web videoconference. Therefore, participants can use them to replay only interesting segments. Through the maps, they can evaluate the content of the meeting and also their learning during the event. They can edit maps and organize new connections in a strategy to reorganize their learning and reconstruct their knowledge.
using graphs to Evaluate participation in Language Learning Meetings Another way of evaluating participation language learning meeting is through “linear and polar visualizations” of the broadcast and chat dominance per attendee automatically generated by FlashMeeting. Through these graphs, students and teachers can visualize how knowledge is transferred via a range of communication channels, such as audio, video, and text chat (Scott, Tomadaki, & Quick, 2007b).
Each user’s percentage of the total event audio-visual talk time, and The proportion of the number of chat messages that the user made compared to the number of messages of the most active participant.(Scott, Quick, Tomadaki, & Linney, 2007a).
Some events in FlashMeeting present graphs with similar features. For instance, in virtual seminars and lectures, the main presenter takes up nearly all of the broadcast time, and the graphs will show the dominance of one person. Interviews will show the presence of the interviewee and the interviewer. A collaborative student meeting will show similar participation among participants, which can be a good indicator for quantitative analyses. The knowledge map can show the content of contributions, which can be tagged to indicate the quality of participation. Therefore, through graphs and knowledge maps, the OpenLearn community can identify if the meeting was productive, if time was well shared between all participants, and if the quality of content was meaningful. Sometimes, some participants may talk less than others, but their contribution in terms of ideas, references, and questions can be of more quality than that of colleagues who are more talkative. Additionally, graphs and maps can offer data for both quantitative and qualitative analysis.
Mapping social presence using Msg and FlashMeeting Social presence is an indispensable feature for language learning communities. In Biocca, Burgoon, Harms, and Stoner (2001) (Okada et
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 14. The broadcast dominance
Figure 15.The chat dominance
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 16. MSG, displaying the availability on contacts of the same course worldwide. (kmi.open. ac.uk/technologies/msg/about/)
al., forthcoming), social presence is described as “being there in other places” and “being there with other people.” Mapping social presence can be a strategy in visualizing collective intelligence, diversity of participants from different countries, the most popular events, the biggest communities, and so forth. Students and teachers can identify who and where specialists are, the most interactive communities, and the most popular events. By providing geo-locations of the individuals who may be relevant to a specific knowledge domain, students can easily contact people available online or face to face. An instant messaging system, MSG offers a set of presence attributes such as time, context, availability, location, and activity. All these indicators can help students meet other fellow learners with similar interests or in interesting and interactive language learning communities. They can then access a list of contacts which may provide peer support during learning activities. Figure 16 illustrates the availability of contacts throughout the globe, mapping who is online and available to be contacted.
FlashMeeting also shows geographic maps on the location of participants. Through these geographic maps, which are generated automatically, participants in the community and possible new members can see the distribution of users for both the attendance of live FlashMeeetings and FlashMeeting replay access. These maps are useful in illustrating: 1.
2.
How the tool is being used to connect people from the same social network or community of practice, and The learning impact of the event reuse in different parts of the world.
The geographic maps in Figures 17 and 18 related to a FlashMeeting event, the live OpenLearn Web Conference’ (FlashMeetingCompendium) on Open Content and Metadata, which was held in March 2006 and attended by 14 participants located in different parts of Europe and South America. The public replay was viewed 228 times by different users in Europe, Australia, Asia, and
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
Figure 17. 13 Live FlashMeeting attendees of the OpenLearn webconference in March 2006
Figure 18. 228 unique IPs of the viewers—OpenLearn webconference replay in October 2007
Africa, as well as in South and North America, in March 2007.
concLusion and FuturE rEsEarch In conclusion, a heightened understanding of influential factors that shape the effectiveness of
peer interactions is essential to fostering open learning communities. Knowledge media tools such as Compendium, FlashMeeting, and MSG have indicated new possibilities for language acquisition. New strategies such as knowledge mapping, interactive discussions through Web videoconferencing, and finding new peers through geolocation instant messaging have been seen to be very useful in the development of language-
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
learning skills. Open learning communities are a valuable opportunity for students to manage their own process of learning by: • • • • • • •
Learning to learn, Encouraging time management, Self-motivating, Developing critical thinking, Mapping information and knowledge, Organizing their own learning path, and Exploring new learning styles. The are also valuable to learn with others
by: • • • • • • • • •
Aigrain, P. (2004). The individual and the collective in open information communities. Proceedings of the 16th BLED Electronic Commerce Conference (pp. 9-11). Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://opensource.mit.edu/papers/aigrain3.pdf Biocca, F., Burgoon, J., Harms, C., & Stoner, M. (2001). Criteria and scope conditions for a theory and measure of social presence. Proceedings of the Presence 2001 Conference, Philadelphia. Buckingham Shum, S. (2005a). Knowledge technologies in context. Open University Press
Collaborative/cooperative learning, Studying in groups, Solving conflict and difficulties together, Encouraging peer mediation, Active listening, Sense making, Broadening their network of social relationships, Facilitating situated language learning in real context, and Encouraging collective feedback and selfassessment
In our future research, our aim is to investigate how participants of language learning communities in the OpenLearn project can develop their abilities to foster their language learning communities through these tools and contribute with the open content initiative. OpenLearn is potentially an effective learning environment for language acquisition. The concept of openness marks a profound shift in theories and methods of language learning, involving developing skills, constructing and sharing knowledge collaboratively, and participating as active learners. Students move from simply following information/instructions/ rules to discussing and making sense of these, as well as reconstructing and sharing meanings collectively. 00
rEFErEncEs
Buckingham Shum, S. (2005b, September). From open content repositories to open sensemaking communities. Proceedings of the Conference on Open Educational Resources, Logan, UT. Buzan, T. (1974). Use your head. London: BBC Books. Conklin, J. (2006). Dialogue mapping: Building shared understanding of wicked problems. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Cedergren, M. (2003). Open content and value creation. First Monday, 8(8). Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue8_8/cedergren/ Dholakia, U.M., King, J.W., & Baraniuk, R. (2006). What makes an open education program sustainable? The case of Connexions. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.oecd.org/ dataoecd/3/6/36781781.pdf Dodge, M., & Kitchin, R. (2000). Mapping cyberspace. London: Routledge. Downes, S. (2006). Models for sustainable open educational resources. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.downes.ca/cgi-bin/page. cgi?post=33401
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Einsenstadt, M., & Vicent, T. (1998). The knowledge Web learning and collaborating on the Net. London: Kogan Page. FlashMeeting. (2007). FlashMeeting: The simple meeting tool that works in a Web browser and creates instant Web replays. Retrieved from http://flashmeeting.open.ac.uk/ Jarman, S. (2005). Open content initiative application to the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.open.ac.uk/openlearn/_ _assets/ 06sngpqpwminsmwxov.pdf Jefferson, C.A., Kirschner, P., Carr, C., & Buckingham-Shum, S. (2003). Visualizing argumentation: Software tools for collaborative and educational sense-making. London: Springer. Hurley, P. (2003). A concise introduction to logic. Wadsworth.
Okada, A., & Buckingham Shum, S. (2006, September 3-6). Knowledge mapping with Compendium in academic research and online education. Proceedings of the 22nd ICDE World Conference, Rio de Janeiro (www.icde22.org.br). Okada, A., Buckingham Shum, S., & Sherborne, T. (2008). Knowledge cartography: Mapping techniques and software tools. London: Springer. Okada, A., Tomadaki, E., Buckingham Shum, S., & Scott, P. (2007). Combining knowledge mapping and videoconferencing for open sensemaking communities. Proceedings of Open Education 2007: Localizing and Learning 4th Annual Open Education Conference. Retrieved from http://cosl. usu.edu/conferences/opened2007/ Open Source Initiative. (2007). Homepage. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www. opensource.org/
MSG. (2007). MSG—The world’s simplest instant messenger. Retrieved from http://kmi.open. ac.uk/technologies/msg/launch/
Reagle, J. (2004). Open content communities. M/ C: A Journal of Media and Culture, 7. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0406/06_Reagle.rft.php
Novak, J.D. (1990). Concept maps and vee diagrams: Two metacognitive tools to facilitate meaningful learning. Instructional Sciences, 19, 29-52.
Reagle, J. (2006). Notions of openness. Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://numenor.lib.uic. edu/fmconference/viewpaper.php?id=36
Novak, J.D., & Gowin, B.D. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press. Okada, A., Buckingham Shum, S., Bachler, M., Tomadaki, E., Scott, P., & Eisenstadt, A. (forthcoming). Knowledge media tools to foster social learning. In S. Hatzipanagos & S. Warburton (Eds.), Social Software and developing Community Ontology. Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Okada, A. (2007, January). Technologies for open learning in collaborative communities. Proceedings of the Technology, Knowledge and Society Conference (TKS 2007), Cambridge, UK.
Scott, P., Quick, K., Tomadaki, E., & Linney, J. (2007a, January). Ambient video-awareness for building working communities. Proceedings of the Technology, Knowledge and Society Conference (TKS 2007), Cambridge, UK. Scott, P.J., Tomadaki, E., & Quick, K. (2007b). The shape of live online meetings. International Journal of Technology, Knowledge and Society, 3. Stadler, F., & Hirsh, J. (2002). Open source intelligence. First-Monday, 7(6). Retrieved January 17, 2007, from http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue7_6/stalder/
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Van Gelder, T. (2001). How to improve critical thinking using educational technology. Retrieved from http://www.philosophy.unimelb. edu.au/reason/papers/ASCILITE2001.pdf Van Gelder, T.J., Bissett, M., & Cumming, G. (2004). Cultivating expertise in informal reasoning. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 142-152. Willinsky, J. (2006). The access principle: The case for open access to research and scholarship. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
kEY tErMs Argument Mapping: A visual representation of the structure of an argument in informal logic. It includes the components of an argument such as a main contention, premises, co-premises, objections, rebuttals, and lemmas. Argument maps are often used in the teaching of reasoning and critical thinking, and can support the analysis of pros and cons when deliberating over wicked problems. Concept Mapping: A technique for visualizing the relationships between different concepts. A concept map is a diagram showing the relationships between concepts. Concepts are connected with labeled arrows, in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts is articulated in linking phrases, for example, “gives rise to,” “results in,” “is required by,” or “contributes to.” Dialogue Mapping: A structural augmentation of group communication. As the conversation unfolds and the map grows, each person can see a summary of the discussion so far. The map serves as a “group memory,” virtually eliminating the need for participants to repeat themselves to get their points made. Other benefits of dialogue mapping include: the group sees where they are,
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where they have come from, and where they are going to, and is thus self-correcting if they get “off topic.” The shared display map shifts the dynamic of the group into a collaborative mode: “What can we think and learn together?” The map focuses the group on a kind of “lightly logical” perspective as they work on the issues at hand. The map increases the group’s shared understanding about the problem at hand, possible solutions, meaning issues, roles and responsibilitiesall of the key elements of a successful project. Knowledge Mapping: A technique for knowledge visualization that aims to facilitate the creation and communication of knowledge through the use of computer and non-computerbased, complementary, graphic representation techniques. Examples of such visual formats are information graphics, sketches, diagrams, images, maps, interactive visualizations, dynamic visuals (animations), imaginary visualizations, storyboards, or even physical objects for inspection. While information visualization concentrates on the use of computer-supported tools to explore a large amount of abstract data, knowledge visualization focuses on the transfer or creation of knowledge among people. Beyond the mere transfer of facts, knowledge visualization aims to further create or transfer insights, experiences, attitudes, values, expectations, perspectives, opinions, and predictions by using various complementary visualizations. Dynamic forms of visualization such as educational animation have the potential to enhance understandings of systems that change over time. Mind Mapping: A diagram used to represent words, ideas, tasks, or other items linked to and arranged radially around a central keyword or idea. Used to generate, visualize, structure, and classify ideas, and as an aid in study, organization, problem solving, and decision making. It is an image-centered diagram that represents semantic or other connections between portions of information. By presenting these connections
OpenLearn and Knowledge Maps for Language Learning
in a radial, non-linear graphical manner, it encourages a brainstorming approach to any given organizational task, eliminating the hurdle of initially establishing an intrinsically appropriate or relevant conceptual framework to work within. Open Educational Resources: Term first adopted at UNESCO’s 2002 Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries funded by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Open educational resources are educational materials and resources offered freely and openly for anyone to use, and under some licenses remix, improve, and redistribute. Open educational resources include: learning content: full courses, course materials, content modules, learning objects, collections, and journals; tools: software to support the creation, delivery, use, and improvement of open learning content including searching and organization of content, content and learning management systems, content development tools, and online learning communities; and implementation resources: intellectual property licenses to promote open publishing of materials, design-principles, and localization of content.
Open Language Learning: A teaching method for language acquisition based on open educational resources, open source technologies, and online communities. Open learning was founded on the work of Célestin Freinet and Maria Montessori. Open learning aims to allow pupils self-determined, independent, and interest-guided learning. More recent work on open learning has been conducted by pedagogues Hans Brügelmann, Falko Peschel, Jörg Ramseger, and Wulf Wallrabenstein. Due to the rapid development of information and communication technologies, open learning has been associated with free learning resources, collaborative study, and open communities. Web Mapping: The process of designing, implementing, generating, and delivering maps on the World Wide Web. While Web mapping primarily deals with technological issues, Web cartography additionally studies theoretic aspects: the use of Web maps, the evaluation and optimization of techniques and workflows, the usability of Web maps, social aspects, and more.
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Chapter VII
Learning Objects:
Projects, Potentials, and Pitfalls Ria Hanewald La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
abstract This chapter provides an overview of the field of digital objects and repositories. It introduces the concepts of digital objects and repositories, their purposes, and their abilities to develop a coherent understanding of their nature and function. It continues by identifying and describing a number of generic and language-specific repositories. Examples of language objects are given to illustrate potentials and pitfalls. The review and dissemination of knowledge about these innovative resources assists educators in embracing new portals for teaching and learning languages with the most recent technologies. How they are being used and how this might fit into the future of language education is outlined to capitalize on their potential while avoiding the pitfalls. It is argued that showcasing repositories, promoting leading practice among language educators, and advocating high-quality digital resources prevents the further marginalization of language education in online environments. The main issue of standardization and neutrality are outlined, and the tension of value-free learning objects vs. the values embedded in the cultural aspects integral to language teaching and learning are explored. The chapter concludes with future research opportunities on learning objects, specifically in relation to the field of language acquisition to ensure adequate design and thus worthwhile use of future digital resources.
introduction This chapter is a reference for practitioners and researchers interested in learning objects, and their potential and application in the field of language education. The principal goal of this chapter is
a general introduction to learning objects: their definition, current trends, and future directions in the field. The more specific objectives include an understanding of the basic terms, an outline of the current discussion on their various abilities, the main issues in creating and reusing learning
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Learning Objects
objects, specific examples and applications, a discussion on the contradictions of value-free content and cultural values, and suggestions for future research. The intention of this chapter is to stimulate original approaches, to introduce innovative resources, to encourage leading-edge practice in order to utilize the potential, and to pave the way for future research. It is argued that there is a marginalization of languages in online environments and that familiarity with digital learning objects and their active usage is needed to counteract this trend. Also, it is hypothesized that advocacy is required to ensure high content quality, cultural appropriateness, and relevance in the development of future learning objects. The main section of the chapter covers the conceptualization, standardization, and application of learning objects and repositories. It introduces and promotes learning objects and repositories to raise awareness and interest. A definition of key terms and the clarification of main concepts are followed by an identification of commonalities and differences in the variety of digital resource offerings and how this relates to integration into existing language acquisition programs. A ready-made collection of relevant, quality digital repositories is presented to facilitate use and to build a community of practitioners. The contradictions of the striving for value freeness of digital resources is explored and contrasted with the realities of value richness in culturally based languages. The gap in the literature on discussions of the lack and future incorporation of cultural aspects in language learning objects is uncovered. It identifies potential implications for practitioners interested in the development of additional digital objects and highlights the need for research in that area. By identifying disparities and distinct approaches to the design of learning objects for language education, the importance of considerations for future development of new digital resources is emphasized.
Overall, the chapter aims to add to existing knowledge about learning objects within the specific context of language education by outlining definitions, explanations of abilities, relevant applications and models, considerations for the development of new digital resources, and future research opportunities.
background Over the last few years, there has been an explosion of digital resources, namely learning objects and repositories. Currently, more than 65.8 million learning objects and 511 million digital repository references1 are readily available through Web-based applications. They are either commercially provided or through the efforts of universities and funded projects of governments around the world. Previously, each online course had been mostly designed as a whole and thus in undividable units, with some providing modular subsections. Current e-learning practice is moving away from developing whole modules or courses towards producing the resources that form the components of these blocks of learning (Wharrad & Leeder, 2003). These blocks of learning are packaged as learning objects, which can be easily downloaded, modified, repurposed, and used on CD, DVD, or other electronic environments such as intranets and learning management systems (i.e., WebCT™ and Blackboard). The distinctive feature of learning objects is the fact that they can be used either independently as a standalone activity or part of a larger unit of work. The latter can be achieved through assembly of several learning objects to form a cluster of activities or incorporation of a learning object into an already existing course. It is this flexibility in addition to a number of other “-abilities” that comprise the superiority of learning objects over traditional online delivery (McGreal, 2004).
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Learning Objects
dEFinition oF LEarning obJEcts and rEpositoriEs The concept behind learning objects is not new, as educators have shared text-based resources on the Web since its inception (i.e., Dave’s ESL Café, http://www.eslcafe.com/; super Language Web sites, http://www.uni.edu/becker/): In the mid-1990s, relatively simple learning objects were made available informally, as instructors shared syllabi, lesson plans, and learning activities. Later, more complex and/or topic-specific repositories came into existence as museums, journals and magazines, educational television, and other organizations placed content on the Web and encouraged it to be used for educational purposes. (Smith Nash, 2005, p. 218) However, learning objects can include any media type (e.g., text, graphics, audio, video, animation, games, tests, and simulations), macro skill, and teaching purpose. This stimuli combination offered through the multimedia content exceeds traditional learning resources. It makes learning objects surpass previous Web-based resources.
Currently, a number of terms are in use (e.g., learning objects, digital objects, content objects, educational objects, information objects, knowledge objects, media objects, units of learning) to identify units that are “digital, reusable, and are intended to support learning” (McGreal, 2004, p. 9). The lack of consensus on the definition and terminology is caused by different focus and conceptual underpinnings. In the context of this chapter, the term of learning objectscoined in 2000 by Wayne Hodgins2 is most appropriate and will be used (Jacobsen, 2001). The choice was based on learning, indicating its inherent purpose within educational settings, and object, denoting an asset that can be used and reused in a variety of ways. However, while every video clip, text document, picture, graph, and so on in digital file format can be used as an online resource and constitutes a digital object, it is not automatically a learning object. Learning objects “have special characteristics that distinguish them from the more common learning resources with which most educators would be familiar” (Sosteric & Hesemeier, 2004, p. 32).
Figure 1. Example of a digital object, © 2008 Ria Hanewald (Used with permission)
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Learning Objects
The picture in Figure 1 is used to exemplify the difference between a digital object and a learning object. By itself, the picture can be used as a multimedia element to support computer-assisted language learning. However, to become effective it needs to be embedded into instructional context that is underpinned by a particular pedagogical intent. For example, this image might be aimed at illustrating architecture of the target country via a typical street scene; or it might be geared towards discussion on appropriate clothing due to climatic conditions; or it might be directed at common ways of shopping via street vendors; or it might be utilized to introduce a dialogue for purchasing tropical fruit; or it might be utilized to make the cultural point of negotiating prices for items on sale. Without the contextual information, educators have no guidance on how to use the image and must be reliant on their own background information or their own creativity in interpreting the teaching and learning potential of each resource. From a pedagogical perspective, the difference that distinguishes a learning object from any other digital resource is therefore the instructional information, the teaching context, and the underpinning educational intent. From a technical perspective, the Learning Technology Standards Committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, 2007) clarifies that: Learning Objects are defined here as any entity, digital or non-digital, which can be used, re-used or referenced during technology supported learning. Examples of technology supported learning include computer-based training systems, interactive learning environments, intelligent computer-aided instruction systems, distance learning systems, and collaborative learning environments. Examples of Learning Objects include multimedia content, instructional content, learning objectives, instructional software and software tools, and persons, organizations, or events referenced during technology supported learning.
These learning objects or digital objects are kept in a collection or in a storage area called a digital repository. Repositories help to locate and deliver the learning object(s). Most repositories are standalone. “A digital repository provides a flexible and discipline-independent mechanism for storing and managing digital objects, thus enhancing integrating learning and research environments” (Richardson, 2004, p. 6). Learning object repositories are rather new, with a number of universities and funded government projects around the world having established them as recently as 2003 (i.e., eduSource and SchoolNet in Canada, Curriculum Online in the UK, HEAL and iLumina in the U.S.). Given that in 2000, 98% of public schools in the United States had Internet access, with 12.2 million computers available in American classrooms and 76.6 million students, and a total of $380.4 billion spent on the public school system (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007), the use and reuse of electronically available materials in digital repositories by educators and students alike is a financially savvy strategy.
proJEcts coMpiLing gEnEric LEarning obJEct rEpositoriEs The reason for presenting a collection of repositories here in this section is twofold: promotional and practical. Firstly, they raise awareness of and facilitate use in repositories and learning objects among educators interested in delivering content through the Word Wide Web; and secondly, they provide practitioners with a ready-made collection of relevant, quality electronic resources in language learning contexts, thus making best use of the time available by preventing cumbersome searches. These repositories are chosen foremost because of their high quality, with some being appraised by fellow associates in their areas of expertise. This point is illustrated on MERLOT (see below for more details), which is:
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Learning Objects
…largely modeled on the academic peer review process for scholarly research and publication familiar to a university faculty. The MERLOT Web site currently supports 14 discipline-specific communities, each with an editorial board that guides peer review policies and practices. (Nesbit & Belfer, 2004, p. 145) All selected repository project sources and providers are essentially non-profit organizations. The target audience is either pitched at a particular educational level (i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary) or geographic vicinity (i.e., school clusters, university networks, states, countries), and all details are current.5 The generic repositories hold scholarly articles on the wider theme of language acquisition and the area of applied linguistics. Designated sections are created for language learning objects, which can be readily employed in the classroom. In the language acquisition context, some of the repositories are bilingual and are thus equally useful as authentic materials in teaching and learning context, and as a professional development opportunity for language proficiency maintenance of teachers. The following generic repositories are listed in alphabetical order.
curriculum online All the resources offered are supporting the British curriculum and its division into key stages from school entry age to about 16 years of age. The digital resources are searchable by key stage; subject and topic with some are available for purchase while others are free (http://www. curriculumonline.gov.uk/).
EdNA (Education Network Australia) The network is a joint initiative of the Australian government and state and territory governments. More than 16,000 materials are freely available for teachers and learners. The online resource
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collection is divided into educational sector (e.g., early childhood, vocational, and technical education; adults and community education; higher education). A wide range of subjects are covered (http://www.edna.edu.au/edna/go).
eduSource (Canadian Network of Learning objects repositories) This is a fully bilingual (English/French) project designed for Canadian learners that caters for users with disabilities. A smaller format (thumbnail) is provided as a visual reference, and a button allows viewing of the metadata (full record and summary) for each learning object (http://www. edusource.ca/).
MErLot (Multimedia Educational resource for Learning and online teaching) Designed for higher education purposes, namely academic staff and students, this is a free and open collection. It is undertaken by the California state university system and provides learning materials, assignments, and reviews. The MERLOT World Languages Portal is divided into tips for teaching, learning materials, a member directory for networking, professional organizations, and regular showcases (http://worldlanguages. merlot.org/).
the Le@rning Federation An initiative funded by the Australian, state and territory, and New Zealand governments which produces learning objects free to primary and secondary schools in Australia and New Zealand (http://www.thelearningfederation.edu. au/tlf2/). The above inventory of repositories is not intended to be comprehensive, but rather to present a ready-made collection of reputable and stable projects that enable the novice entry into
Learning Objects
the subject matter and provide educators with a repertoire of digital resources and best practice examples for general educational purposes.
proJEcts coMpiLing LanguagE-spEciFic LEarning obJEct rEpositoriEs The overall criteria for selection and inclusion of the next repositories correspond to those described in the above section on generic repositories. These repositories are specific to language education and are suggested as the basic foundation for an ever-expanding collection. This directory in the area of language acquisition extends the general repertoire of repositories to discipline specific ones and are particularly relevant to the professional practice of language educators as they are considered examples of best practice.
ariadnE (European knowledge pool system) The collection contains materials on a wide variety of interactivity levels in many European languages (i.e., Dutch, English, French, German, and Italian) (http://www.ariadne-eu.org/).
Languages online A free site provided by the Department of Education and Training in Victoria, Australia, for students learning French, German, Indonesian, or Italian. There are over 800 tasks and games in 33 topic-based sections which are self-paced and self-correcting. Over 170 printable worksheets with a variety of guided speaking, reading, writing, and research tasks complement the online activities (http://www.education.vic.gov. au/languagesonline/).
LearningLanguages.net A portal with online foreign language resources for teachers of French, Japanese, and Spanish. It is aimed at English-speaking students from primary to secondary age (http://www.learninglanguages.net).
sLoop project (sharing Learning objects in an open perspective) This project aims to produce a digital repository of free learning objects in several languages. It is co-funded by the European Community (http:// sloop.tes.mi.it/sloop/).
nLn (National Learning Network) This project, funded by the UK government, holds 2,251 learning objects designed for the Adult and Community Learning Sector, with one of the main topics being English for Speakers of Other Languages. It is password protected and requires setup of an account with a waiting time of up to 48 hours until access has been granted (http://www.nln.ac.uk/). This concludes the portion of the chapter that provided examples of repositories and a short description of their offerings. It introduced some of the current applications that are being used, gave a general overview with selected generic repositories, and then moved into language-specific examples of learning object collections, while aiming to offer readers the opportunity to embrace new technologies and to exploit their potential. Overall, there is a rich assortment of various digital learning objects across disciplines with a pronounced shortage in the area of language acquisition. Observable is rapid growth in repositories for the natural sciences, with focus on teaching and learning content on computer science and mathematics. Increasingly, discipline-specific repositories are emerging in the social sciences.
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In stark contrast, the field of linguistics is notably under-serviced, language teaching and learning specific repositories are scarce, and few learning objects have yet been developed. While the area of learning objects is still in its infancy and repositories are growing only for the more prevalent languages, practitioners are encouraged to increase their professional expertise by using learning objects, but also to develop and contribute their own materials to repositories. This will ensure that the languages domain is well resourced and represented to avoid a peripheral existence.
initiaL pitFaLLs and potEntiaL oF LEarning obJEcts and rEpositoriEs One of the drawbacks is that some “learning object repositories or ‘LORs’ can be difficult to navigate, and the object difficult to integrate into one’s online course” (Smith Nash, 2005, p. 218). At the time of Smith Nash’s writing, these navigation problems were most likely due to repositories still being under construction and learning objects being partially non-compliant. In the meantime, fine-tuning has been completed due to moving through the last phase of improvement in the traditional instructional ADDIE3 model. During the last stagethe actual evaluationusers give feedback, which in turn is brought in to overcome any problems. Eliciting feedback from teachers and students during earlier ADDIE stages such as the Analyze, Design, or Development phase prevent difficulties in the end stage. Alternatively, the piloting of scaled-down versions provides opportunities to identify and subsequently eliminate some of those navigation difficulties. Even so, as pioneers in the field consolidate their efforts, digital repositories and learning objects will become more user friendly. At the same time, enabling easily, quickly, and cheaply constructed learning objects may lead
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to low quality, or it may lead to mass production and thus oversupply of similar objects, which is confusing for the user and wasteful for the educator-designers (McGreal, 2004). Nevertheless, easier access and use is strongly fostered by the development of the IEEE’s Learning Technology Standards and the increasing compliance towards it. They apply to the development of new learning objects and the upgrading of existing digital resources. Standards will ensure that the “-abilities” of individual learning objects are increasing and that learning object integration into existing courses will be much more easily achieved. The current potentialities and pitfalls of learning objects depend on the technical and pedagogical characteristics. This is equally true for those wishing to create learning objects as it is for those merely wanting to use any of the abundant and free learning objects that are already available. In both instances, understanding of the basic principles is needed to exploit the promise of this new medium and to avoid the downside. In terms of the technical characteristics, the “-abilities” of learning objects form the basis of design specifications and are crucial for standardization; in terms of pedagogical characteristics, neutrality of learning objects form the basis for contextualization and didactic support.
tEchnicaL charactEristics oF LEarning obJEcts Learning objects are the modular building blocks of digitalized learning content and are frequently compared to LEGOTM building blocks. Just like individual bricks are standardized to fit together in many different ways, learning objects are being normed through metadata.4 Standardization issues progressed rapidly (IEEE, 2007). Widespread acceptance and adoption of the technical standards is fundamental for the implementation of learning objects. Standardized metadata en-
Learning Objects
ables fitting parts together to form larger parts (interoperability), which can be assembled yet again into a larger unit, thus creating unlimited possibilities for constructions. Learning object metadata also contain identifiers, helping search engines to find (discoverability) specific items, which enables an efficient hunt through the use of sharply focused search criteriathus being the most practical and directly useful ability for teachers and learners. Learning objects allow for one-off use or repeated use, and their key advantage and arguably superiority over other digital resources is their reusability. The reuse of learning materialswhether they are in traditional or digital formsis the most cost-, time-, and energy-efficient strategy for teachers and their employing institutions. Learning objects hold a number of other “-abilities” that are also worthwhile knowing. McGreal (2004, pp. 1-2) has compiled a comprehensive list and detailed descriptions, with a synopsis provided here: •
•
• • •
• • • •
Accessibility: Instructional components can be accessed from one remote location and delivered to many other locations. Interoperability: Components can be developed in one location with one set of tools (platform) or in another location with a different set of tools. Adaptability: Instruction can be tailored to individual and situational needs. Reusability: Components can be incorporated into multiple applications. Durability: Instructional components can be used when base technology changes, without the need for redesigning or recoding. Affordability: Learning can be increased, while reducing time and costs. Assessability: Pedagogical effectiveness, price, and usability can be assessed. Discoverability: Components can be easily found using simple search terms. Interchangeability: One component can be substituted for another.
• • •
Manageability: Components can be found, inserted, replaced, and substituted. Reliability: The other ‘abilities’ can be counted on to work. Retrieveability: Components can be retrieved when and where you want them.
In summary, technical qualities endow learning objects with accessibility, discoverability, interchangeability, and manageability of learning objects, while affordability, durability, reusability, and retrieveability enable simple, inexpensive, and speedy production. Easily, quickly, and cheaply constructed learning objects may lead to low quality, or it may lead to mass production and thus oversupply of similar objects, which is confusing for the user and wasteful for the educator-designers (McGreal, 2004).
pEdagogicaL charactEristics oF LEarning obJEcts The technical characteristics of learning objects allow the patching together of a number of single learning components into an instructional segment. These session parts can be stitched up into lessons, with several lessons being tailored into a custom-made course. Thus constructed, these specifically built language acquisition programs cater for personalized learning opportunities. In terms of pedagogical characteristics, they enable the compilation of highly individualized pathways. These purposely created avenues can be used either for a single learner with distinct learning needs or for a group of learners with a particular learning motivation, educational focus, and outcome in mind. Previously, the interest, research, and subsequently literature in the area focused mainly on the technical features. This aspect was explored in the preceding discussion on the “-abilities” of learning objects. The technical features alongside the pedagogical aspects originated their superior-
Learning Objects
Figure 2. Granularity of learning objects. ©2008 Ria Hanewald. Used with permission.
Course Lesson Instructional segment
Lesson Instructional segment
Learning component
Learning object e.g. video clip
Learning component
Learning object e.g. text document
Learning component
Learning object e.g. graph
ity and have given rise to the expeditious development of learning objects and the establishment of digital repositories over the last four years, which has opened up new potentialities for teaching and learning. As discussed, learning objects are seen as building blocks, mere chunks of information that can be put together in countless ways to create larger stacks of content for teaching and learning. This view of learning objects as information representations divorces from educational philosophy and creates a pedagogical vacuum. This is in line with Richards, McGreal, Hatala, and Friesen (2002), who initially asserted that learning objects and repositories are purely instructional and pedagogically neutral as they do not address issues of pedagogy. If this were true, everything could constitute a learning object even if it contains violent, racist, or pornographic images or messages. However, as the discussion around the example of the learning object in Figure 1 implied, the selection of learning objects is based on educational worth and grounded in preconceived notions. This pedagogical partiality is geared towards usefulness, significance, meaning, and importance. The chosen teaching and learning goals and the subsequent instruc-
Lesson
tional focus is selected and prioritized against an array of other possible objectives and outcomes. It is therefore argued that pedagogical neutrality does not exist and that the notion of pedagogical partiality is inherent in all learning objects. Even if the notion of pedagogical neutrality is accepted, it creates a vexed issue, as Friesen (2004) points out, that “specifications and applications that are truly pedagogically neutral cannot also be pedagogically relevant” (p. 5). The problem of pedagogically neutrality and relevance of learning objects lies in the fact that they are not pinned in either instructional theory, namely behaviorist, cognitivist, constructivist, or situationalist paradigms. It effectively detaches learning objects from the larger context of pedagogy and the body of knowledge on learning theories and instructional design. Consequently, it amputates learning objects from their discipline-specific communities of practice and their culture in which the knowledge, skills, and outcomes of learning actually is based. However, it could be counter-argued that anyeven unintentionalunderlying paradigm can easily be extracted from any attached exercise or activity. To illustrate this point, an example from Languages Online (http://www.education.
Learning Objects
Figure 3. Pedagogical paradigms underpinning learning objects
vic.gov.au/languagesonline/) by the Department of Education and Training in Victoria, Australia, is given below. Any language educator with command of German will quickly detect the educational paradigm and the language methodology theory underpinning this exercise, which requires changing the noun from the singular to the plural form. Blandin (2004) and Wiley (2005) assert the existence of pedagogical neutrality and see it as an advantage, as it implies impartial and value-free learning objects that can support any educational method because they are unbound by any particular pedagogical approach. In entertaining this line of thinking, it could be argued that learning objects created in a pedagogical void put the focus solely on the technology rather than the learning process. Undeniably, the development of multimedia enabled instructional designers to assemble sophisticated learning objects, but this does not automatically ensure that a learning process or an actual learning outcome occurs.
Pedagogical objectiveswhether they are cognitive, emotional, or socialare an intrinsic part of the instructional design. Learning objects need “thoughtful and informed pedagogical design to generate effective and compelling educational experiences” (Marshall, 2004, p. 11). This is why more recent publications (Smith Nash, 2005; de Salsa & Ellis, 2006) advocate selection of an explicit learning design to support learning objects and repositories for educational purposes. Furthermore, the notion of learning objects freed of any pedagogy assumes a learning situation devoid of any educational features. It denies the presence of learning styles and preferences, which are inherent characteristics of any learner and thus any learning episode. It seems to assume that the endowed neutrality of learning objects caters to every learner, regardless of their aptitudes, circumstances, and the context of their learning. Friesen (2004, p. 61) alerts that learning objects:
Learning Objects
…are introduced into educational contexts and practices clearly bearing the stamp of their technical origin. Instead of being presented in terms familiar and meaningful to educators, they bear connotations that appear unclear or even negative in these practical contexts. Perhaps it is for these reasons, that there is slow and deficient adoption of learning objects in real-life contexts by practitioners despite the huge financial investments by governments, organizations, and higher education providers worldwide. Acceptance and implementation by educators is based on relevance, which seems to be a missing element under the existing conditions. Mason (2003) places the blame for this position firmly in the educators’ corner, which has left the technologists in charge. The responsibility for changing this situation now lies with all practitioners.
LanguagE LEarning, cuLturaL LEarning, and LEarning obJEcts This section will give a short synopsis of language education and teaching culture based on the assumption that readers will be familiar with the literature. The brief summation will serve as a springboard to explore the link with learning objects. Language teaching and learning is currently dominated by the communicative approach, which rose to popularity during the 1980s. It originated from Dell Hymes’ (1972) idea and detailed-yetabstract discussion that communicative competence is more than the mastery of the vocabulary and grammatical rules of a particular language. Since achieving communicative competency is the ultimate goal of learning another language, the four distinct parts as identified by Michael Canale (1983) have to be managed: grammatical competence (e.g., pronunciation, syntax, vocabulary), discourse competence (language structures
in and for a variety of contexts), sociolinguistic competence (appropriateness in given situations), and strategic competence (negotiating meaning, repairing misunderstandings). Celce-Murcia, Zoltan, and Thurrell (1995) added actional competence based on the recognition that language requires action (e.g., apologizing, bullying, comforting, encouraging). All of these five competencies are shaped by culture. The ‘teaching of culture’ has also undergone successive waves. According to Risager (1998), the ‘foreign-culture’ approach was popular prior to the 1980s, with the ‘intercultural’ approach being the dominant method in the late 1990s. In multi-ethnic societies such as Australia, she predicted the emergence of a ‘multicultural’ approach, which she expects to be replaced by a ‘transcultural’ approach through the effects of globalization and internationalization. This short overview makes two points: First, language and culture are intrinsically linked. Both aspects need to be considered not only during the actual teaching and learning stage, but also in the development of learning objects. For example, the screen shot in Figure 4 is from an animation of the Learning Federation (http://www.thelearning federation.edu.au/ ), which shows a Japanese quiz show. The host’s physical appearance, especially the curly blond hair and the facial features, is not depicting a Japanese person, thus conveying a culturally inappropriate image. The assertive body gesture of the female’s arms resting on her hips is also objectionable. Secondly, approaches to ‘teaching culture’ are not static. They are undergoing change according to complex outside factors (e.g., societal changes, different learner needs), much like approaches to the teaching of languages did progress over time. These significant developments in conceptual understandings and the building of new theoretical frameworks have practical implications for the actual teaching and learning of languages and subsequently the production of learning materials.
Learning Objects
Figure 4. Cultural messages in learning objects, © 2008 Curriculum Corporation (Used with permission)
Quiz shoW The quiz show series assists students to deduce the meaning of compound words from the meanings of the individual characters. All characters used in this series appear in the character catalog.
For learning object developerswhether they are instructional designers or language practitionersthe challenge lies in identifying the cultural learning goals for each language that is being taught and incorporating them into learning objects to achieve cultural learning.
FuturE trEnds Introduced were the notions of learning objects that are free of any pedagogical approach and indicated some of the complexities involved in the debate. The idea of educational objects being devoid of an educational approach and the resulting implications need further investigation. Research is suggested to examine the effects on the learner, and to gain a better understanding of the relationship between learning objects and pedagogy in order to develop best practice. Ideally, this would need to occur prior to the rapid and expensive development of additional learning objects and repositories to ensure time, energy, and effort is well spent.
In examining a few contemporary learning object offerings, it becomes evident that they are solely focusing on content. In the language education field, the majority of learning objects are designed for beginning levels, often containing only basic topic vocabulary (see Figures 3 and 4). While some providers make attempts to incorporate culturally relevant situational contexts for the introduction of the lexical items, these are not explicit to learners. Implicit indication of unfamiliar cultural settings may not raise awareness, nor encourage analysis or even comparisons and understanding or appreciation. The previous discussion indicated that the existing thinking on learning objects has several limitations and that future theoretical developments will be dealing with these. Part of the dilemma is the bonanza that saw the production of large quantities of learning objects because of the availability of substantial funding and the apparent aspiration by educational stakeholders to have presence in the new technological arena. It is assumed that this caused emphasis on the fast manufacturing of large amounts of learning objects, thus concentrating on speed and quantity
Learning Objects
at the cost of quality. It was furthered by the firm grip of the learning object development area by technologists, as indicated by Robson (2004). The lacking influence and thus subject-specific expertise of language educators and practitioners added to the calamity. Not only did this race for e-learning resources and visibility in the technology arena by key stakeholders result in the production of large amounts of learning objects, it also furnished online environments with multiplication of efforts, as similar instructional content was created and released in various places all over the world. This preoccupation with the build-up stage of construction might be part of the reason for the negligent attention to pedagogical aspects. Another factor might be the lack of in-depth studies on the educational consequences of learning objects. Future trends are the emerging of recognition of attentiveness to the dynamics that contributed to the existing gaps in the literature. Starting points are implementation and subsequently discussions of practical examples, the developing of applications past the beginner’s level, assessment of learning outcomes, and learning effectiveness of the new innovation. Research is needed to develop real units of learning to investigate and identify effective aspects of pedagogical designs, to gather empirical findings, and to be able to learn from the experience of practitioners. Research is also needed into the very advantage of learning objects, namely reusability and its pragmatic implications and the creation of individualized learning paths. The outcomes of these investigations, particularly the pedagogical relevance of learning objects in terms of language and cultural education, will be of particular interest to readers of this book.
concLusion and rEcoMMEndation Electronic resources for language learning and teaching have been growing exponentially, with
interest in digital objects and repositories exploding over the last few years. This chapter gave an introduction into learning objects and repositories, and an overview of their technical and pedagogical “-abilities.” The chapter elucidated technical aspects and standards development, and alluded to the current tension surrounding educational aspects while moving the discussion into the field of language education and its specific needs in order to encourage and support educators in adopting innovative technology. It therefore provided teachers in the language learning and teaching field with a ready-made collection of high-quality digital resources. Their usage will facilitate the building of a community of practitioners to ensure the representation of language educators among the other curriculum areas and domains to halt further marginalization. Awareness and utilization of learning objects will add to educators’ repertoire of electronic teaching resources and thus will prevent duplication of effort in designing and developing new materials. It will thus further the development of professional skills and standards, while offering opportunities for engaging in reflective discussions and collaborative exchange of ideas and approaches. It is hoped that embracing these new electronic resources for teaching and learning will utilize their potential, provide educators with a smorgasbord of teaching and learning materials, and empower learners through self-access opportunities. In the theoretical sphere, current notions of pedagogically neutral learning objects were discussed and the existing tensions of valuefree learning objects vs. the implicit values in education were examined, with need to unpack these complexities more. It needs to be further explored, negotiated, and managed to ensure that future investments in the development of learning objects for language learning and teaching promote not only communicative competence but also cultural knowledge. The potential dangers that the development and re-usage of learning objects are heading
Learning Objects
towards, such as the recent bonanza and its resulting implications and the dominance of the area by technologist rather than educationalist, were outlined. The gap in the literature and subsequently in current research on case studies, practical applications, assessments, and learning outcomes strongly suggests future research by language educators and practitioners for illumination and possible resolution.
rEFErEncEs Blandin, B. (2004, February). Are e-learning standards neutral? Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Aided Learning in Engineering Education, Grenoble, France. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www-clips. imag.fr/calie04/actes/Blandin_final.pdf Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J. Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), In language and communication (pp. 2-27). London/New York: Longman. Celce-Murcia, M., Zoltan, D., & Thurrell, S. (1995). Communicative competence: A pedagogically motivated model with content specifications. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6(2), 5-35. de Salsa, K., & Ellis, L. (2006). The development and implementation of learning objects in a higher education setting. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 2, 1-22. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.ijklo. org/Volume2/v2p001-022deSalsa[1].pdf Friesen. N. (2004). Three objections to learning objects and e-learning standards. In R. McGreal (Ed.), Online education using learning objects (pp. 59-70). London. Routledge. Hodgins, W.H. (2000). Background. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.learnativity. com/waynehodgins.html
Hymes, D. (1972). Language in society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. IEEE. (2007). WG12: Learning object metadata. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://ltsc.ieee. org/wg12/ Jacobsen, P. (2001). Reusable learning objects— What does the future hold? Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.elearningmag.com/ltimagazine/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=5043 Marshall, S. (2004). E-learning standards: Open enablers of learning or compliance strait jackets? Proceedings of ASCILITE. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/procs/marshall.html Mason, J. (2003). Secret standards business? Proceedings of EDUCAUSE in Australasia 2003, Adelaide, Australia. McGreal, R. (2004). Learning objects: A practical definition. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Education, 1(9). Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.itdl.org/Journal/ Sep_04/article02.htm Nesbit, J., & Belfer, K. (2004). Collaborative evaluation of learning objects. In R. McGreal (Ed.), Online education using learning objects (pp. 138-155). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Richards, G., McGreal, Hatala, & Friesen. (2002). Learning object repository technologies: Portals for on-line objects for learning. Journal of Distance Education, 17(3), 67-79. Richardson, J. (2004, February). Implementing HarvestRoad’s hive system at Griffith University: Practice validates theory. Proceedings of the ALIA CAM Digital Repository Seminar, Sydney, Australia. Risager, K. (1998). Language teaching and the process of European integration. In M. Bryam & M. Fleming (Eds.), Language learning in intercultural perspective—Approaches through
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drama and ethnography (pp. 242-254). London: Cambridge University Press. Robson, R. (2004). Context and the role of standards in increasing the value of learning objects. In R. McGreal (Ed.), Online education using learning objects (pp. 159-168). London: RoutledgeFalmer. Smith Nash, S. (2005). Learning object repositories, and learning theory: Preliminary best practices for online courses. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge and Learning Objects, 1(5), 217-228. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://ijklo.org/volume1/v1p217-228Nash.pdf Sosteric, M., & Hesemeir, S. (2004). A first step towards a theory of learning objects. In R. McGreal (Ed.), Online education using learning objects (pp. 32-42). London: RoutledgeFalmer. U.S. Census Bureau. (2007). Census in schools. Retrieved September 19, 2007, from http://www2. census.gov/govs/school/04f33pub.pdf Wharrad, H.J., & Leeder, D. (2003). Experiences with re-usable learning objects: Process and evaluation. Proceedings of the Association of Learning Technology Conference (ALT-C) on Communities of Practice, Sheffield, UK. Wiley, D. (2005). Pedagogy-agnostic standards and a much needed rant. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://wiley.ed.usu.edu/archives/145
kEY tErMs IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee (IEEE LTSC): “…chartered by the IEEE Computer Society Standards Activity Board to develop accredited technical standards, recommended practices, and guides for learning technology (retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://ieeeltsc.org/).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): “The world’s leading professional association for the advancement of technology” (retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://www.ieee. org/portal/site). International Standards Organization (ISO): “Worldwide federation of national standards bodies from 130 countries and nongovernmental, promoting the development of standardization” (retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://www.iso.org/iso/en/ISOOnline. frontpage). Learning Content Management System (LCMS): System combining course administration with content creation and storage capabilities, thus offering the potential of both a learning management system and a content management system in one package. Learning Management System (LMS): Offers an instrument for sequencing content and creating a manageable structure for academic and administrative staff. Examples include WebCT, Blackboard, and Desire2Learn. Learning Object Metadata (LOM): “A data model, usually encoded in XML, used to describe a learning object and similar digital resources used to support learning. The purpose of learning object metadata is to support the reusability of learning objects, to aid discoverability, and to facilitate their interoperability, usually in the context of online learning management systems” (retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Learning_object_metadata). Learning Object Metadata Management System (LOMMS): Metadata is data about data, describing a resource so that it can be located. In the case of learning objects, the metadata is either embedded or placed separately. The metadata are indicators that allow identification by search engines. The learning object metadata is handled through a management system.
Learning Objects
Reusable Information Object (RIO): A term introduced by Cisco Systems “…the leading supplier of networking equipment and network management for the Internet” in its 1999 Reusable Information Object Strategy (retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://www.cisco.com/).
EndnotEs 1
2
Data gathered through a search engine (http://www.google.com) on August 1, 2007. Wayne Hodgins is strategic futurist, director of Worldwide Learning Strategies, Autodesk Inc.; past president, strategic advisor to the board of the Computer Education Management Association (CEdMA); chair, IEEE Learning Technology Standards Commit-
3
4
5
tee (LTSC); learning object metadata cofounder, Learnativity Alliance. Homepage of Wayne Hodgins, retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.learnativity.com/waynehodgins.html ADDIE = Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate. One of the first models for instructional systems design, containing five distinct stages. Metadata is basically data on data, usually coded in XML. It identifies a digital object so that it can be found through a search engine (discoverability), thus allowing multiple retrievals (reusability) and providing a standardized fit to enable integration with and into other systems (interoperability). All URLs, descriptors, and other details were current as of August 1, 2007.
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Chapter VIII
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR Patrica Lupion Torres Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Rita de Cassia Veiga Marriott University of Birmingham, UK Andreia Ferreira Ramos Faculdade Luterana São Marcos/RS, Brazil
abstract This chapter presents the experience of production and use of learning objects (LOs) for English-language learning at the Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Parana (PUCPR), Brazil. PUCPR made its first steps towards online education in 1995 when it started developing its virtual learning environment. Along this trajectory, the need was felt to look for technological resources for the development of digital didactic material. This led to the creation of the Web-based Student Support System (SAAW) by the Center for Educational Technologies. In this research, we developed a case study as the basis for this small data-collection study to elucidate and analyze perceptions and information supplied by the study population. This study was carried out by students studying for a Master’s in Education and taking the “Theory and Practice in Distance Education” module. The English-language LO was considered to be satisfactory and to facilitate the teaching learning process.
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English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
introduction In the modern world, where students and teachers come into daily contact with technological innovations in different sectors of society outside the classroom, it has become essential to produce support material for use in classroom-based or distance education that stands out from other material. Today’s students were born in an age where information is readily available in their homes, distances are shrinking, and the pace of change is accelerating. This worldfull of interaction, images, color, and videoneeds to be part of the school environment to help students in the teaching and learning process. The motivation needed in the educational process can be stimulated by digital material that stands out from other such material and that allows the student to interact with, manipulate, and even change it on his or her own. Learning objects (LOs) are one possible type of digital material. Teachers can prepare an LO themselves or build one in partnership with their students. The content matter in LOs is usually presented in the form of games, in situations that are part of the students’ daily lives. A review of the literature reveals a concern with issues related to the standardization and storage of LOs, but it should be stressed that the pedagogical aspect is also important to increase the likelihood of this type of resource being successfully used. LOs should therefore be planned and implemented by a team consisting of IT, education, psychology, and design professionals, to mention but a few. By making use of a multidisciplinary team, the resulting LO will have a user-friendly, creative, highly interactive interface that respects users’ different learning styles and has clearly defined pedagogical features. In this chapter, we describe some of the concepts and main characteristics related to LOs and provide details of the Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná’s experiences with them.
soME briEF considErations on LEarning obJEcts There is a lack of consensus regarding what constitutes a learning object. Most authors support the idea that for a resource to be an LO, it must be digital and reusable and have an educational purpose. According to Muzio (in Bastos, 2005, p. 29): “There are many different definitions of a[n] LO, and many other terms are used. This always leads to confusion and problems with communication, which is hardly surprising, as this field of study is new.” Coutinho (2003) states that from the instructional point of view, learning objects correspond to small study segments and must be linked to one or more specific learning objectives. In addition, learning objects must follow some kind of instructional strategy (BASTOS, 2005, p. 29). Wiley (2001, p. 5) defines an LO as any digital resource that can be reused to aid learning. His definition includes any digital resource, whether small or large, that can be distributed over a network on demand. Tarouco, Fabre, and Tamisiunas (2003, p. 2) extend this concept to include: …any resource that is supplementary to the learning process and can be reused to support learning. The term learning objects is generally applied to learning material that is designed and built in small units with a view to maximizing learning situations where the resource can be reused. The basic idea is that the objects should be like blocks with which the learning context will be built. Few authors appear to be concerned with the educational aspect of LOs or consider it part of the concept of LOs. The technical characteristics are always remembered and are (Ramos, 2006): •
Reusability: The possibility of using a learning object in different contexts.
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
•
•
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Portability: The possibility of transporting it from one platform to another without the need for modifications and without leading to difficulties associated with hardware or software upgrades. Modularity: A learning object can contain other learning objects or can be contained in one or more objects in one or more courses. In this case, learning objects can be considered self-contained educational building blocks. Metadata: This is a complete description of the learning object, its content, and use. This item is important, as it allows the object to be catalogued and encoded so that it can be used on various platforms. The concept of metadata can be better understood if one thinks of a process similar to that involving library record cards (Ramos, Domênico, Torres, & Matos, 2005).
One idea related to LOs involves the distribution of educational material to reduce costs, as an LO can be used in different contexts, and if it is kept in a portal where anyone can access it, there is much less need to create different resources related to the same subject. There is a tremendous variety of material in these portals, and the teachers and pupils must choose from this material according to the objectives they wish to achieve. The planning, development, and implementation of an LO requires an interdisciplinary team, with, among others, educational, computer science, and design professionals as well as a specialist in the content matter involved. LOs are considered to contribute to the teaching and learning process as long as they include the necessary technical and pedagogical characteristics and are used in a supporting role during the course to help students with their learning and make them reflect on what is being introduced in the object. It is important to analyze LOs from a pedagogical perspective, and to this end, the authors suggest
that the following educational issues be considered when planning and implementing LOs: •
•
•
•
Interactivity: This allows the student to be “the actor, the author” rather than a passive information receiver (Silva, 2001, p. 13). In an LO, the interaction (with the medium or with the other actors) provides the opportunity to produce useful information based on objectives. To produce useful information, communicative action is based on interaction, and its first aim is mutual understanding, shared knowledge, and trust and agreement between the actors. Autonomy: A central issue when preparing learning resources is that these encourage learner independence. Stoney and Wild (in Loiselle, 2002, p. 113) highlighted “the interest in interfaces, emphasizing learner interactivity and control and encouraging student exploration and involvement” by means of certain characteristics that favor learning autonomy, such as openness to other material and human resources and the establishment of a communication network. Cooperation: “Technology provides the means to facilitate the cooperative and collaborative process, whether it be in the field of education or work” (Torres, Alcantara, & Irala, 2004, p. 133). Thus, if an LO is interactive and includes simulations, it will probably contribute to cooperative learning, as those using it, including the teacher, will have to exchange ideas and work collectively on the concept being presented. Cognition/Metacognition: Flavell (in Santos & Romanowski, 2006, p. 9) considers metacognition to be both necessary to, and important in, the learning process, but stresses that it is knowledge just like many other forms of knowledge and it is acquired gradually. Metacognition is not greater than or better than other forms of knowledge in
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
•
terms of the mind’s functions and activities. An interactive LO that encompasses concepts that are part of the world that students experience and that allows them to exchange ideas with their peers and reflect on what they are doing would make a significant contribution to their learning. Affection/Desire: The desire to explore the LO must exist in, or be stimulated in, the student. This desire to explore is intimately related to the pupil’s learning style and is nearly always born of the relationship between the pupil and the educator and the object in itself. For this to happen, the LO must involve the pupil and be attractive and contextualized, as, according to Marques (2000, p. 11), “affectivity plays a crucial role in learning. This is what triggers and guides activity…It can be a source of disturbance as well as satisfaction.”
An LO should not be considered just another resource, as in this case we would merely be giving a different name to the resources currently
available on the Internet. An LO that embraces the technical characteristics and pedagogical aspects suggested in this chapter can lead to a change in attitude on the part of the teacher and student, as both will need to reflect at great length to prepare such a resource and take into account the various issues governing LOs. Building an LO also requires a team that is committed to the goal of producing an attractive, interactive resource that actually makes some difference to the teaching and learning process.
VirtuaLization tooLs at pucpr: soME considErations on EurEka and saaW The first steps towards online education at the Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná were taken in 1995, when a project was launched in partnership with Siemens to develop Eureka, the virtual learning environment. After many years of work involving the development team and research by postgraduate teachers and students,
Figure 1. Eureka-SAAW
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
Eureka finally became established in 1999 as a support tool for online education. By the end of 2006, there were 30,963 registered users, 7,523 open rooms, and 1,492 MATICE1 rooms for students to study for their repeat examinations online. As the Eureka virtual environment has evolved and become more widely used, teachers and students have felt the need to look for technological resources to develop digital teaching material. With this new demand, various professionals became involved in the development of a new Eureka tool, known as SAAW2 (Web-based Student Support System, or Sistema de Apoio ao Aluno via Web, in Portuguese), proposed by the Center for Educational Technologies. According to Tarrit et al. (2006, p. 200), this system “was designed to satisfy the need to make certain content matter available in a secure and efficient manner and to offer a set of functionalities integrated with Eureka” such as the broadcasting of LOs within the Eureka virtual learning environment. New research was carried out, as a result of which the first LOs at PUCPR were made available to all the teaching staff. One of the first LOs to be developed was the English-language learning object. This was built as a result of a need that existed in the English Language and Literature course, whose students had different levels of knowledge and fluency in English. In this particular case, because there was an institutional demand, the learning objects were developed by the lecturers themselves who were responsible for the content matter who were hired by the institution; the learning objects were subsequently made available to all the teaching staff for use at the university. According to Hilú and Tarrit (2006, p. 107), “all the virtual undergraduate rooms [at PUCPR] have automatic access to this functionality [SAAW] once the person in charge creates one or more study paths for all or some of the students in the room.” SAAW within Eureka allows teachers to make content matter available to their students and to create learning paths that are attractive
and different for the whole class, for a group of students, or even for individual students. This feature was considered extremely useful by the teachers who evaluated the tool and particularly useful for teaching English, as the students who join the English Language and Literature course have different levels of knowledge of the language and different degrees of experience using it. Thus, when teachers are monitoring the learning process and knowledge production of each student or each group of students, they can provide the resources or material that they consider to be best suited to each student according to his or her learning style and the strengths or weaknesses identified during the learning process, thereby ensuring that the support provided matches individual and group needs. The system allows teachers to develop their own LOs and make them available to students. Thus, if a particular student or group of students need specific English-language material, the teacher can develop this quickly and easily, and associate it in his or her learning path with any other module developed by the teachers responsible for the content matter. The different levels of mastery of English in a class can also be managed individually without adversely affecting those who are more advanced or who are behind the rest of the class. The Eureka environment allows collaborative activities to be associated with the LO, thus helping manage heterogeneity and collective knowledge production, which is facilitated by peer exchange. In Eureka, collaboration is promoted by means of synchronous and asynchronous communication tools, as well as data-, content- and informationsharing tools. Thus, in English-language teaching using learning objects available via SAAW, and interaction between users, a new set of material, data, and information is created, and it remains permanently available to all those taking part in the teaching-learning process for the period defined by the teacher or group.
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
Figure 2. A screen shot of the English-language teaching MILI, Module 5
It is also possible to associate the use of any of the other functionalities of Eureka with the proposed learning path, as well as combining different modules on different subjects within the learning path. In other words, the teacher may feel that it is necessary to create a plan with an English module linked to another one on information technology associated with one more on knowledge processes. For Hilú and Tarrit (2006, p. 113), SAAW makes it possible to “work with the didactic material in a flexible way. This concept is based on the specific logic of ‘establishing paths’ for the knowledge to be shared.” The first screen of each module gives basic information about the module, such as the learning objective for the module, average study time, difficulty, prerequisites, and credits. The browsing commands are given at the bottom of the screen. Figure 2 is an example of an exercise in Module 5Like/Love/Hate/Mind in which the students are invited to choose one of the characters to write to, based on shared interests (exercise created by Rita Marriott).
a rEport on EXpEriEncE With thE tooLs usEd to buiLd Los at pucpr After the short review of the literature related to this research and the brief introduction to the virtualization tools at PUCPR given above, following are some considerations on SAAW and the use of LOs as a tool to manage the different levels of knowledge of the English language among students on the English Language and Literature course. These considerations are the result of one of many surveys carried out to improve and develop this functionality in Eureka. In this research, we developed a case study as the basis for this small data-collection study to elucidate and analyze perceptions and information supplied by the study population. Using this methodology, which gives the researcher a large degree of freedom in terms of theory and methodology, we sought to answer questions raised by the researchers at the Center for Educational Technologies and the Education, Communication and Technology Research Group in the Postgraduate Program in Education at PUCPR about the
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
use of the Eureka environment and its SAAW functionality. This study was carried out with students who were studying for a Master’s in Education and were taking the “Theory and Practice in Distance Education” course at the Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná. Initially, the 22 MEd students used the SAAW tool as a self-learning program to study the English-language modules. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of LOs in SAAW, as all the students in this class in the Master’s in Education course had some teaching experience and were preparing to work with the development of LOs for distance education. After the students had carried out all the activities, they reported their experiences to the class. The students evaluated the English material published in SAAW in light of the theoretical review of LOs that had previously formed the basis of a class debate. The teacher responsible for the subject supervised the students throughout the whole process. Following are some of the comments made by the research subjects. As can be seen, the comments made related to the positive aspects of the English-language learning objects, with particular emphasis being given to the clarity, objectivity, creativity, and interactivity present in the learning object: • •
•
S.03—Positive Points: Dynamic, objective, clear, easy to access and interactive. S.07—Positive Points: It is interactive, creative, encourages students to answer, respects the student’s own pace of learning and is flexible. S.13—The LO’s positive points include good interactivity and ease of use, as well as the fact that during the course learners feel that they are being supported and are motivated to continue.
Also highlighted as positive factors related to the LO were the various ways that resources
could be integrated, the quality of the interface, the activities, and the exercises: •
•
•
S.01—Positive Points: I was able to see, with the particular configuration of this module, that the different ways the tool can be used with other editing software results in a very interesting product with a lot of resources. For example, on a single page you can have access to the link for a particular Web site. And you can do the exercises by typing or just dragging the mouse. S.02—Positive Points: Easy-to-use interface, very detailed explanatory material, lots of exercises to reinforce the content matter. S.19—Positive Points: Colorful screens; friendly interface; the available activities allow students to “improve” their learning and manage their study; interactive.
The difficulties that some students faced when using SAAW as a learning experience with LOs were among the negative aspects highlighted by students: •
•
S.03—Some activities are poorly thought out, on slide 13 of module 03, it is difficult for students to form the sentence, as they have to drag the word several times to try to complete the exercise. S.19—Negative Points: The exercises are sometimes complicated to solve: sometimes it is difficult to drag an icon from one place to another (it is not clear that a particular icon needs to be dragged). When the exercise is a long one and you make a mistake with one item, the icon only tells you that you have made a mistake, not where the mistake is. Students end up becoming demotivated, as they know they have made a mistake but not what the mistake is.
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
Some students identified negative points and were keen to suggest modifications or ways to solve the problem, as can be seen in the following comments: •
•
•
S.02—Negative Points: Some multimedia tools, such as films and audio, could be used to help the learning process. S.05—This is the first time I have used SAAW, and I have not found any [negative points] other than the lack of audio (I think it is important when teaching a language). S.07—Negative Point: The fact that there is no page showing the answers at the end of an exercise.
When asked whether the English-language learning object can facilitate the teaching-learning process, 90% of respondents said yes and highlighted the following points: •
•
•
•
S.07—I believe it can. The student has an incentive to answer the questions, and the windows with the explanations of the grammar are available as support. The exercises that are repeated with different examples help drive home the grammar point being studied. S.20—Yes, as the module gave students a good knowledge of the material that was covered. Anybody with a minimum level of knowledge would be able to complete the module successfully because of the examples. S.02—I think that learning objects encourage the student to concentrate more. As a result, learning becomes more attractive and motivates the student more, even when used individually. When used with the help of a tutor or with other students to exchange information, it becomes more efficient. S.08—I think so, as it stimulates an attitude of “I want to learn,” “I want to get it right,” so that you move on to the next screen and consequently internalize the learning.
Other individuals who replied to the questions in the affirmative highlighted the importance of the object being interactive, combining more than one resource and having exercises to reinforce the subject matter: •
•
•
•
S.03—Yes the modules became interactive, as the addition of images and text encouraged students to learn, so that they participated actively in knowledge construction. S04—Yes, specially when more than one resource (image and text) is combined, then the learning really becomes effective. S.11—Yes, as when there is a combination of more than one resource—for example text + image and interaction (with exercises), the learning becomes meaningful and effective. There is a dialogue between technology and the learner. S.12—This learning object did indeed facilitate learning, as content can be clarified more readily; however, more exercises were needed to reinforce the material covered.
One group of respondents who gave affirmative answers stressed the need for the object to be of good quality, “well built”: •
•
S.15—It is helpful if it is well built so that it allows students to interact with it and if it includes simulations and animations that make abstract concepts more concrete, thereby making learning easier. If the technology is well applied, it can really encourage interaction, communication and learning. S.05—Yes. The objects make learning more dynamic and attractive as long as they are well integrated. I think the tools (didactic material) are excellent for teaching; teachers just have to plan in advance how they will use them in their classes.
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
The ease with which the LO can be accessed anytime and anywhere was also mentioned by respondents who said that the object facilitated learning:
Some respondents felt that the LO had few exercises and was too simple. It was also pointed out that the methodology tended to be based upon a technical approach to teaching:
•
•
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S.09—Yes, especially because it can be accessed at any time, the content matter is always available. S.10—It helps students, but they need to seek out more information about the subject covered so that the learning becomes more meaningful. Flexible access anywhere, anytime.
•
• Among the 20% of research subjects who replied in the negative to the question whether the English-language learning object can facilitate the English-language teaching-learning process, only one gave any justification. Note that the respondent can see that the object in question could potentially be used as a support tool. •
•
S.16—Not necessarily, but it is one way of arousing interest.
During this evaluation process, creativity was highlighted by some respondents: •
• •
S.03—Well, it is creative and makes the virtual learning environment a place that is full of ideas, as the students learn while having fun completing pictures that help them understand the objectives of the module. S.04—Good, creative, easy access, activities allow learning to be checked. S.05—It is creative and supplies immediate answers to the exercises; it is easy to browse and students can return to previous pages if they are unsure of something. A variety of exercises are provided (including additional exercises) that help to make learning easier. The forecast time needed was sufficient and the layout and appearance were attractive.
S.12—It is very clearly laid out, and topics can be easily located in the modules. However, the modules would be more comprehensive if they had more exercises. S.06—The learning object being used was well organized, although there were not enough activities to practice the material that had been learnt. S.14—I thought the object was worthwhile, but I think that the modules could be more complex with more support material and additional activities; but it is a useful tool that stimulates learning and interactivity. Operationally, it worked well. S.09—The English module is organized sequentially and gradually, so that even students who have limited ability in English can learn. As for the methodological approach, you can see that it is quite technically oriented, but in distance education it is difficult to make use of methodological innovations.
Even those interviewed who had the weakest command of English made positive comments and highlighted the simple, clear language and browsing facilities and the possibility of receiving feedback about, and evaluating, their own performance: •
•
S.20—I believe that the course was very well prepared, as I have very limited knowledge of English and was able to understand the material. I really liked the modules, they were very visual and easy to read. The examples given helped a lot. It was a very interesting experience. S.15—Pleasant and well prepared modules, they facilitate learning, use language that is
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
clear and provide students with feedback. The activities allow students to assess their learning. The main negative comments related to the instructional design of the object: •
•
•
S.02—The “English” learning object within SAAW is well designed, but I think that the colors chosen are very gloomy for such a long course and could make the students tired. Other types of interactivity could be included in the exercises. S.13—The object allows students to immerse themselves in the course and works satisfactorily, but it needs to have a few adjustments made in terms of its organization. S.11—The LO is somewhat confused, more explanations and adjustments are needed.
Based on the data gathered during the study, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn: •
•
• The various comments made by the students who were studying “Theory and Practice in Distance Education” in the Postgraduate Program in Distance Education were debated in the classroom at the end of the unit on LOs after extensive theoretical revision of the subject and after the master’s students had had experience of using the SAAW tool to study the English language module and to develop LOs on subjects related to distance education.
soME briEF considErations on EngLish-LanguagE LEarning obJEcts in saaW In light of the comments made by the research subjects, it can be seen that MILI, the learning object used to teach English in SAAW, which formed the basis of this study, was considered to be satisfactory and to facilitate the teaching learning process. The suggestions for improvement were relevant and were forwarded to the SAAW development team.
•
•
The evaluation of the learning object by professionals from various areas who were studying “Theory and Practice in Distance Education” in the Postgraduate Program in Distance Education allows us to posit the hypothesis that MILI delivered via SAAW is suitable for online education; however, it is important that teachers and students be given guidance, as the roles that they play in this approach change. The use of LOs in virtual subjects is still a challenge, particularly when the aim is to overcome the traditional paradigm of teaching in which the focus is on the reproduction of knowledge. The use of LOs can represent an advancement in approaches to virtual education as they allow the teaching-learning process to be more flexible and thus go beyond the limits of traditional formal education. The development of LOs as a tool was well accepted by the research subjects, although with a certain degree of caution. The uptake and approval by the master’s students of the use of LOs in spite of their remaining limitations show that SAAW has been accepted.
It is worth mentioning that after nearly 10 years of research on the development of LOs and SAAW, the Center for Educational Technologies, directed by the head of the Distance Learning Department, is consolidated as a center for research, development, and use of technologies for the support of the taught learning process. Among all the different research projects created during these years is the investigation presented in this chapter. This long experience of research authorizes us to infer that the use of an English-language LO, available via SAAW and with the help of other functionalities
English-Language Teaching with Learning Objects at PUCPR
in Eureka, allows us to develop innovative and collaborative methodological proposals in distance learning English courses. Collaboration is more favorable in the virtual environment for the synchronous and asynchronous communication tools and the sharing of data, content, and information, allowing all the participants to be responsible for their own knowledge production. It is in the exchange between pairs that a new base of content, data, and information is generated, which remains available to all within the language learning process during the time defined by the professor or the group itself.
rEFErEncEs Bastos, C.A.R. (2005). Curso hipermídia interativo de física: Adaptação de um curso presencial através do uso e reuso de objetos de aprendizagem, Dissertação de Mestrado, UFRJ. Hilú, L., & Tarrit, C.R. (2006). SAAWSistema de Apoio ao Aluno via Web. In P.E. Gomes & A.M. Mendez (Eds.), Tecnologia e inovação na educação universitária: O MATICE da PUCPR. Curitiba: Editora Champagnat. Loiselle, J. (2002). A exploração da multimídia e da rede internet para favorecer a autonomia dos estudantes universitários na aprendizagem. In S. ALAVA (Ed.), Ciberespaço e formações abertas: Rumo a novas práticas educacionais? Porto Alegre: Artmed. Marques, R. (2000). Dicionário Breve de Pedagogia (Pedagogy Dictionary), 1st ed. Lisboa: Editora Presença. Ramos, A.F. (2006). A contribuição dos objetos de aprendizagem na educação: Um estudo de caso sobre o objeto de aprendizagem “Conversa Virtual com Pasteur.” Dissertação de Mestrado, PUCPR, Brazil.
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Ramos, A.F., Domênico, L.C., Torres, P.L., & Matos, E.L.M. (2005). Uma experiência com objetos de aprendizagem no ensino de matemática. Proceedings of the 12th Congresso Internacional De Educação a Distância, Florianópolis. Retrieved November 29, 2005, from http://www.abed.org. br/congresso2005/por/pdf/187tcc3.pdf Santos, L., & Romanowski, J.P. (2006). A contribuição dos processos metacognitivos na formação do pedagogo. Proceedings of the 4th Congresso Internacional de Educação, São Leopoldo. Silva, M. (2001). Sala de aula interativa (2nd ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Quartet. Silva, M. (Ed.). Educação on-line. São Paulo: Loyola. Tarouco, L., Margarida R., Fabre, M-C., Mascarenhas, J., & Tamusiunas, F. R. (2003). Reusabilidade de objetos educacionais. (Reusability of educational objects). Revista Novas Tecnologias na Educação. UFRGS: Porto Alegre, Brazil. Tarrit, C.R., Hilú, L., Stahlke, J., Verçosa, P.B., de Souza, C., & Mendez, A.M. (2006). SAAW Sistema de Apoio ao Aluno via WebEstudo de funcionalidades e implementação. In P.E. Gomes & A.M. Mendez (Eds.), Tecnologia e inovação na educação universitária: O MATICE da PUCPR. Curitiba: Editora Champagnat. Torres, P.L., Alcantara, P.R., & Irala, E.A.F. (2004). Grupos de consenso: Uma proposta de aprendizagem colaborativa para o processo de ensino-aprendizagem. Revista Diálogo Educacional, 4(13). Wiley, D.A. (2001). Connecting learning objects to instructional theory: A definition, a metaphor and a taxonomy. In D. Wiley (Ed.), The instructional use of learning objects. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from http://www.reusability.org/read/chapters/wiley.doc
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kEY tErMs Autonomy: Ability to work independently, to be able to manage the learning process, and to act thoughtfully when working on activities and exercises without anybody else’s help. Collective Knowledge Production: Knowledge produced collectively by students engaged in collaborative or cooperative activities. Digital Resource: A resource distributed over a network and used electronically. Eureka: PUCPR’s collaborative virtual learning environment developed since 1995 in partnership with Siemens. In 1999 it became fully functional and started being used by the university as a support for its online education. It now has more than 30,000 students in its nearly 8,000 classes. Interactivity: Process that emerges from the participation of all learners that interact among themselves by an active dialogue, a constant exchange of information, points of view, queries, and ideas that occur in a learning environment.
Learning Objects (LOs): Reusable, standalone digital or non-digital units of learning; they are chunks of content that are forbidden to refer to each other. They can be anything from an image, a document, a video, or a Web site, or can be a highly sophisticated, creative, and interactive interface offering units of learning involving the work of a multidisciplinary team with clear pedagogical features. Portal: A point of access to content on the World Wide Web. SAAW (Sistema de Apoio ao Aluno via Web): Web-based student support system tool developed by PUCPR that can be used as a platform for learning objects.
EndnotEs 1
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Program under development at PUCPR since 2002 that currently allows students to study subjects they failed online. This tool can be used to develop learning objects. In 2007 it gained support from CNPQ for the development of studies into the production of new objects.
Chapter IX
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming Zhuo Li University of Florida, USA Feng Liu University of Florida, USA Jeff Boyer University of Florida, USA
abstract The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the present use of e-gaming in language acquisition along with its potential and challenges. We review the use of traditional, non-electronic games for language acquisition, provide a brief introduction of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), and examine the use of electronic games in language learning. Although there is limited research on the use of electronic games in language acquisition, potential exists for the integration of electronic games in language classrooms. In addition, more in-depth research is still needed in this field. For classroom practice, we provide a resource of online e-games for practitioners.
introduction It is increasingly common to see young people spending time playing video games. Several researchers (Funk, Hagen, & Schimming, 1999; Squire, 2006; Williams, 2003) have noted that many youth today spend more time playing video
games than reading, or watching TV or films. Thibodeaux’s study in 2001 showed that nearly 84% of children between the ages of 12 to 17 had a video game console, and 38% of them played video games for at least an hour every week (as cited in Jenkins, 2005, p. 48). The Kaiser Family Foundation reported in 2003 that 50% of U.S.
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Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
children have played computer games by the time they are six years old (as cited in Jenkins, 2005, p. 48). Similar findings were reported in Jones’s survey of students at more than 20 U.S. colleges and universities in 2003, which indicated that all students had played a video, computer, or online game (collectively, electronic games) and that 65% of the students identified themselves as “regular or occasional” game players (as cited in Jenkins, 2005, p. 48). Facing students’ strong interests in and even addiction to these electronic games, many educators seek to understand games’ attractiveness. Many wonder if there are attributes of games that are beneficial to learning and consider ways in which games could be used for learning. Some scholars have challenged the traditional view that “games, as opposed to work, are unproductive and non-utilitarian” (Ang & Zaphiris, 2007, p. 448) and have attempted to explore the potential of games in education. For example, Gee (2005) maintains that good games incorporate learning principles supported by current research in cognitive science. With the rising interest in using electronic games in education, electronic games may also have potential to impact the field of second language acquisition. In this chapter, we first elaborate on research using traditional (non-electronic) games in language acquisition. Next, we identify key findings from existing research in the intersection of electronic gaming and language acquisition. Finally, we explore implications for future research, policy, and practice.
background traditional (non-Electronic) games in Language Learning Reviewing non-electronic game use in language classrooms sheds light on further exploration of e-gaming (electronic gaming) in language teaching.1 The use of simulations and games in
language acquisition has been valued by many practitioners and researchers (García-Carbonell, Rising, & Montero, 2001; Gaudart, 1999; Halleck, 2002; Hill, 2002; Kovalik & Kovalik, 2002; Macedonia, 2005; Jung & Levitin, 2002; Saliés, 2002). Language classrooms often integrate roleplaying simulations or card and board games for language instruction. Cekaite and Aronsson (2005) studied the role of play in children’s second language acquisition and emphasized the need to incorporate language play into learning. According to Crookall and Oxford (1990), gaming techniques are very powerful means of helping people to acquire certain foreign or second language skills. Previous research on the use of simulations and games in language classrooms has illustrated the impact of their use to teach speaking (Macedonia, 2005), writing (Kovalik & Kovalik, 2002; Saliés, 2002; Spelman, 2002), and enhance cross-cultural understanding (Jung & Levitin, 2002) and communicative competence (García-Carbonell et al., 2001). Based on the previous research, two significant strengths of using simulations and games in language learning are presented below.
Motivation and Traditional Games Using simulations in language classrooms promotes positive affective factors such as increased motivation and engagement. Reflecting on using simulations and games in an English for Academic Purpose (EAP) class, Saliés (2002) maintains that students were highly motivated when involved in simulations and games, and had positive attitudes towards learning. Furthermore, simulations involve students, even those who are normally quiet, in active participation (Saliés, 2002). Macedonia (2005) states that language games are used to practice or strengthen declarative knowledge with entertainment as a positive side effect based on her experience with using wooden blocks, cards, and finger games in teaching Italian as a foreign language to German-speaking learners. She
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
emphasizes that language games provide opportunities of “redundant oral repetition of grammar structures” (p. 139), yet in a playful way. From a neurological perspective, Macedonia (2005) stresses the important role of positive emotions in game-based language learning, which can enhance students’ fundamental motivation.
Traditional Simulations Simulation is commonly used in language learning. Simulation provides real-world and life-like language learning opportunities and a culturally immersive learning environment to language learners.
Real-World and Life-Like Experience Real-world communication and life-like interactions are created in simulations to engage students in participation and therefore encourage “declassrooming the classroom” (García-Carbonell et al., 2001, p. 485) by promoting a student-centered classroom over a teacher-centered classroom (Saliés, 2002; García-Carbonell et al., 2001). Gaudart (1999) believes that one major advantage of using simulations and games in language classrooms is to alter teacher-centered classrooms by providing students with opportunities to fully use the language: “With practice comes progress, with progress comes motivation, and with motivation comes more learning” (Gaudart, 1999, p. 290).
Learning Environment Jung and Levitin (2002) report using a courtroom simulation in an ESL (English as a Second Language) class for Southeast Asian government officials. They find simulations can offer real-life cultural and linguistic environments for language students. In Halleck’s words, the courtroom simulation used in Jung and Levitin’s classroom can “provide a bridge to another worldnot only
that of courtroom but that of spontaneous communication in a formal setting and in a foreign language” (2002, Halleck, p. 278). However, Jung and Levitin (2002) point out that not all students may perceive the value of the simulations. Some students may think simulations are “time consuming and not serious” (p. 372). Hill (2002) contends that simulations may not address all learning styles. Also, unequal participation may be bothersome for some students.
caLL: computer-assisted Language Learning In a rapidly developing information age, “technology” has become a buzzword in education. The language teaching field is no exception. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has moved into the mainstream since the term CALL was first used in 1983 at the TESOL Convention in Toronto, Canada (Chapelle, 2005). With the advent of computers and the Internet, language education has taken great advantage of technology. To date, a bulk of research has been conducted on the use of computers and the Internet in teaching and learning foreign languages or second languages. Today, e-gaming is becoming valued by some educators and researchers, and e-gaming in language learning is also drawing research attention. Undoubtedly, e-gaming will be a topic with great opportunities and challenges. Warschauer (2004) predicts the effect of technology changes on English teaching in five areas: new contexts, new literacies, new genres, new identities, and new pedagogies. The structure of predicting future CALL used by Warschauer provides the lens through which e-gaming in language learning can be viewed. We borrow the concept of the five areas to interpret e-gaming as a trend in CALL. First, e-gaming is definitely a new genre in new contexts, in which technology does not remain just a tool but also becomes the content in language classrooms. That is, e-games
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
are not only a vehicle loaded with textual and auditory information, they also provide cultural elements as course content (Cruz, 2007). Second, language learners playing e-games are engaged in new literacies since e-gaming is a new and fast-developing genre in media literacy. Third, language learners are invited to develop new identities in game communities, especially in massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs). Last, with regards to e-gaming in the classroom, new pedagogies are necessary to help language learners use e-games for the purpose of academic learning.
E-gaming in Education With the development of gaming technologies, the integration of gaming with learning has become a popular topic in the field of education. Extensive and varied research has been conducted on e-gaming in education as a whole (Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002; Margolis, Nussbaum, Rodriguez, & Rosas, 2006; Rosas et al., 2003; Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2004; Squire, 2006). Considerable research has demonstrated that e-gaming has tremendous positive influences on learning experiences (Garris et al., 2002; Shaffer et al., 2004). Previous research demonstrates that e-games enhance computer literacy (Benedict, 1990), attention (Bavelier & Green, 2003), reaction time (Orosy-Fildes & Allan, 1989), and promote problem-solving skills (Gee, 2003; Johnson, 2005). Additionally, e-games can be “very useful in acquiring practical skills, as well as increasing perception and stimulation and developing skills in problem-solving, strategy assessment, media and tools organization and obtaining intelligent answers” (de Aguilera & Mendiz, 2003, p. 11). Often, there are many effective learning principles integrated into good game design (Gee, 2004, 2005).
E-gaMing and LanguagE LEarning research on E-gaming in Language acquisition Weighed against the considerable body of published work on e-gaming in education in general, only a limited volume of literature specifically addresses e-gaming in language acquisition. Most studies on e-gaming in language acquisition analyze the features of e-games that have potential for language learning. A few researchers have focused on the learner’s use of e-games in language acquisition (deHaan, 2005; Herselman & Technikon, 2000; Yip & Kwan, 2006). In addition, there are several studies on game design tools and principles related to language acquisition (Morton & Jack, 2005; Pasero & Sabatier, 1998; Johnson, Vilhjalmsson, & Marsella, 2005). Ang and Zaphiris (2007) identify two perspectives on the use of games in language learning: games as virtual environments and games as collaborative learning. Table 1 presents a summary of the current literature on e-gaming in language teaching and learning. As shown in Table 1, most of the literature was published in the last two years, which implies the research on e-gaming in language acquisition is still a newly emerging topic. Next, we analyze the present research on e-gaming in language acquisition in terms of second language acquisition theories, e-games in language learning, classroom instruction related to e-games, and e-game design tools.
second Language acquisition theories related to E-gaming There are several language acquisition theories that relate to a discussion of e-gaming and language learning. Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis can be applied to elaborate on the
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
Table 1. Summary of research on e-gaming in language learning Topic
Authors
Year
Title
Research Focus
Hansson
2005
English as a Second Language on a virtual platformtradition and innovation in a new medium
Virtual didactic; virtual avatars
Johnson et al.
2005
Serious games for language learning: How much game, how much AI?
Computer games; serious games; game design techniques; design principles; Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Morton & Jack
2005
Scenario-based spoken interaction with virtual agents
Spoken Electronic Language Learning (SPELL); virtual agents
Pasero & Sabatier
1998
Linguistic games for language learning: A special use of ILLICO library
Linguistic games; design principles; ILLICO (a tool box for natural language processing, i.e., NLP)
Ang , Zaphiris, & Wilson
2005
Social interaction in game communities and second language learning
Models of social interaction in computer game communities; language learning opportunities in the in-game and out-of-game community
Ang & Zaphiris
2007
Computer games and language learning
Computer games; theoretical issues; CALL; case studies
Cruz
2007
Video games and the ESL classroom
Integrate video games into ESL curriculum; teaching activities
deHaan
2003
Learning language through video games: a theoretical framework, an evaluation of genres and question for future research
Video games; genres; framework
deHaan
2005
Acquisition of Japanese as a foreign language through a baseball video game
Video games; foreign language; case study
Herselman & Technikon
2000
University students benefiting from the medium of computer games: a case study
Computer games; drill and practice games; case study
Purushotma
2005
Commentary: You’re not studying, you’re just…
Massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs)
Yip & Kwan
2006
Online vocabulary games as a tool for teaching and learning English vocabulary
Online games; vocabulary learning; quasi-experimental study
Game
Design
Gaming & Learning
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
concept that exposure to language is optimized in simulations and gaming (García-Carbonell et al., 2001). Also, according to Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis, a lower affective filter facilitates language learning, which is one of the positive qualities of simulation and gaming in second language acquisition (García-Carbonell et al., 2001). Furthermore, Cummins’ Four Quadrants provides implications for language teachers to integrate e-games in teaching and learning (Cummins, 1981).
Comprehensible Input The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis proposed by Krashen (1981) contends that in order for language acquisition to occur, the language input should be comprehensible to language learners in many forms, such as visual aids, adapted texts, and the use of less complex language. In other words, language learners “understand messages with ‘unacquired’ grammar with the help of context” (Zainuddin & Yahya, 2006, p. 148). Language learners make progress when they are exposed to the language input (i) one step beyond their current level of proficiency (i+1). In e-gaming, visuals, a form of comprehensible input, provide language learners with much aid in understanding the context. Also, as language learners encounter new vocabulary or other linguistic phenomena in e-games, learning occurs if the comprehensible input is at the level of “i+1.”
Affective Filter In Krashen’s (1981) Affective Filter Hypothesis, emotional variables such as motivation, selfconfidence, and anxiety play a role in language acquisition. A language learner with high motivation, high self-confidence, and lower anxiety will be more likely to be successful in language acquisition. On the contrary, if a language learner does not have the above-mentioned positive emotional variables, the learner’s affective filter will
create a “mental block”; thus, the learner fails to perceive the comprehensible input and no language acquisition takes place.
Cummins’ Four Quadrants In terms of context clues and cognitive demands, Cummins’ Four Quadrants (Cummins, 1981) identify four areas of learning tasks associated with second language proficiency ranging from Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) to Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The notions of BICS and CALP distinguish social language from academic language (Zainuddin & Yahya, 2006). Social language is context-embedded conversational language in our daily lives, while academic language is decontextualized school-based learning language. In Cummins’ Four Quadrants (see Figure 1), the vertical continuum represents communicative tasks and activities ranging from cognitively undemanding to cognitively demanding, whereas the horizontal continuum illustrates communicative tasks and activities from context embedded to context reduced. Accordingly, Quadrant I refers to cognitive undemanding tasks with high contextual clues, such as the following physical directions. Quadrant II indicates cognitively demanding and context-embedded learning tasks, for example, reading texts with the help of visuals. Cognitively undemanding learning tasks with reduced context such as telephone conversations fall into Quadrant III. Quadrant IV consists of cognitively demanding activities with reduced context, for instance, understanding academic lecturers without visuals. In the case of e-gaming, Rice (2007) emphasizes that playing e-games fosters higher-order thinking skills. Characterized by rich visual and audio aids, learning activities embedded in e-gaming fall into context-embedded learning environments. Since higher-order thinking can be integrated into e-gaming, there is potential to create game-based learning activities that are
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
Figure 1. Cummins’ Four Quadrants (adapted from Cummins, 1981)
Quadrant I e.g., playing simple games Context Embedded (Clues)
Quadrant II e.g., hands on science activity
Quadrant III e.g., predictable telephone conversations Quadrant IV e.g., standardized achievement exams
Context Reduced (No Clues)
Cognitively Demanding (Hard)
context embedded and cognitively demanding (Cummins’ Quadrant II). A goal of academic learning is to engage students in cognitively demanding and context-reduced learning activities (Quadrant IV). Like other CALL programs, e-gaming is not sufficient on its own. It can play “the assistant role” and can be “an aid both to the teacher and to the student” (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2003). Therefore, it is the teacher’s task to create learning activities in Quadrant IV to help students use their learning content or experience for further abstract learning.
E-games in Language Learning Several researchers have different views on good e-games for language learning (refer to Appendix A). Cruz (2007) contends that role-playing games (RPGs) are the ideal genre for the ESL classroom because players are exposed to “long hours of in-game dialogue” and “heavy amounts of written text” (p. 1). In discussing the value of e-games in language learning, Purushotma (2005) analyzes the virtues of The Sims, in which simulations provide practical vocabulary and rich
content with interactivity and flexibility. Furthermore, Purushotma argues that MMOGs, such as The Sims Online, have tremendous potential in language learning due to the opportunities of communicative exchanges between L1 speakers and L2 speakers. deHaan (2003) provides very detailed analysis and evaluation of e-games. He identifies three benefits of using e-games in language learning: retaining learners’ involvement, presenting rich language aurally and textually, and harnessing learners’ motivation. deHaan (2003) also explores language learning opportunities in sports video games, virtual pet games, role-playing games, and simulation games. Like Purushotma (2005), deHaan (2003) also recommends The Sims, articulating that it is especially useful for beginning and intermediate language learners to learn vocabulary in real life. Alternatively, role-playing games present rich conversations textually and/or aurally. However, as opposed to Cruz (2007), deHaan (2003) contends that the conversations in role-playing games may be useful only for advanced language learners to decode and that the content is not necessarily related
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to real life, which is different from simulation games. In playing RPGs, players cannot pause or repeat conversations, which may pose a challenge for language learners. Rather, deHaan (2003) expresses a preference for sports and simulation games because they provide more scaffolding for language learners by providing a more obvious context. Table 2 compares the strengths and weaknesses of different game genres for language learning based on deHaan’s analysis.
using E-games for classroom instruction To date, there is little research on the use of egames for language learners in classrooms, yet current research informs our understanding on the use of e-games in language classrooms. Cruz (2007) points out that simply playing games cannot produce bilingualism, and it is necessary for teachers to design activities that encourage students to talk about their gaming experience. Cruz identifies language activities such as reflective journals, debates, and oral presentations that could be used after language learners play e-games in the classroom. Since games alone are not sufficient for learning, elements of games activated “within an instructional context” may enhance learning (Garris et al., 2002). Purushotma (2005)
stresses that it is necessary to direct students’ attention to key vocabulary in playing MMOGs. Yip and Kwan (2006) contend that online vocabulary games are effective as a “warm-up,” yet caution that teachers must monitor students’ learning if such games are used as a long-term learning tool. Teachers can determine appropriate games for language learning, create opportunities for students to connect language learning with gaming content, and observe students’ progress through formative assessments. For implementation of e-games in the classroom, Cruz (2007) suggests that students play a language learning game weekly during instructional time or recess. deHaan (2005) proposes a “game day” or class party to invite several students to play simultaneously. Also, video games can be encouraged in language labs or in home settings (deHaan, 2005).
tools and technologies for game design in Language acquisition With the development of advanced technologies, some technology tools have been incorporated into game design specifically for language acquisition. These include artificial intelligence (AI), speech recognition tools, and virtual agents.
Table 2. A brief summary comparing game genres used in language learning RPGs and Action/Adventure Games
Sports/Simulation Games
Little or no comprehensible context
More apparent context of language
Limited player interaction required for conversation
More player control required for conversations (sports games) More responsible language use (virtual pet and simulation games)
Little interaction with or ownership of non-repetitious language
Player’s actions connect with language through reinforcement
Little language applied to the real world
Language used in “real-life” discourse
Beneficial for advanced language learners
Beneficial for beginning and intermediate language learners
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
AI (Artificial Intelligence) Johnson et al. (2005) analyzed the usage of AI in the game design of the Tactical Language Training System (TLTS), a program that supports acquisition of foreign language and cultural skills. They claimed “artificial intelligence plays a key role in controlling the behavior of the non-player characters in the game” and “intelligent tutoring provides supplementary scaffolding” (p. 1). With the help of the AI in TLTS, an aide character was created to help the player when he or she gets stuck, and a virtual tutor was created that “evaluates the player’s speech and gives feedback on errors, while providing encouragement and attempting to overcome learner negative affectivity” (Johnson et al., 2005, p. 2).
Speech Recognition Speech recognition has been used in many egames to help learners in language acquisition. With the integration of speech recognition technology, TLTS can teach American soldiers to speak two Arabic dialects (Johnson et al., 2005). It is stated that speech recognition was designed in TLTS to “classify the intended meaning” (Johnson et al., 2005, p. 3) of player utterance in order to give the feedback to the player to move the game along. However, the inaccuracy of recognizing pronunciation, and the value and relevance of speech recognition technology have been somewhat in debate (Morton & Jack, 2005). Improvement of speech recognition is needed in order for learners to learn more accurately.
Virtual Agents Morton and Jack (2005) state that automatic speech recognition coupled with embodied virtual agents and virtual worlds have been used in CALL. SPELL systems create scenarios in which learners can develop oral skills in their target language. Godwin-Jones (2005) claims that some strategies
0
such as “identity creation (avatars in games/chat), collaborative learning, or even mentoring (helping others in game strategies or game-related fiction writing)” (p. 17) can be used in game design to facilitate language learning. A well-designed virtual world can provide learners with a highly contextualized environment in which the learner can interact with animated agents as an active dialogue participant (Hansson, 2005; Morton & Jack, 2005). The features of the virtual environments offer learners a sense of presence in the real world that provides an authentic learning context. Through the interaction of the learners and the virtual agents (or avatars), the lowanxiety, contextualized environment can engage learners in the learning process. With graphical representations of characters in the virtual world, avatars can lessen the anxiety that learners may have in a face-to-face learning environment. Within the virtual, contextualized environment, the use of virtual agents also “offers the learner an opportunity for one-to-one conversation, designed to contribute to an enhanced learning experience” (Morton & Jack, 2005, pp. 175-176). Learners learn more effectively and efficiently without worrying about making mistakes in the virtual learning environment.
FuturE trEnds Reviewing the history of traditional games in language learning and the present use of e-games in education, we are confident, along with other researchers in this area, that e-gaming has great potential in language acquisition. With the dramatically increased attention and interest in e-gaming in education, a revolution in language learning is coming. Our perspective on the future of e-gaming in language learning is centered on classroom practice, research trends, and the challenges confronting researchers and practitioners in this field.
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
classroom practice Future and existing language classrooms should embrace multi-player gaming. Hansson (2005) indicates that exploring the potential of MMOGs for classroom use is just beginning. Multi-player games may generate tremendous opportunities for language learners in social learning (Squire, 2006). Purushotma (2005) affirms the potential of MMOGs in language learning since it is possible for a second language (L2) learner to be partnered with a first language (L1) learner in a MMOG like The Sims Online. Furthermore, Purushotma suggests that teachers collaborate across countries to involve L1 and L2 players in collaboration while playing a game.
research trends With limited research on using e-gaming for language acquisition, it is clear that this research area is still undeveloped. deHaan (2003) urges that various case studies, especially long-term case studies and discourse analyses, are needed to understand language acquisition in language learning. deHaan (2003) holds a conservatively positive attitude towards the use of video games in language classroom use, providing some “caveats” and questions for further research. Also, deHaan (2003) poses many insightful questions, of which two actually resonate with our analysis of Cummins’ quadrants. Can language acquired through video games be used when the language is removed from the context of the game? Can a game’s language be used when the kinesthetic or contextual connection to the game is absent? These two crucial questions for application of e-gaming in classroom practice urge us to ponder if context-embedded information in e-games can crutch language learners to conduct academic-demanding learning tasks. Some electronic games, such as Civilization III, are utilized in the classroom to assist the
learning of social studies and history (MacKenty, 2006; Squire, 2004). Exploration and research on the use of e-gaming in the language classroom is necessary to fill the tremendous void of research. In the field of CALL, Bax (2003) suggests that “more in-depth ethnographic studies of individual environments” and “action research in individual environments” (p. 27) are needed in the future. Undoubtedly, ethnographic studies and action research will also help to expand our collective understanding of the use of e-games in the language learning process. Considering various language learning populations, we also think it is promising to explore the potential of e-games in adult language education. Most of the research on the use of non-electronic simulations and games in language learning was conducted with children. However, some research has focused on the uses of non-electronic simulations and games in adult language classrooms (Hill, 2002; Jung & Levitin, 2002; Gaudart, 1999). Hill emphasizes that we should not underestimate “the power of play in adult language education” (2002, p. 358). Gaudart (1999) also asserts that neither simulations nor games are age dependent, and based on her own experience in Malaysia, she claims that adults may enjoy games even more than children do. Further, Kovalik and Kovalik (2002) maintain that Piaget’s belief that play facilitates learning in children can also apply to adults. For adult language learners who are more competent in self-paced autonomous learning, the potential for the integration of e-gaming for adult language learners should not be underestimated.
challenges Although playing traditional games in language learning has been valued by many people, the introduction of e-gaming into language learning still faces many challenges. These challenges include concerns related to game design, teacher training, and assessment.
Amusing Minds for Joyful Learning through E-Gaming
Game Design
Assessment
As discussed above, with the exception of some simple online linguistic games, most e-games are not specifically designed for language learners. Language learning opportunities are more likely to be by-products of commercial e-games. Language learning educators’ and researchers’ increasing interest in e-games indicates a necessity for creating e-games specifically for language learners. deHaan (2003) proposes video game developers create sports, virtual pet, simulation, and modified role-playing and action/adventure games with a primary or secondary aim of teaching languages. The game design industry should initiate extensive and intensive cooperation with language educators to develop versatile language e-games for a vast market.
Teachers must consider which e-games can be integrated and how they will be integrated in language learning classrooms. Teachers should also consider how students’ e-gaming experiences can facilitate their academic learning and how playing e-games can promote meaningful learning. Most importantly, teachers need to evaluate e-games before using them in the classroom. Rice (2007) created a rubric and scale for educators (see Appendix B) to assess higher-order thinking in e-games which provides an overarching assessment tool for e-games in education. For language learning purposes, educators still need to consider the potential of e-games in language learning, namely, the possibilities for learners to be involved in practicing four basic language skills: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. If students play e-games as part of a class activity, teachers may wonder how to assess student learning.
Teacher Training First, the legitimacy of e-gaming is the biggest issue for teacher training. Teachers and parents may hold negative attitudes towards e-games, so there will be more debate centered on the efficacy of e-gaming and its impact on learning. Second, the emphasis for teacher training should be to guide teachers to integrate e-games into the curriculum. Previous research has suggested that novice teachers should be linked with experienced computer-using teachers to develop networks of experts in CALL (Egbert, Paulus, & Nakamichi, 2002; Strudler, McKinney, & Jones, 1999). Since e-gaming applications may still be novel, teachers should play a dual role as a facilitator of learning and a researcher in using e-games for language learning. Last, Egbert et al. (2002) claim that for teacher education, CALL coursework should be situated in the contexts in which teachers will use it. If possible, teachers should visit an experimental class where e-games are being used to gain firsthand classroom experience.
concLusion This chapter provides a synopsis of “playing” and “learning” in language education. We hope to contribute an overview of research on e-gaming in language acquisition and provide a springboard for more in-depth research on e-gaming development and application in language teaching. We acknowledge the important role of play in language learning. In fact, play has been valued by many scholars from ancient times to the present day. In ancient China, Confucius said, “Knowledge is not equal to devotion. Devotion is not equal to joy.” That is, the joy of learning is more essential than the act of knowing. In ancient Greece, Plato said, “Do not train children to learn by force and harshness, but direct them to it by what amuses their minds, so that you may be better able to discover with accuracy the peculiar bent of the genius of each.” Thus, learning cannot be effective without motivation. Huizinga believes
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that play is the source of knowledge (as cited in Ang & Zaphiris, 2007). Therefore, we should strive to amuse the language learner’s mind through playing e-games. While affirming e-games’ potential in language learning, we maintain that implementing e-games in language learning is not a simple process. In the coming revolution of “playing the language,” e-game designers, researchers, practitioners, and language learners will be confronted with opportunities as well as challenges. To optimize language learning in the virtual worlds of e-games, more exhaustive research is needed to expand our understanding of electronic play and language learning.
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Chapelle, C.A. (2005). Computer-assisted language learning. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Crookall, D., & Oxford, R. (1990). Linking language learning and simulation games. In D. Crookall & R.L. Oxford (Eds.), Simulation, gaming, and language learning (pp. 3-25). New York: Newbury House. Cruz, J.Q. (2007). Video games and the ESL classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, XIII(3). Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Los Angeles: Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University. de Aguilera, M., & Mendiz, A. (2003). Video games and education (education in the face of a “parallel school”). ACM Computer in Entertainment, 1(1), 1-14. deHaan, J. (2003). Learning language through video games: A theoretical framework, an evaluation of game genres and questions for future research. Retrieved April 16, 2007, from http://jobfunctions. bnet.com/whitepaper.aspx?docid=127390 deHaan, J.W. (2005). Acquisition of Japanese as a foreign language through a baseball video game. Foreign Language Annals, 38(2), 278-282. Egbert, J., Paulus, T.M., & Nakamichi, Y. (2002). The impact of call instruction on classroom computer use: A foundation for rethinking technology in teacher education. Language Learning & Technology, 6(3), 108-126. Funk, J.B., Hagen, J.D., & Schimming, J.L. (1999). Children and electronic games: A comparison of parent and child perceptions of children’s habits and preferences in a United States sample. Psychological Reports, 85, 883-888.
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García-Carbonell, A., Rising, B., Montero, B., & Watts, F. (2001). Simulation/gaming and the acquisition of communicative competence in another language. Simulation & Games, 32(4), 481-491. Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J.E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441-467. Gaudart, H. (1999). Games as teaching tools for teaching English to speakers of other languages. Simulation & Gaming, 30(3), 283-291. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1(1). Gee, J.P. (2004). Learning and gaming. In Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. New York: Routledge. Gee, J.P. (2005). Good video games and good learning. Retrieved March 18, 2007, from http:// tabuladigita.com/files/Theory_Good_Learning. pdf Godwin-Jones, R. (2005). Messaging, gaming, peer-to-peer sharing: Language learning strategies & tools for the millennial generation. Language Learning & Technology, 9(1), 17-22.
Jenkins, H. (2005). Getting into the game. Educational Leadership, 62(7), 48-51. Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you: How today’s popular culture is actually making us smarter. New York: Riverhead Books. Johnson, W.L., Vilhjalmsson, H., & Marsella, S. (2005). Serious games for language learning: How much game, how much AI? Retrieved April 20, 2007, from http://cslr.colorado.edu/beginweb/ 2004animated_wkshp/AIED2005_0320_camera_ready.pdf Jung, C.S.Y., & Levitin, H. (2002). Using a simulation in an ESL classroom: A descriptive analysis. Simulation & Games, 33(3), 367-375. Kovalik, D.L., & Kovalik, L.M. (2002). Language learning simulations: A Piagetian perspective. Simulation & Games, 33(3), 345-352. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. Lasagabaster, D., & Sierra, J.M. (2003). Students’ evaluation of CALL software programs. Educational Media International, 40(3/4), 293-304. Macedonia, M. (2005). Games and foreign language teaching. Support for Learning, 20(3), 135-140.
Halleck, G. (2002). Guest editorial: Simulation in language learning. Simulation & Games, 33, 276-279.
MacKenty, B. (2006). All play and no work. School Library Journal, 52(9), 46-48.
Hansson, T. (2005). English as a Second Language on a virtual platformtradition and innovation in a new medium. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(1&2), 63-79.
Margolis, J.L., Nussbaum, M., Rodriguez, P., & Rosas, R. (2006). Methodology for evaluating a novel education technology: A case study of handheld video games in Chile. Computers & Education, 46, 174-191.
Herselman, M.E., & Technikon, P.E. (2000). University students benefiting from the medium of computer games: A case study. South African Journal of Higher Education, 14(3), 139-150.
Morton, H., & Jack, M.A. (2005). Scenario-based spoken Interaction with virtual agents. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18(3), 171-191.
Hill, J.L. (2002). Playing with “The Three Pigs”: Not just for children. Simulation & Games, 33(3), 353-359.
Orosy-Fildes, C., & Allan, R. (1989). Videogame play: Human reaction time to visual stimuli. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 69(1), 243-248.
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Pasero, R., & Sabatier, P. (1998). Linguistic games for language learning: A special use of ILLICO library. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 11(5), 561-585. Purushotma, R. (2005). Commentary: You’re not studying, you’re just…. Language Learning & Technology, 9(1), 80-96. Rice, J. (2007). Assessing higher order thinking in video games. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1), 87-100. Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., Flores, P. et al. (2003). Beyond Nintendo: Design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers and Education, 40(1), 71-94. Saliés, T.G. (2002). Simulation/gaming in the EAP writing class: Benefits and drawbacks. Simulation & Gaming, 33(3), 316-329. Shaffer, D.W., Squire, K.R., Halverson, R., & Gee, J.P. (2004). Video games and the future of learning. Madison, WI: University of WisconsinMadison and Academic Advanced Distributed Learning Co-Laboratory. Spelman, M.D. (2002). GLOBECORP: Simulation versus tradition. Simulation & Games, 33(3), 376-394. Squire, K. (2004). Replaying history: Learning world history through playing Civilization III. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://scholar. google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache: Oatr_uUtZTQJ:website.education.wisc.edu/kdsquire/REPLAYING%2520HISTORY.doc+repla ying+history,+civilization,+squire Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Strudler, N., McKinney, M., & Jones, W. (1999). First-year teachers’ use of technology: Preparation expectations and realities. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 7(2), 115-129.
Warschauer, M. (2004). Technological change and the future of CALL. In S.F.C. Brown (Ed.), New perspectives on CALL for second and foreign language classrooms (pp. 15-25). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Williams, D. (2003). The video game lightning rod. Information, Communication & Society, 6(4), 523-550. Yip, F.W.M., & Kwan, A.C.M. (2006). Online vocabulary games as a tool for teaching and learning English vocabulary. Educational Media International, 43(3), 232-249. Zainuddin, H., & Yahya, N. (2006). First and second language acquisition theories and models. In E.N.W. Ariza, C.A. Morales-Jones, N. Yahya, & H. Zainuddin (Eds.), Why TESOL? The theories & issues in teaching English to speakers of other languages in K-12 classrooms (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt.
kEY tErMs Artificial Intelligence (AI): Refers to the intelligence exhibited by an artificial entity. AI is a field overlapped by different areas such as computer science, engineering, psychology, neuroscience, and so forth. Avatar/Virtual Agent: A player’s representation within a gaming or simulation environment. E-Gaming/Games: Electronic games including computer games and video games. Massively Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG): A computer game that enables hundreds or thousands of players from around the world to play at the same time. By necessity, these games are played on the Internet and allow players to cooperate and compete with each other during gameplay.
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Non-Playable Character (NPC): A character encountered within a gaming environment that is controlled by the AI of the game. Role-Playing Game (RPG): A game in which a player assumes the role of a character and collaboratively plays with other players to achieve a game-related goal. Players determine their characters’ actions based on game rules and on the goal they want to achieve during gameplay, which in turn shapes the outcome of the game. Interactivity among players is a crucial characteristic of an RPG.
Traditional (Non-Electronic) Games: Games that do not include the implementation of any electronic apparatus such as computers or consoles; examples include board games and card games.
EndnotE 1
Simulation: Imitates a situation in real life. In most research, simulation and gaming are alternative terms. García -Carbonell et al. (2001) point out that an explicit “reference system” is a characteristic of simulation or game when compared with role-play activities. However, Kovalik and Kovalik (2002) refer to Crookall and Oxford’s (1990) definition of roleplay, stating that roleplay is included in the simulations used in their classrooms.
In this chapter, language learning indicates second-language (L2) learning, not first-language (L1) learning. Meanwhile, a few articles addressing foreign language acquisition are included due to the limited number of research focusing on games in L2 learning.
appEndiX a: E-gaMEs in LanguagE LEarning rEcoMMEndEd bY rEsEarchErs Table A1. Strengths and Potential in language teaching
Recommended Games
by Cruz, 2007
Cartoon-like visuals, good soundtrack, and interesting and funny characters and plots For students “between the age of 11 and 17 in mind” (Cruz, 2007)
Atelier Iris (Sony PlayStation 2), Atelier Iris 2 (Sony PlayStation 2), Arc the Lad (Sony PlayStation), Arc the Lad 2 (Sony PlayStation), Final Fantasy 7 (Sony PlayStation), Final Fantasy Origins (Sony PlayStation), Final Fantasy Anthologies (Sony PlayStation), Final Fantasy Chronicles (Sony PlayStation), Growlanser (Sony PlayStation 2), Lunar: The Silver Star Story (Sony PlayStation), Lunar: Eternal Blue (Sony PlayStation), Paper Mario (Gamecube), Radiata Stories (Sony PlayStation 2), Rhapsody: A Musical Adventure (Sony PlayStation), Suikoden series (Sony PlayStation/PlayStation 2), Tales of Eternia (Gamecube)
by deHaan, 2003 Listening, reading
Power Pro Baseball 6 (Japanese)
continued on following page
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Table A1. continued Motivation nature and encouraging responsible repletion of language applicable to “real life”
Monster Rancher
Real-world/life language; learning verbs and imperative (command) forms
The Sims
Listening, speaking, vocabulary
Seaman
by Purushotma, 2005 Speaking
Seaman
Speaking (interaction with L1 players)
The Sims Online (MMOG version of The Sims)
Speaking
Operator’s Side (Lifetime in English)
appEndiX b: VidEo gaME highEr-ordEr thinking EVaLuation rubric and VidEo gaME cognitiVE ViabiLitY scaLE Table B1. Video game higher-order thinking evaluation rubric Characteristics
Y/N 1/ 0
Requires users to assume a role in the game, rather than simply play. Offers meaningful interaction such as dialogue with NPCs. Has a storyline. Has a complex storyline with characters users care about. Offers simple puzzles. Has complex puzzles requiring effort to solve. Uses three-dimensional graphics. Allows multiple views or camera pans and the ability to zoom in and out. Allows different ways to complete the game. Simulates complex processes requiring adjustment of variables by users to obtain desired results, or adjusting variables leads to different results. Allows interaction through use of avatars. Avatars are lifelike. Requires interaction with virtual elements within the game. Requires knowledge of game elements beyond mouse prompts, number entry (e.g., combining elements to create new tools, understanding complex jargon). Requires gathering of information in order to complete.
continued on following page
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Table B1. continued Requires synthesis of knowledge in order to complete or successfully engage elements in the game. Environment effectively replicates real world. NPCs display AI characteristics. NPCs display effective use of AI resulting in dynamic experiences for the user. Offers replay ability with varying results Total score: (Indicating placement on the Video Game Cognitive Viability Index)
Source: Rice, J.W. (2007). Assessing higher order thinking in video games. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1), 93. Copyright 2007 by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Reprinted with permission.
Table 2. Video game cognitive viability scale 20
Perfect score. Game displays highest elements of cognitive viability.
15-19
Upper-range. Game holds several positive characteristics lending itself to higher-order thinking.
14-18
Mid-range. Game is probably acceptable for some higher-order thinking opportunities.
9-13
Lower-range. Fewer opportunities for higher-order thinking will take place in the game.
0-8
Little or no cognitive viability. Typical score range for arcade-style-only games.
Source: Rice, J.W. (2007). Assessing higher order thinking in video games. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(1), 94. Copyright 2007 by the Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Reprinted with permission.
appEndiX c: a List oF onLinE rEsourcEs For E-gaMEs in LanguagE LEarning Languagegames.org (http://www.languagegames.org/la/) Players can improve their vocabulary in certain languages through playing these online games. English Adventures (http://techno-ware-esl.com/engadventures.html) Players can practice English skills including reading, writing, speaking, and listening, as well as grammar and vocabulary. Game Zone (online English language games) (http://www.english-online.org.uk/games/gamezone2. htm) Contains a list of English language games to improve vocabulary, spelling, and grammar.
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Learning English Games (http://www.2flashgames.com/learning_english_games.htm) Players can improve English skills such as listening and vocabulary through gameplay. Online Word Games (http://word-games.pogo.com/) Varied English word games for language learners to improve vocabulary and spelling. Online Word Games (http://www.realarcade.com/onlineGamesGenre?genre=word&tps=google_ &src=mcode_nbrbp_,ogpg) These English word games on the Web can enhance spelling and vocabulary. Free Online Games (http://games.aol.com/word) Learners can improve vocabulary in playing fun English word games. Mini Clip Games (http://www.miniclip.com/games/es/) PopCap Games—Free Online Games (http://www.popcap.com) Learners can enrich their vocabulary and proficiency of grammar through playing spelling and grammar games on these two Web sites above. Sveerz—Online Games (http://www.e-funsoft.com/sveerz) Players can improve listening comprehension by playing the games on this Web site. NBC.com—Treasure Hunters (http://www.nbc.com/Treasure_Hunters/game/) Players will improve their listening comprehension and problem-solving skills by playing the games on this Web site. LOGAN’s Mystery of Time and Space Adventure (http://www.albartus.com/motas/) This online graphic adventure game involves players in solving riddles and puzzles, and enhancing reading comprehension and vocabulary. McDonalds Strategy Game (http://www.puffgames.com/mcdonalds/) Players are invited to run the business of McDonalds during gameplay by which they can improve reading comprehension, management skill, and systematical skills. Arcane Season 1: The Miller Estate: Episode 1 (http://www.gamershood.com/flashgames/137) Players needs to solve some puzzles when playing this game, by which they can improve their listening comprehension during gameplay. Teen Second Life (http://teen.secondlife.com/) Developed for adolescents ages 13-17, this “teen version” of Second Life creates opportunities for teens from all over the world to chat and socialize in a 3D virtual world.
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Second Life and Language Learning Discussion (http://blog-efl.blogspot.com/2007/04/second-lifeand-language-learning.html) This discussion forum is mainly about how players can learn a second language in Second Life, a 3D virtual online environment that provides players a place to communicate with each other. Kyle Mawer Home (http://kylemawer.wikispaces.com/) Kyle Mawer’s wiki is about computer games (especially free online games) for language learning and teaching.
0
Chapter X
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges Jowati Juhary The National Defence University of Malaysia, Malaysia
abstract This chapter analyses the challenges in adapting a non-language learning courseware (NLLC) for a military learning environment. The National Defense University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur (NDUM) was the subject for observations and an informal survey. The findings of this chapter argue that there are technical, theoretical, and pedagogical challenges that need to be overcome when using an NLLC in language classrooms. With the rise of information and communication technology (ICT) and the Internet, tertiary military institutions are pressured to implement e-learning technologies in their learning environments. However, not many institutions have the capacity to do so. The author argues that the adoption of an NLLC for an institution that has resources constraints can help determine the potential of using e-learning technologies to help students acquire the target language better.
introduction Military institutions are considered to be among the oldest institutions in the world. Since the time of Plato, the institutions have often been called the ‘guardians’,1 and the public respected them as such (Stiehm, 2002, p. 1). Given their special role and prestige, most governments need to ensure that their military institutions are ready to defend the country, and such readiness depends critically on comprehensive learning. Continuously
improving learning programs for the military has, therefore, become one of the most important aims of governments. This is reflected in the large military budgets that have emerged in the postWWII world. Depending on the national defense strategies and foreign policies of a country, its needs and aspirations will be reflected in the learning programs of its military institutions. These learning programs range from academic to military curriculum and from professional to language courses.
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
The question addressed in this chapter is on the challenges of adapting a non-language learning courseware (NLLC) for cadets in a military learning environment. One of the current methods of facing the challenges of change and globalization is by adopting information and communication technology (ICT) in the learning programs of military institutions. With the growing awareness of the potential of information technology (IT) and the role of knowledge workers in developing a knowledge economy, e-learning technologies have become a national issue for many countries. Implementing new technologies in the working and learning environment could prepare future generations for the new culture of global networks and economies. Countries are expected to enhance their educational system because only through education can the future of a nation be secured. In addition, education has historically played a major role in preparing military institutions for war, and in providing states and alliances with an instrument of strategic power (Holder & Murray, 1998, p. 81). The purposes of the chapter are twofold: 1.
2.
To identify the challenges in adapting an NLLC for cadets at the National Defense University Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur (NDUM); and To analyze the implications of adapting an NLLC at the NDUM.
language. This chapter identifies the language acquisition challenges from the point of view of the Malaysian military institution. As an excolony in a middle-ranking power region, cadets at the NDUM may not need to acquire European or Middle Eastern languages. Malaysia does not envisage playing an independent role in policing the region or becoming a major global player in security matters. Nonetheless, three factors have made it crucial for the NDUM graduates to master the English language. Firstly, even the relatively modest domestic and border concerns expressed by Malaysia’s defense strategy require a modern and competent military. The ability of cadets to use the English language competently will ensure that misunderstanding can be avoided during the joint operations with armed forces from other countries. Secondly, active participation in United Nation Peacekeeping Operations also demands that military officers be fluent in the English language. Thirdly, the English language is an international language. The future career development of the NDUM graduates depends on their English language proficiency: external training or formal academic opportunities in English-speaking countries. Consequently the NDUM must equip its cadets with, among other knowledge and skills, the appropriate level of language competency and proficiency.
thE MEthodoLogY thE signiFicancE oF thE chaptEr It is argued that cadets at tertiary military institutions must acquire a second language in order to effectively function after graduation and being commissioned. For example, taking into account the current issues at the Middle East, graduates of the United States Military Academy, New York (West Point) should master Arabic or the Persian/Dari language as their second or third
The main quantitative data of this chapter were collected at the NDUM. Formerly known as the Military Academy of Malaysia (MAM), the upgrade to a university status in November 2006 increases the pressure to also improve the learning environment at the NDUM. This chapter focuses on the question of language learning. The only language taught at the NDUM is English. The current method of teaching the target language is through face-to-face (F2F) sessions; indeed this is the only way cadets learn their proficiency and specific English language skills.
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
The NDUM recently acquired a new language laboratory, and the author2 quickly grabbed the opportunity to test how new technologies can help cadets to learn language better. A short of appropriate courseware due to several restrictions, the author used a CD-ROM titled Military History South Pacific Campaign3 by the Australian Department of Defense (DoD) to start a language learning project using digital technologies. This pilot project is crucial in determining the future e-learning strategies at the NDUM. A total of 118 cadets were involved in the project. They used this courseware for three months from July to September 2006. The courseware was incorporated into one of the cadets’ English language courses, English for Academic Communication. This course is the second language course in the English language course series at the NDUM. These course series are core courses that all cadets must undertake in order to graduate and to be commissioned. It needs to be emphasized that the courseware by the Australian DoD was not originally meant to teach the target language. However, since the medium of the courseware is English, the content materials are military-related themes, and the author had no other means of acquiring other courseware to jumpstart the language project, relevant activities for English language learning using the courseware were developed.4 It is important to emphasize that cadets were informed of the origin of the NLLC, and that they would participate in a survey after 24 hours of using it. Cadets were also informed of the purposes of the language learning project. In so doing, the author attempts to generate genuine effort by cadets in utilizing the NLLC and honest opinions in answering the questionnaire. For three months, cadetswho were divided into five smaller groupsused the courseware for two hours per week in the language laboratory. After the total of 24 hours, they were given questionnaires to answer. This questionnaire aimed at gauging their opinions on issues of using e-learning technolo-
gies. The statistical analysis was completed by Statistical Packages for Social Studies Version 14 (SPSS 14).
thE structurE oF thE chaptEr In an attempt to achieve the purposes, this chapter is divided into four main sections. The first section examines the literature review on e-learning technologies in Malaysian higher learning institutions. Also briefly discussed in this section are Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) literature. While the second section examines the findings of the survey, the third section identifies the implications of the findings, which can be common issues but have sound resonance for language learning at the NDUM. The fourth section focuses on the future trend of language learning. A conclusion follows.
digitaL tEchnoLogiEs and LanguagE LEarning E-Learning technologies: concept and practice in Malaysia Malaysia is looking at the new century as an era, which presents challenges of rapid advancement in information and telecommunications technologies. Thus, there is a constant need to look closer at the educational demands. At the same time, the nation is leapfrogging with the implementation of its plans towards achieving Vision 2020,5 which precludes a necessity of having highly skilled workforces in all sectors. Malaysian society needs a new compatible educational system in the right module and level to keep up with the challenges. In effect, e-learning for tertiary education in Malaysia is prospering greatly. Many reasons contribute to this development. One of them is the fact that
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
more Malaysian private companies are willing to invest in higher learning education. As such, the first virtual university to utilize e-learning is Universiti Tun Abdul Razak (UNITAR), which was officiated in 1998. The second university to adopt e-learning as its medium of teaching and learning is the Open University of Malaysia or OUM. At present, many private colleges are offering courses online as an alternative to students who cannot meet the schedule like ‘traditional’ students. Actually, e-learning in tertiary education is supposed to be the continuation of the 11 learning years in the smart schools at the primary and secondary levels (Juhary, 2001, p. 177). Nevertheless, e-learning in tertiary education is stepping further ahead. Besides many investments that are pouring in tertiary e-learning, the age factor of students and level of maturity may result in an easier way of handling flow of information and using it efficiently (Gan, 2000). The e-learning concept allows for the democratization of education; more adult and working people can further their studies as distance and time are no longer the barriers to education. Students can get the access to their coursework and exercise materials anywhere and at any time. The virtual education learning is designed around the use of interactive multimedia courseware to create an interesting and stimulating learning experience for students, while at the same time they can join discussions with their lecturers and other students online. The concept of e-learning in a military learning environment is, however, slightly different. For example at the NDUM, all cadets live on campus; as such, the e-learning concept reflects cadets’ use of technology anywhere (on campus), any time, and at different paces. Also, cadets join the NDUM right after their secondary schools, and thus they cannot yet be categorized as adulttheir ages range from 18 to 23 years old. The practice of e-learning in Malaysia is still in its infancy stage; only UNITAR and OUM offer almost 75% of their courses online and with
an e-learning environment. Their courseware and others from different universities are not the same, as most universities have different curricula. Many public institutes of higher learningfor example, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti (i) Teknologi Mara, and Universiti Sains Malaysiause e-learning in a mixed-mode environment (Lim & Ndubisi, 2003, p. 25; Sulong, Abu Bakar, Ibrahim, & Embi, 2002). To be more specific on the practice of e-learning, there is not yet a course being delivered 100% online in Malaysia. It is always a blended e-learning course where a combination of e-learning and traditional F2F learning is used together.
Benefits and Skepticism of E-Learning technologies In much of the literature it has been suggested that e-learning technologies help students to understand and learn better. Although these benefits are not unique to military learning environments, they are particularly pertinent to the training of military leadership. The benefits6 include: •
•
• •
Facilitating students’ construction of knowledge, testing their ideas, actively sharing and seeking information, generating a diverse array of ideas, appreciating multiple perspectives, engaging in social and intellectual interaction and dialogue, engaging in critical thinking and problemsolving exercises, increasing participation and reflection (self-directed learning), developing multiple modes of representation, and becoming more self-aware; Facilitating students’ engagement in a meaningful learning context, and thus increasing the ownership over their own learning; Helping students to learn more effectively at their own pace and in their own way; Helping students to select, store, and retrieve information efficiently;
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
•
•
•
Preparing students for real-life situations as students have an opportunity to explore many possibilities using authentic materials; Helping instructors/lecturers maintain content relevance by providing ready access for updating, adding, and deleting materials; and Helping institutions cut the costs of logistics and travel when the need for training arises.
All the benefits mentioned above are constrained by some broader considerations in the educational context. These considerations have given rise to many critics of the new learning technologies. The most significant critic is on the coststhe issue is whether the costs of developing new learning technologies produce better outcomes for military cadets and soldiers as well as the country as a whole. There is no point in investing a huge amount of money on digital technologies if the alleged benefits are unreachable. For example, the assumed cheapness of applying ICT approaches to learning has been questioned. As Bates (2001, p. 15) and others have noted, investments in digital technologies can be costly because of the time-consuming nature of developing courseware, purchasing and implementing IT systems, and maintaining IT operations. Most of these costs, especially during the first three years, can be exorbitant (Marginson, 2004, p. 100). Some critics are more optimistic than this, suggesting that after the IT learning systems mature and stabilize, the costs of running, maintaining, and upgrading them may be reduced. It has been suggested that it would generally take institutions up to three years to reduce operational costs by 20-30% relative to startup costs in the first few years (Beckett, 2004, p. 20). Other critics have focused more sharply on particular aspects of these digital strategies. By itself, modern electronic technology cannot gen-
erate better learning or teaching results. Many critics point out that whatever e-learning does, it needs to be compatible with the advanced principles of pedagogical theory. All too often, there is a dysfunctional gap between technology and pedagogical principles, arising from a number of factors including the lack of clear pedagogical guidelines for analyzing, designing, developing, supplying, and managing e-learning materials (Alonso, Lopez, Manrique, & Vines, 2005, p. 218). In particular the problem of how to teach and deliver content has been insufficiently attended to on the assumption that the technology itself will explain everything (Blinco, Mason, McLean, & Wilson, 2004, p. 12). Many scholars note that appropriate channels for content delivery are as important as the selection of appropriate materials (Woodill, 2004, pp. 5-9). While the previous several paragraphs have examined e-learning technologies in general, the next two subsections discuss specific concerns of this chapter, that is, language acquisition using new technologies and the significance of learning the target language for specific purposes.
computer-assisted Language Learning (caLL) CALL is the use of computers or e-learning technologies as part of a language course. There are many uses of e-learning technologies in a language classroom even if there is an absence of a proper language learning courseware. For example, by using the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW), a language teacher can assist his or her students to read in and listen to the target language. With a proper language learning courseware, students can achieve more in their quest to acquire the target language. There are advantages of using CALL in classrooms, and Ravichandran (2000, p. 82) outlines four below: 1.
Interest and motivation: ‘Practice makes perfect’ and thus it is essential to provide
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
2.
3.
4.
repeated practice to meet important objectives. Because this process can be dull and frustrating, many students lose interest and motivation to learn a foreign language(s). CALL programs give students a different approach to learn the language(s). Individualization: Many students need additional time and individualized practice to meet learning objectives. The computer offers the opportunity for students to selfdirect their learning at a speed and level dictated by their own needs. Besides, additional programs can be made available for students who master learning objectives quickly. A compatible learning style: Students differ in their styles of learning. Many students appear to learn much more effectively when they are able to use a suitable learning style than when they are forced to use an incompatible one. Immediate feedback: Students receive maximum benefit from feedback only when it is supplied immediately. Their interest and receptivity decreases when the information on their performance is not prompt.
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) There have been a lot of debates on what ESP is for. Giving definitions is insufficient, and thus the author selects literature that serves this chapter’s purposes. What then is ESP? Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP: 1. 2. 3.
English as a restricted language, English for academic and occupational purposes, and English with specific topics.
In the NDUM setting, the author opts for the second type of ESP identified by Carter. Further, Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 17) offer a slightly different view of ESP. Using the
Tree of English Language Teaching, they divide ESP into three branches: (a) English for Science and Technology (EST), (b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and (c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is then divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is English for Technicians, whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is English for Medical Studies. Nonetheless, there is no clear cut trend between EAP and EOP for cadets at the NDUM, as they study and are considered ‘working’ at the same time; their needs for ESP is inevitable and will be the same for examination and employment purposes. Additionally, it is noted that there is no categorization for a military branch. For the purposes of this chapter, the author chooses to categorize military skills and themes under EST because most materials involved discussions related to engineering, science, and technology, and also because the NDUM emphasizes these three areas in its academic and military programsthe university awards seven undergraduate engineering degrees out of a total of 12 undergraduate degrees. All in all, this section has provided the conceptual framework for this chapter. The next section discusses the empirical evidence of using an NLLC in a military learning environment.
thE surVEY and thE Findings English for Academic Communication carries four contact hours for cadets at the NDUMtwo hours in the language laboratory and two hours in F2F sessions. Because the author was embarking on a pilot project for teaching English language using new technologies, it was first necessary to create a pre-teaching module that could help in the teaching and learning process. The concept of the pre-teaching module is communicative and interactive. The reasons why the concept is
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
chosen are twofold: firstly, language in communication is used to accomplish some functions; and secondly, communication is a process to convey the relevant meanings (Larsen-Freeman, 2000, p. 123). The underlying presumption is that language is for communication. The goal of language teaching then is to achieve ‘communicative competence’ (Hymes, 1985, pp. 284-286). This means that not only are linguistics elements important, but more important is how people use language to communicatewhom to speak to, what to say, when to say, how to say, and where to say something. Communicative approach has four characteristics in terms of language use: (1) language is a system for the expression of meaning, (2) the primary function of language is for interaction and communication, (3) the structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses, and (4) the primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 151). To suit students’ needs of learning the target language, ample consideration is exercised when choosing the materials. Language learning activities for cadets must emphasize several types that conform to a communicative approach, and they must be suitable for ESP, for example, task based (Prabhu, 1983), functional (Jupp & Hodlin, 1975), and student-generated (Henner Stanchina & Riley, 1978). English for Academic Communication has four objectives, and they are tailored to ensure that cadets achieve communicative competence. Developed by the English language course committee at the NDUM, the objectives are: 1.
2.
To extract important information from written and recorded texts, and reproduce it in the form of notes; To use appropriate reading skills and strategies that can assist cadets to read independently and critically in their area of study;
3. 4.
To write essays based on notes taken from written and recorded texts; and To make oral presentations based on information from the reading and recorded texts.
the non-Language Learning courseware (nLLc) As mentioned earlier, the courseware was originally used by the Australian DoD to teach its personnel the history of the South Pacific campaign. While its primary reason for developing and designing the courseware was not to teach the English language, the author finds the courseware to be suitable for language learning at the NDUM, and at the same time to expose the cadets to the military history. Although the NLLC focuses on the roles of the Australian Armed Forces (ADF), Malaysia was also part of the Japanese Occupation in the 1940s. It is a reasonable assumption that cadets would need to know other military’s participation during the Japanese ruling in Southeast Asia. Thus, in using the NLLC, the cadets would acquire the language skills and history knowledge concurrently. The NLLC has six sections; each section explains the different aspects of the ADF’s roles in the South Pacific campaign. There is audio explanation that accompanies each page (or screen) on the NLLC; some pages have text to further clarify important points. It can be deduced from the pages that the courseware has incorporated the advantages of audio and visual technologies to keep users engaged. It needs to be emphasized that the activities for language learning were displayed on a separate courseware; this suggests that cadets must minimize the page from this NLLC and click on the activity button on the computer desktop to launch the language activities. Twenty different activities were developed based on the NLLC. The activities conform to the communicative needs of cadets as described earlier, and they are divided into several types
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
of exercises such as multiple-choice questions (comprehension and listening skills), fill-in-theblank/map exercises (information gap, dictation, and writing memos), and drag-and-drop operations (language structure and vocabulary skills). Further, the activities have three levels of difficulty to suit cadets’ levels of language proficiency. It is important to stress that there is no formal assessment that used the NLLC; all activities were conducted during laboratory sessions. However, after each activity, the marks of the cadets would be tabulated and automatically sent to the language teacher. This enables the teacher to see whether cadets have understood the lessons of the day or not. Since cadets used the NLLC for two hours weekly, the other two-hour sessions were conducted in classrooms. The language learning is arranged based on cadets’ progress and experienceseach lesson aims at building cadets’ language skills. The F2F sessions were reserved mainly for essay writing and role-playing activities. In this way, the course is conducted using a mixed-mode environment, F2F sessions, and e-learning technologies.
most respondents felt that the courseware is helpful and innovative, it is essential to discuss some challenges of using an NLLC in a language class at the NDUM. These challenges can be categorized into three broad areas: 1.
2.
the Main Findings The questionnaire distributed to cadets had two parts with 20 main items. The first part asked cadets to choose between five Likert scales (Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree) on issues related to their experiences of using the NLLC. The second part asked cadets to write any comments about their experiences. By and large, cadets found that the NLLC provided a different learning approacha fresh and interesting way to learn the target language. Most importantly, 89% of respondents stated that the NLLC helped them to relate to their future life as military officers, and 93% of respondents found the use of the courseware for English language learning helped them to visualize how the language is used in the military context. While
3.
Technical challenges: Because the language activities are separately developed from the NLLC, cadets found it distracting to minimize and then click on the activity button. Based on the survey, 65% of respondents felt that they lost their concentration when they had to go to the activity button. Further, 67% of respondents said that it was a hassle to go back to the NLLC when they wanted to refer to some information. Some respondents felt that the pages for the activities should match the NLLC in terms of font types, font sizes, and color schemes; 53% of respondents agreed that uniformity between the exercise courseware and the NLLC was important to attract and retain their attention. Theoretical challenges: The original use of the courseware is not for language learning; instead it is for military history lessons. As such, it is obvious that the way the materials are presented and displayed did not give focus on cadets’ needs to learn the target language. For example, 78% of respondents felt that they need to respond to the NLLC directly; if they did not understand a word, running a mouse over the word should provide them with a definition. Also, while 88% of respondents agreed that the NLLC provided an interesting stimulus to listen to the target language, 91% of respondents asserted that some aspects of the audio were difficult to comprehend. This was because the respondents were not only unfamiliar with the native speakers’ speech, but more importantly they were not used to the Australian English accent. Pedagogical challenges: Some cadets commented that learning language using an
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
online courseware did not help them at all. Thirty-seven respondents felt that they still needed a language teacher to help them in their language lessons. While they agreed that the online courseware could be used anywhere and at any time, they pointed out that to acquire skills such as pronunciation, a language teacher was needed to guide the process in F2F sessions. In addition, 86% of respondents agreed that language learning should involve more F2F pair and group work; they claimed that F2F communication was vital in acquiring the target language. This statement is further supported by 79 respondents who felt that learning language using the technologies offered reduced the opportunity to work and communicate with classmates. The findings from the survey suggest that some issues are in need of extra considerations. Although these findings originate from a pilot language learning project at the NDUM, they present significant characteristics of language learning using e-learning technologies, and they lead to three implications discussed in the next section.
help them to learn the target language. Many of the educational courseware programs available that can be obtained commercially are developed in English language. The task of the instructors is to make sure that the materials in the NLLC are appropriate for their students in terms of level of difficulty, cultural sensitivity, and language expressions and jargons. Thirdly, cadets can in fact benefit from using a courseware that uses the English language and at the same time has military contents; cadets can gain knowledge about their future vocations while acquiring the target language. Even if the military contents differ from the normal practices at the cadets’ home countries, they can learn about other countries’ military traditions. These experiences can enrich cadets’ appreciation of their future jobs. In addition, this provides authenticity for language learning and thus increases the motivation for learning because cadets can see how the target language is being used in real-life settings. In short, these implications provide general guidelines for the future use of e-learning technologies at the NDUM. The implications also highlight the future trend of an NLLC and e-learning technologies in a military learning milieu as discussed next.
thE iMpLications
FuturE trEnds
The implications of using an NLLC for the teaching and learning of English language at the NDUM are threefold. Firstly, with appropriate selections and creative modifications of an NLLC, any institutions can cut the cost for new technologies; educators can adapt and share resources worldwide. While not all resources can be shared because of copyright and confidentiality issues, most common content courseware such as military history and cultures can benefit military students in many countries. Secondly, for military cadets at non-speaking English countries, the adaptation of courseware developed in English language can
Finding solutions to the challenges identified earlier has not been easy, because in many ways technological progress had outstripped the capacity of educators to develop pedagogical models that meet current needs (Bracewell, Breuleux, Laferrière, Benoit, & Abdous, 1998, p. 23). As Salomon (1998, p. 7) noted, this dysfunctional gap between technology and pedagogical principles is an unprecedented moment in human history. The traditional custodians of knowledge, the teachers and gurus, now find that the possibilities of technology were outstripping advancements in pedagogical and psychological theory. Yet the
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
need to harness technology by providing guidance, reflective discourse, and feedback is greater than ever (Bracewell et al., 1998, p. 23; Ng’ambi & Johnston, 2006, p. 246). Critically important for this chapter is that the Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF), the future employer of the NDUM graduates, and the university itself may need to consider various aspects of a modern military learning where e-learning technologies can effectively and efficiently help future military officers to learn. Furthermore, the Malaysian government, along the lines of its Vision 2020,7 requires the MAF to capitalize on advances in ICT. This is to help foster knowledge-based armed forces. Accordingly, the former Chief of the Defense Forces8 stressed the importance of technology and technologically adept forces to face the challenges of the 21st century, which come in the form of traditional and asymmetrical threats. In the advent of ICT and IT, there is an urgent need for the MAF to generate new approaches and tighten its military strategies by incorporating ICT and IT. This is a crucial step and the elite military university, the NDUM, has the biggest challenge to prepare its future military leaders with the right skills, including English language competency. Because of the pressure by the parent services of the NDUM graduates, it is inevitable that elearning technologies for language acquisition will be one of the most important agendas in the next few years. To prepare for this shift in language learning, many aspects should be considered by the authorities at the NDUM. Firstly, language teachers or instructors must be given appropriate training to facilitate cadets’ language learning. They should know their new roles in using elearning technologies; they no longer have the sole power in language learning classes because cadets need to assume more responsibilities for their language acquisition. Secondly, the institution needs to design and develop their language courseware because of three factors: (a) to suit the socio-cultural background of cadets; (b) to suit the language requirement of cadets, which
0
is different from other civilian students; and (c) to ensure that a courseware must have both the learning and activity materials. Thus, based on all these factors, the ready-made courseware may not appropriately serve the military university. In addition, besides sending teaching staff for critical training in instructional design, the parent services of cadets should also be actively involved in the planning and monitoring of the learning process so that their requirements for cadets’ language proficiency are met. Thirdly, the combination of other emerging technologies such as Web-based learning provides opportunity to create a blended language learning and teaching atmosphere that is highly interactive, meaningful, and student centered (Kirkley & Kirkley, 2005, p. 42). This implies that when the language learning environment is technologically supported and student centered, cadets get more opportunities to use language in real-life situations. Coupled with a language courseware that is also utilizing authentic (military) content, cadets are exposed to their future career concurrently. It is also a practical assumption that digital technologies will not replace the traditional method of language learning. Therefore, there is a need to promote a balanced and mixed approach between e-learning and F2F sessions for language acquisition.
concLusion While other institutions have experimented with a proper language courseware and may be successful at that, the NDUM cannot simply jump on the bandwagon without considering its unique learning environment. In deciding whether to use or adapt any language courseware, the administration and language instructors must consider several concerns ranging from financial to technical constraints. However, this chapter has demonstrated that an NLLC can still be used to teach the target language given appropriate modifications and creative implementations. Only
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
when the NDUM has adequate resources can a thorough need analysis be conducted. A need analysis for e-learning technologies does not have to be necessarily for language learning only; the analysis can cover every academic and military course at the military university. To conclude, the task of stimulating creative and reflective learning and thinking in the military training institutions of the world is no less important than generating these learning environments in civilian schools, colleges, and universities. If Plato’s ideas about ‘guardianship’ are still relevant today, then these creative impulses are even more important in the military sector than in the civilian sector. If ‘guardianship’ has been replaced by more cynical military motives including domestic oppression, international imperialism, superpower ambitions, and oligarchic tendencies, then the need for a creative learning environment in the armed forces takes on even greater importance. It is a reasonable hope that creative forces are also forces for building a better and less violent world. For all these reasons, providing cadets with viable language learning options such as e-learning technologies can help them to become more communicatively competent, and thus more understanding in dealing with global security challenges.
acknoWLEdgMEnt This chapter uses the CD-ROM developed for the Department of Defense (DoD) of the Australian government. It is under the assumption that the author must not make profit from the courseware, and the author only uses it for educational purposes. Any unfavorable findings in the survey are not due to the courseware; the courseware was not designed for a language learning instrument. The author would also like to acknowledge the NDUM and the cadets who were involved in the pilot language learning project.
rEFErEncEs Alonso, F., Lopez, G., Manrique, D., & Vines, J.M. (2005). An instructional model for Webbased learning education with blended learning process approach. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(2), 217-235. Australian Government. (2002). Military history South Pacific campaign. CD-ROM, Department of Defense and Catalyst Interactive, Australia. Bates, A.W. (2001, April). The continuing evolution of ICT capacity and the implications for education in commonwealth countries. Commonwealth of Learning: Virtual Education Follow Up Study. Beckett, H. (2004). Blend skills for a better class of e-learning. Computer Weekly, (January 20). Blinco, K., Mason, J., McLean, N., & Wilson, S. (2004, July 19). Trends and issues in e-learning infrastructures development. Retrieved November 24, 2004, from http://www.educationau.edu. au/papers/altilab04-trends-issues.pdf Bonk, C.J., & Dennen, V.P. (2003). Frameworks for research, design, benchmarks, training and pedagogy in Web-based distance education. In M.G. Moore & W.G. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of distance education (pp. 329-346). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Bracewell, R., Breuleux, A., Laferrière, T., Benoit, J., & Abdous, M. (1998). The emerging contribution of on-line resources and tools to classroom learning and teaching. Burnaby, Canada: TeleLearning Network. Carter, D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. The ESP Journal, 2, 131-137. Gan, S.L.(2000). IT & education in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Longman. Henner Stanchina, C., & Riley, P. (1978). Aspects of autonomous learning. ELT Documents 103: Individualisation in Language Learning, 75-97.
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Holder, L., & Murray, W. (1998). Prospects for military education. Joint Force Quarterly, 18(Spring), 81-90.
Forces (MAF) opening address/speech. Proceedings of the 72nd Parade of the Malaysian Armed Forces Day Celebration.
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centred approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ng’ambi, D., & Johnston, K. (2006). An ICTmediated constructivist approach for increasing academic support and teaching critical thinking skills. Educational Technology & Society, 9(3), 244-253.
Hymes, D. (1985). On communicative competence. In J.B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin. Juhary, J. (2001). E-learning in Malaysia: A pilot study. In J. Mukundan (Ed.), Reflections, visions & dreams of practice (pp. 175-181). Kuala Lumpur: ICT Learning Sdn. Bhd. Jupp, T.C., & Hodlin, S. (1975). Industrial English: An example of theory and practice in functional language teaching. London: Heinemann. Kirkley, S.E., & Kirkley, J.R. (2005). Creating next generation blended learning environment using mixed reality, video games and simulations. TechTrends, 49(3), 42-53. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and principles in language teaching. New York: Oxford University Press. Lim, T.S., & Ndubisi, N.O. (2003). E-learning adoption: Initial concerns and excitements. Proceedings of the ASAIHL Conference 2003 (pp. 25-32), Center for Corporate and International Relations, UMS Sabah. Loveless, A., Devoogd, G.L., & Bohlin, R.M. (2001). Something old, something new…: Is pedagogy affected by ICT? In A. Loveless & V. Ellis (Eds.), ICT, pedagogy and the curriculum (pp. 63-83). London: Routledge/Falmer. Marginson, S. (2004). Don’t leave me hanging on the anglophone: The potential for on-line distance higher education in the Asia-Pacific region. Higher Education Quarterly, 58(2-3), 74-113. (Admiral Tan Sri Dato) Mohd Nor, M.A. (2005, September). The chief of the Malaysian Armed
Peirce, W. (2003). Strategies for teaching thinking and promoting intellectual development in on-line classes. In S. Reisman, J.G. Flores, & D. Edge (Eds.), Electronic learning communities: Issues and practices (pp. 301-347). Charlotte, NC: Information Age. Plato. (1998). The republic (trans. by R. Waterfield). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Prabhu, N. (1983). Procedural syllabuses. Proceedings of the RELC Seminar, Singapore. Ravichandran, T. (2000). Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL): In the perspective of interactive approachadvantages and apprehensions. Proceedings of the National Seminar on CALL Conference (pp. 82-89), Chennai, India. Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roschelle, J., Pea, R., Hoadley, C., Gordin, D., & Means, B. (2001). Changing how and what children learn in school with computer-based technologies. The Future of Children, 10(2), 76-101. Salomon, G. (1998, May). Novel constructivist learning environments and novel technologies: Some issues to be concerned with. Proceedings of the 2nd International Harvard Conference on Internet and Society. Stiehm, J.H. (2002). U.S. Army War College: Military education in a democracy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
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Sulong, A.D., Abu Bakar, K., Ibrahim, D.Z., & Embi, M.A. (2002). Students’ perceptions on online learning in Malaysian universities. VirTEC Journal, 2(2), 51-60. Trinidad, S. (2003). Working with technology-rich learning environments: Strategies for success. In S.M. Khine & D. Fisher (Eds.), Technology-rich learning environments (pp. 97-113). Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific. Woodill, G. (2004). Where is the learning in elearning? A critical analysis of the e-learning industry (white paper). Retrieved January 4, 2007, from http://www.operitel.com Yunus, A.G. (1995). The Malaysian Armed Forces and Vision 2020. In A.R.A. Baginda & R. Mahmood (Eds.), Malaysia’s defense & foreign policies (pp. 1-9). Kuala Lumpur: Pelanduk.
learning. However, some scholars use it interchangeably with language learning. Military Learning Environment: An environment that combines academic and military pursuit concurrently. The academic training is also conducted in a military milieu. Non-Language Learning Courseware (NLLC): A courseware originally designed and developed for purposes other than language learning. However, with creative modifications, an NLLC can help students to acquire the target language. Target Language: The language that non-native speakers are in the process of learning.
EndnotEs 1
kEY tErMs Courseware: Computer software and associated materials designed for educational or training purposes. It can be in a CD-ROM format or networked.
2
3
E-Learning Technologies: E-learning refers to computer-enhanced learning; it promotes learning anywhere, at any time, and at students’ own paces using the Internet, CD-ROM, and Web-based materials. E-learning can also be in a synchronous or asynchronous format. There is currently a range of technologies able to support the pedagogic and instructional strategies for e-learning, including authoring tools and programs.
4
Guardians: In the military context, this refers to a group of people who guard and protect a nation; military personnel.
5
Language Acquisition: When language is learned through interaction with the environment, rather than being taught directly; unconscious
Guardians are mentioned throughout Plato’s Republic, but the focus on them is in two chapters titled “Primary Education for the Guardians” and “The Guardians’ Life and Duties.” The author is a communication technology lecturer at the NDUM. The author obtained the CD-ROM when she participated in the Simulation Technology Conference 2006 at Melbourne, organized by the Simulation Industry Association of Australia. The author was assisted by an instructional designer and a language instructor in preparing, designing, and developing a simple language activity courseware. Their participation in this project was voluntary. Dreamweaver 4 and Macro Flash 5 were used to develop the activities. Vision 2020 is the brainchild of the former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohammad. It envisions Malaysia as a fully developed nation by the year 2020, developed not only economically but also politically, socially, and spiritually.
A Non-Language Learning Courseware and its Challenges
6
7
See Bonk and Dennen (2003, p. 330); Peirce (2003, p. 304); Trinidad (2003, p. 98); Loveless, Devoogd, and Bohlin (2001, p. 79); Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin, and Means, (2001, p. 79). Vision 2020 has become the guide for nation building in Malaysia. Through the nine challenges presented, no discussion and analysis is given to the importance of the armed forces; however it is assumed that the tenth
8
unwritten challenge is “the defense of nation and the security of the people” (Yunos, 1995, p. 3). This is because without the political and economic stability, which has a direct relation to military capability, all the other nine challenges cannot be realized. The speech delivered by the Chief of the Defense Forces, Admiral Tan Sri Dato Mohd Nor, in conjunction with the 72nd Parade of the Malaysian Armed Forces Day Celebration, September 16, 2005.
Chapter XI
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development Marcus Vinicius dos Santos Ryerson University, Canada Isaac Woungang Ryerson University, Canada Moses Nyongwa University of Manitoba CUSB, Canada
abstract The increasing importance of e-learning has been a boosting element for the emergence of Internet-based educational tools. As we move into the information age, tremendous efforts are made in the development of new information and communication technologies for educational purposes. The ultimate goal is to facilitate e-learning methodologies and acquisition. The chapter’s contribution is in the area of open source software for technology-enhanced learning. First, we report on the capabilities of Pliant, a novel software framework for Web-based courseware development. Pliant’ design features upon which e-learning capabilities are built are presented, showing that Pliant has some advantages over existing software, including flexibility, efficiency, and universal usability. A case study of the use of Pliant in the project “Multilanguage Database for Localization” developed at the CUSB School of Translation is presented. Second, we present Academia,3 a Pliant-based courseware development Web portal, and its use in translation studies at CUSB.
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A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
introduction The widespread availability of Web-based educational systems and standard-based courseware systems, and their deployment in educational institutions, including educational community as a whole, has raised a clear concern regarding their “universal usability” scope (Hochheiser & Shneiderman, 2001). A thorough analysis of the situation and informal discussions with “online teachers” and teacher educators show that Web-based educational tools are quite far from achieving their main goalthat is, being used by a wide distance audience in a cost-effective and educationally sound manner, and in particular, endowing Web literacy to both young, old, novice, expert, and end users with less computing background. This chapter reports on the capabilities of Pliant, a high-level and flexible programming language and Web development framework. It shows how Pliant can be used both for high-level programming and e-learning purposes, while meeting educational and software-oriented expectations. Academia, an example of an open-source, lightweight, Web-based courseware tool fully implemented in Pliant, is presented. This portal has been designed to help instructors quickly create, post, manage, and deliver Web-based courses and other e-learning resources. A case study of the usability of Academia at a Canadian institution is presented. This Pliant-driven application is meant to show the efficiency of the Pliant’s framework as a supporting tool for e-learning methodologies and acquisition. The chapter is organized as follows. First, we briefly introduce the main streams driving the development of Web-based educational tools, and situate Pliant in that context. We then present an overview of the Pliant approach in terms of language constructshere, we present our view of the Pliant architecture, and its underlying design features upon which e-learning capabilities can be supported. Next, we discuss various e-learning capabilities of Pliant, while highlighting their
relationships to some of the main topics of this book. These include: a.
b.
c.
A description of Pliant as a tool for consolidating e-learning methodologies/ acquisitionhere, elements for exploration, data management, teaching, communications, and users’ management are presented; A description of Pliant as a tool for learning programming languages and Web programminga case study of the use of Pliant in a project entitled “Multilanguage Database for Localization,” developed at the CUSB School of Translation, is also presented; and A description of Academiahere, our focus is on showing how this portal has been used as a tool for supporting translation studies at the CUSB School of Translation.
We also introduce Co-op Web,4 a Pliant-based Web portal developed at Ryerson University, Canada, used to administer the Cooperative Education and Internship Program. Some shortcomings of our framework and how these can be addressed as future research themes are then offered, in the perspective of enhancing e-learning methodologies and acquisition. Future developments of our framework are also highlighted, and finally, our conclusion synthesizes our discussion and presents our final remarks on Pliant’s e-learning features.
background Web-based Educational tools The exponentially increasing number of educational courses being offered over the Web has spurred a growing industry of software tools to assist in the creation of Web-based curriculum and in performing class management tasks. For this
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
reason, Web-based educational tools and standard courseware systems are two main research and development streams in the field of e-learning. The development of these systems can be categorized in two complementary streams. The first stream is based on the traditional approach of “hardwiring” high-quality educational material items in the course contentthat is, the learning content used by the student resides in the system. Wellknown examples of course management systems built upon this approach are Blackboard (2002) and WebCT (2002). The second stream is based on an adaptive approach, where a model of goals, preferences, and knowledge of each individual student is built and then used throughout the interaction with the student in order to adapt to the needs of that particular student. In this case, the learning content does not reside in the system, but in other distributed servers. Independently of the approach used, the majority of Web-based educational systems are based on technologies developed in the areas of hypermedia and intelligent tutoring systems (Brusilovsky, Stock, & Strapparava, 2000; Brusilovsky, 2001). The Pliantbased educational tool introduced in this chapter falls within the first stream. Pliant is a standalone and Web-based language, which encapsulates both the “human” and “computer” levels of thinking and coding programs. This unique privilege makes it an exceptional language, compared to any other existing one. It demonstrates that Pliant has a higher level of flexibility, adaptability, and integration, providing for higher software development capabilities and enhancements. Thanks to Pliant’s HTTP (hypertext transfer protocol) server power, including server-side rendering, any mainstream Web browser should always be enough to access Pliant’s documents, and by extension, Pliant e-learning materials. These features can be used to develop standalone Web portals for teaching/educational purposes, or to improve the current state-of-the-art e-learning development tools, while maintaining educational expectations, and economical, time constraints, and human resources limitations.
Main Focus oF thE chaptEr an overview of the pliant approach The Pliant project5 was initiated in 1984 by Hubert Tonneau (Tonneau, De Mendez, & Santos, 1984). In his analysis of numerous software developments, Tonneau realized 1.
2.
The lack of coherence between applications, libraries, and so forth often required a large amount of glue between relevant pieces of code. It seemed impossible to conciliate highlevel constructions allowing improved expressiveness and conciseness in specific contexts, with low-level adaptability allowing efficiency and optimized handling of exceptional cases.
From these considerations, the introduction of a new, efficient, and multi-level language with a flexible syntax and structure, which could be adapted to particular application contexts, seemed appropriate. The Pliant language is thus oriented towards efficiency, understood in terms of computational resources, as well as programming adaptability (De Mendez, De Mendez, Santos, & Tonneau, 2000). The main design structures of the language can be described as modularity, dynamic compilation, and full reflexivity, allowing for the redefinition of the syntactical, compilation, and code optimization rules. New application services have then been integrated at the language level (good examples are scheduling primitives and database management), hence suppressing usual gaps and interfaces between applications. From this point of view, an application is seen as a set of libraries, or even as a language extension possibly introducing its own syntactical changes. These applications may also be gathered into a coherent execution context, leading to an actual operating system, called Fullpliant (whose source code is a size of 4.2 Mb only). This framework can be
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
executed in two different ways: as a program executing various servers (on Linux or Windows platforms), or as an operating system lying on top of a Linux kernel. Pliant comes with many pre-built servers including DNS (Domain Name System), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3), HTTP, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), LPD (Line Printer Daemon protocol), remote execution, secured channel, and a database engine. The HTTP multi-site Web server provides the standard application interface. A powerful server-side dynamic page mechanism has been introduced, on which existing applications (Forum, photography correction and high-fidelity printing, Web-mail, etc.) rely, as well as additional HTTP-related servers (such as Web-based Distributed Authoring and Versioning–WebDAV). The limitation of the HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)/Javascript scheme has led to the introduction of an enhanced extended Pliant browser, valuable as a state-of-the-art user interface for possibly distributed application software. Being used in an industrial context since 2000, Fullpliant is also concerned with security issues. The transparent integration in the dynamic page extension of signature and right verification mechanisms obviously demonstrates that security
Figure 1. Pliant architecture
may be achieved without unnecessary additional programming complexity. Pliant (De Mendez et al., 2000) may thus be seen as a triad (see Figure 1): (1) the Pliant programming language and lowlevel libraries, (2) an Internet applications suite, and (3) the Fullpliant operating system. The Pliant programming language is human oriented, that is, its syntax is trivial and strongly typed. Its expressiveness allows the user to program in a high abstraction level. The language is also reflexive, allowing the user to change the way Pliant parses and compiles expressions. In other words, users have a high degree of freedom to redefine the Pliant language itself, should they dislike a particular feature of the language or want to extend it (De Mendez, 1998). In addition to these meta-programming6 capabilities of Pliant, the framework includes other modern programming principles, such as static typing, dynamic objects, lazy evaluation, reflective compiling, reference counting garbage collection, built-in debugger utility, scalability from low-level systems programming to high-level control languages, and an easy-following syntax. The Pliant compiler is dynamic and efficient, producing code, on-the-fly, as efficient as the best C compilers. The Pliant Internet applications suite consists of a set of
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
servers, a database engine, data encryption tools, and a handful of Web application tools, such as the HTTP server configuration tool, an online forum, Web mail, and printer configuration tool, to name a few. In the core of the suite is the Pliant HTTP server. It is in charge of hosting and dynamically translating Pliant Web pages, written in a subset of the Pliant language called the page format into HTML. The Fullpliant operating system (to be used by advanced users) has two main goals: facilitate the system administration of a set of computers, and make it easy to automate repetitive tasks. It appears from the above description that the two key design features of Pliant, upon which e-learning capabilities can be developed and supported, are the Pliant’ intrinsic meta-programming constructs and the Pliant’ ability to accommodate several multi-site Web servers.
and tools to help manage e-learning. Under this concept, the e-learning process is considered as a two-level interconnected process: the e-learning environment and the e-learning activities. The e-learning environment is further broken down into five different phases, each with its own set of tasks. These are: 1.
2.
3.
4.
pliant’ E-Learning capabilities E-learning can be defined as the use of network technology to design, deliver, select, administer, and adapt learning activities. Here, two basic types of technological solutions can be used: synchronous model (such as audio-video streaming and videoconference), and asynchronous model (such as hypertext publication). Existing e-learning management systems such as WebCT and Blackboard incorporate both models and corresponding services in different ways. However, due to certain limitations inherent to system stability, troubleshooting, cost-reduction, file format accommodations, Web browsers, customization, and others, none of these platforms includes a support to help manage the dynamics of e-learning activities. In an attempt to overcome these disadvantages, studies of management issues in e-learning environments has become critical for the success of Internet-based educational services. A relatively recent work on the management of e-learning environments has shown the effectiveness of using the workflow concepts (E-Workflow, 2003), techniques,
5.
The conceptual phase: Course subject, target audience, contents, budget organization, and so forth; The planning phase: Details for the establishment and preparation of a specific instance of an e-learning action; The execution phase: Period of time during which the students are active in the learning process; and The procedural evaluation phase: An analysis of how the e-learning fulfilled its aims; additionally, the workflow e-learning environment model incorporates features such as improved efficiency, better process control (i.e., standardization of working methods), improved users service (i.e., greater predictability in levels of response to users), flexibility (i.e., ease of redesigning in line with changing needs); and The business process improvement: Streamlining and simplification of processes.
The e-learning activities are concerned with the monitoring of actions and interactions among the above described phases. They are controlled by means of learning objects. The efficiency of an e-learning management system using workflow is measured by its capability in reusing learning objects. In this respect, workflow software and XML (Extensible Markup Language) are viable tools for describing learning objects. Any attempt to provide implementation techniques that could result in promoting the deployment of reusable contents or learning objects for e-learning purpose, while enhancing the integration capability
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
of its underlying software platform, is therefore highly desirable for both the providers of educational services and the e-learning research community. Pliant seems to be a suitable candidate able to fulfill these requirements because of the versatility of the language constructs.
pliant as a tool for consolidating E-Learning Management systems platforms Any e-learning management system is driven by its underlying software platform (i.e., the set of programs that provide functionality to the application). At a human level, programs appear as algorithms, that is, a list of tasks, each being expressed by a single word or by a full sentence with subordinate clauses referring to subtasks. At a high (symbolic) level, a program is stated as a list of expressions. Each expression is a piece of raw data characterized by its semantics. At a low (i.e., code) level, a program is a set of instructions, where each instruction is a function call with a set of parameters. At this level, no ambiguity should remain. A programming language is a bridge between the human way of thinking of an algorithm and the computer way of coding a program. Prior languages, including those on which the existing e-learning management systems are built, focus either on the semantics, but fail to be efficient at code level, or on efficiency, hence failing to be intuitive and easy to use by a human. To our knowledge, Pliant is the first language that makes the “single language” option a possible one by acting as a bridge between the aforementioned two levels. We assert that Pliant is the best one available, because it addresses this bridging goal at the highest level of flexibility and the best level of efficiency. This ability to write all code using a “single language” means better internal communication, time-saving improvements, load sharing, and shorter code. It also means reasonable scalability, adaptive user interface, easy
0
switching from a closed software-like model to an open software-like model, more flexibility, customization, development power, strong design and high-quality program, low cost, dynamic highly reflexive compiler, less hardware limitations, adaptive hardware, and so forth. The list of goods is long. In order words, Pliant tries to bring as much expression power as possible, without impacting low-level code performance. These capabilities allow Pliant to be seen as a kit that greatly simplifies the distribution of software. In addition, Pliant can also offer e-learning potential, such as Internet-based learning and didactical requirements. As a developed Web technology, Pliant is an Internet suite containing material needed to start an Internet site, including a database engine, a forum, a graphical toolkit, dynamic pages, and mail support. Therefore, it provides a suitable multimedia support to teachers and students, just as other proven e-learning systems, but with the added flexibility and adaptability of the underlying software and hardware platforms as pointed out previously. Pliant provides the choice to select elements according to the needs of teachers and students, and independently of their program of study. These elements can be divided into three interrelated groups, classified as: (1) elements for exploration and data management, (2) elements for teaching and communications, (3) and elements for users’ management.
Elements for Exploration and data Management Pliant allows for a selection of various types of advanced Web browsersNetscape, Mozilla, Internet Explorer, Konquerorand is open to other better ones available. The choice of a browser depends on the security, portability, and computer power requirements. It also provides various types of servers suitable for Internetworking, such as HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, POP3, Web mail, backup system, files browser, database engine, and so forth.
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
Elements for teaching and communications Pliant can be used as a tool for enhancing course management systems. It provides a flexible software support for a variety of learning processes such as the distribution of documents and communications through the Internet. Pliant’s online forum application provides asynchronous communication between instructors and students. The simple structure of the language allows one to easily create course Web sites on which one can post course notes for anytime access by students. With some training in Pliant programming, novices can quickly move on to the development of their own handy, tailor-made teaching tools, such as course assessments, online tests, and an online grade book. To illustrate the above points, we consider a simple case of a typical course Web page written in Pliant, and its results as shown in Figure 2. Several interface options are provided: 1.
Access to course documents, in this case exemplified by a link to the course management form and the course work, but can be a list of documents, such as readings, lecture notes, schedules, syllabi, course management forms, organization of course projects, priorities, and details, and so forth. It also supports the import and export capabilities
2.
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by means of inserted Web site links, allowing the instructors to gain access to a complete set of teaching tools provided by academic publishers, or to create a package of the course content that can later be imported into another course. Course announcements, a key place to put daily, weekly, or monthly time-sensitive course information such as deadline changes, clarifications, remainder of upcoming class chats, schedules, important events and dates, and so forth. Forum is a Web portal that behaves as a virtual classroom and lightweight chat. It enables users to participate in an online collaboration with students and instructors. As a discussion board, messages are posted to the board, and every permitted user is able to read the messages and reply to them. Like a bulletin board, one copy of the message exists, and only the course designer has the right to delete the messages. A forum is a tool that fosters communication and collaboration as a way to enhance course material. Several forums can be created simultaneously, providing for a frame for team working. Each forum is assigned a thread (i.e., a discussion session) so that all replies to a given message are contained within the same thread. Within a forum, a messaging program is implemented that allows one to
Figure 2. Typical course Web page in Pliant
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
send e-mail messages to the users who are members of the forum, and to keep track of those messages. As a collaboration tool, a forum allows its users to enter into a realtime discussion with instructors, students, and colleagues; to access the Web; and to engage in question-and-answer sessions. The option of considering grouping student lists into several small groups can also be applied to keep the conversation manageable due to the synchronous nature of the discussion forum panel. It is important to point out that collaboration sessions throughout forums are recorded by means of subjects and messages. The leader of the session (course designer) must start the recorder to create an archive.
Elements for users Management In an e-learning prospective, the user management capabilities of Pliant is mostly reflected on the ways that Pliant enables the instructor to manage the users in their course sites. This involves the following types of setting privileges: enrolling users in the course, which means that the user must already have an account; removing users from the course; and creating groups of users within a course with the right to modify groups. The instructor has the option of giving the group access to its own private discussion board, virtual classroom, group file exchange, or group e-mail.
pliant as a tool for Learning programming Languages and Web programming Due to the Pliant’s meta-programming features, Pliant can be customized for learning and teaching purposes. Standard Pliant applications are browser basedthat is, the programmer can host his or her Pliant program in the Pliant HTTP server and then interact with it using a Web
browser. Browser-based Pliant programs have file extension .page and are written using Pliant’s Web page programming instructions, called the .page format, an alternative to HTML/XML. Throughout the aforementioned interaction, the HTTP server works as follows: it keeps listening to requests from clients (i.e., other browsers on the Web); once it gets a request for a page, it translates the respective .page Pliant program into HTML and JavaScript code and sends it to the client (browser). If the client requests a plain HTML page hosted in the server, then the server simply sends it as it is. Hence, for the client, there is no difference; it is plain HTML/JavaScript coming from the server side. If the requested page does not point to a .page or static HTML file, then the Pliant HTTP server recursively searches for a file called virtual_tree.page in the path of the requested URL. This Pliant concept, called virtual tree mechanism, provides an easy mapping of data sets to URLs. Without it, HTTP options would be useda not as clever and convenient solution. We relied heavily on such contrivance to implement one of Academia’s7 subsystemsthe course Web content renderer. To illustrate this simplicity and power of the Pliant language combined with the HTTP server, we now present short examples of Web applications written in Pliant. The Pliant program presented in Figure 3 illustrates how easy it is to write a simple static Web page with a title and some text. It shows a simplified HTML code generated by the Pliant HTTP server. The client will see this application as shown in Figure 3 (right side). As illustrated, Pliant has the capability of generating and caching online graphics when server-side font rendering has been requested. The command title “A Pliant page” produces a page title; the command text, whose argument is a string, outputs text. Pliant provides a plethora of commands for writing Web pages. The interested reader should check the Pliant Documentation Initiative site (De Mendez et al., 2000). The next example illustrates how Pliant can
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
Figure 3. A Pliant program and its resulting Web page
be used to generate dynamic Web pages, such as a Web page for converting currency from Euros to Canadian Dollars. The programmer writes a page as follows:
2.
title “Euro to Dollar” var Float euro := 1 input “Amount: “ euro button “Press me” title “The answer is… text (string euro*1.2)
These features, combined with the metaprogramming ones, make Pliant a language of choice for teaching the programming concepts. Because the purpose of this chapter is not on “experiencing programming languages,” we will not elaborate much on Pliant’s language specifications referred to the main concepts, user interface, data types, meta-programming optimizers, and other programming features. Interested readers can find detail information at http://old.fullpliant. org/pliant/language/. In short, beginners can use Pliant as an interpreted language by writing small pieces of code
The user types in the amount in Euros he or she wants to convert (left of Figure 4). When the user clicks on the button, a new page, whose code is defined in the shadow of the button (i.e., indented with respect to the button instruction), will present the result of converting the input value from Euros to dollars (right of Figure 4). Notice that the function call (string euro*1.2) transforms the numerical result of the expression euro*1.2 into a string. For programming languages development purposes, Pliant’s default syntax is lighter than others because of the following main features: 1.
3.
The ‘:’ operator replaces some extra parentheses, and There is no ‘,’ operator to separate the parameters of a function.
Figure 4. Dynamic Web page in Pliant
Many parentheses are implied by indentation,
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
and running them directly. Experienced programmers can run Pliant as a compiled languagethat is, by writing efficient programs while using most high-level programming features of objectoriented languages and the expression power of logical programming languages. Pliant is also an ideal linker, in the sense that one can write different pieces of a project in different programming styles with all parts interacting.
case study on the use of pliant in the “Multilanguage database for Localization” project In today’s world of global operations and international technical communication, the Internet is fast becoming the primary port of call for information, education, training, and services. Consequently, more and more development initiatives go beyond local borders. Experienced professionals understand that to be effective, training must be done in the right language and with culturally appropriate resources and methodologies. In response, Canadian businesses, corporations, and universities have quickly become aware of the benefits of localization as one of the boosted agents shaping the new economy. Localization can be defined as the process of taking a product and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to a target locale (country, region, and language) where it is used and sold. This multi-layered process requires programming, linguistic skills, translation skills, cultural knowledge, and most importantly, an e-learning development platform support. It has been recognized as an important part of the educational program in Translation and Computer Science schools at Canadian universities and abroad, where students obtain basic education and training (both onsite and Web based) in both computational methods and localization techniques. The increasing importance of terminology banks and translation memories in the translation process, a sub-component of the localization
process, has created a need for developing language-based repositories for the purpose of using them in the localization training and practices. As a response to this deficiency, the “Multilanguage Database for Localization” project (Nyongwa & Aubin, 2004) was launched at the CUSB School of Translation, in collaboration with Ryerson University. The objective of this research is to develop a comprehensive database framework of languages which can efficiently support the localization training and practices. One subcomponent of this project entitled “Enhancement of the Pliant Language Database Engine” has been to investigate how the Pliant system, although not originally meant for language acquisition, can be used as a benchmark tool to support the user interface design of the aforementioned database framework, at least for the online localization training portion. In this context, thanks to its meta-programming feature, the Pliant language design has been altered and successfully tested to allow for customized content-building instructions. These later features were then used through Academia—a Pliant-based courseware tool,8 to support the localization training in various capacities. Two scenarios are described later in this chapter to illustrate some of these capacities. The first scenario, described in the subsection entitled “Case Study of a Course Delivery,” discusses a particular instance in the teaching of the “translation process” portion of the course in localization. The second scenario, described in the subsection entitled “Pliant System, Translation and CALL,” illustrates how the “terminology” component of the localization course is taught using Academia.
usability of pliant in teaching and project Management contexts To further assess the usability of Pliant in teaching and project management contexts, we have implemented two Pliant-based applications. The first one is Academia, a courseware development
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
Web portal, and the second one is Co-op Web, a management Web portal. In the sequel, we describe the first application in-depth, followed by a brief description of the second one. The reason is that the second application does not directly serve the purpose of this book.
Why academia? For instructors to carry on the mundane activity of setting course Web pages, two options are possible: design new course Web sites from scratch or resort to a courseware tool. However, such a tool is usually expensive and complex. The source code is usually proprietary, that is, it does not allow end users to further customize the code to suit their needs. Academia can address these deficiencies. The reader may then ask why one would use Academia and not another well-known courseware tool that provides every single feature an instructor can possibly fancy. Our answer: because as a Pliant-based application, end users can build on Academia’s design and source code to develop more advanced and customized courseware materials, since there is no need to resort to different languages (as traditional approaches do) to develop applications that involve dynamic pages and databases.
academia Features Courseware products such as Blackboard (2002) and WebCT (2002) will take HTML documents, along with other media and resources, and quickly organize them into a framework specifically designed for delivery of Web-based courses and other learning resources. Frequently, they are used to complement traditional lecture-based programs. Courseware products are helpful to educators who are unfamiliar with programming, allowing easy integration of password protection, interactive activities, tracking of student progress, and so forth. Overall, the interface is fairly
simple for the designer, as many use templates and wizards extensively to assist in course content creation. Step-by-step guides support creation of a range of components, from the course homepage, to bulletin boards, to quizzes and marking systems. When compared to the aforementioned courseware tools, Academia is a much ‘lighter’ application in the sense that it provides only the essential features required to set up a simple Web page for a course. Such a Web page may include links to a locally hosted copy of the course syllabus, assignment descriptions, instructor’s lecture notes, and other materials.
academia’s user interface design The design concept behind Academia’s user interface was: it should be as simple as possible, but not simpler. In the first stage of the design process, a list of the functionality required of the system to accomplish the goals of the project and the potential needs of the users was prepared. From the instructor, manager, and students’ viewpoints, this list included the major functionalities illustrated in the user-case diagrams presented in Figure 5. In the second stage of the design process, an analysis of the potential users of the system was carried out through discussion with instructors who already had previous experience with other computer-based teaching tools, with instructors who had no previous experience with such systems, and with university students attending courses taught by the authors of this chapter. Typical questions presented to these individuals were of the sort: • • • •
What would the user want the system to do? How would the system fit in with the user’s normal workflow or daily activities? How technically savvy is the user and what similar systems does the user already use? What interface look-and-feel styles appeal to the user?
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
The answers were then compiled and crosschecked with the functionality list obtained in the respective analysis, resulting in a new minimal functionality set and overall look-and-feel style. In the next stage, a site flow of the system that showed the hierarchy of the pages was developed. Next, prototyping and usability tests (Nielsen, 1993) were performed. In this stage, a proofof-concept Web application was developed that showed the basic functionality set and content. Fast prototyping of the system was facilitated by the intrinsic features of the Pliant programming language. In regards to usability tests, the so-called talk aloud protocol (Wang, 2000), where you ask the user to talk about their thoughts during the experience, was performed via personal interviews with a small set of users—only instructors who volunteered to serve as guinea pigs during this tests—or ‘looking over their shoulder’ while they attempted to perform specific tasks with the system. The ultimate goal of the Pliant software is “universal usability.” As such, the Pliant user interface, or equivalently, the communication channel between the user and the functional elements of the system, has been intentionally made text mode based. This allows the user to focus on the task at hand and reduce the amount of overhead knowledge required to communicate effectively with Pliant and its underlying e-learning system (Academia). The function of the Pliant interface subsystem resumes in assigning user input to internal representations of Pliant’s application and internal representations of the application to output that is comprehensible to the user. Thanks to the meta-programming features of the Pliant language and its reflective architecture, we believe that Pliant is compliant with the CALL aspects (i.e., the teaching and learning processes) with respect to online learning.
academia’s system-Level capabilities These are presented here by means of use cases and sequence diagrams. Such notations are commonly used in the area software engineering for describing a system without revealing or implying any particular implementation of the system (Booch, Rumnaugh, & Jacobson, 2005). The use case (left of Figure 5) presents Academia’s subsystems and its actors.9 The system administrator actor uses the system manager subsystem to keep track of the instructors registered in the system and the courses they teach. Instructors use the course Web content subsystem to set up the Web page of their courses. Once a course Web page has been configured, students can then visit the respective Web page, which is dynamically created by the course Web page renderer.
course Web content Manager subsystem Figure 5 (right side) depicts the course Web content manager subsystems. The student login manager subsystem allows the instructor to upload and manage the student’s login access to the system. The assignment submission manager subsystem allows the instructor to view currently online submitted assignments and to download a compressed file containing all the assignment submissions. The course Web content configurator subsystem allows the instructor to interactively configure a template design for the course Web page. The instructor can define his or her contact information, such as office number, office hours, lecture times, and locations; upload course syllabi, assignment descriptions, and lecture notes to the server; add an announcement board to the course Web page; and set up an online discussion board for the course.
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
Figure 5. Academia system-level architecture
course Web page renderer The course Web page configurator subsystem stores the configuration settings of a course Web page template design in a database. This database indexes courses by their term, year, code, and section number. The course Web page renderer uses this information and Pliant’s virtual tree mechanism (explained earlier) to retrieve and display the Web content stored for a particular course. More specifically, suppose that an instructor whose username is john.doe has already configured the Web content for the following course: Term: Winter Year: 2005 Code: Phil 660 Section: 001 Name: Philosophy of Love and Sex If a client (browser) requests the URL10 http:// academia.org/browse/mycourses/john.doe/, then the Academia course Web page renderer would dynamically create a Web page that lists links to all currently hosted courses of instructor john.doe. It does that by using the virtual tree mechanism because there is no index.html file in the above location on the server. The Pliant program that implements the course Web page renderer resides
in the virtual_tree.page file, located at the root of the path /browse/. Therefore, when the client requests the above URL and the server finds the virtual_tree.page file in /browse/, it stores in the internal variable virtual_ path the remainder subpath /mycourses/john.doe/ and runs the virtual_tree. page program. For this particular case in which the above path starts with mycourses, the renderer parses the path and extracts the relevant information needed for determining which courses to list on the dynamically created Web page. A similar process takes place when a client (browser) requests the following URL: http:// academia.org/browse/courses/Winter/2005/ Phil660/001/index.html. However, no index.html (or index.page) file actually exists in the above location. Hence, analogous to what we explained above, the Pliant virtual path mechanism will again run the renderer. This time, the internal variable virtual_ path will hold the sub-path /courses/Winter/2005/Phil660/001/. Notice that this path provides all the information to locate the Web content for a course in Academia’s database. The renderer parses this path to extract the course information (code, term, etc.). It then retrieves the Web content for the course from the database and dynamically creates a Web page for the course.
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
towards integrating academia with other Learning Management systems The initial idea underlying Academia’s design was to provide an “as simple as possible,” but not simpler courseware development and e-learning tool. As such, integration with more robust learning management systems (LMSs) was not a priority during the development. Notwithstanding, all database files used or produced by Academia are in ASCII text, and information is stored in XML-like data structures. As an example, below we list an excerpt of a user database:
7062 [email protected] < p d a t a p a t h = “/ u s e r / m a r c u s /f i r s t _ name”>Marcus www. cs.ryerson.ca/m3santos English Notice that each entry in the database is encoded as simple XML code. Therefore, interfacing such data with an LMS would be straightforward. Pliant also includes many modern programming principles such as meta-programming, static typing, objects, reflective compiling, reference counting garbage collection, built-in debugger, clean syntax, and many pre-built components such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3 servers, a tree-based distributed data model, and a database engine. The intrinsic features of these core components can be used to support open Internet standards such as ECMAScript, thus, a-fortiori, to facilitate the compliance of Pliant with SCORM, but there still a long way to go to achieve this goal, and we have left it for future work.
a case study of academia This section reports on the findings from a study to experimentally compare some available Webbased learning tools used for the CUSB Certificate Program in Translation. These findings are discussed in relation to basic usability issues of Web-based tools, in terms of online course pedagogy, technological infrastructure, and students’ perceptions. Our investigation attempts to justify the use of Academia as an e-learning methodology and acquisition tool.
the context Translation is a professional activity that requires both mental and physical settings, where profits and ethics must be met, just like in any other profession. Becoming a professional translator requires hard work, curiosity, open-mindedness, and experience. Based on these basic facts, the School of Translation at CUSB foresaw the importance of Web-based education in the mid1990s, then introduced a few online courses in its Translation program. By the year 2000, the entire Certificate Program, composed of 10 threecredit courses, was successfully launched. This program (referred to as the TOP program) was designed to accommodate the draft curricula for various areas of expertise within translation and the actual needs of the translation industry. It has been set up primarily for people who are interested in studying translation while maintaining their current employment. It was particularly aimed at those who work in remote areas and would find it impossible to attend classes at a local university. At each session, students may decide to take only one course at a time, or more, depending on their own personal timetable. A number of Internet-based courses, including Localization, were gradually introduced into the TOP program.
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
technological infrastructure The CUSB infrastructure is made up of three servers, a dozen PCs for instructors, and a 10-PC laboratory for students. There are also three other high-tech laboratories and a multimedia center where on-campus students can work. Several programming tools and Blackboard (2002) are used by students and professors to develop and manage Web-related documents. Although this courseware tool was greatly appreciated by the students and staff, complaints were quickly raised, mostly on usability issuessuch as long login sequence and difficult navigation. To address these drawbacks, Academia was used to supplement Blackboard.
online course Methodology Unlike traditional courses, online courses are space and time independent. Meanwhile, in the case of the TOP program courses, a framework has been developed that meets the traditional division of an academic yearinto sessions of 15 weeks each. Courses are delivered according to this division. The content of each course is organized as followed: knowledge review, lectures, practices, debates and discussions in the forum, exchanges of e-mails with instructors, and evaluation. Courses content is built into modules to facilitate individual learning. The evaluation consists of four formal tests, one in the fourth week, the second in the eighth week, the third in the twelfth week, and the last one in the fifteenth week.
case study of a course delivery To demonstrate the capability of Academia as a support for e-learning methodology and acquisition, we have implemented an instance of a particular course entitled “Localization” on a specific problem: the problem of encoding/decoding the characters in a text file during the lifetime of the localization process. Localization is a process by
which a product (in this case a text file) should be adequately adapted to the characteristics of each country and equipped with a presentation that is acceptable at least at the level already reached for its original locale. This process requires various types of operations involving the targeted language and written communication (localization of translations), as well as the supported technical infrastructure for data processing (software localization). Both types of localization sub-processes are technology dependent and are mandatory in a training program in Translation such as the TOP program. Here, we focus only on the software localization process. One of the major problems when running this process is the lack of a clear mechanism that ensures the identification of the encoding used to save/open any type of document, or to escape extended characters that are not supported by the targeted encoding technique. This issue is particularly important in this context since it determines translatable and non-translatable data. Among proposed solutions, XML has been proposed as a viable one (Savourel, 2000) for the implementation of a multilingual solution. However, handling XML-like data structure files within the localization process is still a difficult task. To circumvent this difficulty, the Pliantbased capabilities of Academia are embodied in new standards or software processes such as XPath (Extensible Path), which provide several new features of dealing with data in general and localizable text in particular, based on the file format. Many state-of-the-art translator tools, available at http://www.w3.org/, are then used to apply the above mechanism in a concrete example. Depending on the power of the translator tool, the Fullpliant, and the type of XML file to be translated, the required steps are: 1.
Mark up the information in the text to be localized, that is, find answers to the following questions: What text is translatable? Which language is chosen? Which local is referred to? What are the acronyms explanations?
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
2.
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What constitutes the verbals and nominals in short sentences of the targeted text? Using the Translator tool, create an XSL template (document) with appropriate parameters. This is achieved by writing a skeleton of HTML elements and by using the XSL style sheet commands to provide the text. Process the file to be localized by using the above template and by choosing the locale to work with. Steps 1 and 2 are not always straightforward and need some good understanding of XML and XPath.
The following methodology was used. Prior to the localization course, students are given some basics in HTML and XML programming. They are introduced to the structural power of both languages and to Academia as a programming platform. Their attention is then focused on the simplicity of XML, and the way its features can be used to extract the translatable and nontranslatable text in the file format to be localized. Students are taught, by means of examples, on how XML code can be written based on the file format and content, and then structured in a way that the translator can use it to generate the desired output. Students are then asked to compare the XML and corresponding HTML files. Then, the localization course is taught to students through different modules (process, Web site, project management, etc.), providing them with necessary material to tackle other steps of the translation process. At the end, students are asked to extract HTML and XML files in English and to localize them in Canadian French.
Findings The separation of the content from the format allows the translation task to move faster while reducing the time allocated to pre-translation and post-translation processing. Due to the expressive power capabilities of the Pliant-based framework
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upon which Academia is built, students have gained a great level of confidence when integrating the localization information as a component of XML, rendering the translation process more achievable than ever. This integration would have been more difficult without the use of built-in and enticing capabilities for data processing provided by the Academia platform, which greatly simplifies the entire localization process.
pliant system, translation, and caLL Even though the Pliant system was not originally meant for language acquisition, the flexibility it provides in terms of integration features makes it possible. In technical translation and specialty languages teaching, terminology is an essential topic that should be studied. The teaching of terminology in the context of the localization course using Academia has been addressed in a CALL-like methodology manner. For a given text that needs to be translated from one language to another, the steps followed by the students, as well as the corresponding Pliant-based methods implemented to achieve these steps, are shown below. 1.
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Identify and establish a list of “appropriate” terms from the text to be translated. This task is achieved through the design of the Data Discovery Module (DDM). Here, some predefined language-based metrics are used to identify the aforementioned terms, and a Pliant-based user-interface is developed to extract these terms and stored them in DDM. Ask the students to search for two or three contexts of the usage of each term from an established list obtained from various terminology repositories. This task is achieved through the design of the Data Context Module (DCM), where dictionaries and textual databases are stored. It mandates
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
3.
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the implementation of a Pliant-based Web interface for data search and retrieval (using the Pliant mainstream servers) in these repositories. Search for equivalent terms in the target language through available dictionaries and databases. This task is achieved by means of the Pliant-based Web interface for data search and retrieval described in Step 2. Divide the text to be translated into individual sentences to be translated, and then allocate one sentence per student. This task is achieved through the design of the Division Module (DM). A Pliant-based script is developed to build this module. Each sentence is translated by a student and sent to the discussion forum for revision by other students within the group. This task is achieved through the design of the Translation Module (TM). A Pliant-based forum is designed and implemented to handle the communication and transfer of information between all participants. The revised sentences are put together again to create the translated text. This task is achieved through the design of the Assembly Module (AM). A Pliant-based script is developed to build this module. The translated text is sent to the instructor for evaluation, verification, and validation. This task is achieved through the design of the Quality Assessment Module (QAM)a set of Pliant-based evaluation and validation methods (or functions). This module also provides the potential for integrating the Pliant system in a distributed environment.
co-op Web The Department of Computer Science at Ryerson University offers a five-year bachelor’s program in Computer Science with a Co-op option (CSCC). The program requires the management of students’ applications, admissions, career planning
resources, course selection requirements, graduation requirements, financial requirements, and job placements, to name a few. To efficiently address these challenges, Co-op Web was developed using Pliant; it is currently use to administer the CSCC program and has shown great satisfaction from its usability’ point of view.
actual Management aspects of pliant after development Our current challenge remains to understand the experiences of instructors (and students) as they adopt Academia as a course management system and integrate it into their teaching (respectively learning), either in isolation or as a complement to existing learning management systems. Our plan is to study several patterns explaining how instructors/students experiment with individual features of Academia, facing both technical and integration challenges, and attempting to adapt Blackboard or any other sophisticated learning system to match their goals and practices. Academia has become “mission critical” in fulfilling some of the teaching and learning central goals: enriching the student/instructor learning experience and advancing access to resources for teaching, learning, and research. Academia’s training programs are currently being handled throughout the university, in parallel with Blackboard training programs, where faculty and students can receive assistance with all aspects of Academia and Blackboard operations. Several upgrades have been done and are continuously done to the Pliant framework in order to solidify its underlying e-learning capabilities and integration features, both transparent through Academia. For example, at the departmental site, faculty members can now upload their final grades from a Blackboard grade book into a Web grade roster, instead of having to enter them manually. A tracker has also been set to report general bugs, feature requests, fixes, and other issues such as sensitive security problems.
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
In its current form, the dynamic compilation structure of Pliant offers many opportunities of experimentation for academic and industrial research as well. Thanks to Pliant’s control over generated codes, academic and industrial fields used Pliant for physical modeling purposes. For example, in thermic equilibrium when injecting thermoplastic material in a mould, Pliant was used to update some models without having to recompile the system. In Mathematics, Pliant was used to re-implement some graph manipulation tools. The integration of Pliant with SCORM, NLN, and IMS format learning objects is possible due to the dynamic compilation architecture of Pliant and its reflectivity. This option is currently under investigation. Another current application scenario is the use of Pliant to manage distributed systems. This has been achieved so far in some cases thanks to the meta-programming feature of Pliant and its tree-based distributed data model, which allows one to maintain a database of hardware available on each machine and of software to be deployed there. To circumvent some of the drawbacks of Pliant’s architecture, it is suggested that we look at some high-level optimization algorithms in academic literature and implement them in the Pliant language, the goal being to rewrite the entire framework in Pliant. This will facilitate the pliant deployment, its integration with other systems including learning management systems, and its ability to embrace and extend existing services, as well as enhancing Pliant’s robustness in terms of code generation and reusability.
FuturE trEnds The Pliant .page mechanism, which we have used to implement Academia, has proven very convenient for quickly prototyping and writing simple user interfaces. However, the current (and future) trend is to provide programming languages and
Web application development platforms rich in interactive features, such as graphical user interface elements, to create dynamic, nice-looking, and functional user interfaces. To this aim, the Pliant team recently started the development of the Pliant browser. The Pliant browser consists of a new language (an extension to the .page language) for developing Web applications and an HTTP “bridge” for translating the Pliant browser interface to HTTP/Javascript. For the future, once the additional features provided by the Pliant browser are in place, we plan to give Academia a new makeover on its user interface and features, such as a quiz/survey tool, and added flexibility to course Web page design and “look-and-feel.” The style sheet mechanism used by the Pliant browser should greatly facilitate the implementation of a more flexible styling mechanism for Academia. Ultimately, Academia will stand as an example of how end users (teachers) of Pliant tend to become developers of Webbased software solutions. An instructor with little or no programming background can smoothly migrate from a user of a simple system to a programmer of also simple pragmatic systems. The contribution of this framework to students is also noticeable. Student engagement can be improved by online instructional multimedia material, and course online content can be easily tailored to the students’ needs. Since new technologies always afford new roles for teachers as learners and researchers, we also intend to pursue our current research program endeavors, aiming at developing elearning strategies for the purpose of promoting reflection on teaching and collaborative learning using the Pliant framework. For example, how might teachers/teacher educators use Pliant tools for reflection and research into their classrooms? What are the most critical Pliant design patterns that would optimize their knowledge-building efforts? How will they use that information in their instructional decisions? These challenges are currently under investigation, and our ulti-
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
mate goal is to produce a solution in the form of an analysis toolkit. Finally, we would like to initiate a comprehensive evaluation (empirical study) of the use of Academia at both CUSB and Ryerson University. Our targeted audiences are students and staff. We are currently preparing an online questionnaire with the aim of gaining substantial and quantitative-based reactions to the use of Academia as a complement to the already sophisticated Blackboard platform for the purpose of e-learning. Our intention is to measure how far our framework can be useful in delivering and managing online courses.
rEFErEncEs
concLusion
Brusilovsky, P., Stock, O., & Strapparava, C. (Eds.). (2000, August). Adaptive hypermedia and adaptive Web-based systems. Proceedings of the AH 2000 International Conference, Trento, Italy. Berlin: Springer-Verlag (LNCS 1892).
We have described Pliant as a “standalone” and “Web-based” language that encapsulates both the “human” and “computer” levels of thinking and coding programs. This unique privilege makes it an exceptional language, compared to any other existing one. It also demonstrates a higher level of flexibility, reasonable adaptability, and integration, providing for higher software development capabilities and enhancements. These qualities can be exploited to improve the current state-ofthe-art e-learning development tools, while meeting educational expectations, economical and time constraints, and human resources limitations. The main advantages of Pliant over other integrated software solutions are high transferability, flexibility, and maintainability. We have also presented Academia, a lightweight courseware application fully implemented in Pliant. When compared to mainstream courseware applications, Academia is surely over-simplified. Finally, a simple, yet concrete example of how Academia was used in a Translation program at CUSB was proposed, along with some insights on the e-learning methodology and pedagogy that were used.
Blackboard. (2002). Blackboard Course Management System 5.1. Retrieved from http://www. blackboard.com/ Booch, G., Rumnaugh, J., & Jacobson, I. (2005). The Unified Modeling Language user guide (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Brusilovsky, P. (2001, October 23-27). WebEx: Learning from examples in a programming course. In W. Fowler & J. Hasebrook (Eds.), Proceedings of WebNet’2001, the World Conference of the WWW and Internet (pp. 124-129), Orlando, FL.
De Mendez, P.O. (1988). Pliant: Expressive power plus efficiency. Proceedings of the SALCOMIT Workshop and Review Meeting, Barcelona, Spain. De Mendez, M., De Mendez, P.O., Santos, M.V., & Tonneau, H. (2000). Pliant documentation. Retrieved from http://old.fullpliant.org/ E-Workflow. (2003). The workflow portal. Retrieved from http://www.e-workflow.org Hochheiser, H., & Shneiderman, B. (2001). Universal usability statements: Marking the trail for all users. ACM Interactions, 8(MarchApril), 16-18. Retrieved from http://www.acm. org/pubs/citations/journals/interactions/2001-82/p16-hochheiser/ Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability engineering. Boston: Academic Press. Nyongwa, M., & Aubin, M.C. (2004). Plan de développement stratégique: Traduction et langues. Retrieved from http://www.ustboniface. mb.ca/
A Pliant-Based Software Tool for Courseware Development
Savourel, Y. (2000). XML technologies and the localization process. Multi-Lingual Computing & Technology, 11(7).
EndnotEs 1
Tonneau, H., De Mendez, P.O., & Santos, M.V. (1984). Pliant homepage. Retrieved from http:// pliant.cx Wang, M. (2000). Evaluating the usability of Web-based learning tools. Master’s Thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Victoria, Canada. WebCT. (2002). WebCT Course Management System 3.8. Retrieved from http://www.webct.com
kEY tErMs Academia: A courseware development Web portal, fully implemented in the Pliant language. Courseware: Computer software and associated materials designed for educational or training purposes. E-Learning: The use of network technology to design, deliver, select, administer, and adapt learning activities.
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Fullpliant: Name given to the Pliant’ operating system. Pliant: The first efficient, truly extendable, customizable programming language. It is suited both for small scripts and for very large applications, and could be described as a combination of reflexive C, C++, typed Lisp, and clean syntax in a single language.
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Software Design: Process of problem solving and planning for a software solution. Usability: A measure, in our context, of how easy it is to use software to perform prescribed tasks.
This chapter is an extended version of a preliminary work entitled “Pliant: More Than a Programming Language, a Flexible E-Learning Tool,” published in the Proceedings of the World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2004 (pp. 505-510). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Collège Universitaire de Saint-Boniface, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Academia was developed at the Department of Computer Science at Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada. The Co-Op Education and Internship program at Ryerson University is managed by means of a Co-op Web portal available at http://www.scs.ryerson.ca/~co-op. This should not be confused with other project of the same name available online at http://www.pliant.org/. Meta-programming refers to the ability of Pliant to eliminate the barrier between low-level languages like C and high-level languages like Lisp or Python. Academia is a Pliant-based Web portal. Its architecture is described later in the section entitled “Academia’s System-Level Capabilities.” Please refer to the section entitled “Why Academia?” for an introduction to this tool. Actors are objects outside of the scope of the system, but that have significant interactions with it. All URLs mentioned in this chapter are fictitious.
Section II
E-Language Learning:
Developing Skills and Competencies
Chapter XII
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material Ayşegül Daloğlu Middle East Technical University, Turkey Meltem Baturay Gazi University, Turkey Soner Yildirim Middle East Technical University, Turkey
abstract This chapter outlines how the constructivist approach can be implemented in Web-based vocabulary teaching, characteristics of effective Web-based vocabulary teaching materials, and a model for effective Web-based vocabulary teaching and recycling. In WEBVOCLE which stands for Web-Based Vocabulary Learning, contextual presentation of the words has been enriched with audible vocabulary and repeated with interactive exercises, games, and puzzles in ‘spaced revisions’ in a constructivist Web-supported environment. The content of the implementation has been additionally supported with pictures. Feedback obtained from the learners demonstrates that they not only developed a positive attitude toward English language learning, but also improved their learning outcomes.
introduction Current developments in information technologies with computers and the Internet have resulted in rapid advances in the application of technology in education. However, rather than focusing on
the principles of human learning and use of technology (Internet), most current literature deals with differences on the achievement of learners between Web-based and conventional training so far. In order to shed light on learning theories and psychological facts, this chapter outlines: (a) how
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Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
the constructivist approach can be implemented in Web-based vocabulary teaching, (b) characteristics of effective Web-based vocabulary teaching materials, and (c) a model for effective Web-based vocabulary teaching and recycling.
rEViEW oF LitEraturE computer-based Language instruction The global popularity of the Internet over the past decade has brought about its innovation in education and in foreign language learning and teaching. Many studies affirm that learners consider the Internet a useful means to discover and learn new vocabulary (Alshwairkh & Sami, 2004; Johnson & Heffernan, 2006; Ma & Kelley, 2006) and to supplement in-class instruction (Kung & Chuo, 2002). Other research studies specific to vocabulary acquisition point out that words can be taught more effectively and in an enjoyable and even amusing way with the use of computers and Web-based materials (Labrie, 2000; Tsou, Wang, & Li, 2000; Tozcu & Coady, 2004). When the use of technology in education emerged nearly thirty years ago, a major concern was that the unavoidable infusion of technological devices into our educational system would replace some of the educators, and that the computer would make the classroom obsolete. Throughout the years it has been experienced that the corresponding developments in technology and interactive processes lead to improved learning by enriching the teaching-learning process. In fact, computers and the Internet, defined by Rice as “the new media” (1984, as cited in Chou, 2003), has allowed or facilitated interactivity in educational applications which enhances learning potential. Regarding this, Borsook and Higginbotham (1991, as cited in Chou, 2003) claim that “the computer’s interactive potential makes it unique in the history of educational/instructional technology and
sets it apart from all other instructional devices” (p. 267). Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have particularly changed the language learning environment and settings. It has transformed learning from a traditional, passive experience to one of discovery, exploration, and excitement by enhancing learners’ critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication skills (Young, 2003). Recent research studies demonstrate that language teaching, in order to be effective, requires a high level of interactivity. The growth in the use of multimedia computer as a learning tool has brought new opportunities to the design and implementation of foreign language learning activities. Multimedia has the power to move the lesson beyond the traditional walls of the classroom, to provide flexibility in individualizing the activities, to integrate the lesson with the needed authenticity, to enhance communication and discovery-oriented learning by the help of cooperative work in groups, to involve language learners in the learning process by their senses, to reduce or eliminate learners’ initial linguistic and psychological barriers, and to create an effective and interactive learning environment (Foster, 1996; Young, 2003; Yang, 1998; Adair-Hauck, Willingham-McLain, & Youngs, 1999; Plass et al., 1998). In addition, Pusack and Otto (1997) claim that the strength of multimedia comes from the synergy provided by the variety of skills (listening, reading, writing, and speaking) that are linked together in meaningful ways to deliver in-depth experience. Multimedia learning provides the learner with information on different (e.g., visual, auditory) modes.
Main characteristics of constructivist Learning As presented by Fosnot (1992), constructivism is “a theory of ‘knowing’ and a theory about ‘coming to know’” (p. 168). Therefore, a constructivist approach to instruction requires an understanding
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
of how learners make meaning so that learning environments, methods, and materials can promote knowledge construction. Based on these, it is possible to conclude that “education is about using knowledge, not acquiring it” (Vermette et al., 2001, p. 3) and “constructivism is a psychological theory that construes learning as an interpretive, recursive, building process by active learners interacting with the physical and social world” (Fosnot, 1996, p. 30). Although constructivism is applied to learning and instructional theories, it can be considered an epistemological approach. Constructivism in education can be viewed in two ways: cognitive and social constructivism. The former, grounded in the work of Piaget (1954, 1970; Piaget & Inhelder, 1971), focuses on cognitive development and individual construction of knowledge, while the latter, attributed to Vygotsky (1978), emphasizes the social construction of knowledge. In the cognitive constructivist approach, learning occurs through cognitive processing of environmental interactions and corresponding constructions of mental structures to make sense of them. There are two key Piagetian principles for teaching and learning: 1.
2.
Learning is an active process. Direct experience, making errors, and looking for solutions are vital for the assimilation and accommodation of information. How information is presented is important. When information is introduced as an aid to problem solving, it functions as a tool rather than an isolated arbitrary fact. Learning should be whole, authentic, and “real.” Piaget helps us to understand that meaning is constructed as children interact in meaningful ways with the world around them. Thus, there is less emphasis on isolated exercises that try to teach vocabulary items without a context or provide learners with sentence punctuation activities. Learners still learn these things in Piagetian class-
rooms, but they are more likely to learn them if they are engaged in meaningful activities (such as operating a class “store” or “bank” for vocabulary development or writing and editing a class newspaper). Whole activities (as opposed to isolated exercises), authentic activities that are inherently interesting and meaningful to the learner, and real activities that result in something other than a grade on a test are emphasized in Piagetian classrooms. The emergence of constructivism has coincided with the shift in pedagogy away from teacher-centered information transmission models toward knowledge-centered approaches that focus on cognitive and social processes in learning. Contrary to objectives-based approaches, instruction in constructivism does not involve prescriptive presentation strategies or accurate knowledge representation (Perkins, 1992; Reynolds, Sammons, Stoll, Barber, & Hillman, 1996). Constructivism suggests that knowledge is constructed as individuals make meaning of their experiences, and knowledge has meaning only in context. Thus, effective instruction needs to include presentations of real-world problems in authentic contexts that require collaboration (Jonassen, 1999). Therefore, the main implications of constructivism for instruction are collaboration, diverse perspectives, and authentic context (Abbery, 2000). Since truths or facts change for each individual in that everyone interprets the gained knowledge differently, it is the learner’s responsibility to search for knowledge and create their own meaning through experiences. Instead of being provided a specified content, learners should search for knowledge from many different sources (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). By benefiting from different sources, the learner is able to have a variety of perspectives instead of adopting the fixed perspective of the instructor. The primary goal of a constructivist environment is to help learners learn how to learn; the emphasis is placed on
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
the learner rather than the instructor (Brooks & Brooks, 1993). As Kaufman (2004) states, constructivism has placed a learner’s individual development at the focus of instruction and learning. The interaction between learner’s internal schema and the exogenous social and cultural variables contribute to the transformations in the learner’s internal schemata. In this process, guidance from experts or teachers and strategies such as modeling, coaching, and scaffolding provide learners with necessary cognitive support (Jonassen, 1999). Learners benefit from the use of multiple approaches and learning experiences in the process of extracting meaning from knowledge. There are no specific methods for constructivism; however, one can benefit from cooperative learning, self-directed learning, discovery learning, and problem-based and hands-on learning activities. Assessment of the learners is done by self- or peer-evaluation, portfolios, or rubrics, which would challenge learners to recall, compare, and use what has been learned before. In summary, Jonassen (1994) proposes eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist learning environments from traditional ones: 1. 2.
3.
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Constructivist learning environments provide multiple representations of reality. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the complexity of the real world. Constructivist learning environments emphasize knowledge construction instead of knowledge reproduction. Constructivist learning environments emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than abstract instruction out of context. Constructivist learning environments provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction.
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Constructivist learning environments encourage thoughtful reflection on experience. Constructivist learning environments enable knowledge construction that is context and content dependent. Constructivist learning environments support collaboration through social negotiation in the construction of knowledge, not competition among learners.
Vocabulary Learning and Vocabulary retention Research studies in language learning and acquisition processes suggest that training in structural (grammatical) and vocabulary knowledge will not result in real linguistic competence and language proficiency. Although words alone are believed to be language, and language learning is deemed acquiring lexicon, if learners keep these lists in their personalized store without actively using them in language production, their linguistic competence will not develop. According to Kuper and Allan (2004), for many years, language teachers have ignored the techniques for helping learners to learn vocabulary, because of the viewpoints that learning a certain number of words in the target language along with their meanings was sufficient to know a language without knowing their usage in sentences. Techniques of teaching vocabulary have emerged in history parallel with the methods in language teaching. In those years, when the Grammar-Translation Method was the typical method of teaching a foreign language, teachers taught vocabulary by providing their learners long lists of words with their equivalent translations in their native languages. Language teaching profession has realized in time that this method is not efficient to achieve communicative competence (Groot, 2000). However, bilingual word lists continue to be favored by learners. Deveci (1996) states that “many cultures, including the Turkish culture,
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
encourage rote learning, where learners memorize lists of words in isolation” (p. 2). Particularly after the 1950s with the emergence of the Direct Method, teaching a word in context started to be used as a common technique. In the 1950s and 1960s, audio-lingual textbooks used a set plan for selecting and limiting vocabulary. With the new scope, by the 1970s, a communicative approach to language teaching had correspondingly affected the view to teaching of vocabulary as communicative content. This new approach obliged the use of more communicative materials and approaches such as survival English, and contextual and situational English. However, apart from basic communicative competences, which were favored in the communicative classroom of the 1980s, strategies of language processing and language awareness, and skills in knowledge perception, production, and construction are needed to achieve successful outcomes of any language curriculum. Such competences, which are often discussed in the context of learner autonomy, are of significance for language learning. Therefore, those suggesting a rethink of a purely communicative methodology discuss the post-communicative era of foreign language learning. The constructivist paradigm is seen as an important methodological basis for real innovation in foreign language learning (Ruschoff & Ritter, 2001). Lewis (1993) is very much in line with this position by stating that, “The PresentPractice-Produce paradigm is rejected, in favor of a paradigm based on the Observe-HypothesizeExperiment cycle” (p. vii). With the rise of interest in vocabulary development and appearance of more innovative methods of language teaching, vocabulary learning started to be viewed as a complex matter. More specifically, it was realized that learning of word meanings calls for more than looking the words up in the dictionary since vocabulary learning is a multifaceted process. According to Tchudi and Mitchell (1989) “the look-up-the-word-andknow-it-for-the-test approach” almost lost its value
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(p. 258). In order to augment learners’ learning, students are provided with the opportunities of relating the words to their personal experiences, thinking about the new words, asking questions about them, and comparing them with other words they have learned. Therefore, vocabulary instruction is viewed to be more effective when learners are involved in the construction of the meaning through interactive processes rather than simply memorizing definitions or synonyms. Besides, to communicate in meaningful and appropriate ways is the ultimate goal of the foreign language classroom (ACTFL, 1999). Promoting the use of words in communicative situations and reintroducing these new words at regular intervals prevents forgetting (Chastain, 1976). It is believed that not to forget learned words, one should use the words in communicative situations and be exposed to these new words at regular intervals. To boost retention, revision seems to be the best approach, and if the words are presented in context, retention is much higher. According to Lewis (2000), “encountering new vocabulary on several occasions seems to be a necessity and even a sufficient condition for learning to occur” (p. 184). Concerning retention of words, it is often uttered that lack of context is thought to make vocabulary learning difficult, and the words taught in isolation are generally not remembered and/or easily forgotten. Use of words by means of meaningful repetition exercises increases the words’ retention in memory (Hatch, Evelyn, & Brown, 1995). To sum up, it is beneficial for learners to see the word usage in other contexts or learning environments, particularly in distributed phases. According to Nation (1990, 2001), to fully acquire words, learners need to be exposed to a word 5-16 times, and frequent reencountering of the word is crucial for learners’ vocabulary acquisition. If the word is not truly stored in long-term memory, there is difficulty recalling it after some time. Not setting up a repetitive learning system for the learner, however, is one of the drawbacks
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
of many language courses. Ebbinghaus (1885, as cited in Waring, 2004) examined human memory and the rate of forgetting. With his scientific study of memory, he pointed out that especially repetitions that are distributed over time might allow one to remember things for a long time. According to his analyses of his own vocabulary learning, Ebbinghaus’s ability to recall words he had encountered after 30 minutes was 50%, and his ability to recall after 48 hours was 25%. He therefore calculated the number of words he was able to recall for each 15-day interval. Ebbinghaus (1885, as cited in Waring, 2004) explained this result with the ‘forgetting curve’. Most forgetting occurs very soon after the learning, and if the word is not met again soon, it is likely to be forgottenthat is, immediately after learning knowledge decreases rapidly, but then it decreases rather slowly. Thus, the time between the first and the second exposition should be very short (see Figure 1). Based on Ebbinghaus’s (1885) forgetting curve, Pimsleur (1967, as cited in Waring, 2004) proposed that every time we relearn something, the knowledge gets stronger and is therefore more resistant to decay. Pimsleur’s ‘graduated interval recall’ schedule shows that the gap between the second encounter and the subsequent encounters
Figure 1. Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve (1885, adapted from Waring, 2004)
with the word should progressively widen if there is to be 100% recall (see Figure 2). Thus, the forgetting curves get less steep as relearning continues. Owing to this, the intervals between the revisions of words should increase. According to Pimsleur, this schedule outlines the “ideal” schedule for learners to keep new vocabulary knowledge in mind. In Figure 2, t0 refers to the first time the word is learned; t1 refers to the first relearning, and so on. As indicated in Figure 2, the gap of a few minutes between time0 and time1 is shorter than the gap between time1 and time2. Pimsleur (1967, as cited in Waring, 2004) calculated the ideal distance as multiples of five. So one revision should take place at a time period of five times longer than the previous gap. Although after about time7 the gap is very wide, there is a very high probability that the word will be located in memory because of the fact that the person has met the word six times previously (Waring, 2004). The effectiveness of spaced revisions relative to massed revisions has been emphasized by many researchers (Dempster, 1987, 1991; Russo & Mammarella, 2002; Moshe, 1990; Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick, & Bahrick, 1993; Braun & Rubin, 1998). It is further stated by Dempster (1991) that “the reconstruction hypothesis [suggests] that spaced revisions encourage highly constructive thinking” (p. 75). The findings of a study conducted by Kolich (1991) support that additional practice opportunities are needed between training and testing, after a period of time passes after the first encounter in order to help learners with word retention. Thus, the word can be moved from short-term memory to long-term memory, and it can be recalled after minutes, days, weeks, or years. Briefly, moving knowledge to long-term memory is not easy since there needs to be a lot of meaningful practice. Bygate, Skehan, and Swain (2001) state that “acquisition follows repeated exposure to examples. The more often certain sounds are heard in the
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
Figure 2. Pimsleur’s memory schedule (1967, adapted from Waring, 2004)
same sequence the more likely is that sequence to be transferred to long-term memory” (p. 79). Therefore, in light of research studies, spaced revision and multiple encounters with the same word stimulate vocabulary learning and enhance vocabulary retention. Besides, it also became clear that the vocabulary teaching process should stimulate learners as much as possible through more channels, that is, a multi-sensory approach is preferred to teaching of vocabulary. Stephenson (2002) supports the view that emphasizing sensory stimulation is a good thing and needs no justification. Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic stimulation in sufficient frequent applications excite the brain and improve its organization. Furthermore, learners believe in the effectiveness of stimulation and a rich sensory environment. Therefore, multisensory environments are effective with people of all ages and a range of disabilities.
of Turkey, adopts a constructivist approach and emphasizes the following features: 1.
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5.
WEb-basEd VocabuLarY LEarning ModEL and LEarnEr FEEdback Web-based Vocabulary Learning Model (WEBVOCLE), developed as a part of a project funded by the Scientific and Technological Research Council
Learner-centeredness: Learners worked at their own pace and had freedom about their choice of studying time, the number of visits to the Web site, pace, and frequency of working on exercises. Contextualized meaning and knowledge construction: Vocabulary was represented through various contexts and enriched with the use of multimedia tools (pictures and sound). Opportunities for production: Learners engaged in activities that required meaningful interaction, critical thinking, and genuine language production. Immediate feedback: Learners received immediate feedback about their language productions. Ongoing/periodic recycling: Participants utilized this Web-based tool for the revision of vocabulary items that had been learned and studied in class, and the tool provided multiple and spaced encounters with the language to be learned.
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
the procedure In the preparation phase of WEBVOCLE, the researchers tried to provide the tenets such as “multiple exposure to new words for learners”; “active, in-depth processing” with meaningful texts and exercises; “relating the new to the known”; “additional reading” with the given texts; “sound components, hints or clues related to word meanings”; and “multimodal presentation of information with online definitions, glossaries or thesauruses,” which were described by Wood (2001, as cited in Yip & Kwan, 2006) as the guidelines for designing effective vocabulary learning software. Supporting the view presented by Laufer and Shmueli (1997, as cited in Nation, 2001) that lack of context is thought to make vocabulary learning difficult and the words taught in isolation are generally not remembered and/or easily forgotten, in WEBVOCLE, target vocabulary was presented to learners in various contexts that were carefully written by language experts. The texts surrounding vocabulary were simple enough to help comprehension and they included contextual clues. Bearing in mind that the natural word acquisition process involves acquisition of a word’s properties in various contexts, learners were introduced to many contexts for each target word. An observe-hypothesize-experiment cycle was used in the instructional process. After studying target vocabulary in the classroom (observe), the learners read the story accompanied by pictures on the Web-based tool at the beginning of each module (see Figure 3) and completed the follow-up comprehension exercise (hypothesize). In subsequent weeks, learners were exposed to all target vocabulary items a minimum of three times, in two or three exercises (experiment) (see Figure 4). As the study and the Web-based tool did not attempt to provide the learner with all possible meanings and uses of the target vocabulary, but only the meaning studied in class, the researchers deemed seven or eight exposures altogether to be
adequate for the addition of the lexical information into learners’ long-term memory (see Table 1). Considering the research studies that show that when foreign language learners are presented with various forms of lexical information in addition to text, comprehension increases (Johnson & Heffernan, 2006), target vocabulary items in the texts were presented in the form of a mini dictionary, with the definition of the word in English, pronunciation, and synonyms if there were any. Besides this, it was thought that this mechanism might help the readers of the texts who might lack confidence in their guesses. In WEBVOCLE, vocabulary was reinforced in learners’ long-term memory with subsequent exercises such as matching, gap filling, multiple choice, and cloze tests next to puzzles and vocabulary games. As Nation (2001) suggests, real vocabulary learning happens only if the vocabulary is used both receptively and productively by the learners. Therefore, the learning tasks or exercises on the system were designed to test not only recognition but also production of learners. Apart from aforementioned exercise types, comprehension exercises were added to each module after the texts believing that by doing comprehension exercises, the learners would become familiar with the meaning and usage of words. Vocabulary games, on the other hand, were included in the retention exercises to increase motivation of learners. According to the results of their study, Yip and Kwan (2006) commented that online vocabulary games help learners to learn better and the learned vocabulary is retained for a longer period of time. To monitor users’ performance and the total time spent on the software, the scores obtained from the exercises in each application were recorded by the system and these data serve to evaluate the effectiveness of the software. A learning object is not only a digital entity deliverable over the Internet, but it is defined as “any digital resource that can be reused to support learning” by Wiley (2002, p. 7). As Wiley (2000)
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
exemplifies, learning object systems include some multimedia content, instructional content, learning objectives, instructional software, and software tools and persons during technology-supported learning. Technology-supported learning might include computer-based, collaborative, and interactive learning environments or intelligent computer-aided instruction and distance learning systems. According to these definitions, WEBVOCLE is an interactive distance learning system that includes multimedia-supported instructional content. Although WEBVOCLE is a time- and place-flexible digital resource, it can be considered a learning support tool. Leaning objects encompass sound pedagogical principles and instructional design theories for educational purposes. Instructional features such as games and exercises used in WEBVOCLE may also serve as learning objects to other similar applications in the future. The theoretical rationale for the tool is based on spaced revision technique, which originates from the way memory works, and in the Web-based program, increasing intervals of time between subsequent reviews of vocabulary items was ap-
plied (Ebbinghaus, 1885, as cited in Waring, 2004). Therefore, there was a systematic application of the state-of-the-art knowledge in articulating the theoretical rationale for the material’s design choice (Akker, Branch, Gustafson, Nieveen, & Plomp, 1999). To guarantee word retention in memory, learners make revisions, which become less and less frequent after a time. As learners used this Web-based tool, the progress they demonstrated was explored. The intervention was delivered at real user settings with the participants of the same level of English. WEBVOCLE was implemented at Gazi University English Language Preparatory School over the spring semester for 11 weeks in the 2006-2007 academic year. The English language learners who used the tool were at intermediatelevel language proficiency as determined by the institutional English proficiency exam. In the implementation, a within-subject design was used with 69 participants who were exposed to the Web-based vocabulary learning tool (WEBVOCLE) as a supplementary material to in-class learning; that is, the system enabled the revision of pre-learned vocabulary items in a Web-based
Figure 3. A sample story page. The words in bold are clickable, and when clicked the definition and pronunciation of the words are given. This constitutes the observation stage of the lesson.
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
environment. Learners used the tool with time and place flexibility. WEBVOCLE was released to learners’ access on the address line of Internet Explorer, http://www.bdee.net/words/a, and it is still in use. Table 1. Instructional design of WEBVOCLE (1) week
A
(2) week
B, A1
(3) week
C, B1
(4) week
C1, A2
(5) week
B2
(6) week
C2
(7) week
A3
(8) week
B3
(9) week
C3
A—Words taken from the first set of vocabulary items (Words are given in context followed up by a comprehension exercise and a vocabulary game.) (Figure 3) B—Words taken from the second set of vocabulary items (Words are given in context followed up by a comprehension exercise and a vocabulary game.) C—Words taken from the third set of vocabulary items* (Words are given in context followed up by a comprehension exercise and a vocabulary game.) * Vocabulary items in A, B, C sets were chosen from the students’ course books.
Figure 4. Drag-and-drop exercise—this constitutes the experiment stage of the lesson.
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
The exercises in each revision application are as follows: X1 Second Revision Application: • • •
Choose the appropriate word (in combo boxes) Fill-in-the-blanks-by-writing exercise. Fill-in-the-blanks exercise (drag and drop) (Figure 4)
X2 Third Revision Application: • •
Matching exercise Multiple-choice test
X3 Fourth Revision Application: • •
Puzzle (Figure 5) Cloze test
principles guiding the Model As known, Hillman, Willis, and Gunawardena (1994) added a fourth interaction, which is between learner and interface, to the Moore’s (1989) identification of interactive relationships regarding online learning: learner-content, learner-instructor, and learner-learner. Throughout the implementation, the researchers aimed to obtain ideas of the learners about the tool’s content with respect to collecting feedback on visual design, instructional design, usability, and effectiveness of it through “checklists for users” and interviews for deeper understanding of users thoughts. Checklists were the main and most prominent data collection instrument in the study. Through checklists, it was possible to collect information from learners as an aid to better the Web-based material provision. According to Hémard (2006), checklists might be used for tried and tested heuristics closely related to design guidelines since they can provide a convenient and practical method to verify and
Figure 5. Puzzle—the definitions of the target words are given and learners are made to write the word in the blanks in the correct way. This exercise also checks the spelling. This constitutes the experiment stage of the lesson.
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
compare specific aspects of the interaction and interface design. To get learners’ perceptions of the tool was highly vital; thus, with their ideas the tool was examined and improved. As stated by Marshall and Rossman (1999), it is not possible to understand human actions without understanding the meaning that the participants attribute to those actionstheir thoughts, feelings, beliefs, values, and assumptive worlds; therefore, the checklists and interviews enabled researchers to understand the deeper perspectives of learners about the benefits and difficulties with the use of Web-based tool content with respect to collecting feedback on visual design, instructional design, usability, practicality, and effectiveness of it (p. 57). Learners were given freedom and autonomy in studying on the Web-based tool. As outlined in the principles of constructivist language learning, they had the freedom of visiting and revising the exercises in each module of WEBVOCLE whenever they wanted. As outlined in the design model and the “spaced revision” technique principles, learners were allowed to practice the vocabulary items at specified intervals. Besides, the time of each revision was decided on keeping in mind the fact that, to ensure 95% retention of words, vocabulary should be practiced 1-10 days after learning the word in class. Therefore, the first contextualized practice was carried out the day after in-class exposition of words, the second revision was one week after that, the third one was two weeks after the first application, and the last one appeared three weeks after the third one. Thus, the spacing of revisions increased before each application. The context-based vocabulary and other activities were not kept in the Web system. After having been studied by the learners, they were removed and the following ones replaced for the next application. To exemplify, after studying Module A (vocabulary in a story and comprehension exercise with a game-like activity), A1 was made available to the learners one week later with two gap-filling exercises (one drag and drop and
one fill in the blanks by writing exercise) and one choose-the-correct-one exercise. A2 was made available with a multiple-choice and vocabularyto-definition matching exercise two weeks after the previous one, and finally, A3 was a close test and a puzzle three weeks after A2. The exercises were provided in spaced intervals getting longer each time. That is, learners were not allowed to study the previous weeks’ or months’ vocabulary because the researchers aimed to see the effects of spaced revision in such intervals.
FuturE trEnds It is obvious that Web-based technologies are becoming inevitable components of effective learning environments and most educators are convinced that they ameliorate the learning process. Additionally, the new pedagogy of learning requires educators to provide their students with opportunities to explore their learning environments rationally, propose solutions to problems, and construct their own knowledge as well as share it with other students. Thus, Web technologies have been a catalyst of the new pedagogy of learning. In the future, Web technologies will not demolish the classroom instruction or face-to-face interaction among students and the instructor, but those technologies will foster the quality of instruction in several aspects. Since the 21st century requires individuals to become proactive members of the knowledge economy, every individual should be able to compete and survive in the international market. As a result, more individuals will be demanding foreign language training that they need all around the world and the quality of training they receive will become a fundamental issue. Consequently, educational institutions and international organizations will be investing more on Web technologies to provide such learning environments. Such attempts will also lead us to better understand the pedagogy of
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
this new learning paradigm and its implications in foreign language education.
concLusion In order to evaluate the effectiveness of WEBVOCLE, mainly qualitative data collection techniques were employed. Data were collected from 69 intermediate-level English Language Preparation School students through checklists (54 returned), face-to-face interviews (with eight students), and focus group interviews (three focus group interviews with four students in each group). The results indicated that learners preferred shorter and interesting texts on Webbased materials, and that the interface of any Web-based material should not disturb learners and distract their concentration. Although there is a correlation between aesthetics and usability of an interface, they are assumed to be two different aspects in evaluating effectiveness (Tractinsky & Zimiri, 2006). As revealed by the findings, learners who used WEBVOCLE gave higher priority to usability of an interface design if these two aspects were under consideration. Narrative pictures helped their comprehension of texts; however, they preferred the pictures to be real photographs if possible. Sufficient informative pages and instructions were viewed to be vital on a Web-based learning environment because learners felt themselves alone. A supplementary material with lots of exercises was appreciated by the language learners who were in need of vocabulary practice particularly. When compared to alternative conventional studying materials, this Web-based tool was regarded to be fast and organized. Learners mostly believed that a material which provided spaced revisions was very effective for their retention of newly learned words. Also, they commented that Internet cafes are not suitable places to study on an instructive Webbased material as they do not provide a suitable environment to study.
On the other hand, the quantitative data collected through vocabulary retention tests indicated that for Module A there was a significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores when their frequency of using WEBVOCLE is taken into consideration; for Module B there was not a significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores when their frequency of using WEBVOCLE is taken into consideration; and finally for Module C there was a significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores when their frequency of using WEBVOCLE is taken into consideration. In addition to these, data collected through attitude questionnaires indicated that there was a significant increase in learners’ positive attitudes towards English language vocabulary learning after the implementation of WEBVOCLE, but there was not a significant increase in learners’ positive attitudes towards Web-based English language vocabulary learning after the implementation. The feedback obtained from the learners demonstrates that they benefited from the Web-based vocabulary development tool. Their responses showed that they both enjoyed using the tool as it appealed to a variety of their senses and retained the vocabulary items in their long-term memory. These positive attitudes and learning outcomes can be attributed to the features of the system that are rooted in the constructivist approach and spaced revision of vocabulary items. The Web-based vocabulary learning system encompassed the characteristics of constructivist learning environments that Jonassen (1994) outlines. In the reading texts and activities, learners were provided with multiple representations of the language. They could hear and read the same vocabulary items in multiple contexts. These multiple representations avoided oversimplification by making the learner aware of the different uses and meanings of the same vocabulary item. As Nation (2001) suggests, vocabulary learning was enhanced as items were used both receptively and productively by the learners.
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
In addition to these, the system enabled learners to construct knowledge rather than to reproduce it. They could deduce meanings and transfer them to new contexts through authentic tasks. The stories and the characters in the system created a theme-based unity that added continuity to the instructional process. This unity and continuity contributed to establishing a case-based and meaningful learning environment. When analyzed from the learners’ perspective, the system enabled learners to engage in thoughtful reflection on their learning experiences. They could monitor their own learning through the immediate feedback provided by the system, set learning targets for themselves, self-assess, and revise their learning targets in light of their self-assessment. Autonomy in pacing and timing the learning gave the learners the opportunity to self-regulate their learning. Since learners worked at their own pace and in an autonomous environment, competition was not a driving force. In conclusion, it is obvious that the system enabled learners to be actively involved in the learning process and the spaced encounters promoted long-term retention of the newly learned vocabulary. Theoretical implications supporting WEBVOCLE demonstrate mainly the constructive approach with the context-based vocabulary teaching and generative theory of multimedia learning. Applying context-based vocabulary teaching in a constructivist learning environment enables knowledge construction that is context and content dependent (Jonassen, 1994); student-centered learning (Gairns & Redman, 1988, as cited in Ünal, 2003); problem solving (Ying, 2001, as cited in Ünal, 2003); and meaningful interaction, critical thinking, and genuine language production. In addition, the design of multimedia-embedded instruction affects the degree to which learners engage in the cognitive processes required for meaningful learning within both the visual and verbal information processing system (Mayer, 2001). Moreover, use of context-
based presentation, visual aids, and a dictionary, which is providing synonyms, pronunciation, and meaning, constitutes elaborative processing that is closely related to encoding variability (DeWinstanley & Bjork, 2002).
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Foster, V.J. (1996). Investigating visual art as a viable method for teaching vocabulary to First Grade English as a Second Language students. PhD Dissertation, Illinois State University, USA. Groot, P. (2000). Computer assisted second language vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning & Technology, 4(1), 60-81. Hatch, E., & Brown, C. (1995). Vocabulary, semantics, and language education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hémard, D. (2006). Design issues related to the evaluation of learnercomputer interaction in a Web-based environment: Activities v. tasks. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(2), 261-276. Hillman, D.C, Willis, D.J., & Gunawardena, C.N. (1994). Learner-interface interaction in distance education: An extension of contemporary models and strategies for practitioners. American Journal of Distance Education, 8(2), 30-42. Jonassen, D.H. (1994). Thinking technology: Towards a constructivist design model. Educational Technology, 3(4), 34-37. Jonassen, D.H. (1999). Designing constructivist learning environments. In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (vol. II, pp. 215239). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Johnson, A., & Heffernan, N. (2006). The short readings project: A CALL reading activity utilizing vocabulary recycling. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 19(1), 63-77. Kaufman, D. (2004). Constructivist issue in language learning and teaching. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 303-319. Kolich, E.M. (1991). Effects of computer-assisted vocabulary training on word knowledge. Journal of Educational Research, 84(3), 177-182.
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kEY tErMs Autonomous Learners: Learners who can set their learning goals and strategies, and are able to monitor and regulate their learning process in accordance with their learning goals and the learning context. Constructivism: An epistemological approach where learning occurs through cognitive processing of environmental interactions and forming corresponding constructions of mental structures to make sense of them. It focuses on learners’ interaction with the real world to gain knowledge, and truths or facts change for each individual in that everyone interprets the gained knowledge differently. Learners search for knowledge and create their own meaning through experiences. Forgetting Curve: Illustrates the decline of memory retention in time. In WEBVOCLE the effect of frequent revisions on memory retention was under consideration. Learner-Centeredness: Ascribes to each learner a sense of responsibility for his or her own learning by enabling a constructivist approach with the assumption that deep learning occurs when a learner is actively engaged in the construction of knowledge for himself.
Designing a Constructivist Vocabulary Learning Material
Interactive Learning Environment: Concept used in this chapter to mean the Web-based environment (WEBVOCLE) for educational purposes that supported learning through the interaction with the computer (human-computer interactivity). Multimedia-Supported Learning Environment: Offers the experience of listening, looking, and doing in a computer-mediated setting. The Web-based vocabulary learning system, WEBVOCLE, benefited from the advantages of audio and visual multimedia, and applied some of the elements of multimedia such as use of images, animation, sound, and text. Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment Cycle: Lewis (1993) proposes a model that comprises the cycle Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment (as opposed to the traditional Present-Practice-Produce paradigm) with the lexicon and the generative power of words at its core.
Spaced Revision: A learning technique in which revisions of the same vocabulary item are provided with increasing intervals to allow one to remember new information for a long time. Throughout the application of this technique, the revisions of vocabulary items are done not in a massed way but through spaced intervals. Vocabulary Retention: Refers to keeping vocabulary in long-term memory and retrieving itfor meaningful use in appropriate contexts. Web-Based Instruction (WBI): The application of Web-based technologies for the purposes of instruction. A method of teaching and learning supported by the attributes and resources of the Internet.
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Chapter XIII
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle Yasunori Nishina University of Birmingham, UK
abstract This chapter suggests an effective method for lexical studies using Moodle within the framework of data-driven learning based on parallel concordances, and particularly shows how teachers can prepare and compile materials of a specific keyword for Japanese learners of English. It is often the case that knowledge of L1 possessed by EFL learners affects that of L2 when they do L2 writing. The author shows this using the case of the English abstract noun condition, because it differs in its usage (e.g., implied meaning and context) by English native speakers and by Japanese EFL learners. Errors of this kind can be overcome by presenting parallel concordances concerning translation equivalents and their synonyms of the English noun in question. Thus, the several steps in the compilation of classroom materials based on parallel concordances with Moodle are presented here.
introduction A survey conducted by Ryan (1996) shows that, out of 572 Japanese English language learners, learning grammar is their least favorite task in English classes, and that English conversation classes with native speakers are more popular with them because they do not need to learn grammar
and can learn practical English. This stream is still seen in the current English language classroom in Japan, as the communicative-centered teaching with assistant language teachers (that is, English native speakers) is much more encouraged than the grammatical-centered teaching by Japanese teachers. The main reason that students dislike grammar would be a reputation for being
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A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
complex, mechanical, and troublesome in its learning. Perhaps with an innovative method to inspire their interest, the current situation might be changed, as students will learn grammar not passively but actively. Corpus linguistics revealed that lexis and grammar are closely interconnected, further suggesting that the acquisition of lexical information leads to the acquisition of grammatical information (cf. Sinclair, 1991; Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Lewis, 1993, 1997, 2000; Hunston & Francis, 1999). That is to say, it is primarily important for non-native learners to acquire the lexical information to receive and produce L2 language task grammatically. There is a possibility that this can be effectively achieved for EFL learners by using parallel corpora, concordances, and data-driven learning (DDL) in a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environment. In particular, one of the advantages of adopting concordance lines in the language classrooms would be the visualization of the lexical patterns from the huge amounts of data (Stevens, 1993; Sinclair, 1986, 1991; Danielsson & Mahlberg, 2003). From these perspectives, the combination of corpora and concordances has much potential for language learning, especially lexical studies as demonstrated by the data-driven learning approach, pioneered by Tim Johns at the University of Birmingham (1991a, 1991b). The application of corpora and concordances into CALL has been regarded as an idea with high potential, and it is suggested that concordancer is particularly the most powerful tool and the preeminent software in language learning (Leech & Candlin, 1986; Tribble, 1990; Higgins, 1991; Hanson-Smith, 1993; Barlow, 2000; Chujo, Utiyama, & Nishigaki, 2005; Chujo, Utiyama, & Miura, 2006). Among all, Chujo et al. (2006) still see the application of corpora and concordances into CALL as valid methodology for bilingual classrooms, by focusing more on bilingual corpora and a user-friendly environment. Following this suggestion, the author presents a case study on a
specific keyword for Japanese EFL learners and seeks methodology on the use of DDL in the online environment for bilingual classrooms, by adopting Moodle and parallel corpora in this chapter.
data-driVEn LEarning the product approach and the process approach Teaching grammar is divided into two approaches: the product approach and the process approach. Hadley (2002) generalized, “Product approaches are those that carefully present specific aspects of the language for the students. Process approaches encourage creativity and self-discovery by students as they experiment with the language” (p. 3). Lewis (1993) indicated that the disadvantage of the product approach to pedagogic grammar is that “much of the grammar rules that are taught are inaccurate or plain wrong” (p. 133). On the other hand, Nunan (1995) suggested that grammar tasks using the process approach invite learners “to use the examples and modules in the material to recognize language patterns, and work out the language rules for themselves” (p. xxiii), without making them memorize the grammar rules. The main advantage given by process approaches is the learning responsibility that it imposes on the learners. In this case, the teacher plays the role of “facilitator” (Widdowson, 1989). Process approaches are fundamentally similar to the DDL approach. DDL is an approach to pedagogic grammar; it encourages learners’ learning to move from a product to a process approach by looking at the language patterns given by concordance lines of a language taken from electronic corpora and concordance software.
data-driven Learning In the DDL approach, learners first examine the concordance lines created using a concordancer
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A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
and a corpus; hopefully then they will be able to discover the theory contained in the evidence. Indeed, Tribble (1990) states, “What the concordancer does is make the invisible visible” (p. 11). This is because collocations of a word show learners the clear lexical rules in a keyword-incontext (KWIC) format. Leech’s (1994) term “organic” is well suited as a descriptor of this DDL approach; he suggested that this term could be applied to those pedagogical techniques, increasing the learner’s consciousness of grammar. Rutherford and Smith (1988) also mention raising consciousness as “the deliberate attempt to draw the learner’s attention specifically to the formal properties of the target language” (p. 107). In addition, in DDL, teachers never give learners the information about language patterns beforehand; instead, they try to encourage the discovery of language properties by the learners on their own (see also Chalker, 1994; Johns, 1991a, 1991b). Many researchers have supported the DDL approach in the classroom for the past decade (cf. Kettemann, 1995; Johns, 1991b; Tribble & Johns, 1990; Barlow, 2000; Chujo et al., 2006).
the problem posed by ddL in the bilingual classroom However, some have suggested that the disadvantage of the DDL approach is that it is “too difficult for most students” (Wills, Shortall, & Johns, 1995, p. 67), and this comment is still valid today, as can be seen in Hadley (2002). According to a survey conducted by Hadley (2002), Japanese students of English confess the defects of DDLfor example, “The sentences are incomplete, so they are incoherent”; “There are so many English sentences…it’s overwhelming”; and “It’s a little difficult to do because it is so new. Also you need to understand the meaning of the words before you can really do this.” We might highlight these as the three main problems with DDL in the bilingual classroom: (1) incomplete sentences, (2) difficult words and phrases (authentic data), and
0
(3) no information to help students in advance. The reason why these problems occurred in the bilingual classroom is that DDL is basically regarded as a monolingual corpus platform.
the potential of parallel corpora in the bilingual classroom As opposed to the situation a couple of decades ago, various multilingual corpora are now available (e.g., English-Japanese or Japanese-English parallel corpora emerged after 2000), thanks to the development of alignment programs across languages and to multilingual concordance programs, such as King and Woolls (1996), Akasegawa (2001), and Barlow (2002). Although a concordancer invented a decade ago by King and Woolls (1996) can only give each paragraph of alignment data between two or more languages, Barlow (2002) enables it to show parallel concordance lines at word, phrase, and sentence level on the computer screen. Akasegawa (2001) also enables it to handle corpora compiled in XML (Extensive Markup Language) format. Frankenberg-Garcia (2005) pointed out that parallel corpora make it possible to answer the question, “How do you say…in English?” but monolingual corpora “Is it okay to say…in English?” Thus, the application of monolingual corpora in language learning would be the next step for non-native learners after learning from parallel corpora, because “How do you say…in English?” focuses on the fundamental knowledge for the communication in L2, but “It is okay to say…in English?” concentrates on the appropriateness of the language use in the situation and context. Thus, in the bilingual classroom, it could be said that the use of parallel corpora for DDL should come before monolingual. If such a bilingual DDL approach can be conducted in a CALL environment, this could be a very effective tool for the bilingual classroom. This can be achieved by making use of a virtual learning environment such as Moodle (http://moodle.org/).
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
MoodLE, ddL, and paraLLEL corpora the collaborative use of Moodle, ddL, and parallel corpora The ease of adopting DDL in the classroom has been commented on by some supporters. For example, Johns (1991b) mentions, “The concordance printout offers a unique way of stimulating inductive learning strategiesin particular the strategies of perceiving similarities and differences of hypothesis formation and testing” (p. 30). For instance, Stevens (1991) conducted experimental tasks with learners which involved filling a gap in a text with a known word in a gapped sentence or a set of gapped concordance lines for a word. The results showed that learners could predict and discover the answer by gaining the information from concordance lines irrespective of their incomplete nature. Thus, concordance lines can have a use within the learner’s process of language learning. This offline approach can also be applied to the online environment by using a virtual learning environment such as Moodle. Moodle is a popular open source, free software package for course management systems, enabling contributors to create online learning Web sites for pedagogical purposes. It is currently the most notable tool for CALL, and has more than 150,000 registered users, speaking over 75 languages in more than 160 countries. The application of this high-quality system to language education has just started, and there is great potential for using it in many different ways. Thus, as one of the
methodologies for an ideal online lexical learning, the author suggests the collaborative use of Moodle, data-driven learning, and parallel corpora for bilingual lexical studies.
possible two-conventional ddL approaches Conventionally, there have been two applications for parallel concordances in the bilingual classroom; the first is the off-line method of paper-based handouts, and the second is the online method, which makes use of parallel concordance software. Where the paper-based style is used, teachers normally provide material on which parallel concordances are listed. The weakness of this method is that it is not very flexible with regard to time and material constraints. Teachers can only provide the materials at class time, and the size of the handout (normally A4) and the number of sheets of each handout given are both limited. On the other hand, with the online method, students should be in an environment where they are allowed to use a parallel concordancer such as ParaConc invented by Barlow (2002) (purchasable at http://www.athel.com/para.html). In this case, they will examine a specific word or a phrase in parallel corpora using the parallel concordancer by themselves. Thus, students firstly need to be instructed by teachers in the use of the parallel concordancer. In this case, it would be better for the instructor to be a bilingual or a person who can communicate in Japanese because it is sometimes harder for non-native students to be instructed in
Figure 1.
Moodle
Data-Driven Learning
Parallel Corpus
Effective Computer Assisted Language Learning for Bilingual Lexical Studies
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A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
English. Thus, this may be a separate challenge for students. However, pilot research conducted by Chujo et al. (2006) gave the following results: (1) Japanese college students learned to handle ParaConc quickly, and (2) the mixed use of ParaConc and parallel corpus can be useful for lexical studies. However, as the emphasis in the online method is on students finding answers themselves, using parallel corpora, and as they have to be in an environment where they have access to a parallel concordancer and a parallel corpus, this method would be time consuming, and cost and labor intensive. If the first aim is not researching but learning vocabulary, students do not need to learn how to use a concordancer. Moreover, the cost of such concordancers is normally quite expensive. Therefore, both the conventional styles of the DDL method have weak points. However, Moodle enables teachers to overcome the problems associated with both conventional methods.
adapting Moodle for parallel ddL The use of Moodle in language teaching is a userfriendly method for managing online learning. The key point is to explore how we can arrange and manage parallel language data using this tool. Moodle plays various important roles: Moodle is the empty box where linguistic data (of course, any data you want!!) can be stored. Moodle is not only the independent study desk, but also the reciprocal online space where students can make use of various functions such as reading materials, taking short quiz and tests, sending study reports, automatic records of attendance, managing time schedules, giving feedback, private messaging, blogging, wikis, surveys, questionnaires, glossaries, and journals. More importantly, Moodle can be used for parallel DDL in the mixed use of these benefits (e.g., presenting parallel concordances, giving a cloze test, and so forth). All of these can be used in a less drill-and-kill wayin ways that are more open ended for student learning and collaboration. 0
If we seek to use Moodle for language education, all functions mentioned in the above are of primary importance. If students have access to an environment allowing them free access to the Internet, they can go to the Moodle Web site created by their teachers at any time and at any place, from their house, from the library, and even from the Internet cafe. Students could simply study from parallel concordances, with questions or hints pre-listed in Moodle. Thus, it becomes unnecessary for teachers and students to think of things like time constraints, physical material restrictions, and handling the parallel concordancer. The use of Moodle enables learners to conduct a more user-friendly online language learning of bilingual matters, and has the potential to play a very flexible role in language studies. However, perhaps the most significant pedagogical question is, what sort of topic should be selected or what sort of language aspects should be learned by students using parallel concordances? The following sections show suggested steps for the compilation of materials and procedures for the purpose of the parallel concordance teaching in the bilingual classroom.
a casE studY oF thE EngLish Word CONDITION in thE JapanEsE EFL cLassrooM suggested procedures for the compilation of parallel concordance Materials It is quite often the case that knowledge of L1 possessed by EFL learners affects that of L2 when they do L2 writing. For example, Groom (2006) points out that the English abstract noun phrase my condition, used by English native speakers and by Japanese EFL learners, differs in its implied meaning and its context where it occurs. The author believes that this kind of error can be overcome by presenting parallel concordances to students
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
effectively. The author suggests the following steps for the compilation of classroom parallel concordance materials: (1) error analysis made by non-native speaker, through the examination of a learner’s corpus and a large monolingual English corpus; (2) preparatory study in the parallel corpus from a translation aspect; and (3) compiling effective course material.
the First step: Error analysis from Learner’s and Native Speaker’s corpora Intuition might suggest to us that we know, to some extent, that a sort of common denominator exists at the word level across languages, particularly the noun (phrase). However, it can be also known that the meaning of a noun in language A and its translation in language B quite often does not match properly. For example, the English abstract noun heart has 28 Japanese translation equivalents in the English-Japanese dictionary Genius 3rd Edition. If Japanese had a translation equivalent properly matched to the meaning of the English heart, it would not be necessary for the bilingual dictionary to give 28 senses. However, students tend to believe that one English word has only one meaning and only one Japanese transla-
tion equivalent, which leads to the idea that one Japanese sentence can be literally translated into only one English sentence, without recognizing the difference of the implied meaning of words, phrases, and discourses given by English and Japanese. For example, Groom (2006) found that Japanese EFL learners sometimes show an influence from L1 (here, Japanese) in English writing. Specifically, he investigated how Japanese students use the English abstract noun phrase my condition in its context; he gives an example from an e-mail that he received from one of his Japanese students. His student wrote to him, “I am very sorry, I could not come to class today because my condition is not good” (p. 25). Then, he investigated the semantic error in a five-million-word corpus of Japanese EFL learners writing; he found that my condition created by Japanese EFL learners was used with an implied meaning, “statement assessing the speaker or writer’s general levels of physical, mental or emotional well-being, or the external circumstances in which speakers or writers find themselves” (p. 26). On the other hand, Groom’s examination of my condition in the Bank of English shows that my condition used by English native speakers usually “expresses a previously mentioned chronic illness or permanent
Table 1. ks. Urr. For my body
condition
and my health. Uhmm.
? I usually use my body
condition
for excuse. I yeah I and yes m
no so so. So so. Yeah. Er. My
condition
is mm not good because
today is mm little cold but mm my
condition
is not not so bad. Mm Ur
ke sk spring mm but mm my
condition
is very bad. Hm. Ahm. I
uh er ago ah-huh er my
condition
was too bad err to take
But uhm rece recently my my
condition
not bad. But today uhm special on
will go home at er six o’clock. Because my
condition
is er bad. No no no.
in fact uum yester yesterday my
condition
is not so good. So I I l
it show it shows my
condition
.Um. So um I umm
y garden is no good
condition
Wow . Uhm
time erm yeah my
condition
was very bad .
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A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
disability” (p. 26), as in the example “I have just been diagnosed as having Parkinson’s disease and am concerned about how quickly my condition will deteriorate” (p. 26). Now, the author shows that Groom’s indication is correct by giving the examples of the different use of condition between Japanese EFL learners and English native speakers. Let us consider the concordance lines of (my) condition extracted from NICT JLE corpus (the two million Japanese learner spoken corpus available at http://www.alc. co.jp/edusys/t-sst/english.html) (Table 1). As can be seen in the above concordance lines, Japanese EFL learners use my condition also in spoken English in the same sense found by Groom (2006). Let us also consider three examples of his condition used by English native speakers, extracted from the British National Corpus as follows: •
•
•
Edmunds, aged 19, has undergone emergency surgery for chest injuries at Leicester’s Groby Hospital where his condition was described as serious but stable. Pneumonia had followed pneumonia. Despite his crippling disease, he had still managed to practice psychiatry with some success; but finally, the progressive nature of his condition meant that he needed treatment in an intensive care unit with 24-hour-a-day supervision, breathing only with the aid of a respirator. Here, the patient, though chronically dependent on the ventilator is a conscious, sentient person. Although his condition is in one sense hopeless, in that he will not recover, it is not hopeless in the sense that he is in imminent danger of dying.
As can be seen in the above three examples of his condition, possessive + condition used by English native speakers gives the meaning “physically serious disease” and “not temporal but permanent disease” as the default lexical
0
information (e.g., collocates such as serious, he needed treatment in an intensive care unit with 24-hour-a-day supervision, hopeless in the above examples), as opposed to the examples used by Japanese EFL learners.
the second step: translation analysis from a parallel corpus Japanese Loan Word from English Condition: コンディション (Kondision) The previous section attempted an error analysis from a general reference English corpus and learner’s corpus. This section goes on to the second step: the translation analysis from a parallel corpus. Japanese コンディション (kondision), a Japanese loan word from the English noun condition (pronunciation is the same), connotes a different meaning from the English condition. The form of possessive + コンディション (kondision) is quite often also used in Japanese as “昨 夜雨が降ったので、今日は、芝のコンディション (the lawn’s condition) が良くないですね ( = As it rained last night, the lawn is still wet)”, “今日は、中 田選手のコンディション (Nakata’s condition) は 良くないですね ( = Today, Nakata’s performance is not good)”, or “今日は、身体のコンディション (physical condition) があまり良くないので休ませ て下さい( = Today, I feel sick, so I want to leave work before finishing time)” (Japanese examples and their English back-translations are made by the author). Thus, it is found that Japaneseコンデ ィション (kondision) is used in a temporal sense, and in both physical and non-physical situations concerning people, objects, or situation, as opposed to the English condition. As the implied sense of possessive + condition in English and in Japanese does not match properly at all, when Japanese EFL learners create English sentences with possessive + condition by translating it literally from L1 (Japanese) into L2 (English), misinterpretation will have a high possibility of
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
occurring. While the English my condition has a semantic component [+chronic], [+permanent], and [+serious], Japanese my condition rather includes the inverted semantic components. How can this linguistic fact be taught using parallel concordances? This answer has two steps. First we can present parallel concordance lines of the English word condition and their Japanese translations. This is because, by reading the real Japanese translation of the English word condition, Japanese EFL learners will find the real sense of it from the English context. The second is to present the parallel concordances of the Japanese synonyms of コンディション (kondision) and their English translations. As Japaneseコンディション (kondision) is a loan word from English condition, Japanese people sometimes does not use their intuition in the use of this word without recognizing the difference in each implied meaning, and it may be clearer to show other real Japanese words giving a similar notion of the English, condition. By following these two steps, they will learn how they can say what they want to say in English, and how to find the translation difference between Japanese synonyms in English.
From English into Japanese Now, let us consider randomly selected parallel concordances of the two most obvious Japanese translation equivalents of English condition: 状 態 (jyo-tai) and 容体 (yo-tai), extracted from Japanese-English Newspaper Articles Alignment Data (Japanese-English newspaper parallel corpus) with ParaConc (multilingual concordancer) as shown in Box 1. The two sets of concordances above for the Japanese translation equivalents 状態 (jyo-tai) and 容体 (yo-tai) show that both are used in the sense of critical and permanent disease. In addition, when we translate the English word condition into Japanese, we should choose 状態 (jyo-tai) or 容体 (yo-tai) depending on the context. For example, 状態 (jyo-tai) is used in a sense of
physical state, but 容体 (yo-tai) in a sense of the change of physical state into a more serious one in several/many of the examples.
From Japanese into English Ruigo-Jitsuyo-Jiten, a Japanese thesaurus dictionary published in 2005, shows that the synonyms ofコンディション (kondision) are 具合 (guai), 状態 (jyo-tai), 体調 (taichou), 容体 (yo-tai), and various others. Among them, as can be seen in the previous section, we find that 状態 (jyo-tai) and 容体 (yo-tai) tend to be used for serious and long-term physical conditions, giving the similar meaning but the different appropriateness of Japanese コンディション (kondision) as the translation equivalents of the English condition. Therefore, other synonyms such as 具合 (guai) and 体調 (taichou) have the possibility to give the similar meaning of the Japanese コンディション (kondision). Now, let us consider the following 10 parallel concordances of 具合 (guai) and their English translations extracted from Kansai-Gaidai Parallel Corpus B (Japanese-English parallel corpus compiled from texts of Japanese literature and its English translation) with Parallel Scan version1.0 (bilingual concordancer invented by Akasegawa, 2002) as shown in Box 2. As can be seen in the above parallel concordance lines of 具合 (guai) and its English translations, condition is not used in any of the English translations. Instead, well, wrong, sick, health, or be in good shape are used to give the same proposition implied by 具合 (guai). Thus, Japanese EFL learners, at first, come up with the idea 具合 (guai) ＝コンディション (kondision) as synonyms in Japanese, and then they end up interpreting コンディション (kondision) ＝ condition, triggering the incorrect English sentences with condition. Thus, students should write “I’m not well” or “I’m sick” as the same proposition of the incorrect example given by Japanese EFL learners, “my condition is not good.”
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
Box 1. ＜ condition - 状態 (jyo-tai) ＞ suffered a brain hemorrhage and her [[condition]] became critical around 2 p.m. on July 19 ir villages under ar med threat. As a [[condition]] for halting treatment to prolong life, his real name. He fell into cr itical [[condition]] on the 10th night af ter being hospitali han 1 percent end up in a brain-dead [[condition.]] Tokyo now faces the substantial danger rming stage. Falling into a critical [[condition]] with the lower half of the body having platelet. A f ter being in a cr it ica l [[cond it ion]] for a mont h, she d ied. A tot a l of 181 o encourage the economy. The woman’s [[condition]] gradually worsened, and she died of org
… 、 翌 十九 日 午後 から 危険 な … 医学 的 に 見 て 回復 不能 の … 入院 十 日 目 の 夜 、 危篤 …り組む べき だ 。 そのうち 脳死 の …心臓 ショック を 起こし 危機 的 な … かかり 、 約 一 か月 間 の 危篤
[[状態]] [[状態]] [[状態]] [[状態]] [[状態]] [[状態]]
に 陥っ た 後 は 、 小康 状態… に 陥っ て いる こと 」 を 挙げ… に 陥っ た 。 警視庁 で この 口座… に なる の は 一 ％ 以下 と… に… …。 ◇…国際 ルール… の あと 、 八月 十六 日 に 死亡…
… て くる 。 その後 、 女性 患者 の [[状態]] は 徐々に 悪化 し 、 今月 十 日…
＜condition - 容体 (yo-tai) >
rsonnel said they noticed the girl ’s [[condition]] was deter iorating shor tly before 7 p.m. orarily recovered consciousness, his [[condition]] took a sudden turn for the worse on May 10 t Germany. About a minute later, her [[condition]] worsened. Doctors did not notice the er in blood samples from patients whose [[conditions]] were known to have worsened after Mori Sendai, the number of patients whose [[condition]] suddenly deteriorated after they receiv as with her at the time, the woman’s [[condition]] took a sudden turn for the worse two or be moderate this year. The patient’s [[condition]] became worse because the concentration oing an operation last year, but her [[condition]] suddenly worsened a few days ago. But bacter ia. Two days later, the boy’s [[condition]] deter iorated and he stopped breathing,
… で 逮捕 ） の 点滴 で 女児 の [[容体]] が 急変 し た の に 気づい た… … 戻っ た が 、 五月 十 日 に [[容体]] が 急変 、 十四 日 に 死亡 し… … 。 約 一 分 後 、 女性 の [[容体]] が 悪化 し た ため 、 付き添い の… … 者 の 点滴 を 受け た 後 に[[容体]] が 急変 し 、 別 の 病院 に… … 、同 クリニック で の 点滴 後 、 [[容体]] が 急変 し た 患者 は 判明 分… … 楽観 的 な 予測 を 語っ た 。 [[容体]] が 急変 し た の は 二 、… …中 の アルコール 濃度 が 高まっ て[[容体]] が 悪く なっ た が 、 看護 婦… … い た が 、 数 日 前 から [[容体]] が 急変 し た 。 だが 、 世界… …十七 日 に 突然 呼吸 が 止まる など [[容体]] が 悪化 し た ため 、 人工 呼吸…
In addition, let us consider the parallel concordances of 体調 (tai-cho) as follows: •
その 約 一 か月 半 後 、 急 に 食欲 が 落ちる など 体調 を 崩し た ため 、 都内 の 病院 で 検査 を 受け た 。
About six weeks later, after her physical condition deteriorated and she lost her appetite, she visited another hospital in Tokyo, where she was diagnosed as suffering from acute hepatitis C.
•
最高裁 判決 も 、 元 社員 の 体調 の 異変 に 気づき ながら 口頭 の 指 導 に 終わり 、 具体 的 措置 を 伴っ て い なかっ た と 指摘 し た 。
The ruling by the top court pointed out that the Dentsu employee’s bosses noticed that his physical condition had deteriorated, but took no specific measures to address the situation other than to tell the employee to take care of himself.
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
Box 2.
•
具合が悪ければ休むといいよ, 信夫はそう言 おうとしたが黙っていた。
Nobuo wanted to say, “If you’re not well, go to bed,” but he kept silent.
具合が悪いのであったら、兄さんに薬を合わ してもうたら、ぴたりと直りますがや。
If something is wrong, you should let your brother make a potion for you. His medicine always works.
「具合が悪いんですか？」
Is he sick?
「具合はとう?」 暖い陽の射す芝生に椅子 を出してまどろんでいる祐子の方へ歩み寄っ て、美樹が訊いた。
How are you feeling? Miki asked, walking over to the garden chair where Yuko was dozing in the sun.
「具合はどうなの?」
And his health?
具合は悪かないさ。ぴんぴんしてるさ。毎日 何時間かはそとに出して運動もさせている し、食欲だって立派なもんさ。
No, not sick. Healthy as can be. It has a couple of hours exercise every day. Healthy appetite, ha ha.
「どうしたんですか、反省するなんて?体の具 合がわるいんじゃないですか?」
“So what’s with this repentance? You sick or something?”
「何だ？ からだの具合が悪いようだな」 貞行は片ひざをついて、信夫のひたいに手を 当てた。
“I say. You’re not looking very well.” Masayuki knelt on one knee and placed his hand on Nobuo’s forehead.
そのうち三沢が帰って来た。近頃は身体の具 合が好いと見えて、髪を刈って湯に入った後 の彼の血色は、ことにつやつやしかった。
Finally Misawa came back home. Lately he seemed to be in good shape, and he looked exceptionally slick after a haircut and a bath.
体の具合はとくに悪くはなさそうだが、どこ となく動作がぎこちなく、目もとには不機嫌 そうなしわが浮かんでいる。
He is still physically well, but his movements seem wrong. Ill-humored folds brew about his eyes.
宮本 氏 は 今 大会 を 「 高齢 と 体調 の 状況 から 無理 を し ない 方 が いい 」 と の 理由 で 欠席 し て いる 。
Miyamoto has been absent from the JCP convention because of his age and deteriorating health. •
所有 権 移転 について 、 鄭 元 理事 長 の 妻 は 「 夫 は 体調 が 悪く 、 答え られ ない 」 と し 、 申 前 理事 長 は 「 コメント し ない 」 と 話し た 。
Asked about the transfers, Chong’s wife said, “My husband is now in poor health, so he cannot answer.” The above examples show that 体調 (tai-cho) is translated into condition or health, and is used in not critical but serious physical situations. Thus, the semantic degree of seriousness of physical condition among the synonyms of コンディシ ョン (kondision) would be 状態 (jyo-tai)・容体 (yo-tai), 体調 (tai-cho), and具合 (guai) in order. The author believes that the parallel concordances including such semantic synonyms should be listed in the materials to let students recognize
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
the semantic differences among Japanese synonyms and their translations. Then they would automatically know the fact that translation is less fixed than they imagine; rather it is a flexible output. It is often said like a proverb in Japan that the fastest method for improving your English is to improve your Japanese first. This seems to be quite correct.
the third step: creating the Material of Lexical studies In the conventional monolingual (that is, English) DDL approach, it was usual to present only one type of English concordance line per topic, which finds its limit for language teaching in the bilingual classroom, because it can only treat grammatical aspects which do not go beyond the monolingual world. Therefore, in the case of the English condition, it is impossible for monolingual examples to effectively teach the difference between more complex bilingual matters. In this sense, parallel concordances play an important role in the bilingual classroom. Now, the author would like to suggest three kinds of information that should be included in the material: (1) the parallel concordances of
English (possessive) + condition sentences and their most common Japanese translations, (2) the parallel concordances of Japanese synonyms of a topic word such as具合 (guai) and 体調 (taicho) sentences and their English translations, and (3) a simple test of mixed (or separated) parallel concordance lines created by hiding the keyword in English or in Japanese, or both (that is, cloze test). The advantage of this application of parallel concordance materials is that students can learn both English and Japanese. An example of the first proposed test is shown in Box 3. In this material, the keywords in both English and Japanese are hidden. It can be found that the hidden keywords are sometimes collocates of the node word. In this case, students first try to answer questions in the Japanese part. Then they can answer the English part according to the translations. Thus, if they cannot answer the Japanese questions correctly, they cannot reach the answers of the English questions. This test is based on the idea that improving Japanese knowledge is improving English knowledge. We can also create materials at not only the word level but also at the phrase or quasi-fixed expression level, as can be seen in the second suggested test as follows:
Box 3. Put the appropriate word in each English line, and 状態 or 容体 in each Japanese line 01 suffered a brain hemorrhage and her condition became ( ) around 2 p.m. on July 19 02 ir villages under armed threat. As a condition for halting treatment to prolong life, 03 rsonnel said they noticed the girl’s ( ) was ( ) shortly before 7 p.m. 04 orarily recovered consciousness, his condition took a sudden turn for the worse on May 10 05 t Germany. About a minute later, her condition ( ). Doctors did not notice the er 06 in blood samples from patients whose condition were known to have ( ) after Mori 07 Sendai, the number of patients whose condition suddenly ( ) after they receiv 01… 、 翌 十九 日 午後 から 危険 な ( ) に 陥っ た 後 は 、 小康 状態… 02… 医学 的 に 見 て 回復 不能 の ( ) に 陥っ て いる こと 」 を 挙げ… 03… で 逮捕 ） の 点滴 で 女児 の ( ) が 急変 し た の に 気づい た… 04… 戻っ た が 、 五月 十 日 に ( ) が 急変 、 十四 日 に 死亡 し… 05… 。 約 一 分 後 、 女性 の ( ) が 悪化 し た ため 、 付き添い の… 06… 者 の 点滴 を 受け た 後 に ( ) が 急変 し 、 別 の 病院 に… 07… 、 同 クリニック で の 点滴 後 、 ( ) が 急変 し た 患者 は 判明 分…
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
「からだの具合が悪いようだな」 貞行は 片ひざをついて、信夫のひたいに手を当て た。 ‘( ).’ Masayuki knelt on one knee and placed his hand on Nobuo’s forehead. 同 病院 に よる と 、 国松 長官 が 搬送 さ れ た 時 は 、 十 人 中 九 人 は 助から ない よう な 危篤 状態 だっ た が 、 体力 が あり 、 迅速 に 手術 でき た こと など から 、 奇 跡 的 に 回復 し た と いう 。 According to the hospital, Kunimatsu was ( ) when he was admitted but managed a “miraculous” recovery thanks to his physical condition and prompt medical treatment. 「具合が悪いんですか？」 ( )? 約 一 分 後 、 女性 の 容体 が 悪 化 し た ため 、 付き添い の 医師 ら が 心臓 マッサージ など の 処置 を 行っ た 。 About a minute later, her ( ) , and the doctor massaged her heart. 具合が悪いのであったら、兄さんに薬を合 わしてもうたら、ぴたりと直りますがや。 ( ), you should let your brother make a potion for you. His medicine always works. 具合が悪ければ休むといいよ, 信夫はそ う言おうとしたが黙っていた。 Nobuo wanted to say, “( ), go to bed,” but he kept silent.
Above, the questions of 具合 (guai), 状態 (jyotai) and 容体 (yo-tai) are well-mixed. In addition, all questions are asking about the fixed phrase, clause, or sentence that is used commonly. This material is based on the idea that a word is not used by itself, but a word is used with its company as a phrasal unit (cf. Sinclair, 1991; Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Lewis, 1993, 1997, 2000; Hunston & Francis, 1999). This concept is actually supported by the principle of idiom suggested by Sinclair (1991). Therefore, it is also important to include phrasal units in materials.
There are often cases in which concordancers do not work for all words. For some words the database can provide very rich examples, but in others the database just does not have that content (that is, no concordances or only one or two appear when students type in the word they are interested in). This is largely because the corpus size is not enough to consult the specific word or phrase. In this sense, it is primarily important not only to use the big-sized corpora such as Bank of English and British National Corpus (unfortunately, we do not have the big-sized parallel corpora at the moment), but also to compile the original corpora according to each learner’s or teacher’s purpose.
concLusion The application of bilingual or multilingual corpus linguistics into language education has just begun and has much potential to create various effective methodologies for the bilingual classroom. Bilingual corpora and Moodle can be innovative devices for enlarging and improving the CALL education for EFL language learners. However, teachers’ elaborative preparation and learning procedures would play a more important role for the success of effective language teaching. For this reason, giving a short test to students on the topic before they learn from parallel concordance lines would be important for ascertaining whether they have the lexical knowledge on that topic. The primary and essential idea in DDL is that learners learn and research English not only with teachers, but also by themselves. The author also believes that the concurrent use of DDL, parallel corpora, and an online virtual learning environment such as Moodle would be the best collaboration for urging learners to investigate the common and distinct semantic features of words, phrases, and discourses in the bilingual classroom.
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rEFErEncEs Akasegawa, S. (2002). Compilation of Kansai Gaidai Corpus-B and development of the parallel concordancer parallel scan. English Corpus Studies, 9, 45-56. Barlow, M. (2000). Parallel texts in language teaching. In S.P. Botley., T. McEnery, & A. Wilson (Eds.), Multilingual corpora in teaching and research (pp. 106-115). Amsterdam: Rodopi. Barlow, M. (2002). ParaConc: Concordance software for multilingual parallel corpora. Retrieved October 13, 2006, from http://www.athel. com/paraweb.pdf Chalker, S. (1994). Pedagogical grammar: Principles and problems. In M. Bygate, A. Tonkyn, & E. Williams, (Eds.), Grammar and the language teacher (pp. 31-44). London: Prentice Hall. Chujo, K., Utiyama, M., & Miura, S. (2006). Using a Japanese-English parallel corpus for teaching English vocabulary to beginning-level students. English Corpus Studies, 13, 153-172. Chujo, K., Utiyama, M., & Nishigaki, C. (2005). Japanese-English parallel corpus application and CALL: A powerful tool for vocabulary learning. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Foreign Language Education and Teaching (pp. 16-19). Danielsson, P., & Mahlberg, M. (2003). There is more to knowing a language than knowing its words: Using parallel texts in the bilingual classroom. ESP World, 3(6). Retrieved from http://www.esp-world.info/index.html Frankenberg-Garcia, A. (2005). Pedagogical uses of monolingual and parallel concordances. ELT Journal, 59(3), 189-198. Groom, N. (2006). Phraseology, identity, community, motivation. The Language Teacher, 30(7), 25-27.
Hadley, G. (2002). Sensing the winds of change: An introduction to data-driven learning. RELC Journal, 33(2), 99-124. Hanson-Smith, E. (1993). Dancing with concordances. CALL Journal, 4(2), 40. Higgins, J. (1991). Fuel for learning: The neglected element of textbooks and CALL. CAELL Journal, 2(2), 3-7. Hunston, S., & Francis, G. (1999). Pattern grammar: A corpus-driven approach to the lexical grammar of English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Johns, T.F. (1991a). Should you be persuaded: Two examples of data-driven learning. English Language Research Journal, 4, 1-13. Johns, T.F. (1991b). From printout to handout: Grammar and vocabulary teaching in the context of data-driven learning. English Language Research Journal, 4, 27-45. Kettemann, B. (1995). On the use of concordancing in ELT. TELL & CALL, 4, 4-15. Retrieved January 6, 2007, from http://gewi.kfunigraz. ac.at/~ketteman/conco.html King, P., & Woolls, D. (1996). Creating and using a multilingual parallel concordancer. In B. Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk & M. Thelen (Eds.), Translation and Meaning Part 4: Proceedings of the Lodz Session of the 2nd International Maastricht-Lodz Duo Colloquium on Translation and Meaning (pp. 459-466). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Leech, G. (1994). Students’ grammar, teachers’ grammar, learners’ grammar. In M. Bygate, A. Tonkyn, & E. Williams, (Eds.), Grammar and the language teacher (pp.17-30). London: Prentice Hall. Leech, G., & Candlin, C.N. (1986). Computers in English language teaching and research. London: Longman.
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Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. London: Language Teaching.
Tribble, C., & Johns, G. (1990). Concordances in the classroom. London: Longman.
Lewis, M. (1997). Implementing the lexical approach: Putting theory into practice. London: Language Teaching.
Widdowson, H.G. (1989). Knowledge of language and ability for use. Applied Linguistics, 10(2), 128-137.
Lewis, M. (2000). Teaching collocation: Further developments in the lexical approach. Boston: Thomson.
Wills, D., Shortall, T., & Johns, T.F. (1995). Pedagogic grammar. Birmingham: University of Birmingham Press.
Nattinger, J., & DeCarrico, J. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
kEY tErMs
Nunan, D. (1995). Atlas 1: Teacher’s expanded edition. Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Rutherford, W., & Smith, M. (1988). Consciousness raising and universal grammar. In W. Rutherford & M. Smith (Eds.), Grammar and second language teacher: A book of readings (pp. 107116). Boston: Heinle and Heinle. Ryan, S. (1996). What makes a good language lesson?. In G. van Troyer, S. Cornwell, & H. Morikawa (Eds.), On JALT 95: Curriculum and evaluation (pp. 116-119). Tokyo: Japan Association of Language Teaching. Sinclair, J. (1986). Basic computer processing of long texts. In G. Leech & N. Christopher (Eds.), Computers in English language teaching and research (pp. 185-203). Essex: Longman. Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus concordance collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stevens, V. (1991). Concordance-based vocabulary exercises: A viable alternative to gap-fillers. English Language Research Journal, 4, 47-63. Stevens, V. (1993). Concordances as enhancements to language competence. TESOL Matters, 2(6), 11. Tribble, C. (1990). Concordancing and an EAP writing programme. CAELL Journal, 1(2), 1015.
Concordancer: Computer corpus concordancing programs used to search for words, collocates, groups of words (or phrases), or even styles of the contexts in corpora by displaying the outputs of a given search in KWIC (keyword in context) format. In addition, most of concordancers can calculate the occurrence of the linguistic item being searched in the corpora. Data-Driven Learning (DDL): Approach invented by Tim Johns at the University of Birmingham. In this approach, corpus concordances are used to help students find the grammatical rules of a language. Learners first read the concordance lines of a specific grammar topic, and then they will discover the hidden pattern or theory of a language. In DDL, teachers normally give no information to learners in advance, in order for them to discover linguistic feature themselves. Error Analysis: The study of linguistic errors made by EFL learners. The purposes of error analysis are: (1) to measure the language knowledge of an EFL leaner, (2) to study the language acquisition of an EFL learner, and (3) to gain linguistic information that should be included in language learning materials. Learner Corpus: One type of corpora containing the spoken and written texts of individuals leaning English as a second or foreign language. The purpose of learner corpora is primarily to
A Lexical Study Based on Parallel Corpora, DDL, and Moodle
research linguistic errors made by non-native speakers (or error analysis). One of the large learner corpora is called the International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE). Parallel Corpus: Compiled from the aligned language data between texts in a source language and translated texts in a target language. Parallel corpora are used for research in contrastive analysis, translation studies, and even bilingual lexicography across languages. Multiconcordancer software (e.g., ParaConc) is needed to search for linguistic items in a parallel corpus.
Pedagogic Grammar (PG): Language grammar designed for teaching in the classroom. PG is based on attention to grammatical rules, particularly language patterns, and is primarily designed to facilitate EFL students (even English native speakers) to learn a language. Other uses of PG would be as a reference for students, for teachers, and for the compilation of language materials or textbooks.
Chapter XIV
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics Vander Viana Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Sonia Zyngier Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
abstract Like the advent of the telescope, computers today can provide ways of looking into language patterns that cannot be seen with the naked eye. From this perspective, this chapter argues for the centrality of corpus use in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms. It shows how the computer can offer new ways of looking at language and of relying on real data to see how language is used. A historical background is provided so as to enable an approach to corpus linguistics, one which moves away from reliance on intuitions and abstract examples. Having made the claim for the strengths of corpus linguistics as a way to develop students’ autonomy in language learning, an online corpus and some concordancers are provided, and examples are offered of how they could work in a classroom. The chapter ends with research and educational prospects in the area.
introduction In Through the Looking-Glass, Alice suggests a new way of perceiving the world. She tells the cat: “First, there’s the room you can see through the glassthat’s just the same as our drawing-room, only the things go the other way” (Carroll, 1972, p. 181). This chapter follows the example by go-
ing through the looking-glass of language to see what can be revealed. As Sinclair (1991) stated, “the most exciting aspect of long-text data-processing, however, is not the mirroring of intuitive categories of description. It is the possibility of new approaches, new kinds of evidence, and new kinds of description” (p. 36). Later, he added that “we must gratefully adjust to this new situation
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EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
[the growing evidence of language in use] and rebuild a picture of language and meaning which is not only consistent with the evidence but also exploits it to the full” (Sinclair, 2004d, p. 10). Having said that, for a long time, the input available to language students had been restricted to what could be contained in a single book. As Frankenberg-Garcia (2005) explains: Not very long ago, learners had to be content with little more than traditional dictionaries, which focused more on what words meant than on how they were used…Language learners wishing to overcome this limitation had to rely to a large extent on what native speakers believed sounded right. (p. 335) Along the same line of thought, Johns (1991) had already stated that most grammars used to be based on intuitions rather than on authentic data. In sum, in those days, students had to rely on their course books, reference books, or teachers as the only sources of learning and solving their doubts (Aston & Burnard, 1998, p. 20). That was not an ideal world for at least two reasons. First, no matter how complete a textbook was, it could not possibly keep up with the constant changes of a given language. This means that most course books ran the risk of becoming anachronisms when made available to the market. There are also other issues these publications did not address explicitly, such as the kind of language they used as models (McEnery & Wilson, 1996, pp. 103-104), the choice of these models, the extent to which they represented the different registers students would have to deal with, the making up or editing of texts, and the extent of their authenticity. As a result, many of these textbooks did not reflect the real-world situations students would have to face when interacting with other people in English. Second, research in the corpus tradition can now offer solid ground to claim that speakers’ intuitions are not reliable enough in language
0
teaching. Sinclair and Renouf (1988) illustrated this point by showing that the most frequent use of ‘see’ is not the action performed by one’s eyes, as most speakers of English as a first language (henceforth EL1) would have it, but in the expressions ‘you see’ and ‘I see’. Over a decade ago, Sinclair (1991) argued that “the problem about all kinds of introspection is that it does not give evidence about usage…Actual usage plays a very minor role in one’s consciousness of language and one would be recording largely ideas about language rather than facts of it” (p. 39). The same view was later reinforced by Hunston (2002), who stated that “corpora can give information about how a language works that may not be accessible to native speaker intuition” (p. 13). The problem with intuition and introspection is further explained by Tsui (2004) in that “they describe what people know about language, or what they perceive language to be, rather than how language is used” (p. 39). It is true that speakers can judge whether sentences are well-formed based on grammatical rules. However, this is not enough, especially if we understand form and meaning to be inseparable (Stubbs, 1993, p. 2). When it comes to the possible combination of words, grammatical rules may not explain what occurs. Besides, they do not tell us anything about word or pattern frequency in a given register (Granger, 2002, p. 4). In a word, as Francis (1993) puts it, “the evidence of the ways in which language is really used is available in plenty, and there is no longer any need to invent example sentences in the time-honoured way” (p. 138). Actually, the age of sole reliance on books and intuition began to fall with the rise of corpus linguistics in the 1980s. According to Meunier (2002), “corpus research has highlighted the patterned nature of language, both lexically (collocations, recurrent word combinations) and grammatically or syntactically” (p. 121). Similarly, Granger (2002) argued that “it is quite clear therefore that the enriched description of the target language provided by native corpora is a plus for foreign
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
language teaching” (p. 21). With the compilation and later availability of corpora, both students and teachers began to have access to real language use. Language could then be presented in an authentic context. As Alderson (1996) put it, corpora “make it possible for learners not only to have access to real (rather than contrived) language data, but also to explore language data on their own and to generate their own hypotheses and rules about the language” (p. 258). Learners could now examine a specific word in its context and see the use of that particular word. Therefore, we argue for the use of concordances in English language teaching following the discussions provided by Johns (1988, 1991), Tribble and Jones (1990), Hardisty and Windeatt (1989), among others. More specifically, the aim of this chapter is to show how the principles and tools in corpus linguistics may be used in the EFL setting. The focus here will lie on the resources available for free on the Internet, thus enabling anyone to make use of them. This text is divided into four parts. In the first, corpus linguistics is discussed from a theoretical point of view before its use in language teaching is discussed. The second part presents an online corpus and some concordancers, together with some pedagogical applications to the language classroom. The third section proposes future work in this field of study. Conclusions are drawn in the last part of the chapter.
background The use of language data in linguistic analysis goes back to the first half of the 20th century. At that time, American structuralists and ethnographers focused on the study of Indian languages. With no writing records, these languages could only be investigated by means of what was collected from oral data. Although Bloomfield (1933) argued for an inductive research method based on actual language analysis, the corpora used in
those days, consisting of only a few sentences, differed widely from the multi-million-word corpora available nowadays. In the second half of the 20th century, the inductive method proposed by Bloomfield (1933) was replaced by a deductive approach to language.1 Chomsky, an influential linguistic at that time, changed the focus of linguistic research in the U.S. and around the world by advocating a mentalist view2 to language studies. His perspective contrasted with the previous empirical approach. In Chomsky’s (1957) terms, the focus was not on performancethat is, an individual’s use of languagebut on competence,3 the knowledge one has about a given language. Language competence was seen as dependent on an innate faculty which all human beings are born with (Chomsky, 1999). In other words, emphasis was placed on the way speakers processed language cognitively. Generativism aimed at mapping individual competences with a view to finding linguistic universals which would be valid to each and every language in the world. Chomsky’s concepts of ‘competence’ and ‘performance’ bore some similarity to Saussure’s (1916) distinction between ‘langue’ and ‘parole’ (Lyons, 1981; Weedwood, 2002). ‘Competence’ would pair up with ‘langue,’ whereas ‘parole’ would correspond to ‘performance’.4 Both Saussure and Chomsky claimed that it was impossible to study performance or parole given their fuzzy nature. To them, corpus-based studies would be aimless as they would not be able to account for all instances of a language. In addition, corpora would encompass hesitations, repairs, and mistakes. In this perspective, studies based on samples of language were left aside for some time.5 At this time, linguistics was basically derived from made-up sentences (Stubbs, 1993, p. 8). As Sampson (2005) puts it: Those of us who came of age as scholars of linguistics in the 1960s and 1970s were surrounded by people who urged that linguistics does not need empirical data, and that it gets on faster and more
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
efficiently if it bypasses painstaking observation of natural usage and relies instead on speakers’ intuitive ‘knowledge’ of their language. (p. 16) Chomskyan theory was based on an ideal speaker’s intuition about language. What Chomsky meant by ‘ideal speaker’ and how he or she would be identified in practical terms is still unknown. This ideal speaker, actually a linguist in most cases, would be in a position to judge what was grammatical or ungrammatical, thus determining how language worked. Sinclair (1991) commented that “linguistics languished” by summarizing the setting as follows: The tradition of linguistics has been limited to what a single individual could experience and remember. Instrumentation was confined to the boffin end of phonetics research, and there was virtually no indirect observation of measurement. (p. 1) Change would only take place in the 1980s when linguistics was ready to turn back again to empirical data. However, this time, corpus-based investigations were greatly helped by the advances in technology, especially the design and popularization of personal computers. As a matter of fact, technology played an important role in bringing language data back to linguistic research: it put an end to the major criticism to earlier corpus-based work carried out by researchers who did not have the means to do so. According to McEnery, Xiao, and Tono (2006), “Using paper slips and human hands and eyes, it was virtually impossible to collate and analyze large bodies of language data” (p. 4). One example is the compilation of the Survey of English Usage, which was used for the writing of A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (Quirk, Greenbaun, Leech, & Svartvik, 1985).6 Today, the use of computers makes this type of research easier, faster, and more reliable. The second advantage is that it is possible to investigate ever-growing corpora (McEnery
et al., 2006, p. 4). It should be stressed that the word ‘corpora’ nowadays refers to collections of machine-readable material (McEnery & Wilson, 1996, p. 14; Aston & Burnard, 1998, p. 5). One of the advantages of using corpus linguistics is that what can be obtained by observable data differs greatly from what intuition tells us. Sinclair (1991) explains: Indeed, the contrast exposed between the impressions of language detail noted by people, and the evidence compiled objectively from texts is huge and systematic. It leads one to suppose that human intuition about language is highly specific, and not at all a good guide to what actually happens when the same people actually use the language. (p. 4) Corpus linguistics highlights language in use and leaves aside artificial or contrived examples (McEnery et al., 2006, p. 6). If, on the one hand, the accuracy of explanations it provides depends largely on the quality and the size of the corpus used, then, on the other hand, flaws in a corpus may be relevant either because they will not form a pattern and will thus not represent the language (variety/register) under study, or because they are so frequent that they are in fact characteristic of language use. The notion of frequency is central to corpus linguistics. It is only by probing language with computers that it is possible to get to know how frequent its features are. Frequency then is a much more objective way to arrive at conclusions than intuition can offer. McEnery and Wilson (1996) agree with it when they state: Empirical data enable the linguist to make statements which are objective and based on language as it really is rather than statements which are subjective and based upon the individual’s own internalized cognitive perception of the language. (p. 87)
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
At the moment, corpus-based investigations have become worldwide and researchers have been compiling corpora to suit the most different needs. However, today’s widespread use does not come without problems. Defining a corpus, for instance, has become complex. It is not any collection of texts as, for example, common sense would hold (Cowie, 1994, p. 265). In order to be considered a corpus, a collection of texts needs to contain a selection of naturally occurring language. The selection must follow certain principles and there must be some design criteria to match what researchers want to investigate. A corpus compiled for linguistic analysis should be representative of the language to be investigated (or of one of its varieties). It must also be computer-readable, that is, it must be formatted in a way that it can be probed with the help of computer programs. In addition to allowing the researcher to look into language in new ways, corpus linguistics has an interdisciplinary nature. For instance, there are studies that combine corpus linguistics with translation (cf. Baker, 1993; Olohan, 2004), lexicology (cf. Halliday, Teubert, Yallop, & Cermakova, 2004), systemic-functional linguistics (cf. Thompson & Huston, 2006), and stylistics (cf. Zyngier, 2002; Semino & Short, 2004), to cite a few. As far as language learning is concerned, there are many more studies that investigate the potential of corpora (cf. Granger, 1998, 2004). The vast number of corpus-based research carried out so far may lead us to conclude that corpora have impacted the academic world and created the need, for instance, of different journals such as the International Journal of Corpus Linguistics and Corpora: Corpus-Based Language Learning, Language Processing and Linguistics, among others. However, it seems that the interface between corpus linguistics and EFL language teaching still needs to be refined in a way that the research developed so far also reaches the EFL classroom. The use of corpora in English language teaching has a number of advantages. First, it provides
learners with natural input, that is, with language as it is used by EL1 speakers (Gavioli & Aston, 2001; Scott & Tribble, 2006). Second, it reveals patterns of use that remain obscure to the naked eye. It is only possible to identify most patterns with the help of large corpora combined with the strengths of computer tools. According to Scott and Tribble (2006), “The new hardware and software used in corpus-based methods are opening up exciting possibilities which could not have been envisaged without them” (p. 4). Third, it fosters a student-centered approach as the teacher guides the students to find the answers by themselves (Stevens, 1995; Meunier, 2002). As Johns (1991) puts it, “We simply provide the evidence needed to answer the learner’s questions, and rely on the learner’s intelligence to find answers” (p. 2). In other words, “Increasing access to corpora may modify the traditional role of the teacher as an authority about the use of the language to be learned” (Aston & Burnard, 1998, p. 43). Finally, it promotes autonomy (Benson, 2001; Bernardini, 2004; Kaltenböck & Mehlmauer-Larcher, 2005), one of the goals of language teaching. One of the first volumes to exploit the relationship between corpora and language teaching was Tribble and Jones’s (1990) Concordances in the Classroom, which offered practical applications to the pedagogical use of corpora. Although providing only 11 entries in the bibliography, the volume was highly important at the time it was published. It covered aspects such as how to design and run concordances, how to compile corpora, and how to use concordances in a pedagogical way both in language and literature teaching. Later, Granger and Tribble (1998) argued for the use of learner corpora in EFL teaching. Similar to Tribble and Jones (1990), students were asked to carry out the analysis on their own. They were given a number of concordance lines in order to come to some conclusions about the accurate use of English. The difference was that these students were also given learner corpus data. Two sample tasks were offered in the article, focusing on (a)
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
‘accept’/‘possibility’ and (b) ‘important’/‘critical’/ ‘crucial’/‘major’/‘serious’/‘significant’/‘vital’. In both examples, students had a number of questions that either guided their studies or presented a common problem in EFL writing. They were then asked to take a careful look at some concordance lines to try to check what differences there were between the EFL and EL1 writing that had been analyzed. Although also working with a learner corpus, Milton’s (1998) aim differed from that of Granger and Tribble (1998). The former reported on the development of a computer program to be used by EFL learners whose components are: •
•
•
An error recognition (i.e., ‘proofreading’ or ‘editing’) exercise intended to sensitize learners to the most common or most ‘serious’ errors exposed by the first analysis; A hypertext online grammar designed to give context-sensitive feedback and based on these errors; Databases of the ‘underused’ lexical and grammatical phrases exposed by the second analysis, and made interactively available to learners from their word processor; and List-driven concordances that interact with text in these programs and databases (p. 192).
For instance, while proofreading an essay, users must decide what kind of error can be found in each line, if any. There is also the possibility of resorting to help, which is divided into four levels: ‘grammar category’, ‘full explanation’, ‘show error’, and ‘answer’. At any time, users can have access to a detailed analysis on their progress. Finally, attention is drawn to a number of books that have been dedicated to the use of corpora, wordlists, and concordances in language teaching (e.g., Wichmann, Fligelstone, McEnery, & Knowles, 1997; Aston, 2001; Granger, Hung, & Petch-Tyson, 2002; Kettemann & Marko, 2002;
Aston, Bernardini, & Stewart, 2004; Sinclair, 2004a; Scott & Tribble, 2006).
Main Focus oF thE chaptEr There is no doubt that corpora are becoming increasingly more important in the EFL environment. As Milton (1998) suggests, learning cannot be completely effective without the help of corpora. Based on the discrepancy between the description of language by means of corpus-based investigation and one’s intuition about language use, he states: Conventional classroom methods are often inadequate for conveying to learners our growing understanding of language features, and inappropriate for providing learners full access to, or significant experience with, the features of target language behaviors and how particular features of their own production deviate from these targets. (p. 186) The use of corpus data in the classroom enables students to master the language by themselves. The concept of language here means real language in use as in a communicative event. The importance of such approach is also highlighted by Granger and Tribble (1998) who hold that “the authenticity of the data ensures that learners are presented with samples of language which reflect the way people actually speak or write” (p. 201). The introduction of such methodology demands a shift in perspective. The focus on form brought about by the use of corpus-based language teaching materials seems to be a necessary counterpart for the communicative approach because “it has been accompanied by a loss of accuracy, especially grammatical accuracy” (Granger & Tribble, 1998, p. 199). This means that the use of corpora in the classroom may help students become more accurate when it comes to language use, which will then help them express themselves more naturally in English.
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
This chapter suggests the use of tools that are available on the Internet and can be accessed by teachers worldwide. By this token, the proposal differs from Tribble and Jones’s (1990), for they did not mention online corpora/concordancers simply because they were not available at the time their book was written. Granger and Tribble’s (1998) article shows an interesting way by means of which EFL teachers can make use of learner corpora; however, these corpora may not be available to EFL practitioners and/or they may not have the necessary skills or time to compile their own corpora. Milton’s (1998) suggestion may not be put into practice by EFL instructors due to the fact that they may not be in a position to purchase the program he refers to. This is why free-of-charge online tools are introduced here.
online corpus: theoretical and practical aspects The British National Corpus (BNC) is probably the largest and most renowned corpus available through the Internet nowadays.7 Although it is not possible to download the corpus for free,8 one can access it by means of wordlists and concordances either by the interface on its own site or by other links in the Web. The BNC represents British English in use in the last quarter of the 20th century and consists of both written and oral texts.9 The corpus, which contains more than 100 million words, “corresponds to roughly 10 years of linguistic experience of the average speaker in terms of quantity” (Aston & Burnard, 1998, p. 28). Its written part, accounting for 90% of the corpus, contains books, periodicals, brochures, advertising leaflets, letters, and essays to cite a few. Texts written to be spoken, such as political speeches, plays, and broadcast scripts, are also included in it. The oral part, standing for 10% of its words, contains transcriptions of conversations, lectures, tutorials, interviews, sales demonstrations, sports commentaries, radio phone-ins, among others (Burnard, 2007).
The BNC is a general corpus as it attempts to represent both the written and the oral registers, covering a wide range of subjects. Even though the final result is not balanced (90% written/10% oral), there is a major concern to include a variety of text types. The BNC may be described as monolingual since it only contains text in one languageEnglishand in only one varietyBritish English. When it comes to time aspect, it is a synchronic corpus for it represents a specific period of time, that is, the last part of the 20th century (from 1975 onwards). The only exception here remains with the selection of literary texts, which include texts dating back to 1960. However, such inclusion is justified by the compilers because of “their longer ‘shelf-life’” (Burnard, 2007). The BNC is considered a static corpus since texts cannot be added or removed from it. Complete texts were included if they amounted to a limit of 45,000 words. When this limit was not met, only a sample of the text corresponding to the previously mentioned limit was included in the corpus. From the BNC official site (http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/), it is possible to assess the corpus for free. Users just need to type in what they are looking for, which can be a word or a sequence of words. It is also possible to restrict the search to a part of speech, for instance. The drawback of this system is that users need either to know the manual (see Burnard, 2007) by heart or to refer to it in order to find out how such restriction works and which codes are used for each and every part of speech. The results page of the BNC adopts the format of full-sentence concordance as illustrated in Figure 1. In this specific case, the search string was ‘sit through’. As there are only 44 instances of such string in the BNC, all of them are shown in the results page.11 The code on the left-hand side of the screen refers to the source from which the sample sentence has been taken. The major problem in this page is that the search words in the concor-
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
Figure 1. Results for ‘sit through’ at the BNC official site10
dance lines are not highlighted in any way, nor are they in the middle of the line, which makes it difficult for their instances to be identified. In addition, users must read the complete sentences looking for the words themselves. So, it will be less likely that they will be able to concentrate on finding a pattern and more likely that they will focus on understanding the meaning of the sentences displayed. In order to work with the BNC in a friendlier way in the classroom, it is advisable to use another interface, developed by Mark Davies at Brigham Young University, which can be accessed at http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/. Although it may look difficult at first sight, the interface is easy to operate. The variety of the options it provides actually adds to its validity. For instance, when searching for ‘sit through’, the output is different from the previous one reported above.12 The format used in this case is the ‘keyword in context’ (KWIC), as can be seen in Figure 2. These concordance lines are better to work with because ‘sit through’ is roughly in the middle of each line. It is also in bold type and underlined,
helping users identify it and start studying its patterning. Similar to the BNC site, in Davies’s interface, it is possible to identify the source of each concordance line. In addition to the different layout, there is also some extra information on the source such as its genre, subject, and medium. Another difference is that it is possible to access more text than what is shown in the concordance line. Users may resort to an expanded context if they need to read more on a specific sample. The most important aspect, however, of working with concordance lines is to start noticing patterns that would remain obscure in other ways. Therefore, while working with the concordance lines for ‘sit through’, one may notice its complements13: …maybe producing a series of loop tapes each one covering a particular sector of the market so that customers interested in adult/business English videos don’t have to sit through a section on ‘watch with mother’ levels.
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
‘Since fall 1980 each American academic exchange delegation to visit Peking has had to sit through a lengthy recounting of the research improprieties I am alleged to have committed,’ Mosher said, in a statement last week. And I could never sit through all these interviews, transcribing them off the tape afterwards. It was too boring.
with which a form is imbued by its collocates” (p. 157). Therefore, it could be said that ‘sit through’ has a negative semantic prosody. Another possible investigation may be carried out with collocations, as in the case of adjectives preceding nouns. One may also be interested in checking whether the word ‘problem’ has been placed with an adequate collocate in the following example14:
It was backs to the wall for most of the 90 minutes, and I hope I don’t have to sit through too many games like that.
Nowadays there is a great gap between social classes. The majority of the population lives with less than one dollar a day, while the minority spends thousands of dollars buying foolish things in shopping malls. Two different realities, side by side, in the same world, in the same neighborhood. How to deal with this reality? How to manage with this terrible problem? [our emphasis]
As can be seen in the five instances retrieved from the BNC, that which collocates with ‘sit through’ is generally something unpleasant and/or something that the person is not willing to do. As Hunston (2002) states, “Because it is often used with items that indicate something lengthy and boring, connotations of boredom tend to attach to the phrasal verb itself” (p. 141). This is generally referred to as semantic prosody, which is defined by Louw (1993) as “a consistent aura of meaning
In this case, the option ‘adj.ALL’ should be selected from a pull-down menu ‘(insert tag)’ before the specific noun is typed as shown in Figure 3. The pull-down menu offers an array of possibilities: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, negatives, articles, determiners, pronouns, possessives, prepositions, conjunctions, numerals, interjections, and punctuation marks. Most of these options are subdivided, supplying informa-
Maybe I’m just being traditional in my tastes; it is probably important to watch the compilation in small doses and not sit through the whole three hours as I did.
Figure 2. Results for ‘sit through’ in Davies’s interface
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
The most common collocate is ‘major’, occurring 4.01 times per million words in the BNC. The adjective ‘terrible’ does not appear on top of the list. As a matter of fact, it is in the 63rd place, totaling 16 instances and 0.16 times per million words. When its distribution across registers is checked, another difference can be noticed. The first five registers in the list are all from the spoken continuum. The one that had the highest number of raw occurrences was ‘broadcast discussion’, totaling three instances. It is true that the complete list of registers contains written ones as well, but they refer to newspapers, biographies, and non-academic texts, which do not resemble the register of compositions. By studying this information, EFL students may become aware of the registers in which the
Figure 3. Search string for adjective + problem15
tion for different searches. For instance, in the case of adjectives, which are the focus here, users may choose to work with all adjectives (adj.ALL), adjectives in the comparative form (adj.CMP), or adjectives in the superlative form (adj.SPRL). Table 1 contains the first 10 results for such query.
Table 1. First 10 adjectival collocations of ‘problem’ Distrib
Word/Phrase
Rokens
Per mil in Reg1
1
major problem
Reg1
[100,000,000 words]
401
4.01
2
main problem
301
3.01
3
real problem
287
2.87
4
only problem
249
2.49
5
serious problem
217
2.17
6
particular problem
215
2.15
7
big problem
125
1.25
8
biggest problem
112
1.12
9
social problem
85
0.85
10
further problem
82
0.82
Table 2. Distribution of ‘terrible problem’ across registers
#
Register name
# per million
# tokens
# words
1
S_consult
7.2
1
138011
2
S_lect_soc_science
6.3
1
159880
3
S_brdcast_discussn
4.0
3
757317
4
S_brdcast_news
3.8
1
261278
5
S_unclassified
2.4
1
421554
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
Figure 4. Distribution of ‘terrible problem’ across registers (chart display)
Figure 5. Distribution of ‘major problem’ across registers (chart display)
search word is more generally used. If users select the ‘chart’ display, they may have the same information in a visual way. Figure 4 shows that the academic register does not make use of ‘terrible problem’, whereas the spoken register is the one in which this word may be found most frequently. The result found for ‘major problem’, the first combination of an adjective preceding the word ‘problem’, is strikingly different as may be observed in Figure 5. It seems that ‘major problem’ is used in more formal contexts since it is more commonly found in academic texts. As a matter of fact, it may be found 6.7 times per million words. Davies’s interface offers a number of other facilities to the EFL classroom, but only a few will be highlighted here. Instead of working with the whole BNC, users can search for specific registers according to their needs. The use of a
word (sequence) can also be contrasted between two registers. Finally, it is also possible to search for words surrounding a specific search item in a span of 10 words to the left and to the right of the node. In sum, Davies’s interface facilitates the use of the BNC and helps the user to investigate collocations, colligations, semantic prosodies, and phraseologies. If students are asked to do this by themselves, they will probably learn what they search faster since they are doing it on their own instead of being spoon-fed by their teachers. As Frankenberg-Garcia (2004) argues, concordances are, in most cases, meaningful to learners as they are the ones who decide on what to investigate, that is, they choose what to look up in corpora based on their own language doubts. In the long run, it will also make them more autonomous and independent.
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
FuturE trEnds As the discussions which have been carried out so far indicate, it is highly probable that corpus-based materials will become commonplace. Such change has already begun. In the field of lexicography, a number of English monolingual dictionaries are based on corpora. This means that words are objectively selected based on their frequency and not on lexicographers’ intuitions. In addition, the order in which the meanings of a word are presented reflects their frequency. Dictionaries also offer specific hints based on what has been investigated in learner corpora. Corpus-based grammars have also been developed for a couple of years now. The first corpusbased grammar was the Collins COBUILD English Grammar, as Sinclair (1990) explains: The information in this book is taken from a long and careful study of present-day English. Many millions of words from speech and writing have been gathered together in a computer and analyzed, partly by the computer and partly by a team of expert compilers. It is the first grammar of its kind. (p. v) Another corpus-based grammar is the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad, & Finegan, 1999). It is more sophisticated than the previous one because the description it provides includes four different registers, namely, conversation, fiction, news, and academic texts. The future prospect is that grammars will become even more specific when it comes to describing a language. That means linguistic features will be described in relation to the registers in which they are most frequently used. The last type of publication to be informed by corpus is that of textbooks. The six-level course by Saslow, Ascher, and Kisslinger (2006) includes ‘corpus notes’ from the very first level, indicating the most common problems learners
0
face while learning English. As described in the methodology for the course, it “provides concise and useful information about frequency, collocations and typical native speaker usage” (Saslow et al., 2006, p. Txiii). Another course book has been written by McCarthy, McCarten, and Sandiford (2005) which “draws on the Cambridge International Corpus, a large database of conversations and written texts, to build a syllabus based on how people actually use English” (back cover; (emphasis in the original). Other corpus-based textbooks are in line. It seems that in some years to come, more computer programs will be made available to EFL teachers, facilitating the use of corpus data in the classroom. At the same time, it is expected that an ever-growing number of corpora will be on offer on the Internet so that they can be used by any EFL practitioner. In addition to the corpora already online, such as the BNC, the Bank of English, and the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English, for instance, it is anticipated that new corpora will be either fully compiled or made available to public access.16 Having stated that, it is quite unlikely that corpora will reach the classroom if teachers are not offered special guidance. Those EFL teachers who have been away from university centers in the last few years may resist using corpora in their everyday classes because they are unaware of how to do it. Training sessions and/or courses are of the utmost importance so that corpora finally reach the classroom. Sinclair (2004b) warns us that “to make good use of corpus resources a teacher needs a modest orientation to the routines involved in retrieving information from the corpus, andmost importantlytraining and experience in how to evaluate that information” (p. 2). Research on how students actually react to corpus-based approaches is also needed and should be carried out more thoroughly. Although empirical classroom-based investigations in second language acquisition have shown that drawing students’ attention to form yields better results
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
than implicit learning (Meunier, 2002, p. 120), it should be evaluated to what extent corpus-based materials also result in positive achievements. It should be investigated whether students actually want to work with concordances and whether they realize that corpus-based work makes them more autonomous. Research is also needed to assess the effects of corpora study on students’ achievements. Finally, it should be highlighted that as “corpus linguistics is still in its infancy” (Scott & Tribble, 2006, p. 3), a number of other possibilities are yet to come in the very near future.
concLusion This chapter has argued that intuitions about language cannot be considered authoritative if research wants to avoid false theories (Sampson, 2005, p. 16). Although empirical data was left dormant for some time under the influence of Chomskyan theory, it has come back with the development of new technology. In Sinclair’s (2004b) words, “For a quarter of [a] century, corpus evidence was ignored, spurned and talked out of relevance, until its importance became just too obvious for it to be kept out in the cold” (p. 1). The main advantage of corpora is perhaps that it allows linguistic research and language teaching to rely on empirical evidence. The use and study of real data opens up a new vista to those interested in the language phenomenon. Quoting Sinclair (1991), to whom corpus linguistics owes much of the standing it has today, “Without relinquishing our intuitions, of course, we try to find explanations that fit the evidence, rather than adjusting the evidence to fit a pre-set explanation” (p. 36). Even when the evidence runs counter to what has been held for centuries, corpus linguistics is to be trusted as providing the way language really works. One can now look through the digital glass and see the language that people actually speak and write.
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Kettemann, B., & Marko, G. (2002). Teaching and learning by doing corpus analysis. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
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Louw, B. (1993). Irony in the text or insincerity in the writer? The diagnostic potential of semantic prosodies. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. TogniniBonelli (Eds.), Text and technology: In honour of John Sinclair (pp. 157-176). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
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Lyons, J. (1981). Language and linguistics: An introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, M., McCarten, J., & Sandiford, H. (2005). Touchstone 2: Student’s book. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McEnery, T., & Wilson, A. (1996). Corpus linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. McEnery, T., Xiao, R., & Tono, Y. (2006). Corpusbased language studies: An advanced resource book. London/New York: Routledge. Meunier, F. (2002). The pedagogical value of native and learner corpora in EFL grammar teaching. In S. Granger, J. Hung, & S. Petch-Tyson (Eds.), Computer learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching (pp. 119-141). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Milton, J. (1998). Exploiting L1 and interlanguage corpora in the design of an electronic language learning and production environment. In S. Granger (Ed.), Learner English on computer (pp. 187-198). London: Longman. Olohan, M. (2004). Introducing corpora in translation studies. London/New York: Routledge. Quirk, R., Greenbaun, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London: Longman.
Scott, M., & Tribble, C. (2006). Textual patterns: Key words and corpus analysis in language education. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Semino, E., & Short, M. (2004). Corpus stylistics: Speech, writing and thought presentation in a corpus of English writing. London/New York: Routledge. Sinclair, J. (Ed.). (1990). Collins COBUILD English grammar. London/Glasgow: Collins. Sinclair, J. (1991). Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sinclair, J. (Ed.). (2004a). How to use corpora in language teaching. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Sinclair, J. (2004b). Introduction. In J. Sinclair (Ed.), How to use corpora in language teaching (pp. 1-10). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Sinclair, J. (2004c). Preface. In B. LewandowskaTomaszczyk (Ed.), Practical applications in language and computers (pp. 7-11). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Sinclair, J. (2004d). Trust the text: Language, corpus and discourse. London/New York: Routledge. Sinclair, J., & Renouf, A. (1988). A lexical syllabus for language learning. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching (pp. 140-160). London: Longman.
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Stevens, V. (1995). Concordancing with language learners: Why? When? What? CAELL Journal, 6(2), 2-10. Stubbs, M. (1993). British traditions in text analysisfrom Firth to Sinclair. In M. Baker, G. Francis, & E. Tognini-Bonelli (Eds.), Text and technology: In honour of John Sinclair (pp. 1-33). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Thompson, G., & Huston, S. (Eds.). (2006). System and corpus: Exploring connections. London: Equinox. Thorndike, E. (1921). A teacher’s wordbook. New York: Columbia Teachers College. Tognini-Bonelli, E. (2001). Corpus linguistics at work. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Tribble, C., & Jones, G. (1990). Concordances in the classroom: A resource book for teachers. London: Longman. Tsui, A.B.M. (2004). What teachers have always wanted to knowand how corpora can help. In J. Sinclair (Ed.), How to use corpora in language teaching (pp. 39-61). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Viana, V.P. (2006). Modals in Brazilian advanced EFL learners’ compositions: A corpus-based investigation. Profile, 7, 77-86.
Xiao, Z. (forthcoming). Well-known and influential corpora. In A. Ludeling, M. Kyto, & A. M. McEnery (Eds.), Corpus linguistics: An international handbook. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Retrieved September 11, 2007, from http://www.lancs.ac.uk/postgrad/xiaoz/papers/ corpus%20survey.htm
kEY tErMs Colligation: The co-occurrence of a word with a pattern or the co-occurrence of two patterns in language use. Collocation: The co-occurrence of two or more words within a short span in a text. Competence: A concept proposed by Chomsky which refers to the knowledge an individual has about his or her first language. Concordance: A listing of all the occurrences of a word (sequence) in a given corpus which gives access to language patterns. Concordancer: A computer program by means of which corpora can be probed with a view of generating concordances.
Weedwood, B. (2002). História concisa da lingüística. São Paulo: Parábola Editorial.
Corpus: A collection of naturally occurring language text which can be read by computers and which has been selected to represent a particular type of language (variety/register) and with a specific research objective.
Wichmann, A., Fligelstone, S., McEnery, A., & Knowles, G. (Eds.). (1997). Teaching and language corpora. London: Longman.
Corpus Linguistics: The linguistic study of large samples of language in use by means of computer tools.
Zyngier, S. (2002). “Smudges on the canvas”? A corpus stylistics approach to Macbeth. In I. Biermann, & A. Combrink (Eds.), Poetics, linguistics and history: Discourses of war and conflict (pp. 529-546). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Natural Language: Language as it is spoken and/or written by real speakers, that is, language which occurs in everyday use.
Performance: From a Chomskyan perspective, it refers to the use of language made by speakers.
EFL through the Digital Glass of Corpus Linguistics
Semantic Prosody: The general meaning a word assumes because of its collocates, which can be positive, negative, or neutral.
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Although one may argue that Chomsky’s influence in language studies has decreased considerably in the past, the differences between deductive and inductive approaches to languages are still worthy of attention. For instance, a number of recent publications on corpus linguistics revisit such distinction (e.g., Tognini-Bonelli, 2001, Berber Sardinha, 2004; McEnery et al., 2006). In addition, although corpus-based studies have become more popular, there are some scholars who still develop investigations based on Chomskyan tradition, as Sinclair (2004c) reminded us. More recently, Chomsky has argued in an interview that studies based on corpora do not mean anything (Andor, 2004). This approach was not first proposed by Chomsky. In fact, Saussure (1916) had already worked with it in the beginning of the structuralist movement. In Chomskyan theory, this concept refers to syntactic competence. Nonetheless, it should be stressed that the concepts are, in fact, diverse. For instance, although being a mentalist, Saussure never argued for the existence of an innate biological factor. Some areas, nevertheless, continued making use of such data. This is the case of phonetics and child language acquisition, for example, where introspection and intuition did not help much and/or could not be sought. Some other pre-electronic corpora include those compiled, for instance, by Käding (1879) and Thorndike (1921).
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The status of the Web as a corpus itself is a controversial issue. Some scholars argue that it may not be considered a corpus for a number of reasons, including the issues of representativeness and balance. There are, however, some researchers who argue for its use as a corpus. Such discussion, although of interest, is out of the scope of this chapter. For a better understanding of the latter tradition, see Kilgarriff and Grefenstette (2003). Both the BNC XML Edition (containing the full content of the BNC) and the BNC Baby (containing a four-million-word selection from the BNC) can be purchased online at http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ getting/index. xml.ID=order. An American correspondent of the BNC is being compiled. The ANC, American National Corpus, will total 100 million words of American English in texts from 1990 onward. By the time this chapter was being written, its second release, containing 22 million words, had already been made available. Additional information on this corpus may be found at http://americannationalcorpus.org/. Data cited in all examples in this chapter have been extracted from the British National Corpus Online service (http://www.natcorp. ox.ac.uk/), managed by Oxford University Computing Services on behalf of the BNC Consortium. All rights in the texts cited are reserved. The maximum number of concordance lines displayed in this page is 50, despite how frequent the search string is. Although the number of concordance lines shown does not apply to this case since there are only 44 instances of ‘sit through’ in the BNC, it should be mentioned that Davies’s interface shows twice as many lines as the BNC interface, that is, 100 lines at a time. In addition, there is not a limit as there is at
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the BNC official site. Here users can read as many concordance lines as they want to. The emphasis in the following examples is ours. This example has been retrieved from a corpus of compositions written by advanced students in private language courses in the city of Rio de Janeiro. More information on this corpus, which was compiled by the main author of this chapter, may be found in Viana (2006). The layout of this interface may have changed in March 2008, but has not affected the information in this chapter. For a description of existing corpora, see Xiao (forthcoming).
Chapter XV
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills Jing Wang Allegheny College, USA
abstract This chapter introduces a series of studies carried out with intermediate learners of Chinese regarding the reading of authentic e-materials with hyperlinked dictionaries. The study results indicate that it is practical to let intermediate students read authentic e-materials when aided by hyperlinked dictionaries, which can improve reading comprehension and vocabulary retention. Guided by the findings from these studies, good practices on how to use authentic e-materials and hyperlinked dictionaries to improve reading skills for intermediate students are introduced. It is recommended that in order to achieve optimal results when using technology, instructors need to employ systematic strategies to support and guide students in the reading process.
introduction Because Chinese sentence structures are relatively easy, mastery of vocabulary is the principal difficulty in reading Chinese. In Modern Chinese texts, there are boundaries for characters, but no boundaries for words that may be composed of a variable number of characters. In the reading process, Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) learners need to recognize characters, combine them into words, and recognize the meaning of words.
The bottleneck for intermediate CFL learners to read authentic materials lies in their lack of vocabulary. Intermediate learners in this chapter are defined according to the general division in the U.S.—intermediate low students are those who have mastered the basic grammatical patterns and several hundred core vocabulary items, while intermediate high students are those who are nearly ready to tackle authentic materials. One popular textbook series, Integrated Chinese (Yao et al., 2005), leads students through the entry level over two level-one books. After finishing the level-one
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Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
books, students are ready to take intermediate courses, and they have learned basic sentence structures, a little more than 700 characters, and less than 2,000 words. In Chinese, knowledge of the 1,500 most frequently used characters constitutes the threshold of literacy. According to the frequency list of modern Chinese (Language Teaching Research Section of the Beijing Language Institute, 1986), the first 1,500 characters in the list covered approximately 96% of all the characters in the corpus texts from which the frequency list was generated. In terms of words, the 4,000 most frequently used words in the list covered approximately 90% of the corpus texts. Liu (2000) points out that around 5,000 words are needed to read general articles in newspapers and to understand general broadcast news. To summarize, the 1,500 most frequently used characters and 4,000-5,000 words are needed to read general authentic materials. Hence, there exists a large vocabulary gap between what intermediate (especially intermediate low) students know and what is required for reading authentic materials. Can we use authentic materials to improve reading skills for intermediate students? At the intermediate level, CFL students have already learned the basic sentence structures of the language. Moreover, generally speaking, CFL learners are proficient readers in L1 (first language), which is conducive to their reading in L2 (second language), Chinese in this case. As indicated by Nuttall (1996), “There is a strong transfer of reading habits from one language to another” (p. 58). Bernhardt (2003) indicates 20% of L2 reading can be explained from L1 literacy. Nevertheless, there is still a great vocabulary hurdle for intermediate students to surmount in order to read authentic materials. Nuttall (1996) thinks that 2-3% of new words in extensive reading texts is a high concentration of new vocabulary. If we use this criterion, intermediate CFL learners have too large a vocabulary gap to close in order to read authentic materials. A paper dictionary cannot
effectively aid them, as it is very time consuming to look up a word in a dictionary. Hence, it is difficult for immediate students to use a paper dictionary to tackle authentic materials that are not yet within their reach. We can resort to computer technology to help intermediate students read authentic electronic materials (e-materials), because in an “optimal instructional environment,” “technology is an integral part of a successful foreign-language curriculum” (Bai, 2003, p. 1). Martinez-Lage (1997) points out that “the use of interactive hypermedia technology in the teaching of reading…brings a number of unquestionable benefits to both instructors and students” (p. 149). This chapter explores the use of authentic e-materials and hyperlinked dictionaries to develop reading skills for intermediate students.
LitEraturE rEViEW Literature review is done to explore the uniqueness of the Chinese language, the differences between reading printed and e-materials, the advantages of using authentic materials, the features of hyperlinked dictionaries, and the existing literature on the effects of hyperlinked dictionaries on reading comprehension.
the prominence of understanding the Meaning of characters and Words Characters are the building blocks of written Chinese. As summarized by Xu (2001), the basic language unit in Chinese is the character, not the word—in fact, linguists cannot give a precise definition of the Chinese word. Holding the same view, Lü (2006) also advocates the idea that characters are combined into words and phrases, and words and phrases are further expanded to sentences in actual use. Because of the central position of characters in the written language,
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
understanding their meaning is essential to the reading process. The meaning of words is related with the meanings of composite characters. In modern Chinese, the majority of words are composed of one or two characters (Language Teaching Research Section of the Beijing Language Institute, 1986), while two-character ones are the most common (Chen, Yu, & Zhao, 2005; Liu, 2000). Two characters are combined into words in different structures: subject-predicate, modifying, verb-complement, parallel, verb-object, and so forth (Chen, Yu, & Zhao, 2005; Fu, 2004; Liu, 2000). The meaning of a two-character word is related to the meanings of the two individual characters and the combination structures, though the word’s meaning is not simply the sum total of the meanings of the two composite characters. In the reading process, however, it is not easy to distinguish words. Chen, Yu, and Zhao (2005) show that identifying words may not be easy for CFL learners because of: (1) the lack of clear divisions between words in the written Chinese; (2) overlaps between morphemes (characters) and words, and between words and phrases; (3) the confusion caused by abbreviations; and (4) the fact that some words may be separated by intervening characters. Chinese syntactic structures are relatively easy. Hoosain (1991) points out that “grammar as such is not taught in Chinese schools. Instead, what is attended to are the interrelations of meanings of individual characters and the emergent meanings derived from their combinations” (p. 22). In summary, because of the unique features of the Chinese language, it is of extreme importance to recognize characters, combine them into words, and then understand the words’ meanings. In order to read texts smoothly, CFL learners need to possess the knowledge of both characters and words.
print reading vs. E-reading Hubbard (2000) notes that traditional meaning aids such as dictionaries may provide meaning of language items, but also distract readers from the reading process. Meaning technologies such as hyperlinked dictionaries (“applications that automatically link the words in a text to one or more dictionary entries,” p. 3) can be used more easily and effectively (p. 2). Hubbard’s summary can be readily applied to the case of reading Chinese texts, with one additional advantage gained from using hyperlinked dictionaries in Chinese: combining characters into words. E-reading, facilitated by a hyperlinked dictionary, may differ greatly from print reading aided by a traditional paper dictionary. In reading printed materials with a paper dictionary, students may spend substantial amounts of time looking up the meaning of unknown characters and deciding the boundaries of words. In reading electronic texts (e-texts) facilitated by a hyperlinked dictionary, students can easily isolate word boundaries and find out their meanings by moving the cursor over characters. Compared with reading printed materials with a paper dictionary, students reading e-materials with a hyperlinked dictionary can find the meanings of words more efficiently.
reading authentic Materials Reading authentic rather than adapted materials is beneficial to intermediate students for two reasons. First, language teaching pedagogy supports the use of authentic materials in language teaching. As summarized by Savignon (1991), influenced by social linguistic perspectives, communicative language teaching (CLT) uses authentic materials because of “the importance of context—setting, roles, genres, etc.—in interpreting the meaning of a text” (p. 270). Specifically, “as a broad, philosophical approach to the language curriculum,” CLT has its core principles achieved by task-based language teaching (TLT) “at the levels of syllabus
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
design and methodology” (Nunan, 2004, p. 10). According to Nunan (2004), there is no question that authentic materials are used in TLT. Secondly, the ability to read authentic materials gives students a feeling of accomplishment.
online and Off-Line Hyperlinked dictionaries Two kinds of hyperlinked dictionaries are used to aid the reading of e-texts: one is used in an online environment, the other is used off-line, after a piece of software is installed. For hyperlinked dictionaries used in an online environment, one example is Rikai (www. rikai.com).1 After submitting a Chinese text or a URL of a Web site to the box in the software, the original text or the Web site appears in an output box. If the cursor is put under characters, Chinese words appear in a pop-up box together with English translations. For an off-line hyperlinked dictionary, one needs to install software on a computer. One example is NJStar (http://www.njstar.com). It is possible to download NJStar software to a computer and then use the software to facilitate the reading of e-texts. After the software is installed on a computer, one can copy and paste an e-text to the software, and read it the same way as from the output box of an online hyperlinked dictionary. Although these two kinds of hyperlinked dictionaries efficiently provide words’ meaning in English, they also have limitations. Xie (1999) gives two general observations: they occasionally fail to provide “accurate and context-sensitive interpretations,” or fail to provide translations to some words which may appear in a reading text (p. 106). In a review of the literature in the field, Chun (2006) finds that students prefer to look up “translations of words” when using glosses (p. 93). Because of students’ preference, it is rational to study these kinds of hyperlinked dictionaries in detail.
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The Effects of Hyperlinked dictionaries on reading No previous study has examined the role of hyperlinked dictionaries in aiding the reading of e-texts in Chinese. Research, however, has been carried out in Roman alphabetic languages. Chun (2006) summarizes research conducted between 1995 and 2005, and concludes that “bilingual dictionaries [hyperlinked dictionaries] and multimedia glosses have a more direct impact on vocabulary acquisition than on overall reading comprehension” (p. 81). The outcomes of using hyperlinked dictionaries with e-texts in Chinese have not been thoroughly studied. Furthermore, no research has been done to study the impact of hyperlinked dictionaries on vocabulary acquisition and on improving reading comprehension in reading Chinese e-texts. Because of the unique features of the Chinese language, it is worthwhile to carry out studies in the field.
rEsEarch Chun (2006) summarizes existing studies on the use of “electronic dictionaries and CALL [computer-assisted language learning] glosses” (p. 73) for languages with Roman alphabets, and points out that in those studies, “results must be viewed in terms of the level of the learners’ L2 language ability and cannot be generalized to all learners reading in an L2” (p. 77). The studies introduced in this chapter center on intermediate college students. Because there has been no direct research concerning the effects of using hyperlinked dictionaries on reading authentic e-materials by intermediate CFL learners, this author has conducted a series of research. Guided by a pilot study, the author carried out a qualitative study in order to generate some hypotheses. Then a quantitative study method was used to further test the
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
hypotheses. In the process of doing the quantitative study, the author interviewed students to gather information on their experience in reading online materials and in browsing Chinese-language Web sites. At last, a survey was designed based on students’ comments gathered from the previous quantitative study, and was administered to another group of students to study the features of electronic literacy (e-literacy). A pilot study was completed during a class session in the spring semester of 2005 at a college to see whether it is practical to let intermediate low CFL students read e-texts with the help of hyperlinked dictionaries. Based on the result of the pilot study, a case study was carried out at the college in the fall semester of 2005 to study the characteristics of using hyperlinked dictionaries in reading authentic e-materials. The case study was conducted once per week throughout the semester. Guided by the findings from the qualitative study, quantitative research was performed from July to August 2006 at an intensive language program in Beijing on intermediate and advanced students to study the impact of using hyperlinked dictionaries on vocabulary acquisition and on reading comprehension. Finally, a survey was administered to another intensive language program in Shanghai in August, 2006 to study how students explore online materials. The survey was distributed by language instructors in different classes, and was completed within 10 minutes.
a pilot study A pilot study was carried out to see whether it is practical to let intermediate low CFL students read e-texts with the help of a hyperlinked dictionary. Eight students with varying proficiency levels (some of them were intermediate low students, while others were still at the entry level) participated in the experiment. They were given 10 minutes to read two paragraphs in the printed version, and then asked to translate the two paragraphs in English. Following that, they were
asked to read the electronic version (e-version) of the two paragraphs for another 10 minutes with the help of Rikai, and then to translate the two paragraphs again into English. After comparing the two versions of the translations, this author obtained the following two findings. A hyperlinked dictionary could not help entry-level students greatly. Even though they were provided with translations of words, their lack of knowledge in basic sentence structures, grammatical patterns, and vocabulary items prevented them from making good use of the hyperlinked dictionary. A hyperlinked dictionary was effective for intermediate low students who had a good knowledge of the basics of the language. The use of the hyperlinked dictionary enabled them to take advantage of the software to find the meaning of unknown words, and then to use their knowledge of the language to get the meaning of texts. Based on the findings from the pilot study, it may be inferred that entry-level students do not benefit greatly from using a hyperlinked dictionary, while intermediate low students who have a foundation in basic vocabulary items, patterns, and structures can use the hyperlinked dictionary to understand a text.
a Qualitative study Based on the results of the pilot study, a qualitative study was carried out on an intermediate student to study the use of hyperlinked dictionaries in reading e-texts.
General Description Materials used. Thirty articles were used in the study, taken from the intermediate level of the Chinese Reading World (University of Iowa Chinese Program, 2004). These articles ranged from around 100 to 400 characters in length. Participants and methodology. The student who participated in the experiment was
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
an intermediate mid student. He first read an article printed from the Chinese Reading World, verbally reported on the reading difficulties and his problem-solving strategies, and recorded an English translation using Audacity (free software used for recording voice onto a computer). Then the student read the e-version of the same text again with the help of a hyperlinked dictionary (Rikai), reported on his difficulties and strategies, and again recorded an English translation. After finishing reading the two versions of a text, the student was asked to explain the strategies he had used to tackle the reading difficulties. In their literature review, Everson and Ke (1997) indicated that verbal reports were “a valuable data source for research” (p. 3), and used this data collection method to study reading strategies for CFL learners. In this study, verbal reports were used to determine the student’s reading difficulties and problem-solving strategies. In summary, the two translations for each article, verbal reports, and interviews were used as data for the research. Research questions. The research tried to answer the following questions: 1.
2. 3.
What strategies does the student use when reading e-texts with the help of a hyperlinked dictionary? How effective is the hyperlinked dictionary? What are the limitations of the hyperlinked dictionary?
Analyses This author listened to the two versions of the English translations, and then recorded all the comprehension errors made by the student. Each comprehension error was then analyzed and categorized. The student’s verbal reports were also incorporated in the analytical process. Furthermore, the student’s comments were used in the process.
Clauses (including key phrases such as titles) were numbered for each article; altogether there were 822 clauses in the 30 articles. Before using the hyperlinked dictionary, the mean comprehension rate of the 30 articles was 41%; after using the online software, the rate rose to 77%. The comprehension rate for each article was obtained by dividing the number of correct translations of clauses by the total number of clauses in that article. For example, if there were 20 clauses in an article, and the student translated five of them correctly, then the comprehension rate would be 25%. After a comprehension rate was obtained for each article, the mean comprehension rate was calculated for the 30 articles. A closer look at the errors made by the student after using the hyperlinked dictionary revealed the following trends: the largest number of errors were due to the limitations of the hyperlinked dictionary, then to grammatical difficulties, then to the negligence of the student, and lastly to a lack of cultural and background knowledge.
Results Reading strategies. The student did not use the hyperlinked dictionary to discern grammatical patterns; instead, he used it to get the meaning of unknown characters and words. The student used choice and piecing together strategies when reading electronic articles (e-articles) with the help of the online dictionary. The use of the hyperlinked dictionary to comprehend e-texts involved a bottom-up strategy. Effectiveness of the hyperlinked dictionary. The student’s comments revealed that the hyperlinked dictionary helped him to comprehend the 30 articles. First of all, the English translations of Chinese words helped him substantially in the reading process. He commented that before using the hyperlinked dictionary, he usually did not have a good idea of what the article was about; after using the hyperlinked dictionary, he usually got a general picture of the meaning of the text. Second,
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
besides giving real help, the dictionary may also help provide psychological support. The student reported that he was not so intimidated to read with the aid of the hyperlinked dictionary. Third, the student confirmed from his own experience of reading the 30 articles that the more he read, the better he could sense of keywords. With the help of the hyperlinked dictionary, he was able to keep on with the reading process. His two versions of the English translations of the text supplied this author with abundant examples of the effectiveness of the hyperlinked dictionary in improving reading comprehension. He translated many sentences incorrectly after the first reading, yet translated them correctly after using the hyperlinked dictionary. Analyses of the comprehension rate suggested the same conclusion, that his comprehension increased greatly after using the hyperlinked dictionary. Before using the hyperlinked dictionary, the mean comprehension rate of the 30 articles was 41%, which is obviously inadequate. Therefore, before using the hyperlinked dictionary, the student did not have a general understanding of the texts. After using the hyperlinked dictionary, there was a significant rise in reading comprehension, to 77%. According to Nuttall (1996), in English, an understanding of 70% of a text is generally considered adequate. If we use the 70% benchmark here, the student had an adequate understanding of the texts after using the hyperlinked dictionary. Although the student read the e-version of the same text after he read the printed version, the great difference in comprehension, from an inadequate to acceptable comprehension, could only be credited to the use of the hyperlinked dictionary. It may be concluded that the use of the hyperlinked dictionary was effective in improving reading comprehension for individual articles, and in keeping the student in the reading process. The limitations of using the hyperlinked dictionary. The hyperlinked dictionary had limitations, and some drawbacks would be easier to address than others. Among the errors made due
to the limitations of the hyperlinked dictionary, the most prevailing ones were made because the hyperlinked dictionary at times failed to combine characters into words, and then to give translations of words. For example, a word was composed of two characters; instead of combining the two characters into the word and translating its meaning, the hyperlinked dictionary merely translated the two characters. Also, for some words, the hyperlinked dictionary limited the translations available; but for others, it gave extra translations for students to choose from. The above limitations may be improved by providing a larger database for words, and by providing better translations. The hyperlinked dictionary did not provide accurate meanings for function words, explain the meanings of grammatical patterns, or provide cultural background knowledge. Because the usage of function words is complicated, it may be difficult to provide good translations for function words in English. Similarly, it may not be easy to provide grammatical patterns and background knowledge by hyperlinked dictionaries.
Conclusion It may be inferred from the case study that a hyperlinked dictionary can effectively improve reading comprehension for intermediate students. Yet it is also important to caution students against totally relying on the hyperlinked dictionary, due to its limitations. And because students may be greatly involved in the bottom-up strategy while using the hyperlinked dictionary in reading an e-text, it may be useful to encourage them to read the text again without using the hyperlinked dictionary so as to concentrate on the article’s global meaning. Although this author found from this case study that a hyperlinked dictionary could effectively improve reading comprehension, further quantitative studies were needed to make a sound generalization.
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
a Quantitative study This study was carried out to measure the effects of hyperlinked dictionaries on vocabulary retention and reading comprehension. In order to have a clear idea of the effects of hyperlinked dictionaries on intermediate students, advanced students were also included in this study as a comparison group.
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2. 3.
How effectively can an e-text and a hyperlinked dictionary help students retain vocabulary? How effectively can a hyperlinked dictionary improve reading comprehension? What level of students can benefit most from reading e-texts aided by a hyperlinked dictionary?
Statistical Analyses Design Participants. Twenty-three intermediate and advanced students from an intensive summer program participated in the experiment, among which 13 were intermediate and 10 were advanced students. They were placed at intermediate and advanced levels according to a placement test. Material used. An article was selected for the participants with the help of their instructors to ensure that the article was of the right difficulty level for the students. After the article was selected, it was tested on one student as a pilot study. The article was conceived as difficult for intermediate students, yet not so for advanced students. Methodology. Students were asked to read the e-text twice; in both instances they were allowed to use an off-line hyperlinked dictionary (NJStar). Immediately after the two readings were completed, they wrote a summary of the text in English. (Immediate recall protocols were used to assess students’ reading comprehension in this study. The method is an effective way to measure reading comprehension according to Bernhardt, 1983). This author observed and recorded their mouse movements, recorded time spent in the two readings, and interviewed them after they finished writing the summary. Later, the author graded the English summaries and used the results as the reading comprehension scores for the participating students. Questions. The study tried to answer the following questions:
The selected text. Participants’ placement scores were significantly negatively correlated with the number of lookups (r = -.559, p < .01) and significantly negatively correlated with reading time (r = -.563, p < .01). The statistical results indicated that the higher the proficiency level (indicated by placement scores), the fewer new words were encountered in the reading of the selected article, and the less time was spent in the reading process. The statistical results demonstrated that the selected article was appropriate to gauge the level of the students. Vocabulary retention. There were significant fewer lookups of new words in the second reading than in the first reading (t = 4.507, SD = 22.3, df = 22, p < .001). The statistical result showed that students did retain some vocabulary items within a short period of time, as indicated by a fewer number of lookups at the second reading. Reading comprehension. Students’ reading placement scores were not correlated with their reading comprehension scores after using the hyperlinked dictionary (r = .048, p > .05). Further analyses were carried out to compare intermediate with advanced students. The difference in the placement reading scores of the two groups of students was statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U = 27.5, p < .05). The difference in the number of lookups of the two groups was also statistically significant (MannWhitney U = 23.5, p < .05), with the intermediate students encountering more new words. The difference in the time in reading the article by the
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
two groups was statistically significant (MannWhitney U = 31, p < .05), with the intermediate students spending more time. The difference in the reading-comprehension scores of the two groups, however, was not statistically significant (Mann-Whitney U = 59, p > .05). Since the article was more difficult for the intermediate students than for the advanced students, the general expectation was that the reading comprehension scores for the advanced students should be higher than those for the intermediate students. Since the statistical result was not the same as the expectation, it may indicate that the hyperlinked dictionary greatly improved reading comprehension for the intermediate students.
Conclusion The quantitative research indicates that students are able to retain some vocabulary items within a short period of time. A hyperlinked dictionary may help intermediate students greatly enhance reading comprehension for difficult texts, while its effects on advanced students were limited. Because the statistical results indicate that students can retain the looked-up vocabulary items within a short period of time, it may be useful to encourage students to read a text twice to reinforce their knowledge of new vocabulary items. Also, in the second reading, it may be a good idea to concentrate on the global meaning of the text. Interviews with the students revealed the difficulties they encountered in reading online materials and in browsing Chinese Web sites. Based on the interviews, a survey was designed to try to identify students’ problems in selecting and reading online materials.
A Survey on Surfing Chinese Web sites A survey was administered to 65 intermediate and advanced students on their habits of surfing
Chinese Web sites. The preliminary findings indicated that intermediate and advanced students seldom read online articles in Chinese. General difficulties were unfamiliarity with the following aspects: ways to search for a piece of information, the meaning of words used frequently in Chinese-language Web sites, Chinese search engines, and the layout and structure of Chinese Web sites. Because intermediate students are not used to surfing the Chinese Web sites, it may not be practical to let them select online articles on their own to read.
pedagogical implications The above studies indicate that hyperlinked dictionaries can effectively help intermediate students tackle authentic e-materials. Yet these students still cannot be left alone because of the limitations of hyperlinked dictionaries. Also, because students lack necessary skills in browsing Chinese Web sites, they cannot find relevant e-materials on their own. In order to use e-materials and hyperlinked dictionaries to achieve the most desirable results, instructors need to adopt effective pedagogical strategies.
pEdagogicaL appLications Because it is practical and beneficial to let intermediate students read authentic e-texts with the help of a hyperlinked dictionary, it is important to incorporate the reading of these e-materials in the curriculum. Brandl (2002) describes three approaches to using Internet-based reading materials: “teacher-determined,” “teacher-facilitated,” and “student-determined” (p. 87). Because of intermediate students’ inability to surf Chinese Web sites, the limitations of hyperlinked dictionaries, and students’ limited experience with summarizing articles’ meanings, it is essential to have a teacher-centered approach at the beginning. Good practices include: setting up a corpus of e-texts
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
with embedded questions (with answers provided) to lead students in the reading process, instructing students to use hyperlinked dictionaries to aid reading, and providing methods for searching similar articles to encourage students to do the search on their own. In this way, instructors start giving students some autonomy, moving towards a student-centered approach. The purpose of setting up a corpus is to expose students to authentic e-materials in a guided way. The goal of reading an e-article in the corpus is to understand the article’s main ideas. The hyperlinked dictionary, reading comprehension questions, and detailed feedback to the possible answers of the questions provide support for students during the reading process.
of well-structured discourses. Fourth, e-articles should discuss a variety of topics (e.g., culture, economics, history, political science, arts, and religion). The content of the e-articles provides information for students to learn. Finally, the earticles should be the product of educated adult native speakers, so that e-texts are authentic, high-quality reading materials. Articles can be obtained from the Internet or from printed sources, which need to be scanned and converted into the electronic format (e-format). Then relevant questions are designed and eventually posted on the Internet, along with the original texts. Instructors must be aware of copyright issues and seek appropriate permission, where necessary.
selection of E-texts
design of Questions
Because of the limited reading proficiency of intermediate students, e-texts need to be carefully selected to develop students’ reading skills. E-texts should be both challenging and comprehensible to intermediate learners with the aid of hyperlinked dictionaries and the feedback on students’ answers. This author recommends a number of good practices to use when selecting e-texts. First, e-articles should be between 1,000 and 1,500 characters in length. Because the e-articles are longer than textbook materials for the intermediate level, students need to speed up their reading in order to understand the articles. Second, each e-article should have a clear structure. At the intermediate level, the learning of the language has concentrated on individual words and sentences; the text style has been more spoken than written. Usually students have limited exposure to articles with complete and distinct discourse structures. These e-articles can then push students to form a global picture of the articles’ meanings by analyzing discourse structures. Third, the selects should reflect various major text models (e.g., narration, description, exposition). The e-texts can provide a chance to acquaint students with different kinds
As summarized by Nuttall (1996), the general purpose of questions for a reading class is to provide support to help students understand a text. Although Nuttall is concerned with questions used in a classroom, this rule is readily applicable to the online context. Because of the uniqueness of the online environment, where students read a text on their own, the design of the questions becomes even more important. The focus of the questions, similar to those asked in class, “is the text attack skills, which lead to the ultimate goal, understanding the text as whole” (Nuttall, 1996, p. 184).
Format of Questions Guided by the literature review and based on experience and colleagues’ presentations in the field, this author has made a summary of the features for questions’ formats. First, questions are in English. At the intermediate level, students with limited experience of extensive reading may be overwhelmed by the e-texts they read. Therefore, with questions in English, students do not need to struggle to get the meaning of ques-
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
tions. The questions provide a “safety island” for students. Second, questions are inserted within a text because the purpose of questions is to lead students through the reading process; Liao and Tsai (2005) demonstrated different kinds of inserted questions designed for an online article. Third, questions are either multiple-choice or open-ended questions. Multiple-choice questions are broader than true or false questions, do not greatly interrupt the reading process like cloze and rearranging sentences, and provide instructors with more control than open-ended questions. Open-ended questions should be used in a limited way, because it is difficult to provide feedback on students’ answers in an online environment. Fourth, when students read the online materials without the benefit of face-to-face interaction, it is crucial to provide feedback in English on the possible answers to the questions, because the feedback helps students to learn in the process. Yao (2005) stressed the importance of feedback in his presentation. Yao thinks that feedback should be carefully designed. For example, for multiplechoice questions, feedback should be given not only for wrong choices, but also for the right choice to explain the reason. This author thinks the most detailed explanation should be given to the right choice because every student eventually comes to this item. The feedback given on the correct answer not only explains why it is right, but also introduces cultural and background information, and explains reading strategies. When open-ended questions are used, after an answer is entered, a correct version needs to be provided for students to compare to their own answers.
content of Questions Since questions provide support during the reading process, their main function is to lead students to the comprehension of each paragraph and the text as a whole. Questions on difficult words and sentences may also be asked to help students overcome comprehension obstacles.
A majority of questions center on general comprehension. For the sake of demonstration, a sample e-text with accompanying questions is posted online (http://webpub.allegheny.edu/dept/ language/chinese/sample/sample.htm). The first kind of exercise focuses on summary. For example, after reading a paragraph, students are asked to select an item in a multiple-choice question, which summarizes the major idea of a paragraph (Question 3). In the pop-up feedback dialogue boxes, detailed explanations are given on the meaning and function of individual sentences in the paragraph and the overall meaning of the paragraph. Additionally, students may be asked to summarize the article after reading the whole text. For example, students are asked to summarize in English the main idea of the message in a text box (Question 14). The writing process aids “the making of meaning” in the reading process as indicated by Zamel (1992, p. 463). Feedback is provided for students to compare with their own answers. For another example, students are asked to orally summarize the meaning and are provided with a correct answer in an mp3 file. These two exercises are extremely important, as they push students to form a global picture of the meaning of the text. The second kind of exercise involves prediction, listed by Nuttall (1996) as a text attack skill. After reading the title of an article, students are asked to predict what the main idea of the text will be (Question 1). In the questions’ pop-up feedback dialogue boxes, explanations of the meaning of the title are given together with cultural background. Students may also be asked to predict the content of the following paragraphs (Question 6). In the pop-up feedback dialogue boxes, explanations are given concerning which sentences lead to the following paragraphs. The third kind of exercise aims to discern discourse structure, also listed by Nuttall (1996) as a text attack skill. After reading an article, students are asked to group different paragraphs
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
according to meaning (Question 13). This exercise forces students to think about the interrelationship of individual paragraphs and to learn to discern discourse structures. Finally, questions may be designed to address difficult words and structures to improve reading comprehension. For example, students may be asked to identify the meaning of a word (Question 4). The pop-up feedback dialogue boxes explain the omission of words in that context. Questions may also be used to clarify the meaning of function words (Question 12). In addition, questions may be used to identify topics in adjacent sentences and introduce the concept of topic chains (Question 5).
presentation of E-texts and Exercises E-texts are provided in two versions. At the beginning, an e-article is provided in a plain version through a link. Students can use hyperlinked dictionaries to read it. Students thus have opportunities to explore the text freely on their own. After the e-article is read for the first time, students are instructed to read the e-text again; they thus have the chance to reinforce their retention of vocabulary items looked up in the hyperlinked dictionary. During the second reading, they are led through the reading process by questions embedded in the e-article. Feedback is provided immediately to the students in the process of answering the questions. At the end of the e-article, students are also provided with a link to listen to the text. At the very end, they are provided with tips to search for similar e-articles from the Internet.
preparation of E-Materials for online use Macromedia Dreamweaver can be used to put etexts and questions together. In order to provide feedback for each question, CourseBuilder, an
extended freeware for Dreamweaver (http://www. macromedia.com/resources/elearning/extensions/dw_ud/coursebuilder/), can be used to develop interactive exercises (Tsai mentioned the use of the software for designing online questions in Liao and Tsai’s presentation in 2005). The following steps illustrate the basic procedure of preparing reading e-materials for online use: (1) import an html file containing an e-article into Dreamweaver; (2) open the CourseBuilder Extension from Dreamweaver; (3) choose a question type (e.g., multiple choice); (4) enter questions and pop-up messages as feedback; and (5) save the final project and upload it onto the Internet. The final product is an HTML file, which can be accessed by students online. Students are instructed to use a hyperlinked dictionary (e.g., Rikai) to facilitate reading comprehension.
FuturE trEnds Further trends on the effective use of e-texts and hyperlinked dictionaries to improve reading skills for intermediate students may be shown below. One future trend is to incorporate into the curriculum teaching strategies that gradually lead students from a teacher-centered approach to a student-centered one. At the intermediate low to mid level, aided by hyperlinked dictionaries, students can read the authentic e-materials chosen by the faculty members and use questions inserted in the article as a guide in the reading process. At the intermediate high level, students may begin to explore the Internet to find articles of interest with the help of hyperlinked dictionaries. At the advanced level, students need to learn to identify articles of interest and accumulate knowledge in a content area by reading authentic e-texts. Another trend is to build a corpus of e-texts with questions embedded in each article to be used by intermediate low students. In this way, instructors can share resources.
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
The third trend is for instructors to teach students not only reading skills, but also e-literacy skills as follows: how to set up Chinese fonts, how to use Chinese search engines and different kinds of hyperlinked dictionaries, how to search for useful information from a typical Chinese Web site, how to judge the authority of a Web site, how to search for relevant information, and how to publish in an online environment. Only in this way can CFL learners really use the e-materials to facilitate their learning of the language. Nowadays, Chinese is a prominent online language. The skills of reading and publishing online materials become more and more relevant in people’s daily life and work; therefore, CFL learners need to get special training in acquiring the skills. These trends may not only effectively improve the reading proficiency level for intermediate students, but also prepare them for the real world.
concLusion This chapter introduces a series of studies on the use of hyperlinked dictionaries and authentic e-materials on intermediate CFL learners. The findings are major ones, as there is no research currently available in the field. Based on the study results, the following conclusions may be drawn. First, the effects of hyperlinked dictionaries on aiding reading comprehension vary among students with different proficiency levels. Intermediate CFL learners benefit most from using hyperlinked dictionaries while reading authentic e-materials. In contrast, entry-level students cannot effectively use hyperlinked dictionaries to handle authentic e-materials, and advanced students find the use of hyperlinked dictionaries less effective compared with intermediate students. Second, it is practical to let intermediate CFL learners read authentic e-materials when aided by hyperlinked dictionaries. Generally speaking, with limited vocabulary, intermediate students cannot effectively comprehend authentic materials in the paper
version. This finding reveals the great potential of technology in language instruction. Third, hyperlinked dictionaries can improve vocabulary retention. This finding conforms to the findings of studies carried out on Roman alphabetic languages. Fourth, hyperlinked dictionaries can improve reading comprehension for intermediate CFL learners. Chun (2006) reviews the research on Roman alphabetic languages and concludes that “the research we have thus far on using dictionaries has been inconclusive or contradictory, especially with regard to the relationship of electronic dictionary use and comprehension” (p. 88). The finding indicates that hyperlinked dictionaries may have different effects on different kinds of languages. E-materials and hyperlinked dictionaries may open new possibilities for instructors teaching intermediate CFL students. First, instructors can incorporate the reading of authentic e-materials much earlier in their curriculum than paper texts and dictionaries. Second, instructors can give their students much more challenging e-materials than paper materials. Third, instructors may use e-materials and hyperlinked dictionaries to teach vocabulary. Students, however, need to be supported in reading e-texts aided by hyperlinked dictionaries. There are several reasons. First, though hyperlinked dictionaries can aid reading, they cannot teach reading strategies or provide feedback to students’ comprehension. Instructors need to use a variety of methods to provide scaffolding to students in the reading process. Second, hyperlinked dictionaries have limitations. Instructors should let students be aware of these limitations, so that students do not totally depend on the dictionaries. Third, students may use hyperlinked dictionaries in the easiest way possible. Lomicka (1998) conducted a study on students of French and noticed that “their use of the glosses was oriented toward the goal of translation and paraphrasing in order to achieve a minimal level of comprehension” (p. 49). Instructors’ guidance is needed to help
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
students reach a deeper understanding. Fourth, intermediate students at different levels (low, mid, and high) vary in their ability to tackle authentic e-materials. Instructors need to adjust supporting strategies accordingly. Fifth, intermediate students lack e-literacy skills. Instructors should teach the necessary e-literacy skills to students so that they can eventually explore Chinese-language Web sites on their own. There are different ways to provide scaffolding to students. One possible way is to set up a corpus for students to use. Good practice of setting up such a corpus is introduced. Hyperlinked dictionaries and e-texts enable instructors to better prepare students for realworld language use at an earlier stage. In order to achieve optimal results, however, instructors need to employ systematic strategies to support and guide the students in the reading process.
rEFErEncEs Bai, J.H. (2003). Making multimedia an integral part of curricular innovation. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 38(2), 1-16. Bernhardt, E. (2003). Challenges to reading research from a multilingual world. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 112-117. Bernhardt, E. (1983). Testing foreign language reading comprehension: The immediate recall Protocol. Teaching German, 16(1), 27-33. Brandl, K. (2002). Integrating Internet-based reading materials into the foreign language curriculum: From teacher- to student-centered approaches. Language Learning & Technology, 6(3), 87-107. Chen, Z.T., Yu, G.Y. & Zhao, J.M. (Eds.). (2005). An introduction to teaching Chinese as a foreign language. Beijing: Commercial Press.
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Chun, D. (2006). Call technologies for L2 reading. In L. Ducate & N. Arnold (Eds.), Calling on CALL: From theory and research to new directions in foreign language teaching (pp. 69-98). San Marcos, TX: CALICO. Everson, M., & Ke, C.R. (1997). An inquiry into the reading strategies of intermediate and advanced learners of Chinese as a foreign language. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 32(1), 1-20. Fu, H.Q. (2004). Words of modern Chinese language. Beijing: Beijing University Press. Hubbard, P. (2000). The use and abuse of meaning technologies. Proceedings of the Ontario TESL Conference. Retrieved May 10, 2007, from http:// www.stanford.edu/~efs/phil/MT.pdf Hoosain, R. (1991). Psycholinguistic implications for linguistic relativity: A case study of Chinese. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Language Teaching Research Section of Beijing Language Institute. (1986). Frequency list of modern Chinese. Beijing: Beijing Language Institute. Liao, J.L., & Tsai, C.H. (2005, November). Introducing a multimedia advanced Chinese text. Paper presented at the 2005 CLTA Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD. Liu, X. (2000). An introduction to the pedagogy of teaching Chinese as a foreign language. Beijing: Beijing Language University Press. Lomicka, L. (1998). To gloss or not gloss: An investigation of reading comprehension online. Language Learning & Technology, 1(2), 41-50. Lü, B.S. (2006). Dual combinative generative mechanism of and combinative Chinese. In P. Zhang et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on New Technologies in Teaching and Learning Chinese: Research and Application of Digitized Chinese Teaching and Learning (pp. 1-10). Beijing: Yuwen Press.
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Martinez-Lage, A. (1997). Hypermedia technology for teaching reading. In M.D. Bush & R.M. Terry (Eds.), Technology enhanced language learning (pp. 121-163). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Company, in conjunction with the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Oxford: Heinemann English Language Teaching. Savignon, S.J. (1991). Communicative language teaching: State of the art. TESOL Quarterly, 25(2), 261-277. University of Iowa Chinese Program. (2004). Chinese reading world. Retrieved September 1, 2005, from http://www.uiowa.edu/~chnsrdng/ Chinese_reading/Intermediate/intermediate. html Xie, T.W. (1999). Using computers in Chinese language teaching. In M. Chu (Ed.), Mapping the course of the Chinese language field: Chinese language teachers association monograph series (vol. III, pp. 103-119). Kalamazoo, MI: Chinese Language Teachers Association. Xu, T.Q. (2001). Foundations of linguistics: A course book. Beijing: Beijing University Press. Yao, T.C. (2005, November). Strengthening feedback to assist self-learning: Improve Chinese language instruction on the Web. Paper presented at the 2005 CLTA Annual Meeting, Baltimore, MD. Yao, T.C., Liu, Y.H., Ge, L.Y., Chen Y.F., Bi, N.P., & Wang, X. J. (2005). Integrated Chinese: Textbook (2nd ed.). Boston: Cheng & Tsui. Zamel, V. (1992). Writing one’s way into reading. TESOL Quarterly, 26(3), 463-485.
kEY tErMs Chinese Character: The smallest written unit that stands alone in Chinese texts. Chinese Word: May be composed of one or more characters. A word can be used alone or perform a distinctive grammatical function in a sentence. E-Literacy: Refers to skills to comprehend and produce online materials. E-Texts: Texts that can be read from a computer screen. Function Word: In Chinese, words such as propositions, conjunctions, and auxiliary words are called function words. Take the function word “ma” for example. The word is put at the end of a sentence to indicate that it is a question. Online Hyperlinked Chinese Dictionaries: Online applications that “automatically link words in a text to one or more dictionary entries” (Hubbard, 2000, p. 3). Specifically, when using an online hyperlinked Chinese dictionary, a user copies and pastes a text or a URL of a Web site into a dialogue box, and then hits an action button to obtain an output box. In the output box, the user can see the pasted text or the Web site. Putting the cursor under a character, he or she can see a pop-up box containing the following: the character (if the character is a word) and its English translation, or a word (if the character combines with the adjacent character to from a word) and its English translation. An online hyperlinked dictionary works when there is an Internet connection. Off-Line Hyperlinked Dictionaries: Off-line applications that “automatically link words in a text to one or more dictionary entries” (Hubbard, 2000, p. 3). Specifically, before using an off-line hyperlinked Chinese dictionary, a user installs the software on a computer. Then the user can open
Electronic Strategies to Improve Chinese Reading Skills
the application, and copy and paste a text into the application. Putting the cursor under a character, the user can see a pop-up box with the following: the character and its translation, and a word (if the character combines with the adjacent character to form a word) and its translation. Scaffolding: Providing “supporting frameworks within which the learning takes place…If the scaffolding is removed prematurely, the learning process will ‘collapse’” (Nunan, 2004, p. 35).
EndnotE 1
After visiting the Rikai homepage, first select “Chinese to English” in the “Version” dialogue box on the upper right side of the page. Then enter a hyperlink (URL) or copy a Chinese text into the dialogue box on the right. Press the “go” button, and the output box will appear.
Chapter XVI
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication Margaret Murphy Griffith University, Australia Cristina Poyatos Matas Griffith University, Australia
abstract This chapter argues that politeness is an important component of e-mail language. Many people are uncertain about how to make their e-mail polite according to the norms of the receiving culture. Different views on the nature of politeness in e-mail can contribute to personal offence and online miscommunication. As a result, an instrument was designed to assess politeness in e-mail communication. The Tool-Kit, An Instrument to Assess Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication, provides a common ground among e-mail users to discuss and evaluate politeness in English e-mail communication, as well as the metalanguage necessary to reflect on the use of politeness indicators. It also provides clear guidelines to consider politeness protocols. This innovative instrument promotes a practical approach for assessing politeness in e-mail which could then assist the effective online interactions in e-learning methodologies. Its limitations are discussed here, as well as its pedagogical applications for online teaching to second language learners.
introduction E-mail is an important aspect of many e-learning methodologies. Often, it is the exclusive means of communication between students and teachers in online education. Many teachers and students,
however, are not trained in how to use e-mail effectively or how to manage the interpersonal dynamics of the medium. Little research has been done to date to assess how people can better communicate via e-mail.
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
The use of e-mail can present a communication challenge due to the lack of immediate verbal cues and feedback that we normally have in face-toface encounters. It is harder to link our message to reference points during e-mail communication. For example, aspects of a previous discussion cannot quickly be drawn into the current e-mail or to clarify what we want to say. Moreover, we cannot use body language or voice tone to support our construction of meaning. In many cases, e-mail communication may lead to misunderstandings among those involved in constructing meaning in an online environment. Effective communication is developed and maintained by constructing meaning through dialogue (Bakhtin, 1993). The Bakhtinian notion of dialogism interaction shows the importance of building meaning through dialogue to maintain effective communication (Bakhtin, 1986, 1993). In Bakhtinian thought, all characters, writers or speakers are given voices to actively engage in dialogue with other voices. In the context of this chapter, the communication is not just the words on the screen, but the dialogue that the two writers (sender and receiver) have actively engaged in to make the meaning. However, as Murphy (2003, 2006a, 2006b) has documented, many e-mail writers are unsure about how to attain appropriate levels of politeness in order to generate effective e-mail dialogues. Thus in e-mail communication, there is uncertainty as to appropriate levels of directness or indirectness, suitable format, and language use in an e-mail message. Many people are also unsure about selecting the appropriate level of formality or informality in an e-mail interaction in order not to offend the receiver. The choice of appropriate cultural level of formality or informality in e-mail language may also be problematic for some users. Lack of knowledge about culturally appropriate response times to e-mail requests, and how to use e-mail language to connect the receiver to the process and encourage her or him to respond may also pose a challenge to those writing or responding to an e-mail. Writing e-mails that promote effective
interactions is an area that concerns native speakers as well as those writing in a second language. Uncertainty about such issues was revealed in the recent research study on intercultural e-mail communication (Murphy, 2006b). Effective and polite e-mail communication also concerns online language teachers and students. Nowadays, there is an increasing flow of e-mail messages between second language learning students and their teachers in many universities worldwide due to an increase in computer-mediated communication (CMC) and e-learning. Geographical isolation is no longer a restraining factor in education and language learning, as tertiary institutions are able to offer language courses to anyone worldwide within a networked connection (Murphy, 2003, 2006a). The most common communication channel between teachers and their overseas students is e-mail. But the majority of the university teachers and second language learning students are not trained in how to use e-mail effectively or how to manage the interpersonal dynamics of the medium (Murphy, 2003; Walther, 1992, 1997). In the past when teaching language, we have been able to speak face-to-face to students who could better understand our body language and linguistic cues to arrive at the meaning we wanted to communicate. Language teachers and their students, however, have not had training in how to construct meaning via e-mail interactions, which offer no verbal or non-verbal cues. Such meaning is vital for effective second language learning. The difficulty is exacerbated when the e-mail dialogue occurs across cultures, as people from different cultural groups may not share the same language, e-mail dialogue style, or belief systems. As a result, the e-mail interactions that support many e-learning environments could become problematic because online teachers and learners may be unsure about the elements that contribute to effective e-mail interactions.
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
LitEraturE rEViEW The literature on linguistic politeness has been built mainly from face-to-face studies (Brown & Levinson, 1987; Eelen, 2001; Lakoff, 1973, 1989, 1990; Locher & Watts, 2005; SpencerOatey, 2000b; Watts, 2003). Within these studies, there are also important differences and lack of consensus among researchers on the concept of politeness (Byram, 1997, p. 3; Fraser, 1990; Spencer-Oatey, 2000a, p. 2; Watts, 2003, p. 251). Such diversity of views does not promote or advance a full understanding of the complex phenomenon of politeness (Haugh, 2003). Lack of consensus surrounding the connection between politeness and formality is also evident in the literature. Some researchers consider formality of writing to be a negative politeness strategy (Brown & Levinson, 1987). Along with self-effacement and restraint, formality can denote negative politeness, as it attempts to minimize a face threat in some way. Other researchers believe that the more grammatically complex the language and structure, the more polite it is considered (Brown & Levinson, 1987; Thomas, 1995), while Fraser (1990, p. 221) asserts that a higher degree of formality implies greater politeness. Higher levels of formality in writing include a greater proportion of such lexical elements as nouns, adjectives, articles, and prepositions (Heylighen & Dewaele, 1995). Recent research in e-mail communication, however, suggests that informality of writing may be the norm (Baron, 1998, 2001; Crystal, 2001). Importantly, the politeness theory of Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson (1978, 1987) posits that the degree of politeness is determined by three sociocultural factors: (1) the power difference between the communicators, (2) the social distance between them, and (3) the weight of the request that is being asked (Scollon & Scollon, 1995; Ting-Toomey, 1988, 2005; Watts, 2003). The degree of politeness in e-mail communication, therefore, may be linked to information such
as the status of the sender in relation to the receiver and the weight of the request in the e-mail message. Consequently, the amount of politeness may also be explained, in terms of Brown and Levinson (1987)’s theory, by referring to those variables of power and social differences as well as looking at the nature of the request. In this way, information across several social dimensions could be cross-checked and linked to give a more holistic portrait of politeness in e-mail communication. However, Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory has never been applied to the domain of e-mail communication until the doctoral research study described here was implemented. Cultural theory and cultural communication patterns, as well as their effects on the use of politeness indicators, have received much attention over many decades (Hofstede, 1997; Holtgraves & Yang, 1990; Ji, 1999; Saville-Troike, 2003; Ulijn & Campbell, 2001). However, the majority of the studies on intercultural communication are related to verbal interaction modes (Fraser, 1990; Saville-Troike, 2003; Ting-Toomey, 2005). The studies reviewed in this area show that there is still much uncertainty surrounding this complex and abstract area. Many studies have been conducted on e-mail communication (Crystal, 2001; Dandi, 2003; Lee, 1994; Lee, 2004; Rice, 1997; Wallace, 2002). Most of them, however, are from single cultural environments (Baron, 2001; Biggiero, 2003; Fang, 1998; Holmes, 1994). E-mail communication in intercultural contexts has largely escaped the attention of e-mail researchers to date (Bunz & Campbell, 2002; Mak & Yeung, 1999; Ross, 2001; St. Amant, 2002). Despite the current focus of research on e-mail communication, many uncertainties surround communication via this medium (Baron, 1998, 2001; Crystal, 2001; Ma, 1996; Simmons, 1994). No protocols are currently available that could guide us in our attempts to communicate efficiently and politely to language learning students, especially to those in other cultures (Crystal, 2001; Pincas, 2001; Rogers & Albritton, 1995; Xu, 1996).
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
Overall, a review of the literature suggests that we are only just beginning to understand the role of politeness in e-mail and its effect on online communication (Murphy, 2006a, 2006b). Importantly, three major gaps were identified. Firstly, there is no instrument that could explain to second language learners or other learners the elements contributing to politeness in e-mail in everyday language. Secondly, there is no instrument to assist learners to evaluate e-mails for politeness in a systematic way. Thirdly, there are no guidelines to assist online learners to incorporate politeness before sending off their e-mails. As a result, an instrument was created as a way of responding to those gaps. The instrument, called The Tool-Kit: An Instrument to Assess Politeness Intercultural E-Mail Communication, was an outcome of the doctoral research study conducted in Australia.
had an intercultural dimension, opinions were also sought from academics living overseas and who spoke English as a second language. As such, a smaller group of 12 Korean academics living and working at various universities in South Korea formed the second group of participants. The third instrument used in this study was the content analysis of authentic intercultural e-mail threads between Australia and Korea (Creswell, 2003). The threads took place between a single sender and receiver. There were no e-mails sent to multiple receivers. This third instrument made possible a triangulation of results which complemented other findings obtained from the questionnaires and interviews (Creswell, 2003; Denzin, 1997). The e-mail analysis also helped to show how different politeness indicators mentioned in the literature and by the participants could contribute to or interfere with effective intercultural e-mail communication.
thE studY Murphy (2006b) conducted a research study in Australia between 2002 and 2006, using principally an inductive methodological approach (Merriam, 1988; Travers, 2001). It combined quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis procedures (Creswell, 2003; Wolcott, 2001). Three research instruments were used to collect data to investigate intercultural e-mail communication among academics and general staff members of universities both in Australia and Korea. These instruments were questionnaires, interviews, and e-mail thread content and interaction analysis. The primary and secondary instrumentsthe quest ion nai re and the follow-up interviewcollected the perceptions and opinions on politeness in e-mail from a large sample of 125 academic and general staff members at a large metropolitan Australian university. The aim was to understand the nature of politeness in e-mail from the viewpoint of the participants themselves (Wolcott, 2001, p. 120). As the study
rEsEarch Findings and appLication The results of the analyses showed that there was a clear uncertainty among the participants about what constituted polite e-mail communication (Murphy & Levy, 2006). As well, many participants expressed a need for assistance in composing appropriate and polite e-mails, especially when attempting to communicate across cultures. Moreover, it was revealed that there was a lack of common ground to discuss, identify, and evaluate politeness. As a result, the authors developed an instrument to assess politeness in intercultural email communication to help users to understand how politeness indicators could contribute to writing effective e-mail messages. Three sources of data helped to formulate the theoretical framework and the content of the instrument being developed. These were: (a) theoretical input, (b) Australian and Korean participants’ input, and (c) academic scholars’ input. As such, the first politeness indi-
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
cators included in this new tool were informed by research studies and theories mentioned in the literature from three fields of research: (1) politeness, (2) intercultural communication, and (3) e-mail communication. The development and piloting of this instrument provided an interesting opportunity to test the new application of Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness theory to written e-mail language. Although some of the concepts outlined in this theory were included in the framework of the instrument, it was felt that the language used to describe them was too complex. In keeping with the practical nature of the instrument being developed, certain concepts were renamed with more user-friendly language. For example, Brown and Levinson’s (1987) terms “positive politeness” and “negative politeness” were changed to “relationship-building politeness” and “respect for the receiver’s time and space politeness” respectively. It was felt that these new terms represented more clearly the intended meanings, and they avoided ambiguities with the word “negative.” Simplifying complex concepts and the language behind them was a prime consideration in the study.
Figure 1 illustrates the elements that contribute to politeness in intercultural e-mail communication. It shows the three variables mentioned by Brown and Levinson’s (1987) politeness theory and how they fit within the context of e-mail communication. The variables that function as an overall umbrella of the e-mail communication process are the power and social differences between the sender and receiver. These are coconstructed through interaction and the weight of imposition of request in the e-mail message. By using different politeness strategies in the e-mail interaction, the sender or receiver is able to alter or at least influence the power and social differences between him or herself and the e-mail partner. The variables illustrated in Figure 1 thus impact on the language in a cascading effect, as illustrated by the arrows. In other words, the power and social differences between the sender and receiver impact on the language used in the request articulated in the e-mail, which in turn impacts on the amount and type of politeness indicators needed in the interaction.
Figure 1. Elements contributing to politeness in intercultural e-mail communication
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
As a caveat to their theory, Brown and Levinson (1987, p. 23) caution that any quantitative data on politeness must be complemented with qualitative data. That is why the second and third sources of input used to develop the instrument came from the Australian and Korean participants as well as academic scholars. Suggestions were given by many academic peers from the fields of linguistics, education, science, and engineering which were carefully and methodically recorded in the field notes book carried by Murphy (2006b, p. 73). For example, many academic colleagues indicated that they preferred the reply e-mail to include the history of the negotiation, as it gave a context for subsequent interactions. As a result, they recommended recipients use the “Reply with History” option for their e-mail negotiations, allowing that the flow and exchange of ideas and suggestions as such contributed to peer validation, an important component of rigorous research practice (Merriam, 2002).
Figure 2. Politeness strategies
thE dEVELopMEnt oF an instruMEnt to assEss poLitEnEss in intErcuLturaL E-MaiL coMMunication The conceptual framework of the e-mail politeness instrument evolved from the information reviewed previously. In addition, all the views and perceptions from the participants, as well as suggestions from academic colleagues, were mapped onto the framework. These views and perceptions were classified into the five different strategy types: (1) E-Mail Characteristics Strategies, (2) Time Factor Strategies, (3) Language Style (including requests) Strategies, (4) Relationship-Building Strategies, and (5) Respect for Time/Space Strategies. The various strategies within each of those sections are shown in Figure 2. This concept map diagrammatically lists those strategies, which, according to the participants, the literature, and suggestions from academic colleagues, best convey politeness within the context of intercultural e-mail communication. Figure 2 visually displays the breaking down of the invisible
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
and unquantifiable elements of written linguistic e-mail politeness into tangible and visible parts. This process thus facilitates the identification of the different elements contributing to politeness, and as a result the development of an instrument to assess them (see Figure 2). In designing the instrument, the challenge was to combine data from all three knowledge bases (theory, participants, and peer scholars) into a succinct, culturally inclusive, user-friendly, and objective tool, which could, hopefully, quantify the invisible and seemingly unquantifiable concept of politeness. The instrument developed contains nine different sections. In addition, the instrument contains an overall performance report section used to collate the results of the different sections. All these are introduced next, as well as discussion on how it can be applied in educational contexts.
thE instruMEnt (thE tooL-kit) and its pEdagogicaL appLications What is the tool-kit? The Tool-Kit is an innovative instrument designed for anyone who writes e-mails in English. It aims to provide clear guidelines to online users on how to incorporate politeness in their e-mail communication. It explains in easy-to-understand language the elements that contribute to politeness. The instrument contains a set of principles, ideas, phrases, lexical items, and so on that people may refer to when guidance is needed regarding politeness in e-mail. Importantly, it can also give a quick, practical tool to estimate the level of politeness in extant e-mail. The instrument, however, is not an exhaustive taxonomy, as it is understood and accepted that in any e-mail interaction, as in any face-to-face interaction, negotiation of more subtle politeness elements may be further required. This innovative practical instrument represents a
starting point towards the intersection of politeness and e-mail communication, which, to date, has been ignored in the literature and was found from the data to be needed.
how can the instrument be used in different Educational contexts? This tool can be used by various people in many educational contexts to assist online second language learning and teaching. It can also assist in the education of people from many other diverse contexts such as schools, government, and the corporate world. In fact, anyone who writes e-mails in English can benefit from the use of The Tool-Kit. More specifically, the pedagogical applications of The Tool-Kit are classified into two categories. The first category, deductive applications, shows how the use of this instrument can help to raise awareness of politeness in e-mail by considering the protocols provided in the content. Further deductive applications show how the instrument can help to assess and evaluate politeness in email communication in a systematic way. The second category, inductive applications, refers to the ways in which the instrument can provide online learners and their teachers with ideas to explore further elements not covered in The ToolKit. However, as the development of this tool is still in its infancy, creative and new refinements of the instrument are sought to extend further its pedagogical applications to e-learning. Nonetheless, by providing a clear set of protocols, The Tool-Kit acts as a starting point in providing a sharper focus of the elements of politeness in e-mail. The Tool-Kit can help teachers of a second language and their students become aware of the elements that contribute to polite and effective e-mail communication. This is important for e-learning as it can lead to more successful online e-mail interactions in educational contexts. The use of the instrument can also shed more light into possible politeness patterns in e-mail in
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
a formative way. This could be helpful for different types of learners. For example, if the use of The Tool-Kit shows that low scores are apparent with online students in the section, “Language Style of Polite Requests,” then online teachers may want to offer their language students some strategies on how to write requests on e-mail in a polite way. If higher scores are apparent for requests for information than requests for services, then online teachers may instruct their students on the difference between those two language functions. Cross-cultural comparisons of politeness may also be examined as well. For example, some native English speakers may do better in one variable and not another. In the example included in this chapter, the Australian e-mail writer has low scores for “Respect for Receiver’s Time and Space,” but has higher scores for “Language Style.” Politeness assistance can thus be targeted at areas in need, as shown by the results of The Tool-Kit. By contrast, non-native speakers may find some sections more difficult than others. In the example in this chapter, the Korean e-mail writer has low scores in “Language Style of Polite Requests” as seen by the many “Xs” (see Table 1), but has higher scores for “Respect for Receiver’s Time and Space.” Armed with this data, the online language teacher can target politeness and pragmatic assistance to students in the areas in need as shown. The Tool-Kit could also be used to locate and assess language proficiency problems in a practical way, with second language learners. For example, low scores by non-English-speaking writers in the section “Language Style”especially items on grammar, punctuation, and spellingmay pinpoint target areas for future teaching. Native English speakers as well could benefit from assistance in these areas. Problems with pragmatic proficiency, common with second language learners (Bardovi-Harlig, & Hartford, 1993; SpencerOatey, 2000b; Thomas, 1983), such as recorded in the section “Language Style for Polite Requests,”
0
could also be detected. Thus, The Tool-Kit cannot only be used as a guide displaying preferred protocols in the area of intercultural e-mail communication, but it can also detect aspects of language proficiency in need of future improvement. Importantly, cross-cultural comparisons can also be made with the use of The Tool-Kit. For example, it may be shown that certain cultures systematically display low scores for “Time Factors.” These cultures may prefer or expect replies to their e-mails within a shorter time span than other cultures. This information is important for more successful e-learning. This instrument can be used to assist both native as well as non-native English speakers. The user of The Tool-Kit should keep in mind that when communicating in English to a native speaker, unintentional offences may occur that may interfere with the construction of the online dialogue. This instrument, therefore, can help the native English speaker become more aware of language used in e-mail and its effect on the receiver. Equally, the instrument can also help the nonnative English speaker. The instrument takes into consideration that, in certain cases, some non-native English speakers when writing an e-mail in English to an English speaker may unintentionally offend that person through their inappropriate or incorrect use of the language, as well as through omitting certain politeness indicators. Use of The Tool-Kit enables the non-native speaker to become more aware of the elements contributing to polite and effective e-mail communication and thus avoid offence. By assisting both native as well as non-native English speakers in their word choice for e-mail interactions, The Tool-Kit is therefore contributing to more harmonious online communication. Over a larger corpus of other e-mail threads, The Tool-Kit could also act as a scanner (or search engine) to assist the analysis of multiple e-mail threads in order to detect possible patterns of politeness within and across all sections. The scanning function would enable many important
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
analyses to take place across a range of variables, for example, cross-cultural, gender, and generational comparisons of politeness. It would also enable a ranking of politeness strategies, useful for pedagogical as well as corporate settings. Certain strategies of politeness may be more important in different contexts than others. The use of this instrument may identify which strategies are more important for certain communicative contexts and so on. The Tool-Kit is thus a valuable tool for assessing, in a tangible way, individual and cross-cultural politeness elements across a range of variables. By breaking down politeness in intercultural e-mail communication in such a visible way, The Tool-Kit can uncover important information and potential politeness patterns. It can also target areas in need of politeness proficiency assistance. Importantly, second language students’ views on the content of The Tool-Kit could also provide valuable alternative cultural perspectives for further reviews, thus minimizing its limitation of potential cultural bias. Use of the instrument by online teachers and their second language students could provide further input into its contents.
What Does the Instrument Look Like? The Tool-Kit takes the form of a tabulated grid over six A4 pages. It is designed to assess politeness in an e-mail thread of up to eight e-mails in length (E1 to E8). An e-mail thread may be defined as a series of e-mails sent back and forth as a dialogue between the same sender and receiver. Columns E1, E2, E3, and so on in the grid represent each e-mail in the thread, with E1 representing the first e-mail in the thread, E2 the second, and so on. The Tool-Kit, however, may also be used to assess politeness in a single e-mail. The Tool-Kit may accommodate e-mail threads of less than eight e-mails, while those over eight e-mails in length require an extended version. Ticks (√ ) and crosses (X) are written, as appropriate, in
the columns of the grid so that politeness patterns may be detected over entire threads. The Tool-Kit comes with a manual for use called the Glossary of Terms. This is a document explaining all terms used in The Tool-Kit by way of definitions and examples. The Tool-Kit assesses the content of the e-mail through analyzing the following three sections: “E-Mail Classification,” “Social Variables,” and “Request Weight.” In addition, six sections were included in the tool to assess information related to the language used in the e-mail message. These sections collected information on the “E-mail Characteristics,” “Time Factors and Requests,” “Language Style,” “Language Style of Polite Requests,” and “Relationship-Building” and “Respect for Receiver’s Time and Space.” These language-related elements were included because impoliteness in e-mail communication can be conveyed, often inadvertently, through various language functions such as direct requests, criticisms, complaints, disagreements, non-compliances, threats, warnings, orders, and so on (Bou-Franch & Garces-Conejos, 2003; Culpeper, 1996). Moreover, the forms of language that convey these functions are often abrupt and assertive, sometimes with negative attitudinal predicates (Spencer-Oatey, 2000b, p. 25; Watts, 2003). Such impoliteness indicators do not build the face of either sender or receiver; rather they threaten face (Culpeper, 1996; Simmons, 1994; Ting-Toomey, 1988). Finally, the tool included an “Overall Performance” section that collated the results of the different sections included in the tool to establish the level of politeness of an e-mail. Due to space restrictions, only excerpts of each section are briefly explained next.
E-Mail Classification This first section elicits information concerning physical aspects of the thread, such as the time of the communication, the country of origin, and
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
text length. It also collects information on the sender’s initials.
Social Variables This section assesses the status differences and the social distances between the sender and receiver of the e-mail. The power difference between the sender and receiver, the social distance between them, and the weight of the request determine levels of politeness according to Brown and Levinson (1987). As a result, information concerning these three social variables is important to explain and assess the levels of politeness in an e-mail interaction. The social variables monitored by the use of this instrument include: (a) the opening and closing titles used, (b) whether the e-mail is the first in the thread, (c) whether there has been previous e-mail contact, (d) the status difference between the sender and the receiver, and (e) and the social distance between them. It was decided to focus on the speech act of requests in The Tool-Kit, as the results of the study indicated that this is a problematic area in e-mail, especially when the communication occurs across cultures (Lee, 2004; Suh, 1999; Yli-Jokipii, 1998). The instrument, however, can also be also used to assess levels of politeness in e-mails that do not contain requests. The analysis of this section can show in how the opening and closing titles are used in e-mail thread, these titles may range from Professor (Prof) to Doctor (Dr) to individual first and last names. It also shows if there has been no previous e-mail contact between sender and receiver, and both the level of status and social differences between sender and receiver. This section shows how higher levels of politeness may be used in e-mail communication due to the high power and social differences between the two correspondents (Brown & Levinson, 1987).
Request Weight This part of the instrument assesses how much effort the request requires on the part of the receiver. A request may be defined as “an attempt by the speaker (sender) to get the hearer (receiver) to perform some action by virtue of the hearer (receiver) having recognized that such an attempt is being made” (Jacobs & Jackson, 1983, p. 287, cited in Bargiela-Chiappini & Harris, 1996, p. 640). Requests can be for information, services, goods, and clarification. The weight of imposition of the request determines levels of politeness needed (Brown & Levinson, 1987). As a result, this section of the tool considers if the language function of the e-mail is a request, the number of requests included in a message, the type of request (e.g., services or goods), and the weight of the request (i.e., high, medium, or low). Normally if the weight of a request is high, then the levels of politeness would thus be expected to be higher in e-mails if the request involves greater effort on the part of the receiver than giving extra information and time to reply. If the assessment of the social variables in the previous sections was high, then more politeness indicators would need to be built into the e-mail message (Brown & Levinson, 1987; Scollon & Scollon, 1995). Moreover, the authors found that more politeness indicators are used when there is high social and status differences, and high weight requests. The threat to face is thus lessened because of the use of politeness strategies.
E-Mail Characteristics This section elicits information such as whether the subject line of an e-mail message is included and is relevant, whether the reply function is used, whether normal font is used, the length of the message, and whether a signature block has been included. Such information is important for assessing politeness levels.
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
Time Factors and Requests Issues to do with time were important factors for politeness in e-mail negotiations according to the participants and academic colleagues. Table 5 shows an excerpt of the various aspects relating to time such as acknowledging and answering requests that occurred over the e-mail thread. This section helps to analyze polite e-mail style, considering the country origin of the e-mail, the time delay in replying to the e-mail (under 3), if all requests in previous e-mail were acknowledged, and if all requests (in previous e-mail) were answered.
Language Style This part of the instrument elicits information concerning various aspects to written e-mail styles, which several data sources identified as polite. It assesses if the receiver’s full title is used in the address, if the sender’s full title is used in the sign off, and if the greeting “Dear” is used to convey politeness.
Language Style of Polite Requests It has been found that requests worded indirectly can convey more politeness (Holtgraves, 1997;
Lakoff, 1990; Meier, 1995, 1997; Sifianou, 1997). Added forms of politenessfor example, simple formulaic expressions such as please, thank you, could you, and so oncan also act as softening agents, the result of which is to lessen the threat to face, inherent in requests (Brown & Levinson, 1987). The evidence of requests worded directly in the example in Table 1 gives support to the horizontal politeness pattern (many “Xs”) showing a poor result. In this table, different linguistic structures that contribute to articulating polite requests have been included. These structures include the use of modals in the request included in the e-mail, the use of the passive voice, and the length of the sentences used to articulate the requests included in the e-mail communication. The next section on “Relationship-Building” collates all the strategies for building relationships in e-mail communication.
Relationship-Building “Relationship-Building Language” may be defined as language which tries to find common ground between the sender and receiver of an e-mail (as distinct from face-building language which is used to validate the receiver and his work/world or culture). “Relationship-Building Language” corresponds closely to Brown and
Table 1. Assessment of language style of polite requests E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7
E8
Country of Origin
Aust
Korea
Korea
Aust
Korea
Aust
Aust
Korea
1. Modals used in request
√
X
X
√
√
X
X
X
X
X
X
√
X
√
√
X
√
X
X
√
X
X
√
X
(e.g., would, may) 2. Use of passive voice (e.g., Is it possible for me to have…?) 3. Longer sentences used for request (10 words or more)
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
Table 2. Assessment of relationship-building strategies E1
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7
E8
Country of Origin
Aust
Korea
Korea
Aust
Korea
Aust
Aust
Korea
1. Referring to previous
N/A
X
√
X
√
√
√
√
N/A
X
X
X
X
X
√
√
N/A
√
√
X
√
√
√
√
e-mail(s) 2. Thanking for previous e-mail(s) 3. Responding to points made in previous email(s)
Levinson’s (1987) positive politeness. Table 2 shows an example of a thread in which e-mails 2 and 4 did not refer to the previous e-mail. This is considered impolite according to the three data sources. E-mails 7 and 8 were the only ones to thank the receiver for the previous e-mail. All emails except e-mail 4 responded to points made previously. Overall, the analysis of the e-mail thread in Table 2 shows politeness levels could be improved, especially in relation to thanking and referring to previous e-mail.
Respecting Receiver’s Time and Space “Respecting Receiver’s Time and Space” language may be defined as the many uses of language in a way that shows respect for the privacy, time, and own world of the receiver. The aim of the use of this language is to allow the receiver as much freedom to be unimpeded as possible, while at the same time making a request. “Respecting Receiver’s Time and Space” language corresponds closely to Brown and Levinson’s (1987) negative politeness. As a result, this section of the tool assesses if time has been given to the receiver to respond, if the sender is being indirect in general, and if the sender provides the receiver with options, as well as if, in the cases when it is needed, the sender gives apologies to the receiver.
the overall performance section The final section of the instrument, “Overall Performance,” sums up and assesses data from all sections. However, due to space restrictions in this chapter, a brief description only of this section is included here. This part of the tool tabulates the individual scores for all key sections on politeness described above. Politeness scores for each of these sections range from a minimum of 0 to a maximum of 10. In this chapter, excerpts only were given so not all of the items for each section were included. The mean, or the average, for each of the politeness sections can also be calculated. If a section records N/A (Not Applicable), this will not be included in the calculations. These individual scores can then be added up and converted to give the Total Politeness Percentage for each e-mail in the thread. A space is also provided to record the mean, or the average, for each of the sections including the Total Politeness Percentage across the whole thread. In this way, politeness patterns both down the individual e-mails (vertical patterns) as well as across the entire thread (horizontal patterns) can be detected. Scores, including means, also provide an avenue for further analysis and discussion.
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
Limitations of the tool-kit A major limitation of the instrument is its subjective nature. Even though objectivity was attempted by referring to the three knowledge bases for its construction and content, subjectivity inevitably becomes a component when creating a tool to assess social and cultural factors. Moreover, the instrument has a potential cultural bias, in that it was created principally by one of the authors, an English-speaking, white, Anglo-Western female. In addition, the instrument is based on data drawn largely from an Australian audience. An offset to this limitation involved input from the second author (a non-Anglo-Western scholar) and other researchers in an effort to create a more culturally sensitive tool. As well, there was inclusion of data from the Korean participants and also certain intercultural theoretical viewpoints from the literature. Further uses of the instrument in future research projects could help to overcome this limitation. Therefore, the authors acknowledge that at this stage further research is needed before generalizations across cultures can be made. The difficulty of not being able to quantify certain important variables was also a limitation. It is not always accurate or even possible to assess such complex and abstract notions as, for example, “being indirect generally.” There remains uncertainty and doubt as to the reliability and validity of both defining and quantifying such abstract and subjective concepts.
concLusion It is important to choose the right language and style in our e-mail communications to enable suitable and educationally rewarding relationships to be established and maintained. Online teachers and their students need to be aware, among other things, of differing constructions and interpretations of politeness, differing e-mail interactional
styles, as well as ways to manage the medium efficiently, so that they can feel more comfortable communicating online. The educational benefits of successful intercultural e-mail communication cannot be underestimated. The first section of this chapter discussed the literature in the areas of politeness, e-mail communication, and intercultural communication. The literature review revealed several gaps such as a lack of instruments to help learners to assess politeness in a systematic way or to assist learners to write a polite e-mail. This chapter has highlighted the need for second language learners to be aware of e-mail politeness protocols in order to communicate effectively with their teachers and peers online. As a result, The Tool-Kit described in this chapter was created to address this need. Developed over a four-year period, The Tool-Kit represents a starting point in trying to objectively evaluate politeness levels in e-mail communication. Described as a metaphorical bridge linking theory to practice, The Tool-Kit was created as a way of dealing with the uncertainty about e-mail politeness which was revealed during the construction of the tool described here. The instrument also represents a practical attempt to discuss online politeness. Constructed from a synthesis of empirical data and theoretical frameworks from the literature, the innovative instrument can assist online users on how to write more polite e-mails, especially to those in other cultures. Knowledge of the pragmatics of politeness could also be assisted with the aid of this instrument, and consequently assist e-learning between online teachers and their non-native students. Excerpts from the 10 different sections included in The Tool-Kit were explained in this chapter, as well as how each one of them operates. Throughout the excerpts from the different sections of The Tool-Kit, it was explained how the instrument can be applied pedagogically to assist e-learning between students and their online teachers. It also discussed how the instrument can
Politeness in Intercultural E-Mail Communication
provide a sharper focus on elements contributing to politeness in e-mail communication. As such, use of the instrument could help online learners locate problem areas of pragmatic proficiency, common in second language learners (Thomas, 1983). The innovative instrument described in this chapter presents a new step in our research into intercultural e-mail politeness and the way in which this affects e-mail interactions. It provides a useful tool that can support e-learning and advance our research in the area of e-mail interactions in elearning environments. However, this instrument is still in its infancy. Further research needs to be conducted on its application in different e-learning contexts to monitor and assess its subsequent impact on online learning and teaching.
Bargiela-Chiappini, F., & Harris, S. (1996). Requests and status in business correspondence. Journal of Pragmatics, 28, 635-662.
acknoWLEdgMEnt
Brown, R., & Gilman, A. (2003). The pronouns of power and solidarity. In C. Paulston & G. Tucker (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: The essential readings (pp. 156-176). Oxford: Blackwell.
The authors would like to express sincere gratitude to Dr. Olav Muurlink for editing the second version of this chapter, and his help with the design and formatting of the two figures included here. We would also like to thank the three scholars who conducted the blind review of the first version of this book chapter, as their comments helped us to improve the quality of this chapter.
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Eelen, G. (2001). A critique of politeness theories. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome. Fang, K. (1998). An analysis of electronic-mail usage. Computers in Human Behavior, 14(2), 349-374. Fraser, B. (1990). Perspectives on politeness. Journal of Pragmatics, 14(2), 219-236. Haugh, M. (2003). Politeness implicature in Japanese: A metalinguistic approach. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Queensland, Australia. Heylighen, F., & Dewaele, J.M. (1995). Formality of language: Definition, measurements and behavioral determinants. Retrieved May 22, 2004, from http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Papers/Formality. pdf Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Holmes, M.E. (1994). Don’t blink or you’ll miss it: Issues in electronic mail research. Communication Yearbook, 18, 454-463. Holtgraves, T. (1997). Styles of language use: Individual and cultural variability in conversational indirectness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(3), 624-637.
Lakoff, R. (1989). The limits of politeness: Therapeutic and courtroom discourse. Multilingua, 8(2/3), 101-129. Lakoff, R. (1990). Talking power: The politics of language in our lives. New York: BasicBooks. Lee, A. (1994). Electronic mail as a medium for rich communication: An empirical investigation using hermeneutic interpretation. MIS Quarterly, 18(2), 143-157. Lee, C. (2004). Written requests in e-mails sent by adult Chinese learners of English. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17(1), 58-72. Locher, M., & Watts, R. (2005). Politeness theory and relational work. Journal of Politeness Research, 1, 9-33. Ma, R. (1996). Computer-mediated conversations as a new dimension of intercultural communication between East Asian and North American college students. In S.C. Herring (Ed.), Computer-mediated communication: Linguistic, social and cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 173-185). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Mak, L., & Yeung, S. (1999). Investigating features of an international e-mail community. In K. Cameron (Ed.), CALL and the learning community (pp. 315-356). Exeter: Elm Bank.
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Meier, A.J. (1995). Passages of politeness. Journal of Pragmatics, 24, 381-392. Meier, A.J. (1997). Teaching the universals of politeness. ELT Journal, 51(1), 21-28. Merriam, S. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass. Merriam, S. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Murphy, M. (2003). E-mail communication between overseas students and university teachers. Retrieved from http://www.hlst.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/link10/LINK10.pdf Murphy, M. (2006a). The cultural and interpersonal dimensions of e-mail discourse. In H. McNaughton & A. Lam (Eds.), The reinvention of everyday life. Culture in the 21st century (pp. 175-185). Canterbury, NZ: Canterbury Press. Murphy, M. (2006b). Towards a practical approach for assessing politeness in intercultural e-mail communication. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Griffith University, Australia. Murphy, M., & Levy, M. (2006). Politeness in intercultural e-mail communication: Australian and Korean perspectives. Journal of Intercultural Communication, (12). Pincas, A. (2001). Culture, cognition and communication in global education. Distance Education, 22(1), 30-51. Rice, J. (1997). An analysis of stylistic variables in electronic mail. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 11(1), 5-23. Rogers, E.M., & Albritton, M.M. (1995). Interactive communication technologies in business organizations. Journal of Business Communication, 32(2), 177-192.
Ross, D.N. (2001). Electronic communications: Do cultural dimensions matter? American Business Review, 19(2), 75-81. Saville-Troike, M. (2003). The ethnography of communication: An introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (1995). Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Sifianou, M. (1997). Politeness and off-record indirectness. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 126, 163-179. Simmons, T. (1994). Politeness theory in computer mediated communication: Face threatening acts in a ‘ faceless’ medium. Spencer-Oatey, H. (2000a). Introduction: Language, culture and rapport management. In H. Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally speaking: Managing rapport through talk across cultures (pp. 1-8). London: Continuum. Spencer-Oatey, H. (2000b). Rapport management: A framework for analysis. In H. Spencer-Oatey (Ed.), Culturally speaking: Managing rapport through talk across cultures (pp. 11-46). London: Continuum. St. Amant, K. (2002). When cultures and computers collide: Rethinking computer-mediated communication according to international and intercultural communication expectations. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 16(2), 196-214. Suh, J.-S. (1999). Pragmatic perceptions of politeness in requests by Korean learners of English as a second language. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 37(3), 195-213. Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 91-112.
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Thomas, J. (1995). Meaning in interaction: An introduction to pragmatics. London: Longman. Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). Intercultural conflict styles: A face negotiation theory. In Y.Y. Kim & W.B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp. 213-235). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Identity negotiation theory: Crossing cultural boundaries. In W.B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 211-233). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Travers, M. (2001). Qualitative research through case studies. London: Sage. Ulijn, J.M., & Campbell, C. (2001). Technical innovation and global business communication: An introduction. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 44(2), 77-82. Wallace, D. (2002). E-mail and the problems of communication. Retrieved June 27, 2002, from http://www.media-culture.org.au/0008/e-mail. txt Walther, J. (1992). Interpersonal effects in computer mediated interaction. Communication Research, 19(1), 52-90. Walther, J. (1997). Group and interpersonal effects in international computer-mediated collaboration. Human Communication Research, 23(3), 342-369. Watts, R. (2003). Politeness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wolcott, H.F. (2001). Writing up qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Xu, G.-L. (1996). Advantages and disadvantages of using e-mail as instructional aid: Some random thoughts. Retrieved April 28, 2002, from http:// leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org.tccconf96
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kEY tErMs E-Mail Thread: A series of e-mails sent back and forth between two communicators in a dialogue style on a particular subject over a certain period of time. Glossary of Terms: A document explaining terms used in The Tool-Kit by way of definitions and examples. Linguistic Politeness: Language used in a communication act to consider and respect the well-being of others. Politeness Protocol: A set of language structures which considers and respects the well-being of others. Power: The degree that a person is able to control the behavior of another (Brown & Gilman, 2003), or freedom of action to achieve one’s goals, regardless of whether or not this involves the potential to impose one’s will on others to carry out actions that are in one’s interests (Watts, 2003, p. 276). Relationship-Building Language: Language that tries to find common ground between the sender and receiver of an e-mail (as opposed to face-building language, which is used to compliment the receiver). Respect for Receiver’s Time and Space Language/Respecting Receiver’s Time and Space: The many uses of language in a way that shows respect for the privacy, time, and own world of the receiver.
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Social Distance: The sense of like-mindedness with one another (Brown & Gilman, 2003). Status: One’s position relative to that of others.
0
Chapter XVII
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting Neny Isharyanti Satya Wacana Christian University, Indonesia
abstract Studies in computer-mediated communication (CMC) have shown that it has the potential to provide opportunities for ESL learners to actively participate in communication using the target language, to notice inter-language gaps in their language production, and to negotiate meaning by the use of interactional modifications (IMs). The use of certain types of communication tasks also seems to play an important role in how to increase the quantity and quality of interactions among learners. Such a role is believed to affect the effectiveness of language acquisition. This chapter reports the findings of a study that investigates Internet chatting interactions between 28 college-level Indonesian non-native speakers (NNSs) of English using two different communicative language tasks, a jigsaw task and a decision-making task, which are believed to facilitate language acquisition. The main aim of this chapter is to discuss how the differences in tasks may generate different frequencies and types of IMs, as well as the possibilities of employing the results of the study in a classroom environment.
introduction In recent years, the growth of the Internet and the availability of various computer programs that facilitate online communication have been utilized to facilitate language production of second/foreign language learners. Studies on computer-mediated communication (CMC)
(Blake, 2000; Fernández-García & MartínezArbelaiz, 2002; Freiermuth, 2001; Kitade, 2000; Lee, 2002; Smith, 2004; Tudini, 2003) show that this form of communication has the potential to provide opportunities for ESL learners to actively participate in communicating using the target language, to notice inter-language gaps in their language production, and to negotiate meaning.
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Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
The studies also indicate that these results have a positive influence on the acquisition of the target language. In addition to the types of interactional modifications (IMs) that the learners use in the negotiation of meaning, the use of certain types of communication tasks seems to play an important role in how to increase the quantity and quality of interactions among learners as suggested by Gass and Varonis (1985) and Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993). Such a role is believed to affect the effectiveness of language acquisition. In addition to providing L2 practice, the Internet also provides opportunities for the learners to expand the use of the target language outside the classroom setting, and connects them with either native speakers (NS) or other non-native speakers (NNS) who are learning the target language. This real-life setting enables the learners to practice producing the authentic language. It has been noted that although many Indonesians receive many years of formal English instruction in junior and senior high school, there is very little opportunity for them to comprehend or produce the language as it is used in day-to-day or academic situations. The accessibility of the Internet through Internet cafes in various cities in Indonesia at affordable costs (see UNDP–APDIP, 2002) creates opportunities for students to communicate with the rest of the world using international languages like English and expand the scope of English learning within and outside the classroom setting. By considering the positive results of studies on the effect of CMC interactions on L2 production as well as the growth and popularity of Internet usage in Indonesia, this study focuses on comparing certain communication tasks for IMs, which have been shown to promote L2 acquisition. In particular, this study compares two L2 communication tasks, namely jigsaw and decision-making tasks, conducted in NNS-NNS dyad interactions between Indonesian students studying English as a foreign language. The study aims to focus on three issues: (1) the frequency of each interactional modification used by subjects when engaged in the
jigsaw and decision-making tasks in synchronous CMC, (2) whether different tasks influence the frequency of IMs used, and (3) the motives and factors involved in using IMs in the tasks. It is hoped that by focusing on certain aspects of IMs, communication tasks, and dyad combination, this study may contribute some ideas about how to make use of Internet technology to supplement and expand face-to-face classroom communication materials to authentic day-today English in Indonesia or other countries with similar situations.
LitEraturE rEViEW negotiation of Meaning and its potentials for Language acquisition The process of negotiation of meaning starts when there is a communication blockage in an interaction between two interlocutors. When one interlocutor poses a question or comment, or gives a look indicating that he or she does not understand the other interlocutor’s previous message, it implies that the other interlocutor has not successfully conveyed his or her message and a communication blockage has occurred. The other interlocutor, in response to this blockage, may choose several different types of IMs to make his or her message more comprehensible to his or her interaction partner. Gass and Varonis (1982, 1985) proposed a model of negotiation of meaning to describe the process. There are four components in the model: a Trigger (T), an Indicator (I), a Response (R), and a Reaction to the Response (RR). This model was specifically designed to describe the interactions in NNS-NNS discourse. The positive influence of interactions in facilitating second language acquisition in face-to-face/non-CMC settings has been widely discussed. Long (1996, cited in Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 294) proposed the idea of the interaction
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
hypothesis, in which negotiation of meaning that triggers interactional modifications facilitates acquisition in a way that it intertwines “input, internal learners capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways.” Pica (1994) is supportive of Long’s position that negotiation can make input more comprehensible for learners, help them modify their own output, and provide opportunities for them to edit their target language (L2) production, particularly in form and meaning (p. 520). In terms of the use of interaction by non-native speakers of English, a study by Gass and Varonis (1985) suggests that NNS-NNS dyads “offer NNSs the greatest opportunity to receive comprehensible input and produce comprehensible output through negotiation” (p. 161). Swain (1985), in her study of grammatical acquisition through negotiation of meaning, and Smith (2004), with his study of the relationship between lexical item acquisition and interactional modifications, also reported the positive influence of such negotiation of meaning in interactions. In a CMC environment, several studies have been conducted to explore and investigate the nature of interaction. Kitade (2000) found in her study of Internet chatting of 12 Japanese learners that the opportunities to interact, to negotiate meaning, and to learn collaboratively provide ideal conditions for acquiring a second language. A similar conclusion is also suggested in studies by Fernández-García & Martínez-Arbelaiz (2002), Lee (2002), Kotter (2003), Tudini (2003), Smith (2004), Jepson (2005), and Lai and Zhao (2006), particularly in the ability of CMC to provide opportunities to engage in a meaningful interaction that is positive for second language acquisition. The results of the studies by Lee (2002) and Kotter (2003) confirm the potential of such IMs to develop learners’ language competence. The data in Lee’s study confirms that the use of IMs as interactive strategies assists learners to comprehend input and output, and she suggested that it might promote L2 learning or help improve learners’
language skills. Although the results in Kotter’s study did not allow any firm conclusions about the effects of learners’ engagements in the negotiation of meaning on the development of learners’ L2 competence, it shows that the abundance of IMs promoted noticeable language production during interactions, and that there is a difference in frequencies of IMs in CMC and face-to-face environments, possibly due to a number of medium-specific factors (spoken vs. Internet-based communications). Specifically related to the issue of learners noticing their language production, the study of Lai and Zhao (2006) asserts that text-based online chatting promotes more than face-to-face conversations, especially in terms of learners’ recognition of their own linguistic mistakes. The results of studies by Kitade (2000) and Tudini (2003) indicate that lexical and structural difficulties in the learners’ interactions trigger most negotiations. The study that Smith (2004) conducted investigated the correlation between the negotiated interactions and lexical acquisitions in NNS-NNS discourse within a CMC environment. His findings showed that his subjects retained impressive short- and middle-term lexical gains of previously unknown words. This finding is particularly supportive of the claim that interactions in a CMC environment: (a) provide an environment for learners to negotiate meanings successfully, and (b) trigger the attention of learners in the form of their language production, which are both considered to have positive effects on the acquisition of a new language (Pica, 1994; Long, 1996, cited in Gass & Selinker, 2001).
categorization of interactional Modifications Gass and Selinker (2001) listed three forms of IMs which Long (1980, cited in Gass & Selinker, 2001) found to be used in conversations involving NNSs. These three forms are confirmation check, clarification request, and comprehension check.
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
In addition to these forms of IMs, Long (1981) noticed other ways of overcoming problems during interactions between NS-NNS. He found that NSs will likely simplify and shorten the conversation topics when they need to communicate with NNS, drop a topic altogether when communication breakdowns occur, ask lots of questions, give imperatives, use many of the clarification devices to follow up the misunderstanding, as well as repeat, restate, and decompose the topics into several sub-topicsall in an effort to avoid communication breakdowns or assist understanding in communicating with NNSs. In a CMC environment, Lee (2002) explores and compares the types of IMs in a CMC environment with the ones in a face-to-face environment. The results of her study show the categorizations of modification devices used in a CMC environment, which consists of nine categories of modification devices (comprehension check, confirmation check, clarification check, request for help, self-correction, use of English, topic shift, use of approximation, and use of keyboard symbols as discourse markers). The results of the study also show that the participants of the study used communication devices similar to those observed during face-to-face communication in previous studies. A more recent study that also presents a categorization of IMs is a study by Kotter (2003) on collaborative projects between English and German learners in a synchronous CMC environment. One of the results of his study is the development of a “more coherent classificatory system” of IMs based on previous work in the field of interaction, which consists of seven categories: confirmation check, clarification request, comprehension check, recast (implicit error correction), overt indication of understanding, overt indication of agreement, and overt indication of non-agreement. This study uses the categorization of IMs that is a combination of a list of IMs analyzed in two studies on Internet chatting, one by Lee (2002) and the other by Kotter (2003). The studies were
selected because those studies were conducted specifically in a CMC environment and generally expanded the forms of modifications that were found in a face-to-face environment (such as studies by Gass & Selinker, 2001; Duff, 1986).
Tasks that Promote Interaction Modifications In a face-to-face environment, Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) reviewed some empirical studies on the different communication tasks that have shown to have significant roles in promoting interactions among learners based on their features. They also suggest how different tasks can be used for research and teaching purposes. They argue that in terms of pedagogical purposes, based on different task features, the different tasks can be selected for more effective language learning for certain learners, certain situations, and certain learning goals. In terms of research purposes, different tasks can be used to acquire samples and evidence of certain language production features to promote interactions, which in the end support second language acquisition. Similarly, Chapelle (2003) argues that the aim of L2 task research is to explain tasks in such a way that they can help teachers and researchers select and build tasks that will bring the desired results when they are used in research studies or in classes. Based on the relationship between interlocutors and the requirements for communicating the information to achieve the goals of the task, Pica et al. (1993) categorize communication tasks into five types: jigsaw, information-gap, problem solving, decision making, and opinion exchange tasks. They also discussed the relationship between interlocutors; the roles of the interlocutors as the holder, the requester, or the supplier of information, and their relationship; the requirements for interaction in the task: whether interaction is required (+) or not to meet the goal of the task; the orientation of the goal or whether the interlocutors share the same goal (+ convergent) or not; and the possible
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
outcome generated from the task or whether it is possible for the interlocutors to have one (1) or more outcomes (1+) in the completion of the task. They also illustrate that each task has a different level of effectiveness in providing learners with environments and activities in which they can collaborate toward comprehension, feedback, and inter-language modifications. By changing one of the elements in the category, teachers can adjust the level of effectiveness in providing opportunities for students to interact in seeking comprehensible input and modify their output for communication according to the needs of the learners in learning and the classroom situation.
Comparing Tasks In a review of previous empirical studies in second language acquisition regarding communication tasks in a language-learning classroom, Pica et al. (1993) suggest that different task types are expected to have different degrees of effectiveness in classroom language learning. Based on the research findings that focus on task types, they expect that “jigsaw and informational-gap tasks would provide the greatest opportunity for students to interact in seeking comprehensible input, so they can modify their output for communication” (p. 31). Contrasting these types of tasks with traditional classroom interaction in which students have limited time to practice speaking, the tasks maximize their opportunities to use the target language through the process of comprehending, negotiating, and modifying the information that they have. These tasks also enable them to use the target language in a more authentic situation where they are required to communicate and interact to achieve the communication goal. Numerous studies in the field of system sciences have been conducted to explore the differences in technology (CMC vs. face-to-face interaction) in group work and its effect on task effectiveness. The focus of these studies is mostly
related to the use of Group System Support (GSS) in collaborative activities. Group System Support is defined by Salo and Gustafsson (2004) as the use of a multi-user computer environment that is designed to support collaborative work. Abad, Castellá, Cuenca, and Navarro (2002) mentioned in their literature review that many studies indicate the different processes that groups went through due to the different types of technology used in the interaction. The main findings of these studies suggest that groups that communicate electronically focus more on activities related to the task than groups that communicate face-toface, take more time in completing the task, and have more problems to reach a consensus; also, electronic interaction enables the group members to participate equally in the task. Further, they found in the study by McGrath and Hollingshead (1994) that the technology interacts with the type of task the group has to carry out. In this study, it was found that computer-supported groups had a higher quality level on idea generation tasks, whereas face-to-face groups had a higher quality level in intellective and negotiation tasks. They also found in the study by McGrath and Berdahl (1998) that, as time passes, the group acquires experience in using the medium, adapting to its objective characteristics and developing new strategies for carrying out the task. In terms of strategies in carrying out the task, Condon and Cech (1996) found that participants in both the face-to-face and computer-mediated discourses seemed to depend on the routine decisions and other common routine structures such as adjacency pairs. Differences between the two discourses occurred primarily in use of discourse management strategies. The participants in the computer-mediated discourse eliminated unnecessary elaborations and repetitions, and they dedicated more linguistic forms to orientation and other managerial functions. In contrast, participants in the face-to-face discourse relied on discourse markers and short oriented phrases to perform much of this work. Their results are
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
also consistent with those of McGrath and Hollingshead (1994) that CMC provides opportunities for participants to focus on more efficient decision making. Another study that compares face-to-face communication with computer-supported communication in group work is a study by Fjermestad and Hiltz (1998), who summarize and analyze 100 experiments that compared the use of GSS (in which the subjects were in a multi-user computer environment and used computer-mediated communication to work collaboratively) to a face-to-face communication mode. The results suggest that the use of computer-mediated communication improves decision quality, depth of analysis, equality of participation, and overall satisfaction compared with the face-to-face method. Consistent with previous studies, in terms of tasks, their conclusion suggests that GSS (in which the subjects were using computer-mediated communication) is highly effective in decisionmaking types of tasks, whereas the face-to-face method is more positive for idea generation types of tasks. Based on the review of Pica et al. (1993), two studies on the CMC environment compared the use of certain tasks. Blake (2000), who used jigsaw, information-gap, and decision-making tasks, examined the suggestion that jigsaw and information-gap tasks are superior to other types of tasks. Using 50 NNS students involved in CMC activities, the findings of this study confirmed the previous study findings that jigsaw tasks proved superior to other types of tasks (e.g., information gap, decision-making, opinion tasks) to stimulate the students to focus on form or to focus on the gaps of their inter-language production as Pica et al. had predicted. However, the same cannot be said of information gap tasks. Contrary to previous studies, the results of a study by Sauro (2001), which compared the use of two tasks, namely jigsaw and decisionmaking tasks in four NS-NNS dyads, show that the jigsaw task did not lead to a greater number
of interaction modifications. Nevertheless, this study found from the participants’ feedback that the task difficulty, content, the types of answers expected, and task familiarity contribute to the need for negotiation.
Main Focus purpose of study This study examines Internet chatting interactions between 28 college-level Indonesian non-native speakers (NNSs) of English using two different communicative language tasks, a jigsaw task, and a decision-making task, which are believed to facilitate language acquisition, and how the differences in tasks may generate different frequencies and types of IMs. The selection of these two tasks is based on a study of Pica et al. (1993), who expected that jigsaw and information-gap tasks would provide the greatest opportunity for students to interact and focus on their input comprehension and output production, and that decision-making tasks are more effective than opinion-exchange tasks, due to the greater number of turns and questions generated during the tasks. In a CMC environment, the selection of these two tasks is based on a study by Blake (2000), who used jigsaw, information-gap, and decision-making tasks to test the claim by Pica et al. (1993), and Sauro (2001), who compared the use of jigsaw and decision-making tasks. The findings of these two studies are considered contrary to each other. Blake’s findings confirmed the previous study that jigsaw tasks are more conducive in providing a stimulus for helping the students to pay attention to the gaps in their inter-language production compared to other types of tasks (e.g., information gap, decision-making, and opinion tasks), while Sauro’s findings showed that the jigsaw task did not lead to a greater number of interaction modifications. Rather, Sauro’s findings asserted that the decision-making task was easier to comprehend
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
and complete than the jigsaw task. This study, therefore, is in nature similar to Sauro’s study, but focuses on the use of the two tasks in a CMC environment among NNSs in Indonesia. The use of different subjects may generate different results compared to those previous studies.
setting of the research Tasks The tasks employed in this study were taken from several previous studies, keeping in mind the characteristics of jigsaw and decision-making tasks as outlined by Pica et al. (1993). For the jigsaw task, the activity selected was a picture story, very much like that described by Pica, Lin-
coln-Potter, Paninos, and Linnell (1996). In this task, each interlocutor in the dyad was given five different pictures (taken from Choe, 2000), each describing an event in a story. The goal was to create a complete story in a certain limited period of time. For the decision-making task, the activity selected was Desert Island from Duff (1986). In this task, the interlocutors in each dyad had to agree on certain items to be brought to a desert island in order to survive after a shipwreck. Both activities correspond to the characteristics of their task type as outlined by Pica et al. (1993).
Categorization of IMs This study used the categorization of IMs that were selected and adapted from a list of IMs
Table 1. Categorization of IMs Interactional Modification Type
Definitions of IM
1.
Confirmation check (Kotter)
A speaker’s attempt to confirm that he has understood an utterance via the (partial) paraphrase (as opposed to repetition, see below) of this turn, which can simply be answered with Yes or No.
2.
Clarification request (Kotter)
An explicit demand for an elaboration or a reformulation of an idea, which “requires a rerun of the troublesome utterance” in question.
3.
Comprehension check (Kotter)
A speaker’s attempt to prompt another speaker to acknowledge that he has understood a particular utterance.
4.
Repetition (Kotter)
The repetition, in isolation, of part of or an entire erroneous or otherwise problematic utterance.
5.
Self-correction (Lee)
To correct errors made on lexical items or grammatical structure.
6.
Other-correction/recast (Kotter)
A form-focused partner-related target-like reformulation of all or part of an incorrect utterance.
7.
Overt indication of understanding (Kotter)
An overt indication that a speaker has understood a particular message.
8.
Over indication of agreement (Kotter)
An overt indication that a speaker agrees with what his partner said.
9.
Overt indication of non-agreement (Kotter)
An overt indication that a speaker does not agree with what his partner said.
10.
Use of Indonesian (adaptation, Lee)
To use Indonesian to substitute words or ideas in English.
11.
Use of keyboard symbols as discourse markers (Lee)
To signal for uncertainty or to confirm an idea or agreement.
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
analyzed in two studies on Internet chatting, one by Lee (2002) and the other by Kotter (2003) (presented in Table 1). The only modification to the categorization was the use of the native language. The use of English to substitute words or ideas in Spanish by Lee was changed to the use of Indonesian or other languages to substitute for words and ideas in English to reflect the native language background of the subjects.
Participants The participants in this study are limited to EFL students of Indonesian nationality at the college level. All of the subjects of this study were recruited from students of the English Department of Satya Wacana Christian University, Salatiga, Indonesia, and their involvement in this study was on a voluntary basis. Table 2 summarizes the background of the subjects in terms of language and computer usage.
Methods of Data Collection and Analysis The data collection was conducted in a computer lab at Satya Wacana Christian University. The computers in the lab meet the minimum requirement of running MSN Messenger, an Internet messaging service provided by Microsoft Network, which is the chatting software selected for this study. Each subject was given an anonymous login for the chatting software. Each subject was then paired with another subject based on his or her English proficiency background. The data collection was conducted in two sessions of different tasks in two separate days with a 24-hour interval in between. So on one day, half of the subjects did the jigsaw task, while the other half worked on the decision-making task. On the following day they swapped tasks. In the first session of each data collection round, each subject was given a login name and was then sent to his or her designated computer table. The subjects in each dyad were separated
Table 2. Summary of subjects’ background Number of subjects
28
Gender
Male
5
Female
23
Age
19-28 years old
Native language
Indonesian
22
Javanese
2
Both
4
English language proficiency:
+ 2 years (college, intensive English)
11
all received six years of English grammar
+ 3 years (college, intensive English)
6
in high school
+ 4 years or more (college, intensive English)
11
Hours of computer usage/day
0-1 hours
5
2-4 hours
12
5-8 hours
10
more than 8 hours
3
Yes
27
No
1
Internet chatting software user
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
from each other by at least two rows to ensure that they would only communicate through the IM software. Each subject was also required to fill in the pre-task questionnaire. After that, the subjects were engaged in tasks specified for their dyad. In the jigsaw task, each subject in a dyad was given five random pictures. In the decisionmaking task, the subjects reviewed a Web site that provided the instructions for the task. In each task, the subjects were given 15 minutes to review the pictures (in the jigsaw task) or the situation (in the decision-making task). Then they were allowed 60 minutes to complete the task. On the following day, upon completion of the tasks, the subjects filled out a post-task questionnaire. This study elicited both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data was taken from the pre-task questionnaires, which dealt with subjects’ background, and from the post-task questionnaires, which inquired about the subjects’ motives in producing IMs, the factors involved in their production of IMs, and their experience in doing the tasks in dyads. The quantitative data was taken from the transcripts of the chatting conversations of 14 dyads (recorded by the chatting software). The number of words and turns that subjects produced and the frequency of IM occurrences in the transcript were tagged and calculated by two raters. The inter-rater reliability was 95.91%. A paired t-test was also done to provide a finer calculation on the significant differences of the frequencies of IM occurrences between the two tasks.
suMMarY oF Findings The three specific research questions posed in this study are: 1.
What is the frequency of each interactional modification used by subjects when engaged in the jigsaw and decision-making tasks (hereinafter referred to as JST and DMT respectively) in synchronous CMC?
2.
3.
Do the different task types (JST vs. DMT) generate different frequencies for the interactional modification types? What are the motives behind the interactional modifications used? What factors are involved in using different interactional modifications?
First, in order to answer the question about IM type of frequency in research questions 2 and 3, it is necessary to provide an overview of the amount of language produced in each task. The results of the total word production analysis in each task showed that the JST produced more words than the DMT (15,138 words vs. 12,323 words respectively). The analysis of average word production per turn in each task had similar results. A paired t-test analysis confirmed that difference was statistically significant for total word production in each task (t=2.800654, df=13, p<0.05). One explanation for this difference was the difference in the giving and sharing of information in each task. Subjects may have produced more words in the JST because it involved providing elaborate descriptions of pictures. It is thus reasonable to expect more word production in the JST. On the contrary, the results of total turns for each task shows that the DMT produced more turns than the JST (236.3571 vs. 213.3571 average number of turns per dyad respectively). A paired t-test analysis, however, did not confirm that the difference was statistically significant for total turn production in each task (t=1.31774, df=13, p<0.05). One explanation for this finding was the nature of interaction in the DMT, which emphasizes argumentation and giving rationales in selecting certain items. Thus, it is possible that the flow of turn-taking was more frequent. In terms of total turn production, the results of this study are similar to Sauro’s study (2001), in which there is no significant difference in the average total turn production in the two tasks. It is possible that the differences in the tasks themselves account for the differences in the results of the study.
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
Figure 1. The percentage of each IM in both tasks 11 4%
10 11%
1 24%
9 4%
8 21% 2 21%
7 8%
6 5 0% 4%
4 3 2% 1%
overall Frequency and types of Interactional Modifications The study’s first research question investigated the frequency and the type of IMs that occurred in both tasks combined. Confirmation checks occurred the most frequently, followed by overt indications of agreement and clarification requests. Although the use of Indonesian to replace ideas or words in English occurred quite frequently, this IM type was not considered as notable since it occurred as a result of an idiosyncrasy of one dyad. Figure 1 presents the percentage of each IM in both tasks.
comparison of interactional Modification Production in each Task The second research question broke down the production of IMs according to both tasks and dyads. This analysis was done to determine whether or not there was a difference between the two tasks in producing IMs and the consistency in usage across the dyads.
0
1 – confirmation check 2 – clarification request 3 – comprehension check 4 – repetition 5 – self-correction 6 – other correction/recasts 7 – overt indication of understanding 8 – overt indication of agreement 9 – overt indication of non-agreement 10 – use of Indonesian 11 – use of keyboard symbols as discourse markers
IM Production by Task The results of IM production by task suggest that the DMT generates more occurrences of each IM. For five IM types, there were large differences in frequency between the two tasks. These five IMs with notable differences include clarification requests, overt indications of agreement, the use of Indonesian, confirmation checks, overt indications of understanding, and overt indications of non-agreement. Table 3 presents the frequency of IMs in each task. The difference in the total number of clarification requests for the two tasks was 109, which was the greatest among the IM types. This result is similar to the results of a study by Jepson (2005) which shows that clarification types of requests are used more often than other repair moves. However, an analysis of the transcript reveals no clear and conclusive explanation why such a difference in frequency exists. Both tasks permitted the partners to clarify certain information supplied by one interlocutor. The difference is in the typical wh– questions produced in each task. In the JST, clarification requests typically
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
Table 3. Frequency of IMs in each task (n = 14) IM
Jigsaw
Decision
Difference
1
Clarification request
77
186
109
(DMT)
2
Overt indication of agreement
84
180
96
(DMT)
3
Use of Indonesian
104
31
-73
(JST)
4
Confirmation check
126
172
46
(DMT)
5
Overt indication of understanding
67
29
-38
(JST)
6
Overt indication of non-agreement
15
39
24
(DMT)
7
Self-correction
23
31
8
(DMT)
8
Use of keyboard symbols as discourse markers
26
21
-5
(JST)
9
Repetition
11
16
5
(DMT)
10
Comprehension check
9
5
-4
(JST)
11
Other-correction/recast
1
0
-1
(JST)
Total
543
710
167
(DMT)
Making
took the form of wh–questions that dealt with the picture description, usually “what” and “where” questions. In the DMT, the typical wh– question involved the use of “why” questions, aimed to test and evaluate one interlocutor’s arguments to select certain items from the list. In the case of overt indication of agreement, which had the second highest difference in frequency between the two tasks, the goal of the task is to agree on certain items to be selected, so it was reasonable if agreement occurred more frequently in DMT than in JST. This explanation may also be applicable for differences in frequency for overt indications of non-agreement. In the JST, although both subjects needed to agree on the relationship of the events, this was only half of the requirement of the task. In this case, the nature of the task activities resulted in differences in the frequency of occurrences of overt indications of agreement and non-agreement. It is interesting to note that although the number of frequency differences between the two tasks was the third highest for the IMs involving the use of Indonesian for expressing ideas or words
between the tasks, such differences may be considered idiosyncratic because they were the result of a great number of occurrences of this IM type in dyad 05-25 (92 occurrences) when doing the JST. In other dyads, the average frequency of this type of IM was only 0.92 (in the JST, excluding dyad 05-25) and 2.21 (in the DMT). A closer inspection of the transcript reveals that one of the subjects in this dyad experienced frequent network problems, which led the dyad members to decide not to use English in the last 38 minutes of their conversation, for fear of running out of time and not being able to complete the task. The IM with the fourth greatest difference in frequency between the two tasks was confirmation checks. The table indicates that confirmation check occurred more frequently in the DMT. A closer inspection of the transcript revealed that most of the confirmation checks that occurred in the DMT had three functions: (1) to confirm the selection of certain items on the list, (2) to indirectly disagree with a partner’s argument about a selected item or about the logic of the other subject in selecting certain items on the list, or (3)
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
to defend one’s position in selecting certain items. Since agreement in choosing certain items is the goal of this task, such agreement is instrumental to the success of a dyad in doing the task, and it was important that both subjects in the dyad agreed on individual items. The conversation in Dyad 9-29 below illustrates the occurrences of confirmation checks and their various functions (no alterations on the transcript; all misspellings are originally produced by the subjects): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
11. 12. 13. 14.
15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
Subject29: i thought Subject29: frozen meat, dried vegetables, and cannes beans Subject29: we can get calories from meat Subject29: protein from vegetables Subject29: carbohidrat from beans Subject09: I thought of frozen meat also Subject09: wow, you are a health expert! Subject29: okay Subject29: and? Subject09: but don’t you think we can get fresh vegetables from the island? (Indirect disagreement/function 2) Subject09: anf fresh fruits? (Indirect disagreement/function 2) Subject29: o yes Subject29: you are right Subject09: so we don’t really need dried vegetables nad fruits? (Confirmation check/ function 1) Subject29: i never thought it before Subject09: and Subject09: so? Subject29: so we need dried soup instead ya? (Position defense/function 3) Subject09: frozen meat Subject09: do you agree dry soup? (Confirmation/function 1) Subject29: frozen meat, dry soup, and…
In lines 10 and 11, Subject 09 signaled her disagreement of the selection of dried vegetables as Subject 29 suggested in line 2, but instead of
directly disagreeing with this selection by using an overt indication of non-agreement, she chose to indicate the disagreement by presenting an argument of the availability of similar vegetables and fruits in a fresh condition on the island. Once Subject 29 agreed to remove dried vegetables from the selection (lines 12 and 13), Subject 09 confirmed Subject 29’s decision once again (line 14), indirectly suggested another item to be selectedthat is, dried soup (line 18)and then inquired again twice (lines 18, 20) if the selection of dried soup was confirmed and agreed upon. As can be seen from the transcript, in order to agree on one item (i.e., dried soup), Subject 09 needed to confirm her partner’s agreement more than once. This may be an explanation for why there are more occurrences of confirmation checks in the DMT. In the JST, the occurrences of confirmation checks were not as frequent as the ones in the DMT; moreover, they were usually for the purpose of confirming understanding and or correlation of one subject’s opinion about a picture that his or her partner had. Once this was confirmed, the conversation could proceed to another topic. Sometimes, when there was no correlation, the interlocutor would solicit another confirmation check to further check on the details of the pictures. In the conversation of Dyad 4-24 below, the subjects used confirmation checks to test their assumptions about the correlation between their individual pictures (no alterations on the transcript; all misspellings are originally produced by the subjects): 22. Subject04: mine is the one with many people walking up the hill 23. Subject04: carrying their luggage 24. Subject24: if so, let me check.. 25. Subject24: the hill is very narrow?? (Confirmation check) 26. Subject04: yup an dvery steep also 27. Subject24: with some trees (leaves) in the sides? (Confirmation check)
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
28. Subject04: Yeah 29. Subject04: mine is almost on the top of the hill 30. Subject24: great then 31. Subject24: well, in mine, there’s a grandpa pointing down to a village (from the hill) 32. Subject04: my other one is a man looking at a map, i suppose
to complete the task. Common occurrences of overt indications of understanding occurred, like when one interlocutor needed to understand the reasoning of another interlocutor in choosing a certain item to be brought to the island or when they signaled lexical comprehension (for instance, on a description or explanation of an item).
IM Production by Task for each Dyad From this transcript, the process of using confirmation check (lines 25 and 27) to confirm the relationship between the pictures held by the subjects was not as lengthy as in the DMT. Once the assumed understanding of the relationship among the pictures was confirmed (lines 26 and 28) by Subject 04, Subject 24 clearly signaled her understanding (line 30) and added information about her picture (line 31). After that, Subject 04 proceeded to the next picture that she had. There were also a few occurrences of confirmation checks in the JST to confirm the assumed motive of the actors in the pictures. Again, once this assumption was confirmed, the conversation usually proceeded to the next topic. Since understanding the pictures and their connection is only part of the goal of the JST, it may be safe to say that the different goals of the tasks contributed to the differences in frequency for the confirmation checks in the tasks. In the case of overt indications of understanding, the nature of the tasks seems to contribute to the differences in frequency occurrences for this type of IM. The JST requires one interlocutor to describe the pictures that he or she has. Therefore, it is necessary for the other interlocutor to signal his or her understanding of the pictorial description by providing an overt indication of understanding in order to avoid communication blocks. The description of a picture could include an explanation of a lexical item, an event, or a relationship between events. In the DMT, since both interlocutors held the same kind of information, there was no need to understand another interlocutor’s information
In regards to IM production in each dyad, both the results of the descriptive statistical analysis and the inferential statistical test suggested that there is a statistically significant difference between the two tasks in generating IMs in each dyad. Table 4 shows the IM production in each dyad for both of the tasks and reveals that the decision task generated more IM production in 11 out of the 14 dyads. The comparison of IM averages for the jigsaw and DMTs yielded a significant difference (t=3.35003, df =12, p<0.05). Specifically, similar to a previous study by Sauro (2001), the results indicate that the dyads produced more IMs in the DMT. Taking into account the experiences of the subjects as reflected in their answers on the post-task questionnaires, 23 out of 28 subjects considered the JST to be more difficult than the DMT. Some reasons why this task is considered more difficult by the subjects are the requirements of the task, quality of the pictures, time limitation in doing the task, the medium that the task had to be done in (e.g., written vs. spoken), frequent occurrences of misunderstandings between partners, English proficiency level, and personal preference of the type of tasks. From this answer, it can be assumed that if the JST was truly difficult, greater IM production should be expected in the JST than in the DMT. However, the comparison of IM production frequency in the two tasks does not support this assumption. Although the subjects felt that the JST was more difficult than the DMT, this perception of difficulty level was not reflected in the production of IMs.
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
Table 4. Total IM production per dyad Dyad
Jigsaw
Decision Making
Difference
19-39
27
77
50
(DMT)
9-29
19
66
47
(DMT)
16-36
61
94
33
(DMT)
3-23
27
57
30
(DMT)
15-35
21
47
26
(DMT)
7-27
39
65
26
(DMT)
14-34
30
50
20
(DMT)
8-28
36
47
11
(DMT)
6-26
3
11
8
(DMT)
17-37
38
45
7
(DMT)
2-22
23
30
7
(DMT)
12-32
43
37
-6
(JST)
4-24
58
52
-6
(JST)
5-25
118
32
-86
(JST)
Average per Dyad
32.69231
52.15385
In sum, there are several explanations for the differences in IM frequency of the two tasks: (1) the nature and the requirements of the task (whether it is the kind of task that requires a pictorial description or an argumentative conversation), (2) the need to supply information when requested, and (3) idiosyncrasy (as in the case of the use of Indonesian by dyad 05-25). Although the results suggest that there is no great difference in the frequency of certain types of IMs, it is interesting to note that when great differences occurred, those differences occurred mostly in the IM types in which the DMT produced more frequent occurrences (i.e., in clarification requests, overt indication of agreement, confirmation check, and overt indication of non-agreement; except the use of Indonesian). This may be due to the method of identifying the IMs in the transcript. An individual IM was usually identified as a turn. In the JST, the utterances were usually longer per turn, whereas in the DMT they were usually shorter. As the DMT generated more turns than the JST, it is possible that the frequency of IM production in the DMT was greater than the JST.
(DMT)
Motives and Factors involved in iM production The third research question aimed at exploring the motives and factors in producing IMs. This analysis reveals that the need for understanding was an instrumental factor in the subjects’ decision to produce an IM. Most of the subjects considered the production of IMs to be necessary to understand their partner’s message more clearly or to confirm their understanding of their partner’s message and such requests for elaboration or repetition can help them understand better, avoid confusion, and confirm their understanding. The production of IMs is also related to the importance of understanding their partner’s information correctly in order to proceed to the next question and to accomplish the goals of the tasks. Interestingly, the medium in which the subjects are engaged (i.e., written medium of Internet chatting) affected the decision to produce IMs. When the subjects are deprived of using non-verbal communication as available in face-
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
to-face communication, they are limited in how to convey misunderstandings and thus can only do so explicitlythrough IMsas opposed to implicitly through non-verbal communication. However, there was also a chance that when they encountered communication problems, they would decide not to produce an IM to indicate the problem. One of the explanations for such a decision is because the time given for them to do the task was limited. This time factor can also be related to the possibility that finding a solution to a communication breakdown was not very crucial in accomplishing the task or not related to the task. In such an instance, the subjects deliberately did not request more elaboration about the problematic message. Some of the subjects also viewed using IMs as a disruption to the flow of their work in accomplishing the goals of the tasks. Two other reasons for not producing an IM when the subject did not understand his or her partner’s message were: (1) the complicated nature of the task, and (2) the rapid speed of a partner’s comments/response. To sum up the overall study, the findings of the study show that in both combined tasks, confirmation checks occurred the most frequently, followed by overt indications of agreement and clarification requests. Although the use of Indonesian to replace ideas or words in English occurred quite frequently, this IM type was not considered as notable since it occurred as a result of an idiosyncrasy of one dyad. Second, the study found that the DMT generates more occurrences of each IM. For five IM types (clarification requests, overt indications of agreement, the use of Indonesian, confirmation checks, overt indications of understanding, and overt indications of non-agreement), there were large differences in frequency between the two tasks, which may due to: (1) the nature and the requirements of the tasks (whether the task requires a description or argumentation), (2) the importance of the information being supplied, and (3) an idiosyncrasy. Third, in exploring the motives and factors in
producing IMs, the analysis reveals that the need for understanding was an instrumental factor in the subjects’ decision to produce an IM. This result was not surprising because understanding was important to the success in achieving the goals of the tasks. Other factors involved in the production of IMs were the time dedicated to doing the tasks and the medium.
FuturE trEnds So far, the findings of this study have examined the differences between the jigsaw and decisionmaking tasks in the generation of IM types in NNS-NNS dyads in a controlled computer lab environment. However, one of the limitations of this study is that it was conducted in a nonnaturally occurring language classroom. If the tasks were integrated in a course, the subjects involved in the study might take the tasks more seriously and provide an opportunity to test the tasks in a natural setting. For instance, the teacher can assign students to work collaboratively in a project with students of other similar classes in other universities outside of the class (in Internet cafes). Such telecollaboration has been explored in other studies and is getting more and more popular (see Belz, 2002, 2003, who discussed the social, cultural, and linguistics dimensions of telecollaboration projects; and O’Dowd & Eberbach, 2004, who offered some guidelines for teachers in engaging their students in telecollaborative projects). With the use of a project as an assessment, the students may take the tasks in a more serious manner and have a sense of responsibility and fixed purpose to make the online communication more effective in order to successfully accomplish the requirements of the project. The use of a project as an assessment may also solve the problem of the authenticity of the tasks that this study encountered. Instead of engaging students in “make-believe” tasks with no specific objectives, the students’ interactions through
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
Internet chatting to discuss the project might be more meaningful and authentic. Through careful design of telecollaborative projects, teachers may also be able to incorporate features of jigsaw and decision-making tasks, and thus provide opportunities for students to produce IMs. One of the setbacks of this integration of tasks in a normal learning/teaching context is that some students in Indonesia might feel that this outsideof-class activity would create an additional cost for an Internet connection. Data from the APDIP ICT Country Profile for Indonesia (UNDP–APDIP, 2002) reported that the cost of an Internet connection through Internet cafes ranges from US$0.30 to $1.00 per hour, and even more if using private Internet service providers (US$1.00 to $2.00 per hour). In this case, the teacher may still be required to provide Internet access in a computer lab during normal class periods, as the cost of an Internet connection will be billed to the school administration (about US$0.50/student/month, far cheaper than personal access to the Internet). Once this collaborative project is set up, it will be possible to conduct research about the occurrences of IMs in a more natural setting (for instance, in Internet cafes or outside of class). When such a study is conducted, a system of recording the transcripts of online communication needs to be carefully set up and agreed upon with the subjects, because the researcher will be technically dependent on the subjects in terms of collecting transcripts. It is also important to conduct an initial survey on the subjects’ familiarity with the IM software and to determine a time when they feel most comfortable doing the Internet chatting. Information from such a survey would be invaluable in setting up the study. It will also be useful to have a control group in which the subjects are engaged in face-to-face interaction. The results of that group can be compared with the results of a study similar to this one to actually explore whether differences in the communication medium affect the negotiation of meaning.
concLusion and rEcoMMEndations The intention of this study is to provide a methodology for using the tasks in Indonesia and other countries with similar technology profiles in which an Internet connection is considerably more expensive and not widely available. To do this, it is necessary to keep in mind the following issues for their implementation: the appropriateness of the tasks, technical support, and financial support to develop the tasks. In terms of task appropriateness, the results of this study suggest that the teachers who want to do either the jigsaw or decision-making task need to consider the purpose of engaging their students in the tasks. When the teacher is more interested in the amount of words produced by his or her students, the JST is probably best-suited for this purpose. When he or she wants the students to practice the use of certain IM types or to encourage more turn-taking, the DMT may be more useful. Selection of the tasks should also consider the nature of the tasks (whether it promotes practice in describing some objects or building argumentative skills) to ensure the appropriateness of the tasks with the purpose of the course. The results of this study also suggest that engagement in the tasks through CMC may provide opportunities for students to practice a foreign language in terms of being engaged in an interaction that is solely conducted in English. As English is treated as a foreign language in Indonesia and some other countries, the opportunity to use English in a natural context is very limited. Internet chatting may be one of the alternatives to give students an arena to practice their English and to expose students to a variety of English used by native speakers of English or non-native speakers from other countries. The technical implementation of the tasks in a classroom setting remains very problematic in Indonesia. The availability of a stable Internet connection is a prerequisite for conducting the
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
tasks, but such a connection may not be readily available in many of the classrooms in Indonesia and other countries. Although many colleges in Indonesia may have computer labs, such labs are usually not Internet enabled because the technology is still considered expensive. The cost of the technology may not be the only reason why the adoption of Internet technology in educational institutions is not as rapid as in the other sectors in Indonesia. With the freedom of information access that Internet technology is capable of offering, there is also a fear that students may access information that is not appropriate for them to view. This may lead to the tendency of the administrators in educational institutions to approach the use of this technology with caution and critical perspectives. The technology promises to yield positive effects for pedagogical purposes, but because such effects have not been empirically proven to deliver the effects, the administrators may be reluctant to adopt the technology for their institutions. Similar studies provide evidence regarding the positive effects of Internet technology for teachers and administrators. This type of study illustrates to teachers how the tasks can be utilized in their classes and can benefit their students. The positive results of this experimental study may persuade academic administrators to start considering the adoption of Internet technology for their institutions. Among the positive results that the administrators need to know and consider in the adoption of Internet technology is the capability of Internet chatting, particularly text-based chatting, to make the students engage in meaningful tasks, to provide more alternative means for students to use English in a less threatening environment. With the difficulty of attracting native speakers of English to teach in Indonesia and some other countries (due to political or financial reasons), Internet communication may also become a solution for the administrators in providing exposure to native speaker use of English.
In sum, to put the Internet technology in practice, cooperation between teachers and administrators is a requirement. The teachers play a role in selecting tasks and activities in an Internet environment that encourage students to gain the fullest benefits of a CMC environment. The administrators play a role in providing technology to support teachers’ efforts to help students acquire the target language.
acknoWLEdgMEnt I would like to thank Dr. Barb Schwarte, Dr. Carol Chapelle, and Dr. Chad Harms for their useful comments and guidance for the development of this study into a master’s thesis at Iowa State University, USA. My gratitude also goes to Annita Kwannie, Daniel Kristiyanto, Anne O’Bryan, and Hadley Wickham, who assisted me in collecting and analyzing the data of this study, as well as Andrew Thren who proofread this chapter. I also would like to thank two blind reviewers for their useful comments and the editors for the opportunity to publish my master’s thesis in this book.
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Gass, S., & Varonis, E. (1985). The effect of familiarity on the comprehension of nonnative speech. Language Learning, 34, 65-89. Jepson, K. (2005). Conversationsand negotiated interactionin text and voice chat rooms. Language Learning and Technology, 9(3), 79-98. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://llt.msu. edu/Vol9num3/Jepson/ Kitade, K. (2000). L2 learners’ discourse and SLA theories in CMC: Collaborative interaction in Internet chat. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13(2), 143-166. Kotter, M. (2003). Negotiation of meaning and codeswitching in online tandems. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 145-172. Retrieved October 4, 2004, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num2/kotter/ Lai, C., & Zhao, Y. (2006). Noticing and textbased chat. Language Learning and Technology, 10(3), 102-120. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol10num3/laizhao/ Lee, L. (2002). Synchronous online exchanges: A study of modification devices on non-native discourse. System, 30, 275-288. Long, M. (1981). Input, interaction and secondlanguage acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 379, 259-278. McGrath, J.E., & Berdhal, J.L (2002). In Abad et al. (Ed.), Teamwork in different communication contexts: A longitudinal study. Psychology in Spain, 6, 41-55. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from http://www.psychologyinspain.com/content/ full/2002/frame.asp?id=6003 McGrath, J., & Hollingshead, A. (2002). In Abad et al. (Ed.), Teamwork in different communication contexts: A longitudinal study. Psychology in Spain, 6, 41-55. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from http://www.psychologyinspain.com/content/ full/2002/frame.asp?id=6003
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MSN. (n.d.). Computer desktop encyclopedia. Retrieved September 15, 2007, from http://www. answers.com/topic/msn-technology O’Dowd, R., & Eberbach, K. (2004). Guides on the side? Tasks and challenges for teachers in telecollaborative projects. ReCALL, 16(1), 5-19. Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes? Language Learning, 44(3), 493-527. Pica, T., Kanagy, R., & Falodun, J. (1993). Choosing and using communication tasks for second language instruction. In G. Crookes & S. Gass (Eds.), Tasks and language learning: Integrating theory and practice (pp. 9-34). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Pica, T., Lincoln-Potter, F., Paninos, D., & Linnell, J. (1996). Language learners’ interaction: How does it address the input, output, and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly, 30(1), 59-84. Salo, A., & Gustafsson, T. (2004). A group support system for foresight process. International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy, 1(3/4), 249269. Retrieved July 10, 2005, from http://www.sal. hut.fi/Publications/pdf-files/psal04d.pdf Sauro, S. (2001). The success of task type in facilitating oral language production in online computer mediated collaborative projects. Unpublished Master’s Thesis, Department of English, Iowa State University, USA. Smith, B. (2004). Computer-mediated negotiated interaction and lexical acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 365-398. Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Tudini, V. (2003). Using native speakers in chat. Language Learning & Technology, 7(3), 141-159. Retrieved October 4, 2004, from http://llt.msu. edu/vol7num3/tudini/ UNDP–APDIP (United Nations Development Program–Asia-Pacific Development Information Program). (2002). ICT profile: Indonesia. Retrieved January 3, 2005, from http://www.apdip. net/projects/dig-rev/info/indonesia/ Varonis, E., & Gass, S. (1982). Non-native/nonnative conversations: A model for negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics, 6(1), 71-90.
kEY tErMs Communicative Language Task: A learning activity that gives students an opportunity to communicate in the target language and produce realistic use of the target language with less control from the teacher. Computer-Mediated Communication: A communication activity that is facilitated by computer technology, whether it is synchronous (e.g., using chatting software or in chat rooms), or asynchronous (e.g., e-mail, forums, blog posts). This communication can be one-to-one communication or one-to-many communication. Interactional Modifications: Changes to the structure of a conversation to accommodate potential or actual problems of understanding in negotiation of meaning (Long, 1990, in Ellis, 1999). Interaction Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Long (1996) that conversational interactions in a second language develop the basis for the development of language rather than only a medium for practicing specific language features.
Interactional Modifications in Internet Chatting
Jigsaw Task: A type of communicative language task, in which the interlocutors must interact and hold different information and take turns in requesting and supplying information in order to achieve only one possible solution for the task. Negotiation of Meaning: The conversational exchanges that arise when interlocutors seek to prevent a communication impasse from occurring or to remedy an actual impasse that has arisen. These exchanges involve interactional modifications (Ellis, 1999). Problem-Solving Task: A type of communicative language task, in which the interlocutors have the choice to interact and use the same information provided to find one or more solutions to the task.
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Chapter XVIII
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC Sedat Akayoğlu Middle East Technical University, Turkey Arif Altun Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
abstract This chapter aims at describing the patterns of negotiation of meaning functions in text-based synchronous computer-mediated communication by using computer-mediated discourse analysis. Two research questions were sought in this study: (a) what types of negotiation of meaning emerge in text-based synchronous CMC environments, and (b) is there any difference between native speakers (NSs) and nonnative speakers (NNSs) of English in terms of negotiations of meaning functions in this environment. The emerged functions of meaning negotiation were presented, and when comparing the NS with NNSs, the most frequently used negotiation of meaning functions were found to be different, but the least frequently used ones were found to be similar. The findings of this study might give insights to researchers, educators, and teachers of English Language when designing instruction in terms of patterns of negotiation of meaning functions in text-based synchronous computer-mediated communication.
introduction With the substantial developments in computer and communication technologies, educators and researchers are challenged in integrating these tools into the learning and teaching processes. The invention of the Internet paved the way for
educators and researchers to create virtual communities of learners in virtual meeting spaces. The idea of creating new environments is grounded on the theory of social constructivism. According to social constructivism theory, learners should take part in different contexts; they should interact with different people around
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The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
them to apply what they have learned at school (Doolittle, 1999; Salter, 2000, Johnson, 2001). Moreover, learners construct their knowledge by combining their prior knowledge with new information, according to the social constructivists. In other words, it can be claimed that when learners enter a different context, they combine the knowledge which they received at school and at home with that which they come across in this new context. The Internet provides these contexts, these environments, for the learners. When an individual connects to the Internet, he or she has the chance to meet someone by means of computer-mediated communication tools.
computer-Mediated communication Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is any form of communication between two or more individuals who interact and/or influence each other via separate computers through the Internet or a network connection, using social software. The computer is the medium for the communication, and people around the world communicate with each other regardless of the time and place. Kiesler, Zubrow, and Moses (1985) mentioned the importance of the computer as a medium of communication 20 years ago and stated that it would become a very important development in communication as follows: Just as the telephone and the automobile did, modern computing technologies seem likely to have major effects on patterns of social contact. People are using computer networks for communicating through electronic mail, computer bulletin boards, asynchronous computer conferencing, instantaneous document facsimile production, and online simultaneous conversations. Computers used for communication will be a significant technological development over the coming decades, and it seems sensible to study the underlying psychological and social implications of this development. (Kiesler et al., 1985, pp. 78-79)
As Olaniran (1996) states, computer-mediated communication has gained more popularity among organizations to promote group communication through available communication tools, such as electronic mail, voicemail, and videoconferencing. Moreover, Olaniran (1996) goes further to add that teleconferencing, which enables synchronous communication, is an increasingly demanded feature by organizations. Until recently, researchers have been interested in the outcome of this interaction as to whether the interaction leads to learning or not. Among the most frequently raised questions are to find out the results of instruction using computers and the Internet as language learners interact in new contexts with new events, objects, and people. According to Chappelle (2004, p. 595), there is an emerging need to understand the context of interaction, which may or may not lead to learning. Therefore, she adds, there is a need for “‘ethnographic and discourse-analytic methods’ with an emphasis on the broader context in which the learning takes place…” to find the patterns on the Net. Chappelle (2004) goes further to urge researchers to analyze the context of these environments in order to provide teachers with a better understanding of their learners. Research about the linguistic perspective of the Internet environments includes different aspects of the languages such as speech acts (Crystal, 2001; Oliver, 2002), negotiation of meaning (Warschauer, 1998; Sotillo, 2000; Rapaport, 2003; Bitchener, 2004; Jepson, 2005, Patterson & Trabaldo, 2006), and question types (Leahy, 2001; Schweinhorst, 2004). The content of the CMC environments in both synchronous and asynchronous areas has also been a major focus of research (i.e., Stevens & Altun, 2002; Mercer, Littleton, & Wegerif, 2004). Researchers explored what the learners were talking about, and they attempted to categorize the outcomes of these CMC environments in terms of their content. The other dimension of the research related to CMC is comparing the interaction
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
styles in face-to-face settings and in the Internet environments (i.e., Warschauer, 1996; Olaniran, 1996; Sassenberg, Boos, & Rabung, 2005; An & Frick, 2006).
negotiation of Meaning Pica (1994, cited in Toyoda & Harrison, 2002, p. 82) describes negotiation of meaning as “the modification and restructuring of interaction that occurs when learners and their interlocutors anticipate, perceive, or experience difficulties in message comprehensibility.” To elaborate on this quotation, it can be said that during interaction, the sender and the receiver of the message may have some difficulties in understanding each other because of their social background, their age, their prior knowledge, even of their gender, and in these situations either side of the communication will use some utterances to repair, elaborate, and clarify themselves. The research on negotiation of meaning has mostly focused on the description of the conversations, both in online and face-to-face settings, as well as finding an answer to the question of how and how often these repair moves occur in a typical conversation (Warschauer, 1998; Leahy, 2001; Oliver, 2002; Schwienhorst, 2004). These studies provide a detailed picture of the characteristics of interaction with some challenges to explore further. Therefore, this chapter is an attempt to contribute the understanding of negotiation of meaning in a text-based synchronous computer-mediated communication environment. There were two research questions asked in this study: 1.
2.
What types of negotiation of meaning exist? In other words, what are the main types and the frequencies of negotiation of meaning functions? Is there any difference between native speakers (NSs) and non-native speakers (NNSs) of English in using the negotiation of meaning functions?
MEthods The method of this study is computer-mediated discourse analysis (CMDA), which was first coined by Herring in 1995 (see Herring, 2001). Herring (2004) asserts that linguists are becoming interested in “language structure, meaning, and use, how these vary according to context, how they are learned, and how they change over time” as the Internet provides new online platforms, new varieties of discourse, and media for communication. These new environments required new methods for analyzing discourse, as Herring (2004) stated: “Scholars of computer-mediated behavior need methods for analyzing discourse, alongside traditional social science methods such as experiments, interviews, surveys, and ethnographic observation.” Hence, CMDA is considered one of the linguistic discourse analyses methods from three perspectives. Firstly, it deals with the discourse patterns that are produced consciously or unconsciously; the main aim of discourse analysis is to find out these unseen patterns in discourse. Secondly, “discourse involves speaker choices” (Herring, 2004), for example, participants choose not to type or use emoticons in CMC environments. It is not predetermined activity by the participants, and they occur simultaneously. The last point is that discourse is shaped by the features of technology, computer-mediated communication and it is one of the dimensions researchers are interested in, whether the medium changes the communication or not. In this study, the non-native participants interacted with native speakers in an online platform to negotiate on their meaning-making as a discourse in a given context. This analysis approach is applied to identify how discourse patterns emerge in participants’ negotiations of function in synchronous (simultaneous) text-based computer-mediated communication. This study also investigates the frequency of the occurrences in participants’ functions of nego-
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
tiation of meaning. According to Herring (2004), CMDA can be applied to four domains or levels of languagestructure, meaning, interaction, and social behaviorand the interaction level includes turn-taking, topic development, and other means of negotiating interactive exchanges. Therefore, the frequency of occurrences were gathered and analyzed by using CMDA.
participants There are two groups of participantsnative speakers of English and non-native speakers of English. The first group was composed of 30 undergraduate students from the Department of Foreign Languages Education, Abant Izzet Baysal University, and the second group was composed of eight native speakers invited to the sessions to interact with the non-native speakers of English.
Native Speakers of English One group of participants in this study includes native speakers from the Webheads In Action (WIA) group. WIA is an online community composed of 515 members. This particular group was chosen because, first, the researcher is a part of this community and familiar to their activities. Second, WIA forms a community of practice in which members of this group use various synchronous and asynchronous Web tools for learning and teaching EFL/ESL; reflect on ways of applying those tools to their teaching, either online or face to face; interact through e-mail, text chat, voice chat, voice e-mail, forums, and distribution lists, among others; create Web pages, surveys, online worksheets, interactive exercises and rubrics related to their own contexts; and use Weblogs as a means for reflective writing. In order to invite volunteer participants to join this study, an e-mail message was sent to the group e-mail list. Ten members from WIA accepted to join the study; however, eight of them
were actually present throughout the sessions. The number of NS participants ranged from one to four for each session. In the e-mail sent to the group, the procedure of the data collection was described in detail, except for the issue of what was going to be observednegotiation of meaning. It could have affected the findings if it had been mentioned that the negotiation of meaning structures during the chat sessions were going to be observed. The time schedule, the aim of this study, the stories to talk about, the place, and the data collection procedure were described in detail.
Non-Native Speakers of English Thirty students enrolled in sessions were all third-year students at the Department of Foreign Languages Education at Abant Izzet Baysal University, in Bolu, Turkey. The reason for choosing third-year students is the fact that they were taking the “Short Story Analysis and Teaching” course. Due to the nature of the course, the students were to read and analyze certain numbers of short stories. As part of their coursework, they were requested to read and reflect upon the readings, where discussions and negotiation are a natural part of the classroom talk. The students were divided into four groups, and each group was composed of a number of students ranging from 5-10. The reason for dividing these students is the fact that the whole class for a chat session would be too crowded, and if there were more than 10 people approximately in a chat room, it may easily have led to chaos, since it would become difficult to follow the conversation flow.
Materials Two kinds of materials were used in discussion sessions of this study. They were reading materials and semi-structured questions, which were prepared with a purpose of guiding the discussion sessions.
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
Reading Materials The reading materials assigned for the discussions were The Gift of Magi by O. Henry and The Necklace by Guy de Maupassant. Both of these stories were discussed face-to-face in a classroom setting in the “Short Story Analysis and Teaching” course with students. There are some reasons for choosing these stories. The first is that since they had read it beforehand, the students were familiar with these stories. The second reason is that the length of these stories is not too long and it was thought to be feasible to read by the native speakers. The last reason is the themes, which included love, marriage, and being envious of friends, which are also open to discussions and talk for students of that age.
Semi-Structured Questions Semi-structured questions were prepared beforehand for collecting data. The purpose of these questions was to initiate the topics for discussions. These questions were directed by the researcher, and then the participants carried the discussions on using these questions as a starting point. In addition to semi-structured questions, participants were free to ask questions during the sessions. In cases of pauses or delays in conversations, some follow-up questions were prepared; however, no such instance was observed.
procedure Data was collected by means of discussion sessions at Tapped In. The data was organized and prepared to be coded. Finally, Cohen’s Kappa was calculated to ensure inter-coder reliability.
Data Collection Data collection procedure was composed of two parts: discussion sessions and data file organization. Firstly, discussion sessions were held and
then the transcribed text-based conversations were organized. These steps are told in detail below.
Discussion Sessions At the beginning of the study, the design involved inviting both native and non-native speakers of English. For this purpose, the participants were invited to join the discussions at their convenience All the participants were familiar with this environment, so training on the features of Tapped In and how to use Tapped In was not needed at this moment. The members of the WIA group were interested in these sessions. Some of the members could not join because of the time zone they were in. In spite of this fact, eight of them were able to join discussion sessions throughout the data collection process. In each session, at least two or more native speakers and ranging from 5-10 non-native speakers were present. One of the researchers joined the discussion sessions as a topic initiator. He had pre-prepared semi-structured questions in case there would be a need to probe the flow of the conversation. In the sessions, no probes were needed, and his participation was limited to the initialization of the conversations. The two short stories were uploaded to the virtual office of the researcher as a Word document and made available two weeks ahead of time. In addition to these files, an announcementwhich was the same as the letter sent to the WIA Yahoo groupwas also pasted on the researcher’s virtual office at Tapped In. All participants had read the stories before participating in chat sessions. In the first four sessions, The Gift of Magi was discussed, and in the next four sessions, the topic was The Necklace. In order to provide ample opportunity for student participation, there were eight sessions. There were 30 students enrolled in the “Short Story Analysis and Teaching” course. Each student participated in two sessions. Students chose the time they could join. The characters, plots,
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
settings in the stories, and how these stories could be used in an English Language teaching setting were the topics discussed in the sessions. There were no connection problems with the students, and all of them could join the sessions except one student who experienced a technical problem. With some help, her computer was adjusted to enable her to join the sessions.
data were entered into Qualitative Research Data Analysis Computer Software, Hyper Research 2.6.1. Firstly, the codes were determined and the codes were applied to the chat logs. If any diversity between the previous taxonomies and the collected data was observed, it was also added to the list.
Data Analysis Data File Organization After the sessions ended, the transcribed chat logs were sent to all participants automatically, which is a built-in feature of Tapped In. These messages were in HTML format in the e-mail so they were copied and pasted to a word processing document. Each session was numbered consecutively. The data was organized this way to facilitate the analysis. The chat logs included preparation and ending parts. Therefore, they were omitted and the discussion parts were taken for the analysis. In other words, data were grouped to see the characteristics of the data. This grouping is shown in Table 1. Then, the turns were marked as NS and NNS since one of the research questions of this study was related to exploring the differences between NSs and NNSs of English. Finally, the collected
The data was analyzed by means of computer-mediated discourse analysis. The novelty of environments and platforms on the Internet necessitate the new methods and approaches to discourse analysis and a new term, CMDA, which came on the scene in 1995 (Herring, 2001). By means of this approach, CMC environments were analyzed to better understand the discourse within these environments.
Coding Procedure During the discourse analysis process, coding was started by using a predetermined taxonomy developed and adapted by Trabaldo and Patterson (2006), who compiled this taxonomy for negotiation of meaning from various sources, including Sotillo’s (2000), Oliver’s (2002), Jepson’s (2005),
Table 1. Detailed information about the data Session Number
Number of Turns
Analyzed Data
Number of Turns
Total Number of Turns
Analyzed
Ignored
Turn Line
End at
Native
Non-Native
1
470
411
362
831
80
390
881
2
761
350
203
963
79
682
1,111
3
619
87
54
672
146
473
706
4
476
216
158
633
49
427
692
5
452
118
66
517
156
296
570
6
615
133
81
695
66
549
748
7
524
52
21
544
150
374
576
8
547
208
165
711
46
501
755
Total
4,464
1,575
-----
----
772
3692
6,039
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
Table 2. The taxonomy prepared by Patterson and Trabaldo (2006) Negotiation of Meaning Functions Confirmation check Clarification request Vocabulary request Comprehension check Reply confirmation Reply clarification/definition
Findings Two research questions are asked in this study. One of them is related to the types and frequencies of negotiation of meaning functions, and the second one is related to the differences and similarities between native speakers of English and non-native speakers of English in terms of negotiation of meaning. In this section, the findings will be presented accordingly.
Reply vocabulary Reply comprehension Elaboration
types and Frequencies of negotiation of Meaning Functions
Correction/self-correction
and Patterson’s (2000) taxonomies. This taxonomy is presented in Table 2. Once the data were coded based on this taxonomy, some diversities and un-matching discourse utterances were observed. These utterances, then, were coded according to the emerging functions in discourse.
Intercoder Reliability Discourse analysis yielded a new taxonomy to explain the functions of negotiation emerging from the utterances. Two outside colleagues were asked to re-code the data based on this coding taxonomy (see Appendix A for categories, explanations, and sample utterances). In order to ensure the reliability of coding, Cohen’s Kappa was calculated for inter-coder reliability over 127 randomly selected function samples, and 470 turns out of 665 functions and 4,464 turns. The coders were asked to code these data according to the given taxonomy. The results showed that the Kappa value is .75. According to Landis and Koch (1977), Kappa values greater than .75 indicate excellent agreement. Cohen’s Kappa values indicated that the two coders used 77% of the 127 codes in exactly the same way across all 470 turns.
The number of turns in the entire data is found to be 4,464, and the number of turns related to negotiation of meaning is 665. Among these utterances, 12 types of negotiation of meaning were observed. In addition, the data revealed that 14.90% of the turns were found to be related to negotiation of meaning functions. As compared to Trabaldo and Patterson’s (2006) taxonomy, two categories titled as comprehension check and reply comprehension were not observed in the data. Table 3 displays the utterances with percentages in the overall data. The frequencies of the negotiation of meaning utterances and their degrees of occurrences were determined as part of the first research question. The percentages of the negotiation of meaning are for clarification requests, 12.18; comprehension check, 0; confirmation, 13.99; confirmation check, 10.83; correction, 4.36; elaboration, 5.11; elaboration request, 12.03; reply clarification, 10.83; reply comprehension, 0; reply confirmation, 16.39; reply elaboration, 12.48; reply vocabulary, 0.90; vocabulary check, 0.30; and vocabulary request, 0.60. In total, 665 utterances are categorized as negotiation of meaning types. As a result of the data analysis, reply confirmation was seen as the most frequent type of negotiation of meaning with a percentage of 16.39. Confirmation is the second most frequent one. This shows that confirmation and reply confirma-
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
Table 3. The frequencies and percentages of the negotiation of meaning functions Utterance Sample Utterances Clarification request
Number of Utterances
%*
%**
81
12.18
1.81
…deserving what? Comprehension check
Here, UFO stands for unidentified flying objects, do you understand?
0
0
0.00
Confirmation
good poin…
93
13.98
2.08
Confirmation check
…they were willing to sacrifice for each other?
72
10.82
1.61
Correction
Not meka, make
29
4.36
0.65
Elaboration
not only Mathilde but also her husband…
34
5.11
0.76
Elaboration request
How?
80
12.03
1.79
Reply clarification
ten years of life in difficulties ?
72
10.82
1.61
Reply comprehension
Yes, I see
0
0
0.00
Reply confirmation
Yes
109
16.39
2.44
Reply elaboration
She replaced it without telling the true story to her friend
83
12.48
1.86
Reply vocabulary
–and in english? –a lier dosnt live forever your lies catch up with you
6
0.9
0.13
Vocabulary check
invaluable? What does it mean?
2
0.3
0.04
Vocabulary request
translate please
4
0.6
0.09
665
100
14.90
Total
* Percentage of utterances ** Percentage of the entire data
tion are the two most preferred utterances by the participants. Finally, the third most frequently used type is elaboration request. Reply elaboration utterances are followed by elaboration requests, and the percentages of these are very close to each other: 12.48 and 12.03, respectively. The least frequently used types are comprehension check and reply comprehension. They are not observed in the data of this study. Since there are no comprehension check or reply comprehension utterances, the other least frequently used
categories are given here as the least frequently used ones. They are the types of negotiation of meaning related to vocabulary. The percentages for the categories related to vocabulary are 0.30 for vocabulary check, 0.60 for vocabulary request, and 0.90 for reply vocabulary. The least seen category after these vocabulary related categories is the correction. To sum up, the most frequently used categories are about confirmationreply confirmation and confirmationand the less frequently used
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
categories are related to vocabularyvocabulary check, reply vocabulary, and vocabulary request. Moreover, comprehension check and reply comprehension are not applied at all.
most frequently used functions regardless of their being NSs and NNSs.
discussion the difference between native Speakers and Non-Native Speakers of English in terms of negotiation of Meaning Functions When the data of NSs of English are examined, the most frequently employed categories are clarification request, confirmation check, and elaboration request, with percentages of 17.82, 16.67, and 16.09, respectively. The least frequently used categories are vocabulary check, reply vocabulary, and vocabulary request, with percentages of 0, 0.58, and 1.15, respectively. Comprehension check and reply comprehension are not observed in native speakers’ utterances. When NNSs’ utterances are examined, it can be observed that the most frequently used categories are reply confirmation, confirmation, and reply elaboration, whereas the least frequently used ones are vocabulary request, vocabulary check, and reply vocabulary. Comprehension check and reply comprehension are not observed in non-native speakers’ utterances either. The difference between these two groups of participants is that they are similar in the least frequently used three categories, and these categories are all related to vocabulary. However, when the most frequently used three categories are taken into consideration, it can be seen that they are totally different. NSs of English use clarification request, confirmation check, and elaboration request the most. NNSs of English use reply confirmation, confirmation, and reply elaboration most frequently. To sum up, NSs and NNSs show parallel patterns in their use of functions of negotiation of meaning, with the least frequently used functions regardless of their being NSs and NNSs; however, NSs and NNSs differ in their patterns with the
This study yielded 12 types of functions in negotiation of meaning, which are clarification request, confirmation, confirmation check, correction, elaboration, reply clarification, reply confirmation, reply vocabulary, vocabulary request, elaboration request, reply elaboration, and vocabulary check. In the literature, some researchers (Leahy, 2001; Oliver, 2002; Schweinhorst, 2004; Jepson, 2005; Patterson & Trabaldo, 2006) attempted to categorize the negotiation of meaning functions. The taxonomy in Patterson and Trabaldo’s study was adapted in order to form taxonomy for this study. In this study, comprehension checks and reply comprehension utterances were not observed; instead, three emerging utteranceselaboration request, reply elaboration, and vocabulary checkwere added to generate the taxonomy. The first research question was related to the frequencies of the functions of negotiation of meaning and particularly the ones used most and least often. When these numbers are compared with the research in literature, only in Patterson and Trabaldo’s (2006) study is the number of the functions related to negotiation of meaning compared to the entire data, but they take the words as criteria. However, in this study the number of turns was taken into consideration. Patterson and Trabaldo (2006) calculated the ratio of negotiation functions per 100 words by counting the numbers. In this study, the number of the turns was taken into consideration. The percentage of the negotiation of meaning per 100 words is 2.28. Their study was a comparison of chat to e-mail messages. As a result of that study, they found the ratio of negotiation of meaning per 100 words in e-mail messages as 0.51. This means that there were twice as many negotiation functions in chat.
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
The most frequently used function of negotiation of meaning is found to be related to confirmation. This finding indicates that confirmation and reply confirmation are the two most frequently used functions for NNSs of English, who can be said to have attentively participated in conversations. Moreover, these utterances included very short statements such as “Yes,” “No,” “That’s right,” and “Good point”; and if the NNSs of English were hesitating to form a full sentence, they tended to confirm the previous statement or reply confirmation check utterances. The less used functions of negotiation of meaning are all related to vocabulary, that is, vocabulary checks, vocabulary requests, and reply vocabulary. The reasons for this result can be explained by the fact that the stories had been discussed in the classroom beforehand. Therefore, NNSs would have been familiar with the vocabulary. The other reason can be that they had the chance to check online dictionaries while they were talking. This option can further be explored in other studies. Apart from vocabulary, the other least frequently used function was correction. Correction was related to spelling mistakes. If participants believed that a spelling mistake would cause a misunderstanding, they corrected their mistake.
Otherwise, they ignored the spelling mistake while they were talking. Spelling mistakes have been reported in the literature as one of the functions (see Sotillo, 2000; Jepson, 2005; Patterson & Trabaldo, 2006). To sum up, there are some parallel and emerging findings in the results of this study and the existing research in literature. The functions used most frequently included confirmation and clarification requests. This result is consistent with literature. As for the least frequently used functions, these included vocabulary and comprehension. Jepson (2005) claimed that comprehension checks are rare in NNSs in electronic conversation, and the results of this study support this claim. Table 4 summarizes the findings related to the negotiation of meaning in a comparative matrix. The second research question of this study was related to the difference between NSs and NNSs of English in terms of their using negotiation of meaning in synchronous CMC. The analysis of the data showed that there are some similarities and differences between these two groups. The difference was about the most frequently used functions of negotiation of meaning. In NSs’ data, it was observed that the most frequently used functions were clarification request, confirma-
The least frequently used
The most frequently used
Table 4. Comparison of the results of this study with the research on negotiation of meaning
00
This Study
Sotillo (2000)
Jepson (2005)
Patterson and Trabaldo (2006)
•
• •
•
• •
• •
Reply Confirmation Confirmation Elaboration
• • •
Vocabulary Check Vocabulary Request Reply Vocabulary
•
Comprehension Questions Requests for Explanation and Clarification
Clarification Requests
•
Not Mentioned
• • •
Comprehension Checks Questions Self-Correction Repair Moves
•
Confirmation Check Elicit Clarification State Elaboration
Not Mentioned
The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
tion check, and elaboration request. However, the most frequently used functions in NNSs’ data were reply confirmation, confirmation, and reply elaboration. Confirmation and reply confirmation utterances are short answers, showing that participants are aware of the discussion. Instead of forming a full sentence, NNSs would rather confirm the previous statements with short utterances like “Yes,” “No,” and “You are right.” As a result, these kinds of utterances were seen mostly in NNSs’ data. The most frequently used function used by NSs was clarification request, and this result is consistent with the literature (Sotillo, 2000; Jepson, 2005). According to Patterson and Trabaldo (2006), clarification request is the prominent function in electronic conversation. The most frequently used utterances by NNSs of English were related to confirmation, and this result was also consistent with the literature. Patterson and Trabaldo (2006) stated that confirmation check is the most frequently used category. As for the similarities between NSs and NNSs, the least frequently used function was related to vocabulary. In both groups, comprehension check and reply comprehension were not observed, and the least frequently used functions were all about the vocabulary. In NSs’ data, they were vocabulary check, reply vocabulary, and vocabulary request, with percentages of 0, 0.58, and 1.15, respectively. In NNSs’ data they were vocabulary check, vocabulary request, and reply vocabulary, with percentages of 0.41, 0.41, and 1.01, respectively. In the literature Sotillo (2000) and Jepson (2005) did not make a list of least frequently used functions, but Patterson and Trabaldo (2006) made a list, and the results of this study were consistent with theirs. The last three categories in their study were comprehension check, elicit vocabulary, and reply vocabulary. Comprehension check was a category that was not observed in both groups. This group was the least frequently used category in their study, and the other two least frequently
used categories were related to vocabulary, which is the same with the results of this study. To sum up, the differences between two groups of participants were about the most frequently used functions of negotiation of meaning. The results were mostly consistent with the literature, but they are not similar with each other. The same holds true for the similarities and results of the least frequently used functions.
rEcoMMEndations The Internet is a new challenge for exploration for researchers in the field of education in general, and foreign language education in particular. Therefore, patterns should be determined in order to create environments that provide students with authentic materials and new learning environments to improve themselves. The effectiveness of these environments will also be an area of research for researchers. Teachers may direct their students to use the Internet for their language development in the target language. Before directing them to these places, they should be aware of the characteristics of these environments. Therefore, the findings of this study might provide a pattern taxonomy for a text-based synchronous CMC environment. In their courses, teachers should then place importance on how to ask for clarification, elaboration, and confirmation, and how to clarify, elaborate, or confirm a statement. If students knew the types and contextual use of these functions, they would be building on their scaffolding within their zone of proximal development for their language learning process. As for further research, there are still some issues to be studied and explored. First of all, there are voice-chat environments and videochat environments as well, where negotiation of meaning occurs. After determining the patterns in those environments, the results can be compared with the results of this study to see the differences
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The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
and similarities across different media. As for the participants of this study, these two groups can be separated, and they discuss a topic in an online environment and then they discuss together. At the end the results can be compared once more and this will show how they affect each other. They negotiate about the vocabulary, grammar, and topic. This was not determined in or beyond the scope of the study. Bitchener (2004) studied this dimension, but the participants were NNSs of English. NSs can participate as well, and the results can be compared. It should also be noted that the difference in size between the NSs and NNSs might have an effect on the result. With equal size in participants, the use of negotiation of meaning could be explored in depth. Moreover, the same study can be conducted both in a classroom setting and in an online environment in order to reveal the effects of gestures and bodily movements on the types of negotiation of meaning. Finally, the proficiency levels of the non-native participants could be taken into account when doing comparative studies. In this study, the participants were advanced learners of English. The results can show a difference when the participants are at an elementary or intermediate level of proficiency.
concLusion The results of this study revealed that there is a variety of functions for negotiating meaning. Some of them were prominent, such as clarification request, confirmation, and confirmation check, and some of them were not seen or too rare, such as comprehension check, reply comprehension, vocabulary check, and reply vocabulary. The most frequently used functions of negotiation of meaning changed according to the participants’ being NSs or NNSs. In the NSs’ data, the most frequently used one was clarification request, but in NNSs it was confirmation, whereas the least frequently used ones were parallel to each other
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and related to vocabulary. If the participants’ being NS or NNS was ignored, the results were influenced by NNSs’ data, and reply confirmation was the most frequently used one in general. Another result was that there was no function related to comprehension in both groups. This result was consistent with the results of studies in literature (Jepson, 2005; Patterson & Trabaldo, 2006). This was explained by Jepson as “perhaps comprehension checks and questions are primarily pedagogical by nature (Long & Sato, 1983), and are thus scarce in NNS electronic conversation.”
rEFErEncEs An, Y.-J., & Frick, T. (2006). Student perceptions of asynchronous computer-mediated communication in face-to-face courses. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(2). Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http://jcmc.indiana. edu/vol11/issue2/an.html Bitchener, J. (2004). The relationship between the negotiation of meaning and language learning: A longitudinal study. Language Awareness, 13(2), 81-95. Chappelle, C.A. (2004). Technology and second language learning: Expanding methods and agenda. System, 32(4), 593-601. Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge, UK: CUP. Doolittle, P. (1999). Constructivism and on-line education. Retrieved May 7, 2007, from http:// edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/workshops/tohe1999/ text/doo2.pdf Erickson, F. (1992). Ethnographic microanalysis of interaction. The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education (pp. 201-205). San Diego: Academic Press. Herring, S.C. (2001). Computer-mediated discourse. In D. Tannen, D. Schiffrin, & H. Hamilton
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(Eds.), Handbook of discourse analysis (pp. 612634). Oxford: Blackwell. Herring, S.C. (2004). Computer-mediated discourse analysis: An approach to researching online behavior. In S.A. Barab, R. Kling, & J.H. Gray (Eds.), Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning (pp. 338-376). New York: Cambridge University Press. Preprint: http://ella. slis.indiana.edu/~herring/cmda.pdf
Olaniran, B.A. (1996). A model of group satisfaction in computer-mediated communication and face-to-face meetings. Behavior and Information Technology, 15(1), 24-36. Oliver, R. (2002). The patterns of negotiation for meaning in child interactions. The Modern Language Journal, 86(i).
Johnson, C.M. (2001). A survey of current research on online communities of practice. Internet and Higher Education, 4, 45-60.
Patterson, P., & Trabaldo, S. (2006). Negotiating for meaning across borders with CMC. Teaching English with Technology, 6(2). Retrieved May 7, 2007 from http://www.iatefl.org.pl/call/j_article24.htm#pat
Jepson, K. (2005). Conversationsand negotiated interactionin text and voice chat rooms. Language Learning & Technology, 9(3), 79-98.
Rapaport, W.J. (2003). What did you mean by that? Misunderstanding, negotiation, syntactic semantics. Minds and Machines, 13, 397-427.
Kiesler, S., Zubrow, D., Moses, A., & Geller, V. (1985). Affect in computer mediated communication: An experiment in synchronous terminal-to-terminal discussion. Human-Computer Interaction, 1, 77-104.
Salter, G. (2000). Making use of online discussion groups. Australian Educational Computing, 15(2), 5-10.
Landis, J.R., & Koch, G.G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorial data. Biometrics, 36, 159-174. Leahy, C. (2001). Bilingual negotiation via email: An international project. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 14(1), 15-42. Long, M.H., & Sato, C.J. (1983). Classroom foreigner talk discourse: Forms and functions of teachers’ questions. In H.W. Seliger & M.H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in second languages (pp. 268-285). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Sassenberg, K., Boos, M., & Rabung, S. (2005). Attitude change in face-to-face and computer mediated communication: Private self awareness as a mediator and moderator. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 361-374. Schweinhorst, K. (2004). Native speaker/nonnative speaker discourse in the MOO: Topic negotiation and initiation in a synchronous textbased environment. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17(1), 35-50. Sotillo, S.M. (2000). Discourse functions and syntactic complexity in synchronous and asynchronous communication. Language Learning & Technology, 4(1), 82-119.
Mercer, N., Littleton, K., & Wegerif, R. (2004). Methods for studying the processes of interaction and collaborative activity in computer-based educational activities. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 13(2).
Stevens, V., & Altun, A. (2002). The process of language learning: An EFL perspective. In Z. Syed (Ed.), The Webheads community of language learners (pp. 285-316). Abu Dhabi: The Military Language Institute.
Nunan, D. (2005). Research methods in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Toyoda, E., & Harrison, R. (2002). Categorization of text chat communication between learners and
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native speakers of Japanese. Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 82-99. Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13(2/3), 7-26. Warschauer, M. (1998). Interaction, negotiation, and computer-mediated learning. In A.D.V. Darleguy & M. Svensson Lyon (Eds.), Educational technology in language learning: Theoretical reflection and practical applications (pp. 125-136). National Institute of Applied Sciences, Center of Language Resources.
kEY tErMs Asynchronous CMC: In this type of CMC, the users are not necessarily online at the same time. E-mails, message boards, and blogs are examples of asynchronous CMC. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL): Using the Internet, software programs and computers for language teaching. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC): Communication in which computers are used as a tool.
Computer-Mediated Discourse Analysis (CMDA): An approach to discourse analysis to find out the discourse patterns of the computermediated communication; it is a new genre and different from the previous communication styles. The technological developments led to the emergence of this new approach to discourse analysis. Native Speakers (NSs): In this study, it is used as native speakers of English. Negotiation of Meaning: Defined by Pica (1994) and cited in Toyoda and Harrison (2002) as modification and reconstruction of interaction that occurs when learners and their interlocutors anticipate, perceive, or experience difficulties in message comprehensibility. Non-Native Speakers (NNSs): In this study, it is used as speakers of English as a second language. Synchronous CMC: A part of CMC in which the users are online at the same time. In order to communicate with each other, users should be available on the Internet. Chat and instant messaging programs are examples of synchronous CMC.
appEndiX a Functions of negotiations of Meaning: Explanations and Examples Table A1. Function
Clarification request
Comprehension check
Explanation
Example
Requesting clarification for an ambiguous statement, which may cause misunderstanding.
NNS7: then she deserved it? NNS29: yes NNS24: deserving what? (7th Session; 67-74)
Asking if the other person understood what was said or written, and generally expecting that he or she has understood.
Speaker A: Here, UFO stands for unidentified flying objects, do you understand? Speaker B: Yes, I see.
continued on following page
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The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
Table A1. continued Confirming the previous statement although there is no confirmation request.
NNS3: but some sacrifice may be needed NS5: good point Cisem NNS17: I agree with Cisem (1st Session; 413-415)
Asking for confirmation of a previously made statement to be sure he or she has understood correctly.
NS6: …they were willing to sacrifice for each other? NNS3: just for him, yes NNS10: yes Maggi (1st Session; 599-603)
Correcting an error made by another speaker or self-correction of one’s own error.
NNS2: he bought new clothes for his wife to meka her happy NNS32: the money for the dress? NNS2: make (5th Session; 125-127)
Elaboration
Elaborating the meaning of a previous statement no matter whether the previous statement belongs to him or her.
NS6: Mathilde paid that price NNS30: not only Mathilde but also her husband NNS2: and also her husband even if he was not responsible (5th Session; 308-310)
Elaboration request
Requesting elaboration if he or she does not have an idea about the speaker’s utterance, and requesting extra information.
NS6: did she lie? NS7: She wasn’t honest about the necklace NS6: how? NS7: She replaced it without telling the true story to her friend (7th Session; 46-49)
Clarifying his or her previous statement as a result of request (clarification request).
NNS7: then she deserved it? NNS29: yes NNS24: deserving what? NNS4: but these lies didn’t give harm to her friend NS7: 10 years of hard work might be a little harsh NNS24: but it gave to her husband! NS7: exactly! NNS7: ten years of life in difficulties (7th
Confirmation
Confirmation check
Correction
Reply clarification
Session; 67-74) Reply comprehension
Reply confirmation
Replying to comprehension check or indicating that the statement was understood.
Speaker A: Here, UFO stands for unidentified flying objects, do you understand? Speaker B: Yes, I see.
Confirming a statement when someone requests confirmation with expressions like “yes,” “OK,” “you are right.”
NS6: They were willing to sacrifice for each other? NNS3: just for him NNS30: of course not the only way Rabia NNS3: yes NNS10: yes maggi (1st Session; 599-603)
continued on following page
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The Functions of Negotiation of Meaning in Text-Based CMC
Table A1. continued Elaborating his or her own statement to make it clear as a result of request (elaboration request).
NS6: did she lie? NS7: She wasn’t honest about the necklace NS6: how? NS7: She replaced it without telling the true story to her friend (7th Session; 46-49)
Giving a meaning of a word or phrase as a result of request (vocabulary request).
NNS28: I want to remind you a Turkish proverb NNS4: ? NNS28: “yalancının mumu yatsıya kadar yanar” NNS24 smiles NS7: and in english? ;) NNS27: yes, is there a volunteer to translate? NNS4: a lier dosnt live forever NNS4: i think NNS4 smiles NNS24: the end for a lier is not so far! NNS28: people will understand that you are lying at the end NS7: your lies catch up with you. (7th Session; 513-529)
Checking whether the other participants know the meaning of vocabulary or not.
NNS27: invaluable? NNS27: what does it mean? NNS19: cheap? NNS22: not precious isn’t it? (6th Session; 381-385)
Requesting a vocabulary word or phrase in the TL.
NNS28: I want to remind you a Turkish proverb NNS4: ? NS7: sure, what’s the Turkish proverb? NNS28: “yalancının mumu yatsıya kadar yanar” NNS24 smiles NS7: and in english? ;) NNS4 smiles NS6: translate please (7th Session; 513-520)
Reply elaboration
Reply vocabulary
Vocabulary check
Vocabulary request
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Chapter XIX
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English Esrom Adriano Irala Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil Patrica Lupion Torres Pontificia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Brazil
abstract This chapter belongs to the context of the computer-mediated communication (CMC) for language teaching and learning. Since the introduction of this new communication method, new paths for the teaching and learning of languages have been opened. In this research, virtual discussions in the English language about polemical topics were carried out through the use of the AMANDA program. This program features artificial intelligence principles in the discussion coordination, diminishing the tutor’s workload in the task of coordinating the discussions. The goal of this research was to observe the contributions of the CMC tool for the learning of English by the participating students. In total, 83 upper-intermediate English level students took part. The analyses and final considerations concentrate on the evaluation of the program used as well as the positive and negative aspects observed during this research for the teaching/learning of the English language.
introduction The extensive development of communication media in the last decade, most notably of computer-mediated communication (CMC), has led to
the emergence of new alternatives in education in general and language teaching in particular. For Berge and Collins (1995), “the term computermediated communication (CMC) signifies the ways in which telecommunication technologies
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The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
have merged with computers and computer networks to give us new tools to support teaching and learning.” Many language teachers took advantage of these technologies to complement their teaching methods. However, the true effectiveness of CMC in language teaching/learning should always be the subject of scrutiny, because the use of a computer or any other technological resource is not in itself able to improve the quality of language teaching. Each specific learning situation must be looked at in a critical light and described and evaluated in relation to specific social contexts. Nevertheless, in general terms, Internet-based CMC represents a powerful tool that facilitates communication between foreignlanguage learners and people throughout the world at any time. The new horizons that have opened up for learners offer them many opportunities as they allow easier and more frequent authentic communication in the target language with native speakers of that language.
coMputEr-supportEd coLLaboratiVE LEarning (cscL) and coMputEr-assistEd LanguagE LEarning (caLL) With advances in communication and interaction technologies and the growing use of such technologies in an educational context, new perspectives for the practice of collaborative learning have opened up. The Internet and the ease of communication associated with it allow students and teachers to learn together and create knowledge without the need for them to be in the same place at the same time. This kind of learning is called computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) and can be defined as an educational strategy that uses computing resources (the Internet, among others) as mediators of knowledge construction between two or more individuals by means of discussions, information exchange, and problem solving.
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According to Gros, Guerra, and Sánchez (2005): [T]he term computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) was first used by Koschmann (1996), who defined this environment as a research space based on three theories: neoPiagetian conflict theory, the historical-cultural theory and social practice theory. Subsequently, Koschmann (1999) was to add to these the theories of Dewey and Bakhtin as further important points of reference. In recent years, interest in computer-supported collaborative learning has grown (Koschmann 1996). For many teachers and researchers, CSCL appears to be one of the most promising tools for bringing about change in teaching-learning practices. Language teaching in particular has benefited from this new type of learning. Some studies in this field emphasize new language acquisition in a socially mediated learning environment where learners become involved in authentic communication with other learners, and activities involving linguistics and repetition are relegated to the background. According to Stevik (1980) and Brown (1994), exercises to improve students’ grammatical and syntactical abilities, which supposedly enable them to develop efficient communication, are no longer the main aim of a foreign-language class. Rather, the main aim now is for learners to engage in significant, motivating communication using the language they are learning, as this is the best way to become fluent in the language in question and is more easily achieved with the use of technological resources. Technological resources include the Internet, which allows bridges to be built to the world outside the classroom. The great ease with which documents in the target language can be accessed in foreign sites and the opportunities for communicating with members of the culture that the learner wishes to be part of using chat, messaging, and e-mail programs are all efficient ways to gain
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
access to users of the language being studied. Within the community of second-language learners, cultural and linguistic ideas are better learned by inquisitive reflection and collaborative work with other people such as teachers, fellow students, and native speakers of the language who may by chance come into contact with the learner as a result of computer-mediated communication. For Lehtinen, Hakkarainen, Lipponen, Rahikainen, and Muukkonen (2001), “Computer-supported collaborative learning is one of the most promising ideas to improve teaching and learning with the help of modern information and communication technology. Still in the late eighties most experiments on computer-supported learning were based on the so-called solo-learner model, and the opportunities to individualise learning processes were supposed to be the crucial feature of computers.” The field of computer assisted language learning (CALL) has been the subject of research and study over the last 30 years and is thus a relatively new field in academic literature. Bergström (2007) defines CALL as “a computer based tool for foreign language learning or for special training in your mother tongue.” It can be defined as the study of the application of computers to language teaching and learning (Levy, 1997). The development of technological and computing resources has made the development of this branch of knowledge possible both at theoretical and practical levels, and as a consequence, the characteristics of CALL have been directly related throughout the history of this field to the stage of development that technology has reached during a particular period. At the beginning of the 1960s when foreign-language teachers only had access to mainframes in large universities, the use of these computers in language teaching was marked by more quantitative and numerical characteristics, reflecting what could be done by these computers. Consequently, the application of computers at that time acquired the characteristics of structuralist thinking. Indeed, it can be said that at the time of
its birth in the 1960s, the field of computer-assisted language teaching/learning was influenced by audiolinguistic teaching in the field of language teaching in general by the psychological school of behaviorism and by the linguistic school of structuralism (Levy, 1997). In more recent times and in the last decade in particular, there have been huge technological leaps in all areas of human knowledge. The development of information and communication technology (ICT) and interconnected personal computers (PCs) with powerful multimedia resources has led to various reformulations of computer-supported language-teaching methods. The advent of the Internet, the worldwide network of computers, paved the way for more integrative and communicative uses of the computer, which has ceased to be merely an isolated instrument for teaching and became an instrument for students in various parts of the world to communicate. Research into and the theory and practice of computer-supported language teaching has developed significantly, with projects carried out in the areas of computer-supported collaborative language learning, artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, corpus linguistics, and natural language processing (NLP). The future of CALL suggests two main directions: (1) increasing emphasis on digital literacy and (2) increasing incorporation of intelligent CALL systems in the classroom (Warschauer & Healey, 1998).
rEsEarch charactEristics The methodology used in this study consisted of qualitative research with an exploratory aim. Exploratory research is characterized by its flexibility and unstructured nature. The sample selected was small and unrepresentative, and the primary data were qualitative in nature and analyzed as such (Malhotra, 2001). As a result of the choice of this type of research, we decided to carry out a case study in which
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The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
the data-collection technique involved direct, systematic, unstructured observation of students’ production in the AMANDA1 environment and completion of a questionnaire by the students involved in the process.
population and sample The study population consisted of a total of 83 students chosen from a sample of six classes in a private language institute with 750 students. The sample was a nonprobabilistic, intentionally chosen one. We chose intermediate and postintermediate level students, as these, in theory, are more autonomous and have a greater degree of linguistic proficiency, allowing them to take part in virtual discussions. These students were divided into four discussion groups with different questions for each group. The profiles of the students taking part in this experiment were relatively homogeneous: all were adolescents between the ages of 15 and 20 and were either secondary-school students or university undergraduates. Only one student, who was 23 years old, had graduated from a university. All were from middle-class to upper middle-class backgrounds and thus had relatively easy access to the Internet and to virtual discussions both at school and at home. The majority of the students (78.3%) had been studying English for four to six years, 16.3% for more than six years, and 5.4% for less than six months. With regard to Internet usage, 89.2% said they used the Internet constantly, and 10.8% said they did not. The majority of the students (75.7%) considered their computer skills to be equivalent to those of an average computer user; 13.5% considered themselves advanced users, 10.8% considered themselves beginners, and none of the participants reported no previous experience using computers.
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thE aManda prograM The program used to carry out the virtual discussions was the AMANDA program (Environment for Mediation and Analysis of Argumentative Discussions). Eleutério (2002), who created the program, provides a basic description of the system, its advantages, and how it works. In his description, he states: AMANDA is an intelligent system intended for carrying out group discussions over the Internet. It allows collective debates with a high degree of interaction without the need for any human mediation. The main aim of the AMANDA system is to help tutors on distance-learning courses achieve satisfactory results with asynchronous communications between their students, thus increasing the extent to which students articulate ideas and practice argumentation. For Bortolozzi (2004), this method is “an innovative way of conducting group debates, where the discussion mediation is entirely algorithmic. The main advantage of the proposed method is the possibility of carrying large discussions, … with very little or no interference of a human mediator.” According to Eleutério (2002), the AMANDA program provides a number of advantages compared with Internet discussion tools. a.
b.
Automatic mediation. The discussion is mediated entirely by computer [author’s emphasis] using intelligent algorithms that replace the difficult task of mediating group discussions and optimize the tutor’s work in distance learning courses. Emphasis on argumentation. The AMANDA system uses the principle of interaction based on argumentation [author’s emphasis] as the central element in mediation, allowing an intense exchange of ideas and reflections among participants.
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
c.
d.
Controversial viewpoints. The AMANDA system identifies the most controversial viewpoints in the discussion and guides the participants around these, prioritizing the differences in opinion and the arguments. Reports and indicators. The reports produced by the AMANDA system make it easy to analyze the discussion and provide comparative indicators of participants’ performance.
principles of operation of aManda Discussions carried out using the AMANDA program are organized in argumentation trees, where the replies supplied by the participants in the discussion are interconnected with arguments linked to them. These may be arguments expressing total or partial agreement or disagreement about a certain reply. The system applies intelligent algorithms to the argumentation trees, which analyze the existing interactions and propose new interactions among the participants (Eleutério, 2002). The discussion is thus mediated entirely by computer, eliminating the need for direct intervention by the tutor/teacher in the development of the discussion, as the computer receives the participants’ replies and redistributes
them automatically, prioritizing polemical situations where there is disagreement among the participants. Figure 1 shows a model of an argumentation tree created by the program. The teacher initially proposes a number of questions for debate (Q-Nodes). These questions are sent to the e-mail addresses of the participants registered in the system, and when the students receive the discussion cards in their e-mail inboxes, they reply to them (Alt-Nodes). Once replies to the questions have been sent, the argumentation phase starts (Arg-Node); this leads to a reaction from a particular participant supporting or refuting a reply from his or her fellow student (Alt-Node). This support or refutation of a fellow-student’s reply is expressed as a choice of four positions and a subsequent written argumentation supporting this position. The four positions that can be chosen are agree totally (Arg ++), agree partially (Arg +), disagree partially (Arg -), and disagree totally (Arg --). In the third, or argumentation, phase, the program sends a participant’s reply to a particular question to another student so the latter can choose one of the four positions allowed by the program. As the discussion progresses, the argumentation tree expands with new argumentations (Arg-
Figure 1. Example of an argumentation tree (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission) Source: Eleutério (2002), p. 2.
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
Figure 2. Creating the discussion (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission) Source: Eleutério (2002), p. 2
Figure 3. The start of the discussion (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission) Source: Eleutério (2002), p. 2.
Figure 4. The discussion progressing (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission Source: Eleutério (2002), p. 2.
Figure 3 shows the discussion being started when the system sends the questions to the participants, who respond to these and send their replies over the Internet. Figure 4 shows the discussion progressing as the system redistributes the replies among the group for them to be analyzed and discussed in successive rounds via e-mail. In each round, the argumentation tree expands with new argumentational interactions, thus taking the discussion forward.
reports, indicators, and the “step-by-step” program
Nodes) based on the latest interactions among the participants; discordant argumentations are prioritized and placed together so the debate is more effective. The following sequence of figures provides a step-by-step illustration of how discussions work in the AMANDA program. Figure 2 shows the discussion being created, with the questions for debate being introduced into the program and the e-mail address of each participant being registered for the questions to be sent to this address.
As well as mediating the discussion in a mainly automatic manner, the program issues reports based on the argumentation tree that help the teacher follow the discussion and evaluate each student’s participation (Eleutério, 2002). In the Basic Guide to AMANDA, which is available on the AMANDA Internet home page2, Eleutério (2002) describes the polemicity report and participation indicators, which are useful tools for analyzing the development of the discussion and students’ participation. Controversy report. This report classifies the discussion threads according to their controversy and shows the ideas that have generated more
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
polemics and differences of opinion in order of priority. This report is especially useful for getting a quick visual indication of the more critical points of the discussion and taking action in an attempt to guide the debate more successfully. a.
Participation indicators. This report gives indicators of each individual’s participation in relation to the group as a whole. The following indicators are provided: 1. Assiduity. Measures each participant’s assiduity in sending replies and argumentations requested by the system during the various rounds of discussion. 2. Polemicity. Measures the controversy of each participant (i.e., the extent to which the participant disagrees with his or her fellow students’ ideas). 3. Group support. Measures the extent to which a participant’s ideas are supported by the discussion group and shows whether fellow students agree strongly or only slightly with the viewpoints adopted by a particular participant.
4.
Amount of text. Measures the amount of text supplied by each participant in his or her replies and argumentations.
The following figures show some screenshots from the AMANDA program in which the discussions described and analyzed in this work can be seen. The discussions created related to polemical and topical subjects that were of interest to the participants. The general subjects addressed in the discussions were the death penalty, school grades, university quotas, racial discrimination, euthanasia, scientific and ethical subjects (the choice of your child’s sex, anti-aging medication), money, learning, marriage, and relationships. Figure 7 shows the discussion card with the questions that were sent to each participant by e-mail. After receiving the questions, each participant replied to them and sent the replies to the system. Next, there is a student’s card for the 3rd round of the discussion. The program allows the discussion participants to be viewed in one screen with their respec-
Figure 5. Opening screen (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
Figure 6. Discussion list (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
Figure 7. A discussion card (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
tive e-mail addresses. The teacher can also click on the view button to access each participant’s discussion card. The Participation Indicators can also be seen in a single screen, with values up to a maximum of 1.0. The indicators are assiduity, controversy, support, and amount of text. These indicators can help analyze each student’s participation in the discussions.
The system allows the data relating to a discussion in progress to be changed. The data that can be changed are the name of the discussion, the discussion type, and the questions, and participants can be included or the discussion completely removed. Figure 11 shows the New Round screen. This allows new discussion rounds to be created and criteria such as maximum number of items per
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
Figure 8. Progress of the discussion – third round (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
Figure 9. Participation indicators (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
card and level of participation in the discussion to be defined. The AMANDA environment was adopted for virtual discussions in English in response to the idea of offering an additional alternative opportunity for knowledge transfer among participants in a foreign language. According to the proponents of the program (Eleutério, 2002), traditional discus-
sion forums, which require extra effort from the tutor to control the discussion, fail to encourage group learning. These “either grow so much that they can no longer be efficiently followed by the tutor or suffer from a lack of participation or coordination” (Eleutério, 2002, p. 1). AMANDA aims to overcome these deficiencies by automatically coordinating the dialogs while at the same
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
Figure 10. Discussion editor screen (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
Figure 11. New round (© Marco Antônio Masoller Eleutério; used with permission)
time enabling participants to engage in highly polemical argumentation structures. It was the authors’ intention in using this program in English classes to put into practice the theories described in this work. These theories consider learning to be a social interactionist process that takes place collaboratively through the transfer and sharing of knowledge among
individuals participating in a particular social group.
discussions The discussions in this study were carried out with a group of 83 postintermediate-level students,
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
among whom 23 responded to the questionnaire. First, a list was drawn up of the e-mail addresses of all the participants, who received the discussion cards so they could answer the questions and discuss them. Then the discussion was created and given a particular name (e.g., Discussion 1), and the questions and participants were included. The following questions were debated in the first discussion: Question 1. Read this statement: “Capital punishment is a deterrent to would-be murderers.” What’s your opinion about it? Do you agree? Say why. Question 2. Read this statement: “Students shouldn’t be given failing grades.” What’s your opinion about it? Do you agree? Say why. Once these questions were included, the first round of the discussion was created in which the system sends the discussion cards to the participants’ e-mail addresses for the participants to answer. After this stage, which lasted two days, a second round was launched in which the computer re-sent the replies given by the students to other students so they could agree or disagree with them. This was followed by the third and fourth rounds, which allowed the argumentation tree to grow, with the system prioritizing discordant arguments, which were placed side by side. After this first discussion, six further discussions were created (ANNEXE 1), which were carried out during one semester of classes.
FinaL considErations The aim of this study was to reflect, through the use of the AMANDA program, on the contribution that computer-mediated communication (CMC) can make to English-language learning. When the questionnaires were evaluated, the focus of interest was the learning process experienced
by the students rather than the final product of the learning. It should be stressed that not all the students had the same learning experience during this study, as each individual has his or her own learning style, and some had more practice using computers than others. Thus, each participant had his or her own unique experience, which was positive for some and negative for others. During this study, when asked about their preferences for learning English, the majority of students said they preferred learning in a classroom and gave a number of reasons. In their opinion, the classroom favored more true-to-life contact and greater interaction among students, the latter factor being important for an argumentative discussion in groups. Nevertheless, a significant number of students felt that the computer complemented the classroom. Many of them emphasized the computer’s role as an aid when learning to write, spell, read, and acquire vocabulary, and also as a tool for helping students remember what was taught in the classroom. For some students, computers helped them to be independent when they were learning and made it easier for them to assess themselves. However, the majority of students surveyed felt that teaching using a computer was inferior to teaching in the classroom, and gave reasons such as the need for greater interaction with teachers and fellow students as well as the lack of immediate feedback about the activities carried out using the computer. The positive points associated with use of the AMANDA program for virtual discussions in this study relate to various aspects. During the virtual discussions, the opportunity for prolonged contact with English in addition to that provided in the classroom was considered positive by the students. Many of them felt that the discussions were important and authentic, as they helped them develop written and spoken argumentation in the classroom by requiring them to express their points of view and defend them. This meant that they looked for new words and expressions to help them defend their ideas better, which does
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
not happen in verbal discussions in the classroom. However, this fact was not confirmed empirically, and it is possible that the process of looking up new words may not have ensured that the words were learned correctly in the appropriate context, particularly if bilingual (Portuguese-English) dictionaries were used. Be that as it may, even without empirical proof that new words were learned correctly during the discussions, the effort made in looking up and using these words when preparing argumentations may have been of significant benefit to some students’ learning. Another positive point for some of the students surveyed was the favorable conditions the discussions created for reflective questioning, not only of the polemical subjects that had been selected, but also of linguistic forms. Although it was not empirically proved that the discussions had a positive influence on the grammar, vocabulary, and writing skills of the students surveyed, the statements made by these students indicated that the discussions were potentially important in developing linguistic discourses in which there was greater attention to grammar and vocabulary than there would be in the classroom. It was also observed that the choice of highly polemical subjects for discussion motivated the students to interact, as they wanted to express their own points of view and find out about those of their fellow students. The variety of points of view during the discussions and the students’ desire to express their own views were identified by some students as favoring substantial interaction among them. Another positive aspect related to the writing produced during the discussions. In Chapelle’s (2003) view, the effort made to achieve understandable linguistic production is important, as during this process the learners come up against problems related to vocabulary and grammatical forms that are unknown to them, as a result of which they have to reprepare their production and are thus forced to a more syntactic processing mode. According to the statements made by
some students, the discussion task helped them process language more syntactically, as it encouraged them to reflect on spelling, vocabulary, and grammar. Because they had to produce written language, some students made a greater effort to ensure their argumentation was understandable, which may have resulted in linguistic processing different from that in the classroom, with consequent benefits for some learners. Thus, the cognitive effort of those involved in the discussion, seen in a reflective effort involving more time for preparing and planning answers in terms mainly of grammar and vocabulary, took the discussion to a higher level of argumentation than that of a classroom discussion. Words and expressions were used that would probably not appear in an unplanned discussion, such as a classroom one, in which there is no time for preparation or reflection. Finally, with regard to the positive aspects evaluated, the discussions carried out in this study increased some students’ desire to communicate by making them more confident and making them want to become involved in significant interactions free of the often intimidating environment found in the classroom. The discussions were beneficial for some students, especially those who were shyer or more insecure, as it gave them a stronger “voice” in the discussion, which would otherwise have been dominated by more confident students. This finding was supported by the reports of some students. The evidence based on the opinions of the students and teachers and observations during the study revealed that many aspects were also considered negative. The discussion tasks selected in this study, which were primarily focused on meaning, had limited potential for language learning according to Chapelle (2001), as they did not in principle encourage a focus on linguistic form. Because they concentrated primarily on argumentations about polemical subjects, there was no need to correct the language during production, as there was no
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
final objective to be achieved. Consequently, the discussions did not demand linguistic effort on the part of the students since any misunderstandings would not adversely affect task realization, as the communication did not have any objectives. According to Chapelle (2001), the potential for focusing on linguistic form is a central criterion when implementing a task in CALL. In contrast, however, the virtual discussions focused mainly on the meaning of the interactions, as they had not been planned with a focus on linguistic form in mind. Concern with form and negotiating meaning may only have arisen incidentally in some of the argumentations produced by the students. Thus, one of the most important characteristics of a task in CALL was absent from the discussions. The authors therefore believe that had the task selected been goal-oriented, there would have been greater focus on linguistic form and greater language-learning potential. For many students, the interaction that the virtual discussions encouraged and that extended beyond the classroom was not significant or stimulating. Many felt that the impersonal and anonymous nature of the discussions was a negative factor and did not encourage motivating interaction between students, as the virtual, asynchronous discussions were not as interesting, productive, or dynamic as interactions in the classroom. Still, regarding the issue of motivation, the need to work individually in the discussions was considered a negative point by many students, as they greatly value the real interaction with and presence of fellow students and the teacher to help motivate them. The AMANDA program, by its very nature, does not allow the learner to exert control over the discussion, as this control is exerted by the program itself. The lack of control over the electronic interactions may thus have been a demotivating factor for some learners, as the answers they received in their in boxes were not always the answers they would have liked to discuss. In the classroom, on the other hand, stu-
dents can exert more control over which answers they choose to discuss. Another negative point relates to the question of feedback. Some students considered the lack of immediate feedback to be a negative point and prefer the classroom because of the fast and efficient feedback they get from teachers and fellow students. The AMANDA program does not have any specific tool to give students linguistic feedback, as it was developed for argumentative discussions in the students’ first language (L1), where the main concern is meaning rather than form. Consequently, the need for feedback, which was not immediately fulfilled by the program, the teacher, or the fellow students, increased the cognitive load on students since they had to reelaborate their thoughts when they were unclear to others; and this, in turn, may have made the electronic discussions less motivating for some of them. Because this research took the form of a case study and was of an exploratory nature, the authors do not intend to generalize its findings and apply them to other learning situations. Rather, it is left to the reader to identify other learning situations that are sufficiently similar for the partial results obtained here to be applied to them. Any generalization of the results of this study should thus be undertaken with caution. A number of situations that occurred during the study was particularly worthy of note. For example, the polemical nature of the topics very often resulted in the students discussing them not only in the virtual environment but also in the classroom and outside class time. The discussions were quite often so effective that the students discussed them in Portuguese, as the topic was more important than the use of the foreign language itself. Another aspect that was noteworthy was the extent to which shyer students participated as well as the quality of their contributions. Students who rarely contributed their opinions or comments in the classroom were observed during the discussions to produce large amounts of
The Use of the CMC Tool AMANDA for the Teaching of English
good-quality text. This was considered a positive point by the teacher. Because of time limitations and the exploratory nature of the study, many aspects could not be explored further. The teacher prepared sheets with the questions and some of the answers given by the students in the virtual discussions so they could be corrected and used for reflections on mistakes related to vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and style. However, the course calendar prevented adequate reflection on and learning from the production from the virtual discussions. Another activity that was not carried out because of lack of time was a detailed analysis of each student’s contribution with his or her mistakes corrected by the teacher. These mistakes could have been taken to the classroom for analysis and discussion with all the students, or feedback could have been sent to the students by e-mail, as the program does not provide any space near the answer for the teacher’s comments or feedback. Another possible way to use the tool would be to vary the tasks being used and evaluate the results of this. For example, instead of discussion tasks based only on polemical subjects where the focus is on meaning, tasks requiring attention to form could be used. This could be, for example, a passage with vocabulary, spelling, and grammar mistakes for the students to correct. The computer would then resend the corrected passage to the other students, who would agree or disagree with the corrections made by their fellow students and revise their corrections or make further corrections to mistakes that other students had not noticed. This type of task would potentially require greater attention to form, which is beneficial to foreign language learning. Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) is a useful and effective resource with which English language teachers can enrich their teaching. Despite a number of limitations, the AMANDA system, when used both to complement and integrate the English language curriculum, pro-
0
moted learning guided by social construction of the foreign language in authentic social contexts. The authors hope this study has contributed to the ongoing discussion regarding the need for both theoretical and practical integration of technology in the foreign language classroom.
rEFErEncEs Berge, Z., & Collins, M. (1995). Computer-mediated communication and the online classroom: Overview and perspectives. Retrieved from http://www.december.com/cmc/mag/1995/feb/ berge.html Bergström, H. (2007). Evaluation of a computer assisted language learning system for Swedish language learners. Retrieved from http://www. speech.kth.se/prod/publications/files/3041.pdf Bortolozzi, F. (2004). AMANDA: An intelligent system for mediating threaded discussions. Retrieved from http://www.thefreelibrary.com/ AMANDA:+an+intelligent+system+for+media ting+threaded+discussions-a0121573149 Brown, H. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Chapelle, C.A. (2001). Computer applications in second language acquisition: Foundations for teaching, testing and research. Cambridge: CUP. Chapelle, C.A. (2003). English language learning and technology: Lectures on applied linguistics in the age of information and communication technology. Philadelphia: John Benjamin’s Publishing Company. Eleutério, M.A.M. (2002). AMANDA: A computational method for mediating asynchronous group discussions [doctoral thesis]. Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná/Brazil.
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Gros, B., Guerra, V., & Sánchez, J. (2005). The design of computer-supported collaborative learning environments in higher education. Encounters on Education, 6, 23–42. Retrieved from http://educ. queensu.ca/publications/encounters/volume6/ gros_guerra_sanchez.pdf Lehtinen, E., Hakkarainen, K., Lipponen, L., Rahikainen, M., & Muukkonen, H. (2001). Computer supported collaborative learning: A review. Retrieved from http://www.comlab.hut. fi/opetus/205/etatehtava1.pdf Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning: Context and Conceptualization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Malhotra, N.K. (2001). Pesquisa de marketing: Uma orientação aplicada (Market research: An applied guide) (3rd Edition). Bookman: Porto Alegre, Brazil Stevik, E. (1980). Teaching languages: A way and ways. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57–71.
kEY tErMs Collaborative Learning: Collaborative learning is a student-centered methodology for learning. By working in groups, students’ knowledge is constructed by their participation and interaction. This is achieved by becoming involved in activities aimed toward a common goal. It solidifies socialization not only “by” learning but also “in” learning. Computer-Assisted Language Learning: An area of research that uses the computer as a tool in language learning. Computer-Mediated Communication: An integration of telecommunications technology, computers, and computer networks that provides tools to support the teaching/learning process. Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: In this approach, the collaborative teaching/learning process is supported by the use of computers as tools for communication and interaction by sharing aims, information, and responsibilities. Interaction: The process that emerges from the participation of all learners that interact among themselves by means of an active dialogue, a constant exchange of information, points of view, queries, and ideas that occur in a learning environment. Virtual Learning Environment: An online teaching/learning space with various information and communication tools that can be used for collaborative educational activities.
Chapter XX
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing Christine Rosalia New York University, USA Lorena Llosa New York University, USA
abstract This chapter reports on an instrument that was developed to formatively assess the quality of feedback that second language students give to one another in an online, anonymous, asynchronous learning environment. The Online Peer Feedback (OPF) Assessment was originally developed for a peer online writing center in Japan where student peer advisors jointly compose feedback for a client-writer. The OPF Assessment is composed of two rubrics: (1) a rubric that evaluates the initial feedback drafted by a peer advisor, and (2) a rubric that assesses the contribution that individual peer advisors make to the interactive process of constructing the final feedback for their client-writer. The chapter describes the assessment and discusses its potential uses in a variety of contexts as a formative tool to improve the quality of peer feedback and, ultimately, the writing proficiency of both givers and receivers of the feedback.
introduction Knowing how to give, receive, or facilitate peer feedback is a critical issue in second language writing. Peer feedback provides student writers a greater awareness of audience, exposure to multiple styles of writing at multiple levels and stages,
more practice in understanding, creating, or applying quality criteria, and empathetic support to the very recursive nature of process writing (Ferris & Hedgcock, 1998). Fostering what for centuries has been a way to enable and engage students in their own learning (Topping, 2003), peer feedback in online learning environments is strengthened
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Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
by new affordances, definitions, roles, and possibilities. Online learning environments embody and allow new digital stages for peer feedback as a dynamic interaction between peer and selfassessment, between product and process. Such interaction is at a premium today in a globalized world that demands speed, fit, interdependence, and collaboration more than ever (Suárez-Orozco & Qin-Hilliard, 2004). When peer feedback is mediated through online communication, the interaction between two or multiple peers can be anonymous, multidirectional, synchronous, or asynchronous (Jones, Garralda, Li & Lock, 2006), easily recorded, archived, and evaluated from a range of learner and evaluator perspectives (Tuzi, 2004). Additionally, sociocultural prejudices such as those against “accent” or non-native speakers are lessened in online written dialogue (Black, 2005; Warschauer, 1996). These new possibilities afforded by online communication have made it possible to rethink and improve the ways we use and assess peer feedback in second language writing and thus promote language learning for both the giver and receiver of feedback. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce an instrument to assess the quality of peer feedback in a second language online writing environment. First, we describe the peer online writing center that prompted the development of the Online Peer Feedback (OPF) Assessment and the process by which student-peers in the center, called Peer Advisors, jointly compose feedback for a client-writer. Second, we review the literature that informed the development of the assessment. Third, we describe the two components of the instrument: (1) a rubric that evaluates the initial feedback drafted by a Peer Advisor, and (2) a rubric that assesses the contribution that individual Peer Advisors make to the interactive process of constructing the final feedback for their clientwriter. We conclude by discussing the potential uses of this instrument in a variety of contexts as a formative tool to improve the quality of peer feedback and, ultimately, the writing proficiency of both givers and receivers of the feedback.
thE pEEr onLinE Writing cEntrE The Peer Online Writing Centre (POWC) at Kanda University of International Studies in Chiba, Japan, started as a teacher-action research project when the first author, then a full-time teacher at the university, found face-to-face peer feedback to be failing in writing classrooms due to a lack of buy-in from students. Most students felt that their peers, as learners themselves, were not qualified to give advice on English writing. In order to address this issue, also corroborated in the second language writing literature (Nelson & Carson, 2006; Zhang, 1999), an online anonymous system was set up, whereby a group of paid student-workers use nondescriptive online aliases to work together in order to construct advice for other student-writers in a service not connected to formal classes. These students are hired as Peer Online Writing Advisors (POWAs). This acronym, which sounds like “power” in katakana Japanese, reinforces the idea that peer feedback does have merit. POWAs (PAs, for short) are not hired based on their writing proficiency, but rather on their eagerness to learn and help others. The POWC challenges and supports PAs by giving them a demanding work environment, and also extensive training and professional development. PAs work in groups, receive 20 hours of presemester training, and get weekly comments on their feedback from facilitators. Typically, a ratio of one teacher acting as a facilitator for every three PAs is maintained. Facilitators closely interact with PAs by reviewing, questioning, and commenting on final advice before it is sent to a writer. The POWC process of advice construction is outlined in Figure 1. Using an online submission form, the writer electronically submits a helprequest that includes the piece of writing, their self-assessment, and their questions for the Peer Advisors. This help-request is read and used by a Peer Advisor (PA1) in order to make an asynchronous posting on a discussion board. This posting is a draft of advice he or she would provide the
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
writer. In addition, it includes a self-assessment by PA1 regarding the quality of his or her advice to the writer and directions to a second PA (PA2) to improve the advice. Next, PA2 reads what PA1 has suggested against the writer’s help-request and posts a revision of PA1’s draft below PA1’s posting. Unlike PA1, PA2’s immediate intended audience includes the writer, PA1, other PAs, and the facilitators. PA2 might make the decision that more work is needed on the advice, and call for a third reader (PA3) who would then write a third revision of the advice. As the second reader, PA2 considers advice construction on three levels: (1) how to respond to the writer, (2) how to help PA1 and other PAs, and (3) how to use the experience to improve his or her own writing and learning. The affordance of asynchronous anonymous communication in this peer feedback system is that students have time to compose their responses before posting them and that all postings are unique links in a discussion thread open to all staff for ongoing analysis and reflection. Before the advice is sent to the writer, a facilitator reviews
Figure 1. The POWC process of advice construction
and comments on the advice constructed (“the advice construction”) by all the PAs. The final advice to the writer is always written and signed from the third person perspective of “From the Peer Advisors.” The writer does not see all the negotiations that contributed to this final advice. Based on many researchers’ findings on the impact of feedback being largely due to its immediacy (Bryan & Clegg, 2006; Hyland & Hyland, 2006; Segers, Dochy & Cascallar, 2003), this entire process has to be completed in three days. Over the past few years, a need emerged for an instrument that would allow Facilitators to consistently evaluate the quality of feedback provided by the PAs. This information would be used to improve training, ongoing support, and ultimately the quality of peer feedback that is provided to writers and to PAs themselves. It was also the hope that by defining quality peer feedback, expert PAs could be trained to become facilitators. The next section examines existing definitions of quality peer feedback that informed the development of the OPF Assessment.
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
dEFinitions oF QuaLitY pEEr FEEdback A challenge we faced in developing a definition of quality peer feedback to serve as the foundation for our assessment is that the construct of peer feedback in the L2 writing literature has not been consistently defined. Most studies of peer feedback have examined various phenomena, all of which have been described as “peer feedback.” Some studies, for example, define the quality of peer feedback by the extent to which the peer feedback matches the feedback a teacher would give. These studies have compared students’ judgments to teacher judgments on teacherdeveloped checklists or criteria and the impact of peer feedback on subsequent essay revisions (Falchikov, 2005; Topping, 2003; Tsui & Ng, 2000; Yang, Badger & Yu, 2006). While this approach to peer feedback served to align students’ and teachers’ understanding of grading criteria, student engagement was limited by the fact that the criteria were defined for them by the teacher. Also, the impact of peer feedback was measured by counting whether or not a suggested change was taken up by a recipient, not necessarily by examining the quality of the suggestion or whether the change resulted in a better essay (Min, 2006). Other L2 writing research has looked instead at the processes involved in peer feedback (Nelson & Carson, 2006; Zhang, 1999), but this type of research often deals with L2 students’ perceptions of peer feedback as opposed to the kinds of interactions among peers that result in quality feedback. These interactions, however, have been examined in studies of writing conferences between teacher and students, and tutor and students (Hyland & Hyland, 2006; Thonus, 2002). According to these studies, successful conferencing interactions involve feedback that is student-centered, clearly answers student’s questions, does not appropriate student writing, offers students well-explained choices, and is open to negotiations about style or writing conventions. In developing the OPF
Assessment, we ensured that the assessment not only focused on the feedback itself but also the types of interactions among peers that produced the feedback. The literature on assessment in higher education argues that peer feedback should lead to learner autonomy. Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006) characterize good feedback as that which: (1) clarifies what good performance is, (2) facilitates self-assessment, (3) delivers high-quality feedback information, (4) encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning, (5) encourages positive motivation and self-esteem, (6) provides opportunities to close the gap, and (7) uses feedback to improve teaching. They propose that this type of feedback is important for supporting and developing self-regulation in students. Similarly, Liu and Carless (2006) define good peer feedback as “the processes to develop skills such as critical reflection, listening to and acting on feedback, and sensitively assessing and providing feedback on the work of others” (p. 289), and Keppell, Au, Ma, and Chan (2006) locate good feedback in a bidirectional or reciprocal learning partnership, whereby partners “do not hold power over each other by virtue of their position or responsibilities” (p. 454). Autonomy is thus about learners supporting and challenging each other. It is a capacity that is fostered not only through asking students to take responsibility for their own learning or to work independently, but also helping them see how their learning is based on collaboration and critical friendships. These elements of autonomy as well as self-regulation, critical reflection, and reciprocal interactions informed our definition of quality feedback in the OPF Assessment development process. There is a tension, however, between positively encouraging students to take control of their own learning while at the same time providing them with constructive feedback about their writing that might be negative. Stern and Solomon (2006) propose that feedback is effective when it provides positive comments in addition to corrections; is
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
limited to what is deemed important for a particular assignment; and is focused on identifying patterns of weaknesses, errors, and/or strengths rather than offering what may be considered by recipients as an overwhelming number or variety of comments. For this reason, researchers such as Hyland and Hyland (2006) remind givers of feedback to first ask students what they seek feedback on, and then to use student questions to guide their work rather than controlling what factors are attended to or not. While they would agree with Stern and Solomon (2006) that praise is important, their work with second language writers has shown that praise is often misunderstood by writers or used by teachers as a hedging device before giving negative feedback. One way to address this issue is proposed by Hounsell (2007), who encourages teachers to highlight feedback given by multiple raters on assignments that are “collaborative and on-display” (e.g., works in progress). Students can then see that sometimes feedback from different raters is in conflict and that at multiple stages or levels, it is received or used differently by different recipients. Thus, we modeled our online peer feedback to show various levels of self-assessment, peer-assessment, teacher assessment, and how assessments interact. The OPF Assessment ensures that peer feedback considers multiple assessments and that the advice is positive, yet constructive and appropriate. Finally, our definition of quality peer feedback was also informed by the literature on Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). In particular, Chapelle’s (2001) judgment analysis of quality CALL tasks helped us to consider how quality peer feedback should embody language learning potential, learner fit, meaning focus, authenticity, impact, and practicality. In other words, the product and process of peer feedback should include high-quality comprehensible input (i.e., it should not be full of language errors), be at the right difficulty level considering Zones of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978), communicate meaning, link to “real life” outside the
classroom, be a positive technology and learning experience in and of itself, and work without mechanical failures or exuberant cost. From this, we concluded that online peer feedback, though for some initially novel, like any CALL task, would need to be carefully organized so it would give students concrete ways to see their own and each other’s progress. A formative tool that examines the quality of peer feedback, such as the OPF Assessment, can serve to promote the qualities proposed by Chapelle. Together with the authors’ experience with writing instruction and assessment, these definitions of quality feedback informed the development of the OPF Assessment.
dEVELopMEnt oF thE opF assEssMEnt Created to measure both the product and process of peer feedback, the OPF Assessment consists of two parts: (1) a rubric that evaluates the initial advice or feedback drafted by a first reader (PA1) and (2) a rubric that assesses the contribution that individual PAs (PA1 and PA2) make to the interactive process of constructing the final feedback. An iterative and open process of development is meant to be reflected in its design by areas at the end of each rubric designated for “rater comments” and “ideas for new dimensions of quality peer feedback.” The two rubrics are discussed next.
the opF product rubric: assessing the Quality of the advice construction The rubric that focuses on the initial feedback “product” drafted by a Peer Advisor includes six dimensions: (1) addressing the writer’s self-assessment, (2) capitalizing on the writer’s strengths, (3) fostering more learning and writing, (4) being positive and supportive, (5) providing feedback that is noticeable and salient, and (6) modeling
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
good language use. The OPF Product Rubric is presented in Appendix A. The initial feedback drafted by Peer Advisor 1 (PA1) is assessed on each of these dimensions using a five-point scale (0-4). Each dimension is discussed in detail next.
Addressing the Writer’s Self-Assessment The first dimension of the rubric requires PA1 to evaluate the writer’s self-assessment. The selfassessment is included with the actual piece of writing and the question for the Peer Advisors in the writer’s help-request. In order to provide feedback on the writer’s self-assessment, PA1 begins by recasting what the writer has said and asked about the writing. Next, PA1 points out any errors, inconsistencies, or gaps in the writer’s self-assessment. For instance, in Example 1, PA1 explains to a writer that although she asked a question about prepositions, her paragraph had, in fact, only one preposition. PA1 guesses that the writer has asked this question guided by a class assignment, and perhaps not necessarily because she knew what a preposition was. In the experience of the POWC, many writers need counseling about how to ask questions about their writing (Rosalia, 2005). In cases when a question is not clearly relevant to the writing submitted, quality feedback requires
asking the writer why he or she asked a question, answering the question if possible, and modeling different, additional, and/or more specific questions that the writer could have asked. The PA1 in Example 1 would score a “4” in the dimension of “feedback on self-assessment” because they acknowledged the writer’s question, pointed out to the writer an error or inconsistency in their self-assessment, and suggested to the writer, using modeling, different questions they could ask and a self-assessment strategy (i.e., using a learning Web site).
Capitalizing on the Writer’s Strengths In the EFL context, teacher or tutor feedback on student writing often focuses on what is wrong in the writing rather than on what is right and what can be improved. Therefore, the next domain of the OPF Product Rubric focuses on feedback that capitalizes on a writer’s strengths. Following recommendations from the literature cited earlier, givers of quality feedback should give specific high-quality information about content (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006) but make use of choice and explanation rather than “correction” (Hyland & Hyland, 2006). Givers of quality feedback take care to be student-centered, use a nonprescriptive tone, and pay attention to the fact that writers
Example 1. Addressing the writer’s self-assessment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You asked us to “please check my prepositions.” Maybe, like many of us, you are studying about prepositions! Is this why you asked? [smile] Your paragraph was: I like Saturday Because I can various things. I usually get up little more later than weekend. First, I eat breackfast, but I only eat a banana. Next, I watch TV until noon. Especially I watch “King’s brunch”. Actually we could only find one preposition. Do you know which word it is? This webpage shows a list of common prepositions: http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/preposition.htm Can you see that “until” is on that list? Yes, you have used this preposition (until) correctly. Did you have another question you want to ask us about your paragraph? For instance, do you want to ask us about punctuation or what letters in your paragraph should be capitalized? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Errors appear in the original and emoticons are marked in brackets
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
Example 2. Capitalizing on the writer’s strengths --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------You told us your thesis statement for your persuasive essay was: The two main reasons for prejudice have something to do with the need for understanding and respect for ideas. You asked us: “Is my thesis statement clear?”. Excellent job counting for the reader your two reasons! This makes your reasons easy to keep track of. [smile] Essays that do not have specific thesis statements, as you know, can be really hard to follow! Even before you told us which sentence was your thesis we could tell. So yes, it is clear. We have some ideas, however, for you about how to make this thesis statement EVEN CLEARER! [smile] Let us know what you think: Since you want to convince your reader of your opinion, why not use language that includes them in your opinion? It is kind of a trick, but to do this, sometimes, you can use “we understand” in place of “in my opinion”. Last you might want to tell the reader what should be done, using “We should…” or make a suggestion like “We need to pay attention to…” or “We should think about” etc. Again you said: A.
The two main reasons for prejudice have something to do with the need for understanding and respect for ideas.
You can include readers in your opinion by changing your sentence from B to E. B. C. D. E.
In my opinion, the two main reasons for prejudice have something to do with the need for understanding and respect for ideas. We understand, the two main reasons for prejudice have something to do with the need for understanding and respect for ideas. We should understand, the two main reasons for prejudice have something to do with the need for understanding and respect for ideas. We should understand the two main reasons for prejudice have something to do with the need for understanding and the need for respect for ideas.
Which new thesis statement do you like? It is just our idea but in E we repeat “the need” twice in order to help readers count. You might also write numbers: We should understand two needs (1) understanding and (2) respecting ideas. What do you think? Which sentence is clearest for what you want to say? Which sentence do you think your audience will like?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: Errors appear in the original and emoticons are marked in brackets
might be emotionally attached to their writing (even though they are asking for help) and might be defensive to change (See Example 2). The PA who wrote the response in Example 2 would score a “4” in the domain of “capitalizing on the writer’s strengths” because she answered the writer’s question using detailed explanations, examples, and multiple suggestions. She “closes the gap” of what the writer needs, but explains and gives choices for how to close this
gap by showing, not prescribing, multiple levels of development. Showing multiple examples of changes for a writer to consider, though taxing for the giver of feedback, whether they be teachers or peers, is an effective way of promoting learning about writing for both the giver and receiver of that feedback. It challenges both to consider style choices.
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
Fostering More Learning and Writing Hewings and Coffin (2006) argue that “the written nature of Computer-Mediated Communication provides opportunities not available in face-toface discussions: to reflect at greater leisure on content; to create, in effect, an archive of other people’s thoughts and responses; and to review content critically in the light of expanding awareness of disciplinary expectations” (p. 241). However, they also note that “these affordances are not realized automatically and can be influenced by tutor and the tasks set” (p. 241). Similarly, we have found in our experience that learners need a reason or direct prompt for writing back once they have received feedback and their assignment has been handed in. Therefore, the approach of the POWC, reflected in this next dimension of the rubric, has been to provide feedback with embedded questions, extended activities, and recommendations for more learning. Whether a PA recommends to a writer to consult a particular
person, print, or multimedia resource, their recommendation should be very specific, instructive, and individualized to the writer’s needs. Example 3 shows advice that includes two recommended learning resources (a Web site and a book) and individualized specific questions aimed at getting the writer to be in contact again. PA1 in Example 3 would score a “4” under the dimension of “fostering more learning and writing.”
Being Positive and Supportive The way teachers convey praise or criticism and how they phrase suggestions is central to effective feedback (Hyland & Hyland, 2001, 2006). Messages that are overly negative may demotivate students, while empty praise can blind them to areas that need improvement. In the OPF Product Rubric, quality feedback is defined as feedback that is descriptive rather than judgmental, emphasizes camaraderie (i.e., that the givers of feedback
Example 3. Fostering more learning and writing -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
About your sentence: “You can watch many animals,” we think you mean: “you can see many animals”? That is because “watch” tends to be for things which are distant or on TV. So when you say you can watch many animals we think…”Hum....that is strange, why does Kaori want to go to a zoo to watch many animals ON TV. If she wants to watch many animals on TV why not stay home and watch from her home TV?” But we understand that when to use “watch” and when to use “see” is tricky. Sometimes English users also get confused. Want to test yourself? We like this online quiz: http://a4esl.org/q/h/9901/jd-look.html (don’t worry the quiz will tell you the correct answer [smile]) There was a word we did not understand in your essay. What is a lesser panda? Do you mean a small panda? By the way we use a thesaurus（類語辞典) sometimes when we write to help us think of words, how about you? Do you own a thesaurus or an electric dictionary? If you have it, it should have thesaurus. About thesaurus, there are so many thesauruses!! Thesauruses from Japanese publisher are more or less 1000yen~6000yen. If you don’t have it, you can go to the ＳＡＬＣ or university library and they have it! How is this advice for you? Is it helpful to learn this vocabulary? We do not want to keep you waiting anymore for our advice, so will stop here. However we would like to keep working with you! Will you write and tell us more about Chiba or show us another draft of your essay? We would love to read it! We are waiting for your reply! Have a great day! From the Peer Advisors
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: Errors appear in the original and emoticons are marked in brackets
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
also struggle to be better writers and learners), respects learning (i.e., hard work, curiosity), balances positive and negative comments, and uses praise (perhaps with the use of emoticons). Feedback may also include mitigation strategies to emphasize the symmetrical relationship between PAs as students and the student-writers. Referring back to Example 3, this advice would receive a score of “4” on this dimension because it uses descriptive language in explaining what the writer wrote, balances positive and negative comments providing explanations for both, and tries to make a bond with the writer by asking questions (i.e., “Want to test yourself?”), and using mitigation (i.e., “sometimes when we write,” “maybe it is an easy thing for you”). Respect for learning was apparent when the PA wrote the following: “But we understand that when to use “watch” and when to use “see” is tricky.” Camaraderie was also apparent in transitions and tag questions such as “Sometimes we ... how about you?” and the use of emoticons.
Providing Feedback that is Noticeable and Salient Following Schmidt’s (1990) seminal work on the role of consciousness in second language learning, feedback should be written in a way that is “noticeable and salient” to language learners. Marking text with color or typographic features (i.e., different fonts or styles) has been shown to improve language noticing (Rutherford & Sharwood Smith, 1985). Using paper-and-pencil methods, teachers give feedback to students in a variety of ways, including circling, underlining, color highlighting, using Post-It notes, writing in margins, and using style-sheet codes. Many of these methods have been transferred to digital environments. In the case of the POWC, principles for electronically marking up writer submissions have evolved since 2003. As PAs and Facilitators became more proficient in using HTML editors and various Web 2.0 tools (e.g., forums and wikis)
0
became more robust, feedback took on a certain style and look regarding the colors, typography, and internal order of messages. Quality feedback is salient (i.e., uses color, spacing, and highlighting), and also noticeable in predictable ways (i.e., format and order). Using the Product Rubric, a PA1 would score a “4” if he or she used color, highlighting, spacing, and/or other typography to clearly distinguish the writer’s input from the feedback. Suggested changes would be clearly marked, and the PA1 would have proofread the message so it contained few to no typos or punctuation errors.
Modeling Good Language Use The sixth and final dimension of the OPF Product Rubric is based on the idea that quality feedback on writing should model good language usage. Peer feedback that includes language errors does not present a useful model of language to writers and, more importantly, discredits the value of peer feedback to those writers who can identify the language errors made. Therefore, quality feedback, as in the quality CALL tasks that Chapelle (2001) argues for, must include language learning potential. Feedback should serve as comprehensible input to writers. Because the PA1 in Example 3 made few to no grammatical or lexical errors, had a strong command of mitigation, and used reported speech without problems, she would receive a score of “4” in this domain. Using the third-person perspective and reported speech, as this PA does, (“so when you say you can ... we think”) can be challenging for students used to writing from a first-person perspective to an audience of one (the teacher), but along with mitigation and hedging, it makes PA advice easier for writers to understand and accept. Next we describe the second rubric of the OPF Assessment, which focuses on individual peer contributions to the interactive construction of the final feedback to the writer.
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
opF process rubric: assessing peer contributions to the construction of the Final advice A particular affordance of an anonymous asynchronous online system such as the POWC is that it helps to consider, foster, and negotiate, through written language, diverse points of view. An online medium has advantages to management of content, such as hyperlinking, interactivity and storage, which paper or face-to-face systems have a hard time mirroring. Online interaction and interdependence, though influenced by face-to-face group work conventions, has a new style that can be very useful to producing quality peer feedback. At the POWC, feedback is viewed as a loop or cycle that a system of interaction and interdependence both creates and keeps developing iteratively. The key players in this interaction are PA1 and PA2, but their work is informed by the writer, other PAs, and a Facilitator (see Figure 1). The OPF Process Rubric (see Appendix B) is designed to formatively assess individual peers’ contributions and interactions as they build advice constructions together. There are two main roles in this advice construction process: (1) the role of PA1 who initiates interaction with PA2 in order to improve a first draft of the feedback to a writer and (2) the role of PA2 who responds to PA1 and calls for further collaboration from PA1, other PAs, facilitators, and the writer (see Figure 1). The goal of the feedback process is to both provide detailed feedback and initiate rigorous discussion with a writer and with other PAs about writing. As active readers in a dynamic process, each person plays a different role at different times, but all are invested in each role being done well. Unlike the Product Rubric, which focuses on the quality of the advice construction produced by PA1, the Process Rubric is used to assess PA1 and PA2’s contributions to the interaction that results in the final feedback for the writer. The first half of this rubric is used to assess PA1’s contribution
to the interaction; the second half assesses PA2’s contribution. Each PA’s contribution is assessed according to four dimensions: (1) feedback on feedback, (2) positive support, (3) management of feedback, and (4) language use.
Feedback on Feedback The multidimensional mastery of a peer group is sustainable through feedback that members give each other, or “feedback on feedback.” The affordance of technologies is that peer learning need not only be a two-way reciprocal learning activity, but also one that is multidirectional and that can suspend an interaction long enough and short enough so that many can dynamically interact, contribute, collaborate, and benefit. Therefore, the first dimension of the OPF Process Rubric formatively measures the process of peer feedback by assessing how PA1 invites constructive criticism on his or her advice to the writer, and how PA2 responds to PA1 and invites another round of feedback. After PA1 reads a help-request from a writer and composes the initial advice, PA1 self-assesses the quality and completeness of this advice and asks, “How can PA2 help me complete and improve the advice I am preparing for the writer?” Therefore, PA1 summarizes the advice he or she has prepared and tells PA2 what parts of the writer’s help-request still need attending to (see Example 4). Example 4 shows an instance of a PA1 inviting a PA2 to add comments and make changes to advice that PA1 reports is unfinished and possibly in need of “correction.” PA1’s tone is friendly, and she even encourages PA2 with a “good luck.” PA1’s message is directive, detailed, self-evaluative, and encouraging, and thus she would get a score of “4” on the feedback-on-feedback dimension. The role of PA2 is to respond to PA1 by confirming PA1’s summary of the writer’s help-request and providing feedback to her on her advice. In addition, as mentioned earlier, PA2 starts a new
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
Example 4. Feedback on feedback: PA1 asks PA2 for help and critique -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------I am working on Yasuyo’s submission. Her advice is due tomorrow! [big eyes] Please hang in! Yasuyo told us: 1. 2. 3.
She is not sure if each of her body paragraphs has a topic sentence that relates or connects to this thesis statement She wants some help with her word choices (vocabulary) She wants to know if: a. her “sentences make sence or not.” b. asks “Do I need more explanation?”
I did her question no.2 and 3-b a little. Do you agree with my words correction? I hope they were useful for her. I corrected some of her words and I pointed out her missing explanation, however, I could not give her any comment. (I did not answer her question no.1 and 3-a) So please add comment for her, and feel free to make any changes on my words corrections too. Good luck! [smile]
------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------Note: Errors appear in the original and emoticons are marked in brackets
feedback loop by inviting and directing detailed feedback on her feedback in light of what is best for the original writer. In the best interaction and interdependence, learning opportunities are increasing at the same time as they are being refined. As PAs become more skilled, the exchanges become more effective, efficient, and powerful. Example 5 demonstrates a PA2’s response that would receive a score of “4” on the feedback-onfeedback dimension of the OPF Process Rubric. Although PA2’s feedback, particularly her explanations, could be more detailed or concise, she does not skirt conflict with PA1 and pushes to refine the feedback (i.e., she adds a learning resource and suggests more individualization by asking what is important to the writer). She directs and invites detailed feedback from PA1 and others by asking them to again consider the needs of the writer. In both roles of PA1 and PA2, the givers of feedback realize that feedback can always be improved. Their individual expertise can only go so far, and they need others to make their contributions even stronger. Such volition turns a service activity (helping a writer) into a learning activity that benefits all parties involved. Given that the communication takes place online, the writer, PA1, and other staff can participate in various ways in the learning process.
Positive Support In the same way that we expect PA1 to provide positive support to the writer, we expect all PAs to encourage each other. As explained earlier, interpersonal aspects of feedback provided are extremely important in how that feedback is received. Authentic bonds among PAs are fostered when together they create an environment that is dialogical and open to more learning. Therefore, a PA, as a PA1 or PA2, would receive a score of “4” when he or she uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play. In Example 5, for instance, PA2 shows she is enjoying both the challenges and benefits of her job when she writes to PA1 and others by praising PA1’s work, showing her enjoyment of a Web site and laughing at herself (using the acronym LOL!). She even invites others to “feel free to change my words.” She works hard and encourages the same in others, including the writer, by acknowledging their accomplishments with praise.
Management of Feedback As all writing teachers can attest, the management of the work involved in giving quality feedback takes realistic planning and strategizing. Feed-
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
Example 5. Feedback on feedback: PA2 responds to PA1 and invites feedback from PA1 and others ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hi everyone, Wow PA1, you gave Akina a lot of suggestions! You answered all her questions too!! [surprise] That’s really nice!! I wish I had written that advice! LOL! [big grin] I like the way you ask questions inside her paragraph! It is useful because she will know where to add. [wink] For example, I also want to know the name of Kagoshima’s water. About this correction, however, I think it is OK for Akina to write: Therefore, Kagoshima’s climate is warmer than Tokyo all year. But you corrected it to: Therefore, Kagoshima’s climate is warmer than Tokyo throughout the year. Maybe instead Akina’s sentence is better if she changes the word order? Therefore, Kagashima’s climate all year is warmer than Tokyo. I think by moving all year she emphasizes difference between Kagashima and Tokyo. The other way, she emphasizes time. What is important to Akina? What do you think? Other PAs? FAs? I also added a website for Akina. Please tell me if you like it. I only gave a short explanation of how to use the site [blush]. I got distracted by the site and now my work time is up! LOL! Feel free to change my words! Thanks, in advance, for making my advice better [blush, blush]
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: Errors appear in the original and emoticons are marked in brackets
back that is too late or not used is a waste. This complicated syncopated dance of challenge and support, giving answers while encouraging selfassessment, discussing and finishing, is reflected in the distinct yet complementary roles of PA1 and PA2. A PA1 would get a “4” score if in a given amount of time he or she drafts a complete response to a writer’s questions and self-assessment. So, for example, PA1 in Example 4 would only get a “1” score on the management of feedback dimension, because although she mentions that the advice is due tomorrow, she only answers some of the writer’s questions. By contrast, the PA1 who answered all the writer’s questions, whose work we do not see in full in Example 5 would get a “4.” When it comes to management, a PA2 has the unique role of deciding if advice is ready to go out to the writer or if it needs more work. A PA2 gets a “4” score when he or she explains her decision in detail, summarizes all of the advice, and asks the writer to write back regarding the advice’s timing and content.
Language Use The feedback that PAs write to each other and to the writer must model good language use. Both PA1 and PA2, at the least, must model excellent proofreading skills to writers; if their work is careless, writers will lose faith in peer feedback as a viable option to self- or teacher-assessment. In terms of interaction and interdependence, if a PA’s language usage is weak, co-workers must focus on helping that PA rather than the writer. PAs are encouraged to take risks in order to improve their own language, but they are also encouraged to weigh when it is appropriate to take risks in light of their ability to provide feedback on feedback, positive support, and manage the feedback. For PA1s or PA2s, a “4” score is achieved in this dimension when they show excellent proofreading skills, strong control of grammar and word choice, and sophistication using advanced sentence structure and pragmatics. A PA who receives a score of “4” is providing valuable comprehensible input to other PAs and the writer.
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
concLusion and FuturE dirEctions The OPF Assessment is meant to be a resource for learners, educators included, to help maximize the benefits peer feedback can bring second language writing students. By making good feedback practices a set of visible skills, givers of feedback can see feedback as a refinable pedagogy they can control. By focusing on both the product and process of peer feedback, this formative assessment gives learners a means to become masterful at scaffolding, modeling, coaching, and providing feedback; in short, to be actively engaged in their own education. We hope our formative instrument is useful to a diverse group of users, including: 1. 2.
3. 4. 5.
6.
Facilitators who train and provide ongoing feedback to peer assessors Writing Center administrators or tutor trainers familiar with peer assessment and writing pedagogy, but who are unsure about how to add an online component to their work Distance or higher education instructors who want to refine their online pedagogy Peer assessors who want a model to begin self-assessment Staff and evaluators who, similar to those in the POWC, want to gather evidence to document the effectiveness (or lack thereof) of outcomes and processes of formative feedback within their learning centers Researchers who want an instrument to determine the aspects or features of peer feedback that result in improved writing for the writer and/or giver of feedback.
The OPF Assessment represents an innovative advance that builds upon an existing practice—peer feedback—and redefines it in a new technological environment. We view peer feedback as a complementary learning strategy to writing, which itself is an iterative and collabora-
tive process. We hope our instrument promotes learning that is individualized, interdependent, interactive, and open to more innovation. We hope technological affordances of online environments do not only take peer feedback full circle, but also generate new energy and momentum for all kinds of formative assessment.
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Hounsell, D. (2007). Towards more sustainable feedback to students. In D. Boud, & N. Falchikov (Eds.), Rethinking assessment in higher education: Learning for the longer term (pp. 101–113). New York: Routledge.
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Hyland, F., & Hyland, K. (2001). Sugaring the pill: Praise and criticism in written feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 10(3), 195–212.
Rosalia, C. (2005). Establishing an online peer writing center at KUIS. Studies in linguistics and language teaching, research institute of language studies and language education: Kanda University of International Studies, 15, 195–215.
Hyland, K., & Hyland, F. (2006). Interpersonal aspects of response: Constructing and interpreting teacher written feedback. In M.H. Long, & J.C. Richards (Series Eds.), & K. Hyland, & F. Hyland (Vol. Eds.), Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and issues (pp. 206–224). London: Cambridge University Press. Jones, R.H., Garralda, A., Li, D.C.S., & Lock, G. (2006). Interactional dynamics in on-line and face-to-face peer-tutoring sessions for second language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15(1), 1–23.
Rutherford, W., & Sharwood Smith, M. (1985). Consciousness-raising and universal grammar. Applied Linguistics, 6(3), 274–282. Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129–158. Segers, M., Dochy, F., & Cascallar, E. (Eds.). (2003). Optimizing new modes of assessment: In search of qualities and standards. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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Stern, L.A., & Solomon, A. (2006). Effective faculty feedback: The road less traveled. Assessing Writing, 11(1), 22–41.
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Suárez-Orozco, M., & Qin-Hilliard, D.B. (Eds.). (2004). Globalization: Culture and education in the new millennium. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
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kEY tErMs
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological developmental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Help-Request: A request submitted by a writer using an online submission form that includes the piece of writing, the writer’s self-assessment, and their questions for the peer advisors.
Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic communication in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13(2), 7–26.
Interdependent Learning or Interdependence: Learning that depends on a system of interaction and dynamic role-playing between learners.
Yang, M., Badger, R., & Yu, Z. (2006). A comparative study of peer and teacher feedback in a Chinese EFL writing class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15(3), 179–200.
Learner Autonomy: The capacity or ability for thinking and acting independently with respect to one’s learning (Cooker & Torpey, 2004).
Zhang, S. (1999). Thoughts on some recent evidence concerning the affective advantage of peer feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(3), 321–326.
Advice Construction: Advice drafted for a writer by more than one person.
Online Facilitator: An educator or possibly a Senior Peer Advisor who facilitates communication so that all stakeholders actively participate. Peer Feedback: The products and dynamic processes of peers negotiating and coconstructing meaning with and for other peers. Peer Online Writing Advisor or Peer Advisor (PA): Modeled after a Language Learning Advisor (Mozzon-McPherson & Vismans, 2001), a student who works anonymously online to counsel another student on that student’s selfdirected learning.
Ignores writer’s help-request (questions or self-assessment).
Does not tell or show the writer how they can improve.
Does not make any recommendations for more learning or writing. Does not elicit a response from the writer.
Recommends a learning resource or strategy but recommendation is vague and/or impersonal. Does not elicit a response from the writer.
Appropriates writing by crossing out writing and imposing a correction. The change is not offered as suggestion. The tone is prescriptive.
Recasts the writer’s help- request only.
Does not try to make a bond with the writer; feedback is not balanced or individualized.
May use humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play, but feedback is negative and judgmental.
May use humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play, but feedback, though positive, is not specific to the writer’s writing; makes no bond, and therefore, feedback is generic praise.
Considers the writer’s interest, learning style, weak/strong points. and recommends an appropriate learning resource or strategy; however, does not explain at all how to use that resource or strategy. Elicits a response to the feedback from the writer.
Offers a suggestion for improvement but does not explain suggestion or give an example of how the change would look. The tone is prescriptive.
Recasts the writer’s help- request. Points out an inconsistency or gap in writer’s self-assessment but makes a mistake in assessing the writer’s self-assessment.
Does not use color, highlighting, spacing, or other typography in order to make feedback noticeable or salient.
Uses some color, highlighting, spacing, or other typography, but use is inconsistent, not noticeable, or salient. Many typos or punctuation errors.
Uses color, highlighting, spacing, or other typography to distinguish writer’s input from feedback, but uses too much of it and inconsistently. Some typos or punctuation errors.
Makes too many language mistakes to serve as comprehensible input to a writer.
Makes many grammatical or lexical errors. Does not use reported speech.
Makes some grammatical or lexical mistakes. Uses reported speech but without accuracy.
Makes few to no grammatical or lexical errors. Uses reported speech without problems. Attempts to use mitigation and hedging but with some accuracy issues.
Uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with the writer. Balances positive and negative comments but does not give explanations for both. Is descriptive rather than judgmental.
Considers the writer’s interest, learning style, weak/strong points, and recommends an appropriate learning resource or strategy; however, does not explain in detail how to use that resource or strategy. Elicits a response to the feedback from the writer.
Provides some explanations or suggestions for improvement. Gives at least one example of how a change would look. Gives the writer choices to consider rather than corrections. Maintains a nonprescriptive tone.
Recasts the writer’s help- request. Points out any inconsistencies or gaps in writer’s self-assessment. Counsels the writer to ask different, additional, and/or more specific questions, but does not model questions or strategies.
Uses color, highlighting, spacing, or other typography to clearly distinguish writer’s input from feedback. Suggested changes, however, are not salient. Some typos or punctuation errors.
Makes few to no grammatical or lexical errors. Uses reported speech without problems. Strong command of mitigation or hedging.
Uses color, highlighting, spacing, or other typography to clearly distinguish writer’s input from feedback. Suggested changes are salient. Few to no typos or punctuation errors.
Uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with the writer. Balances positive and negative comments providing explanations for both. Is descriptive, rather than judgmental.
Considers the writer’s interest, learning style, weak/strong points, and recommends an appropriate learning resource or strategy. Explains how to use resource or strategy in detail. Elicits a response to the feedback from the writer.
Provides detailed explanations and multiple suggestions for improvement. Gives multiple examples of how these changes would look. Gives the writer choices to consider rather than corrections. Maintains a nonprescriptive tone.
Recasts the writer’s help- request. Points out any inconsistencies or gaps in writer’s self-assessment. Counsels the writer to ask different, additional, and/or more specific questions. Models questions or self-assessment strategies.
Rater comments: Ideas for new dimensions of quality peer feedback:
0
1
2
3
4
Language Use
Noticeability and Salience
Positive Support
Fostering of More Learning/ Writing
Capitalization on Writer's Strengths
Feedback on Writer’s Self-assessment
The Online Peer Feedback (OPF) Product Rubric
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
appEndiX a
Does not foster bonds or a positive working relationship.
Uses humor, anecdotes emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA2.
Does not reference the writer’s questions or self-assessment. Mentions some part(s) of advice given to the writer, but not all. Does not give directions to PA2. Does not request feedback.
Does not summarize or give details about advice, elicit help or feedback on advice.
Uses humor, anecdotes emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA2. May acknowledge the hard work of the writer.
Based on the writer’s questions and self-assessment, summarizes some, but not all, advice given to the writer. Tells some of what still needs to be addressed by PA2, but the directive or feedback request is too minimal or vague (i.e., “Please finish.” or “Please check.”).
Does not manage time well; lacks input.
Tells PA2 the amount of time left to answer the writer. Gives a draft of advice to PA2, which addresses some writer questions.
Language errors distract and do not help the writer.
Makes many punctuation or spelling mistakes. Shows fair grammar and word choice. Does not attempt advanced sentence structure or pragmatics.
Makes many punctuation or spelling mistakes. Shows only fair grammar and word choice. Attempts advanced sentence structure or pragmatics, but without accuracy.
Makes some mistakes in punctuation or spelling. Good control of grammar and word choice. Shows some sophistication with advanced sentence structure and pragmatics.
Tells PA2 the amount of time left to answer the writer. Gives a draft of advice to PA2 which addresses all the writer’s questions and remarks, in detail, on the writer’s self-assessment.
Uses humor, anecdotes emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA2. May acknowledge the hard work of the writer. Let’s PA2 know they will not take criticism personally.
Based on the writer’s questions and self-assessment, summarizes all advice given to thewriter. Indicates what still needs to be addressed by PA2. Asks PA2 for constructive criticism on advice given thus far, but does not point out areas of advice he /she (PA1) thinks are weak. Tells PA2 the amount of time left to answer the writer. Gives a draft of advice to PA2 which addresses all the writer’s questions, but does not remark, at all, on the writer’s self-assessment.
Makes few to no mistakes in punctuation or spelling. Excellent control of grammar and word choice. Shows sophistication with advanced sentence structure and pragmatics.
Tells PA2 the amount of time left to answer the writer. Gives a complete draft of advice to PA2, which addresses, in detail, all the writer’s questions and remarks on all the writer’s selfassessments. Mentions what could be left for later communications.
Uses humor, anecdotes emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA2. Acknowledges the hard work of the writer. Let’s PA2 know they will not take criticism personally. Voices personal feedback preferences (i.e., feel free to cross out my mistakes).
Based on the writer’s questions and self-assessment, summarizes all advice given to the writer. Indicates specifically what still needs to be addressed by PA2. Asks PA2 for constructive criticism on advice given thus far, with detail. Directs the request (to PA2) for constructive criticism by pointing to areas of advice he/she (PA1) thinks are weak.
Rater comments: Ideas for new dimensions of quality peer feedback:
0
1
2
3
4
Language Use
Management
0
1
2
3
4
Does not confirm PA1’s summary of help- request, reply, or ask for more feedback.
Does not confirm PA1’s summary of writer’s helprequest. Replies to PA1’s work-request, by doing all or some of what PA1 requested, but does not indicate what has been done or ask for feedback from PA1 or others.
Does not confirm PA1’s summary of writer’s helprequest. Makes changes to advice, but does not report them. Does not show or explain why actions were taken. May invite feedback from PA1 or others, but does not direct feedback, in detail.
Confirms PA1’s summary of writer’s help-request.. Indicates to PA1 what was added, taken away, or changed by either showing or explaining. Does not skirt conflict, but does not give detailed explanation about negative feedback. Invites and directs feedback from PA1 and others.
Confirms PA1’s summary of writer’s help-request.. Explains and shows PA1 what was added, taken away, or changed in advice. Does not skirt conflict; explains opposing advice or point of view with detail. Invites and directs detailed feedback from PA1 and others.
Feedback on Feedback
The Online Peer Feedback (OPF) Process Rubric
Positive Support
Feedback on Feedback
PA1 (to PA2)
Does not foster bonds or a positive working relationship.
Uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA1, the writer, or staff.
Uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA1, the writer, or staff. Acknowledges hard work.
Uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA1, the writer, or staff. Let’s them know they will not take criticism personally. Acknowledges hard work.
Uses humor, anecdotes, emoticons, or word play to develop a bond with PA1, the writer, or staff. Let’s them know they will not take criticism personally. Voices personal feedback preferences. Acknowledges hard work.
Positive Support
Makes no decision. Does not ask the writer to write back.
Decides if advice is ready to go out to the writer or if it needs more work. Does not explain decision. Asks the writer to write back regarding the advice’s timing or content.
Decides if advice is ready to go out to the writer or if it needs more work. Does not explain decision. Summarizes total advice and asks the writer to write back regarding the advice’s timing or content.
Decides if advice is ready to go out to the writer or if it needs more work. Explains decision, but lacks detail. Summarizes total advice and asks the writer to write back regarding the advice’s timing and content.
Decides if advice is ready to go out to the writer or if it needs more work. Explains decision, in detail. Summarizes total advice and asks the writer to write back regarding the advice’s timing and content.
Management
PA2 (to PA1 and others)
Language errors distract and do not help the writer or others.
Makes many punctuation or spelling mistakes. Shows only fair grammar and word choice. Does not attempt advanced sentence structure or pragmatics.
Makes many punctuation or spelling mistakes. Shows only fair grammar and word choice. Attempts advanced sentence structure or pragmatics, but without accuracy.
Makes some mistakes in punctuation or spelling. Good control of grammar and word choice. Shows some sophistication with advanced sentence structure and pragmatics.
Makes few to no mistakes in punctuation or spelling. Excellent control of grammar and word choice. Shows sophistication with advanced sentence structure and pragmatics.
Language Use
Assessing the Quality of Online Peer Feedback in L2 Writing
appEndiX b
Chapter XXI
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes Betty Rose Facer Old Dominion University, USA M'hammed Abdous Old Dominion University, USA Margaret M. Camarena Old Dominion University, USA
abstract As part of an initiative to enhance the humanities’ use of emerging technologies, the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures at Old Dominion University is currently developing strategies for incorporating the use of podcasting—disseminating audio programming over the Internet—in its foreign language curricula and is studying podcasting’s effects on foreign language teaching and learning. The academic use of podcasting allows for 24/7 accessibility and portability of the teaching and learning experience, while enabling on-demand learner control and personalization (Lee & Chan, 2007). It permits the restructuring of valuable classroom time and can convert the popular iPod and other MP3 players into multipurpose teaching and learning tools that can be used to reinforce class content, to improve pronunciation and vocabulary, and to improve oral and aural skills. The early results of this pilot project suggest that podcasting has positive effects on students’ learning outcomes and study habits.
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
introduction “Communication is at the heart of second language study,” according to the National Standards for Foreign Language Education (1999). It is the most important and widely used skill for language learners developed as part of the well-known five-Cs of foreign language education: Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons, and Communities. While the five goal areas make up the “weave of curricular elements” (National Standards for Foreign Language Education, 2006), it is ultimately communicative competence that is the key. Moreover, “it is the acquisition of the ability to communicate in meaningful and appropriate ways with users of other languages that is the ultimate goal of today’s foreign language classroom” (National Standards, 1999). In this regard, the communicative modes (Interpersonal, Interpretive, and Presentational) outlined by the National Standards play a significant and critical role in achieving oral proficiency. Feyten (1991) examined the relationship between listening and language acquisition. The results of her 1991 study confirm what others, like Dunkel (1986), have found, that “the key to achieving proficiency in speaking is developing proficiency in listening comprehension.” In this regard, Berne (1995) found that additional exposure to listening activities improves comprehension. Similarly, Chang and Read (2006) concluded that the repetition of the input as a listening support for foreign language test takers has a significant interaction effect on learners’ levels of listening proficiency. These results are consistent with the findings of Trofimovich and Gatbonton (2006), which show that repetition and focus on form have measurable benefits for processing second language speech; Smidt & Hegelheimer’s (2005) recent study found that using authentic Web-delivered video enhances the incidental acquisition of vocabulary as well as listening comprehension. However, diversifying and creating opportunities for comprehensive listening can be a daunt-
0
ing task for learners and instructors, given the limited amount of class time available for activities that promote oral and aural skills. Consequently, exposure to authentic language through the use of ancillary materials and resources outside of class, such as language-specific software, digital online audio and video provided by textbook publishers, and television programming such as Satellite Communications for Learning (SCOLA) from around the world is critical to building oral and aural skills. Resources such as these are vital to language development programs, provided they are appropriately integrated into language courses for optimal use. Today’s students, members of the “net generation” or “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001), are at ease with the latest technology and communicate primarily through the use of cell phones, instant messaging (IM), wikis, blogs, MySpace, YouTube, podcasting, and iPods. Walk across any university campus today and you will find students using iPods to listen to their favorite songs on their way to class. What if, instead of listening to music, they could listen to Italian music, French vocabulary, or Spanish grammar? Podcasting could become an academic tool and “another avenue for providing language learners with access to diverse authentic materials …” (Thorne & Payne, 2005). Recent use of technology in language learning environments has followed the path of the hardware innovations that have evolved from the early use of analog devices such as cassette tape players to the plethora of new digital devices such as MP3 players, iPods, and computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environments. In this vein, podcasting is the logical progression from the self-contained oral/aural language tasks practiced in language learning labs to the on-demand and more collaborative learning activities that are available 24/7. As an audio/video content delivery approach based on Web syndication protocols (RSS and/or Atom), podcasting is reshaping the landscape of information/content delivery by targeting a myriad of mobile and wireless de-
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
vices (iPods, MP3 players, cell phones, PDAs), and increasing flexibility and portability as well as allowing for time-shifting and multitasking (Thorne & Payne, 2005). In this chapter, we examine the potential benefits of podcasting on students’ language learning and study habits to determine whether academic podcasting can improve the learning experience and lead to better student performance outcomes as measured by course grades and quantifiable second language acquisition. We start by reviewing the literature on the pedagogical value of podcasting from both the instructor and student perspectives and by differentiating between inside- and outside-the-classroom benefits. This discussion is followed by a description of the pilot project’s design and methodology. Finally, we discuss some preliminary findings and make recommendations for the effective integration of podcasting into second language classrooms.
The second dimension outlines the benefits of podcasting from the student perspective. Inside the classroom, the integration of podcasting into second language instruction enables the student to focus on the content of lectures instead of on note-taking, thereby improving his or her understanding of the concepts presented in class. Outside the classroom, the main benefit offered by podcasting is the ability to multitask and time-shift content (Donelly & Berge, 2005). In addition, the integration of podcasting into the learning process enables students to: • • • • •
pedagogical Value of podcasting • As an alternate mode of language curriculum delivery, podcasting provides a number of pedagogical benefits. In general terms, podcasting carries the inherent advantage of the spoken word over the written text because it can convey the rhythm, tempos, and inflection of oral language (Power, 1990). In specific terms, podcasting benefits can be organized around two dimensions. The first dimension describes the instructor viewpoint, in which podcasting provides opportunities to expand and restructure classroom boundaries and learning time by providing convenient access to anytime/anywhere course materials (Aldrich, Bell & Batzel, 2006). In terms of instructor benefits, podcasting has been found to enhance communication between instructors and students (Shim, Shropshire, Sungmin & Harris, 2007) by helping faculty easily disseminate class announcements, homework assignments, instructions, and feedback, and facilitate team communication (Schlosser & Burmeister, 2006).
Expand and improve class notes Clarify and enhance their understanding of ambiguous concepts Study for exams, catch up on missed classes Improve comprehensibility by controlling the rate of speech (Zhao, 1997) Make field recordings and conduct mock interviews Record and post audio and video interviews (Aldrich et al., 2006; Duke University, 2005)
Besides building vocabulary, memorization, comprehension, and pronunciation skills, one of the most promising benefits of podcasting for second language learners is the experience of virtual immersion in a language. In addition to audio/video resources provided by course instructors, students have access to a wealth of online audio/video resources, which can facilitate their immersion and familiarization with the cultural context of the target language1 (Stanley, 2006).
proJEct background With funding from a 2006 University Faculty Innovator Grant, the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures at Old Dominion University initiated its podcasting project entitled “iPods,
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
Podcasting and Podagogy: The New Generation of Technology for Foreign Language Education.” This project attempted to integrate the academic use of podcasting into Italian, French, Spanish, and Japanese classes in order to examine both (1) the effects of podcasting on student learning and study habits and (2) the effect of podcasting on student performance outcomes as measured by course grades and quantifiable second language acquisition. The connections between the incorporation of podcasting into foreign language instruction and the learning experience, as well as the anticipated short-term and longer-term student performance outcomes, are illustrated in the following model. The use of podcasting was expected to provide instructional benefits; that is, to improve the learning environment experienced by students and to enable them to listen to missed class lectures and discussions and review them whenever desired. Podcasting also was expected to increase the practice of oral/aural skills and vocabulary by making it possible for students to listen to recorded conversations and vocabulary whenever convenient, outside of the language lab. While
students would still benefit from participation in tutorials, study groups, and language lab lessons, the availability of podcasts of class lectures and other course materials created another important source of supplementary learning tools. Increasing their accessibility to instructional materials was expected to increase the amount of time students spent studying for language courses and to promote greater engagement and interest in those courses. Educational research has found that level of effort (i.e., time) devoted to studying outside of class and to completing homework assignments improves academic performance (Natriello & Dornbusch, 1984; Rutter, Maughan, Mortimer & Ousten, 1982). If students devote more time to review and oral/aural language practice as a result of having more instructional supports and easy access to them, then their performance (i.e., language skills) and grades should reflect this. Several language acquisition studies have found that the use of listening and media in second language learning promote better student outcomes (Chang & Read, 2006; Smidt & Hegelheimer, 2005; Trofimovich & Gatbonton, 2006). Considering these
Figure 1. A Model for Promoting Pedagogical Effectiveness & Student Learning in Foreign Language Classes Through the Use of Podcasting Technology
Short-Term Outcomes
Academic Podcasting Podcasting
Retention
Access Course Content Review Course Content Memorize Vocabulary Practice Vocabulary Instructional Env. Class Lectures & Instruction
Course Grades nd Language Skills Learning Experience
Oral Skills
Student Engagement
Aural Skills Literacy Skills
Instructional Support Tutoring Study Groups Language Lab
Student Background Variables Academic Performance
Long-Term Outcome
Second Language Proficiency
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
findings, podcasting was thought to be likely to offer more benefits to those students who have less aptitude for language acquisition and therefore to offer those students more support and motivation to improve their performance than it would offer to higher performing students. By facilitating the review of lessons and use of supplemental instructional materials, podcasting was expected to eventually achieve a positive effect on students’ second language proficiency. During the pilot phase of the project, two classes—a beginning level Italian class and an advanced level French class—experimented with podcasting as an instructional tool. Participating faculty were offered three options: a.
b.
c.
Record selected class lectures as podcasts and make them available to registered students via the University Language Learning Center (LLC) Web site or Blackboard. Conduct student projects by recording native speaker interviews, oral interviews/exams with instructor feedback, and peer group presentations, which would require students to upload audio recordings onto a computer, edit them, add music, and write and record an introduction in the target language. Provide supplementary recorded material to students (e.g., vocabulary lists and pronunciation tools) via podcasts as a required/nonrequired component to the class for review and reinforcement of the target language.
Of these three choices, the Italian professor opted to record each class lecture (Mondays and Wednesdays for one hour and 15 minutes) as a podcast, while the French Phonetics professor chose to record a review of standard pronunciation rules and weekly quizzes/answers sessions on one particular day of the week. In total, 48 students used these podcasts (30 in the beginning Italian course and 18 in the French Phonetics course). All podcasts were made available through Old Dominion University’s Language Learning Center (LLC) Web site over a 14-week semester.
Main Focus oF thE chaptEr Evaluation Methodology A posttest design was used to evaluate the effects of the use of podcasts for instructional purposes on student language skills and academic performance. The study sample consisted of a convenience sample of language classes taught by instructors who were willing to experiment with podcasts for instructional purposes. The pilot evaluation relied on survey and interview techniques to collect data from instructors and students. Survey methods were used because of their simple and inexpensive administrative and analytical procedures. A survey instrument was developed, which included 23 multiple-choice questions about students’ academic performance; study habits; time devoted to studying and completing assignments for their language class; access to computers, iPods, and MP3 players; skills using new technology (e.g., PCs, iPods, downloading materials from one medium to another); use of podcasts developed for their language class (i.e., frequency and ways used); perceived usefulness of podcasts for improving language skills; and effects of podcasts on skill development. The first draft of the instrument was reviewed by instructors and students (who were not enrolled in the pilot classes) to identify needed revisions. The survey questions were then revised prior to their administration to students in the pilot classes. In an effort to ensure that students provided honest responses, the survey was designed to be an anonymous survey; no information that could result in the identification of a student was requested on the survey form. Data collection. The student survey was administered to the students enrolled in the two pilot classes at the end of the school term. With the permission of the instructor, a member of the evaluation team visited their class during the final week of the term to administer the survey. Students were advised that their participation was voluntary
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
and that the survey was anonymous and there would be no adverse consequences if they declined to participate. The survey forms were distributed by the evaluator to students at the end of class. In order to ensure confidentiality, the evaluator collected the completed survey forms from the students before they left the classroom. Data analysis. Completed surveys were obtained from 33 of the students enrolled in the two pilot classes. Because completed surveys were not obtained from all of the students enrolled in the pilot classes, the reported results reflect a sample size of 33 rather than 48 students (the total course enrollment). The survey data were coded, and frequency counts were calculated for the multiple-choice survey items using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, as well as using simple percentages. The results of these calculations are summarized in the tables that follow. The responses of the student sample were aggregated, and frequency counts and percentiles were calculated for the entire sample of students. In addition to calculating the total responses of the entire sample of students who completed the surveys, students were divided into subgroups in order to examine potential differences in each subgroup’s use of podcasts, study habits, and opinions about the usefulness of the podcasts. Because higher performing students’ study practices and amount of time out of class devoted to study tend to vary from those of lower performing students (NCES, 1997), the students in the pilot classes were divided into subgroups based on their academic performance level. A student’s performance level was determined by the grade the student reported that he or she had earned in the pilot class. Using the course grade earned, students were divided into three subgroups: (1) high-performing students, defined as those receiving an A or A- in the class; (2) good students, those receiving a B+, B, or B-; and (3) average students, those receiving a C+, C, or C-. Frequency counts and percentiles were calculated for each student
subgroup so the subgroup’s responses could be compared to determine whether podcasting had different effects on higher performing students vs. lower performing students. The results of these analyses are summarized in the following section.
results Student use of podcasts. Approximately 70% of the students who completed the survey (23 of 33 students) owned an iPod or MP3 player. Forty percent of the students (13 of 33 students) reported that they had used the podcasts developed for their class. Twelve percent of the students surveyed (4) reported that they had downloaded recorded class material once or twice during the semester. Eighteen percent (6) of the students reported that they had downloaded material once or twice a month, and 9% (3) reported that they had downloaded material at least once a week. Despite technical problems with the initial podcasts and the novelty of the technology, a substantial proportion of students made use of the podcasts during their initial use in the foreign language classes. Because almost a third of the students did not own an iPod or MP3 player, the number of students who could access the podcasts was limited. While iPods or MP3 players are relatively inexpensive, students typically have limited financial resources and may not have been motivated to purchase one to listen to class podcasts, particularly since the pilot classes were the only ones for which podcasts were available. Students also reported difficulties using the technology: I love the idea of podcasts but I have no idea how to download them, so I think it would be helpful to provide that info. I think it is a great tool because so many students are on the go and busy and they can listen to podcasts anytime. I commute and spend a lot of time driving so being able to ‘listen’ and study is a great help.
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
As access to iPod or MP3 players increases and students become more proficient in their use of this technology, the use of class podcasts should increase. However, it is noteworthy that Deal’s (2007) research (p. 6) found that the majority of students reported listening to lecture podcasts at home or on a computer rather than in a mobile environment using a portable device, and Lane (2006) found that the majority (87%) of students in his study reported listening to podcasts on their computers. These findings could be due to the limited availability of iPods or MP3 players or due to the fact that students are more proficient at downloading materials to their personal computers. Those students in the pilot classes who reported using the podcasts found them useful for a variety of academic activities. The most commonly reported use of the podcasts was to review lessons. One student even used podcasts from a language class taken the prior semester to review and prepare for the pilot class. The next most common uses were to listen to missed classes and to prepare for tests. It is worth noting that although students could review podcasts for classes they did not attend, the availability of podcasts did not
increase the likelihood that they would miss class. None of the students reported that they used the podcasts for note-taking purposes. These findings corroborate Lane’s (2006) and Malan’s (2007) findings that podcasting is primarily used as a review tool by students. The only obvious difference found among student groups was that good- and average-performing students used the podcasts to listen to lessons they missed, but high-performing students did not report using them for this purpose. This difference could be attributed to one of two reasons: either the higher performing students did not miss classes and didn’t need to use the podcasts to review missed lessons, or they felt they learned more quickly and did not need the podcasts to review class lectures. Effects of podcasting on study practices. In addition to being asked how they actually used the podcasts, students in the pilot classes were asked about how the use of podcasts had affected their study practices. Overall, students reported that the use of the podcasts had had positive effects on their study practices and had proved to be a very helpful learning tool. Students reported that they found the podcasts the most useful for clarifying
Table 1. Use of podcasts for all students and different performance groups Use of Podcasts
All Students
Performance Group High
Good
Average
1. Use them to review.
69% (9)
23% (3)
31% (4)
15% (2)
2. Use them to prepare for tests.
39% (5)
8% (1)
23% (3)
8% (1)
3. Listen to them and take notes.
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
46% (6)
0 (0)
31% (4)
15% (2)
5. Listen to them when studying with other students.
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
0 (0)
6. Other: Listen to last semester’s podcasts.
8% (1)
8% (1)
0 (0)
0 (0)
13
4
7
4
4. Listen to them when missed a class.
TOTALS
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
concepts covered in class, for supplementing course material, and for preparing for tests. The podcasts also helped them organize their studying and review lectures for classes they missed. In addition to promoting good study habits, the podcasts had a positive effect on students’ interest in their language classes. About half of the students who used the podcasts reported that the use of podcasts had increased their interest in the class. This is an important effect, in addition to the improvement of their study habits, because increased interest is likely to increase students’ level of effort, which in turn promotes better learning outcomes. When the ratings of the various performance groups were compared, the only notable between-group difference was that the medium- to average-performing students found the use of podcasts even more helpful as a study aid than did the high-performing students. In fact, all of the average-performing students gave the highest helpfulness rating for each of the study practices. While a podcast’s being an effective learning tool for all students is desirable, it is significant that any innovative instructional tool or method has been found to have stronger effects on the
performance of average students. The reason that average students found the podcasts particularly useful might be the fact that they helped those students organize their weekly study session and remain focused while studying, as well as helping them understand concepts learned in class. For the average students who might not have grasped concepts as quickly as high-performing students and required more review and practice to acquire language skills, podcasts provided a readily accessible source of extra instructional assistance. This is a noteworthy finding; it provides evidence that academic podcasting has promise as a study aid in foreign language courses, and that it can be particularly helpful for those students who need extra instructional support and practice. Effects of podcast use on academic performance. The use of podcasts appears to have a positive effect on students’ acquisition of language skills. The students in the pilot classes reported that the use of podcasts helped them improve their language skills in all areas, including reading, writing, comprehension, and speaking, as well as increase their knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical rules. Students reported that the use of podcasts helped them most in the acquisition of
Table 2. Effects of podcast use on study practices Helpfulness Rating Study Practices
Low (n)
Medium (n)
High (n)
1. Podcasts help me organize my weekly studying.
23.1% (3)
23.1% (3)
53.8% (7)
2. Podcasts help me stay focused when studying.
30.8% (4)
23.1% (3)
46.2% (6)
3. Podcasts help me catch up when I miss class.
15.4% (2)
30.8% (4)
53.8% (7)
0% (0)
23.1% (3)
69.2% (9)
5. Podcasts help clarify concepts covered in class.
15.4% (2)
7.7% (1)
76.9% (10)
6. Podcasts have increased my interest in this course.
23.1% (3)
23.1% (3)
53.8% (7)
7. Podcasts are a good supplement to course material.
7.7% (1)
15.4% (2)
76.9% (10)
4. Podcasts help me prepare for tests.
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
oral and aural skills and in building their foreign language vocabulary: The iPods are a great idea because it allows students access to hear the teacher speak which gives them an understanding of pronunciation. Being a Spanish major I know that learning how to pronounce new vocabulary is extremely important. For foreign languages, listening is one of the hardest skills to pick up, so any podcast in another language will help, especially with pronunciation and comprehension. I plan to use the podcasts all summer to become more fluent, and more confident in Italian. These findings are not surprising, given that audio recordings are best suited to practicing oral language production and aural comprehension, as well as practicing repetitive tasks such as memorization of vocabulary words. Student ratings of the effects of podcast use on the improvement of their language skills and knowledge were similar for high-, medium-, and average-performing students. Again, the only
notable between-group difference was that all the average-performing students gave the highest helpfulness ratings for each of the language skills and knowledge areas. That these particular students who could benefit most from additional academic support found the use of podcasts most helpful indicates that this technology has great potential for improving second language instruction and learning and for effectively promoting higher levels of language acquisition among average- and lower-performing students.
FuturE trEnds With an award from the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) – Digital Humanities Initiative (DHI) Grant, the next phase of the “iPods, Podcasting, and Podagogy Project” will expand the use of podcasting and will integrate podcasting into a larger number of languages and courses. This will allow for a more rigorous evaluation of the effects of podcasting on language instruction and student performance outcomes. It is expected that over time, podcasting technology will not only enhance students’ out-of-class review and practice activities, but also may eventually cause
Table 3. Effects of podcast use on acquisition of language skills and knowledge Helpfulness Rating Language Skill and Knowledge Areas
Low (n)
Medium (n)
High (n)
1. Reading in a foreign language
45% (6)
31% (4)
23% (3)
2. Writing in a foreign language
45% (6)
31% (4)
23% (3)
3. Listening and understanding a foreign language
15% (2)
15% (2)
69% (9)
4. Speaking a foreign language
31% (4)
23% (3)
45% (6)
5. Vocabulary knowledge
31% (4)
15% (2)
54% (7)
6. Knowledge of grammatical rules
45% (6)
23% (3)
31% (4)
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
instructors to rethink the types of materials they provide to students and the ways in which language courses are offered. Furthermore, it promises to strengthen and improve the way instructors prepare and organize class lessons. Several students suggested additional ways podcasting technology could be used for instructional purposes: [The school] could create a library database with a good selection of audiobooks in foreign languages (French) and make it available to students. How about doing podcasts of news shows to help with listening comprehension? That way, students become used to hearing native speakers. [C]reating a class that is entirely a podcast class so students with busy schedules can take classes that are only offered once a semester/year (now). … It would also make it easier for teachers who don’t have time to teach another class, even though the students might need it; the teachers and students could work around their own schedule to complete the course. Podcasting is becoming more and more popular, and it does not appear to be just a passing fashion (Meng, 2006). The availability of new technologies also provides the opportunity to offer all-new types of services for on-campus, distance, and lifelong learners. In fact, the greatest opportunities for these technologies are in the future—in ways that have yet to be developed. The portability and on-demand nature of podcasting and VODcasting (creating podcasts with video content) make them technologies worth adapting for instructional purposes to support classroom time (Meng, 2006, p. 10). As the technology itself improves so it is easier to use (Matthews, 2006), academic podcasting and VODcasting will become more accessible to a wider range of users. The availability of podcasts for classes may also affect course enrollment. Almost half of the students who reported using podcasts (46%) also
reported that they would be more likely to take a course if podcasts of that course were available.
concLusion The results of the initial pilot study provide some promising evidence of the potential benefits of academic podcasting for improving second language instruction and promoting higher performance outcomes. It appears that podcasts may have the greatest benefit for lower-performing students if they are made available to them to review in-class instruction and practice oral and aural language skills. In this regard, we believe that active involvement of students in planning, organizing, and producing appropriate learning activities in the form of podcasts has great potential for second language learning instruction. In addition to helping students acquire technical competence in the use and production of podcasts, involving those students in the production of podcasts to provide speech samples, to participate in native speaker interviews, or to read short stories would help generate resources in languages in which few resources are available (McQuillan, 2006). While the use of podcasting has been hampered by problems with equipment and by students’ lack of familiarity with the technology, it is believed that podcast use will increase during the second phase of the project as these obstacles diminish. As podcasting in college classes becomes more common, the academic use of iPods or MP3 players for academic purposes by college students is likely to become as common as their use of personal computers. According to the Pew Internet and American Life Project (2007), 20% of Americans own an iPod or an MP3 player, and 42% of the members of this group are students. Undoubtedly, this number will increase rapidly as this group of “digital natives” is introduced to their academic utility. Because the availability and use of iPods and MP3 players is bound to increase, we believe it makes sense from a pedagogical and
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
economic standpoint to continue to experiment with the use of podcasting as an instructional and learning tool and study its longer-term effects on foreign language acquisition.
Duke University. (2005). Duke University iPod first year experience final evaluation report. Retrieved November 2, 2006, from http://cit.duke. edu/pdf/ipod_initiative_04_05.pdf
rEFErEncEs
Dunkel, P. (1986). Developing listening fluency in L2: Theoretical principles and pedagogical considerations. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 99–106.
Aldrich, D., Bell, B., & Batzel, T. (2006). Automated podcasting solution expands the boundaries of the classroom. Proceedings of the 34th Annual ACM SIGUCCS Conference on User Services, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/1 181216.1181217 Berne, J. (1995). How does varying pre-listening activities affect second language listening comprehension? Hispania, 78(2), 316–329. Borja, R.R. (2005). Georgia 4-H technology update: Podcasting craze comes to K-12. Retrieved January 12, 2006, from http://ga4htech.blogspot. com/2005/12/podcasting-craze-comes-to-k-12schools.html Chang, A., & Read, J. (2006). The effects of listening support on the listening performance of EFL learners. TESOL Quarterly: A Journal for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages and of Standard English as a Second Dialect, 40(2), 375–397. Deal, A. (2007). A teaching with technology white paper: Podcasting. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://connect.educause.edu/files/CMU_Podcasting_Jun07.pdf Donelly, K., & Berge, Z. (2005). Podcasting: Coopting MP3 players for education and training purposes. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 9(3). Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall2006/ donnelly93.htm
Feyten, C.M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 75(2), 173–180. Lafford, P., & Lafford, B. (2005). CMC technologies for teaching foreign languages: What’s on the horizon. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 679–709. Lane, C. (2006). UW podcasting: Evaluation of year one. Report by Office of Learning Technologies, University of Washington. Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://catalyst.washington. edu/researchdevelopment/papers/2006/podcasting_year1.pdf Lee, M., & Chan, A. (2007). Reducing the effects of isolation and promoting inclusivity for distance learners through podcasting. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, 8(1), 85–104. Malan, D.J. (2007). Podcasting computer science E-1. Proceedings of the 38th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 389–393. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http:// portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1227446 Matthews, K. (2006). Research into podcasting technology including current and possible future uses. Retrieved November 2, 2006, from http:// mms.ecs.soton.ac.uk/2007/papers/32.pdf McQuillan, J. (2006). iPod in education: The potential for language acquisition. Retrieved August 10, 2007, from http://e2t2.binghamton.edu/pdfs/ iPod_Lang_Acquisition_whitepaper.pdf
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Meng, P. (2006). Podcasting & vodcasting: A white paper. Retrieved November 2, 2006, from http://edmarketing.apple.com/adcinstitute/wpcontent/Missouri_Podcasting_White_Paperpdf National Center for Educational Statistics. (1997). Good study habits and academic performance (NCES 97-931). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (1999). Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century. Lawrence, KS: Allen. National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project. (2006). Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century. Lawrence, KS: Allen. Natriello, G., & Dornbusch, S.M. (1984). Teacher evaluative standards and student effort. New York: Longman. Pew Internet and American Life Project. (2007). A typology of information and communication technology users. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/213/report_display.asp Power, D.J. (1990). The use of audio in distance education. In T. Shannon (Ed.), Training needs in the use of media for distance education (pp. 43–60). Singapore: Asian Mass Communication Research and Information Centre. Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www1.worldbank.org/disted/ Technology/print_recorded/aud-01.html Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimer, P., & Ousten, J. (1982). Fifteen thousand hours. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Schlosser, C., & Burmeister, M. (2006). Audio in online courses: Beyond podcasting. Proceed-
0
ings of the E-Learn 2006 World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education, Honolulu, HI. Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.nova. edu/~burmeist/audio_online.html Shim, J., Shropshire, J., Sungmin, P., & Harris, H. (2007). Podcasting for e-learning, communication, and delivery. Industrial Management & Data Systems, 107(4), 587–600. Smidt, E., & Hegelheimer, V. (2005). Effects of online academic lectures on ESL listening comprehension, incidental vocabulary acquisition, and strategy use. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 17(5), 517–556. Stanley, G. (2006). Podcasting: Audio on the Internet comes of age. TESL-EJ, 9(4). Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www-writing.berkeley. edu/TESL-EJ/ej36/int.html Tapscott, D., & Williams, A. (2006). Wikinomics: How mass collaboration changes everything. New York: Portfolio. Thorne, S., & Payne, J. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, Internet-mediated expression, and language education. CALICO, 22(3), 371–397. Trofimovich, P., & Gatbonton, E. (2006). Repetition and focus on form in processing L2 Spanish words: Implications for pronunciation instruction. Modern Language Journal, 90(4), 519–535. Zhao, Y. (1997). The effect of listeners’ control of speech rate on second language comprehension. Applied Linguistics, 18, 49–68.
kEY tErMs Academic Podcasting: The integration of podcasting technology into higher education courses for learning and teaching.
The Impact of Podcasting on Students’ Learning Outcomes
Audioblog: “Another name for this cultural phenomenon [podcasting]—an aural version of Web logs, another sign of the technology zeitgeist” (Borja, 2005). Digital Native: “Today’s students—K through college—represent the first generations to grow up with this new technology. They have spent their entire lives surrounded by and using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age” (Prensky, 2001). iPod: A portable digital media device, or MP3 player, for storing and playing/viewing audio and video content. The iPod is one popular brand created by Apple Computer beginning in 2001. iTunes: Content management program or digital music service. MP3 Player: Potable digital media device. The Apple iPod is one example available on the market.
Podcasting: “The process of capturing an audio event, song, speech, or mix of sounds and then posting that digital sound object to a Web site or “blog” in a data structure called an RSS 2.0 envelope (or “feed”)” (Meng, 2006). RSS Feed: Really Simple Syndication, online subscription technology (Lafford & Lafford, 2005). Vodcasting: Podcasts with video content in addition to audio, sometimes referred to as video podcasting.
EndnotE 1
For example, http://www.worldlanguagespodcasting.com/wlangp provides access to real life authentic material in a variety of languages.
Net Generation: “Born between 1977 and 1996 inclusive, this generation is bigger than the baby boom itself, and through sheer demographic muscle they will dominate the twenty-first century. This is the first generation to grow up in the digital age, and that makes them a force for collaboration” (Tapscott & Williams, 2006).
Chapter XXII
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices Mahieddine Djoudi Université de Poitiers, France
abstract The use of the mobile devices in language learning has been developed at a very high speed in the last years. Thus, we are witnessing many research and development projects set in universities and distance learning programs. However, the interest in research related to listening comprehension competence remains relatively low. Our proposed research examines mobile devices such as MP3 players, laptops, PDAs, and cell phones in a mobile learning environment for studying English as a foreign language at a French university. One focus is on pedagogy; therefore, a major part of our research is on developing, evaluating, and analyzing listening comprehension activities, and then composing activities into a curriculum. The chapter starts with the presentation of mobile learning, language skills, and listening comprehension. It then presents our approach of the use of mobile devices for learning English as a second language. Finally, a learner evaluation methodology is presented. The chapter ends with the conclusion and future trends.
introduction As computers and the Internet become essential educational tools, the technologies become more portable, affordable, effective, and easy to use. This provides many opportunities for widening participation and access to the Internet. Mobile devices are much more reasonably priced than
desktops and therefore represent a less expensive method of accessing the Internet. This chapter describes a mobile learning approach in which mobile devices are used for educational activities. The main focus of this chapter is on listening comprehension of foreign language. A new approach on the use of mobile technology and how it was used in language
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Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
learning, especially listening comprehension, is presented. One of the main goals in our research is to explore what the best mobile learning practices and activities are in terms of assisting and supporting learning to become a more meaningful process. Another goal is to explore from a pedagogical perspective the innovative future learning practices, which are related to mobility and the new forms of studying (Buck, 1998).
background Mobile learning (m-learning) refers to the use of mobile and handheld information technology devices in teaching and learning. These mobile tools often travel with the learners (Kadyte & Akademi, 2003). Among these tools, we can quote the telephone (Attewell & Savill-Smith, 2003), personal digital assistants, or PDA (Kneebone, 2003), pocket PC (Holme & Sharples, 2002), tablet PC (Mock, 2004), laptops that have wireless capabilities (Willis & Miertschin, 2004), portable MP3 players (Bayon-Lopez, 2004; Djoudi & Harous, 2006), and so forth. Mobile devices can be used in many educational settings and accomplish many educational tasks. Most mobile devices are useful in education both as administration, organization, and teaching aids for practitioners, and also as learning support tools for learners. The term “mobile learning” is used to cover a complex array of possibilities opened by the convergence of new mobile technologies, wireless infrastructure, and e-learning developments. As with any emerging paradigm, there are many attempts to define its essence. In order to do this, let’s consider the following: 1.
M-learning is the intersection of mobile computing and e-learning: accessible resources wherever you are, strong search capabilities, rich interaction, powerful support for effective learning, and performance-based
2.
3.
assessment eLearning independent of location, time, or space (Quinn 2000). Three ways learning can be considered mobile “learning”: it is mobile in terms of space; it is mobile in different areas of life; it is mobile with respect to time (Vavoula, O’Malley, Sharples & Taylor, 2005). M-learning is a development from e-learning, which for its part originates from d-learning (distance education). The rapid growth of information and communication technologies makes it possible to develop new forms of this education. Today’s learners’ knowledge of mobile devices makes the entrance of mobile learning possible (see Figure 1) (Georgiev, Georgieva & Smrikarov, 2004).
M-learning has now emerged as a new wave of development based on the use of mobile devices combined with wireless infrastructure, and much of the current literature on m-learning reveals all the strengths and weaknesses associated with the more mature e-learning communities. There are, of course, close links between e-learning and mlearning, and it can be argued that they represent a continuum based on the deployment of ever more sophisticated technologies. The question is to know how these technologies affect the learning environment, pedagogy, and continuing education (Mifsud, 2002). According to Bryan (2004), mobile technologies and their adoption by the younger generations are going to transform education. It is a question of “modeling learners as creative and communicating participants, rather than passive consumers” and to “describe the world like a service on which one can read and write.” The article adopts a broad definition of mobility. It is interested in continuous connectivity, the dynamic combinations of wired and wireless devices, and learners and their environments. From recent work in the field of mobile learning (Cohen & Wakeford, 2005; Keefe, 2003;
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
Lindroth, 2002; Vavoula, 2004), we can note the following remarks:
LanguagE skiLLs and ListEning coMprEhEnsion
•
In order to understand the problem being considered in this chapter, it is of primary importance to know what are the capacities concerned during a learning process of a foreign language. We point out that the capacities in learning a language represent the various mental operations that have to be done by a listener, a reader, or a writer in an unconscious way; for example, to locate, discriminate or process the data. One distinguishes in the analytical diagram basic capacities that correspond to linguistic activities and competence in communication that involve more complex capacities.
•
•
The reconfiguration of the classrooms and campuses in reconfigurable open spaces, mixing physical presence and distant collaboration, seems to be one of the attractive prospects. There is no need anymore to equip these spaces in a fixed way. Also, we do not need to limit the learners to a specific area because they are equipped with their own communication devices; the borders are pushed to the infinity. The continuous cooperation, independent of the place, could transform the way research is undertaken on the ground or learning experiments are done. One can imagine dispersed teams that exchange and publish their results and analyses in real time. Finally, the m-learning could become the way to follow in order to have lifelong learning. In this approach, any person could, at any given place and time, choose a particular subject, and find a learning community that is learning this topic. He or she can join this group for a while and leave when his or her objectives are reached.
Early results have suggested that there are positive effects on learning with handheld devices. However, much of the research is driven by the technical capabilities of new devices; application of theory to the use of these technologies for educational purposes is lacking, and educational potential of mobile technologies have been sparsely explored (Laru, Järvelä & Clariana, 2005; Liukkunen, Tolonen & Laru, 2005; Sharma & Kitchens, 2004; Tolonen, Laru, Pönkä & Järvelä, 2005; Trifonova & Ronchetti, 2004). The change from e-learning to m-learning will excite the change in the educational paradigm. This will require the pedagogical methods change and communication changes between teacher and learners on the one hand and among learners on the other hand.
Basic Language Skills The use of a language is based on four skills. Two of these skills are from comprehension domain. These are oral and written comprehension. The last two concern the oral and written expression (see Table 1). A methodology can give the priority to one or two of these competences, or it can aim at the teaching/learning of these four competences together or according to a given planned program. On one hand, listening comprehension corresponds to the most frequently used competence and can be summarized in the formula “to hear and deduce a meaning.” Chronologically, it is always the one that is confronted first, except in exceptional situations (people only or initially confronted with the writing, defective in hearing, study of a dead language [a language that is not in use anymore], study of a language on the basis of the autodidact writing). On the other hand, the written expression paradoxically is the component for which the learner is evaluated more often. It is concerned with the most demanding phase of the learning by requiring an in-depth knowledge of different capacities (spelling, grammatical, graphic, etc.).
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
Table 1. Basic languages skills Oral
Written
Comprehension
Listening
Reading
Expression
Speaking
Writing
Listening comprehension
LitEraturE rEViEW
Listening comprehension refers to understanding the spoken language. When we speak about listening comprehension, what we really mean is listening and understanding what we hear. In our first language, we have all the skills and background knowledge we need to understand what we hear, so we probably aren’t even aware of how complex a process is. Here we will briefly describe some of what is involved in learning to understand what we hear in a second language. There are two kinds of listening situations in which we find ourselves: interactive and noninteractive. Interactive listening situations include face-toface conversations and telephone calls in which we are alternately listening and speaking and in which we have a chance to ask for clarification, repetition, or slower speech from our conversation partner. Some noninteractive listening situations are listening to radio, TV, films, lectures, or sermons. In such situations, we usually don’t have the opportunity to ask for clarification, slower speech, or repetition. Listening comprehension can be described in levels. Lower levels of listening comprehension would include understanding only the facts explicitly stated in a spoken passage that has very simple syntax and uncomplicated vocabulary. Advanced levels of listening comprehension would include implicit understanding and drawing inferences from spoken passages that feature more complicated syntax and more advanced vocabulary. The development of listening comprehension varies depending on the personal, social, and cultural experiences of the learner.
Research projects using mobile devices in language learning environments have begun to appear. Several projects are in the works to provide iPods, mobile phones, or other mobile devices to learners, enabling access to audio files for language learning (Norbrook & Scott, 2003; Sharples, 2003). The European Ad-hoc.com project has developed an innovative advanced multimedia language learning system that allows travelers to access the Web through advanced new communication applications and acquire certain language information in order to communicate with locals in the country of their destination. These new applications allow for fast transfer of data (text, sound, picture, and video) through the user’s mobile device (phone, palmtop). The system is presenting linguistic content embedded in its cultural context, furthering the understanding of Europe’s cultural and multilingual diversity, as it is proven that the mutual understanding in the communication process depends not only on linguistic competence but also on the awareness and perception of cultural behavior, cultural differences, and similarities. An online manual, which acts as an online tutor, has also been developed as a support tool. The project is focused mainly on two axes: PDA’s multimedia capabilities and short-range wireless communications technologies (Ad-hoc.com, 2007). Thornton and Houser (2005) described several ways of using mobile phones in the classroom, introducing applications such as Poodle, created specifically for the cell phone. Poodle (like Moodle
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
for phones) is a course management system (CMS) for mobile phones. The authors prepared several modules, allowing instructors to distribute course materials, conduct quizzes, and discussion forums, and to run real-time polls. Their research shows that cell phones make an efficient media for some language learning tasks. They e-mailed short vocabulary lessons at timed intervals to the mobile phones of Japanese university students. Compared with students urged to regularly study identical materials on paper or on the Web, students receiving mobile e-mail learned more. Research on input shows that Japanese college students can type texts on cell phones almost as quickly as on desktop PCs, so writing even long reports on mobile phones is entirely feasible. Several foreign language courses at the University of Wisconsin (USA) have also used wireless laptops for various classroom activities. A teacher of Norwegian developed Web-based vocabulary and grammar exercises to be accessed with mobile devices, allowing her to integrate technology activities into the class without having to move to the program’s language lab. Minor problems were reported, including trouble-resizing pictures to fit in the small screen and sporadic difficulties with network connections. A French class used handheld devices for various small group and whole class online chatting. A Latin class used them to access ancient poems both in text and audio (Samuels, 2003).
purposE and approach dEscription Motivation Learner’s lack of oral practice of the language affects the learning process in a negative way. This phenomenon is caused by several factors, which are due to the fact that the classes are overloaded (number of learners per class is high). Also, many learners are skeptical about the need to
communicate in a foreign language (e.g., English by French speakers). Speaking and listening comprehension are two critical elements for foreign language learning, and they can only be achieved by frequent practice. Oral learning is at a disadvantage compared to the read/written learning. This disadvantage leads us to think that oral learning must be given more attention. Indeed, oral learning has the following advantages: •
•
•
It reveals phenomena that are hidden if we have only a written document: intonations, accents, realization or not of certain vowels, their stamps, and so forth. It gives the teacher the possibility to intervene, explaining or raising questions, in order to guide the listener to know what is important and to contribute to the perception structuring and the speech recognition. It invites listeners to present assumptions, to interpret, to discuss, and so forth.
Language instructors note that it is very difficult to make learners practice oral expressions while studying a foreign language. In general, very few institutions have a language laboratory that can be used by the learners for oral practice using a computer (one or two learners per computer). But computer access always remains a problem when learners return home. How do learners study for the oral examination when they have very limited access to the tools? The latest handheld devices with third-generation mobile networks can provide mobile users with the capabilities to record their voices, send multimedia messages with pictures and sound, and enable video conferencing through mobile devices. In addition, mobile learning allows learners to better utilize their downtime and participate in learning activities anytime and everywhere (Farmer & Taylor, 2002). Learners can have access in a “guided autonomy” to recordings chosen by the teacher so they can practice using them (Little,
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
2000). Practice on the audio support can be done in a traditional classroom using a PC in language laboratory and especially continued at home. The explosive growth in sales of portable MP3 players suggests that these devices are becoming increasingly ubiquitous. Learners can truly get their ears very well acquainted to the target English as a second language. They can listen to the recording as many times as they want. For the teacher, the advantage is undeniable regarding the choice of documents in the target languages. Indeed, direct and free access to sound resources of foreign languages on Web sites (without copyright infringement) makes it possible to expose beginner and continuing learners to the authentic language, which is the first step to being competent in comprehension. This approach seems to be very promising because it offers learners more possibilities to work on their oral expression and to be exposed to the target language.
objectives The approach proposes to the learners a new learning situation of a language as one of its main objectives. Also, it helps learners to become speakers who are able to make their idea comprehensible and to progress quickly in learning a foreign language. It also claims to give coherence to language learning through a multiple exposure to the target language (in this case, the English Second Language for French speakers). Thus, the portable MP3 player, for example, is presented as a tool adapted to the achievement of these objectives since it allows learners: •
•
To familiarize themselves with a new technological environment, a new workspace, and a different learning method integrating communication and information technologies. To diversify teaching and learning forms of the foreign language in connection with the
•
•
•
committed reforms and within the national programs guidelines. To propose to learners the learning situations that give them confidence and motivation. In this direction, the use of the MP3 player in language learning contributes to a positive modification of a learner’s attitude where a stronger participation of all concerned people is necessary (Norbrook & Scott, 2003). To develop learners’ autonomy (they have permanent access to their working group information and resources via the platform’s means) and to support regular and constant personal work (Little, 2000). To modify the work practices of individual learners (Lundin & Magnusson, 2002). Specific tasks are assigned to learners to carry out every week in order to support a regular practice of their oral expression.
In addition to these general objectives, the following priorities are added: •
• •
•
•
To improve the learner’s oral competences, which are found in very heterogeneous classrooms and at a rather low level. To support the listening and comprehension work on authentic sound documents. To allow autonomy guided work outside the classroom based on supporting materials prepared by the teacher. To facilitate access to the sound resources via the means offered by the learning platform on the Web. To support collaborative learning to achieve oral expression and listening comprehension in a classroom by active participation of learners.
The approach is an integral part of the general pedagogy framework, which aims at making the learner as autonomous as possible and especially very active—active in his or her training and ac-
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
Figure 1. Sound and text files diffusion
tive in knowledge construction (Mitchell, 2002; Zurita & Nussbaum, 2004). We are using the MP3 player as a tool because it serves our teaching objectives and not because it is technically a powerful object (Little, 2000).
approach description Current uses of these devices were never intended to correspond entirely to the uses envisaged by their inventors, which results in speaking about diversion of use to characterize the share of social and cultural creativity, which is and will always remain in the users’ hands (Perriault, 1989). Our approach draws its originality from the diverted use of simple mobile devices (e.g., MP3 player, PDA, cell phone, etc.), which was not initially created for teaching, to help increase the learner’s listening comprehension of English as a second language. The diffusion of sound files (and also text files) on the Web server of the teaching platform designed for this purpose allows the authorized public a fast remote loading of the sound documents. The platform also provides instructions on the work to be done and exercises for learners. Listening to the sound files is then done starting from the computer itself, and especially by remote loading of these files on mobile devices for listening independently of the computer.
The innovation is thus done by two successive levels of the diffusion: initially it is sent from the server to the computers and other devices connected to the network (Figure 2-A), and then it is sent from each receiving computer to an unlimited number of mobile devices supplied locally (Figure 2-B) (Sabiron, 2003). Our approach is also based on an evolutionary methodology using a pretest and posttests where several groups of learners will be monitored in order to quantify the possible impacts and collect statistics about the use and its evolutions. Learners are invited to answer questionnaires that have been prepared at different stages of the learning with the goal to measure the impacts of the devices use on the learners’ behavior; in particular, the performances in the language listening comprehension and the degree of motivation (Norbrook & Scott, 2003). Moreover, regular discussions make it possible to obtain users’ profiles and a typology of the uses of the mobile devices. Our approach, which is based on the combination of technologies (information technology, the Internet, and mobile devices), requires little competences in information technology. It aims on one hand to quantify and qualify the impacts related to the use of innovating devices dedicated to foreign language learning, and on the other hand to study the processes of adapting a specific technical device. The generalization
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
of the devices used in other learning and/or for other types of learning seems to be a prospect in the short and medium term (Bayon-Lopez, 2004; Sabiron, 2003).
coursE ManagEMEnt sYstEM software architecture The course management system (CMS) is a Webbased application with server-side processing of intensive requests. It can support a wide range of mobile devices such as laptops, palmtops, and so forth. A key element of our research will be testing the new mobile tools in several device contexts to demonstrate support for heterogeneous mobile device environments. In addition, there is the potential to integrate cellular technologies such as SMS text messaging with platform tools as an alternative mobile platform for learner responses (e.g., Question/Answer, Polling, etc.).
The environment provides the three principal users (i.e., teacher, learner, and administrator) a device that has for primary functionality the availability and the remote access to pedagogical contents for language teaching, personalized learning, and distance tutoring. The e-learning platform allows not only the downloading of the resources made available online (using a standard navigator) but also the diffusion on podcasting mode. The sound files are accompanied by textual documents introducing the subject, its contextual use, foreign speaker presentation, and their phonological variation in order to make it possible to the individual listener to locate the spoken language characteristics.
teacher’s interface Mobile devices are becoming more and more important in the context of e-learning. This requires appropriate models for structuring and delivering content to be used on various devices.
Figure 2. Basic architecture of the environment
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
Different technical characteristics of devices as well as different needs of learners require specific approaches. Then we propose a model for structuring content that allows rendering for different devices as well as presentation of the content in different levels of details according to didactic concepts such as case study, definition, example, interaction, motivation, and directive. This approach allows adaptation of content (i.e., device, granularity of content, content selection based on didactic concepts) at run time to specific needs in a particular learning situation (Zaharieva & Klas, 2004). The environment allows the teacher, via a dedicated interface, to make at the learners’ disposal a considerably large amount of compressed digital audio and textual documents of excellent quality to listen to. These documents are created by the teachers or recovered from the Internet (using streaming or podcast technologies). The interface also makes it possible for the teacher to describe in the most complete way possible the sound files. Relative information to each file is the name, language, duration, public concerned, expected pedagogic objectives, period of accessibility, source, copyright, and so forth. Thus, documents prepared by the teacher are loaded in the database located on the platform server. If the learner can put his or her techniques and strategies to understand the listening comprehension, then the instructor role consists of helping him or her develop and enrich the learning strategies. It is thus necessary to add to the sound files with a work plan to guide the learners on how to practice their listening within the framework of the designed learning methodology.
Learner’s interface Learners with laptops or HTML-enabled mobile devices can enter the learning space, see published courses, and take part in them via their mobile
0
browser. Users can collaborate with other learners or teachers via discussion forums and chat areas. Web content is dynamically adapted to the small screens. •
•
•
•
•
File Transfer Module is used to launch the file transfer functions of the environment. Files can be transferred to other people (and the user) from the local device or the remote server. Collaboration Module locates people and provides for the transfer of documents and files between people logged into the environment. Course Access Interface provides for updating lessons, homework, and other assignments as well as the transfer of documents between learners and teachers. Communications tool launches a variety of communications options, including text and audio, and provides for one-to-many, many-to-one, and one-to-one communication. Interactive Logbook provides a variety of service options, including history access and editing of user profiles.
Streaming Tool The streaming server (installed at the same time as the Web server) must know how to manage the adaptation and optimization of flow and the contents, the quality of service. The adaptation to the network and the terminal must be done in real time. Distribution networks of mobile contents are developed based on the content delivery networks model of the Internet. At the networks borders close to the user, the multimedia servers manage part of the distribution and adaptation to the user context. For this whole process to work properly, the client browser must receive the data from the server and pass it to the streaming application for processing.
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
Podcasting Tool
Interactive Logbook
A podcasting tool within an environment offers direct download of audio files, but the subscription feed of automatically delivered new content is what distinguishes a podcast from a simple download or real-time streaming. Podcasting’s essence is about creating content for an audience that wants to listen when they want, where they want, and how they want. Subscribing to a podcast tool allows a learner to collect programs from a variety of MP3 sources for listening off-line at whatever time and place is convenient. In contrast, traditional broadcasting provides only one source at a time, and the time is broadcaster-specified. While podcasts are gaining ground on personal sites and blogs, they are not yet widespread. In addition, users can view the descriptions of that item while it plays (Kraus, 2006). The simple interface allows the user to easily scroll through the page. The learner will improve his or her English by listening to native speakers talk and discuss topics of interest. He or she will learn new idioms and expressions and learn to use them the way native speakers do. Each ESL podcast lasts 10 to 20 minutes and has three parts:
The goal of the logbook is to set up an automatic book that keeps information related to the learner’s activity while he or she carries out a scenario on a teaching object (date and duration of each connection, MP3 files downloaded or listened to in streaming, exercises for self evaluation, etc.). This requires an effort of information structuring and an implementation within the platform. An exploitation of this information by learners can guide them through their training plan. The metaphor of the Interactive Logbook was conceived from a very traditional personal learning environment: a logbook kept by learners to record lectures, laboratories, project notes, and more. Although in many subjects, especially the science disciplines, logbooks are still an integral part of courses, they are not well used by learners. Since many learning activities are taking place digitally (e.g., writing essays, analyzing data, browsing the Web, online discussions), it doesn’t make sense to print or copy the output for a paperbased logbook. Although the interactive logbook extends to network capability and digital search, the name “logbook” gives an impression of the flexibility and purpose of the tool. The Interactive Logbook seeks to provide a place in which personal information can be stored completely, privately, and for all time. By being integrated with the environment in which much of the learner’s activity takes place, physical time and effort barriers can also be reduced and made even lower by automated logging of basic documents and events (e.g., e-mails, documents, diary entries, etc.) (Kiddie, 2004). Finally, a statistical analysis of logbooks of a group of learners that have done the same activity would give a synthetic vision of the group’s learning and would be useful to all people involved in the learning.
1. 2. 3.
A dialog or story read a bit slower than normal speech. An explanation of some of the expressions and phrases used in Part 1. A repetition of the dialog or story at a native rate of speech.
The podcasts are all recorded at a speed the learner can understand—clearly and comprehensibly. This way, he or she will be able to actually understand the English and pick up the meanings of new words and phrases.
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
communication and collaboration using Mobile devices Group Communication In the environment, learners have to find the same classical environment as they have in real life. In this environment, learners can ask questions whenever they need to and can discuss a lot of interesting or pointless subjects. The environment also supports group communication by offering discussions, forums, and shared workspaces where learners can exchange documents using a podcasting tool. We distinguish between asynchronous and synchronous communication facilities. Social contacts are a crucial point in learning situations. Learners should therefore be able to present themselves in a personal home page with a photograph, a list of hobbies, and other personal aspects. Such personal presentations are not toys, but they can help learners to get in contact even more easily than in live classroom situations. There is a great potential in using mobile terminals for communication services. The PC has been developed first for accessing and sharing information, and hence has been used most for individual learning with limited human communication. Mobile technology has been developed specifically for human communication. As communication is regarded as an important element in every kind of learning, the use of mobile technology may therefore prove to represent a potential for new kinds of integration between information sharing and human communication, which may improve the learning outcome of flexible learning.
Communication and Learning Scenarios The communication and collaboration system launches a variety of communications options, including text, audio, video, and whiteboard,
and provides for one-to-many, many-to-one, and one-to-one communication. It provides a powerful architecture for the development of new educational tools to enhance various modes of teaching and learning. It is ideally suited to mobile learning and able to integrate tools developed explicitly for mobile contexts. The opportunity is to leverage the platform to develop innovative tools for mobile learning that are applicable to (1) synchronous formal learning (e.g., classrooms) and (2) asynchronous informal learning (e.g., discussion in the cafeteria).
Synchronous Formal Learning There is a number of learning activities in formal educational environments (e.g., teacher-led classroom scenarios) that are ideally suited to mobile learning tools. Synchronous learning activities such as polling/voting and question and answer, where the system immediately collates all responses and presents an aggregate view of votes or answers to all learners, are ideal for pedagogically rich mobile learning. Features that are unique to the system and would enhance this mobile learning include: •
•
The ability to easily sequence activities into reusable lesson plans (using a simple visual “drag-and-drop” lesson planner). Recording of learner responses for later review by learners/teachers and the option for teachers to create question-and-answer activities with either anonymous or identified answers from learners, which provides a basis for more honest answers due to the lack of peer pressure.
Asynchronous Informal Learning Informal learning scenarios (e.g., student discussion in a cafeteria) provide environments where mobile devices can support flexible, “on-thefly” learning opportunities. Valuable learning
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
activities in these contexts could be supported by a content sharing tool and discussion forums and live chat/instant messaging for questions and responses to other learners or the teacher. Again, the environment provides unique features to support these activities by providing an environment to manage and deliver these tools in the context of asynchronous (and synchronous) informal learning, including recording of activities for later learner/teacher review and creation of reusable lesson plans based on informal student learning using flexible toolsets.
EVaLuation MEthodoLogY Listening comprehension has come to be recognized as an active rather than a passive skill, and its importance has been acknowledged in the acquisition of language. With the emergence of multimedia as teaching tools, it is being given renewed attention. Starting from supports authentic listening, the evaluation of listening comprehension aims to check the effective location of certain information, its relations, and, if necessary, its interpretation. Lessons focused on listening will be enhanced by incorporating the following guiding principles (Brindley, 1998): •
•
•
Materials should be authentic. Using authentic materials is a good way to develop listening strategies. Predicting, asking for clarification, and using nonverbal cues are examples of strategies that increase chances for successful listening. It also gives them a chance to check for accuracy in hearing sounds, intonation, words, and grammatical structures. The language should reflect real discourse, including hesitations, rephrasing, and a variety of accents. Language needs to be comprehensible, but it does not need to be constantly modified or simplified to make it easier for the listener.
To verify if comprehension is reached, learners are invited to answer short instructions written in English that do not require them to write in sentences and do not take into account grammatical or orthographical mistakes. The tasks of comprehension credited on the marks-scale, which appears on the specific grid, provide for each support and are distributed to the learners. Multiple choice and true/false questions are deliberately avoided. Exercises of this type do not concern a summative evaluation but belong to the training fields that facilitate the comprehension task. It’s the same reason that motivates the not fragmented listening constraint.
FuturE trEnds We have started experimenting with the use of the environment in real teaching/learning situations. This experimentation allows us to collect information on the effective activities of the users. We can thus validate or question certain technical choices and determine with more precision the adaptations that have to be made to the integrated tools. Feedback from a panel was very positive, and the mobile aspect of environment was seen as a novel and interesting approach as a research tool. A detailed evaluation of the effectiveness of the learning environment has yet to be completed. In prospect, the approach aims at developing in the learners other oral competence; namely, oral expression, so they can express themselves in a foreign language. The mastering of the language goes through the mastering of elocution. The approach thus envisages giving learners the opportunity to produce audio files as a result of their work by using the “recording” function of an iPod or an MP3 player. Concrete situations of uninterrupted speech, a summary of a lecture, oral comments about documents studied in class, and exercises to argument or justify a point of view facilitate the use and adaptation of the target language (Jones, 2005).
Listening Comprehension of Languages with Mobile Devices
concLusion We presented in this chapter an original approach for listening comprehension of English as a second language by using devices whose initial function was for different purposes. For example, the portable MP3 player as a nomad object with its characteristics of portability, accessibility, and autonomy is similar to a book. The approach proposes an innovation that is done on two successive levels. On the one hand, the diffusion or provision of sound resources prepared by the teachers on the distance teaching platform, and on the other hand, the use of the mobile devices to expose sufficiently to a quality authentic language.
rEFErEncEs Ad-hoc.com. (2007). An intercultural communication trainer for European Travellers. Retrieved April 22, 2007, from http://www.ea.gr/ep/adhoc/ Attewell, J., & Savill-Smith, C. (2003). Young people, mobile phones and learning. London: Learning and Skills Development Agency. Bayon-Lopez, D. (2004). Audio nomade: Un laboratoire de langues virtuel. 3e Journée des langues vivantes: L’oral: Stratégies d’apprentissage et enjeux. Bordeaux, France: CDDP Gironde. Brindley, G. (1998). Assessing listening abilities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 11–191. Bryan, A. (2004). Going nomadic: Mobile learning in higher education. Educause, 39(5). Buck, G. (1998). Testing of listening in a second language. In C.M. Clapham, & D. Corson (Eds.), Language testing and assessment: Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 65–74) (Vol. 7). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Cohen, K., & Wakeford, N. (2005). The making of mobility, the making of self. INCITE, University of Surrey in collaboration with Sapient. Retrieved April 22, 2005, from http://www.soc.surrey. ac.uk/incite/AESOP%20Phase3.htm Djoudi, M., & Harous, S. (2006). Portable MP3 players for oral comprehension of a foreign language. In I. K. Ibrahim (Ed.), Handbook of research on mobile multimedia. Hershey, PA: Idea Group Reference. Farmer, M., & Taylor, B. (2002). A creative learning environment (CLE) for anywhere anytime learning. Proceedings of the European Workshop on Mobile and Contextual Learning. England, the University of Birmingham. Georgiev, T., Georgieva, E., & Smrikarov, A. (2004). M-learning—A new stage of e-learning. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Systems and Technologies, CompSysTech. Holme, O., & Sharples, M. (2002). Implementing a student learning organiser on the pocket PC platform. Proceedings of the MLEARN 2002: European Workshop on Mobile and Contextual Learning (pp. 41–44). Birmingham, UK. Jones, B. (2005). The development of courseware for smartphones. Proceedings of the Conference on M-Learning: The Future of Mobile? Ericsson Education, Dublin, Ireland. Kadyte, V., & Akademi, A. (2003). Learning can happen anywhere: A mobile system for language learning. Proceedings of the Mlearn 2003 Conference on Learning with Mobile Devices, Central London. Keefe, T. (2003). Mobile learning as a tool for inclusive lifelong learning. Proceedings of the Mlearn 2003 Conference on Learning with Mobile Devices, London. Kiddie, O., et al. (2004). Logbook: The development of an application to enhance and facilitate
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collaborative working within groups in higher education. Proceedings of the MLEARN 2004: Learning Anytime, Everywhere, Rome. Kneebone, R. (2003). PDAs as part of learning portfolio. Proceedings of the Mlearn Conference on Learning with Mobile Devices. Central London. Kraus, K. (2006). Podcasts: A real mobile learning model. Proceedings of the ASTD TechKnowledge’2006, Denver, Colorado. Laru, J., Järvelä, S., & Clariana, R. (2005). Scaffolding collaborative inquire learning in the nature with mobile tools based on peer-to-peer grid technologies. Proceedings of the Interlearn 2005 Multidisciplinary Approaches to Learning, Helsinki, Finland. Lindroth, T. (2002). Action, place and nomadic behavior—A study towards enhanced situated computing. Proceedings of the IRIS25, Copenhagen, Denmark. Retrieved April 22, 2005, from http://www.laboratorium.htu.se/publikationer/ qiziz.pdf Little, D. (2000). Learner autonomy: Why foreign languages should occupy a central role in the curriculum. In S. Green (Ed.), New perspectives on teaching and learning modern languages (pp. 24–45). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, UK Liukkunen, K., Tolonen, P., & Laru, J. (2005). Developing new mobile services for the Universities—University students’ conceptions of their needs for mobile tools for scaffolding their learning activities. Proceedings of the EdMedia Conference, Montreal, Canada, 27.6.–2.7. Lundin, J., & Magnusson, M. (2002). Walking & talking—Sharing best practice. Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, Växjö, Sweden. 71–79. Mifsud, L.(2002). Alternative learning arenas—Pedagogical challenges to mobile learn-
ing technology in education. Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, Växjö, Sweden, 112–116. Mitchell, A. (2002). Developing a prototype microportal for m-learning: A social-constructivist approach. Proceedings of the European Workshop on Mobile and Contextual Learning, The University of Birmingham, England. Mock, K. (2004). Teaching with tablet PCs. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Consortium for Computing Sciences in Colleges Northwest Regional Conference, Salem, Oregon. Norbrook, H., & Scott, P. (2003). Motivation in mobile modern foreign language learning. Proceedings of the Mlearn 2003 Conference on Learning with Mobile Devices, Central London. Perriault, J. (1989). La logique des usages: Essai sur les machines à communiquer. Paris: Flammarion. Quinn, C. (2000). M-learning. Mobile, wireless, in-your-pocket learning. Linezine. Retrieved May 15, 2006, from http://www.linezine.com/2.1/features/cqmmwiyp.htm Sabiron, J. (2003). Outils techniques et méthodologiques de l’apprenant nomade en langues étrangères. Proceedings of the Computer a Primavera 2003, Biblioteca Regionale, Aosta, Italia. Samuels, J. (2003). Wireless and handheld devices for language learning. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Wisconsin-Madison, USA. Sharma, S., & Kitchens, F. (2004). Web services architecture for m-learning. Electronic Journal on e-Learning, 2(1). Sharples, M. (2003). Disruptive devices: Mobile technology for conversational learning. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, 12(5/6), 504–520.
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Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(3), 217–228. Tolonen, P., Laru, J., Pönkä, H., & Järvelä, S. (2005). Mobile learning—Supporting learning with mobile tools: Pedagogical principles and research results. Proceedings of the Symposium Presentation in the ITK05 Conference, Hämeenlinna, Finland, 20.–22.4.05. Trifonova, A., & Ronchetti, M.A. (2004). General architecture to support mobility in learning. Proceedings of the 4th IEEE ICALT. Vavoula, G. (2004). KLeOS: A knowledge and learning organization system in support of lifelong learning [doctoral thesis]. The University of Birmingham. Vavoula, G.N., O’Malley, C., Sharples, M., & Taylor, J. (2005). Pedagogical guidelines for mobile learning. Proceedings of the CAL’05 Virtual Learning? Bristol. Willis, C.L., & Miertschin, L. (2004). Technology to enable learning II: Tablet PC‘s as instructional tools or the pen is mightier than the board! Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Information Technology Education. Salt Lake City, Utah, 153–159. Zaharieva, M., & Klas, W. (2004). MobiLearn: An open approach for structuring content for mobile learning environments. Proceedings of the WISE 2004 Workshop on Intelligent Networked Mobile Systems, Brisbane, Australia, 114–124. Zurita, G., & Nussbaum, M. (2004). A constructivist mobile learning environment supported by a wireless handheld network. J. Comp. Assisted Learning, 20(4), 235–243.
kEY tErMs Basic Language Skills: The ability to comprehend receptive language and use expressive language to communicate. iPod: A small and extremely popular portable device designed by Apple Inc. 2001, for storing and playing digital audio files encoded by compression algorithms such as MP3. Listening Comprehension: A primary process in understanding the words of the speaker. It is a complex communication process that requires instant thought and individual ability to construct the meaning. Logbook: A personal learning environment running on a personal computer or mobile device. It integrates and aggregates the learner’s activities. A significant element of the tool is its support of activity logging. A combination of automatic and manual log entries enables the learner to simply reflect on his or her personal learning journey. MP3: (MPEG-1 Audio Layer-3) is a standard technology and format for compressing a sound sequence into a very small file (about one-twelfth the size of the original file) while preserving the original level of sound quality when it is played. MPEG stands for Moving Pictures Experts Group, a committee that is part of the International Standards Organization. Podcasting: Method of publishing audio or video files on the Internet, often allowing users to subscribe to a feed and receive new files automatically by subscription, usually at no cost. The term podcasting combines the words iPod and broadcasting and gives a name to a novel method of publishing audio broadcasts over the Internet using syndication for listening on mobile devices and personal computers. Portable MP3 Player: Device for storing and playing MP3 files. The idea is for it to be small and, thus, portable. It is like a digital music library that you can take anywhere you go.
Chapter XXIII
Computers and Independent Study: Student Perspectives Huw Jarvis University of Salford-Greater Manchester, UK
abstract This chapter reports on a quantitative study that examines how language students make use of an extensive range of computer-based materials (CBMs) in a language resource centre (LRC) and elsewhere for self-study purposes. Students were asked to indicate the extent to which they make use of CBMs in and outside of an LRC and whether such materials help with their language studies. The study suggests that an LRC offers more than the sum of its parts and therefore should not be put under threat on the basis that materials can and are being accessed anywhere and anytime. The data also reveal that many students, particularly Asian students of English as a Second Language (primarily from China), view a wide range of CBMs as helping with their language studies, and it is suggested that the practices and perceptions of these students may offer insights for all language learners and providers.
introduction Language resource centers (LRCs) have come to be a prevalent feature in a wide range of contexts in schools, colleges, and universities, or higher education institutions (HEIs). The resources in such centers will typically include paper-based materials such as reference and self-study books, as well as technology-based provisions such as
TVs, videos, DVDs, and, above all, computers and computer-based materials (CBMs). But first, let us define what is meant by CBMs. Figure 1 (Jarvis, 2004) provides an overview for conceptualizing CBMs in languages. The types of CBMs that arise out of such a framework have been used in previous studies (Jarvis, 1997, 2004) and typically include the software applications listed in Section 3 of the
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Computers and Independent Study
Figure 1. A classification framework for CBMs
questionnaire used in this study (see Appendix 1). This includes, among other things, Microsoft Office Suite as well as more language-specific programs. Such CBMs can be seen as tool-based or tutorial-based (Levy, 1997; Taylor, 1980). The former does not have an explicit teaching function; in this sense, the material is neutral and has any number of applications in educational contexts and beyond. In contrast, tutorial-based material has a clear and explicit application to teaching and learning; the material is used in a tutorial capacity for language learning, and such material will frequently, but not always, provide feedback to the student; it can be seen as supplementing and\or replacing some teaching. Inevitably there is, of course, an overlap between these notions with, for example, a word processor that is usually viewed as a tool, but its spell and grammar check have a tutorial role for language students. The Web is usually viewed as a tool that allows students to access information, but some Webbased materials explicitly focus on providing language practice for students and can thus be viewed as having a tutorial function.
While LRCs provide a range of self-study materials, it would be fair to assert (and this is supported by the data in this study) that it is computers and CBMs that dominate. Indeed, arguably they have become the defining characteristic of such centers. In many educational contexts around the globe, it would be difficult to imagine a resource center without CBMs. LRCs are often the showpiece of institutions, and it is the computer facilities and the CBMs they support that provide the kudos. The advantages of LRCs in general and CBMs in particular are frequently discussed in terms of learner strategies, learner training, and learner autonomy (Pujola, 2002; Smith, 2003). Learner training is about becoming an efficient and effective learner by developing appropriate strategies for learning, whereas learner autonomy is concerned with the capacity to take charge of one’s own learning and can be traced back to the Council of Europe’s Modern Languages Project established in 1971, and to the work of Holec (1981) and others (Dickenson, 1987; Little, 1989). Leaner strategies, to a certain extent at least, can be viewed as the realization of these notions, and
Computers and Independent Study
for obvious reasons, resource centers have always been seen as critical to this. In predominantly predigitalized medium days, such centers tended to be referred to as self-access centers, but as digitalized media have become more dominant, this term appears to have been replaced with LRCs, and it is the Internet that allows such digitalized media to be available anywhere and anytime. Whereas self-access centers were often the only place where students could access self-study materials in any quantity or variety, this is clearly no longer the case. However, despite much work in the field, to date there have been very few studies that examine how today’s “digital native students” (Prensky, 2001; Thorne & Payne, 2005), who in many cases have been familiar with digitalized media throughout their entire education and social lives, might actually make use of CBMs in LRCs where so much of the material is also available anywhere and anytime. Nor have there been any studies that examine how the practices and perceptions of foreign language learners of English might differ from learners of other languages, an issue that this study has found to be significant against a background of hegemony, albeit in slight decline, of the English language on the Internet. Indeed, the links between computers and self-study might be characterized as both well-established and problematic. They are well-established in that it is a commonly held view that the two go together. Motteram (1997) notes, “There has always been a perceived relationship between education technology and learner-autonomy [and] this has become increasingly true for computers and self-access” (p. 17). Jarvis (2004) found that many providers of English for academic purposes programs at British universities associated CBMs with self-study contexts. The links are problematic, however, in that there is little in the literature that examines what students actually do in such centers and why; empirical data on the practices and perceptions of learners are noticeably missing, and this chapter is an attempt to address such a shortfall.
thE studY Benson (2001) notes, “The key research questions in regard to technology-based approaches to autonomy are concerned less with the characteristics of new technologies than they are with the learning activities in which they play a role” (p. 141). This has formed the basic premise underlying this investigation. What types of CBMs do students use when they visit the LRC and why? How long will they typically spend in such centers and, in an era where so much material can be accessed anywhere via the Internet, what value do students place on the materials that are made available in an LRC? Are there any significant differences in behavior and perceptions between learners of different languages? And if so, what are the possible explanations and implications?
the Lrc The students in this study had access to the LRC five days a week (Monday through Friday) with typical open hours of 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. The LRC is not open on weekends, but students have access to university computers seven days a week, 24 hours a day. The LRC facilities include 33 computers, a scanner, and two printers, all of which are available for use in an open access area. When not in use for teaching purposes, an additional 48 computers are available in two other rooms. All computers are equipped for multimedia use. Other facilities include a conference interpreting suite, and a viewing area with 20 televisions and 18 videocassette recorders. Seven foreign satellite channels and five British terrestrial channels are available at any time. Recordings of British, French, German, Italian, and Spanish news programs are made every evening and are shelved in the reading area. Twelve audiocassette booths are available for self-access use with additional booths avaialble for self-study when the language laboratory is not being used for teaching purposes. The reading area includes paper-based
Computers and Independent Study
support materials and reference books in a range of languages; the area seats 29 students. The LRC is clearly well equipped and in this respect can be considered state of the art.
MEthodoLogY and QuEstionnairE rationaLE The methodology reported here employs quantitative techniques; a Likert scale questionnaire (see Appendix 1) was distributed to generate data that were then used to identify statistically significant trends. The questionnaire inevitably reflects the software material that is available to students in the specific LRC; however, it is felt that such programs can be considered typical but not necessarily exhaustive of CBMs found in many LRCs in a range of contexts. The questionnaire directly asks “Does this help you with your language learning?” in order to draw on the tool\tutor distinctions and gauge student perspectives. The significance of this distinction lies in the fact that historically one of the important justifications for LRCs is that they allow students to work in a dedicated area on materials that have a specific tutorial role.
Limitations Any study of this type has inevitable limitations, and we have already noted the questionnaire is LRC-specific. Furthermore, it restricts choices and does not allow for more personalized responses. The final section of the questionnaire allows for the possibility of a second phase of research, which it is envisaged will allow for more detailed insights from a smaller cross-section sample. A further qualitative-based study will allow the researcher to get closer to the meanings, views, and feelings of the participants. An additional limitation is that not every participant fully completed every question, and rather than exclude these, a conscious decision was made to include them whenever possible. For
0
this reason, the total number of participants (N) is given, which is then converted into percentages to allow for some comparison. However, the total numbers from some regions are relatively small, and this, combined with inevitable space limitations, has meant that with regard to the contrastive feedback of CBMs (mainly in Section 3 of the questionnaire), only the most numerically significant two groupings of international Asian and British students are presented and included for discussion. The former group was largely learners of English, and the latter group was learners of other languages. A study of this type is bound to produce a large amount of data, and where particularly relevant, this is presented and discussed within the text itself. However, a more detailed breakdown of the views of different groupings is documented in Appendix 1.
participants A total of 105 students participated by completing the questionnaire, which was randomly administered in the LRC over several months during the semester periods and the summer school of the academic year in 2005. Participants came from a range of academic and international backgrounds and included native and non-native speakers (NNS) of English. The two largest groupings came from British language learners studying a variety of languages and Asian learners, primarily from China, studying English. These two groupings represent 63% of the total participants, and with a roughly even split between the two, the sample sizes can be considered statistically significant for comparative purposes. For logistical reasons, participants are classified into regional rather than national groupings. Within the international students from Asia, those from China form 23 out of the total of 30, which includes X2 from Taiwan and X1 from Hong Kong. Of the remaining seven, the breakdown is as follows: X2 Thai, X1 Vietnamese, X1 Korean, X1 Japanese, X1 Pakistani, and X1 Indian.
Computers and Independent Study
Table 1. Program type and nationality background of participants Program Type
Regional Nationality Groupings Asian
British
Other European
BA
3
33
15
4
4
2
UWLP
1
1
1
0
0
1
IFY (EFL)
2
0
0
0
2
0
DME (EFL)
7
0
0
0
0
0
ESP (EFL)
17
0
2
4
6
0
The languages studied are Arabic, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), which included an undergraduate access program in the International Foundation Year (IFY) and a postgraduate access program in the Diploma in Management English (DME). Also included is the more general presessional access program in the form a term-time and summer English Study Programme (ESP). Fifty-eight percent of respondents were on a BA language program (levels 1, 2, or 3), 4% were on the University Wide Language Programme (UWLP) and were therefore taking a BA or BSc in another subject with a language forming a minor 20-credit module of their program in that particular academic year, and the remaining 38% were on a range of EFL access programs. The breakdown of regional backgrounds and programs followed is illustrated in Table 1. This sample represents a wide internationally based cross-section of students. The data are not specifically discussed from the perspective of various program types such as BAs in modern foreign languages or EFL access programs, but it is clear that there is considerable overlap between this and the nationality breakdown, with most British and other European students on a BA program and most international Asian students on an EFL program that would then lead on to any number of programs offered by the university, once they have reached the required level of English. The
Middle Eastern
African
Central and North American
program split between Middle Eastern and African participants is more evenly balanced.
rEsuLts and discussion orientation and Frequency of use of the Lrc Sixty-seven percent reported that the LRC was “very important” to their language studies; with 23% reporting it as “important” and 10% as “quite important,” we can conclude that all students clearly recognize the value of such a center. Furthermore, with 90% of respondents reporting they had been shown around the LRC, and 81% reporting they had specifically been shown the CBMs, we can also conclude that the vast majority of users were in a position to make informed choices about what materials to use when visiting the LRC for self-study. The following bar charts indicate that the students in this sample made frequent use of the LRC and usually spent anything from more than half an hour to more than two hours per visit. The data suggest that students see the LRC as an integral part of their academic studies; in a typical academic week, they make frequent use of it and use it for fairly extensive periods of time. When students visit the LRC, they do not seem to do so to complete a quick task such as sending
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Graph 1. Frequency of visits to the LRC (Q2.3) 60% 53% 50%
40% 36%
30%
20%
10%
7% 4%
0% 4/5 days per week
2/3 days per week
once a week
less than once a week
Frequency
Graph 2. Time usually spent in the LRC (Q2.4) 45%
43%
40%
35%
30% 24%
25%
20%
18% 14%
15%
10%
5% 1% 0% less than1/2 hour
1/2 to 1 hour
1-2 hours
more than 2 hours
it depends
visit hours
a quick e-mail; rather, they appear to block time in order to make extensive use of the facilities available. This suggests that the LRC is viewed as a physical place for focused and intensive work, and to this extent, it would seem to be meeting its primary remit. The study found no differences in this respect among the various groupings.
Materials used When asked to provide feedback on what materials are used, the primacy of CBMs is clear to see from the following bar chart.
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Graph 3. Materials used in the LRC (Q2.5) 100% 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
55% 50%
40% 30% 24% 20% 10%
5%
0% books & worksheets
TV & video
Audio cassettes
Computers
Others
Materials
Self-study materials in paper-based form or analog image and audio are far less popular than the text, hypertext, and digitalized media offered by the computer. It is here, however, where differences among groupings can be seen. Table 2 indicates a number of differences with regard to materials used by various groupings. Explaining these differences is problematic due to the range of variables. With traditional video materials and audiocassettes, availability in a variety of languages and at appropriate levels as well as the suitability of material for self-study is
not equal across languages and programs, which makes any comparisons impossible as we would not be comparing like with like. However, paper-based materials (e.g., books and worksheets) are stocked in the LRC for all languages and all program types, and for this reason, it is worth noting some of the differences. International students from Asia do not make as much use of such material as students from Britain, and it may be the case that such students are from learning backgrounds where they have not previously used such material. It could be that notions of
Table 2. Materials used by various groups Q2.5 Materials used
Books & worksheets
TV & Video
Audio cassettes
Computers
Others
Asian (N:30)
13%
40%
10%
100%
3%
British (N:34)
68%
59%
21%
100%
3%
European (N:18)
83%
83%
39%
100%
6%
African(N:12)
25%
33%
25%
100%
17%
Middle East (N:8)
63%
50%
38%
100%
13%
Central and North American (N:3)
67%
100%
100%
100%
33%
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independent study, particularly using a variety of media that include paper-based ones, are far less familiar to this group than to their British counterparts. In the age of digitalized media, paper-based predecessors may have passed this group by. Are such students behind or ahead? The question that arises for English providers in LRCs is whether they should encourage learners to use a fuller variety of media or not. The answer to this question is beyond our remit here but will clearly depend on one’s view regarding the integration of media in relation to the inevitably diminishing role of paper-based materials.
computer uses Let us turn to the use of CBMs both inside and outside the LRC (in a university library, at home, etc.). What is being used and to what extent is such usage perceived as helping students with their language studies?
Online Dictionaries Online dictionaries are used by a majority (67%) of learners on “every, most or some visits,” and with a combined total of 71% of learners reporting that they help “a lot” (44%) or “to some extent” (27%) with language learning, the value of this material is widely recognized. The assertion by Candlin (1998, p. xiii) that “the study of vocabulary is at the heart of language teaching in terms of … the provision of learning resources” would seem to be true of this particular resource and widely recognized by the vast majority of learners. The data suggest that international Asian learners use and value this material more than British and other European students, some of whom are not convinced that it helps with their language learning. With an average of 62.9% of all students reporting making use of online dictionaries outside the LRC, there would appear to be no major differences between usage in the center and elsewhere.
E-Mail to Contact Tutors and/or Classmates The use of e-mail to contact tutors and classmates can be considered an academic application as opposed to a social application such as contacting friends and family (although there is, of course, an overlap with some students likely to contact classmates for social rather than academic reasons). The frequency of use figures are similar to online dictionaries but, not surprisingly perhaps, fewer students see this application as directly helping with language learning, and it doesn’t have the same tutorial role as online dictionaries. Despite this, however, it is worth noting that 59% of international Asian learners do view this as helping “a lot” or “to some extent” with their language studies compared to only 36% for British students. We will return to a discussion of this when we come to live chatting in the next section, where the different perceptions between the two groupings is even greater. The data on frequency of use indicate that 77% of international Asian students, compared with only 21% of British students, use this material on every, most, or some visits. This is a significant difference and can probably be accounted for in terms of how these groups view this as helping with their language learning. However, there may be other possible explanations. It may be that international Asian learners are more teacher and\or peer group dependent and thus make more frequent use of e-mail to contact these groups; and\or they might be more inhibited about alternative forms of communication such as face-to-face (i.e., asking questions during or after lectures). The advantages of computer-mediated communication (CMC) over face-to-face communication for language learners are well documented (Warschauer, Turbee & Roberts, 1996), and these results tend to suggest that international Asian students recognize such advantages. An implication for HEI practitioners who may sometimes struggle to get their students to communicate
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directly in face-to-face situations might be to encourage more systematic use of e-mails from such students when they have left the lectures and are working independently. As with online dictionaries, we can see that the vast majority of students, irrespective of learning background, reported also making extensive use of this application outside the LRC.
Live Chatting to Friends and/or Family and to Tutors and/or Classmates The value attached to synchronous e-mails or live chatting in social contexts is generally more or less the same as it is for academic contexts. However, if we compare the frequency of use, some interesting and potentially significant variations can be noted. A total of 81% of users reported never or only occasionally using this facility in academic contexts when visiting the LRC, compared to 65% for social contexts. Chatting in LRCs is not found to be common practice, and perhaps oddly, it is particularly uncommon when applied to an academic context. Arguably, such chatting is inevitably social in nature, but it is also almost certainly the case that the longestablished tradition of lecturers posting drop-in surgery times on their office doors has not been extended to virtual meetings. As with asynchronous e-mails, there are considerable differences among learner groupings in terms of the value attached to such activity, which is particularly evident with the two groups that have formed the primary basis for comparison here. British students value chatting in order to help with language learning far less than their international Asian counterparts. It is worth stressing here that international Asian learners are largely reporting on their studies of the English language, with British students reporting on their studies of another language, and this factor is the most likely explanation for such huge differences. But why is this and what are the possible implications?
The significance of live or synchronous CMC cannot be understated, and it has a pedagogical perspective for all language students; for NNS, it has an added sociopolitical element. From the pedagogical perspective, Freiermuth and Jarrell (2006) have shown that this activity among NNS reduces anxiety, improves output, and adds to learner control. These findings have been supported in a number of other studies (Kitade, 2000; Payne & Whitney, 2002). LRC providers may perhaps discourage such activity because it is viewed as not helping with language study and distracting from more academic application of CBMs. However, in light of the research evidence cited previously and the perspectives of the international Asian students participating in this study, this is a view that should be challenged. Indeed, LRC providers perhaps ought to be finding ways to encourage meaningful chatting in the target language in self-study contexts for all students as well as finding ways to bring lectures on-board in terms of posting availability in virtual contexts. From the sociopolitical perspective, CMC in particular and the Internet more generally raise a number of challenges and issues for languages in terms of how they classify their NNS, the English language itself, and their resulting support programs. Graddol (2000) found that more than 80% of information stored on the Internet is in English, and that there are now more non-native than native users of English in the world. Much of the communication among such users is likely to be conducted over the Internet and in English. The use of and the perception of CMC by the NNS in this study lends support to the suggestion made by Jarvis (2006) that it is no longer helpful to classify such NNS of English as “foreign” (EFL) or “second” (ESL) language learners. Jarvis points out that this newly emerging use of CMC is in English as a lingua franca and argues that it is time to embrace a more democratic notion of shared ownership of language from an English as global (EGL) or international (EIL) language perspective. Furthermore, it is also noted that this change has
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profound implications for the type of language being generated (netspeak) and its conventions (netiquette). Despite some important work in this area (Crystal, 2001), further research would help to better inform the broader academic community who may be unclear as to what constitutes acceptably correct English in academic discourse of this type; it is suggested that appropriateness over and above grammatical accuracy will be an important element of any such study. The data clearly indicate that international students from Asia make more frequent use of synchronous e-mail for both social and academic purposes and view such uses as helping with their English language learning; this contrasts considerably with British learners of other languages. As with other CBMs, all students report making use of this synchronous e-mail outside the LRC with international students from Asia making significantly greater use than other groups.
The World Wide Web The questions for this section were formulated so as to obtain responses to three types of CBMs available on the Web. Web sites that provide language practice exercises have been characterized as “dedicated Web sites” in that they are designed specifically for language learners, in contrast to “nondedicated Web sites” that have no explicit language teaching or learning role (Jarvis, 2002). The former have a clear and explicit tutorial function, while the latter serve as a resource for authentic language material, be it academic (material used for study purposes) or personal (any material used for nonacademic purposes). In both cases, such Web sites contain authentic language that hasn’t been scripted or simplified for the learner. The responses to these three questions about Web material are perhaps predictable. Dedicated Web sites with a tutorial function are used by most students and widely recognized as helping with language learning; this is also true, but to slightly varying degrees, for Web sites with academic information.
There appear to be some significant differences between British and international students from Asia regarding Web sites for personal information. Such sites are clearly used more frequently by international students from Asia and are seen as having more of a language learning value. This is probably explained in terms of the hegemony of the English language on the Web, and once again, as previously suggested, this contributes to the case for a reformulation of the EFL\ESL paradigm. When Web sites are developed anywhere in the world, if they are going to have a global presence, the language is English, and yet such sites may well be developed by and read by a majority of NNS of the language. With regard to usage outside the LRC, students do not appear to differentiate between certain usages as being more relevant to non-LRC contexts, and this would seem, on the surface at least, to partially undermine the argument for an LRC as a unique place for self-study. The World Wide Web is being used everywhere and taken in isolation; arguably, there is no reason why HEIs should provide unique locations for activities that can be conducted in a university library or from home. We will return to this later.
Library Catalogs and Other Electronic Resources This type of material is clearly resource-based rather than having any explicit or even implicit tutorial function. In this sense, it is a means to an end and is thus used less frequently by all learners. That less use is made of such resources outside the LRC is probably because some of these resources can only be accessed on campus and not from home. It is also worth noting that international students appear to place a much higher value on the extent to which such resources help with language learning, and, as with Web sites, this is probably because the sites for accessing as well as the material being accessed is largely in English.
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Blackboard to Develop Independent Language Learning Blackboard (http://www.blackboard.com/) is the HEI’s Virtual Learning Environment (VLE), and all language students have access to a site aimed at Developing Independent Language Learning (DILL). The material posted on this site includes generic study skills suggestions, administrative program material, as well as generic and language and\or course-specific discussion forums. Some courses require students to proactively engage in DILL by including an assessment element. DILL can be accessed anywhere and at any time, although some of the suggestions will encourage students to make use of non-CBMs, which are sometimes only available in the LRC. The vast majority of students, irrespective of nationality grouping, appears to make regular use of this facility and to value it in their language studies. With just more than 30% of all students using this outside the LRC, it would seem that students are, perhaps understandably, associating DILL with the LRC. However, one of the big advantages of VLEs is that by definition they are not locationspecific, and a challenge might be to encourage students to recognize this by making more frequent use of DILL beyond the LRC.
The Word Processor, PowerPoint, and Excel Course work assessment in languages, as in many other academic subjects, is almost invariably by word-processed assignment, which is clearly reflected in the word processing data. Presentations that require PowerPoint and dissertations that may involve data collection and collation using a package such as Excel are far less common, which is reflected here. The word processor is widely used and highly valued. From the data, it would seem to be serving a dual purpose as both a tool for the writing of assignments and as a tutor in assisting in this through spell and grammar checks.
Furthermore, as one might expect, it is by far the most widely used application by all students outside the resource center. The resource center is seen as just one of several places where such CBMs might be used.
Can for Oral Summary Work and Other Computer-Assisted Language Learning Materials Can 8 (http://www.can8.com/) is somewhat atypical of all the CBMs discussed here in that it is an example of dedicated authoring software that is designed for languages, practitioner’s input, and then track responses to exercises. Furthermore, it is location-specific in that students must access this software in the LRC, and it is also programspecific in that it provides oral summary work for level 3 (third -ear) BA language students. Other computer-assisted materials are comprised largely of commercially dedicated packages, some of which are only available from the resource center, while others are also available on campus. In many ways, such packages are the idealized rationale for CBMs in LRCs in that they are location-specific and explicitly tutorial-based. The positive feedback can certainly be seen as an endorsement for such material being made available in such centers. However, it is also clear that with a program such as Can 8, it is important to provide a consistent provision across all languages; the few students who reported that it didn’t help with their language learning were all studying the same modern foreign language, and it is possible that they were not getting the same type of materials to work on as their colleagues; this would seem to be an issue of staff training, an important factor but one that is beyond our remit here. In recent years, there has been a shift away from such tutorial resources, as they were regarded as being boring, mechanical, and based on outdated behaviorist notions of pedagogy, sometimes characterized as “drill and kill.” However, Hubbard and Siskin (2004) have argued for a reassessment
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of this shift, and the results of this study suggest that from the student perspective, such material is highly valued.
Uses Inside and Outside the LRC We have already compared specific CBM usage inside the LRC with those elsewhere, and we have noted that in general there are similar patterns of behavior irrespective of location and that where differences do occur, there may be pragmatic explanations. The following graphs provide collated totals for uses outside the LRC across languages and between our two main groups of language learners.
oVEraLL iMpLications This study has produced a number of findings that undermine a view, sometimes heard among sceptical practitioners, that students do not use computers for the purposes for which they were intended when visiting an LRC. The results clearly suggest that students are using CMBs in the LRC and beyond in order to specifically develop their language skills. There is usually a direct correlation between frequency of use (“some, most, or every visit”) and the extent to which the material Graph 4. Computer uses outside the LRC (Q4, N=97)
is viewed as helping with language learning (“a lot” or “to some extent”). Unsurprising as these findings might be, they are nevertheless worth recording; when taken as a whole, the data provide sound evidence for language providers who are looking to set up and\or further develop such facilities. The data suggest that language providers should strongly resist any pressure to cut LRC provisions on the basis of an argument that they are not being used effectively or that they are not valued by today’s students. However, a number of more problematic issues do arise out of this study. There is indeed frequently little to differentiate student use of CBMs for self-study purposes inside the LRC with their use outside of it, except where access means that materials are not available; any case for continued provision surely needs to go beyond the argument that students use and like LRCs. The argument that there is little rationale for an LRC when so much of the material can be and is being used elsewhere (i.e., at home or in a library) needs to be addressed. By way of addressing this, it is worth noting that the function of the LRC is not exclusively to provide CBMs; many are also used for teaching purposes as well as providing a range of other facilities such as paper-based materials and satellite TV, and it is the integration of functions that gives them added value.
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Graph 5. Computer uses outside the LRC by British and international Asian students (Q4)
Students clearly do appreciate and use CBMs for self-study purposes over and above other media in LRCs, and when these materials are provided in such location-specific places, students make sensible use of them; for example, by blocking their time and engaging in activities that are perceived as helping with their learning. To this extent, LRCs provide the ideal environment for developing learner autonomy. The argument here is that in combination with everything else that an LRC has to offer, the physical location actually encourages such focused practices. It is thus suggested that CBMs in LRCs need to be seen as offering more than the sum that their individual parts might be able to offer elsewhere, which is particularly evident where students are specifically encouraged to focus their activity, as seen with the DILL initiative. Although there is sometimes little to differentiate the practices and perceptions of learners from different backgrounds, where differences do occur, lessons perhaps can be learned, first in terms of the role of English as a global or inter-
national language for accessing and sending and receiving information and how the profession of language practitioners needs to stop viewing international students as foreign or second language learners. Second, many international students do not appear to recognize the long-established distinction between CBMs as being either tool or tutorial-based. From the point of view of the many learners, particularly NNS, it would seem, perhaps understandably, that working with all kinds of materials on the computer is generally viewed as helping with language learning. Where this is sometimes less evident, for reasons we have already discussed, is with British students learning a language that is not English. But there are lessons here that can be learned from international students and their experiences of dealing with the language of the Internet. The hegemony of English on the Internet, although still prevalent, has recently been found to have decreased (Graddol, 2006), and with this there has been a corresponding increase in other languages. This may provide an ideal opportunity for English
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learners of other languages to embrace a wider range of opportunities for language learning and development, which many international students appear to have already recognized in their study of English. With some CBMs, such as live chatting, it may be that practitioners and LRC providers should find ways to encourage more proactive engagement with such material. There are good reasons for viewing the use of CMC in the target language as helping with, rather than distracting from, language learning. Furthermore, the view of international students that a wider range of CBMs and not just tutorialbased ones help with their language learning may help reopen a much discussed differentiation between language learning and language acquisition that dates back to the work of Krashen (1982). In an electronic-based environment, language students have access to a wide range of authentic material and the means to contact others via CMC; there may be no explicit learning, but we have seen that some learners do view such activities as helping with their learning. Tutorial-based CBMs allow for focused, conscious, and explicit learning. In contrast, tool-based CBMs, frequently in an online environment, lend themselves to less focused, unconscious but implicit language acquisition through exposure to and use of the target language. It is beyond our scope here to fully develop this potentially useful differentiation, but it may be that notions of e-second language acquisition and e-second language learning can provide us with a framework within which to conduct further research.
concLusion This study has generated a considerable amount of quantitative data; it has painted a generally positive picture of student practices and perceptions but has also raised a number of issues for further consideration and investigation. Further, more qualitative oriented research would certainly
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contribute toward identifying individual reasons and thinking behind choices. Kern (2006) observes that “the complexity of the issues involved in technology and language learning is pushing us to … understand the effectiveness in terms of the specifics of what people do with computers, how they do it, and what it means to them” (page 189). Despite some advancement here, it remains the case that the role of CBMs in relation to LRCs and issues of learner autonomy remains an underexplored area.
rEFErEncEs Benson, P. (2001). Autonomy in language learning. Harlow: Longman Pearson Education. Candlin, C. N. (1988). Preface. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching. New York: Longman. Crystal, D. (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dickenson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Freiermuth, M., & Jarrell, D. (2006). Willingness to communicate: Can on-line chat help? International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 162, 190–213. Graddol, D. (2000). The future of English? A guide to forecasting the popularity of the English language in the 21st century (2nd edition). London: The British Council. Graddol, D. (2006). English next. London: The British Council. Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon. Hubbard, P., & Siskin, C. (2004). Another look at tutorial CALL. ReCall, 16(2), 448–461.
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Jarvis, H. (1997). The role of IT in English for academic purposes: A survey of provisions on presessional courses at British universities. ReCall, 9(1), 43–51. Jarvis, H. (2002). Towards a classification making sense of the Internet in language teaching and teacher development. The Teacher Trainer, 16(2), 15–19. Jarvis, H. (2004). Investigating the classroom applications of computers on EFL courses at higher education institutions. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 3(2), 111–137. Jarvis, H. (2006). Issues of computer-mediated communication for English language teaching. British Journal of Education Technology, 37(4), 643–645. Kern, R. (2006). Perspectives on technology in learning and teaching languages. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 183–210. Kitade, K. (2000). L2 learners’ discourse and SLA theories in CMC: Collaborative interaction in Internet chat. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 13(2), 143–166.
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5). Pujola, J. (2002). CALLing for help: Researching language learning strategies using help facilities in Web-based multimedia program. ReCALL, 14(2), 235–262. Smith, B. (2003). The use of communication strategies in computer-mediated communication. System, 31(1), 29–53. Taylor, R.P. (Ed.). (1980). The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee. New York: Teacher’s College Press. Thorne, S., & Payne, J. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, Internet-mediated expressions, and language education. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 371–397. Warschauer, M., Turbee, L., & Roberts, B. (1996). Computer learning networks and student empowerment. System. 24/1, 1–14.
kEY tErMs
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Computer-Based Materials: All software programs that run on a computer.
Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning. New York: Oxford University Press.
Computer-Mediated Communication: The use of computers as a medium of communication among people.
Little, D. (Ed.). (1989). Self-access systems for language learning: A practical guide. Dublin: Authentik. Motteram, G. (1997). Learner autonomy and the Web. In V. Darleguy et al. (Eds.), Education technology in language learning: Theoretical considerations and practical applications (pp. 17–24). Lyons: INSA (National Institute of Applied Sciences. Payne, J.S., & Whitney, P.J. (2002). Developing L2 oral proficiency through synchronous CMC: Output, working memory, and interlanguage development. CALICO Journal, 20(1), 7–32.
E-Acquisition: Unconscious learning in an electronic environment. E-Learning: Conscious learning in an electronic environment. Learner Autonomy: A capacity to take charge of one’s own learning. Language Resource Centers: Physical places equipped with materials that can be used for self-study purposes by language students. Electronic-based materials are likely to dominate such centers.
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Self-Access Centers: Physical places equipped with materials that can be used for self-study purposes by language students. Paper-based materials are likely to dominate such centers.
appEndiX 1. QuEstionnairE (indicatiVE) and raW data For coMputErs in Lrc Language resource center (Lrc) student Questionnaire Dear School of Languages Student, The purpose of this questionnaire is to investigate the ways in which you choose to use computers in the LRC. Please complete it honestly. For this first stage of the investigation, you are not asked to give your name, and the information provided will not be attributed to you personally. However, a second stage of this investigation is to meet a sample of students and interview them about how they use the LRC, and a third stage will look at as many overall course grades as possible. Please indicate whether you are willing to be interviewed and/or have your grades made available to me in the further information section at the end of this questionnaire. Huw Jarvis EFL Lecturer and Researcher in the Higher Education Research Centre 1. You and your course: (check one) ___ BA -> ________________________________________________________ (insert degree title) ___ University-wide Language Program -> __________________________________ (insert language) ___ International Foundation Year (IFY) ___ Diploma in Management English (DME) ___ English Study Program (ESP)
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When did you start studying on the above course? _______________________ (insert month and year) What is your nationality? ____________________________________________________ 2. The LRC 2.1 How important is the LRC to your language studies? (check one) ____ very important ____ important ____ quite important ____ not very important ____not important 2.2 Have you been shown what is available at the LRC? (check one) ___Yes ___ No
2.2.1 Were you shown the computer-based materials available for language learning? ____ Yes ____ No
2.3 In a typical week during the semester, how often do you visit the LRC? ( check one) ____ 4 or 5 days per week ____ 2 or 3 days per week ____ once a week ____ less than once a week 2.4 For each visit, how long do you usually spend in the LRC? ( check one) ____less than ½ an hour____½ to 1 hour____1-2 hours____more than 2 hours____ it depends 2.5 Which materials do you usually use when you visit the LRC? ( check as few or as many as you want) _____Books and worksheets_____TV and video_____Audiocassettes _____Computers _____Others (please specify __________________________________________) 3. Computers in the LRC
4. Which of the above do you use outside the LRC? (e.g., at home, in the library, etc.) Please check () each item that you use. ___ 3.1 ___ 3.2 ____ 3.3 ____ 3.4 ____ 3.5 ____ 3.6 ____ 3.7 ____ 3.8 ____ 3.9 ____ 3.10 ____ 3.11 ___ 3.12 ____ 3.13 ____ 3.14 ____ 3.15
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Table A1. Indicative table used in the questionnaire computer uses
Circle one number to complete the sentence: “I use computers in this way on ___ to the LRC.” 1=every visit, 2=most visits, 3=some visits, 4=occasional visits OR 5= I never use computers in this way when I visit the LRC
. Online dictionaries
Does this help you with language learning? Circle one number. “It helps ___” 1=a lot, 2= to some extent, 3=a little, 4=very little, 5=It doesn’t help OR 6=I am not sure if it helps my language learning
results
1) a lot (%)
2) to some extent (%)
3) a little (%)
4) Very little (%)
5) it doesn’t help (%)
6) i am not sure if it helps … (%)
22
28
17
17
95
44
27
14
4
3
7
0
29
0
0
british (33)
0
32
13
24
28
29
7
24
21
28
10
7
9
asian (30)
29
0
0
british (34)
33
4) occasional visits (%)
17 asian (30)
3) some visits (%)
Does this help you with language learning? N=
2) Most visits (%)
computer uses (n= )
1) Every visit (%)
5) i never use …in this way (%)
Table A2.
3.1 online dictionaries (103)
3.2 E-mail to contact tutors and/ or classmates (104) 98
3.3 Live chats with friends and /or family (102) 10
11
15
17
48
92
12
14
15
11
26
22
asian (30)
29
0
british (31)
0
28
0
3.4 Live chats with tutors and /or classmates (103) 5
7
7
23
58
90
11
18
10
13
28
20
asian (30)
0
0
29
0
british (33)
0
0
26
0
29
26
32
2
1
3.5 the WWW to access sites with exercises to practice language (104) 12
2
96
46
34
8
8
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0
0
0
29
0
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british (33)
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32
0
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3.6 the WWW to access academic information (102) 20
46
28
4
2
95
44
37
11
4
2
2
asian (30)
0
0
0
30
0
0
british (33)
0
31
0
0
24
25
28
16
7
94
26
19
21
11
14
10
asian (29)
0
29
0
0
british (34)
31
0
3.7 the WWW to access personal information (104)
3.8 Library catalogs and other electronic resources (103)
9
17
37
24
14
93
19
35
22
10
11
3
asian (29)
29
0
0
0
0
0
british (33)
0
30
0
17
22
28
13
19
92
29
23
22
11
7
9
asian (29)
0
29
0
0
0
0
british (33)
0
31
0
0
0
25
39
25
9
2
97
47
28
11
6
2
5
asian (30)
0
30
0
0
0
british (34)
33
0
3.9 Blackboard to develop independent language learning (98)
3.10 the word processor to write assignments (102)
3.11 PowerPoint to work on presentations (103) 8
4
21
31
36
94
21
17
14
15
17
16
asian (30)
0
30
british (33)
0
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52
88
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3.12 Excel to present and collate data (98)
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35
18
18
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17
53
35
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12
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0
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0
0
1
0
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0
0
0
0
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0
9
0
0
0
18
41
27
7
7
50
54
24
20
0
0
2
asian (25)
0
0
0
23
0
0
0
0
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10
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3.14 computer-assisted language learning materials (56)
3.15 other computer applications (17) 6
24
24
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35
14
7
64
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7
14
7
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Chapter XXIV
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy Renata Chylinski Monash University, Australia Ria Hanewald La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
abstract This chapter reports on a study undertaken on the impact of pedagogical and technological innovations in language teaching and language learning, with a special focus on creating online institutional environments to support teachers’ autonomy in computer assisted language learning (CALL). This study took place at MUELC, a self-funded teaching institution that belongs to a network of Australian universities offering English Language Courses for Overseas Students (ELICOS). Significant expansion in student enrollments has resulted in programs across four locations with all language teachers involved in CALL delivery. Fostering and supporting teacher autonomy became the key premise for the creation of multifaceted in-house CALL support initiatives, one of them an online portal containing resources for teaching and learning as well as tools for reflection on practice and opportunities for professional development. Language teachers have been building this intranet portal site using the theoretical frameworks of practitioner-based inquiry and organizational change management. The evaluation of this study reflects the duality of the research aims; namely, the features of the developed product and the learning process of the teachers involved. This may be of value to other language institutions embarking on similar online projects.
Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
introduction The research site is a university English language center established in 1988, initially with about 80 to 100 students. The first CALL classroom was fitted in 1992 with a CALL specialist employed to promote the value of computers in language learning. Since then, the center has been offering weekly language sessions in a computerized environment that aims to equip students with computer literacy and lifelong learning skills to assist them in diverse sociolinguistic contexts. Increased student enrollment resulted in a serious shortage of specialist CALL teachers, ensuing a conscious decision to involve all language teachers in the delivery of CALL. In order to achieve consistency and quality of CALL delivery across programs, language teachers needed to be adequately prepared and supported. This was (and continues to be) achieved by removing barriers to using technology for teaching and, specifically, through organizational efforts supporting teacher autonomy. As a direct result of these activities, teachers’ attitudes to CALL have become more positive. CALL in-house training, support programs, and other means of removing barriers to teaching with technology have been a major contributing factor to this change (Chylinski, 2005). The current study has directly evolved from these organizational initiatives aimed at supporting teachers in CALL delivery and professional development. Due to continuous expansion, the center now operates on four campuses. This necessitated some of the support structures for CALL programs to become independent of their physical locations. The main project aim was thus to create a common space online that would centralize access to CALL materials, ensure consistency of information available to all campuses, and assist with professional development in CALL, thus supplementing current work practices. The other aim was to record all factors that influenced the instructional design process and record thoughts,
feelings, actions, and behaviors of the research members. The qualitative, practitioner-based inquiry approach chosen for this study meant all these factors could be meaningfully interpreted.
background There is a large number of acronyms and terms used to describe teaching and learning with new technologies. For this chapter, the term Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) was chosen, as it emphasizes “the whole range of possible roles the computer could play in language learning” (Levy, 1997, p. 82) and because this is the term by which computer-aided instruction is referred to at the language center in question. The theoretical grounding and literature for this chapter focus on professional development in CALL informed by the fields of second language acquisition, adult learning theories, Information and Communication Technology in Education (ICTE), diffusion of innovation theory, and action research methodology. Figure 1 depicts this chapter’s focus, main knowledge fields, subthemes, and how they intertwine.
history of caLL with some insights to teacher professional development Warschauer and Healey (1998) identified three phases of CALL in their overview of the use of computers for language teaching in the last 30 years. They observed gradual but irregular transition from the behavioristic phase of CALL through to the communicative and, most recently, its integrative phase. An alternative and, we would like to argue, more encompassing attempt at the analysis of the history of CALL is provided by Stephen Bax in his paper titled CALL—Past, Present and Future (Bax, 2003). Rather than describing phases, Bax provides three approaches
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 1. Literature focus, themes, and subthemes and their overlap
Learning theory -
Constructivism Autonomous Learning/Teaching Adult Learning Principles Teacher Training in CALL
research methodology
second Language acquisition theories (sLa) -
Communicative Approach Intercultural Approach Integrated Approach
-
this study: computer assisted Language Learning (caLL) teachers
information and communication technologies in Education (ictE) -
Practitioner Enquiry (Action Research)
diffusion of innovation -
Organizational Change Professional Development
Instructional Design Learning Communities
to CALL teaching; namely, restricted, open, and integrated. He argues that this helps to alleviate confusion with time periods and methodologies and allows for a better description of teaching and learning practices. Leaving these discussions aside (not because they are unimportant but because analyzing them is beyond the scope of this chapter), the following section will briefly review developments in CALL with particular emphasis on language teachers and their professional relationship with computer technologies. Initially, CALL was influenced by behaviorist theories of learning in the 1950s, with repetitive language exercises based on drill and practice courseware. During the 1960s and 1970s, mainframe computers were used, with computers being seen as a patient tutor able to give instantaneous feedback for repeated vocabulary drills, grammar exercises, and translations. These were relatively easy to program by early CALL software develop-
ers, as they utilized set instructional sequences. Each step required a learner response, followed by computer feedback (Ellis, 1997). Professional development for CALL teachers focused on computer operating skills, labeled by Jackson (1971) as the defect view because this development focused on helping teachers overcome deficiencies in their computing skills. This remedial type of professional development was mechanical and consisted of a singular event focusing on the use of the technique, whether it was appropriate from a pedagogical point of view or not. According to Warschauer and Healey (1998), the introduction of microcomputers and, more importantly, the shift at the theoretical and pedagogical levels toward the communicative approach, allowed for the second phase of CALL to commence. Dissatisfied with behaviorism and realizing that learning was not just a stimulus-response reaction, researchers actively investigated other theoretical frameworks. The concept of individualistic
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
learning began influencing educational practice and gradually became the dominant learning theory of the time (Jones & Mercer, 1993). This concept had implications for software design and evaluation of computer-based classroom learning and created a problematic relationship between language learning theories and educational computer programs (Jones & Mercer, 1993). This significant pedagogical shift resulted in moving from the paradigm of an instructional approach toward a collaborative and facilitative approach. This move has been reflected in the terminology of the field: language instruction was now seen as language acquisition, and the term foreign language teaching and learning changed to second language acquisition (Krashen, 1982). In CALL, skill practice was provided through courseware that offered language games, paced reading, and text reconstruction. These choices were giving learners numerous options, decision power, and interaction in discovering the correct answers. The previous view on computers as tutors was reconceptualized, with the computer being seen as a stimulus and a tool. Software was used to provoke discussion and critical thinking as well as to teach language aspects through the use of word processors and their features (Warschauer, 1996). The previous defect approach to professional development of CALL teachers gradually lost its appeal since it emphasized the latest educational fads and prescriptive techniques concentrating on simple or behavioral aspects of teaching. Instead, the growth approach (Jackson, 1971) was observed more frequently. This approach recognizes that teachers are continuous learners who desire to solve instructional and organizational problems and wish to be involved in the decision-making processes. The next historical phase of CALL was facilitated by advances in technological developments; namely, multimedia computers and the Internet. Numerous media (e.g., text, graphics, sound, animation, video) could now be accessed and used
0
by the learner through the keyboard or the mouse, or by listening through headphones or speaking into a microphone. Authentic on-screen environments allowed application of all four macro skills within one activity while giving learners control over the pace and path of their learning. This was achieved through revising or skipping specific parts as desired and by managing the levels of difficulty. The main focus of instruction was not merely on the content and language forms but also increasingly on learning strategies. However, the quality of available programs, combined with technological limitations, prevented hypermedia having a significant effect on language learning (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). In contrast, the expansion of electronic communication and the World Wide Web (WWW) in the late 1990s offered a cheaper, easier, and more convenient means for using language across all aspects of the curriculum. Initially, materials on the Internet were textbooks, grammar exercises, and collections of random activities. Using e-mail to share messages, documents, graphics, sounds, and video files offered other meaningful, authentic, and immediate language learning opportunities (Warschauer & Healey, 1998). Currently, the immediate access to authentic materials in the target language on the WWW (i.e., newspapers, radio broadcasts, podcasts) and opportunity for publication of texts and multimedia materials by learners (i.e., blogs, wikis, and digital storytelling) created by the Web 2.0 social software, facilitates an even more communicative approach to using CALL. No longer restrained by difficult and time-consuming authoring shells and the static, self-contained courses on CD-ROMs, language professionals increasingly use these new, user-friendly technologies in their teaching (Godwin-Jones, 2003). Current technologies have opened up possibilities for creative development of language learning and teaching materials, thus enhancing and also necessitating increased teacher autonomy.
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
supporting teacher autonomy through an online caLL portal As previously stated, MUELC is committed to CALL teacher support and provides a range of in-house initiatives in this area. These aim for teacher autonomy through structured professional development opportunities, provision of relevant teaching resources, flexibility in the choice of materials and methods, and opportunities for reflection on practice. In this study, the MUELC research team wanted to test whether providing all these support functions through an online portal was at all possible or desirable, and whether it would aid CALL teachers’ autonomy.
research aims and Questions The key axiom, frequenting all practitionerled inquiries is the identification of a problem emerging from the tension between research and practice (Dick, 1999). Similarly, the context of this research was not purely academic but also pragmatic. The aim was to involve teachers at the language center in creating a Web-based CALL teacher portal that would support teacher autonomy through professional development provisions, transparent access to resources, and reflection on CALL practice. The overarching research question was “Can online portal support teacher autonomy in CALL?” with the following three lines of inquiry: 1.
2.
3.
In what ways do teachers feel that the Webbased CALL teacher environment can assist them in their professional development in CALL? Can access to resources, from the teacher’s point of view, be improved with this online environment? Do teachers feel the need for professional discussion and collaboration in CALL ? Would they reflect on their CALL practice using the new Web-based environment?
The graphic representation of these aims in Figure 2 demonstrates how they evolved from contemporary CALL support structures at MUELC (Chylinski, 2005) and their placement within the theoretical and pedagogical assumptions of teacher autonomy.
research Methodology and supporting Literature The emphasis of this study was on instigating a process of positive change and on the recording of factors influencing the research and the research subjects. Most fitting for this purpose was action research, defined by Geoffrey Mills as follows: [A]ny systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers to gather information about the ways that their particular school operates, how they teach, and how well their students learn. The information is gathered with the goals of gaining insight, developing reflective practice, effecting positive changes in the school environment and on educational practices in general, and improving student outcomes. (Mills, 2003, p.4) Action-research, or practitioner-based inquiry, usually assumes participation and is occupationally relevant and responsive (Dick, 1999). Participation of the teaching staff was of significant importance during this project; team members were expected not only to use and evaluate an online environment but also to engage in its design right from the conceptual stage. Their active involvement had better potential to deliver a product that would meet CALL teachers’ needs. It was also hoped that a collaborative and collegial exchange of ideas would foster greater understanding of ICT in language education, thus contributing to teachers’ professional development. This intention was in line with the views of Moon (2000) on professional reflection as an effective learning tool for practitioners.
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 2. Research aims in relation to current MUELC practice and underpinning theory theoretical grounding
current workplace practice
project aim
An autonomous teacher…
Environments in support of teacher autonomy in CALL
Online environment that supports teacher autonomy in CALL
… possesses conscious knowledge of the subject matter, paradigms, methodologies, and approaches
Assistance to teachers in prof. development in CALL: inductions team-teaching mentoring workshops
… explores and makes choices based on professional assessment of various class and institutional factors
“Allowing” for choice making: flexible curriculum range of materials improved access -
Resources area: - curricula - materials - resources - activities designed by other teachers
Encouraging/facilitating discussion and exchange of ideas
Reflection on practice area: discussion board blogs
… is critically reflective
The choice of action research for this particular project was further supported by two other bodies of literature; namely, managing organizational change and instructional design. The literature on managing change at educational institutions stresses the importance of staff involvement in the process of instigating change. Such involvement of colleagues increases the ownership, improves understanding of the process of change, and builds a critical mass of change agents (Eckel & Kezar, 2003). The literature on instructional design strengthens this view and proves that in order for multimedia projects to be successful, collaboration should occur between experts of the content and experts of multimedia design (Clark & Mayer, 2002; Sinclair, Alfred & Smith, 2002). Researchers also advise against educational technology
-
Prof. Development area: tutorials “How to” instructions tips for teaching theories
projects being totally dependent on individuals or a few impassioned professionals. Such projects are usually short-lived because they are not entrenched in the work culture of the place (Sheely,Veness & Rankine, 2001). The design of the CALL Teacher Portal research was informed by a wide range of literature on Instructional Design Models (IDMs) and specifically by works of Andrews & Goodson (1991), Sims (2000), and Sheely, et al. (2001). Gustafson and Branch (2001) surveyed instructional development models and categorized them according to scope and purpose into Classroom Oriented Models, Product Oriented Models, and Systems Oriented Models. In accordance with their definition, the design of the CALL Portal is likely to fall into the Systems Oriented Models focusing on analysis of a large environment and assuming
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Table 1. Research and action elements at various stages of the project
Project Stages
Stage 1 Conceptualization
Research Process People (as researchers and adopters) Who is involved? How do they work? What paradigm do they associate with?
Action Product Online Portal (as a learning environment) What is its purpose/rationale?
What is their educational context? What are their skills, knowledge, and theoretical framework? What do they want to achieve?
Stage 2 Platform Design
Who are the users? What are their needs? What is their IT context (expertise, access, and support)? What is their CALL context (expertise, access, and support)?
What will the interactivity constructs be? What media should be deployed? What is the publishing model? What are the quality assurance procedures?
Stage 3 Project Evaluation
Do users feel the product meets their needs?
Is the product being used as intended?
a large scope. The articulation of such a model usually encompasses the process of theoretical conceptualization (Conceptual Stage/Analysis); the process of designing of a platform (Product Design/Prototype); the process of production, dissemination, and adoption (Development, Dissemination/Adoption); and finally, the process of evaluation. These stages, according to Sims, rarely occur in a chronological manner. His dynamic I3D model (Interactive Instruction Influence Model) describes particularly well project management and quality control practices at MUELC (Sims, 1997). An important element of the way the design of the CALL Teacher Portal was managed was the context analysis (added as an important ingredient of IDMs to the analysis stage by Tessmer and Richey in 1997). Focusing on context allowed
us to analyze learner background, incentives, resources, organizational culture, and available group support. The CALL Teacher intranet has been designed to provide for, among other functions, teachers’ professional development in CALL. Therefore, the quality of the interactivity constructs have been of significant importance to the project. Designing interactivity may seem to belong more to a world of computer games. However, it plays a prominent role in all instructional design environments. There is more to interactivity than just the physical interaction with software. Sims (2000) seconds Aldrich, Rogers and Scaife (1998) to move “the emphasis away from the level of physical interactivity at the interface (i.e. button pressing and mouse clicking) to a consideration of cognititve interactivity (i.e. learning activities which are supported when interacting with
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
the software)” (p.331). Sims (2000) provides an in-depth analysis of interactivity through taxonomies and levels while defining four dimensions of interactive constructs: interactivity and learners, interactivity and content, interactivity and pedagogy; and interactivity and context. It is within those four dimensions that the interactivity constructs of the CALL Teacher intranet will be discussed later in this chapter.
account of the process and data summary The Action Research Team consisted of six teaching English as a second or other language (TESOL) experts with various degrees of CALL experience and proficiency. The selection process was completely voluntary. Data were gathered in several ways: detailed notes from the team meetings with verbatim quotes from participants, journal entries, questionnaires, and field documents (archived CALL reports and in-house publications). In keeping with action research approaches to data analysis, once data collection was complete, a theoretical framework was used to enable analysis and evaluation. All data were categorized and evaluated according to the conceptualization of the action research process in relation to teaching a language with ICT and teacher autonomy frameworks. The research took six months in all, with the main part of the project having three distinctive stages: conceptual design, platform design, and project evaluation. On average, team members worked one hour a fortnight over four months on the main research component. There were nine meetings in all. The purpose of these meetings was to set an action plan and decide on priorities, read excerpts of relevant literature and discuss its understanding, explore thoughts and feelings as reflected in the journals, and review the data gathered from previous meetings to clarify accuracy if necessary.
The main characteristics of action research are, as its name suggests, action and research (Dick, 1999). The action aspect of this research was to create an online environment that empowers CALL teachers, while the research aspect was to instigate and evaluate the learning process and to reflect on practice with a view of professional and organizational growth. During the first stage of the project (Conceptualization), the team engaged in discussion of research background, context, and aims, while reflecting on their reasons for joining the action research group. Responses revealed that all team members regarded this as an opportunity for professional development and wanted to make a contribution and be part of positive change, believing in research as a way of implementing new ideas. Reading of Patton’s Common Principles Undergirding Qualitative Inquiry and Humanistic Values ensured common understanding of qualitative methods of action research and, particularly, understanding the idea of process use (the process as important as the outcome) as opposed to findings use, the former being of a greater learning value to the process participants and to the program being developed (Patton, 2002). The focus then moved to defining types, or categories, of CALL teachers in the language center and specifying their respective needs in order to become autonomous. The distinction was based on teachers’ CALL experience and skills (Novices, In-Transition, Experienced/Confident, Power Users), attitudes to CALL (Luddite or Debutante, Chrysalis, or Explorer), and mode of employment, which intertwined with time and access factors (Sessionals, Contract, Emergency Teachers, Part-Time, and Full-Time). During Stage 2 of the project, the Platform Design stage, needs for each CALL teachers’ category were prioritized and the issue of a model design considered through questions such as “Can or should the online portal meet these particular
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
needs and how, and what functions should it fulfill? The list of desired functions and items for inclusion was then matched against the aims of the research. Then, the team reflected on the discrepancies between the project aims and the proposed project’s design thus far. The exercise revealed that the collaborative and reflective functions of the intranet portal had not been sufficiently addressed by the team. The general discussion that followed aimed to ascertain if teachers regard collaboration in teaching and teaching CALL in particular as important. Finally, teachers had input into the proposed site structure, learning some basic principles governing Web design and usability issues (Krug, 2000). The team members also took part in a hands-on session on the functions of the discussion board settings and blogs, which for some was the first encounter with online collaborative environments. During the final, evaluation stage of the project, participants were asked what they judged as measures of success and/or failure in assessing both the product and the professional development benefits of the project. Finally, the future of the CALL intranet portal was contemplated and the recommendation for further evaluation and development discussed.
discussion The two-step process of a final evaluation reflected the duality of the research aims; namely, the learning process of the teachers involved and the features of the developed product. The next section of this chapter aims to ascertain whether subjects of this study felt participation in the research developed them professionally as hypothesized and whether the designed product was indeed perceived as supporting teachers’ autonomy in CALL.
the teachers Providing for CALL teacher autonomy was a principal theoretical concept behind the design of the CALL teacher portal. Team discussions on autonomy during the first stage of the project found teacher autonomy important, though difficult to achieve, and perhaps in some circumstances not entirely desirable: • •
•
•
“it is essential for teacher satisfaction” (Participant B) “essential in our environment, due to variability in course structure and programs” (Paticipant F) “too much autonomy may not be desirable to teachers with no CALL experience” (Participant C) “not all teachers want CALL autonomy (in particular novices, those not confident)” (Participant D)
These discussions led to specifying needs of CALL teachers according to their position on the path to full autonomy. Members agreed that the needs of novices and in-transition teachers were quite similar, these needs being immediate, highly specific, and of a survivalist nature. Without trying to patronize, the team felt these teachers needed to be closely guided through lesson plans for technically uncomplicated CALL classes. These lesson plans “should not only explain what to do, but also how to do it” (Participant E) to ensure the greatest possibility for success, thus boosting the confidence of a novice teacher. Providing access to technical information, a ready-made list of logins and passwords, instructions on the use CD-ROMS and other resources were also seen as paramount. The need for access to CALL theories and research was ranked low on the list of priorities, although the need for explaining differences between CALL and non-CALL language classes was seen as important.
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
There was also a consensus that meeting the needs of novices and in-transition CALL teachers would simultaneously meet the needs of a much wider group: emergency teachers, teachers with limited access to technology, and those new to the center. The needs of the Experienced/Confident and Power Users (i.e., professionals specializing in CALL) were not seen as a priority by the team: “It is not relevant to them” (Participant C), “they are already autonomous” (Paricipant A), “they are power users” (Participant C). This issue was revisited when the Power Users voiced their hope for their needs to also be considered in the project. When the issue of the missing collaboration and reflective functions in the design of the CALL intranet portal surfaced, we probed into their importance to the research participants. Some observations made on this issue included: • •
• • • • •
“it is important especially in technology applications” (Participant A) “I believe in collaboration” as it “enriches our teaching but doesn’t preclude individualization and autonomy” (Participant B) “is essential to understanding of both relative and absolute values” (Participant C) “increases both variety and cohesiveness of teaching” (Participant D) “broadens ones own outlook,” supports “learning from others”(Participant E) “reflection on practice brings the biggest benefits” (Participant F) collaboration in CALL is “more important than other areas of language teaching because there is more to know and the knowledge base is expanding exponentially” (Participant F)
The collaboration function, it was therefore decided, should be an integral part of the portal and would take a form of either an asynchronous discussion board or reflective blogs. After learn-
ing more about Web usability principles and in order to ensure consistency of layout, the team decided to adopt the global university template as the template for the CALL portal. Finally, issues of quality control and proofreading led to major decisions that all student handouts should be produced using a special template and that an editorial panel for the project should be formed to decide on priorities for further developments, to proofread the texts, and to assist with recordkeeping.
the product The process of conceptualizing and analyzing the unique needs and circumstances of CALL teachers at MUELC resulted in a development of a prototype that avoids lock-step and linear progression and allows for the model to be adapted for a variety of CALL programs, to be able to expand as new resources become available, and to be developed further when the context analysis prompts such a necessity. The CALL teacher intranet model also borrows on the cognitive apprenticeship theme, reflecting situated cognition theory and adhering to a number of its principles (Anderson, 2000). First, it aimed at presenting knowledge in an authentic context; namely, settings and applications that would normally involve that knowledge. Second, it provided modeling and explanation on the how and why of the learning process. Third, it encouraged learning through social interaction and collaboration. In addition, it was hoped that the environment would gradually reduce assistance in favor of encouraging independent performance (Vygotsky, 1978). Finally, it aimed to provide opportunities for reflection where tacit knowledge becomes more explicit, helping teachers to analyze their performance and making the computer a cognitive tool (Lajoie, 2000). One of the aims of this research was to build an online environment that would enable teacher autonomy in CALL. To facilitate this goal, this
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 3. CALL Teacher Portal home page (© 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
online site was to perform three main functions: provide easier access to resources, professional development opportunities, and reflection on practice. This initial conceptualization of the core intranet portal areas might suggest that they form discrete elements of the site, accessed perhaps through distinctively separate points of entry. However, in the design developed by the team, this is not the case. The intranet portal was created within the learning theory of constructivism, and so it is ultimately its users who determine what role each design element plays in the process of their learning. The resources area, for example, can be accessed as a separate entity, giving an overview as well as details of digital resources (CD-ROMs and online) available to CALL teachers (see Figure 3). However, it can also be accessed through the Lesson Bank area, where specific lesson-related resources are discussed. The Lesson Bank itself can be considered a resource, but it can also function as a professional development tool through the provision of lesson exemplars and models.
Similar blurring of function boundaries applies to the reflection on practice area, as professional reflection can now occur not in one, but in many ways. Teachers may reflect on their methodology by analyzing lessons submitted to the lesson bank, by reading publications on CALL theories, and by collaborating through internal and external discussion boards. Sims (2000) defines four dimensions of interactive constructs: learners, content, pedagogy, and context. He advises instructional designers to analyze these interactive constructs in detail in order to ascertain how effective the user-software interactions (and therefore the learning process) might be. Looking at the CALL intranet portal through these lenses provides a number of observations: first, that the platform was designed with the explicit underlying philosophical and pedagogical concept (teacher autonomy), and therefore, its content elements and the media used were selected to serve that purpose; second, that the underlying pedagogy is based on a constructivist learner model, and therefore, the
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 4. List of resources for one of the language programs on offer ( © 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
resulting design allows for the learning focus to change for different users; and third, we can observe that the design caters to different users because its interactive constructs are a function of the stage at which teachers (as learners) find themselves (e.g., Novice, Explorer, Power User and/or Emergency, Sessional, Full-Time/PartTime). This also determines the when and where of the learning process, the contextual elements of the intranet. If analyzed in the context of diffusion theories (Rogers, 1995; Surry, 1997), the product displays four attributes that increase its likelihood of success. First, it has been designed and trialed on a limited basis, with the opportunity for improvement before the product reaches a wider group of users. Second, it has an advantage over the status quo by providing more flexible access to CALL resources, professional development, and discussion completely independent of time and place. Third, the system is not overly complex and caters to any level of CALL expertise. Finally, it is compatible with existing practices and values; namely, current Second Language Acquisition theories, CALL pedagogy, and CALL professional development practices at the language
center, which greatly enhances its prospects for wider adoption. The following section should be viewed as a commentary on screen captures of various areas of the intranet CALL portal. The first to be shown there is the resources area, which contains a description of in-house digital resources and examples of their applications in CALL classes (see Figures 4 and 5). The second area, the professional development area of the portal, contains tutorials on various aspects of teaching languages with ICT tools such as word processing, animated presentations, electronic publishing, and electronic communication. These tutorials are accompanied by examples of linguistic applications and teacher-developed classwork materials that utilized these tools. Figures 6 and 7 provide sample pages from the professional development area, titled Teaching English with a Word Processor, and one of its subtopics, Dragging. To cater to novice CALL teachers, a lesson bank for all programs and levels was established. It is a steadily growing area of the intranet portal, where all contributing teachers are acknowledged. It contains handouts for students with step-by-
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 5. Example of a resource description (© 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
step instructions and additional resources for the teacher. The lessons are technically uncomplicated and do not require multitasking (see Figure 8). The CALL Teacher Portal, as was previously explained, also enables teachers to access both in-house and external communities of practice, and to set up and maintain their own blogs for reflection on practice. Figure 9 depicts an example of the page encouraging exploration of an online discussion board (Nicenet.org).
involvement in the action research process met their expectations, they provided comments such as the following: •
•
EVaLuation At the first meeting, members stated that the main reasons for joining the action research team was their willingness to contribute to the process of change and willingness to learn more about CALL. Their comments during the final stages of the research confirmed their satisfaction in achieving both of these goals. When asked if the
• •
“Yes, because (i) I feel I had input into the final prototype, (ii) I learned about how to design/ implement a project in a CALL environment, and (iii) I expanded my theoretical basis of understanding in this field” (Participant A). “Insofar as I expected that there would be a tangible outcome—the intranet—and that it would be a collaborative process” (Participant E). “Yes, I am aware more about the process and the product” (Participant D). “I wasn’t sure of what to expect at first—I thought we were going to ‘put things on the intranet,’ but I was happy to be involved in the ‘how’ rather than the ‘what’” (Participant C).
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 6. One example from the “professional development” area: “Teaching English with word processor” (© 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
Figure 7. “Teaching with word processor”: Example of a “dragging” exercise supplied (© 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
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Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
Figure 8. Example of a lesson bank for pre-intermediate levels (© 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
The participants commented on their increased awareness of the complexities behind developing a worthwhile instructional design environment, especially one that aims to cater to a range of user types. Some team members found it beneficial to learn about action research methodology and to extend their knowledge of Web design principles. All teachers found the most rewarding aspects of their ivolvement to be the team approach to the research and to the portal design process. They appreciated the fact that many points of view were
expressed and taken into account, which resulted in a comprehensive needs analysis and, it can be inferred, a superior product. Some comments on this issue were the following: •
“Views and opinions of all people involved at the various stages were represented and responded by the researcher. It was a committee, and the ‘chairperson’ was in charge, but in a good way—kept us on track and took on board design changes, and so forth” (Participant C).
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Figure 9. Invitation to join teacher discussion board on Nicenet (© 2008 Monash College Pty Ltd., used with permission)
• •
The strength of this process was “team and the task orientation” (Participant E). The strength of this process was ”teamwork and great direction and super well-structured (i.e., we knew exactly what was required and no pressure given” (Participant D).
The main weakness, as the team repeatedly stated, was the difficulty in arranging team meetings and time allowance: •
•
•
“How to ensure team members all had enough exposure prior to each meeting to contribute and how much time was available for team members to experiment between meetings in a class environment” (Participant D). “Not everyone is able to put in time commitment as required (time factors)” (Participant E). “Time for group meetings” (Participant A).
These findings confirm the common knowledge of time-pressures and their effect on teachers’ professional development. Results highlight the tension between the necessity for thoroughness
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and adherence to the required stages (analysis, product design, dissemination/adoption, and evaluation) and the need to maintain interest and momentum to deliver tangible outcomes within a reasonable time frame. The teachers saw this research as a “goal-oriented, cohesive and targeted” process (Participant B), which resulted in a “tangible gain” (Participant D) and was “a rewarding and productive experience” (Participant A). They all believed that the project achieved its aims and catered to their needs as CALL teachers. In relation to the three fundamentals of teacher autonomy (i.e., knowledge, choice, and reflection), they felt that the self-designed intranet portal holds the potential to support them in professional development, in selecting teaching materials and resources, as well as in sharing experiences and on reflecting on CALL practice. At the time of evaluation, the system had been in place for only a few weeks. Not surprisingly, when asked to establish measures of project success, team members initially thought of an external evaluation; that is, an evaluation achieved through another study and conducted with a group of teachers not involved in the intranet portal design. This was beyond the scope of the research
Creating Supportive Environments for CALL Teacher Autonomy
in question and would certainly require another research cycle. There are at least three other strong indicators suggesting this process was successful in implementing positive organizational change. The first indicator is the product, the intranet portal itself, and its superiority when compared to earlier environments created without teachers’ input and accompanying research. The second is the members’ clear interest in the future developments of the intranet portal and their ongoing willingness to contribute to the process as a means of keeping abreast of its changes, adoption rate, usefulness, and relevance in promoting teacher and student independence. All members voiced that the action research process should be an integral part of further intranet portal developments, and most expressed their interest in maintaining their involvement, although with a lesser degree of engagement or under a condition of time release. This last caveat is symptomatic of the professional development program’s intensity if conducted in the way it was and considering its impact on teachers’ busy schedules. The third indicator of success is the grassroot aspect: the upward direction of this change, the voice and strength it gives to the efforts for improvement. This is no longer the voice of a lonely impassioned individual, but rather the voice of a team of language teachers interested in their professional development with the goal of improving the learning experience of their students.
suMMarY The analysis of the evaluation feedback is very encouraging, proving that the intranet portal has fulfilled its professional development aims by providing relevant and immediate, just-in-time training opportunities (McKenzie, 2001). The research process and the product of this research were equally important, and both achieved or have the potential to achieve tangible profession-
al development outcomes for MUELC teachers. These outcomes include increased awareness of CALL principles; better understanding of teacher autonomy in light of second-language acquisition theories; greater acceptance of action research methodology as a method for professional reflection; and finally, improved appreciation of research processes required for collaborative development of instructional design environments. This study corroborated the findings of other proponents of action research who have stressed the relevancy, active participation in the learning process, knowledge focus, and collegial support as most effective for professional development (Borko, 2004). The project’s predicted future developments are collaborative material development, raising teacher awareness, a review, an external evaluation, and adapting the model to other programs at MUELC. The process of evolution, according to the team, should continue for as long as it will be required and for as long as it will serve its purpose.
concLusion and FuturE trEnds The promise of CALL—the utilization of computers for teaching or enhancing second-language acquisition—remains largely unfulfilled. Barriers are the technical problems and the limited capabilties of computers, which still lag behind the way language teachers and learners would like them to perform, and administrative constraints (Felix, 2003). Issues to do with the role of the teacher in CALL, effects of the technology on the methodology, integration, and evaluation, remain central (Levy 1997). The previous lack of consensus on secondlanguage acquisition (Nulman, 1996) is bridged by the re-emergence of the eclectic approach (Mellow, 2002) and the incorporation of cultural dimensions (Liddicoat, Papademetre, Scarino &
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Kohler, 2003). Despite epistemological differences, language specialists agree on the most basic principles or conditions under which language instruction should take place: students should be exposed to rich language and cultural input, have authentic opportunities to interact, and be actively involved. They should be encouraged to reflect on their learning and to take responsibility for their own learning (Liddicoat et al., 2003). When new and emerging technologies are juxtaposed with these basic conditions for language learning, they do indeed hold great promise. There is no question that the Web and other technologies provide greater access to authentic and rich intercultural language input, although not all languages are equally well represented. Web 2.0 social software such as blogs, wikis, and voice and text chat lend themselves to interactivity and personal engagement but also to reflection on learning strategies. Human Language Technologies (HLT) such as Natural Language Processing, Machine Translation, Corpus Linguistics, Speech Technology, and artificial intelligence will make a significant impact on CALL (Davies, 2007), as will indeed the developments of virtual worlds and virtual tutors. However, the majority of language teachers do not feel adequately versed in or prepared for teaching with the use of computers (Hubbard & Levy, 2006). Thus, the vision of normalized CALL (Bax, 2003), where computers in language learning and teaching are used with the same normality as books and pens, is still seen as a distant and future goal for the profession. This is an issue of concern because many argue that the most significant impact on the effectiveness of CALL in the future will be the ability of teachers to create appropriate learning contexts and learning, to allow students to create, and to share their own content through discovery and experimentation within cyber-communities. Such fostering of learner growth and language development will generate even greater necessity for teacher and learner autonomy, and it is
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thus of paramount importance that learning organizations not only allow for teacher autonomy but also actively support its three fundamentals: access, knowledge, and reflection. The research described in this chapter is an example of how such support might be provided. It signifies how adherence to proven methodologies of action research informed by instructional model development theories can bring tangible results and desired improvements.
rEFErEncEs Aldrich, F., Rogers, Y., & Scaife, M. (1998). Getting to grips with “interactivity”: Helping teachers assess the educational value of CD-ROMs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29(4), 321–332. Anderson, J.R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Worth Publishers. Andrews, D.H., & Goodson, L.A. (1991). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design. In G.J. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future (pp. 133–155). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Bax, S. (2003). CALL—Past, present and future. System, 31, 13–28. Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3–15. Chylinski, R. (2005). Creating organizational environments supporting CALL teachers: A one point perspective. PacCALL Journal, 1(1). Retrieved April 28, 2007, from http://www.paccall. org/Journal/PacCALL-Journal-2005-1-1.html Clark, R.C., & Mayer, R.E. (2002). e-learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer.
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Davies, G. (2007). Computer assisted language learning. Where are we now and where are we going? Keynote paper presented at the VCALL Conference, University of Ulster, Coleraine. Retrieved April 28, 2007 from http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/docs/VCALL_keynote.htm Dick, B. (1999). You want to do an action research thesis? Southern Cross University, Graduate College of Management Web site. Retrieved April 28, 2007, from http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ ar/art/arthesis.html Eckel, P.D., & Kezar, A.J. (2003). Taking the reins: Institutional transformation in higher education. Praeger Publishers. Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Felix, U. (2003). Language learning online: Towards best practice. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger. Godwin-Jones, R. (2003). Blogs and wikis: Environments for on-line collaboration. Language Learning and Technology, 7, pp. 12–16. Retrieved May 4, 2007, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol7num2/ emerging/default.html
Krashen, S. (1982). Principle and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon. Krug, S. (2000). Don’t make me think. A common sense approach to Web usability. Indianapolis, IN: Macmillan. Lajoie, S.P. (2000). Computers as cognitive tools: No more walls (Vol. II). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language acquisition: A union blessed by CALL? Computer Assisted Language Learning, 7(2). Liddicoat, A.J., Papademetre, L., Scarino, A., & Kohler, M. (2003). Report on intercultural language learning. National Languages and Studies in Australian Schools Strategy Web site. Retrieved May 2, 2007, from http://www.curriculum.edu. au/nalsas/pdf/intercultural.pdf McKenzie, J. (2001). How teachers learn technology best. From Now On, 10(6). Retrieved April 28, 2007, from http://www.fno.org/mar01/howlearn. html
Gustafson, K.L., & Branch, R.M. (2001). Survey of instructional development models (4th edition). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University.
Mellow, J. (2002). Toward principled eclecticism in language teaching: The two-dimensional model and the centring principle. TESL-EJ, 5(4). Retrieved May 14, 2007, from http://www-writing. berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej20/a1.html
Hubbard, P., & Levy, M. (Eds.). (2006). Teacher education in CALL. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Mills, G.E. (2003). Action research: A guide for the teacher researcher. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Jackson, P. (1971). Old dogs and new tricks: Observations on the continuing education of teachers. In L.J. Rubin (Ed.), Improving in-service education: Proposals and procedures for change (pp. 19–36). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
Moon, J. (2000). Reflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice. London: Routledge.
Jones, A., & Mercer, N. (1993). Theories of learning and information technology. In P. Scrimshaw (Ed.), Language, classroom and computers (pp. 11–26). London: Routledge.
Nulman, D. (1996). A match made in virtual paradise: Multimedia personal computers and second language acquisition. Proceedings of the CALICO Symposium, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1–12.
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Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
language learners. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Rogers, E.M. (1995). Diffusion of innovations (4th edition). New York: The Free Press.
Warschauer, M., & Healey, D. (1998). Computers and language learning: An overview. Language Teaching, 31, 57–71. Retrieved May 5, 2007, from http://www.gse.uci.edu/faculty/markw/overview. html
Sheely, S., Veness, D., & Rankine, L. (2001). Building the Web interactive study environment: Mainstreaming online teaching and learning at the University of Western Sydney. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 17(1), 80–95. Sims, R. (1997). Interactive learning as an “emerging” technology: A reassessment of interactive and instructional design strategies. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 13(1), 68–84. Retrieved June 11, 2007, from http://www.ascilite. org.au/ajet/ajet13/sims.html Sims, R. (2000). An interactive conundrum: Constructs of interactivity and learning theory. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1), 45–57. Sinclair, M., Aldred, S., & Smith, R. (2002). Facilitating the collaborative design of flexible learning materials: Investigating the synthesis of content and multimedia knowledge and expertise. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 18(3), 293–307. Surry, D.W. (1997). Diffusion theory and instructional technology. Journal of Instructional Science and Technology, 2. Retrieved April 28, 2007, from http://www.usq.edu.au/electpub/ejist/docs/old/vol2no1/contents.htm Tessmer, M., & Richey, R.C. (1997). The role of context in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(2), 85–115. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Warschauer, M. (Ed.). (1996). Virtual connections: Online activities and projects for networking
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kEY tErMs Adult Learning Principles: The field of adult learning was pioneered by Malcom Knowles (1913–1997), who theorized that self-concept and motivation to learn, previous experience, readiness to learn, and a problem-centered approach to learning are the main principles. Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL): An approach to language acquisition that utilizes computer technology to assist with the teaching and assessing of material, often including various interactive elements. Communicative Method/Approach: A way to teach and learn language(s) with the goal of communicative competence. It stemmed from dissatisfaction with previous grammar-based and audiolingual approaches, and focuses on the processes of communication in various sociolinguistic contexts. Constructivism: Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is credited with the development of this theory whereby learners construct new knowledge from their experiences through processes of accommodation and assimilation. Constructivism describes how learning should happen, and it is often associated with “learning by doing.” English as a Second Language/English as a Foreign Language (ESL/EFL): These abbreviations are often used interchangeably to describe the science of teaching English to non-native
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speakers. ESL denotes teaching English to NonEnglish Speaking Background (NESB) persons in countries where English is dominant, such as Australia, Canada, the UK, or the USA. EFL denotes teaching English to NESBs in countries where English is not the official language. Teachers of English to speakers of other Languages/Teaching English as a Second or other Language (TESOL): Both interpretations are used for the abbreviation, causing significant confusion. The first refers to the professional associations and their members, whereas the second construct is often used as the umbrella term for ESL and EFL. Instructional Design Models: Robert Mills Gagné (1916–2002) is one of the leading theorists in models of instructional design. Models offer structure and meaning to Instructional Design problems by helping negotiate the design task through sequenced components. The context of use determines the value of a particular Instructional Design Model.
Diffusion of Innovations Theory: Everett Rogers (1931–2004) suggested a five-stage model for the diffusion of innovation (Knowledge, Persuasion, Decision, Implementation, Confirmation) and five types of adopters (innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards) in his 1962 book titled Diffusion of Innovation. Practitioner-Based Inquiry (PBE): Smallscale, applied educational research activity by practitioners in fields such as school teaching, nurse education, and social work to address professional concerns. Second Language Acquisition (SLA): The process by which learners acquire an additional language, often termed the target language. SLA focuses on the language system and learning processes of naturalistic acquisition of language. Stephen Krashen used the term “language acquisition” to differentiate from formal language learning. Teacher Autonomy: Involvement in and ownership of the change process. It encompasses professional freedom, self-directed professional development, transformation through dialogue, critical reflection, and analysis of the teaching process.
appEndiX 1. dEscription oF participants in rELation to thEir (sELF-pErcEiVEd) caLL EXpEriEncE and training Participant A. Usually teaches CALL in a few five-week courses a year and considers herself a teacher who had some limited experience in CALL and only through her work at MUELC. She did not study CALL as a university subject or as a short course. Her only training was received through MUELC’s Professional Development workshops. Participant B. He teaches CALL at least once a week in a few five-week courses a year and believes he posseses practical knowledge of CALL with some past experience, which he considers “very out of date,” gained by choosing CALL as a unit at a postgraduate level. He also attended short courses in CALL.
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Participant C. Teaches CALL at least once a week in almost every course, seeing it as good fun for students as well as an opportunity to be creative in learning English and increase their computer skills in a nonthreatening way. She did not study CALL at a tertiary level and did not attend any short courses in CALL. Participant D. The fourth member of the team is involved in teaching a few CALL courses a year and thinks he has a practical knowledge of CALL, which was also a subject he has done at a tertiary level. Participant E. He teaches mainly CALL and has a sound theoretical and practical knowledge of CALL gained through his Master’s degree course. Participant F. He teaches CALL regularly, one or two classes in almost every course in the year. He sees himself as a teacher with sound theoretical and practical knowledge of CALL. He completed a semester unit in CALL at a university level, which was quite in-depth, and though some years have passed, this knowledge is still functional.
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Chapter XXV
Frustration in Virtual Learning Environments Mar Gutiérrez-Colon Plana Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain
abstract Many language teachers, students, and institutions of virtual learning environments are well acquainted with the feelings of loneliness and frustration that many students experience due to the fact that many virtual language courses base their methodology on simply uploading the material into the virtual classroom. Teachers should be aware of the learning process itself; that is, they shouldn’t talk only about new learning technologies for second language acquisition but also of new methodologies. In this chapter, we present some methodological actions that should be avoided in the virtual language classroom and try to suggest ways to improve teachers’ online practices. In order to collect data from some students enrolled in English language subjects in their degree course (English Philology and Mechanical Engineering at University Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain), a questionnaire was created. This chapter is part of the project PID08-PROFID, which receives financial support from the Institut de Ciències de l’Educació (URV).
introduction As is well known, e-learning or online instruction can be defined as learning using a computer that is connected to a network. According to students’ opinions, online instruction can be a very exciting experience or an incredible nightmare. It all depends on the methodological aspects of the
course. This study concentrates on a particular sort of e-learning enabled by free Internet technology: the Open Source software package Moodle. It tries to identify and define some bad practices found in some virtual language courses that may be the cause of considerable frustration and stress to second-language students. To do so, this chapter has been organized into three main parts:
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Frustration in Virtual Learning Environments
1.
2.
3.
The first part introduces the topic and then briefly defines and describes what some authors believe to be the characteristics of a good virtual course. The second part is divided into two sections. 2.1. The first section describes the problems that students may find in a virtual language course. 2.2. In the second section, a questionnaire is presented. This questionnaire was answered by two groups of university students who were enrolled in two different English Language subjects at University Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona. The purpose of this questionnaire was for the students to reflect on what they considered to be bad practices in their virtual language courses. Finally, a section with the conclusion.
background Moodle was designed on the basis of various pedagogical principles (“social constructionist pedagogy”) to help educators create effective online learning communities (http://moodle.org); it is a course management system, or learning management system, designed to help teachers create online courses. This new type of learning management has allowed many universities to implement e-learning in their PhD and master’s degree courses. It has also fostered lifelong learning for those students who, for personal reasons, are not able to study for a degree at a university. Many studies of these students (see www.uoc.edu) show that their main reason for not being able to study for a degree is lack of time. The use of elearning in university (and other) environments provides students with a 24-hour learning system, seven days a week. Nowadays, the number of distance courses is growing, and consequently, distance education
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is being discussed at various educational levels (see the enormous number of discussion lists on e-learning on the Internet). Most of these debates coincide with the idea that distance education, generally speaking, seems to improve our learning experience. In the specific field of language acquisition, the virtual learning experience has broadened in many different ways, and has opened new fields of experimentation, research, and study. Nevertheless, as teachers and users of these technologies, we must accept that it is still in the first stages of development, implementation, and above all, use, so it still has great potential for transforming the teaching and learning methodology that we know nowadays. Nevertheless, because it is still in its early stages, it also has many negative points. In his article Bases pedagógicas del e-learning, Cabero (2006) summarizes in Table 1 the main advantages and disadvantages of e-learning. One of the most interesting facts about this table is that all its elements can be extrapolated to virtual language learning, and even new elements can be added in both sides. In virtual second language learning, two of the most acknowledged advantages are the unlimited use of writing in the target language as well as the large amount of “real” texts to improve the reading skill. Also, the most acknowledged disadvantage is the lack of oral practice and small listening (Galloway, 2007). Nowadays, it seems that most researchers are focusing on establishing what is the best software for Web design and what is the friendliest e-learning environment. Very few are starting to question the teaching methodologies that a virtual teacher should use, or as Warschauer and Meskill (2000) define it, the “humanware” needed for a virtual language class: The key to successful use of technology in language teaching lies not in hardware or software but in “humanware”: our human capacity as teachers to plan, design and implement effective educational
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Table 1. Cabero’s (2006) advantages and disadvantages of e-learning Advantages e-Learning: facilitates information and contents updating. makes a considerable volume of information available to the students. makes the information more flexible, independent of the space and time in which the student and teacher are located. decentralizes knowledge. facilitates student autonomy. favors a “just-in-time” and “just-for-me” education. offers teachers and students various communication tools, synchronous and asynchronous. favors multimedia training. facilitates group and collaborative training. fosters interaction with the information, with the teacher, and among the students. helps with the use of materials and learning objects at various levels. provides students with a record and follow-up of their activities. saves money.
activity. Language learning is an act of creativity, imagination, exploration, expression, construction and profound social and cultural collaboration. If we use computers to fully humanize and enhance this act, rather than try to automate it, we can help bring out the best that human and machine have to offer (Warschauer & Meskill, 2000). Salinas (cited in Cabero, 2006) also reflects this idea of the necessity of “humanware” in the virtual language classroom. In his account of the historical development of e-learning, the author suggests three stages. The first stage is called the technological approach and is based on the idea that the sophistication of the environment will provide the longed-for quality of the teachinglearning process. The second historical stage bases the quality of the process on the content and on highly technological materials. It never takes into account the students’ learning process. Finally, Salinas calls the third stage the methodological ap-
Disadvantages -
Teachers need to invest more time than in face-to-face learning environments. A minimum of technological competence is needed (by both teachers and students). Students must be skilled in autonomous learning. If the teacher-student ratio is not right, the teaching/learning quality can decrease. It involves more work than conventional teaching.
proach. This approach focuses more on the student as the center of the teaching process. It is based on pedagogical criteria and states that e-learning must be a perfect combination of the technology that has to be used, the pedagogical function of the environment, and the organizational aspects of the process in this virtual environment. Both Salinas (in a general virtual context) and Warschauer (in a virtual language learning context) coincide in the idea that the pedagogical function of the environment must be taken into account, which leads them to consider methodological approaches to virtual learning; that is, the way teachers deal with the information they pass on to their students. Apart from their interest, it must be said that not many articles have been published on the need for methodological change in virtual language environments, as most of the literature has been technology driven. In 1999, Hara and Kling stated, “The literature about distance education is dominated by enthusiastic
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studies and accounts. Once consensus is reached, it tends not to be disturbed by a dissonant idea.” These two authors go on to say that this is not a problem exclusive to the field of applied linguistics; similar patterns are found in other relatively young fields. This suggests, then, that this is basically a natural defense that the scientific world uses in order to move forward and make progress in a particular field. It also suggests that talking about the negative aspects of e-learning was a taboo, at least at first. Nowadays, after many positive and negative e-learning experiences, some teacher-researchers have discussed these negative aspects in their articles. For Borges (2005), “the frustrations of online students … have not been studied sufficiently to date.” In his article, he highlights the inadequate actions of the agents involved in e-learning, which led students to have serious problems carrying out their activities. The article also suggests how to prevent/diminish these problems and the frustration they bring on the part of the student. Basically, he believes that student frustration in an online learning environment can be due to three agents:
6. 7.
8.
All these requirements of an online teacher can usefully be made of online language teachers if the students are to avoid feelings of isolation and frustration in their virtual classes. In their research on feelings of isolation in a virtual classroom at the university level, Hara and Kling (1999) discovered that student isolation was not as big a problem as was frustration. They found two foci of frustration among the students. The first focus was technological problems. The second focus involved the course content and the “instructor’s practices in managing her communications with her students.” Once again, the focus should be set on these negative instructors’ practices. The article states the students’ complaints are typically concerned with: •
1. 2. 3.
the student the teacher the institution
Borges believes that “in being the student’s central element, the teacher should be conscious of all the actions or lack of actions that the student performs.” For him, an online teacher: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Should have been an online student beforehand. Should never give a late answer. Should appear regularly in the virtual class. Should make himself or herself clear in the instructions he or she gives. Shouldn’t be excessively strict with the exercise deadlines.
Should show closeness to the student. Should regulate the flow of information so the student is not weighed down with too much of it. Should foster interaction and collaboration among students.
• •
Not getting enough feedback from the teacher. The difficulty of finding information on the Internet (they talk about broken links). Difficulties regarding the e-mail instructions that the instructor sent each week.
For Prendergast (2003), it is most important that the teacher or tutor of an online course have proper training in order to run what he calls Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSLL). He believes that since many virtual teachers do not have any experience in virtual learning, they therefore draw upon their experience in traditional teaching when they feel there is a methodological problem in their virtual classroom. This idea that many “new online practitioners are unaware of prior theory and research in either education in general or distance education in par-
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ticular” (Pendergast, 2003, p. 1) is also shared by Padavano and Gould (2004). Teachers believe we have lost the thread of how things have evolved, so they often cannot identify why a practice works, but tend to talk about what worked for me. They adapt Chickering and Gamson’s (1991) Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, and add a practical activity so the principles can be implemented at a university level: 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Good practice encourages student-faculty contact. Their proposal here is to create thread discussions as instructional tools, and to use chat sessions as virtual office hours. Good practice encourages cooperation among students. An initial exercise for a team project could be the development of a charter. This charter becomes the binding agreement among team members. Good practice encourages active learning. The basic theoretical approach for this principle is that learners must be active participants in order to construct, build, and devise concepts for learning. Therefore, the activities in our online courses should promote active learning. Good practices give prompt feedback. The authors show that feedback comes in many forms, and that we should not think of feedback as graded assignments or corrected exercises. Sometimes just acknowledging students’ efforts can motivate them to do more. 5. They point out that what I think is an extremely important issue in a virtual environment; they believe that students feel deep frustration when, after sending in several assignments in a couple of weeks, they find out three weeks later that these assignments have been done incorrectly and that they are going to fail the course. Good practice emphasizes time on task. Students often carry on several activities
6.
7.
(job, family, etc.), and the big challenge to faculty is to keep these students involved and motivated in their studies. One way to deal with this is to write a detailed syllabus with course objectives, deadlines, and so forth, so students can concentrate better on their work. Good practice communicates high expectations. They propose grading rubrics to communicate expectations for assignments and assessments. Good practice respects diverse talents and ways of learning. We should allow our students to talk about their experiences. For Padavano and Gould (2004), students learn from the experiences of others, which creates an interesting and rich learning environment.
All the aforementioned authors coincide in stating the general aspects of what a virtual teacher (and obviously, a virtual language teacher) should do in an online course. In the second part of this chapter, two issues are presented: •
•
First, the most common bad practices in virtual environments will be described. In order to do that, some negative methodological practices often used by the virtual language teacher, as well as some practitioners’ particular attitudes, will be presented. Second, the results of a questionnaire that was given to some English language students at the University Rovira i Virgili will be analyzed.
bad practicEs in VirtuaL EnVironMEnts It shouldn’t be forgotten that students are not passive receivers of knowledge as was perhaps once thought; they construct the scaffold from
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which new knowledge is built. As Berge (2000) observes:
1. 2.
1.
3. 4.
They participate more in activities that involve problem-solving than those that involve memorizing large amounts of data. They are involved in activities in which they try to find questions as well as answers. Nowadays, students prefer to be involved in team projects and collaborative tasks. They are conscious of the multicultural background of many course students. They are more autonomous and independent, and a considerable amount of research confirms they are more motivated by their learning process. The main discussion topics in virtual courses are usually based on colleagues’ tasks or dossiers with numerous articles or chapters from various books. Students aim to acquire learning strategies. They do not aim to learn things “by heart” in order to pass an exam. They have significantly greater access to learning resources (pp. 2–5).
2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
Teachers have also changed their roles: 1.
2. 3. 4.
They not only transmit knowledge, but they are also like guides to the learning process and suppliers of resources. They try to find more questions than answers. They help students with their tasks and are an active part of the students’ team. The teacher-student hierarchy is broken.
On the basis of these new students’ and teachers’ roles, and taking into account virtual environments such as Moodle, the first question teachers should ask is, What are the main characteristics of a good virtual language course? Generally speaking, a good virtual language course is one that has:
A good design. A well-scheduled and useful precourse student briefing. A well-trained team of tutors/teachers. Excellent technical support.
Although these are the characteristics of a serious, well-organized virtual language course, we should also take into account those traits that may not be so easily evaluable at first sight but can hamper online language learning or prevent students from continuing the course: 1.
Many virtual language courses emphasize the content and do not take into account the learning process. Many of these courses are the “electronic version” of traditional courses; that is, teachers send the exercises in Word or pdf format to the virtual classroom. The students read them, complete the activities, and send their answers to the teacher’s e-mail. Later on, students receive an e-mail with their marks (possibly with no comments or feedback) via their personal mailboxes, or maybe just read their marks from a list that suddenly appears on a common space in the virtual classroom. In this type of course, there is no interaction between the students and the teacher. The students have the feeling of being left on their own, which can often lead to frustration. This happens especially because they only see their classmates’ exercises as a pile of written exercises, handed in as they are in a face-to-face classroom. The students feel there is no connection between their work and the work carried out by their classmates. They do not know if they have performed well or badly in relation to the others in their group. In some courses, such minimal interaction is substituted by selfcompletion and self-correction exercises. In these cases, the only feedback that students receive, apart from the final mark, are the
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2.
3.
4.
comments that come from a user-friendly software. A simple e-mail from the teacher saying that the exercise has been received may help the student with his or her second language. Many teachers send all the course documents in black and white. Others send documents in which extremely bright colors dominate the screen. Sometimes, the font is too small to read comfortably. All these characteristics would not be very important in a paper-format document, but many teachers tend to forget that reading “uncomfortable texts” from a screen can be tiring and sometimes even physically painful for the eyes. Moreover, students’ reading speeds are probably much lower in the target language than in their mother tongue, which increases the time spent in front of the screen. We should take into account that even though many students prefer to print out the electronic text, this should not be a condition of the course (or at least of all the tasks and texts the teacher sends to the classroom). Another typical problem occurs when links are broken or so old that when you click on them, a message appears explaining that the link has not been active since, for example, the year 2005! The problem with links is not at all unusual. Probably the main reason for this is that many virtual environments make it possible to transport the materials (and even the design) from a former year’s subject into the current year’s Web pages/site. In such cases, the teacher clicks on the icon that appears in the empty new virtual subject, and all former years’ materials are automatically transported. But at this point, the teacher should check that the process has been carried out properly—all the links work, the documents are complete, and so forth. Not many people are used to writing short, concise messages with clear instructions for
5.
6.
exercises. This fact is especially emphasized when both virtual teachers and students write in a language that is not their mother tongue. Excessively long messages written in a second language tend to be confusing. Hara and Kling (2003) state about ambiguous instructions: Much of human communication is inherently ambiguous. But people can often adequately resolve key ambiguities when they are face to face. When the primary communication is written text, resolving ambiguities may be more difficult for many people (p. 16). Many virtual language courses, even those with initially interesting and attractive topics for the students, are rated as boring and dull. This is partly due to the courses being too rigid and formal. The lack of an “informal” space where students can send their questions, opinions, or even comments that are not directly related to the subject (e.g., congratulations for a birthday) makes the course atmosphere extremely formal and sometimes even stressful. Students will probably see the teacher as very distant, and some of them will even be afraid to send messages and activities to the virtual classroom because they will not feel confident or at ease. Moreover, this could be a unique opportunity for the students to try to express themselves in a colloquial or casual way. We should not forget that even in the most serious and strict face-to-face courses, there are moments (albeit brief ones) in which everybody relaxes and the atmosphere lightens. Sometimes there are dropouts, but the teacher doesn’t care. Some students just “disappear” during the course, but it seems that there is no specific reason. Nevertheless, the teacher will never send an e-mail to that student asking for the reason or offering help.
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7.
8.
When the course has started, teachers are sometimes extremely busy trying to cope with all the information they have received on various technological aspects of the course. This is particularly the case if they are not skilled in computing or have no former experience in virtual learning. The same problem may arise if teachers have not prepared or planned the subject beforehand. We should not forget that in general terms, we can improvise a face-to-face class merely by getting some photocopies for the students. But in a virtual class, this is impossible: Teachers have to spend some time preparing the electronic materials, sending them to the class, and making sure they are ready to be used on the scheduled day. Many students receive late answers (or no answers at all) to the messages sent to the virtual class or to the teacher’s personal email. We must remember that answers that take 49 hours or more to arrive exasperate and discourage the student.
MEthodoLogY In March 2007, a general opinion questionnaire was created for two groups of students at the University Rovira i Virgili. The aim of this questionnaire was not only to discover negative teacher practices in virtual language courses but also to see if these students’ appreciations coincided with some teachers’ experiences in various virtual courses. This questionnaire consisted of 10 general questions written in the students’ mother tongue, Catalan, and was to be answered in the same. It was given to students in two degree courses: English Philology and Mechanical Engineering. Both groups were enrolled in an English language subject. The reason for choosing such different groups of students was that different types of feedback were needed, and my former experience
as an English teacher at the School of Engineering had taught me that these students would probably see virtual environments from a different perspective. Finally, a total of 63 questionnaires were received—32 from the science students and 31 from the arts students (see questionnaire in Appendix 1). First, it should be said that none of these students was enrolled in a totally virtual course, but in blended courses; that is, they attended face-to-face classes at the university, but they used Moodle as a support tool. In this type of blended course, teachers ask the students in class to do the exercises that have been sent to Moodle, or tell them that the answers of the exercises are in Moodle, and so forth. By doing this, teachers are asking the students to participate in the virtual class. This is probably the reason 51 out of 63 students thought that “teachers promote participation in the virtual class.” When the students were asked what they think should be done to promote student participation in class (question 1), the answers were varied, but they all coincided in the same methodological aspects. These were their most common answers: teachers should have a better knowledge of the virtual environment, take their virtual appointments more seriously (students can make appointments through a virtual calendar but often do not find the teachers in their offices), and teachers should always answer the e-mails they receive and correct the exercises they have asked students to do. These negative aspects make students “lose interest” in their virtual classrooms. Students think they would feel motivated if teachers sent more materials to the class (answers to question 1), created a space of debate or discussion in class based on various topics (threaded debate), answered student queries, sent more feedback, and most important, respected their commitment to keep the virtual part of the subject updated. A total of 44 out of the 63 students admitted receiving feedback from the teacher, but 19 did
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not receive any. Nevertheless, they did not specify whether the feedback was face-to-face or virtual. All the students who said they did not receive feedback admitted that they would have like to have received some. In question 3 (The design of the course or the exercises: is attractive for students? / is difficult/uncomfortable to read?), 7 students admitted having difficulties reading the exercises. We can see that only a small percentage thought the format was negative, but what is interesting for our purpose is not the number of people who answered positively or negatively, but rather the reasons for their negative feelings. The students who felt the format was difficult or uncomfortable to read thought the reasons were: • • •
• • •
The type of font is too variable, signs cannot be read, too small. The colors do not allow the text to be read with ease. The page design makes the exercises incomprehensible or too slow to be downloaded (because the documents in it are “too large”). Some links are broken. There is no space between sentences. Monotonous colors and design.
From this list (which summarizes the students’ opinions), the most frequently cited negative aspects were the type of font, the lack of space between sentences, and the monotonous and dull design. A total of 25.4% of students believe that teachers took a long time to respond, while 52.4% believed they did not. A further 20% of students said they had never sent any messages to the teacher; 54% of students believed that the maximum period of time that teachers should take to answer students was 24 hours. Thirty-eight percent of students believed that it is 48 hours (answers to question 4: Do you think that the teacher takes a long time to send you an answer?).
Many students had the feeling that the virtual courses in which they were enrolled were “too cold” (61%). When asked why, their answers can be summarized in one student’s opinion: “Since we don’t receive any answer from the teacher, we feel as if we are talking to the wall” (answers to question 5). In question 9 (Would you like to add anything else?), students sent their opinions on what a virtual course should be like if it were to help the students’ learning processes (see answers in Appendix 2): • •
• • • • •
•
•
Virtual classes should be updated frequently. Teachers should make the effort to learn the right methodologies to use the virtual environment. Virtual courses should have plenty of extraactivities. Teachers should establish a time table for chats (e.g., one hour a week). A discussion list or debate should be set up to help students with their doubts. The teachers should always send feedback to the students. If many corrections have to be made to the students’ exercises, maybe the teacher should revise the exercise instructions. The teacher should include instructions on how to send the exercises to the class (using Moodle) or at least on how each exercise should be sent. A document should be sent to Moodle with the notes on what has been explained in class. In this way, students would feel they can follow the subject easily.
Basically, students were asking teachers to work harder with Moodle, to have a better command of the virtual tool, to send more exercises, and again, to provide more feedback. The questionnaires also showed that a large number of students had sometimes felt frustrated (12,7 %), alone (14.2 %), and stressed (46 %).
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FuturE trEnds Using the results of this pilot study, further analysis in this field is being planned. The outcomes of this study show that one of the reasons virtual language courses fail is that they are based on the posting of material instead of the learning/teaching process itself. That is to say, virtual language teachers should talk not only about new learning technologies, but also about new learning methodologies. Warschauer (2003) stated that “technology does not exist as an external variable to be injected from the outside to bring about certain results” (p. 47). With this, he implied that in a virtual classroom, a new methodology, specific and completely different from the traditional one, is needed. It is necessary in the future to explore in depth and define effective virtual language teaching practices in order to develop closer understanding between the virtual teacher and the virtual student.
•
2. The exercises must be well-structured and clear •
concLusion After analyzing the students’ opinions and suggestions, we can conclude: 1. A virtual language course is not a face-toface class •
The way in which an exercise is prepared for a virtual course differs from that of a face-to-face course. On a virtual course, an electronic exercise should be sent to the specific location/address/section prepared for the exercises, or a section inside the corresponding unit of the course material, and so forth. Then, a message should be sent to all the students indicating that a new exercise has been posted. If at the beginning of the course we create a schedule with all the deadlines for the exercises, then we should
be strict (although we can accept some late answers in special cases). Virtual language teachers should be skilled in the use of the virtual environment before the course starts. It is absolutely necessary that most, if not all, of the activities are ready to be sent, and a schedule of the course prepared. In this way, teachers will feel more relaxed during the course and will have more time to answer the students’ comments and questions. Teachers shouldn’t forget that regular feedback in the target language is a powerful tool for language acquisition and even to prepare more activities or improve the ones they already have.
•
Teachers shouldn’t forget that from the students’ points of view, instructions in a second language seem more difficult to understand. Exercises should have a clear and concise section with the instructions: It should indicate exactly what the student is supposed to do, the deadline of the exercise, and where (inside the virtual class space) that particular activity should be sent. If additional material is to be posted by the teacher (e.g., theory, texts, or a self-evaluating test), this should also be mentioned in the instructions. By doing this, students find on a single screen a type of exercise map of everything that has to be done, and all the materials that complement the exercise. If teachers want students to post the answers to an exercise in the virtual class, a clear deadline must be specified. If there is not a clear deadline, the exercises with their various topics will probably be sent at different times, and the students will probably find difficulties finding the right thread. These difficulties may lead to student distress.
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3. The layout of the documents has to be comfortable to read • •
•
•
The electronic texts sent to the class should be presented in a font that is easy for all the participants to read. Teachers should also take into account that not everybody has a big screen at home or at work, and although it is easy to alter the font size in a computer screen, students tend to read the documents in the original size (changing the font of all the documents we receive would be very time-consuming). Long black-and-white documents can be boring, while brightly colored documents may be difficult to read. Most of the messages written by the teachers should fit on one screen. Scrolling up and down a screen in order to read all the instructions of an exercise is not the best way to help students. If a long and complex exercise is sent, a previous document should be sent with the instructions (e.g., perhaps containing some help with difficult vocabulary) and a second one with the body of the exercise. The exercise can also be sent as an attachment. The topic of the message is probably the most important part of the whole message. It helps students classify and foresee what the new post is going to be about. Teachers should not forget that reading and organizing ideas in a second language is more difficult and time-consuming than in one’s mother tongue. Therefore, it is much better to send several messages (with various topics) than a single message dealing with many topics.
4. Teachers should motivate students throughout the course •
•
• •
disheartening than to find many broken links on a Web page. All virtual courses should have a “student room” where students can send comments that are not directly related to the subject. It could be a sort of “virtual playground” for adults. By doing this, we create a real virtual community and thus reduce feelings of loneliness, frustration, and stress. It is always a good idea at the beginning of the course to ask students to send their biodata (written in the target language) with a picture. Most virtual environments allow this to be done. If there is no space for a picture, they can always send a simple word document with the picture pasted on it. Teachers should be able to check students’ attendance at the virtual classroom. Likewise, if language teachers want students to connect regularly to the virtual class, and if they want students to participate, teachers must show that they “are there” by sending messages every (maximum) 24 hours. These may simply say “thank you for your exercises,” or they may contain a comment on the activities, and so forth.
Finally, it should be pointed out that although being a virtual teacher often means that the teacher is not in direct (time-space) contact with the students, students should never feel that physical distance. In virtual environments, teachers can be very close to students by creating and keeping a comfortable atmosphere in the classroom. Teachers should never forget that they can motivate or demotivate their students, and they probably expect the virtual language classroom to be a dynamic and flexible space where they can find the right skills and strategies to acquire the knowledge they need.
From time to time, teachers should check the links on a virtual course (this can be done automatically). There is nothing more
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rEFErEncEs Berge, Z. (2000). New roles for learners and teachers in online higher education. Globaled. com Web site. Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved August 9m 2007, from http://www.globaled. com/articles/BergeZane2000.pdf Borges, F. (2005). La frustració de l’estudiant en línia. Causes i accions preventives. Digithum Web site. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www. uoc.edu/digithum/7/dt/cat/borges.pdf Cabero, J. (2006). Bases pedagógicas del elearning. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Conocimiento, 3(1). Chickering, A.W., & Gamson, Z.F. (Eds.). (1991). Applying the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. New directions for teaching and learning. Nº 47. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Galloway, W. (2007). Designing multimedia to improve the speaking skills of second language learners. The Knowledge Tree: An E-Journal of Learning Innovation. Retrieved August 28, 2007, at http://kt.flexiblelearning.net.av/tkt2007. Hara, N., & Kling, R. (1999). Students frustrations with a Web-based distance education course. First Monday: Peer Reviewed Journal on the Internet. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue4_12/hara/ Hara, N., & Kling, R. (2003). Students’ distress with a Web-based distance education course: An ethnographic study of participants’ experiences. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, TOJDE, 4(2). Institut Català de Tecnologia (ICT). (2003). Situation and prospects for e-learning in Spain. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www. teleformacion.edu/documentos/informe%20ict. pdf
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JISC. (2007). Effective practice with e-learning. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from www.jisc.ac.uk/ uploaded_documents/ACF5DO.pdf Padavano, D., & Gould, M. (2004). Best practices for faculty who teach online. DEOSNEWS, 13(9). Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www.ed.psu. edu/acsde/deos/deosnews/deosnews13_9.pdf Pantelidis, V., & Auld, L. (2003). Teaching virtual reality courses online. Globaled.com Web site. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www.globaled. com/articles/PantelidisVeronica2003.pdf Prendergast, G. (2003). Keeping online students numbers low. Globaled.com Web site. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://www.globaled.com/ articles/GerardPrendergast2003.pdf Trenchs, M. (1997). E-mails a una mestra. Lleida: Pagès Editors. Wan Shun, E.L. (2000). L2 literacy and the design of the self: A case study of a teenager writing on the Internet. TESOL Quarterly, 34(3), 457–483. Warschauer, M. (2003). Demystifying the digital divide. Scientific American, 289(2), 42–47. Warschauer, M., & Meskill, C. (2000). Technology and second language learning. In J. Rosenthal (Ed.), Handbook of second language education (pp. 303–318). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. White, C. (2006). Distance learning of foreign languages. Language Teaching, 39(4), 247–264. Zane, B. (2004). New roles for learners and teachers in online higher education. Globaled. com Web site. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from http://community.flexiblelearning.net.au/ManagingFlexibleDelivery/content/article_6986.htm Zhao, Y. (2003). Recent developments in technology and language learning: A literature review and meta-analysis. CALICO Journal, 21(1), 7–27.
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kEY tErMs Blended Learning: The combination of multiple approaches to learning. Blended learning can be accomplished through the use of “blended” virtual and physical resources. A typical example of this would be a combination of technology-based materials and face-to-face sessions used together to deliver instruction. In the strictest sense, blended learning is anytime an instructor combines two methods of delivery of instruction. Discussion List: A type of electronic mailing list. On a discussion list, a subscriber uses the mailing list to send messages to all the other subscribers, who may answer in a similar fashion. Thus, actual discussion and information exchanges can happen. Mailing lists of this type are usually topic-oriented (e.g., politics, scientific discussion, joke contests), and the topic can range from extremely narrow to “whatever you think might interest us.” E-Learning: Can be defined in many ways. In its simplest form, it is individual or group use of electronic media that provide access to online
learning tools and resources. These dynamic media offer shared community spaces, support digital communication and collaboration, and link to information sources such as streamed video, podcasts, Webcasts, digital libraries, Web pages, and videoconferencing. Learning Object: Any entity, digital or nondigital, that may be used for learning, education, or training. Link: A logical connection between discrete units of data, or a hypertext connection between Web pages. Moodle: A course management system (CMS); a free Open Source software package designed using sound pedagogical principles to help educators create effective online learning communities. Virtual Learning Environment (VLE): A software system designed to facilitate teachers in the management of educational courses for their students, especially by helping teachers and learners with course administration.
appEndiX 1 Questionnaire answered by the students Are you enrolled in any course with a virtual component? (Moodle, e-mail, etc.)? 1. Do you think the teacher promotes student participation in the virtual class? ◦ If you answered “no,” please state why you think the teacher does not promote student participation. What do you think should be done to promote it? 2. Do you receive any feedback from the exercises/activities that you hand in virtually? ◦ If you answered “no,” would you like to receive some feedback? 3. Is the design of the course or the exercises: ◦ attractive for students? ◦ difficult/uncomfortable to read? 4. Do you think the teacher takes a long time to send you an answer? ◦ What is the maximum period of time that the teacher should take to send the answer/feedback?
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5.
6. 7.
8. 9.
Do you feel the virtual course in which you are enrolled is “too cold” or “too distant” for the student? ◦ Why? In order to facilitate the students’ learning process, is there anything that you think should be included in the virtual subject? Do you think that virtual courses ◦ help the learning process? ◦ hamper the learning process because the amount of content increases? ◦ hamper the learning process because the number of exercises increases? ◦ improve the teacher-student communication? ◦ make the teacher-student communication worse? ◦ improve the relationship among students? ◦ make the relationship among students worse? During the course, ◦ have you felt frustration? ◦ have you felt stress? ◦ have you felt alone because nobody helped you with your doubts? In general, do you think virtual learning helps you in your learning process? ◦ Why? Would you like to add anything else?
appEndiX 2 The following table shows a summary of what the author considers to be the most significant answers given by the students in question 9 (“In general, do you think that virtual learning helps you in your learning process? Why?”) [author’s translation]: Positive Answers -
There are extra activities that help you understand the topic taught in class. I can hand in the exercises whenever I want. Even though you cannot attend the class, you don’t miss the subject. Teachers can help solve your doubts even though there is no class. In some subjects, we can print the teacher’s notes, and this helps us a lot. We can find many interesting links with lots of extra information. Communication with the teacher improves. The subject becomes a database that you can consult whenever you want. I can work from home.
Negative Answers -
Many teachers send documents that my computer cannot open. Face-to-face teachers answer your questions in class. Virtual teachers take a long time to answer. Sometimes the Internet does not work. We cannot open the Web page. If we have a doubt, it is really difficult to solve. The relationship with the teacher is very cold.
Section III
E-Language Learning:
Methodological Approaches and Future Tendencies
Chapter XXVI
Social Software and Language Acquisition Sarah Guth Università degli studi di Padova, Italy Corrado Petrucco Università degli studi di Padova, Italy
abstract This chapter describes how the social software tools that characterize Web 2.0, such as wikis and blogs, can be used as a valid substitute for more traditional Learning Management Systems in the context of e-learning and blended learning language courses. First, we will give a brief overview of how the educational arena is changing and the role social software can play in promoting these changes. Then we will describe two experimental courses carried out at the University of Padova using social software. The chapter ends with a discussion of the role of these tools in formal education. The aim of the chapter is to show how these tools allow language educators to take network-based language teaching beyond the limits of planned classroom activities, offering students new opportunities to access and produce real language in real situations.
introduction The evolution of e-learning and computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is inherently connected to the evolution of technology and theories on language learning pedagogy intertwined with ways in which society changes. The advent of
the Internet in the 1990s led to a shift toward a focus on authentic communication, task-based learning, and network-based language teaching (NBLT) using sociocognitive approaches. NBLT involves a shift from learners’ interaction with computers to interaction with other humans via the computer (Kern & Warschauer, 2000).
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Social Software and Language Acquisition
Whereas the Internet was initially a place where information and knowledge were delivered by “experts” and information was simply retrieved, toward the end of the 1990s, the Web started to become a place where users, everyday people, produced and shared content in ever-growing global communities. Contrary to the dominant epistemology of Western culture according to which knowledge is created and transmitted by experts, the new way of using the Internet was based on the concept of the “wisdom of the crowds” (Surowiecki, 2005). In 2003, Tim O’Reilly and Dale Dougherty dubbed this new revolution “Web 2.0” (O’Reilly, 2005). Web 2.0 is characterized by what can generically be called “social software”: different types of software that enable people to collaborate and create and join online communities. What is particularly interesting is the widespread use these tools have achieved in a very short time, especially among young people, the so-called Digital Natives (Prensky, 2001) or Net Generation (Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Whether people are using these tools to express their creativity (YouTube, Flickr), to share their thoughts (MySpace, blogs), or to share their knowledge (Wikipedia), they are creating and participating in online social networks in a way that was not imaginable just a few years ago. The aim of this chapter is to argue that not only can language educators not ignore this revolution, but they should embrace it. The benefits of using social software for language learning go beyond simply providing new tools students can use to communicate. They promote social networking on a global scale and knowledge sharing and creation beyond the classroom, thereby giving students opportunities to access, use, and produce authentic language in real-world contexts. In this chapter, we will first provide a brief overview of the implications of Web 2.0 and social software for education in a general context. This information served as the foundation for an action research project that was started at the University of Pa-
dova in the spring semester, 2006. We will then describe the second stage of the project, which involved the use of wikis, Skype, blogs, and other Web 2.0 tools in an advanced English as a Foreign Language (EFL) course. Though the research is not yet complete, the initial results are positive and confirm results from other studies. Finally, the chapter ends with a discussion of the future of these tools in education.
WEb 2.0 and sociaL soFtWarE For EducationaL purposEs The educational arena today is finding it necessary to react and adapt to the shift from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy. We are now living in an information society where the way knowledge is created and organized and the very nature of knowledge have changed. The ways knowledge is represented have always been strongly influenced by the tools used to express it. Today it is impossible to think of knowledge without associating it with tools such as search engines, Web sites, repositories of learning objects, and more recently, social software tools such as blogs and wikis. Today’s students need to learn how to operate effectively in today’s information overload and, at the same time, how to become creators of knowledge. Upon graduation, they will find themselves looking for work in a global knowledge-based, networked economy where they will need to be skilled in collaborative and creative project-based work and critical thinking (Bruns & Humphreys, 2005). At the same time, we must also help students develop “the resources and skills necessary to engage with social and technical change, and to continue learning throughout the rest of their lives” (Owen et al., 2006, p. 3). Language acquisition especially is a lifelong process that cannot end with traditional education, but rather must be cultivated throughout life. The advent and success of Web 2.0 technologies have led many to speak of e-learning 2.0.
Social Software and Language Acquisition
Much of the focus during the first decade of elearning was on the tools, or learning management systems (LMS), through which material could be delivered while less focus was given to the actual pedagogy to be used. We can distinguish between two approaches to information and communications technology (ICT): a technology-centered approach and a learner-centered approach (Mayer, 2005). The former generally fails to lead to lasting improvements in education. A learner-centered approach, on the other hand, can help students and teachers learn and teach through the aid of technology with a focus on how ICT can be used as an aid to human cognition helping students solve complex tasks and deal with today’s information overload. Not only has the quantity and kind of information students access today expanded exponentially in the last few years, but the way they interact with the information and the global communities creating it has changed dramatically as well. As suggested by Bonaiuti (2007), this change has two specific characteristics: a shift from formal learning to informal learning and a shift from content-based learning to collaborative learning. Pedagogy based on a social-constructivist approach and supported by tools readily available online and part of the everyday lives of students can help create an active learning environment in which students and instructors work together to solve problems contextualized in the real world. What’s more, in this context, the collaboration does not stop outside the classroom, but rather flows over into personal lives and develops through the use of social software tools such as blogs, wikis, and forums. To do this, an effort must be made to try to integrate formal and informal learning (Cross, 2006). This is certainly not a new idea (Dewey, 1965), but it is one that is worth experimenting with through the social interactions mediated through the Web, which thus becomes a powerful zone of proximal development able to organize knowledge in multiple and flexible contexts (Spiro et al., 1991). It is a model that
follows a participative approach to knowledge creation (Sfard, 1998) and is closely tied to social constructivism (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989; Jonassen, 2000) by which learning is above all an active process that is socially situated and aimed at solving real problems. Rather than refer to this new trend as e-learning 2.0, Futurelab1 proposes the term “c-learning,” which could be intended as “community learning, communicative learning or collaborative learning, [because] at its heart learning is a social process” (Owen et al., 2006, p. 11). Social software follows the c-learning trend. The use of social software in education focuses on activities rather than applications (i.e., all those activities that involve sharing knowledge [blogs], collaboratively creating knowledge [wikis], and managing knowledge [social bookmarking]). In education, adopting social software has several advantages with respect to other computer-mediated communication tools. 1.
2.
Enabling communication among many people beyond the classroom: Unlike many closed LMSs, social software tools give students the opportunity to interact with experts and novices alike on a global scale beyond planned classroom activities. Providing new ways to share and create content: These tools provide ways to share and create content in systematic, organized ways (e.g., blogs, photo sharing on Flickr at http://www.flickr.com/, and video sharing on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/). They also offer students the opportunity to share knowledge beyond the classroom through, for example, public wikis. The process of sharing knowledge often involves the process of transforming tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge, which is where true learning takes place. Some social software tools make it possible to collaboratively collect and index information in such a way that not only is it easier
Social Software and Language Acquisition
4.
for users to access their own resources, but it is also possible to share them with others in the community and exploit other users’ online searches. In this way, they function as a filter for the information overload on the Web (e.g., social bookmarking on http://del. icio.us and social annotation on http://www. diigo.com). This is what Giger (2006) has called “participation literacy” (i.e., it is no longer the individual that filters information, but the collectivity). Another useful tool for filtering information is feed aggregators; syndication makes it possible for information to come to you rather than you going to it. Some tools offer remote hosting (e.g., Bloglines at http://www.bloglines.com/), which means users can access their feeds from any computer, while others are installed locally on a user’s computer (e.g., Sage, an extension for Mozilla Firefox at http://sage. mozdev.org/). Integrating many types of media (audio, video, images): With the growing number of free tools to create multimedia, the increase in the number of sites dedicated to sharing these resources, and the spread of broadband, students now have the possibility to better express their ideas and creativity by integrating audio, video, and images into the contents they create online.
When several social software tools are used together, students learn how to learn by (1) taking on responsibility for managing the social software tools; (2) working cooperatively and learning from each other; and (3) developing online research skills (Mejias, 2006). All of these activities enhance a student’s sense of responsibility and collaboration, both of which can help foster autonomy. If students learn how to exploit the Web for their autonomous language learning in the context of online communities, they will be able to continue the language acquisition process in their informal learning as well. Social software
tools take the practice of NBLT beyond the limits of the language learning classroom into the global communities of Web 2.0. In the next section, we will describe how these tools were aggregated and used in an advanced EFL course at the University of Padova.
bLEndEd EFL coursEs using sociaL soFtWarE In spring of 2006, an action research project was set up to study the potential of social software to effectively teach blended learning courses for English as a Foreign Language (EFL). The first stage involved an experimental course that was held at the Faculty of Engineering using blogs and a wiki to conduct an upper-intermediate EFL course. Overall, students proved to be highly motivated by using these tools, participated actively, and were satisfied with the course. A careful study of the empirical data corpus led to a redesigning of the course for 28 second-year EFL students in a graduate course in International Communications Studies as the second stage in the project. The year-long course was divided into two semester-long courses: TulanePadovaXchange, a telecollaboration project (Belz, 2005; O’Dowd, 2005) with Italian language students at Tulane University in the United States and EFL students at the University of Padova, and BloggingEnglish, a course aimed at exploring the potential of Web 2.0 tools for autonomous and collaborative language learning in the other semester. In order to work more effectively, students were divided into two groups of 14. One group did the exchange in the first semester, while the other did the blogging course; the groups switched courses in the second semester. Various data sources were used in the research study, including the following: participant observation (teacher’s field notes), posts in students’ personal blogs, transcripts of students’ online correspondence on the wiki and recordings of
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their Skype conversations, informal interviews, comparison of students’ writing at various points throughout the course, and end-of-course questionnaires. As the courses were blended and students were asked to reflect weekly on their learning process in their personal blogs, it was possible to read students’ impressions and then discuss them in class as the courses progressed. In this way, the instructor was able to check her interpretations of the data with students. In the following paragraphs, we will describe each course’s structure, language learning aims, and preliminary results. This is followed by a brief description of how assessment was carried out.
padova-tulane Exchange: Telecollaboration on a Wiki Telecollaboration projects have been carried out in recent years using many tools, from simple e-mail exchanges to specifically designed software (e.g., Cultura) (Furstenberg et al., 2001). Regardless of the tool chosen, “the underlying rationale is to provide the members of each parallel class with cost-effective access to and engagement with age peers who are expert speakers of the language under study in an effort to increase intercultural awareness as well as linguistic proficiency, to increase the authentication of foreign language use in the tutored setting, and to broaden the range of discourse options and subject positions available to classroom learners of language” (Belz, 2005, p. 1). Using a wiki as a platform offers advantages that other tools do not. A wiki offers the possibility to create an ever-growing repository of cultural knowledge that can be used and re-used by students in various learning contexts over time (Godwin-Jones, 2004). Furthermore, writing on a wiki involves collective authoring, which by its very nature requires significant amounts of reading and peer correction. Students can also use the revision history function available on most wikis to keep track of changes in a piece of writing over time, promoting close reading, revi-
sion, and tracking of drafts in order to focus on writing as a process rather than a product (Lamb, 2004). Therefore, a telecollaboration project called TulanePadovaXchange was set up between the University of Padova and Tulane University using a wiki (http://tulanepadova.pbwiki.com/) and Skype to add an oral component to the course. The course was blended; students had one twohour face-to-face lesson a week for 10 weeks (one semester) and were expected to do four to six hours online per week.
The Exchange During the first semester, students spent several weeks exchanging messages on the wiki based on the outcomes of tasks proposed by the Cultura model. Each group of two or three peers had a page they used as one might use a discussion thread in a forum (see Figure 1). Two advantages, however, to using the wiki were (1) all of the information exchanged was present on the same page and, therefore, easier to access for reflection and (2) all of the students could see the other groups’ exchange pages so they could learn not only from their own peers but from the other exchanges as well. Due to scheduling difficulties, the Skype exchanges took place outside of class time and, at most, students had three 15-minute conversations. In the second semester, the teachers in the United States and Italy managed to organize one hour a week in the respective language labs when students could meet online so that rather than carrying out the exchanges on partner wiki pages, all exchanges took place orally via Skype interviews. The sixth and final meeting was a videoconference between the two groups carried out using Skype. A significant increase in involvement and motivation took place on both sides of the Atlantic in the second semester. Although students communicated frequently on the wiki in the first semester, the focus of their exchanges seemed to lack purpose leading to a
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Figure 1. Example of a wiki page for peer exchanges; two Italian students and one American student exchange messages in their native languages
decrease in motivation throughout the course. The exchange was not an integral part of the American students’ grade or coursework, but rather an additional activity. During the second semester, the teachers in the United States and Italy chose three topics students were to explore (recycling, alternative energy resources, and water resources) and integrated the exchange into both course syllabi. The regular use of Skype in the language lab also increased motivation since students in the two institutions had previously been given very few opportunities to speak in the target language and even fewer to speak with native speakers. All the peer conversations were placed online after each exchange in both streaming format and as downloadable MP3 files offering students on both sides of the Atlantic the opportunity to listen not only to their own conversations but to their peers’ as well, as was the case with the wiki pages in the first semester. In her blog, one student noted that “one of the most positive aspects of Skype exchanges is that we can all benefit from every
single conversation, that is, not only from the exchange with our American conversation partner, but also from the other exchanges: each of us can learn from the experience made by other students. Therefore… the more we listen and talk to our peers, the more we learn…!” Finally, as O’Dowd (2007) found, the students realized the benefits of telecollaboration with respect to traditional culture learning materials: “[T]he online exchanges provided learners with a different type of knowledge. … As opposed to objective factual information, the accounts which students received from their partners were of a subjective and personalized nature” (p. 146).
The Interculture Wiki Pages The culture pages in the wiki were developed exclusively by the Italian students in English as the writing component in the course. During the first semester, the Italian students were given the freedom to create and develop
Social Software and Language Acquisition
wiki pages on a topic of interest to them based on issues that came up during the asynchronous exchanges with their American peers. Once pages had been created, students were then encouraged, and eventually forced, to read and edit each other’s pages. When students create their own pages, they maintain a strong sense of ownership. In Lund and Smordal’s (2006) wiki experience, the authors state, “[L]earners did not immediately embrace any notion of collective ownership or epistemology but continued a practice where the institutionally cultivated individual ownership persisted” (p. 41). Indeed, writing collectively did not come naturally, and students had to be guided through the process. Collective authoring gives students an opportunity to focus on the writing process (e.g., from collecting information to organizing, rereading, and doing a final edit. They eventually learn that it is actually easier to correct a peer’s work and find where meaning is unclear (Berg, 1999) rather than correct their own contributions. The comment function in the wiki allowed students to asynchronously negotiate content and structure. An attempt was made in the second semester to encourage collective authoring by creating the following six wiki pages for the students to develop: Recycling in Italy/the USA, Alternative Energy Resources in Italy/the USA, and Water Resources in Italy/the USA. The Italian students had to collectively develop the Italian page as preparation for the Skype exchanges (see Figure 2) and then, based on the information exchanged with their American partners, had to develop the American page. An analysis of the six wiki pages shows significant improvements in their ability to collaborate and write collectively with this organization. For example, they learned to propose structure before writing and discuss which part of that structure each individual student was interested in developing. The benefit of working asynchronously is that students must critically read what has been written by others before contributing. As one student commented,
0
“Thanks to this task I was obliged to search some news and first of all … READ, READ, READ! My colleagues had already written some generic aspects and so I could begin my discovery from that.” In the second semester, there was much more knowledge sharing as students were developing only six pages and developing them together. Nonetheless, they still felt strong ownership for their personal contributions and had difficulty editing each other’s work, as was the case in the first semester. The overall feeling toward the end of the experience was, however, positive. As one student commented, “Developing our six wiki pages and conversing every week with my American peer made me understand the importance of ‘learning-by-doing’, co-operation and negotiation and, most importantly, made me reflect on the close, triple connection existing between the communicative function of language, the use of technology and the process of creating and sharing knowledge.” Finally, one of the main aims of the project proved successful during the shift from the first to the second semester: creating a repository of shared knowledge. Students during the second semester continued to contribute to the wiki created during the first semester. Rather than being a hindrance to production (i.e., “let’s copy what they’ve done”), reading what other students had written and experienced proved to be motivating for students during the second semester. It is the intention of the authors that the wiki continue to grow with future semesters in such a way that students continue to learn from their peers’ experience, avoid some of the pitfalls encountered, and help the repository of intercultural knowledge grow and improve.
Language Learning The three linguistic aims established at the beginning of the course were:
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Figure 2. Example of a wiki page before the final edit; each page had the same structure: introduction, table of contents, contents
•
•
•
To improve students’ reading skills and vocabulary in the target language by reading messages written by native speakers of the target language.2 To improve students’ written accuracy in the target language via production of contents in a wiki in the target language. To develop students’ speaking fluency in the target language via interviews in Skype.
During the first semester, students were asked to carry out their asynchronous text exchanges in their native language in order to provide each other with accurate, authentic language and to have the freedom to fully express their ideas regarding their culture. The most commonly cited benefit was the opportunity to learn “real” language, new idioms, slang words, and so forth, which students then reproduced when developing their wiki pages. The questionnaires and focus groups (self-assessment) and a careful analysis of the corpus of written (wiki) and spoken (Skype recordings) text
confirmed that the second two aims were achieved in both semesters. The second aim involves improving reading skills as well, since before you add a contribution to a wiki, you must first carefully read what others have already written. As one student commented, “Collaborative writing is a very stimulating activity, it fosters multisteps collaboration (reading, writing-integrating) between wiki-contributors.” Furthermore, given the nature of the tasks, students had to do a significant amount of searching and reading online to develop the factual contents of their wiki pages. During the second semester, as they developed three pages about Italy, they had to practice their abilities to read in Italian and then produce new knowledge in English. One student commented, “Finding pages in Italian is not only a translation exercise but it involves many other skills, such as reading, summarizing, writing, thinking in a critical way, etc.” Finally, accuracy regards not only linguistic accuracy, but also issues such as structure, content, and plagiarism. An analysis of the development of the wiki pages throughout
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the second semester course shows that with each new page (of the total six), students’ abilities to structure the pages, organize the information, and provide references improved. Final feedback on linguistic accuracy was provided by the teacher. In groups, students then had to make a final edit of assigned pages. There is no doubt that the opportunity to speak on Skype improved students’ confidence in speaking in English and ability to express themselves in English. They learned how to deal with uncomfortable pauses, ask for clarification when they did not understand, and, in the process, learn new words and expressions. As one student wrote in her blog, “Skyping pushes me to enrich my vocabulary because, at first, my aim was that of speaking with a native in order to improve my English; now, I want to communicate, convey ideas and for doing so, I must express myself in a more appropriate way.” What is more interesting, however, is that this process also helped them learn how to communicate more effectively with non-native speakers of Italian, as students conversed in both languages. Italian students are not accustomed to speaking to non-native speakers of Italian who are trying to communicate in Italian. At first, many found it frustrating, but they became much more aware of the importance of the role of the native speaker when communicating with non-native speakers. For example, they learned to speak more slowly, how to piece together the disjointed sentences their American peers were producing, and understand the American students’ pronunciations in Italian. Given the growing number of immigrants in Italy, this can be considered a particularly important social skill.
BloggingEnglish: Reflecting on social software and Language Learning Many blended language courses are carried out using forums or other tools in traditional, closed LMSs to promote communication. However, if
current language learning aims to offer students authentic opportunities for accessing and producing language, we asked ourselves if blogs and other Web 2.0 tools were not more suitable. According to Ferdig and Trammell (2004), “[K]nowledge construction is discursive, relational and conversational in nature. Therefore, as students appropriate and transform knowledge, they must have authentic opportunities for publication of knowledge” (p. 1). Blogs do just this if they are public, which means they can be read by anyone on the Web. This gives students a real audience for their writing, beyond the teacher and the classroom, which in turn increases students’ sense of ownership and responsibility for what they write (Godwin-Jones, 2004). Furthermore, the journallike nature of blogs and the fact that posts are archived and can be retrieved promote reflective analysis of their writing (Bryant, 2006; Ferdig & Trammell, 2004). Finally, though at first blogs may appear to be all about writing, they are first and foremost about reading. Therefore, an advanced ESL course, called BloggingEnglish (http://www. bloggingenglish1.blogspot.com/) was designed using a blog and e-tivities (Salmon, 2002) that focus on familiarization with Web 2.0 tools.
the course The course was blended, and students had one two-hour face-to-face lesson a week for 10 weeks (one semester) and were expected to do four to six hours online per week. The course blog was used as a substitute for the forums found on traditional LMSs, and students developed their own personal blogs as a place where they could reflect on their learning experience, express their own creativity, and interact with their classmates. This was believed to be important because, as GodwinJones (2006) states, “[I]t is possible to create a more student-centred learning environment using blogs, particularly if students create blogs that they control and whose content they own” (p. 13). Throughout the 10-week course, students were
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given weekly e-tivities to complete, either on the course blog or on their own personal blogs. The course had three main objectives: •
•
•
Students will develop competency in the use of blogs, wikis, social bookmarking, Web syndication, and other Web 2.0 tools, and explore their potential for language learning. Students will improve their written communicative fluency in English and their reflective and critical thinking skills by publishing their thoughts, opinions, and reactions on a course blog and on a personal blog. Students will develop their practical research skills using online information networks as they look for, find, and share online resources.
Each week students were faced with a new Web 2.0 tool with the aim of helping them improve their information literacy skills and participation literacy skills (Giger, 2006) (i.e., how to exploit the knowledge of other Web users and share their knowledge in global communities) (see Table 1). They were encouraged to find blogs where
the blogger regularly posted useful information and resources with regard to language learning or their future professions (e.g., as translators or tourism professionals) and podcasts containing regularly updated audio files useful for developing listening skills. Students learned how to use a feed aggregator to have updated information from blogs and other Web sites come to them rather than having to regularly check all the sites they had found. They learned how to participate in social bookmarking (i.e., to exploit the Web sites other members of the community had already found and add their own contributions). They discovered how to effectively use sites like YouTube to practice their listening skills in an interesting, personalized way by choosing topics of particular interest to them (see Figure 3 for the e-tivity on YouTube and Figure 4 for a student’s post on her personal blog and a peer’s comment). Toward the end of the course, two e-tivities were dedicated to contributing to an existing public wiki. These tasks helped students understand not only that they could gain from other people sharing knowledge but that they too had knowledge to share. As one student commented at the end of the tasks, “We are given the great opportunity to ‘tell the world’
Table 1. Weekly e-tivities in the second semester e-tivity 1
Let’s get started
To become familiarized with the course blog; introductions
e-tivity 2
Exploring the blogosphere
To learn how to exploit the blogosphere as a source of information
e-tivity 3
Developing your own blog
To develop a space to express your own creativity and opinions
e-tivity 4
Social bookmarking
To learn how to save all the resources you find on the Web and exploit those found by others
e-tivity 5
Feeds and feed aggregators
To learn how to have selected updated information come to you
e-tivity 6
YouTube
To learn how to exploit video online for language learning and discussion
e-tivity 7
Let’s wiki on a public wiki
e-tivity 8
Cleaning up the wiki
e-tivity 9
PLEs
To experiment with writing on a public wiki To develop a mindmap of your personal learning environment
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Figure 3. Example of an e-tivity based on Salmon’s model (2002): spark, purpose, task, respond, timeline. The figure shows e-tivity 6 on exploring YouTube. All students completed the optional part of the task (3)
what we’ve learned so far during the English course.” In other words, students learned to create knowledge, share knowledge, and benefit from the sharing of knowledge of other Web 2.0 users. The final e-tivity aimed to have students stop and reflect on what they had done and learned by individually developing a mindmap (using the open source software FreeMind) of their own personal learning environment (PLE) and publishing it on their personal blogs. A PLE is “a combination of the formal and informal tools and processes we use to gather information, reflect on it, and do something with it, which is essentially what
we mean when we talk about learning” (Martin, 2007). This seemed an appropriate way to end a course on social software as these tools are flexible and can be personalized, and as such allow students to develop their own platforms for their informal learning. Students found that being faced with a new tool each week was challenging. The general reaction was initially frustration and a sense of not being able to accomplish the task. These 24-year-old Italian students are not, in fact, Digital Natives, and there was no overlap with what they did in the classroom and their personal lives, as most
Social Software and Language Acquisition
Figure 4. Example of a student post following an e-tivity and peer comments using the comment function; in this screenshot, the student is responding to e-tivity 6 (see Figure 3); the comment exchange demonstrates how the students are developing a community of learners
had never seen a blog and none had ever used a wiki, social bookmarking, or feed aggregators. This initial frustration, however, inevitably turned into appreciation for what the new tools had to offer and an understanding that they were not so difficult to use. A typical entry in students’ personal blogs was one student’s reaction to learning how to use the feed aggregator: “As has already happened with the previous e-tivities, when we were asked to learn to use new tools, this time I had little problems at first as well. Anyway, after hesitating and being a bit ‘angry,’ I’m now able to use another tool, and this thanks to my English teacher and e-tivities.”
Language Learning A typical reaction of students at the beginning of the course was “What does this have to do with language learning?” An analysis of the data proves that it can have much to do with language learning, especially reading and writing. As Will Richardson (2004) states in his blog on educational blogging, “Blogging starts with reading. … blogging, at base, is writing down what you think when you read others. … The tool requires writing. The act requires reading. Without reading, you’re just writing, not blogging.” They developed their reading skills through searching on the Internet to complete the tasks (“I’ve never read so much!” was one comment) and reading each
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other’s posts before commenting on the course blog or each other’s personal blogs. Furthermore, although “writing a weblog appears in the first instance to be a form of publishing, … as time goes by, blogging resembles more and more a conversation” (Downes, 2004, p. 24). Not only did students send comments to each other’s posts in their personal blogs and on the course blogs, engaging them in asynchronous conversation, but comments were also received from strangers on all the personal blogs. Receiving comments from the outside helped students become aware of the fact that they were not only writing for their peers and teacher, but for a global audience as well. Students felt more responsible for what they were writing when they realized anybody could read what they were writing. Blogging is also, of course, about writing. Students had to write regularly during the course in the form of blog posts and comments. The teacher provided feedback on the language used in the blog posts, and improvements in accuracy took place throughout the course as a result of the feedback. Based on a genre analysis of blogs and online publishing in general, students learned how to be concise and clear and effectively organize their blog posts into small, well-structured readable pieces of information. In their questionnaires, students also mentioned having improved their ability to use different registers (blog, peer feedback, public wiki) and to write more quickly under time pressure. Since blogging involves connecting information to the rest of the Web, students learned to create links to other pages and cite sources of information or images they found on the Web. In this process, they became aware of the importance of attribution and respecting copyright or copyleft, as is the case of Creative Commons, a series of licenses from which an author of any artistic work can choose to allow others to use their work in various ways. Finally, whereas writing on their blogs entailed using relatively informal language, writing on a public wiki where anyone could read or edit their contributions required students
to use more formal language and respect sound academic practice. The wiki used, EduTech Wiki (http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Main_Page), is a wiki on educational technologies hosted at the University of Geneva. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to compare the differences in student writing on the TulanePadova wiki and the public EduTech Wiki3. However, it is worth pointing out that by being able to compare the two experiences, students came to the overall conclusion that although more challenging, having a real audience makes them take their writing more seriously. As one second-semester student wrote: [C]ontributing to EduTech Wiki is a good way to make students more responsible and aware of what they’re writing. Here anyone can access the pages and contribute to them, while last semester this didn’t happen. Writing for a public audience helps us improving our languages, our style and—as in this case—our content (in the sense that maybe we are more careful in looking for sources, links, and information, and in deciding which of them are more reliable than the other ones). In other words, the change in audience from peers and teacher to any potential Web user influences student writing. Finally, it is important to point out that four students have continued blogging in English since the end of the course. They have changed the names of their blogs but continue to explore the potential of Web 2.0 and participate in discussions with each other and other bloggers through comments. These students have successfully integrated what they learned in the course into their postgraduation, informal language learning process.
assEssMEnt In a context where students are encouraged to work in groups, collaboration must be taken into consideration in assessment. According to John-
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son and Johnson (in Swan, Shen & Hiltz, 2006), “The key to successful cooperative learning is maintaining both individual accountability, in which students are held responsible for their own learning, and positive interdependence, in which students reach their goals if and only if the other students in the learning group also reach theirs” (p. 47). In other words, not only do activities have to be developed in such a way so as to promote group work and responsibility, but also, at least in a formal academic context where students place a lot of importance on grades, collective work must be assessed. Therefore, both courses used continuous assessment and weekly feedback that considered both individual and collective work as well as a final project. Based on the work by Meijas (2006), different percentages were assigned to the various aspects to be assessed. At the start of the course, the grading scheme and rubrics were demonstrated and discussed with the students so they knew what was expected of them. For the wiki course, the percentages were as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Participation (individual grade – exchanges with American peers): 25% Participation (individual grade – wiki contributions and editing): 25% Editing the wiki (collective grade – accuracy): 25% Final paper/presentation (individual grade – accuracy): 25%
As can be seen, 75% of the final grade is individual, as this is still considered of primary importance at the university. Nonetheless, the grids used to weekly assess the two participation grades take into consideration collaboration skills (e.g., whether or not the contents of their exchanges and wiki pages responded to what their peers had said or done). Both communicative fluency and linguistic accuracy were taken into consideration. In other words, attempts were made to find a balance between individual and
collective grades and between assessment of fluency and accuracy. For the blogging course, the percentages aimed at encouraging active participation in knowledge creation and sharing. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Distributed research (links posted to del. icio.us): 10% Individual analysis (reflection and content–communicative fluency): 40% Final paper (individual grade–accuracy): 25% Comments to classmates’ posts (quality of peer assessment): 10% Editing the public wiki (collective grade–accuracy): 15%
Here, 20% of the final grade was based on students’ abilities to share, collaborate, and do peer review (e.g., distributed research, comments); 40% on their individual abilities to effectively carry out the activities and reflect on their learning experience (e.g., blog posts); and 25% on their individual performances and 15% on group work (e.g., editing the public wiki). Accuracy was considered in only 40% of the grade, while 60% focused on fluency. This choice was based on the fact that throughout their studies, Italian students focus mainly on accuracy and very little on communicative fluency. Many students commented on how much they appreciated the opportunity to be able to just communicate in English. Furthermore, the instructor expected students to emulate the communicative techniques used in the tools they were exploring as part of the course. In order to keep track of student participation during both courses, grids were used that included task achievement, quality (on a scale of 1 to 10 based on predefined rubrics), and any additional comments. This allowed the instructor to provide weekly qualitative feedback and mid-term feedback as well as to easily calculate the final grade.
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discussion Numerous studies on network-based language teaching (Kern & Warschauer, 2000) have begun to show the benefits of using networked technologies in the foreign language classroom to connect humans to other humans. As new technologies have developed and Web 2.0 has taken hold, the use of social software in promoting these practices is simply the next step. Never before have language learners had similar opportunities not only to access authentic language but also to participate in the creation of authentic language in real contexts. Given the fact that many of these tools are free, offer remote hosting, and are easy to use, experimenting with them becomes plausible for any language teacher. In the context of the projects discussed in this chapter, for example, the teacher developed both courses without the assistance of a technician or the use of institutional servers. Furthermore, students can develop personal collaborative learning environments (e.g., through blogging and social bookmarking) that they can continue to exploit after courses are finished. In other words, rather than being contained within a closed institutional environment, students can create their own personal learning environments (Attwell, 2007; Wilson, 2006) suited to their own specific language learning styles and needs, and transferable to informal learning. There are, however, institutional hurdles to overcome. Up until now, many institutions have integrated social software tools into their closed Learning Management Systems (LMS) or installed them on closed university servers. In many ways, this seems to imply simply using social software tools to do what can already be done with other tools in LMSs. An LMS is a centralized environment controlled by an administrator and most often accessible to a limited community of users where the learning process takes place in times and ways that have been established by an instructor. This paradigm tends to promote traditional transmissive pedagogy where the learner has a relatively
passive role and cannot take control over his or her own learning. However, today most educators recognize the need for students to become more autonomous and responsible for organizing their own learning. This replication of social software in closed environments works against the very potential of social software, which reaches its full potential when there is a large user base. As has already been stated, combining various tools not only encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning, but also, if these tools are open, to continue using them once their formal education is complete. Another issue, which seems particularly relevant in Anglo-Saxon contexts where copying and cheating have serious consequences, is destigmatizing collaboration: “[I]t is no longer cheating to find out from or gain the advice of other people or to use information sources not already in your head” (Owen et al., 2006, p. 49). If resource sharing and peer assessment are encouraged and an emphasis is placed on developing skills to learn how to judge resources, paraphrase, and reference electronic sources, then students can gather knowledge from different sources, even their peers, and produce valid academic content. In this way, students learn to learn from one another and the larger Web 2.0 community, thereby developing their participation literacy.
concLusion This chapter has attempted to offer an introduction to the use of social software in language acquisition. First, we considered the changes that are currently taking place in education toward more collaboration, responsibility, and autonomy for students in both formal and informal learning contexts. We discussed ways in which social software can help meet these new needs. Then we described two blended learning courses carried out at the University of Padova with advanced EFL students, one involving the use of a wiki and Skype in a
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telecollaboration project with Tulane University in the United States, and the other involving the use of blogs and other social software tools to help promote autonomous language learning. The initial results, which are quite positive, and a description of how assessment was carried out were presented. Finally, the challenges of using social software in formal education were discussed. In order to achieve the true benefits of using social software in education, institutions and teachers will have to shift from a focus on individual work within the boundaries of a classroom or course to a focus on collective and collaborative work beyond institutional confines.
rEFErEncEs Attwell, G. (2007). Personal learning environments—The future of eLearning?. eLearning Papers, 2(1), 1–8. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http://www.elearningeuropa.info/files/media/media11561.pdf Belz, J. (2005). Telecollaborative language study: A personal overview of praxis and research. Proceedings of the 2004 NFLRC Symposium: Distance Education, Distributed Learning, and Language Instruction. Retrieved October 13, 2006, from http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/networks/nw44/belz.htm Berg, E.C. (1999). The effects of trained peer response on ESL students: Revision types and writing quality. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(3), 215–241. Bonaiuti, G. (Ed.). (2007). E-learning 2.0: Il futuro dell’apprendimento in rete, tra formale e informale. I quaderni di Form@re n. 6. Retrieved May 10, 2007, from http://www.erickson.it/erickson/repository/pdf/PRODUCT_1205_PDF.pdf Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32–42.
Bruns, A., & Humphreys, S. (2005). Wikis in teaching and assessment—The M/Cyclopedia project. Proceedings of at the 2005 International Symposium on Wikis, San Diego, California. Retrieved July 15, 2006, from http://snurb.info/ files/Wikis%20in%20Teaching%20and%20Ass essment.pdf Bryant, T. (2006). Social software in academia. Educause Quarterly, 29(2), 61–64. Retrieved September 9, 2006, from http://www.educause. edu/apps/eq/eqm06/eqm0627.asp Cross, J. (2006). Informal learning: Rediscovering the natural pathways that inspire innovation and performance. San Francisco, CA: Wiley. Dewey, J. (1965). Democrazia ed educazione. Firenze, Italia: La Nuova Italia. Downes, S. (2004). Educational blogging. Educause Review, 39(5), 14–26. Retrieved August 22, 2006, from http://www.educause.edu/apps/ er/erm04/erm0450.asp Ferdig, R.E., & Trammell, K.D. (2004). Content delivery in the “blogoshpere.” THE Journal, February 2004. Retrieved September 19, 2006, from http://www.thejournal.com/articles/16626 Furstenberg, G., Levet, S., English, K., & Maillet, K. (2001). Giving a virtual voice to the silent language of culture: The CULTURA project. Language Learning & Technology, 5(1), 55–102. Retrieved May 11, 2007, from http://llt.msu.edu/ vol5num1/furstenberg/default.html Giger, P. (2006). Participation literacy [licentiate thesis]. Karlskrona, Sweden: Blekinge Institute of Technology. Retrieved from http://www.participationliteracy.com/ Godwin-Jones, R. (2004). Blogs and wikis: Environments for on-line collaboration. Language Learning & Technology, 7(2), 12–16. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from https://llt.msu.edu/vol7num2/emerging/
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Godwin-Jones, R. (2006). Tag clouds in the blogosphere: Electronic literacy and social networking. Language Learning & Technology, 10(2), 8–15. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from https://llt. msu.edu/vol10num2/emerging/ Jonassen, D. (2000). Learning as activity. Proceedings of the Meaning of Learning Project, Learning Development Institute, Presidential Session at AECT, Denver, Colorado. Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Networkbased language teaching: Concepts and practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lamb, B. (2004). Wide open spaces: Ready or not. Educause Review, 39(5), 36–48. Retrieved September 15, 2006, from http://www.educause. edu/ir/library/pdf/ERM0452.pdf Lund, A., & Smordal, O. (2006). Is there a space for the teacher in a wiki? Proceedings of the 2006 International Symposium on Wikis, Odense, Denmark. Retrieved September 9, 2006, from http://www.wikisym.org/ws2006/proceedings/ p37.pdf Martin, M. (2007). My personal learning environment. Blog post from The Bamboo Project: educate, advocate, innovate, collaborate on April 11, 2007. Retrieved April 26, 2007, from http:// michelemartin.typepad.com/thebambooprojectblog/2007/04/my_personal_lea.html Mayer, R. (Ed.). (2005). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Mejias, U. (2006). Teaching social software with social software. Innovate, 2(5). Retrieved September 19, 2006, from http://www.innovateonline. info/index.php?view=article&id=260 Oblinger, D., & Oblinger, J. (2005). Educating the Net Generation. Educause e-book. Retrieved on October, 4, 2007, from http://www.educause. edu/educatingthenetgen
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O’Dowd, R. (2005). Negotiating sociocultural and institutional contexts: The case of Spanish-American telecollaboration. Language and Intercultural Communication, 5(1), 40–56. O’Dowd, R. (2007). Evaluating the outcomes of online intercultural exchange. ELT Journal, 61(2), 144–152. O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0: Design patterns and business models for the next generation of software. O’Reilly.com Web site. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http://oreillynet.com/ pub/a/oreilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web20.html?page=1 Owen, M., Grant, L., Sayers, S., & Facer, K. (2006). Social software and learning. Futurelab Web site. Retrieved April 25, 2007, from http:// www.futurelab.org.uk/research/opening_education/social_software_01.htm Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6. Retrieved April 4, 2007, from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Digital%20Natives,%20Di gital%20Immigrants%20-%20Part1.pdf Richardson, W. (2004). Reading and Blogging. Weblogg-ed Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2006, from http://weblogg-ed.com/2004/03/31 Salmon G. (2002). E-tivities: The key to active online learning. London and Sterling, VA: Kogan Page Limited. Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4–13. Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J., & Coulson, R.L. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology, 31(5), 24–33.
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Surowiecki, J. (2005). The wisdom of crowds: Why the many are smarter than the few and how collective wisdom shapes business, economies, societies and nations. Doubleday. Swan, K., Shen, J., & Hiltz, S.R. (2006). Assessment and collaboration in online learning. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 10(1), 45–62. Retrieved May 10, 2006, from http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/JALN/ v10n1/v10n1_5swan.asp Wilson, S. (2006). PLE Workshop, Cetis PLE Event in Manchester (UK). Retrieved April 24, 2007, from http://www.cetis.ac.uk/members/ scott/blogview?entry=20060609211909
kEY tErMs Blog: Simply defined, a blog, or weblog is a sort of online journal organized in reverse chronological order, where a person writes about his or her thoughts and interests, including providing links to relevant resources on the Web. Most blogs allow readers to leave comments. There are many types of blogs, from very personal journals to educational blogs. Various types of media, from audio to video to images, can often be integrated into a text blog. Feed Aggregators: A client software that allows users to receive syndicated Web content from any type of Web site that uses feeds such as newspaper Web sites, blogs, podcasts, and so forth. In other words, rather than having to regularly check Web sites for updated information through the use of feeds (RSS, XML RSD, XML Atom), updated information is sent to the feed aggregator so users have only one place to check for updated content. Users can decide how much of the updated information they would like to receive in the aggregator (e.g., a few lines or the entire text) and whether or not to receive just text or other media as well. Users can also go directly to the Web sites from the aggregator. Feed
aggregators provide a useful tool for managing the information overload on the Internet. Informal Learning: Learning that takes place outside of institutionally defined contexts; for example, learning on the job and in one’s personal life. It can be associated with other concepts such as lifelong and continuous learning, both of which are becoming more important in today’s information society. Net work-Based Language Teaching (NBLT): NBLT involves teaching languages through the use of computers that are connected to one another in either local or global networks. NBLT allows students to interact with speakers of the target language without having to physically meet with them. In NBLT, the main focus is on authentic communication via the computer and the Internet. Social software offers new opportunities for NBLT. Participation Literacy: Whereas information literacy refers to a person’s ability to effectively manage information, participation refers to the competences required to effectively participate in Web 2.0 environments. In other words, participation literacy involves learning the social skills needed to take part in online communities. Social Bookmarking: Social bookmarking Web sites allow users to store, classify, share, and search their own Internet bookmarks as well as those of other community members by using tags (folksonomies). Most services offer remote hosting so that users can access their bookmarks from any computer. Social bookmarking can serve as a filter for the information overload on the Internet. When users search on these Web sites, they are not searching the entire Web using an algorithm, as is the case on most search engines, but rather they are viewing Web sites that other users have found to be useful and taken the time to save and describe, and for which they have chosen semantically classified tags.
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Social Software: A generic term used to describe various types of software that enable people to collaborate and create, and join online communities. The tools can promote various types of communication: synchronous one-toone (instant messaging), synchronous one-tomany (Skypecasts), asynchronous one-to-many (blogs), asynchronous many-to-many (wikis), or asynchronous many-to-one (feed aggregators). These tools allow users to share and create content, collaboratively create and edit content and/or manage content. Web 2.0: A term used to contrast the World Wide Web in the 1990s as a collection of Web sites produced by experts, institutions, and companies (the read-only Web) with the changes that took place starting with the 21st century where Web applications allow end users to create and share content on the Web (the read-write Web). Wiki: A software application that allows the creation and development of interlinked Web pages; any user can create new pages and edit existing pages. Wikis, therefore, are an effective tool for collaborative authoring, collective learning, and project-based work.
EndnotEs 1
2
3
Futurelab is a not-for-profit organization researching innovation in education, incubating new ideas, communicating thinking and practice, etc. and can be found at http:// www.futurelab.org.uk/ There was no informal written communication in the second semester so the first aim only applied to the first semester. See Guth, S. (2007). Wikis in Education: Is Public Better? Paper presented at WikiSym’07 October 21–23, 2007, Montréal, Québec, Canada. Retrieved 06 November 2007 from http://ws2007.wikisym.org/ space/GuthPaper.
Chapter XXVII
The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning Bryan Carter University of Central Missouri, USA Dayton Elseth Mohawk Valley Community College, USA
abstract Within academia, distance learning as an approach to education has its share of skeptics. Regardless of how some feel about the methodology, it has become a viable alternative to more traditional classroom instruction. In fact, distance learning methods such as learning management systems, video conferencing, and CD-ROM programs can yield success in second or foreign language courses as well. While those other computer-based learning tools have produced positive results, this study attempts to gauge the usefulness of an Internet-based virtual reality environment called Second Life. This virtual world, not initially intended for second or foreign language teaching, contains environments that are similar to those found in the “real world” that can be manipulated by users for educational purposes. The subjects in this study—three students in an introductory German class and students of two semesters of composition—45 in number, all felt that Second Life helped their language progression and/or helped inspire their writing. All wanted to see expanded use of Second Life in their classes.
introduction Everett Rogers (2003) first described how people adopt and embrace change in his book Diffusion of Innovations. Rogers stated that members of
a society do not accept new ideas all at once. Instead, the adoption of innovations resembles that of a bell-shaped curve. The innovators are a small percentage of people who bring about change. The early and late majority of adopters
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comprise the bulk of society. And, lastly, the laggards—those who either never accept a new idea or are the last to do so—make up another small percentage. While Rogers used his bell curve to describe economics and consumerism, it can certainly be used in other areas as well, especially education. The trend in education tends to be that a very small percentage of bold yet risky instructors represent the innovators. They put their reputations and often their jobs on the line for a new instructional approach or tool. The rest of the education populace seems to fall into the late majority and laggard categories, with the bulk of them being laggards. Educators are often skeptical of new teaching tools and approaches, primarily because they do not believe that many innovations actually improve the learning experience, much less equal that of previous techniques. However, it has been theorized and proved that distance learning is a viable alternative to standard classroom-based instruction. Specifically, Second Life, a form of distance learning in an Internet-based virtual reality, can be an excellent supplementary tool in a second or foreign language class.
distancE LEarning As new technologies become accepted in education, instructors are encouraged to adapt and incorporate them into their pedagogy. Many innovations are intended for the enhancement of the classroom experience itself. Some of these frequently adopted tools are overhead projectors with transparencies, streaming audio and video from the World Wide Web, and PowerPoint presentations with LCD projectors. These tools make the learning experience much more interesting for students and teachers alike. However, there are few widely accepted innovations surrounding Distance Learning. One reason for this is because of the often prohibitive cost of high-speed networking and equipment on both the sending and
receiving end of the exchange. But what exactly is distance learning? Kathleen Davey (1999), founding Dean for Instructional Technology at Florida Gulf Coast University, defines distance learning as “any formal educational process that occurs with the teacher and the student separated by either time or distance” (p. 44). Given that definition, distance learning is not a new phenomenon. Students who are given homework or take-home essays are clearly obtaining their knowledge through a means of distance learning. The evolution of the practice has included heavy use of the Internet and the World Wide Web for course delivery, communication, and document exchange. However, many in academia have become familiar with the interpretation of distance learning provided by Dr. Jan Wilson (2002) of Jacksonville State University. She states that “distance learning is an educational approach that integrates technology, connectivity, curricular content, and human resources” in order to teach students out of the traditional classroom (p. 638). In that respect, distance learning is relatively new. That, then, would explain some of the reluctance of those in education to implement distance learning in their curricula. Dr. Charles Notar (2002) of Jacksonville State University, along with his colleagues, say that the use of technology in the classroom has been met with so much resistance and reluctance “due to the unfamiliarity” many teachers have with those new methods (p. 649). They state that teachers would rather rely on their “traditional methods of teaching and interacting with students” (Notar et al., 2002, p. 649). Indeed, teachers’ skepticism of distance learning is not without reason. Many in academia believe that new innovations, especially those that are of the technological variety, do not equal the educational experience of the classroom. According to Dr. Gilbert Furstenberg (1997), a senior lecturer in French at MIT, teachers simply do not want to take the time to learn about new innovations because they fail to see their roles
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in the classroom. And only when teachers see it “as a tool that can assist them and their students in their loftier endeavors” will technology reach its full potential (Furstenberg, 1997, p. 72). Additionally, because instructors shape their teaching approaches based on their own experiences of what has and has not worked in the past, they remain apprehensive when they are bombarded with new tools and methods for teaching their courses that conflict (or do not necessarily coincide) with that to which they are accustomed. Often, those who are most reluctant to experiment or incorporate new media and technologies in the classroom are even less familiar with the learning styles of the Net Generation learner. However, it is the belief of Richard Cage (1995) that the teachers’ interpretations of what does and does not work needs to change. He says that perhaps “the problem is the curriculum and methodology in place in the classroom” (Cage, 1995, p. 52). Cage goes on to state that different students have different learning styles, and in this age of constant technological stimulation, “students need to be more actively and directly involved in the learning process” (Cage, 1995, p. 52). Otherwise, the learning styles of those students who are more kinesthetic (learn better when they are “physically involved in what they are studying”) will be ignored (Cage, p. 52). Elaine Pawling (1999), an instructor at Sheffield University and later High Storrs School, concurs with this sentiment. She says that “teachers are usually forced to target the middle ability band of a class as the bench mark” (Pawling, 1999, p. 165). This means that weaker and stronger students “are required to complete tasks that are not appropriate for their ability, which leads to frustration or boredom” (Pawling, 1999, p. 166). This, according to many in academia, is where distance learning can equal and in some cases improve upon the traditional classroom experience. Notar, et al. (2002) feel that “distance learning can provide wonderful opportunities for teachers to enhance active learning” in their students (p.
649). Wilson (2002), Notar’s colleague, also believes that “when distance learning is implemented correctly, it has the ability to build on the unique, dynamic characteristics of digital content to create productive, creative, and interesting learning environments” (p. 638). A way to implement distance learning correctly is by utilizing all the appropriate technological resources. Davey (1999) states that “internet resources, such as email, blogs, listservs, and chat rooms, combined with video and {digital} materials leaves fewer and fewer instructional objectives that cannot be accomplished through distance learning” (p. 46). However, it is not just the opinion of these innovative educators that drives distance learning. Many in academia base their endorsements for distance learning on documented course observations and case studies that indicate its usefulness, as opposed to traditional methods. For instance, a study done in 2000 by the National Education Association reported that “faculty rated their distance learning courses higher and as far more compliant with quality standards determined by the NEA when interactive technology is used” (Notar et al., 2002, p. 652). Catherine McLoughlin and Ron Oliver (1998), lecturers in educational technology at Edith Cowan University, documented one course observation that indicated “there are positive effects on motivation, learning, and problem-solving behaviors as a result of collaborative work around computers” (p. 127). McLoughlin and Oliver (1998) documented several other case studies that show the advantages computers add to a language course. Based on their findings, they concluded that “group work around computers offers opportunities for language use and enhanced learning outcomes” (McLoughlin & Oliver, 1998, p. 131). More specifically, their research proved that group work with computers provides support for “relatively autonomous learning on the part of the students, increased collaboration and negotiation, a higher quality of ‘exploratory talk’ and cognitive discourse, greater problem solving competencies and higher order
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thinking, and development of writing skills and literary uses of language” (McLoughlin & Oliver, 1998, p. 131).
sociaL LEarning Well-designed social learning environments foster increased opportunities for collaborative activities. Socialization among humans uses many clues to provide the intended message. With the latest developments in 3D virtual environments, which are now available to anyone with a relatively recent model computer and high-speed connection to the Internet, technology is reaching new levels of immersive experiences, incorporating rich visual elements and animations that provide a full-featured social learning environment. When enhancements to virtual environments are made that mimic real life, users become more enmeshed with the content and less focused on user interface issues that sometimes plague advanced virtual environments. How, then, do educators modify current curricula to fit into these advanced visual environments? Many faculty members face a common and often perplexing question: How do we engage online students? Jones (1998) has suggested that learners are not intrinsically motivated unless the learning environment offers motivational features. He further stipulates that learners need to have a reason for entering the computer-based environment but then also need to find it stimulating enough to engage in the environment. In order for knowledge and skills to come together in interactive learning, students need practice and experience (Jones, 1998). Students also need opportunities to feel safe to learn in an environment that provides them with experiences that allow them to apply existing knowledge and succeed in successive steps. Games and simulations can provide such a “world” for students (Gredler, 2001). Simulations have been used to enhance adult learning in corporate and military
settings for over a half-century, but the use of games in traditional educational settings has only recently received attention (Thompson & Rodriguez, 2004). Recognizing the motivational and instructional power of games and simulations moves educators into a new realm for delivery of learning outcomes (Jenkins, 2005). Jenkins (2005) recently proposed several aspects of games that make them a viable approach to promote student academic learning. He suggests that games: • • • • • • •
Lower threat of failure Foster engagement through immersion Manage levels of attainment to prevent feeling overwhelmed Link learning to goals and roles Create a social context with shared interests Present multimodal learning environments Support a framework of inquiry
The use of games and simulation capitalizes on the motivational factors necessary to engage the learner. Embedding learning activities into games and simulations in an online environment will offer students socially acceptable and personally gratifying opportunities to learn (Thompson & Rodriguez, 2004).
thE casE For sEcond LiFE Imagine a learning environment where you can go anywhere, do anything, and interact with others in ways never before possible on networked desktop or laptop computers. Learners can visit such places as gothic cathedrals, cities, museums, libraries, and places too dangerous or impossible to go in real life; and more importantly, they can interact with one another. This three-dimensional world exists, created by its residents who are physically located around the world. Second Life has the
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potential to revolutionize distance learning in ways limited only by our imaginations. Second Life is an immense environment consisting of more than 5 million residents from around the world, representing almost every walk of life, including a small cadre of educators that recognize how an interactive 3D environment can affect the educational experience in a positive way. Most educators have never experienced an interactive 3D environment (Massive Multi-User Online Role Playing Game [MMORPG]) where real learning can take place, which is one reason there can be so much resistance to the use of them in the classroom. Many teachers and parents frown on the use of videogames at school. Although there is a number of very well done interactive educational titles, they are rarely used for an extended period of time, and often they are “static” titles that, when played once, lose their luster. However, when considering the positive attributes of MMORPGs, we find that: Gamers come to virtual worlds because in them they find more than a game, they find other gamers. They come to compete with each other, to collaborate with each other, to learn from each other, to profit from each other, to talk to each other in the game, at the coffee machine at work or in chat rooms on the Internet. Players come to MMOs to interact with other players, and in that way, MMOs are a very special form of interactive entertainment, in that they derive their value mainly from the fact that there are other players there (Ludlow & Wallace, 2006). Furthermore, resistance by some academics to these environments may be because the traditional role of “master,” or “sage” is no longer the standard; in fact, it is sometimes just the opposite. In a world where anything is possible, mistakes can be made and corrected; and where information is easily accessible by everyone, the role of educators must incorporate that with which many of our students are already familiar.
MMORPGs are becoming ever more popular among adolescents and adults due to their social context, while at the same time offering an array of complex activities and objectives that players must accomplish in order to “succeed” in the game. There are several recent studies that examine the teaching and learning potential of this particular genre of video games, most specifically to teach science and physics (University of Central Florida NSF grant, award number 0537078). These efforts are important because they suggest there can be sound pedagogical methodology incorporated into MMORPGs, and more researchers are exploring the potential of these environments. With an increase in high-quality graphic computing and fast networking capability becoming more commonplace in homes, the “prescripted,” often rendered versions of the most popular games (note the advanced graphics in games such as Medal of Honor, Grand Theft Auto, and Madden Football) have given rise to an even more interactive, completely unpredictable environment called a micro-world. The term “micro-world” was coined by Lloyd P. Rieber and is defined as “a small but complete subset of reality in which one can go to learn about a specific domain through personal discovery and exploration” (Rieber, 1992). Furthermore, micro-worlds allow users to interact with others and build objects within the environment, thus adding to the interactive nature of the world. Through the creation of a number of environments where Rieber’s son could determine his own direction and make decisions regarding his learning that changed based on the decisions he made, Rieber suggests that visually based virtual environments are an extension of constructivist learning theories (Rieber 1992). Currently, one of the most advanced of these micro-worlds, developed by Linden Lab, is called Second Life. As stated on secondlife.com, “Second Life is a 3-D virtual world built and owned by its residents.” It is a multi-user, visually enhanced, interactive environment currently inhabited by
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more than 5 million residents from around the world. Second Life is not a game but rather a virtual environment built entirely by its “residents” (players who are also referred to as avatars). The Second Life “platform” is currently being used by more than 300 educational institutions (Spring, 2007) as a way to engage students in immersive educational experiences. Much like in the real world, residents of Second Life can buy their own land, build their own houses, rent previously built apartments, purchase items, or do various other activities. In that sense, the environment within Second Life is an imitation of reality. Residents can build and construct almost anything their skills allow and interact with objects and residents from all over the world within the environment. Second Life comes with built-in tools for building and scripting (built-in compiler); and animation, sound, video, and textures can be developed outside and easily brought into the environment. However, because Second Life is a computer program, there are also certain rules that can be manipulated or broken. The residents can fly without transportation, walk around underwater without needing to breathe, or teleport between locations in a split second, much like Star Trek. However, these are not the only things that can be manipulated in Second Life. Audio or video clips can be uploaded into Second Life and attached to certain objects. Also, PowerPoint presentations can be given with or without the presence of an instructor. For those instructors who prefer that their students see them, a video of the instructor describing the information on PowerPoint can be prerecorded, uploaded onto a flat screen, and viewed by the students. Note cards that contain any information that a teacher desires can be attached to any object in Second Life and retrieved with a click of the mouse. Additionally, words or phrases can be attached to objects as floating script, so the students would not even need to click on an object to get a written version of its corresponding word. Regarding communication, it can take
place in two ways: the more traditional textual chat or the use of the more recent incorporation of voice communication (Summer, 2007).
sEcond LiFE in practicE: coMposition The effective use of Second Life is not an easy task; however, it is one that is not that much more difficult than the first steps many educators made many years ago when experimenting with PowerPoint, the World Wide Web, or Learning Management Systems. Modifying curricula is equally as important as modifying one’s mindset. In 2005, Dr. Bryan Carter from the University of Central Missouri introduced Second Life into one of his composition courses. The objectives of that course included sharpening skills learned in first year composition and encouraging students to write “experientially”; that is, experiencing through Second Life what their paper topics concerned instead of writing from a detached, third-person perspective. For example, if a student chose to write about subcultures within virtual environments, he or she would perhaps join one and write about that experience in addition to researching what exactly a subculture is and how one develops and exists within a virtual environment. Following are two examples of writing assignments from which students could choose: Appearance, acceptance, identity, and race http://terranova.blogs.com/terra_nova/2005/03/ the_boundaries_.html http://secondlife.blogs.com/nwn/2004/01/king_ for_a_day.html http://www.dragonscoveherald.com/blog/index. php?p=1009#more-1009 http://www.nickyee.com/daedalus/gateway_identity.html http://www.humanities.uci.edu/mposter/syllabi/ readings/nakamura.html
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h t t p: // w w w. n i c k y e e . c o m /d a e d a l u s /a rchives/000894.php http://secondlife.com/notes/2003_10_20_archive. php#20031024 http://secondlife.com/notes/2003_10_27_archive. php#20031027 Short Paper Assignment. Appearance, acceptance, identity, and race are all important concepts in real life because they all shape in part who we are and how others perceive us. Second Life is not all that much different with regard to how others see our avatars and accept us for what we look like first and later identify us based on not only our outward appearance but also whether or not we connect ourselves with an obvious racial or social designator. Why would appearance be so important within a virtual environment, and given that we can change our appearance, why would others tend to accept us based on our outward appearance? (Or do you even believe this is true?) Is there such a thing as race in cyberspace? How is the concept of “race” defined within a multi-user environment, and do you find it to be in any way similar to the way it is defined in the real world? After spending some time in Second Life, how is your identity transmitted through your avatar? And why have you constructed your avatar to look the way he or she does? Is the appearance of your avatar important to your being accepted by any groups with whom you interact “in-world”? Assignment. Read the articles above and modify your avatar to fit one or more communities or groups that you find interesting. Interact with the group for a period of time and record how that interaction changes based on changes you make in your outward appearance. Is a costume necessary to be accepted in the group? Define your Topic and construct a well-thought-out thesis statement to post on our blog by the deadline date. After spending a few days with one or more groups and reading several of the articles above, record your findings in this Short Paper Assignment. Ensure that you inform us how you went about
your experience, detailing how you originally looked (perhaps providing a snapshot) and how and why you made whatever changes you made in order to “fit in” to the group(s) you decided to join (also providing a snapshot). Be detailed in your response and ensure that you reference places, coordinates, and any SL members that you obtain permission to mention. Virtual Communities http://secondlife.blogs.com/nwn/2005/11/subdivisions.html h t t p : //s c o o p . e p l u r i b u s m e d i a . o r g /s t o ry/2006/8/3/144841/0527 http://secondlife.blogs.com/nwn/2004/05/the_ school_of_s.html http://www.insead.fr/CALT/Encyclopedia/ComputerSciences/Groupware/VirtualCommunities/ http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/ news/2005/04/67142 Short Paper Assignment. Several communities within Second Life pride themselves on being democratic, open, accepting, and welcoming to newcomers or anyone looking for a place to be themselves. For instance, “The Neualtenburg Projekt is a nonprofit cooperative and self-governed community, whose purpose is to: enable group ownership of high-quality public, private, and open-space land; create a themed yet expressive community of public and private builds; and implement novel democratic forms of self government within Second Life.” Do you consider these types of virtual communities important within a virtual environment, or are they redundant because it’s all “virtual”? Why do you believe there are so many of these communities within the SL environment? What are some of the negative aspects of becoming a member of one or more of these communities? Are there any positives to becoming a member of a virtual community? Assignment. Look for one or more virtual communities that interest you and join. Try to
The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning
become an active, contributing member of the community, which may entail making some changes in the way you look or behave. On our course blog, define your topic and construct a clear and focused thesis statement by the deadline date. In your Short Paper, discuss your experience within your new community and why you chose the one you did. Also, discuss any changes you found necessary in order to be more fully accepted within your community and how you felt about those changes. Please be complete in your thoughts to include the community, the coordinates, governance, philosophy, number of members, snapshots, and so forth. Feedback from these assignments and the class in general over the past two years has been overly positive. Course evaluations from the past two semesters suggest that more than 85% of the students enjoyed the experience and thought that Second Life was a good tool for composition. The other 15% of students were unsure of how useful this technology was to their overall learning experience. Partly because of this positive feedback and outlines of future activities and projects making use of Second Life, a recent grant has been provided by the College of Arts, Social Sciences and Humanities to expand the use of Second Life to literature classes. Additionally, the University of Central Missouri has recently purchased an island in Second Life called Selmo Park.
sEcond LiFE in practicE: ForEign LanguagE instruction Using Second Life in a language class is equally engaging. Instead of going on a field trip to a convenience store with a group of English as a Second Language (ESL) learners, teachers can use Second Life to take students on a virtual field trip. In reality, at a convenience store, there is nothing but the objects in the store and a clerk to assist the customers. In a virtual convenience
0
store in Second Life, teachers can attach floating text to more problematic objects so the students can make the connection between those objects and their corresponding words as well as how they are used in sentences. Students can hear an audio clip of a native speaker using the word or a sentence containing the word of any object. Students can also see, keep, and manipulate note cards attached to objects that contain the plural form of the word, alternative words for that object, or a variety of exercises designed by the instructor to demonstrate how the word can be altered. If there is anything of which the students want to make a note for themselves, they can write it on the note cards and keep them in their inventory for later study. The ability to manipulate the environment in Second Life leaves open the opportunity for instructors to implement a variety of language lessons, from controlled practice to free communication. The level of guidance that instructors want to provide in Second Life is completely up to them. That is how Second Life can be more useful than other distance learning tools such as CD-ROMs, videoconferencing or learning management systems. On the surface, Second Life appears to be a tool that would be helpful in any second or foreign language classroom. But, as is often an occurrence in Second Language Acquisition (SLA), new techniques arise but are hastily discarded because of their ineffectiveness. Graduate student Dayton Elseth took it upon himself to try Second Life on a group of freshman-level German students at the University of Central Missouri. These students had either never taken German before or their handling of the language was not advanced enough for them to test out of the beginning course. Because Elseth was not their instructor, volunteers were requested from students who wanted to try the program. Unfortunately, only three students stepped forward. Elseth was aware that such a small number of subjects could not truly measure the overall effect
The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning
of Second Life because the students’ progression could be a result of practice in Second Life or instruction in their German classes. Therefore, a pretest or posttest was not done. The activities that were done were incredibly informal. No assignments were given on which grades or formal reports could be given to their instructor. More simply, one specific focus of study for each individual meeting was planned, and students were encouraged to stay on task. Most of the focus, since their level of proficiency and accuracy was quite low, was on learning the vocabulary for objects in an apartment. Within Second Life, Elseth created an apartment in which were placed objects that one would usually find there, such as living room furniture, bedroom furniture, and kitchen appliances. He attached floating text of the German words to each specific object and uploaded audio clips of that specific word being spoken. Note cards were also attached to each object that demonstrated textually the use of the vocabulary word in a sentence or sentences. Most of what was discussed revolved around the vocabulary in the apartment. But students also went over some words and phrases that would be contextually appropriate, given different situations. For example, on a field trip to a virtual furniture store, the students learned the words cost and money, and the phrase how much does __ cost? The group took field trips often, usually to places of Elseth’s choosing since the students had not become familiar with very many interesting places to visit in Second Life. Most of the time, when the group left the apartment, they would teleport to a German-built and German-operated island called Die Insel. There, the students conversed naturally with any users present, always in German. Most of the users at Die Insel spoke English as well as German, so if the students were ever confused about a word or construction, the users were happy to oblige them by translating. It should be noted that because of conflicting schedules, the students and Elseth were not able
to meet at a regularly scheduled time. In fact, on many occasions, only one or two of the three would log in to Second Life because of homework or other responsibilities However, they were able to meet enough times in order to practice the vocabulary and the other forms. At the end of the study, the students were asked to gauge their own progress in Second Life. We were interested in what the students thought was a benefit of Second Life toward their language studies and if they could pinpoint anything specific from “in-world” meetings in Second Life that they found helpful for German. We were also curious about the ease or difficulty associated with the technical aspects of this environment. Student #1 and Student #2 felt that it was quite easy to get acquainted with using Second Life, and Student #3 believed that Second Life was easy on a small scale. Student #3 elaborated on that statement by saying that the environment he experienced made it easy for learning German, but he would have liked to familiarize himself with every aspect of Second Life and not just language learning. In terms of the difficulties the students experienced in Second Life, all three had different responses. Student #1 encountered problems because of technical difficulties on his home computer. Student #2 found it difficult to multitask between walking, chatting, and interacting with objects. Student #3 reiterated his difficulty in figuring out the more complicated functions in Second Life. Additionally, all three students had experience with computers in the past, so it was not difficult for them to use the program, but two of the three students felt that those who are not computer-savvy would be able to adequately use the program. The student who did not concur with the other two did believe that someone without computer experience could eventually get used to Second Life, but it would take some time. In terms of their German studies, the students submitted different yet positive responses to Second Life. Student #1 liked the feature of learning
The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning
vocabulary words and being able to use them in a natural conversation. Student #2 liked the fact that Second Life is a very nontraditional way of approaching education. He felt that students can only learn so much from textbooks and audiotapes. He also liked the nonrehearsed interaction between individuals in Second Life. Contrary to the other students, Student #3 found the planned tutorials to be the most helpful. He liked having specific controlled or guided lessons in Second Life that dealt with a particular aspect of German with feedback from me. When asked if there was anything about Second Life that would be a detriment to their learning of a foreign language, two of the three students could not see anything negative about the program. Student #2, however, stated that the instability of Second Life was a bit frustrating. On occasion, Second Life would freeze up, or he would get kicked out of the program. This happens in Second Life from time to time, but it is not a result of different programs being run at the same time. It is merely an issue with Second Life itself. However, Second Life updates every week, and I believe they will solve the problem of freezing up in the near future. When asked if they would like to use a program such as Second Life in their German classes, all three students said they would. Student #2 commented that it might be difficult to implement because specific class time would need to be set aside for it. But he concluded that if an instructor could find class time for Second Life, it would be a helpful tool. Student #3, who also had a favorable opinion of Second Life, provided suggestions as well. He wished that more assignments were uploaded into the apartment beforehand so he and the other students could log in when they wanted and study. This is actually a possibility within Second Life. Assignments can be uploaded and saved in certain locations for as long as instructors want.
Interestingly, teaching languages in Second Life is not as uncommon as one might initially believe. There are several well-established communities in which language instruction is the primary goal of the environment. Avatar Languages is currently one of the organizations teaching English as a foreign language through its English school in Second Life. A teacher in South America who also plans to eventually teach South America’s Aymara and Quechua in the future began the school. On June 26, 2007, there was a virtual conference, SLanguages, on learning foreign languages in Second Life. According to the ICT for Language Teachers Blog, “The venue was the Glass Pyramid on Second Life’s EduNation Island and there were around 50 participants from all over the world. The conference made use of audioconferencing facilities, using the Ventrilo audioconferencing software, so [participants] could hear the speakers and talk to them” (Davies, 2007). Another example of language teaching in Second Life is demonstrated by Howard Vickers (2007), who is currently based in La Paz, Bolivia, where he teaches English. Vickers explains how Second Life adds another method to teaching languages that can be added to what we already do. Further, Vickers cites that “Second Life offers new approaches to language learning” that include constructivist and interactive components that are not as easily done in more traditional classrooms (Vickers, 2007). The English Village is an innovative island where English as a Second Language is practiced, as well as a host of other language classes. According to a post on the Edumuve.com site, “Teaching English as a second language instructors at the English Village employ what they call “holoteaching,” using classrooms where you can completely change scenes with the touch of a button, like the holodeck in the TV show Star Trek: The Next Generation” (Hiles, 2007).
The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning
To complement these teaching efforts, there is a host of culturally focused environments in which, for the most part, the language of the culture represented within the environment is spoken. They are just like having a virtual world at your fingertips where we can expose our students to native speakers and experiences never before possible with other technologies. These include but are not limited to the following (the names and grid coordinates in Second Life are included to make it easier for those who would like to visit the locations): Chinese: China (113, 180, 33) Danish: Wonderful Denmark (109, 133, 22) Dutch: De Molen, (Nederland 59, 73, 21) Dutch: Virtual Holland, (Our Virtual Holland 161, 162, 22) French: Coupette Plazza, (Choupette city145, 109) French: Gaia, Gaia (226, 48, 34) French: New Paris, New Paris (125, 113, 23 French: Paris 1900, Paris 1900 (10,170,16) French: Wildstyl3 Club & Mall, area 51 (202, 118, 26) German: Biergarten, Mann (167, 255, 24) German: Herzlich Willkommen, Die Insel (132, 159, 22) Italian: Made in Italy, Songnisan (67, 137, 83) Italian: Parioli Rome Italy, Parioli (105, 214, 40) Japanese: Japanese Business SIM, Metabirds (133, 35, 30) Japanese: Nagaya (Little Kyoto), Juho (89,165,63) Japanese: Togenkyo, Togenkyo (155, 127, 21) Portuguese: Boteco Brasil, Keiss (227, 46, 40) Portuguese: Brazuk, Gomorra (28, 132, 22) Portuguese: Central do Brasil, Mugunghwa (229, 107, 43) Spanish: Cervantes, Cervantes (101, 163, 21) Spanish: Spain, Spain (69, 136, 33) Spanish: secondlifespain.com, Nangrim (185, 245, 75). (Hiles 2007)
FuturE trEnds Where will these new tools take education in the 21st century and beyond? We hear the phrase “anytime, anywhere learning” as it relates to distance education, yet if you really consider that idea, most distance education models are not set up that way. Another popular term is hyperconnectivity, which suggests being connected at all times to a network whenever and wherever you go using a variety of devices. If distance education were to merge these trends with a methodology that takes advantage of how today’s students learn, communicate, and multitask, then we will have changed the very nature of distance education to take advantage of all available technologies. Recent handset releases by Apple and others of small mobile devices suggest this trend is not going away, yet many distance educators have yet to adapt current curricula to be used by these devices. Additionally, imagine a small device that enables the user to project in 3D what is on the screen of that device onto a wall or even totally around the user, in essence bringing the “virtual” into the “real.” There are already companies such as Samsung and Toshiba who make LCDs that display in 3D without the use of those funky glasses we all love to be seen wearing. This trend suggests that the next evolutionary step will be holographic displays that will be portable enough to make the ideas already mentioned a reality.
concLusion The results of this study as well as many others indicate an interest on the part of students and educators to use distance learning tools such as Second Life in their courses. Even though Second Life was not intended to be an educational tool, a growing number of instructors are using it in their classes. According to the educational wiki Simteach.com, more than 300 schools and educational organizations have set up shop in the
The Usefulness of Second Life for Language Learning
virtual world and are exploring ways it can be used to promote learning. This growing acceptance of Second Life as a means of instruction might not be a secret in the near future. It may, in fact, become a mainstay in education. But there is genuine concern behind adopting new, innovative teaching approaches. As Michael Swan (1985) states in his article “A Critical Look at the Communicative Approach,” “we must try not to expect too much” from new teaching theories and techniques (p. 87). He realizes that there is a genuine trend in second language instruction as well as in other fields to fully adopt new theories and completely ignore the ones that preceded them. He warns educators to be aware of that. Instead of forgetting about previous techniques, he believes that “we shall probably benefit from the next language teaching revolution, especially if we can keep our heads, recognize dogma for what it is, and try out the new techniques without giving up useful older methods simply because they have been ‘proved wrong’” (Swan, 1985, p. 87). This is exactly why traditional methods for instruction should not be done away with. But they should be supplemented with more innovative techniques that can reach students when the traditional classroom cannot.
rEFErEncEs Bley-Vroman, R. (1989). What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In S. Gass, & J. Schachter (Eds.), Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition (pp. 41–68). New York: Cambridge. Cage, R. (1995). Excuse me, you’re cramping my style: Kinesthetics for the classroom. English Journal, 84(8), 52–55. Davey, K.B. (1999). Distance learning demystified. National Forum, 79(1), 44–46.
Davies, G. (2007). Proceedings of the Second Life Conference on Learning Foreign Languages. ICT for Language Teachers Web site. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://ictforlanguageteachers.blogspot.com/2007/06/second-lifeconference-on-learning.html Furstenberg, G. (1997). Teaching with technology: What is at stake? ADFL Bulletin, 28(3), 21–25. Hiles, J. (2007). English village. Edumuve: Sites of Interest to Educators in Second Life Web site. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://edumuve.com/tour/ Krashen, S.D. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In N. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages (pp. 45–77). New York: Academic Press. Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (1990). Focus-onform and corrective feedback in communicative language teaching: Effects on second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12(4), 429–448. Long, M.H. (1990). The least a second language acquisition theory needs to explain. TESOL Quarterly, 24(4), 649–666. Ludlow, P., & Wallace, M. (2006). Only a game: Online worlds and the virtual journalist who knew too much. New York: O’Reilly Media. McLoughlin, C., & Oliver, R. (1998). Maximising the language and learning link in computer learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29(2), 125–136. Notar, C.E., et al. (2002). Going the distance: Active learning. Education, 122(4), 649–654. Pawling, E. (1999). Modern languages and CDROM-based learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(2), 163–175. Rogers, E. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press.
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Schachter, J. (1974). An error in error analysis. Language Learning, 24(2), 205–214. Schumann, J.H. (1978). Second language acquisition: The pidginization hypothesis. In E.M. Hatch (Ed.), Second language acquisition: A book of readings. Rowley, MA: Newbury. Second Life (2006). What is second life? Retrieved December 13, 2006, from http://secondlife. com/whatis/ Skype. (2006). Other ways to use Skype at work: Making conference calls. Skype Business Control Panel. Retrieved December 13, 2006, from http:// www.skype.com/products/skypegroups/ Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (2). ELT Journal, 39(2), 76–87. Vickers, H. (2007). Language teaching gains second life. Omniglot: Writing Systems and Languages of the World Web site. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from http://www.omniglot. com/language/articles/secondlife.php Wilson, J. (2002). The power of distance learning: Guest editorial. Education, 122(4), 638, 673. Wong, G. (2006). Educators explore “Second Life” online. CNN.com Web site. Retrieved November 11, 2006, from http://www.cnn. com/2006/TECH/11/13/second.life.university/index/html?section=cnn_latest
kEY tErMs Avatar: A virtual representation of a person within Second Life. That representation can be human, animal, or nonhuman. ESL: English as a second language. Island (Second Life Context): Virtual space where residents of Second Life can either own parcels of virtual property or some sort of establishment on a parcel of land. These islands are in reality computers in a rack housed at various locations in San Francisco. Linden Dollars: The currency used for exchange of goods and services in Second Life. Machinima: Short films made from virtual characters in video games and virtual environments such as Second Life Resident: Real-life people who interact within Second Life and are referred to as “residents” of the environment. Second Life: A 3D virtual environment created by Linden Lab where “residents” create “avatars” to represent themselves and where a majority of the content is user-created. Second Life Grid: The land masses that make up the largest “islands” in Second Life (see video at http://www.mappanovus.com/ for further explanation). Wiki: A collaborative Web site where content can be edited by anyone who has access to it.
Chapter XXVIII
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education Irene Mamakou University of Peloponnese, Greece Maria Grigoriadou
University of Athens, Greece
abstract Interest in the integration of language learning with knowledge/content construction is growing around the world. In this line, an instructional innovation to be applied in language for specific purposes (LSP) undergraduate courses is introduced. Project-based learning has been enhanced by an electronic platform; namely, e-Class, a learning management system, to amplify its impact. A threefold research into current theories on (a) key issues in LSP framework, (b) adult education, and (c) foreign language learning and pedagogical orientations leads us to this model. The result is an e-methodology, pedagogically rather than technology driven, for teaching/learning LSP in the framework of discipline-related, content-based instruction (CBI) and project work that will eventually enhance and modernize teaching and learning LSP and develop new study habits for learners by promoting self-directed, autonomous, active, and out-of-classroom learning, and by encouraging student engagement and academic socialization in the higher educational institution (HEI) to which they belong.
introduction The mission of this chapter is to present and discuss an integrative pedagogical innovation that can be applied in the context of language courses; namely, languages for specific purposes (LSP) and languages for academic purposes (LAP) that
operate in higher educational institutions (HEIs), and thus address adult language learners. The introduction and application of the new pedagogical framework will establish new modes of learning for university students abandoning the traditional lecture-only (face-to-face) course delivery form, which is usually the case so far at a practical level.
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Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
We move from instructor-dependent learning or coursebook-dependent learning (a coursebook that unfortunately students only resort to a few days before the formal written examination) to students’ active, responsible learning. Namely, we will focus here on the integration of an electronic mode—e-Class—in a program designed to support LSP acquisition, adult learning theory, and constructivist pedagogy. Eventually, the structure of the course will move from conventional class instruction to a scheme comprising class instruction and suitable self-study through information and communication technology (ICT) according to the principles of “social constructivism” (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Roschelle, 1992; Vygotsky, 1978) or “social constructionism” (Burr, 1995, 2003) and adult language learning. Obviously, this model will enhance and modernize teaching and learning purpose-specific languages, and develop new study habits for learners by promoting self-directed, autonomous, active learning, out-of-classroom learning, and by encouraging student engagement and academic socialization in the context of the higher education institution (HEI) to which they belong.
background Before attempting to describe the merging and harmonization of the aforementioned three constituents—LSP, adult teaching and learning, and social-constructivist pedagogy under an electronic methodology—at this point, we will be focusing on each one of them separately and present an overview of opinions concerning good practices and effective applications.
content of Lsp First, let us define the terms and content of language for specific purposes (LSP), which becomes ESP when applying to the English language. Various views have been expressed about the content of LSP. Antony (1997) notes that although ESP is an approach that has been widely used over the last three decades, there has been considerable recent debate about what ESP entails. Jordan (1997) shows diagrammatically the generally accepted purposes for which ESP is needed (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Jordan’s model for the categories of ESP (© copyright 1997, Jordan, R.R., used with permission) ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP)
ENGLISH FOR OCCUPATIONAL/VOCATIONAL/ PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES (EOP/EVP/EPP) eg. doctors airline pilots hotel staff
ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES (EAP)
ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC ACADEMIC PURPOSES (ESAP)
ENGLISH FOR GENERAL ACADEMIC PURPOSES (EGAP)
eg. medicine engineering economics
eg. Listening and note-taking academic writing reference skills seminars and discussions plus: general academic English register formal, academic style proficiency in language use
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
Basturkmen and Elder (2004) suggest that “LSP is generally used to refer to the teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative needs of speakers of a second language in facing a particular workplace, academic or professional context.” One of the key words in Basturkmen and Elder’s (2004) definition is “language,” which is used in constrained and fairly predictable ways. Although, they are criticized by Robinson (2005) as presenting LSP and ESP in a traditional way, Robinson herself fails to distance herself from a restricted syllabus (e.g., of language, skills, topics, tasks), which she considers one of the essential components of an ESP course design. However, when she describes pedagogy, she refers to it as learner-centered, promoting learner autonomy. Technology is acknowledged in Robinson’s work, but no specific applications
are mentioned apart from computer concordances for vocabulary study. Jarvis (2004) in his definition also includes study skills along with language to equip nonnative speakers (NNSs) for successful academic study. For Hyland (2005), knowledge and expertise of our students about their field should be turned into an awareness of specific literacy practices. Even the discovery approach is exploited to facilitate “rhetorical consciousness” among students. He pays special attention to the lexical items style and grammatical/syntactic constructions and bases his paradigm on quantitative research into form/lexis frequency. and , tasks involve research into and examination of authentic materials (mainly texts) to understand the specialist conventions and practices of their discipline or profession. Our
Table 1. Comparison of citations and reporting verbs in eight disciplines (© copyright 2005, Hyland, K., used with permission Discipline
Per Paper
Most Frequent Forms
Philosophy
57.1
say, suggest, argue, claim, point out, propose, think
Sociology
43.6
argue, suggest, describe, note, analyze, discuss
Applied Ling
33.4
suggest, argue, show, explain, find, point out
Marketing
32.7
suggest, argue, demonstrate, propose, show
Biology
26.2
describe, find, report, show, suggest, observe
Electronic Eng.
17.4
propose, use, describe, show, publish
Mechanical Eng.
11.7
describe, show, report, discuss
Physics
6.6
develop, report, study
Table 2. Frequency of self-mention per text (%) by Field type (© copyright 2005, Hyland, K., used with permission)
Discipline
Total
Discipline
Total
Physics
17.7
Marketing
38.2
Biology
15.5
Philosophy
34.5
Electronic Eng.
11.6
Applied Ling
32.3
Mechanical Eng.
2.6
Sociology
29.4
Average Hard Fields
11.9
Average Soft Fields
33.6
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
first criticism here is that though the materials may be authentic, the task itself cannot claim to be authentic. Judging by the implications that the foregoing has for teaching and learning and by the actual tasks that are suggested (i.e., analyzing, examining, observing form), it becomes obvious that the aforementioned linguists suggest learning subject-specific language per se, avoiding activating the link between this language and particular academic and professional cultural needs that are about to arise soon in their academic lives or later in their future professional/vocational lives. According to this approach, instructors’ efforts should evolve around the teaching of the form, the genre, the language features and literacy skills, the specifics of disciplinary or subject discourses, in brief what they call the common core or “wide angle” (generalizable skills applicable to most students and disciplines), or the “narrow angle or view” (the specifics of disciplinary or subject discourses). For them, LSP is a linguistic issue that involves analysis and research of language in specific events. These views, though expressed almost 20 years later, seem to be consistent with Strevens’ (1988) original definition of ESP, which determines that ESP teaching should be centered on the language appropriate to particular activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, and so forth, and analysis of this discourse. Likewise, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998), who have modified Strevens’ definition a decade later, retain this absolute characteristic of ESP, though they disagree with the “narrow angle or view” supported by Strevens (1988) and Hyland who later in 2005 describes ESP as relating in content to particular disciplines, occupations, and activities. Instead, they assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline (wide angle). As we see it, there is nothing against the “narrow angle,” and indeed, the “wide angle” (applying to all contents and disciplines) is not
in line with social constructionism, as Hyland (2005) explains: This theoretical perspective stresses that disciplines are largely created and maintained through the distinctive ways that members jointly construct a view of the world through their discourses (Hyland, 2005). What will be argued here is that the learnercentered or learning-centered approach in LSP delivery should not restrict itself to observing learners’ linguistic needs, demands, wants, wishes, and interests, and compelling learners to persistently observe and reproduce the form (relating to either just one for the “narrow angle” or any discipline for the “wide angle”); rather, we need to extend the definition to include appropriate ways for learners to naturally acquire content-specific, discipline-related, purpose-specific language. Besides, psychology is equally paramount along with linguistics. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite this as one of the reasons that has influenced the emergence of ESP: “ESP has less to do with linguistics and everything to do with psychology.”
adult Learning in higher Education Since university students (aged 18 and older) obviously fall into the category of adult learners, we will be focusing on key issues in the adult learning framework to draw principles and appropriate guidelines for a methodology for teaching LSP. Interestingly, Sifakis (2003) puts forward an integrative model for ESP curriculum design by bringing together ESP/LSP and adult education. His model associates adult education principles with effective ESP learning. This model has two sides: 1.
It requires the adult learner’s ESP teacher to come to terms with adulthood-oriented considerations (i.e., issues unique to adult
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
2.
learning),such as mass-management, motivation, and adult learning cycles. It involves both a number of ELT methodology-specific communicative strategies that are indispensable in the ESP class, such as self-directed learning techniques, as well as enhancing the role of the ESP teacher as counselor.
Habermas (1978), in his interpretation of adulthood, gives the following characteristics that can be exploited in the direction of ESP methodology and pedagogy design: 1.
2.
3.
The personal growth and full development of adults, also regarded as maturity, is an ideal and a goal. Greater sense of perspective and an ability to make judgments (about themselves and others) based on accumulated experience; adults are usually serious in what they undertake and want to be taken seriously. An inherent autonomy, which renders them responsible decision-makers, whose motivation (or degree of voluntary participation and personal involvement) is a central prerequisite as far as learning is concerned.
In Rogers’ (1996) work, the notion of the “learning contract” is considered a key issue in Adult Education (AE). It specifies a particular form of educational encounter negotiated among the teacher; the student participants; and the organizer, sponsor, or agency, if any. This learning contract is expected to set forth: 1. 2.
3.
0
A proper communication between the ESP teacher and the ESP student/participant. That the learning process forms a complete cycle; learners should be left with a feeling of fulfillment and satisfaction that they have learned something worthwhile. That the learning process is sequential and cumulative, built on adult learners’ existing
4.
knowledge and expectations; in other words, complying with the constructivist paradigm (see 2.3). That the learning process is voluntary and purposeful; the ESP learner has to be made fully aware of the methodological principles and the learning objectives underlying the actual teaching process; active involvement of the student participant in the planning process enhances motivation and commitment (Herzberg, 1972).
Having surveyed the ESP learner profile in light of adulthood and adult learning-oriented consideration, it becomes evident that adult learners’ greater sense of perspective and ability to make judgments based on accumulated experience, combined with their inherent autonomy and need for establishing clear goals, can be fruitfully implemented in ESP teaching/learning situations. In this direction, making the ESP learner an active participant is imperative.
Language Learning theory in the new information society Over the years, a number of learning theories falling under the three main perspectives of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, along with their respective computer applications proposed/devised, have been introduced and applied in language learning context (Raptis & Rapti, 2002). Their suitability and effectiveness have afterwards been questioned, and new paradigms of language learning have evolved and replaced the previous. When discussing the current state of the art with regard to the use of new technologies in the foreign language classroom, one issue tends to come up again and again; it cannot be denied that even today, in the so-called postcommunicative era, the effects of traditional instructivist theories of language learning with their transmission-based modes of learning are still somewhat
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
dominant, in particular at the grassroots level. This is all the more surprising, as a discussion of constructivism as an appropriate platform for new approaches to language learning and acquisition seems to have dominated the debate at least on a theoretical level in recent years (Rüschoff & Ritter, 2001). According to the constructivist paradigm, as advocated by Piaget (1960) and Bruner (1990), whatever gets into the mind has to be constructed by the individual through knowledge discovery with a focus on the process of assimilation and accommodation of knowledge. Although there may be many versions of what constructivism entails, the general view held is that learning is an active process of constructing rather than merely acquiring knowledge (Hung, 2001). In Figure 2, Dalgarno’s (2001) specific applications in Computer-Mediated Instruction complying with the principles of constructivism
(the dominant learning theory) are schematically outlined in Figure 2. However, according to other theorists or pedagogues such as Mudur, Gharpure, and Rajan (2005), an integrative approach should be preferred in language learning: One should be able to combine different instructional conditions necessary to promote effectively a given type of learner performance. Observations have led some instructors/authors of e-learning frameworks to prescribe an integrative design process model that integrates the learning modalities dictated by various learning theories. Hung (2001), for example, suggests a unified computer-based environment that allows us to integrate various kinds of tools easily and switch from one kind of tool to another within an integrated environment according to the learning objectives ().
Figure 2. Constructivist approaches to Computer Assisted Learning (CAL); Application of constructivism in CAL (schematic presentation of Dalgarno’s paradigm, Dalgarno, 2001) constructivism
Endogenous
Dialectic
Exogenous
Learner exploration
Learners actively constructing their own knowledge representations in direct instruction
Interaction between learners, peers, teachers
constructivist caL material
• • • •
Exploratory activities Hypermedia environments Simulations microworlds
Dialectic
Exogenous
Endogenous •
Learner controlled tutorials (JIT Instruction (Novak et all, 1999)) • Cognitive Tools • Practice Modules
•
•
CSCL (Computer Supported Collaborative Learning) tools Collaborative Learning Networks
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
However, our research here is an attempt to contribute to the ongoing debate on this crucial issue by offering some key principles that move the discussion further in the direction of socioconstructivist language learning theories applied in ESP context.
pedagogical considerations Educators have come up with various strands of pedagogical reform and advanced model practices for implementation aimed at more fully enhancing student learning. Some indicative general research work that has been taken into consideration in our research is Edgerton’s (2001) Education White Paper, the widely distributed and influential publication called “The Seven Principles of Good Practice in Higher Education” (Chickering & Gamson, 1987) and a more recent survey titled “The National Survey of Student Engagement” (NSSE) (Kuh, 2001), which deepen our understanding of how students perceive learning. Aspects that deserve attention and have proved essential to substantiate our pedagogical innovation are clustered in the following categories: 1.
Active practice, use of active learning techniques and students’ participation in the process of learning—interactive engagement (Smith, Sheppard, Johnson & Johnson, 2005)—according to Edgerton’s
(2001) Education White Paper “To Teach Is to Engage Students in Learning” 2. Constructivism, social constructivism (Raptis & Rapti, 2002) 3. Giving prompt and substantive feedback (Novak, Patterson, Garvin & Christian, 1999; Raptis & Rapti, 2002) 4. Providing novelty-based motivation and motive for further exploration 5. Self-paced, individualized learning, studentcentered approach that respects diverse talents and ways of learning 6. Problem-based learning 7. Appropriacy for large classes (large lecture format) 8. Encouragement of contacts between students and faculty (Chickering & Gamson, 1987) 9. Developing reciprocity and cooperation among students 10. Communicating high expectations The aforementioned principles are considered by Rüschoff & Ritter (2001) to be the major contribution of constructivism to the current debate on learning theory. He calls this approach “process-based learning,” which is in line with Wolff (1994) who focuses on “learner orientation, process orientation, and learner autonomy.” We take the debate a step further to suggest that the best process for adult learning is project work. In what follows, we will try to demonstrate that
Table 6. Computer-mediated tools and learning theories (adapted from Hung, 2001)
Behaviorism
Variety of drill and practice computer-based learning software
For example, CBLs that drill students on multiplication and addition (individual instructive tools)
Cognitivism
Tutorials and information databases
For example, encyclopedia and Internet resources (informative tools)
Constructivism
Individual generic purpose tools
For example, Excel, Word, and PowerPoint, simulations, hypertext and hypermedia, organizational tools (individual constructive tools)
Social Constructivism
Collaborative generic environments
For example, e-mails, bulletin boards, knowledge coconstruction/exchange forums, computer-mediated collaborative problem-solving environments (social communicative/constructive tools)
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
project-based learning, especially when supported by ICT, reflects these fundamental principles and puts into practice this theoretical framework. However, because constructivism emphasizes the individual dimension of cognition (Hung, 2001), we are more in favor of socioconstructivism because the interpretation and construction of knowledge must be dependent on the cultural and social collaborative context. This is absolutely appropriate for adult learners that need to develop academic and professional/vocational disciplinespecific language skills through a collaborative setting. Socioconstructivism, therefore, proves to be the appropriate paradigm for ESP learning in tertiary education in the age of the knowledge society.
Main Focus oF thE chaptEr bringing a state-of-the-art Methodology in the Esp university classroom: project-based Learning Having clarified the parameters pertaining to our LSP course methodology in Section 2 (Background), we now move on to discuss an instructional innovation that can be realized through state-of-the-art computer-enhanced media. Our hypothesis is that content-based instruction (CBI) and project work constitute the most appropriate combination for a methodology that promotes meaningful student engagement with purposeful language and content learning, and that the effectiveness of this methodology can be enhanced through an electronic medium. In this work, the medium is a state-of-the-art, learning management, digital application (tool) employed to serve the LSP learning practices, the adult participants, and the pedagogy determined. The Buck Institute for Education (BIE) defines standards-focused, project-based learning as a systematic teaching method that engages students in learning knowledge and skills through an
extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed products and tasks (BIE, 2003). After having embarked in extensive theoretical and empirical rationale concerning the various adult learning theories and practices and our LSP content, attention off linguistic forms and on the tasks to be accomplished seems to be the best practice; learners in an LSP do not learn the language per se; instead, they learn content through language. Focus then should shift from the learners’ linguistic-only needs to the learners’ actual needs to successfully and naturally acquire the target material. Rather than disseminating linguistic knowledge, attention should be given to devising effective and authentic ways to help adults acquire purpose-specific language. Thus, in this approach, language is used as the medium of instruction for mathematics, science, social studies, and other academic subjects; it is the vehicle used for teaching and acquiring subject-specific knowledge (Crandall, 1994). Integration of language and content has long been supported as a sound teaching practice. According to Sheppard and Stoller (1995), this approach is particularly effective in ESP settings and consequently in LSP in general, because it easily lends itself to (a) authentic language use, (b) a focus on language at the discourse rather than the sentence level, (c) authentic tasks, and (d) learner centeredness (Robinson, 1991). They actually illustrate their attempt to promote project work in a business English classroom. We are eventually distancing from teaching ESP vocabulary, ESP reading, ESP speaking, and ESP listening since project work involves multiskill activities that focus on a theme of interest rather than on specific language tasks (Haines, 1989). The benefits of selecting “a framework for strategic language and content learning,” as Stoller (2002) puts it, are numerous for both instructors and learners:
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
[E]ducators create vibrant learning environments that require active student involvement, stimulate higher level thinking skills, and give students responsibility for their own learning. … instructors distance themselves from teacher-dominated instruction and move towards creating a student community of inquiry involving authentic communication, cooperative learning, collaboration, and problem-solving” (Stoller, 1997). Educational and cognitive psychology also provide persuasive arguments in favor of contentbased instruction: 1.
2.
3.
4.
Thematically organized materials, typical of content-based classrooms, are easier to remember and learn (Singer 1990). The presentation of coherent and meaningful information, characteristic of wellorganized, content-based curricula, leads to deeper processing and better learning (Anderson, 1990). There is a relationship between student motivation and student interest—common outcomes of content-based classes and a student’s ability to process challenging materials, recall information, and elaborate (Alexander, Kulikowich & Jetton, 1994). Expertise in a topic develops when learners reinvest their knowledge in a sequence of progressively more complex tasks (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993), feasible in contentbased classrooms and usually absent from more traditional language classrooms because of the narrow focus on language rules or limited time on superficially developed and disparate topics (e.g., a curriculum based on a short reading passage on the skyscrapers of New York, followed by a passage on the history of bubblegum, later followed by an essay on the volcanoes of the American Northwest).
From a pedagogic/learning theory point of view, the project approach for LSP complies to the new socioconstructivist model since it enhances critical thinking and collaboration skills among peers; develops self-confidence and motivation; and trains learners to become autonomous, responsible, lifelong learners that can deal with their pressing or about-to-be-pressing content-learning needs. The success of this methodology is based on the fact that learners are pulled through the curriculum by an authentic problem that creates a need to know the material. It is worth clarifying the difference here between project-based learning and problembased learning, as some people use these terms interchangeably. Though both approaches require students to learn content-specific knowledge and problem-solving skills as they seek diverse solutions to meaningful questions, the Buck Institute for Education (BIE, 2003) vocabulary makes the distinction as such: [P]roject-based learning is a general term describing an instructional method that uses projects as the central focus of instruction in a variety of disciplines. Often, projects emerge out of an authentic context, address controversial or significant issues in the community, and unfold in unexpected ways. In contrast, BIE’s design for Problem Based Learning uses realistic scenarios and role-plays to lead students along a more carefully planned path toward a set of prescribed outcomes. Some applications of integrating student penand-pencil-based projects into ESP classrooms have already been published (Sheppard & Stoller, 1995; Stoller, 1997). In this chapter, along with stressing the importance of project work that is in line with content-based instruction for adults (i.e., university learners), we will take the debate a step further and suggest ways for effective orchestration and planning through ICT. An ICT application, described next, can be used to man-
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
age the process of project completion since it can facilitate all 10 steps recommended (Stoller, 1997) to be followed by both instructors and students, enable both classroom and distance/asynchronous learning, and bring about maximum learning outcomes. The fundamental steps of a pen-and-pencilbased project completion are the following:
switching to an online project-based instruction: Empirical Findings
1.
Methods, Participants, and Material
Students and instructor agree on a theme after negotiation (general content area, narrowing down, selecting aspect, or aspects of topic). The learner-centered aspect of this instructional approach must be made explicit right from the start to actively engage learners in the process. 2. Students and instructor determine the final learning outcomes. 3. Students and instructor structure the project. 4. Instructor prepares students for the language demands of information gathering; in other words, he or she identifies language skills and strategies. 5. Students gather information. 6. Instructor prepares students for the language demands of compiling and analyzing information/data. 7. Students compile and analyze information. 8. Instructor prepares students for the language demands of the culminating activity. 9. Students present final product. 10. Students evaluate the project. ICT comes into play here by providing a reliable way to manage the whole process by ensuring access to the appropriate resources and communication between instructor and learners. Next, we will describe a certain attempt to deliver an LSP course; namely English for Science and Technology (EST), at the Department of Computer Science and Technology and the Department of Telecommunication Science and Technology of
the Faculty of Science and Technology at the University of Peloponnese, Greece, by means of a widely used (especially in HEIs) Web-based learning management application: e-Class.
The participants were 80 native Greek-speaking undergraduate students enrolled in two disciplines belonging to the Faculty of Science and Technology of the University of Peloponnese, Greece: Computer Science and Technology (40 students) and Telecommunication Science and Technology (another 40 students). One particular feature of these departments is that English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is a compulsory subject in both degrees awarded by the faculty, offered during the first year of studies. Students should receive content-based instruction in English as a foreign language that is tailored to the needs and particular characteristics of each discipline. The majority of participants were 18 years old and in their first year of studies (a few in their second, third, or fourth year of studies had failed to pass the course on time and would retake it). The course delivery was of a dual or hybrid form. In its synchronous mode, the ESP course met twice per week for 90 minutes each time during the first semester (October to January) for the Department of Computer Science and Technology, and during the second semester (February to May) for the Department of Telecommunication Science and Technology. The in-class, synchronous teaching entailed: 1.
Presentation of the course targets; that is, the design and writing of a research project—“multiple product,” as BIE (2003) calls it, to stress the preliminary, intermediate, and culminating products that may be en-
Project-Based Instruction for ESP in Higher Education
2.
3.
4.
tailed—in the field of their studies and its oral presentation in class by locating and exploiting relevant bibliographical resources (e.g., journal papers, books, e-books, e-libraries, Internet sites, etc.), respecting the original text (i.e., avoiding plagiarism), paraphrasing, summarizing, synthesizing from the original sources, planning, and organizing material to present a 1,500-word corpus. Encouragement of the participants to form groups of three for the completion of the task. Establishing collaborative work is one of our main concerns and is not to be taken for granted, as Greek students entering higher education have not acquired considerable experience in it during their high school years. It therefore proves useful to meet groups in the weekly scheduled classes and make sure that collaboration develops smoothly among the members. Negotiation between the instructor and members of the group about the project title (neither too narrow nor too vague) (see Appendix 2 for the list of suggested topics/fields). Providing extra help and practice on problematic areas such as paraphrasing the original to avoid plagiarism, using direct or indirect quotations, and writing a list of bibliographies (APA style).
As far as the asynchronous mode is concerned, the e-Class platform was exploited. e-Class (http://eclass.gunet.gr) is an open source learning management system. The development of this software has been the result of an initiative of GU Net, the organization that supervises the Greek universities backbone network and provides valueadded services to its members. e-Class has been spawned from the Claroline project, a European open source LMS (www.claroline.net). Currently, e-Class and Claroline development follows different tracks, resulting in two different platforms, despite the common origin. e-Class has been
used by all major Greek universities with many hundreds of thousands of users. Contribution to the development of this platform has been made by many developers in Greece. For example, the University of Patras HCI lab has contributed with the e-Class Personalized (e-CP), which is currently under consideration and will be included in one of the forthcoming major releases of the e-Class platform (Prodromou & Avouris, 2007). e-Class is obviously not a platform specially tailored to fulfill the needs of project-based instruction. However, we have tried to use it for this purpose, and it has proved quite effective in supporting the learning experience through the project-based approach. This learning management tool assumes the existence of distinct user roles (e.g., teacher, trainee, administrator). The selection of information presented to the end user is based on these roles. The administrator has full access to the learning management system, the teacher manages content of the LSP/LAP course for which he or she is responsible, and the student has the appropriate information for the course for which he or she is registered. In this sense, this tool has an adaptive user interface feature to deal with different needs of each group of end user (Prodromou & Avouris, 2007). Apart from the ICT tool that has been employed to provide rich material and resources, students were provided with a coursebook—Study Skills in English by Michael J. Wallace (OUP)—to support them in developing skills to effectively go through the various steps of the project completion. It would be too ambitious and far-fetched to encourage first-year students to totally rely on the electronic tool since they reach the university classroom with high school habits. A sort of transitional period should be al