Headless Chickens, Laidback Bears

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HEADLESS

UMbass.' Bears

Scientific techniques to create more time and revolutionise your life and work

Gordon Wainwright howtobooks

Published by How To Content A division of How To Books Ltd, Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road, Begbroke, Oxford OX5 1RX United Kingdom Tel: (01865) 375794. Fax: (01865) 379162 Email: [email protected] http://www.howtobooks.co.uk All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or stored in an information retrieval system (other than for purposes of review) without the express permission of the publisher in writing. © 2004 Gordon R. Wainwright First edition in paperback 2004 First published in electronic form 2007 ISBN: 978 1 84803 205 7 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Produced for How To Books by Deer Park Productions, Tavistock Cover design by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford Typeset by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good faith for general guidance and no liability can be accepted for loss or expense incurred as a result of relying in particular circumstances on statements made in this book. The laws and regulations are complex and liable to change, and readers should check the current position with the relevant authorities before making personal arrangements.

Contents Introduction 1 Part One: Time Creation Techniques 5

1. Accurat e Feedback 7 2. Flo w Rates 1 3. Deadline s 1 4. Anticipator y Scanning Techniques 2 5. Selectiv e Perception o f Cues 2 6. Adequat e Incubation Periods 3 7. Imaginativ e and Intuitiv e Responses 3 8. Critica l Incidents an d Learnin g Periods 4 9. Timin g and Synchronisatio n 5 10. Slippag e an d Downtim e 5 11. Flexibl e Performance Strategies 6 12. Critica l Analysis of Performance 6

3 7 1 7 3 9 5 1 7 1 7

Part Two: Overcoming Problems in Using Time Creation Techniques 7

1

13. Eliminatio n of Faults 7 14. Motivatio n 7 15. Continuatio n an d Follow-u p 8 16. Ris k Taking 8 17. Vigilanc e and Attentio n 8 18. Maintainin g Maximum Speed 8 19. Effect s o f Variety of Activity 9 20. Timewastin g 9

3 7 1 3 7 9 3 7

Part Three: Applications in Personal Skills 9

9

21. Thinkin g 10 22. Readin g 10 23. Writin g 12 24. Listenin g and Speakin g 13 25. Socia l Skills 15

1 9 7 9 1

Index 16

1

INTRODUCTION Time Creation, a s it is defined i n this book, i s another nam e fo r th e science of chronemics, the study o f how w e use ou r tim e and o f how we ma y us e i t more effectively . Bu t it is .more than this . It is a set of techniques fo r doing things in time-saving ways.

Time Creation will, literally, change your life if you put it into practice. It will change it for the better. Improve your use of time and you will cease to be one of life's headless chickens who dash round looking busy but achieving little, and become one of its laidback bears who really get things done and enjoy life at the same time. It is the purpose of this book to show you how . These techniques are needed, now more than ever, because the world is goin g throug h a perio d o f rapi d change . I f anything , th e rat e of change i s increasin g exponentiall y - tha t i s t o say , change s ar e affecting th e way we live and work faster an d faste r eac h year. So, the pace of life is increasing partly as a result of the rate of change and partl y becaus e that' s th e wa y a high-technology , sophisticate d society like ours functions. Developments in electronics, for instance, have enabled information to be produced in quantities an d at speeds that seeme d inconceivabl e not muc h mor e tha n a decad e ago . The development o f high-speed transport , particularly by rail and b y air, has meant that, technology permitting , you ca n be on the other side of the globe in less than a day or across a country in a very few hours. If w e are to keep up wit h this rate of change and thi s pace of life, w e need t o acquir e ne w technique s an d skill s tha t ou r parent s an d grandparents ha d n o nee d for . Greater spee d o f activit y i s bein g thrust upon us whether we like it or not and we have two choices. We can ignore it and turn our backs on the world an d go down bravely, i

2 Headless ciiicketfs, LaMback Bears

or we can develop the techniques which will enable us to cope. Time Creation is for those who make the second choice. Not tha t th e objectiv e i s t o mak e yo u eve n mor e lik e a headles s chicken dashing hithe r an d thithe r wit h no real sense o f purpose, o r a ra t i n a rat rac e which i s being turne d eve r faster . I t is, rather, to enable you to speed u p those activitie s that can sensibly be speede d up an d t o identif y way s o f savin g tim e i n carryin g ou t thos e tha t cannot. Th e objective i s that, i n doin g this , yo u wil l become one of life's laidback bears and be able to cope. In addition, you will be able to create some discretionary time - that is, time which you can spend in whatever way takes your fancy . You may use it to get more work done (especiall y if you wor k fo r yourself) , o r t o thin k abou t work related problem s whic h yo u don' t normall y hav e th e tim e to thin k about, or to engage in your favourite leisure activity, or just to sit and daydream. The choice is yours. You may even use it to acquire greater mastery of Time Creation techniques. These technique s ar e ofte n essentiall y simple , common-sens e one s that ca n be easily learned. They can be self-taught without difficulty , as you wil l se e as you wor k you r wa y throug h thi s book . Some of them hav e technica l name s give n the m b y scientifi c researcher s i n chronemics o r i n som e othe r sub-disciplin e o f th e behavioura l sciences. Wher e thi s happens , the y wil l usuall y als o b e give n a n alternative simple r nam e whic h thos e reader s wh o wisely prefe r t o avoid al l jargon ca n use . Th e purpos e her e is , i n othe r words , t o provide you with a very sound, practical guide to time-management techniques whic h yo u ca n us e withou t havin g t o rel y upo n th e support o f a tutor or counsellor . There are , i n fact , ver y fe w tutor s availabl e wh o coul d hel p you . Chronemics is a very young scienc e and i s not yet widely known i n the UK . Indeed , spee d ha s alway s bee n a neglecte d aspec t o f education an d training. Many teachers still have a deep suspicion of techniques tha t help people to think faster, read faster, write faster or do anything else faster. They concentrate on teaching you to do these things well. They often giv e little thought t o helping you to do them

iMfroduefioM 3 well and quickly . It is high tim e that spee d wa s emphasise d a goo d deal mor e strongl y i n ou r educationa l syste m tha n i t ha s bee n hitherto. This is not to argue, however, that everything should be done faster.ter. We need t o remember that sometimes it is better to slow down. On e can onl y d o thi s i f one use s Tim e Creation technique s t o creat e the time for doing so. Just as in driving a car, there are times when spee d is appropriate an d time s when i t is not. No one is arguing for spee d for speed' s sake . It is as ridiculous t o suggest , fo r instance, that yo u should rea d quickl y all the tim e a s it woul d b e t o suggest tha t yo u should rea d slowly all the time. Given a reasonabl e (thoug h b y n o mean s a fanatical ) degre e o f commitment t o applyin g th e techniques , yo u shoul d notic e som e benefit fro m Tim e Creation almos t straigh t away . Some technique s work soone r tha n others , bu t the y shoul d al l sho w result s afte r a week or so if they are going to work. This last qualification has to be made becaus e fe w o f th e technique s wil l wor k equall y wel l fo r everyone. But even if only some of them work for you, this does no t matter to o much. Benefit wil l still be obtaine d fro m thos e whic h d o work and this will help you to cope better with the rate of change and the pace of life. There can be no guarantee in any kind of training that any particula r techniques will work equally well for everybody. Try each one out and build on those that work for you. Most people wil l find tha t they ca n achieve a 25% increase in spee d in most activitie s without an y los s in the qualit y of performance. I n some, lik e reading, a 100% increase is by no mean s uncommon an d the benefit s tha t ca n resul t fro m tha t kin d o f improvemen t ca n b e immeasurable and lifelong . In others, the increase may only be 5% or 10% but eve n this is worth having. If something takes on average half an hou r an d ther e ar e thre e suc h activitie s a day, a 10 % increase in speed (o r reduction i n tim e spen t o n eac h one ) ca n sav e almos t 55 hours a year. Thi s ca n be th e equivalen t o f 1 Y2 working weeks , 11 five-hour games of golf, nearly 37 football matches or about 15 books read that otherwise woul d no t have been enjoyed . I f this is the kind

4 Headless c«icketfs, Laidback Bears

of benefi t whic h ca n accrue from a small increase in speed, you ca n imagine th e benefit s t o b e gaine d fro m usin g Tim e Creatio n techniques in all your daily activities at work and during leisure time. You ma y als o begin t o realis e tha t tim e creatio n is designed no t t o imprison but to liberate. You ca n star t workin g o n thi s boo k i n a number o f ways. You can read through al l of it first before trying to put anythin g into practice. You can study the chapters in Part 1 (reading Chapter 1 first) and try to practise each technique a s soon a s you lear n it. Or you ca n read Part 1 and then move to Part 3 and try to use the techniques on those skills wher e yo u ar e mos t i n nee d o f increases in speed . However , unless you have a particular preference in the choice of an approach, you wil l probabl y d o bes t t o wor k throug h th e boo k fro m th e beginning, chapte r by chapter. Before you start, however, it might help if we briefly review what you are likely to encounter in each part of the book. This kind of preview, in fact , shoul d b e th e resul t o f usin g th e technique s describe d i n Chapter 4 of Part 1 (anticipatory scanning techniques) . It i s nearly always easie r t o proces s informatio n if yo u hav e som e ide a o f it s general nature in advance. Part 1 , 'Tim e Creatio n Techniques' , present s th e twelv e basi c techniques. Each chapter introduces a technique and shows you how to use it more effectively . In Part 2, 'Overcoming Problems in Using Time Creation Techniques', most of the difficulties that you are likely to encounter in mastering the techniques are identified and ways of overcoming them are discussed . You will be able to pay particula r attention t o those which you hav e experienced and be able to take effective actio n to deal with them. Part 3 , 'Applications i n Persona l Skills' , show s ho w Tim e Creation techniques ca n be applie d i n a variety of essential skills in order t o increase spee d o f performance withou t experiencin g loss of quality or efficiency .

Parf one:

Time Creation Techniques This part of the book explains the various time creation techniques , gives example s of how an d wher e they can be used an d suggest s exercises for developing skill in using them. As the techniques are learned an d practised , the y build u p int o a strategic approac h t o saving tim e an d makin g th e transitio n fro m headles s chicke n to laidback bear.

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CHapf er oM e

ACCURATE FEEDBACK

You have to know how well or badly you are doing. The quicker and more accuratel y you ca n find out , th e faste r an d th e better yo u ca n perform, whateve r th e task . For this reason , i f for no other , accurate feedback is essential in any task or activity. We can define feedback as information coming back to an individual which enables him or her to assess performance and attempt any modifications necessary to improve it This information may be communicated by others (as when a student receives examination results) or it may result from an individual's own observations (as when, in writing a letter or a report, you read over what you have written and correct any mistakes). Some feedback ca n be unsought (a s when yo u burn you r finger s o n an iro n tha t yo u assume d wa s cool) , bu t w e shal l b e mainl y concerned her e with feedbac k that is deliberately sought i n order to speed up activitie s or tasks. Research has show n that it is a characteristic of skilled performers in many activitie s that the y appea r t o know wha t i s happening a t any stage o f a task , tha t the y tak e pain s t o chec k thei r performanc e periodically an d tha t the y consul t other s i n orde r t o obtai n furthe r feedback whic h ma y well , sinc e i t i s a secon d opinion , b e mor e objective and reliable. No on e reall y understand s ho w feedbac k o n behaviou r work s i n making improve d performanc e possible, but th e fac t remain s that it 7

8 Headless cHfcketis, LaMback Bears

does. It seems to be an indispensable par t of any learning process. It may be that what is usually referred t o as the central processing part of th e brai n use s informatio n obtaine d abou t action s t o modif y subsequent behaviou r in some subtle way so as to permit smoother, problem-free performance and the achievement of a greater degree of skill. The mechanis m b y whic h thi s kin d o f informatio n i s obtaine d i s usually called a feedback loop and there is a need to provide for such loops i n learnin g models . Th e flexible performanc e strategy PAPA ROMEO-OSCAR which we shall encounter later in more detail is an example o f suc h a model . Th e mai n feedbac k loo p i n tha t ca n b e illustrated thus : Performance Analysis (PA)

Performance Analysis (PA)

Review

Objectives (specific)

Objectives (general)

Skills

Methods

Contexts

Evaluation

Attitudes

Ongoing

Resources

= feedback loop

In othe r words , th e informatio n yo u gai n fro m evaluatin g you r performance afte r a perio d o f trainin g ca n hel p yo u t o decid e whether to proceed to the 'Ongoing' stage or to return to the 'Review' stage and repeat the process, making such modifications at each stage as ar e necessary . Thi s i s a broa d applicatio n o f th e principl e o f feedback loops , bu t i t coul d wel l b e i n man y activitie s that ther e should b e a feedback loo p between eac h stage back to the previous one, so that you can make more frequent bu t smalle r adjustments in approach. An example of where this would be desirable would be in

Accurafc feedback 9

applying the P-R-O approac h to improving decision-makin g ability, where feedback might be needed o n each decision made. Research shows that knowledge o f results is desirable in any activity, but especiall y in learning experiences. Where people ar e kept i n the dark abou t ho w wel l o r ho w badl y the y ar e doin g i t become s extremely difficul t fo r them to make progress. I f feedback i s denied , as when a teacher fail s t o mark students' exercise s regularly and a s soon afte r th e wor k i s done a s practicable , bad habit s ar e acquire d which the n becom e highl y resistan t t o change , fault s persist , individuals lose motivation an d performance generally deteriorates. You d o no t nee d t o becom e obsesse d abou t obtainin g feedback , however. Jus t build i t i n t o you r approach . A simple metho d i s t o select an activity . Tackle it in a reasonably relaxe d way. Don't tr y t o do better , but don' t tr y no t to . A little effor t wil l no t g o amiss , bu t don't get into a situation where the more you try the worse you get. Aim for smooth, confident , flowing action. Recite to yourself wha t is happening, kee p you r objective s in mind an d le t your brai n do th e rest. Sometimes feedbac k ca n mislead , especiall y i f yo u mak e a fals e connection between cause and effect . Fo r example, if you walk under a ladder and som e paint falls on you, faulty feedbac k might lead you to conclude that it is always unlucky to walk under ladders . A more rational us e o f feedbac k woul d b e t o conclud e that , whe n walkin g under ladders, you simply need to keep y.our wits about you. If. of someone i s paintin g overhead , the n o n tha t occasio n i t ma y b e sensible to walk round rathe r than under. You shoul d als o guar d agains t becomin g to o conditione d b y feedback. In his book, The Mechanism of Mind, Edward de Bono, thee originator of 'lateral thinking', likens the operatio n o f the min d t o a jelly. Trickl e ho t wate r ove r a jell y an d a pathwa y i s melte d out . Trickle more water ove r it and this water will tend t o follow the path created b y th e firs t trickle . In othe r words , feedbac k ca n mak e yo u react i n stereotype d way s i f yo u ar e no t carefu l t o appreciat e th e

10 Headless chickens, LaMback Bears

unique characteristic s that differentiat e on e situatio n fro m another . Because an approach has worked on one occasion does not mean that it is the best on e to use o n another, so feedback need s to be treated with some caution. You need t o remember that there are two kinds of feedback. 1. Positiv e feedback, or reward, tells you that things are going well. 2. Negativ e feedback, or punishment, tells you they are going wrong and tha t some form of corrective action must be taken. You can use a combination of both to strengthen desirabl e behaviour patterns and weaken undesirable ones. For instance, you can reward yourself i n som e way (i t need onl y be small , a sweet o r somethin g else you like) every time you beat a previous best time for an activity or finis h befor e a deadline , and you can punis h yoursel f (by foregoing a favourite T V programme, say) when you fail . It is worth remembering, though, that research evidence suggests quite strongly that reward s ar e muc h mor e effectiv e i n developin g desirabl e behaviour patterns than are punishments. As the old quip has it, the best way to knock a chip off a person's shoulder is to pat them on the back. Not only is positive feedback better than negative feedback, but an y kind of feedback is better than none at all. Generally speaking, where feedback i s unavailabl e o r removed , performanc e deteriorates . Where the amount given is increased, performance improves (always bearing in mind the qualifications expressed above).

The best kind of feedback is continuous and immediate, so that you know straight away how well you are doing. It makes faster responses possible, and allows for errors to be made with enough time to be able to remedy them.

Accurate feedback 11

Feedback is, in fact, almost a training method on its own. Given clear objectives and a choice of proven methods, th e provision o f accurate feedback can take you a long way towards your goals . As fa r a s obtaining feedbac k i s concerned, ther e i s a wide choic e of methods an d som e have alread y been mentioned, bu t other s ca n be suggested. You can use test s to find ou t ho w wel l you ar e doing . You can make your own observation s of what happens . You can make sound o r video recordings of activities. You can obtain the observations and comment s of other people . You can rely upon a 'gut' feeling about the success or otherwise of a response. Perhaps the simples t an d mos t effective wa y i s to keep records in a notebook. Where yo u obtai n timing s an d othe r results , i t ca n hel p t o recor d them in graph o r chart form. A pictorial record of some kind i s more useful t o mos t peopl e tha n a simpl e tabulatio n o f results . Suc h a record will help yo u t o monitor your progress sensibly , especially if you consult it regularly. No method can succeed entirely, no matter how good it is, unless you are prepared to be flexible and to make changes in your behaviour in the light of what the feedback tells you. The attitude you need i s one in which you are always actively seeking ways to enable you to make faster response s an d s o achiev e a bette r performance . Give n this , accurate feedbac k ca n for m th e basi s o f your collectio n of effectiv e time creation techniques. If you really are a headless chicken, the sooner you find out the better. Then yo u ca n reall y d o somethin g t o begi n becomin g mor e o f a laidback bear.

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CHapf er f uo

FLOW RATES All human activity is based o n information processing. Whatever we do, whethe r i t i s a n automati c activit y like breathing o r a complex and highl y sophisticate d activit y lik e solvin g a philosophica l problem, ou r brain s ar e require d t o proces s vas t amount s o f information. The brain can be looked upon as an information-processing machine. How well it performs this task is affected considerably by the rate at which it receives information. This rate is called here the flow rate. Time creatio n i s concerne d wit h identifyin g an d applyin g way s i n which the flow rate can be speeded up. It aims to achieve this without adverse effect s upo n th e qualit y o f performance . Often, i n fact , a higher flo w rat e produce s bette r performanc e because th e brai n i s being used a t a speed whic h is closer to its true potential. Sometimes the flo w rat e needs to be slowe d dow n an d thi s i s still a concern of time creation . Tim e creation i s concerne d wit h doin g thing s a t th e optimum speed , bearin g i n mind th e natur e o f the activit y and th e context i n whic h i t i s being carrie d out . I t i s no t intereste d i n fas t living o r doin g thing s faste r jus t fo r th e sak e o f doin g the m faster . Speed fo r th e sak e o f spee d i s on e o f th e factor s tha t produce s headless chicken s in the first place. The flo w rat e ca n tak e man y forms . I t i s concerne d wit h bot h receiving information and producin g it . In receiving information, as in reading , i t i s affecte d b y ho w quickl y th e eye s mov e acros s th e page, how many reading materials are dealt with in a given time, and 13

14 Headles s cKickefts , LaMbac k Bear s

so on. In producing information, as in taking part in a discussion o r meeting, i t is affected b y how ofte n a n individual speaks (or what is often called the contribution rate), how much is said on each occasion (or volume production), and s o on. Flow rat e ca n b e increase d i n a number o f ways. Shortag e o f time may mean things have to be done faster. There may be an increase in the 'informatio n density ' (as , fo r instance , i n reading , whe n on e paragraph ma y contai n a lot more information than others) . It may also b e increase d deliberately . I t i s thi s las t metho d tha t w e ar e interested i n here. Before you can try to raise your flow rate, you will need tw o things . You wil l nee d the m fo r ever y chapte r i n thi s book , s o you shoul d make sur e you hav e the m t o hand ever y tim e you ar e working o n developing time creation techniques. You will need a means o f timing activities. A stopwatch o r a digital watch or clock which has a timer facility will give you the necessary degree of precision. Accurate measurement is necessary because you cannot tel l merel y fro m a subjectiv e impressio n whethe r yo u ar e doing thing s faste r o r not. You may think you ar e doing somethin g faster an d then find you have in fact taken longer over it. So a means of making objective measurements of time and spee d is essential. You can, o f course, us e an y ol d cloc k or watc h i f you like , but yo u wil l sacrifice some accuracy in the process. You will also need a notebook in which to record your performance. This i s necessar y s o tha t yo u ca n hav e continuou s an d accurat e feedback, the reasons for which we explained in more detail in Part 1 Chapter 1. Record starting times and finishing times for activities and everything else that you are instructed to record as you work through this book. I n this way , you wil l make faste r an d bette r progres s i n mastering time creation techniques. Let us no w see , then , ho w th e flo w rat e can be increased. Select an activity, an y activity . Gettin g a mea l ready , readin g th e mornin g

?lou> rafe s 1 5

paper, walkin g fro m th e trai n t o th e office , writin g a letter, puttin g your make-u p on, or any other activit y which yo u woul d lik e to do faster. 1. Se t a startin g tim e whic h wil l enabl e yo u t o procee d uninterrupted. 2. Se t your stopwatch or timer in motion. 3. Carr y out the activity as you would normall y do it and record the amount of time it takes you. 4. Choos e a wa y o f assessin g ho w wel l yo u hav e performe d an d record this in the notebook as well. 5. Readin g can be checked by a comprehension test . Other activities can b e grade d b y yoursel f or , better still , b y someon e else , o n a scale of 0 to 1 0 for quality. On the second an d subsequen t occasions , you simpl y try to increase the flo w rat e by faste r movements . A s you d o the activity , try t o d o everything jus t a littl e faste r tha n yo u woul d normall y d o things . Don't tr y t o d o anythin g differentl y a t thi s stage , jus t faster . Faste r movements are a very simple way o f raising the flo w rate . Be careful not t o overd o it . A 5% or 10 % increase in spee d i s the mos t w e ar e looking for from thi s technique. Anything more and yo u migh t start to make mistakes. We do no t wan t that . We want a higher flo w rat e without errors. Concentrate on the chosen activit y until it is completed. Don't try to do severa l things a t once. Don't stop . Don't g o back if, for instance , you have chosen a n activity like reading, t o check on parts you have already dealt with. Going back (or regression) is rarely necessary and, since it clearly adds to the time an activity takes, it is better to aim for regression-free progress . On each occasion, at the end o f the activity, record the time taken, together with your assessment of the quality of performance. Do this for at least three days before adding on the next time creation technique to your approach.

16 Headless ctficketts, LaMback Bears

Remember that being able to do things faster does not mean that you alwayshave to do them faster. But it helps when you have to. It also gives better performance when doin g the m slightly slowe r than you know yo u ar e capabl e o f doin g them . Thi s i s becaus e onc e th e pressure fo r faster movemen t is relaxed slightly you ca n often enjo y an activity more, knowing that if the time available for it is curtailed without warning you are able to speed up without making errors and still complete the task satisfactorily . In situations where the flow rat e is controlled by others, for instance when watchin g television, on train journeys, in lectures or on massproduction lines, there is less scope for faster movement, but ther e is still some. On TV, subtitles can be read quicker, the point or purpose of a play ca n be perceived quicker , questions o n quiz shows ca n be answered (o r attempted) befor e th e participant s respond . O n trai n journeys books can be read quicker, snacks taken slightly faster, more letters ca n be written. I n lectures, note s ca n be made faste r an d o n mass-production line s there is still some scope for faster movemen t to enable one to be just slightly ahead o f the pace of the line so that extra mini-breaks can be taken while the line catches up. When yo u procee d t o th e nex t tim e creatio n technique, i t i s vita l t o remember that you d o not giv e all of your attention to that technique and forget about this one. The aim is, rather, to add on the next technique to this one, so that by the time you reach the end of Part 1 Chapter 12 you are practising twelve new techniques. That way, you will get the greatest possible benefit ou t of time creation and move gradually and certainly from bein g a headless chicken to becoming a laidback bear for whom speed ha s a purpos e an d i s used whe n necessary . Anyone wh o ha s watched o n TV grizzly bears fishing i n a river for salmon knows ho w quickly bears can move when they have to.

cuapf er f wee

DEADLINES

Originally, a deadline was 'a line drawn in a military prison, by going beyond whic h a prisoner make s himsel f liabl e t o be sho t instantly ' (Chambers Etymological English Dictionary). Nowaday s i t ha s a les s draconian connotation an d mean s simpl y a closing date or the point in tim e b y whic h a n activit y ha s t o b e completed . A s suc h i t ha s considerable value.

Deadlines focus the attention and concentrate the mind. They give a clear indication of how long you have in which to get something done. Time limits have a similar function, but, whereas deadlines dea l only with th e endin g o f a process , tim e limit s usuall y specif y eithe r starting and finishin g times or the total amount o f time available. In this latter respect they are similar to time frames o r time slots, which really deal with the time between limits. Time frame s ar e usuall y se t withi n a genera l contex t involvin g several time frames for complementary, or even competing, activities. For instance, a morning's sequence o f activities - gettin g up, having breakfast, travelling to work, dealing with correspondence, attendin g a meeting, an d so on - require s a series of time frames, on e for each activity. If all goes well, they will be complementary and buil d into a picture o f a reasonabl y trouble-fre e morning. Bu t i f th e journe y t o work takes longer than anticipate d or a meeting overruns, the y may overlap and will therefore be competing with each other for the same period o f time. 17

18 Headless ctiickens, Laidback Pears

Whether you use deadlines, tim e limits or time frames t o assist yo u in managin g you r tim e is , t o a larg e extent , a matte r o f persona l preference. Som e peopl e prefe r t o rel y solel y o n a finishin g time , some on a set amount of time and other s on a planned sequencing of activities. Ther e is n o clea r evidenc e favourin g on e technique . You must pick the one that works best for you. It may be worth trying out them all before you make your final choice . You may even decide to use al l three o n differen t occasion s as determined b y th e particular needs of the situation . Deadlines (or time limits or time frames) should be written down and kept in clear view. In this way, you have no excuse to offer yourself (though you may , if necessary, offer i t to others , bu t tha t i s anothe r matter - jus t s o lon g a s yo u d o no t delud e yourself ) abou t no t realising ho w quickl y time has passe d i f you canno t complet e th e task on time. The act of writing down the deadline commits you to it. The fact of keeping it in clear view on your desk, on a notice board or inside a frequentl y use d diar y o r electroni c personal dat a assistan t (PDA) i s a continua l reminde r bot h o f it s existenc e an d you r commitment to yourself to meet it. It thus makes it much more likely that you will, in fact, achieve it. For man y activitie s of long duration , a deadlin e ma y b e fa r i n th e future. A report may take weeks to write, a project may take months to finish, and even a simple house repair may take several weekends. In such cases, it is desirable to break the task down into stages and to set a deadlin e fo r eac h one . I f yo u don' t mee t a sub-deadline , i t shouldn't matter too much. It merely tells you that you have a little extra work to do on the next occasion. And at least it will prevent you from gettin g clos e to the deadlin e an d the n suddenl y realisin g tha t you have fallen s o far behind i n your work that you cannot possibly hope to catch up.

If you are to achieve the time creation objective of spending less time doing things, deadlines are necessary weapons in your armoury of techniques.

Deaneries 1 9

Many activitie s canno t easil y b e speede d up, i n term s o f faste r movements o n your part , s o it i s essential t o explore othe r way s of increasing personal efficiency. And you have to spend less time doing some things i f you ar e to make more time for others . In setting deadlines, yo u nee d t o set them a little tighter than seem s to be required, in case any unforeseen delays arise. Much of the time everything wil l procee d smoothl y an d yo u wil l fin d yo u hav e finished ahea d o f the real schedule. Thi s is all to the goo d becaus e it gives yo u extr a tim e fo r checkin g ove r wha t yo u hav e don e i f thi s proves t o b e necessary . I t i s alway s bette r t o finis h ahea d o f tim e anyway becaus e thi s help s yo u t o avoi d th e intens e psychologica l pressure which ca n build u p i f you ge t into the habit o f running to o close to deadlines. Finishin g 'early' (that is, before things really must be done ) helps yo u t o remain relaxe d and build s self-confidenc e i n your own ability to cope. You also need t o avoid the greates t danger wit h deadlines , an d tha t is that you may postpone a n action until the last possible minute and then not be able to complete it in time. And ther e are other dangers . You may be over-optimistic about your own abilities and abou t ho w much ca n be don e i n a certai n time . So be sur e you r deadline s ar e realistic. O r yo u ma y fai l t o provid e fo r unexpecte d delays . B y definition, i t is impossible to expect the unexpected. But at least you can se t a deadlin e whic h allow s fo r som e slac k time , fo r tha t ca n always be useful . Without deadlines, tim e can more easily be wasted. It is always easy to spen d mor e tim e tha n intende d ove r a busines s lunch , ove r telephone calls, in daydreaming and starin g out of the window, or in trying t o d o severa l thing s a t once . You can the n fin d tha t yo u ar e thrashing aroun d i n total confusio n an d reall y achieving very little. You hav e becom e a headles s chicke n again . Greate r activit y is n o reliable indication that useful wor k is being done. Deadlines als o hel p t o overcom e procrastination . Ther e ar e alway s many plausibl e reason s fo r puttin g tasks , especiall y unpleasan t o r

20 Headless cHickeris, LaMback. Bears

unrewarding ones , of f unti l tomorrow . Tim e creatio n doe s no t recognise the all-too-common philosophy tha t you should never pu t off unti l tomorro w wha t ca n b e safel y lef t unti l th e da y after . I t i s more concerned with an 'action this day' approach. The main advantage of deadlines, however, is that they enable you to plan sensibl y ahead . A n orderl y arrangemen t o f activitie s wit h realistic deadlines i s a very effective metho d o n its own o f ensuring greater efficiency . Allied to all the other time creation techniques and welded int o a n integrate d approach , i t begin s t o buil d int o a formidable an d effectiv e approac h to the better management of time both at work and in leisure. On some occasions, you may find it useful to use a little time to check on the passag e o f time in activities, especially if you hav e identified several stage s i n a task an d wis h t o check on how muc h time each stage i s taking. Yo u will certainl y find i t usefu l t o kee p a record of your progress i n using deadlines , particularl y of those occasion s on which yo u fai l t o mee t them . Thi s wil l provid e yo u wit h usefu l feedback, whic h wil l enabl e yo u t o improv e performanc e an d increase your chances of becoming a laidback bear.

chapf er four

ANTICIPATORY SCANNING TECHNIQUES

It is never enough solely to attend to what is happening at the moment. Events d o no t exis t in a vacuum. Each one i s connected no t onl y to what has already happened bu t also to what is about to happen. Anticipatory scanning techniques are designed to help you to deal more speedily and effectively with whatever is about to happen. They may be defined simply as those techniques which assist you in looking ahead (physically or mentally) to try to be ready both for what is likely to happen and for probable and possible happenings with a willingness to use flexible responses to improve your ability to deal with situations A good example of anticipatory scanning techniques at work is to be found i n the behaviour o f some of the personne l o n airline check-in desks. Some time ago, it was observed tha t those who wer e rated as the bes t check-i n clerk s ha d a habit , a s the y wer e dealin g wit h a customer, o f glancin g briefl y dow n th e queue , payin g particula r attention to the next person in the queue and also to people who were showing visibl e sign s o f nervousnes s o r impatience . Thes e clerk s seemed to be able to respond more quickl y an d mor e appropriatel y to eac h custome r tha n thos e wh o concentrate d solel y o n whoeve r happened t o b e i n fron t o f them . The y wer e involve d i n fa r fewe r altercations with passengers and generally deal t with more people in less time . Close r observation s reveale d tha t the y wer e usin g thes e anticipatory scanning s o f th e lin e o f peopl e t o acquir e som e 21

22 Headless chickens, Laidback Bears

information tha t late r enabled the m t o respon d better . They smiled encouragingly at nervous passengers and helped to put them a little more at ease even before they came to deal with them. The differences in work speed and quality of performance were such that anticipatory scanning technique s no w for m par t o f the trainin g programm e for check-in personnel o f at least one major international airline . Similar behaviour ca n be observed ever y day in any good bar, where some bar staf f see m to have no trouble in serving several people a t once with the use of anticipatory scanning. The rest of us can develop it with a little practice. Whatever the activity, try this. Just prior to the completion o f a stage of a task, glance ahead (or think ahead if it is an activity, lik e problem-solving , wher e ther e migh t no t actuall y b e anything to see) to the next stage. Don't look for all that can be seen , but pic k ou t ke y features , th e thing s tha t eithe r commo n sens e o r experience tell you may cause you to vary your approach. The aim is not to try to deal with those aspects of a situation now, but simply to be ready for them when you do get to them. The signs that nervous or impatient people give of their state of mind are examples of what to look for. S o are unfamiliar words and phrases in reading materials, obstacles that weren't there before on a walking or driving route, and a meeting , whic h follow s a busines s lunch , a t whic h brain-taxing matters have to be discussed. Experience, in the form o f past behaviour which was successful, can be very useful i n teaching you how t o tackle things in the future. I n other words , neve r neglec t th e lessons of history. Havin g sai d this , remember tha t anticipator y scanning technique s mean you have t o be more concerned wit h what lies ahead tha n with what has already been deal t with . A 'rear-view mirror ' approach t o lif e ca n have its uses, but priority of attention shoul d b e given to thinking ahea d an d to planning ahead.

Time spent planning is never wasted. A good plan can make the execution of a task very much easier by allowing you to see where you are going.

AMfrcipgfsry ScaMMiMg Tccw>fcy>es 23

A well-planne d report , fo r instance , make s th e actua l writin g o f i t much easier. In many cases, the report will almost seem to write itself. as information slots itself easil y into the most appropriate place for it. Many errors and ambiguities that might otherwise intrude are avoided as a writer, having already decided how each section is to be organised, can concentrate on getting the details of written expression right. An easy way to plan is to jot down in note form the things to be done or the items to be covered as they come to mind. They should then be studied an d place d i n a n appropriat e orde r o f importanc e o r th e order i n which the y ar e to be tackled. In doing this , the y shoul d b e grouped into stages or tasks where each one follows on logically from its predecessor . I f you us e a n appropriat e identificatio n system (for example, lettering the parts A, B, C, D, etc. and numberin g th e item s within each part 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.), you will have a plan in which not only is every aspect covered , but yo u ca n als o se e clearly which ar e th e really important points to be dealt with. As wit h an y method o f forecasting o r predicting , i t i s necessary t o check afterwards for accuracy. This provides useful feedback , for you will discover why any mistakes were made and will be able to avoid them i n future . I f yo u concentrat e o n th e consequence s o f action s whenever yo u ar e thinkin g thing s through , this , too , wil l hel p t o avoid error s later . Always be prepare d fo r thing s no t t o wor k ou t exactly a s yo u planne d an d remembe r wha t i s usuall y calle d Murphy's Law: 'If thing s can go wrong, they will/ Carefu l plannin g will help t o prevent Murphy' s prophec y fro m comin g true. Seek to identify th e ke y feature s i n situation s an d us e the m t o help yo u i n keeping your purpose an d you r directio n clearly in mind. Don't let yourself b e deflecte d fro m you r planned cours e except by necessity or because a better way unexpectedly appears. In everyda y activities , a diar y ca n help i n developin g anticipator y scanning techniques. You can see how a week's or a month's events relate t o eac h othe r an d thu s be read y t o respon d better . Reading , especially against the cloc k or with a higher flo w rate , helps. Goin g faster seem s to force you t o look ahead more.

24 Headless cKickefis, Laidback Bears

There are also a number o f specific activities you ca n practise which will develop your anticipatory scanning techniques: 1. Selec t a feature article from th e centre pages of a newspaper. Read the firs t hal f o f the article. Write down what you think the writer is going t o cover in the secon d half . Read the secon d hal f t o see how accurate your predictions were. 2. Practis e skimming an d previewing when reading. Always spend a few seconds glancing through material before you read it. Try to identify som e of the main points or parts of the material that may cause you difficult y whe n you come to read them. 3. I n an everyday situation such as driving a car or working through the agend a a t a meeting, identif y th e nex t an d th e next-but-one hazard or decision to be made. Cast your mind forward briefly t o them an d pla n ho w yo u wil l act . Be prepared t o chang e i f th e circumstances suddenly change. 4. Tr y this mnemonic in your everyday activities: PLACE, i.e., Pause - sto p what you are doing for a moment Look Ahead - cas t your mind forward to the next stage or task Continue - work through the next stage or task Evaluate - asses s how useful lookin g ahead was to you 5. Questio n yourself about what you ar e going to do next and wh y you are going to do it in the way you are. If you can, do this aloud and recor d it on tape. Play it back to yourself afterwards and se e if ther e ar e thing s which , wit h hindsight , yo u woul d d o differently. 6. Observ e other s wh o yo u kno w ar e skille d performer s i n a n activity and loo k for the use o f anticipatory scanning techniques . Try to copy the way they do it and se e how i t feels . 7. Befor e you begin a task, write down what you are going to do and how yo u ar e going to do it. Afterwards , review your notes an d see what changes you would make. 8. Pres s yoursel f t o d o thing s a littl e faste r tha n yo u reall y fin d comfortable an d se e if this forces you t o concentrate more and t o look ahead.

AMficipafory ScaMMg Tccwiiqoes 25

9. Prepar e a mental 'map' of a journey. Identify a s many difficulties , obstacles an d hazard s a s yo u can . Afterwards , revie w an d se e how many you were able to avoid or deal with more smoothly. 10. Take a situation in which you are not personally involved (e.g. an encounter between two people or a TV play or film). Try to 'read' how i t i s going t o develop . Afterwards , revie w an d asses s ho w accurate your predictions were. Practise some or all of these activities an d se e which ones appear t o work best fo r you. These shoul d the n be added t o your developing time creatio n strategy, so tha t yo u shoul d the n b e usin g increase d flow rates , deadlines , and anticipator y scannin g techniques . Onc e you are happy tha t you have mastered these techniques, you will be ready t o begin learnin g an d applyin g th e nex t one i n th e ques t for laidback bear status.

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Oiapf er CKte

SELECTIVE PERCEPTION OF CUES

A cue i n thi s contex t is an y action , signa l o r even t whic h give s a n individual information about what is happening i n a situation. Some cues are more important than others. For instance, if you ar e about to cross a road , someon e wavin g t o yo u fro m th e othe r sid e i s les s important than th e bus which i s moving toward s you on your own side. Usually there are too many cues for all to be perceived (o r seen and understood) within a given time frame. For this reason, you have to become selective and attend t o those which are of key significance at the time. The more quickly and the more accurately you can do this the better and the faster yo u can perform. Whatever the situation, you should concentrate your attention on the key features, the highlights, or the problem areas (whichever are most relevant in the particular circumstances). By focusing on the essentials, to the exclusion of all the non-critical information available, you will be making more efficient use of your skills. Examples of the effectivenes s o f the selectiv e perception o f cues can be foun d i n almos t an y are a o f human activity . A good drive r wil l attend more carefully t o the spee d an d relativ e positions of vehicles than to their colour or registration numbers. H e or she will look for cues indicatin g what othe r roa d user s ma y b e abou t t o do . Traffi c lights ahea d ma y change , youn g childre n o n th e ker b ma y unpredictably das h acros s th e road , a do g ma y se e anothe r do g across the road and run to it without looking: a quick driver will spot all suc h potentia l hazards and be read y to reac t if the nee d arises . Anticipation is an important factor in the selective perception of cues. 27

28 Headless CKickeffs, Laidback Bears

In reading, the efficien t performe r will have clearly specified hi s o r her purpose s i n advance , wil l hav e previewe d (skimme d quickl y through) th e materia l firs t an d wil l b e activel y lookin g fo r information rathe r tha n passivel y movin g th e eye s alon g the lines . This makes i t possible t o attend selectivel y to the parts that matter and s o makes faster assimilatio n possible. In sports , anticipatio n i s a n essentia l componen t o f skille d performance, and a player has to be able to perceive selectively those cues that will enable him or her to respond befor e a n opponent ca n prevent the scoring of a goal or a point. The faster such responses can be made, the better a player can become. Even i n everyda y encounter s wit h othe r people , a grea t dea l o f information abou t attitudes , motive s an d intention s i s contained i n nonverbal cues rather than in spoken words . The faster thes e can be identified an d th e mor e importan t one s responde d to , th e mor e quickly and effectivel y a n individual can communicate. Studies o f highl y skille d performer s i n thes e an d othe r area s o f activity have revealed that they actively seek cues which tell them that a situation is different fro m others and requires a different approach . They look for order and try to identify priorities. They look for key signposts, hierarchies of information (evidence of planning an d structure). They are alert to anything that will help them to concentrate on what matters and pass over the trivial and the unimportant. The laidback bears know what they are doing; the headless chicken s are still busy but dashing aroun d mindlessly . Since, as has been said, there is normally too much information to be able t o atten d t o everything , yo u shoul d tr y t o observ e thos e cue s which i n effec t say , 'You have to tak e account of us, o r else/ Being able to do this helps flexible, planned performance. It allows overall for consistentl y greater speed.

SelecfiVe Perception of cues 29

You should tr y to identify priorities for your attention. Placing things in rank order with the most important a t the top and the least importan t at the bottom helps to achieve this. Identifying, an d differentiating, th e important an d th e urgent help s too . If your ca r catches fire, i t may b e important tha t yo u rescu e you r briefcas e bu t i t i s urgen t tha t yo u yourself shoul d escap e the flame s first . You can survive without you r briefcase, but th e alternative is no use to you at all. It is best, onc e priorities have bee n determined , t o keep t o the ran k order. Don' t cho p an d chang e lik e ou r headles s chickens . I f th e sequence i s appropriat e an d yo u hav e thing s i n th e righ t order , everything will work ou t al l right in any case . If you hav e it wrong , write i t of f to experience , carr y o n an d us e th e lesson s learne d t o avoid that particular mistake in future . Practise some (or all) of the following exercises and you will find tha t your skill in selectively perceiving cues steadily improves: 1. Read a feature article in a newspaper. You will usually find them in the centre pages. Try to pick out the central point in the article, the main fact , ide a o r conclusio n tha t th e write r i s seekin g t o communicate to the reader. Write it down. Wai t 24 hours, read th e article again and se e if you still agree with your own assessment . If you don't , chang e it. If you do , yo u hav e mos t likel y selected th e main point first time round. If you can, you might also get a second opinion fro m someon e els e who has read the article. 2. Observe a street scene. On tape or in your notebook, record the key features o f what yo u see . Then recor d al l the othe r thing s tha t are happening o r tha t ar e simpl y jus t there (type s o f buildings, roa d workings, peopl e passin g by , etc.). Decid e ho w muc h yo u hav e ignored in focusing o n the key features (most people wil l relegate details o f buildings t o th e background , fo r instance , unles s the y happen t o b e architects) . Asses s ho w accurat e yo u wer e i n identifying th e key features. 3. Sort th e item s i n you r in-tra y int o priorities . Mak e thre e piles : 'Urgent', 'Important' and These Can Wait'. If you have no in-tray, try simulatin g a n in-tray exercise by imagining you have one.

30 Headless CKickeffs, LaMback Bears

4. Obtai n a 'perceptual map' (one on which key buildings and other landmarks ar e highlighte d pictorially ) of a cit y an d compar e i t with a traditiona l stree t ma p o f the sam e area . O n wha t basi s have the key features been selected? Is a perceptual map easier to follow? 5. Wh y can you drive faster (withi n legal speed limits) on an empty straight motorway tha n on an empty straight single-carriagewa y road? Lis t a s man y reason s a s yo u ca n (clues : Are ther e mor e things t o atten d t o o n a motorway or fewer ? Ar e they close r or further away ? What difference doe s it make?). 6. Conside r th e cues you attend to in deciding whe n a joint of meat is cooked, a car is roadworthy, potatoes ar e ready to be picked, and that someone is being sincere. 7. Whe n planning a holiday o r a business trip , lis t the ke y factor s that yo u tak e int o consideration . Ca n yo u identif y thing s yo u take for granted? 8. I f you work in a crowded roo m or if you attend a party or go into the local pub, note how you can attend to one thing and exclude others, tal k o n th e phon e despit e th e nois e o r pic k ou t on e person's voice and listen to it. Ask yourself how well you can do these things. Practise one of them for a week or so and se e if you notice any improvement. 9. Durin g the Second World War, aircraft personnel were trained to spot enem y plane s quickl y b y havin g silhouette s fo r the m t o identify flashe d o n t o a screen. Practise this wit h silhouette s o r photographs of cars from a car book. Time yourself over, say, fifty and se e how muc h you ca n increase speed o f identification i n a week. 10. Draw a map o f the route from you r house to the nearest railway station o r som e simila r destinatio n a s i f fo r a stranger . Wha t features and landmarks do you decide to include? How and why do you select them? Selective perceptio n o f cue s ca n no t onl y spee d u p informatio n processing, i t ca n als o make i t mor e efficien t b y focusin g on thos e

SekcfiVe Percepffort of cues 31

features of a situation or sequence of events that can materially affect the outcome. As such, it is an ability which is of considerable value to the tim e creatio n student an d i s well wort h practisin g by mean s o. exercises lik e thos e above , i n orde r t o develo p skil l an d mak e progress a s a laidback bear.

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owpfer Si'K

ADEQUATE INCUBATION PERIODS

At first sight it may seem that the idea of deliberately inserting into a task o r activit y a perio d o f tim e i n whic h nothin g appear s t o b e happening run s completely against the principles an d technique s of better tim e creation . Ho w doe s th e concep t o f waitin g time , o f a period i n which informatio n i s assimilated, i s allowed t o 'incubate' for a while, fit into a more effective approach ? Is it not simply a waste of time , a device for procrastination? Part of the answe r to questions like thes e i s that , i n th e ter m 'adequat e incubatio n periods' , th e emphasis is placed on the word 'adequate'. In other words, you only take th e 'tim e out ' tha t i s necessary. I f you don' t provid e fo r suc h periods, you do in fact waste time in less than fully productiv e effort. It is one o f the ke y feature s tha t distinguish headles s chicken s fro m laidback bears. Headless chickens are so ineffective precisel y because they cannot be still for a moment . Adequate incubation periods are needed because there is a limit to the speed at which the brain can process information. This limit varies from person to person and most of us operate at a level well below our own potential, but it is there nonetheless and we need a technique which takes it into account. The period s ar e neede d becaus e w e ofte n tak e som e tim e t o for m sound judgment s an d conclusions . Indeed , ther e i s evidenc e tha t better conclusion s ar e reache d i f adequat e incubatio n period s ar e allowed. The y hel p t o avoi d th e stres s tha t a n over-emphasi s o n speed ca n bring. They give us tim e to think, t o mull things over , to reflect. It is a false economy to neglect incubation periods. There will 33

34 Headless cKicketts, Lgidback Bears

also always be occasions when the mind, like a farmer's field, has to lie fallo w an d b e give n th e chanc e t o recove r fo r th e nex t task . Incubation o r res t period s ca n take severa l form s an d all , properl y used, ca n b e o f assistanc e i n th e practic e o f bette r tim e creatio n whether b y managers, writers , readers, travellers or anyone else for whom speed of response i s an important consideration. The principal kind o f incubation with which we shal l be concerne d here i s th e on e tha t occur s betwee n inpu t an d output , betwee n preparation o r plannin g an d execution , betwee n identifyin g o r specifying a problem an d solvin g it , o r whe n th e actua l process of creative thinkin g i s being carrie d out . I t i s th e tim e durin g whic h information continue s to be worked o n by the brain at a level other than th e consciou s level . I t require s n o effort . Al l i t require s i s a willingness simply to put adequat e incubation periods into activities and to allow them to work their particular 'magic'. The kind s o f activitie s i n whic h incubatio n period s ca n pla y a n instrumental par t includ e proble m solving , creativ e thinking , reading, writing, decision and judgment making, managing, formin g opinions, training, learning and work planning. In later chapters we shall see specifically how som e of them work, but som e examples of their usefulness will not go amiss at this point. Any rest or relaxation period in an activity can become an incubation period if , durin g it , wha t ha s happene d previousl y i s bein g considered b y th e brai n a t a leve l beyon d th e consciou s an d thi s results i n a modifie d an d improve d performanc e whe n activit y resumes. An y learnin g proces s need s time s when , becaus e o f th e effects o f the learnin g curve , wha t ha s bee n learne d ca n be mulle d over ('the learning curve' in this context is a term used to refer to the fact that experience need s to be built up graduall y an d often canno t be forced) . Other examples of incubation periods occu r in situations like being able to solve a problem in a morning when it appeared insoluble the night before .

Adequafe IfJcubaf iotf Periods 35

They occur after a brainstorrning session before evaluatin g responses obtained . They occur between writing a report and revising it. They occur between collecting information and makin g a decision on what to do about it. Typically, thos e wh o ar e skille d i n providin g adequat e incubation periods fo r themselve s wil l mak e sur e tha t the y acquir e al l th e relevant informatio n an d se t asid e a n amoun t o f tim e t o giv e incubation a chance to occur . They will then tur n thei r attentio n t o some other task for a while. This might wel l be a task which ca n be completed without too much effort an d without taking up too much time, bearing i n mind tha t a desirable minimu m incubatio n perio d should includ e a n overnigh t wait . Afte r this , th e activit y wil l b e resumed an d ther e i s a greatl y increase d likelihoo d o f confident , positive, decisive action being possible . The benefits o f such a n approac h ar e many . The mai n one s woul d appear to be that adequate incubation periods : boost confidence relax an individual give smoother performance of skills avoid errors through over-hasty judgments increase reliability avoid wastefu l repetition. This last is very important to effective tim e creation. If yo u wis h t o improve your ow n us e o f these periods , yo u ca n tr y some or all of the followin g exercises: 1. Read a featur e articl e in a newspaper . Pu t i t t o on e side . Writ e down th e mai n points . The n rea d a simila r article , but thi s tim e

36 Headless CHicken's, Laidback Bears

when you put i t to one side wait for half a n hour before you write down th e main points. Th e following day , read each article again and se e if you still agree with your assessment of the salient points each is making. You should fin d tha t the article with the half-hour incubation period is the one which produced the better results. 2. Select problem s fro m a mathematic s textbook o r fro m a boo k which contain s puzzle s tha t provid e a certai n amoun t o f intellectual challenge . On e evening , attemp t t o solv e som e problems. When you encounter a problem you cannot solve, keep working a t i t unti l yo u ca n o r unti l yo u hav e t o giv e up . Nex t evening, d o th e same , bu t thi s tim e whe n yo u com e t o th e apparently insolubl e problem , mak e sur e tha t yo u hav e firml y registered i n you r min d al l th e informatio n abou t th e problem , then g o to bed. Next morning, retur n to the problem and se e if a solution present s itself . Yo u may hav e t o carr y ou t thi s whol e experiment two or three times before you are able to form a reliable judgment, but you should find that an overnight incubation period makes it noticeably more likely that you will be able to solve the problem. Students may use homework problems for this exercise. 3. Write a letter or a report an d the n try t o edit and polis h i t on th e same day . The n writ e something , bu t leav e i t a t leas t 2 4 hour s before editin g an d polishing . Yo u should fin d tha t th e secon d approach produces much better results. One reason for this is the incubation period , bu t anothe r i s that th e followin g da y yo u ar e not s o personally committed to the writing an d ca n thus be more objective an d critica l i n you r approach t o i t an d edi t i t mor e effectively. 4. Write a letter of complaint about something tha t has happened t o you recently and which you feel pretty steamed up about . Put the letter to one side overnight. Do you still send it as you wrote it? Or do you ton e i t down a little and mak e it more reasoned an d les s abusive? Th e chances ar e you wil l ton e i t down . Th e incubatio n period has saved you from possible embarrassment by overstating your case or expecting abusiveness to work.

Ade
5. Plan a n activit y (fo r example , a journe y o r makin g a ver y important telephone call) and carry it out on the same day. Then do the same , but carr y out th e activit y o n the followin g day . Again, you should fin d tha t you get better results with fewer errors. Where a 24 hour delay is unavailable or impracticable for a variety of reasons, tr y the above activitie s with a t least a break between inpu t and outpu t i n which a different activit y is undertaken. Although the results this time may not be quite so good, you should stil l find tha t you gai n som e benefi t fro m th e incubatio n period . However , fo r these periods to be really useful, it is important to ensure that they are of a n adequate duration. Clearly , the more you practise usin g them , the more accurately you will be able to see what 'adequate' means for you. Some people wil l need longer period s tha n other s an d al l will need longe r period s o n som e occasions . Experienc e in usin g the m will enabl e you t o become progressively better a t judging the righ t amount of time consistent with better time creation and being a more laidback bear.

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CKapf er SeVetf

IMAGINATIVE AND INTUITIVE RESPONSES

Hard wor k is no substitut e fo r talent.. If you ca n find a way o f doin^ something wel l and quickl y without effort , yo u shoul d tak e it. If you can develop a kind of serendipity in being able to identify new and unusual responses to situations, you will save yourself a great deal of time and effort. Often such responses are much more effective than more conventional ones. If, however, you fin d yo u canno t develop suc h responses, eve n afte r working through thi s chapter, don't worry about it. As we said at the beginning o f the book, not every technique described her e will work for everyone . Yo u should concentrat e o n developin g thos e whic h work for you and ignore those that don't. Serendipity is defined as 'the faculty o f making happy chanc e finds'. It come s from a forme r nam e fo r Sri Lanka which wa s Serendip . I n 1754, Horac e Walpole coined th e wor d fro m th e titl e of a fairy tale , The Three Princes o f Serendip, whos e heroe s 'wer e alway s makin g discoveries, b y accident s an d sagacity , o f thing s the y wer e no t i n quest of (Chambers' Etymological Dictionary}. I n this context, it means being abl e t o spo t way s o f doin g thing s whic h ad d flair , style , charisma an d sta r qualit y t o you r performance . In an y activity , the truly skille d operator s ar e not onl y quic k an d effectiv e bu t als o d o things wit h tha t littl e extra flas h o f genius tha t single s the m ou t a s truly remarkabl e performers . This chapter , then , i s fo r thos e wh o 39

40 Headles s CKicketfs, Lafdbac k Sear s

wish t o be 'star' time creators, but i t will hopefully als o be of use to those who are simply concerned to improve in any way they can. Some o f wha t wil l b e sai d her e ma y appea r t o contradic t advic e already given. It is not meant to. But it is important to remember that differing circumstance s may require differing responses . For instance, earlier the virtues of looking ahead and of planning were extolled, yet plans ca n have thei r limitations . Th e world record-breakin g British runner, Stev e Ovett , i n repl y t o a televisio n interviewer' s questio n about how he planned a race, once said that he didn't. 'Once you have a pla n yo u ar e vulnerable / h e said . 'Yo u ar e ope n t o attac k b y a competitor because you los e th e flexibilit y t o be abl e to respon d t o events.' Plan s ca n lea d t o blinkere d thinking . The y ca n limi t you r expectations both o f yoursel f an d o f others . The y ca n restric t your ability to respond t o chance events and t o unexpected opportunities . They can lead to situations in which you slavishly and blindly follow your pla n simpl y becaus e you hav e one . Fo r al l these reason s an d more i t i s importan t tha t you r approac h t o a tas k shoul d mak e allowance for imaginative and intuitive responses . Such responses rel y more on emotional an d 'felt ' reaction s than o n cold logical analysis. They are essentially responses whic h do not fit the rule s o r follo w conventions . The y ca n take th e for m o f sudde n insights (whic h often occu r after a n adequate incubation period ha s been allowed). These insights frequently produc e superior solution s to problems , mor e appropriat e response s an d simpl e bu t elegan t answers. They can provoke a reaction in which you sa y to yourself , 'Why didn't I think of that before?' They ma y tak e th e for m o f trul y nove l an d creativ e approaches . Brainstorming, freewheelin g an d othe r divergen t thinkin g techniques, all of which we shall encounter in due course, enable you to avoid the obvious, though ther e is some need fo r caution if using them on a problem where convergent thinking approaches are more appropriate (these are usually used when a problem is of a type likely to hav e a singl e correc t answer , a s wit h a technica l o r practica l problem).

Injagitfgf iVe afM Itffoif iVe Responses 41

Instinctive reaction s ofte n produc e imaginativ e responses . A 'gut' feeling or a sixth sense ca n enable you to do things without thinking . Good anticipatio n and bein g abl e t o 'read' a situatio n wil l help, a s will a sensitivit y t o nonverba l factors , especiall y i n dealin g wit h problems involving other people . Hunches o r inspire d guesse s ca n ofte n produc e reliabl e responses , especially i n unknown situation s o r in mould-breaking task s wher e an activity is to be performed in an entirely novel way. They can often be inevitabl e i f you fin d yo u hav e a lac k o f relevan t experienc e t o draw upo n o r hav e t o ac t o n th e spu r o f the momen t becaus e th e situation is one that will not admit delay. Examples of the kind s o f imaginative and intuitiv e responses whic h can be generated by the above approaches are not difficult t o identify. If yo u hav e eve r found , o r see n someon e els e find , a solution t o a problem whic h i s s o simple yo u wonde r wh y n o on e though t o f it before, yo u hav e almos t certainl y witnesse d a n imaginativ e o r intuitive response . Othe r example s includ e lov e a t firs t sight , reactions tha t 'i t wa s th e righ t thin g t o d o a t th e time ' an d firs t impressions o f people. Clearl y i n thes e situations , imaginativ e an d intuitive responses ca n be wrong, a s can logical responses, bu t the y are mor e ofte n tha n no t righ t an d ca n b e spectacularl y so . Fo r instance, a good dea l o f evidence now exist s which show s tha t ou r first impression s o f others ar e rarel y wrong. Indeed, s o infrequentl y are w e wron g tha t w e ten d t o remembe r vividl y th e occasion s o n which we are, thus misleading ourselves into thinking we are wrong more often . We nee d thes e response s s o tha t w e ca n brea k fre e fro m previou s habits which limit the effectiveness o f our actions and s o that we can make the best possible use of the resources available to us. As in the case of time creation techniques discusse d i n previous chapters , th e benefits are many and varied, the principal one being the time that is saved when imaginative and intuitive responses ar e used.

42 Headles s CKicketfs , LaMback . Bear s

These responses ar e most appropriate : when orthodox approaches have faile d when the problem is one which demands a divergent solution , when the y just are felt to be right when a situation is totally new. In the main, in such circumstances the responses seem to happen of their own accord but you can encourage their use. You can encourage them simpl y b y bein g read y t o mak e a n imaginativ e o r intuitiv e response, o r by being willin g t o accep t the risk s involve d (becaus e you kno w th e priz e ma y be a much bette r solution ) o r by actively looking fo r novelty i n your responses an d b y resolutel y refusin g t o get into a rut o r a set pattern of action. You ca n g o furthe r tha n this , however , an d us e th e followin g exercises t o stimulat e you r readines s an d abilit y i n makin g imaginative and intuitive responses : 1. Systematically break the rules of an everyday activity. For example, try acting like a stranger or a guest would act in you own home. Try smiling in a friendly - but not too friendly or leering - manner at everyone you meet. Dress differently, say, by not wearing a suit if you normally do or wearing colourful clothe s if you normally wear subdued colours . You will have to be careful because other people may become hostile if you deviate too far from convention. You may, though, just find a startlingly new and refreshing way of doing something that you have previously taken for granted could not be changed. 2. Find a s man y use s a s possibl e i n te n minute s fo r a one-metr e length o f electrica l wiring , a rol l o f wallpaper , a butto n o r a ballpoint pen cap. Don't suppress ridiculous ideas and don't try to evaluate th e qualit y o r usefulnes s o f your idea s unti l a t leas t 24 hours later. You may come up with a brilliant invention. 3. Spend som e of your leisur e time painting o r drawing , playin g o r listening t o severa l differen t kind s o f music , readin g literature ,

l^agi^afiVe a^d IMfoff tVc Responses 43

making pottery or engaging in any other creative art or craft. They will al l encourag e th e developmen t o f th e abilit y t o mak e imaginative and intuitive responses . 4. Spend som e time daydreaming or trying not t o think o f anything at all. Then tackle a problem. Does this help you to come up wit h a different an d better approach? 5. Set out in the car with no clear destination in mind. Let yourself go where impuls e take s you . Afterward s as k yourself : Wasn't tha t more enjoyable than a planned trip ? 6. Telephone someon e yo u hav e no t spoke n t o for some time. Do it now, on impulse. Afterwards ask yourself why you chose who you did. An y regrets ? You might jus t hav e revive d a friendshi p that distance should no t have been allowed to destroy. And discovered that imaginative and intuitive responses can be fun. Headless chickens will never find the time to try things like this. They are to o bus y dashin g aroun d achievin g nothing . I t i s th e laidback bears wh o rea p th e reward s o f th e mor e ope n an d creativ e opportunities tha t imaginative and intuitive responses have to offer .

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CKapf.er EigH f

CRITICAL INCIDENTS AND LEARNING PERIODS

An importan t elemen t i n a tim e creatio n approac h i s a n abilit y t o respond t o changin g situation s an d events . W e have alread y see n something of this. Here we shall examine the contribution to be made by critica l incident s an d learnin g periods . The y giv e a n additiona l dimension o f flexibility an d w e need t o be ready to exploit them. A critical incident may be described as a crucial event which changes the course of a person's life or, on a lesser scale, makes it easier to solve a problem, A learning period is a time which may only last for a few minutes or may last for several months, during which an individual can learn and progress most easily and productively. During such periods one is most likely to encounter, be receptive to and most readily benefit from critical incidents. An exampl e o f a critica l inciden t migh t tak e th e for m o f meeting , hearing or reading about an influential charismatic person. Or it may be a sudden revelatio n or insight , a shock , o r a change o f personal circumstances. Learning periods ofte n occu r as certain times o f da y are found t o be better for learning and working than others. Characteristically, skilled users of critical incidents and learning periods: Try to do their most important work at the times of day they know from experienc e are best for them.

45

46 Headles s CKfCkeffs , Laicfback . Bear s

They exploit their failures as well as their successes, recognising that one can often learn as much, if not more, from failure as from success. They d o what the y ca n to turn circumstance s to their advantage . For example, they will use a period in which they may temporarily be confined to the house by a minor ailment in order to catch up on some reading , o r eve n t o d o a littl e writin g tha t th e presenc e of daily work has prevented the m from tackling. Critical incidents and learning periods compel you to re-examine and re-appraise what you have been doing . They make you propose changes and then try these changes out. Because they work in this way, they prevent you from gettin g into a rut and making stereotyped and repetitive responses to events. They make you self-critical , in the sense of being more aware of both your merits and your deficiencies . They stimulate your sense of curiosity and your enthusiasm. They thus have a generally beneficial an d regenerative effec t upon the way you look upon the world and upon your approach to the challenges it presents. Everyone ca n benefi t fro m th e identificatio n an d us e o f critica l incidents an d learnin g periods , but the y ar e of most valu e t o thos e who fee l the y ar e i n a rut . Thos e wh o hav e recentl y undergon e a traumatic experienc e o f som e kin d ca n bes t exploi t them . The y should prov e particularl y attractiv e to thos e wh o hav e unfulfille d ambitions an d ar e willin g t o learn . The y ca n be expecte d t o occur when least expected. As already indicated, they should especially be looked fo r at your best times for working, afte r shock s or significan t life events, after totally new experiences, and when you are in strange places that you have never previously visited . These incidents and periods occur for many reasons. Progress in any activity an d i n lif e itsel f i s rarel y smoot h an d constant . I t goe s i n spurts, followed by plateaux, and it is when you find yourself on one

critical itfcidetffs aiM LearMiMg Periods 47

of thes e plateau x that you ar e more likely than usua l t o be ready t o exploit a critical incident or a learning period . You don't have to wait for them to occur, however. You can take steps to create the conditions in which they are most likely to occur. You can organise your activities in such a way tha t they recognise the 'progress - plateau - progress' approach. You can be alert during platea u periods fo r the next door to open. You can use plateaux for reading, research, preparation, and so on, even if there is no specifi c objective to latch onto. As wit h othe r tim e creatio n techniques , yo u ca n us e a numbe r of exercises t o hel p t o stimulat e you r abilit y t o develo p you r us e of critical incident s an d learnin g periods . Tr y som e o r al l o f th e following exercises: 1. Select a task . An y on e wil l do , bu t i t shoul d preferabl y b e on e which yo u usuall y experienc e som e difficult y i n completing . I t may b e studying , writin g a repor t fo r wor k purposes , plannin g how t o decorate a room or repair something in the house that has broken down , o r i t ma y b e an y othe r difficul t task . Attempt th e task a t differen t time s o f day . Doe s an y particula r tim e o f da y emerge a s th e bes t tim e t o tackle the task ? If one does , yo u hav e almost certainly identified what is for you a learning period . 2. Record all the critica l incidents an d learnin g periods tha t you ca n recall having happened t o you i n the past. Is there an y pattern in when, where, how and why they occurred? Did you make the best use of them? This exercise should hel p you t o identify the m whe n they occur again and perhap s make better use of them in future . 3. The nex t tim e yo u ar e blocke d i n a n activit y (that i s t o say , yo u have reache d a poin t a t whic h yo u fee l yo u canno t mak e an y further progress) , leav e i t fo r a da y o r so , d o somethin g els e meantime an d the n com e back to it . Does tha t mak e i t easier for

48 Headless cKickeffs, Lai4back Pears

you t o progress ? I f i t does , yo u ma y hav e gon e throug h a n incubation period , bu t yo u ma y als o hav e hi t upo n a learnin g period, especially i f you select a time of day when you know fro m experience you can work better. 4. Set asid e som e tim e eac h wee k fo r readin g yo u woul d no t otherwise do. This encourages a learning orientation and a general receptiveness t o ne w informatio n an d ideas . I t make s fo r a developing open-mindedness tha t will enable you to exploit future critical incidents and learning periods to the full . 5. Go to a publi c meetin g t o liste n t o someon e yo u kno w o r hav e heard is a good speaker. Afterwards, is there any urge on your part to 'do something' about the subjec t o f the speech ? If there is, you have almost certainly experienced a critical incident. 6. Make sure tha t yo u mee t an d tal k at som e lengt h t o a t least on e new perso n eac h week . Doin g thi s wil l hav e a simila r effec t t o general reading. It makes you more receptive to new information, experience and ideas. 7. Change your sleeping habits for a week. If you usuall y go to be d late an d ris e late , tr y goin g t o be d earl y an d risin g early . I f you usually go to bed early , try going to bed lat e and rising late. Keep as detailed a record as you ca n of the effect s upo n you r workin g habits an d patterns . I t i s just possibl e tha t yo u ma y b e abl e t o identify a better way o f organising you r life . I t is surprising ho w many people fin d workin g very late at night o r very early in the morning effective . Bu t no t bot h i n th e sam e week , o f course, a s everyone needs a reasonable amount o f sleep. 8. Try reading some inspirational works. You can choose religious or philosophical book s a s yo u prefer . Som e possibl e writer s ar e Marcus Aurelius , L a Rochefoucauld an d Ma o Tse-tung , but yo u may prefe r th e Bible , th e Kora n o r th e writing s o f th e Buddha , especially if you have not read them before. You may well find that one o r othe r o f thes e provide s yo u wit h th e possibilit y o f experiencing a critical incident.

cn'f ical ItfcMetffs a$4 LeariMg Periods 49

These exercise s wil l hel p t o promot e you r abilit y t o develo p thi s particular aspec t o f time creation , but yo u wil l nee d a t al l times t o keep you r min d ope n to the possibilit y of critica l incident s and learning period s occurring. They can do a lot to make lif e easier , as well as more productive. And laidbac k bears like to achieve both of these.

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cnapf er Me

TIMING AND SYNCHRONISATION

If you are to be fully successfu l in using time creation techniques, you will nee d t o develo p you r sens e o f timin g an d you r abilit y t o synchronise activities . Things nee d t o be don e no t onl y a t the righ t time fo r doin g the m bu t als o a t a time which fit s i n wit h whateve r else has to be done. Timing and synchronisation are therefore important considerations as they help in the process of knowing when to speed up and when to slow down. In enabling this to happen, they can contribute both to increasing overall speed and to the saving of time. Timing is almost an art - mor e than doing the right thing at the right time - an d ha s muc h i n commo n wit h th e concep t o f serendipit y discussed earlier . It is that quality of being able to judge precisely the right momen t a t whic h t o act . I t i s a concep t whic h comedian s understand ver y well, fo r they kno w tha t i f they d o no t delive r th e punch lin e a t exactl y th e righ t tim e th e audienc e ma y no t laugh . Synchronisation i s concerne d wit h fittin g action s togethe r withou t overlap. Such dovetailing enables action s to be timed fo r maximum effect, avoidin g cuttin g acros s other s i n discussion s an d thu s achieving smooth changeover s fro m on e activity to another. Developed timin g and synchronisation ar e evidenced: in the existence of time slots in the ability to accommodate overrunning o f an activity without overlap by being flexibl e 51

52 Headless chickens, tailback Bears

in changeovers between speakers in conversations, discussions and meetings in moving smoothly from on e stage of a task to another in timetables and programming in critical paths in schedules and diaries in all kinds of rhythms and activit y patterns. Skilled users of timing and synchronisatio n as techniques: exhibit smoother performance make fewer errors are more relaxed and confident waste less time make generally faster movements are responded t o more favourably by others because they interact more skilfull y exploit opportunities for effective actio n because their developed sense of timing helps them to identify a n opportunity befor e others realise it is there. To exploit timing and synchronisation to the full, it is necessary to be able to identify the ends of tasks and stages within tasks, to recognise pauses and natural breaks in activities and to be able to sense what it is appropriat e t o d o a t an y particula r momen t i n time . Goo d anticipation skills are therefore also necessary, as is a preparedness to make use of sudde n and unexpecte d opportunitie s for action . A sensitivity t o what other s ar e doing an d ho w the y wil l react helps timing an d synchronisatio n to be used mor e effectively. Othe r tim e creation techniques , suc h a s anticipator y scannin g an d selectiv e perception of cues naturally have an additional contribution to make that is very important. From what has been said, a number of benefits of timing and synchronisatio n can be identified. As well as enabling

Ti^idg aM<* SytfcmroMsafiort 53

unexpected chance s t o b e exploited , the y provid e a usefu l supplement t o othe r technique s b y savin g waste d time , reducin g costs (fo r example, b y timin g telephon e call s wher e appropriate) , increasing interpersona l effectivenes s an d enablin g mor e tha n on e activity a t a time to be managed. In serving the public , for instance, as a bar person , the y hel p in th e proces s o f being abl e t o tak e on e person's order , serve anothe r an d giv e chang e t o a third , al l at th e same time. Apart fro m thos e i n public-contac t occupations, bette r timin g an d synchronisation ar e important to speakers , participant s in meetings and negotiations, travellers, students, house managers, cooks, factory supervisors, politicians , organiser s o f variou s kinds , broadcasters , engineers, architects , lawyers and secretaries . Indeed, a s with othe r time creation techniques, it i s difficul t t o thin k of a group o f people who coul d no t benefi t i n som e wa y fro m bette r timin g an d synchronisation. An d th e headles s chicken s amon g u s ca n benefi t most of all. We shall go into more detail later over when t o speed u p an d whe n to slo w down , bu t n o consideratio n o f timing an d synchronisatio n can b e complet e withou t a t leas t a brie f loo k a t acceleratio n an d deceleration in activities. Generally speaking, speed is controlled first of al l b y th e rat e o f informatio n flow . Whe n ther e i s a lo t o f information t o process, that is, when the information densit y is high, it is necessary to slow down. When the information densit y i s low, it becomes easie r t o spee d up . A serious tim e creator will mak e sur e that spee d i s increased t o th e maximu m when informatio n densit y drops. He or she will also exploit timing skills when plans have to be varied fo r whatever reason and wil l exploit synchronisation skills in situations suc h a s whe n distance s betwee n peopl e involv e tim e differences, i n planning campaigns or when organising events. There ar e a t leas t three way s in which al l of these aspect s of timing and synchronisatio n ca n b e developed . Firstly , yo u ca n observ e people whom you have previously identified as being skilled in this aspect o f tim e creation . Fro m thi s simpl e activit y muc h ca n b e

54 Headless ctiicketis, LaMback Bears

learned. Secondly, you can reflect o n your own experience and learn from that . Thirdly , you ca n lear n b y practisin g wit h exercise s an d experiments like the following: 1. Observe a comedian on a TV programme. Stud y his or her timing, the waitin g fo r laughte r t o di e dow n bu t no t out , th e pacin g of jokes and the delivering of punch lines. Are there any lessons fro m these observations which you can apply in your own work? If you have t o atten d meetings , mak e after-dinne r speeche s o r g o t o conferences an d conventions , yo u shoul d fin d som e a t least tha t you can use. 2. Attend a meetin g o r discussion . Observ e ho w th e contributor s synchronise wit h eac h other . Not e th e reaction s t o talkin g acros s others or interruptions. Note the role of the person in the chair and the cues (most of them nonverbal) which are used when synchronising . You should find, for instance, that when a person is about to speak, he or she will try to establish eye contact with the chair. Some of the more interesting cue s to be observed ar e those to show disapproval whe n one person talks across or interrupts someone else. 3. Study someon e wh o i s preparin g a meal . Ho w ar e th e variou s activities synchronised ? Wha t i s th e critica l pat h (tha t is , th e sequence of main events which must be done in order and usually to a schedule wit h tim e limits)? When and ho w d o error s occur? How i s activity overload (tha t is, trying to do too many things a t once) avoided? 4. Plan a n even t ( a party, a fete , a conferenc e o r a wedding). What synchronisation problem s arise ? Ho w crucia l i s timin g an d a t which points ? Ho w d o yo u allo w fo r the pla n t o g o wrong an d what kind of contingency provision s do you have to make? 5. Plan your diar y for the week ahead s o as to make the best use of every tim e slot . Wha t ca n b e don e t o overcom e an d resolv e competing claims upon you r time? How wil l you fil l 'downtime ' (that is , an y tim e durin g which , fo r whateve r reason , yo u ar e unable to proceed with your planned activities) ? 6. Plan a holiday. Stud y a s you d o s o the timin g implication s (fo r

Ti*»)i^3 aM SyMc«rof)isafioiJ 55

example, arriving just afte r th e carniva l has finishe d or when th e weather is poor). Study also the synchronisatio n implications (for example, sorting out railway or airline timetables). What solutions can you devise for the problems that do arise? 7. Watch a T V discussio n wit h th e soun d off . What kind s o f nonverbal signals are given by the participants to manage timing and synchronisation? Are there any that you may be able to use in your own encounters with other people? Trying these exercises and experiments should hel p to convince you that a sens e o f timin g an d a n abilit y t o synchronis e activitie s ca n make a significant contribution to th e effectiv e us e o f time creation techniques. You will have taken yet another step towards building a more effective strateg y for both keeping up wit h the pace of change and fo r creatin g tim e fo r yourself . You wil l hav e move d furthe r forward i n you r ow n metamorphosi s fro m headles s chicke n t o laidback bear.

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chapfer Tetf

SLIPPAGE AND DOWNTIME

One o f th e fact s o f lif e i s tha t thing s neve r ru n smoothly . Ther e i s always some spare time, which usually comes in small amounts, but small amounts can quickly add up to something much larger. It is easy to waste this tim e unless yo u pla n fo r it. Provisions fo r dealing with slippage an d downtim e ar e therefor e importan t t o effectiv e tim e creation. Man y o f th e reason s fo r planning ahea d ar e obvious . Fo r instance, illnesses can always occur, and usually do so unexpectedly, so we need t o have contingency arrangements to deal with them. When travelling, delays these days are becoming increasingly common for a variety o f reasons , quit e apar t fro m th e disruptin g effect s o f breakdowns an d hold-ups . Th e headless chicke n dashes aroun d i n a panic at such moments, but th e laidback bear is ready for them. Slippage or 'uptime'occurs when things do not take as long as you expected they would. Perhaps you had help from an unexpected quarter or maybe your timing was better than normal. Downtime is when you cannot continue because something beyond your control prevents you from progressing: perhaps a key person is late for a meeting because of traffic problems or you cannot speak to someone on the telephone because their number is constantly engaged. Other example s are whe n fewe r letter s arriv e in th e mornin g mai l than usua l o r yo u hav e fewe r email s t o dea l wit h o r fewe r appointments fo r the day . If you g o to see people an d the y have not yet returned fro m on e of their own appointment s o r they are out for some other reason , thi s give s you slippage . I f a train you inten d t o catch i s cancelled , thi s create s downtim e whic h affect s yo u an d 57

58 Headless CKicketts, Laidback Bears

everyone else who was going to travel on it. If you make a journey in your car and th e car breaks down, this means further downtime . Or if you are on a bus and the traffic is lighter than usual, you have more uptime. At the worst, you break a leg and then you have a mountain of downtim e to deal with. One o f the characteristic s of skilled users of slippage an d downtim e is tha t the y alway s hav e somethin g t o d o t o kee p thei r min d occupied, they are never bored and can easily switch from on e thing to another. They keep relaxed but busy . They do not get in a frenz y and do not get hassled and harassed, yet they get things done. They are laidback bears rather than headless chickens. We are all familiar with Murphy's Law which was referred t o earlier and hold s that if it is possible for things to go wrong then sooner or later they will. Social entropy (the tendency for events to degenerate into chaos) afflicts u s all. There will always be factors which work to create time s i n whic h yo u canno t d o wha t yo u intended . S o you might as well provide for them. There ar e benefit s t o b e derive d fro m providin g i n advanc e fo r slippage an d downtime . It gives you a more efficient tim e use, more gets done in the end, there is more variety of activity. You can also, of course, us e thes e period s fo r thinkin g o r relaxing , for reading , fo r listening to music and a thousand othe r things. The ones who have the most to gain from a better use of slippage an d downtime are those who feel that they never have enough time in a day to get everything done. But anyone who works for a living can benefit. Anyone who relies on public transport will have ample opportunitie s for doin g man y thing s whic h migh t no t otherwis e ge t done . Shif t workers ofte n hav e extr a opportunities becaus e the y wor k a t time s when everyone else is asleep and they can work uninterrupted. You ca n begi n t o exploi t you r ow n slippag e an d downtim e righ t away. Tak e a clos e loo k a t you r las t week . Ho w muc h tim e wa s wasted? Wh y wa s thi s so ? What could hav e bee n don e i n eac h of

Slippage art<< Dou^fiwie 59

your periods of slippage and downtime ? If you cannot remember the last wee k to o well , se t asid e thi s wee k fo r recording these periods . Record th e activity , wha t yo u intende d t o do , ho w yo u wer e prevented, fo r how long, and what you do with the time. If you are going to develop your use of slippage and downtime , you need a reserv e bank o f activitie s of a kin d tha t ca n b e undertake n easily and without delay. You should als o observe what other people do with their slippage an d downtime . You should tr y som e or all of the following exercises and experiments: 1. Make a list o f te n activitie s that typicall y take you th e followin g time slots - 5 minutes, 1 0 minutes, 3 0 minutes and 1 hour. Over a week, see how man y you ca n complete without undu e troubl e in your slippage and downtime . 2. List the 1 0 activities or tasks that you neve r seem to get around to . Over a week , se e how man y yo u ca n fi t int o you r slippag e an d downtime. Which are the easiest to fit in and which are the hardest? 3. List som e occasion s when event s have no t gon e successfull y fo r reasons beyond your control and you have been lef t wit h time on your hands . Ho w fa r woul d plannin g ahea d fo r slippag e an d downtime have helped? 4. Observe what happens on TV when a news or feature item breaks down o r ther e ar e othe r technica l difficulties . Ho w i s th e tim e occupied? Are there any differences between national and regional television? 5. List ten books you wan t to read but neve r seem to have the time. See how man y you ca n read in your slack time in a month. 6. Consider whether i n your own activitie s it is possible deliberatel y to creat e slippag e an d downtime . Wha t d o yo u thin k ar e th e advantages of doing this? Some would argue that it creates time for yourself, i t gives variety and prevent s a person fro m becomin g a workaholic? Do you agree? 7. List th e way s in whic h yo u wast e tim e whe n yo u kno w i n you r heart that there are things you could easily and usefully b e doing.

60 Headless chickens, La^back. Pears

Now identif y a solution that works for you fo r each situation an d put these solutions int o practice. Using slippag e an d downtim e i s ye t anothe r too l yo u ca n us e t o improve you r time creation skills. It takes up slack without adding to the strain . Th e aim i s not t o be workin g al l the time , merel y t o b e occupied an d activ e i n a relaxe d manne r rathe r the n franticall y dashing abou t trying to get things don e agains t all the odds; to be a laidback bear rather then a headless chicken .

CKapf cr EleVch*

FLEXIBLE PERFORMANCE STRATEGIES

Generally speaking , thing s ar e don e bette r whe n the y ar e don e systematically rather than haphazardly or by rule of thumb. Systematic approaches to tasks enable us to avoid wasteful trial-anderror methods, and enable us to reduce the effects of chance happenings upon activities through building into an approach a degree of flexibility to anticipate the unexpected. Activities which ar e handled i n this way wil l thus usuall y b e more successful than those that are treated intuitively. This may not always be th e case , bu t mor e ofte n tha n no t i t will . Wal k int o a situatio n unprepared, withou t havin g thought abou t it much beforehand and without a method fo r dealing with what you encounter, and you are more likely to make mistakes, to miss opportunities an d t o overlook things which really ought to be attended t o than you ar e if you have prepared, have thought about what might happen an d have a system for dealin g with whatever confront s you . Before task s can be tackled with an y hope of success, the y need t o be organised. Thi s means tha t yo u hav e t o think abou t the m an d tr y to identify stages and even sub-stages which combine together to make up the task as a whole. It is useful, in doing this, to try to see tasks in terms of beginnings (ho w do you start?), middles (ho w do you deal with the main part of a task?) and ends (how do you finish the task off and know that yo u hav e not overlooke d an y aspec t o f it tha t is significant?) . I n 61

62 Headless CKickens, Laidback Bears

other words, there is a kind of Rule of Three in task analysis. It is usually convenient to break an activity down into these three parts. Sometimes you may feel it is necessary t o break it into more than three, but it will rarely be appropriate to break it into fewer than three. Most tasks can be analysed logically in this way. They have their own natural internal sequencing and there will be certain things that must be don e befor e other s an d som e tha t wil l have t o be don e after . I n carrying ou t tas k analysis , ther e ar e severa l availabl e method s o f ordering an d arranging activities. The stages into which tasks can be broken down can be arrived at in a number of ways. 1. Some wil l hav e chronologica l staging . Tha t is , th e activitie s ar e such tha t the y mus t b e carrie d ou t i n a stric t time sequence . A n example o f thi s migh t b e organisin g a conferenc e o r eve n arranging the games and other activities for a children's party. In a conference, you can't have the closing speech before the opening or dinner before lunch. At a party, you can't have the jelly and custard before the sandwiches (o r -knowing childre n - can you?) and it's advisable t o ge t al l th e mos t energeti c game s ove r befor e te a (unless you like attending to sick children) . 2. Some task s ar e bes t deal t wit h i f th e mos t importan t part s ar e tackled firs t as , for instance, when dealing wit h your in-tra y i n a morning. I t ca n b e helpfu l her e t o distinguis h betwee n wha t i s important an d wha t i s urgent , s o tha t th e latte r ca n b e give n priority. Others are best approached by seeing to the minor aspects first and leaving the most important until the last, as in organisin g a concert in which the 'stars' appear at the end or when schedulin g a factory award s ceremony. 3. In som e activitie s yo u mov e graduall y fro m th e know n t o th e unknown. This happens in the organisation of training programmes for employee s and in dealing with an in-tray in which routine items are mixe d wit h ne w o r one-of f items , al l o f mor e o r les s equa l importance. I n other activitie s yo u migh t dea l wit h th e unknown first an d the n mov e o n t o th e familiar , a s i n revisin g fo r a n examination or going through papers in preparation for a meeting.

Slefcible PerformaMce Sfrafegies 6 3

4. You may begin with the general and move on to the particular, or vice versa. You may even deal with things by areas or aspects of a subject. The mai n requiremen t o f whicheve r method , o r combinatio n o f methods, is used is that it should be appropriate to the nature of the task. The next move, once the task has been analysed, is to use a strateg y which comprises a series of systematically operated step s for dealing with th e situation . Thi s mus t not , however , b e applie d rigidly . A degree o f flexibilit y t o allo w fo r unforesee n event s o r an y unpredictability a t any point i n the task is essential, s o that what we are looking for here are flexible performance strategies. One suc h strategy , which w e encountere d ver y briefl y earlie r an d which ha s a wid e rang e o f applications , ha s th e mnemoni c titl e PAPA-ROMEO-OSCAR and i s also known a s the PRO Approach. It can be represented diagrammaticall y as follows : ACTION TO TAKE

STEP SUB-STE

Performance Analysis (Initial) (PA)

1. Review

Where am I?

2. Objectives (general)

Where do I want to go?

3. Methods

Performance Analysis (Final) (PA)

P

Objectives (specific) Skills Contexts Attitudes Resources

4 Evaluation

QUESTIONS TO ASK

How will I get there?

How will I know I've arrived?

5. Ongoin g Wher Hence: PAP A - ROME O - OSCA R

e will I go next ?

64 Headless chickens, Laidback Bears

The strategy can be used, fo r example, as a basis for guiding a self development programme or for a simple activity such as a journey to a new destination . Th e questions o n the right ar e designed t o sho w how simpl e th e strateg y i s i n essence , bu t som e furthe r brie f explanation of the key words used in this five-step strategy might be helpful. Let' s tr y i t o n th e tw o example s - a self-developmen t programme and a journey. The first step, Review, as its title implies, is c cerned with making an assessment o f the situation as you find i t at the beginning of the activity. I n self-developmen t i t call s fo r a n analysi s o f you r performance i n the activity/skill to be developed. Fo r a journey, it means identifying the starting point. The secon d step , Objective s (general), is the poin t a t whic h yo u determine you r mai n intention s fo r self-developmen t o r th e general destination (fo r example, the town) for a journey. The thir d step , Methods , require s yo u t o decid e ho w th e self development i s to be achieved o r how th e journey is to be made . The sub-step here suggests som e points to consider in making this decision. No t al l o f the m wil l b e relevan t o n ever y occasion , however. You should onl y consider thos e that will help. What are your specifi c Objective s (for example, the precise address o f your destination)? Wha t Skill s wil l yo u nee d t o exercis e in achievin g your objective s (driving a car , perhaps)? I n wha t Contex t is th e activity takin g plac e (th e journey i s part o f a holiday tour , say) ? What is your Attitud e to the activit y (you are looking forward to it)? What Resources do you need for its successful completio n (car, petrol, roa d map, etc.)? The fourth step, Evaluation, is undertaken at the end of the activity. You woul d conduc t a simila r performanc e analysi s t o tha t conducted i n th e Revie w step an d determin e ho w fa r you r self development ha d succeede d o r whethe r th e journe y ha d bee n made satisfactorily . The las t step , Ongoing , present s th e opportunit y t o lear n fro m mistakes made and identified, and t o decide the next area for self -

?k^ible PerformaMce Sfrafegfcs 6 5

development o r th e nex t journe y t o b e made . Th e proces s a s a whole ca n thu s eithe r en d her e o r b e repeated , dependin g o n whether or not you feel you have got to where you want to be. This would appl y t o both the examples used here , self-developmen t or a journey . An d the y ar e onl y examples . A s state d earlier , th e approach can be applied t o many different kind s of activities. Throughout th e proces s yo u shoul d bea r i n min d th e nee d t o b e ilexible and t o change your approach if necessary. One aspect where this is particularly true is in regard to speed. The Rule of Three can be applied t o this as well. Think of your 'gears' in speed a s being high , medium an d low . On a journey, there wil l be time s when each one will eithe r b e appropriat e o r ma y b e force d upo n yo u (yo u cannot drive at high speed i n dense traffic an d will have to drive slowly). In self-development, ther e wil l b e time s whe n progres s ca n be quic k and others when it can only be slow. The aim in using a flexible performance strategy should be to operate at th e optimu m spee d an d i n th e optimu m wa y fo r the condition s and circumstances applying a t the time. The more closely this can be achieved, the mor e efficientl y yo u wil l be using you r time , an d th e more effective your overall performance is likely to be. And the closer you will approach to being a truly laidback bear.

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Oiapf er TuelVc

CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF PERFORMANCE

There is one more major techniqu e of time creation which we need t o use in order to complete our repertoire . Reasonably regularly, about every si x months, we need t o stand back and revie w what we have done an d asses s wha t w e hav e achieved . W e need t o carr y ou t a critical analysis of performance u p t o that point. For such a review, we need a systematic approach that is easy to learn and eas y t o begi n practising . I t i s necessar y s o tha t w e ca n b e confident tha t we have indeed mad e progress an d ca n see what w e need to do next. If we have not made progress, we need to know why and t o try to identify way s of remedying the situation. Being critical, in the sense in which the word is used here, implies looking for points of merit as well as for faults. It is not meant to he used in the popular definition of the word to look only for faults. It therefore involves reaching a balanced judgment of events that can be defended hy rational argument and the use of evidence. The approach offered her e consists of the following : What ha s bee n don e i s considere d fro m thre e mai n standpoints : Content, Intention s and Treatment. On the basis of the response s to these , a n Evaluatio n o f event s i s arrive d at . Thi s give s u s a convenient mnemonic: CITE.

67

68 Headless cKickeffs, Laidback Bears

+ The Content, in this context, is what has actually been done wit the set time period. It represents an attempt to state explicitly what it is precisely that has been done. Thus, this stage is purely factua l and contains no opinions . + The Intentions are the reasons why the actions have been take the firs t place . An attempt needs t o be made to ascertain whether the aims were reasonable and achievable, and whether or not they fitted wel l into the overal l approach t o better time creation. If the intentions wer e too ambitious or flawed for some other reason, this is the time to be honest with onesel f an d admi t t o having tried to do too much. The Treatmen t call s fo r a concer n wit h ho w th e event s bein g studied too k place . An assessmen t i s require d o f th e technique s used, th e metho d o f selecting th e objective s fo r achievemen t an d the actual way in which things were tackled . The Evaluation i s based o n th e thre e abov e factor s an d involve s reaching conclusion s an d judgment s abou t th e fact s tha t ca n b e supported by evidence an d defended in argument. It also require s suggesting how , wher e an d wh y failure s occurre d an d ho w deficiencies ca n be remedied . I t should emphasise , however, th e achievements made, since to focus too heavily on failure may well deter an individual from continuin g to use the method . The following checklist may be helpful i n carrying out the process: 1. Content : What , precisely, are the fact s abou t what has been don e so far to achieve better time creation? Are they accurate, as far as I can tell? Are they plausible? How reliabl e are the facts ? 2. Intentions : What wer e yo u tryin g t o achieve ? Wer e you r objectives reasonabl e o r were yo u tryin g t o d o to o much withi n the time period? 3. Treatment : Was this a rational approach? Have you tried to make things loo k bette r tha n the y wer e i n an y way ? Hav e yo u underestimated you r achievement s in any way? Could you hav e done anything differentl y an d been more effective ?

critical analysis of perfor*naMce 69

4. Evaluation:I f you failed to achieve your objectives, how, why an d in which part s o r ways di d yo u fail ? I n which part s di d yo u d o particularly well? What is your final overall judgment, bearing in mind you r responses to all the foregoing points ? You would no t necessaril y as k all these question s ever y time. There are time s whe n othe r question s would be more appropriate . Thes e are really only intended to get you thinking critically about what you do. An alternative approach you may prefer is the one we encountered in Part 1 Chapter 1 1 as a flexible performanc e strategy. This would , i n this context, work as follows: Review Objectives (general) Methods Evaluation Ongoing

Performance Analysis

Performance Analysis

Objectives (specific) Skills Contexts Attitudes Resources

Key:

Review Objectives (general) Methods Evaluation Ongoing Objectives (specific) Skills Contexts Attitudes Resources

Critical analysis (see method above) A general statement of intentions expressed as results to be achieved A factual statement of how you did what you did Forming conclusions and judgments about failure and success What you are going to do in the next time period A detailed statement with specific quantifiable targets or goals The abilities you need to achieve your targets or goals The situations in which you have to operate, be they work or leisure or both A statement of your attitudes to achieving better time creation What you will need in order to achieve your targets or goals

70 Headless chickens, Laidback Bears

Performance Analysis

The process described earlier, seen as part of the Review process

Whichever method yo u choose , you shoul d no w hav e acquire d all the necessar y skill s t o complet e th e transformatio n fro m headles s chicken to laidback bear.

Parf Tu»o:

Overcoming Problems in Using Time Creation Techniques Aspects of the use of time creation techniques are considered fro m the point of view of the problems that can arise, and solution s ar e suggested fo r eac h o f them . Thi s Par t shoul d b e o f particula r interest to those headless chicken s who are sceptical of being able to chang e thei r way s t o an y significan t exten t i n thei r ques t t o become laidback bears.

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c«a(>f er Twrfccrt

ELIMINATION OF FAULTS

Most o f the faults , error s an d mistake s i n th e us e o f more effectiv e time creation techniques stem from th e inadequate use or downrigh t misuse o f th e techniques , particularl y b y th e headles s chicken s among us . W e ca n extrac t th e mai n point s mad e i n eac h o f th e chapters o f Part 1 of this book an d identif y fault s whic h nee d t o be remedied. We can also suggest simple solutions fo r each one. The followin g tabl e list s concisel y th e principa l fault s o f whic h headless chickens are guilty, and alongsid e gives the laidback bear's solution in each case: Headless Chicken's Fault

Fbrgefts to record feedback or neglects to

Recognises the vital nature of

record it altogether, in the mistaken belief

accurate feedback if you are to know how much progress you are making and in which areas.

that it realty is not necessary.

Makes ceades artor in recording

Checks for errors before moving on to

terdecdk he she does mardetes

the next task

to record it

Leaves gaps in records of feedback so that an incomplete picture emerges.

Ensures the records are comprehensive as well as accurate.

Carrect begol new adds to nes the

Adopts the flow rate to the before of the tast and the degree of urgency

Critital ess and is return fishing around

Keeps going back to worry over things already done when there is no need.

Recognises that when a task is done it is done. 73

74 Headless c«icke»is, tailback Bears

Headless Chicken's Fault

Laidback Bear's Remed y

iellfe yrti I &te c0r^^et^wfe<W;fw,^~6ifcs

' Keeps: art eye W<^^i^^^t-le or she does nrfi^ccroajfiffi'itf;': unnecessary orartificial tk|^nc^

txsiws^i^te'jrf^^ipslti^ency or feaving things until undue haste is w^aMe : -'"•'-

Does not bother to set mini-deadlines for intermediate parts of a task to give better control.

Sets mini-deadlines as appropriate to be able to see when stages within stages have to be completed.

$Jate*»^erf fife use of anticipatory scartftg trt^^s.

Keeps looking and thinking ahead periodically,to be ready for upcoming Changes in hte nature of the tast

Cannot distinguish the unimportant from the important and thus every task is urgent

Sets priorities which separate the important from the urgent from the unimportant from the routine.

No pricritisation of activities

-Sets'priorities hef tffiotts oit Ifit^rt^fll^^cl}^ , otes: ; -v,:.' ;^"^ ;i?v-T: ^

Does not use incubation periods to let things mull over and cannot relax; has to be on the move all the time and confuses activity for achievement

Incubates at appropriate points in the task and makes sure that regular provision is made for relaxation and recreation.

Does not make use of imaginative and intuitive resporises

Is always in the tookout for unusual Or insightful ways of doing things,

Ignores critical incidents and learning periods, and has no best times for activities.

Knows when he or she is at his or her best and times activities when possible for the most productive times.

Feels that everything has to be done no

Recongnises that you cannot d everything at once, nor can you do More than is reasonable

Elitnitfafiort of Saulfs 75

Jeadless Chicken's Faultt

l

aidback Bear's Remedyy

Has poor timing and does not proceed thoroght tasks stortify and contidently

Recognises the importance of timing and avoids interruptions to important activities where possible

Cannot synchronise or dovetail activities.

Continuously seeks to improve and develop synchronisation and dovetailing skills.

Gets frustrated by stippage and downtime

Recognises these are inevitable and prepares for their occurrence.

Has no reserve bank of activitie

AAlways has other tasks to get on wit. when delays are inevitable or beyond control.

Has no strategles for peductance

Developsflexible performance Strategies for awide range of Situations

Lacks flexibility.

Is always prepared to change to meet changed circumstances.

Fails to contest erformance

Sets aside time periodically to review and assess performance and took for Ways of improving.

lacks a method for evaluation.

Either uses one of the methods outlined above in Part A Chapter 12 or develops one to suit.

takes on more than con ressonbly be done by one person

Whittles out untheeessary tasks to Keep the worldoad to a reasonable '^^^^j^^f^^'-'

Unable to say,'No'.

Has learned to say, 'No' politely but firmly.

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CKapfer feurf eetf

MOTIVATION

If yo u ar e t o chang e yoursel f fro m a headles s chicke n t o a laidback bear, you have to be motivated to do it. You need to be convinced of the desirability of self-motivation. This chapter should help you to achieve this. You may als o want to motivate others, perhap s famil y member s or workmates. This chapter should hel p you to achieve this as well. Better motivatio n wil l encourag e faste r an d bette r us e o f th e techniques you learne d in Part 1 of this book. It will help you t o get action now and to avoid procrastination. Analysis of the proces s o f motivation suggest s fou r thing s tha t yo u can do to improve your ability to motivate yourself and others. Firstly, try t o understand wha t you r needs are or the need s o f your subordinates in terms of security, social esteem, self-fulfilment : 1. Find out not only what you or they need but also what you or they want. Yo u may no t b e abl e t o achiev e i t easily , if a t all , but yo u might at least be able to modify your approach to motivation in the light of this knowledge . 2. Use financia l rewards a s a prime motivator . Mone y i s important because it satisfies so many needs. It provides what people want to increase thei r standar d o f living , bu t i t als o serve s a s th e mos t effective wa y o f recognisin g achievemen t (self-fulfilment ) an d enabling people to demonstrate their achievement to others (social esteem). 3. Bear i n mind , however , tha t mone y i s no t th e onl y rewar d tha t people need an d want. They can also be motivated by recognition, 77

78 Headless CKicketis, La^back Bears

praise, promotio n an d th e work itsel f throug h th e opportunity t o achieve somethin g extr a or to take o n greater responsibility. This sort o f rewar d ca n sometime s b e mor e effectiv e tha n money . I t depends o n individua l need s an d th e reaso n yo u shoul d tr y t o identify thos e needs, in yourself an d others is that you can then be more discriminating in the use of rewards. Secondly, remember th e importanc e o f expectations as an influenc e on motivation . A reward wil l be muc h mor e effectiv e whe n peopl e know wha t the y ca n ge t i f they wor k hard an d wel l enough . You should therefore : 1. Ensure that th e relationshi p betwee n effor t an d rewar d i s clearly defined i n any financial reward system . 2. Set targets and standards which are achievable, but not too easily. 3. Make yoursel f an d other s awar e tha t achievement s wil l b e recognised b y praise , a specia l rewar d o r th e opportunit y t o d o better. Do not cheapen the reward. Give praise only when it is due. 4. Make it known, a s far as possible, what yo u o r other people hav e to do to gain promotion or take on greater responsibility. 5. Spell out not only what you or they can get if they do well but als o what you or they will not get if they do badly. This is not intende d to be a crud e carrot-and-stic k tactic but a clarificatio n o f the fac t that what people achiev e or do not achieve is up to them. Thirdly, i f yo u ar e mainl y concerne d wit h motivatin g other s an d persuading the m t o adop t a laidbac k bea r approach , yo u shoul d always keep in mind that your aim is the creation of conditions suc h that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their effort s towards the success of the enterprise. Hence the value of: 1. Identifying people's needs, so that you can try to adjust rewards to meet those needs . 2. Getting people t o thin k fo r themselves abou t what the y ca n an d should do , and agreeing targets and standards with them.

MofiVgf iot f 7 9

3. Recognising th e fac t tha t peopl e ca n b e motivate d b y th e wor k itself i f it satisfie s thei r need s fo r responsibilit y an d achievement . Do this by using th e following job-enrichment techniques: increasing the responsibility o f individuals giving peopl e mor e scop e t o var y th e methods , sequenc e an d pace of their wor k giving a person o r group a complete natural unit o f work, thus reducing specialisation removing som e control s fro m above , whil e ensurin g tha t individuals o r group s ar e clearl y accountabl e fo r achievin g defined target s or standard s giving people the contro l informatio n neede d t o monitor thei r own performance encouraging th e participatio n of employees i n plannin g wor k and innovating technique s assigning project s t o individual s o r group s whic h giv e the m more responsibility and help them to increase their expertise. Lastly, remembe r tha t grou p pressure s ca n affec t motivation , fo r good o r ill. Take steps to get groups on your side by involving them in key decisions whic h affec t thei r work.

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cmapf cr ?iff eetf

CONTINUATION AND FOLLOW-UP

Clearly there is little point in working through a book like this unless you ar e prepare d t o continu e practisin g th e technique s yo u hav e learned. Yo u should , therefore , kee p practisin g fo r th e nex t fe w weeks at least. It i s best i f you ca n fin d som e tim e eac h da y fo r practice . Ho w much time you spen d o n this practice is for you t o decide. Thirty minutes wil l probabl y sui t most people . If you se t aside a longe r amount of time, there is the ris k that you wil l find reason s for not practising o n thos e day s whe n yo u hav e bee n particularl y bus y with other matters. Keep a record of your progress in this practice. As has been stressed previously, accurat e feedback i s essentia l a t al l time s i f yo u ar e really to know how well you are doing and where the areas are that need specia l attention to bring them up to scratch. Find som e tim e eac h mont h t o revie w som e o f th e les s well remembered part s of this book. You may well be able to identifying new ways of bringing about improvements. Make periodi c check s o n you r performanc e i n th e ke y area s discussed i n Par t 1 . Any deficiencie s ca n then b e remedie d a t a n early stag e an d preven t yo u backslidin g int o bein g a headles s chicken. Every year, check through the book as a whole to see if you need to brush u p o n any points. Thi s need no t take long, a few minutes a t most if you have been practising what you have learned. Follow-up tests, i f you wis h t o us e the m t o introduc e som e variety into you r continuatio n procedures , migh t tak e th e for m o f askin g 81

82 Headless CKicketfs, Laidback Bears

yourself ho w headles s chicken s an d laidbac k bear s woul d ac t differently i n variou s situations . Som e example s migh t includ e dealing with an in-tray, finding there are more things to be done than time in which to do them, and respondin g t o requests for assistance from colleague s when yo u alread y have a full schedule . You might like to make entries in your diary for the dates when you will tackle a follow-u p exercise . Three months, si x months an d on e yea r fro m now should be worth considering. The main poin t i s to keep th e ide a o f improvement i n mind al l th e time. Do not let yourself fall into the complacent trap of thinking that your achievements at the end of working through this book represen t a fina l picture . In som e respects , yo u wil l have onl y just begu n t o tackle the problems of improvement and ma y still need to watch for any tendency to revert to being a headless chicken.

CHapfer Si'Kf eetf

RISK TAKING

In you r ques t t o kee p pac e wit h th e increasin g spee d o f modern lif e without dashin g about, you may be tempted t o take certain short cut s with the advice contained in this book. If too recklessly undertaken, this could be dangerous and return you to headless chicken status overnight. There are, however, some sensible shor t cuts that you can take and still feel tha t you have give n matters the car e and attentio n the y need an d deserve. Le t u s loo k a t eac h o f th e basi c tim e creatio n technique s outlined in Part 1 in turn and see where and how this may be possible. Feedback shoul d b e obtained fairl y frequentl y a t first , bu t onc e you have got the hang of a particular technique an d simply want to keep an ey e o n thing s t o mak e sur e performanc e doe s no t deteriorat e through complacency , you ca n reduce th e frequency . Th e importan t point i s to keep a record o f all the feedbac k yo u d o obtain , becaus e this i s th e onl y wa y yo u ca n loo k bac k an d spo t precisel y wher e things started to go wrong, if indeed thi s is the case . It is far easier to deal with specifi c errors than t o remedy a general feeling o f unease. When yo u ar e increasin g flo w rates , mak e sur e tha t yo u d o i t gradually at first until your performance meets the level you require. You can then experiment with faster speeds, which are a kind of short cut to getting things done , secur e in the knowledge tha t if you hav e to go back to the previous flow rate you are still acting faster than you were at the beginning o f the process of acquiring these new skills . Not everyon e stick s t o ever y deadlin e the y hav e se t themselves . They ar e mainl y ther e t o promp t yo u t o tak e action . Tr y to bea t a deadline if you can , as this can be a very useful shor t cut to the next activity. Yo u ma y eve n fin d that , i f yo u hav e identifie d mini 83

84 Headless CKicketfs, Laidback Bears

deadlines to work to, that you can skip quickly over some of them or even omi t the m altogethe r withou t loss . Ther e i s littl e poin t i n sticking t o a plan simpl y because i t i s there, i f you ca n se e a faste r way to completion. At first , mainl y because they are new t o many people, mor e time is spent o n anticipator y scannin g technique s tha n i s necessary . The idea is to get a quick impression of the task ahead an d not to go into detail abou t ho w t o tackl e it. A few second s shoul d b e al l tha t i s required. If it takes longer than this, you may be trying to do thing s which are dealt with in the next three paragraphs below. With selective perception of cues it is important to concentrate on what are trul y th e importan t feature s o f a situation . Yo u ar e lookin g t o identify th e highlights, th e salient points, th e things which you simply cannot affor d t o ignore . Ther e i s n o poin t i n includin g somethin g simply becaus e i t migh t becom e importan t late r on . You r flexibl e performance strategies (see below) should take care of that. The rest you can skip over with a reasonably easy conscience, knowing that anything missed by one technique will almost certainly be covered by another. Adequate incubatio n period s ca n be shortened t o save time, but be careful t o ensur e tha t yo u hav e correctl y identifie d th e one s tha t require a n overnigh t pause . They canno t b e reduce d i f they ar e t o work properly . To curtail thos e woul d b e t o tak e a ris k no t wort h taking. You also need to be careful abou t cutting down on incubation periods when you are learning something new and it is important for you to get it right. It i s difficul t t o tak e shor t cut s wit h intuitiv e an d imaginativ e responses simpl y because by their very nature you have no way of knowing when they are likely to occur. Sometimes, however, when a brilliant idea abou t ho w t o tackle a task spring s t o mind ou t o f the blue, you do not need t o act upon i t there and then . Simply make a brief not e o f it , bu t i n enoug h detai l s o tha t yo u wil l late r recal l exactly what it was you intended t o do, and this will provide a useful and saf e short cut.

Risk TakiMg 85

A simila r proble m arise s wit h critica l incident s an d learnin g periods. You can save some time by noting the insight for later action, but ver y ofte n i t wil l b e bes t t o exploi t t o th e ful l th e inciden t o r period whenever it occurs. liming and synchronisation present perhaps the best opportunitie s for takin g sensibl e shor t cuts . Very often when people spee d up an d then encounte r a difficult y whic h force s the m t o slo w down , the y forget t o speed u p agai n once the problem is passed. Yo u should b e continuously o n th e lookou t fo r opportunitie s t o spee d u p s o that you ca n operate, if you like, at the level of the highest commo n facto r in a task rather than the lowest commo n denominator . Slippage and downtime offe r th e chanc e to examine a task and as k whether i t need s t o be don e a t all . If you fin d yo u ar e continuall y being prevente d fro m doin g something b y force s o r events beyon d your control , perhap s yo u shoul d a t leas t b e lookin g fo r a n alternative route to where you wan t t o be. For instance, if you hav e difficulty i n reachin g peopl e o n th e telephone , i t migh t b e mor e effective an d quicker to email them . Flexible performanc e strategies , as w e sai d above , hel p t o ensur e that your short cuts do not lead to more problems than they solve. It is important t o keep your strategies flexible . The last thing you wan t to do is to become set in your ways. Once you have successfully deal t with a situation in a certain way, there is a great temptation to tackle all subsequent simila r problems in the same way. This can be a very quick road back to headless chickendo m i f you ar e not careful . Critical analysi s of performance , whic h yo u onl y engage i n i n an y depth a t the en d o f a cycle of activity, may no t offe r man y short cuts itself, but it may lead to the identification of other shortcuts availabl e in the use of other techniques. Always be on the lookout for anything that wil l giv e yo u a faste r an d bette r performanc e withou t endangering your status as a laidback bear.

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chapf er SeVei^f eetf

VIGILANCE AND ATTENTION It is very easy when you are learning and developing new techniques to take your eye off the ball, as it were. You need to guard against this. In particular, you should b e watching for any tendency o n your part to procrastinate or to take the view, 'Why leave until tomorrow what I can safely leav e until the day after? ' Yo u should als o be looking for any backsliding into old headless-chicken habits . Mo one can do this for you. You have to maintain you r focus on your ultimate objective s an d no t b e distracte d fro m them . You r attentiveness t o carryin g ou t al l th e guidanc e an d advic e yo u ar e given in this book wil l determin e ho w successfu l you have bee n i n transforming yoursel f int o a laidbac k bea r wh o cope s wit h everything without strain or stress or panic. If you have difficulty concentrating on a task, try reminding yourself of your original purpose. The more detailed you can make this, the better. Everyone has a limit to the length of his or her span of concentration. If yours is not up to the demands you are required to make upon it, try breaking tasks up into manageable stages to enable you to maintain progress. Maintaining effectiveness an d efficienc y ar e easier if you ar e alert to the possibilities o f things going wrong an d i f your attentio n i s given fully t o the task in hand. Other way s o f maintainin g goo d level s o f concentration , an d therefore o f performance, are: 87

88 Headless cwicketfs, Laidback Bears

1. Spen d a little more time on obtaining feedback, but bear in mind what you have alread y learned abou t this . 2. Increas e th e flo w rat e slightly , just enoug h t o put a little extr a pressure o n yourself, but not so much as to make the cure worse than the disease. 3. Stic k more closely to deadlines. 4. Pa y more attention to anticipatory scanning techniques. 5. Mak e sure yo u ar e concentratin g o n th e ke y feature s o f every situation. 6. Tak e mor e frequen t res t periods , eve n i f the y ar e o f shorte r duration tha n normal, a s these wil l help t o keep you refreshed and alert. 7. Alway s remembe r th e valu e o f imaginativ e an d intuitiv e responses and the fact that these can occur when you least expect them, perhap s whe n yo u ar e just dropping of f to sleep an d ar e really relaxed and stress-free. 8. See k out the times and place s where you know fro m experienc e you can maintain good levels of concentration. For many people these ar e place s lik e libraries , an d earl y morning s o r lat e evenings. 9. Pa y attention to the next chapter, which is about speeding up and slowing down appropriately. 10. Chec k that you have enough of the right kind of activities in your reserve bank. 11. Revie w your flexible performance strategies . 12. Alway s analyse your performance criticall y along the line s se t out i n Part 1, Chapter 12.

chapter Eignf eeM

MAINTAINING MAXIMUM SPEED

Maintaining maximum speed doe s not mean going at a task hell for leather without an y regard for its difficulty o r importance. That is the headless chicken's way. Maintaining maximum speed means operating at the highest speed comfortably possible given all the circumstances, and not being content with anything less than this. It means also facing the inevitable problem of fatigue and overcoming it. No matte r how fit , youn g and energeti c you ma y fee l yourself , ther e are boun d t o b e time s whe n yo u jus t canno t see m t o ge t don e th e things you want or have to get done. You feel at the end of the day that you are really no further forwar d than you were at the beginning of the day. Clearly , something needs to be done about this. There are several possible remedies you can try. It is up to you to refuse t o be beaten and to ask yourself how the laidback bear would tackl e the problem. Among the most useful and effectiv e method s are these: 1. Fin d some way o f taking a break, even if only for a short while. 2. Ge t a chang e o f scene . Tr y working i n a differen t plac e wit h a different environmen t if you can . 3. Chang e the activity if you can . Sometimes when you canno t make progress with one thing you can proceed better with another. 4. Tackl e th e difficul t part s o f a tas k firs t an d then , whe n yo u ar e beginning to fade, you will only have the easier parts to worry about. 89

90 Headless c«rcketfs, Lgidback Sears

5. Pu t some music on if you can. These days you can listen to music through headphones withou t disturbing someone else who may be working nearby . The music should b e the kind yo u like , bu t not something that you like so much it becomes more importan t than the work you are doing. 6. Se t a slightl y tighte r deadline . Thi s ma y compe l bette r concentration without effort o n your part. 7. Revie w wha t yo u di d o n simila r occasion s i n th e pas t whe n things did not go as you would have wished. You may identify a long-forgotten method of solving the problem. 8. Conside r whether the task really needs doing or not. Sometimes we become embroiled in activities because they seem a good idea at the time, but do not have much relevance for the achievemen t of our objective s in practice. 9. Discus s with colleagues, if you can , how the y overcome fatigue. 10. Avoid usin g artificia l stimulant s a s these may b e addictive . In an y case, they simply mask the problem and do not solve it in the long run. 11. Avoi d forcin g yoursel f t o d o somethin g unles s i t i s absolutel y vital that, no matter how you feel, the task has to be done. 12. Look through this book to see if a technique suggested fo r a quite different proble m wil l wor k fo r yo u i n thi s instance . No t everything works for everyone in the way it is supposed t o and sometimes unlikely solutions can be the most effective . Acceleration and Deceleration

When we are driving a car we automatically speed up when the traffi c is light and slow down when it becomes heavier. It can be hazardous to our nerves and even our health not to. If we do not speed up when everyone els e does we incur the wrath of other drivers . If we do not slow down when the traffic build s up we risk an accident. Life, however , rarel y run s smoothl y an d w e ma y wel l encounte r situations where it appears impossible to speed up and we may fin d ourselves in others where the pace of events carries us alon g willy-

Mairtfaitfirtg Mafciinuw) Speed 9 1

nilly. We have to fin d som e way o f controlling this kind of situation or we shall find ourselve s dashing around frantically again . Feedback can , o f course , tel l u s whethe r o r no t speedin g u p o r slowing dow n i s affectin g ou r performanc e adversel y an d w e ca n then react accordingly. That may be one solution. Effects of Spee d on Skill Levels

It i s natural to assume that if you increas e speed i n a n activit y yo u will automatically make more mistakes an d perform less effectively . This is not necessarily true. If speeds are built up gradually, this gives you tim e t o adjus t an d becom e accustome d t o th e ne w level s an d usually a better performance is the end result. Responding to Emergencies

Crises will always occur even in completing the best-organised tasks . The immediate reaction of the headless chicken is to panic. This is the least-helpful reaction . Don' t pani c - a s Corporal Jone s i n th e TV comedy serie s Dads' Army used t o say . Step back and as k wh y th e emergency has arisen . Ask yourself why yo u di d no t se e it coming, for man y emergencies can be predicted. For example, overfill a chip pan an d leav e i t unattende d o n to o hig h a hea t settin g an d th e chances of a chip pan fir e ar e greatly increased. Where emergencies cannot be predicted, keep a cool head an d look for a way out. You would not pour water on a burning chip pan, but cover i t quickly with a dampened cloth . This would b e both easier and quicker and is the correct laidback-bear approach. Activity Overloads

Try to do too many things at once and you will very quickly have an emergency o n your hands. Yo u have to know you r limitations. The headless chicken thinks that he or she can do everything at once. To any sensible person, this is clearly impossible. Set a reasonable target of thing s to be done within th e time available. Resist all attempts by others t o forc e yo u t o go beyond this . I once taught a n audiovisua l aids technicia n who wa s continuall y overloade d wit h request s fo r

92 Headless chickens, LaMback Bears

her skill s i n producin g visua l aids fo r compan y presentations. She simply coul d no t cop e wit h th e demand . I suggeste d sh e ge t a laminated wal l planne r an d pu t al l th e request s o n i t wit h thei r deadlines and the names of the senior staff wh o had requested them. Then, whe n someon e cam e alon g wit h a last-minut e reques t tha t simply had t o be done, sh e asked the m to identify fo r her the senio r member of staff who could be made to wait for their work to be done. Last-minute request s ceased ver y quickl y after that , a s no on e wa s prepared t o upse t superior s an d th e char t showe d the m unequivocally just how much pressure her limited time was under. It was not long before she got an assistant as well. Artificially Induced Urgenc y

This is simply the kind of haste which does not really need to be there in the firs t place . It is extremely common among headless chicken s and i s the resul t o f not allowin g sufficien t tim e t o complet e a tas k before th e deadline , whethe r tha t i s self-impose d o r impose d b y others. A common example can be seen in people dashing t o get to work in a morning because they are late. This can easily be avoided, of course, by setting off a little earlier. If this means getting out of bed earlier, th e los s o f sleep ca n be avoide d b y goin g t o bed earlie r a t night. I t i s a wholl y avoidabl e situatio n an d thi s i s th e principa l characteristic o f urgenc y whic h i s artificiall y induce d rathe r tha n unavoidable.

c«af>fer MiMefeeH

EFFECTS OF VARIETY OF ACTIVITY

Variety, they do say , is the spic e of life. Thi s is certaiitnly true whent comes t o organisin g a programm e o f activit y fo r yoursel f (o r someone else , for that matter).

Nothing kills drive and initiative and productive working quicker than monotony. For this reason, we need t o organise our activitie s in such a way that the amount of time spent on a particular part of an activity is limited. You shoul d hav e a cut-of f poin t i n min d a t whic h yo u chang e th e activity, if for no othe r reaso n tha n that i t will help to solve some of the problems for which possible remedies were suggested i n the last chapter. Most people fin d tha t about 20 minutes to half a n hour on a task i s abou t righ t i f maximu m effectivenes s i s t o b e maintained . After tha t time , chang e t o anothe r activity , knowin g tha t yo u ca n always return to the previous one when you are ready. This, o f course , i s a n idea l limi t t o ai m fo r an d i n realit y longe r periods ma y b e necessary , bu t a t leas t yo u wil l b e awar e tha t th e longer yo u pres s ahea d wit h a tas k th e les s efficien t yo u become . Variety can help to prevent this fatigue effect fro m having an adverse effect upo n performance . Discretionary Time

We ar e al l familia r wit h th e 'al l wor k an d n o play ' adage . Man y headless chickens become s o caught u p i n their dail y activitie s that they have no time for play. They are always too busy. This is a very 93

94 Headless CHicketts, Lardback Bears

shortsighted approach . You have to examine everything that you fee l you have to do and as k yourself, 'Is this really necessary? What will happen if I do not do it?' If the answer is 'Not very much/ you have identified a prime candidate for giving yourself a bit of discretionary time - tha t is, time which you can use for any purpose you like. How much discretionary time you need or can provide yourself with will var y fro m perso n t o person . Th e average i s abou t 3 0 hours a week. If you cannot honestly manage as much as this, you have to do the best you can. You will never become a laidback bear otherwise. Time fo r thinkin g an d reflectio n i s never tim e wasted . A t th e ver y least it is used for incubation and at best it allows for the creative side of yo u t o have ful l rein . Man y a brilliant ide a ha s bee n though t of when someon e wa s simply sitting under a n apple tree admiring the view, like Newton, or relaxing in the bath, like Archimedes. In man y ways , sittin g an d thinking , o r eve n jus t sitting , i s th e laidback bear's favourit e activity. But do not be misled into thinking that somebody who appears to be doing nothing is not involved in a great deal of activity inside their head. Always remember to build in some discretionary time when you are setting your deadlines . Deciding Direction

It will help you greatl y in your quest t o become more of a laidback bear in your approach to tasks if you determin e which objectives to pursue first. Basically, you have two choices. You can either tackle the hard tas k first an d leave the easy ones until later, or you can do the easy ones first an d then tackle the hard ones later. The advantage o f tackling th e easy one s firs t i s that i t gives you a n easy introduction t o your dail y work, but mean s you have to tackle hard tasks when you are beginning t o tire and not at your best.

Effecfs of Variety of Acf iVify 95

Tackling the hard task s firs t mean s tha t when yo u ar e beginning t o tire yo u ar e no t face d b y an y reall y difficul t tasks . Thi s i s th e approach recommended here. Always do the hard thing s firs t whe n you ar e fresh . Conflicts Over Time Use

There will alway s be conflict s ove r how yo u ar e going t o use you r limited time . Activities will alway s overlap . Afte r all , lif e i s rarely neat. You will need to make clear decisions over which things can be run i n tandem, which wil l need t o be abandoned if there i s overlap and which will have to continue and make new tasks wait. You cannot avoid having to make decisions over time use at all times and you wil l need to kee p you r mai n objective s clearl y in mind to help yo u avoi d being unnecessaril y sidetracked . Headless chicken s are often sidetracke d and you will have to make sure that you do not suffer a similar fault . Changing Perceptions o f Tim e

Perceptions o f tim e chang e wit h age , th e interes t yo u hav e i n a n activity, the tim e of day an d othe r factors . Fo r this reason, activities need t o be time d whe n yo u ar e training yourself to complete them faster withou t creating undue stress. The older you are , for instance, the faste r tim e appears to pass. This is probably because any activit y is a smaller proportion o f the total time you have been on the planet than it is when you are younger. Interest can cause you to become unaware of the passage of time. You may therefor e spen d muc h mor e tim e doin g somethin g tha n yo u originally intended o r than you ca n afford . Time of day can change your perception. Most people work better in a morning . Some work better in the evening . Almost no one works best i n th e afternoon . Activitie s undertaken i n th e afternoo n ca n therefore appea r t o drag , eve n thoug h the y ma y no t actuall y b e taking any more time than they would i f done in the morning or the evening.

96 Headless cKrcketis, Laidback Bears

Coping With The Speed and Scale of Change

It is a truism that change is taking place nowadays much faster tha n it ever has done in the past. If you are to keep up with the increasing speed an d scale of change, you have to become extremely adaptable. You cannot ignore change. That is not an option. You either keep pace with it or you fall behind. The techniques you learn in this book will help you to achieve this and to avoid being relegated to the status of a headless chicken who dashes about looking busy but failing totally to keep in touch with rapidly changing events.

cnapf er Tue^y

TIMEWASTING You may b e guilt y of wasting you r ow n tim e an d i f this i s the cas e there should be plenty in this book to help you to avoid the problem in the future. But not all of the causes of wasted time are within your control. Below is a list of causes of wasted time , some of which yo u can d o somethin g about and som e of which yo u cannot . You might like to identify th e ones which are the biggest problems for you an d see what ther e i s in the res t o f this book that wil l help yo u t o dea l effectively wit h them. A Timewaster's Checklist

Here is a list of the factors that many people working in organisations have identified as causing them to make inefficient us e of their time. Tick the one s that you conside r your own tim e wasters. Make notes on what you intend to do about them: Unclear objective s Inadequate information on which to act Postponed decision s by others Procrastination by you and by others Lack of feedback o n whether you have done the right thing Routine work Too much reading Interruptions The telephone No time-planning Meetings Lack of competent personnel to work with Lack of delegation 97

98 Headless CKicketfs, tailback Bears

Lack of self-discipline Visitors Training new staf f Lack of priorities Unavailability of people Junk mail Outside demand s (i.e. any not related to your job) Poor filing syste m Fatigue Questionnaires Socialising by you and by others involving you Lack of concentration Coffee and tea breaks Unintelligible communications Lack of clerical staff Red tape Pet projects that you spend too much time on because you enjoy the m Attempting too much at once Span of control (having too many subordinates t o supervise) Usurped authorit y (having your decisions overridden) Can't say 'No' Low morale Mistakes Over-optimism (thinking you can do more than is possible) Employees with problem s Failure to listen (by you or by others) Responding to the urgent rather than the important Confused responsibilitie s Failure to motivate staf f Lack of activity or project co-ordinatio n Waiting for decisions Lack of monitoring and revie w procedures Orientation towards problems rather than opportunitie s In your notebook, list any other sources of timewasting that you fee l apply to your job.

Parf Twee:

Application in Personal Skills This part examines how time creation techniques ca n be applied to increase speed o r save time in the use of personal skill s necessary for effectiv e performanc e at work and in everyday life. It will hel p headless chicken s t o furthe r thei r master y o f laidback-bea r approaches.

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THINKING

Although ther e i s considerabl e controvers y abou t th e natur e o f thinking, on e way o f defining it is to see it as two kinds of approach to solving problems or to selecting the appropriate course of action to be taken. The two forms thinking take s under thi s definition are: 1. Convergent , logical, analytical, highly predictable thinking 2. Divergent , creative, insightful, unpredictable thinking. Headless chickens tend t o be poor at the first an d not much better at the second , mainl y because both kind s o f thinking requir e a certain amount o f discipline. Laidbac k bears tak e th e tim e t o thin k befor e acting, an d th e tim e the y spen d doin g thi s i s mor e tha n save d i n avoiding nonproductive activit y Convergent thinking

This kin d o f thinkin g follow s logica l paths . I t look s fo r a correct answer, convergin g upo n i t fro m th e informatio n th e thinke r ha s available. It is used t o analyse quantifiable problems. Its approaches and ofte n it s results are generally predictable. Convergent thinkin g i s mos t effectiv e whe n ther e i s informatio n available which ca n be handled logicall y (as in finding th e causes of a mechanical breakdown - if your car rolls to a stop on the motorway, you chec k all the possibl e cause s systematicall y and logically) . It is effective whe n there is a high probability of there being a single right answer. It is effective i n analysing both evidence and arguments .

101

102 Headless CKrcketis, Lai^back Bears

How well we communicate with each other depends to a large extent on how clearl y we think. If our thinkin g i s faulty, the n what we say or writ e wil l b e faulty . A t leas t thre e kind s o f unclear thinking, o f which headles s chicken s ten d mor e ofte n t o b e afflicted , ca n b e identified. Emotional thinking

If we base our conclusions about ideas, objects, people, events, and so on, not on the processes of reasoning, but o n our emotional reactions to them - whethe r w e like or dislike them , despis e or fear them , are pleased o r angered b y them - w e are once again on unsafe ground . Emotional thinking leads to prejudging and prejudice, and as such is unacceptable a s a basis fo r actio n i n a rational , civilise d society . It leads to the panicky reaction of the headless chicken. Dishonest thinking

Here th e illogica l an d emotiona l processe s o f thinkin g ar e use d deliberately t o reac h conclusion s beneficia l t o a n individua l an d harmful t o others. Th e point abou t dishones t thinkin g i s that thos e who us e i t are shutting thei r mind s t o the truth, eithe r consciousl y because it suits them or unconsciously throug h lack of self-insight. Superficial thinking

In thi s kin d o f thinking , error s occu r an d fals e conclusion s ar e reached simply because the individual has not devoted enoug h time to thinking abou t the problem or question. It is the kind o f thinking which is particularly encouraged i n an age of mass communication, with th e preference for the short an d the simple - an d the trivial . Evidence to support this can be found in the thinking of any headless chicken. The Characteristics of Clea r Thinking

If we are to avoid the faults in thinking discusse d above , our thinkin g should posses s a t leas t fou r mai n characteristic s of which laidback bears are the masterly proponents.

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Awareness of the rule s of logi c

It is easier to say which kinds of thinking break the rules of logic than to state precisely what thos e rules are but, basically, logical thought i s concerned with the relationships betwee n statement s rather than with the trut h or falsit y o f particular statements. I t is possible t o arrive at a logical conclusion which is untrue, if the original statements are untrue. However, the test to prevent this kind of situation arising lies in basing statements on evidence. A logical conclusion, then, is one which follows inescapably fro m wha t ha s bee n state d previously . A n awarenes s o f logic helps u s t o tel l whethe r fault s i n ou r thinkin g aris e fro m poo r information o r poor though t processes . I t is only when w e know th e source of any error that we can begin to do something to remedy it. Avoidance of emotional reactions and prejudices

We ca n neve r eliminat e entirel y th e presenc e o f emotio n i n ou r reactions t o statements , situations , issue s o r problems , no r ca n w e ever b e completel y fre e o f prejudice , but , i f w e ca n identif y th e occasions on which we react emotionally and if we can become aware of our own prejudices, we can begin to lessen the influence they have over ou r thinking . If we ar e to think clearly , this self-awareness and self-insight ar e essential, for it simply is not possible for the headles s chicken to think rationally and reasonably. Useful discussio n should , therefore, be a cool, dispassionate process. Honesty

We nee d t o b e especiall y hones t abou t ou r ow n motives . W e may choose t o hid e thos e motive s fro m other s i n orde r t o achiev e a specific objective , but w e shoul d neve r b e i n dange r o f deludin g ourselves abou t wha t i t i s we reall y want. Thi s self-examinatio n is another essential par t of the process of thinking clearly . It also helps considerably, o f course , i f w e ca n b e hones t wit h eac h other , eve n over motives. This way w e are much more likely to be able to get at the truth of a situation, settle an issue or resolve a problem. Adequate consideration of problem s

This doe s no t refe r simpl y t o th e nee d t o allo w sufficien t tim e fo r consideration, bu t refer s als o t o th e nee d fo r enoug h evidenc e o n

104 Headless CKfcketfs, tailback Bears

which t o bas e a conclusion . In othe r words , befor e w e ca n decid e whether th e state d relationship s betwee n facts , an d henc e th e conclusions drawn from them , are correct, we must first o f all check the accuracy of the facts. Thus, we can identify three stages in the process of allowing adequate consideration: 1. Chec k the accurac y of the informatio n available as thoroughly a s possible; 2. Chec k the validit y o f the relationship s claime d t o exis t between various pieces of information; 3. Chec k the logical validity and th e truth of the conclusions drawn by reference back to the information from which they stem. Divergent Thinking

On the other hand, divergent thinking follow s fe w rules. It does not look fo r a singl e correc t answer , no r indee d necessaril y fo r an y answer at all. Starting from a problem, a situation or a set of facts, it diverges, explores , seeks , freewheels , kick s aroun d an d examine s things fro m man y viewpoints . I t i s curious , provocative , controversial and even ridiculous. It is used t o find ne w solutions to old problems, new ways of doing things and differen t approache s to all kind s o f situations . I t i s unpredictabl e bot h i n metho d an d i n results. It is laidback. It is most effectiv e wher e logica l approaches have failed, o r there is insufficient informatio n fo r the m t o b e used , o r thei r us e i s in appropriate for any one of a thousand reasons. Divergent thinking is effective whe n ther e is a low probabilit y tha t there is a single right answer o r whe n a n unusual , out-of-the-ordinary , insightfu l interpretation of the facts has to be made to find one, as in devising a name fo r a ne w produc t o r re-inventin g a corporat e identity. I t i s effective i n opening up ne w fields for exploitation and new area s for development.

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Quality of idea s

One o f the mos t difficul t problem s which face s thos e ne w t o divergent thinkin g i s tha t o f producing a larg e enoug h sampl e o f ideas from which to select one for dealing with the problem. The more that can be generated, the better the chance of finding one that will work. The importance of deferring judgment

During the time that the ideas are being gathered, nothing shoul d be rejected. Ridiculous ideas, i f rejected too soon, will simply make the collection loo k nea t an d sensible . Bu t i t i s als o likel y to b e dull . If ridiculous ideas ca n be retaine d fo r th e tim e being , the y ma y wel l generate other s whic h offe r a sensibl e bu t radicall y ne w idea , interpretation or approach, so defer judgment during the production of ideas. The time for evaluation comes later. Headless chickens rush to judgment too quickly; laidback bears know to bide their time. Techniques of Divergent Thinking

Although divergen t thinkin g is , characteristically , unpredictable , there are certain basic principles an d approache s whic h will help t o stimulate it. They are of special value to those who ar e more familiar with the approaches of convergent thinking than with being creative. First o f all , th e proble m mus t b e state d an d defined . I t shoul d b e written down. This is necessary to give thinking a focal point. It will also hel p t o revea l whethe r o r no t th e subjec t i s on e i n whic h divergent thinkin g ca n help . Fo r instance , i n industry , divergen t thinking wil l be o f more us e i n findin g a name fo r a product o r i n producing marketing ideas for a product than in deciding whether or not to build a new factor y i n a particular place. Secondly, there are at least eight techniques which can be applied t o produce creativ e answers , solution s an d suggestions . Yo u shoul d work systematicall y through th e lis t unti l a reasonabl e amoun t of self-confidence i n thinkin g divergentl y ha s bee n developed . Thes e techniques are as follows:

106 Headles s CKickeffs , Lar'dbac k Bear s

1. Generation . Find as many ways of doing or looking at something as possible. Nothing should be rejected. However unpromising an idea may seem at first, i t may acquire significance later. 2. Challeng e the present situation. Is it really like this? Does it have to be like this? Is there really a problem? Could we look at things in some other way? 3. Inversion . Turn things completel y round, or upside down . If , for example, a building contracto r is designing a new kin d o f house, he might consider putting the bedrooms downstairs and the living room upstairs. This might in fac t be the best way o f doing thing s if the houses are being built on the side of a hill. The service roads could be built level with the upper floors of the houses at the back, and th e livin g room s woul d giv e bette r view s ove r th e surrounding countrysid e if they were upstairs. 4. Analogies . Compar e th e proble m situatio n o r issu e t o another . They need not be related fo r thi s technique to work. For example, comparing road s t o railway s ma y giv e u s a n ide a fo r smal l uniform-sized unit s that could be coupled togethe r and so reduce the traffi c i n town s whil e preservin g th e individualit y an d th e privacy o f th e car . Again, comparin g car s to bead s (a n unlikel y analogy) could lea d to the same kind o f solution an d migh t eve n suggest a method o f linking car-like units together. 5. Allo w ridiculous ideas. The motor car, aeroplane an d submarin e were once ridiculous ideas (no t to mention goin g to the moon). 6. Waitin g fo r inspiration . Doing nothing o r allowin g a perio d o f mental incubatio n i s a usefu l creative-thinkin g technique . Onc e the problem has been state d an d defined , the brain will continue to wor k o n i t an d possibl e solution s ma y com e t o min d a t th e oddest o f times . Solution s discovere d i n thi s wa y ca n b e revolutionary and yet highly practical. 7. Readines s for insight. This is closely allied to the previous technique and mean s bein g read y 2 4 hours a da y fo r solution s t o presen t themselves. If they do, they must be noted down straight away. Many good ideas thought of at 1 a.m. have vanished by 8 a.m. if they are not recorded. When illumination comes, one must be ready for it.

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8. Repetitio n of process . Going over th e sam e groun d agai n ofte n produces an additional idea which turns out to be the one that will work. The third step in this approach to creative thinking is to take all ideas, interpretations, insights and solutions tha t have been produce d an d evaluate them. Th e process o f evaluation is best carrie d out afte r a t least an overnight break. The aim should be to try to identify the idea or solution which is most likely to succeed and which therefore is the one to be tried first . Questioning

Many people ar e prevented fro m thinkin g divergently because they are quit e conten t to accep t thing s as the y are . Eve n if the y see k change, the y look for improvements based o n keeping thing s pretty much as they are. Change, in these circumstances, becomes minimal and to all intents and purposes th e problems remain. You should acquire the habit of questioning everything. Why is it like this? Why do we do it this way? 'Why?' is the most creative question you ca n ask , becaus e i t i s th e necessar y firs t ste p t o seekin g ne w ideas. Unless you challenge what is, you will never know what could be. Facility i n doin g thi s ca n b e increase d i n muc h th e sam e wa y a s quantities of ideas are collected. A question is posed and then, within a time limit, all the solutions offere d ar e taped or noted down . Individual Brainstorming

Brainstorming session s ar e usuall y grou p affairs , wit h everyon e sitting aroun d throwin g idea s int o a commo n 'pool ' fo r late r evaluation. Th e evidenc e tha t i s available , however, indicate s tha t

108 Headless chickens, tailback Bears

more (and better) ideas are produced when people work individually on a topic than whe n the y work a s a group. Th e procedure to use , then, is as follows: 1. Th e proble m t o b e th e subjec t fo r brainstormin g shoul d b e selected. 2. Yo u should writ e your ideas down as quickly as you can without stopping t o analyse their practicality. 3. I t help s i f 1 0 minutes i s devote d t o a warm-u p session . Writ e down a s many solutions t o a specimen proble m as you can think of in the time. See exercise 2 on page 42. 4. Th e main subject for brainstorming shoul d then be written down . 5. Th e brainstorming session prope r shoul d follo w an d shoul d las t for abou t 30 minutes. The eight techniques describe d abov e may be used at any time that you wish. 6. Yo u should writ e down a s many solutions to the problem as you can thin k o f i n th e time . N o solutio n shoul d b e censore d o r rejected a t this stage. 7. A t the end of the brainstorming session , put you r list away for 24 hours before tryin g to evaluate it. Headless chickens find i t hard to do this, but it is necessary if you are to avoid rejecting fresh an d unusual solutions. Uses and value of divergent thinking

Most participants will by now have realised that divergent thinkin g techniques are of most use in finding new things to do, new ways of doing things, new interpretations and new outlooks. They are indeed invaluable not only in promoting chang e and development, bu t als o in indicatin g precisel y wher e an d i n whic h way s chang e an d development ca n take place.

CKaffcr Twenty Tu»o

READING Eye Movements in Reading

If you mov e your head slowl y from sid e to side when your eyes are focused o n a stationar y object , you r eye s wil l appea r t o mov e smoothly in their sockets. If, o n the other hand, you keep your head still an d mov e you r eye s slowl y fro m sid e t o side , you r eye s wil l move in a series of jerks (or 'saccades'). The pauses between move ments are called fixations. When reading, the eyes move in a series of saccades, wit h brie f fixation s (0.2 5 to 0.3 5 o f a second ) betwee n movements. The eye can only accept information, it is now believed, when stationar y and , i n fact , a mechanis m i n th e brai n switche s vision off while the eye s are in motion. Even in the firs t kin d o f eye movement describe d above , where th e ey e i s focused o n a n object , eye movement s ar e stil l saccadic , bu t th e movement s an d th e consequent fixation s ar e s o smal l an d s o rapi d tha t th e eye s d o appear to move smoothly. The amount o f information taken in at each fixation depends on the reader's span of perception (or eye span). The quickness with which the eyes can enable perception o f one piece of information (a word or group o f words ) an d mov e o n t o th e nex t depend s o n spee d o f perception (fixatio n tim e ca n b e reduce d t o 0. 1 o f a secon d an d speeds o f 0.001 are possible in certain circumstances). Indeed, sinc e poor eye movements ar e merely a symptom an d no t a cause of poor reading, there would be little to be achieved simply by making the eyes move in a certain way. But, if by the end o f working through the ideas described in this chapter, reading performance has improved, then it is reasonable to infer tha t both spee d an d spa n of perception hav e bee n increased . On e canno t happe n withou t th e other. 109

110 Headless CKickefis, LaUback. Pears

The approac h here , however , wil l b e t o allo w th e physiologica l improvement i n ey e movement s t o aris e naturall y ou t o f a preoccupation wit h comprehendin g th e writte n wor d faste r an d better. Fo r reading i s concerne d wit h understandin g meaning , an d actual technique is a secondary consideration. If reading matter could be understood b y holding i t up to the ear, then this would be a valid reading technique . Conversely , if there i s no comprehensio n the n a technique canno t be calle d a reading technique , eve n if every wor d on a page has been looked at several times. Reading is comprehension or it is nothing.

The term s 'readin g speed ' an d 'comprehension' , a s used her e an d elsewhere, refe r respectivel y to speed o f comprehension an d qualit y of comprehensio n i n reading. The fact tha t the two ar e simply part s of th e sam e process , rathe r tha n separat e entities , shoul d no t b e forgotten. Differences between Poo r and Good Readers

The most important difference s betwee n poo r an d goo d reader s ar e as follows : Poor reade r

Good reade r

Physiological difference s

1. Has nafrow 'eye span.

Has wcterseve span.

2. Has lower speed of perception.

Has a higher speed of perception.

f; 3Lacksrtiyttefp fead&g/.

Has-, rtwttwifc; confi^pf .fm fiw^ifterfts.

4 Tends to read slowly all the time.

Is B flexible reader who reads everything as quickly as purposes in reading and the nature of the

material will allow.

readiMg il l

Poor reader

5. Regresses (goes back to read things again) habitually.

Good reader

Avoids all unnecessary regressions.

6. vocalises(cannot read silenly)or Does not vocalise and reduces subvacalis(suffers from inner innerr subvocalisaation by reading faster./.. speach or reading aloud silentiy) Psychological differences

is unsure about purposes in reading Always has clear knowledge of purpose and expectations before

READING 8. Is tense when reading under pressure (e.g. lack of time).

Remains relaxed even when reading 'against the clock'.

9. Is not able to anticipate the nature Anticipates well the general nature at subsequent material when readinggoff of material yet to be rwad when READING

10. Lacks concentration except for short periods.

Concentrates well by avoidance or exclusion of distractions.

11.Is unable to retain information for very long after readinafter readoiing.afmeh e

Has good retention of information

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Educational difference s 4&j^&;Mfe£ too&ufcpy.

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13. Is unable to read critically.

Always reads critically, even at speed.

14.Has a limited general background of knowledge and experience.

Has a wide genrtera labackegeooungaofnt Has knowledge and experience and a thoughtful and critical approach to

BOTH You should ai m to be able to place yourself i n the right-hand column on as many of these points as possible. The first tw o difference s hav e already been dealt with, but le t us look briefly a t some of the others. More rhythmic eye movements will develop with increased speed, so

112 Headless CKicketfs, Laidback Pears

we do not need to take any particular action on this point. Flexibility will develop as a result of practising the approaches outlined in this chapter. Regression ca n b e prevente d b y eithe r a simpl e ac t o f wil l o r b y drawing a postcard down over material as it is read. If regression is a problem, th e bes t cur e i s t o eliminat e it altogether , a t leas t durin g practice. Comprehensio n wil l suffe r a littl e a t first , bu t wil l soo n recover. Evidence suggests that regressions add no more than 3-7 per cent to your comprehension level, so in most cases no great loss will be experienced by eliminating them. Sub vocalisation need not hinder increases in speed. It has been found that peopl e ca n read alou d a t speed s u p t o nearl y 30 0 words pe r minute (wpm), so where the 'reading aloud' does not actually go as far a s involving th e voca l cords, higher speed s tha n thi s shoul d b e possible. Sinc e th e primar y for m o f languag e i s speec h an d no t writing, it is inevitable that many readers should subvocalise. Subvocalisation ca n als o b e a powerfu l ai d t o comprehension , so , having note d it s existence, we won't regard it as a problem an d will forget abou t it. Higher speeds i n any case tend t o make its presence less pronounced , thoug h i t ma y neve r disappea r altogether , eve n when skimming (a range of techniques described later). What is Comprehension?

The point has alread y been made that 'reading speed' an d 'compre hension' are not tw o separat e activities , but merel y two parts o f the same process - that of understanding the meaning and significance of the printed word. Comprehension is , of course, a general skill that we use o n al l the informatio n that is communicated to us b y whatever means and throug h whichever of our senses . It is worth mentioning , therefore, that , although we are here concerned with comprehensio n when reading, any improvement in speed or quality achieved will be reflected i n othe r use s o f comprehensio n skills . Similarly , improvements effected generall y will result in better reading.

reading 11 3 Many reader s assume tha t ther e i s an inverse relationshi p betwee n reading speed and comprehension, and that if speed is increased then comprehension will automatically fall. If this were so, there would be little point i n a chapter suc h as this one. Fortunately it is not and, in fact, th e averag e reade r ca n increas e hi s o r he r readin g spee d b y about 80 per cen t without loss of comprehension. Comprehension comprise s a number o f abilities. Chief amon g these are the abilities: 1. to recall information from th e material; 2. to select important point s and draw general conclusions ; 3. to make deductions fro m wha t has been read, draw inferences, be aware of implications an d carr y out other interpretative activities; 4. t o relate what ha s been rea d t o prior knowledg e an d experience and to use this in achieving a better and deepe r understanding of the material; 5. t o us e al l th e othe r activitie s mentioned abov e t o evaluat e th e material and discus s it intelligently. It should als o be possible for you t o test these abilities for yourself o n materials that you encounte r during the cours e of a normal reading week. How can Comprehension be Improved?

Quality o f comprehensio n i s affecte d b y spee d - beyon d certai n limits. We have already said that higher speed s d o not automatically mean lowe r comprehensio n scores . I t i s true , however , tha t i f yo u read too quickly at any point in your progress to higher speed s the n comprehension wil l suffer . Spee d increase s nee d t o b e achieve d gradually to prevent this happening. Other factor s which affec t comprehensio n include :

114 Headless CKicketfs, La^back Bears

1. the reasons or purposes fo r which the material is being read; 2. your motivation for, o r interest in, reading the material; 3. the nature, content and leve l of difficulty o f the material; 4. the layout of the material; 5. the environment in which the reading is being done . The quality of your comprehension can be improved by making sure that each of the abov e factors i s taken into consideration. The three main ways, however, of improving comprehension ar e as follows: 1. b y testing: (i ) retention of information; (ii) interpretation o f information. 2. b y discussion . 3. b y wide, varied reading. You shoul d tak e step s t o make sure tha t the readin g yo u d o i n the course of a week or a month contains sufficient breadt h and mixture of materials to provide your comprehension skills with the challenge and variety needed t o improve them. Comprehension ca n als o b e improve d b y gettin g int o th e habi t of approaching al l writte n materia l critically . Criticall y mean s no t simply looking fo r faults an d defects , but als o looking fo r points of merit so that reasonably accurate judgments and evaluations may be made abou t th e material . A systematic approach t o critica l readin g has th e acronymi c title CITE (w e encountered a form o f it in Part 1 Chapter 12 ) and the procedures involved ar e quite simple. As you read and after you have read something, consider the following: 1. Content . Ask questions like: What does the material tell me? Is the information accurate or plausible ? What is the writer's authority or reliability?

readiMg 11 5 2. Intentions . Ask questions like: What is the writer trying to achieve? Who is the material aimed at? 3. Treatment . Ask questions like: Am I being convinced by reason or emotion? Is there any evidence o f bias? Has the treatment influenced my opinion unduly? 4. Evaluation . Ask questions like: If th e writer fails, how, where an d wh y doe s he or she fail ? In th e ligh t o f th e answer s t o thes e questions , wha t i s m y evaluation of the material? Defining Purposes and Expectations in Reading

Speeds i n readin g and , indeed , you r whol e approac h t o readin g matter, should be determined by: 1. purpose s and expectation s in reading; 2. th e nature of the material. You shoul d ai m alway s to rea d a s quickly as these tw o factor s wil l allow. On each piece of reading material a range of speeds will be possible . For the average reader the range will be narrow, probably extendin g from 15 0 wpm t o no higher than 300 wpm. For the efficient reade r the range ma y exten d u p t o 80 0 wpm. Th e ai m shoul d therefore b e always to achieve a speed a s close as possible t o the uppe r limi t on each piec e o f readin g matter . It i s eas y t o b e conten t wit h a lower speed but th e efficien t reade r wil l be consciou s o f the fac t tha t tim e can b e save d withou t sacrific e i n qualit y an d tha t thi s wil l guar d against unnecessary slacknes s i n approach. In order to achieve the degree of efficiency implie d by this approach, it i s importan t t o defin e purpose s an d expectation s i n readin g a s clearly a s possible. It is important to go beyond primar y or obvious

116 Headless ctiickefts, Lgidback Bears

purposes an d i t should b e possible t o identify wit h reasonable ease three levels of purpose, as follows: Primary

Secondary (examples)

Tertiary (examples!

Have to read.

Solve a problem. Increase special

Acquire relevant facts. Acquire new facts.

knowledge. Make a decision.

Acquire unusual facts.

want to read.

Derive pleasure

self-education. Evaluate critically.

Acquire interesting facts Acqura impartant facts Acquire insight into facts

Not al l th e possibl e purpose s hav e bee n give n i n th e abov e illustration and you will be able to add many secondary and tertiary purposes of your own. You should know the reasons why you are reading as specifically and as clearly as possible before you begin reading. Also, before you read something, you will have certain expectation s about the material. You may know the kind of information it is likely to contain or you may know that the writer will be trying to persuade you to accept a particular point of view. You should be consciously aware of your expectations before you decide how to read the material Assessing material s

In additio n t o definin g purpose s an d expectation s a s clearl y a s possible, yo u shoul d mak e a brief assessmen t o f the material before reading it. This can be done during a quick preview (or skimming) of

reading 11 7 the materia l t o obtai n a n overview , o r genera l impression , whic h covers the following points: 1. th e writer's purposes i n writing; 2. th e length o f the material ; 3. th e leve l of difficulty o f the material ; 4. th e reliability of the material , perhaps throug h informatio n given about the writer; 5. th e nature of the conten t of the material, in terms of the pattern of organisation, th e subjec t matte r an d th e importanc e and/o r relevance of the content . This previe w nee d tak e n o mor e tha n a fe w second s an d i t shoul d concentrate on identifying the pattern of organisation which the writer has impose d upo n th e material . This will help bot h i n decidin g ho w much time and attention to give to it and in assimilating the information if it is decided that the material should, in fact, be read at all. Patterns of Organisation of Written Materia l

If th e sam e se t o f fact s i s give n t o 1 0 differen t writers , the y wil l produce 1 0 different piece s of writing, som e o f which ma y diffe r s o much as to make it unclear that they are all concerned with the same subject. Th e most obviou s differenc e wil l be i n th e word s tha t each writer choose s t o expres s wha t h e o r sh e want s t o say . You should therefore tr y to 'see through' the words used t o the information, the facts, idea s or feelings that the writer wants you to understand . Your concer n i s wit h assimilatin g meanin g rathe r tha n th e wor d sequence whic h communicate s tha t meaning . Ther e ar e certai n exceptions to this rule, but it holds broadly true. This process is helped if you ca n identify the pattern of organisatio n a write r ha s used . Onc e th e genera l outlin e ha s bee n perceived , a number o f other things are made easier.

118 Headless CKicketfs, Laidback Bears

An awarenes s o f th e patter n o f organisatio n whic h th e write r ha s imposed o n his or her material helps: in defining purposes mor e closely in making a more accurate choice of reading technique s in anticipating while reading in relatin g specifi c informatio n t o it s contex t i n th e genera l framework. The pattern o f organisation ca n be looked a t in three distinc t ways , according to: 1. th e type of writing; 2. th e structural principles which all written materials follow; 3. th e patterns peculiar to specific kinds of material. Types of writing

There are four type s of writing: description exposition argument narrative. Where the types are mixed, one will dominate. If the principal type can be identified, an approach can be chosen to suit it. In description , yo u wil l concentrat e o n buildin g u p th e menta l picture that the writer wishes yo u to see. In exposition, you will be looking fo r a logica l orderin g o f points, fo r stage s o f developmen t and fo r facts. In argument, you will be looking for 'pros' and 'cons', for evidenc e and reasons, and fo r the outline of the case that is being made. I n narrative , yo u wil l b e lookin g fo r chronologica l development and for movement from on e place to another.

rea<(iMg 119

Structure of written materials

When it comes to using the principles of structure to help you, it is far more usefu l t o regar d th e paragrap h a s a unit o f meaning tha n th e sentence. Often in a paragraph one sentence will contain the essential information tha t th e res t o f the paragrap h seek s t o expan d on . I f a writer has something important to say, it makes sense to place it in a position o f natura l emphasis . I n a paragraph , ther e ar e tw o suc h positions: one at the beginning and one at the end. And the beginning of th e paragraph carries greater emphasis tha n the end, s o more key sentences wil l b e place d firs t i n paragraph s tha n i n an y othe r position. You should examin e one of the sections in this chapter that you have already read and confir m that this is so. An efficient reader will move quickly from paragraph to paragraph, picking up the main idea or fact in each one and relatin g subordinate fact s and ideas to it, and the n moving quickly on again. Patterns of specifi c materials

The us e tha t ca n b e mad e o f a n awarenes s o f pattern s peculia r t o specific kinds of material will be discussed i n greater detail later. But with articles, for example, the thesis is usually stated i n the openin g few paragraphs , there are limited numbers of points being made and there is often a re-statement in the closing paragraphs. In newspapers the use of headings an d subheading s ca n guide o r mislead an d car e needs t o b e taken . Ther e i s a variet y o f shor t item s togethe r wit h longer articles . News articles , fo r example, will ofte n b e writte n so that they can be cut from th e end forward s without much loss when new storie s come in. Report s in industr y wil l hav e clearl y define d sections - summary , conclusions, introduction, the body of the report and appendixes . Al l of this informatio n can assis t yo u i n knowin g where to look for what kind of information and in assimilating it once found. Level of difficulty o f written materia l

It will also help i f you ar e awar e of the factor s whic h ca n affec t th e level o f difficult y o f writte n material . Eas y material ca n clearl y b e handled muc h more rapidly than difficul t materia l and yo u need t o know th e leve l of difficult y o f the materia l you ar e dealin g wit h s o

120 Headless chickens, tailback Bears

that yo u ca n chang e you r techniqu e t o sui t it . Som e o f th e mai n factors which can affec t leve l of difficulty are : 1. Th e vocabular y range o f th e material . Th e broade r i t i s o r th e more specialised, the more difficult i t will be to read the material. 2. Th e subject of th e material . Som e subject s are inherentl y mor e difficult tha n others, especially 'abstract' subjects like philosophy. 3. Th e interes t value o f th e material . Some subjects are inherentl y more interesting than others, especially those with strong 'human interest'. 4. Th e writer' s competenc e in usin g language . Abstrusenes s ca n make life very difficult fo r the reader. 5. Th e layou t of th e materia l an d th e wa y i t i s printed . Th e typ e must be of a reasonable size and lines should be neither too short nor too long. 6. Th e environment in which the reading is being done. If there is too much noise or other distractions, reading can become very difficult . Flexibility

Not every piece of writing is of equal importance and the aim should be to conserve energ y fo r material tha t is more demanding.

Flexibility is the key to efficiency in reading. To encourage flexibility, you shoul d as k the following questions: 1. A m I spending enoug h (o r too much) time reading this material? 2. A m I taking enough (o r too much) care over my readin g o n thi s occasion? 3. A m I making enough (o r too much ) effort t o understand wha t I am reading?

rea
There ar e fou r 'gears ' i n readin g speed s an d eac h ha s it s ow n characteristics. Gear

Speed range (approx ) Characteristic s

1. Studying.

0-200 wpm

Reading, re-reading, making notes, revising.

2. Slow reading.15 0-300wa m

Word-by-word,line-try-line progress,often with regressions.

3. Rapid reading. 300-800 wpm

Wordgroup-by-wordgroup, lineby-line, regression-free progress.

4.Swimming

6600-60,000.W.D.M. Allowing the eyes to break away from time by line progress an. move rapidly across and dow. the page

It might be wise to remind yo u at this point tha t 'words per minute' is merel y a measur e o f speed , lik e 'kilometre s pe r hour ' an d 60,000 wpm fo r the uppe r limi t of skimming doe s no t mea n that so many word s hav e been assimilate d i n th e spac e o f a single minute . This is, in fact , the kin d o f speed tha t is achieved whe n th e page s of a boo k ar e turne d ove r on e a t a tim e a s quickl y a s i s physicall y possible. Nonetheless , mor e informatio n ca n b e obtaine d abou t a book by doing this than simply by looking at the table of contents. It is a useful techniqu e for a quick preview.

122 Headless CKickefts, Laidback Bears

Use of 'gears '

You will be able to devise use s for the various 'gears' that suit your own needs and requirements, but a guide may be helpful. Purpose

Material

Suggested Technique

Outline only

Easy Average Difficult

Skimming Skimming Rapid reading

General understanding Easy Skimm

Easy Averagegee Difficul

Skimming

Detailed understanding

Easy Average Difficult

Rapid reading w reading

Rapid reading Slow reading Studying

Systematic reading

The flexibility tha t you shoul d no w be concentrating on developin g needs to be built into a systematic approach if it is to produce the best results an d mak e you a laidback-bear reader . One approach, whic h has bee n use d successfull y b y a large number o f readers wh o hav e attended th e reading-improvemen t course s I hav e given , ha s th e mnemonic titl e PACER . I t operate s a s a serie s o f step s whic h th e reader takes in dealing with reading matter. Not everything will pass through al l fiv e steps . Muc h will be rejecte d afte r th e firs t on e an d other material will have been adequately dealt with by the end of the fourth step. A minority of the material encountered will be subjected to all five steps . The system thus has a built-in flexibility, in additio n to permitting the fullest us e of the four reading 'gears'. Briefly, th e steps of the method ar e as follows : 1. Previe w everything before reading it. If the material must be read, proceed to the second step .

reading 123

2. Asses s your purposes i n going on to read th e material and your expectations of what the writer wishes to communicate to you. It is possible, o f course, that these will be known in advance or will be discovered during the preview. The purpose in putting this step here is to make sure that it has been done, for the next step cannot be taken without it. 3. Choos e th e mos t appropriat e readin g 'gear ' o r techniqu e (o r combination of techniques). 4. Expedit e handling of the material by reading it as decided, but be flexible an d chang e 'gear ' i f necessary. If the materia l is important, proceed to the next step. 5. Revie w wha t ha s bee n rea d t o chec k tha t comprehensio n i s adequate for the original purposes i n reading the material. This systematic approach will suit many readers, but those who wish to desig n thei r ow n system s shoul d no t be deterred fro m doin g so. The onl y rea l requirement s ar e tha t th e approac h shoul d b e systematic an d produc e goo d results , an d no t leav e you franticall y shuffling paper s like a headless chicken. Skimming

Skimming should not be confused wit h reading, but i t is a valid and useful readin g technique .

Skimming involves allowing the eyes to break away from line-byline movements and move quickly across and down the page. There are three main types of skimming: 1. Samplin g (600 + wpm) . This i s skimmin g th e easy , o r laz y way, simply b y readin g selectively . I f ther e i s clos e attentio n t o th e opening sentence s o f paragraphs a s wel l a s t o an y heading s o r sub-headings, a good level of comprehension can be maintained.

124 Headless CKicketfs, LaMback Bears

The principle is simply to move on to the next paragraph as soon as th e meanin g o f on e ca n b e perceived . Sometime s i t ma y b e necessary to go back, but no t often. The less of the material that is read, th e highe r th e spee d wil l be . A good overvie w shoul d b e possible with this method, with practice. 2. Previewin g (1,00 0 w.p.m.) . Thi s i s a combinatio n o f selectiv e reading an d locatin g techniques . Th e eye s shoul d b e activel y looking for information that will satisfy you r purposes in reading as wel l a s payin g attentio n t o headings , subheading s an d th e opening an d closin g sentence s o f paragraphs . Thi s typ e o f skimming demand s a cleare r definitio n o f purposes , bette r concentration an d bette r anticipatio n skill s bu t i t ca n b e use d effectively, wit h practice. It can be a useful substitut e when ther e is not time to read a particular piece of reading matter in full . 3. Locatin g (2,000+ w.p.m.). This is the kind of technique that we all habitually us e whe n handlin g telephon e an d othe r directories , dictionaries an d handbooks . I t demand s th e cleares t possibl e definition o r purpose fo r effectiveness. Give n this, its use ca n be extended t o othe r kind s o f reading . Th e highe r th e speed , th e further apar t the fixatio n points . Th e highest spee d attainabl e is about 60,000 w.p.m. or as fast as the pages of a book can be turned over. Thes e ver y hig h speed s can , wit h practice , provid e a surprising amoun t o f information , especiall y fo r choosin g between book s to read. Purposes and uses of skimming

Some example s o f th e use s o f differen t type s o f skimmin g ar e a s follows: Sampling 1. A s a substitute for reading when time is short. 2. T o assess the leve l of difficulty o f material. 3. T o decide whether to read and t o help in the selection of material. 4. T o obtain overview and patter n or organisation.

readiMg 125

Previewing 1. A s a substitute fo r reading when time is short. 2. T o obtain overview and patter n of organisation. 3. A s a means of defining purposes i n reading. 4. T o supplement othe r reading techniques in systematic reading. 5. T o assess the relevance of material to your immediate needs. Locating 1. T o decide whether t o read and t o help in selection of material. 2. T o locate specific information . 3. I n using dictionaries, directories and handbooks . 4. I n reading classified advertisement s in newspapers .

Perhaps the two main uses of skimming are: 1, as a substitute for reading when time is short. 2. t o obtain an overview of material before reading. Combination with other technique s

PACER ha s alread y been described, but a really simple combination that has been found to satisfy a large number of reading requirements is tha t o f previewin g an d rapi d reading . Usuall y th e previewin g enables material to be read at a significantly higher speed than would otherwise b e th e cas e becaus e o f th e overvie w provide d b y it . Laidback bears know tha t i t takes th e stres s ou t o f faster an d mor e efficient reading .

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chapter TueMfy Twee

WRITING

This chapter does not offe r a comprehensive cours e in the principle s and techniques o f effective writing . Instead, it seeks to deal only with those which are basic to the essential writing needs of those headles s chickens wh o wis h t o becom e laidbac k bears. No r doe s i t contai n much grammatical or other 'technical' information about language. It aims to increase effectiveness in writing by providing guidance in the use of language and by offering opportunitie s fo r the practice of basic principles an d techniques . Thi s shoul d d o mor e t o hel p avoi d th e pointless panic of the headless chickens and replace it with the calm, considered approac h o f the laidback bears. Poor and Goo d Writers Compared

The mos t importan t difference s between poo r (headles s chickens ) and goo d (laidbac k bears) writers are as follows: Poor writer

Good writer

1. Does not always check the accuracy of what is written

ft/lakes sure that what is written is accurate {i.e., that the facts are correct and the content is reliable).

2.Does not contrct the length of

Writes as brefly and pondaly as the Subject matter will afuzy

What is written

AAakes sure that readers will clearly understand what is written.

3. Meaning is not always dear.

4.fays little attention in keeping g g what is written as simple as thele as thj. Writing as simple as possibl compledly of the containt will action 127

128 Headless chickens, Laidback Bears

Poor writer

.Good writer

5. Is unable to suit the order and Writes effactively by suiting the order arrangement of what he at she. a nd a arrangement of what be or she has to say to purposes in writing. . has to say to purposes in writing and and the nature of the material to . the nature of the material itself ensure effectiveness

6. Has no clear sense of purpose in writing,

Defines purposes clearly before writing.

7.cames out preparatory work prepares and plans writing haphazardly and does not write to systemtically. a plan

8. Is unable to change style of writing to suit different purposes or materials.

Has the flexibility to change style of writing to suit different purposes and materials.

9. Writing contains many common stuctural and grammatical errors.

writes correctly written the times allowed try currently acceptable usage

10, Writes only when it cannot be avoided.

Enjoys writing and takes pride in it.

11. Has a limited vacabulary

Has a wide and constantly developing vacabolery.

12. Has difficulty in spelling correctly.

Spells correctly.

13. Has difficulty in purtuating writing effectively

Uses appropriate punctation wit ease and effectiectetss

14. Writing has no identifiable style and is not easy to read rapidly and efficiently.

Has a clearly identifiable personal writing style, which can be read rapidly and efficiently.

15. QWrites iffemply

Writes legibty

wrif rUg 12 9

Poorwriter 16. hasatifited gentral bedground

of factabigd

Good writer

Has a tract 0000000000000000 browsdrdfsfg 0000000 000 thoogntland .drid h0000000 00000

Accuracy

The laidbac k writer mus t chec k tha t whateve r h e o r sh e write s is accurate. That is to say, the facts should be verifiable, th e argument s should be soundly based, the reasoning should be logical, and so on. Nothing shoul d b e written dow n whic h wil l misinform, mislead or unfairly persuade a reader. This is particularly true both in academic and industrial writing.

Accurate information is an essential basis for effective communication. Brevity

Nothing tha t is written dow n should b e longer tha n i t need be . But brevity shoul d no t b e achieve d a t the expens e of omitting essential and significan t information. The test to apply in achieving this is not 'Can i t be lef t out? ' bu t 'Mus t i t g o in?' Laidbac k bears never lik e doing unnecessary work. Clarity

It is a relatively simple matter for writers to make things clear to their own satisfaction , but the y mus t als o mak e a n effor t t o ensur e tha t readers will understand them as clearly. One way to achieve this is to allow a period of at least 24 hours to elapse between the firs t draf t of material and its revision. Thi s should permit writers to approach th e material wit h a degre e o f objectivit y an d as k themselve s whethe r their readers will understand them readily. Simplicity

It will usually happen tha t i f material is accurate, brief an d clear , it will also be as simple as it is possible to make it without distorting the

130 Headless CKicketis, tailback Bears

meaning. It is also possible that if a writer can reduce what he or she wishes to communicate to its essentials, this will help to see whether it is accurate, brief an d clear or not.

Remember the KISS principle: Keep It Short and Simple. Many o f the difficultie s tha t are experienced i n communication can be trace d t o unnecessar y complexit y i n expression . Th e reaso n i s probably that too many writers overestimate the reading abilities of the people for whom the material is intended. The average reader has a reading speed o f about 225 wpm and a comprehension level of no more than 75 per cent for most of the materials they are likely to read in th e cours e o f a norma l week . The y ar e therefor e no t capabl e of tackling things of any great difficulty, especially if they have a limited amount of time available for reading. Effectiveness

This will emerge from th e general effect o f a writer's attention to the specific considerations, such as those discussed above, but the key to effectiveness probabl y lie s in suitin g th e orde r an d arrangemen t of what i s being communicate d t o the purposes in writing an d t o the nature of the material itself. There are basically three ways in which points can be ordered. These are: 1. Chronologica l order.. 2. Th e orde r o f ascendin g importance , i n whic h th e mai n poin t comes last. 3. Th e orde r o f descendin g importance , i n whic h th e mai n poin t comes first. Before writers begin to plan their material, they should decide which of thes e arrangement s wil l bes t mee t thei r requirements . I f th e material is long, it is quite possible that all three arrangements will be used in different parts .

WrifiMg 13 1

Purposes in Writing We hav e alread y stresse d th e importanc e o f definin g purpose s a s clearly as possible befor e communicating . The point has to be made again here, for unless you know why you are writing - tha t is, what you hop e t o achiev e b y writin g - yo u canno t writ e effectively . I n defining your purposes you need to know: 1. Th e subject you have to write about; 2. Th e form the writing has to take (report, letter, memo etc.); 3. Wh o will read the material; 4. Th e result it is hoped th e material will achieve. You shoul d preferabl y writ e thi s informatio n down, togethe r wit h any other reasons you have for writing, so that you ca n refer t o it as the need arises when you are writing. At thi s poin t a n incubatio n perio d o f the kin d describe d i n Par t 1 Chapter 6 should b e inserted int o the proces s if at all possible. This will help in performing the tasks involved in the next stage. Planning The preparator y wor k fo r a piec e of writing an d th e writin g itsel f should b e carefull y planned . A few people hav e the abilit y to write well without forethought , but mos t of us find that planning helps to make the difficul t tas k of writing a little easier. The main sections of the plan can be lettered (a), (b), (c), etc. and the points to be included in eac h section should b e numbere d (i) , (ii), (iii), etc. , even thoug h these heading s ma y no t appea r i n th e fina l draf t (especially , for example, in the case of an article, a letter or an essay). Collection of information

Whatever th e writin g task , on e pitfal l t o avoi d i s th e to o earl y selection of information to be presented. Th e writer's firs t tas k is to collect. On most occasions, it is desirable to collect a good deal more

132 Headless chickens, Lafdback Bears

information than will actually be used. This enables some useful dis tillation to take place so that the final draft contains only relevant and necessary information . Selection of informatio n

The tw o question s t o as k i n selectin g th e informatio n to g o into a piece of writing are: 1. I s it relevant to the subject ? 2. I s it necessary to include it? If positiv e answer s canno t b e provided t o bot h questions , th e in formation should be omitted. Arrangement of information

If th e preparator y wor k has been carefull y planned , this will mak e the arrangement of the selected information much easier. The main poin t tha t yo u hav e t o watch is that the chose n arrangement should be both logical and suite d t o the purpose in writing. It will usually follow th e same pattern as that chosen for the preparatory planning , wit h an y amendment s mad e necessar y by , fo r example, a n inability t o collect certain information or by the need to be more strictly selective because of considerations of time or space. Writing

Once th e informatio n to b e presente d ha s progresse d throug h th e stages o f collection , selectio n an d arrangement , yo u no w com e t o what most people regard a s the most difficult stag e of all, the actual writing. However , i f th e earlie r stage s hav e bee n give n prope r attention, writin g become s a muc h easie r (an d eve n pleasurable ) activity. A t thi s point , anothe r incubatio n perio d o f th e kin d described in Part 1 Chapter 6 should be inserted into the process if at all possible. This will help i n performing the task s involved i n thi s stage. Laidbac k bears ar e ver y fon d o f incubation periods becaus e they produce results without effort .

Wrif ertg 13 3

As a general rule, each point i n the arrangement pla n or outline wil l require a separate paragraph. If paragraphs are too long, however, it is desirable to find som e means by which they can be condensed o r split into two or more paragraphs. Shorter paragraphs make for easier and faster reading. Usually, each paragraph will contain one sentence which expresses the main point the paragraph is seeking to develop. It is helpful to a reader if this 'key' or 'topic' sentence can be placed at the beginning of the paragraph. Since th e beginning o f a paragraph has a certain natural emphasis , this approac h wil l als o hel p yo u t o giv e prope r weigh t t o you r important points. If main points cannot, for stylistic or other reasons, be stated first, th e position which has th e secon d greates t amount of natural emphasis is a t th e en d o f th e paragraph . Importan t statement s whic h ar e tucked away deep in the heart of paragraphs may be undervalued or missed altogethe r by many readers. The construction of the sentences which go to make up a paragraph should be as varied as possible. The basic sentenc e pattern is one in which, for example, th e subjec t i s stated first , the n what the subjec t i s doing and lastl y wh o o r what the subject is doing it to (i.e., the object). This can easily become monotonous and usually it is possible to make the same point in a number of ways. An example will make some of the possibilities apparent.

134 Headless ctiicketis, Laidback Bears

Basic pattern

The headless chicken switched on the machine without checking it first an d receive d an electric shock.

Alternative patterns

Because i t di d no t firs t chec k th e machine , th e headles s chicke n received an electric shock when it switched it on.

By switching it s machine on without checking it first, the headless chicken received a n electric shock . Having switche d it s machin e o n withou t checkin g i t first , th e headless chicken received an electric shock. The headles s chicke n receive d a n electri c shock becaus e i t ha d switched its machine on without checking it first. How many more ways of writing down the above sentence can you find? Types of Writin g There ar e fou r mai n categorie s int o whic h mos t kind s o f writte n materials can be placed. In many materials, more than one type will be presen t bu t on e wil l usuall y dominat e th e other s an d se t th e general tone and style . The principal characteristics of the four type s of writing are as follows . Description

The writer is using word s t o create a mental picture for the reader . The ke y word s an d phrase s wil l b e thos e whic h describ e colour , shape, size , length, appearanc e and othe r qualities. Particular attention shoul d b e pai d t o choosin g thos e whic h mos t accuratel y and appropriately giv e a reader th e informatio n necessar y t o be abl e to build up the picture in his mind's eye. Exposition

Here th e ai m will be to explain how somethin g works , t o give th e facts abou t a situation , or to mak e an objectiv e and accurat e statement o f som e kind . Particula r attentio n shoul d b e pai d t o

WrrfiMg 135

organising th e materia l s o tha t i t offer s a logica l progression fro m stage t o stage . Car e must b e taken tha t nothin g i s omitted tha t th e reader will need i n order to understand th e relationship o f one part of the material to another. Argument

Points supporting an argument shoul d be clearly distinguished fro m those against . Evidenc e an d reason s shoul d b e state d clearl y an d concisely, and fact s distinguishe d fro m opinions . If a reader i s to be persuaded t o agree with your case, the best course is to be as honest as possible wit h him and to avoid attempts to mislead by concealing information whic h doe s not suppor t th e case or by using dishones t tricks of argument. Narrative

Here the writer takes the reader through time and place in order to tell a fictional o r factual story . Care needs to be taken that no significant event is overlooked and that minor matters are not given more weight than the y deserv e an d s o confus e a reader . To o much detai l i n a narrative can quickly obscure the essential progress of the story. Readability

At n o tim e shoul d th e searc h fo r a styl e clou d a writer' s essentia l desire t o mak e lif e a s eas y an d pleasan t a s possible fo r readers . I n recent year s a numbe r o f formula s hav e bee n devise d t o enabl e a writer to gauge how difficult a reader will find material. Some of these readability o r 'fog ' indexe s ar e themselve s comple x and difficul t t o calculate, bu t a simplifie d metho d wil l giv e a reasonabl y reliabl e indication of readability. There are five simple steps to carry out. 1. Selec t three passages o f 10 0 words eac h fro m th e materia l to b e assessed. 2. Coun t the numbe r o f sentences in eac h sample o f 100 words. D o not count any part sentence as a sentence, unless it contains more than 1 0 words. Divide 10 0 by th e numbe r o f sentences t o obtain the average length.

136 Headless ctiicketis, Laidback Bears

3. Coun t th e numbe r o f word s whic h contai n mor e tha n tw o syllables each . Coun t eac h lon g wor d eac h tim e i t occur s i f i t appears more than once. This gives the percentage of hard word s in the passage . 4. Ad d th e average sentence length to the percentage of hard words. Multiply by 0.4. Do this for each sample. 5. Ad d th e thre e figure s together an d divid e b y thre e to obtai n a n average. Th e highe r th e resultin g figure , th e mor e difficul t th e material. A figur e highe r tha n 1 2 indicate s difficult y i n th e material. Th e lower th e figur e a writer ca n obtain b y shortening his sentences an d reducin g the number of long words, th e better he will please his readers. The readability level of this section, for instance, is 9.1. Practical hint s to increas e readability

1. Omi t unnecessary words from sentences. The courage and bravery of the bear was admired and praise d by the chickens. The courage of the bear was praised by the chickens . 2. Us e the active statement form wherever possible. The courage of the bear was praised by the chickens. (Passive) The chickens praised the courage of the bear. (Active) 3. Omi t qualifying phrases unless they are essential to the sense of sentences. The chickens, somewha t enthusiasticall y i n the circumstances , praised highly the courage of the bear. The chickens praised highly the courage of the bear. 4. Kee p sentences as short as possible . The chickens , wh o ha d neve r ha d t o figh t thei r opponent s s o fiercely before, praised the courage of the bear. The chickens praised th e courag e o f the bear . They had neve r had t o fight s o fiercely before .

writing 13 7

5. Chang e long words and phrases to shorter ones where possible. The feathere d avian s expresse d thei r approbatio n o f th e intrepidity of their quadruped adversary . The chickens praised th e courage of the bear. 6. Mak e sure you kno w th e exac t meanings o f the words you us e and use them in appropriate contexts . The chickens exalted the courage of the bear. The chickens praised (o r extolled) the courage of the bear. 7. Preserv e the unity of each sentence and each paragraph. In other words, each sentence should have one subject and each paragraph .should deal with a single topic. The chickens praised th e courag e an d thei r cockerel s admired the battle strategy of the bear. The chicken s praise d th e courag e o f th e bear . Thei r cockerels admired its battle strategy. 8. Kee p the reader in mind all the time when you ar e writing and try t o writ e i n suc h a wa y tha t h e o r sh e wil l understand . As k yourself: Will this be clear to someone else? Presentation and layout

The wa y a piec e o f writin g look s o n th e pag e ca n b e nearl y a s important a s wha t i t contains . I f material looks unattractive, i t will not be read except by those who have to read it. Even then, it will not make s o grea t a n impac t a s i t wil l i f i t i s carefull y se t ou t an d attractively presented . Generally speaking: The more space that can be allowed the better Handwritten material must be clearly legible Margins should be generous Spacing between paragraphs and sections of the material should be similarly unstinting.

138 • Headless ctiicketts, Laidback Bears

Headings, wher e used , shoul d b e clea r an d helpfu l t o th e reader . There ar e man y occasions , fo r instanc e i n certai n kinds o f reports , when lettering or numbering headings ca n be additionally helpful. Final Analysis of Written Material s

Before i t i s regarde d a s bein g finall y finished , a piec e o f writin g should b e checked carefully . Th e following questions indicat e som e of the points t o be considered i n doing this : 1. Ar e there any unnecessary repetitions ? 2. I s each part of the whole complete in itself? 3. I s each part in the right place? 4. I s any part irrelevant or in need o f rewriting? 5. Hav e any important details been overlooked? 6. I s there any ambiguity? 7. Ha s the reader been kept in mind al l the time? 8. I s th e whol e arrangemen t o f the materia l exactly suited t o th e purpose i n writing? 9. Doe s the material read smoothly? 10. I s it a complete and well-ordere d whole ?

cirapf er TuerJfy ?our

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

We now turn our attention to information exchanged by means of the spoken word . Le t u s firs t o f all , however , loo k a t th e natur e o f listening skills and consider how they may be improved an d help in the transformation from headless chicken to laidback bear. The Nature of Listenin g Skills

Of al l the communication skills, none has been more neglected than listening. Ther e is almos t n o trainin g i n listenin g provide d i n ou r schools an d colleges . Such littl e training as doe s occu r take s place incidentally during training in oral expression. Yet our ability in aural comprehension probabl y provide s u s wit h th e basi s o f most o f our knowledge an d awarenes s of the peopl e an d th e worl d aroun d us . Headless chicken s never listen. They are too busy keeping busy. Differences between hearing and listening

As the terms are used in this chapter, 'hearing' is a passive, rando m accidental activit y an d 'listening ' i s active , purposefu l an d systematic. We hear all the sounds that there are to be heard, waking or sleeping; we listen to the particular sounds which either catch our attention or are communicating something we want to know. All thos e o f us wh o ar e no t actuall y deaf ca n hear; very few o f u s have develope d th e essential skill s of listening tha t we increasingl y need in a world in which the spoken word is rapidly becoming more 139

140 Headless cKickefts, Lafdback Bears

important than the written. If we do not develop our listening skills , we fai l t o operat e wit h ful l effectivenes s a s students , workers , managers, citizen s or anything else. The importance o f the ability to liste n

Without efficient listenin g skill s we can never be sure that we have properly understoo d wha t w e hav e bee n listenin g to . I n speec h things ar e sai d onc e onl y an d i f w e mis s the m w e hav e n o opportunity t o liste n t o the m again . Thi s i s true o f many lectures , meetings, speeche s and broadcasts. In lectures and man y kinds o f meetings, we have to be able to listen sufficiently wel l to be able to remember, an d recal l when necessary , important thing s tha t have bee n said . Thi s kind o f listening, a s w e shall see, is closely associated wit h the activity of notemaking. At a time whe n s o much is being communicate d t o us by means of the spoken word, we have to be able to discriminate and evaluate the relative significance an d importanc e of a variety of utterances.

Critical listening is an essential component of efficient listening. Seven Kinds of Listenin g

The listening activities we encounter fall into seven groups: Simple listenin g

This categor y include s suc h everyda y activitie s a s telephon e conversations, talkin g wit h friend s an d othe r conversationa l situations i n whic h th e listenin g i s part o f a more importan t socia l interaction rather than an activity in its own right. There is often little information of significance being communicated i n such situations .

LisfeMiMg aH4 Speaking 141

Discriminative listenin g

This ter m cover s situation s i n whic h yo u ar e tryin g t o separat e sounds heard , s o tha t no t al l th e availabl e sound s ar e listene d to . Picking on e soun d ou t fro m others , fo r instance , tryin g t o identif y one bird singin g amon g man y or trying to listen t o what on e person is sayin g a t a nois y party , coul d b e describe d a s discriminativ e listening. Listening for relaxatio n

Here th e activit y is ver y clos e t o mer e hearin g becaus e th e ac t of relaxing i s what i s important an d th e listening - t o poetry, stories , recordings, broadcasts and the like - is secondary. You are listening i. order t o rela x and hav e th e min d an d th e attentio n diverte d fro m everything else , rather than relaxing in order to listen. Listening for information

This i s on e o f th e mai n form s o f th e active , purposeful, systematic listening referre d t o earlie r an d i s th e kin d o f activit y required fo r assimilating announcements , listenin g t o lectures , an d s o on . I t i s important here , a s i n th e othe r kind s o f listenin g whic h follow , t o know a s clearly as possible wha t i t is that you requir e to know fro m the source being listened to. Listening to organis e ideas

In situations like lectures, discussion s and meetings it is important t o be abl e t o discriminat e betwee n on e person' s voic e an d another's , and t o listen effectively fo r information. In addition, i t is essential to be abl e t o organis e you r thought s an d idea s abou t th e informatio n and t o sort out mentall y the relationships betwee n variou s pieces of information an d ideas expressed . Yo u must b e abl e t o asses s th e relative significanc e an d importanc e of the variou s facts , idea s an d opinions encountered , s o tha t yo u emerg e wit h a coheren t an d meaningful menta l picture of what the lecture, discussion o r meeting has been about . Unless you can organise both your own thoughts i n this way an d th e expresse d thought s o f others, yo u ar e a t a seriou s disadvantage durin g many forms o f social interaction.

142 Headless CKicketfs, tailback Bears

Critical listening

In many ways, critical listening is similar to critical reading. Particular attention shoul d be given, when listening critically , to both one's own purposes i n listening (e.g . 'What do I need t o know?') and t o others ' purposes in speaking (e.g. 'What are they trying to tell me?'). Attention should als o b e pai d t o th e problem s o f identifyin g bias , emotion , exaggeration, propaganda an d th e lik e i n wha t othe r peopl e say . In these ways one is better equipped to reach an objective assessment . Creative listenin g

In listening to music, drama, films and similar aesthetic experiences, there i s mor e involvemen t tha n mer e listenin g fo r pleasur e o r relaxation. Th e abilit y t o discriminat e betwee n soun d pattern s i s often required , as , for instance, i n listenin g t o music. The ability to assimilate the informatio n contained i n what i s being listened t o is important, a s is the ability to organise the facts, ideas, themes and so on into meaningful wholes. Above all, for the greatest enjoyment and satisfaction t o be obtained, the critical faculties shoul d be active and the whole artistic creation appreciated i n its total context. The more you know about a work, its creator, its predecessors, its philosophical or theoretica l stimulus an d it s technique, th e better your judgment and the more creatively fulfilling you r listening will be. People lik e student s and manager s wil l clearl y be interested i n the fourth, fift h an d sixt h kind s o f listenin g describe d above . Bu t i f listening skills are to be fully developed , there must be practice in all kinds o f listening, rathe r than a special concentration only on thos e which appea r t o be directly relevant t o one's work or one's studies. In this way, breadth as well as depth i s obtained an d you ar e better able to develop a flexible, systematic approach to listening. Listening is one of the laidback bear's favourite activities.

Lisf eMirtg aM<* SpeakiMg 143

Methods o f Improvin g Listening Skill s

Seven method s o f improvin g listenin g skill s ar e outline d here . Together the y provid e a basi s fo r a systematic , efficien t an d developmental approac h to listening. Notemaking

The efficien t listene r wil l alway s mak e note s wher e thi s ca n con veniently b e don e withou t inhibitin g th e perso n wh o i s speaking . Memory i s notoriousl y unreliabl e and , especiall y i f referenc e ma y later have to be made to what has been said , a record of the content in note form ca n be invaluable.

Notes should b e as concise as possible and should concentrate o n th e main points. Necessary details should be included within this framework. The aim should b e t o produc e a short , coheren t summar y o f the conten t of what ha s bee n said . Th e ac t o f preparing thes e note s wil l hel p t o improve the quality of the listening itself i n many ways. Defining purpose s in listenin g

It is as important to know your purposes clearl y when listening as it is in any other activity. Three factors will help you to define purposes . 1. Th e nature o f th e materia l being listene d to. Form and content , length, relevance, etc. 2. Th e reason for listening t o it . Why thi s particula r material wa s selected, ho w muc h informatio n i s require d fro m it , ho w th e information wil l be used, etc. 3. Expectation s in listening. What you expect to hear an d ho w thi s satisfies reason s fo r listening , ho w usefu l th e informatio n i s expected t o be , ho w eas y o r difficul t t o understand , ho w interesting or dull, how entertainin g or serious, etc.

144 Headless CKtcketfs, LaMback Bears

After listening , th e materia l should b e reviewe d an d som e assess ment mad e o f ho w fa r you r purpose s wer e satisfie d an d you r expectations met . Yo u shoul d als o conside r ho w fa r definin g purposes an d expectation s beforehan d i n thi s wa y improve s th e quality and efficienc y o f your listening. Active involvement in listenin g

Because listenin g i s a receptiv e activity , lik e reading , i t i s eas y t o allow i t t o becom e passive . Thi s leads t o a loss o f listening ability , with consequen t effect s o n th e abilit y to base effectiv e decision s o n what has been listened to. Active involvement is essential for efficient listenin g and mos t of the methods offere d her e fo r improving listenin g skill s depen d upo n it for thei r success . Instea d o f simpl y sittin g bac k an d lettin g th e information hi t your eardrums , yo u should be actively listening for the information that will satisfy you r purposes an d expectations , as well as for information that is unexpected but relevant. Attentiveness

This i s th e basi s o f activ e involvement an d a n effectiv e counte r t o passivity. Your whole attention should, a s far as possible, be given to whatever i s bein g listene d to . Onl y i n thi s wa y ca n a prope r assimilation an d understandin g o f th e informatio n presente d b e obtained. Distractions should be avoided and notemaking will help to achieve this . 'Doodling ' whe n makin g note s shoul d b e avoided , though it may be an indication that whatever is being listened to does not command the attention sufficiently an d may not even be satisfying your purposes in listening enough to be worth continuing listening to. Sensitivity

A perceptiv e listene r mus t b e sensitiv e t o man y aspect s o f th e material he is listening to. It is not enough simpl y to be aware of the nature o f the content , ho w i t i s organise d an d th e purpose s o f th e speaker as well as of the listener. There are a number of other factor s you must also be sensitive to:

Listening aH<* Speakirtg 145

1. Ton e of voice. This can totally alter the significance of a statement. 2. Choic e o f words . Man y word s hav e simila r meanings , bu t th e slight differences between the m ca n be critical. 3. Timing . When somethin g i s said ca n b e a s important a s how it is said. 4. Th e speaker . Ther e ar e man y way s i n whic h a speaker' s personality can affect wha t is said and its significance. One person says something and regardless of tone of voice, choice of words o r something else , it is taken as a joke; another person say s the same thing and offends people . 5. Th e method of soun d transmission . In th e cas e of broadcasts or recordings, th e meanin g an d significanc e o f somethin g ca n b e enhanced o r impaired by th e natur e o f the means t o convey it. A speech wil l soun d quit e differen t whe n hear d ove r a loudhaile r outdoors fro m ho w i t will sound o n a good-quality tape recorder in a lounge. 6. You r own rol e in encouraging easy , fluent interaction. A listener can hel p a speake r immensel y b y showin g a n activ e interest i n what i s being sai d an d by smiling , nodding an d agreein g a t the appropriate points. Pattern of organisation

Except perhap s fo r long , ramblin g conversation s o f a personal , intimate nature , ever y discours e ha s a patter n o f organisation . A speaker want s t o sa y somethin g an d h e organise s i t int o a n acceptable form before he begins to speak. If he does not, he may fai l altogether t o communicat e wit h hi s listeners . I n th e cas e o f broadcasts, piece s o f musi c an d othe r recordings , th e presenc e of pattern will be even more evident. The efficient listene r must be able to identif y th e patter n whic h ha s bee n impose d upo n wha t h e i s listening to. It will often tak e the following form: 1. Introduction . The subject o r theme is briefly state d o r outlined.

146 Headless c«ickeffs, Laidback Bears

2. Development. The subject or theme is explored, discussed oriscussed orttj. explained i n greate r detai l alon g th e line s indicate d i n th e introduction.. 3. Conclusion . Th e conclusion s draw n i n th e developmen t ar e restated fo r emphasis, or the audienc e is shown ho w th e outlin e given in the introduction ha s been treated an d given substance . There are many variations which can be based on this simple pattern, but you should be able to identify thes e three basic elements in most of the material you encounter . Critical listenin g

The advice given in Part 3, Chapter 22 on critical reading applies here as well and nee d not , therefore , b e repeated. The main point whic h needs to be emphasised is that you should listen critically at all times. Effective Speakin g

Many people receive invitations to speak at meetings or conferences, or serv e o n committee s o r stud y groups . Fo r thos e wh o ar e inexperienced in putting over a point of view, a methodical approach can save time and produce the confidence necessary for effective oral communication. One such approach is the SPEAKER method, which I have devised. It has six sections: Selection of subject Preparation and Examination Audience assessment Keeping it brief. Expression Rehearsal Selection of subjec t

If the choice is yours, select a theme which will enable you to convey some of your interest in it to your audience.

LisfeMirtg aMct SpeaktMg 147

Preparation and Examinatio n

You wil l spea k mor e effectivel y i f you ar e thoroughl y familia r no t only with the actual content of your speech but als o with the topic in general. Examin e your subjec t fro m al l possible angles, so that yo u can approach it in a new way for your audience. Select no more than half a dozen main points t o make. Audience assessment

You should know :

how many people you will be speaking to their approximate age range whether mal e or female or both whether the occasion will be formal or informal the kind o f room or hall you will be speaking in any peculiar features about the audience. Keeping it bri.e f

This is perhaps. the most important feature of the construction of any speech or lecture. The plan of your speech will be: 1. Introduction . Tell them what you wil l be talking about. 2. Bod y of the speech. Develop your points (n o more than six). 3. Conclusion . A brief summar y of the main points made. Expression

Speak naturall y an d avoi d bot h overformalit y an d a to o casua l approach. Speak with the ai d of notes but hav e a full transcrip t ready in case you 'dry up 7. Number the sheets of your notes and the points you wish to make clearly, so that you do not confuse the order i n which you want to say things.

148 Headless chicken's, Laidback Bears

Speak distinctly so that people at the back can hear you, but do not shout. Avoid mannerisms and poses and too much walking about. Use concrete examples, illustrations and (i f they come naturally to you) anecdotes to reinforce the points you are making. Rehearsal

Whenever possible, practise your speech beforehand in private or in front o f a sympatheti c but critica l friend. A tape recorde r i s usefu l here as it will tell you how you will sound to your audience. Oral Reports, Presentations an d Briefing s

Basically, ther e i s little differenc e betwee n a written repor t an d a n oral report (or presentation or briefing). What differences there are lie in the deliver y o f the report , rathe r tha n in the stages that preced e this. The work o n which a n ora l report i s based o r the information collected ma y well be the same as that for a written report . An oral report should be planned in a similar way to a written report, dividing itsel f int o three basic sections: 1. Introduction . 2. Bod y of the report. 3. Conclusion . To put it simply: in the introduction you will tell your audience whatnce whatt you are going to speak about or show them; in the body of the report you wil l tell them accuratel y and logicall y all that you wan t t o say about the particular subject, and show them your charts, graphs an d other aids; and in the conclusion you will summarise what you have said an d shown , pickin g ou t th e mos t importan t point s fo r furthe r emphasis and repetition. The mai n difference s betwee n ora l an d writte n report s li e i n th e manner in which you speak. In a written report, slang and colloquial

Lisfertitfg atf<* SpeakiiJg 149

expressions ar e completel y inappropriate , bu t thi s ma y no t b e th e case with all oral reports . You should talk to your audience in the manner which seems most natural and most likely to establish a favourable relationship between them and yourself. If yo u don' t establis h thi s relationship, you wil l have the feelin g tha t you hav e no t secure d th e ful l attentio n o f your audience , an d thi s is bound t o affect you r ability to put acros s effectively wha t you have to say. Oral reports or lectures should neve r be read. You should tak e notes on what you want to say, using similar headings t o those you would use in a written report, and use them as a guide to what you want to tell your audience. The purpose of notes lies in preventing you forgetting any important part of your report, rather than in providing you with the actual words to use. No attempt should b e made to memorise the report (this will make it sound unnatural, dull and uninteresting), althoug h it does help if you can give a 'practice' talk beforehand when alone, or in the presence of a colleague who can be trusted to listen, criticise sympathetically an d suggest improvements. This increases confidence. Here are several further hint s to successful publi c speaking: 1. I f your mouth feel s dr y befor e yo u start , an d ther e i s no glas s of water handy, relax your lower jaw, letting your lips scarcely touch each other, for a few moments. You will feel your mouth watering and the dryness will disappear. Alternatively, suck a fruit swee t or

150 Headless cKicketfs, Laidback Bears

chew som e gu m befor e goin g int o th e roo m o r hal l wher e th e speech is to be made. 2. Remembe r the value of the pause i n letting an important item of information sin k in . D o no t rus h fro m statemen t t o statemen t fearing tha t a pause mean s yo u hav e ru n dry . Never spea k to o quickly, an d d o no t us e lon g words i f shorter one s wil l suit th e purpose. 3. Us e statistic s carefully . Cu t the m dow n t o a minimu m a s the y rarely register when merely spoken. Put them in a handout o r on a slid e or overhea d projecto r transparency an d le t them mak e a visual impact. 4. Avoi d mannerisms and poses. Do not wander about restlessly bu t move easily. Do not fiddle with your notes or other objects. 5. Trea t your audience as human beings. Talk to them rather than at them an d d o not tal k to the wall at the back of the room, o r the window, ignorin g you r audience . Maintai n 'ey e contact ' wit h members of the audience. These point s ma y hel p a little , bu t th e mai n guide s t o follo w i n delivering a n ora l report , presentatio n o r briefin g (o r speakin g i n public generally) are: 1. Kno w thoroughly what you are talking about. 2. Prepar e your material carefully an d spea k with the aid of notes. 3. Practis e wha t yo u ar e goin g t o sa y a t leas t onc e privatel y beforehand.

arapf er TueMfy frVe

SOCIAL SKILLS

The intention here is to expound briefl y something o f what is known about ho w an d wh y peopl e behav e th e wa y the y d o i n socia l situations. Thi s is done in the belief that this knowledge wil l help you to be more effective tha n a headless chicke n in social interaction. And to be more like a persuasive laidback bear. How People Interact with Eac h Othe r

Social behaviou r i s produce d b y a t leas t seve n type s o f drive s o r motivating forces: 1. Biologica l drive s whic h ca n produc e socia l interaction . Fo r instance, the need fo r food an d water. 2. Dependenc y drives . Th e nee d fo r th e help , protectio n an d guidance of others.

3. Affiliatio n drives . The need t o be accepted and like d by others. 4. Dominanc e drives. The need t o lead or control others. 5. Se x drives . The nee d fo r physica l proximity , bodily contac t an d intimacy, usually with attractive members of the opposite sex . 6. Aggressio n drives . Th e desir e t o attac k othe r peopl e t o accep t your picture of yourself as valid. 7. Self-estee m drives . Th e nee d fo r othe r peopl e t o accep t you r picture of yourself as valid. The motivatio n produce d b y thes e drive s doe s no t alway s operat e the same way every time. For instance, biological needs seem to have 151

152 Headless CHickens, Laidback Bears

equilibrium levels . Imbalance s ca n b e satisfie d b y obtaining , fo r example, foo d an d water . Thi s doe s no t appea r t o appl y t o som e other drives, like sex, where more can in fact increase your appetite . Motivation can be conscious or unconscious. The effect o f hypnotism is an example of the creation of unconscious motivation and there are other ways in which people ca n remain unaware of the reasons for a particular motivation to do something. One is the hidden influence of advertising in creating demand fo r various goods and services . The degre e o f arousa l an d satisfactio n o f variou s drive s ca n affect motivation and henc e behaviour. There is usually an optimum level of arousal, whic h is lower with complex activities, an d beyond whic h the effort to satisfy the drive becomes progressively less effective. Arousal is stronger when the incentive is larger, when the object of the motivatio n is wanted greatly and when its probability of being achieved is greater. There ar e interrelationship s betwee n variou s socia l drives. Aggression, for example, i s related to dominance an d to low affiliation, bu t authoritarian personalities ca n be dominatin g o r dependen t o n different occasions . Communication With and Without Word s

The socia l skill s tha t peopl e us e includ e a wid e rang e o f levels of communication. Thes e elements , whic h ar e combine d int o genera l patterns of behaviour, are as follows: 1. Bod y contact. For example, hand-shaking, patting on the back and caressing. 2. Proximit y an d orientation . For example , i f on e perso n i s talle r than another i t puts him in a dominating position, and how close a person i s allowed to approach will depend upo n th e degre e of mutual acceptance . 3. Gestures . These help particularly to show emotional states.

Social Skills 153

4. Facia l expressions . These to o ca n indicat e emotional states , an d such things a s perspiration can reveal nervous tension. Smiles are particularly important in getting along well with other people. 5. Ey e movements. Th e kind of factors which ar e important here are where the eyes are looking and fo r how long , whether the gaze is furtive o r open , an d ho w muc h ey e contac t occur s betwee n individuals - the greater this is, the greater the degree of intimacy. 6. Non-verba l aspects of speech. These include silences, errors , 'ers', tone of voice, loudness, pitch, speed of speaking, voice quality and smoothness. 7. Speech. We use speec h to serve a wide range of purposes: askin g questions, conveying information, giving instructions, influencin g the behaviour of others by persuading, an d s o on. When these elements are combined into general styles of behaviour, they produce examples like the following : The affillative style

The individua l i s war m an d friendly . H e allow s othe r peopl e t o dominate. Sinc e usuall y a n intimat e relationshi p develop s onl y if those involve d ca n interac t mor e o r les s i n th e wa y the y want , h e tends t o b e successfu l socially . H e avoid s disagreement s abou t beliefs, attitude s an d almos t anythin g else . H e steer s topic s o f conversation towards common bonds or interests. He treats others as equals and reward s them, for example, by taking an interest in them. His socia l interactio n wil l contai n hig h proportion s o f physica l proximity, certain kinds of bodily contact (such as pats on the back), eye contact, smiling, friendl y tone s o f voice an d conversatio n abou t personal topics. It i s possibl e t o establis h a friendl y relationshi p wit h almos t any body, but thi s entails further line s of action, suc h a s not disagreeing, being mor e pleasan t t o the m o r bein g submissive , whic h ma y no t always be palatable i f you hav e t o make friend s with someon e you dislike. I t i s als o worth notin g that , i f techniques ar e overdone , th e

154 Headless CKickens, Laidback Bears

other person will 'run away'. It is essential to note the reactions of the other person and to react appropriately. The dominant styl e

Dominant peopl e ten d t o tal k loud , fas t an d mos t o f the tim e i n a confident tone of voice. They interrupt others and control the topic of conversation. The y nee d t o combin e sufficien t warmt h wit h thes e elements to avoid others withdrawing. Generally speaking , dominan t technique s onl y lea d t o a dominan t relationship whe n combine d wit h affiliativ e techniques , an d th e combination generates a more acceptable pattern of social behaviour. It i s possible t o dominate , o r influenc e another' s behaviour , by th e systematic rewardin g o f the desire d behaviour immediatel y afte r i t takes place, and th e non-reward o r punishment o f other behaviour . Rewards base d o n th e nee d fo r affiliatio n includ e smiling , ey e contact, agreement , head-nodding , etc . Punishmen t migh t includ e frowning, lookin g away , lookin g bored , lookin g a t a watch , disagreeing, etc . Other reward s an d punishment s ca n be based o n needs fo r dominance , dependency , sex , o r acceptanc e o f th e self image. Another method of influence is to change the definition of the situation, suggestin g tha t it is not what the other thought i t was (for example, indicating that it is a party so they should be cheerful, o r it is a seriou s meetin g s o they shoul d sto p bein g funny , o r ther e ar e strangers present so they should be more discreet). Other minor social styles

These involve , fo r example , 'presence ' a s oppose d t o 'informality ' and the ability to establish 'rapport'. Motivation is the main factor i n the choice of social skills and styles . It is known that extroverts have stronger affiliative needs than others. Among the othe r thing s tha t w e know abou t how peopl e us e their social skills is the fact that women engage in more eye contact and are more dependent o n vision in social encounters than men.

Social Skills 155

What Happens When Peopl e Meet

The ways in which we normally categorise people - sex, age, social class, 'warmth' or 'coldness', introverts or extroverts, variations in anxiety or neuroticism, attitudes to authority - all determine the selection of social skills in dealing with differen t kind s of people. Introverts, for instance, respond better to praise and extroverts to blame. When two people meet , th e lengt h an d frequenc y o f their meeting s will generall y depen d o n the reward s eac h receives from th e other . They ma y hav e t o balanc e thei r socia l skill s an d thi s ma y mea n departing somewha t fro m thei r preferre d techniques . Fo r smoot h interaction, synchronisation i s necessary in: 1. th e amount of speech each allows the other ; 2. th e speed o r tempo of interaction; 3. wh o i s allowed to dominate ; 4. th e degree of intimacy between them ; 5. th e amoun t of co-operation and competition ; 6. th e emotional tone of the interaction; 7. th e task and procedure (for example, resolving problems of wanting to do different thing s or do the same thing in different ways). When two people mee t who ar e never likel y to meet again , there is also a 'stranger value' which may increase the amount an d spee d of self-disclosure. Thi s applie s particularl y whe n o n holida y o r i n interviews. Normally , i t take s longe r period s o f interactio n t o produce greate r self-disclosure . Eve n th e superficia l detail s ar e disclosed mos t easily , thoug h i f tw o peopl e ar e isolate d intimat e disclosure is increased, as it is if the disclosures are mutual. Before meetin g someone , wha t yo u ar e tol d abou t a perso n conditions your attitude and behaviour towards them. If you are told a person is friendly, then you will act in a friendly way and will evoke the same response in the other.

156 Headless chickens, tailback Bears

Quarrels ar e ofte n th e resul t o f failure s t o synchronis e i n a n increasingly intimat e situation . Th e mos t importan t factor s i n friendship, fo r instance, are as follows : 1. Peopl e must meet, and in many cases the more frequently they do, the more they will tend t o like each other. 2. Eac h person must significantly satisfy th e needs of the other. 3. Peopl e wit h simila r value s an d interest s wil l ten d t o lik e eac h other. Th e intens e conformit y amon g group s o f teenager s an d students ma y explai n wh y friendship s mad e the n ar e s o long lasting. 4. Peopl e with similar personality traits will tend to like each other. 5. Opposite s ca n attrac t eac h othe r when , fo r instance , on e i s dominant and the other submissive. 6. A similar proces s ca n occu r when on e confirm s th e other' s role (for example , pupil an d teacher). 7. On e person will tend to like another if he sees that the other likes him. 8. On e person may like another if he sees he can be helpful o r usefu l to him and may even establish a 'reciprocity' each doing things for the other. There is a small statistical tendency for people high in the following traits to be more popular than those who are low: 1. Extraversion . Having a lively and outgoin g personality . 2. Emotiona l adjustment. Being emotionally stable and no t moody. 3. Socia l sensitivity . Expresse d i n suc h thing s a s consideration fo r others an d bein g able to see things fro m othe r people's points of view. 4. Intelligence .

Social Skills 157

But more important are the following : 1. Th e exten t t o whic h a perso n conform s t o grou p norm s (i.e. , behaves a s other members o f the group behave). 2. Th e exten t to which a person manifests the ideal s o f th e grou p (i.e., ha s th e sam e aim s an d principle s a s othe r member s o f th e group). 3. Th e exten t t o whic h a perso n contribute s t o th e group' s activities. This explain s wh y a person ca n be highly popula r i n on e grou p o r social setting, but completel y rejected i n another. How groups behav e

Dyads (group s o f tw o people ) ar e les s stabl e tha n large r groups . There is more danger of the interaction collapsing and ther e are more signs o f tension. However , ther e is usually les s expression o f agreement and disagreement . Triads (group s o f thre e people ) sho w variou s kind s o f interna l competition and jockeyin g fo r position. If there ar e three men, ther e is likely to be a straight battl e for dominance. I f there ar e two male s and on e female , th e males will normally compete fo r the attention of the female. If, however, ther e are three females, and one is left out, th e others will generally work to keep her in. If there is one powerful an d dominating member o f a triad, th e other s ma y for m a coalition an d combine agains t him. As group siz e increases fro m fou r t o ten it becomes les s easy t o participate an d influenc e wha t th e other s will do there is a greater discrepancy between th e amount of interaction of different member s (i n larg e group s th e majorit y ma y scarcel y speak a t all)

158 Headless chickens, Laidback Bears

there are greater differences i n styles of behaviour there is often mor e expression of disagreement there is usually more division of labour if there is work to do. Most people prefer to belong to a group of five or six, since this gives them variety while they can still exert influence over the others. Groups develop definit e 'peckin g orders' i n terms of the amoun t of speech an d influenc e permitte d t o eac h member . Technique s o f reward and punishment, o f the kind discussed earlier , can be used to maintain the hierarchy. Norms of behaviour are developed an d there are pressures to conform, with rejectio n if any individual fail s to . A deviate (on e who refuse s t o confor m t o grou p norms ) becomes th e object o f considerabl e attentio n an d o f effort s t o persuad e hi m t o change his behaviour. There is an exception for people o f very high informal status by virtue of their contribution to the group. They earn 'idiosyncrasy credit', or permission to deviate. An example would be the 'clown ' wh o doe s outrageou s things , bu t i n suc h a wa y a s t o make people laugh. The natur e o f th e tas k th e grou p ha s t o fac e i s a majo r facto r i n determining th e statu s hierarch y an d genera l behaviour . I f grou p members are to share equally in the group product, they will tend to cooperate; i f th e bes t performe r i s t o tak e all , the y wil l ten d t o compete. Under a cooperativ e motivation , grou p member s hel p eac h othe r more, ther e i s mor e divisio n o f labou r an d the y com e t o lik e on e another. Under competition, hostile attitudes often develop .

S«cial Skills 159

Headless chickens become very agitated under conditions of competition. Laidback bears take things in their stride. They know that cooperation leads to a much more relaxed and productive approach, and this is the ultimate goal of all laidback bears.

INDEX charisma, 3 9 chronemics, 1 , 2 comprehension, 15,110 , 112-114, 123,130,139 concentration, 87-88, 90, 98, 111 , 124,142 Conflicts Ove r Time Use, 95 Content, 67 , 68,114 Contexts, 8 , 63, 69 continuation, 8 1 convergent thinking , 40,10 5 creative thinking, 34 , 106,107 critical analysis of performance, 67 critical incidents, 45, 46, 47, 48,

Acceleration and Deceleration , 90 accurate feedback, 7 , 11, 14, 73, 81 activities, 2-4, 7-8,11,14, 15, 1720, 23-25, 34, 37, 47, 51-55, 59, 61-62, 65, 74, 75, 88, 90, 93, 95, 112,113, 140, 152, 157 Activity Overloads, 9 1 adequate incubatio n periods , 33-35 anticipation, 28, 41, 52, 124 anticipatory scanning techniques, 4, 21, 22-25, 74, 84,88 Artificially Induce d Urgency, 92 attention, 4 , 16-17, 21-22, 27, 29, 35, 81, 83, 87-88, 117,121, 123, 124, 127, 130, 132 , 134 135, 139 , 141-142, 144,149 , 157-158 Attitudes, 8, 63, 69

49, 74, 85

daydreaming, 19, 43 deadline, 10 , 17-19, 83 , 90, 92 Deciding Direction, 94 diary, 18, 23, 54, 82 Discretionary Time, 93 divergent thinking, 40,104,105 , 108 downtime, 54 , 57-60, 75, 85

Bible, 48 brainstorming, 35, 108 Buddha, 48

Edward de Bono, 9 Effects o f Speed o n Skill Levels, 91 errors, 10,15,16, 23, 35, 37, 52, 54, 73, 83, 102, 128,153

Chambers Etymologica l Englis h Dictionary, 17, 49 Changing Perception s o f Time, 95 161

162 Headless cuickeffs, Lafdback Sears

Evaluation, 8, 63, 64, 67-69,115 exercises, 5, 9, 29, 31, 35, 42, 47, 49, 54, 55, 59 experiments, 54, 55, 59 fatigue, 89, 90, 93 faults, 9, 67, 73, 102, 114 feedback, 7-11 , 20, 23, 73, 83, 88, 97 flexibility, 40, 45, 61, 63, 75, 120, 122,128 flexible performance strategies, 63, 75, 84, 88 flow rate, 13-16, 23, 73, 83, 88 forecasting, 23 groups, 79,146,156,157,158 headless chicken , 2, 5,11, 16,19, 55, 57, 60, 70, 77, 81, 82, 83, 87, 89, 91, 96,123, 139,151 Horace Walpole, 39 imaginative and intuitive responses, 40 , 41, 42, 43, 74, 88 imaginative responses, 41, 84 incubation, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 48, 74, 84, 94,106,131,132 information density , 14, 53 Intentions, 67, 68,115 Koran, 48 La Rochefoucault, 48 laidback bear, 5,11,16, 20, 25, 31, 37, 55, 57, 60, 65, 70, 73,

77, 78, 85, 87, 89, 91, 94, 99, 122, 139,151 learning curve, 34 learning periods, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 74, 85 listening, 42 , 58, 139-146 Mao Tse Tung, 48 Marcus Aurelius, 48 Methods, 8, 63, 64, 69,142 mini-deadlines, 74, 84 motivation, 9, 77-79,114, 151 , 152,158 Murphy's Law, 23, 58 nonverbal signals, 55 notebook, 11,14, 15, 98 Objectives, 8, 63, 64, 69 Ongoing, 8 , 63, 64, 69 PACER, 122,125 PAPA-ROMEO-OSCAR, 8, 63 Performance Analysis, 8, 63, 69, 70 Personal Skills, 4 PLACE, 24 planning, 22-23, 28, 30, 34, 40, 47, 53, 57, 59, 79, 97,131,132 plateaux, 46, 47 previewing, 24,124,125 problem solving, 34 problems, 2, 36, 40, 41, 54, 55, 57, 71, 82, 85, 93, 97, 98,101, 103-105,107, 142, 155 procrastination, 19, 33, 77 public contact, 53

i*)4e£ 16 3

reading, 3, 4, 13-15, 22, 24, 28, 34, 42, 45-48, 58, 97,109-125, 130, 133,142,144, 146 regression, 15,112 , 121 Resources, 8, 63, 69 Responding to Emergencies, 91 Review, 8, 63, 64, 69, 70, 88, 90, 123 risk, 81, 84, 90 selective perception o f cues, 27, 52,84 serendipity, 39, 51 setting deadlines, 19 short cuts, 83-85 skilled performers, 7 , 24, 28 Skills, 8, 63, 69, 139, 142 skimming, 24,112,117,121,123125 sleeping, 48,139 social interaction, 140,141,151, 153 social skills, 152, 154, 155 SPEAKER, 146 speaking, 10, 53, 61, 138, 142, 143, 147,149,150,153,154 speed, 1-4 , 7,13-16, 22, 27, 28, 30, 33, 34, 51, 53, 65, 83, 85, 89-91, 96, 99, 109, 110-113, 115,120-121, 123-125, 130, 153, 155 Steve Ovett, 40 Subvocalisation, 112

techniques, 1-5,16,18 , 21, 25, 33, 40, 52, 53, 68, 73, 77, 79, 81, 83, 85, 87, 96,105,106, 108,112,118,123,125,127, 153-155 thinking, 9, 22, 23, 40, 41, 58, 69, 74, 82, 94, 98,101-107 Time Creation, 1-4 time creation techniques, 5,11, 14, 20, 41, 47, 51-53, 55, 71, 73,99 time wasters, 97-98 timing and synchronisation , 5155 Treatment, 67, 68,115 TV, 10 , 16, 25, 54, 55, 59, 91 wasted time, 53, 97 way to plan, 23 writers, 34, 48,117, 127, 129,130 writing, 7,15, 18, 23, 34-36, 46, 47,112, 117,118, 120, 127-131 , 132, 134, 137, 138

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