Historical Dictionary of New Zealand (Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East)

Historical Dictionary of New Zealand, Second Edition

Keith Jackson Alan McRobie

The Scarecrow Press

HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF ASIA, OCEANIA, AND THE MIDDLE EAST Edited by Jon Woronoff Asia 1. Vietnam, by William J. Duiker. 1989. Out of print. See No. 27. 2. Bangladesh, 2nd ed., by Craig Baxter and Syedur Rahman. 1996. Out of print. See No. 48. 3. Pakistan, by Shahid Javed Burki. 1991. Out of print. See No. 33. 4. Jordan, by Peter Gubser. 1991 5. Afghanistan, by Ludwig W. Adamec. 1991. Out of print. See No. 47. 6. Laos, by Martin Stuart-Fox and Mary Kooyman. 1992. Out of print. See No. 35. 7. Singapore, by K. Mulliner and Lian The-Mulliner. 1991 8. Israel, by Bernard Reich. 1992 9. Indonesia, by Robert Cribb. 1992. Out of print. See No. 51. 10. Hong Kong and Macau, by Elfed Vaughan Roberts, Sum Ngai Ling, and Peter Bradshaw. 1992 11. Korea, by Andrew C. Nahm. 1993. Out of print. See No. 52. 12. Taiwan, by John F. Copper. 1993. Out of print. See No. 34. 13. Malaysia, by Amarjit Kaur. 1993. Out of print. See No. 36. 14. Saudi Arabia, by J. E. Peterson. 1993. Out of print. See No. 45. 15. Myanmar, by Jan Becka. 1995 16. Iran, by John H. Lorentz. 1995 17. Yemen, by Robert D. Burrowes. 1995 18. Thailand, by May Kyi Win and Harold Smith. 1995. Out of print. See No. 55. 19. Mongolia, by Alan J. K. Sanders. 1996. Out of print. See No. 42. 20. India, by Surjit Mansingh. 1996 21. Gulf Arab States, by Malcolm C. Peck. 1996 22. Syria, by David Commins. 1996. Out of print. See No. 50. 23. Palestine, by Nafez Y. Nazzal and Laila A. Nazzal. 1997 24. Philippines, by Artemio R. Guillermo and May Kyi Win. 1997. Out of print. See No. 54. Oceania 1. Australia, by James C. Docherty. 1992. Out of print. See No. 32. 2. Polynesia, by Robert D. Craig. 1993. Out of print. See No. 39.

3. Guam and Micronesia, by William Wuerch and Dirk Ballendorf. 1994 4. Papua New Guinea, by Ann Turner. 1994. Out of print. See No. 37. 5. New Zealand, by Keith Jackson and Alan McRobie. 1996. Out of print. See No. 56. New Combined Series 25. Brunei Darussalam, by D. S. Ranjit Singh and Jatswan S. Sidhu. 1997 26. Sri Lanka, by S. W. R. de A. Samarasinghe and Vidyamali Samarasinghe. 1998 27. Vietnam, 2nd ed., by William J. Duiker. 1998 28. People’s Republic of China: 1949–1997, by Lawrence R. Sullivan, with the assistance of Nancy Hearst. 1998 29. Afghanistan, 2nd ed., by Ludwig W. Adamec. 1997. Out of print. See No. 47. 30. Lebanon, by As’ad AbuKhalil. 1998 31. Azerbaijan, by Tadeusz Swietochowski and Brian C. Collins. 1999 32. Australia, 2nd ed., by James C. Docherty. 1999 33. Pakistan, 2nd ed., by Shahid Javed Burki. 1999 34. Taiwan (Republic of China), 2nd ed., by John F. Copper. 2000 35. Laos, 2nd ed., by Martin Stuart-Fox. 2001 36. Malaysia, 2nd ed., by Amarjit Kaur. 2001 37. Papua New Guinea, 2nd ed., by Ann Turner. 2001 38. Tajikistan, by Kamoludin Abdullaev and Shahram Akbarzedeh. 2002 39. Polynesia, 2nd ed., by Robert D. Craig. 2002 40. North Korea, by Ilpyong J. Kim. 2003 41. Armenia, by Rouben Paul Adalian. 2002 42. Mongolia, 2nd ed., by Alan J. K. Sanders. 2003 43. Cambodia, by Justin Corfield and Laura Summers. 2003 44. Iraq, by Edmund A. Ghareeb with the assistance of Beth K. Dougherty. 2004 45. Saudi Arabia, 2nd ed., by J. E. Peterson. 2003 46. Nepal, by Nanda R. Shrestha and Keshav Bhattarai. 2003 47. Afghanistan, 3rd ed., by Ludwig W. Adamec. 2003

48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

Bangladesh, 3rd ed., by Craig Baxter and Syedur Rahman. 2003 Kyrgyzstan, by Rafis Abazov. 2004 Syria, 2nd ed., by David Commins. 2004 Indonesia, 2nd ed., by Robert Cribb and Audrey Kahin. 2004 Republic of Korea, 2nd ed., by Andrew C. Nahm and James E. Hoare. 2004 Turkmenistan, by Rafis Abazov. 2005 Philippines, 2nd ed., by Artemio Guillermo. 2005 Thailand, 2nd ed., by Harold E. Smith, Gayla S. Nieminen, and May Kyi Win. 2005 New Zealand, 2nd ed., by Keith Jackson and Alan McRobie. 2005

New Zealand’s Location in the World

Historical Dictionary of New Zealand Second Edition

Keith Jackson Alan McRobie

Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East, No. 56

The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Oxford 2005

SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright © 2005 by Keith Jackson and Alan McRobie Readers should note that the New Zealand flag differs from the Australian flag; it has four five-pointed red stars with white borders, whereas the Australian flag has six white stars, all but one of which has seven points. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Jackson, William Keith, 1928– Historical dictionary of New Zealand / Keith Jackson, Alan McRobie. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East ; 56) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8108-5306-X (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. New Zealand—History—Dictionaries. I. McRobie, Alan. II. Title. III. Series. DU420.J24 2005 993'.003—dc22 2005014631 First edition by Keith Jackson and Alan McRobie, Oceania Historical Dictionaries, No. 5, Scarecrow Press, Lanham, Maryland, 1996 ISBN 0-8108-3086-8

∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.

Contents

List of Maps and Tables

ix

Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff

xi

Preface

xiii

Acronyms

xv

Maps

xvii

Chronology

xxiii

Introduction

lvii

THE DICTIONARY

1

Appendix

355

Glossary of Maori Words

365

Selected Bibliography

369

About the Authors

451

vii

Maps and Tables

MAPS New Zealand’s Location in the World New Zealand in the Southwest Pacific North Island: Physical Features and Main Cities South Island: Physical Features and Main Cities Polynesian Dispersal Patterns as Indicated by Current Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence Principal Localities of Maori Iwi

iv xvii xviii xix xx xxi

TABLES Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9

Population of New Zealand Ethnic Composition of Population Destination of Main Exports Major Commodities Exported Sources of Main Imports State-Owned Enterprises Crown-Owned Companies Crown Research Institutes New Zealand Government Asset Sales, March 1988–November 2004 Table 10 First Ministers, Premiers, and Prime Ministers, 1856–2005

ix

355 356 357 357 357 358 358 359 359 361

Editor’s Foreword

Located far off in the southwest Pacific Ocean, fairly distant even from its closest neighbors, New Zealand has tended to blaze a trail of its own. Like most other countries, the path has not always been straight as its government and people moved in one direction or another. Not so long ago, New Zealand was regarded as a model for the welfare state; now it is being emulated as the latest in a liberal, market economy. Naturally, this has paralleled shifts in political leadership and also more fundamental reforms in the political system. Meanwhile, relations between the indigenous Maori and the immigrant Pakeha have been shifting, as the former demand improvements which are gradually coming. New Zealanders are at the forefront as regards environmentalism and gender equality as well. Thus, while remote, New Zealand has often been not a laggard but a pioneer. This is only one of the intriguing features of a country that is increasingly integrating with nearby Oceania and the broader Pacific region, again a switch from earlier days when the closest ties were with Great Britain. New Zealand’s economy, forced to adapt at all costs, is leading the way. But this is a much broader sea change and, as indicated, the whole political system and social fabric are gradually adjusting. Meanwhile, attracted by its scenic beauty, numerous foreigners are coming to know the country personally with the growth of tourism. However, visitors will only have a superficial view if they do not consider the great variety that exists at all levels throughout the country and also study some history to know not only what New Zealand is like now but how it got there. The same applies to New Zealanders, whether they realize it or not. The main purpose of this second edition of Historical Dictionary of New Zealand is to give outsiders an expanded and updated view of the country, still with some emphasis on how it was shaped and became xi

xii •

EDITOR’S FOREWORD

what it now is. But it covers so many persons, places, and events, and so many political, economic, social, and cultural aspects, that it can also clear up uncertain points for New Zealanders themselves. The best place to start is the general introduction, which puts things in the broader context, followed by the chronology which traces the country’s evolution over time. This then leads to entries on crucial events, and the persons involved in them, and from there to other related topics clearly marked through cross-references. To learn more about those subjects that interest the reader most, turn to the bibliography for advice. This second edition, like the first, was written by two academics who have spent decades both studying and teaching about New Zealand’s history, politics, and society. Keith Jackson, emeritus professor of political science at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, has researched and written extensively on many aspects of New Zealand politics. Alan McRobie, formerly senior lecturer in social sciences at the Christchurch College of Education, taught courses in New Zealand’s history and politics over many years and is a specialist in electoral systems and electoral politics. Anyone who has read the first edition or consults the second will realize that the authors, although academics and providing the necessary rigor in their fields, have written this work in a style that is accessible and with an ethos that is approachable for a very broad public. Jon Woronoff Series Editor

Preface

A second edition has its pitfalls. In a historical context, it seems a deceptively easy task—but much has happened in the 10 years since the first edition and this, combined with the suggestions of the series editor for the new edition, meant that much more was involved than either of the authors originally contemplated. If history involves us largely in making selections from previously selected material, “current history” involves judgments about who, or what, is likely to be enduring. And to the problems of inclusion are added the far more difficult problems of what to omit. Twenty percent of the entries are new to this edition and a great many of entries in the first edition have been substantially enlarged, revised, and updated. Writings by New Zealanders and about New Zealand have continued apace during the past decade and this is reflected in a considerably enlarged bibliography. The tables have also been updated and new ones added. Only the maps remain unchanged from the first edition. Statistics included are the most up-to-date available, most being derived from the New Zealand Official Yearbook 2004, published in October 2004. Inevitably, however, there is a time lag between the date at which the statistics are collected and their publication, so readers are encouraged to make liberal use of the websites included in the bibliography. Overall, we have followed the general guidelines set out for the series. Recent events receive priority treatment over those from the more remote past. Primary emphasis is placed upon history and politics although the number of wider references to contemporary literature, culture, the arts, and the role of women has been increased. Liberal use is made of cross-referencing and an updated comprehensive bibliography is provided for more detailed follow-up information. If there is a theme to the dictionary, it is one of change that has continued unabated since the first edition. In less than 200 years, New xiii

xiv •

PREFACE

Zealand has been transformed from a Maori to a predominantly European society; from a dependent colony, focused on Britain characterized by a cultural “cringe,” to a self-assertive, independent, South Pacific state. In short, New Zealand is in a constant flux of adaptation and experimentation. For example, a new electoral system, modeled on the German system, is transforming New Zealand politics, and fundamental changes in the relationship between Pakeha and Maori is in the process of being worked through as an attempt is made to settle traditional Maori grievances. In seeking to reflect such changes, particularly the increased emphasis now being given to the rich historical tradition of the Maori, we still have to rely upon sources mainly written by non-Maori as Maori histories are only beginning to be written. One of the most valuable sources has been The Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, a five-volume publication that reflects the high quality of recent New Zealand biographical research and which, along with numerous other sources, we have plundered—though, we hasten to add, not plagiarized—in the best settler tradition. We must also reiterate our thanks to Douglas Sutton, editor of The Origins of the First New Zealanders, and the Auckland University Press for permission to reproduce the map of Polynesian dispersal patterns, and to Michelle Rogan, formerly cartographer in the Geography Department, University of Canterbury, for preparing the remaining maps. Last, but by no means least, our deepest thanks again go to our longsuffering partners, Jenny Jackson and June McRobie, as well as to the series editor Jon Woronoff for his help and understanding. Any errors (and we trust they are few) should be attributed to the authors. We hope that this second edition of The Dictionary will prove to be a reasonably enduring and useful signpost both for New Zealanders and overseas readers seeking to know more about our country. Keith Jackson, Christchurch, New Zealand Alan McRobie, Rangiora, New Zealand August 2005

Acronyms

ACC ACT ANZAC ANZAM ANZUS ASEAN ASPAC BNZ CCMAU CE CER CHE CHOGM CIR CMS CNG COC CRI CTU DHB DPB EC ECO EEC EEZ EU FOL

Accident Compensation Corporation Association of Consumers and Taxpayers Australian and New Zealand Army Corps Australia, New Zealand, and Malayan defense region Australia, New Zealand, and United States security treaty Association of South-East Asian Nations Asian and Pacific Council Bank of New Zealand Crown Company Monitoring Advisory Unit Crown Entity Closer Economic Relations (trade agreement between Australia and New Zealand) Crown Health Enterprise (formerly Hospitals) Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting Citizens’ Initiated Referenda Church Missionary Society Compressed Natural Gas Crown-Owned Company Crown Research Institute Council of Trade Unions District Health Board Domestic Purposes Benefit European Community Environmental and Conservation Organisation European Economic Community Exclusive Economic Zone European Union Federation of Labour xv

xvi •

ACRONYMS

FPP GATT GRI GST HART HMS IMF LMS MMP MP MV OECD PACDAC PAYE PBEC SEATO SOE SPARTECA SPEC SS TEAL TLA TRIM TUC TUF UNESCO USS WCTU

First-Past-the-Post (majoritarian) electoral system General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Guaranteed Retirement Income (a form of retirement pension funded through taxation) Goods and Services Tax (a value-added indirect tax levied on all goods and services) Halt All Racist Tours (a pressure group) His (or Her) Majesty’s Ship International Monetary Fund London Missionary Society Mixed Member Proportional electoral system Member of Parliament Motor Vessel Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Public Advisory Committee on Disarmament and Arms Control Pay-As-You-Earn system of collecting direct taxation Pacific Basin Economic Council South-East Asia Treaty Organisation State-Owned Enterprise (commercial activity owned by the government) South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation Steam Ship Tasman Empire Airways Limited (now Air New Zealand) Territorial Local Authority Tax Reduction Integrity Movement Trade Union Congress Trade Union Federation United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation United States Ship Women’s Christian Temperance Union

New Zealand in the Southwest Pacific

North Island: Physical Features and Main Cities

South Island: Physical Features and Main Cities

Polynesian Dispersal Patterns as Indicated by Current Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. Reproduced by permission from Douglas G. Sutton (ed.). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994.

Principal Localities of Maori Iwi

Chronology

c.200 AD Taupo eruption (approximately 150 times larger than Mount St. Helens eruption, 1980, and approximately 8.5 times larger than Krakatoa eruption, 1883). Lake Taupo forms in crater of volcano. c.1100–1400

First settlers begin arriving from central-eastern Polynesia.

c.1350 Eruption of Rangitoto Island. c.1550 Giant moa probably extinct. 1642 Abel Janszoon Tasman sights west coast of New Zealand’s South Island. c.1750 Eruption of Mt. Taranaki (Egmont). 1769–1770 Captain James Cook circumnavigates New Zealand and charts coast. Jean François Marie de Surville passes within 50 kilometers (30 miles) of Cook’s fleet off North Cape. 1772 Marc Joseph Marion du Fresne killed by Maori in Bay of Islands. 1773–1774 Cook uses Queen Charlotte Sound as base during exploration of Southern Pacific Ocean. 1777 Cook visits Queen Charlotte Sound en route to the northern Pacific Ocean to seek northwest passage. 1792 First sealing base established at Dusky Sound. Sealing was a major economic activity around South Island’s southern coast until c.1810. c.1800–c.1840 British, French, and American whalers establish shore, bay, and deep-sea whaling bases around New Zealand coast. Whaling was a major economic activity during this period. xxiii

xxiv •

CHRONOLOGY

1809

Crew of Boyd massacred by Maori in Whangaroa harbor.

1814 December 25: First Christian religious service conducted at Bay of Islands by Reverend Samuel Marsden of Church Missionary Society (Anglican). c.1820–c.1835 Civil wars, waged to exact utu, fought between Maori tribes result in disorganization of traditional tribal structures and confusion of land titles. 1820s–1830s Development of European settlement, principally around the Bay of Islands. Development of extensive trade in kauri spars and phormium tenax (New Zealand flax) with Sydney, New South Wales. 1822 Wesleyan (Methodist) mission established by London Missionary Society. 1827 French explorer Dumont d’Urville explores north and east coasts of North and South Islands. 1829 Edward Gibbon Wakefield writes A Letter from Sydney in which he sets out a theory of systematic colonization. 1830 October–November: Captain Stewart aids and abets Maori chieftain Te Rauparaha in massacre at Takapuneke Pa (Akaroa harbor) in return for a shipload of New Zealand flax. British authorities powerless to enforce British law authorizing trials of British subjects involved in criminal activities in foreign countries. 1831–1832 Massacres of Ngai Tahu iwi at Takahanga Pa (Kaikoura), Kaiapohia Pa (Kaiapoi), and Onawe Pa (Akaroa) by Ngati Toa iwi led by Te Rauparaha. 1833

James Busby appointed British resident in New Zealand.

1835 Ngati Mutunga (Taranaki) tribe invades Chatham Islands and lays claim to islands by right of conquest. October: Busby persuades 35 Maori chiefs to sign a Declaration of Independence stating that they were the heads of a sovereign state known as the “United Tribes of New Zealand.” 1837 May: New Zealand Association (later Company) formed to promote planned colonization of New Zealand using Wakefield’s principles. Increasing lawlessness in northern New Zealand prompts British

CHRONOLOGY

• xxv

government to send HMS Rattlesnake captained by William Hobson to show the British flag. 1838 James Reddy Clendon appointed United States Consul in New Zealand. Roman Catholic mission established by French Bishop Jean Baptiste François Pompallier. 1839 New Zealand Company dispatches Tory from England. Colonel William Wakefield instructed to purchase as much land as possible before expected British annexation. 1840 January: First shipload of New Zealand Company immigrants arrives at Port Nicholson (Wellington) to establish first “Wakefield” colony. February: Treaty of Waitangi signed between Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson representing the British Crown and approximately 50 Maori chiefs. May: British sovereignty proclaimed over whole country. Wanganui settlement (offshoot of Wellington) established. August: French Nanto-Bordelaise Company establishes settlement in Akaroa harbor. November: New Zealand proclaimed a separate Crown Colony by British Parliament. 1841 Capital shifted from Russell (Bay of Islands) to Auckland. March: “Wakefield” settlement established at New Plymouth. 1842 February: “Wakefield” settlement established at Nelson. 1843 May: Captain Robert FitzRoy appointed governor. June: Wairau affray. Maori led by Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata kill 22 Europeans, including Captain Arthur Wakefield and H. A. Thompson (Nelson magistrate), at Tuamarina near Blenheim. 1844–1845 Hone Heke protests British rule by repeatedly chopping down the flagpole at Kororareka, Bay of Islands. 1845 June: George Grey appointed governor. November: Grey arrives in New Zealand. 1846 August: Constitution establishing representative government passed by British Parliament. December: Royal Charter proclaims establishment of two provinces, New Ulster (North Island) and New Munster (South Island), and General Assembly. 1847 May: Grey suspends 1846 Constitution before it takes effect.

xxvi •

CHRONOLOGY

1848 March: Otago (“Wakefield”) settlement established at Dunedin in association with the Free Church of Scotland. 1850 December: Canterbury (“Wakefield”) Church of England settlement established at Christchurch. 1851

Christs College established in Christchurch.

1852 June: New Zealand Constitution Act passed by British Parliament. Grants representative government to colony. 1853 March: Grey issues Land Proclamation reducing price of rural land to five shillings an acre. Rapid expansion of landholdings follows. Six provinces established. July–October: Elections held for Provincial Councils and General Assembly. December: Grey’s first governorship ends. 1854 May: First meeting of General Assembly held in Auckland. James Edward FitzGerald first “leader” of the House of Representatives. Te Aute Maori Boys’ College established at Pukehou by Samuel Williams, son of early Wesleyan missionaries Henry and Marianne Williams. 1855 Severe earthquake rocks Wellington and environs. Wiremu Tamihana begins promoting idea that Maori should have king of their own; marks beginnings of kotahitanga (unity) movement. September: Colonel Thomas Gore Browne arrives in New Zealand to take up governorship. October–December: House of Representatives elections for second General Assembly held. 1856 Depression in agricultural prices leads to increasing settler pressure to acquire pastoral land. Waikato chief Te Wherowhero emerges as candidate for leadership of (Maori) King Movement. April: Responsible government established. Henry Sewell first premier. Appointment of first ministry responsible to House of Representatives. 1857 February: Gold discovery at Collingwood (Nelson province) leads to minor rush. 1858 Te Wherowhero elected as first Maori king. Chose Potatau I as titular name. Hawke’s Bay province established (separated from Wellington).

CHRONOLOGY

• xxvii

1859 Governor Gore Browne accepts offer by Tiera to purchase the Waitara block (Taranaki) provided he could prove title. Tiera’s offer opposed by Wiremu Kingi, principal chief of Waitara tribe. Marlborough province established (separated from Nelson). 1860

Wool well established as New Zealand’s staple export.

1860–1861

First Taranaki land war.

1861 Bank of New South Wales commences business in New Zealand. Bank of New Zealand founded. Southland province established (separated from Otago). June: Gabriel Read discovers payable gold at Waitehuna near Lawrence (Otago). New Zealand’s first major gold rush follows, resulting in southward shift of country’s economic center. September: George Grey commences second governorship. November: First daily newspaper (Otago Daily Times) founded in Dunedin by Julius Vogel. 1862 First electric telegraph line established between Christchurch and Lyttelton. 1863 April: Second Taranaki land war commences with Grey’s reoccupation of Tataraimaka block. War quickly shifts to the Waikato in the Auckland province. December: First railway—Christchurch to Ferrymead—opened. 1864 Land wars spread to Bay of Plenty. Maori, led by Rawiri Purihake, win substantial victory at Gate Pa (modern Tauranga). Confiscation of over three million acres of Maori land in Waikato, Taranaki, and Bay of Plenty; extended to East Coast (North Island) and elsewhere soon after. April: Beginnings of West Coast (South Island) gold rushes. Population flocks in from Otago gold fields, Canterbury, and Australia. November: Frederick Weld (premier) adopts “self-reliant” policy whereby New Zealand government would control Maori policy and meet full costs of future wars. 1865 Colony’s capital shifted from Auckland to Wellington. Colonial Laws Validity Act gives New Zealand Parliament control over internal affairs. Post Office Savings Bank established. Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid. Beginnings of worldwide depression (lasted until mid-1890s). March: Missionary Carl Völkner murdered by Hauhau warriors.

xxviii •

CHRONOLOGY

1865–1866 Land wars spread to North Island’s East Coast in response to confiscations. Rise of Pai Marire (Hauhau) religion led by Te Ua Haumene. March 1866: Te Kooti (Poverty Bay chief) exiled to Chatham Islands, 800 kilometers (500 miles) east of New Zealand. 1866

Oil discovered near New Plymouth, Taranaki.

1867 August: Gold discovered at Thames (Coromandel peninsula). October: Maori Representation Act establishes four Maori seats in the Parliament. Maori males granted universal suffrage. 1868 January: George Grey dismissed as governor. Retires to offshore island (Kawau Island) off Northland peninsula. July: Te Kooti escapes from Chatham Islands and raids Poverty Bay settlements before withdrawing to Urewera mountains. 1869 Government Life Insurance Office established. University of Otago (New Zealand’s first university) established at Dunedin. Southland province rejoins Otago province. Declining gold production and drop in returns from wool and wheat result in reduced standards of living. Secret Ballot Act passed. June: Beginnings of “Continuous Ministry,” an unstable alliance of cliques formed by large landowners. 1870 June: Colonial Treasurer Julius Vogel proposes substantial foreign borrowing to fund program of public works and immigration. 1871 First woolen mill established at Mosgiel near Dunedin. Railway construction commences under Vogel’s public works program. Otago Girls’ High School established at Dunedin. Women admitted to all fields of study offered by the University of Otago. January–February: First elections held under provisions of Secret Ballot Act. August: Ernest Rutherford, atomic physicist, born at Brightwater near Nelson. 1872 Pakeha-Maori land wars finally end. Public Trust Office established. Beginnings of development of craft unions. 1873 New Zealand Shipping Company founded. Employment of Females Act (first factory legislation). April: Vogel becomes premier. 1874 Vogel’s assisted immigration policies result in an estimated 31,000 migrants arriving from Scandinavia, England, and Ireland as organized communities.

CHRONOLOGY

• xxix

1875 Paper mill established at Mataura in Southland. Union Steamship Company of New Zealand established. July: Vogel replaced as premier by Daniel Pollen. 1876 Trans-Tasman telegraph cable connects New Zealand with Australia. November: Provinces abolished. Local government authorities created. 1877 Education Act legislates for “free, secular and compulsory “ education for all children between the ages of 7 and 13. Mechanical reapers and binders encourage rapid expansion of agricultural farming (especially wheat) across Canterbury plains. Kate Edger, BA, the first woman to graduate from a New Zealand university. October: George Grey appointed premier. His Liberal ministry introduces a modest land tax. 1878 Trade unions legalized. World agricultural depression takes hold, triggered by collapse of City of Glasgow Bank. Credit restrictions cause outflow of capital. Many bankruptcies occur during 1880s. 1879 Universal adult male suffrage introduced. Christchurch-to-Invercargill railway line completed. Parliamentary term reduced from five to three years. October: Grey ministry defeated. Return of “Continuous Ministry” led by John Hall. Grey’s land tax repealed after pressure from landowners. 1880

Lincoln Agricultural College opens.

1880–1889 Growth of industrial unions. Trades and Labour Councils established in four main centers of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. 1881 First freezing works opens at Burnside near Dunedin. First dairy factory established at Edendale in Southland. First effective regulation of liquor sales. Country quota introduced to reduce size of rural electorates. November: Te Whiti arrested at Parihaka following nonviolent resistance to expansion of European settlement. December: Singlemember electorates introduced throughout New Zealand. 1882 February: First shipment of frozen meat leaves Port Chalmers for Great Britain. 1883 Peak year of wheat “bonanza”; thereafter rapidly declining soil fertility sees production fall away. Beginnings of mechanization of dairy industry with the introduction of the centrifugal separator.

xxx •

CHRONOLOGY

1884 First overseas tour by New Zealand rugby football team (to Australia). Married Women’s Property Act passed—married women acquire right to own property. 1885 Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) founded. Strong advocate of women’s suffrage. Trades and Labour Congress denounces “sweated labor” and calls for stricter enforcement of 1873 factory legislation. 1886 Emigration (mainly to Australia) exceeds immigration. Over next six years over 125,000 emigrate. New Zealand Alliance for the abolition of liquor traffic founded. Probation service established (second country in the world to do so). June: Mount Tarawera eruption destroys Pink and White Terraces. 1887 First national park (Tongariro) created following gift from Te Heuheu Tukino IV, Horonuku, a Ngati Tuwharetoa leader. June: Representation Commission established to draw boundaries of European electoral districts. Ninety-five electorates (91 European and 4 Maori) established. 1888 October: Reverend Rutherford Waddell preaches on “The Sins of Cheapness” in Dunedin—a vigorous attack on appalling labor conditions in the clothing industry. 1889 Royal Commission established to investigate sweated industries, reports to government in 1890. Plural voting abolished for national elections. Henceforth, principle of “one person, one vote” prevails. 1890 Wool still New Zealand’s single most important export. Returns four times as great as meat and dairy products combined. Introduction of Babcock butterfat test paves way for scientific improvement in quality of dairy herds. Number of MPs reduced to 74 (70 European and 4 Maori). Multimember electorates reestablished in the four main population centers. August–November: Bitter maritime strike involving seamen and watersiders defeated because endemic unemployment makes acquisition of labor easy. December: “Continuous Ministry” defeated in elections. John Ballance forms Liberal government with support of six Independent Labour MPs. Beginnings of party government in New Zealand.

CHRONOLOGY

• xxxi

1891 First of 14 factory acts passed during decade. Graduated land and income tax imposed. Women’s franchise petition containing more than 10,000 signatures presented to Parliament. Female Suffrage Bill defeated in Legislative Council. Life appointments to Legislative Council replaced by seven-year terms. 1892 Lord Glasgow (governor) accepts instruction from Colonial Office that he must accept the advice of his responsible ministers. Second women’s franchise petition, with over 20,000 signatures, presented to Parliament. Government departments of Agriculture and Labour established. 1893 Alcoholic Liquors Sales Control Act provides that electoral districts will also serve as liquor-licensing districts for purposes of the triennial licensing polls. April: Ballance dies. May: Richard John Seddon becomes premier. Third women’s franchise petition with more than 30,000 signatures presented to Parliament. September: Female Franchise Act passed. Women vote for first time in 1893 election. November: James Carroll, elected to represent the European electorate of Waiapu, the first person of Maori descent to represent a European electorate. He had previously represented the Eastern Maori electorate between 1887 and 1893. Elizabeth Yates elected mayor of Onehunga Borough, the first woman in the British Empire to hold such a position. 1894 Advances to Settlers Act passed. Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Arbitration Court established. Shop and Shop Assistants Act provides for a maximum 52-hour working week for women and all persons under 18 years of age. Department of Industries and Commerce established. September: Government rescues Bank of New Zealand from bankruptcy by enacting legislation to provide state guarantee for new share issue. 1895 Beginnings of upturn in pastoral economy marks end of Long Depression. Rising prosperity over next two decades. November: Government approves Bank of New Zealand’s purchase of Colonial Bank, which was on the verge of collapse. 1896 Population of North Island exceeds that of South Island for first time since 1850s. National Council of Women founded. March: Brunner Mine disaster—65 killed. 1897

Formation of Te Aute College Students Association.

xxxii •

CHRONOLOGY

1898 First overseas tour by New Zealand cricket team (to Australia). November: Old Age Pensions Act passed. 1899 New Zealand sends contingent to Boer War. Farmers’ Union formed with object of influencing MPs to support measures promoting welfare of farmers. 1900 Public Health Act passed. Department of Health established. Dr. Maui Pomare appointed Maori health officer. Maori Councils Act passed. Councils empowered to enforce hygiene standards among Maori. Number of MPs increased to 80 (76 European and 4 Maori) effective from the 1902 general election. 1901 Nurses Registration Act passed. Minister of health empowered to provide medical inspection for schoolchildren. Forty-eight-hour workweek for factories enacted. State Coal Mines Act passed—government becomes involved in business of coal mining. Socialist Party formed. Cook Islands and Niue annexed. 1903 Secondary Schools Act requires secondary schools to provide free places for a proportion of their pupils (marks the beginning of free secondary education). State Fire Insurance Act. State Fire Insurance Office established 1904 Political Reform League formed under leadership of William Ferguson Massey. Independent Political Labour League formed. 1905 Workers’ Dwelling Act passed—the state is authorized to build houses for renting to low-paid workers. December: Abolition of multimember electorates in four main centers. Absentee voting rights available to all electors (previously applied only to seamen). 1906 Advances to Workers Act authorizes government to loan money to workers to enable them to build own homes. Beginnings of opposition to Arbitration Court. June: Death of Seddon. Joseph Ward becomes prime minister. 1907 Plunket system for health care for women and children established. Lease-in-perpetuity system abolished. Richard Pearse patents aileron invention. September: New Zealand becomes a dominion. 1908 New Zealand’s population passes one million. Education Act provides for establishment of separate technical schools. Miners’ Federation formed by Runanga miners following successful Blackball

CHRONOLOGY

• xxxiii

(West Coast, South Island) strike. (Name changed to New Zealand Federation of Labour—the “Red Feds”—in 1909.) Ernest Rutherford awarded Nobel Prize for chemistry. November: Main trunk railway line between Wellington and Auckland completed. Second ballot electoral system introduced. 1909 Political Reform League changes name to Reform Party. Young Maori Party formed. 1910 Trades and Labour Conference forms New Zealand Labour Party (name changed to United Labour Party, 1912). National Provident Fund establishes a government-guaranteed contributory superannuation scheme. Anthony F. Wilding wins first of four successive Wimbledon lawn tennis singles titles. 1911 Number of people living in urban areas exceeds number living in rural areas for first time. Widows’ Pensions Act passed. Wireless telegraph introduced. December: Reform Party wins 36 parliamentary seats to Liberals’ 32 with 8 seats won by Labour or Independent Liberal candidates. Liberals cling to power. First national poll on prohibition of liquor—prohibition supported by 55 percent of electorate. 1912 Royal Commission on Public Service. February: Ward government clings to power on casting vote of Speaker. March: Liberal government reconstructed under Thomas MacKenzie. July: Government defeated on no-confidence motion. Liberal government resigns. Replaced by Reform government with Massey as prime minister. November: Waihi miners’ strike broken by police and nonunion workers. One striker, George Frederick Evans, killed during violent conflict. 1913 Second Ballot Act repealed. July: Unity Congress. United Federation of Labour formed to provide concerted trade union activity. Social Democratic Party formed to promote political action. October–December: Maritime strike. Police recruit special constables (“Massey’s Cossacks”) to break strike. Government calls in army and navy personnel to help break strike. 1914 Legislative Council Amendment Act provides for upper house to be elected using the single transferable vote electoral system (never brought into operation). August: New Zealand invades Western Samoa. German administration replaced by military control.

xxxiv •

CHRONOLOGY

1914–1918 World War I. New Zealand troops committed in Europe. Of approximately 100,000 troops, an estimated 17,000 were killed and approximately 41,000 wounded—a 58 percent casualty rate. “Commandeer system” gives primary producers a guaranteed market and higher income. 1915 April: New Zealand and Australian soldiers land on Gallipoli Peninsula. August: National Coalition government formed from Reform and Liberal MPs to govern for duration of war. 1916 July: Social Democratic Party, remnants of United Labour Party, and Labour Representation Committees unite to form New Zealand Labour Party. 1917 Six o’clock closing of licensed premises introduced following petition containing approximately 100,000 signatures sponsored by WCTU and New Zealand Alliance. Hubert Thomas (Tim) Armstrong, Peter Fraser, and Patrick Charles (Paddy) Webb oppose conscription and are imprisoned for sedition. Webb’s refusal to accept conscription results in him forfeiting his parliamentary seat and losing civil rights for 10 years. 1918 Establishment of electricity distribution boards. First dried milk manufactured for export. Liquor prohibition petition containing 242,001 signatures presented to Parliament. October–December: Influenza epidemic kills an estimated 6,700. Maori death rate 4.5 times higher than European death rate. 1919 Women eligible to be elected to Parliament. End of “Commandeer system.” Prohibition option carried by voters living in New Zealand at time of referendum but result overturned when votes of overseas servicemen are included. 1919–1924 Land prices spiral as returning servicemen seek to establish themselves on the land. Booms in housing, public works, and hydroelectric power development lead to rising inflation and economic uncertainty. Beginnings of formation of Country Party. 1920 League of Nations grants New Zealand mandate over Western Samoa. Public Health Act strengthens powers of Department of Health. Wool still New Zealand’s single most important export but refrigerated exports (dairy and meat) now earn nearly twice as much per annum as wool.

CHRONOLOGY

• xxxv

1921 School Dental Nursing Service established. Sharp fall in prices for wool, meat, and dairy products. Economic recession. Public service and Arbitration Court award wages cut. First motor vehicle assembly plant established in Wellington. 1922 Meat Export Control Act establishes Meat Board. Main Highways Act establishes framework for a national road system. 1923 Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed. Dairy Board established. July: Ross Dependency (Antarctica) proclaimed. August: Otira tunnel (8.5 km long) through Southern Alps completed. 1924 Compulsory registration introduced for all electors except Maori. 1925 New Zealand assumes responsibility for administration of Tokelau Islands from Britain. May: Death of Massey; succeeded by Joseph Gordon Coates. November: Coates’ Child Welfare Act establishes children’s court system. First electric range manufactured in Dunedin. Coates leads Reform Party to its most comprehensive electoral victory. Labour, with 12 seats, becomes the “official” opposition. Country Party contests election without success. 1926 Women eligible for appointment as justices of the peace. Family Allowances Act passed. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research established. 1927 Beginning of marked growth in unemployment arising from economic instability. Government-assisted immigration programs ended. Growth in charitable aid and soup kitchens. Labour Party removes land nationalization objective from its constitution. Consolidated Electoral Act provides for special (postal) voting. 1928 E. J. (Ted) Morgan wins New Zealand’s first-ever gold medal at an Olympic Games (welterweight boxing). November: United Party wins greatest number of seats; forms minority government with Labour Party support. Reform becomes the official opposition party. Country Party’s first electoral success in Bay of Islands electorate. 1929 Beginnings of Great Depression. First health stamp, a postage stamp carrying a surcharge devoted to improving children’s health, issued. June: Murchison earthquake kills 17.

xxxvi •

CHRONOLOGY

1929–1933 New Zealand economy hard hit by massive slump in prices received for primary products. 1930 Substantial rise in unemployment—over 11,000 registered but many thousands more not registered. Unemployment tax introduced to pay for unemployment relief. Beginnings of commercial aviation. May: Ward resigns as prime minister, succeeded by George William Forbes. 1931 Statute of Westminster passed by British Parliament. Industrial Conciliation & Arbitration Act amended to permit general reduction in award rates of pay. Decline in birth and marriage rates evident. February: Napier earthquake destroys much of Napier and Hastings cities— 255 die. September: Coalition government formed by United and Reform parties, wins election held in December. 1932 Severe economic retrenchment. Public servants’ wages reduced; widows, blind, and war pensions cut. About 100,000 men unemployed. Relief camps for unemployed set up. Compulsory arbitration provisions repealed. Soup kitchens and charitable aid increasingly visible. January–May: Unemployed riot in Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin. Government responds with Public Safety Conservation Act that vests it with arbitrary powers to deal with unrest and disaffection. 1933 January: William Downie Stewart resigns as minister of finance—replaced by Coates. Government institutes proactive monetary policy. New Zealand pound (£) devalued by 10 percent. Reserve Bank established with monopoly of note issue and credit control. Compulsory reduction of all interest rates. Mortgage relief granted to farmers. September: The first woman to be elected to Parliament, Mrs. Elizabeth Reid McCombs, wins seat formerly held by her late husband. October: Henry Edmund Holland, leader of Labour Party, dies; Michael Joseph Savage elected Labour Party leader. 1934 Economy begins to show signs of improvement. Coalition government amends Electoral Act to extend parliamentary term to four years. First trans-Tasman airmail service. 1935 First domestic refrigerator manufactured in Auckland. November: Labour Party wins 53 of the 80 seats in Parliament. Savage forms first Labour government. Christmas bonus (one week’s pay) granted to all unemployed.

CHRONOLOGY

• xxxvii

1936 Reserve Bank brought under direct government control. Primary Products Marketing Act institutes guaranteed price for dairy products. Compulsory arbitration restored. Compulsory trade unionism instituted. All wage and salary cuts restored. Minimum pay rates set for agricultural workers. Normal working week reduced from 44 to 40 hours and 44 hours set as maximum for shops and offices. State Advances Corporation replaces Mortgage Corporation to provide cheap, long-term mortgage finance. Department of Housing Construction established to build houses for renting to people with low incomes. Political Disabilities Removal Act extends freedom of speech and full political rights to public servants. Regulations Act empowers governments to pass delegated legislation. Free education made available to all persons up to 19 years of age. More independent foreign policy including greater support for League of Nations as guarantor of collective security. Formation of National Party. Informal accord links Ratana movement with Labour Party. 1937 Internal Marketing Department established—ensures guaranteed prices to producers of eggs, honey, apples, and pears. First state house occupied. Introduction of free milk in schools. State-owned commercial broadcasting service established. Federation of Labour replaces Trades Councils. Provisions of Secret Ballot Act extended to Maori. 1938 Social Security Act enshrines “cradle to grave” philosophy. Import licensing introduced to conserve rapidly dwindling overseas funds. Country Library Service established. October: Labour wins election with 55.8 percent of votes cast. Country Party loses its two parliamentary seats. 1939 Tasman Empire Airways Limited (TEAL, now Air New Zealand) established. September: New Zealand joins Britain in declaring war on Germany. Strike and Lockout Emergency Regulations forbid strikes and lockouts and empowers minister of labour to deregister trade unions. Price Stabilisation Tribunal established to supervise government’s wages and prices stabilization policy. 1939–1945 World War II. New Zealand troops committed in Middle East, Europe, and Pacific theaters. Internal censorship imposed. 1940 New Zealand centennial year, marked by publication of a series of government-funded Centennial Surveys. Universal superannuation

xxxviii •

CHRONOLOGY

(payable from age 65) introduced to complement means-tested age benefit payable from age 60. Conscription introduced for both overseas service and for essential industries. Beginnings of full employment. March: John A. Lee expelled from Labour Party. Savage dies; succeeded as Labour Party leader and prime minister by Peter Fraser. July: Multiparty War Cabinet established—responsible for all decisions relating to war matters. November: Sidney George Holland replaces Adam Hamilton as National Party leader and leader of the opposition. 1941 Death penalty for murder abolished (restored, 1950; abolished, 1961). General medical benefit introduced for all doctors’ consultations. Election scheduled for this year postponed by interparty agreement. December: New Zealand declares war on Japan. 1942 March: Government invokes Strike and Lockout Emergency Regulations to jail 213 striking freezing workers. May: Battle of the Coral Sea. June–October: Multiparty War Administration. September: Waikato coal miners’ strike. Government takes over coal mines for duration of war. 1943 September: Labour wins general election with reduced majority. Lee’s Democratic Soldier Labour Party contests election without success (Lee loses own seat). 1944 Canberra Agreement signed between Australia and New Zealand. Annual Holidays Act specifies entitlement to two weeks’ annual leave each year. Mandatory school-leaving age raised from 14 to 15. Comprehensive review of curriculum undertaken. 1945 Farmers’ Union and Sheep-owners’ Federation join forces to form New Zealand Federated Farmers. New Zealand ratifies United Nations Charter as founder member. Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act passed. National Library Service established. South Island main trunk railway line (Christchurch to Picton section) completed. Nationalization of Bank of New Zealand. August: World War II ends. New Zealand troops share in occupation of Japan until 1948. 1946 Country quota abolished; henceforth all votes to be of equal value. Family benefits paid without means test. November: Narrow Labour victory in election. Only two parties represented in Parliament.

CHRONOLOGY

• xxxix

1947 New Zealand adopts Statute of Westminster. Also adopts General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Mabel Bowden Howard appointed to the Cabinet as first woman member (Health portfolio). Status of Western Samoa changed from mandate to trusteeship. Free dental treatment for children extended to age 16. November: Ballantyne and Company’s department store catches fire in Christchurch, 41 lives lost. 1948 New Zealand pound (£) revalued to parity with pound Sterling. Economic Stabilisation Act gives government greater control over economy. Auckland Carpenters’ Union deregistered after refusal to hand a dispute over to Federation of Labour. Employers supervise formation of new union which is recognized by the government. Apple and Pear Marketing Board established. Liquor Licensing Control Commission established. Tokelau Islands included within New Zealand’s territorial boundaries. 1949 March: National referendums held on issues of extended liquor licensing hours and introduction of off-course betting at horse race meetings. August: National referendum on peacetime conscription. November: National government elected—Sidney George Holland, prime minister. First election to use Maori electoral rolls. 1950 Stabilization policy modified (rationing ends; control over overseas funds and imports relaxed). Joint Family Homes Act passed. State houses sold to tenants. Trade Union Congress (TUC) formed in opposition to Federation of Labour. TUC seeks to bypass arbitration procedures for settling industrial disputes. Short strike at all ports over handling of lampblack. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed (effective 1 January 1951). June: Korean War begins—New Zealand participates as part of United Nations operation (troops withdrawn 1954). Boom in prices received for wool. December: Fraser dies. Walter Nash elected leader of Labour Party. British Empire Games held in Auckland. 1951 Beginnings of accelerated movement from rural areas to cities by Maori population. February–July: Waterfront strike. Government invokes Public Safety Conservation Act and passes Waterfront Strike Emergency Regulations. Strike lasts 151 days before workers accept defeat. September: “Snap” election sees National government returned with increased parliamentary majority. ANZUS Treaty signed. December: Police

xl •

CHRONOLOGY

Offences Act passed—Waterfront Strike Emergency Regulations and Wartime Strike and Lockout Emergency Regulations made permanent parts of country’s law. 1952 New Zealand’s population passes two million. Trade Union Congress dissolves itself. 1953 Marketing Department abolished. Producer Boards to control sale of potatoes, eggs, honey, milk, and citrus fruits established. Wool Commission established to ensure orderly marketing of wool clip. Kinleith pulp and paper plant commissioned to process mature Pinus radiata logs from the 124,000-hectare (306,000-acre) Kaingaroa Forest. May: Edmund Percival Hillary reaches summit of Mount Everest with Nepalese sherpa Tenzing Norgay. December: Tangiwai railway disaster—151 lives lost. 1954 Reserve Bank eases controls on imports. Guaranteed British market for primary products ends. New Zealand joins South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO). New Zealand elected to nonpermanent seat on United Nations Security Council (1954–1955). November: National wins election. Social Credit wins 11.2 percent of the vote but no parliamentary seats. 1955 Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems. High level of imports results in growing balance-of-payments deficit. Credit squeeze imposed. September: Protests and “sit-ins” by Nelson women fail to prevent dismantling of Nelson-to-Glenhope railway line. 1956 New Zealand troops committed to guerrilla war in Malayan peninsula. November: Electoral Act consolidated; some provisions protected from amendment by a simple majority through process of entrenchment. New Zealand supports Britain’s invasion of Egypt to control the Suez Canal. 1957 Sudden fall in overseas exchange earnings depletes reserves. Scott Base (Antarctica) established. September: Holland retires as prime minister. Succeeded by Keith Jacka Holyoake. November: Labour narrowly wins election; Nash, prime minister. 1958 January: Comprehensive import selection and exchange allocation reintroduced to conserve overseas reserves. Team led by Hillary completes first overland journey from Scott Base to South Pole. April:

CHRONOLOGY

• xli

Pay-As-You-Earn (PAYE) taxation system introduced. All taxpayers receive £100 rebate on terminal tax due after PAYE deductions commenced. June: Austerity (“Black”) budget presented by Arnold Henry Nordmeyer, minister of finance in Labour government. State Advances Corporation makes 3 percent first housing loans available. 1959 Auckland harbor bridge opens. Kapuni onshore natural gas field discovered in Taranaki. Wairakei geothermal station commissioned (second in world). Antarctic Treaty signed. 1960 Government-initiated Industrial Development Conference. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed (to be implemented in stages to 1963). Police Offences Act repealed. Public Safety Conservation Act amended to require Parliament to meet within 28 days of the act being invoked. New Zealand Broadcasting Service begins public television broadcasts. Construction of Picton-to-Nelson railway line commenced. Nelson cotton mill building commenced. (Both projects abandoned by National government after 1960 election.) May–June: Opposition to New Zealand (“All Blacks”) rugby team touring South Africa without Maori players. November: National Party wins election; Holyoake, prime minister. 1961 Compulsory trade unionism modified. Hunn Report on Department of Maori Affairs published. Maori Education Foundation established. Tasman Empire Airways Limited (TEAL) fully owned by New Zealand government. Monetary and Economic Council established. New Zealand joins World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF). First British attempt to join European Economic Community (EEC) fails but attempt signals need for New Zealand to expand trading base. 1962 New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation established with own board. New Zealand Maori Council established. Cook Strait road-rail ferry service commences. January: Western Samoa becomes an independent state. 1963 Government-organized Export Development Conference. Nash replaced by Arnold Henry Nordmeyer as leader of Labour Party. 1964 Government-sponsored Agricultural Development Conference. Oil refinery opened at Marsden Point near Whangarei. Submerged

xlii •

CHRONOLOGY

hydroelectric power cables laid across Cook Strait to establish national electricity grid. 1965 New Zealand–Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) signed. Legislation passed to fix the number of South Island parliamentary seats at 25, effective from the 1969 general election. Cook Islands becomes self-governing state. New Zealand commits troops to Vietnam conflict. Beginnings of anti-Vietnam War demonstrations. Labour Party replaces Nordmeyer as leader with Norman Eric Kirk. 1966 Wool prices slump. Beginnings of long period of economic instability. National Library of New Zealand established. November: National wins election. Social Credit wins first parliamentary seat. 1967 Robert David Muldoon appointed minister of finance and presents first of many mini-budgets. Subsidies reduced or removed on some basic food items. End of free-milk-in-schools scheme. New Zealand currency devalued. Government agrees to purchase Boeing 737 jet aircraft for use on internal passenger routes. Second British attempt to join EEC fails. May: All Black rugby tour of South Africa postponed at government request because Maori unable to be included in team. July: Decimal currency introduced. September: National referendums on extension of licensing hours and term of Parliament—extension of licensing hours approved but extension of parliamentary term to four years rejected by voters. December: First New Zealand–born governor-general (Arthur Porritt) takes office. 1968 Growing industrial unrest. Increasing opposition to New Zealand’s involvement in Vietnam War. Public opposition to United States’ proposed Omega satellite navigation station site in South Island high country. April: Interisland ferry, SS Wahine, founders at entrance to Wellington harbor during fierce storm—51 lives lost. 1969 Glenbrook steel mill south of Auckland opens using local ironsands (a sand rich in particles of iron ore and found on many of New Zealand’s west coast beaches). Maui offshore gas and condensate field discovered. Arbitration Court’s “nil” wage order leads to increased industrial tension; this is alleviated only after an “unholy alliance” of employers and trade unions outvotes judge at rehearing. Governmentsponsored National Development Conference. Voting age lowered to 20. Number of MPs increased to 84 but number of Maori seats remains

CHRONOLOGY

• xliii

at 4. Any qualified person, Maori or non-Maori, permitted to stand for election in any electorate. November: Industrial conflict, involving coastal trader Wainui, flares two weeks before election. Support for Labour Party ebbs and National narrowly retains office. Social Credit loses sole parliamentary seat. Recently formed Country Party has no impact. 1970 New Zealand politicians and diplomats negotiate for access to British market once Britain enters EEC. February: National government loses safe seat in by-election. June–August: All Black rugby football team tours South Africa. Maori and Pacific Islands players included in team. 1971 South Pacific Forum established. Britain successfully negotiates with EEC members to secure New Zealand access to Britain for butter and cheese. Aluminum smelter opens at Tiwai Point near Invercargill. Conversion to metric weights and measures commences. 1972 Economic improvement evident—overseas reserves exceed $1 billion. Inflation at approximately 5 percent per annum. February: Holyoake retires as prime minister; succeeded by John Ross Marshall with Muldoon as deputy. April: Universal no-fault accident compensation scheme commences. May: Ideological split in Social Credit. New Democrat Party formed by Douglas Credit monetarists. July: Values Party formed. November: Labour Party wins election with 23-seat majority. Values Party wins 2 percent of vote in the election but no parliamentary seats. December: Prime Minister Norman Eric Kirk announces Christmas bonus for all beneficiaries. 1973 Economic recovery becomes boom. Rising prices for raw materials result in rising wages and inflation. Postal, electricity, and rail charges frozen for three years in line with preelection promise. Equal Pay Act begins to take effect. First world oil shock—weekend petrol (gasoline) sales banned to conserve fuel. Color television introduced. April: Government instructs New Zealand Rugby Football Union to cancel South African (Springbok) tour of New Zealand. July: New Zealand opposes French nuclear testing in Pacific Ocean. New Zealand frigate sent into test area in protest. 1974 Economic downturn. Government interprets it as temporary setback and borrows overseas in attempt to cushion balance-of-payments

xliv •

CHRONOLOGY

deficit. New Zealand Superannuation Act establishes contributory superannuation scheme for all workers. New Zealand challenges legality of French nuclear testing in International Court of Justice. William Ball Sutch, former head of Department of Industries and Commerce, arrested on suspicion of passing secrets to the Soviet Union. Definition of “Maori” broadened to include all persons of Maori descent who wish to be identified as Maori. July: Muldoon replaces Marshall as National Party leader; begins barnstorming “meet the people” tours of New Zealand. August: Labour leader, Norman Kirk, dies. September: Wallace Edward Rowling elected as Labour Party leader and becomes prime minister. Economic restraints imposed soon after. November: Sydenham by-election—the first election with the voting age reduced to 18 years. 1975 Economic recession deepens with inflation rising above 15 percent per annum. Unemployment exceeds 5,000 (with over 4,000 others on government-sponsored relief work). New Zealand dollar devalued by 15 percent. Treaty of Waitangi Act passed—establishes Waitangi Tribunal. Sutch acquitted of spying charge but dies shortly thereafter. August: Electoral Act amended to exclude British nationality as qualification for registration. Maori permitted to register on either Maori or general (formerly European) roll. Maori seats to be determined in future on population basis. November: National Party’s 23-seat majority reverses 1972 election result. December: Muldoon announces abandonment of contributory New Zealand Superannuation scheme. 1976 Commission for the Future established. June: Supreme Court rules that Muldoon’s action in unilaterally setting aside a parliamentary statute (the New Zealand Superannuation Act) was illegal. June–September: All Black rugby team tours South Africa, leading to walkout by an estimated 30 African nations at Montreal Olympic Games. July: Mini-budget abolishes remaining subsidies on basic commodities and imposes substantial increase in electricity, rail, and postal charges. November: In Parliament, Muldoon alleges that Labour MP Colin James Moyle had been involved in homosexual activities. Moyle denies allegation. Muldoon quotes from police file that suggests that Moyle was being untruthful. 1977 Growing public opposition to presence of nuclear-propelled (and possibly nuclear-armed) foreign warships in New Zealand ports.

CHRONOLOGY

• xlv

Waitangi Tribunal commences activities. Universal noncontributory National Superannuation scheme commences. Two-hundred-mile exclusive economic zone established. January: Maori land protesters occupy Bastion Point, Auckland. Moyle resigns from Parliament following “Moyle Affair.” David Russell Lange elected to vacant seat. June: Gleneagles Agreement signed. 1978 Economic restraints reduce inflation to approximately 10 percent. National Airways Corporation merged with Air New Zealand. February: National government loses by-election in safe seat to Social Credit leader Bruce Craig Beetham. Upsurge of support for Social Credit follows. May: Maori occupation of Bastion Point ends after 506 days. November: National wins election but parliamentary majority halved. Social Credit wins 16.1 percent of vote and one seat. 1979 Second world oil shock. Carless days introduced to conserve petrol (gasoline). November: Air New Zealand DC-10 crashes into Mount Erebus (Antarctica)—256 lives lost. 1980 “Think Big” projects—expansion of oil refinery and steel mill, construction of methanol plant—approved by National government. Marginal Lands Board Loans Affair. Saturday retail trading legalized. September: National government loses by-election in safe seat after Muldoon decides to appoint one of his Cabinet ministers as New Zealand’s ambassador to the United States. (Social Credit wins second parliamentary seat.) 1981 Inflation rises to 15.7 percent. The number of unemployed and those on special work exceeds 70,000. July–September: Opposition to South African (Springbok) rugby tour of New Zealand pits New Zealander against New Zealander. November: National wins election with effective majority of one seat. Social Credit wins 20.7 percent of vote and two seats. 1982 Inflation peaks at 17.6 percent per year. Twelve-month wage and price freeze imposed under authority of Economic Stabilisation Act. Kohanga Reo (language nests) established to encourage revival of Maori language. Ammonia-urea plant opens in Taranaki. March: New Zealand offers frigate to enable redeployment of British vessel to Falklands War theater. Britain accepts. June: Derek Frances Quigley, minister of works and development, publicly criticizes government policy.

xlvi •

CHRONOLOGY

Muldoon demands and gets Quigley’s resignation. Government, with Social Credit support, passes legislation to override Planning Tribunal’s refusal to grant water rights for Clyde hydroelectric power dam. 1983 Wage and price freeze extended until March 1984. Economic control by regulation extended to interest rates, including mortgages. Transport and freezing industries delicensed. Voluntary membership of trade unions made law. Unemployment reaches approximately 130,000. February: David Russell Lange replaces Wallace Edward Rowling as leader of Labour Party. March: Closer Economic Relations (CER) agreement signed with Australia. August: Robert Edward Jones spearheads formation of New Zealand Party. December: Government backbench MPs help defeat key government proposal to introduce youth rates of pay. 1984 Inflation declines to 3.5 percent by March but rises to 4.7 percent in June quarter after wage and price freeze is lifted. Registered unemployment drops below 100,000. United Nations Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women ratified. May–June: Industrial strife at Marsden Point oil refinery expansion site. Police used to escort workers through picket lines. June: Labour opposition seeks to have New Zealand declared nuclear-free (defeated in House of Representatives). July: Labour wins power with 43.0 percent of the vote in early general election. New Zealand Party takes 12.3 percent of the vote but fails to win one seat. Lange appointed prime minister with Roger Owen Douglas as minister of finance. Run on currency causes New Zealand dollar to be devalued by 20 percent. Price freeze reimposed for three months. Most controls on interest rates removed. September: Government-sponsored Economic Summit and Maori Summit conferences. November: Labour budget removes or phases out incentive subsidies, introduces family care package and surcharge on National Superannuation, and raises cost of some government services to reflect true cost of supply. All controls on foreign exchange transactions lifted. Muldoon replaced as leader of National Party by James Kenneth McLay. 1985 Adult Information Adoption Act passed. Compulsory trade unionism restored. Jurisdiction of Waitangi Tribunal extended to all claims since 1840. January: Government declines United States’ request for port access for USS Buchanan. New Zealand effectively ex-

CHRONOLOGY

• xlvii

cluded from ANZUS partnership. February: New Zealand dollar floated. Import licensing and tariff protection phaseout begins. Royal Commission on Electoral System appointed. July: Greenpeace flagship, Rainbow Warrior, sunk in Auckland harbor; one person killed. Two French secret service agents, Alain Marfart and Dominique Prieur, convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment. October: Author Keri Hulme wins Booker Prize for her novel The Bone People. 1986 Commercial synthetic petrol (gasoline) plant opened in Taranaki using Maui gas as feedstock. Homosexual Law Reform Act passed (approximately 800,000 people sign petition opposing liberalization of homosexual laws). March: Russian-built and -crewed cruise ship Mikhail Lermontov sinks in Marlborough Sounds; one person drowned. James Brendan Bolger replaces McLay as National Party leader. May: Government announces that trading activities of some government departments will be corporatized. Government assumes direct responsibility for $7.2 billion debts incurred by producer boards and major projects as part of deregulation process. July: French agents released into French custody to complete their sentences on Hao atoll. November: Ten percent goods and services tax (GST) introduced. December: Unentrenched Constitution Act passed (Constitution Act 1852, repealed). Royal Commission on Electoral Reform recommends adoption of mixed member proportional (MMP) electoral system. 1987 Government floats 13 percent of Bank of New Zealand’s capital. Reserve Bank Amendment Act provides for new banks to be registered. Minimum price controls in petrol (gasoline) abolished. StateOwned Enterprises (SOE) Act clears way for corporatization of commercial activities of a number of government departments. Public Safety Conservation Act repealed (replaced by International Terrorism [Emergency Powers] Act). Economic Stabilisation Act repealed. Maori formally recognized as an official language. Deregulation of financial markets and other of Labour’s economic reforms result in price inflation rising to a peak of 15.7 percent for calendar year. February: Ansett Airlines commences flying New Zealand’s domestic routes. March: United States ends special arrangement allowing New Zealand to purchase military equipment at wholesale prices. June: New Zealand Nuclear Free, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act passed. Judge Sylvia

xlviii •

CHRONOLOGY

Cartwright chairs Commission of Inquiry into cervical cancer research program at National Women’s Hospital. Policy of selling state assets to private interests announced. August: Labour reelected with increased parliamentary majority. Last national liquor licensing referendum. September: Douglas proposes flat income tax in place of graduated income tax. October: World share market crash. New Zealand stock market declines by 59 percent over the next four months. 1988 January: Lange publicly opposes flat-tax concept. Beginnings of public disagreements between Lange and Douglas over policy. February: New Zealand Post (an SOE) announces closure of 432 post offices. Federation of Labour and Combined State Unions combine to form the Council of Trade Unions (CTU). April: State Sector Act restructures core Public Service. Report of task force on hospitals and related services presented to the government but rejected by minister of health. Electricorp pays the government $6.3 billion and Telecom pays $3.2 billion for assets previously owned by the state. Broadcasting deregulated. Royal Commission on Social Policy presents report. May: Reports of task forces on early childhood education, educational administration of schools, and postcompulsory education presented. June: Waitangi Tribunal reports on Muriwhenua Incorporation’s Northland fisheries claim. August: New Zealand sends observer team to join UN peacekeeping force in Persian Gulf. Cartwright Report on cervical cancer research program presented. October: European Community announces 25 percent cut in New Zealand’s sales of butter to Britain over four years. November: Richard William Prebble, minister for state-owned enterprises and a Douglas ally, dismissed by Lange. Fisheries quota package for Maori tribes announced. December: Douglas resigns from Cabinet; replaced as minister of finance by David Caygill. 1989 March: Defense review released. New Zealand agrees to purchase two ANZAC-class frigates being built in Australia with option to purchase two more. Sale of state-owned assets to private interests begins. Serious Fraud Office established. April: In speech delivered at Yale University, Lange suggests that New Zealand should withdraw from ANZUS Council. May: James Patrick Anderton resigns from Labour Party and forms NewLabour Party. Reserve Bank Act passed. June: Goods and services tax (GST) increased to 12.5 percent. Bank of New Zealand records corporate loss of $634 million. July: Public Fi-

CHRONOLOGY

• xlix

nance Act passed by Parliament. National Superannuation renamed Guaranteed Retirement Income (GRI) and restructured to shift the qualifying age from 60 to 65 over 20 years starting in 2006. August: Douglas reelected to Cabinet. Lange resigns and is replaced by Geoffrey Winston Russell Palmer. Helen Elizabeth Clark elected deputy leader and deputy prime minister. First balance-of-payments surplus for 17 years. October: Local government restructured. First local authority elections held within new territorial boundaries. Court of Appeal finds in favor of Tainui tribes—sale of Coalcorp assets disallowed without safeguards and compensation for Tainui tribes. November: Third television channel commences broadcasting. 1990 Inflation drops to 6.1 percent. Reserve Bank inflation target set at 0–2 percent by December 1992. Unemployment rises to approximately 175,000. Unentrenched Bill of Rights Act passed. October: National Party wins landslide election. James Brendan Bolger, prime minister; Ruth Margaret Richardson appointed minister of finance. New government injects $600 million capital into ailing Bank of New Zealand to stave off bankruptcy. Government announces substantial cuts in income support payments, abolition of family benefit, increased GRI surcharge and shortened phase-in period (10 years commencing in 1991) for new regime. National referendum rejects renewed proposal to extend parliamentary term to four years. 1991 Major economic recession. Number of unemployed and on special work rises to an estimated 136,000 (10.1 percent of work force). Inflation dips sharply but home mortgage rates remain high. January–March: Small New Zealand contingent takes part in “Desert War” in Middle East. February: First of a series of public health system reforms introduced. May: Employment Contracts Act makes trade union membership voluntary; removes minimum wage for workers under 20. October: Government-imposed tertiary tuition fees replaced by fees set by individual institutions. Student loan scheme introduced. 1992 Continuing economic recession brings inflation to 30-year low but unemployment continues to rise. May: Bastion Point (Auckland) formally returned to Ngati Whatua owners along with $3 million land resettlement grant. September: Indicative national referendum on proposed changes to electoral system. Waitangi Tribunal recommends return of thousands of hectares of land in Northland, including private

l •

CHRONOLOGY

land. Government and Maori reach agreement to settle “forever” all Maori fishing claims; government to grant Maori $150 million to enable them to buy into Sealord fishing company. Ngai Tahu tribe’s right to exclusive fishing rights to waters around most of South Island’s South Island coastline recognized. October: New Zealand elected to nonpermanent seat on United Nations Security Council for two-year term. 1993 January: Jobless numbers peak at approximately 280,000— a post–World War II record. Inflation remains well within 0–2 percent target. Home mortgage interest rates drop to 30-year low of 7.4 percent. June: Chief District Court Judge Sylvia Cartwright becomes first woman to be appointed to the High Court. July: Former National MP Winston Peters launches New Zealand First Party (wins 8.2 percent of the total vote in the general election). August: Consolidated Electoral Act, incorporating the mixed member proportional (MMP) electoral system, is passed by Parliament. New act provides for variable number of Maori electorates. November: National wins narrowest of election victories. Four parties represented in Parliament. Opposition MP, Peter Tapsell, elected Speaker. Bolger reconstructs Cabinet—Richardson replaced as minister of finance by William Francis Birch. National referendum supports proposed change to an MMP electoral system. 1994 Mortgage interest rates rise by an average of nearly 50 percent during course of year. January: Three pan-Maori organizations fail in attempt to have High Court overturn the 1994 Maori Electoral Option and order its rerun. Full Bench Court of Appeal subsequently upholds High Court’s judgment and the Privy Council (an English court which served as New Zealand’s final court of appeal until 2004) subsequently rejects leave to appeal to it. March: Government commits 250 soldiers to front-line duty in Bosnia. June: Fiscal Responsibility Act passed. Major political parties (Labour and National) begin to fragment in advance of the introduction of MMP. July: Richardson resigns parliamentary seat. August: National narrowly wins by-election. October: Australian government abrogates “open skies” agreement with New Zealand government in 1992; Air New Zealand thus not able to establish itself as a competitor on Australian domestic routes. December: National government proposes that outstanding Maori grievances be settled through mechanism of a “fiscal envelope.”

CHRONOLOGY

• li

1995 January: Maori hui organized by paramount chief of NgatiTuwharetoa tribe, Hepi Hoani Te Heuheu, twice rejects the government’s “fiscal envelope” proposal. May: Tainui (Waikato) tribes reach agreement to settle past grievances. New Zealand crew in the yacht Black Magic wins the America’s Cup off San Diego, USA—the country’s fourth attempt at winning the “Auld Mug” since 1987. June: With the number of parties represented in Parliament increased to seven in preparation for the first MMP election, the National government led by Bolger loses its narrow parliamentary majority. New Zealand responds to the resumption of French nuclear testing at Mururoa and Fangataufa atolls in the southwest Pacific Ocean with diplomatic protests and an attempt to reopen its 1974 case with the International Court of Justice. September–October: New Zealand sends naval vessel to stand off the Mururoa testing site. 1996 September: Air New Zealand purchases a half share of Ansett Australia. October: First MMP election. Six parties win parliamentary representation but no one party wins majority of seats; National the largest single party. December: After nine weeks of negotiations, a majority coalition government is formed between National and New Zealand First. Winston Peters appointed deputy prime minister. 1997 April: Alliance list MP Alamein Kopu leaves Alliance Party and sits as an independent. Later supports National-led government. August: Wine Box Inquiry finds that allegations of fraud could not be substantiated but recommends the adoption of tighter tax laws. Settlement of $170 million signed between Crown and Ngai Tahu. September: Illegal importation and release of rabbit-killing Calicivirus forces government to legalize its use as a pest control. October: Labour’s deputy leader, Michael Cullen, introduces a bill aimed at preventing MPs who resign from their party from remaining in Parliament. December: Bolger resigns as prime minister and leader of the National Party following caucus coup. Jennifer Mary Shipley sworn in as New Zealand’s first woman prime minister. Taranaki farmers drive tractors to Parliament to protest the passage of the Maori Reserved Land Amendment Act. Minister of Justice Douglas Arthur Montrose Graham proposes abolishing New Zealanders’ right to appeal to the Privy Council. Opposition from within National Party caucus results in proposal being dropped.

lii •

CHRONOLOGY

1998 March: Central Auckland business district hit by major power outage lasting for over one month. Hikoi of Hope commences march on Parliament calling for social and economic justice (ends October). May: Black Ferns (New Zealand women’s rugby football team) win world championship. September: Coalition government disintegrates. National continues in office as a minority government. 1999 March: Sian Elias appointed New Zealand’s first female chief justice. September: New Zealand sends peacekeeping troops to East Timor. New Zealand hosts biennial Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) meeting in Auckland. Former Labour prime minister Mike Moore takes up appointment as head of the World Trade Organization (WTO). November: Seven parties win parliamentary representation. Labour Party wins 49 parliamentary seats and is able to form a minority coalition government with the Alliance Party, which won 10 seats. Green Party represented in Parliament in own right for first time; gives general support to government. Labour leader Helen Clark the first female to be elected New Zealand prime minister. James Patrick Anderton, leader of the Alliance, appointed deputy prime minister. December: Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Bill introduced. 2000 March: Team New Zealand retains America’s Cup by defeating Italian challenger Prada, 5–0. April: Ansett Australia becomes a wholly owned subsidiary of Air New Zealand. Coalition government announces abolition of knighthoods from future honors lists. December: Dr. Alan G. MacDiarmid awarded Nobel Prize for chemistry for role in discovery and development of conductive polymers. 2001 March: New Zealand-born actor Russell Crowe wins U.S. Academy Award for his role in the film Gladiator. Sylvia Cartwright sworn in as governor-general—the first time that the governor-general, prime minister, and chief justice are all women. May: Minister of Finance Michael Cullen confirms government’s intention to set aside part of annual surpluses for investment in a long-term superannuation fund. September: Ansett Australia collapses, threatening Air New Zealand’s commercial viability; New Zealand government injects $550 million to keep Air New Zealand solvent. Formation of Fonterra Dairy Co-operative, New Zealand’s largest company, through merger of New Zealand Dairy Group and Kiwi Dairy Company. Qantas New Zealand collapses after nine months. December: First part of Lord of the Rings trilogy, filmed and

CHRONOLOGY

• liii

produced in New Zealand. opens to worldwide acclaim. Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act finally passed by Parliament. 2002 March: New Zealand joins with other countries in protesting the United States’ decision to impose 30 percent tariffs on steel imports. May: James Patrick Anderton and three other MPs expelled from Alliance but do not resign from Parliament. New Alliance leader, Laila Harré, declines to invoke Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act. Coalition government destabilized with disintegration of junior Alliance partner. New Zealand protests to United States government over President George W. Bush’s approval of a 67 percent increase in U.S. farm subsidies. June: During election campaign, allegations are made of a government cover-up over the release of genetically modified maize (corn). July: Labour Party increases its parliamentary representation in general election. United Future Party (one of seven parties represented in new Parliament) wins 6.7 percent of party votes and eight seats. Minority coalition government formed between Labour and Jim Anderton’s Progressive Coalition, with support from United Future Party. Alliance Party wins no seats. August: New Zealand First Party reignites campaign to restrict immigration. September: Mana Motuhake Party leaves Alliance. October: Democrat Party severs links with Anderton’s Progressive Coalition. November: United Future Party wins Coalition government’s acquiescence to establishment of a Families’ Commission. ACT Party proposes that New Zealand should permit nuclearpowered warships into New Zealand’s waters. December: Local Government Act passed with support of United Future Party. 2003 January: Trans Rail near bankruptcy; government looks to ways of assisting the company. February: ACT list MP Donna Awatere-Huata suspended from party caucus following allegations that she had misused public funds intended for a children’s reading program. Team New Zealand loses America’s Cup to Swiss yacht Alinghi, skippered by former Team New Zealand skipper Russell Coutts. May: National Party leader Bill English calls for abolition of separate Maori parliamentary seats. ACT leader Richard Prebble calls for a grand coalition of center-right parties. June: Government withdraws offer to purchase one-third of Trans Rail; instead it will buy back the rail tracks and invest $200 million in upgrading. Court of Appeal rules that Maori hapu (Ti Tau Ihu) has right to take claims

liv •

CHRONOLOGY

for private title to the foreshore and seabed to the Maori Land Court, sparking political furor. July: Maori hui opposes government proposals for foreshore and seabed. August: Government announces plans to legislate to keep foreshore and seabed in the public domain. September: Moratorium of field trials involving genetically engineered crops lifted. Official unemployment level drops to 4.4 percent, the lowest figure since December 1987. October: Supreme Court Act establishes a New Zealand Supreme Court and abolishes appeals to Privy Council. First-term MP Donald Brash successfully challenges English for National Party leadership. November: First Supreme Court justices named. Fraud charges laid against Awatere-Huata. ACT Party expels her from its caucus and invokes Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act. Maori Fisheries Bill to allocate fishing quota to Maori iwi finally introduced into Parliament after 11 years of wrangling amongst Maori. 2004 January: National Party leader Don Brash calls for an end to “special privileges for any race” and the Treaty “grievance industry,” and for welfare to be based on need, not ethnicity. February: National list MP Georgina Te Heuheu removed from her position as National’s Maori affairs spokesperson for declining to endorse Brash’s speech. Public opinion poll shows surge in support for National Party following Brash’s speech. Labour-led government moves swiftly to review government policies to ensure that they are not race-based. Donna Awatere-Huata declined permanent injunction to prevent ACT Party from notifying the Speaker of the House of Representatives that she is no longer a member of that party. Awatere-Huata appeals decision to Court of Appeal. April: Government introduces foreshore and seabed legislation in face of strong opposition from some Maori groups. May: Labour MP and junior minister Tariana Turia resigns from the Labour Party and from Parliament because of her opposition to the Foreshore and Seabed Bill; quickly moves to establish a Maori political party. Internal National Party report recommends that it repeal New Zealand’s ban on port visits by nuclear-powered warships while retaining the ban on nuclear weapons. June: Richard William Prebble replaced as leader of the ACT Party by Rodney Philip Hide. Government announces aquaculture policy that will give Maori 20 percent of marine farming resources. Brash announces that National will only amend antinuclear legislation if a referendum supports a change. July: Turia wins parliamentary by-election; Maori Party launched. Court of Appeal rules that Awatere-Huata is entitled to

CHRONOLOGY

• lv

remain in Parliament. November: In its first decision the newly established Supreme Court finds that Awatere-Huata’s expulsion from the ACT Party had “disturbed the proportionality of Parliament” and therefore her parliamentary seat could be declared vacant. She is replaced in Parliament by Kenneth Wang, the next person on the ACT Party’s list. December: Supreme Court rules that Ahmed Zaoui, who had arrived in New Zealand in December 2002 seeking refugee status, should be released on bail because he had been held in custody without charge since his arrival. The Civil Union Act, which creates a new legal category of relationship available to same-sex or opposite-sex couples, passed by Parliament.

Introduction

To the first Polynesian discoverers, it was Aotearoa, the “long white cloud.” In the 17th century, the Dutch seafarer Abel Janszoon Tasman described the country he named Staten Landt as “a large land uplifted high.” One hundred and twenty-seven years later, the much more prosaic English explorer James Cook recorded that “[t]he land on the sea coast is high with steep cliffs; and back inland are very high mountains. The face of the country is of a hilly surface, and appears to be cloathed with wood and verdure.” Thus did New Zealand become known to the world. Located in the middle latitudes of the southwest Pacific Ocean, New Zealand lies almost at the center of the world’s water hemisphere. It comprises two main islands—the North Island (115,777 square kilometers) and the South Island (151,215 square kilometers)—and a number of smaller islands or island groups of which Stewart Island (1,746 square kilometers) and the Chatham Islands (963 square kilometers), the latter located some 850 kilometers to the east of Christchurch, are the largest. Excluding the Chatham Islands, the country’s mainland area extends some 1,600 kilometers, generally along a northeast-southwest axis between 34°S and 47°S latitude while, at its widest point, it extends across 51⁄2° of longitude (between 168°E to 174°E longitude). A number of smaller, mostly uninhabited, islands lie beyond these limits to both the north and south. New Zealand also exercises jurisdiction over the Tokelau Islands and the Ross Dependency in Antarctica. Its nearest neighbor, Australia, is 2,000 kilometers to the northwest. In 2003 the country’s population exceeded four million for the first time. Nearly 76 percent of its inhabitants reside in the North Island; nearly 86 percent are urban dwellers. New Zealand, situated on the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific tectonic plates, forms part of the “fiery rim” of the Pacific lvii

lviii •

INTRODUCTION

Ocean. It is characterized by a number of active volcanoes and frequent, though, for the most part, shallow earthquakes (approximately 16,000 per annum, with an average of between 160 and 220 of Richter force 4 or greater). The forces generated by the collision of the two plates have ensured that most of the country is mountainous: more than three-quarters of the land area lies higher than 200 meters above sea level and the principal mountain chain, the Southern Alps which extends almost the entire length of the South Island, includes over 220 named peaks higher than 2,300 meters (7,500 feet) and 360 glaciers. The North Island is only slightly less rugged. New Zealand’s coastline—one of the longest in the world for a country of its size—is deeply indented with many natural harbors. At 1.2 million square nautical miles, the country has one of the world’s largest exclusive economic zones (EEZ), although about twothirds is too deep for trawling or long-line fishing. New Zealand is believed to be a fragment of ancient “Gondwana,” a landmass that has been isolated for perhaps as long as 100 million years. The absence of predators has resulted in the survival of many ancient plants and animals. The giant kauri tree; flightless birds such as the moa (now extinct), kiwi, takahe, and kakapo; and the ancient nocturnal reptile tuatara (the only survivor of an otherwise extinct order of “beakheaded” reptiles) are examples of flora and fauna dating back to antiquity. Human occupation of these islands is of recent origin. Maori legends tell of the discovery and settlement of New Zealand from a place they called “Hawai’iki,” although recent research suggests that there may have been many Hawai’ikis. The first settlers almost certainly came from central-eastern Polynesia—a broad area—rather than from specific islands, possibly as recently as the 12th or 13th centuries AD. Early theories postulated one-way voyages to New Zealand but more recent research points to the probability of multidirectional voyages between New Zealand and Pacific homelands from multiple settlements scattered along many of the more favored coastal inlets. The earliest settlers were hunters, fishers, and food gatherers, but with the demise of the giant moa (probably by the beginning of the 16th century) and the arrival of cultivars, such as taro and kumara, permanent settlements began to develop. By the time of Captain James Cook’s arrival in 1769, a highly sophisticated and stratified neolithic society of perhaps as many as 200,000 people, centered on the permanent villages,

INTRODUCTION

• lix

had evolved. Settlements were most numerous in the climatically more favorable parts of the North Island, but Maori were to be found also in the South Island, particularly along its eastern seaboard. Some 850 kilometers to the east of the South Island lay the windswept Chatham Islands. They, too, were occupied by a people of Polynesian origin. Early ethnologists believed them to be of Melanesian stock and called them “Moriori” to distinguish them from the mainland aborigines. More recent research points strongly to these islands having been settled from eastern Polynesia or the New Zealand mainland, with the different cultural characteristics the result of separation through time and distance. The growing European presence after 1769 exerted a profound influence on pre-European Maori society. Between 1792 and 1840 sealers, whalers, missionaries, and traders all contributed to changing patterns of economic and social behavior. New means of warfare—with muskets supplementing and often replacing the hand weapons used in one-toone combat—frequently resulted in substantial disruptions to tribal territories as the vanquished fled or were taken into slavery. The introduction of common European illnesses—influenza, whooping cough, dysentery, and perhaps diphtheria—along with venereal diseases, also contributed to the dramatic decline in the Maori population. By 1840 the number of Maori was estimated to be c.125,000—only about threefifths that of 70 years earlier. Traditional Maori values—mana and tapu—were increasingly undermined by the activities of missionaries and others. Even Maori conversions to Christianity had a detrimental impact as slaves, freed by tribes converted to Christianity, drifted back to their ancestral lands just as the first organized wave of European settlers arrived to take up land in the new colony. Increasing lawlessness in the predominantly British settlements, particularly in the Bay of Islands, and an inability to punish offenders, ultimately forced the British government to establish formal authority and sovereignty over the country. In February 1840 Governor William Hobson entered into a treaty arrangement with a number of northern North Island Maori chiefs by which the chiefs ceded sovereignty of their territory to the British Crown. In return, the Crown guaranteed Maori “full, exclusive and undisturbed possession” of all lands, forests, fisheries, and other properties for as long as they wished to retain them (where Maori wished to sell land, the Crown was to have exclusive right

lx •

INTRODUCTION

of purchase) and extended to Maori its protection and the rights and privileges of British citizens. The Treaty of Waitangi is today generally accepted as the foundation document of the New Zealand nation. Since 1840 two main themes have dominated New Zealand’s historical development. The first and more enduring theme has been the quest for what one prominent historian has labeled “national obsessions”— equality and security, both individual and collective. The second, and more recent, theme is New Zealand’s emergence as a nation with a unique identity. Like many other parts of the world settled from Europe in the 19th century, New Zealand is classified as a “frontier” society. Nevertheless, its small geographic size and relative isolation from other societies; the dominant influence of Britain and, therefore, British culture; the endemic instability of an economy based on a narrow range of pastoral products; and the dominance of the state in the lives of its people help explain much of the present-day New Zealand psyche. To these characteristics must be added the strong resurgence of Maori language and culture and the increasingly insistent demands by Maori that the acknowledged wrongs perpetrated by government and settlers during the second half of the 19th century should be redressed. Taken together, these diverse elements have created New Zealand’s distinctive political and social culture.

SECURITY AND EQUALITY A common characteristic of frontier societies is the individualism of their settlers. In this respect, New Zealand was no different from other recently settled parts of the world. But, from the beginnings of organized settlement in New Zealand, settlers also turned to “authority” in times of need. At first the “authority” was the New Zealand Company. As early as 1842 unemployed Nelson laborers demanded that the company honor its commitment to provide a minimum of £1 per week plus rations when work was nonexistent. The company repudiated its pledge and, instead, sent unemployed workers many miles from home to undertake often trivial tasks. From the time of the establishment of a governmental structure in the 1850s, the “authority” was the state and its often proactive governments. Throughout most of the 1860s, settlers demanded that the gov-

INTRODUCTION

• lxi

ernment defend them against rebellious Maori. In 1870, faced with declining gold production and lower prices for wheat and wool exports, Colonial Treasurer Julius Vogel proposed borrowing £10 million on the London market as a means of revitalizing the sagging economy. Vogel had concluded that New Zealand’s underdevelopment—a consequence of poor communications and too small a population—lay at the heart of the country’s economic difficulties. The money raised would be used to bring in new immigrants and invest in railway construction, which, in turn, would open up new land for farming and substantially boost confidence in the country’s future. Vogel’s plan brought considerable benefits: total population doubled to more than 500,000; the South Island’s main trunk railway (from Christchurch to Invercargill) was completed; the country’s flax, timber, kauri gum, and land resources were exploited; and farm and factory production expanded dramatically. And, when South Island landowners defeated Vogel’s proposal to secure the loans by transferring six million acres of provincial land to the central government, the nine provincial governments were abolished and New Zealand became a unitary country in fact as well as in name. The downside of this spurt in development was a massive increase in public debt; the amount eventually borrowed before the bubble burst was double that originally proposed. The rapidly rising land prices, which accompanied improved communications, encouraged speculative ventures but did little to establish a sound economic base. Between 1870 and 1880, while the return from exports declined from £17 to £12 per head, public debt soared from £7.8 million to £28.2 million. By the end of the decade, problems of servicing the country’s debt were very apparent. With the collapse of the City of Glasgow Bank in 1878, New Zealand finally confronted the worldwide depression of the second half of the 19th century. The excesses of the 1870s had given settlers a false sense of security; in the 1880s banks and mortgage corporations foreclosed on many who had bought land during the boom years and were unable to meet the high interest charges. As confidence in New Zealand’s economic future withered, capital—and later people—fled the country. For many, the 1880s was a decade of abject misery and poverty, characterized by low wages and poor working conditions for those with jobs, and unemployment and soup kitchens for those without. Although some attempts were

lxii •

INTRODUCTION

made to overhaul the land tenure system, the government’s principal response was to reduce government expenditure. The 1890 general election broke the South Island landholders’ stranglehold over the political system as small farmers, would-be farmers, farm laborers, and the urban working class combined to elect the Liberal Party to govern with the support of a handful of Independent Labour members of Parliament. During the course of the 1890s, the government, led first by John Ballance and then by Richard John Seddon, passed a series of social and economic measures—land reforms, graduated taxation, a series of factory acts including the landmark Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, old-age pensions, and legislation designed to advance the education and health of the nation—all of which were aimed at improving the lives of all New Zealanders. For the best part of the next century, economic and social security were the dominant goals and differences between political parties centered on priorities rather than fundamental differences of approach. Many of the reforms represented a political response to the economic and social deprivation of the depression years and could easily have been enacted by any enlightened government. The importance of the reforms lay in the Liberals’ belief that the state had a duty to secure the welfare of its less fortunate citizens. Equally if not more important in improving lifestyles were newly emergent economic factors. In 1890, wool accounted for nearly 80 percent by value of New Zealand’s farm exports, but while wool was still New Zealand’s largest single export commodity in 1920, it accounted for only 36 percent of exports by value. The development of refrigeration, the adoption of scientific farming techniques, the opening up of the lush North Island dairying lands, and the establishment of farming cooperatives all contributed to increased exports and rising living standards, as did a worldwide shortage of farm products from the mid-1890s. Rising prosperity helped establish a political cleavage between town and country as conservative rural voters were increasingly attracted to the emerging Reform Party’s pledge to permit leased land to be freeholded. At the same time, the urban working class was transferring its political support to the precursors of the Labour Party. In 1912 the long reign of the Liberals finally came to an end and for the next 16 years the Reform Party led by William Ferguson Massey and, after 1925, by Joseph Gordon Coates dominated New Zealand politics.

INTRODUCTION

• lxiii

New Zealand prospered in the years before World War I and benefited even more during the war years when the “commandeer system” ensured farmers a guaranteed market and high prices for their produce in Britain. Economic optimism abounded after the war as returning servicemen bought farms. Land prices spiraled as did speculation, interest rates, and inflation. The end of the war, however, also brought the commandeer system to an end. A sharp fall in export prices for meat, wool, and dairy products followed soon after. The economic pattern of the 1920s was characterized by a series of booms and troughs. Farmers responded by acquiescing in the establishment of meat and dairy boards to control the marketing of their products. But, despite the economic fluctuations, which were regarded as temporary dislocations, primary production continued to increase even after the worldwide depression became obvious. Political instability also manifested itself. In 1928, a three-way split of parliamentary seats—between a resurgent United (formerly Liberal) Party, the Reform Party, and a more moderate Labour Party—enabled United to form a minority government with Labour support. But the government stumbled from one crisis to another until, in 1931 after Labour’s increasingly uncertain support was withdrawn, the two conservative parties finally entered into a coalition. New Zealand was hit badly by the Great Depression. Its traditional dependence on the British market—reinforced by the commandeer marketing system—and its narrow, grass-based economy brought severe economic hardship to many people. Permanent unemployment, soup kitchens, and charitable aid reappeared as difficulties mounted. The government’s initial response was to retrench: public servants’ wages were cut; the compulsory provisions of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act were repealed, leading to a substantial reduction in wage costs; financial support was available only to those unemployed who participated in often demoralizing “relief” work; and public works programs were cut. Only after riots in the streets of three main cities between January and May 1932 did the government seek to manage the economy through active intervention. The government’s more interventionist strategy came too late for the vast majority of electors; in 1935 they gave Labour an overwhelming victory in the expectation that the new and hitherto untried party would be able to bring the economy back on course. Nine months later the

lxiv •

INTRODUCTION

remnants of the two coalition parties regrouped to form the National Party. By the next general election in 1938, the two-party system was firmly established. Like its Liberal Party precursor, Labour sought to impose political solutions on what were essentially economic and social problems. The economy was insulated from the vagaries of the world markets through mechanisms such as guaranteeing the price received by dairy farmers for their butterfat and imposing import controls to ration scarce foreign exchange and encourage the development of import substitution industries. To improve the lot of workers, compulsory arbitration was restored, a minimum weekly wage was introduced, and the state began building solid, if unpretentious, houses for rent to lower-paid families. The high point of this reforming era came in 1938 with the passage of a comprehensive (“cradle to grave”) Social Security Act, which provided for a range of medical, hospital, sickness, maternity, unemployment, widow, family, and age benefits. By the late 1940s New Zealand’s welfare state, the basis of which was universality, was the envy of many other countries. Labour’s legislative program reflected an acceptance of state economic management: in return for guarantees of minimum living standards, full employment, and security for farm income, New Zealanders permitted the state to control and regulate many economic and financial aspects of their lives. Full employment and guaranteed markets for farm produce during and after World War II materially assisted this acceptance. By 1943, the National Party had also accepted the principles underpinning the welfare state. Heightened economic and social security was not, however, without its costs. From the 1940s until 1984, both National and Labour were bent on improving and extending the benefits offered by the welfare state as New Zealanders were cosseted in a cocoon of restrictive regulations designed to protect them from the vagaries of the world economy, regardless of which party was governing the country. The National Party, which won its first election in 1949 and, apart from two brief three-year periods, held office continuously until 1984, had, as its main objective, the better administration of the status quo. Nevertheless, even during this period, the benefits offered by the welfare state were gradually expanded—a comprehensive no-fault accident compensation scheme was put in place in 1972, a domestic purposes benefit was in-

INTRODUCTION

• lxv

troduced in 1973, and a universal, taxpayer-funded national superannuation scheme for all people over the age of 60 was introduced in 1977. The first half of National’s long period in office was a time of rising prosperity and affluence for most New Zealanders. Wool prices boomed during the Korean War and export receipts for farm products remained buoyant even after Britain discontinued the bulk purchase of sheep meat in 1954. Admittedly, there were economic fluctuations—marked by credit squeezes and, at one point, the reimposition of near-total import controls—but it was not until late 1966, when wool prices collapsed, that the first signs of an economic downturn became apparent. Economic instability, characterized by fluctuating prices for primary products, increasing restrictions on New Zealand’s access to its traditional British market, and dramatic increases in the world prices for key commodities, notably crude oil, resulted in hyperinflation which persisted for two decades. At first, successive governments interpreted the economic downturn as no more than a temporary aberration: in 1973, shortly before the first world oil shock, Prime Minister Norman Kirk returned from an overseas trip to tell New Zealanders that the economy had to be insulated from the economic pressures being experienced by the rest of the world. But, as the adverse terms of trade persisted and the economic recession deepened, both the Labour and National governments increasingly regulated the economy as they attempted to control the effects of inflation. The pinnacle of this policy strategy was reached in 1982 when Prime Minister Muldoon—who was also minister of finance—imposed a blanket 12month wage and price freeze (subsequently extended to 20 months) on the country. Although inflation was cut back from over 17 percent to under 5 percent, the underlying problems—an overvalued currency and an overprotected economy—remained. In 1984, New Zealand electors once again turned their backs, perhaps unwittingly, on policies that had pulled them out of one depression and led them into another.

GROWING IDENTITY AS AN INDEPENDENT SOUTH PACIFIC NATION Six identifiable migration waves have helped shape New Zealand’s present population mix. The first two, Maori from eastern Polynesia and

lxvi •

INTRODUCTION

the European predators (sealers, whalers, missionaries, and traders), have already been mentioned. In the 1840s and 1850s a third migratory wave saw English, Scots, and a lesser number of Irish establish settlements under the auspices of the New Zealand Company. The fourth wave a decade later brought a flood of immigration—including many persons of Irish descent and a significant number of Chinese—to the Otago and West Coast gold fields in search of wealth. The fifth wave, comprising, for the most part, government-assisted immigration, commenced with the program instituted by Vogel in the early 1870s and which lasted until 1975, although it was suspended between 1927 and 1946. Overwhelmingly, migrants came from Britain although significant groups—Scandinavians in the 1870s and 1880s, Dalmatians in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and Dutch after 1945—came from continental Europe. The sixth wave has been migration from the South Pacific islands, with whom New Zealand has had an association going back to the beginnings of human settlement in this country and, more recently, from Asia. Since the early 1960s many thousands of people from the Cook Islands, Tokelau Islands, and Niue (all of whom are New Zealand citizens) and Western Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji have migrated to New Zealand in search of enhanced economic opportunities and standards of living. Over the past decade there has been a significant upsurge in immigration from East Asia—from Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos on humanitarian grounds, and from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea. Until the 1970s New Zealand remained an overwhelmingly monocultural society. Between 1881 and 1971 the European component of the population exceeded 90 percent and most traced their descent from the British Isles. Since then, however, the non-British component has grown substantially: the Maori population, which had declined to just over 40,000 in the 1890s, expanded rapidly—in part, at least, as a consequence of a shift in the legal definition of “Maori” from one based on ethnicity (half or more Maori descent) to one based on cultural identity (any person of Maori descent who wished to identify with tikanga Maori)—as have the number of Pacific Island, Indian, and, more recently, Chinese populations. The dominance of British people and culture inhibited New Zealand’s development as an independent nation with its own sense of identity. From the time of annexation, the country was regarded as a remote

INTRODUCTION

• lxvii

British colonial outpost, a position accepted by the great majority of settlers until well into the 20th century. Although the Colonial Laws Validity Act (1865) vested control for internal affairs in the local legislature, New Zealand continued to depend on the British government for its defense and security, an umbilical cord which was reinforced by the country’s dependence on Britain as a market for its pastoral produce and source of capital for internal development. The Russian scare of 1885 marked the beginnings of a tradition of New Zealand offering assistance to the British forces anywhere in the world, a tradition that has continued, though in modified form, until relatively recent times, as evidenced by military contributions to the South African (Boer) War and both world wars, all of which were fought beyond New Zealand’s direct and immediate sphere of interest. More recently, its commitment to collective security has been underscored by its active participation in United Nations peacekeeping activities in a number of the world’s trouble spots. Some early New Zealand politicians did, however, harbor imperialist aspirations. In the 1870s, for example, Julius Vogel advocated New Zealand’s territorial expansion into the southwest Pacific; three decades later, in 1901, Premier Richard John (“King Dick”) Seddon turned this vision into reality when he annexed the Cook Islands and Niue. Further territories were acquired during the course of the next 25 years—Western Samoa as a result of conquest soon after the outbreak of World War I and the Tokelau Islands in 1926, although the island group was not formally incorporated into New Zealand territory until 1948. These acquisitions marked the beginnings of New Zealand’s shift from a European to a Pacific perspective, although it was not until well after World War II that this reorientation was complete. Despite New Zealand’s reluctance to assert its independence, a growing and distinctive New Zealand identity, marked by references to soldiers from New Zealand as “Kiwis” and “Maorilanders,” was beginning to emerge. National pride and identity was further enhanced by the epic feats of the first All Black rugby football team which toured Great Britain in 1905 and, 10 years later, through ANZAC involvement at Gallipoli and later in France and Belgium. New Zealand signed the Versailles Treaty as an independent nation at the conclusion of the war and joined the League of Nations in 1920. Even so, the governments of the 1920s were most reluctant to assert New Zealand’s growing identity. Until 1935 they were content to be

lxviii •

INTRODUCTION

bound by the decisions of the British cabinet on all external and security matters, despite the fact that the Balfour Declaration of 1926 (formalized as the Statute of Westminster in 1932) effectively ended British sovereignty over the self-governing dominions. New Zealand remained reluctant to further loosen its ties with the “Mother Country” and did not formally adopt the statute until 1947. It also gave considerable financial support to the British government over a 10-year period during the 1920s and 1930s to assist with the construction of a naval base at Singapore. A more independent New Zealand voice in world affairs followed the election of the First Labour Government in 1935. Labour had always been more internationalist in outlook than its predecessors, and after it assumed office it adopted a more active stance towards international affairs. In the League of Nations, for example, it opposed Britain over the Abyssinian crisis, the Spanish Civil War, and the Japanese invasion of China and also took a proactive stance on proposals to strengthen the League of Nations in line with its belief that the best form of security was collective security. Nevertheless, the links to Britain remained strong; when that country declared war on Germany in 1939, New Zealand immediately followed suit without reference to Parliament. Japan’s capture of the Singapore naval base and its rapid southward thrust as far as the Coral Sea during the first months of 1942 radically altered New Zealand’s perception of the world and its place in it. Henceforth, it would have to rely on the United States for its defense even though, in marked contrast to Australia, it continued to support Britain in the Middle East and European war theaters. In 1941 it opened its first embassy outside Britain when it established its legation in Washington, and by the end of the war it had extended its diplomatic representation to Ottawa, Canberra, and Moscow. A Department of External Affairs (now the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade) was established in 1943. In 2004 New Zealand had 56 diplomatic and consular posts in 42 countries, 30 of which were in the Asia-Pacific region. A number of these posts involved multiple accreditations, covering 81 other countries. New Zealand’s belief in collective security and self-determination was promoted strongly after World War II. A founder member of the United Nations, New Zealand has strongly supported the collective security principles underlying the United Nations Charter, contributing

INTRODUCTION

• lxix

troops to the United Nations operations in Korea, Cyprus, the Middle East, the Gulf War, Bosnia, and, more recently, East Timor, Afghanistan, and Iraq. It was also a staunch advocate of independence for former colonial territories and, in 1962, saw its own trusteeship territory, Western Samoa, assume sovereign nation status. Its belief in the negotiated settlement of disputes saw it take (jointly with Australia) a case seeking to restrain French nuclear testing in the Pacific before the International Court of Justice in 1974. But despite its commitment to universal collective security through the United Nations, New Zealand was not so naïve as to believe that this would be sufficient. In the 1950s it entered into a number of multilateral defense alliances—notably ANZUS (1951), SEATO (1954), and the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement (1957)—to protect and enhance its regional interests. These commitments, one of which at least excluded Britain, signaled a growing commitment to the Asia-Pacific region, although this did not prevent Prime Minister Sidney Holland from supporting the Anglo-French invasion of Egypt over the Suez Canal question in 1956 or Prime Minister Rob Muldoon’s public support of Britain’s declaration of war against Argentina during the 1982 Falklands crisis. During the 1950s and 1960s New Zealand also contributed troops to the Malayan insurgency and later to the Vietnam War. Military participation in these theaters was public acknowledgment of a shift that had taken place in New Zealand’s global perspective since World War II. The Vietnam conflict, in particular, was a major turning point because, for the first time in New Zealand’s history, the country had gone to war in support of an ally but without Britain. At home, public opposition to New Zealand’s involvement in the Vietnam conflict was unprecedented. A new generation of New Zealanders was demanding greater independence of thought and action in world affairs. New Zealand’s increasingly Pacific Basin orientation, evidenced by a redirection of its aid programs to the South Pacific sphere and its initiation of the South Pacific Forum (1970—renamed the Pacific Islands Forum in 1999), reached a high point in 1973 when it openly opposed French nuclear testing on Mururoa atoll. Nuclear disarmament had been a significant public issue from the late 1950s, and successive New Zealand governments had publicly protested against nuclear testing in the United Nations and other forums. Growing concern with the French

lxx •

INTRODUCTION

atmospheric testing program, in particular, stemmed from the fact that it was being undertaken on a regular basis less than 1,500 kilometers (900 miles) from the Cook Islands. Although the Cook Islands had been internally self-governing since 1965, New Zealand still retained responsibility for the islands’ external affairs. In 1973 the Kirk Labour government sent a frigate to stand “in silent witness” just beyond Mururoa’s 12-mile territorial limit and embarrassed the French by being the first to announce each test to the world. Although New Zealand’s action (and the subsequent action in challenging the legality of France’s testing program in the International Court of Justice) failed to halt the testing program completely, it did force the French authorities to carry out future testing underground. Two decades later, New Zealand was again to the forefront of international opposition to the resumption of French underground nuclear testing at Mururoa when it sent a naval vessel to stand off Mururoa during the early stages of that country’s 1995 weapons-testing program. Since the 1980s the country’s increasingly independent stance in international affairs has become even more marked. Immediately after the 1984 election, the Fourth Labour Government led by David Lange implemented its antinuclear platform, a significant outcome of which was a marked cooling of relations between New Zealand and its two ANZUS partners. The United States responded by downgrading New Zealand’s diplomatic status from “ally” to “friend,” and since then the country has been excluded from ANZUS military exercises and top-level military and sensitive diplomatic information. Although relations have improved somewhat since the initial standoff—partly as a result of the efforts of New Zealand’s minister of foreign affairs, Don McKinnon, during the 1990s—the country’s military and diplomatic relationship with the United States remains that of a “friend.” In contrast to Australia, when U.S. President George W. Bush declared war on the Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq, New Zealand refused to assist until the United Nations became involved after the cessation of hostilities in May 2003. From the early 1960s, New Zealand was a leading opponent of South Africa’s apartheid policies. Apart from contacts during the Boer War and the two world wars, New Zealand’s association with South Africa had been almost exclusively on the rugby football field. On three occasions (1928, 1949, and 1960) when New Zealand had toured South Africa, Maori players were excluded from the teams chosen, but by

INTRODUCTION

• lxxi

1967 public opposition had built up to the point where the National government felt it prudent to discourage the New Zealand Rugby Football Union from accepting an invitation to tour unless South Africa was prepared to accept the presence of Maori players in the team. This finally took place in 1970. As a result of this success, public opinion hardened further against South Africa and, with a South African team due to tour New Zealand in 1973, Prime Minister Kirk delivered an ultimatum to the Rugby Union to call the tour off (despite the fact that he had promised during the 1972 election campaign that a government led by him would not prevent the tour from taking place). Kirk’s action was interpreted as a direct challenge to the freedom of New Zealanders to play sport with whomever they wished and it became an important issue in the 1975 election campaign won by National. National’s attitude to sporting contacts with South Africa was ambivalent. It recognized that adverse political consequences could result from allowing sporting contacts with South Africa to continue in the face of growing public opposition, but it also believed that its stance in favor of the freedom of the individual was likely to result in an electoral advantage. Thus, despite the public outcry, the government placed no barrier in the way of an All Black rugby football team touring South Africa in 1976. Two consequences followed: a boycott of the Montreal Olympic Games was staged by 30 African states, and the Commonwealth Heads of Government meeting the following year drew up the Gleneagles Agreement, a document which obliged all Commonwealth governments to actively discourage sporting contacts of any kind with South Africa, although it was left to individual states to determine how best to achieve this objective. Despite this commitment, the Third National Government took no positive steps to prevent the 1981 South African rugby tour to New Zealand, almost certainly because it believed that the political benefits in critical electorates would outweigh any disadvantages. As a consequence, for eight weeks during the winter of 1981, New Zealanders found themselves pitted against one another—both physically and emotionally—as antiapartheid protesters opposed (and fought) with rugby supporters. Charged with maintaining law and order, the police were to be found between the two groups in full riot gear and armed with long batons. The siege-like environment was at times emphasized by the use of barbed wire and large

lxxii •

INTRODUCTION

waste containers filled with gravel as a means of keeping protesters at bay. The political innocence of New Zealanders evaporated forever as a result of this experience. It was, however, an important step in New Zealanders’ growing maturity as an independent nation that was prepared to speak out on important world issues that were not of immediate or direct concern. By the 1980s most New Zealanders saw themselves as citizens of an independent nation that could contribute to world peace and development.

THE MAORI RENAISSANCE For the greater part of the past 165 years Maori have been largely marginalized as a society in the face of the numerical, political, economic, social, and cultural dominance of European settlement. Although, as we have seen, the Treaty of Waitangi guaranteed that Maori would continue to retain control of their land, forests, and fisheries, it also provided that the Crown was to have exclusive right of purchase where Maori owners wished to sell. Thus, in the earliest years of European settlement, the Crown became the primary vehicle for the transfer of land from Maori to settlers. In 1844, however, the Crown waived its right of preemption in the face of pressure from both Maori and Europeans. Until 1860 Maori outnumbered European immigrants. The recent arrivals, living in the tiny, dispersed coastal settlements, were able to do so only because of Maori goodwill towards them. Although in the early years of European settlement there were a number of localized conflicts over land—principally at Wairau and the Bay of Islands—during the 1840s and 1850s Maori generally benefited from the settlers’ presence through supplying them with many of the necessities of life and by gaining access to European skills and goods. For most of this period Maori were generally willing sellers of land, although they and Europeans held different concepts of the significance of land and their relationship to it. Economic depression during the second half of the 1850s—stemming in part from declining trade with the Victorian (Australia) gold fields— resulted in a decline in Maori agriculture and growing Maori resistance to land sales at a time when pressure for access to land by settlers was increasing. Land thus became the focus for economic and political confrontation, a contest for possession of land in the physical sense as well as a contest for the imposition of mana (authority). The King Movement

INTRODUCTION

• lxxiii

and the so-called Maori land league, which sought to enforce a pan-tribal veto on land sales, represented attempts by Maori to turn back the inexorable tide of European colonization. This attempt to establish a nation within a nation was not acceptable to Europeans, and it met with only mixed success as cooperation gave way to competition and then conquest. War became the means whereby settlers acquired land and imposed their will on Maori. This Land War should not, however, be viewed as a “race” war, for a number of Europeans fought alongside Maori or lent them verbal support, while many Maori either fought with British or colonial soldiers or remained neutral. Land confiscations followed war as the central government, directly and through the decisions of the Native (later “Maori”) Land Court (established in 1865 to decide who owned the land and to transfer ownership from communal ownership to individual titles), separated Maori from their land. Ultimately some 650,000 hectares (1.6 million acres) of Maori land was confiscated in Taranaki, Waikato, and the Bay of Plenty. Many confiscations were indiscriminate—some “rebellious” tribes went unpunished while other “friendly” or “neutral” tribes lost nearly all their land. Road and railway construction and new inland settlements became instruments of pacification. Although some was subsequently returned to Maori, by the 1890s only 16 percent of land remained in Maori ownership, most of it in the more remote parts of the North Island. By 1939 the proportion of land still in Maori ownership had declined to 6.1 percent; 35 years later it had diminished still further, to a mere 5 percent. The confiscation and subsequent alienation of Maori land became an enduring barrier to reconciliation. Throughout the second half of the 19th century, Maori population numbers continued to fall until, by 1896, they totaled only 42,000— about 7 percent of the country’s total population. Pakeha believed that Maori, as a race, were dying out; what they failed to recognize was that, despite this decline, Maori had survived as a distinct ethnic and social group. European politicians and administrators believed, however, that given time, Maori would be assimilated into the dominant culture through cohabitation and education. The Maori renaissance dates from the later 1890s when a group of young professional men, mostly from the North Island’s East Coast and all educated at Te Aute College, formed the Young Maori Party. Apart from Apirana Ngata, all its leading members were noted for their wholesale adoption of European culture. They believed that the future

lxxiv •

INTRODUCTION

for Maori lay in the adoption of Pakeha practices and technology. While, as a group, the Young Maori Party was able to identify and articulate some Maori needs to Pakeha audiences, its overall influence was limited. The revival of Maori as a vibrant ethnic and cultural group is highlighted by three key features. First, 1896 was the low point of Maori population numbers; since then their numbers have risen substantially, and by the 2001 census the number of people in the Maori ancestry group exceeded 670,000. Along with this population expansion have come improvements in health, hygiene, and education, although these are still below the overall standards enjoyed by the vast majority of the population. Second, “Maori identity” has become more important than tribal identity; although a strong sense of tribal identity remains, today Maori have developed a view of themselves as “Maori.” Third, in 1900 about 90 percent of Maori lived in small and often isolated rural communities; after 1950, a marked urban migration pattern emerged, and, today, Maori are a predominantly urban people. Increasing contact and interaction between Maori and non-Maori has highlighted differences between the two. As a group, Maori are younger and less skilled, receive lower incomes, and have a higher birthrate than their non-Maori counterparts. Detribalization has, however, resulted in the development of a shared sense of Maori identity and the emergence of a number of young, articulate, generally well-educated, self-confident, and assertive Maori leaders who are proud of their Maori heritage and determined to secure a new deal for their people, including remedying longstanding grievances. In this respect the Treaty of Waitangi Act (1975) marked a new beginning. It established a new body, the Waitangi Tribunal, which was charged with responsibility for examining Maori grievances and making recommendations to the government for their resolution. Over recent years a number of significant advances have been made towards the goal of redressing Maori grievances, including substantial “full and final” settlements with some iwi, notably Tainui and Ngai Tahu; nevertheless, there is still some way to go before full redress is likely to be achieved. In the context of race relations, assimilation implies the loss of a distinctive and discrete culture. The fact that assimilation was unlikely to eventuate was recognized in 1960 when a government report redefined government policy towards Maori as one of integration. Nowadays, gov-

INTRODUCTION

• lxxv

ernment policy and many citizens increasingly acknowledge that, as tangata whenua, Maori people and their culture and traditions have a special place in New Zealand society, that long-standing grievances still exist and must be addressed, and that biculturalism must be actively fostered. As a distinctive group, Maori have become more assertive. In 1985 the ability of the Waitangi Tribunal to consider claims and make recommendations for the redress of long-standing grievances was extended back to 1840. As a result many new claims have been, and continue to be, lodged, and the tribunal’s findings have generally recommended that the government act to settle them. Maori are also using the legal system to assert their rights. In 1987 the Court of Appeal found in favor of the New Zealand Maori Council in a judgment that emphasized the special relationship existing between the Maori people and the Crown as a consequence of the Treaty of Waitangi. Two years later, it upheld the Tainui (Waikato) tribe’s challenge to the right of Coalcorp (a state-owned enterprise—since renamed Solid Energy New Zealand) to sell off surplus land until the rights of the tribe (which, at the time, had a land claim before the Waitangi Tribunal) were protected. In 1992 Maori claims to a share of New Zealand’s fisheries were addressed, with the government providing $150 million to assist Maori to purchase the largest New Zealand fishing company and its quota licenses; in return, Maori agreed to extinguish all further claims to fishing rights under the Treaty of Waitangi. A further 12 years, however, elapsed before broad—though by no means universal—agreement was reached on how the fishing quota and monetary compensation would be allocated and enabling legislation was passed by Parliament. In December 1994, the government proposed a plan for a “full and final settlement” of all outstanding claims against the Crown. Initial Maori reaction to the government’s proposal was, however, divided: two separate hui organized by the paramount chief of the Ngati-Tuwharetoa tribe, Sir Hepi Te Heuheu, rejected the government’s proposals outright, but in 1995 the Tainui iwi successfully completed negotiations for a full settlement of its historic grievances, including the return of land unjustly confiscated during and after the 19th-century Land Wars, a cash settlement to compensate for earlier wrongdoings, and a formal apology from the Crown. Since then a number of agreements have been negotiated between the Crown and Maori claimants, the most significant of which were settlements involving the Ngai Tahu (South Island) and Ngati Awa (Taranaki) tribes.

lxxvi •

INTRODUCTION

Over the past 30 years the Treaty of Waitangi has assumed a much more central role in New Zealand society. People are increasingly looking to the “spirit” of the treaty, as expressed in its principles, to decide what is the most appropriate course of action to take. There is, however, no general agreement as to what those principles are. A 1987 decision by the Court of Appeal emphasized the concept of partnership in which both parties have obligations. Two years later the Fourth Labour Government responded by setting out five principles—government acknowledgment that it has a responsibility to act fairly towards Maori, Maori self-management, equality between both parties, reasonable cooperation between iwi and the Crown, and redress for past wrongs— which would govern its future relationship with Maori. The New Zealand Maori Council has established its own set of principles, including making good past treaty breaches, protecting the Maori way of life, giving priority to Maori values, and acknowledging that the Crown has a duty to consult with Maori. For its part the Waitangi Tribunal holds that the right of the Crown to govern has been exchanged for an obligation on the Crown to protect Maori interests; that the treaty implies partnership and mutual obligations to act in good faith; and that while compromise is necessary, the principle of redress for historical and more recent breaches of the treaty flows from the Crown’s duty to act reasonably toward Maori. In essence the present-day interpretation of the treaty assumes that Maori have accepted the sovereignty of the Crown and the New Zealand Parliament and that, in return, the treaty principles will be applied in a manner that provides justice for all. Today, relationships between Maori and Pakeha are driven largely by the concepts of biculturalism and partnership. The Maori language is now recognized as an official language of New Zealand, and political and other leaders now frequently meet with Maori on Maori territory, the marae. Partnership, as encapsulated in the Treaty of Waitangi, has become an important yardstick for determining fairness and equity in the relations between the two groups.

ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL CHANGE Commencing in 1984 a political, economic, social, and administrative revolution swept New Zealand. A state which, for nearly a century, had

INTRODUCTION

• lxxvii

cosseted its citizens has been transformed from one of the most regulated to one of the freest and least regulated of any country in the world. In 1984 New Zealand’s economy was severely constrained by a plethora of regulations. Shortly after its election, the Fourth Labour Government dismantled financial controls and totally freed the exchange rate. Subsidies and protection, particularly those designed to encourage primary production, were abandoned; henceforth, it was essential for exporters to respond to marketplace signals if they wished to survive. Direct controls on wages were abolished and a determined assault was made on inflation. Long-standing state contributions to health, education, and welfare were curtailed and then removed as first Labour and, after 1990, the National government moved towards implementing a user-pays financial environment. Consistent with this move, the taxation regime was altered in favor of garnering a greater proportion of government revenue from indirect taxation and broadening the tax base. At the same time, the public sector was overhauled. Many of the state’s commercial activities were detached from their departments and reorganized as state-owned enterprises (SOEs) with commercial objectives and management. Henceforth, the government’s responsibility was to be restricted to social considerations. Nor did the public service escape change: it was reorganized to establish a more direct relationship between minister and chief executive, and private-sector management practices were introduced wherever possible. The whole purpose of these reforms was to increase the efficiency and equity of the public sector and enhance the quality of life of the state’s citizens. The delivery of education, health, and social welfare benefits was also radically altered. The highly centralized state education system underwent radical change, the objective of which was to shift most of the decision-making power to local communities. By contrast, direct citizen input into the hitherto largely decentralized hospital system was abandoned in favor of a reorganization focused on a small number of appointed Regional Health Authorities (RHAs) which contracted Crown Health Enterprises (CHEs)—formerly hospitals—to carry out a specified range and number of operations. The failure of this reform to deliver the expected financial and health benefits resulted in the Fifth Labour Government reinstating a mix of public and government input into the health area through the establishment of partly elected, partly

lxxviii •

INTRODUCTION

appointed District Health Boards (DHBs). Nevertheless, criticisms that government funding of DHBs was insufficient to enable them adequately to fulfill the role assigned to them can still be heard. In 1992 the accident compensation scheme was amended to eliminate lump-sum payments (since restored in certain specified circumstances), although ongoing compensation for injuries sustained was retained. Increasing emphasis has been placed on primary health care, and entitlement to medical and other health benefits is now determined on the basis of an individual’s or family’s income and age. The objective of these changes is to improve the delivery of services, target need more precisely, and enhance accountability procedures. The principle of universality of entitlement is now largely a thing of the past. One hundred years ago some overseas visitors to New Zealand described the country as a “social laboratory” and “the birthplace of the 20th century.” With the benefit of hindsight, future historians may consider that the New Zealand of the last years of the 20th century has been an economic laboratory. These sweeping changes were, however, not without cost. Unemployment rose dramatically between 1984 and 1993, reaching 10.1 percent of the labor force, and food banks, the modern equivalent of the 1930s soup kitchens, became commonplace in the larger urban centers. A mismatch of available jobs and the skills needed to undertake them also become more apparent. A decade later a sharp upturn in returns from exports between 1999 and 2004—a consequence of higher world demand and a sharply lower valued New Zealand dollar—saw official unemployment decline to 3.8 percent. Nevertheless, many smaller community hospitals in rural areas and smaller service towns were closed or were threatened with closure, as were small rural schools, a trend that is still continuing. And over the past three decades, in a country that has traditionally prided itself on equal opportunities for all, a new poor class—distinguished by its lack of educational achievement, long-term unemployment, poverty, and ethnicity—has emerged. Since the 1980s public trust and confidence in New Zealand’s politicians has been at a very low ebb, a situation exacerbated by the rapid and unexpected changes and the consequent economic pain since 1984. In 1993, almost in retribution it would seem, electors voted to replace the first-past-the-post electoral system with a new mixed member proportional (MMP) electoral system modeled on that adopted by West

INTRODUCTION

• lxxix

Germany in 1949. In anticipation of the first MMP election in 1996, both the Labour and National parties experienced fragmentation of their caucuses as MPs assessed their electoral positions and regrouped. The 1996 election was contested by 21 of the 22 registered political parties but only six won parliamentary representation and none achieved anywhere near a majority of the 120 seats. As a result, extended negotiations took place amongst the three numerically largest parties, out of which emerged a majority National-New Zealand First coalition government. The transition to an MMP environment was, however, still far from complete. Party fragmentation continued; in late 1998 the coalition government disintegrated and the National party completed the final year of the parliamentary term as a minority singleparty government with the support of a disparate collection of MPs who had left parties under whose banner they had been elected in 1996. In November 1999 the minority National Party government was ousted by the electorate but, again, no one party was able to command an absolute majority of parliamentary seats. Coalition talks between the largest party (Labour) and the 10-member Alliance Party were swift; because the two parties had been in regular communication with each other during the 18 months preceding the election, coalition negotiations were short and a minority Labour-Alliance coalition government was formed within two weeks of the election with support on confidence and supply (i.e., support on financial proposals) from the Green Party, which had formally separated from the Alliance before the election. Once again, however, problems within the Alliance’s caucus culminated in a split that resulted in Prime Minister Helen Clark calling the 2002 election four months early. Although the Labour Party increased its parliamentary representation by three (to 52), it found it prudent to form another minority coalition government, this time with the two-MP Progressive Coalition Party led by former Alliance MP Jim Anderton, and with support on confidence and supply issues from the United Future Party. Despite the apparent shift from a center-right to a center-left government in 1999, the coalition governments led by Labour have adopted a generally fiscally prudent budgetary strategy. It has, however, stepped back to some degree from the rigid orthodoxy of the Douglas and Richardson years. Since 1999, for example, the government has altered the national superannuation regime to ensure that married couples receive 65 percent of the average weekly wage after tax; abolished competition in

lxxx •

INTRODUCTION

accident compensation cover; amended labor legislation to make it more friendly to employees; established a new bank—Kiwibank—to provide competition in the trading bank system now dominated by Australian banks; purchased an 82 percent share of Air New Zealand to prevent it from collapsing; and bought back the rail track network from new private owners, the Australian freight company Toll Holdings. MMP has meant that governments have found it necessary to negotiate across party lines in order to secure the passage of contentious legislation. In 2003, for example, the country’s Court of Appeal overturned a High Court decision that had denied the Te Tau Ihu (Marlborough) hapu the right to pursue a claim of “customary ownership” of the foreshore and seabed off the Marlborough Sounds. Fearing that customary title might be converted into Maori freehold ownership of the entire New Zealand coastline, the government moved quickly to introduce legislation to assert Crown ownership over the foreshore and seabed. Nevertheless, with Maori MPs now constituting 15.8 percent of parliamentary seats (and 21.1 percent of Labour’s caucus) the passage of the legislation through the parliamentary process was tumultuous. The act finally passed in November 2004—but not before considerable soulsearching by the government’s Maori MPs, culminating in the resignation as an associate minister, and from Parliament, of Te Tai Hauauru MP Turiana Turia and the formation of a Maori Party—with the support of the New Zealand First Party and despite the opposition of United Future New Zealand, which had pledged its support to the government on matters of confidence. MMP has brought crucial debates out from behind closed caucus room doors and into the open. What is clear is that MMP is likely to result in coalition governments (whether majority or minority) being the norm in the foreseeable future. Governments are unlikely to be able to force their will on citizens unless they are able to build parliamentary majorities in support of individual pieces of legislation. The effect will be to slow down the legislative process and, in turn, this may ultimately lead to more carefully considered laws. However, the transition to MMP is still not fully over; more time is needed before a considered assessment can be made as to whether or not the change to MMP has, on balance, been beneficial.

The Dictionary

–A– ACCIDENT COMPENSATION (ACC). A comprehensive no-fault accident compensation and rehabilitation scheme for all New Zealanders and visitors to New Zealand was established by the Accident Compensation Act, 1972. In return, the right of accident victims to sue for damages was abolished. The concept of accident compensation originated in the 1967 report of a Royal Commission, chaired by Justice Owen Woodhouse, which was established to examine the question of compensation for personal injury. Initially entitlements were intended to be available only to those in employment but, in 1973, the government expanded it to cover all accidents—automobile, domestic, industrial, and sporting— regardless of how the injuries occurred. The scheme includes compensation for permanent physical disability and an earnings-related benefit for accident victims. ACC is a form of compulsory insurance by which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for accidents to some of its members. Initially funded through contributions of employers and selfemployed individuals, annual motor vehicle licensing levies, and an excise levy on petrol, the scheme was amended in 1992 to place greater emphasis on accident prevention, risk management, and rehabilitation of those injured. In addition, the funding base was broadened to include an earners’ levy paid by all persons in employment. Monopoly rights, removed by a National government in 1998, were restored by the Labour-led government in 2000. Lump-sum payments for injuries involving permanent impairment were reintroduced in 2002.

1

2 •

ACT PARTY

ACT PARTY. Originally formed as a pressure group, ACT (Association of Consumers and Taxpayers) was founded by a former Labour finance minister, Roger Douglas, and a former National minister, Derek Quigley. It was registered as a political party following its first national conference held in November 1993. With its philosophy originally stemming largely from Douglas’s book Unfinished Business, ACT strongly urged a reduction in the power of the state, proposing to lower income and company taxes to zero over a period of 20 years or sooner. Instead, citizens would be required to pay into individual education, health, and superannuation accounts, maximizing their freedom of choice. ACT originally planned to supplement the accounts of the poor and pay all health costs above 5 percent of the family income but, by 2003, it had become more pragmatic in its approach, although still standing for lower taxation, individual freedom and choice, personal responsibility, and the protection of life, liberty, and property of each and every citizen, with heavier penalties for serious crime. In 2003 it resisted the temptation to change its name to “The Liberal Party, ACT” in order to lend a greater emphasis to its liberal core values, referring to “liberal” in the classical British sense. A leadership change in 2004 demonstrated the fact that the party continues to be divided between those who regard it as a party of principle and those who favor a more pragmatic approach. ADCOCK, FLEUR (1934– ). Poet. Fleur Adcock is an award-winning poet, editor, translator of medieval Latin and 20th-century Romanian poetry who has lived overseas since 1963. She is author of 12 books of poetry, including Eye of the Hurricane (1964), Below Loughrigg (1979), Time Zones (1991), Looking Back (1997), and The Incident Book (1986). A collected edition of her poetry, Poems 1960–2000, was published in 2000. Adcock has also collaborated with British composer Gillian Whitchurch in a song-cycle libretto and full-length opera, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Well known as a translator of the Romanian poems of Grete Tartler and Daniela Crasnaru, and as editor of The Faber Book of Twentieth-Century Women’s Poetry (1987), she is representative of a distinguished tradition of women writers from New Zealand who have attracted favorable attention overseas. See also LITERATURE.

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY

• 3

ADVANCES TO SETTLERS ACT (1894). During the 1890s, the Liberal government introduced a number of measures to help would-be farmers onto the land. The Advances to Settlers Act authorized the government to borrow money cheaply on the London market and to then lend it at a slightly higher rate (to cover administration costs) and with a lengthy repayment period (up to 36 years) to those who wished to settle on the land. This Act, the most influential of all Liberal land measures, aimed to overcome an acute shortage of capital that had resulted in interest rates of up to 15 percent per annum. In its early years much of the loan money available was uplifted by large landowners who had survived the Long Depression and who used it to refinance their properties, thus freeing themselves from debt. See also LANDS FOR SETTLEMENT ACT. ADVANCES TO WORKERS ACT (1906). Following difficulties in persuading people to occupy the houses built under the Workers’ Dwelling Act program, the government passed the Advances to Workers Act in 1906. This Act authorized the state to make loans up to £450 ($900) available to enable workers to build their own homes. It resulted in the erection of many more homes than the number built under the Workers’ Dwelling Act. AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY. From its earliest years New Zealand has been a world leader in agricultural innovation through research and the state provision of advisory services to farmers. The first shipment of frozen meat left Port Chalmers (the port of Dunedin) for England in 1882, marking the beginnings of an extensive export trade in perishable goods—meat, butter, and cheese—which formed the basis of New Zealand’s economic prosperity for nearly 100 years. In the 1880s and 1890s the introduction of the centrifugal separator and application of the Babcock butterfat test enabled New Zealand farmers to significantly improve the quality of their dairy production. After 1945, the introduction of aerial top-dressing further enhanced productivity by enabling artificial fertilizers (superphosphates of varying kinds) to be spread by airplanes over hill country that was too difficult to fertilize by hand. An enormous increase in carrying capacity resulted. The Liberal government established the Department of Agriculture in 1892. Its role was to adapt overseas research to meet local

4 •

AGRICULTURE

needs, but by the 1930s it was carrying out its own extensive research programs. It also played an important advisory role in helping farmers improve production. This was particularly beneficial to dairy farmers learning new techniques. Agricultural and pastoral research has been undertaken by Lincoln College since 1880 and Massey College since 1926, and both institutions (now universities) have made major contributions to the development of New Zealand’s primary industries. In 1992, the research function of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was separated from the Ministry’s policy advice role. Governmentfunded agricultural research is now carried out by AgResearch, one of 10 Crown Research Institutes. See also REFRIGERATION. AGRICULTURE. The first agriculturalists were Maori who cultivated kumara (sweet potato), taro, and yams that they had introduced into the country. Following the arrival of the first European settlers in the early years of the 19th century, Maori also cultivated potatoes and grain crops, some of which were exported to Australia, as well as farming cattle and pigs. For a variety of reasons—indebtedness, depressed prices, and, finally, the Land Wars—Maori farming went into substantial decline well before the end of the 19th century. Many early European settlers came to New Zealand because they wished to farm the land. Agriculture soon became the backbone of the economy and New Zealand became one of the world’s most productive and efficient agricultural nations. With a plentiful supply of grass as the staple crop, and a mild, temperate climate to encourage its near all-year-round growth, pastoralism soon became the dominant farming activity. From sheep and cattle were derived four main products—wool, meat, and dairy products (butter and cheese). Following the introduction of refrigeration in 1882, New Zealand developed principally as a supplier of agricultural products for one market, Britain, although a combination of high tariffs and obstructive veterinary regulations initially limited sales. With the development of agricultural research in New Zealand from the 1890s, and the emergence of the producer boards for meat and dairy products, New Zealand developed into a highly efficient, low-cost producer of agricultural products, which have always constituted the bulk of its export income. During both world wars, New Zealand was, effectively, Britain’s farm. Since Britain’s entry into the European Union, New

ALL BLACKS

• 5

Zealand’s exports to the British market have been drastically reduced and extensive diversification both of export product and locale (for example, the Middle East) has taken place. Although sheep and cattle are still very important today, New Zealand’s agriculture is now much more diversified and includes deer, goat, and poultry farming in particular. Cereal crops are cultivated on a limited scale, mainly for the home market. Since c.1980 there has been a significant shift from sheep farming to dairying in response to changing economic demand; by the June 2002 agricultural census the sheep flock had declined to 39.6 million, 13.4 percent lower than in June 1999. Dairy cattle, on the other hand, had risen by 15.1 percent to 3.8 million over the same period. Agricultural, horticultural, and forestry sectors continue to account for more than 40 percent of the country’s export receipts with dairying, deer, and wine the fastest growing export sectors. See also AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY; FONTERRA CO-OPERATIVE GROUP; TRADE; Appendix, table 4. AKAROA. Small coastal settlement on Banks Peninsula. Interest in Akaroa was stimulated by the Weller brothers, who established a whaling station there in 1835. From then on, a considerable number of whaling ships used the harbor as a base for their activities, including French whalers. In 1838, Jean Langlois purchased the whole of Banks Peninsula from local Maori. The next year the Nanto-Bordelaise Company was founded with the intention of establishing a French colony at Akaroa to provide a base for French whaling vessels and as a springboard for further French territorial acquisitions. The first French colonists set sail early in 1840 but, before they reached New Zealand waters, William Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the whole of the country. The French colonists nevertheless continued on to Akaroa and established a settlement that today still exhibits some of its French origins. Edward Gibbon Wakefield claimed that, by forcing the British government to proclaim sovereignty over New Zealand, he prevented it from becoming a French possession. This romantic notion is, however, not supported by hard evidence. See also ANNEXATION OF NEW ZEALAND. ALL BLACKS. The name given to the team chosen to represent New Zealand by the New Zealand Rugby Football Union. The name dates

6 •

ALLEY, REWI (1897–1987)

from the 1905 tour of the British Isles when it was reported that the team (which had recently adopted an all black uniform) had played with speed and precision as if they were “all backs.” It has been claimed that a printer’s error caused this to appear as “All Blacks,” but the name rapidly became popular and has persisted. Long upheld as the pinnacle of amateur sport in New Zealand, rugby football at the top level became fully professional in 1996. See also SPRINGBOK TOUR. ALLEY, REWI (1897–1987). A poet and lifelong radical, Alley served in the New Zealand expeditionary force in World War I, was twice wounded, and was awarded the Military Medal for gallantry. After sheep farming in New Zealand, he went to China in 1927, where he spent the rest of his life. Following a variety of jobs, Alley became a schoolteacher and, in 1948, started publishing volumes of his poems (both English and Chinese), which continued throughout his life. He had the unusual distinction of being highly regarded in both countries for his poems published in two different languages as well as his translations from Chinese. Together with his other writings, Alley published a total of 66 books. He is also reputed to be the person who introduced the Chinese phrase “gung ho” into Western usage. ALLIANCE. As formed in 1991, the Alliance consisted of a group of three minor political parties, the Democrat Party, Mana Motuhake, and NewLabour. In 1992, it was joined by the Green Party and Liberals. The principal objective was to oppose more effectively the National government’s policies. Despite disparate party policies and organization, the Alliance persisted largely due to the organizational skills of Jim Anderton and the prospect of the introduction of the proportional representation electoral system. The grouping was positioned slightly to the left of the New Zealand Labour Party, being identified quite closely with NewLabour policies. At the 1993 general election, the Alliance won 18.2 percent of the vote and two seats, one of which was held by leader Anderton for NewLabour and the other won from Labour by Mana Motuhake’s Sandra Lee. Anderton resigned as leader unexpectedly in November 1994 but resumed his position again in May 1995. The Green Party withdrew from the Alliance prior to the 1999 general election but the Alliance, under the continued leadership of its

AMERICA’S CUP

• 7

founder Anderton, formed a government coalition with Labour. Shortly before the 2002 general election, with the Alliance declining markedly in the public opinion polls, Anderton was replaced as leader whereupon he formed his own party, Jim Anderton’s Progressive Coalition Party. However, because of the Electoral (Integrity) Amendment Act of 2001 (legislation initiated earlier by Anderton), which prevented any change of political party by an MP during the term of Parliament without first resigning, he found himself unable in a practical sense to transfer his allegiance to the new party until Parliament was dissolved. The rump of the Alliance was defeated in the general election of that year although Anderton’s much reduced new party with only two parliamentary seats continued in coalition with Labour. Subsequently, Mana Motuhake defected from what was left of the original Alliance and the Democrats defected from Jim Anderton’s Progressive Coalition. In 2004, it formally changed its name to the “Progressive Party,” and in 2005 it was renamed “Jim Anderton’s Progressive Party.” AMERICA’S CUP. The oldest international sporting trophy in the world, dating from 1851, the America’s Cup was first contested by New Zealand off Fremantle (Western Australia) in 1987. Soon after, KZ7’s backer, millionaire Michael Fay, exploited a loophole in the rules by lodging an unscheduled challenge for the cup using a 133-foot “big boat,” only to be beaten by a catamaran in a one-sided match. In 1995, New Zealand’s NZL41, Black Magic, won the “Auld Mug” with an overwhelming 5-0 victory over the holder, the San Diego Yacht Club. At that time this was only the second occasion upon which the cup had traveled outside the United States. New Zealand retained the cup with NZL61 in its first defense at Auckland in 2000 but was comprehensively defeated by the Swiss entry Alinghi (bankrolled by Ernesto Bertarelli and captained and partly crewed by several of the New Zealanders who had won the cup in 2000). Although there is no monetary prize for winning and the cup itself is made of silver-plated Britannia metal (an alloy similar to pewter), its prestige is such that millions of dollars are expended in contesting it. New Zealand even has the unusual distinction of a senior cabinet minister who, amongst other duties, acts officially as minister for the America’s Cup.

8 •

ANDERTON, JAMES PATRICK (JIM) (1938– )

ANDERTON, JAMES PATRICK (JIM) (1938– ). Party leader. President of the New Zealand Labour Party 1979–1984 and elected member of Parliament for the Labour Party stronghold seat of Sydenham in 1984, Anderton resigned from the party in 1989, because he believed that the then-Fourth Labour Government was betraying a fundamental principle in attempting to privatize the Bank of New Zealand that had been nationalized by the First Labour Government in 1946. (There is a certain irony in the fact that, in 2001, Anderton was principally responsible for persuading his Labour coalition colleagues to reestablish the wholly New Zealand–owned Kiwibank.) Anderton is one of the very few members of the New Zealand Parliament to resign from their party and retain a seat at the subsequent election. Paradoxically, his NewLabour Party stood for traditional or “old” Labour principles. In 1991, NewLabour joined with other third and minor parties to form the Alliance in opposition to the Fourth National Government’s policies. Subsequently, as leader of the Alliance, Anderton served in coalition with Labour as deputy prime minister, 1999–2002, before forming Jim Anderton’s Progressive Coalition Party following his loss of the leadership of the Alliance Party organization. Despite a significant electoral setback, he retained a place in the Labour cabinet, although no longer as deputy prime minister. ANNEXATION OF NEW ZEALAND. Although 70 years elapsed between Captain James Cook’s discovery of New Zealand and Britain’s proclamation of sovereignty, it was inevitable from the outset that New Zealand would become part of the British Empire. As early as the 1790s New Zealand was economically part of the New South Wales (Australia) colony as sealers and traders shipped goods to Britain through the port of Sydney. In 1832 James Busby was appointed the British government’s resident agent; his salary was paid by the New South Wales administration. In 1837 William Hobson, captain of HMS Rattlesnake, was sent to the Bay of Islands to protect settlers from possible Maori attack. Hobson recommended that the British government should negotiate treaties with Maori chiefs to enable the establishment of British enclaves. In 1840 he returned and, on 6 February 1840, signed the Treaty of Waitangi with 35 northern chiefs on behalf of the British government. Subsequently, copies of

ANTINUCLEAR POLICY

• 9

the treaty were taken through both islands to enable more signatures to be collected. On 21 May, Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the North Island by right of cession and over the South Island by right of Cook’s prior discovery. When, on 16 November 1840, New Zealand was declared to be a separate colony from New South Wales, Hobson was appointed governor. ANTARCTICA. Antarctica remains the only continent where the original dwellings built and occupied by human beings still stand. Most are located on Ross Island and are relics of the “heroic age” of south polar exploration in the early years of the 20th century. New Zealand was granted jurisdiction over the Ross Dependency in 1923 and is thus one of seven countries that had territorial claims in Antarctica. These claims were put into abeyance under the Antarctic Treaty (1959) of which New Zealand was a major proponent. The treaty provided for scientific cooperation, nonmilitarization, and environmental protection. A scientific research program is maintained at the permanent Scott Base and there are two seasonal bases. ANTINUCLEAR POLICY. New Zealand’s antinuclear policy owes much of its original inspiration to the British pressure group Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and its protest actions. The issue was taken up by a variety of peace groups in the 1960s, including a New Zealand Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament formed in 1959, especially after the moratorium on nuclear testing agreed to by the Soviet Union and the United States collapsed in 1961–1962. Protest was heightened by the decision of France to transfer nuclear testing from Algeria to French Polynesia, and an 80,000-signature petition seeking a nuclear-free Southern Hemisphere was presented to Parliament in 1963. In 1971, the Second National Government refused any further port visits by United States’ nuclear-powered vessels until that country accepted liability in the event of a nuclear accident. Although this was accepted by the United States in 1974, the Third Labour Government continued the ban that was not rescinded until after the New Zealand National Party was returned to power in 1975. Meanwhile, with the winding down of the Vietnam War in 1972, protest activity turned more against French testing in the Pacific that had begun in 1966. In 1973, the Third Labour Government

10 •

ANTINUCLEAR POLICY

dramatized this opposition by sending a frigate with a cabinet minister on board into the test zone and taking France to the International Court of Justice. In 1975, a proposal for a nuclear-free South Pacific was adopted in principle at the South Pacific Forum (since renamed the Pacific Islands Forum) and received the endorsement of the United Nations’ General Assembly later the same year. With the resumption of United States’ ship visits, spectacular seaborne protests developed and increasing numbers of local government councils were persuaded to declare their areas nuclear free as an important symbolic gesture. Pressure built up, particularly at its annual conferences, for the New Zealand Labour Party to adopt a nuclear-free policy for the country at large. When the party was returned to power in 1984, the nuclear-free policy was part of its manifesto and was implemented promptly. Subsequently, it was put into legislative form applying to both nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed vessels. The new government went even further in the case of the proposed visit of a frigate, the USS Buchanan, by banning a conventionally powered ship because it was regarded as being “nuclear-capable.” Before the 1990 general election, the National Party bowed to the inevitable and also accepted the antinuclear policy which it had previously opposed and, in 1995, the Fourth National Government took a leading role in opposing the resumption of French testing at Mururoa by sending a naval vessel to the test zone and attempting, unsuccessfully, to reopen New Zealand’s 1974 case against France in the World Court. Thus, an issue which had, initially, been largely environmentally based, became tied in with New Zealand’s growing spirit of independence and nationalism, resulting in a refusal to sacrifice principle at the behest of powerful friends, whether the United States or Australia. This led to the largely unintended consequence of the demise of ANZUS as a three-nation defense alliance. In 2002, George W. Bush’s U.S. administration again raised the issue, albeit informally, in the context of possibly helping to facilitate a free-trade agreement with that country, but the Labour government remained resolutely opposed to any watering down of the policy. Over the years, the policy has come to have less to do with defense; rather, it has become one of the defining characteristics of an independent nation whose modern image is, above all, “clean and green.” Thus the infor-

ANZUS TREATY

• 11

mal suggestion and hints from the United States in 2002–2003 that New Zealand’s priority in achieving a free-trade pact with that country, might be enhanced by abandoning the nuclear-free policy were firmly rebuffed. See also SOUTH PACIFIC NUCLEAR-FREE ZONE. ANZAC. Originally the acronym for the “Australian and New Zealand Army Corps” in World War I. Anzac Day commemorates the landing of this corps at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 with the loss of over 33,000 Allied troops. Since then, the term ANZAC has come to represent the long tradition of Australian-New Zealand cooperation. ANZAM. See AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND AND MALAYAN REGION. ANZUS TREATY. This treaty, originally intended to provide a security backup for Australia and New Zealand by the United States against a resurgent Japan, was signed in 1951, without the participation of the United Kingdom, which had sought to be included. The treaty provided that each party would recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific on any of the parties would be dangerous to its own peace and security and that it would meet the danger in accordance with its constitutional processes. In the 1960s the ANZUS Council became one of the principal channels through which the United States pressured New Zealand to participate in the Vietnam War. As a result of strains in the alliance, together with strong antinuclear environmental concerns in New Zealand, there were some spectacular protests against United States Navy ship visits. The Fourth Labour Government banned from New Zealand waters all nuclear-propelled ships and all ships carrying (or which had the potential to carry) nuclear weapons, and wrote this into law. Accordingly, the United States declared that the ban amounted to a nonfulfillment of New Zealand’s obligations and declared void its own obligations to New Zealand under the security treaty. The result was that the U.S. downgraded New Zealand’s status from that of ally to friend. Nevertheless New Zealand contributed to U.S. military efforts in both Afghanistan and Kuwait and cooperated in the policy against

12 •

AORAKI

terrorism although it preferred to back the United Nations’ position in the case of U.S. policies towards Iraq. See also DEFENSE. AORAKI. The Ngai Tahu Maori name for Mount Cook, New Zealand’s highest peak. The name, formerly spelled Aorangi, is loosely translated “the cloud-piercer.” Aoraki/Mt. Cook was returned to the Ngai Tahu iwi by the Crown as part of the Treaty of Waitangi settlement with the tribe and was promptly gifted back to the nation. AOTEAROA. Probably meaning “long white cloud” and originally the Maori name for the North Island; in popular usage it has become the indigenous alternative name for New Zealand. APEC. See ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION. ARBITRATION COURT. See INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT. ARMED FORCES. The New Zealand Army owes its origins to Pakeha/Maori land claim clashes dating back to the Wairau massacre in 1843 and Hone Heke’s act of defiance in 1844. Until the mid-1860s, reliance was mainly placed upon imperial troops consisting of militia battalions. The first New Zealand regular force was authorized under the Colonial Defense Act in 1862. New Zealand forces participated in the South African Boer War at the end of the 19th century, World War I and World War II, the Korean and Vietnam Wars, and the Malayan “emergency” as well as sending contributions to Kuwait, Afghanistan in 1991 and 2002, and Iraq in 2003. The New Zealand Navy dates from 1921 (becoming the Royal New Zealand Navy in 1941). Before that, New Zealand and Australia contributed to the costs of their defense by the British Royal Navy. Although New Zealanders flew with British forces in World War I, the New Zealand Aviation Corps was not formed until 1923 and developed into the Royal New Zealand Air Force in 1937. During World War II, New Zealanders served alongside British forces in Europe but operated their own forces in the Pacific. At the start of the 21st century the Fifth Labour Government shifted the emphasis to international peacekeeping activities, regional

ASHTON-WARNER, SYLVIA (1908–1984)

• 13

security, and protection of the large area of ocean surrounding New Zealand, the Exclusive Economic Zone. The Army is progressively being reequipped but the Air Force combat wing has been disbanded and the antisubmarine capacity of the marine wing downgraded. See also CONSCRIPTION; DEFENSE. ARMSTRONG, HUBERT THOMAS (TIM) (1875–1942). Politician. A worker socialist, Armstrong played an important role as a trade unionist, including being vice president of the New Zealand Federation of Miners (1907–1909) and New Zealand Federation of Labour (1908–1910). Opposed to conscription during World War I and jailed for sedition, he tried, unsuccessfully, to persuade the New Zealand Labour Party to adopt pacifism as an election policy. President of the Labour Party, 1934–1935, and Labour Party MP for Christchurch East from 1922–1942, Armstrong was a senior and capable minister from 1935 until his death. ART GALLERIES. In New Zealand it is often difficult to draw a distinction between museums and art galleries. The National Museum of New Zealand, Te Papa Tongarewa, is a case in point. In all there are approximately 600 public museums and art galleries. Most are small and limited in scope but a very important role has been played by arts societies. Major art galleries are sited in Auckland (opened 1887, the first in New Zealand), Christchurch (opened in 1932, and replaced by a major new gallery in 2003), Dunedin (dating from 1889), and Wellington (opened in 1936 as the National Art Gallery). There is also a small but important collection at the Bishop Suter Art Gallery in Nelson. Nelson also became well known as the original home of the annual, innovative World of Wearable Art Awards (WOW), which attracts entries from designers from a number of countries. See also CREATIVE NEW ZEALAND; CULTURE; LIBRARIES. ASHTON-WARNER, SYLVIA (1908–1984). Writer. Born and educated in New Zealand, Sylvia Ashton-Warner married a schoolteacher and for 17 years was an infant teacher in backblock (rural) Maori schools. Her first novel, Spinster, published in 1958, was a

14 •

ASIA, RELATIONS WITH

moving account of a dedicated pioneering teacher struggling against orthodoxy and bureaucracy to bring effective education to Maori children. See also LITERATURE. ASIA, RELATIONS WITH. The relationship with Malaysia and Singapore is of long standing, starting when Singapore was a key British base in Southeast Asia. In 1949, New Zealand was part of a secret defense planning organization for the Australia New Zealand and Malayan region (ANZAM), and in the Malayan Emergency New Zealand troops were sent to Malaya as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. Relations with Asia developed rapidly following World War II, especially as New Zealand sought to diversify its trade as a consequence of Britain’s attempts to join the European Community. Close relations had already begun to develop with Japan and Singapore, and these have widened both in function and scope. Japanese, for example, is the foreign language most commonly taught in New Zealand schools. No fewer than 15 of New Zealand’s 56 diplomatic posts and consulates are in Asia. There are extensive contacts at the multilateral level with the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN) of which New Zealand was an original dialogue partner, as well as through the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization of which New Zealand was a founding member. Other bilateral arrangements, such as the free-trade agreement with Singapore concluded in 2002, are also important. Relations with North Asia have largely centered upon Japan, although New Zealand troops were involved in the Korean War in the early 1950s. It was not, however, until the latter stages of the 20th century that relations with South Korea steadily rose in importance, especially in regard to trade, where South Korea began to rival Britain as a market for New Zealand exports. New Zealand has developed important political, social, and economic arrangements with Japan since World War II. In particular, it was early in developing a trade relationship after 1945 and this has blossomed into a broader close relationship, with New Zealand being the chosen destination for thousands of Japanese tourists. Differences still occur (over whaling, for example), but these have not disturbed the overall even tenor of the relationship.

ASSOCIATION OF CONSUMERS AND TAXPAYERS

• 15

During the 1950s and 1960s New Zealand followed the United States in refusing to recognize the People’s Republic of China (PRC), more from loyalty to an ally than from conviction. Eventually, the Third Labour Government, in one of its first decisions after taking office, recognized the regime in 1972. Since then relations between the two countries have been cordial. With the opening up of the Chinese economy under Deng Xiaoping, trade between the two countries increased dramatically; by 2001, for example, New Zealand was exporting to the People’s Republic of China—excluding Hong Kong —goods to a value of $1.114 billion while imports from the PRC were valued at $2.149 billion. In addition, tourism has become an important component in the relationship. At the same time, more informal relations have been retained with Taiwan, where there are also important trade links. See also AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION (APEC). New Zealand was a founding member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation grouping formed at a regional meeting of foreign and trade ministers in Canberra in 1989. Originally made up of six countries plus the six founding members of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), it has since expanded to a total membership of 25, ranging from Japan in the north, Russia and China in the northwest, the United States and Canada in the northeast, to Chile in the south. The aim was to support trade liberalization and economic development at the multilateral level. APEC is important to New Zealand’s multilateral foreign policy not only for providing a direct access to the leaders of more powerful and influential nations and a bridge to the nations of Asia and Central and South America, but also because in a world revolving around three trading blocs (the Americas, Europe, and East Asia), it provides a point of reference for a country which otherwise lacks any natural home in a world of trading blocs. It has also become a useful forum for discussing current problems such as terrorism. ASSOCIATION OF CONSUMERS AND TAXPAYERS. See ACT PARTY.

16 •

ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN)

ASSOCIATION OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN NATIONS (ASEAN). ASEAN was formed in 1967 to build up the strength and self-reliance of Southeast Asian states and to encourage regional cooperation following decolonization. In addition, however, it has provided a useful organization in helping to develop New Zealand’s links with Asia. Initially, New Zealand was invited to become an observer; later it became a “dialogue partner.” It now participates in the ASEAN postministerial conferences where important international issues are discussed and also takes part in the ASEAN Regional Forum which deals with security issues in the region. In recent years, ASEAN has become of growing importance to New Zealand in terms of trade and investment. ATKINSON, HARRY ALBERT (1831–1892). Premier. Atkinson was born in England and traveled to New Zealand in 1853 with a party that included his brother and sister, Emily (who was married to Christopher William Richmond). He was first elected to the New Plymouth (later Taranaki) Provincial Council in 1857. He was a member until 1865 and again from 1873 until 1874. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1861, he served as premier, 1876–1877, 1883–1884, and from 1887 until he retired in 1891. He also held the post of colonial treasurer through some of the worst years of the economic depression between 1875 and 1891. Atkinson was a strong advocate of settler interests but, as a moderate conservative in the later part of his career, he came to support perpetual leasehold, proportional representation, one person one vote, female suffrage, and temperance as well as Australasian federation. He also proposed a national insurance scheme as early as 1882. ATKINSON, JANE MARIA (née Richmond) (1824–1914). Writer. Born in England, Jane Richmond traveled to New Zealand with the Atkinson-Richmond group, having learned cheese-making as a preparation for colonial life. She married Arthur Atkinson, brother of Harry Atkinson. Reputed to be the first Pakeha woman to climb Mt. Taranaki (Egmont), she acted as a bushfarmer’s wife, mother of four children, and mainstay of an elaborate kin group. She is perhaps best known for her perceptive letters about colonial life. See also LITERATURE.

AUCKLAND

• 17

AUCKLAND. Established in a spectacular harbor setting, the Maori name for Auckland is Tamaki Makaurau, literally “Tamaki desired by many.” It is a city of two harbors, the magnificent Waitemata harbor that is dominated by the volcanic island of Rangitoto, and the Manukau harbor. Maori settlement in the area probably dates back 800 years or more. The present city was founded in 1840 on a site selected by Governor William Hobson. It was named for the Earl of Auckland, governor-general of India and a friend of Hobson. It replaced Russell as capital in 1841 and until 1865 it served as New Zealand’s capital and seat of government before being replaced by the more centrally located city of Wellington. Today, the Greater Auckland conurbation is in, reality, made up of four cities—Auckland, Manukau, North Shore, and Waitakere. Auckland itself sits astride a narrow, 11-kilometer-wide isthmus between the two harbors, in an area with 48 volcanic cones. Although the cones appear to be extinct, the magma reservoir is so deep-seated that no geothermal activity can be detected between eruptions. Thus the possibility of future eruptions cannot be entirely discounted. For example, the island of Rangitoto, located approximately four kilometers outside the entrance to the Waitemata harbor, was active a mere 600 years ago. Auckland is New Zealand’s largest, fastest growing, and most cosmopolitan city. At the time of the 2001 census, the greater Auckland urban area had a population of 1,074,513—approximately one-quarter of the country’s total population. It has the largest Polynesian population of any city in the world. During the first half of the 20th century Auckland became the country’s undisputed commercial capital. Despite a drift of the head offices of large firms to Sydney in recent years, it remains the preeminent commercial city in New Zealand. It is also a key manufacturing center, an important port, and the principal international airport of the country, as well as the center of overseas communications. Auckland promotes itself as the “City of Sails.” Each year on the Monday nearest to the provincial anniversary day, 29 January, a huge regatta—reputed to be the biggest in the world—is held on the Waitemata Harbor. Because of the immense popularity of yachting, the Waitemata

18 •

AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH

Harbor was the setting for the America’s Cup races in 2000 and 2003. See also CAMPBELL, JOHN LOGAN; PROVINCES. AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH. Starting as a dependency of New South Wales in 1839, New Zealand has traditionally had a close relationship with Australia, and there is still provision in the Australian Federal Constitution for New Zealand to join as an original state. The early relationship was reinforced by the ANZAC experience at Gallipoli in 1915. In more recent times differences in foreign policy have emerged from time to time, such as the decision of the Australian government to withdraw its forces from the Middle East during World War II to defend the Pacific sphere while New Zealand maintained its forces there. Another major difference occurred when New Zealand adopted an antinuclear policy leading to its exclusion from the ANZUS alliance, and in 2003 when Australia took part in the United States–led “coalition of the willing” directed against Iraq’s leader, Saddam Hussein, New Zealand chose to stand aside. Nevertheless, the relationship with Australia remains central to New Zealand’s trade and economic interests and close links continue to prevail. The prime ministers and ministers of foreign affairs, trade, and defense of the two countries confer regularly at the political level. Australia is New Zealand’s most important trading partner while the Australia–New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (CER) provides for free trade in goods and also covers nearly all service sectors. At the social level the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement enables the citizens of both countries to travel, live, and work in each other’s countries. Despite important differences from time to time, the relationship with Australia is so close that it is often taken for granted by both sides. How long this can continue into the future is, however, a moot point. See also ASIA, RELATIONS WITH; UNDERARM DELIVERY; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. AUSTRALIA NEW ZEALAND AND MALAYAN REGION (ANZAM). Established in 1949, ANZAM was an informal and semiconfidential agreement between the Australian, British, and New Zealand governments to coordinate defense for the eastern Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia, and the Southwest Pacific. It was formed

BANK OF NEW ZEALAND (BNZ)

• 19

largely as the result of an Australian initiative and was based on Australian defense arrangements. British and New Zealand armed forces were involved through their liaison officers in Australia. See also UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH.

–B– BALLANCE, JOHN (1839–1893). Premier. Born in Ireland of PuritanQuaker farming stock, Ballance worked in England where he acquired commercial expertise as well as a good, general, radical education. He arrived in New Zealand in 1866, helped to found a small newspaper, fought in the Land Wars, and also acted as war correspondent. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1875, and in 1878 became a minister for a short time in George Grey’s Liberal government. Defeated in 1881, Ballance returned to the House in 1884, serving in the Stout-Vogel government, 1884–1887, before becoming premier in 1891. His government instituted direct income taxation, a graduated land tax, and an ambitious scheme of social legislation for which New Zealand became world famous. He was the first New Zealand premier to die in office. BANK OF NEW ZEALAND (BNZ). Founded in 1861, the year payable gold was discovered in Otago, the Bank of New Zealand has held a preeminent place in New Zealand’s economic development for most of its existence. It was for long the country’s only New Zealand–owned trading bank and, overwhelmingly, the dominant institution in terms of banking transactions. Through foreclosures during the Long Depression of the 1880s, the BNZ became New Zealand’s largest landowner. Unsound management brought it to the point of collapse in 1894 when it was saved only by swift government action in which legislation was introduced and passed in one night. The First Labour Government nationalized the BNZ in 1945. Following difficulties arising from the 1987 sharemarket crash, the bank was partly privatized then twice rescued by the government before being sold to the National Australia Bank in 1992. In 1994, it was heavily criticized by Winston Peters, leader of the New Zealand First Party, who alleged that it was involved in tax avoidance practices while still a partly government-owned institution.

20 •

BANKING

These allegations led, ultimately, to a formal inquiry before a retired chief justice, the so-called wine box inquiry. BANKING. The New Zealand banking system was largely deregulated in the 1980s; the main requirement now is that any institution wishing to use the term “bank” in New Zealand has to be authorized by the Reserve Bank. In March 2002 there were 17 registered banks, 15 of which were foreign owned, predominantly by Australian banks. The total number of banks per capita is high by international standards. One effect of deregulation was that the proportion of the provision of domestic credit by registered banks increased from approximately 25 percent in 1985 to 85 percent. Nevertheless, in addition to the banks, there are some 70 smaller deposit-taking financial institutions and more than 70 credit unions. In recent years the use of electronic banking (ATMs and Internet banking) has grown rapidly, and this, in turn, has resulted in the closure of a significant number of retail branches. See also BANK OF NEW ZEALAND; KIWIBANK. BANKS, JOSEPH (1743–1820). Explorer and botanist. Born in England, Banks visited New Zealand with Captain James Cook in 1769–1770 and compiled a valuable early account of the country’s birds, plants, and people following the first circumnavigation of the main islands of New Zealand. BARKER, MARY ANNE STEWART (1831–1911). Writer. Born in Jamaica, the daughter of the island secretary, Lady Barker married Captain George Barker and accompanied him to India. After George Barker’s death in 1861, Lady Barker turned to writing for financial support, publishing 22 books. Her best-known work, Station Life in New Zealand—an account of the daily life of the wife of a New Zealand sheep farmer—has become a classic. It was written in England, from original letters, after she had returned from New Zealand where she had lived from 1865–1868 following her second marriage to Frederick Napier Broome, a farmer. See also LITERATURE. BARNARD, WILLIAM EDWARD (BILL) (1886–1958). Politician. A qualified barrister and solicitor, Barnard was elected as a New

BASTION POINT

• 21

Zealand Labour Party MP from 1928 to 1943, serving as Speaker of the House of Representatives from 1936 until 1943. He took the rare step of resigning from the Labour Party in protest at the election of Peter Fraser as the party’s leader in 1940. He lost his seat at the 1943 general election. BARRAUD, CHARLES DECIMUS (1822–1897). Artist. Born in England, Barraud arrived in New Zealand in 1849 and established himself in business as a pharmacist and druggist. He won early recognition as a watercolor artist, and a selection of his works was published in London in 1877. Barraud was founder and first president of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand and principal founder of the Fine Arts Association (later New Zealand Academy of Fine Arts), of which he also became president. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LIBRARIES; MUSEUMS. BARRETT, RICHARD (DICKY) (?–1847). Pioneer settler. Born in England, Dicky Barrett arrived in New Zealand in 1828. He worked as a trader between New South Wales and New Zealand, bartering clothes, blankets, muskets, tobacco, barley and corn for pigs, flax, and potatoes. He was then encouraged to establish a permanent trading post by the Te Ati Awa tribe of Taranaki because they feared their traditional enemy, the Waikato Maori. Barrett married the sister of a senior chief of the tribe and played an important part in the defeat of a major Waikato raid, 1831–1832. Subsequently, he established a whaling station and the well-known Barrett’s Hotel in Wellington. His name is also perpetuated in Barrett’s Reef at the entrance to Wellington harbor, where a number of ships, including the Cook Strait ferry MV Wahine, have been wrecked. See also DISASTERS. BASTION POINT. A promontory overlooking Auckland’s Waitemata Harbor that was the subject of a long-drawn-out dispute between the Crown and the descendants of the original Maori owners. The land in dispute had been gradually acquired by the Crown between 1882 and 1950. Throughout this period, members of the Ngati Whatua tribe had, through numerous legal actions in the courts and 15 petitions to Parliament, challenged the right of the Crown to acquire the land but without success. In 1977, the Orakei Maori Action

22 •

BATTEN, JANE ( JEAN) GARDNER (1909–1982)

Committee occupied Bastion Point to prevent its imminent subdivision. The government secured a High Court ruling that the occupation was illegal and issued an injunction for the protesters’ removal. When the protesters refused to leave, they were forcibly removed by 600 police 506 days after their occupation had commenced. In 1987, the Waitangi Tribunal found that the Crown’s purchase of the Orakei Block breached its obligations under the Treaty of Waitangi and recommended a settlement (subsequently accepted by the government) for the return of some land and financial compensation. BATTEN, JANE (JEAN) GARDNER (1909–1982). Early aviatrix. New Zealand–born Jean Batten became the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia and back in 1934–1935, and the first woman to fly solo across the South Atlantic Ocean. In 1936, she made the first direct flight from England to New Zealand in 11 days 45 minutes. In all, she made five record-breaking flights in a mere four years. Batten died in obscurity in Majorca in 1982 and was buried in an unmarked communal grave. BAXTER, JAMES KEIR (1926–1972). Poet, playwright, and folk guru. Described as a “local Dylan Thomas or Rimbaud,” Baxter was a teenage prodigy and a prolific writer. Compared with an earlier generation of writers like Allen Curnow, Baxter and his contemporaries moved away from the uniqueness of the New Zealand scene to the more universal concerns of the human heart—a romanticism that had a wide appeal. Baxter lived his poetry. At a rural settlement at Jerusalem on the Whanganui River he brought together the outcasts, idealists, and self-banished of society—hippies, junkies, bohemians— all who reacted against the strictures of what had become a most conformist society. Baxter was in many senses the catalyst between a conformist Pakeha society and the more liberal bicultural society that New Zealand was in the process of becoming. His work has been described as “poetry not of dogma but of vision.” See also LITERATURE. BAY OF ISLANDS. Named by Captain James Cook during his exploration of New Zealand’s coastline in 1769, the Bay of Islands has significance in both European and Maori history. The home of the

BELL, FRANCIS HENRY DILLON (1851–1936)

• 23

important Nga Puhi tribe, it acquired a particular significance for visiting ships for the quality of its timber and as a watering place. It also became a principal site of the first missionary settlements in New Zealand. New Zealand’s first capital was established at Russell in the Bay of Islands. BEETHAM, BRUCE CRAIG (1936–1997). Politician. Schoolteacher, college lecturer, and city mayor, Beetham joined the New Zealand Social Credit Political League in 1969 and was elected leader in 1972. He entered Parliament following a by-election in 1978 and remained an MP until defeated in 1984. He continued as leader of the party (renamed Democratic Party, 1985) until 1986. Subsequently, he became leader of a breakaway group, Social Credit New Zealand, 1988–1991. Despite the failure of the latter group, Beetham was, until then, the most successful third-party leader since the establishment of the two-party system in 1935. BELL, FRANCIS DILLON (1822–1898). Politician. F. D. Bell was probably born in France and was related to Edward Gibbon Wakefield. He arrived in New Zealand in 1843 and worked for the New Zealand Company as a land buyer. He served on the Legislative Council of New Munster (North Island) and was appointed commissioner of Crown lands. One of the first members to be appointed to the nominated Legislative Council in 1854, Bell subsequently resigned but was elected to the House of Representatives in 1855. Although he served for some 15 years between 1859 and 1875, he was a Cabinet minister for only two years. In 1880, he was appointed New Zealand agent-general in London where he remained until his retirement in 1891. Bell was an administrator rather than a politician and his potential always seemed greater than his performance. BELL, FRANCIS HENRY DILLON (1851–1936). Prime minister. Son of Francis Dillon Bell, F. H. D. Bell was born in New Zealand and educated both in New Zealand and Britain. He practiced as a lawyer and with four others founded the Colonial Law Journal in 1875 (the beginning of law reporting in New Zealand). Elected to the House of Representatives in 1893, he retired in 1896 to return to his

24 •

BELLINGHAUSEN, FABIAN GOTTLIEB BENJAMIN (1778–1852)

legal practice. In 1912, he was appointed to lead the upper house of Parliament, the Legislative Council, and played an important role in the National ministry and William Massey governments, particularly as attorney-general, between 1915 and 1925. Bell was acting prime minister in 1921, 1923–1924, and 1925. On the death of Massey he became the first New Zealand–born prime minister but held the office for only 16 days before resigning in favor of Joseph Gordon Coates. He has been described as a “Tory radical.” BELLINGHAUSEN, FABIAN GOTTLIEB BENJAMIN (1778– 1852). Explorer. Born in Estonia of German origin, Bellinghausen served with the Russian navy and, in 1819, was appointed commander of the southern polar expedition that first sighted Antarctica. He visited New Zealand briefly in 1820 (only as a result of adverse winds!) but left an important description of Maori life in the Marlborough Sounds as he found it some 50 years after the visits of Captain James Cook. BERENDSEN, CARL AUGUST (1890–1973). Diplomat. Born in Australia, Berendsen studied law in New Zealand and served as head of the prime minister’s department from 1932 until 1943, New Zealand high commissioner (equivalent to ambassador) in Australia in 1943–1944, and ambassador to the United States and United Nations in 1944–1948. He had a particularly important influence on foreign policy during the term of the First Labour Government and in the negotiations associated with the establishment of the United Nations. BEST, ELSDON (1856–1931). Ethnographer. Best was born in New Zealand, and after working in the Public Service and traveling in the Pacific, spent much of his life in a variety of occupations that brought him into close contact with the Tuhoe tribe in the Urewera country. He eventually became ethnologist to the Dominion Museum. Although much of his work has now been superseded by more recent research, Best’s 25 books and over 50 learned papers make him an outstanding figure in early studies of the Maori people. See also SMITH, STEPHENSON PERCY. BILL OF RIGHTS ACT. Prior to the passage of the Bill of Rights Act in 1990, individual rights relied upon pre-1840 British law or convention. This unentrenched Act, with no power to override other leg-

BLACK BUDGET (1958)

• 25

islation and subject to parliamentary amendment by a simple majority, is based upon the 1960 Canadian Bill of Rights. The Act sets out a number of basic rights and freedoms, including freedom of religion, speech, and assembly; the right to protection against discrimination; and rights involving fundamental principles of criminal procedure, but fails to include social, economic, or cultural rights. Despite this, it has an important influence because all bills are vetted for compliance with it. The attorney-general is responsible for alerting Parliament when any provision in a bill before Parliament is inconsistent with the rights set out in the Act (in which case the bill is usually amended or withdrawn). The courts do not have the power to strike down legislation on the basis that it is inconsistent with the Act, but where the interpretation of a statutory provision is ambiguous, they are required to interpret the provision in a manner consistent with the rights and freedoms set out in the Act. BIRCH, WILLIAM FRANCIS (1934– ). Politician. Trained and practiced as a professional surveyor, Birch was elected to Parliament in 1972. After serving as a whip he became minister of energy at a crucial time in the Robert Muldoon government (of which he was a particularly stalwart supporter) and played a key role in the Jim Bolger government serving as minister of labour (1990–1993), undertaking fundamental reforms of the industrial relations system, 1990–1993; and minister of health (1993), before taking over the difficult role of minister of finance when the prime minister, Jim Bolger, decided not to reappoint Ruth Richardson, the strongly market-oriented previous incumbent. He retired from Parliament in 1999. BLACK BUDGET (1958). In a closely fought general election in 1957, both the New Zealand Labour Party and the New Zealand National Party made extravagant promises to the electorate in order to win support. Labour, the more profligate of the two, narrowly won the election but promptly found itself struggling with an overseas balanceof-payments crisis caused mainly by a collapse in export prices for butter, cheese, and wool. Labour’s minister of finance, Arnold Nordmeyer, responded by increasing direct taxation and virtually doubling tax rates on the working men’s staples—beer, cigarettes, and petrol—and the sales tax on new motor vehicles. The parliamentary

26 •

BLAKE, PETER (1948–2001)

opposition party, National, promptly dubbed it the “Black Budget” and campaigned relentlessly on the issue, so much so that the term has become part of New Zealand’s political folklore. BLAKE, PETER (1948–2001). Considered one of the world’s most successful yachtsmen, Blake began sailing at the age of five. He won the Jules Verne trophy by sailing nonstop around the world in 1994, taking 74 days, 22 hours, 17 minutes, and 22 seconds. He was the only man to compete in all of the first five Whitbread (now Volvo) “Round the World” races, winning the event in 1989. Blake led Team New Zealand to victory in the America’s Cup in 1995 and, as syndicate head, became the first non-American to retain it in 2000. Subsequently, he was appointed to head the Jacques Cousteau team. A goodwill ambassador of the United Nations’ Environment Program, Blake was murdered by a gang of masked pirates in the Amazon in December 2001. BOER (SOUTH AFRICAN) WAR (1899–1902). Some 6,500 New Zealand volunteers, together with 8,000 horses, were sent to South Africa to assist the British in their war with the predominantly Dutch and German Boers. See also ARMED FORCES. BOLGER, JAMES BRENDAN (JIM) (1935– ). Prime minister. Bolger took up sheep and cattle farming after leaving secondary school. He was active in the Federated Farmers organization before entering Parliament in 1972. He held a number of portfolios in the Robert Muldoon government, culminating with the important labour portfolio 1978–1984, when he abolished compulsory trade unionism, a cornerstone of New Zealand’s labor laws since 1936. Elected deputy leader of the New Zealand National Party in 1984 and leader in 1986, Bolger became prime minister in 1990. As prime minister he braved acute unpopularity by continuing and extending the market-oriented reforms that had contributed to the downfall of his Fourth Labour Government predecessors—the antithesis of the principles adopted by the previous National government of Muldoon in which he had served. After being ousted by Jenny Shipley as leader of the National Party and prime minister in 1997, Bolger re-

BOUGAINVILLE

• 27

tired from politics to become New Zealand ambassador to the United States. On his return to New Zealand in 2001 he was appointed chairman of the board of the newly founded Kiwibank by the Fifth Labour Government. BONANZA WHEAT FARMING. By the early 1870s the tussock grasslands of the Canterbury plains had deteriorated to the point that they had to be replaced. This, coupled with the development of a railway system and the advent of farm mechanization, encouraged landowners to switch to wheat farming. Bonanza wheat farms were established over much of the plains and, in their earliest years, the natural fertility of the virgin soils resulted in high yields and substantial profits. This, however, did not last; by the mid-1880s yields had dropped off sharply and farmers shifted to more lucrative forms of farming such as fat lambs, markets for which had been opened up by the introduction of refrigeration. Wheat growing eventually became one of a number of farming activities in a cropping and pastoral rotation. See also AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY; AGRICULTURE. BOUGAINVILLE. This long-running bitter dispute is an example of the useful conflict-resolving role that can be played by a small nation like New Zealand. The island of Bougainville with its population of 140,000 and its rich Panguna copper mine is part of Papua New Guinea, although closer ethnically to the Solomon Islands. The dispute, which centered about the mine, led to its closing in 1989. The subsequent conflict resulted in many thousands of deaths and the displacement of as many as 50,000 people. Various peace attempts in 1990, 1991, 1994, and 1995 had failed to resolve the conflict. Any settlement had to involve many parties, including a variety of Bougainvillian resistance groups and the governments of Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Australia. In a protracted process in July 1997, the New Zealand government first brought together the Bougainvillian groups at an army camp in New Zealand and left them to resolve their differences. At a second round of talks in October, Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomons were added. This meeting resulted in a truce agreement and the establishment of a Truce Monitoring group. Finally, a meeting of the leaders of Bougainville

28 •

BOWEN, GEORGE FERGUSON (1821–1899)

and Papua New Guinea in New Zealand resulted in the Lincoln Agreement on Peace, Security, and Development on Bougainville in January 1998. Although the question of the mine remained unresolved, New Zealand with its low-key, largely hands-off approach made a material contribution to bringing the conflict to an end. See also McKINNON, DONALD CHARLES. BOWEN, GEORGE FERGUSON (1821–1899). Governor. Born in Ireland, Bowen served as governor of Queensland before being appointed governor of New Zealand in 1867. He was governor in a period when the British sought to withdraw imperial troops in the face of strong settler resistance. Bowen took the side of the settlers in resisting imperial withdrawal, but at the same time urged moderation on his ministers and opposed further confiscations of Maori land. See also MAORI LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT. BOYD MASSACRE. In 1809, after transporting a shipload of convicts from London to Sydney, Australia, the Boyd called in at Whangaroa harbor to the north of the Bay of Islands to take on a load of kauri spars. On board were a number of Maori including a young chief, Tara, from the Whangaroa area who complained of ill treatment by the crew during the voyage. Tara persuaded his tribe to exact utu (revenge, satisfaction), and all but four crew and passengers were slaughtered. News of the massacre resulted in ships avoiding New Zealand’s northern harbors for a number of years. The massacre also persuaded Samuel Marsden to delay the establishment of his mission station for five years. BRACKEN, THOMAS (1843–1898). Journalist, poet, and politician. Irish-born, Bracken went to Australia before arriving in New Zealand in 1869. He is best known today for writing the verses of God Defend New Zealand, which was given equal status as a national anthem with God Save the Queen in 1977. BRASCH, CHARLES (1909–1973). Poet and philanthropist. Born into a wealthy commercial family, Charles Brasch was educated in New Zealand and at Oxford University. A New Zealand poet but in the mold of a cultured European aesthete, he seemed in many ways

BROADCASTING

• 29

out of place in a practical, egalitarian society. Brasch is perhaps best remembered for his founding of the important literary journal Landfall, which he edited from 1947 until 1966. When his chosen successor as editor was dismissed in 1972, he helped to establish the rival quarterly, Islands. Brasch was a significant poet and also an important patron of the arts and benefactor. See also LITERATURE. BRASH, DONALD THOMAS (1940– ). Economist, leader of the New Zealand National Party. Elected to succeed Bill English, leader of the National Party 2001–2003, Brash has the distinction of having the most rapid rise to the leadership of any political party in New Zealand’s history—only 14 months from first entering Parliament as a party list MP at the general election 2002 to leadership of the party—and, at the time of his elevation, the oldest person to be elected as the National Party’s leader. His wide-ranging career has included experience as an economist with the World Bank Group in Washington (1966–1971), general manager or chief executive of a number of important companies (1971–1988), a member of New Zealand’s Monetary and Economic Council, and member of a number of committees dealing with such topics as taxation reform and superannuation. For 14 years (1988–2002) prior to his election to Parliament, Brash was governor of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, an appointment made by the Fourth Labour Government. A longtime member of the National Party, he failed to win election to Parliament at a by-election in 1980 and again in the general election the next year. He was eventually elected as a National Party list member in 2002. BROADCASTING. The first experimental wireless broadcast was made by Robert Jack, professor of physics at the University of Otago, in 1921. The Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand developed national radio broadcasting between 1925 and 1931, and from 1932 to 1935 a radio broadcasting board administered broadcasting. The First Labour Government took over direct control of broadcasting and administered it as a government department whose service included both commercial and noncommercial stations. In 1936, New Zealand became the first country in the world to broadcast live proceedings of Parliament.

30 •

BROWNE, THOMAS ROBERT GORE (1807–1887)

In 1960, the Second Labour Government announced the introduction of a television service and in 1962, the Second National Government established the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation with responsibility for both radio and television. This provided, once more, a degree of independence from government. Currently, there is a mixture of both public and private radio and television channels supervised by the independent Broadcasting Commission and the Broadcasting Standards Authority that, between them, provide regulatory, social, and policy advice and oversee standards and objectives. In addition, a third body, New Zealand On Air, distributes revenue. In 1995, legislation was passed to permit the sale of the commercial segment of Radio New Zealand to private interests. Television New Zealand, a state-owned enterprise, runs two channels (Television One and TV2), which, although publicly owned, both carry commercial advertising; while TV3 and C4 (a music channel) are owned by Canwest, a Canadian broadcasting company that also has extensive radio interests in New Zealand, and Prime Television, owned by Australian media magnate Kerry Packer’s Channel Nine. Sky Television also operates in New Zealand, and in 2003 a Maori TV channel was established with government funding amounting to $12 million a year. Also in 2003 a new public broadcasting charter was introduced, designed to introduce more of a public service character into publicly owned radio and television. See also NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES; SCRIMGEOUR, COLIN GRAHAM. BROWNE, THOMAS ROBERT GORE (1807–1887). Governor. Born in England, he was a military career officer who served as governor of St. Helena before governing New Zealand between 1855 and 1861. Here Browne was confronted by the typical colonial dilemma of decreasing numbers of native people holding the bulk of the land with steadily increasing numbers of settlers seeking to acquire it, a situation which was further complicated by the Maori tendency to hold land in common and invest it with a spiritual significance. In circumstances not foreseen by the Colonial Office in London, Browne sought to control the situation by retaining control of Native Affairs in his own hands following the implementation of cabinet (i.e., settler) government in 1856. He realized that the developing Maori protest movement, the King Movement, involved a desire for sepa-

BUCK, PETER HENRY (TE RANGIHIROA) (1877–1951)

• 31

rate nationality. He planned to buy “surplus” Maori land rapidly, to place under trust adequate land for future Maori needs, and to protect with Crown title the land that Maori vendors kept for themselves, thereby giving it a legal status in British law. Browne also wanted to establish local self-government and courts in Maori districts to replace beleaguered tribal authority. His plans, however, failed and control passed to the settler government. In the Waitara Purchase, which led to the Taranaki War of 1860–1861 and contributed to the outbreak of the more general Land Wars between 1863 and 1870, Browne backed the right of local Maori to sell their lands despite opposition from the region’s most prominent chief, Wiremu Kingi. Described by Kingi as “a chivalrous though mistaken fellow,” Browne was a well-intentioned and in some ways perceptive man who effectively found himself trying to square the circle. BRUNNER, THOMAS (c.1821–1874). Explorer. Born in England, Brunner joined the New Zealand Company as an apprentice surveyor and arrived in New Zealand in 1841. He undertook a series of explorations through the remote west coast between 1846 and 1848, identifying Mt. Cook as New Zealand’s highest mountain and discovering usable coalfields. In 1856, Brunner was appointed chief surveyor of the Nelson province and commissioner of public works. See also AORAKI. BUCHANAN, USS. See ANTINUCLEAR POLICY. BUCK, PETER HENRY (TE RANGIHIROA) (1877–1951). Anthropologist. Born in New Zealand of mixed Irish and Maori descent, Buck was educated at Te Aute College. He graduated with a degree in medicine in 1904, and, along with other young Maori leaders such as Apirana Ngata and Maui Pomare, he worked to improve Maori social conditions particularly in the areas of education, hygiene, and health. Elected to represent the Northern Maori electorate in the House of Representatives in 1909, Buck served in Thomas Mackenzie’s cabinet in 1912. In 1914, he resigned his seat and stood unsuccessfully for the European electorate of Bay of Islands. After service as an officer in World War I, he developed his

32 •

BUDGET (OF 1870)

interest in anthropology, concentrating upon studying and recording the native cultures of Polynesia. Buck achieved an international reputation as a professor of anthropology at Yale University and director of the Bishop Museum in Hawaii, a considerable achievement for a largely self-taught anthropologist. BUDGET (OF 1870). As treasurer in a new ministry led by William Fox, Julius Vogel proposed a grand policy designed to stave off an incipient depression by borrowing £10 million on the London market over a period of 10 years. The money was to be used to finance public works programs—which, Vogel argued, would end the isolation of existing settlements and open up the country for further settlement— and promote immigration. During the 1870s over £20 million was borrowed, approximately 1,780 kilometers (1,100 miles) of railways were constructed, and over 8,480 kilometers (4,000 miles) of telegraph lines were erected. During the decade the non-Maori population increased through immigration from approximately 256,000 to an estimated 489,000. But the prosperity generated by this activity was false, and when the City of Glasgow Bank failed in 1878, other banks severely curtailed credit facilities and the land boom stimulated by Vogel’s expansionary budget collapsed. BULLER, WALTER LAWRY (1838–1906). Ornithologist. Buller was born in New Zealand and served first as a native interpreter in the courts and later as a magistrate. He had a passion for natural history and ornithology and his work A History of the Birds of New Zealand (first published in London in 1873 and in an enlarged edition in 1888) became a New Zealand classic. Buller was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1879. BUNGY JUMPING. Bungy jumping, which has become virtually synonymous with adventure tourism, is a typically New Zealand development, combining a love of the outdoors, thrill-seeking within carefully calculated parameters, and a dogged ability to pioneer new ideas. The idea of bungy jumping originated in the Pacific island of Vanuatu where, in an ancient harvest ritual, people jumped from high towers with only a few vines tied to their ankles. This inspired the Oxford University Dangerous Sports Club in England to try some

BUSBY, JAMES (1802–1871)

• 33

experimental leaps during the 1970s. A video of these experiments was seen by speed skiers A. J. Hackett and Henry Van Asch, who then experimented with jumps in France using latex rubber cords developed with the help of Auckland University scientists. In 1987, Hackett won international publicity by jumping from the Eiffel Tower. The next year, after developing strict safety standards, the world’s first commercial bungy jump opened at the disused Kawarau Bridge near the tourist resort of Queenstown, New Zealand. Since then bungy jumping has proliferated, not only within New Zealand but also worldwide—from the Victoria Falls on the ZambiaZimbabwe border to the border of Nepal and Tibet, and from Germany to the Dominican Republic. BURCHFIELD, ROBERT WILLIAM (1923– ). Lexicographer. Born and educated in New Zealand, Burchfield won a Rhodes scholarship to Oxford University, following which he was appointed to lectureships in the English language before becoming editor, then chief editor, of the Oxford English dictionaries, 1957–1984. During his time as editor he gained international distinction in the study of the development of the English language. BURNS, THOMAS (1796–1851). Pastor. Born in Scotland, a nephew of Robert Burns, the Scottish bard, Thomas Burns arrived in New Zealand in 1848 as minister to the Free Church of Scotland settlement at Dunedin. A practical man, he made an important contribution to colonization and education in the area, particularly to the foundation of the University of Otago, New Zealand’s first university college. Burns is also remembered as a stern, uncompromising moralist, wholly lacking in humor, who dominated his colonial flock. BUSBY, JAMES (1802–1871). Official. British resident in New Zealand, 1833–1840. Born in Scotland and an expert in viticulture, Busby had previously spent some time in Australia. His task was to provide a British presence, protect settlers and traders, and prevent outrages by Europeans against Maori. He had few powers and no resources to maintain order, so he persuaded 35 chiefs (later increased to 52) to sign a Declaration of Independence of the United Tribes

34 •

BUSINESS ROUND TABLE

of New Zealand and to ask the Crown for protection. A planned annual congress to frame laws did not eventuate but Busby’s work paved the way for the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 and for the emergence of a Maori national identity. BUSINESS ROUND TABLE. Originally set up in 1976, the Business Round Table is an influential body of approximately 44 largely selfselected members that concentrates on preparing and disseminating policy discussion papers on a wide range of issues. Together, its members manage companies representing approximately 85 percent of the share capital listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchange, and it expounds a strong free-market philosophy involving minimum government intervention. BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835–1902). Author and philosopher. Born and educated in England, the son of a clergyman who financed his migration to New Zealand in 1859, Butler explored the Christchurch hinterland before he finally settled on 5,000 acres (subsequently extended to 55,000 acres) with 3,000 sheep in the Canterbury high country. Parts of Butler’s subsequent novel, Erewhon; or, Over the Range, published in 1872, first appeared as articles in the Christchurch Press newspaper, but although he drew heavily on his New Zealand experience for the early chapters, the main target of his satire is England, to which he returned in 1864. See also LITERATURE.

–C– CABINET. Headed by the prime minister, the cabinet is a body largely without any formal constitutional standing, yet it is the key decision-making center of parliamentary government. Made up of ministers, the earliest cabinets usually comprised of between 4 and 10 members. Today, the formal cabinet usually consists of 20 ministers supplemented by 5 or more ministers outside the cabinet and a number of undersecretaries. The principle of collective cabinet responsibility means that all cabinet ministers are expected to act with a united front once a decision has been made, although some flexi-

CAMPBELL, JOHN LOGAN (1817–1912)

• 35

bility may be introduced for coalition partners. See also QUIGLEY, DEREK FRANCIS. CABINET GOVERNMENT. See RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. CAMERON, DUNCAN ALEXANDER (1808–1888). British soldier. Lieutenant-General Cameron was sent to New Zealand in 1861 but, despite his reputation, his military campaigns against Maori met with mixed fortunes because he was faced by clever, innovative, opponents. Maori referred to Cameron as “The Lame Seagull” for his reputed slowness and timidity. Despite this, he was recognized as a very competent general. See also GATE PA; LAND WARS. CAMPBELL, ALISTAIR TE ARIKI (1925– ). Poet and novelist. Born in the Cook Islands, son of a trader father and a Polynesian mother, Campbell was educated in New Zealand and trained as a teacher. His publications include collections of poetry, radio plays, a gold-medal-winning (La Spezia International Film Festival) TV documentary, and a stage play. His first novel The Frigate Bird was published in 1989, The Sidewinder in 1991, and Fantasy with Witches, a blend of reality and fantasy set in a magical Pacific island, in 1998. A book of poetry, Gallipoli and Other Poems, dealing with the themes of war, peace, and love, was published in 1999. See also LITERATURE. CAMPBELL, JOHN LOGAN (1817–1912). Merchant and philanthropist. Scottish-born Campbell arrived in New Zealand, via Australia, in 1840. Regarded as the “father of Auckland,” he established the first merchant firm there in 1840, working from a tent. He also speculated profitably in land and by the 1870s was a powerful and respected member of the Auckland commercial elite, with a wide range of business interests. In 1881 he published Poenamo, an important account of pioneer experiences. Campbell founded Auckland’s first school of art and was a generous philanthropist; he donated the important central feature, One Tree Hill and its surroundings, to Auckland as well as contributing to a variety of charitable causes. In 1999, Maori sovereignty protesters attacked the lone pine on the hill with a chainsaw because it was viewed as a symbol of Pakeha dominance.

36 •

CAMPION, JANE (1954– )

Despite intensive efforts to save the tree, it was too badly damaged, and following a second attack it was felled in 2000. Plans have been made for the lone pine tree to be replaced by a small grove of New Zealand native trees comprising six pohutukawa and three totara. CAMPION, JANE (1954– ). Film director. Born into a theatrical family, her mother an actress and writer, her father a theater and opera director, Campion studied fine arts and anthropology before turning to filmmaking. One of her short films, Peel, won the Palme d’Or for best short film at the Cannes Festival in 1986. Her full-length film An Angel at My Table (1990), based on Janet Frame’s autobiography, won a Special Jury Prize at the Venice Film Festival, while her best known film, The Piano, won many international awards including the Palme d’Or at Cannes and Oscars for two of the actors and Campion’s original screenplay. See also FILM INDUSTRY; JACKSON, PETER. CANBERRA PACT (1944). Believing that they were being denied an adequate say in the conduct of the war in the Pacific and the formulation of policy by the United States, Australia and New Zealand concluded the Canberra Pact that provided for greater cooperation between them and proposed that a regional zone of defense be based upon their two countries. This was regarded by others at the time, particularly the United States, as being unduly assertive. CANTERBURY. One of the six provinces into which New Zealand was divided in 1852. Organized settlement on the Canterbury plains did not begin until 1851, when there were probably no more than an estimated 500 Maori inhabitants. This settlement of the New Zealand Company was intended to represent a cross-section of the best of English society and to recreate, as closely as possible, an approximation to English conditions in the antipodes. Today, Christchurch is still regarded as the most English of New Zealand cities. Pastoralism, centered on the production of “Canterbury lamb,” became the province’s major industry, but today the province is also important for, among other things, the production of venison and grain as well as engineering and electronics. See also PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT.

CAUCUS

• 37

CARGILL, WILLIAM (1784–1860). Politician. Born in Scotland, Cargill arrived in New Zealand in 1848 after military service against France in Spain. With Thomas Burns he was a leading figure in the proposal to establish a Free Church settlement in New Zealand to be called New Edinburgh (later Otago). As first superintendent of the new province, Cargill showed himself to be autocratic, inflexible, and nepotistic; nevertheless, he made a major contribution to the establishment of Otago as New Zealand’s premier province in the 19th century. CARROLL, JAMES (1857–1926). Politician. The son of an Australian father and a Maori chieftainess, Carroll was elected to the House of Representatives for the Eastern Maori electorate in 1887. In 1893 he was elected to represent the European (now General) seat of Waiapu. In 1896 he became the first person of Maori descent to hold a ministerial portfolio. On two occasions, in 1909 and 1911, Carroll served as acting prime minister. Carroll played an important role in Maori health and education policies, and in the general renaissance of the Maori race at that time. He is reputed to be one of the finest speakers Parliament has known. CARTWRIGHT, SYLVIA ROSE (1943– ). Lawyer and governorgeneral. After a period in private law practice, Cartwright became successively a district and family court judge, chief district court judge, and ultimately was appointed to the High Court, the first woman in New Zealand to achieve this. An important advocate for women and women’s rights, she became best known for conducting the 1987–1988 Commission of Inquiry into the “Treatment of Cervical Cancer and Other Related Matters” at the National Women’s Hospital (the Cartwright Inquiry), which was a landmark in New Zealand medical history. This inquiry uncovered serious deficiencies in the medical treatment offered and led to major changes in medical practice. Internationally, Cartwright contributed as a member of the United Nations Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Cartwright was appointed governor-general of New Zealand in 2001, the second woman to hold the position. CAUCUS. The New Zealand caucus system was originally based on that used by the Australian Labor Party. For over 60 years, both major New

38 •

CENSUS

Zealand political parties have placed a heavy emphasis on the use of caucus that consists of all of a party’s MPs (including the government ministers of that party when the party is in office) plus some party officials. Regular weekly meetings are held, together with occasional “retreats,” which focus on policy development. The New Zealand Labour Party uses caucus to elect its share of the cabinet when in office, although the ministerial portfolios are allotted by the prime minister. Caucus has been the means by which the two major political parties attained a very high level of cohesion. Minor parties also use the system. CENSUS. A “counting of heads” has been carried out in New Zealand since the earliest days of organized settlement. Between 1840 and 1852 the number of Europeans residing in New Zealand was recorded by local resident magistrates. Inevitably these data were incomplete and their accuracy is in question. The first general census was undertaken in 1851, and it was intended that censuses would be conducted every three years thereafter. However, the establishment of provincial government in 1852 resulted in responsibility for the conduct of censuses being placed in the hands of local administrators. This resulted in an absence of uniformity in both timing and questions asked, so data gathered was of little value for forward national planning. The Census Act of 1858, passed by the colony’s Parliament, established a triennial national census regime. Three-yearly censuses were held until 1874. In 1877 a new Census Act decreed that future censuses would be conducted every five years commencing in 1881. This has been the pattern ever since, apart from the 1931 census, which was cancelled because of the Great Depression, and the 1941 census, postponed until 1945 because of the pressures of World War II. Until 1951 the country’s Maori and non-Maori populations were enumerated separately even though the first steps towards integration were taken as early as 1916. Census forms are personally delivered and collected by census subenumerators; even so, some undercounting invariably occurs—in 2001 this was estimated to have been approximately 85,000. The 2001 census (taken, as usual, on the first Tuesday in March) was the 31st to be conducted since 1851. It incorporated a wide vari-

CHATHAM ISLANDS

• 39

ety of questions ranging from date and place of birth, usual address, marital status, ethnicity, and languages spoken to educational attainment, occupation, income received during the previous 12 months (including government benefits), mode of transport to place of employment, voluntary work, disabilities, and religious persuasion. A parallel questionnaire elicited information about dwellings, including ownership, rental paid, number of bedrooms, the number of people residing at the address, mode of heating, the number of motor vehicles, and telephone, fax, or Internet access. These data are used by both the government and private agencies to assist with forward planning. Statistics New Zealand also undertakes special censuses from time to time. For example, an agricultural production census involving agriculture, horticulture, and forestry was carried out in 2002 and is scheduled to be repeated at five-yearly intervals. CER. See CLOSER ECONOMIC RELATIONS. CHANAK CRISIS. In 1922, Britain appealed to New Zealand for support during a crisis with Turkey. The government offered a contingent immediately without taking time to consult Parliament. CHAPMAN, GEORGE ALAN (1927– ). A chartered accountant and company director, he is best known as a successful president of the New Zealand National Party from 1973 until 1982. Chapman, the first person to challenge a sitting president, made an important contribution to the election of the Robert Muldoon government in 1975. A rift later developed between the two leaders, and Chapman failed to prevent the party organization from being dominated by the leader of the parliamentary party. CHATHAM ISLANDS. The Chatham Islands, consisting of two main islands—Chatham (called Rekohu by its original Polynesian settlers) and the smaller, neighboring Pitt (Rangiauria)—and a number of smaller uninhabited islands, are situated 850 kilometers (530 miles) east of New Zealand’s South Island. They are the peaks of a submarine mountain range. There is some controversy about the original discovery and settlement although recent research indicates that the islands were settled

40 •

CHATHAM ISLANDS BLACK ROBIN

by Maori from New Zealand. When discovered by William Broughton in 1791, and named after his brig, HMS Chatham, the islands were estimated to have a population of over 1,000. An invasion from the mainland by Ngati Tama and Ngati Mutunga (Taranaki) iwi in 1835 severely depleted this population. The last full-blooded Moriori died in 1933. The landscape is wild and windswept, and with a near constant cloud cover. Its economy, based mainly on sheep, wool, and fishing, is declining, particularly as the quota management of fishing results in most of the profits from this activity going to mainland New Zealand. There are believed to be valuable mineral resources on the Chatham Rise between Banks Peninsula and the Chatham Islands, but economic exploitation at the present level of technology is not yet a viable option. At the time of the 2001 census, the population of the Chatham Islands was 720, of whom about 40 percent are of either Maori or Moriori descent. In recent years there has been a conscious attempt to revitalize the islands’ culture, the most obvious example of which is the establishment by Moriori of the Kopinga marae, formally opened in January 2005, at the center of which are five totara pillars carved with the names of the 1,561 men, women, and children living on Rekohou at the time of the 1835 invasion. Efforts are also being made to rebuild Moriori culture, resurrect the Moriori language, and develop a structure that will bring Moriori and Maori together. Nevertheless, the islands’ population continues to decline as families move to mainland New Zealand in search of better educational and economic opportunities for their children. CHATHAM ISLANDS BLACK ROBIN. In 1972, the Chatham Islands black robin, whose sole home was Little Mangere Island, a small island lying off the coast of Pitt Island, numbered 18 birds. By 1976 the number had dwindled to seven. A conservation program was set in motion in 1976, when the remaining birds were moved to the nearby predator-free Mangere Island. Over the next four years, however, no chicks were born so, in 1980, when only five birds— including only one breeding pair—remained, the New Zealand Wildlife Service took the unusual and risky step of cross-fostering eggs and young with Chatham Island tits. This step was a huge suc-

CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH

• 41

cess: the last breeding pair, “Old Blue” and “Old Yellow,” along with the foster birds, saved the black robin from extinction and the program is now a model for showing how endangered birds can be savedfrom extinction. See also ENDANGERED SPECIES; FLORA AND FAUNA. CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH. New Zealand’s contacts with China date back into the 19th century when discrimination against Chinese gold miners took place. Contacts developed during the Republic era, 1912–1949, with a growth of trade links, missionary activity, and some immigration. A number of New Zealanders also served in China during World War II and a New Zealander, Rewi Alley, was for 60 years a notable figure in China. During the 1950s and 1960s, however, New Zealand followed its ally the United States in refusing to recognize the People’s Republic of China (PRC). It was a strategy based more upon loyalty than conviction. Eventually, the Third Labour Government (1972–1975) recognized the Communist regime in 1972. Since then, Sino-New Zealand relations have been cordial with occasional exceptions such as when the Chinese government reacted violently to prodemocracy demonstrations in Tiananmen Square in June 1989. Despite this, since the opening up of the Chinese economy under Deng Xiaoping, trade and other relations between the two countries have increased dramatically. There is now regular contact on such issues as foreign policy and trade; defense and security; law and government; human rights; and development assistance. In the year ended June 2003 New Zealand exported goods with a value of $3.35 billion to the People’s Republic of China (excluding exports to Hong Kong). In the same year over 30,000 young Chinese students were studying in New Zealand in order to further their mastery of the English language. A large number of English language schools have been established to cater for this influx. In 1998, the PRC granted New Zealand “approved destination status” with the result that Chinese tourism has also become an important component in the relationship. In 2005 New Zealand became one of the first nations to enter into negotiations for a free-trade pact with that country. At the same time more informal relations have also been maintained with Taiwan with whom there are important trade links. See also

42 •

CHRISTCHURCH

ASIA, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; JAPAN, RELATIONS WITH; PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH. CHRISTCHURCH. Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island and second only to Auckland city in terms of population. Established close to the coast on the alluvial Canterbury plains, and with the Southern Alps clearly visible about 50 kilometers to the west, it is separated from its seaport of Lyttelton by the Port Hills. The first settlers were Ngai Tahu Maori. The pioneer European settlers, William and John Deans, John Gebbie, and Samuel Manson, along with their families, arrived in 1843 and shortly thereafter established a substantial farm at Putoringamotu, the site of present-day Riccarton. The main settlement was founded in 1850 when the first four ships of the Canterbury Association arrived to establish a planned settlement based on the principles set out by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. Christchurch was named by John Robert Godley, a director of the Canterbury Association and leader of the first wave of immigrants, after his old university college, Christ Church, at Oxford. The original planning ideals were never attained but even today Christchurch has retained a degree of “Englishness” that is unmistakable. Initially an agricultural center serving the Canterbury plains, it later developed a substantial industrial base, including heavy and light engineering, production of electrical goods, sports clothing, furniture, tourism, and computer software. On the surrounding plains, mixed sheep and crop farming is now supplemented by other farming activities such as dairying, deer, llama, and ostrich. Its international airport, the only one in New Zealand that is able to operate 24 hours a day, is a primary staging post for flights to Antarctica. At the time of the 2001 census, Christchurch had a population of 316,227. CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY (CMS). The CMS was the first of a number of missionary societies to be established in New Zealand. The first CMS mission was founded in 1814 by the Reverend Samuel Marsden. As chaplain of the penal settlement in New South Wales he had been impressed by the quality of the Maori he had met despite their lack of organized religion, their lives being

CITIZENS’ INITIATED REFERENDA

• 43

largely regulated by tapu. (There were also a variety of gods of differing significance). Accordingly, he sought CMS support for work in New Zealand. Although invited to undertake the task in 1809 there was a delay of five years occasioned by the massacre of the passengers and crew of the Boyd. In 1814, Marsden purchased land for the society and established a mission at Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands. Land for a second mission was purchased at nearby Kerikeri in 1819. In all, Marsden made seven visits to New Zealand on CMS business from his Australian base, and by 1839 the CMS had 11 mission stations in the North Island under the general leadership of Henry Williams. The missionaries had an important influence upon the freeing of slaves, the ending of cannibalism, and inducing chiefs to sign the Treaty of Waitangi. The CMS withdrew from New Zealand in the early 1880s, leaving its missionary work to be conducted by the Anglican Church. CHUTE, TREVOR (1816–1866). British soldier. A major-general, Chute took command of British forces in New Zealand in 1865 and waged ruthless, if somewhat pedestrian, campaigns against the Maori. See also LAND WARS. CITIZENS’ INITIATED REFERENDA. In response to growing public demand for greater participation in decision making, the Fourth National Government passed the Citizens’ Initiated Referenda Act in 1993. This Act allows electors to petition Parliament to hold a referendum on practically any issue of their choosing provided the petition meets certain criteria. Before seeking support for a referendum on a specific issue, the wording of the proposal must be approved by the clerk of the House of Representatives. When this has been given, petitioners have 12 months to collect the signatures of at least 10 percent of all registered electors before the petition can be presented to the House of Representatives. A referendum must normally be held within 12 months after the petition has been presented to Parliament although Parliament has the power to delay holding it for a further 12 months. But, even if the referendum question is supported by a majority of those voting, the result is not binding on the government. See also BOLGER, JAMES BRENDAN; PETERS, WINSTON RUSSELL.

44 •

CIVIL WARS (MAORI)

CIVIL WARS (MAORI). See MAORI CIVIL WARS. CLARK, HELEN ELIZABETH (1950– ). Politician. The oldest of four girls, Clark was born and educated in New Zealand. She became involved in politics in the 1970s as a result of the issues of the day—the Vietnam War, apartheid, and nuclear testing in the South Pacific, and she lectured in political studies at the University of Auckland before entering Parliament in 1981. Following the election of the Fourth Labour Government in 1984, she was appointed as chair of the important Foreign Affairs and Defense Select Committee at the time when New Zealand declared itself nuclear-free and pursued a more independent foreign policy. Elected to the cabinet in 1987, Clark held several different portfolios including conservation, housing, labor, and health. As minister of health she worked actively to control smoking, providing protection in public places and workplaces, banning tobacco advertising, and, more controversially, outlawing the sponsorship of sporting events by tobacco companies. Clark served as deputy prime minister 1989–1990. Shortly after the 1993 election, she replaced Michael Moore as leader of the New Zealand Labour Party and leader of the opposition. She became prime minister when Labour was returned to power in 1999. Helen Clark is the first woman to become leader of a political party in New Zealand and, in 2003, became the third-longest-serving woman member of the New Zealand Parliament after Whetu Tirikatene-Sullivan and Mabel Howard. She is the second woman to serve as prime minister, following the New Zealand National Party’s Jenny Shipley, and the first to lead a political party to success at a general election. CLENDON, JAMES REDDY (1800–1872). Consul. Born in England, Clendon settled in the Bay of Islands in 1832. His friendship with important Maori chiefs, and his business dealings, soon made him one of the most influential Europeans in northern New Zealand prior to 1840, probably exercising more power at this time than the British resident, James Busby. Ships from the United States were frequent visitors to New Zealand’s shores and, in 1838, he was appointed to act as the first United States consul in New Zealand although he could not assume full consular status because there was no government to which he could be accredited. Clendon was one of the witnesses to the Treaty of Waitangi.

COATES, JOSEPH GORDON (1878–1943)

• 45

CLOSER ECONOMIC RELATIONS (CER). The Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA), generally referred to as CER (Closer Economic Relations), was concluded in 1983, to replace the more limited New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) signed in 1965. CER, the most comprehensive trade agreement entered into by either country, is designed to bring about full free trade in goods and services and to harmonize, as far as possible, other aspects of the economic relationship such as commercial law and regulations, assistance to industry, and the reduction of impediments to trade. It has proved to be an important stimulus to the export of manufactured goods to Australia, which is now New Zealand’s largest single market, while New Zealand has become Australia’s third-largest single market. COALITION GOVERNMENTS. Coalition governments were rare in New Zealand before 1996. During much of the 20th century they had been confined to the National (Coalition) ministry between 1915 and 1919 and the Forbes ministry, from 1931 to 1935. Even despite a curious hybrid “War Cabinet” in addition to the normal cabinet during World War II, there was no coalition. Since the adoption of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, however, coalitions and, or, minority governments have become the normal outcomes of general elections. COATES, JOSEPH GORDON (1878–1943). Politician. Elected to Parliament in 1911 as an Independent Liberal, Gordon Coates switched his allegiance to the Reform Party in the following year. He was one of the few MPs to change allegiance and keep their seats at the subsequent general election. He served in World War I with distinction while remaining an MP and was promptly included in the cabinet upon his return, earning a high reputation for his administrative capacity. Between 1919 and 1928, Coates held a variety of portfolios including that of prime minister from 1925 to 1928. He was leader of the opposition, 1928–1931, and held office in the George Forbes coalition government, 1931–1935, as minister of public works (1931–1933) and finance (1933–1935). In 1933, he was responsible for altering the rate of currency exchange, reducing debts and mortgages, and converting the internal debt to a lower rate of interest.

46 •

COBB AND CO.

Coates played an important role in the establishment of the central Reserve Bank in 1933 and of transferring gold reserves to it from the trading banks. He also advocated the development of manufacturing. Regarded by many of the right wing of the New Zealand National Party as “a socialist interventionist,” he failed to be elected leader when that party was formed in 1936. Coates ended his long parliamentary career as he began it—as an independent. He was a politician whose reputation has, with time, steadily risen. COBB AND CO. The most famous of the early coaching services, the company was started by Charles Cole in 1861 and was based on the model of the celebrated Australian firm. It pioneered long-distance, efficient coaching services. Stagecoach services continued to operate in some remote areas until 1923. See also TRANSPORTATION. COCKAYNE, LEONARD (1855–1934). Botanist. Born in England, Cockayne arrived in New Zealand in 1880. He was successively a schoolteacher, farmer, and horticulturist. Cockayne was an early ecologist, relating living plants to their surroundings. Although largely lacking formal training, he made an outstanding contribution in his studies of New Zealand vegetation and, in 1898, he published his first scientific paper. In 1903, he was awarded an honorary Ph.D. from the University of Munich and, in 1912, he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). Many other awards followed. Cockayne is regarded as having “played the most conspicuous part in the development of modern field botany in the British Empire during the first third of the 20th century.” See also FLORA and FAUNA. COINAGE AND CURRENCY. New Zealand used British Imperial coinage (Sterling) between 1840 and 1935, although between 1855 and 1881 the use of bronze and copper tokens was widespread for smaller denominations. A specifically New Zealand coinage was introduced in 1933, based on pounds, shillings, and pence (£.s.d.). This lasted until 1967 when it was replaced by decimal currency based on a New Zealand dollar (with an equivalent value of 10 shillings). From early in New Zealand’s colonial history, trading banks had the right to issue notes, and this continued until 1934

COMMANDEER SYSTEM

• 47

when the newly established Reserve Bank was given the sole right to issue currency. COLENSO, WILLIAM (1811–1899). Missionary. Born in England, Colenso arrived in New Zealand in 1834 to run a small printing press for the Church Missionary Society, publishing religious tracts, prayer books, and bibles in Maori, as well as government documents. After attending the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, where his warning that many Maori did not understand the treaty was brushed aside, he undertook several ambitious inland explorations. Although displaying a genuine concern for the Maori people, his narrowness and bigotry led to difficulties. Colenso can rightfully be regarded as the founder of the printing industry in New Zealand. COLOMBO PLAN. The Colombo Plan was a Commonwealth project set up in 1950 to assist Asian countries economically and thus help counter the spread of communism. The United States also joined quite early in order to sustain the plan as a channel for multilateral technical aid, primarily in the fields of education and vocational training. The main emphasis, however, was on a series of bilateral projects rather than a coherent overall plan. COLONIAL BANK SCANDAL. Established in 1874, the Colonial Bank ran into difficulties that were exacerbated in the 1890s by the indebtedness of the business of Joseph Ward, the colonial treasurer. It closed in 1895 and many of its assets were taken over by the Bank of New Zealand. COMMANDEER SYSTEM. Guaranteed high prices for primary products were set by the British government in return for a monopoly over all exports of New Zealand’s farm output during and after World War I. In the 20 years before World War I, export prices for New Zealand’s meat, wool, and dairy products had risen steadily. Between 1915 and 1919, the British government’s guarantee created unprecedented prosperity for New Zealand. The system took the risk out of overseas marketing. After the war ended, however, the return to private selling was accompanied by slumps in the prices received for these products. In an attempt to protect themselves, meat and

48 •

COMMONWEALTH

dairy farmers opted to accept marketing controls through the establishment of producer boards authorized by legislation. COMMONWEALTH. As a former Crown colony, New Zealand took its natural place in what were successively the British Empire, the British Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth. Until the Suez invasion in 1956, New Zealand relied heavily upon Britain and collective arrangements such as the Commonwealth and the United Nations for security. Between the 1960s and 1984 the United States and ANZUS was substituted as the principal protection. Although much less important than previously, the Commonwealth continues to provide important infrastructural and foreign policy links, particularly through the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings (CHOGM). See also DOMINION STATUS; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. COMMUNIST PARTY. When it was formed in 1921, the Communist Party tried to affiliate with the New Zealand Labour Party. Rejected, it worked instead through the trade unions, not without success, although with declining influence after World War II. The party suffered as a result of the crushing of the Hungarian uprising by the Soviet Union in 1956, and even more by the split between the Soviet Union and China in 1960, which resulted in an ideological split in the party between a newly formed Socialist Unity Party (which was aligned to Moscow) and the Communist Party (which transferred its loyalty to China). CONFRONTATION. The term used to describe a dispute between Indonesia and Malaysia with Britain supporting the latter country. New Zealand, which had accepted a British Commonwealth role in Malaya in 1955, committed forces to the Borneo frontier between Indonesia and what is now Malaysia. CONSCRIPTION. First introduced into New Zealand under the militia ordinances of 1845 and 1858 that made men liable for military service, the system continued until 1872. The Defence Act of 1909 created a territorial force that imposed a universal obligation for training between the ages of 12 and 21 (later extended to 25). This Act led to the formation, in 1911, of the New Zealand Peace Council

CONTINUOUS MINISTRY

• 49

and the Passive Resisters Union to oppose conscription. Conscripts were not sent overseas in World War I until after the Military Service Act was passed in 1916. Under the Military Service Act of 1918, the requirements were extended to Maori as well as Europeans. Conscription was again introduced under the National Service Emergency Regulations in 1940, during World War II. Following a referendum in 1949, peacetime conscription was introduced. It was abolished in 1958, and a volunteer territorial force was established in its place. See also ARMED FORCES; DEFENSE. CONSTITUENCY SEAT. See ELECTORATE. CONSTITUTION. New Zealand is a sovereign independent state but the monarchy has been retained since colonial days. The British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is also officially queen of New Zealand. The governor-general is the sovereign’s representative in New Zealand. Today the powers of the governor-general are largely formal; executive power resides with the prime minister and Cabinet whose decisions are subject to approval by Parliament. Following two earlier constitutions (1840 and 1846), the Constitution Act of 1852, passed by the Westminster Parliament, established the broad framework of representative government in New Zealand complete with a bicameral legislature and six provinces. Though substantially amended, the 1852 constitution remained in force until it was replaced by the Constitution Act in 1986, this time passed by the New Zealand Parliament. Neither Act, however, can be classed as superior law and neither fulfilled the purposes normally associated with such documents. New Zealand is still generally regarded as having an “unwritten” constitution lacking formal safeguards. CONTINUOUS MINISTRY. For the greater part of the 1870s and 1880s, New Zealand was ruled by a series of unstable alliances or cliques within an oligarchy of large landowners and lessees. Generally regarded as commencing with the William Fox ministry in 1869 and lasting, with two interruptions (the George Grey ministry, 1877– 1879, and the Robert Stout-Julius Vogel ministry, 1884–1887), until 1891, the “Continuous Ministry” comprised 15 discrete ministries representing different combinations of substantially the same group of men. William Pember Reeves described the relatively small

50 •

COOK, JAMES (1728–1777)

group of politicians involved as “a shifting combination or rather series of combinations amongst public men, by which the Cabinet was from time to time modified without being completely changed at any one moment.” COOK, JAMES (1728–1777). Explorer and cartographer. In 1768, Captain Cook led a British expedition to the South Seas to observe the transit of Venus in the first of three voyages he made to the Pacific. During the Southern Hemisphere summer of 1769–1770, he made the first circumnavigation of New Zealand, charting the coasts with outstanding accuracy. With a remarkable retinue of scientists— physical and natural—and artists, he was responsible for the collection of a vast amount of information about this “new” country. Cook also named many of the prominent features during a total of 328 days spent on the New Zealand coast during the course of his three voyages. COOK ISLANDS. The Cook Islands is a group of 15 islands with a total land area of less than 256 sq. kilometers (100 sq. miles) located in the tropics in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The islands were annexed by New Zealand in 1901. Since 1965, it has been a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand. The Cook Islands government has full legislative and executive competence and can conduct its own external relations and enter into international agreements. New Zealand has some responsibilities in the areas of defense and external relations, but this does not confer any rights of control. Cook Islanders are New Zealand citizens. In 2000 the population of the Cook Islands was estimated to be 20,400, but a further 51,141 Cook Islanders, including 15,222 born in the Cook Islands, were living in New Zealand at the time of the 2001 New Zealand census. See also PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES. COOPER, WHINA (1895–1994). Maori leader. Known as Whaea O Te Motu (Mother of the Nation), Dame Whina was an influential Maori leader for over 60 years. Perhaps most widely known for her leadership of the 1975 Maori Land March from Te Hapua in the far north of the North Island to the Parliament House in Wellington, she was an outspoken but constructive spokesperson for the Maori

COUNTRY PARTY

• 51

race. Founder of the Maori Women’s Welfare League, she was active in a wide range of other organizations dedicated to reclaiming mana for Maori within New Zealand society. See also MAORI LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT. COOPERATIVES. These are to be found mainly in the dairy industry. Because of the costs involved, there is a long tradition of dairy produce being manufactured in factories owned cooperatively. The first cooperative dairy company was established in 1871 on the Otago Peninsula. Over the years there has been a steady consolidation of the numerous small units. Today, approximately 98 percent of New Zealand’s milk production is handled by the Fonterra Co-operative Group. A retail cooperative shop was established in 1921 for Railways Department staff by one of its members concerned at rising prices. The cooperative movement spread rapidly, and at its apogee the chainstore organization had 200 self-help shops throughout the country. Financial cooperatives are also an important feature of New Zealand. These include building societies and the Public Service Investment Society. See also LIQUOR LICENSING TRUSTS. COUNCIL OF TRADE UNIONS (CTU). Formed in 1987, the Council of Trade Unions (CTU) is the successor to the Federation of Labour. In 2001, it had 30 affiliated unions representing 90 percent of union members. Union membership as a proportion of the total employed labor force was 334,783 (17.6 percent) as of December 2002. The CTU includes a number of state sector unions (e.g., teachers, nurses, police, and the Public Service Association), which were never affiliated to the former Federation of Labour. See also TRADE UNIONS. COUNTRY PARTY. The Country Party developed in the dairying regions of the northern half of the North Island during the 1920s. Formed by the Auckland provincial executive of the Farmers’ Union in 1922, it competed with the Reform Party for farmers’ votes in the four elections between 1925 and 1935. Its main policies were support for free trade, opposition to protectionism, active land settlement, and cheap credit for farmers. Although it never sought to become a party

52 •

COUNTRY QUOTA

with nationwide aspirations, it was the most successful of all minor parties. It never contested more than six seats in an election, but held the Bay of Islands electorate between 1928 and 1938 and Franklin from 1935 to 1938. It was, in reality, a pressure group with strong support locally and which, temporarily, decided to act as a political party. It lost both parliamentary seats only after the Labour and National parties decided to contest the seats it held. See also FEDERATED FARMERS. COUNTRY QUOTA. An electoral mechanism designed to enhance the representation of rural areas by making rural electorates numerically smaller than urban electorates. This inbuilt inequality, which formally existed from 1881 until 1945, was initially set at 25 percent, but this figure was reduced to 18 percent in 1887 before being raised to 28 percent in 1889. Thus from 1889 to 1945 each rural vote was worth approximately 28 percent more than a vote cast in an urban electorate. CREATIVE NEW ZEALAND. Creative New Zealand, formerly the Queen Elizabeth Arts Council, works in partnership with other sectors of the community to encourage and promote the arts at the center of a creative society. Funding for this Crown entity comes from the government through an annual parliamentary appropriation and the New Zealand Lotteries Board. In 2003–2004 funding from these sources totaled $33.8 million, which is used to help develop opportunities in the arts sector, including its Creative Communities and Screen Innovations programs and the New Zealand Authors’ Fund, which pays annual royalties to New Zealand authors for their books in New Zealand libraries. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LITERATURE. CRICKET. Continuing an English tradition, cricket can claim to be one of the first organized games played in New Zealand, with reports that it was seen in the early 1830s. The first officially reported match was played in 1842, and a New Zealand national team played its first match in 1894. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. CROWN, THE. The Crown is the legal embodiment of the executive government acting through its ministers and servants. The Public Fi-

CROWN COMPANY MONITORING ADVISORY UNIT (CCMAU)

• 53

nance Act (1989) defines the “Crown” as the head of state (in New Zealand’s case, the governor-general), the Executive Council (the body that provides formal advice to the head of state), the Cabinet and ministers outside the Cabinet, and all departments of state. The “Crown” symbolizes the powers of government wielded in earlier times by “the wearer of the crown.” In a strict sense, the Crown has no immunity from the law—it can, for example, sue and be sued—but unless there is an express statement or intention to the contrary, Parliament does not anticipate that statutes should prejudice the Crown. CROWN COLONY GOVERNMENT. Letters patent issued by the British government on 1 June 1839 that authorized the government of New South Wales (Australia) to include within its boundaries any territory in New Zealand that might be acquired in sovereignty. Following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in February 1840, separate proclamations were issued declaring sovereignty over the group of islands which make up New Zealand. On 3 May 1841, New Zealand became a separate Crown Colony, with a Legislative Council consisting of the governor and some leading officials who were later joined by a small number of members nominated by the governor. Under the New Zealand Government Act of 1846, the colony was divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster. The settlers were to be granted increased representation through the election of their own representatives but these portions of the 1846 Act were suspended by Governor George Grey, and the two Legislative Councils continued to consist of nominee members until shortly before a new representative government constitution was proclaimed in 1852. CROWN COMPANY MONITORING ADVISORY UNIT (CCMAU). Established in 1993, CCMAU is the advisory unit responsible for monitoring and enhancing the Crown’s ownership interest in a number of Crown-owned companies, as well as state-owned enterprises and Crown Research Institutes. It does so by assisting with the appointment of directors, monitoring the performance of each entity, and providing high-quality advice to shareholding ministers on both governance and performance so that boards can be held accountable for their performance. Its primary objective is to ensure that the Crown’s assets are effectively managed.

54 •

CROWN ENTITIES

CROWN ENTITIES. Crown entities are organizations or offices set up by the government to provide the delivery of services such as health, education, and roads to citizens. In October 2003 there were 2,781 Crown entities, including 21 district health boards, 32 reserves boards, 13 fish and game councils, 35 tertiary education institutions (universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education), 2,592 school boards of trustees, and 17 Crown-owned companies and Crown Research Institutes, as well as 65 separate legal entities such as Land Transport New Zealand and Creative New Zealand. Most Crown entities are run by boards who appoint chief executives. See also TRANSPORTATION. CROWN RESEARCH INSTITUTES (CRI). CRIs were established in July 1992 from former government departments because studies and reviews undertaken during the latter part of the 1980s had indicated that New Zealand’s investment in science and technology was lagging well behind many other countries. The objective was to improve efficiency through structural reforms, increase and better prioritize research and development funding, and increase the level of private sector investment. Initially 10 CRIs were established but the Institute for Social Research and Development failed to establish commercial viability and was closed in 1995. The nine remaining institutes—AgResearch, Industrial Research (IRL), Environmental Science and Research (ESR), Geological and Nuclear Sciences (GNS), Landcare Research, the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), Forest Research, Food and Crop Research, and Horticulture and Food Research (HortResearch) have all restructured and invested heavily in new science assets and facilities and new science capabilities. Today, they are much more strategically focused than their predecessor departments. Collectively, they employ over 4,000 staff, of whom 71 percent are actively engaged in research. CRIs are monitored by the Crown Company Monitoring Advisory Unit (CCMAU). See also CROWN ENTITIES. CROWN-OWNED COMPANIES (COC). COCs are governmentowned commercial companies established under specific acts of Par-

CULTURE

• 55

liament and whose objectives generally include a mix of social, cultural, public policy, and commercial goals along with public accountability requirements. They include Radio New Zealand, Television New Zealand, Quotable Value (formerly the government Valuation Department), and Learning Media (which publishes and markets educational materials for New Zealand schools and develops education material for overseas markets, in particular the United States). COCs are monitored by the Crown Company Monitoring Advisory Unit (CCMAU). See also CROWN ENTITIES; CROWN RESEARCH INSTITUTES; STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES. CULLEN, MICHAEL JOHN (1945– ). Born in England and educated in Britain and New Zealand, Cullen was a university history lecturer before being elected to Parliament in 1981. He served as senior whip and held, among other positions, the health portfolio in the Fourth Labour Government. In the Fifth Labour Government he served as minister of finance, and after the 2002 election he replaced Jim Anderton as deputy prime minister. He was responsible for what was dubbed the “Cullen Super Fund,” a scheme funded indirectly through taxation surpluses and intended to provide reassurance for the future funding of retirement income. See also SUPERANNUATION. CULTURE. Although for much of the 19th and part of the 20th centuries European culture was widely regarded as infinitely superior to any form of indigenous New Zealand culture, many of the early settlers were too fully engrossed in establishing themselves to concern themselves with “culture,” and where they did so the result was often “amateur” by later standards. However, from Governor George Grey onwards there was always a certain fascination displayed about various aspects of Maori culture. The other fascination was the New Zealand landscape so ably captured, for example, by the surveyor/ painter Charles Heaphy and politician/painter William Fox. However, it was not until the second half of the 20th century, when the ties with Britain seriously began to weaken, that the richness of the potential blend of Maori, European, and other Polynesian influences began to be more fully appreciated in literature, music, painting, and sculpture and the predominating European “cultural cringe” was

56 •

CURNOW, (THOMAS) ALLEN MUNRO (1911–2001)

abandoned. At the same time there was a flourishing renaissance of the long cultural tradition of Maori and Pacific Islanders in such areas as carving, dancing, oratory, tattooing, and weaving. The result has been the emergence of a distinctive cultural tradition in various aspects of the arts. This is underpinned by an active cultural life. A population of 4 million people maintains over 400 art galleries and museums, a national symphony orchestra, a national ballet, four professional theaters and three regional opera companies, regional orchestras, Maori and Pacific Islander cultural groups, and 60 public libraries plus mobile libraries and 180 branch libraries connected to the Internet. See also CREATIVE NEW ZEALAND. CURNOW, (THOMAS) ALLEN MUNRO (1911–2001). Poet. Initially trained for the church before working successively as a journalist and university lecturer, Curnow did much to help establish New Zealand poetry with a distinct character and flavor of its own. His anthology, A Book of New Zealand Verse, 1923–1950, represented a major publication in the field of New Zealand poetry, indicating the particularity of the New Zealand genre. Curnow was a central figure in New Zealand writing for some 50 years although the choices represented by his anthologies sometimes triggered sharp debate. Described as “the most polished . . . and the most difficult” of New Zealand poets, he is regarded as the master craftsman, combining rigor with creativeness of form. Under the pseudonym “WhimWham,” Curnow was also widely known for the satirical verse regularly published in two daily newspapers over many years. See also LITERATURE. CURRENCY. See COINAGE AND CURRENCY.

–D– DAIRY BOARD. See PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS. DAIRY INDUSTRY. New Zealand’s climate is generally favorable for grassland farming and there is no necessity to house stock over winter. The presence of cattle in New Zealand resulted exclusively from

DAVIS, ERNEST HYAM (1872–1962)

• 57

European settlement and most were imported directly from Britain or via Australia. Although dairying for local consumption was present from the beginnings of European settlement, it was not until the advent of refrigeration in 1882 that dairy farming became an important earner of export income. The first export dairy factory opened at Edendale (Southland) in 1882 and, by the early years of the 20th century, factories had been established in both islands but especially in Taranaki. In 1890 the value of New Zealand’s dairy exports was only 5 percent of the returns from wool; 20 years later income from dairy exports had risen to 77 percent that of wool. In the year to June 2003, dairy exports represented 19.2 percent of the value of all exports (up from 18.0 percent in 2000, but down from 21.8 percent in 2002—the fluctuations are a consequence of increasing milk production, improved international prices, and the appreciation of the $NZ against the $US since the beginning of 2003) and were New Zealand’s single largest income earner. Dairy products are exported to approximately 100 countries with nearly half of the annual production going to Europe, North America, Japan, and Korea, with the remainder to developing countries in Asia, Latin America, and the Pacific. Over 93 percent of annual production is exported as butter products, cheese, dried milk powders, and protein products such as casein. See also FONTERRA CO-OPERATIVE GROUP; PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS; MEAT INDUSTRY; TRADE. DAVIN, DANIEL MARCUS (1913–1990). Writer. Born in New Zealand and educated at the universities of Otago and Oxford (where he was a Rhodes scholar), Davin fought with British and New Zealand forces in Greece, Crete, the Western Desert, and Italy during World War II. Author of seven novels, three collections of short stories, and a war history, his writings are largely about New Zealanders overseas. Davin was a focal point for a wide variety of New Zealanders overseas and had an important influence on the development of New Zealand writing. See also LITERATURE. DAVIS, ERNEST HYAM (1872–1962). Businessman; managing director of what was later to become New Zealand Breweries Ltd. Contrary to the expected business behavior of the time, Davis was a strong backer

58 •

DAWSON, NEIL (1948– )

of the New Zealand Labour Party from its earliest beginnings, employing its later leader, Michael Joseph Savage from 1908 until 1919. DAWSON, NEIL (1948– ). New Zealand born and educated, Dawson taught three-dimensional design and drawing before becoming a fulltime sculptor in 1983. Since then he has established an international reputation with such works as the “Globe” at the Pompidou Center, Paris; “Vanishing Stairs” in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; “Ferns” in Wellington; “Feathers and Skies” at the Olympic Stadium, Sydney; and “Chalice” in Christchurch. See also ART GALLERIES. DE SURVILLE, JEAN-FRANCOIS MARIE. See SURVILLE, JEANFRANCOIS MARIE DE. DE THIERRY, CHARLES PHILIPPE HIPPOLYTE. See THIERRY, CHARLES PHILIPPE HIPPOLYTE DE. DEAN, WILLIAMINA (MINNIE) (1847–1895). Convicted murderess. Minnie Dean was the proprietress of a business which took in illegitimate children with respectable backgrounds, boarded them, and then found permanent foster homes for them. She was convicted—on largely circumstantial evidence—of murdering one of the children and became the first and only woman to be hanged in New Zealand. A modern biography argues that although the “Winton baby farmer” (as she became known in popular legend) was undoubtedly a confirmed liar, there are doubts as to whether she was, indeed, a murderer. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED TRIBES OF NEW ZEALAND. In 1831, 13 major northern Maori chiefs who were concerned about possible French annexation of New Zealand—and possible revenge for the killing of Marc Joseph Marion du Fresne in 1772—as well as the misconduct of some British subjects, petitioned King William IV of Great Britain for protection. Further appeals, prompted by the connivance of the British crew of the trading vessel Elizabeth in an intertribal attack on Takapuneke pa, Takamatua, in Akaroa harbor in 1830, eventually culminated in the appointment of James Busby as British resident. Busby was to be a Kaiwhakarite (intermediary) between the races but lacked any real support for his authority.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED TRIBES OF NEW ZEALAND

• 59

One immediate but very practical problem Busby faced was the issue of a flag. At this time New Zealand was, legally, an independent territory and, since 1829, ships built there had not been eligible to register as British ships or fly the British ensign. As a consequence, their cargoes did not qualify for duty-free entry at Australian ports and, indeed, were liable to seizure. In 1834, Busby assembled some 25 northern chiefs at Waitangi and, despite some dissent, persuaded a majority of those present to choose a flag. Busby hoped that this would be the first step towards establishing a government of confederated chiefs. The next year Busby, who was concerned about the intentions of Baron Charles Philippe Hippolyte de Thierry, convened a meeting of 35 northern chiefs and persuaded them to sign the Declaration of Independence of the United Tribes of New Zealand by which they declared themselves to be the heads of a sovereign state. At the same time they requested William IV to continue as parent and protector of their infant state and they agreed to meet annually as a congress to consider the affairs of their realm. Although Busby occasionally convened small committees of confederation chiefs, the proposed annual meetings of the congress never eventuated. Nevertheless, Busby continued to collect the signatures of Maori chiefs until July 1839, by which time the total had reached 52. Although of some symbolic significance, the main purpose of the declaration was to enhance Busby’s position as senior British resident. The governor of New South Wales, however, was not impressed and described it as “a paper pellet fired off at Baron de Thierry.” British recognition of the Declaration of Independence was, in effect, a cheap way of establishing a British protectorate, but it also meant that, if New Zealand were to become a colony, either the declaration would have to be overridden or some form of accommodation would need to be reached by treaty; hence the importance of the Treaty of Waitangi. The Declaration of Independence of the United Tribes of New Zealand, long overshadowed by the Treaty of Waitangi, was resurrected in 1880 and subsequently on the basis that it confirmed a measure of autonomy of Maori chiefs. In more recent times, it has acquired a greater degree of significance on the ground that it provides evidence that New Zealand existed as a sovereign state before the Treaty of Waitangi was signed. See also SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS.

60 •

DEER FARMING

DEER FARMING. New Zealand’s modern economy was largely built upon introduced species of animal—especially sheep and cows. More recent additions include alpaca, deer, and ostriches. Of these, deer have been by far the most successful. Deer were imported as long ago as the mid-19th century when they were released into the wild for hunting. One hundred years later their numbers and impact upon the environment had increased to such an extent that the government tried to exterminate them. From the 1970s, commercial farming developed with, in particular, the netting of live deer from low-flying helicopters. A Game Industry Board was established in the mid-1980s that has taken quality assurance, processing, and marketing initiatives as well as creating the Cervena brand. Although many other countries farm deer, none rival the numbers farmed in New Zealand, which in 2003 were estimated at 2.5 million. In the year ended June 2002, 28,740 tons of chilled and frozen venison valued at $215 million were exported, approximately 85 percent of which went to Western Europe. Deer velvet and related products, most of which is exported to Korea, earned $61 million in the year to May 2002. DEFENSE. New Zealand’s first organized defense consisted of militia units formed to resist attacks on settlers by Maori in the 1840s and sporadically thereafter. Special forces were raised during the wars of the 1860s to assist the British forces and wage guerrilla warfare, particularly the Forest Rangers formed under Major Gustavus Ferdinand von Tempsky. Pensioner settlements—villages inhabited by British ex-regulars (“fencibles”)—were also established in frontier areas, especially close to Auckland. By the 1880s, defense was no longer seen as being primarily concerned with internal disorder. From 1882 on, for example, New Zealand’s four principal ports were fortified as a result of the Russian war scare, and in 1899 a contingent of volunteers participated in the Boer War. In the early 20th century, New Zealand developed a small core of regular army personnel, volunteers, and conscripts. Compulsory military training was introduced in 1912 and lasted, with occasional breaks, until 1972. Until the 1950s, the defense of New Zealand and defense of the British Empire (later, the Commonwealth) were seen as synonymous. New Zealand forces participated alongside British troops in

DEPRESSION, GREAT (1929–1935)

• 61

both world wars. After World War II, however, New Zealand’s defense policy adapted to cooperation with the United States, and since the passage of the antinuclear legislation in the mid-1980s, relies principally upon cooperation with Australia. Following the election of the Fifth Labour Government, defense policy has shifted from a traditional force structure to a heavier emphasis upon such activities as United Nations’ peacekeeping operations, policing New Zealand’s 200-nautical-mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ), maritime search and reconnaissance operations, and the relief of natural disasters (especially damage from hurricanes in the South Pacific). The result is that the strike wing of the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) has been disbanded and the antisubmarine capacity of the marine wing downgraded, and it is planned to replace a retiring Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) frigate with a patrol boat. New Zealand spends and estimated 1.1 percent of its gross domestic product on defense and maintains a total force of approximately 9,000 personnel supplemented by 1,800 civilians. See also ANZUS; ARMED FORCES; CONSCRIPTION; EAST TIMOR. DEMOCRAT PARTY (1935). An ultraconservative party formed during the Great Depression. It failed to win a seat in the 1935 election (the only one it contested) but its presence enhanced the New Zealand Labour Party’s majority by helping to splinter the conservative vote. DEMOCRATIC PARTY. See SOCIAL CREDIT POLITICAL LEAGUE. DEMOCRATIC (SOLDIER) LABOUR PARTY (1943). A breakaway party formed by John A. Lee after his expulsion from the New Zealand Labour Party in 1940, following his open criticism of Michael Joseph Savage who, it transpired, was terminally ill and died within 24 hours of Lee’s expulsion. The party advocated cheaper credit and was obviously influenced by Social Credit philosophy. Lee failed to hold his parliamentary seat, and his party failed to win any seats in the 1943 general election, the only election that it contested. DEPRESSION, GREAT (1929–1935). The end of the “commandeer system” in 1920 ushered in a decade of economic instability that

62 •

DEPRESSION, LONG (1865–1895)

culminated in economic depression between 1929 and 1934. The economic fluctuations of the 1920s were regarded as temporary dislocations, but New Zealand’s narrowly based economic infrastructure and its dependence on the British market meant that the depression impacted severely on the price New Zealand received for its primary products: returns from butter declined by 47 percent between 1929 and 1934 while wool prices dropped 63 percent between 1929 and 1932. At its peak the number of males over the age of 20 years who were registered as unemployed exceeded 70,000 (out of a population of approximately 1.5 million), but the real number of unemployed was almost certainly much greater—estimated at over 20 percent of all who wanted to work. The government’s initial strategy was one of retrenchment but, at the beginning of 1933, it adopted a much more proactive stance by devaluing the £NZ, establishing the Reserve Bank with monopoly powers over note issue and credit control, and granting mortgage relief and subsidies to farmers. When the First Labour Government came to power in November 1935, the worst of the depression was over; nevertheless, its early legislative activity was directed towards providing a political solution to the economic and social misery of the previous six years. See also COATES, JOSEPH GORDON; EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT. DEPRESSION, LONG (1865–1895). The worldwide depression extending from c.1865 to c.1895 impacted severely on New Zealand’s infant economic development. During the later 1860s and for most of the 1870s as a result of gold revenues and, later, Julius Vogel’s borrowing program, the country seemed insulated from the impact of the Industrial Revolution with its mass production and consequent market saturation, particularly of food surpluses. The optimism of the 1870s resulted in land speculation, rapidly rising land prices, credit expansion, and very high interest rates at a time when prices earned for farm produce were falling. By the late 1870s, New Zealand was debt-ridden and, when the City of Glasgow Bank collapsed in 1878, New Zealand’s credit rating in Britain was dragged down. A crisis of confidence followed as the speculative bubble burst. Permanent unemployment, severely depressed wages, and poverty characterized the late 1870s and 1880s. Between 1885 and 1891, an estimated 125,000 people left New Zealand. The economic and social reforms of the Liberal Govern-

DISASTERS

• 63

ment were largely a political response to the conditions experienced during the 1880s. A world shortage of farm produce after 1895 resulted in rising export prices and renewed prosperity. See also EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT. DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCES. See INDICATIVE PLANNING. DINOSAURS. In 1974, an amateur paleontologist, Joan Wiffen, discovered fragmentary dinosaur fossils dating back to the late Cretaceous period (probably 70 million years old) in the Mangahouanga Stream inland from the city of Napier. The finds included an ankylosaur (a heavily armored, plant-eating dinosaur), a carnosaur (a carnivorous animal with large sharp teeth in scissor-like jaws, short neck and arms, and a long counterbalancing tail, that walked and ran on two legs), and a mosasaur, a new species of fierce sea lizard, Rikisaurus tehoensis. This was the first evidence that dinosaurs had existed in New Zealand, countering the previous belief that no such occurrence was possible as the islands had been too long isolated. Other dinosaur fossil sites have since been discovered in Marlborough, North Canterbury, and the South Island west coast. Recent research by University of Canterbury scientists has revealed long-term climate cooling towards the end of the Mesozoic era, which suggests that an unknown number of dinosaurs and other species may have been declining significantly in numbers before the asteroid that is credited with wiping out the dinosaur population hit Earth. DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION. It was not until 1926 that New Zealand, as a dominion, obtained the right to conduct its own foreign affairs, but a New Zealand foreign service was not established until 1943. New Zealand maintains approximately 56 diplomatic and consular posts and uses multiple accreditation to cover a wide range of countries from these bases. DISASTERS. Judged in terms of lives lost, apart from wars, the influenza epidemic of 1918–1919, with the loss of an estimated 6,700 lives, is probably the single greatest disaster to strike New Zealand. The 1979 Mount Erebus disaster, when an Air New Zealand DC-10 crashed with the loss of 257 lives while on a sightseeing flight to

64 •

DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND

Antarctica, narrowly exceeds the loss of life in the 1931 Napier earthquake. The worst shipping disaster was the loss of the British naval vessel HMS Orpheus on the Manukau Bar in 1863 with the loss of 189 lives. The Mount Tarawera eruption, which destroyed the famed Pink and White Terraces in 1886, caused the loss of 153 lives, while 151 lives were lost in New Zealand’s worst rail disaster when the Tangiwai Bridge was destroyed by floods shortly before an overnight express plunged into the river on Christmas Eve, 1953. In 1968, the MV Wahine, an overnight passenger and vehicular ferry that plied between Wellington and Lyttelton, was wrecked on Barrett’s Reef at the entrance to Wellington harbor during a violent storm with the loss of 51 lives. DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND. No one can be certain when the first settlers arrived in New Zealand or where they came from, as there is a lack of conclusive archaeological or other evidence. Instead, extant evidence suggests that the original settlers came from eastern Polynesia approximately 800 years ago (⫾200 years). As with the first discovery of New Zealand by Europeans, one of the most interesting aspects of the settlement by Maori is how long it took to accomplish. By 12,000 years ago, most of the Pacific rim, from Tasmania to Tierra del Fuego was discovered and peopled as well as many of the Pacific islands. Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga, for example, were probably occupied 3,000 years ago. Even the more recently settled islands, such as remote Hawaiian islands or Easter Island, were discovered by 300–400 AD, yet it appears to have been a further 500 years or more before the discovery and colonization of New Zealand by Polynesians took place. When this did occur, the original colonizers appear to have come from the area of the Marquesas, Society Islands, and Tuamotu Archipelago in French Polynesia. Similarly, although European explorers first appear to have entered the Pacific in the 16th century, it was not until 1642 that the first recorded sighting of New Zealand by the Dutch mariner Abel Janzoon Tasman occurred, and another 127 years were to pass before Captain James Cook made landfall near the present-day city of Gisborne before circumnavigating New Zealand and mapping the coastline over a period of six months. See also POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT.

DOMINION STATUS

• 65

DODD, LYNLEY STUART (1941– ). Children’s author and illustrator of children’s books. After studying sculpture, Dodd trained as an art teacher before becoming an author and illustrator of children’s books in 1974. Best known for her Hairy Maclary stories about the adventures of a canine rogue hero in a world seen through an animal’s eyes, she is an internationally known author whose works have been widely translated. She has won several awards for her work, including the Glen Esther Medal (1975), Choysa Bursary for Children’s Writers (1978), the New Zealand Children’s Picture Book of the Year Award (four times between 1984 and 1992), and the Margaret Mahy Medal (1999). See also LITERATURE. DOMESTIC PURPOSES BENEFIT (DPB). Introduced in 1973, this state-funded benefit is available to a sole parent caring for children without the support of partners, a person caring at home for another person who would otherwise be hospitalized, and, in some circumstances, to older women living alone. In December 2003, 111,065 persons were receiving the DPB, 91 percent of whom were women. See also SOCIAL WELFARE. DOMETT, ALFRED (1811–1887). Public servant and politician. Born in England, Domett emigrated to New Zealand in 1842 and played an important role in Crown Colony government as a member of the nominated Legislative Council and as colonial secretary for New Munster (North Island) between 1848 and 1853. When representative government was established, he was elected to the House of Representatives and served there for a total of 10 years during which time he was premier, with the portfolio of colonial secretary, from 1862 to 1863. As colonial secretary, Domett adopted a hard-line approach over Maori questions, pursuing a policy of punitive land confiscation. His main contribution, however, was as an administrator establishing an effective centralized Crown Lands office. He was a member of the appointed Legislative Council (upper house) between 1866 and 1874. See also LAND WARS. DOMINION STATUS. Essentially in recognition of the fact that it was now largely self-governing in internal affairs and no longer a Crown

66 •

DOUGLAS, ROGER OWEN (1937– )

colony, New Zealand was accorded dominion status within the British Empire in 1907. Trade and foreign affairs, however, remained in imperial control. DOUGLAS, ROGER OWEN (1937– ). Politician and businessman. One of the most surprising politicians in New Zealand’s political history, Douglas qualified in accountancy and worked in corporate business as well as building a flourishing family business. Scion of an important Labour family (his grandfather, William Theophilus Anderton, was an MP, 1935–1960, and his father, Norman Vazey Douglas, was an MP, 1960–1975, as well as president of the New Zealand Labour Party, 1966–1970), Douglas was first elected to Parliament for Labour in 1969 and served as a minister in the Norman Kirk and Bill Rowling governments, 1972–1975. As minister of finance in the Fourth Labour Government led by David Russell Lange, which was elected in 1984, he was the driving force responsible for the attempt to convert New Zealand’s stalled protectionist economy into a free-trading, market-led economy (policies dubbed “Rogernomics”). In the process he outflanked the New Zealand National Party on the right and exacerbated divisions within his own party. Initially, Douglas met with success, and Labour was returned to power in 1987 with an increased parliamentary majority but, following fierce differences with Lange over a flat-tax package, he resigned as minister of finance in December 1988. Lange, in turn, resigned as prime minister in August 1989 after Douglas was reelected to the Cabinet by his parliamentary party colleagues. He was not, however, reappointed to his old portfolio of finance and he did not seek reelection to Parliament in 1990. In 1993, in association with Derek Quigley, he established a pressure group, the Association of Consumers and Taxpayers—later registered as a political party (the ACT Party)—to further the aims of market reform. In his fixity of purpose, Douglas was unusual in New Zealand parliamentary tradition, acting like a technocrat and all but oblivious to electoral considerations. In their contrasting ways, Douglas and his National Party predecessor as minister of finance, Robert Muldoon, did more than anyone else to destroy the already crumbling two-party system by shaking loose party allegiances.

DUDER, TESSA (1940– )

• 67

DREAVER, MARY MANSON (née BAIN) (1887–1961). Politician. Although female membership of the upper house of Parliament, the Legislative Council, had been proposed as early as 1892 and agreed to in principle in 1914, it was not formalized until 1941. In January 1946, Mrs. Dreaver was the first woman to be appointed to the Legislative Council, but she did not take her seat until late 1946, following her defeat in the House of Representatives election of that year. The Legislative Council was abolished in 1950. DRYSDALE, PERI (1953– ). Businesswoman. A former nurse, Peri Drysdale established the Snowy Peak company (named after the South Island High Country run where she grew up) in 1981. It specializes in the production of stylish, super-soft merino wool knitwear and also knitwear made from possum fur, an animal regarded as a pest in New Zealand. Her company’s products, sold under the Untouched World brand, sell in upmarket outlets in many countries in the world. Her company was commissioned to produce the garments presented to world leaders attending the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Conference (APEC) held in Auckland in 1999. In 2002 she was honored as Business Woman of the Year. DU FRESNE, MARC JOSEPH MARION. See MARION DU FRESNE, MARC JOSEPH. DUDER, TESSA (1940– ). Children’s and teenage book author. Born in New Zealand, Tessa Duder first came to prominence as an outstanding swimmer, winning a silver medal in the 110-yard women’s butterfly at the Cardiff Commonwealth games in 1958. She was a reporter and feature writer for newspapers in both New Zealand and England (1959–1966) before becoming a full-time writer in 1978. Her first novel for children, Night Race to Kawau (1982), was followed by several further novels, the central elements of which were strong female characters in an identifiably New Zealand setting. Her quartet of Alex novels (1987–1991) have all been critically acclaimed; three were awarded New Zealand Children’s Book Awards and three Esther Glen medals, and all have been published overseas and translated into several foreign languages.

68 •

DUFF, ALAN (1950– )

Duder is also the editor of several anthologies including A Book of Pacific Lullabies (2001). In 1996, she was awarded the Margaret Mahy Medal by the New Zealand Children’s Book Foundation, and in 2002, she was awarded the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship. See also LITERATURE. DUFF, ALAN (1950– ). Writer. The son of a Pakeha scientist and Maori mother, following the separation of his parents when Duff was 10, he had a troubled adolescence, including a term in borstal (reformatory) for assault and breaking and entering. He turned to writing full-time in 1985, and his second novel, Once Were Warriors, achieved outstanding success and was made into an award-winning film and, later, a stage musical play. Subsequent work has included One Night Out Stealing (1992), State Ward (1994), Maori, the Crisis and the Challenge (1993), What Becomes of the Broken Hearted (1996), Two Sides of the Moon (1998)—a sequel to Once Were Warriors—and an autobiography, Out of the Mist and Steam, published in 1999. Duff has also been much in demand as a newspaper columnist because of his controversial views on the failure of Maoridom, which he has attributed to an over-long dwelling on the injustices of the past, demanding that others solve their problems for them, instead of getting on with life and helping themselves. He is also well known for his founding and promotion of the “Books in Homes” scheme which, using commercial sponsorship and government support, aims to help underprivileged children overcome their disadvantages. See also LITERATURE. DUMONT D’URVILLE, JULES SEBASTIEN CESAR (1790– 1842). Explorer. Born in France, Dumont d’Urville served in the French navy. His first of three visits to New Zealand took place in 1824. In 1827 he spent three months charting the northern shores of the South Island and the east coast of the North Island, as well as carrying out important botanical and etymological investigations. The third visit took place in 1840. DUNEDIN. The main city of the southern South Island, Dunedin was founded as a Free Church of Scotland settlement, following a schism in the Church of Scotland in the early 1840s, and was intended as the “new” Edinburgh. Its name is the Gaelic form of Edinburgh.

EAST TIMOR

• 69

From the beginning of European settlement, education was important—the University of Otago (the colony’s first university) was established there in 1869, and the first girls’ secondary school (Otago Girls’ High School) was established two years later. Largely as a result of the wealth and population generated by the gold rushes in the hinterland of the Otago province, Dunedin had, by the end of the 19th century, become the country’s principal commercial center as well as an important industrial center. With the decline in importance of the gold-induced wealth during the early part of the 20th century, however, it lost this primacy to Auckland and the city’s fortunes began to languish. Nevertheless, in conjunction with the university, it has established an enviable reputation for innovation and creativity. Dunedin’s land area was greatly expanded as a result of the local government reforms of 1989 but its population continues to show signs of decline. In 2001 its population was 114,432, of whom 106,563 lived in the urban area surrounding the Otago harbor.

–E– EARTHQUAKES. Situated near the southwestern end of the Pacific basin’s “rim of fire,” an area characterized by earthquakes and volcanoes marking a series of boundaries between the plates that make up the world’s crust, New Zealand lies astride the boundary where the Pacific plate slides beneath the Indian-Australian plate. It is thus in an area of major structural instability, subject to frequent earthquakes and considerable volcanic and geothermal activity. The New Zealand alpine fault is comparable to the famous San Andreas Fault in the United States: it extends from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and there is evidence of lateral movement of more than 500 kilometers (300 miles). Major earthquakes in New Zealand in the past 160 years have included Wellington, 1855; Murchison, 1929; Napier, 1931; Wairarapa, 1942; Inangahua, 1968; Edgecumbe, 1987; and Fiordland in 2003 and 2004. The greatest loss of life occurred in the Napier earthquake, which registered 7.9 on the Richter scale and killed 256 people. See also DISASTERS. EAST TIMOR. In 1975, following the breakdown of the Portuguese government and the outbreak of civil war amongst political parties

70 •

ECONOMIC STABILISATION ACT (1948)

(one of which, FRETILIN, issued a declaration of independence while four others called for integration with Indonesia), the New Zealand government opposed Indonesia’s forcible integration of the area as its 27th province but accepted that this was preferable to civil war. From 1975 to 1996, the New Zealand government regarded the position as irreversible, although an active New Zealand protest movement supported the Timorese guerrilla movement and denounced acts of violence committed against the Timorese people by the Indonesian occupation forces. With the breakdown of law and order after mid-1998, the New Zealand government became actively involved helping to run the United Nations–administered referendum (held in August 1999). New Zealand troops served as part of a multilateral force during the transition to East Timorese government (1998–2002). Over these years New Zealand’s commitment totaled approximately 6,000 personnel, representing the country’s biggest overseas military commitment since the Korean War. ECONOMIC STABILISATION ACT (1948). Enacted following World War II at a time when, with the removal of subsidies, retail prices escalated as consumer goods were in short supply, this Act remained on the statute books until 1987. It provided governments with almost unlimited powers to govern by regulation if they chose to avail themselves of it, provided these powers could be linked to some economic purpose. ECONOMY. The modern New Zealand economy is essentially a product of Pakeha settlement. Stimulated in the mid-19th century by gold rushes, the country eventually settled into a pattern of pastoral farming made possible by the introduction of refrigeration and tailored overwhelmingly to the needs of the British domestic market. This assured market enabled New Zealand to achieve the unusual distinction of creating a welfare state based on an essentially agricultural economy. Internal economic development frequently involved government intervention or even ownership (e.g., railway construction or the provision of insurance). Between 1938 and 1971, the economy was insulated from outside influence by a comprehensive system of import controls. During the

ECONOMY

• 71

1970s, these were gradually replaced by a tariff regime following Britain’s entry to the European Economic Community (EEC). With the election of the Fourth Labour Government in 1984, major restructuring took place. The economy was largely opened to the rigors of international competition with the floating of the exchange rate, abolition of controls on capital movements, ending of industry assistance, removal of price controls accompanied by extensive deregulation, and corporatization and privatization of state-owned assets. The Fourth National Government (1990–1999) also introduced more flexible patterns of wage bargaining. The overall effect of these changes was to boost real incomes for some but left many at the bottom of the economic heap. Although most subsequent governments have followed less of a “hands-off” policy than the Fourth Labour Government, New Zealand has remained committed to the principle of free trade. The overall economy has to be strongly trade oriented in order to maintain the standard of living, with the export of goods and services accounting for approximately 33 percent of total output. These are made up of a manufacturing component, which includes industries based upon New Zealand raw materials such as dairy industry products such as dried milk and casein, carpets from crossbred wools, wine, a variety of processed meat products, knowledge-based industries such as computer software and mobile radios, a rapidly growing tourism industry, and a range of other services. The basic component, however, continues to be agriculture, supplemented by horticulture, based upon a variety of animals and birds such as sheep and cattle, deer, chickens, and ostriches. With New Zealand being a price-taker rather than a price-maker, the country’s economic growth pattern is uneven. From 1989 to 1999, for example, the gross domestic product (GDP) percentage change ranged from a low of ⫺1.3 percent in 1992 to a high of ⫹6.4 percent in 1994. Since 1999, however, the emphasis has been upon sustainable growth, and at the beginning of the 21st century it has tended to vary at an annual rate of between 2 and 4 percent. Similarly, inflation has tended to vary within the Reserve Bank’s target of 0–3 percent but generally lies in the upper half of the band. Net debt 2000–2001 was 18.1 percent of GDP, having been reduced from a high level of 49 percent in 1992–1993. The various sectors contributing to the

72 •

EDGER, KATE MILLIGAN (1857–1935)

overall GDP in 2001 were agriculture, 8 percent; industry, 23 percent; and services, 69 percent. See also BANKING; COOPERATIVES; EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT; ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES; FISHING; FORESTRY; GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT); IMPORT LICENSING; INDICATIVE PLANNING; INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT; NEW ZEALAND STOCK EXCHANGE; THINK BIG; WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION. EDGER, KATE MILLIGAN (1857–1935). Educationist. Born in England, Kate Edger arrived in New Zealand with her family in 1862. She received her early education from her father, but since there was no secondary teaching schools for girls in Auckland at this time, she gained permission to study with the top class of boys at Auckland College and Grammar School. In 1877, she graduated with a bachelor of arts degree, the first woman in the British Empire to earn this degree. Five years later Edger was appointed the first principal of Nelson College for Girls, a position she held until shortly after her marriage in 1890. A leading pioneer in the development of education for women in New Zealand, she continued to play an active role in education throughout her life. EDUCATION. In pre-European times, education of the younger members of Maori society was shared by the community as a whole under the guidance of tohunga. The first European-style school was established at the Bay of Islands by Thomas Kendall, a member of the Church Missionary Society, in 1816. During the next 30 years, missionaries established many schools as a means of spreading the gospel and European values. The state became involved in education in 1847 when it passed an ordinance requiring 5 percent of the colony’s revenue to be used for educational purposes. These revenues were used to assist the mission schools, and by the early 1870s the beginnings of a public school education system were apparent. Shortly after the provinces were abolished, Parliament passed the Education Act of 1877. This Act established a centralized system and decreed that education was to be “free, secular and compulsory” for all children between the ages of 7 and 13 years. A three-tier administrative structure was established: a Department of Education (re-

EDUCATION

• 73

sponsible for distributing grants and regulating educational standards), education boards (responsible for establishing and maintaining public schools within their districts), and school committees (which were to be responsible for managing education within their own school districts). Although the objective was to empower local school committees, in practice the education boards became the dominant authority. Despite several attempts at reform, this administrative structure remained substantially unchanged until 1989. The Native Schools Act of 1867 provided for the establishment of Maori village schools directly administered by the central government. This arrangement lasted until the late 1950s when it was decided to move gradually towards integrating the separate Maori schools into the state system. This was completed by 1969. Secondary education (which, throughout the 19th century, had been the preserve of fee-paying students) was effectively opened to all in 1903 when the government provided funding for “free places” equal to one-fifth of the schools’ endowment income. About the same time, a more liberal curriculum, including manual and technicraft skills, was introduced. The educational curriculum was further liberalized and modernized in the mid-1940s following the Thomas Report. At the same time, the government raised the school-leaving age to 15 years, thus ushering in universal secondary education. This, and the “baby boom” following World War II, resulted in a rapid growth in the number of secondary schools, most of them coeducational, and an equivalent expansion of teacher education programs. In the 1950s, teacher training for secondary teachers was introduced, and in the late 1960s, training programs for students seeking to become primary school teachers were expanded from two to three years. New Zealand’s first university was founded in Dunedin by the Otago Provincial Council in 1869. The following year the University of New Zealand was established. By the turn of the century, university colleges were well established in the four main centers, and an agricultural college (the first in the Southern Hemisphere) had been established at Lincoln, outside Christchurch. At the beginning of 1962, the University of New Zealand was disestablished and each of the constituent colleges (Auckland, Victoria, Canterbury, and Otago) became an autonomous university in its own right. They were joined

74 •

EDUCATION

by Massey (formerly Massey Agricultural College, affiliated to Victoria University of Wellington) in 1963, Waikato in 1964, Lincoln (previously a constituent college of Canterbury) in 1990, and the Auckland University of Technology (formerly the Auckland Institute of Technology) in 1996. Technical education also expanded rapidly during the 1960s and 1970s with the development of polytechnics. Many were separated from technical high schools which had been founded in the early years of the 20th century. Today, polytechnics offer a wide range of high-level diploma and, in some instances, degree courses. Organized preschool education commenced with the establishment of the Dunedin Free Kindergarten Movement in 1889. It became a national organization in 1912. The Play Centre Movement, which also provides programs of play for preschool-age children, was founded in 1941. Both movements are voluntary organizations although the state pays the salaries of the teachers. The first child crèche was established in Christchurch in 1903. An important development occurred in 1985 when responsibility for child care was transferred from the Department of Social Welfare to the Department of Education (now Ministry of Education). New strategies for educating Maori were initiated by Maori in the early 1980s when kohanga reo preschool centers and, later, kura kaupapa Maori schools were established as a means of preserving the Maori language through total immersion teaching. This has led quite logically to the more recent development of Wananga (Maori tertiary institutions) where education and training take place within a context of Maori tradition and custom. Since 1988 the structure and administration of education has undergone a major overhaul. No part of the system has escaped change. The Department of Education has been restructured as a policymaking Ministry of Education, education boards have been abolished, and the administration of schools has been vested in the community through the establishment of boards of trustees, comprising representatives of parents, staff, and, in the case of secondary schools, pupils, for each school. The main goal of these reforms was to encourage greater community involvement. Another notable reform has been the establishment of the New Zealand Qualifications Authority, which has been charged with developing a “seamless” qualifications structure—the

ELECTIONS

• 75

National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA)—designed to allow students to achieve diplomas and degrees through a system of flexible cross-crediting between institutions. The Qualifications Authority is also charged with accrediting approximately 800 private training establishments which cater for those foreign students not in the state system. There is now a greater focus on educational outcomes at each level. Early childhood education focuses on improving quality and increasing participation in the sector; primary and secondary schools are placing greater emphasis on raising the levels of knowledge and skills, particularly in the areas of literacy, numeracy, critical thinking, and communication and information skills; and a new strategic direction for tertiary education aims at the more effective linking of learning and research with New Zealand’s economic and social goals and priorities. There is also a move away from the competitive model introduced in the late 1980s to a more collaborative model designed to make better use of the nation’s scarce resources. EIGHT-HOUR DAY. Promoted by Samuel Duncan Parnell as early as 1840, New Zealand is reputed to be the first country in the world to have adopted the eight-hour working day. In many cases the principle was agreed upon by many of the original immigrants even prior to arrival in New Zealand and was adopted by the building trades as early as 1857. Labour Day, which commemorates the introduction of the eight-hour working day, became a public holiday in 1899. It is celebrated each year on the fourth Monday in October. ELECTIONS. Between 1853 and 2005 there were 48 general elections. Until 1879, the maximum life of a Parliament was five years; since then it has been three years, although this was extended during the two world wars and the Great Depression. On four occasions (1881, 1951, 1984, and 2002) Parliament has been dissolved significantly earlier than its scheduled expiry date. With the adoption of the Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system in 1996, Parliaments which are dissolved considerably earlier than the permitted maximum of “three years . . . and no longer” are likely to become more frequent. Although, in the earliest years, loose political groupings existed from time to time, organized political parties did not contest elections

76 •

ELECTORAL COMMISSION

before 1890. Between 1890 and 1935 elections were contested by political parties that were essentially parliamentary groupings, but after that, two mass-based parties, Labour and National, were the dominant players. The introduction of MMP in 1996 has led to a reduction of this two-party dominance with the regular presence in Parliament of minor parties in sufficient strength to ensure coalition, and frequently minority, governments. By-elections are held whenever an electorate seat falls vacant, despite the fact that this could lead to upsetting the proportionality of the House of Representatives. Party list vacancies, however, do not create by-elections; any list MPs who leave Parliament are replaced by the next available person from that party’s list for the previous election. See also ELECTORAL REFORM; ELECTORAL SYSTEM; ELECTORS, REGISTRATION OF; VOTING. ELECTORAL COMMISSION. A four-person Electoral Commission was established under the Electoral Act of 1993 to register the political parties wishing to contest party list seats under the Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system. The commission has responsibility for promoting public awareness about the electoral system through education and information programs, and considering and reporting on electoral matters referred to it by the minister of justice or Parliament. The commission is statutorily independent of the government, but the extent to which it is able to educate the public on electoral matters depends, ultimately, on the financial resources that governments are prepared to allocate to its work. ELECTORAL DISTRICT. See ELECTORATE. ELECTORAL (INTEGRITY) AMENDMENT ACT (2001). This amendment to the Electoral Act of 1993 was introduced in order to address instances of “party hopping” where a member of Parliament leaves the party that he or she was elected to represent and, by so doing, distorts the party proportionality as determined by electors at the previous general election. It was proposed, in the first instance, by the New Zealand Labour Party’s deputy leader, Michael Cullen, after Alliance party list MP, Manu Alamein Kopu, left its caucus within months of the 1996 general election. During the 1999 election campaign, the Labour Party promised that its first piece of legislation on

ELECTORAL REDISTRIBUTION (REDISTRICTING)

• 77

becoming the government would be to pass an act to prevent a recurrence, and the bill was duly introduced in December 1999. A divided parliamentary select committee, however, resulted in a lengthy delay until December 2001 when, finally, it was passed by Parliament. The Act provides that where an MP who is a member of a political party leaves that party—and, by so doing, distorts and, in the opinion of the party leader, “is likely to continue to distort, the proportionality of political party representation in Parliament as determined at the last general election”—he or she can be formally expelled from the party and, if the case is proved, from Parliament provided two-thirds of the party’s caucus agrees. The first test of this legislation came when the Alliance leader, Jim Anderton (an electorate MP), walked away from his party in May 2002. Because the new Alliance leader, Laila Harré, knew that any move to formally expel him from the Alliance caucus would precipitate a general election at a time when the Alliance needed as much leeway as possible to reorganize before having to fight the next election, no attempt was made to invoke the provisions of the Act. In February 2003, ACT list MP Donna Awatere-Huata was suspended from her party after she became the subject of an auditorgeneral’s investigation into the possible use of public funds for private benefit. Six months later, with the audit office investigation still incomplete, the party extended the suspension for a further six months. Although Awatere-Huata remained an MP, she was prevented from using the services available to the ACT Party, and she was required to cast her own vote in any parliamentary division. In November 2003, following the release of the auditor-general’s report, AwatereHuata was formally expelled from the ACT caucus and the Speaker of the House of Representatives declared that, henceforth, she would be regarded as an independent MP. Twelve months later ACT was successful in persuading the country’s new Supreme Court that party proportionality had indeed been disturbed, and the Speaker had no option but to declare Awatere-Huata’s parliamentary seat vacant. Unusually, this Act incorporates a “sunset” clause whereby it expires on the night of the second general election following the date it was signed into law—in the second-half of 2005 at the latest. ELECTORAL REDISTRIBUTION (REDISTRICTING). See REPRESENTATION COMMISSION.

78 •

ELECTORAL REFORM

ELECTORAL REFORM. Although New Zealand used the first-pastthe-post electoral system for 140 years, there were periods when alternative electoral systems were proposed for national elections. The 1908 and 1911 elections, for example, used the second-ballot electoral system. Following that, in the early 1920s New Zealand Labour Party MP James McCombs repeatedly sought to persuade Parliament to adopt the Hare-Clark single transferable vote (STV) system used for elections in the Australian state of Tasmania. When Labour displaced the Liberal Party as the second party, however, the debate on electoral reform died away. It emerged again during the 1970s after a minor party, Social Credit, won a significant share of the votes cast in successive elections but gained only a small proportion of the parliamentary seats. Public unease at the apparent lack of fairness in the electoral system led Geoffrey Winston Russell Palmer, minister of justice in the Fourth Labour Government, to establish a Royal Commission to examine the electoral system used at that time. The key recommendation in the commission’s report, presented at the end of 1986, was that New Zealand should adopt the German-style Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system. Seven years and two national referendums on the subject later, New Zealand electors endorsed the adoption of the type of system proposed by the Royal Commission. The first election under the new system was held in 1996. In 2001 the Fifth Labour Government decreed that district health boards must be elected using STV from 2004. It also provided individual territorial local authorities with the option of adopting the STV voting system, subject to their decision being open to appeal through a binding local referendum. Ten of the 74 district councils chose to do so. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT. ELECTORAL SYSTEM. The electoral system originally established in New Zealand was modeled closely on the British electoral system. It was designed to elect individuals to represent communities in Parliament by a simple plurality system described as first-past-the-post. In the earliest years considerable variations existed in the number of constituents each member of Parliament represented. This resulted in frequent and often acrimonious debates in Parliament as to who or what was being represented—people, or acres and sheep. In 1881,

ELECTORATES

• 79

Parliament accepted that each MP should represent approximately the same number of people. By so doing it officially acknowledged that the representation of individuals was more important than the representation of communities, although this was tempered by the application of a country quota, which existed until 1945. Between 1853 and 1881, and again between 1890 and 1905, MPs were elected to represent either single-member or multimember electorates. Outside these two periods, until 1996, MPs were always elected to represent single-member electorates. A variant of firstpast-the-post, the second ballot, was used for the 1908 and 1911 elections but, with the accession of the Reform Party to government in 1912, first-past-the-post was again adopted as the country’s electoral system and was used until 1993. Recurrent interparty conflict between 1945 and 1956 eventually forced the Labour and National parties (the only two political parties represented in Parliament throughout this period) to reach agreement over crucial aspects of the electoral system. The Electoral Act of 1956 included an entrenching provision, a constitutional device new to New Zealand, whereby the issues that had been the subject of dispute were protected from amendment by a single party. Henceforth, the length of the parliamentary term, the voting age, the method of voting, and the composition and terms of reference of the Representation Commission could be amended only with the support of 75 percent of all MPs or by a majority of electors voting in a referendum. The Electoral Act of 1956 remained New Zealand’s basic electoral law until it was superseded by the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system set out in the Electoral Act of 1993. Both the entrenching section and the entrenched provisions remained intact despite the provision relating to the maximum length of a parliamentary term (three years) having been transferred to the Constitution Act in 1986. See also PARLIAMENT, TERM OF. ELECTORATES. An electorate, or electoral district, is a precisely defined geographic unit that elects one member of Parliament (MP) to represent it in Parliament. The 2002 electoral redistribution set the population quota at approximately 54,300 for general electorates and 53,100 for Maori electorates (both subject to a variation of ⫾5 percent). The electorate boundaries are adjusted after each five-yearly

80 •

ELECTORS, REGISTRATION OF

census. The equivalent term for “electorate” in the United States is “district”; in Great Britain, it is “constituency,”; in Canada, “riding”; and in Australia, “electoral division.” See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT; REPRESENTATION COMMISSION. ELECTORS, REGISTRATION OF. Registration as an elector has been compulsory since 1924 for general electorates and 1956 for Maori electorates. Prior to 1969 the qualifications required for registration as an elector were being 21 years of age, a British subject, and ordinarily a resident in New Zealand who had resided in the country at some stage continuously for at least one year and least three months in the electoral district. In 1969, the age qualification was reduced to 20 years, and in 1974 it was further reduced to 18 years. In 1975, the three-month residential requirement for registration as an elector in a specific electorate was reduced to one month. In 1977, this was changed back to three months only to revert back to a one-month qualifying period in 1985 but with the added provision that any person living in an electorate on the Monday immediately prior to election day was deemed to have met this requirement. In 1980, the qualification for registration was amended to require a person to be either a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. See also VOTING. ELLIS, ELLEN ELIZABETH (1829–1895). Feminist. Born in England, Ellen Ellis arrived in New Zealand in 1859 with her husband and family. The feminist tradition is deeply embedded in New Zealand Pakeha history. Her views, as represented in a novel Everything Is Possible to Will, which was published in London in 1882, favored control of the sale of alcohol, good education, legal freedom for women, birth control through abstinence, and women’s emancipation. Ellis also opposed the use of force to settle disputes, pleading for women to “band together to insist there shall be no more war.” She also argued that New Zealand governments had failed to understand Maori culture. EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT. Throughout New Zealand’s history, when returns for primary produce have been buoyant, most New Zealanders have enjoyed considerable prosperity. Conversely, there is a clear link between peaks in unemployment and falling overseas prices for farm products.

EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT

• 81

The first unemployment peak occurred in 1868 towards the end of the North Island’s Land Wars and the South Island’s gold rushes. For much of the 1870s Julius Vogel’s public works program provided plenty of work but, following the collapse of the boom in 1878, significant permanent unemployment appeared and remained an important feature of the economy until the government introduced subsidized work in the late 1890s. Major fluctuations in returns for primary produce during the 1920s resulted, once again, in rising unemployment. With the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, unemployment became a major problem: at its peak in 1933 over 70,000 men (approximately 12 percent of the workforce) were registered as unemployed, with thousands of others ineligible to register. The Unemployment Act of 1930 imposed an unemployment tax on all those with jobs. The revenue raised was used to provide relief work for registered unemployed. In 1936, the First Labour Government replaced this Act with the Employment Promotion Act, which had as its principle objective the promotion and maintenance of full employment. This goal became the central plank of government economic policy for more than three decades. From 1940 until c.1975, when the unemployment rate averaged 1.3 percent of the workforce, New Zealand enjoyed full (or even “overfull”) employment. After 1975 the prices received for export produce, coupled with the prices paid for imported goods, resulted in persistent adverse terms of trade. New Zealand was living beyond its means and unemployment levels rose to heights not experienced during the previous 40 years. In the year ended December 2001, unemployment, as measured by the Household Labour Force Survey (undertaken by Statistics New Zealand, a government department), was 102,300, or 5.3 percent of the total labor force (down from 168,400, or 10.2 percent, seven years earlier). By December 2004 it had declined further to 76,000 or 3.6 percent of the total labor force of 2.1 million. Nevertheless, while the goal of full employment is still espoused by some politicians, a realistic assessment is that the full employment experienced between the 1940s and 1970s is unlikely to be achieved again in the foreseeable future. By international standards New Zealand’s unemployment generally has been low. Unemployment is higher among males than females,

82 •

EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS LEGISLATION

highest among those with no formal education qualifications, concentrated in the younger-age cohorts, and much greater among Maori and Pacific Islanders than among people of other ethnic groups. In 2003, the European rate of 3.5 percent contrasted with a Maori rate of 10.6 percent and 7.6 percent for Pacific peoples. See also ECONOMY; SOCIAL WELFARE. EMPLOYMENT CONTRACTS LEGISLATION. Between 1936 and 1991 New Zealand labor relations were based upon principles of centralized collective bargaining between unions and employers and, for most of this period, workers were required to join unions. The Employment Contracts Act of 1991, which replaced the Labour Relations Act of 1987, removed the previous monopoly trade unions had over union coverage and bargaining for wages and conditions by providing for freedom of association and voluntary trade union membership, and it completely decentralized wage fixing. Employers and employees, or their agents, could negotiate about any matter they wished, including individual employment contracts. Collective employment contracts were still possible but only where employers and employees agreed, and these contracts were only binding on those who agreed to be included. The Minimum Wage Act of 1983, however, continued to ensure that there was a basic level below which wages were not allowed to fall. Unions were still free to play a full role as employees’ organizations but they no longer had automatic and exclusive rights to cover workplaces or compulsory membership. The Act required all employment contracts to include procedures for the settlement of disputes, and they also had to include an effective procedure for settling personal grievances. As a general rule strikes and lockouts were unlawful during the currency of a contract unless justified on grounds of safety or health. Strikes and lockouts in industries designated as “essential” (e.g., fire service, hospitals, and essential transport services) required at least 14 days’ notice. With the election of the Fifth Labour Government in 1999, the Employment Contracts Act of 1991, which was an anathema to its union supporters, was replaced by the Employment Relations Act of 2000. The new Act shifted the emphasis to collective good faith bargaining based upon the promotion of collaboration, mutual trust, and

ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES

• 83

confidence rather than the individual contracts, which had been a feature of the previous Act. See also COUNCIL OF TRADE UNIONS. ENDANGERED SPECIES. Because New Zealand became separated from Gondwanaland some 60–80 million years ago, many of its plants and animals are unique. Apart from the short-tailed bat and seals, there are no mammals, but there are a great many endemic fish, insects, plants, birds, lizards, and frogs, relics that have survived from ancient times. Since the arrival of human beings, however, the habitat of the endemic species has been greatly transformed through fire, the clearance of the land for farming, and the introduction of exotic animals and plants that have had a detrimental effect on native species. Today, many of these—most notably the iconic kiwi, kakapo, kokako (blue wattle crow), takahe, tuatara, Chatham Islands black robin, and native frog—are classified as endangered. In recent years the area of the conservation estate has been greatly enlarged, and the Department of Conservation now administers around 30 percent of New Zealand’s land area as national parks, protected areas, or reserves. Conservation management includes habitat protection, including the restoration of native habitats in association with local councils and private landowners; predator control programs; and relocating endangered species to predator-free areas, many of them on offshore islands. See also ENVIRONMENT; FLORA AND FAUNA; KAURI. ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES. New Zealand has abundant sources of energy based on hydroelectricity and coal. It also discovered and developed a number of locally significant natural gas and oil fields over the last 35 years of the 20th century. The first public electricity supply was turned on in 1888. In 1903, the central government reserved for itself all rights to generate hydroelectricity and, in 1917, it extended state control to all forms of generation. The 1920s and the period from the end of World War II until the late 1980s were both periods of major state-directed hydroelectricity development. In 1958, the first government-built thermal and geothermal stations were commissioned. Today, hydroelectricity provides approximately 64 percent of New Zealand’s energy needs.

84 •

ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES

Thermal production accounts for an estimated 29 percent; geothermal production, approximately 7 percent; and the utilization of wind energy, 0.4 percent. With a potential recoverable quantity of 8.6 billion tons, coal is the country’s largest energy resource. Although lignite coal accounts for over 80 percent of total reserves, bituminous and sub-bituminous coals account for over 90 percent of current production (approximately 2.5 million tons annually). New Zealand’s coking coals are noted for their low ash content and are, therefore, attractive to world markets. In 1998, one-third of the country’s coal production was exported, mainly to Japan. Throughout much of the 20th century most coal production came from state coal mines. Oil was first discovered in 1866, not long after the world’s first oil well had been sunk in the United States, but apart from one small production field, oil exploration did not commence until the 1950s. The first commercial gas-condensate field (at Kapuni in Taranaki) was discovered in 1959, and 10 years later the large Maui gas and condensate field was discovered under the Tasman Sea off the Taranaki coast. Since then a number of onshore commercial gas and oil fields have been discovered and developed, all of them in the Taranaki region. Natural gas is reticulated throughout areas of the North Island and is also distributed as compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and methanol. Prior to 1976 all of New Zealand’s liquid fuel requirements were imported and, since 1964, processed at the Marsden Point oil refinery near Whangarei. Between 1985 and 1997, about onethird of the country’s net petrol (gasoline) needs were supplied from the Motunui synthetic gas-to-gasoline plant (owned 75 percent by the New Zealand government and 25 percent by the Mobil Corporation), which used feedstock from the Maui and Kapuni gas fields, but this plant, the first commercial plant in the world to convert methanol into gasoline, is now decommissioned. Long-term self-sufficiency in hydrocarbons began to decline in 2003 after the longevity of the Maui field proved likely to decline more rapidly than predicted and is now likely to run out by 2007, although recent reevaluations of the Maui field have identified residual pockets that may be able to be tapped and thus extend the field’s useful life through to 2009. New Zealand is recognized as one of the world’s windier countries. Situated at near right angles to prevailing northwesterly winds

ENVIRONMENT

• 85

that are consistent and relatively strong throughout the year, the potential is present to produce 25 percent of the country’s electricity needs. The utilization of wind energy as a source of electricity is, however, relatively recent: a 1987 report prepared for the New Zealand Energy and Research Committee concluded that the country is one of the most favorable parts of the world for the exploitation of wind energy, which is both sustainable and environmentally acceptable to many. Lying in the path of the “roaring forties,” the country has many ideal sites for wind-power generation. Nevertheless, it was not until 1993 that the first wind-power turbine was installed on a trial basis. A 31.7-megawatt wind farm—the largest in the Southern Hemisphere—situated on the Tararua Ranges near Palmerston North was commissioned in 1999, and plans are currently afoot to significantly expand wind-power production at this site. In 2003, the government gave a further boost to such projects when it proposed to allocate carbon credits to two proposed large wind-farm projects under the terms of the Kyoto Protocol. Until the early 1980s, there was a strong focus on direct government involvement in the energy sector. The Crown began withdrawing from direct involvement in the energy sector in 1987 when it sold its interest in the production and reticulation of natural gas to private interests. The next year direct control and management of the state’s electricity and coal interests were passed to two new state-owned enterprises, Electricorp and Coalcorp (now Solid Energy New Zealand), both of which had commercial objectives. This step was the forerunner of extensive moves to privatize the electricity industry in order to promote competition. The key objective of current government policy is recognition that there must be a sustained supply of energy to ensure the maintenance of industrial and commercial activity and thus the continued strength of the economy. See also THINK BIG. ENVIRONMENT. New Zealand’s environment, for long undisturbed by man, contains many unique examples of prehistoric plant and animal life and is extremely fragile. Recognition of this, in the 20th century in particular, has led to protective measures for 8 million hectares (20 million acres) of land. There are 14 national parks covering more than 3 million hectares (7.5 million acres), nearly 170 conservation and

86 •

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (ERMA)

forest parks covering 1.3 million hectares (3.2 million acres), and approximately 3,500 reserves on land, together with two marine parks and 16 marine reserves. Nearly 30 percent of the nation’s total land and ocean area is under some form of protection. The wide-ranging Resource Management Act of 1991, designed to promote the sustainable management of natural and physical resources, is backed by the Ministry of the Environment as well as the Department of Conservation. There are also several influential pressure groups, such as the Royal Forest and Bird Society, the Environmental and Conservation Organization (ECO), Greenpeace New Zealand, and the Maruia Society, all of which play an active role in environmental matters. All have extensive memberships. See also ENDANGERED SPECIES; ENVIRONMENTAL RISK MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY; FLORA AND FAUNA; KYOTO PROTOCOL. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (ERMA). Set up under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act of 1996, the authority is responsible for managing risks associated with new organisms and hazardous substances, which were previously handled by a multiplicity of agencies and acts of Parliament. The Act focuses on managing risks to the environment and public health. ERMA is required to approve all applications before any new substance or organism can be introduced into New Zealand. The authority has a scientific and professional focus and encourages public involvement through consultation in all its work. In 2002, and again in 2003, it came under public criticism when maize (corn) crops were discovered to contain minute quantities of genetically modified seed that had not been approved for planting. EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH. Europe, and particularly the United Kingdom, has traditionally been the focus of New Zealand’s interests. The European Union (EU) as a group remains as New Zealand’s second-largest market. Close links continue to be maintained with Britain through the monarchy, the parliamentary system, business, investment, and ties of kith and kin as well as trade but the individual countries of Europe have also assumed a much greater importance in a variety of fields. Traditionally New Zealand was a British settlement colony that retained close ties with the “mother country” until

EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH

• 87

Britain joined the then European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973. The overwhelming trade concentration upon Britain has long since gone, and although retaining close links with Britain, New Zealand has become increasingly interested in Western Europe as a whole. Strong cultural and familial ties make Europe a natural focus for New Zealanders. An illustration of this is New Zealand’s adoption of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system initially recommended by the Royal Commission on the Electoral System after a visit to Germany. It is also testified to by the fact that New Zealand maintains a network of 11 embassies and consulates in Western Europe (as of 2004), many of them cross-accredited to other states in Europe. The main problem is one of trade access for agricultural products. This is particularly important, not only because the EU as a trading bloc is New Zealand’s second-largest export market but also because European subsidized exports compete with unsubsidized New Zealand products in other overseas markets. Despite this, however, relations with individual European governments are generally harmonious, particularly, in the case of France, since the ending of French nuclear bomb testing in the South Pacific. Nevertheless, French self-interest and intransigence play an important role in limiting New Zealand agricultural exports to Europe and promoting the sale of subsidized European product in competition with New Zealand goods elsewhere. See also FOREIGN AFFAIRS; INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH. EUROPEAN IMPACT ON MAORI SOCIETY. See MAORI SOCIETY, EARLY EUROPEAN IMPACT ON. EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH. New Zealand’s relations with the European Union have necessarily tended to center about trade. New Zealand had long established favorable trade relations with the United Kingdom when that country sought to join the original European Economic Community (EEC), and it became necessary to adopt a defensive position, with Britain arguing on New Zealand’s behalf. The main difficulties surrounded agricultural products, particularly dairy products and sheep meat. Transition arrangements

88 •

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ)

were reached and today the EU as an entity is New Zealand’s second-largest trading partner, with New Zealand continuing to export a variety of agricultural products, fruits, and wine; and importing from the EU manufactured goods such as cars, aircraft, textiles, and clothing. Tourism (in both directions) also plays an important role. See also EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH; FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; GERMANY, RELATIONS WITH; INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH. EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ). Along with Britain and many other states, New Zealand claimed a three-mile (one marine league) limit around its coasts under the Fisheries Act of 1908. A 12mile exclusive fishing zone was established in 1965, and the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act of 1977 extended the claim to New Zealand territorial waters to 12 nautical miles, with a claim to sole fishing rights extending to 200 miles from shore. As a consequence of its maritime location and extensive coastline, New Zealand has one of the largest exclusive economic zones in the world, covering an area of approximately 1.3 million square nautical miles, 15 times New Zealand’s land mass. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL. The highest formal instrument of government, the executive council comprises the governor-general and the members of the Cabinet. It is constituted by letters patent, and its role is to tender formal advice to the governor-general in the form of recommendations to make orders-in-council. Its meetings are generally of short duration because the conventions surrounding responsible government require the governor-general to accept the advice of his or her ministers meeting as an executive council.

–F– FACTORY AND LABOUR CONDITIONS. The first major piece of labor legislation was the Employment of Females Act of 1873, which limited the hours of work, provided holidays, and required factories

FAMILY ASSISTANCE

• 89

to be adequately ventilated. It applied only to women and girls. The Factories Act of 1891, which translated many of the Sweating Commission’s recommendations into law, was the first attempt at a comprehensive code governing factory employment. The Department of Labour was established in 1892 to administer the labor laws, assist people to find work, improve relations between employers and employees, and collect and publish labor and industry statistics. Since then, legislation relating to factory and employment conditions has been regularly reviewed and updated. Under the Health and Safety in Employment Act of 1992, employers are responsible for ensuring the health and safety of their workers, while employees have a responsibility to avoid endangering their own and others’ health and safety. Supervision and enforcement of health and safety issues is provided by the Occupational Safety and Health Service of the Department of Labour. See also EIGHT-HOUR DAY. FAIRBURN, ARTHUR REX DUGARD (1904–1957). Poet, journalist, polemicist, scriptwriter. Fairburn was born in New Zealand but published his first book of poetry, He Shall Not Rise, in England in 1930. On return to New Zealand in 1932 he had to take relief work on the roads during the Great Depression for two years before becoming assistant secretary of the Auckland Farmers’ Union. Thereafter he was a writer in various forms—journalist, polemicist, and scriptwriter, as well as practicing his craft of poetry. For the last 10 years of his life, he hand-blocked fabric designs based on Maori cave drawings and taught at Auckland University College. A number of books of selections of his prose and poetry have been published since his death. See also LITERATURE. FAMILY ASSISTANCE. The first state support for families was introduced in 1926 when a means-tested family allowance was paid to fathers in respect of the third and any subsequent children under the age of 15 years. From 1936, either parent was allowed to apply for the allowance. The Social Security Act of 1938 replaced this allowance with a Family Benefit. Initially, eligibility was the same as for the family allowance, but by 1941 it had been expanded to include all children under age 16. In 1946, the means-test provision was dropped, and payment was made in respect of all children who qualified by

90 •

FARMERS’ UNION

age. Between 1958 and 1986, parents could capitalize the family benefit to assist them in purchasing their first home. In 1984, an additional means-tested Family Care program was introduced, but this was replaced in 1986 by a Family Support scheme and also a Guaranteed Minimum Family Income, both of which were subject to means testing. The Family Benefit was abolished in 1991. In the Fifth Labour Government’s 2004 budget, a new and enhanced family support program, “Working for Families,” was introduced to encourage families with dependent children to have sufficient income to remain in or become part of the workforce and to ensure that there is sufficient family income to give children a good start to life. Implementation commenced in October 2004, and by April 2007, it is expected that approximately 61 percent of all families with dependent children, whose income lies between $25,000 and $45,000 will receive income assistance of up to $100 per week. See also SOCIAL WELFARE. FARMERS’ UNION. See FEDERATED FARMERS. FARMING. See AGRICULTURE. FEATHERSTONE, ISAAC EARL (1813–1876). Politician. Born in England, Featherstone qualified as a doctor before arriving in New Zealand in 1841, where he became one of the leaders of the Wellington Settlers Constitutional Association. An ultraprovincialist, he was elected as the province’s first superintendent, a position he held until 1870. Featherstone was also a member of the House of Representatives from 1853 until 1870 but held executive office for only a little over a year. FEDERATED FARMERS. In 1899, a group of more prosperous Northland farmers formed themselves into a union with the aim of influencing MPs to support measures promoting farmers’ welfare. The New Zealand Farmers’ Union was formed three years later. Its primary objectives were to secure the elimination of the existing tariff protection and the right to freehold property leased from the state. The possibility of forming a separate Farmers’ Party was discussed but, by 1911, the Reform Party had adopted freehold tenure as its

FEMALE SUFFRAGE

• 91

policy so the need for a separate party died away. In 1946, the Farmers’ Union changed its name to New Zealand Federated Farmers and established agriculture, dairy, meat, and wool sections to address particular interests and concerns. The official voice of this important pressure group is the National Council, whose headquarters is in Wellington. A Women’s Division, whose objectives are to improve conditions for women and children living in rural areas, dates from 1925. FEDERATION OF LABOUR (FOL). The Federation of Labour coordinated the activities of trade unions from 1937 until 1987. Its original objects were to promote the interests of workers by securing full value for their labor and to pursue the Marxist aims of the socialization of the means of production, distribution, and exchange. After divisions within the trade union movement following the Waterfront Dispute in 1951, the federation adopted the aim of working “for a more equitable share of the national income and ultimately production for social use and not private profit.” In 1987, the federation was replaced by the Council of Trade Unions (CTU), which included a greater range of white-collar unions. FEMALE SUFFRAGE. By the late 19th century, women were able to study for degrees at university and engage in public employment, including entry to the professions. They had also seen many legal injustices to their sex removed. In 1885, the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was established, and it quickly became a spearhead of the women’s suffrage movement under its national franchise superintendent Kate Sheppard. Over the next few years both the WCTU and Women’s Franchise Leagues actively campaigned to have the franchise extended to women. Letters, deputations to politicians, and annual petitions culminated in 1893 when a petition signed by over 30,000 adult women (nearly 30 percent of the total number of women who registered as electors before the 1893 general election) was presented to Parliament. Despite covert opposition from the ministry, a bill giving votes to women passed into law in time for women to exercise their vote in the 1893 general election—New Zealand was the first nation-state to do so. Another 26 years were to pass, however, before women were permitted to stand for election to

92 •

FENTON, FRANCIS DART (1821–1898)

Parliament, and a further 14 years went by before the first female MP, Elizabeth McCombs, was elected. FENTON, FRANCIS DART (1821–1898). Administrator. Born in England, Fenton arrived in New Zealand in 1850 and played an important role in Pakeha-Maori relations. He believed that the government should take over leadership of Maori efforts at self-government in the 1860s on the basis of clear principles. These views led to conflict with a senior official of the Native Affairs Department, Donald McLean. In 1865 Fenton became the chief judge of the Native Land Court. His overall role in native affairs was important but controversial. FIFTH LABOUR GOVERNMENT (1999– ). Elected to office under leader Helen Clark, this was the first New Zealand Labour Party government to be elected under the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system. It consisted of a minority coalition between a major party (Labour) and a third party (Alliance). Avowedly a center-left government, its policies included replacing the Employment Contracts Act with an Employment Relations Act, restoring the monopoly rights of the Accident Compensation Corporation, restoring income-related rather than market rents for state housing, and modifying the previous government’s “hands-off” policies for business. The government also discontinued the use of honors titles and abolished appeals to the Privy Council in London by substituting a New Zealand Supreme Court after 1 July 2004. The Alliance component managed to achieve the establishment of a New Zealand–owned bank, the Kiwibank. In 2002, the Helen Clark–led Labour government was returned to office and formed a new minority coalition government, this time with Jim Anderton’s Progressive Coalition Party and with the support of the United Future New Zealand Party on confidence and supply matters. FILM INDUSTRY. The New Zealand film industry has a long history. The first public commercial film screening took place in 1896, less than a year after the first film show in the world given by the Lumière brothers in Paris. Filmmaking started in 1898, pioneered by A. H. Whitehouse, an Auckland showman. Although a number of feature

FIRST LABOUR GOVERNMENT (1935–1949)

• 93

films were made during the 1920s and the New Zealand National Film Unit developed a high reputation for its documentary films, it was not until the 1970s that New Zealand’s motion picture industry came of age. The establishment of the New Zealand Film Commission in 1978 resulted in the production of a number of films reflecting the country’s cultural characteristics. Best known among contemporary New Zealand–produced films are Roger Donaldson’s Sleeping Dogs (1977, based on Christian Karlson Stead’s novel Smith’s Dream) and Smash Palace (1981); Geoff Murphy’s Goodbye Pork Pie (1980) and The Quiet Earth (1986); Murray Ball’s Footrot Flats (1986); Vincent Ward’s The Navigator (1989); Jane Campion’s An Angel at My Table (1990, based on Janet Frame’s threevolume autobiography) and The Piano (1993); Lee Tamahori’s Once Were Warriors (1994, based on Alan Duff’s book of the same name); Peter Jackson’s Heavenly Creatures (1994) and the three-part Lord of the Rings (2001–2003, based on J. R. R. Tolkien’s trilogy); and Niki Caro’s Whale Rider (2002, based on Witi Ihimaera’s novel The Whale Rider). FIRST LABOUR GOVERNMENT (1935–1949). The New Zealand Labour Party’s 1935 election policy included four main goals: insulating the economy from overseas price fluctuations; stabilizing the nation’s income through the state control of credit and its use; eliminating unemployment; and protecting members of society in adverse circumstances from poverty. During its first three years in office, the government passed a number of legislative and other measures to achieve these goals. The Primary Products Marketing Act of 1936 permitted the introduction of a guaranteed price scheme which acted as an insulator between the New Zealand dairy farmer and the London market. Import licensing was imposed with the objective of ensuring that the best use was made of the country’s limited foreign exchange holdings. The Reserve Bank was brought under direct government control. Compulsory arbitration was restored, and a 40hour week and a minimum wage were introduced. Through its housing program, the state became a major landlord as well as a major lender of money for mortgages. The pinnacle of the First Labour Government’s achievements was, however, the passage of the Social Security Act in 1938. By the time the Labour government was defeated

94 •

FIRST WORLD WAR

in 1949, the concept of the state managing the economy was broadly accepted by electors and the main policy thrust of the New Zealand National Party, which governed the country for 29 of the next 35 years, was to expand the provisions and improve the administration of the economic and social system it had inherited. FIRST WORLD WAR. See WORLD WAR I. FIRST-PAST-THE-POST (FPP). Apart from the second-ballot elections in 1908 and 1911, the first-past-the-post electoral system was used for all national elections between 1853 and 1993. Each elector had one vote and the candidate winning more votes than anyone else was declared elected. Because the composition of Parliament depended on the number of individual electorate contests won by each party, the party winning the election almost invariably won a much greater proportion of parliamentary seats than the overall level of its support throughout the country. Increasingly, FPP was regarded as an unfair electoral system and, in 1993, a majority of the electors who voted supported a proposal to change to a Mixed Member Proportional electoral system. See also ELECTORAL REFORM. FISCAL ENVELOPE. The term used to describe the Fourth National Government’s proposal to devote $1 billion over a 10-year period as a “full and final settlement” of Maori land claims in an effort to rectify past injustices under the Treaty of Waitangi. Announced in December 1994, the proposal explicitly acknowledged historical injustices and apologized for them on behalf of the Crown. Although the fiscal envelope represented the most ambitious attempt to resolve outstanding Maori grievances—and despite acceptance by the Tainui (Waikato) and Ngai Tahu (South Island) tribal confederations—the proposal met with considerable opposition. Some Pakeha argued that it was too generous, or even unnecessary, and disputed that the existing generation should bear responsibility for actions carried out over 100 years before. Many Maori, on the other hand, argued that $1 billion was inadequate compensation and were opposed to any “cap” being set on the amount offered; that the proposed “full and final settlement” ascribed a dollar value to land that was of cultural and historical as well as of economic importance to Maori; that it failed to

FISHING

• 95

take into account the prolonged alienation from a productive resource; that it was limited to rights being used in 1840; and that it would have the effect of pitting tribes against one another as they competed for a share of the available funds. During 1995, two hui convened by the paramount chief of the Ngati Tuwharetoa tribe, Hepi Te Heuheu—both of which were attended by over 1,000 people— totally rejected the “fiscal envelope” concept. During the past few years progress has been made towards the Waitangi Tribunal’s hearing of claims and the reaching of settlements between iwi and the Crown but the concept of a “cap” on the total amount of money available to settle legitimate grievances has been quietly shelved. See also BOLGER, JAMES BRENDAN; RICHARDSON, RUTH MARGARET. FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY ACT (1994). A world first, this “balancing the books” Act established a framework against which the fiscal policy of any particular government can be assessed. It requires a Budget Policy Statement to be tabled in March (prior to the formal budget presentation) and referred to a Select Committee of the House of Representatives to examine the budget’s parameters and the assumptions upon which it is based. Governments are required to live within “internationally accepted principles of good fiscal management” as set out in the Act. A government is permitted to depart from its self-selected goals, but the minister of finance is required to specify why and how the government will return to these principles and how long this is estimated to take. A post-budget follow-up reconciling the outcome with the announced fiscal strategy is also required. Legislation to integrate this Act into the Finance Act of 1989 was foreshadowed for the 2005 legislative program. See also RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND; RICHARDSON, RUTH MARGARET. FISHING. Seafood has traditionally been a most important part of Maori diet and Maori made extensive use of a variety of forms of marine life. Seafood (kaimoana) was the main source of animal protein, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Fish might be caught with seine nets made of flax, or with lines, while eels and lampreys were frequently caught with pots set in weirs. Early Europeans frequenting

96 •

FISHING

New Zealand waters also hunted marine life in the form of whales and seals. Others stocked the lakes and rivers with imported ova for sport fishing. The most famous and successful of the introduced species were brown and rainbow trout and quinnat salmon. The introduction of British and North American species proved so successful that in the late 1920s Zane Grey dubbed New Zealand the “Anglers’ Eldorado.” Surf casting is popular for such species as snapper, kahawai, marlin, and sharks, and New Zealand is also popular with big game fishers for marlin, swordfish, tuna, and sharks in the north of the country. From the 1960s onwards, with the abolition of restrictive licensing on commercial sea-fishing (which existed from 1945 until 1964), sea-fishing began to develop as an important export industry. A Fishing Industry Board was established in 1964 charged with the development of the industry. There are over 1,000 species of fish in New Zealand waters, about 100 of which are commercially significant. Since 1978, New Zealand has had control within a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone, which is extremely large but not particularly rich in nutrients. In 1977, because of problems of overfishing, the government took powers to control the sizes of fish caught and the techniques employed to catch fish within defined regions. Since 1986, it has had the power under a quota management system to declare, annually, the total allowable catch for all major fisheries. There are currently 44 fish species or species groups managed under the quota management system, the most significant of which are hoki, squid, jack mackerel, barracouta, and Foveaux Strait oysters. Nevertheless, seafood exports (fish, crustaceans, and mollusks) exceed $1.3 billion annually and in the June 2003 year represented 4.5 percent of New Zealand’s total merchandise exports. The most important species are hoki, orange roughy, and rock lobster. Aquaculture, or marine farming, has also developed, particularly for oysters, green-lipped mussels, and salmon. Under the Treaty of Waitangi, Maori had important claims to traditional fisheries, and the fact that these were ignored by subsequent governments was a long-standing source of grievance. Under the Fisheries Settlement Act of 1992, many of these claims have been recognized and substantially settled. New Zealand, by 2004, had transferred over 33 percent of its total commercial fishing industry to

FITZHERBERT, WILLIAM (1810–1891)

• 97

its indigenous people. It has also addressed claims to noncommercial fishing rights. FITZGERALD, JAMES EDWARD (1818–1896). Politician. FitzGerald was born in England and, as secretary of the Canterbury Association, helped plan a Church of England colony in New Zealand before arriving there in 1850. Elected first superintendent of Canterbury province, FitzGerald was also elected four times to the House of Representatives where he was a champion of equal civil and political rights for all New Zealanders (including Maori), race assimilation, and peace. He was opposed to land confiscation. Although serving briefly as minister of native affairs, his overall influence proved limited. FITZGERALD v. MULDOON. Under the first-past-the-post electoral system without a formal constitution, government powers in New Zealand were virtually unlimited provided that the requisite legislation was passed by a majority party vote in Parliament. In this case Prime Minister Robert Muldoon—immediately on assuming office in 1975—confirmed an election promise that a superannuation scheme introduced by the Third Labour Government (1972–1975) would be abolished and (foreshadowing legislation) that henceforth citizens no longer needed to pay their contributions, thus, in effect, changing the law before Parliament repealed the existing legislation. The matter was taken to court, where the chief justice held the action to be contrary to the Bill of Rights of 1688, an important English constitutional document still in force in New Zealand, but no penalty was imposed. FITZHERBERT, WILLIAM (1810–1891). Politician. Born in England, Fitzherbert qualified as a doctor before arriving in Wellington in 1841. He was elected to the Provincial Council and was the province’s superintendent from 1871 to 1875. He was also a member of the House of Representatives for nearly 24 years, including nearly four years as colonial treasurer and three years as Speaker. In 1879 he resigned to become a member of the Legislative Council where he was Speaker for nearly eight years. Fitzherbert has been described as one of the best parliamentary debaters in the House of

98 •

FITZROY, ROBERT (1805–1865)

Representatives, although he was said to have a reputation for unscrupulousness. FITZROY, ROBERT (1805–1865). Governor. Born in England, FitzRoy followed a naval career and sailed on an expedition with Charles Darwin in 1831. He first visited New Zealand in 1835. Appointed governor of New Zealand in 1843, FitzRoy promptly alienated settler support over his decisions in relation to the Wairau Massacre and by his overall even-handedness in regard to Maori land rights. Acting with insufficient funds, military backup, or freedom of action, FitzRoy faced an impossible task, which was exacerbated by his alienation of the powerful New Zealand Company. He was relieved of his commission as governor in 1845 and returned to England. FLAG. The first “official” New Zealand flag was that of the Independent Tribes of New Zealand, convened by James Busby in 1835. Following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, New Zealand used British flags until 1865 when an ensign incorporating the Southern Cross was adopted exclusively for maritime use. A version of this was adopted for use onshore in 1902 and became the national flag. The flag is a blue ensign with the Union Jack in the top left-hand corner and four five-pointed red stars edged in white to represent the Southern Cross. FLAX (Phormium tenax). New Zealand flax was used by Maori in pre-European times to make clothing, carry-baskets, mats, and fishing nets. Early European traders bartered muskets for flax fiber, which was exported through Sydney to England for manufacture into ropes and cordage. The flax trade grew steadily during the late 1820s to peak in 1831 when 1,062 tons were exported. Thereafter, exports declined rapidly because it was found to be inferior in quality to manila and sisal hemps. FLORA AND FAUNA. Although a young country judged in terms of settlement, New Zealand is ancient when judged by its flora and fauna. Tectonic evidence suggests that following the breakup of Gondwanaland, what eventually became New Zealand spent some 80

FLORA AND FAUNA

• 99

million years in isolation before the arrival of the first Maori. Isolation, together with the lack of natural predators, had the effect of preserving much of the Jurassic flora and fauna until the arrival of humans. Even today nearly 85 percent of New Zealand’s flowering plants are endemic, although, like the fauna, limited in species. One of the most striking features of the New Zealand flora is its general lack of color variation, with greens and whites predominating. For centuries much of the country was densely forested. The nature of the forest varied according to the height above sea level and the climatological region into which it fell. Few of the trees are confined exclusively to particular altitudes or regions, although these may define their areas of predominance. In the lower regions, especially near the coast, the pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa)—widely known as the New Zealand Christmas tree—is an exception to the lack of color variation, having brilliant red blossoms in season. Another exception is the rata, which also has red blossoms. Of the two main types of rata, the northern variety (Metrosideros robusta) starts life as an epiphyte, yet when its aerial roots reach ground level they gradually take over until, occasionally, the rata even replaces its host tree. By contrast, the southern rata (Metrosideros umbellate) grows from the ground. Another exception to the color rule is the kowhai, which has an attractive yellow flower. Overwhelmingly, however, the forests are made up of podocarps—including rimu, totara, matai, and kahikatea—which are evergreen. Other notable forest trees are kauri (Agathis australis) and several species of indigenous beech: black beech (Nothofagus solandri), silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii), and red beech (Nothofagus fusca). In addition there are a variety of giant fern trees that may grow as high as 20 meters. Many New Zealand trees have interesting characteristics. For example, the lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolium) shares with many other indigenous New Zealand plants the characteristic of having two or more distinct types of foliage, with the juvenile form differing from the adult form. Young lancewood has long pointed leaves that are deflexed in the sense that they hang down, whereas the adult tree has small flexed leaves on branches that only grow at the top of the tree. But perhaps the best-known New Zealand tree is the so-called cabbage tree (Cordyline australis) that is a feature of the landscape, growing predominantly on swampy land throughout the country. (Its

100 •

FLORA AND FAUNA

leaves are indigestible—the name “cabbage” is probably linked to the Maori practice of extracting a vegetable-like food from the root). It is possible to eat the foliage of the exotic-looking nikau palm (Rhopalostylis sapida)—the only genuine palm tree in the country and the southernmost endemic palm tree in the world—and Maori also used the leaves for thatching their whare. Together with the great array of over 150 species of tree ferns and a variety of epiphytes, the nikau palm gives many of the New Zealand forests a decidedly tropical appearance. Today, however, less than 25 percent of the original forest cover remains, and much of the rest of the country has been given over to productive needs and introduced species. Nonindigenous species of tree include the Douglas fir, spruce, macrocarpa, and the ubiquitous Pinus radiata. All are cropped for their timber and grow to maturity in roughly a third of the time that they take in the Northern Hemisphere. Twenty-five percent of New Zealand’s plants exist in areas above the tree line in the Alpine Zone. A very high proportion of these plants are endemic. Moreover, there are over 500 species of flowering plants, including the well-known Mount Cook lily (Ranunculus lyallii), mountain daisies, and buttercups. Before the arrival of Europeans, much of the land to the east of the mountain ranges was covered by clumps of tussock grass. One of the best known of the other native grasses is the toetoe that grows on such places as sand hills and riverbanks. More valuable was the native flax (Phormium tenax) found only in New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Flax was utilized extensively by the Maori for such purposes as making apparel, baskets, mats, and ropes. One of the distinguishing features of New Zealand indigenous fauna is that, apart from two species of bat, there are no land mammals. Mammals were mainly represented along the coastline by seals, dolphins, and whales. Amongst several species of reptiles, the most notable is the tuatara, which can claim to be the world’s oldest surviving reptile, dating from the age of the dinosaurs. Fossil remains indicate that dinosaurs once existed in New Zealand. Most of the land-based creatures were birds, several of which were flightless. Of these, the moa and the Haast’s eagle (a bird that grew to an enormous size, with a wingspan of around three meters), which was one-third heavier than the largest living bird of prey and which could attack

FONTERRA CO-OPERATIVE GROUP

• 101

and kill moa, are now extinct; the kiwi, adopted as the country’s national symbol, is a threatened species, as is the largest of the parrot family, the kakapo, whose population is perilously small and confined to a small number of islands off the coast of Stewart Island; the takahe, long thought to be extinct but which was rediscovered in mountainous Fiordland in 1948 and is now subject to an intensive program to preserve it from extinction; and the yellow-eyed penguin found along the South Island’s southeastern and southern coasts. A flightless indigenous bird that is not endangered is the cheeky weka. Among the indigenous birds that fly are small fantails; honey-eating birds such as the tui (or “parson bird” from its unusual white wattle at its neck), bellbird (with its characteristic song pattern), and stitchbird (now confined to the sanctuary island of Little Barrier); the fruiteating kereru—the native wood pigeon; and the pukeko (or swamp hen, a close relative of the takahe). New Zealand is also the home to the world’s only mountain parrot, the mischievous kea, and its relative, the kaka, a large brown parrot that is comparatively rare today. Another ancient life-form is the giant weta, a large cricket-like creature that can weigh over 70 grams (2.5 ounces) and is thought to be the largest insect in the world. It is believed to have remained unchanged for approximately 190 million years. There is also a variety of earthworms, spiders, giant snails, and frogs, all of which are unique to New Zealand. See also CHATHAM ISLANDS BLACK ROBIN; ENDANGERED SPECIES; ENVIRONMENT; FORESTRY. FONTERRA CO-OPERATIVE GROUP. In the mid-20th century there were an estimated 400 dairy cooperatives in New Zealand. By 1975, amalgamations had reduced the number to about 75, and by mid2000 to four. In June 2001, shareholders of the two largest cooperatives— the New Zealand Dairy Group and the Kiwi Cooperative Dairy Company—merged and were integrated with the New Zealand Dairy Board to form the largest company in New Zealand and the 14th-largest dairy company in the world. The goal was to produce economies of scale and thus enable it to compete on the world market. Fonterra, a leading multinational dairy company, is cooperatively owned by 13,000 New Zealand supplier shareholders who between them produce over 13 billion liters of milk each year, 95 percent of which is exported. The company, the world’s largest exporter of dairy

102 •

FORBES, GEORGE WILLIAM (1869–1947)

products, is responsible for one-third of all dairy trade that crosses open borders. Its global supply chain extends from its shareholders’ farms to customers and consumers in 140 countries. FORBES, GEORGE WILLIAM (1869–1947). Prime minister. Born and educated in New Zealand, Forbes won a land ballot in 1893 and became a farmer. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1908, he was MP for the Ashley (later renamed Hurunui) electorate until his retirement in 1943. Forbes was successively a member of the Liberal Party, New Zealand National Party, United Party, and National Political Federation (name under which the Liberal-Reform coalition government fought the 1935 general election). He was appointed Liberal whip in 1912, a post he held for 10 years. The Liberal caucus elected him leader in 1925 but he stepped down in favor of the 70-year-old Joseph Ward in 1928 before resuming the leadership of what was, by then, the United Party—and thus becoming prime minister—in 1930. Introduced to the nation as “a plain man without frills,” Forbes subsequently led the coalition government, formed by the United and Reform parties, throughout the Great Depression. His prime ministership ended in 1935 with one of the most overwhelming defeats in New Zealand political history. Despite being popular with his colleagues and enjoying a reputation as a genial, straightforward politician, Forbes’ inflexibility and orthodoxy were not equal to a complex situation and his reputation suffered accordingly. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. FOREIGN AFFAIRS. In 2003 New Zealand maintained 56 diplomatic and consular posts in 42 countries. Multiple accreditation extended this to a further 76 countries, a remarkable range of representation for a country of 4 million people, reflecting the country’s position as a world trader. For much of its history New Zealand remained narrowly focused on London, regarding itself as an enthusiastic, although not always uncritical, member of the British Empire and Commonwealth. Even after World War II, despite the conclusion of the ANZUS alliance in 1951, Britain remained the central focus. When that country announced plans to join the European Economic Community, however, New Zealand was forced to reorient both its trade and defense links. Trade was diversified to new markets such as the Middle East and

FORESHORE AND SEABED ACT (2004)

• 103

Japan, and for military security the country turned to the United States and Australia. The experience of the Vietnam War, together with the environmental and antinuclear movement, finally led to a rupturing of the ANZUS alliance in 1987. Greatest emphasis, however, is still placed on relations with nations of the Pacific, including Australia, former ANZUS partner the United States, and Japan. See also ASIA, RELATIONS WITH; CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH; EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH; EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH; FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH; GERMANY, RELATIONS WITH; INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH; NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN AID; PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; SOUTH AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. FOREIGN AID, NEW ZEALAND. See NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN AID. FORESHORE AND SEABED ACT (2004). In 2004 the Labour coalition government (a minority government) introduced controversial legislation to clarify the ownership of the foreshore and seabed around New Zealand. It had long been assumed by the public that, apart from a few exceptions, these were in Crown ownership thereby preserving public access (although not necessarily across land leading to beaches), while many Maori believed that they belonged to them. The Maori Land Court had granted a northern South Island hapu, Ti Tau Ihu, the right to pursue a claim for customary ownership of the foreshore and seabed in the Marlborough Sounds. Subsequently, the High Court overturned this decision but, in June 2003, the Court of Appeal ruled that the Maori Land court had jurisdiction to consider claims based on customary rights to the foreshore and seabed. Uncertainty prevailed because if the court decided that a customary interest could be equated with a customary title, new freehold titles might emerge with a consequent restriction of public access together with major problems for the burgeoning aquaculture enterprises. Accordingly, the government acted swiftly to take the matter out of the hands of the courts by introducing legislation to clarify the issue. For their part many Maori believed that, as tangata whenua, they had always enjoyed rights of ownership through custom, and that

104 •

FORESTRY

those rights still existed and must be recognized. The government’s decision to legislate, they argued, amounted to confiscation of their rights. A select committee of the House of Representatives sat for four months, hearing 3,946 written submissions and 222 oral presentations, the bulk of which were overwhelmingly opposed to the bill. Despite this, the Foreshore and Seabed Act of 2004 eventually became law with the support of the New Zealand First Party in November 2004. This Act asserts Crown ownership over the country’s foreshore and seabed and recognizes that, with few exceptions, the foreshore and seabed are public domain with open access and use for all New Zealanders. Provision is included for a customary rights order to be issued by the Maori Land Court or the High Court, if it can be demonstrated that the rights have been exercised in a substantially uninterrupted manner since 1840. Such rights could be used to strengthen Maori participation in the administration of a particular area—in establishing a reserve, or mussel farm, for example—without hindering public access. See also FISHING; LEGAL SYSTEM; QUEEN’S CHAIN. FORESTRY. Approximately 30 percent of New Zealand’s land area is forested. Of the 8.1 million hectares (20.2 million acres) of forest, an estimated 6.2 million hectares (15.5 million acres) are indigenous and most of the rest are planted production forests, about 89 percent of it Pinus radiata (Monterey pine). Wood and wood products such as pulp and paper are now New Zealand’s third most important export product; in the year ended June 2003, excluding newsprint, 10.9 percent of the country’s total export earnings came from this source. It is predicted that within the next few years plantation forestry will be New Zealand’s largest export industry. The state first became involved in afforestation in 1896 when the government set out to develop a planted production forest estate designed to create a new economic sector as well as to protect the remaining natural forests. The government provided the research drive that selected the Monterey pine as the ideal plantation species and established the basis of the forestry industry. Between 1923 and 1936, and particularly during the Great Depression years, exotic plantations expanded rapidly. It was during this period that the huge 150,000-hectare (370,000-acre) Kaiangaroa State Forest in the cen-

FOURTH LABOUR GOVERNMENT (1984–1990)

• 105

tral North Island was planted. A further planting boom took place in the 1960s when the state began planting again as well as encouraging the development of the processing sector, providing financial incentives to encourage the private sector to become involved in afforestation. A number of joint-venture forestry developments with Maori interests were also developed. As part of the Fourth Labour Government’s reforms, the native and production forest assets were separated, with a Department of Conservation established to manage the remaining largely indigenous forests for conservation purposes and a state-owned enterprise, the New Zealand Forestry Corporation, formed to manage the commercial production forests. Subsequently, cutting rights were sold by tender to a number of bidders from both within New Zealand and overseas. In 1996, the government sold its shares in the Forestry Corporation and, by 2002, over 90 percent of planted forests were in private hands. Provision continues to exist to recognize Maori claims on land areas that the government had originally developed as production forests. See also AGRICULTURE; HORTICULTURE. FORWARD, NANCY GRACE AUGUSTA. See WAKE, NANCY GRACE AUGUSTA. FOURTH LABOUR GOVERNMENT (1984–1990). The election of the New Zealand Labour Party government in July 1984 marked the end of an era and the beginning of a revolution that changed the face of the nation. The New Zealand dollar ($NZ) was devalued and then floated, controls and subsidies were abolished, direct personal tax rates were slashed, and user part-charges for a number of previously fully funded government services were introduced. A number of state-owned commercial businesses—amongst them the Post Office Savings Bank (“the people’s bank”), Telecom, the State Insurance Office, and Air New Zealand—were sold to private enterprise interests, while many other of the government’s commercial interests were restructured as state-owned enterprises. The pace of change proved to be altogether too great for many of the electorate and for the government itself. A divided government was heavily defeated in the 1990 general election. See also ANTINUCLEAR POLICY; DOUGLAS, ROGER OWEN; KIWIBANK; LANGE, DAVID RUSSELL; PRIVATIZATION.

106 •

FOX, WILLIAM (1812–1893)

FOX, WILLIAM (1812–1893). Premier. Fox was born in England where he qualified in law. A supporter of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, he arrived in New Zealand in 1842. Fox condemned the Treaty of Waitangi and took a strong pro-settler stand in disputes over Maori land. In 1850 Fox visited England as a settlers’ representative to lobby for political and constitutional reform. While in England in 1851, he published The Six Colonies of New Zealand, and he also argued strongly that the Maori population, which was already declining, could disappear in his own lifetime. On his return in 1854, he was elected to the Wellington Provincial Council and also to the House of Representatives where he was a strong provincialist. After Fox became premier in 1861, he sought to introduce institutions into Maori districts to enable the native people to work out their own destiny, but war broke out again in 1863. He served as native minister in the Whitaker-Fox ministry of 1863–1864 and was premier again for one month in 1873. Apart from his political career, Fox was also a noted watercolor artist and, in his later years, a strong prohibitionist. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LAND WARS; LIQUOR LICENSING; PROHIBITION. FRAME, JANET (1924–2004). New Zealand–born and –educated, Frame, who was wrongly diagnosed as a schizophrenic and spent eight years during her 20s in psychiatric hospitals, attained international fame in 1957 with her novel Owls Do Cry. She published 11 novels, five collections of short stories, and two collections of poems. Her three-volume autobiography was made into an acclaimed film, An Angel at My Table, by New Zealand director Jane Campion. She also won many New Zealand and international writing awards, including the Prime Minister’s Award for literary achievement in 2003. In the same year she was a leading contender for the Nobel Prize for literature. See also CULTURE; LITERATURE. FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH. Despite New Zealand troops fighting in France alongside the French in two world wars, relations have long been rather ambivalent. For example, there were difficulties as early as 1838 when Jean Langlois purchased the whole of Banks Peninsula from local Maori with the intention of establishing a French colony at Akaroa. Relations between the two countries have seldom been warm. Since the introduction of the Common Agricultural Policy in

FRASER, PETER (1884–1950)

• 107

Europe in the second half of the 20th century, New Zealand has felt itself unfairly penalized for the benefit of French farmers in particular. For its part, the French have occasionally felt aggrieved over perceived New Zealand moral support for independence movements in French Pacific colonies. But by far the most serious rupture in relations between the two countries was the Rainbow Warrior Affair in 1985. Fortunately, since that time, relations have settled, although important differences on trade remain. See also ANTINUCLEAR POLICY; EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; POMPALLIER, JEAN BAPTISTE FRANÇOIS; SURVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS MARIE DE; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. FRANCHISE. New Zealand’s franchise qualifications have never been very restrictive. The Constitution Act of 1852 granted the right to vote to all males aged 21 and over who owned property valued at least £50 ($100), who occupied leasehold property with an annual rental of at least £10 ($20), or who rented a property with an annual rental value of at least £10 ($20) in a town or £5 ($10) in the country. Electors were permitted to register and vote in every electorate in which they were qualified. The few Maori who qualified under these provisions were also entitled to register and vote. In the early 1860s, the franchise was extended to males holding a miner’s license. The abolition of the property qualification in 1879 effectively extended the franchise to all males aged 21 and over. In 1889, multiple voting was abolished—henceforth, residence in an electorate was the only qualification required before registering as an elector—and in 1893, the right to vote was extended to include women. The minimum voting age was reduced to 20 in 1969 and 18 in 1974. To qualify for registration as an elector, a person must be a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident, have lived in New Zealand at some stage for at least 12 months, and have lived in the electorate for at least one month before making application. In order to cast a valid vote, electors must be registered. See also FEMALE SUFFRAGE; MAORI ELECTORAL OPTION; VOTING. FRASER, PETER (1884–1950). Prime minister. Fraser was born in Scotland, the son of a boot maker. He arrived in New Zealand in 1911

108 •

FREYBERG, BERNARD CYRIL (1889–1963)

and joined the New Zealand Socialist Party, quickly becoming involved in militant trade union and strike activities. In 1916, along with other labor leaders, he was imprisoned for sedition (on the grounds that he had advocated the repeal of conscription). He played an important role in the formation of the New Zealand Labour Party in 1916 and was elected Labour MP for Wellington Central in 1918. He became deputy leader of the party in 1933 and leader and prime minister in 1940 following the death of Michael Joseph Savage. Fraser proved to be a decisive and effective war and postwar leader. He did not shrink from maintaining New Zealand troops in the Middle East in 1942, even after the success of the Japanese Pacific onslaught and the pullback of the Australian forces. Nor did he hesitate to assert, forcefully, the views of smaller countries in the post war negotiations which led to the formation of the United Nations. He even won a referendum in favor of peacetime conscription in 1949, at the time of the onset of the Cold War. With his dour, sometimes dogmatic style, Fraser was never a “crowd-pleaser”; nevertheless, he has come to be recognized as an outstanding New Zealand prime minister. See also WORLD WAR II. FREYBERG, BERNARD CYRIL (1889–1963). Soldier and governorgeneral. Though born in England, he was brought up and educated in New Zealand. He served with British forces in World War I, both on the Western Front and at the Dardanelles, winning the Victoria Cross in addition to other awards for personal gallantry. In World War II, he was invited by the New Zealand government to command the New Zealand Division in the Middle East and led it through the Greek, African, and Italian campaigns. In 1946, Freyberg was appointed governor-general of New Zealand, a position he held until 1952 when he retired to England as deputy constable and lieutenant governor of Windsor Castle. FULLOON, HEMI TE MAUTARANUI (also known as James Francis) (1840–1865). Public servant. Of mixed European-Maori ancestry (his mother was the daughter of a Ngati Awa leader and he was a kinsman of Te Hura Te Taiwhakaripi), Fulloon was employed by the government as an interpreter. In 1865, he was sent to help ap-

GATTUNG, THERESA (1962– )

• 109

prehend the murderers of the missionary Reverend Carl Völkner. On this or a subsequent mission, he was killed by the Ngati Awa along with most of his shipmates after ignoring a warning to leave. Fulloon was noteworthy as one of the first persons of mixed descent to achieve standing in the Public Service.

–G– GALLIPOLI. On 25 April 1915 during World War I, the ANZACs landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula, at what later became known as ANZAC Cove, as part of an Allied push to seize control of the Dardanelles. They were landed at the wrong place, facing steep cliffs and constant barrages of enemy fire instead of the flat beach they were expecting. Around 20,000 troops faced a large Turkish force led by Mustafa Kemal who, as Atatürk, later became the leader of modern Turkey. A stalemate resulted and both sides resorted to trench warfare, digging kilometers of trenches. Losses were enormous and eventually it was decided to withdraw all the Allied troops. The experience, however, led to the forging of enduring links between Australians and New Zealanders. April 25 is commemorated as ANZAC Day each year in both countries and has virtually acquired a sacred character. GATE PA. Gate Pa was the scene of the strongest artillery barrage during the Pakeha-Maori land wars of the 1860s. In 1864, Rawiri Purihake, a chief of the Ngai Te Rangi tribe, goaded into rebellion against the British by accusations of spying, invited the British to fight at his pa (fortified settlement) near present-day Tauranga. When General Duncan Cameron failed to take up the invitation, he built an advanced fortified position close to the gate of the archdeacon of the Church Missionary Society (hence Gate Pa). The position was bombarded and then stormed by the British. Purihake, however, counterattacked from a maze of underground passages and repulsed the British, who suffered heavy losses. See also HAMILTON. GATTUNG, THERESA (1962– ). Chief executive. A graduate with an honors degree in management studies (majoring in economics and

110 •

GEE, MAURICE GOUGH (1931– )

marketing) as well as holding a law degree, Gattung became chief executive of Telecom, one of New Zealand’s largest companies, in 1999, having previously served as its group general manager of services and general manager of marketing. Previous commercial experience included chief manager of marketing for the Bank of New Zealand and a similar position with the National Mutual Insurance Company. In 2004 Gattung became the highest paid executive in New Zealand business. See also ECONOMY. GEE, MAURICE GOUGH (1931– ). Writer. Born and educated in New Zealand, Gee was a librarian before becoming a full-time writer in 1975. He is best known as a novelist and short-story writer. His novel Plumb, published in 1978, won not only the premier New Zealand awards but also the James Tait Black Memorial prize for fiction in Britain. In addition to novels and short stories, Gee has also written scripts for cinema and television as well as children’s books. His 1972 novel In My Father’s Den was released as a film in 2004. See also LITERATURE. GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT). New Zealand was a founding member of GATT, set up after World War II to promote and secure the liberalization of world trade as part of an overall plan to create an International Trade Organization as a specialized agency of the United Nations. In particular, New Zealand was an enthusiastic supporter of the “Uruguay Round,” which extended GATT rules to 15 broad areas, many of which—agriculture in particular—had not been adequately covered by the original rules. A subsidiary grouping, the Cairns Group, focused on agricultural trade reform. Agreement was finally reached in 1993 with the completion of the “Uruguay Round.” Despite this apparent success, however, loopholes in the multilateral system of agricultural trading were exploited and the new rules met with little success. As a result of these and other failures, the World Trade Organization was established in 1995 as a successor to the GATT organization. From 1999–2002, Michael Moore, a former New Zealand prime minister, was the WTO’s director. See also ECONOMY.

GLASGOW, DAVID BOYLE (1833–1915)

• 111

GENERAL ASSEMBLY. The original name given to the New Zealand Parliament under the Constitution Act of 1852. The General Assembly consisted of the governor (later governor-general), Legislative Council, and House of Representatives until the Legislative Council was abolished in 1950 and New Zealand adopted a unicameral legislature. The term “General Assembly” was formally replaced by the term “Parliament” by the Constitution Act of 1986. GENERAL ELECTION. See ELECTIONS. GERMANY, RELATIONS WITH. After being on opposite sides in two world wars, relations between New Zealand and Germany are now close and relaxed. Germany is a useful source of investment in New Zealand as well as a substantial market for trade. It is one of New Zealand’s top 10 trading partners. Germany is also an important source of tourists, who numbered 54,000 in the year ending February 2004, second only to Britain in the number of European visitors. There is also provision for cooperation in Antarctic research. See also EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH; EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH; FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. GIRLS’ WAR. In 1830 two women from the Nga Puhi tribe, who were living with a British whaler in Kororareka, engaged in horseplay with women of the Ngati Manu tribe who playfully dunked them. This developed into a real argument and the cursing of the Nga Puhi women. This led, in turn, to an utu (revenge) raid. A war party from Nga Puhi raided the plantations of the Ngati Manu, resulting in the deaths of upwards of 100 from both sides. GLASGOW, DAVID BOYLE (1833–1915). Governor. Appointed to succeed Lord Onslow as governor of New Zealand in 1892, Lord Glasgow inherited his predecessor’s dispute with the New Zealand government over the appointment of additional members to the nominated Legislative Council. Conservative by nature, his obstinacy led to the final establishment of the principle that a New Zealand governor must be bound by the advice of his New Zealand ministers.

112 •

GLENEAGLES AGREEMENT (1977)

GLENEAGLES AGREEMENT (1977). The All Blacks rugby team toured South Africa in 1976, precipitating a walkout of 30 African countries from the Montreal Olympic Games. As a direct result, agreement was reached between heads of Commonwealth governments to oppose sporting contacts with South Africa while it continued with its apartheid policies. The need for it arose because of Robert Muldoon’s government’s insistence that sport and politics were separate issues and that his government could not interfere with the “rights” of sportsmen. The Gleneagles Agreement established the principle of political opposition to apartheid but left each state to determine how it was to be implemented. GODLEY, JOHN ROBERT (1814–1861). Colonizer. Born in Ireland and qualified as a lawyer, Godley traveled in the United States and Canada and served as a high sheriff in Ireland before he joined with Edward Gibbon Wakefield and formed the Canterbury Association in 1848. He arrived in New Zealand in 1850 and presided over the establishment of the Canterbury settlement. An able but, at times, obstinate man, Godley returned to England in 1852 after declining a petition to become the first superintendent of the province. See also CHRISTCHURCH; WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. GOLD RUSHES. Although traces of gold were discovered in the Nelson and Coromandel districts as early as 1842, the first commercial find did not take place until 1861 when Thomas Gabriel Read panned seven ounces in 10 hours at Gabriel’s Gully near Lawrence in Otago. In the following six months Otago’s population more than doubled as prospectors, many of them from the Victorian (Australia) gold fields, swarmed across the Central Otago countryside in search of their fortunes. The main rushes were those to Otago (1861–1864), the west coast (1864–1868), and Waihi (1868–1870). Of these, the west coast fields were the most lucrative. During the 1860s, New Zealand’s population more than quadrupled, hitherto remote and unknown areas of the country were opened up, and a marked shift in the economic balance in favor of the South Island took place. Gold production peaked in 1866 when more than 20.84 tons (735,000 oz.) were exported; thereafter, apart from 1871, gold production declined

GORST, JOHN ELDON (1835–1916)

• 113

steadily despite the adoption of dredging and other large-scale recovery techniques. The increase in the world price of gold over recent decades has encouraged renewed interest in gold mining. In the 2002–2003 year, production declined by 4.8 percent to 9,300 kilograms with a value of $186.8 million, due largely to lower production at the Martha mine near Waihi, a modern open-cast pit that has been in operation since 1987 and is scheduled to close about 2007. There are, however, a number of new projects being developed around Reefton on the South Island’s west coast and at Waihi. GOLDIE, CHARLES FREDERICK (1870–1947). Artist. Although born in New Zealand, Goldie studied art in Paris, specializing in portraiture. On his return to New Zealand he began to specialize in Maori portraiture. A major concern was to record the traditional tattooed Maori with their facial moko (tattoo), a type that was fast dying out, and it is for these portraits that he is best known today. Although never highly rated by art critics, the value of his paintings has steadily risen and he remains amongst the best known of all New Zealand artists. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LIBRARIES; MUSEUMS. GOODS AND SERVICES TAX (GST). Introduced in 1986, GST is a comprehensive value-added tax, noted for its minimal exemptions (even such items as food, books, and local property rates are subject to the tax). It is currently (2005) levied at a flat rate of 12.5 percent. GORDON, ARTHUR CHARLES HAMILTON (1829–1912). Governor. Born in England of an aristocratic family, Gordon was appointed governor of New Zealand in 1880 after serving in a similar capacity in the Crown colonies of Trinidad, Mauritius, and Fiji. He alienated his ministers, both by his manner and because of his disapproval of the methods used by the government in the dispute over Maori lands at Parihaka in Taranaki. Gordon’s attempts to achieve greater justice for Maori as he saw it were, however, doomed to failure. GORST, JOHN ELDON (1835–1916). Author. Born in England of wealthy parents, Gorst traveled to New Zealand in 1860 in search of

114 •

GOVERNMENT COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES

adventure. He worked among Maori as a schoolteacher and later as a school inspector and resident magistrate. His book The Maori King (written in 1864 and regarded as probably the finest 19th-century book on the Maori people) not only is highly critical of both imperial and colonial policy towards the Maori but also provides unparalleled insights into an important section of Maori opinion in the Waikato. See also LITERATURE. GOVERNMENT COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES. From the earliest years of European settlement, successive governments played an important role in New Zealand’s economic development. During the 19th century, they spearheaded the development of the railway system and telegraph communications and established the Government Life Insurance Office, Public Trust Office, and the Post Office Savings Bank. More recently, they played a major role in air and sea transport, forestry, energy exploration and exploitation, tourism, telecommunications, the development of hydroelectricity resources, and pulp and paper, aluminum, and steel mills. Between 1984 and 1999 a major reappraisal led to the conclusion that the state should not be involved in commercial activities unless there were demonstrable social benefits. Consequently, a large number of state-owned businesses were sold to private enterprise or other provision made for competition. Since 1999, the Accident Compensation Corporation has been reinstated as a state monopoly, Air New Zealand was rescued from a financial crisis by an injection of a substantial amount of government funds, and in mid-2003 the government agreed to repurchase the rail track network from Transrail and then finance its upgrade in order to facilitate the sale of the financially troubled company to an Australian transport company, Toll Holdings Ltd. See also CROWNOWNED COMPANIES; PRIVATIZATION; STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES. GOVERNMENT LIFE INSURANCE OFFICE. Established by the government in 1869, the office was designed to provide a governmentbacked annuities scheme which aimed at giving policyholders the greatest possible amount of life insurance for the least cost. Since then it has become one of the largest life insurance companies operating in New Zealand. A unique feature was that from 1891 until 1989 it had

GOVERNORS AND GOVERNORS-GENERAL

• 115

the right to issue its own postage stamps—the only insurance company in the world to have that right. In 1989, Government Life changed its name to Tower Corporation. It is now a public company wholly owned by its shareholders. In 2003 the Tower Corporation’s board was forced to seek financial help from its larger shareholders because of financial problems linked to its expansion into the Australian financial market. GOVERNORS AND GOVERNORS-GENERAL. The governorgeneral is the officer appointed by the Crown to represent it in New Zealand. During the 20th century, appointments have been made on the advice of the New Zealand prime minister. The term governor-general, rather than governor, has been used since 1917, and the period of office is normally five years. Today, the main constitutional function of the office is largely symbolic, sitting above party politics and symbolizing national unity. Specific constitutional functions include dissolving Parliament for a general election, summoning Parliament to meet after a general election, appointing a prime minister, and assenting to legislation passed by the House of Representatives. Most of these tasks, however, are nominal and dependent upon the advice of Cabinet ministers, although there are certain unspecified “reserve powers” to which the governorgeneral can resort in an emergency. Governors and governors-general fall into four fairly well-defined groups. Between 1840 and c.1860, they were mainly British military or naval officers who had been detached from active service to assist the Colonial Office. From c.1860 until c.1890, they were professional colonial administrators who served as governors in different colonies. When, in 1889, the New Zealand government reduced the governor’s salary and allowances, the professional administrators were replaced by British aristocrats, many of whom had no previous experience in the role but who could afford to expend their own funds to help maintain the dignity of the office. These were followed by governors-general who had often previously distinguished themselves in the British political world or the armed forces. Since 1967, however, all New Zealand governors-general have been native-born New Zealanders and, since 1972, they have been New Zealanders who have distinguished themselves in New Zealand. The first Maori

116 •

GREAT BRITAIN, RELATIONS WITH

to be appointed as governor-general was Paul Reeves (1985–1990). He was succeeded in 1990 by Catherine Tizard, the first woman to be appointed. Another woman, Justice Sylvia Cartwright, succeeded to the office in 2001. GREAT BRITAIN, RELATIONS WITH. See UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. GREAT DEPRESSION. See DEPRESSION, GREAT. GREEN PARTY (GREENS). Although preceded by the Values Party in the 1970s, the Greens only emerged as a political force shortly before the 1990 general election, and even then they lacked clear leadership or many of the characteristics associated with a political party. Although failing to win a seat, the Greens nevertheless won just under 7 percent of the vote. With the introduction of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system in 1996 they gained representation in Parliament as part of the Alliance, which served to impose an unaccustomed discipline upon many of its members. In 1999, after withdrawing from the Alliance, they won seven party list seats and this increased to nine in 2002. The Greens’ philosophy has an undoubted appeal to a country which prides itself upon its greenness and cleanness with a strong antinuclear bias. The Greens, however, are frequently divided among themselves in their aims, which range from environmentalism and economic restructuring to deep suspicions of any involvement in the political power structure, but they have succeeded in evolving into a serious, left-of-center political force in the House of Representatives and their support is sought by minority governments. See also MINOR PARTIES. GREY, GEORGE (1812–1898). Governor. Grey was probably born in Portugal. After a career in the army, which included two expeditions in Western Australia, Grey became governor of South Australia and then, in 1845, governor of New Zealand. He quickly settled several serious land disputes, assuring Maori that, under the Treaty of Waitangi, their right to land was fully recognized. He also established proper procedures for negotiating land sales. He established close personal relations with Maori chiefs, learned to speak the Maori lan-

GUM DIGGING

• 117

guage, and amassed an important collection of materials relating to Maori traditions and culture. He was, however, less successful in his relations with the settlers or many of the missionaries. In 1853 he left New Zealand to become governor of Cape Colony, South Africa. Following the outbreak of New Zealand’s Taranaki War over the disputed Waitara Purchase in 1860, Grey’s offer to return was accepted by the Colonial Office in London. During his second governorship Grey introduced the system of “new institutions,” hoping to cooperate with the Maori through a system of indirect rule. However, the Land Wars continued, and, when he obstructed moves of the imperial government to withdraw its troops, he was removed as governor in 1868. Following a brief stay in England, Grey returned to New Zealand yet again, and in 1875 was elected superintendent of Auckland province and a member of the House of Representatives. He served as premier, 1877–1879, and remained as a member of Parliament until 1895. In his later years Grey was a strong advocate of radical causes, including “one man, one vote,” an elected governor, and a unicameral Parliament. He has been described as “one of the most remarkable 19th-century British colonial governors.” See also PROVINCES; PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. GUARANTEED PRICE. See FIRST LABOUR GOVERNMENT. GULLY, JOHN (1819?–1888). Artist. Born in England, Gully had received some tuition in painting before he arrived in New Zealand in 1852. After various unsuccessful ventures, he became a drawing master at Nelson College and later draftsman in the Nelson province’s survey office. Gully won a silver medal at the 1865 New Zealand Exhibition held in Dunedin and had a painting accepted by the Royal Academy in London. A book of his work, New Zealand Scenery, was published in Dunedin and London in 1877. Gully’s work, which was technically excellent and realistic, is now highly regarded. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LIBRARIES; MUSEUMS. GUM DIGGING. The kauri tree is known to have grown in New Zealand for over 20 million years. It produces a resin known as kauri

118 •

HAAST, JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1822–1887)

gum, which is related to amber and collects among the debris on the forest floor. The older fossilized gum is usually harder and more translucent than more recent deposits. kauri gum was first exploited by the Maori, who used it as fuel and as chewing gum. It also came to be valued by Europeans who used it for high-quality varnishes and the production of linoleum. By the 1830s, a flourishing trade for the gum existed between Maori and Europeans. As surface supplies became exhausted, digging became more common. The industry flourished mainly in Northland, where it largely became the staple of the economy and was gradually taken over by Dalmatian settlers. Although still used sparingly (to make high-quality varnishes for musical instruments, for example), the industrial uses of the gum have largely been replaced by synthetics.

–H– HAAST, JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1822–1887). Explorer and geologist. German-born Julius von Haast trained as a geologist and arrived in New Zealand in 1858 to report on the prospects for German immigration. After numerous geological expeditions, he was retained to conduct geological surveys in the Nelson and Canterbury provinces. He founded the Canterbury Museum and helped promote the establishment of Canterbury College (later Canterbury University). Haast also contributed to various scientific fields including botany, geology, paleontology, and zoology. HADFIELD, OCTAVIUS (c.1814–1904). Missionary. Born in England, Hadfield joined the Church Missionary Society and traveled to Australia before crossing the Tasman Sea where, in 1839, he became the first priest to be ordained in New Zealand. He learned the Maori language and acquired valuable expertise in Maori land tenure and tribal organization, as well as producing a number of liturgical translations. In the 1850s and 1860s, Hadfield played an important role in advocating Maori rights and interests amongst the settlers, by whom he was detested. On becoming a bishop in 1870, he continued to strongly foster the Maori pastorate. Hadfield was elected third Anglican primate in 1890.

HALT ALL RACIST TOURS (HART)

• 119

HALL, JOHN (1824–1907). Politician. English-born, Hall served as private secretary to the permanent head of the General Post Office before sailing to New Zealand in 1852. He was member of the Canterbury Provincial Council for 17 years; member of the House of Representatives for 17 years; member of the Legislative Council for 11 years; and premier for over 12 years, as well as serving in Cabinets on five separate occasions between 1856 and 1882. Although regarded as the leading conservative in 19th-century New Zealand, Hall was responsible for introducing a wide range of electoral reforms, including triennial Parliaments and universal male suffrage. This latter measure was, however, countered somewhat by the country quota. He was also a leading proponent of female suffrage. See also FRANCHISE; PROVINCES; PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT; RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. HALL, ROGER LEIGHTON (1939– ). Playwright. Born in England and receiving his graduate education in New Zealand, to which he traveled when 19 years of age, he has been a continuous full-time writer since 1975. Although writing for television since 1969, his first major stage success Glide Time—the first of more than 20 plays— took place in 1976. This was followed in 1977 by Middle Age Spread which enjoyed both a film version and a successful production in London’s West End. Hall’s plays, best described as light comedy, tend to be a blend of comedy and pathos with an element of social criticism. See also LITERATURE. HALL-JONES, WILLIAM (1851–1936). Prime minister. Born in England and apprenticed as a carpenter, Hall-Jones arrived in New Zealand in 1873 where he set up business as a builder before his election to the House of Representatives in 1890. Hall-Jones became a Cabinet minister in 1896 and served as prime minister for just over six weeks following Richard John Seddon’s death, pending the return of Joseph Ward from overseas. He was the first person to be officially designated “prime minister” instead of “premier.” HALT ALL RACIST TOURS (HART). Formed with the intention of bringing pressure upon the New Zealand government to prevent South African rugby football tours of New Zealand, and thereby

120 •

HAMILTON

bring pressure upon the South African government and its apartheid policies by isolating it from the world community, HART was one of the highest profile pressure groups of the 1970s and early 1980s. It was particularly effective at mass mobilization campaigns and use of the news media. See also ALL BLACKS; GLENEAGLES AGREEMENT. HAMILTON. New Zealand’s largest inland city and the fourth-largest urban center in the country, Hamilton was named for Captain J. C. F. Hamilton, the popular commander of the Royal Navy ship HMS Esk who was killed while leading a British naval force at Gate Pa. Maori had been established in the area for centuries beforehand but the original town of Hamilton, which started life as a military settlement, was established on the site of a deserted Maori village. Situated in the midst of a rich pastoral farming region, the city of Hamilton was for long a rural-servicing center. In recent years, however, it has grown rapidly, partly based on the processing of dairying products, but as a subsidiary center for Auckland, it has also developed a useful range of manufacturing and service industries. Today it is also an important educational center, and it is the home of New Zealand’s sixth university, the University of Waikato, established in 1964. At the time of the 2001 census of population, the usually resident population of Hamilton was 166,128. HAMILTON, ADAM (1880–1952). Politician. Elected to Parliament in 1919 (defeated 1922) and again from 1925 to 1946, Hamilton served as a minister in the George Forbes coalition government, 1931–1935. When the New Zealand National Party was formed from the defeated Reform and United parties in 1936, neither of the two previous leaders, Gordon Coates and Forbes, was mutually acceptable and Hamilton, a former Reform Party member, was appointed as a stop-gap leader. He was replaced in 1940 by Sidney George Holland. HAMILTON, (CHARLES) WILLIAM FIELDEN (1900–1978). Inventor. Hamilton is best known for his pioneering development of the Hamilton jet-boat, which revolutionized travel on previously unnavigable waterways. Before World War II he developed a rotary earth scoop and established a contracting business, building his own earthmoving equipment. During World War II, Hamilton produced muni-

HEALTH STAMPS

• 121

tions in the remote fastnesses of New Zealand’s South Island High Country and made parts for Bren-gun carriers and mortars. After the war he moved his enterprise to Christchurch where it became one of the country’s leading heavy industrial concerns. HAUHAU MOVEMENT. See PAI MARIRE. HAWAI‘IKI. The legendary original or previous homeland of the Polynesian people. For Maori, Hawai‘iki was probably somewhere in eastern Polynesia, but recent research suggests that different tribes and groups recognize different Hawai‘ikis so there can be no certainty of where it was located or even if it existed as a definite place. Interestingly, the word is not recorded in William Williams’s Dictionary of the Maori Language. See also DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND; POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT. HEALTH. Early hospitals were funded by charity or subscriptions. The first Public Health Acts (1872 and 1876) established a central board of health and empowered local authorities to act as boards of health responsible for hospital administration in their districts. Under the Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act of 1909, these were replaced by 36 districts controlled by hospital boards which were popularly elected every three years. As patients’ fees were abolished and the central government became responsible for overall funding, an important rupture between responsibility for policy and administration and responsibility for funding developed. In 1989, the Fourth Labour Government abolished the hospital boards, replacing them with 14 elected Area Health Boards. In 1992, the Fourth National Government (1990–1999) led by Jim Bolger, abolished the Area Health Boards and replaced them with four nonelected Regional Health Authorities (RHAs). In 2001, the Fifth Labour Government established 21 District Health Boards (DHBs) with a majority of elected members, along with others appointed by the Ministry of Health. See also SCHOOL DENTAL NURSING SERVICE; SOCIAL WELFARE. HEALTH STAMPS. These special postage stamps were first introduced in 1929 and continue to be issued annually. Each stamp carries a surcharge which is used to help maintain children’s health camps.

122 •

HEAPHY, CHARLES (1820–1881)

HEAPHY, CHARLES (1820–1881). Artist and surveyor. Born in England, the son of a professional watercolorist and miniaturist, Heaphy was brought to New Zealand as a draftsman for the New Zealand Company. He painted a number of important early scenes of New Zealand life. He was also active in exploring, particularly the remote west coast of the South Island and its hinterland. Heaphy volunteered for active service following the outbreak of the Land Wars in the Waikato and was awarded the Victoria Cross for bravery during this conflict, the first-ever colonial soldier to receive this decoration. He was a member of the House of Representatives between 1867 and 1870 and subsequently held a variety of administrative posts, including commissioner for native reserves and judge of the Native Land Court. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; MAORI LAND COURT; MUSEUMS. HECTOR, JAMES (1834–1907). Explorer and administrator. Born in Scotland, Hector qualified as a doctor before becoming involved in exploration in western Canada. In 1861 he was appointed director of the Otago geological survey, where his specimens later became the foundation of the Otago Museum’s geology collections. Appointed director of the newly established Geological Survey in 1865, he also became director of the Colonial Museum. Hector was largely responsible for the survival and expansion of the New Zealand Institute which, in 1903, became the Royal Society of New Zealand—the premier scientific body. HEKE, HONE (1810?–1850). Maori leader. A Maori chief of the Nga Puhi tribe, Hone Heke (also known as Hone Wiremu Heke Pokai) attended mission school in 1824–1825. A warrior despite his conversion to Christianity, he took part in several intertribal battles during the 1830s. A signatory to the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, he believed that the terms of the treaty were not being fulfilled by the British. Accordingly, in 1844 Heke caused the cutting down of the flagstaff at Kororareka on four separate occasions (a flagstaff that had originally been given by Heke for the flying of a Maori flag but which had come to be regarded as an assertion of British sovereignty over Maori land). On the fourth occasion, fierce fighting took place between Maori and British forces who were supported by other Maori chiefs who had opposed his actions. After being badly wounded, Heke con-

HILLARY, EDMUND PERCIVAL (1919– )

• 123

tinued the battle by correspondence with the authorities before joining with Te Ruki Kawiti in the Northern Wars (1845–1846) against the British and their Maori allies. Heke opposed colonial government rather than settlement, believing that the Treaty of Waitangi was not being honored and that the British flag was the symbol of Maori subjugation. HENARE, JAMES (1911–1989). Soldier. Member of the Nga Puhi tribe and descended on the Maori side of his family from Te Ruki Kawiti and on the Pakeha side from Lieutenant-Governor Robert Wynyard. A graduate of Massey Agricultural College, Henare farmed until World War II when, after rising from private to lieutenantcolonel, he commanded the Maori Battalion. Later, he supervised the government’s Maori farming schemes. HICKEY, PATRICK HODGENS (1882–1930). Labor leader. Hickey was born in New Zealand and worked in coal mines before spending some years in the United States. On his return to New Zealand he became a leader of the important Blackball Miners Union on the South Island’s west coast at the time of the miners’ strike in 1908. Along with Robert Semple and Patrick Webb, he was a founder and first secretary of the New Zealand Federation of Miners, which became the New Zealand Federation of Labour (“Red Feds”) in 1909. HIKO’S SALE. As an old man, Maori chief Te Hiko Piata Tama-ihikoia, an opponent of land sales, sold his fishing rights in Lake Wairarapa to the government in 1876. The government wished to control the outlet of the lake in order to reduce the flooding of fertile lands, while Maori felt that this imperiled one of their major resources, the eel fishery, which was at its best when the lake was in full flood. The dispute led to continuing hostility for two decades. HILLARY, EDMUND PERCIVAL (1919– ). Mountaineer and apiarist. Hillary, along with Nepalese sherpa Tenzing Norgay, was the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest (1953). Hillary was also the first to travel overland by mechanical vehicle from Scott Base to

124 •

HOBSON, WILLIAM (1792–1842)

the South Pole (using farm tractors) while supporting the 1957–1958 British Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Subsequently, Hillary played an important role in overseas aid programs, especially in Nepal, and served as New Zealand’s High Commissioner to India. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. HOBSON, WILLIAM (1792–1842). Governor. Hobson was born in Ireland and first visited New Zealand in 1837 as captain of HMS Rattlesnake, which was sent to protect British settlers living around the Bay of Islands during a war between Maori tribes. His subsequent report recommended that the British government should negotiate treaties with some Maori chiefs to acquire limited jurisdiction and land. He was appointed British consul and then, in 1839, lieutenantgovernor subject to the authority of the governor of New South Wales. On 6 February 1840 he signed the Treaty of Waitangi on behalf of the British Crown. When New Zealand became a separate Crown colony in 1841, Hobson became governor and commander in chief. Although he managed to avoid open conflict with Maori— despite an outbreak of intertribal war and cannibalism—his administration was marked by a number of bad decisions and settler unrest. See also NORTHERN WARS. HOCHSTETTER, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB FERDINAND VON (1829–1884). Geologist. Born in Germany, Hochstetter graduated in theology and geology before becoming chief geologist for Bohemia. He arrived in New Zealand in 1858 as part of a German scientific expedition which was circumnavigating the globe. He was persuaded to stay and made extensive geological surveys for the Auckland provincial government. In partnership with Johann Franz Julius von Haast, he undertook extensive explorations and surveys of the North Island and parts of the South Island before returning home in 1860. Hochstetter was the first to describe and interpret many features of New Zealand geology. HOCKEN, THOMAS MORLAND (1836–1910). Medical practitioner and collector. Born in England and educated in England and Ireland, Hocken practiced medicine as a ship’s doctor before settling in the South Island of New Zealand. He had a pioneering interest in

HOLLAND, SIDNEY GEORGE (SID) (1893–1961)

• 125

New Zealand history, and his library (now the Hocken Library, Dunedin) constitutes a unique collection of early books, maps, manuscripts, and prints. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; MUSEUMS. HODGKINS, FRANCES MARY (1869–1947). Artist. Born in New Zealand where she received her basic art training and made her initial reputation, Frances Hodgkins traveled to Europe in 1901, and thereafter, apart from three years in New Zealand (1903–1906), she spent most of her life in Europe as a European painter. Primarily a watercolorist, she was one of the most significant 20th-century New Zealand–born painters. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LIBRARIES; CULTURE; MUSEUMS. HOLLAND, HENRY EDMUND (HARRY) (1868–1933). Politician. Born in Australia, Harry Holland was one of a number of radical Australian socialists to make an important contribution to the struggles of labor in New Zealand. As a young man he transferred his adherence from the Salvation Army to the socialist cause. He was an early proponent of labor rights, being imprisoned on three occasions both for libel and sedition. He traveled to New Zealand in 1912, at the invitation of the Waihi Miners’ Union at the time of the Waihi Strike, and in 1913, was again imprisoned for sedition. Appointed editor of the Maoriland Worker in 1913, he was elected to Parliament in 1918, and in the following year, became leader of the parliamentary New Zealand Labour Party. During his 14 years as leader, the Labour Party replaced the Liberals as one of the two main political parties. His Marxist beliefs, his dogmatism, and lack of willingness to compromise made it doubtful that Labour would have won power under his leadership; his militant socialism had made him what his successor called “probably the ‘best’ hated man in the country—by labor opponents.” His doctrinaire socialism—as distinct from the reform of capitalism—was not followed by his successors, and the Labour Party which came to power in 1935 was essentially a reformist party. HOLLAND, SIDNEY GEORGE (SID) (1893–1961). Prime minister. The son of a member of Parliament (Reform Party), Sid

126 •

HOLYOAKE, KEITH JACKA (1904–1983)

Holland was born and educated in New Zealand. He served in World War I and became a leading Canterbury businessman before succeeding his father in Parliament in 1935. He succeeded Adam Hamilton as leader of the New Zealand National Party in 1940 and was prime minister from 1949 until his retirement in 1957, as well as minister of finance until 1954. His government presided over the dismantling of the wartime controls which had been retained by the Labour government after World War II. It also fought and won a protracted battle with watersiders by declaring a state of national emergency and using widespread government powers taken under the Public Safety Conservation Act of 1932. The government then won the 1951 “snap” election, fought on the issue of his handling of the Waterfront Dispute, with an increased parliamentary majority. His government also abolished the Legislative Council. Despite Holland’s political rhetoric, the National Party under his leadership moved from being a right-wing to a more centrist party. Effectively, he was the architect of the modern National Party. HOLYOAKE, KEITH JACKA (1904–1983). Prime minister. Born in New Zealand, “Kiwi Keith” Holyoake left school when he was 12 years old but continued his education by correspondence. He held high office in farming organizations and was first elected to Parliament in a by-election in 1932. Defeated in 1938, he was reelected in 1943 for the safe New Zealand National Party seat of Pahiatua, which he held until he retired in 1977. Elected deputy leader of the National Party in 1947, he was a successful minister of agriculture, 1949–1957. He became prime minister for a brief period following the retirement of Sidney George Holland in 1957. After National’s defeat in the 1957 election, Holyoake ran one of the most sustained and effective opposition campaigns in New Zealand’s history, one which is still remembered for its relentless castigation of the Second Labour Government’s 1958 budget, known as the “Black Budget.” After National’s victory in the 1960 election, he returned to office as prime minister and followed a “steady does it” policy through the economic and political upheavals of the 1960s.

HONOURS

• 127

Early in 1972, shortly before National was once again defeated at the polls, Holyoake finally stepped down as prime minister. Although he had become the second-longest continuous serving prime minister in New Zealand’s history, he remained an MP, acting as minister of state (virtually a supernumerary position) in Robert David Muldoon’s government before resigning to become New Zealand’s first native-born politician to be appointed governor-general, an office which he held between 1977 and 1980. Holyoake was probably the last of the old-style politicians; he had superb political antennae and was adroit, good on the stump, an adaptor and fixer, but ill-adapted to the requirements of modern television. HONGI HIKA (1772–1828). Maori chief; a member of the Nga Puhi tribe of northern New Zealand. His tribe’s defeat by the Ngati Whatua early in the 19th century was an important influence on his later life, when he developed contacts with Europeans as a means of acquiring greater power and influence. Hongi Hika visited Sydney in 1814 and England in 1820, where he met King George IV. His steady acquisition of muskets and powder (often through exchanging many of the presents he had been given) facilitated several victories against more southerly tribes. He continued campaigning for utu (revenge) until shortly before his death. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS. HONOURS. Before 1975 New Zealand shared in the British-based system of Royal Honours, but awards such as Member of the British Empire (MBE) seemed increasingly anachronistic, so between 1975 and 1996 the system was modified to consist of a mix of British and New Zealand Honours. In 1996, a fully New Zealand system of Royal Honours was adopted, consisting of three main elements: The highest honor, the Order of New Zealand (ONZ), is based upon the British Order of Merit and Order of the Companions of Honour and is limited to 20 living persons. The New Zealand Order of Merit is the next highest award. Dating from 1996, it consists of five levels: ranging from Knights and Dames Grand Companions (GNZM) to Officers (ONZM and Members (MNZM). The third level is the Queen’s Service Order (QSO). Ordinary membership is limited to 30 appointments per annum but also associated with the Order is the

128 •

HORTICULTURE

Queen’s Service Medal (QSM), which is unlimited. The use of titles was discontinued in April 2000. HORTICULTURE. Horticulture was a major growth sector of New Zealand’s economy during the second half of the 20th century. Kiwifruit was first exported in the 1970s and rapidly became one of New Zealand’s leading horticultural exports, surpassing apple exports in value. In addition to fruit and nuts, commercial vegetable production—both fresh and frozen—has grown steadily in importance since World War II, but income from these products still only amounts to just over 3 percent of all exports. See also AGRICULTURE; WINE INDUSTRY. HOTERE, RALPH (1931– ). Painter. Born in Mitimiti of Aupouri descent, Hotere has created many of the most enduring images in contemporary New Zealand art. His solo exhibitions, “Sangro Paintings and Human Rights” (1965) and “Black Paintings” (1968), received critical and public acclaim, and his 1997 exhibition, “Out the Black Window,” attracted 1,200 visitors on the opening day. He has also exhibited widely overseas, including the United Kingdom, United States, France, Brazil, Yugoslavia, Japan, and Australia. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LIBRARIES; MUSEUMS. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Established in 1854 under the Constitution Act of 1852 as a constituent part of the General Assembly, the role of the House is to serve as a legislature, to scrutinize and control the actions of government, to represent both government and people, and to provide the personnel necessary to form a government. The original term of Parliament was five years, but in 1879 this was reduced to three years. It has remained at three years since then despite two referendums seeking to increase it to four years. The size of the House, originally 37 members, was 99 members in 1993, but increased to a minimum of 120 with the introduction of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system. At a citizens’ initiated referendum held in November 1999, a turnout of 84.8 percent voted in favor of reducing the size of the House from 120 to 99 members but successive governments have chosen to ignore this nonbinding referendum. See also PARLIAMENT, TERM OF.

HUMAN RIGHTS ACT (1993)

• 129

HOWARD, MABEL BOWDEN (1894–1972). Politician. Daughter of New Zealand Labour Party pioneer Edwin (Ted) J. Howard (member of the House of Representatives from 1919 until 1939), Mabel Howard joined the Christchurch Socialist Party in 1909, the same year she began working at Trades Hall. She was appointed secretary of Canterbury General Labourers’ Union in 1933 and was elected to the House of Representatives in 1943. In 1947, she became New Zealand’s (and the British Empire’s) first woman Cabinet minister. A highly controversial and outspoken parliamentarian, she held the portfolio of health in the First Labour Government and Social Security in the Second Labour Government (1957–1960). HULME, KERI (1947– ). Writer. Daughter of an English father, Hulme, who can claim one-eighth Maori descent through her New Zealand mother, considers herself wholly Maori by spirit and inclination while respecting all facets of her ancestry, Celtic and Norse as well as Maori. Despite quite a small output, Hulme has won several awards for her writing, the main one being the prestigious Booker Prize for her novel The Bone People in 1985. That novel, rejected by several publishers without severe editing, which Hulme resolutely refused to do, was eventually published by a collective with the help of two Library Fund grants. The first edition was typeset by a student’s association and proofread and pasted up by members of the collective—a remarkable example of the New Zealand “do-it-yourself” tradition. Hulme has also published short stories and poems. See also LITERATURE. HUMAN RIGHTS ACT (1993). This Act stands alongside the Treaty of Waitangi, the Human Rights Commission Act of 1977, the Bill of Rights Act of 1990, the Homosexual Law Reform Act of 1986, and the Civil Union Act in 2004 to form a body of predominantly recent law designed to protect individual rights in law. The Human Rights Act provides greater protection for people facing discrimination and introduces several additional grounds for unlawful conduct, including sexual harassment, disability, sexual orientation, age, political opinion, employment, and family status. See also RACE RELATIONS ACT.

130 •

HYDROELECTRICITY

HYDROELECTRICITY. See ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES.

–I– IHIMAERA (SMILER), WITI TAME (1944– ). Writer. Ihimaera was born and educated in New Zealand and trained as a journalist before becoming a diplomat. He published the first of three collections of short stories, Pounamu, in 1972, followed by a series of novels, histories, an opera libretto, and a screenplay. He wrote the screenplay for the award-winning film Whale Rider, based upon his 1988 novel of that name. In 2003 he published Sky Dancer, a series of stories based on Maori myths. He was the first significant Maori novelist to be published. See also JACKSON, PETER; LITERATURE. IMMIGRATION. New Zealand is a society of immigrants. Recent studies suggest that the first Polynesian settlement probably took place around the 13th century, although its nature is still disputed. European settlement was at first unorganized, mainly whalers, sealers, missionaries, and traders. The first organized settlement did not take place until 1840, but in the following decade settlements were established in Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, Nelson, Dunedin, and Christchurch under the auspices of the New Zealand Company. Auckland, located near the center of the largest Maori settlements, was also established during the 1840s. Overwhelmingly, immigrants have come from the United Kingdom, although significant influxes of Germans, Scandinavians, and Chinese occurred during the second half of the 19th century. By the beginning of the 20th century, New Zealand had a restrictive white immigration policy in place, which aimed at excluding non-British and non-European people. Initially aimed at preventing Chinese immigration, the policy was expanded by the Immigration Restriction Amendment Act in 1920, which allowed the government to exclude individuals or groups while avoiding citing “race” as the reason. Refugees from European fascism in the late 1930s resulted in

IMPORT LICENSING

• 131

the government making a number of exceptions and, in 1944, legislative restrictions against Chinese immigration (which had included a poll tax) were abolished. Immediately after World War II, numbers of refugees and displaced persons (many from Poland) settled in New Zealand. In addition, between 1947 and 1974 free and assisted immigration was offered to selected migrants from the United Kingdom and Holland. Restrictions on migration from Asia were eased in 1974. At the same time, unrestricted access for migrants from the United Kingdom ended, and in 1987, the traditional source-country criteria for entry was replaced by a system that assesses an individual’s personal or business skills, family ties, or humanitarian reasons. Since c.1950 there has been a marked influx of Polynesian peoples from the smaller Pacific islands, followed more recently by people from Asia. At the time of the 2001 census, Pacific island peoples made up 6.2 percent of the population, with peoples of Asian descent comprising 6.4 percent. Since the mid-1990s immigration policy has been a prominent feature of political debate. In the runup to the 1996 general election, New Zealand First Party leader Winston Peters trenchantly criticized New Zealand’s current immigration policies, an attack that was construed by many to have racist overtones. Shortly after the 2002 general election, the Fifth Labour Government introduced new and significantly more restrictive criteria for migrant entry, although the existing annual target of approximately 53,000 was retained. New Zealand First’s immigration policy, as enunciated in December 2003, is to limit the inflow of migrants to a sustainable level (projected to be an estimated 10,000 per annum) and give precedence to delivering economic benefits to New Zealanders and maintaining New Zealand’s cultural values. IMPORT LICENSING. First introduced in 1938, import licensing has served two main purposes: as an emergency remedy to protect critical shortages of overseas reserves and as a means of assisting the development of the domestic manufacturing sector. It has been the principal means used by successive governments to control the flow of goods into New Zealand. In 1971, the government announced that, over time, import licensing would be replaced by tariffs as the main

132 •

INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF

measure of protection, and since then, there has been considerable liberalization in the quantity and range of goods imported, as exemption lists have been expanded. Today, import licensing is regarded as a clumsy method of achieving the objective of providing industry with assistance; by insulating local manufacturing from overseas competition, the incentive to strive for maximum efficiency is absent. It also encouraged investment in areas that were inherently uncompetitive, particularly where there were short production runs and, therefore, high production costs. See also ECONOMY. INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF. See DECLARATION OF THE UNITED TRIBES OF NEW ZEALAND. INDEPENDENT LABOUR PARTY. Originating in a resolution of the moderate Trades and Labour Conference in 1904, the party unsuccessfully contested the 1905 election. Its main significance is as an example of the moderate unions’ attempts to achieve political influence through the parliamentary process. It is also important as a precursor of the New Zealand Labour Party that was formed in 1916. INDICATIVE PLANNING. During the 1960s and 1970s both the National and Labour governments engaged in large-scale planning exercises with sector groups. Their purpose was to plan the orderly development of New Zealand’s economic and social resources and produce agreed targets that would lead to an increase in the standard of living and an improvement in the quality of life of all New Zealanders. The first exercise in indicative planning, an Industrial Development Conference, was convened in 1960. It was followed, in turn, by development conferences covering agriculture (1962), export development (1963), national development (1969), and education (1973–1974). A Task Force on Economic and Social Planning reported in 1976, and based on its recommendations, a governmentfunded Planning Council (1977–1991) was established to monitor and report on medium-term trends, prospects, issues, and options relating to economic, social, and cultural development. At the same time, another government-funded body, the Commission for the Future, was also established to examine and report on longer-term op-

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

• 133

tions. Its functions were merged with those of the Planning Council in 1981. Soon after it came to power in 1984, the Fourth Labour Government convened an Economic Summit conference in an effort to unite all sector groups behind its policies. Thereafter, indicative planning fell from favor as economic and social changes were imposed on the country. See also DOUGLAS, ROGER OWEN; RICHARDSON, RUTH MARGARET. INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT. The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act of 1894 was the high point of the Liberal Government’s industrial legislation. Through this Act, its chief architect, William Pember Reeves, sought to expand and strengthen trade unions, which had been extensively weakened following the 1890 Maritime Strike. The Act’s principal objective was to avoid strikes and lockouts by settling industrial disputes through compulsory conciliation or, if this failed, by binding arbitration in the Arbitration Court. Unions registered under the Act were protected and granted sole bargaining rights on behalf of their members. Although many amendments were made to the initial legislation, it established a system whose essential elements lasted for 90 years and marked New Zealand as a pioneer in labor relations. For most of its existence the Arbitration Court exercised a dominant influence over wages and conditions of work, although, with the development of second-tier bargaining outside the formal court structure during the 1960s and an erosion of confidence in the court (culminating in a “nil” general wage order in 1968), unions increasingly began to bypass it and negotiate directly with their employers. Additional pressure on the arbitration system, resulting from economic pressures on wage fixing brought about by rapidly rising inflation, undermined the court’s ability to resolve disputes and control wages. Indirect government intervention (through the arbitration court system) gave way to direct government controls on wage fixing culminating in a 20month wage freeze between mid-1982 and early 1984. The conciliation and arbitration system was finally abandoned when it was replaced by the Labour Relations Act in 1987. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. Early manufacturing industries existed mainly to provide for the basic needs of small local communities.

134 •

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

By the 1860s the development of farming led to the emergence of blacksmiths who manufactured and repaired plows and other farm machinery. A number of industries processing farm products also grew up during this period—flour milling, baking, woolen mills (1870s), freezing works (1880s), and dairy factories (1880s–1890s). The presence of large-scale unemployment during the 1880s resulted in the introduction of tariffs in 1888, which were designed to protect the infant industries. The First Labour Government used import controls to ration overseas funds and restrict imports to necessary consumer goods, raw materials, and equipment that New Zealand could not produce for itself. This policy encouraged the development of infant industries that remained dependent on imported materials and added little local value. In 1958, for the first time in New Zealand’s history, a government actively set about developing a broader industrial base. Emphasis was placed on the production of goods of high skill and quality. New Zealand Steel at Glenbrook, the Marsden Point oil refinery near Whangarei, the Tiwai Point aluminum smelter near Invercargill, glass and wallpaper manufacture, and a significant expansion in the woolen carpet industry, all date from this period. Since then manufacturing has developed across a broad front, initially as import replacement and, later, into the export market. Faced with the consequences of two massive increases in the price of oil, the Third National Government (1975–1984), led by Robert David Muldoon, introduced its Growth Strategy (dubbed “Think Big”) in 1979. It aimed to insulate New Zealand from the vagaries of the world economy through the development of its hydroelectricity, natural gas, and oil resources. The objective was to provide a platform for the development of an extensive and sophisticated industrial and manufacturing base. Following the election of the Fourth Labour Government in 1984, however, the plethora of subsidies available to industry was removed because it was creating distortions. The new “hands-off” policy, which aimed at providing greater stability and certainty, was intended to develop an internationally competitive manufacturing sector, with the government’s role being confined to encouraging improved competitive performance rather than

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH

• 135

participating directly. The succeeding New Zealand National Party government continued to follow and accelerate this policy of reducing tariffs and, in 1998, introduced a regime aimed at reducing all tariffs to zero by 2006. However, in 2000, the newly elected Fifth Labour Government froze all existing tariffs until at least 2005 except for those on beer, paper, paper products, and printed material that had earlier been agreed upon as part of the Uruguay Round under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). See also DOUGLAS, ROGER OWEN; ECONOMY; RICHARDSON, RUTH MARGARET. INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF). Despite strong support for the United Nations and other international organizations, New Zealand did not join the IMF until 1961. Objections to the fund ranged from a belief that it would cause unemployment to fear of United States domination of the economy. Opinion shifted when it began to be realized that if New Zealand had to resort to short-term borrowing, it was penalizing itself unnecessarily by not joining. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH. New Zealand has a long history of multilateralism. It was seen in support for the League of Nations, the British Empire and Commonwealth (headed by former New Zealand deputy prime minister Don McKinnon as secretary-general, 2000– ), and the United Nations. Multilateralism as a policy was enhanced first by Britain joining the then European Economic Community (EEC) followed by New Zealand’s rupture of the ANZUS alliance with the United States. Unless a small, remote country like New Zealand is to be unhealthily dependent upon a more powerful ally, multilateralism offers the best alternative for defense, whether military or economic. The Afghan war and a commitment to peacekeeping operations in Iraq and other parts of the world under United Nations auspices serve to emphasize New Zealand’s commitment to multilateralism. Amongst other multilateral organizations which are important for the country are the Asian Development Bank (ADB); the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); the World Bank; and the World Trade Organization (headed by a former New Zealand prime minister, Michael Moore, from 1999–2002). See also

136 •

JACKSON, PETER (1961– )

ASIA, RELATIONS WITH; AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH; CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH; EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH; EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH; FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; GERMANY, RELATIONS WITH; JAPAN, RELATIONS WITH; PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; SOUTH AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH; TRADE; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH.

–J– JACKSON, PETER (1961– ). Film director and writer. As a boy Jackson, armed with an 8mm movie camera, was making films by the age of 12. While working at a Wellington newspaper he made the full-length film Bad Taste, which the New Zealand Film Commission exhibited at Cannes and sold in 30 countries. A series of films followed, including Braindead (1992); Heavenly Creatures (1994), a drama based on a true New Zealand murder story; Forgotten Silver (1995), a clever hoax that purportedly documented the life and work of a pioneer New Zealand filmmaker, one “Colin McKenzie”; The Frighteners (1996); and the magisterial trilogy based upon J. R. R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings (2001–2003)—of which the first, The Fellowship of the Ring, won two Academy Award Oscars; the second, The Two Towers, captured a further four Oscars; and the third, The Return of the King, won a total of 11 Oscars including Best Director and Best Motion Picture. See also CAMPION, JANE; CREATIVE NEW ZEALAND. JAMIESON, PENELOPE ANN BANSALL (1942– ). Anglican bishop of Dunedin. Born in England and educated in Scotland and then in New Zealand, she worked as teacher, university lecturer, curate, and priest before being ordained bishop in 1990, the first woman in the world to hold such a position. She retired from the bishopric in 2004. JAPAN, RELATIONS WITH. New Zealand fought against Japan, alongside Britain and the United States, in World War II, but has developed important political, social, and economic arrangements

JONES, JOHN (JOHNNY) (c.1808–1869)

• 137

with Japan since. In particular, it was early in developing a trade relationship after 1945 and this has blossomed into a broader close relationship. For example, Japanese is now the most widely taught foreign language in New Zealand schools and New Zealand is the chosen destination for thousands of Japanese tourists. Differences still occur (over whaling, for example) but these have not disturbed the overall even tenor of the relationship. See also ASIA, RELATIONS WITH; CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH. JAYFORCE. Jayforce was the name given to New Zealand forces, initially numbering 4,300 men, which formed part of the British Commonwealth occupation force in Japan between 1946 and 1948. See also ARMED FORCES; WORLD WAR II. JEWS. Jewish settlement in New Zealand dates from the time of early European settlement. Although only a small fraction of the overall population, Jews have played an important role in New Zealand business, being responsible for the founding of what are, today, some of the leading business enterprises. A number have been noted for their philanthropic activities. Jews have also held the position of prime minister, chief justice, and race relations conciliator. Anti-Semitism has not been a serious problem in New Zealand, perhaps because the rate of intermarriage has been quite high. See also RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. JONES, JOHN (JOHNNY) (c.1808–1869). Whaler, trader, and pioneer Otago settler. Probably born in Sydney, Australia, Johnny Jones went to sea at an early age. By 1830 he had purchased shares in a number of whaling vessels and, five years later, was part owner of a whaling station in southern New Zealand. By 1838 he had gained a controlling interest in seven southern South Island whaling stations, including the Waikouaiti whaling station and surrounding land. Further land purchases followed, and in 1840 he established the first organized European settlement, at Cherry Farm (Waikouaiti) on the South Island’s east coast. With the decline in whaling and the eventual closure of his Waikouaiti station, Jones concentrated on developing his farming venture;

138 •

JUSTICE OF THE PEACE

he supplied food to the Waikouaiti community and also the infant town of Dunedin in its earliest years. He moved to Dunedin in 1854 and engaged in the coastal shipping trade. Regarded as a benevolent despot who administered rough justice where men were concerned, Jones was, nevertheless, known to be generous and kindly to women and children. JUSTICE OF THE PEACE. This ancient English office was introduced to New Zealand as early as 1840. Initially, justices of the peace had a prime responsibility for law and order. Appointment today is by the governor-general, formally on the recommendation of the minister of justice, in practice from nominations made by MPs. Specialization of function in the preservation of law and order has reduced their role very largely to the administration of oaths and the taking of declarations. However, occasionally they may take the preliminary hearing of indictable cases where no magistrate is conveniently available.

–K– KAIN, EDGAR (COBBER) (1918–1940). Air ace. Born and educated in New Zealand, Kain traveled to Britain and joined the Royal Air Force in 1936. As section commander of a fighter squadron, he flew on more than 80 fighter and escort missions. He showed conspicuous gallantry and was credited with the destruction of a substantial number of enemy aircraft before dying in an aircraft accident. Kain was the outstanding Royal Air Force fighter pilot during the early part of World War II. KAKAPO (Strigops habroptilus). One of six species of the parrot family native to New Zealand. This ancient bird has a number of distinguishing features. It is the heaviest parrot in the world, weighing up to 3.5 kilograms (7.5 pounds); it is nocturnal and virtually flightless, only gliding downwards over short distances; it lives for over 60 years; and it has no close relatives. At courtship the male inflates itself like a balloon and gives a deep booming call. The kakapo has a strong smell. It is also one of the world’s most endangered species,

KAWEPO, RENATA TAMA-KI-HIKURANGI (1808?–1888)

• 139

having survived in two small populations located in extremely remote mountainous parts of New Zealand. In 2002 there were only approximately 62 birds remaining. An intensive program exists to save the kakapo from extinction. See also FLORA AND FAUNA. KAURI (Agathis australis). A very large indigenous conifer, the kauri can grow to around 36 meters (120 feet) high with a diameter of 4 meters (15 feet) or more and can live for 1,000–2,000 years. Tane mahuta (God of the forest), located in the Waipaoa Forest in Northland, is the largest kauri specimen—and the largest tree—in New Zealand: it stands 51.5 meters (approximately 167 feet) tall and has a girth measuring 13.8 meters (approximately 45 feet). Kauri was used extensively by early whalers and traders for masts and spars. For a brief period in the 1850s, it was New Zealand’s most important export product. Its gum was highly valued, particularly in the manufacture of slow-drying varnishes with a hard finish, until it was superseded by quick-drying synthetics. Kauri gum has also been used in dentistry. See also FLORA AND FAUNA; GUM DIGGING. KAWEPO, RENATA TAMA-KI-HIKURANGI (1808?–1888). Maori chief. Kawepo was born in Hawke’s Bay into the Ngati Te Upokoiri tribe some time in the first decade of the 19th century. During the second half of the 1840s, he made a number of missionary journeys as a Maori teacher working with William Colenso but broke with him in 1850. Kawepo was at first willing to sell land to the Crown, but later he began to oppose other Maori who were selling huge blocks. He also became involved in the intertribal wars associated with the extensive alienation of land from the late 1850s. Although concerned to limit such sales, he did not actively support the King Movement and fought alongside the British in actively opposing Pai Marire activity in Hawke’s Bay. He also played an important part in the campaigns against Te Kooti. Kawepo was highly regarded by both British and Maori for his judgment and fair-mindedness. He is also said to have distributed sheep to his people, providing the base for a new industry; erected flour mills; contributed to the building of roads and bridges; and collected rents and distributed them fairly, as well as showing a keen interest in education. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT.

140 •

KAWITI, TE RUKI (1774?–1854)

KAWITI, TE RUKI (1774?–1854). Maori chief. Born into the Nga Puhi tribe in northern New Zealand, Kawiti was noted both as a warrior and a peacemaker. He was a strong opponent of the introduction of British rule and only signed the Treaty of Waitangi reluctantly after initially refusing to do so. He supported Hone Heke in cutting down the flagstaff at Kororareka and fought against British troops together with their Maori allies in the Northern Wars, winning several battles before finally making peace. KAY-FORCE. See KOREAN WAR. KEEPA, TE RANGIHIWINUI (c.1823–1898). Maori chief. A leader of the Muaupoko tribe and baptized as a Christian, Te Keepa (or Major Kemp as he was also known) was a leading progovernment Maori. He led a highly effective Maori contingent in the campaigns of the mid-1860s and, in recognition of his invaluable assistance, was presented with the Queen’s Sword of Honour, the New Zealand Cross, and the New Zealand War Medal. Yet it has been said of him that his real power base remained in Maoridom and that in peace, as in war, he sought to be his own master. Thus, in the 1880s he was a strong advocate of increased Maori control over their own land, together with autonomy and involvement in decision making on matters which affected them. He believed that the races should be unified as one people but that Maori should preserve unity of purpose with the Treaty of Waitangi ratified on the basis of equality and the sharing of mana. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT. KELLIHER, HENRY JOSEPH (1896–1991). Businessman and philanthropist. After dealing in property and stocks, Kelliher founded the major brewing and hotel company, Dominion Breweries Ltd. A director of the Bank of New Zealand, 1936–1942, he was a strong advocate of monetary reform. He was founder of the League of Health of New Zealand Youth, which successfully advocated free milk in schools. A patron of the arts, he established the Kelliher Art Prize for painting in oils in 1956 and established the Kelliher Art Trust in 1961. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; LIBRARIES; LIQUOR LICENSING; MUSEUMS; PROHIBITION; SOCIAL CREDIT POLITICAL LEAGUE.

KING COUNTRY

• 141

KELSEY, LAVINIA JANE (1856–1948). Educationalist. Born in England, Kelsey emigrated to New Zealand with her two brothers when she was 21 years old. With a lifelong interest in education, she began a private school for girls, conducted adult education classes for women, and played a leading role in the establishment of the New Zealand kindergarten movement. KEMP, “MAJOR.” See KEEPA, TE RANGIHIWINUI. KIDMAN, FIONA JUDITH (1940– ). Author. Best known as a novelist, but also a short story writer and poet, Kidman is one of the most popularly successful of serious contemporary novelists in New Zealand. Several of her books are concerned with seeking to escape from the effects and hypocrisy of suburban and provincial middleclass life, which she sees as narrowly conformist. Kidman also frequently uses the device of introducing an outsider in order to dramatize the issues. Among her best-known novels are A Breed of Women (1979), Mandarin Summer (1981), The Book of Secrets (1987), and Ricochet Baby (1996). See also LITERATURE. KING, FREDERIC TRUBY (1858–1938). Child health reformer. Founder of the Child Health Movement, Truby King was born in New Zealand, the son of a pioneer settler. He trained as a doctor at Edinburgh University before returning to New Zealand in 1888, where he made important contributions in the field of mental health reform. King is, however, best known for his founding of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children, better known as the Plunket Society. His work in the feeding and management of infants, which resulted in international recognition, contributed to a dramatic fall in infant mortality in New Zealand from 88 percent to 31 percent in 30 years. A recent (2003) biography is, however, somewhat critical, describing him as a dominant and domineering personality who assiduously cultivated his public image; a vain eccentric who was, nevertheless very persuasive; and a financial incompetent who died bankrupt. KING COUNTRY. Following their defeat in the battle of Orakau in 1864 the Ngati Maniapoto, Ngati Haua, and Ngati Raukawa tribes

142 •

KING MOVEMENT (Kingitanga)

regrouped behind a new boundary in the upper Waikato region and established strong fortifications. This land remained Maori territory for many years because it was clear to the government that the tribes were unlikely to be subjugated by military conquest. Throughout the 1870s the “King Country,” as it came to be known, remained a major area of resistance to advancing European settlement as the tribes that had survived the Land Wars established what were, in effect, states within the state and the Maori king ruled as an independent monarch. It was a place of refuge for those Maori who refused to make peace with the government. The boundaries of the King Country were formally established in the 1880s, encompassing the tribal lands of the Ngati Maniapoto, Ngati Tama, and Ngati Tuwharetoa; the lands in the South Waikato basin that had escaped confiscation; and the northern Taranaki confiscation line established by promulgation following the passage of the New Zealand Settlements Act in 1863. The second Maori king, Tukaroto Matutaera Potatau Te Wherowhero Tawhaio, endeavored to keep Europeans and alcoholic liquor out of the King Country, and he tried to stop all land sales within the area, but by the later 1880s some Kingite tribes had begun to sell or lease some of their lands. Gradually, the central North Island was opened up to European settlement, a development confirmed by the completion of the North Island main trunk railway line, which passed through the region, in 1908. See also KING MOVEMENT; TE KOOTI ARIKIRANGI TE TURUKI; TE WHEROWHERO, POTATAU. KING MOVEMENT (Kingitanga). The first attempt at a panMaori organization, the King Movement was established in 1858 with the election of the Waikato chief Te Wherowhero as King Potatau I. Although amorphous in its aims and functions, it became greatly concerned about the alienation of land. Today, the Maori king or queen is paramount chief of several important tribes chosen by the Kauhanganui (Maori parliament). See also KING COUNTRY. KINGI, WIREMU (?–1882). Maori chief. Wiremu Kingi is his baptismal name; before his conversion to Christianity in the 1840s, he was known as Te Rangitake. A member of the Te Ati Awa tribe of the

KIWIBANK

• 143

west coast of the North Island, Kingi was involved both with his tribe’s southward migrations as well as the controversial sale of the Waitara block. Although he signed the Treaty of Waitangi and was conciliatory to Pakeha, differences soon occurred over land alienation; in the main these occurred over the Waitara purchase, which Kingi strenuously opposed. KIRK, NORMAN ERIC (1923–1974). Prime minister. The son of a cabinetmaker, Kirk was born in New Zealand and started work at the age of 12. He typified the “do-it-yourself” attitude of New Zealanders, building his own house and largely educating himself. He had a number of laboring jobs, the principal one as a stationary engine driver. He held office in the union movement and local government (mayor of the borough of Kaiapoi, 1953–1956) before being elected as a Labour member of Parliament in 1957. Eight years later he was elected the youngest ever leader of the New Zealand Labour Party and, in 1972, became prime minister. His health failed, however, and he died in office 20 months after Labour’s landslide victory. He was largely responsible for developing New Zealand’s sense of identity as a South Pacific nation (countering the Anglocentric orientation); for encouraging the developing consciousness of the value of the country’s Maori heritage; and for developing a more independent foreign policy. KIWI (Apteryx). Along with the now extinct moa, the flightless kiwi has probably been present in New Zealand for over 70 million years. There are three varieties—the brown, great spotted, and little spotted kiwi. A largely nocturnal bird with nostrils in the tip of its long tapering bill, it lays one of the largest eggs in proportion to its size of any bird. Today the kiwi is a national symbol. See also ENDANGERED SPECIES; FLORA AND FAUNA. KIWIBANK. Following the deregulation policies of the Fourth Labour Government, most New Zealand banks were sold to overseas interests. Postbank, which had been run by the Post Office, was sold to the Australia and New Zealand Bank (ANZ) in 1989, and the Bank of New Zealand, New Zealand’s largest, was sold to the National Australia Bank (NAB) in 1992. By 2003, all five New Zealand

144 •

KIWIFRUIT

major banks were owned by Australian interests; the only New Zealand-owned operation was the Taranaki Savings Bank. Concerned about what it saw as excessive customer charges in particular, the Alliance campaigned for a state-owned bank and, as Labour’s coalition partner in government, achieved its aim when the Kiwibank, backed by the government and run by New Zealand Post, was established under the chairmanship of former New Zealand National Party prime minister Jim Bolger in 2002. See also ANDERTON, JAMES PATRICK; BANKING; PRIVATIZATION. KIWIFRUIT. Formerly known as the Chinese gooseberry (Actinidia chinensis), the kiwifruit (or “kiwi”) is native to the Yangtse Valley in China but its commercial potential was first exploited by New Zealand horticulturalists. Export volumes increased dramatically during the 1980s. Competition, particularly from California and Chile, resulted in surplus production and a major setback for the industry in 1992. This was addressed through the removal of vines and the implementation of a crop management program, which seeks to ensure that the fruit produced is of optimum quality for overseas markets. Kiwifruit is the single most important horticultural export earner. Although kiwifruit accounts for less than 1 percent of world fresh fruit production, New Zealand supplies approximately onequarter of the world’s output. “Zespri” is the global marketing subsidiary of the grower-owned Kiwifruit New Zealand (the Kiwifruit Marketing Board). It is the world’s biggest marketer of kiwifruit and is regarded as the world leader in all aspects of kiwifruit production from quality to innovation. See also AGRICULTURE; PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS. KOHANGA REO. Language nest. A Maori language immersion program for children under the age of five years. See also EDUCATION. KOHERE, MOHENA (1810?–1894). Maori chief. A Ngati Porou leader, Kohere took an active role in intertribal warfare but also fostered those elements of European culture and technology which he regarded as helpful for his tribe. As early as 1840 his people were growing wheat and maize on a large scale and transporting

KORORAREKA

• 145

the produce in their own schooners, even to Australia. He was also very active in the system of Maori self-government (runanga) introduced by Governor George Grey in the early 1860s. He resisted association with the Maori King Movement and actively fought against the later Hauhau movement. A supporter of the Treaty of Waitangi, Kohere struggled hard, and not wholly without success, to prevent further alienation of his tribal lands. He had strong religious convictions and built a large church. In 1872, he was one of the first Maori members to be appointed to the Legislative Council where he served until 1887. See also MAORI LAND COURT. KOHIMARAMA COVENANT. In July 1860 a government conference of over 200 Maori leaders was held at Kohimarama (Auckland). It was attended by the governor, Thomas Gore Browne, who emphasized the benefits gained by Maori from the Treaty of Waitangi and sought endorsement by the Maori leaders of the government’s policy towards the King Movement and the Taranaki War. In the covenant, the participants pledged to do nothing incompatible with Queen Victoria’s sovereignty. See also LAND WARS. KOREAN WAR (1950–1953). Responding to an appeal from the United Nations’ secretary-general (and pressure from the British government), New Zealand dispatched immediate naval support and, much later, a volunteer force of 1,044 men (named Kayforce) to South Korea. These, along with additional New Zealand troops, were integrated into the Commonwealth Division and remained there until 1954. A total of 121 casualties were suffered (39 killed and 82 wounded). The Korean War, particularly with the demand it created for clothing and blankets, created a boom in wool prices, which had important consequential effects for the New Zealand economy. See also ARMED FORCES. KORORAREKA. Described as the “hell hole of the Pacific” during the later 1830s, Kororareka in the Bay of Islands was by far the largest settlement in New Zealand prior to 1840. Originally a base for deep-sea whalers, by the 1820s it was an important whaling, sealing, and mercantile center and chief port of call for many ships

146 •

KOTAHITANGA (MAORI UNITY) MOVEMENT

visiting the country. Renowned for its “grog shops,” its lawlessness reached a point where local residents formed their own vigilante association in 1838 to enforce summary justice. New Zealand’s first capital, Russell, was situated close by and, after 1842, when Russell was destroyed by fire, the name “Russell” gradually came to be applied to Kororareka. The “Girls’ War” took place on Kororareka Beach in 1830, and it was here in 1844 that Hone Heke chopped down the flagpole—symbol of British authority— on Maike Hill. KOTAHITANGA (MAORI UNITY) MOVEMENT. There have been several attempts to establish separate Maori parliaments— home rule for Maori—since 1860. Among the earliest was the King Movement’s Kingitanga parliament, but more important was the rival Kotahitanga (unity movement), which met annually from 1892 until 1902 at different North Island centers. After it fell into abeyance a Kingitanga (kingship) Parliament met until 1920 to discuss land grievances, the Treaty of Waitangi, and competing claims for chiefly authority. KUPE. According to most Maori discovery traditions, Kupe was the first discoverer of New Zealand. He is reputed to have discovered New Zealand, to which, it is asserted, he gave the name Aotearoa, whilst traveling the oceans after escaping the wrath of the family of a man he had killed in Hawai‘iki. After finding and chasing a wheke (giant octopus) through Cook Strait, Kupe sailed along the North Island’s west coast, naming various prominent features before finally returning to Hawa‘iki to tell of the new land he had discovered. Recent studies of Maori tribal traditions suggest, however, that Kupe may have been a 14th-century being, that legendary knowledge of him was purely regional, and that Maori in many parts of New Zealand had no knowledge of him. See also POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT. KURA KAUPAPA MAORI. Alternative schools controlled by local communities and based on total immersion in Maori language and culture. They aim to maintain continuity of the kohanga reo philosophy. See also EDUCATION.

LABOUR PARTY

• 147

KYOTO PROTOCOL. A controversial international protocol, whose origins are generally traced back to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1990, and the United Nations’ Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was adopted at the Earth Summit Conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The protocol, formulated in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997, aims to reduce total greenhouse gas emissions from the developed world (which produces the bulk of them) by more than 5 percent below the levels of 1990 by 2008–12. About half of New Zealand’s greenhouse gases come from methane and nitrous oxide, emissions (which, together, make up an estimated 60 percent of New Zealand’s total emissions) of more than 40 million sheep and cattle—the products of which earn approximately one-third of New Zealand’s export earnings. Despite this, the New Zealand government ratified the protocol with the help of the Green Party in the face of dissent from much of the parliamentary opposition. One of the objections is to the government’s plan to introduce a carbon tax in industries that produce greenhouse gases, believed to contribute to global warming, in 2008. This tax is expected to raise energy prices between 6 and 19 percent. Initially, New Zealand expected to earn as much as $1.4 billion from carbon sink credits generated by its large commercial forest plantations but a more recent analysis suggested that there may be a net liability in excess of $500 million. New Zealand produces between 70 and 90 million tons of CO2 equivalents a year, ranking it the fourth-largest per capita producer after the United States, Australia, and Canada. Present government policy is designed to establish a more stringent regime than specified for the first commitment period because it anticipates that there will be more rigorous protocol targets for the second commitment period from 2013–18. See also ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES.

–L– LABOUR DAY. See EIGHT-HOUR DAY. LABOUR PARTY. See NEW ZEALAND LABOUR PARTY.

148 •

LABOUR RELATIONS ACT (1987)

LABOUR RELATIONS ACT (1987). In 1987, the Fourth Labour Government replaced the Industrial Relations Act of 1973 with new legislation designed to encourage the development of effective employee and employer organizations, which could operate independently of legislation and negotiate relevant awards and agreements that would be honored by both parties. The rules governing trade union formation and activities were altered to make them stronger, more effective, and more efficient and to increase the level of internal democracy and the accountability of union officials to their members. This Act was repealed in 1991 by the Fourth National Government’s Employment Contracts Act, which, in turn, was replaced by the Fifth Labour Government’s Employment Relations Act in 2000, reflecting the government’s shift of emphasis from individualism to collectivism, and developing trust rather than contractual relationships. The Employment Relations Act was amended in 2003 to further enhance workers’ conditions. See also INDUSTRIAL CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION ACT. LAND MARCH. See MAORI LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT. LAND PROCLAMATION (1853). Governor George Grey believed that men with limited capital should still be able to purchase land. In March 1853 he issued regulations providing that land controlled by the state should be sold at 10 shillings ($1) or, in some instances, 5 shillings (50 cents) an acre. These regulations cut across the basic principle on which the six “Wakefield” settlements had been founded. It resulted in a rapid expansion of landholdings outside the main settlements where men with limited capital could buy land much more cheaply than they could within the boundaries of those settlements. Thus, the proclamation contributed to the dispersal of the close-knit settlements envisaged by Edward Gibbon Wakefield. See also WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. LAND WARS (1860–1872). The name most frequently applied today to what were formerly known as the “Maori Wars” but are also known by Maori as te riri Pakeha (white man’s war). Increasing Eu-

LANGE, DAVID RUSSELL (1942–2005)

• 149

ropean settlement and demand for land led to growing Maori resistance to land sales. The situation was further complicated by differences between Maori and Pakeha over the meaning of the Treaty of Waitangi and the question of sovereignty. Not all Maori took part; a number fought alongside the British. See also MAORI LAND COURT; NEW ZEALAND SETTLEMENTS ACT. LANDS FOR SETTLEMENT ACT. An Act passed by the Liberal Government in 1892 which was designed to force the breakup of large pastoral estates established during the early years of European settlement. The Act provided the state with the power to compulsorily purchase estates from their owners. It was used only twice because many of the 700 or so landowners were only too willing to sell to the government (some even pressed the government to buy their land) to rid themselves of debt incurred during the Long Depression of the 1880s. The Act also provided for land to be leased in perpetuity for a term of 999 years at a rental of 4 percent of its government valuation per annum without provision for regular revaluations. This high level of security of tenure was tantamount to providing lessees with very cheap freehold land. See also ADVANCES TO SETTLERS ACT. LANGE, DAVID RUSSELL (1942–2005). Prime minister. New Zealand–born and –educated, David Lange qualified as a lawyer before entering Parliament at a by-election in March 1977. He rose rapidly through the parliamentary New Zealand Labour Party to become deputy leader (November 1979), leader (February 1983), and prime minister (July 1984). Reelected in August 1987, his government, which had introduced far-reaching marketoriented reforms of a predominantly right-wing nature, was torn apart by internal dissension and, in August 1989, Lange resigned as prime minister, but continued to serve in the government as attorney-general. Although earlier in his parliamentary career he had tried to persuade the Labour Party to accept that a distinction existed between nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed vessels, he was well known as the principal official exponent of New Zealand’s antinuclear policy which had led to the exclusion of

150 •

LANGLOIS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1808–?)

United States naval vessels because of the American policy of neither confirming nor denying the existence of nuclear weapons aboard their ships. Lange retired from Parliament in 1996, but continued his career as an entertaining after-dinner speaker. See also FOURTH LABOUR GOVERNMENT. LANGLOIS, JEAN FRANCOIS (1808–?). Colonizer. Born in France, Langlois became a whaler and by 1838 was operating from New Zealand. After a year spent whaling off Banks Peninsula, he conceived the idea of establishing a French commercial settlement there with whaling as the principal occupation, to counter British domination of the North Island. During 1838 he bought most of the peninsula from local Maori for 1,000 French francs. Returning to France he formed the Nanto-Bordelaise Company as the means of fulfilling his plans. By the time the French colonists reached New Zealand in July 1840, however, Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson had annexed the whole of the South Island for Britain so that, although the French established a colony at Akaroa, it was under British sovereignty. The French settlers were thus forced to settle in British territory, and to add insult to injury, some of the local Maori had resold the land several times over since it had been “purchased” by Langlois. Langlois continued whaling for a short time thereafter, but the venture proved to be unprofitable. LANGSTONE, FRANK (1881–1969). Politician. Langstone was a Labour member of the House of Representatives from 1922 to 1925, and from 1928 to 1949. Between 1935 and 1942 he was a member of the Labour Cabinet. He was president of the New Zealand Labour Party, 1933–1934, and was appointed New Zealand’s first high commissioner to Canada in 1942. Along with John A. Lee, he was a hostile critic of Savage, Fraser, and Nash. A keen monetary reformer, Langstone stood, unsuccessfully, as an Independent Labour candidate at the 1949 general election and, subsequently, he twice stood for the Social Credit Political League. LATIMER, GRAHAM STANLEY (1926– ). Maori leader from the Nga Puhi tribe and political party activist. Latimer was born

LEAGUE OF RIGHTS

• 151

and educated in New Zealand. He joined the army at 17 and after World War II worked for the New Zealand Railways Department before becoming a farmer. He became a member of the New Zealand Maori Council in 1964 and served as its president for over 30 years, becoming deeply involved in attempting to implement the recommendations of the Waitangi Tribunal in the just reallocation of resources to Maori, especially fishing, forestry, and broadcasting rights. He was also involved—with varying success—in setting up Maori commercial enterprises. Latimer was Maori vice president of the New Zealand National Party from 1981 until 1992. LEAGUE OF NATIONS. New Zealand was an original member of the League of Nations and favored principles of international collective security, which it also pursued through the British Empire (later Commonwealth). Initially, New Zealand opposed the establishment of the League of Nations’ International Health Committee (a forerunner of the World Health Organization) and the Committee of Intellectual Cooperation (from which UNESCO was derived), partly because of doubts about what the scope of the organizations should be, and partly on grounds of expense. Between 1927 and 1929 New Zealand’s administration of the League mandate in Western Samoa twice came under the critical scrutiny of the Permanent Mandates Commission as a result of serious disturbances in that territory. In 1935, the coalition government fully supported the trade embargo imposed on Italy as a result of the invasion of Ethiopia. The next year, at a time when New Zealand was a member of the League Council, the First Labour Government was highly critical of the revocation of those sanctions. It was also publicly critical of Britain in 1938, when that country argued that members of the League were no longer under any collective obligation respecting Ethiopia but were free to act according to their individual judgment in regard to the new situation. See also UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. LEAGUE OF RIGHTS. The League of Rights, which evolved out of the Social Credit movement in Australia, was founded in New

152 •

LEASE IN PERPETUITY

Zealand in 1970, largely as a result of the efforts of Eric Butler, founder of the Australian League of Rights. Both anticollectivist and anti–big business, it stood for traditional values (British and Christian) and the less well-off in society. It was, however, also prone to accusations of conspiracy theory, racism, and anti-Semitism. The New Zealand League tended to work through, or in conjunction with, groups promoting direct democracy, such as the Voters’ Association, and antitax movements, such as the 1970s Tax Reduction Integrity Movement (TRIM). LEASE IN PERPETUITY. See LANDS FOR SETTLEMENT ACT. LEE, JOHN ALEXANDER (1891–1982). Politician and writer. John A. Lee was one of the most colorful characters in New Zealand politics. After convictions for criminal offenses whilst a juvenile, he won the Distinguished Conduct Medal (DCM) for gallantry in World War I. A brilliant orator, he was a member of Parliament from 1922 until 1943 apart from the period between 1928 and 1931. Expelled from the New Zealand Labour Party in 1940 for criticism of ailing Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage, Lee formed the Democratic (Soldier) Labour Party, but both he and it were defeated in 1943. He was also a well-known author, noted especially for his semiautobiographical novel Children of the Poor (1934) and his political memoir Simple on a Soapbox (1963). Lee was one of a number of the early Labour Party MPs who was also a keen monetary reformer. See also LITERATURE. LEE, SANDRA ROSE TE HAKAMATUA (1952– ). Politician. A member of the Mana Motuhake Party, Sandra Lee was elected to Parliament on the Alliance ticket in 1993. The first Maori woman to represent a general electorate, she was elected leader of the Mana Motuhake Party in 1994, when she succeeded Matiu Rata, the party’s founder. In November 1994 Lee was elected leader of the Alliance following Jim Anderton’s unexpected resignation but resigned in his favor when he reversed his decision to retire from politics in 1995. She retired from Parliament at the 2002 general election. LEGAL SYSTEM. New Zealand’s legal system has developed from that inherited from Britain in 1840. There are a number of strands:

LIBERAL GOVERNMENT

• 153

1. Common law—Law based on general rules developed over time by British and New Zealand courts and the courts of other Commonwealth countries. 2. Statute law—The laws made by Parliament. Parliament, the highest court in the land, can make laws applying to New Zealand which also have effect outside New Zealand. 3. United Kingdom laws—A number of laws passed by the British Parliament before 1840 still apply in New Zealand, but most British laws have now been repealed or replaced by laws passed by the New Zealand Parliament. 4. Regulations (delegated legislation)—Many acts of Parliament allow the governor-general to make regulations by order-in-council, but any laws made this way must be consistent with the act of Parliament which authorizes them. Until 2004 New Zealand had a three-tier court system comprising district courts, high court, and court of appeal. In addition, it was still possible to appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain. In July 2004 the system of appeals to the Privy Council was replaced by a New Zealand Supreme Court sitting in Wellington. There are also a number of specialist courts, the most important of which are the Employment Court, Maori Land Court, and Family Courts. See also BILL OF RIGHTS ACT; CONSTITUTION; JUSTICE OF THE PEACE; POLICE OFFENCES AMENDMENT ACT. LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. Established as a small appointed upper house of the General Assembly and intended to act as a brake on “democracy,” the council frequently represented landholder (often leaseholder) and moneyed interests in the 19th century. Despite appointment for life, there was a frequent turnover of personnel and, with the advent of political parties, the term was reduced to seven years in 1892. Thereafter, as political patronage tended to predominate, the House steadily lost influence and, finally, was abolished in 1950, when New Zealand became a unicameral state. See also HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES; PARLIAMENT. LIBERAL GOVERNMENT. The Liberal Party government led by John Ballance came to power in January 1891 with the electoral support of

154 •

LIBERAL PARTY (1891–1928)

the small farmers and would-be farmers, farm laborers, and the urban working class. These groups—a combination of town and country— blamed the collapse of the economy on politically dominant pastoralists who had locked up large tracts of land. During the first decade of its 21 years in power, the Liberals set about reforming land ownership through the Land and Income Assessment Act of 1891, the Lands for Settlement Act of 1892, and the Advances to Settlers Act of 1894. It also improved labor and employment conditions: 14 factory acts were passed between 1891 and 1900 to regulate hours of work, factory working conditions, and wages and to prevent “truck” (i.e., payment in goods instead of money), sweated labor, and the exploitation of child labor. In 1894 it passed the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. Much humanitarian and social welfare legislation was also passed, including female suffrage and the Old Age Pensions Act in 1898. For much of the second half of its long period in power, the Liberal government was content to administer rather than reform, but its progressive legislation had made New Zealand a more acceptable place in which to live. Its importance lies in its belief that the state had a duty to promote the welfare of the less-privileged members of the community. See also TAXATION. LIBERAL PARTY (1891–1928). See POLITICAL PARTIES. LIBRARIES. The first libraries were established in New Zealand as early as 1841. Most of the 19th-century libraries were associated with Mechanics Institutes, universities, and schools. The free library service was largely a product of the 20th century. The Local Government Act of 2002 stipulates that where territorial local authorities provide a public library, residents are entitled to join it “free of charge.” The public library service for the majority of New Zealanders is provided by territorial local authorities, which is often organized around a central library and a number of service points. In 2001 there were 84 library systems and 287 permanent service points. In addition, there are eight university libraries, a further 55 in other tertiary institutions, a widespread school library system, and more than 200 specialist libraries and information centers servicing government de-

LIQUOR LICENSING

• 155

partments. A cooperative interlibrary lending system is available through some 250 libraries. Noteworthy collections within this system are held by the National Library of New Zealand, in Wellington; the Parliamentary Library (the first parliamentary librarian was appointed as early as 20 September 1858); the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington (now part of the National Library of New Zealand); and the Hocken and McNab Libraries in Dunedin. See also LITERATURE. LICENSING TRUSTS. See LIQUOR LICENSING TRUSTS. LILBURN, DOUGLAS GORDON (1915–2002). Composer. Educated in New Zealand and England, Lilburn was widely regarded as New Zealand’s leading contemporary composer. Although an admirer of Jean Sibelius and Ralph Vaughan-Williams, he was not imitative but was essentially a “naturistic” composer reflecting his love of the landscapes of New Zealand. Amongst a wide variety of his compositions are three symphonies and piano, guitar, brass, woodwind, choral, and electro-acoustic pieces. See also CULTURE. LINDAUER, GOTTFRIED (1839–1926). Artist. Born in Bohemia, Lindauer studied portrait painting in Vienna before traveling to New Zealand in 1874 where he specialized in Maori portraiture. His paintings are prized, particularly for their meticulous draftsmanship which provides a valuable ethnographic record. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; MUSEUMS. LIQUOR LICENSING. The sale of liquor has been a contentious issue throughout New Zealand’s history. Although the first liquor licensing ordinance was issued in 1842 and an 1873 Act enabled local communities to prohibit the sale of liquor if two-thirds of all voters agreed, no effective controls were placed on either the number of liquor outlets or the conditions under which liquor was sold until 1881. Thereafter, until the Sale of Liquor Act in 1962, the development of New Zealand’s liquor laws was very much a reaction to the conditions found in the frontier society of the 19th century, driven largely by the active and persistent campaigning of the prohibition

156 •

LIQUOR LICENSING TRUSTS

movement. From 1917 until 1967, licensed premises were required to close at 6 p.m. from Mondays to Saturdays and all day on Sundays. A referendum in the latter year resulted in a law change which allowed them to remain open until 10 p.m. Monday to Saturday. Until the 1962 Act the sale of liquor for drinking on the premises was tied to the provision of accommodation on those same premises. This provision has been steadily relaxed over the past 40 years to the point where restaurants, taverns, nightclubs, and sports and social clubs are able to apply for and be granted licenses to sell liquor for consumption on the premises. A new Sale of Liquor Act passed by Parliament in 1989 has as its main objective the establishment of reasonable control over the sale and supply of liquor to the public in a way that will contribute to the reduction of liquor abuse. The drinking age was reduced to 18 years in 1999. See also LIQUOR LICENSING TRUSTS. LIQUOR LICENSING TRUSTS. A liquor licensing trust is a board of elected representatives (distinct from the local authority) that administers premises selling liquor. Trust control is established when a district votes in favor of the system in a local poll. Under the Sale of Liquor Act of 1989, trusts have monopoly control of outlets other than winemakers or clubs. In 2003 there were seven licensing trusts, each with monopoly trading rights. LIST SEAT. See PARTY LIST SEAT. LITERATURE. Traditional Maori culture had an oral rather than a literary tradition and mainly took the form of myths, legends, and whakapapa (genealogy). Indeed, the Maori language was not written until c.1820, and New Zealand Pakeha literature, when it developed, was essentially a sub-branch of the English literary tradition. Thus the earliest detailed writings were descriptive works about New Zealand written by visitors who were fascinated by a strange new country. These accounts range from the journals of Captain James Cook and Joseph Banks to the artist Augustus Earle’s Narrative of a Nine Months’ Residence in New Zealand, published in 1832. From 1840, when British sovereignty was established, for the next 40 to 50 years, most books continued to be written by authors educated in Britain,

LITERATURE

• 157

published in Britain, and for a readership resident in Britain. Many of the authors were temporary settlers who eventually returned to the land of their origin. Classics of the period include F. E. Maning’s Old New Zealand (1863), written under the pseudonym “A Pakeha Maori”; Samuel Butler’s A First Year in Canterbury Settlement, assembled from Butler’s letters by his father (1863); John Gorst’s The Maori King (1864); Lady Barker’s Station Life in New Zealand (1870); Walter Buller’s A History of the Birds of New Zealand; John Logan Campbell’s Poenamo (1881); and William Pember Reeves’s The Long White Cloud: Ao Tea Roa (1898). A pioneering society had little time for novel writing, for much of life in New Zealand was characterized by hard work and poverty. The first New Zealand novel, Henry Butler Stoney’s Taranaki: A Tale of the War, appeared in 1861 and had the distinction of being published in New Zealand. However, most novels produced from 1861 to 1890 were far from distinguished in what has been described as a period of “naïve realism.” An exception is Julius Vogel’s Anno Domini 2000; or, Woman’s Destiny (1889). Apart from its prescience and the aim of spreading the benefits of material success to all, Anno Domini is distinguished as much by the fact that it was written by a former premier of the colony as by its standing as a novel. After the 1890s a discernible change took place as a majority of the New Zealand population were born in the country and began to regard themselves as New Zealanders, a term previously applied mainly to Maori. One aspect was the crusading zeal associated with women, both in poetry and prose writing, who reacted against the male-dominated pioneering society. A good example is Edith Searle Grossman (née Howitt), who wrote four novels, including In Revolt (1893) and Angela: A Messenger (1910). Both Grossman and a male author, William Satchell, whose four novels include The Greenstone Door (1914), reflect important New Zealand assumptions about progress and the degree to which Darwinism and its implications had become a tenet of faith. Although Jean Devanny’s novel The Butcher Shop (1926) was well received overseas, its publication was banned in both New Zealand and Australia because it was deemed to be “disgusting, indecent, and communistic.” From the 1890s to the Great Depression of the 1930s, there was a growing concentration upon New Zealand and New Zealanders per

158 •

LITERATURE

se even when they were fighting on the other side of the world in World War I. Amongst a variety of books published at the beginning of the 20th century in which authors revealed a growing interest in the land that they growingly identified with were some notable works dealing with New Zealand plants and animals, including Leonard Cockayne’s New Zealand Plants and Their Story (1910). World War I saw a further growth of self-identity and patriotism, although the link with Britain stayed firm despite the grumbling at British incompetence, for example, at Gallipoli. This led in turn to marked differences of interpretation. Lindsay Buick, for example, was not slow to challenge what he regarded as popular misconceptions relating to such tricky topics, for example, as the Treaty of Waitangi (1914) or The French at Akaroa (1928), but he added little to the sum of existing knowledge. A book that did prove influential was J. B. Condliffe’s New Zealand in the Making (1930). The economic depression of the 1930s also gave rise to important literature. John A. Lee, for example, wrote Children of the Poor (1934). John Mulgan’s classic Man Alone (1939) regarded the significance of the Depression as being as important as many left-wing intellectuals in Europe regarded the Spanish Civil War. Frank Sargeson, among others, both novelists and poets, was almost obsessed with the Depression about this time, and left-wing journals, of which the best known is Tomorrow, to which Sargeson contributed articles, added much to the discussion of political ideas, both domestic and international. Later, looking at the Depression from the viewpoint of the recollections of participants, as told to a different generation, is Tony Simpson’s The Sugarbag Years (1974). Not surprisingly, wars, which played such an important role in New Zealand life and death, produced a welter of writing, much of it many years after war had ceased. Keith Sinclair’s The Origins of the Maori Wars (1957) was an influential work, and the Official War History series of World War II was a marked improvement on the turgid histories of World War I, particularly Dan Davin’s volume Crete (1953). The renewed growth of interest in World War I towards the end of the 20th century saw the appearance of the important work by Christopher Pugsley, Gallipoli: The New Zealand Story (1984). But there has always been a strong antiwar strain in New Zealand, perhaps best illustrated by Archibald Baxter (father of James K. Bax-

LITERATURE

• 159

ter), whose book We Will Not Cease describes how, as a conscientious objector, he was dragged to the front and brutally treated. World War I also revealed differences within New Zealand; for example, Maori tribes that that had suffered defeat and land confiscation in New Zealand two or more generations earlier obdurately opposed conscription, as Paul Baker shows in King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War (1988). Participants’ views of World War II range from Major-General Kippenberger’s Infantry Brigadier to the sardonic humor in the title of Jim Henderson’s Gunner Inglorious (1946) to M. K. Joseph’s I’ll Soldier No More (1958). The second half of the 20th century saw an efflorescence of New Zealand writing, particularly in poetry. In some ways the “father” of New Zealand poetry, Allen Curnow, spanned the Depression, World War II, and the postwar period and was very influential. Some of the poets, such as Fleur Adcock, flourished mainly overseas; others such as Charles Brasch were deeply influenced by overseas experience, while the best known of them, James K. Baxter and C. K. Stead, represented more the indigenous New Zealand experience. This, too, has shown through with historians, notable works amongst whom have been Keith Sinclair’s A History of New Zealand (1959), W. H. Oliver’s Story of New Zealand (1960), James Belich’s two-volume study Making Peoples (1996) and Paradise Reforged (2001), and especially Michael King’s History of New Zealand, which has proved an able and popular successor to Sinclair’s history. All show a growing emphasis upon the role and history of the Maori people. Novel writing ranged from the publication of Ian Cross’s The God Boy (1957), which finally established the fact that a good New Zealand novel could hold its place overseas, to Barry Crump’s A Good Keen Man (1960), essentially a collection of yarns that enjoyed widespread appreciation in his home country touching upon the twin themes of “man alone” and the New Zealand bush. Typical of the growing concentration by novelists and short-story writers who used New Zealand as a setting are Maurice Shadbolt and James McNeish, many of whose works were published overseas. Particularly since the 1960s, New Zealand women writers have come to the fore. Several of these are writers of children’s books, such as Ronda Armitage, who largely published overseas; Joy Cowley,

160 •

LITERATURE

who writes both children’s books and novels for adults; Lynley Dodd, with such books as Hairy Maclary from Donaldson’s Dairy; and, the best known of these authors, Margaret Mahy, who has enjoyed an international reputation for her work. Women writers with adult preoccupations, however, have been just as prominent. These include such writers as poet Ruth Dallas, most of whose published work dates from 1960 onwards; Marilyn Duckworth (sister to Fleur Adcock), whose books include The Matchbox House (1960) and Leather Wings (1995); Keri Hulme, with her most famous novel The Bone People (1983); novelist and poet Fiona Kidman; and above all, Janet Frame, who, with such work as The Adaptable Man (1965), her three-volume autobiography (1983–1985), and The Carpathians (1988), earned a wide international reputation before her death. Another New Zealand woman author with an impressive international reputation was crime novelist Ngaio Marsh. Marsh spent much of her life writing in England and few of her novels are set in New Zealand, but her creation, the well-read, polished Inspector Roderick Alleyn, fitted the English background. With over 30 crime novels to her credit plus an autobiography, she could claim to be the most prolific and well-known New Zealand author. Maori literature takes two forms: writings about the Maori by nonMaori and writings by Maori. One of Governor George Grey’s enduring legacies is the collection of Maori legends, proverbs, and songs that he brought together—including Hine-moa. Later, as prime minister of New Zealand in the 1870s, Grey was responsible for persuading the Cabinet to fund a collection of tribal traditions compiled, translated, and edited by John White. When publication ceased after six volumes, the task remained uncompleted. In 1885 Edward Tregear wrote The Aryan Maori, in which, on philological grounds, he sought to establish a connection between Anglo-Saxons and Maori via Sanskrit. On the other hand, ethnologist S. Percy Smith placed far greater weight on tradition and tribal history in books such as Hawaiki (1898) and History and Traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island (1910). Similarly, Elsdon Best, another ethnologist, made a major contribution with several volumes including Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist (1925); and, later, Auckland-born anthropologist Raymond Firth made use of Best and other extensive written materials whilst reinterpreting traditional views of Maori so-

LITERATURE

• 161

ciety in the influential Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori (1929). Continuing fascination by Pakeha with Maori history, and particularly prehistory as part of the wider canvas of Pacific history, is represented in Andrew Sharp’s Ancient Voyagers in the Pacific (1956), with its theories (subsequently rejected) of accidental versus deliberate voyaging, and the work by David Simmons, The Great New Zealand Myth (1976). Keith Sinclair published his classic study of The Origins of the Maori Wars (1957). Claudia Orange’s influential The Treaty of Waitangi (1987) gave a further boost to the growing role and significance of the treaty in the politics of the country. Growing emphasis upon Maori history is also reflected particularly in the work of historian Michael King, who not only wrote important books about Maori, such as Te Puea: A Biography (1977) and Whina: A Biography (1983), about Whina Cooper, but has also reflected on what it means to be a Pakeha in Pakeha: The Quest of Identity in New Zealand (1991), with both Maori and Pakeha points of view brought together in his balanced History of New Zealand (2003), typifying the modern recognition that is now attributed to the role that Maori have come to play in present-day interpretations of history and society. The same type of even-handed approach can also be found in Anne Salmond’s The Trial of the Cannibal Dog (2003) Writings by Maori about Maori are less prolific than those by nonMaori. Peter Buck (Te Rangihiroa), who became director of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Hawaii, wrote the classic and very popular Vikings of the Sunrise (1937) and later The Coming of the Maori (1949). A number of local and tribal histories were published in the 1950s and 1960s, although there were still many in Maori society who firmly opposed any commitment to describing Maori traditions in written form. Much of the Maori nonfiction writing at the end of the 20th century was concerned with the dissatisfaction of Maori at their role in society. Typical of this genre is Ranganui Walker’s Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle without End (1990). Maori fiction, at least as far as Pakeha are concerned, is dominated by the work of Alan Duff’s novel Once Were Warriors (1990), which was made into both a film and a stage musical. Also the subject of a very successful film is Witi Ihimaera’s Whale Rider (1987). Maori women’s writers include well-established novelist Patricia Grace and short-story writer and children’s writer Katerina Mataira. Broadening

162 •

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

the bicultural to a multicultural perspective is Albert Wendt who, in novels, short stories, and plays, has emphasized the problems of Polynesians in New Zealand society. The literary history of the country represents remarkably faithfully the development from original discoveries to the multicultural nation that New Zealand has become at the beginning of the 21st century, together with all the problems that this implies. See also CREATIVE NEW ZEALAND; CULTURE; FILM INDUSTRY; LIBRARIES. LOCAL GOVERNMENT. When the provincial governments were abolished in 1876, a system of territorial and special purpose authorities was set up to take over the administration of local affairs. Territorial authorities (of which there were 108 in 1877) were responsible for a range of activities affecting the well-being of residents, while special-purpose authorities were usually responsible for only a single activity, such as managing the local hospital or harbor. As the population grew, the number of territorial and special-purpose authorities multiplied, and by the mid-1980s there were 205 territorial and over 1,000 special-purpose authorities. A major reorganization of local government was carried out in 1988–1989, resulting in the establishment of 12 regional councils, 74 territorial authorities (four of which are unitary authorities that also perform the functions of regional councils), and seven specialpurpose authorities. In addition a new form of subdistrict government— community boards, of which there were 143 as of 2004—was introduced. Regional councils carry out functions relating to resource management, soil conservation and river control, civil defense, transport planning (including control of transport operators), and control of pests, noxious plants, and marine pollution within their region. A few have additional functions inherited from a predecessor regional council. The distinction between regional councils and territorial local authorities is functional, not hierarchical. Territorial authorities include 15 city councils and 58 district councils, plus the Chatham Islands Council. Apart from the difference in terminology, there is nothing to distinguish city councils from district councils; at the time of the 2001 census, 19 district councils had populations greater than the smallest city. They have responsi-

LOW, DAVID ALEXANDER CECIL (1891–1963)

• 163

bility for a wide range of services to property and community within their area, including the provision and maintenance of roads, water supply, sewage disposal, refuse disposal, parks and reserves, libraries, community development, pensioner housing, and public health. Both regional councils and territorial authorities are directly elected by citizens and absentee ratepayers who own property within the authority. Unlike parliamentary elections, which may be held at any time within a three-year period, local authority elections are always held on the second Saturday in October of every third year. The electoral qualification is the same as for parliamentary elections, but all local authorities now conduct their elections by postal ballot. The Local Electoral Act of 2001 provided that councils may choose to change from the first-past-the-post (FPP) electoral system to the single transferable vote (STV) electoral system. Ten territorial authorities adopted this option prior to the 2004 elections. Whereas parliamentary electoral boundaries are determined by an independent Representation Commission, local councils are required to review their representational structure at least once every six years. The intention of this provision is that individual communities should determine the type of representational structure that best suits their community’s needs; however, any individual who objects to the council’s recommendations can appeal to the Local Government Commission, whose decision is final. See also RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ACT. LONG DEPRESSION. See DEPRESSION, LONG. LOVELOCK, JOHN EDWARD (JACK) (1910–1949). Athlete. Born in New Zealand, Lovelock qualified as a medical practitioner before establishing a world record for the mile (4 minutes, 7.6 seconds) at Princeton University in 1933. In his most celebrated triumph, he won the 1,500-meter event at the 1936 Berlin Olympics in the world record time of 3 minutes, 49.8 seconds. LOW, DAVID ALEXANDER CECIL (1891–1963). Cartoonist. Born in New Zealand and largely self-taught, Low had his first cartoon published at the age of 11. In 1919, he joined a British newspaper, the

164 •

LYDIARD, ARTHUR LESLIE (1917–2004)

Daily News and Star, and quickly became one of the best-known and most highly paid cartoonists in Britain. During the 1930s and 1940s Low’s incisive wit and his caricatures of the German and Italian leadership so incensed Adolf Hitler and his subordinates that his name was placed high on the Gestapo’s arrest list for their planned occupation of Great Britain. At the height of his career in the 1950s, his cartoons were published in dozens of newspapers. Of his work, he said, “I started out as a comic artist. Circumstances made me a political caricaturist.” LYDIARD, ARTHUR LESLIE (1917–2004). Internationally renowned sports coach. A shoemaker by trade, Lydiard was arguably New Zealand’s greatest athletics coach. Although he was the New Zealand marathon champion in 1955 and 1957, his major reputation and greatest legacy is that of a coach of middle- and long-distance athletes. His coaching theory was built around the development of an athlete’s stamina and endurance, achieved through a rigorous regime of high mileage (200 miles or more a week was not uncommon). Once the foundation was laid, speed work was added. He earned a reputation as a hard-nosed coach who continually pushed his charges to the limits of their endurance; nevertheless, they always spoke highly of him. Among the many well-known middle- and long-distance runners he coached were champions such as Peter Snell and Murray Halberg. He also acted as national coach for the 1964 New Zealand Olympic team as well as serving as national coach for such countries as Mexico, Finland, and Denmark. Lydiard is equally famous for devising the practice of jogging, which became internationally popular during the 1960s for promoting good health. He outlined his theories in a number of books, including Run for Your Life (1965) and Jogging with Lydiard (1983). See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. LYE, LEN (1901–1980). Artist. Lye was an unusual artist equally at home in different forms of media, including films, paintings, sculpture, drawings, and writing, but rarely in a traditional sense. His central motivation was to compose motion, just as musicians compose sound. But it was not just movement—his concern was to capture

MAHY, MARGARET (1936– )

• 165

what he saw as “pure figures of motion.” He was one of the pioneers of kinetic sculpture in the 1920s. He was also a pioneer of many filmmaking techniques, including “direct animation”—the process of abandoning the camera and scratching designs directly onto film. He also used Technicolor to produce brilliant patterns that rivaled modern paintings. His work is to be found in such major institutions as the Whitney Museum and the Chicago Art Institute, among many others. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; MUSEUMS.

–M– MACKAY, JESSIE (1864–1938). Feminist. Born in New Zealand, Jessie Mackay trained as a schoolteacher and published a number of volumes of poetry. She was an active member of the female suffragist and prohibitionist movements and, as editor of the Canterbury Times (Christchurch), played an important role in publicizing the feminist cause and advocating the international rights of the world’s “little peoples.” MACKENZIE, THOMAS (1854–1930). Explorer, businessman, prime minister. Born in Scotland, Mackenzie arrived in New Zealand in 1858. After some years building up a successful retail business and as a surveyor, he was elected to local government. In 1887, he won an important case, “the Seeds Case,” in which he established that sellers of seeds had a legal responsibility to accurately reflect the label even without an express guarantee. Mackenzie served in Parliament from 1887 to 1896 and returned there in 1900. In 1909, he joined the government of Joseph Ward and became leader of the Liberal Party when Ward resigned in 1912. He served as prime minister from 28 March until 10 July 1912, a total of 104 days; but when Parliament reassembled he had to give way to the William Massey government. The following month he was appointed New Zealand high commissioner in London. Following that he served in the nominated Legislative Council until his death. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. MAHY, MARGARET (1936– ). A former children’s librarian, Margaret Mahy became a full-time author in 1980, specializing in children’s

166 •

MAKETU, WIREMU KINGI (?–1842)

books and novels for adolescents with which she has achieved an international reputation. Her first stories were published in the School Journal (a Department of Education publication) in 1960, and her international career commenced in 1969, with the publication in the United States of A Lion in the Meadow. Mahy’s genres are principally fantasy and adventure, but her witches, dragons, pirates, and millionaires connect with the real world. Her books have been translated into 15 languages. Among numerous awards have been the British Library Association’s Carnegie Medal (twice), the New Zealand Library Association’s Esther Glen Medal (five times), the Young Observer Fiction Prize, the Italian Premier Grafico Award, and the Dutch Silver Pencil Award. An award, the Margaret Mahy Medal, is presented annually to an outstanding New Zealand writer of children’s fiction. See also LITERATURE. MAKETU, WIREMU KINGI (?–1842). Murderer. Badly mistreated by a European manservant, Maketu (about 16 years old) killed him together with his employer (a widow), two young girls (one of whom was a Maori), and a small boy. He was handed over to British justice by Maori, thus raising important issues about the future legal relationships between Maori and the British legal system. Maketu’s plea that he should be tried by a special jury consisting of an equal number of Maori and Pakeha was dismissed. He was convicted of murder and became the first person in New Zealand to be hanged by legal process. Maori contrasted the hanging of Maketu with the failure to convict and execute the European murderer of a Maori woman during the Wairau massacre in 1843 despite overwhelming evidence of guilt. MALAYAN EMERGENCY (1955–1960). In 1955, a Special Air Service squadron was raised for service with the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve in Southeast Asia. This shift in focus to Southeast Asia represented a change of New Zealand’s previous understanding with Britain that New Zealand troops would be available for deployment in the Middle East. It also marked the first time that New Zealand troops were stationed overseas on a longer-term basis in peacetime. In 1957, the squadron was replaced by an infantry battalion which was used in operations against terrorists in the emergency. Between 1955 and 1960, 15 New Zealanders were killed and 23 wounded. See also ARMED FORCES.

MANSFIELD, KATHERINE (1888–1923)

• 167

MANA MOTUHAKE PARTY. The term Mana Motuhake originated with the King Movement in 1860. Literally translated, it means “power cut away” but, more loosely, it stands for self-determination for Maori people. The Mana Motuhake Party resulted originally from the resignation from the New Zealand Labour Party of longserving Labour Maori MP Matiu Rata, a former minister of Maori affairs and lands (1972–1975), after he had been dropped from the opposition front bench in 1979. At first Mana Motuhake largely concentrated upon the four Maori seats, but it became part of the Alliance in 1991. Although Rata failed to regain a parliamentary seat, deputy leader Sandra Lee won a general seat (i.e., not one of the designated Maori seats) at the 1993 general election and became leader of the party soon after. She lost the party leadership before the 2002 general election at which Mana Motuhake failed to win any seats. Mana Motuhake has been a moderate party seeking limited sovereignty over Maori land, resources, and cultural destiny—in effect, Maori autonomy. See also MAORI PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION. MANIAPOTO, REWI MANGA (c.1807–1894). Maori leader of the Ngati Maniapoto tribe. A direct descendant of his founding tribal ancestor and educated at a mission station, Maniapoto emerged as an important supporter of the King Movement. Having satisfied himself that Maori resistance to the land sales at Waitara was justified, he played an active role in helping to defeat the imperial troops. He also played a key role in Maori resistance to the invasion of the Waikato by General Duncan Cameron, 1863–1864, showing an unrivalled understanding of British military strategy. By 1869 he began to seek a negotiated peace settlement designed to ensure that remaining lands were retained in Maori hands. See also LAND WARS. MANILA PACT. See SOUTH-EAST ASIA TREATY ORGANIZATION. MANSFIELD, KATHERINE (1888–1923). Writer. Her name is the pseudonym for Kathleen Mansfield Murry, née Beauchamp. Katherine Mansfield was born in New Zealand and educated both in New Zealand and England. Most of her career was spent in England and

168 •

MANTELL, WALTER BALDOCK DURRANT (1820–1895)

on the continent, where she became an outstanding exponent of the short story form. Many of her finest stories were set in the Wellington of her childhood. She earned an international reputation before her death from tuberculosis at the age of 34. The Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, established in 1988, allows recipients to spent from four months to one year in Menton, southern France, where they are able to use the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Room (a cellar under the Villa Isola Bella) to work on a current or new writing project. This fellowship is considered to be New Zealand’s most prestigious literary award. See also LITERATURE. MANTELL, WALTER BALDOCK DURRANT (1820–1895). Politician. Born in England, Mantell trained as a doctor before arriving in New Zealand in 1840. In 1848 he was appointed to the office of land purchase commissioner, a position which involved him in reconciling the Ngai Tahu tribe to the land purchases already made by Europeans. He was successful in purchasing land and setting aside Maori reserves despite resistance from Ngai Tahu. Subsequently he became concerned about the nonfulfillment of promises that he and others had made in relation to reserves. In the mid-1850s he appealed to the secretary of state for the colonies in Britain for support in securing redress for the dishonored Ngai Tahu claims. In 1861 he was elected as member of the House of Representatives for Wallace and, shortly after, was appointed minister of native affairs, a post he held twice and resigned from both times because the ministries of which he was a member failed to fulfill promises he had made earlier. Appointed to the Legislative Council in 1866, Mantell continued his persistent advocacy of Ngai Tahu’s claims until his death. Over a century later Mantell’s views were an important part of the evidence produced before the Waitangi Tribunal considering Maori grievances. See also LAND WARS. MAORI. A Polynesian people; the original inhabitants of New Zealand. In pre-European times, the word Maori meant normal, usual, or ordinary. Its use as a word identifying aboriginal New Zealanders or their descendants dates from c.1850 and appears to have originated with Maori themselves. Some Maori are currently advocating replacing “Maori” with tangata whenua as the appropriate terminology to describe the country’s original inhabitants.

MAORI

• 169

It is now thought that Maori arrived in New Zealand about 800 years ago. What seems clear is that they soon lost contact with their former homeland and were required to adapt to a different, and in many ways more challenging, environment. The earliest settlers were hunters, fishers, and food gatherers who moved from place to place; only later, following the arrival of the kumara (sweet potato), taro, and gourd, did they adopt a more settled agricultural lifestyle. Most economic and social activities were centered on the community rather than individuals, but while land belonged to large groups, smaller groups had right of use to specific areas. Traditional Maori society was hierarchical, headed by Ariki (paramount chieftains), Rangitira (chieftains), and kaumatua (elders). Groups varied in numbers from whanau (extended families of from perhaps 10 up to 30 people), hapu (subtribes), and iwi (tribes), although these groupings were fluid in that whanau could develop into hapu and hapu into iwi. The common element was that all groups regardless of size traced their descent back to a common ancestor. Different groups interacted with one another through both trade in regional products, notably pounamu and titi (the sooty shearwater or muttonbird), and through war. Warfare was almost invariably restricted to low-level, one-on-one combat and was largely seasonal in character, occurring outside planting and harvesting seasons. Utu was frequently undertaken in response to an offence committed (either wittingly or unwittingly) at some previous point in time. In the century after the arrival of European traders and, later, settlers, Maori population experienced a steep decline in numbers as new diseases and new techniques of warfare took their toll. The overwhelming settler view throughout much of the 19th century was that Maori, as a race, were destined to die out. Some Maori, however, thought otherwise, and in the early 1900s four former students of Te Aute College—Peter Buck, James Carroll, Apirana Ngata, and Maui Pomare—established the Young Maori Party, which aimed to spearhead a revival by encouraging their people to participate in the Pakeha world and seeking to instill self-worth and pride in Maori culture through assimilation. Until the middle of the 20th century most Maori lived in more remote rural areas and, as a consequence, contacts between them and Pakeha were necessarily limited. From 1950 onwards, however, Maori began to move to the bigger cities in search of work and new

170 •

MAORI

lifestyles. In an attempt to grapple with the problems of education, housing, and economics arising from Maori urbanization, the Second Labour Government (1957–1960) commissioned a senior public servant, J. K. Hunn, to address these issues. The principal thrust of the Hunn Report was that separate Maori institutions were undesirable and that the future of the two major New Zealand cultures lay in their integration. However, few of the report’s recommendations were ever implemented by the Second National Government (1960–1972). The “pepper-potting” of suburban Maori houses among government-built state houses, for example, was attempted but abandoned in the face of opposition by both Maori and Pakeha, but the Maori Educational Foundation, which aimed at helping students through secondary and tertiary education and trade training was much more successful. Overall, however, the responses by governments to rapid Maori urbanization was woefully inadequate. In the 1960s a new generation of Maori leaders began to emerge. They rejected the policy of integration and increasingly demanded self-determination for Maori. Initially spearheaded by Matiu Rata, a Cabinet minister in the Third Labour Government, which established the Waitangi Tribunal, Maori increasingly began to demand a greater say in their future. Maori as a group became more assertive in their demands for the rejuvenation of their culture. Immersion language schools, kohanga reo and kura kaupapa Maori, were established in the 1980s and, in 1987, the Maori language was proclaimed as an official language of New Zealand. More recently, Maori language radio and television stations have been established with government assistance. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the number of persons of Maori descent has increased significantly. There has been much intermarriage down through the years, and at the time of the 2001 census the Maori ethnic group totaled 526,261. It should be noted, though, and many present-day New Zealanders describe themselves as belonging to multiple ethnic groups; all persons who indicate that they are of Maori descent are identified as part of the Maori ethnic group even though they may also identify with other ethnic groups. See also DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND; KING COUNTRY; KING MOVEMENT; LAND WARS; MAORI CIVIL WARS; MAORI CONGRESS; MAORI ELECTORAL OPTION; MAORI LAND COURT; MAORI LAND

MAORI CONGRESS (Te Whakakotahitanga O Nga Iwi O Aotearoa)

• 171

RIGHTS MOVEMENT; MAORI MYTHOLOGY AND LEGENDS; MAORI PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION; MAORI SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ADVANCEMENT ACT; MAORI SOCIETY, EARLY EUROPEAN IMPACT ON; MAORI WOMENS’ WELFARE LEAGUE; NEW ZEALAND MAORI COUNCIL; POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT; RATANA, TAHUPOTIKI WIREMU; REEVES, PAUL ALFRED; TE KOOTI ARIKIRANGI TE TURUKI; TE PUEA HERANGI, PRINCESS; TE WHEROWHERO, POTATAU; WAIRAU BAR MOA-HUNTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE; WAITANGI, TREATY OF; WAITARA PURCHASE. MAORI BATTALION. Although conscription was introduced in August 1916, this did not apply to Maori; nevertheless over 2,600 Maori volunteered for military service during World War I. When World War II began, the Maori MPs requested that Maori be permitted to volunteer for overseas military service. The 28th (Maori) Battalion was formed and, following basic training, departed New Zealand in May 1940. The battalion saw fierce fighting throughout the war in Greece, Crete, Libya, Tunisia, and Italy where its soldiers earned a reputation for bravery and fearlessness in the face of often overwhelming odds. See also HENARE, JAMES; NGARIMU, TE MOANANUI-A-KIWA. MAORI CIVIL WARS. In 1820 the Nga Puhi chief Hongi Hika visited England where he was fêted by society. In Sydney, while on his way home, he exchanged the presents he had received for muskets and, after his return to New Zealand, Nga Puhi warriors proceeded to terrorize their ancient Maori enemies living around the Auckland isthmus and in the Waikato until a precarious balance was restored after the tribes which had been attacked secured muskets of their own. They, in turn, moved to settle old scores with the Taranaki tribes to the south. The civil wars lasted until the late 1830s, by which time the acquisition of muskets was near universal and any decisive advantage to one party was thus nullified. The wars left an estimated 40,000 persons dead with many more taken into slavery. See also MURU PAENGA; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. MAORI CONGRESS (Te Whakakotahitanga O Nga Iwi O Aotearoa). Formed in 1990, the Congress differs from the New

172 •

MAORI COUNCIL

Zealand Maori Council in that it sees itself as an independent body standing apart from government and not part of the state structure. With five delegates from each of 43 participating iwi and hapu, it is a broadly representative body seeking, through the provision of a national forum for representatives of the iwi, the advancement of the Maori people and the promotion of constitutional principles that will enable them to attain self-determination. Because funding comes from iwi and hapu, it is accountable directly to Maori. The Congress seeks to raise Maori awareness about issues that are of concern to iwi. It has, for example, been actively involved in the equitable disposal of Crown assets returned to Maori, the representation of Maori on international bodies, and the expansion of social projects. MAORI COUNCIL. See NEW ZEALAND MAORI COUNCIL. MAORI ELECTORAL OPTION. Between 1867 and 1993, separate Maori parliamentary representation was restricted to four seats, and until 1967, persons who were of more than half Maori descent were required to register on the Maori electoral roll, while those who were of less than half Maori descent were required to register on the European (now general) electoral roll. Only those Maori who were of exactly half Maori and half non-Maori descent could choose to register on either roll. In 1974, the Third Labour Government changed the definition of “Maori” from one based on race to one based on cultural identity; henceforth, persons of Maori descent who wished to identify as Maori could do so regardless of their degree of Maori descent. The next year, 1975, following repeated requests from Maori for parliamentary representation that fairly reflected their population numbers, the same government amended the Electoral Act of 1956 to permit Maori to choose which of the two electoral rolls they wished to be registered on. The results of this choice, which henceforth would take place shortly after each quinquennial census, would be used to determine the number of dedicated Maori electorates to be established at the next electoral redistribution. However, although the first Maori electoral option was held in March 1976, the Third National Government, which had been elected in November 1975, repealed the pro-

MAORI LAND COURT

• 173

vision, requiring the results to be used to determine the number of Maori parliamentary seats before it could be applied, and so the number of separate Maori seats remained fixed at four. Thus while the Maori electoral option continued to be conducted after each census, its outcome had no practical effect until the passage of the Electoral Act of 1993, which reinstated the provision that the number of dedicated Maori parliamentary seats would be determined by the number of Maori choosing to register on the Maori roll. The first Maori electoral option under the provisions of the Electoral Act of 1993 was held in 1994 and recorded a substantial net increase— from 39.8 percent in 1990 to 51.8 percent of all registered Maori—in the number of Maori opting to register on the Maori roll, with the result that the number of Maori seats rose to five. In each of the two Maori electoral options held since then, the number of Maori choosing the Maori roll has continued to increase, and in 2001, reached 55.4 percent of all registered Maori, entitling Maori to seven dedicated parliamentary seats. The importance of the Maori electoral option is that it allows Maori to determine for themselves whether separate Maori representation should continue or be abolished. MAORI LAND COURT. The Native Land Act of 1865 abolished the Crown’s right of preemption and established the Native Land Court (as it was originally named), which had responsibility for determining the ownership of Maori lands. Between 1865 and 1873 the court was required to name no more than 10 owners of any single piece of land, thus effectively dispossessing all other Maori who had an interest in it. After 1873 the court was required to divide the land up among all interested parties. In the first 30 years after the conclusion of the Land Wars, the court was an effective means of separating Maori from their land— between 1865 and 1892, over 40 percent of the 16 million acres remaining in Maori hands at the end of hostilities was alienated. Seen as an instrument of assimilation, the individualization of Maori land titles resulted in Maori succumbing to the temptation of exchanging land for money which could then be used to buy food, clothes, and liquor. Individualization also destroyed the mana of tribal leaders.

174 •

MAORI LAND MARCH

Today the Maori Land Court has a very different role. It is responsible for administering Maori land, preserving of its taonga, and facilitating its occupation and development for the benefit of the Maori owners. MAORI LAND MARCH. See MAORI LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT. MAORI LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT. A product of raised Maori political consciousness resulting from numerous discussions and debates on marae over grievances against the Crown relating to the continuing alienation and control of what little land still remained in Maori hands. These coalesced in a Maori land rights march, organized by Whina Cooper in 1975, which commenced at the northern tip of the North Island and moved south to finish on the forecourt of the Parliament in Wellington. The marchers demanded that the control, retention, and management of Maori land should remain with Maori and their descendants in perpetuity. Since 1975 many Maori land rights claims have been heard by the Waitangi Tribunal. See also BASTION POINT; RAGLAN GOLF COURSE DISPUTE. MAORI LANGUAGE. The indigenous language of New Zealand. Maori is closely related to Cook Islands Maori, Tahitian, and Hawaiian and is today spoken by an estimated 160,000 people. The early mission schools taught reading, writing, and arithmetic and even catechism in Maori. Following George Grey’s Education Ordinance in 1847, mission schools were subsidized by the state only if teaching was conducted in the English language. The objective of this policy was to encourage assimilation. By 1896 the Maori population had declined to around 42,000 and authorities confidently expected that the Maori race would disappear as its remaining members were assimilated into the dominant European culture. To encourage this process, use of the Maori language was banned from the school precincts in 1905. At times, the ban was enforced by the use of corporal punishment. The outcome was a substantial decline in the number of people who spoke Maori as their first language. In 1900, for example, over 90 percent of Maori entering school spoke Maori as their first language; by 1960 this figure had dropped to 26 percent.

MAORI LANGUAGE

• 175

Apirana Ngata campaigned to have Maori accepted as a university subject. He succeeded in this objective in 1925, but the teaching of Maori at a university did not finally commence until 1951. In the intervening years the number of native Maori speakers continued to decline. In the late 1960s a new generation of Maori activists began to assert themselves, their identity, and their culture. A conference of young Maori leaders, convened by the New Zealand Maori Council, produced a large number of recommendations aimed at preserving the Maori language and culture. A radical group, Nga Tamatoa (young warriors), launched a petition which called for the inclusion of the Maori language in both primary and secondary schools and, later, introduced a Maori language day to strengthen their claims. The Third Labour Government assisted the preservation of the Maori language by establishing teacher training schemes for native speakers of Maori. Nevertheless, declining numbers prompted one researcher to observe that the Maori language could die out unless something was done to preserve it. In 1981, the first kohanga reo (language nest), a preschool Maori language immersion program conducted by kuia, koro, and mature Maori women, all of whom were native speakers, was set up. Its goal was to make every Maori child bilingual by the time he or she reached the age of five. Despite the fact that kohanga reo were funded principally by parents, the movement flourished: by 1983 there were 188 kohanga reo and by 2000 the total of licensed nests had grown to 599. Word of this initiative quickly spread around the Pacific Rim and also further afield to Wales and the Gaelic lands where the native languages are under threat from English. To provide for children who had attended kohanga reo, alternative schools, known as kura kaupapa Maori, were established to maintain and extend the kohanga reo philosophy of total immersion. Immersion classes are also to be found in mainstream schools. Wananga (Maori tertiary institutions) have also been established, together with a Maori university. In 1985, in a response to a claim placed before it, the Waitangi Tribunal declared the Maori language to be a taonga (treasure) which the Crown was obliged to protect under the terms of the Treaty of Waitangi. The Maori Language Act of 1987 declared Maori to be an official

176 •

MAORI MYTHOLOGY AND LEGENDS

language of New Zealand, and the right to speak Maori in courts of law and before a number of tribunals was established. This Act also established the Maori Language Commission (Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Maori) with responsibility for promoting Maori as a living language. In 2000 it commenced work on producing the first monolingual Maori language dictionary. Use of the Maori language has also been actively promoted through the establishment of Maori-language iwi (tribal) radio stations, Radio New Zealand’s Maori news programs broadcast on the nationwide public radio network, and the establishment of a Maori television network. See also BROADCASTING; EDUCATION; Glossary of Maori Words. MAORI MYTHOLOGY AND LEGENDS. Like most preliterate peoples, Maori society is replete with myths and legends that seek to explain their view of the cosmos. Many were recorded by early missionaries, such as William Colenso (Hawke’s Bay), Richard Taylor (Taranaki and Wanganui), and J. F. H. Wohlers (South Island); and by government officials such as George Grey and Edward Shortland. The legends may usefully be divided into two main categories: myths and traditions. Myths embody the beliefs surrounding the creation of the universe, the origins of gods and human beings, and natural phenomena such as the sun, moon, and stars, the weather, and features of the natural environment. Their universal nature is attested by their presence in most Polynesian societies. Traditions relate incidents that are, for the most part at least, humanly possible; they tend to be geographically located, confined to New Zealand, and may well be factual accounts of actual events, although they may have been embellished over time. Both categories are deeply embedded in whakapapa (genealogical lineage) in which the different descent lines are linked by descriptions of exploits by participants. Rangi nui, the sky father, and Papa tu a nuku, the earth mother, produced many offspring, including Tangaroa (god of the ocean) and Tane mahuta (god of the forest). All the children of the sky father and earth mother were males. Tane breathed life into Hine hauone, a female form molded from red earth, and mated with her to create human beings. Maui, a descendant of this union many generations later, is attributed with snaring the sun, taming fire, and fishing up land.

MAORI PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION

• 177

Maori traditions serve a different function. Each tribal grouping had its own time-honored beliefs that were used to validate and justify their claims to territory and which vested authority in persons of high rank. They can be subdivided into three broad categories—discovery and origins traditions, migration traditions, and local traditions. The discovery traditions include the story of Kupe fishing up Te Ika a Maui, the fish of Maui (the North Island), and Toi and Whatonga, two origin ancestors of East Coast Maori. Typically, the discovery and origin traditions are confused and contradictory. Migration traditions are more numerous and involve smaller geographic areas and fewer tribes. Each iwi identifies with its own migrant ancestors who arrived in named waka—Mataatua (landfall at Whakatane), Tainui (Kawhia, Mokau), Te Arawa (Rotorua-Taupo), Kurahaupo (Taranaki), Tokomaru (Mokau), Aotea (Raglan), and Takitimu (Hawke’s Bay) and Horouta (east coast of the North Island)—although there are other less well-known canoes about which tribes have traditions. Maori regard their traditions as a true source of their past, but although they have been handed down by word of mouth across many generations, many different versions exist that are difficult to untangle. See also HAWAI‘IKI. MAORI PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION. Maori who met the property qualification for registration as electors were able to take part in parliamentary elections after 1853. Since, however, most Maori land was owned communally, few were able to register. With the passage of the Maori Representation Act of 1867, a separate Maori electoral system was established creating four parliamentary seats for MPs representing the Maori race. In these electorates all Maori males aged 21 and over were entitled to vote. Initially this Act was seen as a temporary measure to allow remaining Maori land titles to be individualized. In 1876, however, it was made permanent. Despite the growth in the Maori population during the 20th century, the number of Maori electorates remained fixed at four until the adoption of a new Electoral Act in 1993. The Mixed Member Proportional electoral system established by that Act provides for the number of Maori parliamentary seats to increase or decrease depending on the number of Maori choosing to register on the Maori or general electoral rolls. Maori are able to exercise this choice once every

178 •

MAORI PARTY

five years, a choice that is effectively a referendum on the future of separate Maori parliamentary representation. Following the 2002 general election, there were seven Maori electorate seats resulting from the Maori electoral option (based on the number of electors choosing the Maori roll) but the total number of Maori in Parliament was 19, nearly 16 percent of the total members. In 2003 the National Party proposed the abolition of separate Maori parliamentary representation under newly developed policy of one standard of citizenship. See also FRANCHISE. MAORI PARTY. The Royal Commission on the Electoral System (1986) had envisaged that its proposed Mixed Member Proportional electoral system would significantly enhance the opportunities for Maori representation in Parliament. Many Maori, however, were opposed to the abolition of the separate guaranteed Maori electorates because they were not convinced that Maori would be better off under the commission’s proposal. When the Electoral Act of 1993 was passed, the separate Maori constituency seats were retained. The foreshore and seabed legislation, introduced into Parliament by the Fourth Labour Government in April 2004, considerably heightened underlying tensions between Maori and the Crown. Considerable pressure was brought to bear on the government’s 11 Maori MPs by Maori opposed to the proposed legislation, and three— Georgina Beyer, Nanaia Mahuta, and Turiana Turia—initially voiced their public opposition to the bill. Ultimately, Beyer and Mahuta did not oppose the legislation’s second reading, but Turia, an associate minister of Maori affairs, did so, and then resigned her ministerial portfolios and also resigned from the New Zealand Labour Party and Parliament, thus precipitating a by-election in her Te Tai Hauauru electorate seat. Between the time of her resignation and the by-election, she and Pita Sharples were instrumental in establishing the nucleus of the Maori Party and Turia’s success in the by-election (none of the parties represented in the Parliament contested the by-election) provided impetus for its growth and eventual registration as a political party. MAORI POPULATION. See MAORI; POPULATION. MAORI SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ADVANCEMENT ACT (1945). This Act built on structures developed during World War II

MAORI WOMEN’S WELFARE LEAGUE

• 179

by recognizing the separate existence of Maori tribes and the necessity for a specific entity that was Maori in personnel, tradition, and organization. The Act provided for the establishment of tribal committees from marae to the regional level with specific concern for welfare and marae administration. Welfare officers were appointed under the aegis of the Maori (previously “Native”) Affairs Department, and Maori wardens were given welfare functions under the supervision of the tribal committees. The committees were also made responsible for promoting the social, cultural, educational, economic, and spiritual well-being of Maori within the Maori cultural environment. The long-standing goal of assimilation had been abandoned. MAORI SOCIETY, EARLY EUROPEAN IMPACT ON. The growing European presence in New Zealand after 1815 had an impact on traditional Maori society in a number of ways. The acquisition of muskets by some Maori but not others upset the traditional balance of power in favor of the tribe which had acquired them, and resulted in considerable disruption of Maori society and social life as defeated Maori were taken into slavery and separated from their tribal territories. The introduction of European diseases, such as influenza, whooping cough, measles, and venereal diseases, also significantly contributed to Maori depopulation. Traditional customs and beliefs were undermined and then abandoned as Europeans repeatedly breached tapu and other customs without any apparent ill effects. Finally, wholesale conversions to Christianity enabled missionaries to persuade Maori to free slaves captured during the Maori civil wars. In the late 1830s many of these former slaves drifted back to their tribal territories, arriving about the same time that their lands were being occupied by European settlers. See also SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. MAORI WOMEN’S WELFARE LEAGUE. Princess Te Puea’s leadership of Waikato Maori between the two world wars encouraged a new wave of Maori women to seek a more active role in Maori society. Their previous participation and experience in Maori committees of the Country Women’s Institute and the Maori Health League, and the increasing urbanization of Maori, provided the motivation to establish an independent forum to articulate Maori needs

180 •

MARGINAL LANDS BOARD AFFAIR

beyond tribal areas. The league was established in 1951, with Whina Cooper as its first president. Its annual conferences became an important forum for the expression of Maori views on housing, health, education, social welfare, crime, discrimination in employment, and housing. It helped establish the play center movement as an alternative to kindergartens in Maori communities and actively supported fund-raising activities to launch the Maori Education Foundation. More recently it has provided pan-Maori leadership in a number of areas in association with the New Zealand Maori Council and the Maori Congress. MARGINAL LANDS BOARD AFFAIR. The Marginal Lands Board was a quango whose purpose was to provide loan money to farmers at reasonable rates to enable land to be brought up to full production. A respected member of the board resigned in 1980, alleging political interference by the minister of lands in a decision of the board when a loan was granted to the daughter and son-in-law of the minister of agriculture and fisheries after the board had twice rejected previous applications from the couple. A three-man Commission of Inquiry rejected the allegations but found that the conduct of the minister of lands, in writing to the board and asking for a review of the applicants’ case, was unwise under the circumstances. The action of the minister of agriculture and fisheries in seeking to influence the board indirectly while acting minister of lands was condemned as “extremely unwise, to say the least.” Despite these criticisms, both ministers remained in office and, soon after, the minister of agriculture became deputy prime minister. MARION DU FRESNE, MARC JOSEPH (c.1724–1772). Explorer. Born in France, Marion du Fresne went to sea with the French India Company and, apart from taking part in the 18th-century wars France engaged in, remained with the company until it was dissolved. In 1771 he undertook a Pacific voyage of trade and exploration. He reached New Zealand in March 1772 and spent some months exploring, trading, and fishing as well as cutting masts and spars. Relations with the Maori people were at first good, facilitated by an extensive Tahitian vocabulary, previously prepared by Louis Antoine de Bougainville, to which he had access. Then in June 1772, apparently

MARSDEN, SAMUEL (1765–1838)

• 181

without warning, he was attacked and killed along with other members of a fishing party which had gone ashore. In all, 25 officers and men lost their lives. In the reprisals that followed, it is estimated that approximately 250 Maori were casualties. Marion du Fresne’s visit produced valuable records of early Maori life as well as helping to convince the French that New Zealand was inhabited by dangerous natives and thus probably did not warrant colonization. MARITIME STRIKE (1890). During the 1880s several links were established between New Zealand and Australia by both employers and trade unions. Particularly notable were those between shipowners and the Maritime Councils which had been established in both countries. In 1890 an Australian maritime strike spread to New Zealand after a New Zealand ship berthed in Sydney was worked by nonunion labor. The New Zealand Maritime Council called on all workers connected with shipping to strike. The employers responded by using volunteers and “free” laborers. Special constables armed with batons were enrolled. Violence between unionists and nonunion labor followed. Requested by Parliament to intervene, the government called a conference of employers and unions, but the employers refused to participate unless the unions accepted their right to hire nonunion labor. Without financial resources, the striking workers found themselves in a hopeless position and the Maritime Council was forced to call off the strike. The outcome was a total victory for the employers, who had destroyed the Maritime Council and the militant unions associated with it. MARRIED WOMEN’S PROPERTY ACT (1884). An Act which granted married women general power to own property in their own right. It was an important step in establishing women’s rights. MARSDEN, SAMUEL (1765–1838). Missionary. Born and ordained into the priesthood in England, Marsden worked for the Church Missionary Society (Church of England), first in New South Wales where he arrived in 1794, and then in New Zealand where he made the first of a series of visits starting in 1814. He played a major role in beginning the conversion of the Maori people to Christianity as well as laying the foundations for a range of other activities such as

182 •

MARSH, EDITH NGAIO (1899–1982)

agriculture; he is believed to have been the first to introduce sheep into New Zealand. His reputation as a clergyman is much more favorable in New Zealand, where he had a very high regard for the Maori, than in Australia. MARSH, EDITH NGAIO (1899–1982). Writer. Ngaio Marsh was born and educated in New Zealand, but her early career was as an actress in London where she was later to become a distinguished Shakespearean producer. She also kept a shop in London for a time before publishing her first book and embarking upon a full-time writing career. She published her first novel in 1933, and the more than 30 novels that followed gave her an international reputation. Although Ngaio Marsh became one of the top “thriller” writers, she never lost her interest in the theater and continued to produce plays until she was well into her 70s. See also LITERATURE. MARSHALL, JOHN ROSS (1912–1988). Prime minister. Born and educated in New Zealand, Marshall practiced as a barrister and solicitor and served as an officer in World War II in the Pacific and Italy before being elected to Parliament as a New Zealand National Party member in 1946. He held a variety of portfolios in the governments of Sidney Holland and Keith Holyoake and played a leading role in trade negotiations arising from Britain’s application to enter the European Economic Community. Marshall served as deputy prime minister briefly in 1957 and from 1960 until 1972, when he became prime minister and leader of his party. Following National’s defeat at the 1972 general election, “Gentleman Jack” Marshall sought to remold National as a liberal party but was replaced as leader by his deputy, Robert Muldoon, in mid-1974 because the caucus believed that Muldoon would be better able to combat the undoubted debating talents of Labour prime minister Norman Kirk. See also EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH. MARTIN, WILLIAM (c.1807–1880). Judge. Born and educated in England, Martin was appointed as New Zealand’s first chief justice in 1841. He presided over the Maketu trial and was partly responsible for the structure of courts and legal procedures adopted—not all of which were well adapted to circumstances in New Zealand. Martin had a deep respect for the Maori people. He was a strong sup-

MATUA, HENARE (?–1894)

• 183

porter of the Treaty of Waitangi and an advocate of the rights of Maori as British citizens. His wife, Mary Ann Martin, recorded their life and experiences in Auckland during its early years in Our Maoris, which was published posthumously in 1884. MASON, BRUCE (1921–1982). Best remembered today as a playwright with the solo performance of his End of the Golden Weather, Bruce Mason was also significant as a music critic, a critic of society, and as a fiction writer. He played an important role in encouraging the reassertion of Maori culture at a time when it was not popular to do so, whilst feeling free to criticize both main cultures in New Zealand. Hongi, The Pohutaukawa Tree, Swan Song, and Awatea are all plays dealing with the consequences of the clash of cultures for Maori. Overall, Mason was a fierce critic of New Zealand society, in particular as he found it in the 1950s and 1960s. See also LITERATURE. MASSEY, WILLIAM FERGUSON (1856–1925). Prime minister. Described as “a man of rigid principles but few ideas,” Massey was born in Ireland and arrived in New Zealand in 1870. First elected to Parliament in 1894, he spent 31 years there, serving as Reform Party leader and prime minister from 1912 until his death in 1925. An autocrat by nature, he summed up his philosophy (and that of the Reform Party) as dedicated to a nation of “sturdy freeholders, farming their own lands.” Although he is best known for his uncompromising crushing of the 1912 Waihi strike and the 1913 waterfront strike and general strike, he was also responsible for reform of the Public Service following the report of the 1912 Royal Commission. When Britain sought military aid in case the Chanak Crisis should lead to another war, Massey, without consulting Parliament, offered unconditional support within the hour. MASSEY’S COSSACKS. Temporarily enrolled armed mounted police, specially recruited from farming districts, which were brought to Wellington to facilitate the reopening of the port and to clear strikers from the streets during the 1913 waterfront strike. MATUA, HENARE (?–1894). Maori chief; member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe. Originally regarded by government agents as well disposed towards European settlers, Matua had, by the 1850s, become

184 •

MAUI

an opponent of the alienation of Maori land. Nevertheless, even as late as 1866, government agents still regarded him as a reliable and trustworthy friend. By 1871 he had become totally alienated as a result of land acquisitions. He took a leading role in the Repudiation Movement, which advocated an end to land sales and the suspension of leasing until Maori runanga (councils) were better able to handle their own interests, the abolition of the Native Land Court, the extension of Maori parliamentary representation, and the prohibition of roads, railways, and telegraph construction across Maori land. He also actively encouraged Maori self-government through the runanga system. See also KING MOVEMENT; LAND WARS. MAUI. Legendary Maori hero and demi-god. According to Maori mythology, Maui, the youngest of five brothers, used the lower jawbone of his grandmother, Muri-ranga-whenua (which he smeared with blood from his nose) to drag a huge fish up through seething waters to the surface of the ocean. This fish, Te Ika a Maui (the fish of Maui), is now known as the North Island of New Zealand. Some traditions hold that the original name for the South Island is Te Waka o Maui (the canoe of Maui) and that Stewart Island—known to Maori as Rakiura—was his canoe’s anchor. The Maui legend is widely spread throughout Polynesia and suggests that Maui may have been an early explorer and may even have been the original discoverer of New Zealand. See also KUPE. McCAHON, COLIN (1919–1987). Artist. Born and educated in New Zealand, McCahon was the foremost contemporary painter of his time. His work, often controversial, is important for reflecting the importance of the New Zealand landscape expressed in terms of feelings. It has been claimed that his art “gave voice to local modernism inspired by European and American fine art traditions.” Major exhibitions of his work—particularly the word and number paintings for which he is noted—were held in Sydney and Edinburgh in 1984 and The Hague in 2002. See also ART GALLERIES; CULTURE; MUSEUMS. McCOMBS, ELIZABETH REID (née HENDERSON) (1873– 1935). Politician. Although female suffrage was adopted in 1893, women were not permitted to stand for election to the House of Rep-

McKENZIE, JOHN (1839–1901)

• 185

resentatives until 1919. Although not the first female parliamentary candidate, Elizabeth McCombs was the first woman to be elected when, in 1933, she succeeded her husband, James McCombs, as member of Parliament for Lyttelton. On her death two years later, she was, in turn, succeeded by her son, Terence Henderson McCombs (1905–1982), who was MP from 1935 until 1951. McCOMBS, JAMES (JIMMY) (1873–1933). Politician. Born in Ireland, McCombs migrated to New Zealand in 1876. Initially destined for a career in the church, McCombs gave up theological studies to devote himself to social work. He first stood for Parliament in 1908, as an independent. In 1913, he won the Lyttelton electorate as a Social Democratic Party candidate and held it until his death 20 years later (although he retained the seat in 1925 only after a successful electoral petition). In 1918, he lost the contest for the leadership of the parliamentary New Zealand Labour Party to H. E. Holland on the toss of a coin. An ardent prohibitionist, McCombs was also a strong advocate of proportional representation. McINDOE, ARCHIBALD HECTOR (1900–1960). Plastic surgeon. New Zealand-born, McIndoe qualified as a doctor of medicine and, after experience in the Mayo Clinic in the United States, studied plastic surgery in England under the guidance of fellow New Zealander and relative Harold Gillies. On the outbreak of World War II he became the director of the plastic and jaw injury center which, with his “Guinea-pig Club,” led to international recognition of his work. McKENZIE, JOHN (1839–1901). Politician. Scottish-born, McKenzie emigrated to New Zealand in 1860 where he eventually acquired land. Elected to Parliament in 1881, he was inspired by his experience of enclosures in Scotland to play a leading role in using state power under the Liberal government to break up the large estates in New Zealand and provide land for small farmers. He created the important portfolio of agriculture—a feature of all governments since—and did much to ensure that later governments encouraged scientific methods and the rapid dissemination of information in agriculture. He also defended the rights of Maori owners. To a large extent McKenzie was the architect of the successful New Zealand agricultural system. He

186 •

McKINNON, DONALD CHARLES (1939– )

was also largely responsible for clarifying the concept of the Queen’s chain in the Land Act of 1892, thereby ensuring public access to rivers, lakes, and coasts. McKINNON, DONALD CHARLES (1939– ). Politician. Born in England, the son of Major-General W. S. McKinnon (chief of general staff, 1965–1967), McKinnon was educated in New Zealand and the United States. After attending Lincoln Agricultural College he farmed before qualifying as a real estate agent. Elected to Parliament as a New Zealand National Party MP in 1978, he became deputy leader of the party in 1987. Publicly opposed to his party’s adoption of an antinuclear policy prohibiting visits by nuclear-armed vessels, he campaigned resolutely, but unsuccessfully, for a policy change. He served as deputy prime minister (1990–1996) and was New Zealand’s longest serving minister of foreign affairs (1990–1999), during which time he worked hard, with some success, to improve relations with the United States and took a leading role in helping to solve the Bougainville dispute with Papua New Guinea from 1997 to 1998. He resigned from Parliament in 2000 to take up the secretary-generalship of the Commonwealth. McLAY, JAMES KENNETH (1945– ). Politician. Born and educated in New Zealand, McLay established his own practice as a barrister and solicitor and held high office in the New Zealand National Party organization before being elected to Parliament in 1975. He was minister of justice and attorney-general in the Robert Muldoon government from 1978 until 1984 and was elected deputy leader of the National Party—and, therefore, deputy prime minister—in February 1984. Following the defeat of that government later the same year, he was elected leader, the youngest person to lead the National Party. Unable to deal effectively with his former leader, and alienating powerful figures with his attempted reorganization of the parliamentary party, he was replaced as leader by James Brendan Bolger in March 1986 without even having fought one general election as leader. He retired from politics in 1987 and became a business consultant and company director. Subsequently, he was appointed a member of the International Whaling Commission on which he served until 2003.

MEAT INDUSTRY

• 187

McLEAN, DONALD (1820–1877). Politician. Scottish-born McLean was well educated when he arrived in New Zealand from Australia in 1840. He acquired a good knowledge of Maori language and customs and was employed by the Protectorate of Aborigines from 1844 until its abolition in 1846. In 1853 he became chief land purchase commissioner, sometimes using questionable tactics to obtain freehold title. He became native secretary (an official, not political, post) and advised Governor Gore Browne over the questionable Waitara purchase. Elected to the House of Representatives in 1866, he became native minister and minister for colonial defense in 1869. As a minister he did much to bring about peace between Maori and settlers by placing heavy emphasis on Maori education and participation in local administration but his methods and attitudes were always controversial. See also LAND WARS. McMILLAN, DAVID GERVAN (1904–1951). Medical practitioner and politician. During the Great Depression, McMillan practiced medicine in the small rural township of Kurow in North Otago. Here, he met Arnold Nordmeyer and, together, they developed the rudiments of what was to become the First Labour Government’s Social Security scheme. He entered Parliament in 1935, where he played a key role in the establishment of New Zealand’s national health service. He was appointed to the Cabinet in June 1940 but resigned in January 1941 in protest at Peter Fraser’s retreat from Labour’s planned medical scheme. He retired from politics in 1943 and returned to medicine. See also SOCIAL SECURITY ACT; SOCIAL WELFARE. MEAT BOARD. See PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS. MEAT INDUSTRY. Like the dairy industry, the meat industry did not become important until the development of refrigeration. Following the successful shipment of frozen sheep meat from Port Chalmers to London in 1882, freezing works were built in both islands to process what came to be known as “Canterbury lamb.” Between 1890 and 1920 the value of meat exports from New Zealand rose from less than 25 percent of the returns for wool to a position of near equality. (Collectively, the value of refrigerated meat and

188 •

MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT (MP)

dairy exports, which accounted for only 22.6 percent of total export earnings for farm products in 1890, had risen to 63.7 percent by 1920.) Throughout, the production of meat has been directed overwhelmingly towards overseas markets. The main products are lamb, mutton, and beef. In 2003 returns from meat amounted to 14 percent of New Zealand’s export earnings, second only to the returns from dairy products. Today most meat exported is boned and packed. In the mid-1990s New Zealand sent up to 10 live sheep shipments per annum to the Middle East, but by 2003 this had declined to one a year. Following the rejection of a shipment of 57,000 live sheep to Australia in August 2003, New Zealand’s live sheep shipments were halted unless the exporting company could demonstrate that it had an alternative plan in the event of shipments being rejected. The meat industry is represented by Meat New Zealand, the operational name for the Meat Board, which is funded by a levy on stock slaughtered. It provides support with marketing and market access issues, promotion, research, and development, as well as the administration of market quotas, although it does not buy or sell meat. The meat industry underwent major restructuring during the 1990s and early 21st century with the closure of many of the older or uneconomic freezing works. See also ECONOMY; PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS; TRADE. MEMBER OF PARLIAMENT (MP). Members of the House of Representatives were originally designated MGA (member of the General Assembly) but subsequently this gave way to MHR (member of the House of Representatives). The term MP (member of Parliament) has been used since 1907. MILITARY. See ARMED FORCES; DEFENSE. MILLS, JAMES (1847–1936). Businessman. Born and educated in New Zealand, the son of a carpenter, Mills founded the Union Steamship Company which, with a fleet of 75 ships by 1914, became the largest shipping line in the Southern Hemisphere and New Zealand’s largest private-sector employer. He was a member of the House of Representatives between 1887 and 1893. MINISTRY AND MINISTERS. See CABINET.

MISSIONARIES AND MISSIONS

• 189

MINOR PARTIES. One consequence of the introduction of the Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system was a proliferation of minor parties. A number of these, particularly New Zealand First, United Future New Zealand, and ACT, splintered away from one or other (and sometimes both) of the two main political parties, New Zealand Labour and New Zealand National, in anticipation of the first MMP election. A notable exception was the Green Party, which separated from the temporary coalition of parties represented by the Alliance in 1999. The two major parties tend to win a high proportion of the electorate seats, and fewer list seats, whereas the minor parties are overwhelmingly made up of party list candidates. Since the advent of proportional representation, minor parties have achieved a political influence which was largely denied them under the first-past-the-post electoral system. MISSIONARIES AND MISSIONS. The first Christian religious service was conducted in the Bay of Islands by the Reverend Samuel Marsden of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) on 25 December 1814. Soon after, Marsden returned to Sydney, leaving three untrained evangelists—Thomas Kendall (a schoolmaster), William Hall (a carpenter), and John King (a boot maker)—in charge of the mission station. In its earliest years they were dependent on local Maori for food and protection; inevitably they became involved in the musket trade as the price of survival. In 1823 Kendall and Hall were dismissed and replaced by Reverend Henry Williams, who headed the mission until 1849. In 1822 the Wesleyan London Missionary Society (LMS) was established at Whangaroa; after the original station was destroyed by Nga Puhi marauders in 1827, it was reestablished at Hokianga. The first Maori conversion did not take place until 1825, and it was not until the 1830s, when both the CMS and the LMS began their inland and southwards penetration into the Waikato and Bay of Plenty areas, that Maori conversions to Christianity became widespread. The broad religious harmony existing between these two societies was disrupted in 1838 by the arrival of Bishop Jean-Baptiste Pompallier, who established a French Roman Catholic mission at Kororareka. The new mission’s presence led to doctrinal disputes and competition for conversions. The importation of a printing press in 1834 or 1835—used to print the Bible and other religious tracts in the

190 •

MIXED MEMBER PROPORTIONAL (MMP) ELECTORAL SYSTEM

Maori language—had, however, given the CMS and LMS a clear advantage over the new Roman Catholic mission. In 1840 the CMS missionaries played an important role in the drafting and signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. MIXED MEMBER PROPORTIONAL (MMP) ELECTORAL SYSTEM. Modeled on the electoral system designed for West Germany after World War II, the MMP electoral system was adopted by New Zealand after it had been approved by a majority of electors voting in a national referendum in 1993 and was first used for the 1996 general election. In an MMP election each elector has two votes: one is a party list vote, cast for a rank-ordered list of candidates prepared by each participating party; the other is cast for a constituency candidate. Parliament is made up of a mixture of constituency MPs and party list MPs, with its final composition being determined by each party’s share of the party vote—each party that wins at least 5 percent of the party vote or at least one constituency seat wins representation in Parliament in proportion to its overall support throughout the country. Separate Maori parliamentary representation has been retained, but, unlike the situation under the first-past-the-post electoral system, the number of Maori electorates now increases or decreases depending on the number of Maori who choose to register on the Maori roll at each Maori electoral option held shortly after each quinquennial census. In 2002 Parliament had 69 constituency MPs—62 elected to represent general electorates and seven to represent Maori electorates. A further 51 MPs were elected from party lists. Because MMP is nearly a fully proportional electoral system, it is unlikely (though not impossible) that a single party may win a majority of the parliamentary seats and thus be able to govern in its own right. Coalition governments, minority single-party governments, and coalition minority governments therefore have become the most frequent form of government for New Zealand. See also ELECTORAL REFORM; MINOR PARTIES; POLITICAL PARTIES. MOA. This large flightless bird of the order Dinornithiformes is now extinct. Confined to New Zealand, the earliest known fossils are approximately 15 million years old, but its origins go back much fur-

MORIORI

• 191

ther in time. The moa was not unlike the Australian emu, but occurred in a variety of sizes ranging from the size of a turkey to a giant bird thought to have reached three meters (10 feet) high—the tallest bird ever known. In all there were 11 species of moa in six genera. Maori hunted moa for food and used their bones for implements and ornaments and their eggs for water bottles. It is thought that the giant moa was hunted to extinction by c.1500 AD, well before the arrival of Europeans. See also FLORA AND FAUNA; WAIRAU BAR MOA-HUNTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE. MOORE, MICHAEL KENNETH (MIKE) (1949– ). Prime minister. Born and educated in New Zealand, Moore was a social worker and freezing worker (meat processing plant worker) before being elected to Parliament in 1972 at the age of 23 years. In the Fourth Labour Government he held a number of important ministerial posts before becoming prime minister just prior to the 1990 general election, at which the government was heavily defeated. His 60 days as prime minister was the second-shortest time in office in the 20th century, the shortest being the 16-day caretaker prime ministership of F. H. Dillon Bell in 1925. Moore was replaced as leader of the New Zealand Labour Party by Helen Clark shortly after the 1993 general election. He retired from parliament before the 1999 general election to take up a three-year appointment as director-general of the World Trade Organization (1999–2002). MORIORI. The indigenous people of the Chatham Islands. Moriori were Polynesians, the ancestors of both Maori and Moriori being the same people. The Chatham Islands were probably discovered and settled either directly as a result of voyages from the Pacific Islands or from New Zealand shortly after it had been settled by Polynesians. Geographic separation and isolation and the more limited material resources available in the Chatham Islands resulted in the development of two quite distinct culture groups. The first contact between Moriori and Europeans took place in 1791, but two decades were to elapse before regular contact took place. In 1835, the Te Ati Awa Maori (Taranaki) invaded the Chatham Islands, killing many Moriori and enslaving those who survived. Since then, an uneasy and sometimes tense relationship has existed between these two peoples. By the time

192 •

MOTOR RACING AND RALLYING

they were legally freed in 1863, the number of full-blooded Moriori had declined to approximately 200. The last person of full Moriori ancestry, Tama Horomona Rehe (Tommy Solomon), died in 1933. In the past decade, however, his immediate descendants have begun to publicly acknowledge their ancestry and have consciously sought to restore a sense of pride in their forebears. In January 2005 the first Moriori marae in the world was opened on a hilltop, its central post inscribed with the names of the 1,561 Moriori who signed a petition in 1862, calling for recognition of Moriori as the tangata whenua. Many on the islands see its presence as a key step towards reconciliation between Moriori and Maori. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT. MOTOR RACING AND RALLYING. New Zealand has a high profile for such a small population in this highly competitive sport. Christopher Arthur Amon (1943– ) was a professional Grand Prix racing driver from 1963 until 1976 and, at 19 years of age, was the youngest ever starter in a Grand Prix race. He won numerous races, including the Le Mans and Daytona 24-hour races and Monza and Silverstone. Bruce McLaren (1933–1970) was another highly successful young driver, who unfortunately lost his life while test-driving a Formula 1 vehicle. His name is perpetuated in the McLaren racing car company. Dennis Clive (Denny) Hulme (1936–1992), son of World War II Victoria Cross winner Clive Hulme, is the only New Zealander to have won the world championship for racing drivers. Hulme achieved this feat in 1967. Although not part of the Grand Prix racing circuits, New Zealand is a venue for the World Rallying Championships. MOUNTFORT, BENJAMIN WOOLFIELD (1825–1898). Architect. Mountfort was born in England and worked as an architect in London before arriving in New Zealand in 1850. At a time of much church building, he was to become New Zealand’s foremost church architect, displaying a lifelong adherence to the Gothic style, whether in wood, stone, or brick. Notable works included the Canterbury Museum, Canterbury College (now the Christchurch Arts Centre), the Canterbury Provincial Council building, and St. Mary’s Church, Parnell, in Auckland.

MUNRO, LESLIE KNOX (1901–1974)

• 193

MOYLE AFFAIR. During a parliamentary debate in 1976, Prime Minister Robert Muldoon accused former senior New Zealand Labour Party minister Colin Moyle (1929– ) of having been picked up by the police for “homosexual activity.” The allegation was made under parliamentary privilege. Following a commission of inquiry, Moyle resigned his seat in Parliament, although still protesting his innocence. He was subsequently reelected in 1981 and served until his retirement from Parliament in 1990. MULDOON, ROBERT DAVID (1921–1992). Prime minister. Born and educated in New Zealand, Muldoon served as a noncommissioned officer in New Caledonia and Italy and completed his training as an accountant during World War II. He joined the New Zealand National Party in 1947 and was elected to Parliament in 1960. He became minister of finance in 1967 and leader of the opposition in 1974. Between 1975 and 1984 he was both prime minister and minister of finance. Noted for his aggressive political style and pragmatic political philosophy (he once declared that his aim as prime minister was “to leave New Zealand no worse than I found it”), he changed the nature of the twoparty debate. Muldoon was the party professional in office, a man who had no illusions that he was the leader only because he could win. Virtually everything, therefore, was subordinated to this end. Ironically, the extensive interventionist policies he developed were much closer to the New Zealand Labour Party’s philosophy, which he derided, than to traditional National aims with which he became increasingly unhappy. He retired from politics in 1991, as controversial as ever, partly because of his dissatisfaction with the policies of his National Party successors. Tactically an outstanding politician, he lacked the broad economic strategic grasp that New Zealand so desperately needed following Britain’s entry into the European Community. See also MOYLE AFFAIR. MUNRO, LESLIE KNOX (1901–1974). Politician. Born and educated in New Zealand, Munro became successively dean of the Faculty of Law at Auckland University, editor of the New Zealand Herald (Auckland’s daily morning newspaper), New Zealand’s ambassador to the United States, and permanent representative to the United Nations between 1952 and 1958. At the United Nations he served as

194 •

MURUPAENGA (c.1770–1826)

president of the Trusteeship Council (1953–1954), nonpermanent representative on the Security Council (1954–1955), and president of the General Assembly (1957–1958), as well as United Nations special representative on the Hungarian question (1958–1962) and secretary-general of the International Commission of Jurists (1961–1963). In 1963, he was elected MP for Waipa for the New Zealand National Party, of which he had been an early member. In Parliament, despite his experience, he was not appointed to a Cabinet position, partly because of a clash of personalities with Prime Minister Keith Holyoake. He is a good example of the difficulties that a small society can sometimes have in reabsorbing eminent expatriates when they return home. He remained a backbench MP until his retirement in 1972. MURUPAENGA (c.1770–1826). Maori chief. A member of the Ngati Whatua tribe, Murupaenga was a brilliant strategist and military commander, winning a major battle with the Nga Puhi at Moremonui in 1808. This battle was known as Te kai-a-te karoro (seagulls’ feast) because the dead were so numerous that many were not consumed but left for the gulls. The Ngati Whatua were eventually defeated by the Nga Puhi in 1825 and Murupaenga was killed by a raiding party in 1826. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS. MUSEUMS. Museums were established at an early date in New Zealand’s development. The first important collections to be housed in permanent buildings were those in Auckland, Dunedin, Christchurch, and Wellington between 1865 and 1877. Most were based upon earlier smaller collections that were amalgamated, although both the Otago and Canterbury museums developed from mineral collections intended to assist gold miners identify suitable pay dirt. All these institutions continue to flourish today, with the Wellington museum becoming the National Museum, Te Papa (“Our Place”). This museum, in particular, seeks to emphasize the bicultural nature of New Zealand society, including art, landforms, and flora and fauna as well as visual culture. Important collections are also to be found in transport museums, particularly in Auckland and Wellington, and the military museums in Devonport, Wigram, and Waiouru. See also ART GALLERIES; CREATIVE NEW ZEALAND; LIBRARIES.

NATIVE LAND COURT

• 195

–N– NASH, WALTER (1882–1968). Prime minister. Born in England in poor circumstances, Nash has been described as “one of the innumerable people, from families of crofters or criminals, farm laborers or factory hands, who have prospered in the new worlds.” Nash was a member of the New Zealand Parliament for just under 40 years (1929–1968), an important minister of finance for 14 years (1935–1949), New Zealand minister in the United States for 18 months (1942–1943), leader of the opposition New Zealand Labour Party for nine years (1950–1957 and 1960–1963), and prime minister for three years (1957–1960). His career spanned the building and apogee of the social welfare state in which he played an important part. Nash’s philosophy was essentially that of Christian socialism, and he was invariably a conservative force within the Labour government. He also lacked the facility to delegate effectively and proved much less successful as leader of the party than as deputy. NATIONAL ANTHEMS. New Zealand has two national anthems. The traditional God Save the Queen anthem is retained for certain ceremonial occasions while God Defend New Zealand, written by Thomas Bracken, is now in more general use. God Defend New Zealand is now frequently sung in both Maori and English versions on many public occasions. NATIONAL COUNCIL OF WOMEN. Founded in 1896 by Kate Sheppard, the council is concerned with social reforms affecting the status and well-being of women. It coordinates a number of women’s organizations and is an influential pressure group which has done much to better the status of women. It has a wide focus of interests ranging from film censorship and pornography to the exclusion of nuclear weapons. NATIONAL DAY. See WAITANGI DAY. NATIONAL PARKS. See ENVIRONMENT. NATIONAL PARTY. See NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL PARTY. NATIVE LAND COURT. See MAORI LAND COURT.

196 •

NENE, TAMATI WAKA (c.1780s–1871)

NENE, TAMATI WAKA (c.1780s–1871). Maori chief and member of the Nga Puhi tribe. As a young man Waka Nene distinguished himself as a war leader. He traveled the length of the North Island, 1819–1820, fighting and plundering. Later he became the protector of European traders and the Wesleyan mission and became a Christian. He was an active supporter of the Treaty of Waitangi even though his interpretation of it was to prove unduly optimistic. He fought on the British side in the Northern Wars against Hone Heke, 1845–1846. Nene came to be regarded as the Maori leader who did more than any other to establish the Crown’s authority and promote colonization. NEPIA, H. GEORGE M. (1905–1986). Sportsman. Born and educated in New Zealand, George Nepia (the “H” and “M” are assumed and without significance) is one of the legendary characters of New Zealand rugby. A fullback, he first played for the All Blacks as a 19year-old on their 1924 tour of Britain. (This team became known as “The Invincibles” because it won every tour match.) Nepia also played for New Zealand in 1929 and 1930, but was omitted from the 1928 tour of South Africa because of that country’s racial policies. In 1935, he captained the New Zealand Maori team on its tour of Australia. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. NETBALL. Netball (originally outdoor basketball) was introduced into New Zealand in 1907 and is now the country’s most popular winter sport for women and girls. A national association was formed in 1924, after standardized rules were agreed upon. During the 1920s several attempts were made to arrange visits by overseas teams but differences in rules made this difficult. It was not until the 1950s that steps were taken to form an international body and to standardize the rules. The present seven-a-side game dates from this time. The first world championships were staged in 1963, when the New Zealand team came second to Australia. In the 10 world championships since then, New Zealand has won four (the most recent in Jamaica in 2003) and finished second in four others. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. NEW DEMOCRAT PARTY. Faced by a revolt amongst members of the Social Credit Political League, of which he was then leader,

NEW ZEALAND ALLIANCE

• 197

John O’Brien formed the New Democratic Party in May 1972. It was unsuccessful in the 1972 general election and thereafter disappeared. NEW LABOUR PARTY. See NEWLABOUR PARTY. NEW MUNSTER. One of the two provinces into which New Zealand was divided between 1848 and 1852 during the period of Crown Colony government. It comprised the whole of New Zealand south of a line drawn due east from the mouth of the Patea River on the border between what were later to become the Taranaki and Wellington provinces. See also PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. NEW ULSTER. One of the two provinces into which New Zealand was divided between 1848 and 1852 during the period of Crown Colony government. New Ulster consisted of all the North Island north of a line drawn due east from the mouth of the Patea River. See also PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. NEW ZEALAND. The name “New Zealand” appears to have been bestowed in honor of the Netherlands province of Zeeland. Surprisingly, it was not the name given by Abel Janszoon Tasman, the first European explorer known to have sighted the country. Believing that the land he had discovered might be the western edge of the land discovered in the south Atlantic Ocean by other Dutch nationals, Willem Schouten and Isaac Le Maire, in 1616—land they believed to be the northern tip of the great southern continent, Terra Australis—Tasman called the country he discovered Staten Landt. The name “Nieuw Zeeland” first appears on Dutch maps during the latter half of the 17th century (after Schouten and Le Maire’s discovery was shown to be a small island) and, unlike the name given to Australia (Nieuw Holland) about the same time, it has continued to be used. See also AOTEAROA; DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND ALLIANCE. Founded in 1886 with William Fox as its first president, the New Zealand Alliance for the Suppression and Prohibition of the Liquor Traffic aimed at securing prohibition of liquor manufacture and sale by direct vote. It was extremely influential from the time of its founding until the 1920s, but its subsequent

198 •

NEW ZEALAND COMPANY

decline resulted from the three-way choice between national continuance, state control, and prohibition offered in national liquor licensing referendums after 1919, the absence of local option polls, and, perhaps most notably, the uncompromising nature of much of the movement’s prohibition propaganda and its refusal to accept that the licensed trade could be reformed satisfactorily. The abolition of the triennial licensing referendum after the 1987 election effectively removed the New Zealand Alliance’s focal point. Although it remains in existence, its main objective today is to promote alcohol and drug abuse education. It has developed close links with Drug Arm, the former Queensland Temperance League. See also LIQUOR LICENSING. NEW ZEALAND COMPANY. The first New Zealand Company, a commercial venture committed to the establishment of agricultural and commercial settlements in New Zealand, was formed in England in the 1820s, but an initial attempt at settlement was largely unsuccessful and the company was dissolved. A second company, dedicated to implementing Wakefield’s theory of systematic colonization, was established in 1839. In May of that year Captain William Wakefield, Edward Gibbon Wakefield’s younger brother, set sail for New Zealand in the Tory with instructions to negotiate the purchase of as much land as possible before the expected annexation of New Zealand by Britain. However, before any word of William Wakefield’s success or otherwise had reached England, the first fleet of emigrant ships was dispatched. The first vessel, the Aurora, arrived in Port Nicholson harbor (Wellington) on 22 January 1840. Over the next three years the company dispatched 57 ships and 8,600 emigrants to New Zealand and disposed of 244,619 acres for settlement—land that had been acquired “sight unseen” through the purchase land orders by both speculators (who had no intention of migrating to New Zealand) and immigrants. Only after each migrant ship had arrived were ballots held to determine the order in which prospective landowners could select their land sections. Because of the extremely rugged topography surrounding Wellington harbor and delays in completing surveys, nearly seven years passed before the early land allocations were completed. The delays resulted in immigrants pressuring the company to develop alternative settlements; settlements at Wanganui and Nelson were the result.

NEW ZEALAND FIRST PARTY

• 199

Commercial exploitation engaged in by the New Zealand Company conflicted with the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, that confirmed the Maori title to the land of New Zealand and gave the Crown the exclusive right of land purchase from Maori. The New Zealand Company’s role dwindled steadily: in 1847 it handed over its entire landed property in New Zealand to the Crown and in 1858 it was dissolved. In addition to the Wellington, Wanganui (1840), New Plymouth (1841), and Nelson (1842) colonies, the New Zealand Company was involved in establishing two further settlements—the Otago settlement at Dunedin (1848, in association with the Free Church of Scotland) and the Canterbury settlement centered on Christchurch (1850, in association with the Church of England). The Canterbury settlement was by far the most successful, principally because the proportion of colonists to speculators was much higher, a situation that meant that more land was put into productive use and more jobs were available to immigrants who did not have the finance to buy land orders. See also IMMIGRATION. NEW ZEALAND DAY. See WAITANGI DAY. NEW ZEALAND FIRST PARTY. Formed by former dissident New Zealand National Party MP Winston Peters in 1993, the party broadly stood for the National Party principles from which, Peters alleged, the Jim Bolger government had departed. New Zealand First occupies a position near to the center of the political spectrum, but with a lesser emphasis than National upon market principles and a greater role for the state, particularly in such matters as superannuation. It is, however, to the right of National on the question of immigration. The party won two seats in the 1993 general election but, with the introduction of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, won 17 seats and unexpectedly formed a governing coalition with the National Party in 1996–1997. Subsequently the party split, and it was saved in 1999 only by Peters winning his electorate seat by the narrow majority of 63 votes. This enabled the party to circumvent the minimum of 5 percent threshold of the party vote, and the party qualified for a total of five seats. At the 2002 general election, New Zealand First more than tripled its 1999 party support and won a total

200 •

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN AID

of 13 parliamentary seats after a campaign that focused almost entirely on three issues: immigration, law and order, and the Treaty of Waitangi. More recently the party has proposed that it will develop a policy to buy back former state assets that have been sold into private ownership since 1988. See also POLITICAL PARTIES; STATEOWNED ENTERPRISES. NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN AID. New Zealand’s overseas development aid (ODA) is administered by NZAID, a semiautonomous body established by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Overseas Trade in 2002. The main policy focus is on the reduction of poverty, particularly in the poorer South Pacific states. New Zealand’s total ODA in 2004 was $260 million, including $122 million for the Pacific. This represents 0.24 percent of the gross national income. The aid is spread between bilateral arrangements with other governments, support for multilateral bodies, and voluntary projects run by nongovernmental organizations. See also PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH THE. NEW ZEALAND LABOUR PARTY. Formed in 1916, the New Zealand Labour Party is the oldest continuously surviving political party in New Zealand. Earlier in 1910, the Independent Political Labour League, a party representing moderate trade councils and seeking reform through legislation, had been renamed the Labour Party before becoming the United Labour Party in 1912. There was also the Socialist Party that represented the more militant “Red Feds” Labour organization. This, in turn, largely gave way to a more moderate Social Democratic Party formed in 1913. It was from an amalgam of these elements—a variety of unions, moderate and radical, the United Labour Party (ULP), the Social Democratic Party (SDP) together with six “Labour” MPs (three ULP and two SDP)— that the New Zealand Labour Party was eventually formed. It achieved rapid electoral success because the wartime coalition of Liberals and the Reform Party left it virtually in the position of being the official opposition. It did not formally become the official opposition party, however, until 1931. Under the leadership of Henry Edmund (Harry) Holland (1919–1933), Labour revised its initial policies. In 1925, it commit-

NEW ZEALAND LABOUR PARTY

• 201

ted itself to democratic constitutional processes and from then on widened its appeal to various sections of the community. In particular, in 1927 it dropped its previous policy calling for the nationalization of land and adopted some Douglas Social Credit proposals by promising cheaper credit and guaranteed prices to dairy farmers. In 1932, it formed an alliance with Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana and his Maori church. Throughout this period, the party developed an efficient, centrally controlled extraparliamentary organization together with a research bureau. Above all, it adopted the Australian system of caucus organization that proved so effective that opposition parties eventually adopted broadly similar systems. Holland died in 1933 and was succeeded as leader by Michael Joseph Savage. Labour won the 1935 general election (the First Labour Government) and was reelected three years later with a substantially increased share of the total vote. Following Savage’s death in 1940 his deputy, Peter Fraser, became leader and successfully steered the government through World War II and the postwar years. In particular, he played a vigorous role on behalf of smaller nations in the formation of the United Nations at the San Francisco Conference in 1945 by opposing the great-power veto, supporting the powers of the General Assembly, and, in particular, exerting influence upon the setting up of the Trusteeship Council. Fraser remained as leader of the party until he died in 1950, whereupon 68-year-old Walter Nash took over the leadership, the last foreign-born leader of the party. After serving as prime minister for three years (1957–1960), Nash remained at the helm until 1963 when he was replaced by Arnold Nordmeyer. One of the shortestserving Labour leaders, Nordmeyer, whose name was associated with the notorious 1958 Black Budget as finance minister, sought to restructure the party but failed through lack of trade union support, and he was replaced in 1965 after only one election, which was lost. His successor, Norman Kirk, lost two elections before becoming prime minister in 1972, only to die in office in 1974. He was succeeded by his minister of finance, Wallace (Bill) Rowling. Rowling served as leader until 1983, losing three successive elections before being replaced by 41-year-old David Lange who, at the time, had served less than six years in Parliament.

202 •

NEW ZEALAND LEGION

Under the influence of Finance Minister Roger Douglas, the Fourth Labour Government embarked upon a radical marketoriented economic policy that party leader Lange eventually rebelled against, leading to the replacement of Douglas and the resignation of Lange in favor of his deputy, law professor Geoffrey Palmer. Despite an impressive legislative record in a comparatively short parliamentary career, Palmer was not a success as prime minister and resigned without fighting a single election as leader. He was replaced by the largely self-educated Michael (Mike) Moore six weeks before the 1990 general election. Predictably, given the dissension that had beset the Fourth Labour Government, Moore was unable to save the party from defeat, and although the party under his leadership improved its standing in 1993, his leadership was challenged shortly after, and he was defeated by Helen Clark, the first woman to lead a political party in New Zealand. Labour, under Clark’s leadership, narrowly lost the 1996 election, but she became prime minister in 1999, the Fifth Labour Government, in coalition with the Alliance, and also won the next election in 2002 in coalition with Jim Anderton’s Progressive Coalition, a splinter party from the Alliance. Although distancing itself from the achievements of the Fourth Labour Government, the Clark government adopted a fiscally sound economic policy while favoring the poorer sections of the community that form its core constituency. Nevertheless, Labour has, particularly since 1984, become more of a social democrat party, placing emphasis on a moderate center-left posture. It aims to win the support of intellectuals and the middle class and occupy a strategic position in New Zealand politics that, under the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, places it in an ideal position to form coalitions with other progressive parties. NEW ZEALAND LEGION. An ultraconservative group founded in 1933. It was opposed to devaluation and state interference. It disintegrated before the 1935 general election, but some of its former members stood as candidates for the Democrat Party. NEW ZEALAND MAORI COUNCIL. The New Zealand Maori Council was established in 1962 by the Second National Government to provide advice on a range of topics covering almost every facet of

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL PARTY

• 203

Maori life. The range includes social, economic, and cultural matters and the maintenance of good race relations. Based upon 946 marae, 17 district Maori councils nominate delegates to the full council, which also includes representatives of other Maori organizations. In 1987, the Court of Appeal found in New Zealand Maori Council v. The Crown that the special relationship between the Maori people and the Crown was an ongoing one requiring both treaty partners to act reasonably and with the utmost good faith towards each other. See also LEGAL SYSTEM. NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL PARTY. The New Zealand National Party was the product of a merger in 1936 of the United and Reform parties. Its objectives were to promote good citizenship and self-reliance, combat communism and socialism, maintain freedom of contract, encourage private enterprise, safeguard individual rights and the privilege of ownership, and oppose interference by the state in business or industry. Its main purpose, however, was clearly to provide a united antisocialist front against the triumphant New Zealand Labour Party. An elaborate membership organization was developed which, at its apogee, claimed 200,000 members (one of the highest membership organizations of its type, per capita, in the Western world). Reflecting the twin strands of liberalism and conservatism within the same party, in its early years leadership proved to be a problem. With the leaders of both United (Forbes) and Reform (Coates) unacceptable to the supporters of each other’s former party, a compromise candidate was elected initially by one vote in a straw ballot. Farmer Adam Hamilton was widely seen as a substitute for Coates but never succeeded in establishing his leadership. He was replaced in 1940 by businessman Sidney Holland, who began shifting the party away from its more conservative principles towards an acceptance of the welfare state and the adoption of a more centrist and pragmatic position. In the years before becoming prime minister in 1949, Holland led a lively opposition. Shortly after assuming office, Holland, like William Massey before him in 1913, ruthlessly crushed the major 1951 Waterfront Dispute, and shortly after heavily defeated the Labour Party in a “snap” election fought on the issue of “who governs—the government or the unions.”

204 •

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL PARTY

Shortly before the 1957 general election, which the National Party lost narrowly, an ailing Holland was replaced briefly as prime minister by his deputy, Keith Holyoake. In the following three years Holyoake ran one of the most successful opposition campaigns in New Zealand history, particularly with its sustained attack on the socalled Black Budget (1958). After winning the 1960 general election Holyoake served as prime minister until 1972, a record second only to Richard “King Dick” Seddon, during which time he astutely positioned his National Party at the center of the political spectrum. When Holyoake retired as prime minister early in 1972 he was replaced by lawyer John Ross (Jack) Marshall, who attempted to give the party a more liberal bias. Twenty months after losing the 1972 general election, however, Marshall was replaced by populist accountant Robert Muldoon. Muldoon won the 1975 general election in spectacular style. During his 10 years as leader (and eight-and-ahalf years as prime minister), Muldoon dominated his party and had no scruples about using extensive, interventionist, left-of-center policies whenever he deemed them necessary. In particular, his name came to be associated with the Think Big policies of the early 1980s, which were designed to use public monies for major development schemes. Muldoon’s government was defeated by a resurgent Labour Party led by David Lange in July 1984. Although vanquished, Muldoon was reluctant to step down as leader, but he was replaced in late 1984 by lawyer James (Jim) McLay. Another liberal, McLay was popular with the extraparliamentary National Party organization but fell foul of some influential conservative colleagues in the parliamentary party. He, in turn, lost the leadership to farmer James (Jim) Bolger in 1986 before he had a chance of contesting a general election as leader. After losing the 1987 election, Bolger became prime minister in 1990 and headed National Party and coalition governments until he was replaced by the first woman to lead the party, former primary schoolteacher Jennifer (Jenny) Mary Shipley, in 1997. As with the replacement of Bolger, the leadership change resulted more from personalities than differences in policy. Shipley served as leader following National’s defeat at the 1999 general election until she was ousted at the end of 2001 by farmer and former Treasury official Bill English. Following a poor showing at the 2002 general election, English

NEW ZEALAND SETTLEMENTS ACT (1863)

• 205

in turn was replaced by first-term MP Donald (Don) Brash, an exgovernor of the Reserve Bank and an exponent of more free-trade policies. As leader, Brash has gone some way towards reviving the fortunes of the party by an attack upon the Fifth Labour Government’s policies that he saw as unduly favoring Maori. True to its origins and as epitomized by Brash, the National Party today combines both conservative and liberal strains. The party emphasizes the role of the individual and business, rather than the collectivity and trade unions favored by Labour. After its 1984 defeat the party gradually re-adopted a more marketoriented philosophy with a markedly reduced emphasis upon the welfare state before losing its way ideologically, particularly with the introduction of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system that saw Labour occupy the center ground, leaving National squeezed between Labour and the rather more right-wing ACT Party. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. NEW ZEALAND PARTY. The New Zealand Party was formed in 1983, largely under the leadership of property investor Robert Jones who had become disillusioned with the New Zealand National Party. Although it won 12.3 percent of the vote in the 1984 general election, it failed to win any parliamentary seats; nevertheless, it played a role in the defeat of the Muldoon National Party government. It also made important policy contributions with several of its ideas, and the Fourth Labour Government implemented a number of its policies. The party was effectively disbanded by 1987, and although some dissident candidates stood in the 1987 general election, they polled poorly. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. NEW ZEALAND POLITICAL REFORM LEAGUE. See REFORM PARTY. NEW ZEALAND SETTLEMENTS ACT (1863). The New Zealand Settlements Act empowered the government to confiscate Maori land by proclamation—regardless of whether the owners were in rebellion or friendly. Maori who had not been in rebellion since the beginning of 1863 were to be compensated for their losses, provided they surrendered their arms when ordered to do so.

206 •

NEW ZEALAND STOCK EXCHANGE

Although the original intention was to use the Act to punish rebel Maori and establish settler security, political pressure—particularly after Frederick Weld was appointed premier in November 1864— resulted in it being used to acquire as much Maori land as possible for European settlement. Nearly 1.3 million hectares (3.75 million acres) of Maori land in Taranaki, Waikato, and the Bay of Plenty were confiscated between 1865 and 1867. About half was later paid for or returned to its rightful owners, but the confiscations remained a major source of Maori grievance. In 1995, for example, the Crown agreed to make a formal apology and pay $170 million in full settlement of the Tainui (Waikato) tribe’s 130-year-old land grievance. A similar settlement was reached with the Ngai Tahu (South Island) tribe in 1997, and other, smaller settlements have since been achieved. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT; TREATY SETTLEMENTS. NEW ZEALAND STOCK EXCHANGE. The New Zealand Stock Exchange has a special significance since it is the first in the world to start the new business day, New Zealand being 12 hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. The first stock exchanges in New Zealand developed as separate financial centers for the gold fields in Auckland, Thames, Dunedin, and Reefton in the 1870s. Later, other regional exchanges were added in Christchurch and Wellington while Thames and Reefton eventually dropped out. The Sharebrokers Act of 1908 introduced compulsory licensing for share brokers, and in 1915 the Stock Exchange Association was formed to coordinate the activities of the various regional exchanges. This was the forerunner of the modern exchange. In a major review of its functions in April 1989, the organization was further centralized, with the regional trading floors being brought under the management of a board of directors. In June 1991 centralization was completed with the implementation of a screen trading system. The regional trading floors were closed, leaving one national market. In the following year the exchange moved to a system of electronic transfer, and by 1998 it had adopted a fully scripless system of clearing and settlement. Two years later, the exchange was one of the first in the world to introduce wireless trading, with customers able to buy and sell via Internet-enabled phones directly with the ex-

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

• 207

change. On 1 January 2003 the New Zealand Stock Exchange became a limited liability company. See also ECONOMY. NEWLABOUR PARTY. Formed by dissident Labour Party MP Jim Anderton after he resigned from the New Zealand Labour Party in 1989, the NewLabour Party won 5.2 percent of the vote and one seat at the 1990 general election. It played an important role in establishing, and later merging into, the grouping of parties known as the Alliance that won a total of 10 seats in the 1999 general election. NewLabour within the Alliance was strongly opposed to the erosion of the welfare state and was prepared to maintain or enhance services by recourse to higher taxation where required, as well as advocating a greater role for the state in controlling market activity. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES. Newspapers have been a feature of New Zealand life since the earliest days of European settlement. The first newspaper, the New Zealand Gazette, was published for the New Zealand Company by Samuel Revans in London in August 1839, and the second edition—the first to be published in New Zealand and printed on equipment brought with him—at Petone in April 1840. In the earliest years of European settlement, the publication of newspapers burgeoned. Invariably they were produced with minimal resources to serve small local communities and, inevitably, the failure rate was high. Most began as weekly or biweekly publications; some survived to become dailies and are still published today. The first daily newspaper to be published was the Otago Daily Times, first published in Dunedin in November 1961 under the editorship of Julius Vogel, which provided essential shipping, land transport, and supplies information for people heading off to the Otago gold fields. The paper has been published continuously since then and is today one of the very few newspapers still in private family ownership. The number of daily newspapers peaked at 67 in 1910. Thereafter the number has declined steadily: by 1958 there were 42; 30 years later, the number had dropped to 32; and by 2003 only 24 daily newspapers remained, 16 of which were afternoon papers published in provincial towns and cities. The last metropolitan evening daily,

208 •

NGARIMU, TE MOANANUI-A-KIWA (1919–1943)

Wellington’s Evening Post, was merged with its stable-mate morning paper, the Dominion, in 2002 and renamed the Dominion Post. Prior to 1965, overseas interests were not permitted to own New Zealand newspapers. In that year the News Media Ownership Act was passed by Parliament, and soon afterward Rupert Murdoch’s News Media Ltd. bought a controlling interest in Wellington’s Dominion. Since then there has been a steady expansion of overseas interests involved in the country’s newspaper industry, and today over 90 percent of New Zealand’s daily newspapers are published by Australian interests. Fairfax New Zealand publishes the Dominion Post (Wellington) and the Press (Christchurch), as well as seven provincial daily papers. Australian Provincial Newspapers New Zealand (APN) publishes the New Zealand Herald (Auckland)—which, at 211,000 copies (2003), has by far the largest daily newspaper circulation in the country—and nine provincial daily papers. Both companies also publish weekly or biweekly suburban newspapers, an area that has grown substantially since the 1970s. Around 650 magazines are also published in New Zealand, many of them by APN and Fairfax. The publication of Sunday newspapers dates from the 1970s. There are currently three titles—the Sunday Star-Times and Sunday News published by the Fairfax Group, and the Herald on Sunday, published by APN. The New Zealand Press Council, established in 1972, is a selfregulatory industry body whose main function is to investigate and adjudicate on complaints made against newspapers and other publications. In 2003, 87 complaints were laid, 48 (55.2 percent) of which were adjudicated, resulting in 10 being upheld fully or in part. The remaining 39 complaints were either mediated, withdrawn, or set aside because they were outside the council’s jurisdiction. See also BROADCASTING. NGARIMU, TE MOANANUI-A-KIWA (1919–1943). Sheep farmer and soldier. Ngarimu was born at Whareponga on the east coast of the North Island of Ngati Porou descent and was educated at two native schools before attending Te Aute College where he excelled at rugby football. Shortly after the outbreak of World War II he enlisted in the 28th (Maori) Battalion and participated in fierce fighting in Greece and Crete and then North Africa. In March 1943 Lieutenant

NGATATA, WIREMU TAKO (WI TAKO) (c.1815–1887)

• 209

Ngarimu led his men against the German enemy in defense of a hill at Tebaga Gap, Tunisia. He was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for “displaying courage and leadership of the highest order.” His exploits are commemorated in the establishment of the Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Scholarship Fund, set up in 1945 to promote Maori education and the maintenance of the Maori language. NGATA, APIRANA TURUPA (1874–1950). Maori leader and politician. A member of the Ngati Porou tribe of the East Coast (North Island), Ngata was educated at Te Aute College, Canterbury University College (where he graduated with a bachelor of arts in 1894), and Auckland University College (where he graduated with a bachelor of laws in 1897). He was the first Maori to graduate from a university. Ngata’s concern for the future of Maori led him to become involved with the Young Maori Party, a movement that developed from the Te Aute College Students’ Association. In 1905, he was elected to represent the Eastern Maori electorate in the House of Representatives, a seat he retained for 38 years until his defeat in 1943. He served as a minister without portfolio, 1909–1912, and as native minister from 1928 until 1934. His resignation as minister in 1934 followed adverse criticism of his actions by a Commission of Inquiry on Native Affairs. Ngata played a leading role in the Maori revival early in the 20th century, especially in the raising of Maori living standards, which, he believed, could best be achieved through improved educational attainment levels. He also stimulated a revival of interest in the language, history, and traditions of both Maori and Polynesian peoples. NGATATA, WIREMU TAKO (WI TAKO) (c.1815–1887). Maori chief. A member of the Te Ati Awa tribe which migrated to the Cook Strait region in 1832, Ngatata was party to a dubious deal made by the New Zealand Company of which he clearly had little understanding. Later, he defended his interests and those of his people in letters to newspapers and officials. He was a passive supporter of the King Movement until 1864, seeking a middle way. In 1872 he became one of the first Maori to be appointed to the Legislative Council.

210 •

NIUE

NIUE. Niue Island is a raised atoll located to the east of the southern Cook Islands group. Along with the Cook Islands, it was annexed by New Zealand in 1901 but was administered separately after 1904. In 1974, it became a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand. Its citizens are also citizens of New Zealand. In 2002 the population of Niue was approximately 2,134. At the time of New Zealand’s 2001 census there were 20,148 Niueans living in New Zealand, most of them in Auckland. See also PACIFIC ISLAND TERRITORIES. NOBEL LAUREATES. Three New Zealanders have been awarded Nobel Prizes for outstanding contributions to scientific advancement. In 1908, Ernest Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for his investigations into the disintegration of elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances; Maurice Wilkins (1916–2004) was jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1962 for studies on double helix structures, the basis of modern DNA; and Alan MacDiarmid (1927– ) jointly won the 1999 Nobel Prize in chemistry for discovering that certain high-tech plastics could conduct electricity, a discovery that has wide application in electronics and communication devices. NORDMEYER, ARNOLD HENRY (1901–1989). Clergyman and politician. After 10 years as a Presbyterian minister, Nordmeyer was elected to the House of Representatives in the New Zealand Labour Party landslide of 1935. Defeated in 1949, he returned to Parliament in 1951 after winning the by-election following the death of Peter Fraser and remained an MP until his retirement from politics in 1969. With David G. McMillan he was responsible for working out most of the details of Labour’s hospital program embodied in the Social Security Act of 1938—the foundation stone of the welfare state. He was minister of health (1941–1947) and minister of industries and commerce (1947–1949) in the First Labour Government, and minister of finance in the Second Labour Government (1957–1960). His first budget (1958) has become known as the “Black Budget.” He was the first native-born New Zealander to lead the Labour Party when he succeeded Walter Nash in 1963. Despite seeking to develop

NORTHERN WARS (1845–1846)

• 211

a new-look Labour Party, he was ousted from the leadership by Norman Kirk in 1965. See also SOCIAL WELFARE. NORTH ISLAND. The North Island has a land area of 115,777 sq. kilometers (44,281 sq. miles). Mainly mountainous, it contains many active and dormant volcanoes, the most well-known of which are Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Taranaki (Egmont), along with White Island and Rangitoto Island. Auckland, the country’s largest urban center, is built over 48 dormant or extinct volcanoes. At the time of the 2001 census, the North Island’s population was 2,829,801 (75.7 percent of New Zealand’s total population). Included in this figure was 87.6 percent of New Zealand’s Maori population, a quarter of whom lived in Auckland, and 94.0 percent of its Pacific Island population, two-thirds of whom lived in Auckland. See also HAMILTON; TE IKA A MAUI; WELLINGTON. NORTHERN WARS (1845–1846). Hone Heke’s opposition to British rule in the Bay of Islands ultimately led to conflict between his and Te Ruki Kawiti’s followers, and British soldiers in 1845–1846. Kawiti, who had joined Heke’s rebellion largely out of loyalty to his people, lost a son during a diversionary attack on Kororareka when Heke cut down the flagstaff. Kawiti withdrew to Puketutu pa, where he was attacked by British troops aided by Maori led by Tamati Waka Nene. Undeterred, Kawiti then built a strong pa at Ohaeawai, even though he could no longer count on Heke’s support. British troops attacked Ohaeawai in the hope of ending the rebellion but suffered heavy losses. Kawiti offered peace but when the governor, Robert FitzRoy, demanded that he surrender some of his land as compensation, he decided to fight on. He then built Ruapekapeka pa (the “bat’s nest”) high on a hill overlooking routes to the north, south, east, and west. Its construction showed that Maori had learned to adapt their traditional military engineering to the demands of European warfare. When he became governor, George Grey sought peace. Kawiti was prepared to be conciliatory, but Heke was determined to fight on. The British laid siege to Ruapekapeka pa and commenced a fierce bombardment, which prevented Heke from entering with reinforcements. On a Sunday in January 1846, Nene and Patuone, another Maori who was friendly to the British, crept up on the pa, found it all but deserted

212 •

NUCLEAR-FREE

(the inhabitants having gone out to attend a church service), and returned with a small force and captured it after only token resistance. Kawiti again sought peace and Grey granted him an unconditional pardon. This effectively ended the northern rebellion. NUCLEAR-FREE. See ANTINUCLEAR POLICY; SOUTH PACIFIC NUCLEAR-FREE ZONE.

–O– OFFICIAL INFORMATION ACT (1982). The Official Information Act of 1982, which replaced the Official Secrets Act, is based on the principle that official information must be made available unless there are good reasons for withholding it. The Act applies to all government departments except the Parliamentary Service, all stateowned enterprises, and a range of statutory authorities, including territorial local authorities. It does not apply to courts, tribunals in relation to their judicial function, and some judicial bodies. Decisions to withhold information may be referred to the ombudsmen’s office for review. That office’s recommendation is binding unless overridden by the minister responsible. Where a minister declines to accept an ombudsman’s recommendation, the reasons for doing so must be stated. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT. OLD AGE PENSIONS ACT (1898). The first step towards the state making provision for old age was taken by the Liberal government when it passed the Old Age Pensions Act in 1898. This Act provided a means-tested weekly income for the “virtuous poor,” men and women aged 65 and over who had lived in New Zealand for 25 years, were of good moral character, had lived a sober and reputable life during the preceding five years, had not deserted wife/husband or children, had not been imprisoned for a period of five years in the previous 25 years, and had an annual income of less than £34 ($68). Those who qualified received a state-funded pension of £18 ($36) per annum. The importance of this Act is that it marks the beginnings of a noncontributory pensions system. See also SOCIAL SECURITY ACT; SOCIAL WELFARE; SUPERANNUATION.

ORMOND, JOHN DAVIES (1831–1917)

• 213

OMBUDSMEN. First established in 1962 on the Scandinavian model and officially entitled the Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations, the ombudsmen’s office inquires into complaints made about administrative decisions by departments of central and local government. The office has no authority to investigate complaints against private companies and individuals, the decisions of judges, or complaints relating to the decisions made by ministers or full meetings of local authority councils. All investigations are undertaken in private and the investigating officer’s conclusions, along with any recommendation for action, are reported to the government department or organization concerned. Under the Protected Disclosures Act of 2000 (the “Whistleblower’s Act”), advice may be provided to employees making a disclosure under the Act provided they fulfill the necessary criteria. ONAWE MASSACRE. See SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. ORDER-IN-COUNCIL. Orders-in-council are the main means by which a government implements decisions that need legal authority. They are made by the Executive Council under powers delegated to it, directly or indirectly, by Parliament. O’REGAN, STEPHEN GERARD (TIPENE) (1939– ). Maori leader of mixed Ngai Tahu and Irish descent. Born and educated in New Zealand, O’Regan has combined careers in tertiary education, business, and the promotion of the interests of the Maori race. He is perhaps best known for successfully promoting important Ngai Tahu fishery claims and South Island land claims through the Waitangi Tribunal and the courts, leading to a major settlement in favor of Maori. ORMOND, JOHN DAVIES (1831–1917). Runholder (a person or body formally allowed to graze livestock on another’s land). The founder of one of New Zealand’s runholder dynasties, John Ormond was born in England and arrived in New Zealand in 1848. He acquired large estates in Hawke’s Bay and, as superintendent of that province as well as member of the House of Representatives between 1861 and 1890 (apart from one short break, 1881–1884), he

214 •

OTAGO

worked closely with Donald McLean in maintaining good relations with the local Maori tribes. His eldest son, George Canning Ormond, married Maraea Kiwiwharekete and so founded the prominent Omana branch of the family situated at Mahia. A daughter, Ada Mary, married Hamish Wilson of Bulls. Ormond Wilson, a grandson of this union, was elected a Labour member of Parliament in 1935. OTAGO. Otago is the second-largest province of the South Island both in population and area. The foundation of its chief city, Dunedin, preceded the foundation of the province by some five years. The name Otago was an anglicized corruption of the word Otakou, a preexisting settlement on the Otago Peninsula. Apart from the voyages of discovery of James Cook and others, the earliest European visitors were sealers from Australia who were known to be active in the area from 1792 onwards. Whaling stations were also organized at various points around the coast. Missionaries were active particularly from 1841 on, with Dunedin being founded in 1848 by settlers of the Free Church of Scotland. Settlers were followed by gold miners with the discovery of gold in Central Otago by Gabriel Read in 1861. The University of Otago, the oldest in New Zealand, was founded in 1869, and the economy of today is largely based upon farming and associated industries, fruit growing, education, tourism, and service industries as well as aluminum smelting. See also CARGILL, WILLIAM; GOLD RUSHES; PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT.

–P– PACIFIC AGREEMENT ON CLOSER ECONOMIC RELATIONS (PACER). A framework agreement covering all Pacific Islands Forum members (including Australia and New Zealand) and providing, over time, for the achievement of closer trade and economic integration among the members. PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH THE. If Australia has tended to look northwest towards New Guinea and Indonesia, New Zealand tends to regard the southwest Pacific as its prime area of in-

PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM

• 215

fluence. With New Zealand’s large Polynesian minority, a special relationship exists between it and the many Pacific islands to the near north and northeast. Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans, for example, are New Zealand citizens, while many other Pacific islands, such as Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji, have considerable proportions of their populations resident in New Zealand. Close relations are maintained with the island nations of the South Pacific. Diplomatic posts or consulates are maintained in 11 of these states and contact is also sustained through a range of Pacific multilateral regional organizations of which New Zealand is a member. Beyond that, trade and security are the major concerns. Imports from the islands have duty-free access to both the Australian and New Zealand markets on a nonreciprocal basis under the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement (SPARTECA). There are extensive links with the various Pacific island regional organizations. In security matters New Zealand has played an important role in the settlement of a number of disputes such as those in East Timor, Bougainville, and the Solomon Islands. It has also concentrated New Zealand foreign aid efforts in this area. See also ASIA, RELATIONS WITH; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM; PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES; SOUTH PACIFIC BUREAU FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION; TRADERS AND TRADING. PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM. Founded in 1971 as the South Pacific Forum, it was renamed the Pacific Islands Forum in 1999. The forum consists of 16 predominantly South Pacific countries: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Palau, Samoa (formerly Western Samoa), Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. It has become an important regional organization discussing trade, economic development issues, environmental matters, and regional law enforcement cooperation. Other topics discussed include the law of the sea, foreign fishing, French nuclear testing, and security matters. The 2001 Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations and the setting up of organizations such as the annual Forum Economics Ministers’ Meeting and the Forum Fisheries Agency are other examples of its work. At the forum’s 2003

216 •

PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES

meeting, tradition was broken with the appointment of an Australian as secretary-general. The same meeting agreed to overhaul the forum’s structure and activities and investigate further areas for cooperation and partnership. Some of the smaller Pacific island states were, however, somewhat apprehensive at what appeared to be increasing dominance by the two largest states, Australia and New Zealand. See also PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH THE; SOUTH PACIFIC BUREAU FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION. PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES. Imperialist ambitions held by New Zealand politicians in the late 19th century resulted in a number of territorial acquisitions in the southwest Pacific area during the early part of the 20th century. In 1887, the Kermadec Islands, a cluster of small, uninhabited volcanic outcrops located approximately 970 kilometers (600 miles) to the northeast of Auckland, were annexed. Today Raoul, the largest island of the Kermadec group, is used as a meteorological and radio station. In 1901, the Cook Islands group—including Niue, which had been a British protectorate since 1888—was annexed. Western Samoa was acquired by conquest in August 1914, when New Zealand replaced the German administration with military control. After World War I Western Samoa was made a League of Nations mandate and, for 16 years before it attained full independence in 1962, it was administered as a United Nations trusteeship territory. In 1923, the Ross Dependency in Antarctica was placed under the jurisdiction of the New Zealand government by a British government order-in-council. In 1926, the Tokelau Islands group was transferred from British to New Zealand administration; 22 years later it was fully incorporated into New Zealand territory. New Zealand’s policy towards its Pacific territories has, for the most part, been enlightened. Since World War II it has striven to develop the territories both economically and politically to the point where all, apart from the Ross Dependency, are effectively self-governing. All enjoy favorable immigration, trade, and aid arrangements. See also PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH THE; PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM. PAI MARIRE (“Good and Peaceful”). A religion founded in Taranaki in 1862 by the Maori prophet Te Ua Haumene. The most ferocious

PAKEHA MAORI

• 217

of its followers were called Hauhau (Te Hau was the spirit of God in the image of the wind). The source of the religion was almost entirely Old Testament scriptures. Te Ua identified Maori with one of the lost tribes of Israel, and salvation was interpreted as salvation from Pakeha rather than from original sin. The more extreme Hauhau followers revived traditional Maori customs of decapitation and, in some cases, cannibalism. The movement won converts in Taranaki, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, and Hawke’s Bay, and it influenced the development of many later Maori religious movements such as the Ringatu and Ratana faiths. It brought people together against a common enemy but also heightened differences between “friendly” and “alienated” Maori. PAIRS. A system formerly used in Parliament whereby a member of Parliament who wished to absent himself or herself reached agreement with an MP from the opposite side of the House to be absent at the same time, thus neutralizing their votes in any division which might have taken place during their absence. Traditionally a matter of individual arrangement, in New Zealand—unlike Britain—it was arranged by the political parties concerned. With the advent of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system with voting by party blocs, pairing was replaced by proxy voting in which authority may be given for a vote to be cast on behalf of an absent member. PAKEHA. New Zealand historian Michael King defined the word in the following terms: Pakeha “simply denotes people and influences that derive originally from Europe but which are no longer ‘European.’ Pakeha is an indigenous expression to describe New Zealand people and expressions of culture that are not Maori.” PAKEHA MAORI. A 19th-century term used to describe a person of European descent who settled in New Zealand and was accepted into Maori society. They were frequently deserters, shipwrecked mariners, or escaped convicts who took one or more Maori wives and who often played an important role between Maori and European traders. Perhaps the best known Pakeha Maori was Frederick Edward Maning, who lived at Hokianga in the far north of the North Island and who eventually became a judge of the Maori Land Court. Maning’s account of Maori life during the time he spent as a Pakeha

218 •

PALMER, GEOFFREY WINSTON RUSSELL (1942– )

Maori is recorded in his Old New Zealand: A Tale of the Good Old Times, published in 1906. PALMER, GEOFFREY WINSTON RUSSELL (1942– ). Lawyer and prime minister. Palmer was born in New Zealand and educated there and in the United States. He played an important part in developing New Zealand’s innovative accident compensation scheme before becoming a professor of law. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1979, becoming deputy prime minister, 1984–1989, and prime minister, 1989–1990. While in Parliament he was responsible for important constitutional and parliamentary reform, particularly the establishment in 1985 of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System, which recommended the adoption of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system. After retiring from Parliament, Palmer returned briefly to an academic career before helping establish a legal firm specializing in public law. In 2003 he was appointed New Zealand’s representative on the International Whaling Commission, replacing Jim McLay. PARIHAKAAFFAIR. In 1868 a Maori prophet, Te Whiti-o-Rongomai III, gathered dispirited segments of Taranaki tribes together and established a community at Parihaka, in South Taranaki, on land that had been nominally confiscated in 1863. In 1877, under pressure from land-hungry settlers, George Grey, now premier, decided to open up this area for European settlement. Passive resistance—which took the form of erecting fences across a new road and plowing land sold to Europeans—followed because Maori land reserves, promised in 1865, had not been set aside. Many Maori were imprisoned without trial. John Hall, who replaced Grey as premier in 1879, attempted to conciliate Te Whiti and Riwha Titokowaru by publicly investigating Maori claims to reserves. At the same time he prepared to build a road through the disputed territory from Hawera to New Plymouth. Some reserves were offered but rejected; Te Whiti refused to admit the Crown’s title to any land under dispute, nor would he recognize the commission investigating Maori claims. The government poured men and arms into the disputed area. Finally, in November 1881, despite the disapproval of Governor Arthur Gordon, government

PARLIAMENT, TERM OF

• 219

troops and hastily recruited volunteers marched on Parihaka “to be met, not by hostile warriors but by dancing children.” Te Whiti and about 1,400 other Maori were arrested and sent elsewhere. The village and its crops were destroyed and all weapons confiscated. Te Whiti was held without trial and not permitted to return to the remnants of his land until 1883. He rebuilt Parihaka, and for the rest of his life he and his followers ignored Pakeha authority. Te Whiti’s skill and methods of passive resistance ensured that he remained morally undefeated. PARK, KEITH (1892–1975). World War II Battle of Britain hero. After being classed as “unfit to ride a horse” by the army, Park joined the Royal Air Force as a fighter pilot and was decorated in World War I. After the war he continued his career in the Royal Air Force, and in World War II he was charged with organizing air protection for the evacuation at Dunkirk, France, in 1940. He went on to organize and conduct the air defense of Britain, effectively blunting Hitler’s planned invasion. This was followed by his organization of the air defense of Malta, before being appointed Allied air commander in chief for Southeast Asia. See also ARMED FORCES; DEFENSE. PARLIAMENT. The institution established in 1854 under the terms of the Constitution Act of 1852 (passed by the British Parliament) was known as the General Assembly, and the term “Parliament” only became the official constitutional term in 1986. Strictly speaking, today the Parliament consists of the Crown (represented by the governorgeneral) together with the House of Representatives, but the term is often used to describe the House of Representatives alone. Since 1950, when the upper house, the appointed Legislative Council, was abolished, New Zealand has been a unicameral state. The main functions of Parliament are to enact laws, provide a government, and approve a government’s revenue and expenditure proposals as set out in the annual budget and supplementary financial appropriation statements. Elections have been held triennially since 1879 except in times of crisis. See also PAIRS; PARLIAMENT, TERM OF. PARLIAMENT, TERM OF. From 1853 until 1879 the maximum length of the parliamentary term was five years. Since then (except

220 •

PARNELL, SAMUEL DUNCAN (1810–1890)

during the two world wars and the Great Depression when the life of the current Parliament was extended), its maximum length has been three years “and no longer.” Since 1956 this provision has been able to be amended only with the approval of at least three-quarters of all MPs or by a majority of electors voting in a referendum. Two attempts (in 1967 and 1990) have been made to lengthen the parliamentary term to a maximum of four years, but on both occasions the proposal was rejected by the electorate. It should be noted, however, that a prime minister is able to seek a dissolution of Parliament before the three-year term has expired. This occurred only three times during the first-past-the-post era: in 1881, 1951 at the conclusion of the waterfront dispute, and 1984. Under the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, early dissolutions may become more commonplace; in 2002 the minority Labour-led coalition government called an election some five months before the Parliament was due to expire in an attempt to secure an absolute parliamentary majority. This strategy was unsuccessful. PARNELL, SAMUEL DUNCAN (1810–1890). Innovator. Born in England and inspired by the reformist socialism of Robert Owen, Parnell arrived in New Zealand in 1840 and worked as a carpenterbuilder. Shortly after his arrival in New Zealand, he introduced the principle of the eight-hour day and, despite several attempts to stop it, the practice caught on and soon spread to other parts of New Zealand as well as to Australia and beyond. PARTY LIST SEAT. With the adoption of the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, members of the House of Representatives can be elected in one of two ways: either by winning a constituency seat or by being elected from list of candidates prepared before each election by political parties that have met the criteria set out in the Electoral Act for registration. In order to be registered as a political party and retain registration on an annual basis, a party must have at least 500 current financial members who are eligible to be registered as electors. See also ELECTIONS; ELECTORS, REGISTRATION OF. PASTORAL FARMING. See AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY; AGRICULTURE; DAIRY INDUSTRY; DEER FARMING; MEAT INDUSTRY; SHEEP AND SHEEP FARMING; WOOL INDUSTRY.

PENSIONER SETTLEMENTS

• 221

PAY-AS-YOU-EARN (PAYE) TAXATION. Income tax paid on an annual basis was first introduced into New Zealand in 1891 to replace property tax. Tax owed was paid after the end of each tax year. In 1958, this was modified with the introduction of the PAYE taxation system, which shifted liability for tax from past to present income. Because the transition year would have meant that taxpayers would have paid two years’ tax from a single year’s income, both the New Zealand Labour and New Zealand National parties made competing offers prior to the 1957 election of how much taxation they would “forgive” of the final taxation payment under the old, “annualized” taxation system. PEARSE, RICHARD WILLIAM (1877–1953). Pioneer aviator and inventor. New Zealand has a long-standing connection with aviation, and the early attempts by Pearse came close to rivaling those of the Wright brothers, whose first sustained powered flight took place at Kitty Hawk in the United States in December 1903. Pearse, a farmer’s son, built his first aircraft from scrap; the propeller, for example, was made from cut-down sheep-dip tins. There is still considerable debate as to whether his aircraft, which boasted such innovations as a tricycle undercarriage, steerable nosewheel, and front-mounted propeller, flew in a controlled and sustained manner before that of the Wright brothers, but although the consensus appears to be that it did not, he did achieve a very early powered takeoff. Pearse was a prolific inventor who not only designed and built his own two-cylinder, double-acting, horizontally opposed engine to power his aircraft (using steel irrigation piping to make the cylinders) but also patented the first aileron in 1907. He designed and built a lightweight bicycle with a bamboo frame, vertical crank drive, gears, and integral pumps that could inflate the tires whilst it was being ridden; a motorized plow; a potato-planting machine; and a utility aircraft with a tilting engine. Although few of these worked as he had intended, they do bear testimony to the remarkable inventive ability of the man; as his biographer has commented: “He was the prototype Kiwi-do-it-yourselfer.” See also TRANSPORTATION. PENSIONER SETTLEMENTS. In response to a request for more troops by Governor George Grey in 1846, the secretary of state for

222 •

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, RELATIONS WITH

the colonies, Earl Grey, suggested that as part of a cost-saving measure, some of the reinforcements might consist of English pensioners— retired British military personnel, all former imperial soldiers—who would go to New Zealand with their families and be provided, by the New Zealand government, with a cottage and acre of land near one of the principal settlements. The men would take part in military training and be available for defense in an emergency. Four pensioner settlements (Howick, Onehunga, Otahuhu, and Panmure) established on the outskirts of the early Auckland settlements had an important part to play in defense strategy during the 1850s and 1860s. See also LAND WARS. PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA, RELATIONS WITH. See CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH. PETERS, WINSTON RAYMOND (1945– ). Politician. Born and educated in New Zealand, Peters qualified as a secondary teacher and, later, as a barrister and solicitor. He first stood for Parliament as the New Zealand National Party candidate for the Northern Maori electorate in 1975 before narrowly winning a general seat in 1978 following a disputed election result. Defeated in 1981 he was reelected to Parliament in 1984. Peters has an important claim to fame as a political opinion poll phenomenon. He first appeared in a preferred leader poll in March 1988, and just over one year later he commanded more popular support than any of the party leaders. With the National Party in government, he regularly outpolled his own prime minister. Appointed to a Cabinet position in 1990, he maintained a continual barrage of public criticism of the policies of his own government—contrary to the principles of collective Cabinet responsibility—and was sacked from the Jim Bolger Cabinet in October 1991. In 1993, he formed his own party, New Zealand First, which won two seats at that year’s general election, and in 1996 under the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system, his party won a total of 17 seats and formed a coalition government with the National Party, in which Peters served as deputy prime minister to his former bête-noire, Prime Minister Bolger. Widely associated with populist issues, Peters is best known for his accusations leading to the so-called Wine Box Inquiry and for his controversial hard-line views on immigration, law and order, and Treaty of Waitangi settlements.

PINK AND WHITE TERRACES

• 223

PHAR LAP. Legendary racehorse. Bred in New Zealand, Phar Lap never raced there but was sold to an Australian in 1928 and most of its racing career was in that country. Unplaced in all but two of its first 10 races, the horse went on to win some of the most prestigious events in Australia—four in one week in 1930, including the Melbourne Cup. Taken to North America, Phar Lap more than held his own against the best horses that the United States could produce, and there won the Agua Caliente Cup—at the time the richest race in the world—in world-class time. He died suddenly of a colic attack 17 days after that race. At the time, Phar Lap was the highest stakes winner in Australasian horse-racing history and achieved legendary status in Australia and New Zealand, both of which claimed the horse as their own. PHORMIUM TENAX. See FLAX. PICKERING, WILLIAM HAYWARD (1910–2004). Scientist and engineer. Born and educated in New Zealand and the United States before adopting U.S. citizenship in 1941, Pickering was one of the world’s leading space scientists. He was best known for his work as director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California from 1954 to 1976. Under his direction the laboratory was responsible, amongst other feats, for the first U.S. satellite (Explorer I), the first successful U.S. round-the-moon probe, the Mariner flights to Venus and Mars, and the Surveyor lunar landings of 1966–1967. Among his many accolades are the prestigious National Medal of Science (awarded by U.S. President Gerald Ford in 1975), and the Japan Prize, which was bestowed on him by the emperor of Japan in 1994. PINK AND WHITE TERRACES. Known as the eighth wonder of the world, the terraces made an important contribution to the early development of tourism in New Zealand when, as early as 1860, the Tuhourangi people were organizing day trips to the terraces. For the next 25 years the terraces attracted visitors from many parts of the world, including such notables as Mark Twain and Anthony Trollope, who braved the journey by steamship, horse and cart, canoe, and, finally, foot. Formed of glistening silica from water heated by magma, the 30-meter-high (100-foot) white terraces covered

224 •

PINUS RADIATA

three hectares (seven acres). The pink terraces were smaller and lower. Early in the morning of 10 June 1886, Mount Tarawera erupted, causing the bed of Lake Rotomahana to blow out and destroy the terraces. PINUS RADIATA. See FORESTRY. PLANNING COUNCIL. See INDICATIVE PLANNING. PLUNKET, WILLIAM LEE (1864–1920). Governor. Born in Ireland, Lord Plunket was governor of New Zealand between 1904 and 1910. He gave his name to the Plunket Society, founded by Frederic Truby King, to foster children’s health care in New Zealand, and to the Plunket Shield, New Zealand‘s premier provincial cricket trophy until the 1974–1975 season. POLICE OFFENCES AMENDMENT ACT (1951). Introduced following the highly disruptive 1951 waterfront dispute, the original bill was draconian, riding roughshod over citizens’ rights and thereby raising widespread concern. Although extensive amendments were made subsequently, the resulting Act still provided for instances of summary justice, with the onus of proof of innocence placed upon the defendant, a reversal of the normal processes of justice. Some of the worst provisions were removed by the Second Labour Government in 1960, and the Act was finally repealed by the Fourth Labour Government in 1987. POLITICAL PARTIES. The earliest parliamentary political groupings in New Zealand were dominated by personality and provincial interests. Parliament was an unstable organization made up of constantly shifting and changing blocs. From 1875 on, conservative versus liberal tendencies began to show up especially over the question of land ownership. These tendencies rapidly became associated with the leadership of Vogel and Grey, respectively. Governments at this time rose and fell according to groupings within the House of Representatives; it was not until 1884 that a government was defeated at a general election. The Liberal Party was the first to emerge in the shape of a modern party organization, albeit rudimentary. There was a gradual growth of party organizations in the electorates—for example, the National Liberal Association formed in Dunedin in 1890. At first many of these lo-

POLITICAL PARTIES

• 225

cal associations pursued independent policies reflecting their own largely provincial interests. It was not until 1899 that such local Liberal associations were merged into a national body and the party adopted a constitution based upon Joseph Chamberlain’s Birmingham model in Britain. This set the broad organizational pattern for modern political parties in New Zealand, although the extraparliamentary organization at this time was excluded from interfering with policy matters and restricted to canvassing and raising finance. Notwithstanding the domination of its first leader, Richard John Seddon (1893–1906), the Liberal Party, in effect, set the ideological agenda as well. With its emphasis upon social legislation and its populist attitudes, it made sure that future parties, whether left or right of center, could not stray far from its general philosophies without incurring heavy voting penalties. In effect, it established a regime of centrist parties. Following the Liberal government’s defeat in 1912, however, the Liberal Party went into a long decline despite the organizational initiatives that it had pioneered. It was reincarnated as the United Party in 1927 before merging with the remnants of the Reform Party to form the National Party in 1936. In its early years the New Zealand Labour Party tended to be a more extreme Marxist-type party, but it was forced to modify its stance as it moved nearer to winning power. It had become heir to the Liberal Party in advancing welfare statism. It also advanced the model of party organization in an important fashion. The party had developed an efficient, centrally controlled extraparliamentary organization together with a research bureau. But, above all, it adopted the Australian system of caucus organization that proved so effective that opposition parties adopted similar systems. The New Zealand National Party consciously differed from Labour not only in its policies but also in its organization. The extraparliamentary organization was kept autonomous with the emphasis placed on electorate and regional organization rather than centrally focused, as with Labour. Unlike Labour, for example, the presidency of the party was never occupied by a sitting member of Parliament. Increasingly, however, the party copied the Labour Party’s caucus system that proved so effective in terms of parliamentary organization. In terms of policy it was principally anti-Labour, favoring incremental rather than dramatic change. From 1935 until 1996 New Zealand was overwhelmingly a twoparty system dominated by Labour and National. Third and minor

226 •

POLITICAL REFORM LEAGUE

parties—the most durable of which was the Social Credit Political League, a party that advocated monetary reform based on the theories espoused by Major C. H. Douglas—enjoyed only minimal success under the first-past-the-post electoral system. Numerous small parties were formed but few managed to win seats in the House of Representatives. Over a period of 58 years, five third parties were successful in winning only 13 seats (out of a total of 1,710 seats contested) between them. The Country Party won two seats in 1935; Social Credit won a total of six seats at general elections between 1966 and 1984 inclusive; NewLabour, a party whose philosophy was based on traditional Labour principles, won a single seat in 1990, while the Alliance and New Zealand First each won two seats in 1993. With the introduction of the Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) electoral system, and the ability of minor parties to win party list seats instead of electorate seats, the representation of third parties has increased markedly. This has resulted in a series of coalition governments: a majority coalition government comprising National and New Zealand First (1996–1998); a minority coalition government comprising Labour and the Alliance (1999–2002); and a minority coalition government comprising Labour and the Progressive Coalition (2002– ). At the first MMP election in 1996, three minor parties won 32.0 percent of the party vote, and 30 of 55 party list seats (they also won eight of 65 constituency seats); in 1999 four minor parties won 28.8 percent of the party vote, and 28 of 53 list seats (and three of 53 constituency seats); while in 2002 five minor parties won 34.6 percent of the party vote for a total of 38 out of 51 list seats and three constituency seats. Thus under MMP, minor parties have become an integral part of the parliamentary process. See also COMMUNIST PARTY; DEMOCRAT PARTY; DEMOCRATIC (SOLDIER) LABOUR PARTY; ELECTORAL REFORM; ELECTORAL SYSTEM; GREEN PARTY; INDEPENDENT LABOUR PARTY; MANA MOTUHAKE PARTY; MAORI PARTY; NEW DEMOCRAT PARTY; NEW ZEALAND LEGION; NEW ZEALAND PARTY; RED FEDS; SOCIALIST PARTY; UNITED FUTURE NEW ZEALAND PARTY; UNITED NEW ZEALAND PARTY; VALUES PARTY; YOUNG MAORI PARTY. POLITICAL REFORM LEAGUE. See REFORM PARTY.

POMARE II (c.1775–1850)

• 227

POLLEN, DANIEL (1813–1896). Medical practitioner, public servant, and politician. Born in Ireland, Pollen arrived in New Zealand c.1839. He stood unsuccessfully for Parliament in 1853. He was appointed to the nominated Legislative Council in 1861, serving there until 1867 and again in 1868–1870 and 1873–1896. Pollen was premier, 1875–1876, and served as colonial secretary under Julius Vogel (1873–1875) and Harry Atkinson (1876–1877). For many years a champion of the Maori cause and the enfranchisement of women, he became very conservative in outlook in his later years. POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT. The first human beings to settle New Zealand came from central Eastern Polynesia, probably during the 13th century AD. Most scholars now support the view that multiple colonization occurred and that two-way voyaging took place between central Eastern Polynesia and New Zealand. The first settlements were coastal and the first settlers were food gatherers, hunters, and fishers. Agriculture did not evolve until much later, perhaps as late as the 14th or 15th century AD. The development of agriculture resulted in an increase in population and the development of permanent settlements. It also encouraged war between tribes to secure the most desirable localities. See also CHATHAM ISLANDS; DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND; HAWAI‘IKI; WAIRAU BAR MOA-HUNTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE. POMARE I (c.1760–1826). Maori chief, a member of the Nga Puhi tribe. Pomare I (known in early life as Whetoi) became heavily involved in trading with the increasing number of visiting European vessels, initially for food supplies, wood, and water for tools so that his people could produce surplus crops to exchange for weapons. He was an acknowledged expert in the difficult art of preserving human heads. By 1819 missionaries regarded him as one of the four most important men in the Bay of Islands. During the 1820s he became one of the most feared Maori war leaders in the north, taking part in a series of attacks around Auckland, Rotorua, and the east coast. When his small raiding party was ambushed in the Waikato in 1826, he, along with his son, was killed and eaten. POMARE II (c.1775–1850). Maori chief; a member of the Nga Puhi tribe. A nephew of Pomare I, Pomare II (known in early life as

228 •

POMARE, MAUI WIREMU PITA NAERA (1876–1930)

Whiria) emerged as the principal chief after the death of his uncle and consolidated his position as a result of the Girls’ War in 1830. He led successful utu (achievement of satisfaction; restoration of mana) war parties south and on one occasion utilized the aid of 131 Europeans living in his pa. A major dealer in spirits, pork, potatoes, and timber, he also encouraged gambling and profited from the use of slave women as prostitutes. Pomare II signed the Treaty of Waitangi and persuaded other chiefs to do so, but, like others, quickly became disillusioned with the outcome. He remained neutral during Hone Heke’s and Te Ruki Kawiti’s challenges to British sovereignty (1844–1846) but was arrested despite flying a flag of truce. He was later released and given some compensation. POMARE, MAUI WIREMU PITA NAERA (1876–1930). Maori leader and member of the Tainui tribe. Born in New Zealand of distinguished Maori ancestry and educated at Te Aute College, Pomare qualified as a medical practitioner and was a pioneer of health improvements among Maori. He was instrumental in securing the passage of the Tohunga Suppression Act in 1907. In 1911, he was elected to the House of Representatives for Western Maori and served in William Massey’s government in various capacities, including minister of health and minister of internal affairs. He was instrumental in helping to establish two Royal Commissions dealing with Maori land grievances and also reorganized New Zealand’s mental hospitals. POMPALLIER, JEAN-BAPTISTE FRANCOIS (1801–1871). Missionary; first Roman Catholic bishop of the Southwest Pacific. Born in France and ordained in 1829, Pompallier was appointed first vicar apostolic of Western Oceania in 1836. He arrived in New Zealand in 1838 and established his headquarters at Kororareka. He traveled extensively throughout the northern part of the North Island, setting up several mission stations. Pompallier was present at Waitangi at Governor William Hobson’s invitation, and during the Treaty of Waitangi negotiations he won Hobson’s assurance that the administration’s policy would be to protect all creeds. Although very active in missionary work, Pompallier was a poor administrator and his overall impact was limited. He became a British citizen in 1850. His body was returned

POPULATION

• 229

from Paris to New Zealand in 2002 and reburied at Motuti, Hokianga, on 20 April 2002. POPULATION. In 1769, Captain James Cook estimated New Zealand’s indigenous Maori population to be approximately 100,000; most scholars today, however, believe that a more realistic estimate is on the order of 150,000–200,000. Over the ensuing 70 years a substantial decline occurred as a result of the introduction of European diseases and muskets, and it has been estimated that by 1840 the Maori population may have halved. At the time of the first population census in 1858, Maori population was recorded as 56,049, and subsequent censuses revealed a continuing decrease until 1896 when there were 42,113 Maori. The first census of the 20th century (1901) marks the beginning of a steady and accelerating upwards trend in Maori population. By 1951 it had reached 115,116; by 1971 it had doubled to 227,414; and by 1991 it had doubled again to 434,847. At the time of the 2001 census, 526,281 people (14.1 percent of the resident population) belonged to the Maori ethnic group whilst 604,110 (16.2 percent) acknowledged that they were of Maori descent. Encouraged by assisted immigration and the lure of gold, New Zealand’s non-Maori population grew rapidly between 1840 (when there were probably fewer than 2,000 living in New Zealand) and 1880 when the total population reached 500,000. The total population reached one million in 1908, two million in 1952, three million in 1973, and four million in 2003. It is projected to peak at just over 4.8 million in the middle of the 21st century. A number of significant trends characterized New Zealand’s population growth over the 20th century: 1. In 1896 the population of the North Island exceeded the South Island’s population for the first time in 30 years and after that continued to grow more rapidly until, by 2001, 75.5 percent of the country’s population lived in the North Island. 2. By 1911 more than half the population was living in urban areas. This trend has continued and by 2001 85.7 percent were urban dwellers. At the time of the 2001 census Auckland, the largest urban center, had a population of 1,079,304. 3. Until 1950 Maori lived overwhelmingly in rural areas. Since then the urbanization of the Maori population, particularly in

230 •

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

POPULATION

Auckland, has proceeded apace and in 2001 the Maori population of Auckland was 29,139 or 5.5 percent of the Maori population of New Zealand; in Christchurch it was 21,960 or 4.2 percent of the Maori population; Hamilton had 21,357, or 4.2 percent of the Maori population; while Wellington had 11,889 or 2.3 percent. At the time of the 2001 census 87.6 percent of the Maori ethnic group lived in the North Island. Apart from the 20-year period between 1946 and 1966—the era of the “baby boomers” when the average number of children born to women peaked at 4.3—the country’s fertility rate has declined significantly since the beginning of the 20th century. In 1921 (the first census for which fertility data are available), the fertility rate was 3.08; by 1981 it had declined to 1.96, below replacement level. Over the past 20 years it has stabilized at this level. There are significant differences in fertility rates between ethnic groups. In the period 2000–2002 the fertility rate was 1.8 for European women and 1.7 for Asian women, but 2.6 for Maori women and 2.9 for Pacific Island women. As a consequence of higher fertility rates and lower life expectancy, the Maori population has, for most of the past 100 years, been significantly younger than the non-Maori population. The number of Maori children peaked at 50 percent of the total Maori population in 1966 but since then the median age has risen from 15.7 years (1971) to 21.9 years (2001). By comparison, the median age for the total population in 2001 was 34.8 years. In 1999, life expectancy at birth for Maori women was 71.0 years (compared with 73.9 years for Pacific Islands women and 80.8 years for European women); while the comparable data for males was 65.8 years for Maori males, 67.9 years for Pacific Islands males, and 75.7 years for European males. Since 1945 New Zealand has experienced a growing influx of people from the Pacific Islands; in 2001 these comprised 6.5 percent of the total resident population. Approximately half of the Pacific Islands ethnic group is Samoan. There has also been a considerable increase in Asian immigration into New Zealand in recent years. In 2001 the Asian ethnic group comprised 6.6 percent of the usually resident population

PRENDERGAST, JAMES (1826–1921)

• 231

compared to 3 percent in 1991. The largest component of this group is Chinese (44 percent) followed by Indian (26 percent). The number of Koreans, who comprised 8 percent of the Asian ethnic grouping in 2001, rose from 930 in 1991 to 19,026 at the time of the 2001 census. See also COOK ISLANDS; MAORI SOCIETY, EARLY EUROPEAN IMPACT ON; NIUE; TOKELAU ISLANDS. PORRITT, ARTHUR ESPIE (1900–1994). Athlete, surgeon, governorgeneral. Born in New Zealand and educated in New Zealand and Britain, Porritt qualified as a surgeon. He was appointed surgeon to King George VI and, later, sergeant-surgeon to Queen Elizabeth II. Between 1960 and 1963 he was president of the Royal College of Surgeons. Porritt captained New Zealand’s Olympic team in 1924 and 1928, winning a bronze medal in the men’s 100 meters sprint in 1924. He was a member of the International Olympic Committee, 1935–1967, before becoming the first New Zealand–born governorgeneral from 1967 to 1972. POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK. See BANKING; GOVERNMENT COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES; KIWIBANK; PRIVATIZATION. POUNAMU. The Maori name for greenstone or New Zealand jade. Pounamu is a greenish-colored mineral nephrite rock, tough but beautiful, used by Maori to make adzes, chisels, weapons such as the mere, and ornaments such as the hei-tiki and ear pendants. Found on the west coast of the South Island, the 1997 Treaty of Waitangi settlement with the Ngai Tahu iwi included ownership of all pounamu not already in private ownership. See also TE WAI POUNAMU. PREMIER. See PRIME MINISTER. PRENDERGAST, JAMES (1826–1921). Judge. Born in London, Prendergast qualified as a lawyer in England before arriving in New Zealand in 1862. He served in the Legislative Council, 1865–1867, and was appointed attorney-general (but not in a ministerial capacity) by Edward Stafford. In that position he consolidated the criminal law and rationalized the legal profession. He became first president

232 •

PRIMARY PRODUCTS MARKETING ACT

of the New Zealand Law Society in 1870. He was appointed chief justice in 1875, holding the position for 24 years. During his tenure he clarified the land transfer system, but his most far-reaching judgment was in relation to Wi Parata v. Bishop of Wellington, a Maori land case. His seminal judgment rejected the Treaty of Waitangi as “a simple nullity” on the grounds that Maori were “primitive barbarians” incapable of fulfilling the terms of a treaty. As a result of this judgment, native customary title not bolstered by a Crown grant was regarded as not enforceable by the courts, a ruling which resulted in the alienation of much Maori land. It was over 100 years before the ruling was reversed. PRIMARY PRODUCTS MARKETING ACT. See PRODUCEER AND MARKETING BOARDS. PRIME MINISTER. The term “prime minister” is used to describe to leader of a government established after each general election. When responsible government was first established, the head of the government was designated as having “the first seat in the ministry” although the term “premier” appears to have been used interchangeably until 1872 when the term “premier” became the accepted title for the leader of the government. The term “prime minister” appears to have been used as early as 1869 although it did not become the official title until 1906 when William Hall-Jones was appointed to the position. PRIVACY COMMISSIONER. The office of privacy commissioner, established in 1976, investigates complaints relating to inaccuracies in the personal data held by the government at the Wanganui Computer Centre or any misuse of it. The Privacy Act of 1993 significantly widened the scope of the office, which now covers a much broader range of privacy issues. The office is independent of both the government and Parliament. PRIVATIZATION. After the 1987 election, the Fourth Labour Government concluded that New Zealand governments should not engage in commercial activities where these could be carried out satisfactorily by private enterprise. It therefore decided to sell selected

PRIVY COUNCIL

• 233

state-owned enterprises (SOE) to private bidders from within New Zealand and overseas. Since March 1988, 30 SOEs have been sold, with Telecom (sold to Ameritech and Bell Atlantic), the State Insurance office (Norwich Union Insurance), Bank of New Zealand (National Australia Bank), Postbank (formerly the Post Office Savings Bank, to ANZ), and New Zealand Rail (Wisconsin Central consortium) being bought by overseas conglomerates. By 31 March 2004 the sale of SOEs had raised $16.9 billion, most of which was used to repay government debt. In 2002, the Fifth Labour Government found itself obliged to reinvest $885 million in Air New Zealand when it struck commercial difficulties after the collapse of the Australian airline Ansett that it had acquired. In 2003, difficulties requiring the input of government money also occurred when the private owners of the rail network sold it to an Australian company, Toll Holdings. See also CROWNOWNED COMPANIES; CROWN COMPANIES MONITORING ADVISORY UNIT; CROWN RESEARCH INSTITUTES; GOVERNMENT COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES; GOVERNMENT LIFE INSURANCE OFFICE; STATE COAL MINES. PRIVY COUNCIL. Until 2004 the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council acted as the final appellate court for New Zealand. On average about 12 cases went to the Privy Council annually. Many areas of law could not be appealed to the Privy Council due to restrictions imposed by New Zealand law. By dispensing with the services sanctioned by New Zealand law, New Zealand followed other major Commonwealth countries such as Canada, which abolished appeals in 1949, South Africa (1950), and Australia (1986). The argument for retaining appeals to the Privy Council for so long in New Zealand’s case had been principally the small size of the country and the limited pool of talent available compared with that available in the Judicial Committee. The New Zealand–based Supreme Court (the final court of appeal) which replaced it is made up of the chief justice, who sits as the presiding judge, plus four other judges appointed by the governor-general. In November 2003 the attorney-general, Margaret Wilson, announced the appointment of the four most senior Court of Appeal justices to the Supreme Court. See also LEGAL SYSTEM.

234 •

PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS

PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS. The first primary producer boards were set up in the wake of the collapse of the commandeer system following the end of World War I. The government authorized the establishment of the Meat Export Control Board (1922) and Dairy Produce Export Board (1923) to organize and coordinate production in these industries and to stabilize prices. In the years that followed, producer boards were set up to oversee the production and export of fruit, honey, poultry, and hops. The First Labour Government passed the Primary Products Marketing Act in 1936, which it used during World War II to assume monopoly control of primary production and marketing. After the war, producer boards were reestablished and extended to include wool, eggs, kauri gum, maize, barley, potatoes, bobby calves, pork, apples, berry and citrus fruits, tobacco, and, as late as 1988, kiwifruit. A number of the larger producer boards, such as the Dairy Board, Apple and Pear Marketing Board, and the Kiwifruit Marketing Board, all of which were marketing monopolies, have been replaced by company structures in recent years, although other nontrading boards, such as deer products and pork, still remain. Most are controlled by producers, and their primary objective is to promote the orderly and profitable development of their industry. See also AGRICULTURE; FONTERRA CO-OPERATIVE GROUP; HORTICULTURE; WINE INDUSTRY. PROHIBITION. Frontier societies were notorious for their drunkenness, and this inevitably led to the growth of temperance societies. The history of prohibition in New Zealand is virtually synonymous with the history of European settlement, dating at least from 1834 when, concerned at the possible effects of liquor on Maori, missionaries and a few of the more respectable settlers formed a temperance society in the Bay of Islands. During the 1870s the temperance movement became increasingly identified with demands for total prohibition. In 1873 a Licensing Act provided that liquor sales could be prohibited in a district if two-thirds of the residents signed a petition. The 1881 Act provided for locally elected licensing committees to issue the triennial licenses; this provided prohibitionists with the chance to control liquor outlets or even to close them down. The prohibition movement grew rapidly during the 1880s spearheaded by the New Zealand Alliance for the Suppression and Pro-

PROVINCES

• 235

hibition of the Liquor Traffic, with strong support from the Women’s Christian Temperance Union as it vigorously pursued its goal of achieving popular control of liquor through political action. The alliance pioneered the idea of attaining its ends through the principle of democratic control and was closely associated with the votes-for-women campaigns that resulted in the early franchise for women. Local licensing polls were first held in 1881, and the Licensing Act of 1893 provided that the “no-license” option had to secure threefifths of the votes to be successful. After 1893, electoral districts also served as liquor licensing districts, and, where at least 60 percent of electors voted for no license, existing liquor licenses had to be surrendered. Although, in aggregate, there were nationwide majorities for prohibition in 1894, 1902, 1905, and 1908, only 13 local licensing districts “went dry.” In 1911, when the first national licensing poll was held, 55.8 percent of voters (just 4.2 percent short of the three-fifths majority required for change) supported prohibition. Support for prohibition continued to increase and, in April 1919, it gained a majority of the votes cast in New Zealand—but this result was overturned when the votes of the armed forces serving overseas were included. Later the same year prohibition fell just 3,362 votes short of an absolute majority in a new three-option national referendum in which the other choices were national continuance or full state control of the liquor industry. The year 1919 marked the high point of the prohibitionists’ campaign. Thereafter, despite majorities—but not absolute majorities— in polls held in 1919 (again), 1922, and 1925, support for prohibition declined steadily until 1987 when it could muster only 20.7 percent of the vote. The national referendum, which had become totally irrelevant, was abolished before the 1990 general election. PROVINCES. The Constitution Act of 1852 established six provinces— Auckland, New Plymouth (later renamed Taranaki), Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago—each of which was governed by a superintendent and provincial council. These provinces, which were proclaimed by George Grey before he left New Zealand at the conclusion of his first governorship in 1853 (and before the House of

236 •

PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT

Representatives was elected), reflected the six main pockets of European settlement that had grown up during the previous 12 years. Between 1853 and their abolition in 1876, four more provinces were established—Hawke’s Bay (1858), Marlborough (1859), Southland (1861, but dissolved 1870), and Westland (1873). Although the provinces were abolished in 1876, they continue to provide the basis for parochialism that is still evident today. See also PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT. As well as a General Assembly, the Constitution Act of 1852 provided for each province to be governed by an elected superintendent and provincial council. Despite appearances, this did not amount to a federal system. The provincial councils had wide-ranging powers to make laws, provided these were not repugnant to the law of England. A number of matters relating to the whole Crown colony, the most important of which had to do with customs duties, the court system, weights and measures, postal services, and Crown lands, were specifically excluded from their jurisdiction. The provincial governments concentrated upon such matters as immigration, public works, what were known as “waste lands,” education, health, and law enforcement. The provinces were abolished in 1876, ostensibly because the provincial governments rejected Julius Vogel’s proposal to create a Crown land endowment adjacent to the new railway lines as security for loans taken out to build the railway system. In reality, however, improved communications, the feeling that New Zealand was overgoverned, and the apparently insoluble nature of the financial difficulties facing most provinces provided more cogent reasons for their demise. See also TRANSPORTATION. PUBLIC SAFETY CONSERVATION ACT (1932). Enacted following serious unemployment riots in Auckland, this draconian piece of legislation remained on the statute books until 1987, although, by then, some of its worst features had been amended. The original Act provided for the suspension of such traditional liberties as the right of trial by jury or the accepted rules of evidence, and also provided that any existing act of Parliament could be suspended by a regulation made under the authority of the Public Safety Conservation Act. Its most notable use was during the 1951 waterfront dispute.

PUBLIC WORKS

• 237

PUBLIC SERVICE. The original Public Service was set up by Governor William Hobson in 1840 as part of the British Colonial Service. It employed 39 men. The New Zealand Public Service was established along with responsible government in 1856. The Civil Service Reform Act of 1886 provided for entry by competitive examination, but this was circumvented by continued political patronage. The Public Service Act of 1912 reintroduced the principle and provided a firm foundation for the service that was to last for nearly 50 years. The organization of the service was further updated by the State Services Act of 1962. Major changes, however, have resulted from the reforms of the Fourth Labour Government in 1988–1989. These reforms, together with the privatization or conversion into state-owned enterprises (SOEs) of many of the previous government commercial activities, have fundamentally changed the nature of the New Zealand Public Service, which is now characterized by relatively small departments with sharply defined functions. By 2001 further modifications were still being made (some undoing some of the reforms introduced earlier, particularly those separating policy making from implementation). In that year the New Zealand Public Service had a staff of 30,355 excluding Crown entities and stateowned enterprises. See also CROWN-OWNED COMPANIES; CROWN COMPANY MONITORING ADVISORY UNIT; CROWN RESEARCH INSTITUTES; STATE SECTOR ACT. PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE. The office was established in 1872 and provides for a public official to act as trustee to administer estates of deceased persons who have named the public trustee as executor. Today it is a self-funding government department providing a range of financial services as well as acting as a trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. PUBLIC WORKS. The state has been heavily involved in the development of New Zealand from the time of the earliest European settlement. Thus, while Julius Vogel’s public works and immigration policy (announced in 1870) did not represent a new policy direction, the amount of capital that was planned to be invested in the country’s infrastructure at a time when it was entering the Long Depression was much greater than hitherto. Vogel planned to use the state’s credit

238 •

PURIHAKE, RAWIRI (?–1864)

to raise capital to build roads, railways, and bridges that, in turn, would encourage population growth and settlement. After this point, public works projects have been used at times to prime the economic pump and provide employment, as in the 1890s and the latter years of the 1930s. The First Labour Government expanded the public works program, particularly for roads and hydroelectric power development. This policy continued under the First National Government and, for a lengthy period from the 1950s, the state was the largest single employer of labor. Since 1984 successive governments have heavily reduced their direct involvement in development, preferring either to contract work out or leave it entirely to private enterprise. The Ministry of Works was converted into a state-owned enterprise, the Works and Development Services Corporation, in 1988. It provides consulting and engineering services to both the public and private sectors throughout New Zealand and overseas. PURIHAKE, RAWIRI (?–1864). Maori chief and member of the Ngai Te Rangi tribe of Tauranga. Although he learned to read and write in the Maori language from Christian missionaries under whose influence he came in the 1830s, Purihake continued to engage in tribal warfare as late as the 1850s. Reportedly goaded into rebellion against the British by being called a spy, he sent formal messages to the British commander inviting him to bring his soldiers to fight at his pa and even constructed a road to facilitate taking up of the challenge. When the British failed to respond, Purihake moved closer, setting up a fortified position close to the gate of Archdeacon Brown of the Church Missionary Society. This later became known as Gate Pa, where Purihake won an important engagement. Two months later, however, Purihake was defeated and killed. See also LAND WARS. PYE, WENDY EDITH (1943– ). Educational publisher. Born in Western Australia, Wendy Pye migrated to New Zealand in 1966. Representing both the importance of the role of women in all walks of life and what is regarded as a typical New Zealand spirit of enterprise, Pye built up her own business in educational publishing after having been laid off in 1985. She pioneered the development of early literacy programs and learning technologies and disseminated these through a worldwide network of companies which she established.

QUEEN’S CHAIN

• 239

She is one of the world’s biggest producers of literary material for children through the use of books, the Internet, television, video, and CD-ROM. Pye’s Sunshine and Storybook series, incorporating 700 titles, has sold over 50 million copies in many languages.

–Q– QUANGO. An acronym for “Quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organization,” an umbrella term used to describe a wide variety of statutory agencies set up by a government but which lie outside the traditional government departmental structure. Quangos include statutory corporations such as the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC), commissions such as the Human Rights Commission, and a variety of other bodies. Some have powers that are delegated to them by general statute (e.g., producer and marketing boards); others (e.g., Planning Tribunal) are statutory tribunals. They vary widely in importance. Quangos can relieve ministers of detailed decision making, carry out regulatory functions, and allow special interests or expertise to contribute to a government’s decision-making processes. Various estimates exist as to the number of such bodies, but a conservative assessment is that there are at least 600–800. Quangos are an important area of patronage for ministers, who appoint many of their members. QUEEN’S CHAIN. The 20-meter (the metric equivalent of one chain) margins at the edge of rivers, lakes, and the sea are known as the Queen’s Chain. It dates from 1840 when Queen Victoria ordered Governor William Hobson to set aside strips of land alongside waterways to provide for navigational aids and landing places, as well as for “public convenience, utility, health of enjoyment.” Although early coastline titles did allow private ownership down to the highwater mark (riparian rights), after 1907 the Queen’s Chain was enforced above the high-water mark although it does not apply to Maori land. Moreover, the existence of the Chain (it is often difficult to be precise about its exact whereabouts) does not convey right of access across private land, although it is possible to access most New Zealand beaches by boat. A decision by the Court of Appeal to allow

240 •

QUIGLEY, DEREK FRANCIS (1932– )

a claim by Te Tau Ihu hapu (Marlborough) to proceed to the Maori Land Court in 2003 opened up the whole question of customary rights and even ownership of the foreshore and seabed. QUIGLEY, DEREK FRANCIS (1932– ). Politician. A lawyer by profession, Quigley was elected to Parliament in 1975 and appointed minister of housing by Prime Minister Robert Muldoon following the 1978 election. He was one of the leaders of the October 1980 “colonels coup” which sought to overthrow Muldoon. In June 1982 he became the first minister to be dismissed from the Cabinet since 1935; following Quigley’s carefully structured criticism of the government’s policies to a New Zealand National Party audience, Muldoon demanded that he either apologize publicly or resign. Quigley resigned. Since then, dismissal from the Cabinet has become more common; Richard Prebble and Roger Douglas were, in effect, both dismissed by Prime Minister David Lange towards the end of 1988; and Winston Peters was dismissed by Prime Minister Jim Bolger in 1991. Subsequently, Quigley joined Douglas to become a founding member of a pressure group, the Association of Consumers and Taxpayers, now the ACT Party, and once again served as an MP, 1996–1999, leading an important Select Committee inquiry into foreign affairs and defense. He has also acted as an independent consultant in health and defense matters to both New Zealand Labour Party and National governments.

–R– RACE RELATIONS ACT (1971). The object of the Race Relations Act was to promote racial equality and make discrimination unlawful on the grounds of color, race, or ethnic or national origins in such matters as employment and housing. Under the Act, incitement of racial disharmony with intent was a criminal offence. In 1993, this Act was incorporated in a broader Human Rights Act. RADIO. See BROADCASTING. RAGLAN GOLF COURSE DISPUTE. In 1941, the Te Kopua land block at Raglan (which belonged to the local Tainui Awhiro people)

RAKIURA

• 241

was compulsorily taken under the War Emergency Regulations for use as an emergency airfield. After World War II the land was vested in the Raglan County Council, which leased it to the local golf club. In April 1976 Maori staged a demonstration on the golf course as part of a campaign to secure the return of the land to its Maori owners. The protest, which focused on a sacred (tapu) burial site that had been converted into a bunker, highlighted the expropriation of Maori land under the Public Works Act. As a result of this demonstration and subsequent negotiations with the minister of Maori affairs, the land was returned to the tribe that originally owned it. RAINBOW WARRIOR AFFAIR. The Rainbow Warrior, flagship of the Greenpeace international peace and environmental organization, was sunk by two explosions on 10 July 1985 while berthed at an Auckland wharf prior to sailing to protest against French nuclear testing at the Mururoa atoll. One crew member, a Portuguese-born photographer, was killed in the attack. It transpired that the bombing was the work of the French Secret Service (DGSE), two of whose agents were arrested some days later. The French minister of defense resigned; the head of the DGSE was sacked. Acting as adjudicator between the two countries, the United Nations secretary-general, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, required France to apologize and pay New Zealand US$7 million as compensation and to undertake not to oppose New Zealand’s case in certain European Community trade negotiations for butter and lamb in the years 1987 and 1988. The secretary-general also ruled that the two captured agents (who had been sentenced by the New Zealand court to 10 years’ imprisonment after they pleaded guilty to manslaughter) were to be detained for three years in a French military facility outside France. They were subsequently released into French custody and transferred to Hao Atoll in the Tuamotu Archipelago, but both were returned to France well before completion of their prison terms in flagrant contravention of the terms of the United Nations’ ruling. See also ANTINUCLEAR POLICY; EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH. RAKIURA. See STEWART ISLAND.

242 •

RANFURLY, UCHTER JOHN MARK KNOX (1856–1933)

RANFURLY, UCHTER JOHN MARK KNOX (1856–1933). Governor. Born in the United Kingdom, Lord Ranfurly was governor of New Zealand between 1897 and 1904. Widely popular, he is chiefly remembered today by the Ranfurly Shield, or “log of wood,” a major New Zealand rugby football trophy which was presented by him to the New Zealand Rugby Football Union in 1902. See also ALL BLACKS; SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. RATA, MATIU (1934–1997). Politician. Born and educated in New Zealand, Rata was a seaman and trade union official before being elected as New Zealand Labour Party MP for the Northern Maori seat in 1963. He served in the Third Labour Government as minister of Maori affairs and minister of lands (1972–1975), during which time he played an important role in the establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal to rule on Maori grievances. Rata resigned from the Labour Party in 1979, and from Parliament in 1980, to dramatize the party’s lack of concern with Maori matters. He then formed the Mana Motuhake Party that has contested every general election since 1981, from 1996 to 2002 as a constituent party of the Alliance. Although he was leader of the Mana Motuhake Party from its foundation until 1994, he failed to regain his former parliamentary seat. Rata also played an important role in regaining Maori fishing rights through the Waitangi Tribunal and the courts and promoted the interests of the northern tribes against Tipene O’Regan and the southern tribes. RATANA, TAHUPOTIKI WIREMU (1873–1939). Prophet, faith healer, and founder of the Ratana Church. In 1918, Ratana experienced a vision and, preaching a gospel of religious and political salvation, became the prophet of modern Maoridom, being hailed as Mangai, mouthpiece of God. His goal was to unite the Maori race both spiritually and politically. He sought to discourage Maori superstitions and tribal differences in favor of kotahitanga (unity) and the Christian faith. The Ratana Church was founded in 1921, and it continues to be an important influence in Maoridom. Ratana also took up the cause of Maori rights to their lands and citizenship under the Treaty of Waitangi. On a celebrated occasion in 1935 when the New Zealand

RED FEDS

• 243

Labour Party first became the government, Ratana visited new prime minister, Michael Joseph Savage, and placed before him four objects: a potato, a gold watch, a greenstone tiki, and a huia feather. He explained that the potato symbolized that the ordinary Maori needed his lands, for “a potato cannot grow without soil.” The watch belonged to an ancestor and was broken; so was the law relating to Maori land. As only machinery could repair the watch, only the law of the new government could correct the law of the old. The greenstone tiki represented the spirit and mana and the traditions of the Maori people; if the new prime minister would save them, he would earn the right to wear the huia feather (a feather of an extinct bird), the sign of the ariki, the paramount chief of Maoridom. In this way the alliance between the Labour Party and the Ratana Church was created. This agreement, which has largely held ever since, has, however, been subjected to increasing pressures over recent years. In the 1993 general election, Labour lost the Northern Maori electorate to Tau Henare, the New Zealand First Party’s candidate (and grandson of Tau Henare who had held the seat for conservative interests from 1914 until 1938 when he was defeated by a Ratana Labour candidate). In 1996, Labour lost its remaining Maori seats to the New Zealand First Party but three years later won back all six Maori seats, and it maintained its absolute dominance by winning all seven dedicated Maori seats in the 2002 general election. In 2003 only two of the seven MPs elected to the Maori seats were listed as adherents of the Ratana Church. See also MAORI ELECTORAL OPTION; MAORI PARTY. RATANA CHURCH. See RATANA, TAHUPOTIKI WIREMU. READ, THOMAS GABRIEL (c.1825–1894). Prospector. Gabriel Read was probably born in Tasmania. Well-educated, he went gold prospecting in California and Australia before arriving in New Zealand in 1861. In June of that year he discovered payable gold at Gabriel’s Gully in Otago, thus initiating a full-scale gold rush. Read continued to prospect for gold in Otago until 1864, when he returned to Tasmania and took up farming. RED FEDS. The “Red Feds” was the popular name for the New Zealand Federation of Labour, which was formed in 1909. Its predecessor was

244 •

REEVES, PAUL ALFRED (1932– )

the Miners’ Federation that had, itself, been based upon the model of two radical American organizations. Made up of coal and gold miners, it also encompassed such other unions as the watersiders, general laborers, and shearers. At its height it covered a quarter of New Zealand’s organized workers. A militant organization, the “Red Feds” gained important concessions for its members but also suffered major defeats, particularly in the 1912 Waihi strike and 1913 waterfront strike. Nevertheless, several of its leaders went on to distinguished parliamentary careers, with two of them, Michael Joseph Savage and Peter Fraser, serving as Labour prime ministers. In 1913, the “Red Feds” joined forces with several more moderate unions to form the United Federation of Labour, one of the forerunners of the New Zealand Labour Party. REEVES, PAUL ALFRED (1932– ). Anglican bishop and governorgeneral. Born in New Zealand and educated there and in Britain, Reeves was ordained as a priest in the Anglican Church in 1960. He was consecrated bishop of Waiapu in 1971, bishop of Auckland in 1979, and archbishop of New Zealand in 1980. In 1985, he resigned his church appointment to become governor-general of New Zealand, the first person of Maori descent to attain that distinction. After his term as governor-general had ended, he became the first Anglican Consultative Council representative at the United Nations, a position he held until 1993. In 1995, he was appointed to chair an independent commission charged with reviewing Fiji’s constitutional structure. The commission’s report, published in 1997, recommended the adoption of a political structure designed to encourage the formation of multiethnic governments in Fiji. REEVES, WILLIAM PEMBER (1857–1932). Politician and author. Born in New Zealand and educated in New Zealand and England, Reeves qualified as a barrister and solicitor but pursued a career as a journalist before being elected to Parliament in 1887. He was a radical, innovative minister of labor, pioneering the important Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894 (a world first) and being responsible for a remarkably advanced set of labor laws. He wrote The Long White Cloud (1898), a classic history of New Zealand, as well as State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand (1902), while he

REFORM PARTY (1909–1935)

• 245

was New Zealand’s high commissioner to London. Subsequently, he served as director of the London School of Economics and Political Science. See also LIBERAL GOVERNMENT. REFERENDUM. Referendums were first used in 1881 to control liquor licensing. Nationwide polls on the question of the prohibition of liquor accompanied most general elections between 1911 and 1987. Several referendums have been taken on other matters, all of them since 1949. The issues polled in these referendums were offcourse betting on horse races (1949); compulsory military training (1949); extended liquor licensing hours (1949 and 1967); a longer parliamentary term (1967 and 1990); whether to retain or change the existing first-past-the-post electoral system and, if so, which of four alternative electoral systems was preferable (1992); a binding referendum between the existing electoral system and a Mixed Member Proportional electoral system in 1993, which resulted in the introduction of proportional representation; and the possible introduction of a compulsory retirement savings scheme (1997). See also CITIZENS’ INITIATED REFERENDA. REFORM PARTY (1909–1935). The Reform Party was founded by William Massey in 1909 as essentially an anti-Liberal conservative party. Under Massey’s leadership between 1909 and 1925, it was continually in office from 1912–1928 although it shared government with the Liberal Party, in a national coalition, between 1915 and 1919. Initially it sought to clean up the levels of patronage and corruption practiced by the Liberal government during its 21 years in office by introducing a nonpolitical Public Service. In its more conservative aspects the party represented farmers, standing for freehold tenure for occupants of state leasehold land and ruthlessly crushing the Waterfront Strike (1913). From 1925 to 1928 the party was led by Joseph Gordon Coates, who proposed using the power of the state by providing, for example, state payments to low-income families with more than two children. This measure was surprisingly defeated in 1928. In opposition from 1928 until 1930, it joined a coalition with the governing United Party in 1931. After fighting the 1935 election unsuccessfully as the National Political Federation, the two parties reformed as the New Zealand National Party in 1936.

246 •

REFRIGERATION

REFRIGERATION. The advent of refrigeration was a key event in New Zealand’s modern economic history. The introduction of refrigerated transport in 1882 made possible the diversification of farm production and led to the eventual predominance of pastoral farming. Butter and cheese exports were no longer limited to Australia, and the greater profits available from the meat and dairy industries led to their extensive development, sometimes at the expense of wheat production. But, above all, it made possible access to worldwide markets. See also AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY; TRADE. REGIONAL GOVERNMENT. See LOCAL GOVERNMENT. RELATIONS WITH ASIA. See ASIA, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH AUSTRALIA. See AUSTRALIA, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH EUROPE. See EUROPE, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH EUROPEAN UNION. See EUROPEAN UNION, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH FRANCE. See FRANCE, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH GERMANY. See GERMANY, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN. See UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS. See INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH JAPAN. See JAPAN, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH PACIFIC ISLANDS. See PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES.

RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

• 247

RELATIONS WITH PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA. See CHINA, PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH SOUTH AMERICA. See SOUTH AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM. See UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED STATES. See UNITED STATES, RELATIONS WITH. RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. Although two of the country’s six “Wakefield” settlements were founded in association with religious denominations, New Zealand has never had an established state religion. All citizens’ right to freedom of religion is confirmed in the Bill of Rights Act of 1990. Today, New Zealand is one of the most secularized societies in the world: a 1989 Study of Values recorded that interest and active involvement in religious activities was less than 20 percent, that only 16 percent of the population attended church at least weekly, and that more than half the population attended rarely or never. The 2001 census recorded that the number of nonbelievers had risen to 29.6 percent compared with 25.4 percent in 1996. In the 2001 census the four main religious denominations were still Anglican (Church of England) with 16.9 percent adherents (18.6 percent in 1996); Roman Catholic, 14.0 percent (13.9 percent in 1996); Presbyterian, 12.4 percent (13.8 percent in 1996); and Methodist, 3.5 percent (3.6 percent in 1996). On the other hand, the Ratana and Ringatu faiths (Maori-Christian groups with services in the Maori language) experienced marked growth in numbers. Maori also tend to be followers of Presbyterianism and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons). Although starting from a low base and largely driven by immigration, notable growth has taken place in recent years among the non-Christian religions such as Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Nevertheless, collectively these groups embrace less than 1 percent of the total population. See also JEWS; MAORI MYTHOLOGY AND LEGENDS; PAI MARIRE.

248 •

REPRESENTATION COMMISSION

REPRESENTATION COMMISSION. The Representation Commission, established in 1887, is a quasi-judicial body responsible for revising the boundaries of the country’s electoral districts (constituencies) after every five-yearly census. Four of its members are appointed by virtue of the public positions they occupy. They are the government statistician, the surveyor-general, the chief electoral officer, and the chairperson of the local government commission. Two further members are appointed on the nomination of Parliament to represent the government and opposition parties represented in Parliament. The commission’s chairperson is appointed on the nomination of the other members; since 1956 this person has always been a judge of one of New Zealand’s courts. When the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts are being considered, three further members, the chief executive of Te Puni Kokiri (Ministry of Maori Development) and two other persons, both of whom must be Maori, are added to the commission’s membership. Electoral districts are based on total population numbers, and each electorate is required to contain the same number of people, subject to a variation or “tolerance” of plus or minus 5 percent. Provided electorates meet this criterion, the commission is able to take such factors as existing electoral districts, communities of interest, topography, communications links, and future population trends into account in reaching its decisions. Political parties represented in Parliament are able to make submissions to the Representation Commission before it commences work, and electors are able to object to the draft electoral boundaries proposed by the commission before its final decisions are announced. When the commission officially promulgates the new electoral districts (by a notice in the New Zealand Government Gazette), they take effect when the current Parliament expires or is dissolved prior to the next general election. REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT. Representative government was first introduced in New Zealand under the Constitution Act of 1852, passed by the Westminster Parliament. The first and only purely representative elected assembly, consisting of 37 members, was elected in 1853. Representative government gave way to responsible government in 1856.

REPUDIATION MOVEMENT

• 249

REPUBLICANISM. Unlike Australia, where the Fenians have been more influential, the republican tradition in New Zealand has been weak. At most there have been a few scattered incidents. For example, the “Republic of Hawera” was declared by settlers at a public meeting in Hawera in 1879 in protest at the John Hall government’s failure to deal more robustly with the pacifist prophet Te Whiti at Parihaka. The first serious attempt at founding a republican movement did not occur until 1966 when the cause was promoted by a leftwing activist, and later Auckland city councilor, Bruce Jesson. Only the Mana Motuhake Party adopted republicanism as official policy, although in 1994, the prime minister, Jim Bolger, leader of the New Zealand National Party and a man of Irish-Catholic background, raised the issue of New Zealand becoming a republic by the end of the 20th century. Labour Prime Minister Helen Clark made no secret of her preference for a republic but no direct moves have been made to effect this. New Zealand public opinion is partly influenced by moves in Australia where, in 1999, a referendum failed to support a proposal that that nation become a republic. The argument is not that the existing system does not work effectively but that national identity requires a New Zealand–appointed or –elected head of state. Of 54 Commonwealth countries in 2003, the queen remained head of state in 16, of which Britain, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are the largest. For the present, opinion poll support for the status quo in New Zealand continues to outweigh support for change, although there is a widespread recognition that republicanism is likely to be adopted at some unspecified time in the future. The abolition of appeals to the Privy Council in 2003 can be viewed as one of the steps on the way to such a change. See also LEGAL SYSTEM. REPUDIATION MOVEMENT. Centered in Hawke’s Bay in the 1870s (where some of the most notorious land purchase deals had taken place), the movement sprang up to demand the repudiation of all Crown and private land deals on grounds of fraud, an end to land sales, and the suspension of leases until Maori runanga (councils) were better able to handle their own interests. In effect, the movement demanded the abolition of the Native Land Court and extended Maori parliamentary representation, and prohibited the construction of

250 •

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND

roads, railways, and telegraph lines across Maori land. Many of those who supported the movement—including some Europeans—tended to have a variety of motives, but it clearly reflected the depth of concern among many Maori about the rapidity and extent of the alienation of their traditional lands. See also MAORI LAND COURT. RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Established in 1933, the bank has been fully state-owned since 1936. Under the Reserve Bank Act in 1989, however, the bank’s responsibility for monetary policy was institutionalized. The bank is charged with maintaining the stability of the currency that is defined in a contract between the minister of finance and the bank’s governor; currently it is in the range of 0–3 percent inflation. A government can override the policy settings chosen by the governor only with an order-in-council that may be debated in Parliament. This represents an innovative policy that makes the Reserve Bank one of the most independent of its type in the world, and this has resulted in considerable interest from other countries. The bank is also responsible for managing the issue of coinage and currency and monitoring the soundness of the trading banks. See also BANK OF NEW ZEALAND; BANKING. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ACT (1991). The Resource Management Act in 1991 replaced the dated Town and Country Planning Act of 1953. Its objectives are to provide a framework for planning the future use, distribution, or preservation of the country’s natural and physical resources—including rivers, lakes, and coastal and geothermal areas; land resources such as soils, forests, and farmlands; air quality; and utilities and buildings constructed in or on the land—in the future. Its purpose is to promote the sustainable management of all natural and physical resources. Territorial local authorities, whose responsibility it is to administer the Act on behalf of their communities, are required to consider the environment as a whole when planning and making decisions. The Act specifies that people should be allowed to make their own choices as to how they develop, use, or protect natural and physical resources, but that this must be done within the overriding objective of sustainable management set out in the Act. See also ENVIRONMENTAL RISK MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY; LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

RICHMOND, CHRISTOPHER WILLIAM (1821–1895)

• 251

RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. Following the introduction of representative government in 1854, the constitutional position of the executive was unclear. It was not until the administrator, Colonel Robert Wynyard, was instructed by the colonial office to institute responsible government in 1855 that elected members of Parliament with the support of a majority in the House of Representatives wholly replaced officials as the constitutional advisers to the governor. The first responsible ministry was formed by Henry Sewell in 1856. RETIREMENT PENSIONS. See SUPERANNUATION. RICHARDSON, RUTH MARGARET (1950– ). Politician and consultant. Born and educated in New Zealand, Ruth Richardson qualified as a lawyer but was also involved in farming. Elected to Parliament in 1981, she was a vocal backbench critic of Robert Muldoon and his policies. As minister of finance in the Jim Bolger government (1990–1993), she was the architect of the continuation and extension of the market-led policies associated with the Fourth Labour Government’s finance minister, Roger Douglas. She also has the distinction of being the first female minister of finance in New Zealand’s history. In 1994, having failed to be reappointed minister of finance, Richardson resigned from Parliament and became a business consultant. RICHMOND, CHRISTOPHER WILLIAM (1821–1895). Lawyer, politician, and judge. Born and educated in England, Richmond arrived in New Zealand in 1853. Two years later he was elected to the House of Representatives for the electorate of the town of New Plymouth in Taranaki, which he represented from 1855 until 1862. Soon after his election he joined the ministry formed by Edward Stafford, and during the next five-and-a-half years he held a number of important posts, including minister of native affairs (1858–1860). He was responsible for introducing measures intended to deal with problems of race relations from what he believed to be an essentially “civilized” standpoint, seeking to convert the communal customs of the Maori into individual land titles and thus hasten the alienation of Maori land. After leaving politics he was appointed as a judge. See also WAITARA PURCHASE.

252 •

RINGATU FAITH

RINGATU FAITH. The Ringatu faith was founded by Te Kooti Arikirangi while imprisoned on the Chatham Islands, where he converted Hauhau prisoners to a gentle form of Christianity. The Ringatu faith required no churches (the services being held on marae), the local church leaders were elected, and there were no formal articles of faith. The faith also incorporated a number of traditional Maori features such as, for example, a role for the tohunga. The Ringatu Church continues to remain influential in the Bay of Plenty. See also RATANA, TAHUPOTIKI WIREMU. ROBERTS, JAMES (BIG JIM) (1881–1967). Political party president. Born in Ireland, Roberts arrived in New Zealand in 1901 and soon took an active part in left-wing politics and trade unions in particular. He was president of the New Zealand Labour Party from 1937 until 1950, during its most successful term of office, and was a member of the Legislative Council from 1947 until its abolition in 1950. Known throughout the Labour movement as “the uncrowned king of New Zealand,” he epitomized the close—if by no means always friendly—relations between the trade unions and the Labour Party, and between the party organization (of which he was president) and the parliamentary party from which the government was elected. ROBINSON, WILLIAM (c.1813–1889). Runholder and pastoralist. Born in England, Robinson became a leading pastoralist in South Australia before emigrating to New Zealand in 1856, where he promptly purchased land on the Cheviot Hills in North Canterbury. He was appointed to the Legislative Council in 1869. Widely known as “ReadyMoney” Robinson, he accumulated huge landholdings and was at the forefront of 19th-century pastoralists. In 1893 his descendants took advantage of the recently enacted Lands for Settlement Act to dispose of the Cheviot Hills estate to the Liberal government, which then subdivided it before leasing it to new farmers by ballot. ROGERNOMICS. See DOUGLAS, ROGER OWEN. ROSS DEPENDENCY. A sector of the Antarctic continent between 160°E and 150°W longitudes to the south of 60°S latitude. Although, under the Antarctic Treaty signed in 1959, no territorial claims to the

ROUT, ETTIE ANNIE (1877–1936)

• 253

continent are recognized by the international community, New Zealand is responsible for the administration of this part of Antarctica. The Ross Dependency is uninhabited except for people working on scientific programs, the most significant of which are the McMurdo Base (U.S.) and Scott Base (New Zealand)—both situated on Ross Island—and the Italian summer-only base on the shores of Terra Nova Bay. Many of the “heroic age” Antarctic expeditions that took place near the beginning of the 20th century built substantial huts as bases for their scientific research and sledging journeys towards the South Pole. These buildings—Carsten Borchgrevink’s Hut (1899) at Cape Adare, Robert Falcon Scott’s Discovery Hut (1902) at Hut Point, Ernest Shackleton’s Nimrod Hut (1908) at Cape Royds, and Scott’s Terra Nova Hut (1911) at Cape Evans—remain today, but the passage of time and the harshness of the polar climate have resulted in their substantial deterioration. A New Zealand charity, the Antarctic Heritage Trust, has been established to preserve and maintain these sites for future generations, and in 2004 it launched an international multimilliondollar appeal for funds. ROUT, ETTIE ANNIE (1877–1936). Early sex-hygiene campaigner. Born in Australia, Rout and her family arrived in New Zealand in 1884 where she gained qualifications in shorthand and typing. An unconventional figure in dress and a socialist in belief, she established the Maoriland Worker with the New Zealand Shearers’ Union in 1910. In 1915 during World War I, she established the New Zealand Volunteer sisterhood to send volunteers to Egypt to help tend to New Zealand wounded. Concerned by the high rate of venereal disease amongst the troops, Rout unsuccessfully urged the adoption of prophylactic measures by the authorities. She then produced her own kits, which were subsequently adopted by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Although honored by the French government for her work, there was no acknowledgement of her contribution by New Zealand authorities, and newspapers were even banned from publishing her letters to them advocating her views. She was also pilloried by women’s groups because her view that venereal disease was first and foremost a medical rather than a moral problem proved largely unacceptable in a conformist society. Ettie Rout committed suicide in Rarotonga in 1936.

254 •

ROWLING, WALLACE EDWARD (BILL) (1927–1995)

ROWLING, WALLACE EDWARD (BILL) (1927–1995). Prime minister. Born and educated in New Zealand, Rowling trained as a teacher. He was elected to Parliament in 1962 and was president of the New Zealand Labour Party from 1970 until 1973. He was minister of finance in Norman Kirk’s Third Labour Government between 1972 and 1974. Following Kirk’s death in office, he was elected leader of the Labour Party and thus became prime minister. His party lost office in the 1975 election and, following two further election defeats, Rowling was replaced as leader of the party by David Lange in 1983. ROYAL COMMISSIONS. There are several types of inquiries carried out on behalf of the government. The issues considered to be most significant are usually undertaken by Royal Commissions under the terms of reference set out in an order-in-council. Since the first one reported in 1868, well over 100 Royal Commissions have been held. The topics investigated provide an interesting pointer to the issues of greatest concern to the government and the public at the time they were investigated. Some of the more important questions examined and reported on have been the Sweating Commission (1890), the Brunner coal mine disaster (1896), federation with Australia (1901), leases of Maori lands (1929), the waterfront industry (1952), money, banking, and credit (1956), state services (1962), workers’ compensation and personal accident injury (1967), horse racing, trotting, and dog racing (1969), nuclear power generation (1978), drug trafficking (1983), the electoral system (1986), social policy (1988), and genetic modification (2000). Frequently, governments use the device of a Royal Commission to remove a sensitive or divisive issue from the political arena for a period of time. See also ACCIDENT COMPENSATION; ELECTORAL REFORM; PUBLIC SERVICE; SOCIAL WELFARE; WADDELL, REVEREND RUTHERFORD; WATERFRONT DISPUTE (1951). RUAPEKAPEKA SIEGE. See NORTHERN WARS. RUATARA (?–1815). Maori chief and member of the Nga Puhi tribe. In 1805 Ruatara left New Zealand with the object of seeing King George III. Instead, he spent nearly four years as a member of the

RUTHERFORD, ERNEST (1871–1937)

• 255

crew of whaling ships, sometimes being badly treated. Samuel Marsden met him in poor health on board a convict ship and took him into his care. After he returned to the Bay of Islands area, Ruatara introduced his tribe to wheat production (a difficult undertaking for a people accustomed to root crops) and protected the early Church Missionary Society missionaries. RUGBY FOOTBALL. See ALL BLACKS; SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS; SPRINGBOK TOUR. RUSSELL, THOMAS (1830–1904). Businessman. Russell was born in Ireland. His parents emigrated first to Australia before moving to New Zealand in 1840. Russell was trainee to a lawyer and established his practice before turning to commerce. He was a key promoter of the New Zealand Insurance Company (1859) and the Bank of New Zealand (1861). Russell was elected to the House of Representatives in 1861, serving as minister of colonial defense from the middle of 1862 until the end of 1864. During his time as an MP, he was a powerful advocate of land confiscation from “rebel” Maori. Russell left politics soon after the capital was transferred to Wellington in 1865. Many suspected that his many speculative undertakings (especially in the 1880s and 1890s) contained more than a hint of selfinterest. In particular, he ultimately inflicted great damage on the Bank of New Zealand and its allied mortgage institution, the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency. Despite that, it has been suggested that Russell was arguably the most outstanding commercial figure in 19th-century New Zealand. See also LAND WARS; NEW ZEALAND SETTLEMENTS ACT. RUTHERFORD, ERNEST (1871–1937). Scientist. Born at Brightwater near Nelson, Rutherford attended Canterbury University College and the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, England. He held university chairs in physics in both Canada and Britain and was director of the Cavendish Laboratory from 1919 until 1937. In 1908, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry and in 1913 he propounded the nuclear theory of the atom. He is regarded as the father of modern nuclear physics.

256 •

RYE, MARIE SUSAN (1829–1903)

RYE, MARIE SUSAN (1829–1903). Feminist. Born in England, Rye was active in women’s issues before traveling extensively throughout New Zealand for 18 months in 1863–1864. While in New Zealand she campaigned actively for better conditions for newly arrived immigrants, as well as forging links between English and New Zealand feminists and encouraging debates about women’s access to education. She was, however, opposed to female suffrage, which by 1868, was already a feminist cause in New Zealand.

–S– SAMOA. Formerly known as Western Samoa (it is now known simply as the Independent State of Samoa), the Samoan island group lies about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles) to the northeast of Auckland. New Zealand’s association with the group began when it captured the islands from Germany in August 1914. After World War I, New Zealand’s military occupation gave way to a League of Nations mandate (1920–1946) and United Nations trusteeship (1946–1962). During this latter period New Zealand accepted responsibility for developing Samoa’s political structure and economy to the point that it could become a fully independent nation-state. Since independence was granted in 1962, New Zealand–Samoan relations have been governed by a Treaty of Friendship which includes a provision that allows Samoa to retain immigration and other privileges. In 2000 Samoa’s population totaled 229,979; at the time of the 2001 census there were another estimated 115,000 persons of Samoan descent living in New Zealand. See also PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES. SARGESON, FRANK (1903–1982). Writer. Trained as a solicitor, Sargeson decided not to pursue a career in law but become instead a full-time writer. During the period of the First Labour Government (1936–1949), Sargeson with his short stories and sketches, dominated much of New Zealand fiction writing. With his spare, tight style, he is said to have “captured working-class New Zealand vernacular, the society that gave rise to it and much of its inner spirit.” Subsequently,

SAVAGE, MICHAEL JOSEPH (1872–1940)

• 257

accompanied by a change to a more ornate style, Sargeson shifted his attention to the middle class in a series of novels, Memoirs of a Peon, Hangover, and Joy of the Worm. Sargeson was particularly important in helping to promote recognition of New Zealand writing overseas but unlike many other New Zealand authors, he achieved this while remaining resident in New Zealand. See also LITERATURE. SAUNDERS, ALFRED (c.1820–1905). Politician and historian. Born in England, Saunders emigrated to New Zealand in 1842. He was one of the first colonists to arrive in Nelson. After a period spent in Australia (1846–c.1851), he established a successful milling enterprise at Brightwater, Nelson. During a political career spanning more than 40 years, Saunders served as member of the Nelson Provincial Council and later as superintendent (1865–1867) of the province. He was also a member of the House of Representatives on three separate occasions between 1861 and 1896. He published a two-volume book titled History of New Zealand (1896 and 1899). An able administrator, Saunders was also an active reformer, promoting electoral reform (including both manhood and women’s suffrage), triennial Parliaments, and temperance. See also PROHIBITION; WOMEN’S’ CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION. SAVAGE, MICHAEL JOSEPH (1872–1940). Labour Party leader and prime minister. Born in Australia, Savage arrived in New Zealand in 1907 and immediately became active in trade union and left-wing politics, holding numerous high offices in both. He sought, unsuccessfully, to form a Labour Party in 1910. He was elected vice president of the New Zealand Labour Party following its formation in 1916 and became its first full-time national secretary in 1919. In the same year, he was elected to Parliament and remained an MP until his death. When H. E. Holland died in 1933, Savage was elected leader of the Labour Party and became Labour’s first prime minister following a landslide victory at the polls in 1935. It was his First Labour Government that was responsible for establishing the welfare state, and his death in office in 1940 led to an unprecedented outpouring of national grief. More than 60 years after his death, he continues to occupy a unique place in the affections of many New Zealanders.

258 •

SCHOOL DENTAL NURSING SERVICE

SCHOOL DENTAL NURSING SERVICE. Inaugurated in 1920, this service trained young women to give limited dental treatment to schoolchildren. The scheme, which was second only to the introduction of fluoride for the benefit of dental health in New Zealand, was a new concept that was copied in a number of overseas countries. In recent years the emphasis has been more on preventing tooth decay than treating decayed teeth, although that, too, has reappeared as a significant problem. SCRIMGEOUR, COLIN GRAHAM (1903–1987). “Scrim,” as he was affectionately known, was a Methodist minister with a highly developed social conscience, and a forerunner of the modern media gospelers. In 1933, he bought the “Friendly Road” radio station in Auckland. Credited with great political influence in favor of the New Zealand Labour Party, his popular program, Man in the Street, was the subject of a notorious incident in 1935 when the postmaster-general and minister of telegraphs, Adam Hamilton, authorized its “jamming” on the Sunday evening before the general election. In 1937, Scrimgeour was appointed first controller of commercial broadcasting by the victorious First Labour Government. Over the next few years, all but one of the privately operated radio broadcasting stations were absorbed into the newly established state-owned New Zealand Broadcasting Service. Always provocative, Scrimgeour proved skilful in using the airwaves for propaganda, justifying his stand on the ground that the newspapers were overwhelmingly antigovernment. Under Michael Joseph Savage’s successor, Peter Fraser, however, he was dismissed in 1943. Until his retirement in 1968 Scrimgeour worked in radio and television in Australia and then as an adviser in Communist China. SEALERS AND SEALING. Seal hunting in New Zealand commenced in 1792 when the Britannia put a party ashore in Dusky Sound at the southeastern tip of the South Island. During the next two decades, the seal population was slaughtered with “reckless efficiency”—in 1806 one vessel sailed into Sydney harbor with a reported cargo of 60,000 seal skins. After 1810 sealing declined but revived to some degree in New Zealand’s sub-Antarctic islands (Antipodes, Auckland, Bounty, and Snares Islands and Campbell Island) during the 1820s and 1830s.

SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS (1809–1878)

• 259

SECOND WORLD WAR. See WORLD WAR II. SEDDON, RICHARD JOHN (1845–1906). Premier. “King Dick” Seddon was born in England. He sailed to Australia in 1863 before being attracted by the gold rush to the South Island’s west coast in 1866. Later he practiced successfully as an (unqualified) advocate for gold miners in the Warden’s Court. He was first elected to local government office in 1870 and to Parliament in 1879. He became minister of public works in John Ballance’s Liberal Government (1891–1893) and was premier from 1893 until his death in 1906. New Zealand’s longest serving premier, Seddon set the prevalent “style” of New Zealand politics with its emphasis upon accessibility, egalitarianism, and “righting wrongs.” He was above all a pragmatist, a fixer, but his period in office saw some of the most ambitious social engineering in New Zealand’s history, with the introduction of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, the Arbitration Court, numerous factory acts, land redistribution, old age pensions, votes for women, and a host of innovations which attracted international attention and saw New Zealand regarded as a “social laboratory.” In the process Seddon dominated most of his ministerial colleagues just as he dominated the country: it has been said of him that “few politicians have been so successful as he in applying the principles of democracy where others were concerned and simultaneously rejecting their application to his own actions.” See also FEMALE SUFFRAGE; LANDS FOR SETTLEMENT ACT; SOCIAL WELFARE; SUPERANNUATION. “SELF-RELIANT” POLICY. See WELD, FREDERICK ALOYSIUS. SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS (1809–1878). Bishop. Born in England, a lifelong friend of William Ewart Gladstone, Selwyn was ordained in 1834 and appointed bishop of New Zealand by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1841. He was largely responsible for setting up the enduring constitutional fabric of the Church of England in New Zealand. During his period in New Zealand, he visited every part of the country, taught and preached in both English and the Maori language, and established schools. Although his advocacy of

260 •

SEMPLE, ROBERT (1873–1955)

Maori rights brought much criticism from settlers, he resolutely defended the Treaty of Waitangi and publicly condemned the “fatal mistake” of land confiscations. He returned to England in 1868 to become bishop of Lichfield. See also MISSIONARIES AND MISSIONS; RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. SEMPLE, ROBERT (1873–1955). Politician. Born in Australia, Semple arrived in New Zealand in 1903. Elected president of the New Zealand Miners’ Federation in 1908, he was imprisoned twice during World War I (the second time for opposing conscription). Semple was elected to Parliament in a by-election in 1918, but lost his seat in the general election the following year. He reentered Parliament in 1928 and remained an MP until 1954. As minister of works and transport between 1939 and 1949, he was one of the First Labour Government’s most successful ministers, overseeing the completion of a formidable array of important public works. A practical Labour man rather than an ideologist, he was also one of the best natural orators New Zealand politics has produced. SEVENTY-MILE BUSH SETTLEMENTS. After Julius Vogel’s 1870 budget and the passage of the Immigration and Public Works Act, the William Fox–led government turned to northern Europe in search of migrants to construct railways, roads, and bridges to open up newly acquired land. Between 1872 and 1875, 3,294 Scandinavians from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden were given New Zealand government assistance to emigrate to New Zealand. Most settled in an area known as the Seventy-Mile Bush between the Manawatu Gorge (near Palmerston North) and Hawke’s Bay. After clearing the land, they engaged in subsistence agriculture. The present-day towns of Eketahuna, Mauriceville, Dannevirke, and Norsewood were established by the families from Scandinavia who settled there during this period. SEWELL, HENRY (1807–1879). Premier. Born in England and qualified as a solicitor in 1826, Sewell arrived in New Zealand in 1853 as a member of the Canterbury Association, a body devoted to the systematic colonization of the Canterbury province. The same year, he was elected a member of the House of Representatives and sat in

SHADBOLT, MAURICE FRANCIS RICHARD (1932–2004)

• 261

Parliament for 11 years. He was, in effect, New Zealand’s first premier, although he held that office only for one month in 1856. Subsequently, he held office in several ministries and has been described as the chief “man of business” in the first New Zealand Parliament. He also made several attempts to pacify Maori with proposals for various forms of self-government and alternative forms of land purchase. Sewell finally returned to England in 1876. SEW HOY, CHARLES (c.1837–1901). Merchant. Born in China, Sew Hoy traveled in Australia and the United States before migrating to New Zealand in 1868, where he set up a chain of stores to supply gold miners. After the gold boom ended, he pioneered dredging on the Shotover River. He was also connected with a successful hydraulic-sluicing venture at Nokomai in Southland. See also GOLD RUSHES. SHADBOLT, MAURICE FRANCIS RICHARD (1932–2004). Journalist, scriptwriter, film director, and writer. Maurice Shadbolt was born and educated in New Zealand before being employed as a journalist with several daily newspapers, as well as directing documentary films for the New Zealand National Film Unit. He traveling to Europe in 1957. His first literary work—a collection of short stories, The New Zealanders—was published in 1959, the year he became a full-time author. His first novel, Among the Cinders, was published in 1965, and this was followed by a further 10 novels, three collections of short stories, a play (Once on Chanuk Bair, about New Zealanders during the Gallipoli campaign), and two volumes of autobiography. Shadbolt used Maori history, tradition, landscape, and folklore extensively, particularly in his later works, the best known of which are arguably his trilogy centered on the 19th-century New Zealand land wars, Season of the Jew (1987), Monday’s Warriors (1990), and The House of Strife (1993). He received many accolades throughout his career, including the Scholarship in Letters (1959, 1970, and 1982), the Burns Fellowship (1963), the Katherine Mansfield Award (1963 and 1995), the James Wattie Award (1978, 1981, and 1987), the New Zealand Book Award (1981), the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (1998), and the A. W. Reed Lifetime Achievement Award for

262 •

SHEEP AND SHEEP FARMING

his contribution to published literature and for the encouragement and assistance he gave to many New Zealand writers. SHEEP AND SHEEP FARMING. The backbone of the New Zealand economy, sheep were first successfully introduced into New Zealand in 1834. Numbers quickly increased from a few hundred head in the 1830s to nearly 10 million 30 years later. At their peak in the early 1980s, New Zealand’s sheep population numbered just over 70 million. Numbers have declined since then, and by early 2003 the total had declined to just under 40 million. The most popular breed is the English Romney, although a number of breeds that produce both meat and wool, such as the Corriedale and Drysdale, have been developed in New Zealand. See also AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY; AGRICULTURE. SHEPPARD, KATHERINE WILSON (1847–1934). Suffragist. Born and educated in the United Kingdom, Kate Sheppard emigrated to New Zealand in 1869 with her mother and sisters. As national superintendent of the Franchise and Legislation Department of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union from 1887, she led the campaigning for votes for women by organizing massive petitions to Parliament and playing a major role in rousing public opinion. After the success of this campaign in 1893, she sought to use the franchise to win prohibition and other social reforms. In 1896 she became the first president of the National Council of Women. See also FEMALE SUFFRAGE. SHIPLEY, JENNIFER MARY (1952– ). Born and educated in New Zealand, Jenny Shipley trained as a primary schoolteacher before marriage and farming with her husband. She was elected a New Zealand National Party MP in 1987, 12 years after joining the party. With the return of the party to power in 1990 she became minister of social welfare, 1990–1993, where she was associated with some controversial reforms curbing state benefits, and minister of health, 1993–1996, where she established an equally controversial internal market for health services. She also twice served as minister of women’s affairs. In a caucus room coup late in 1997, Shipley replaced party leader and Prime Minister Jim Bolger, whose govern-

SMITH, STEPHENSON PERCY (1840–1922)

• 263

ment had been in a coalition with the New Zealand First Party since the end of 1996. Shipley thus became New Zealand’s first woman prime minister. In 1998, she dissolved the majority coalition government when she dismissed her coalition partner, New Zealand First, led by Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters. New Zealand First thereupon split. After managing to lead a minority coalition government for just over 15 months, Shipley was defeated at the 1999 general election. Replaced as leader by her deputy, Bill English, in October 2001, she retired from politics at the general election in 2002. SHORTLAND, EDWARD (c.1812–1893). Administrator and scholar. Born in England and trained as a physician, Shortland arrived in New Zealand in 1841 and was appointed private secretary to the governor. He soon became very interested in Maori culture, and in 1842 was appointed police magistrate in Auckland and subprotector of aborigines for the Eastern District. The following year, while acting as interpreter in courts of inquiry into land claims, he undertook extensive travels in the South Island, as a result of which he published an important ethnography of the Maori of the South Island. This was followed by other important studies, giving rise to the claim that he was the first anthropologist of the Maori. SMITH, STEPHENSON PERCY (1840–1922). Public servant, amateur ethnologist, and author. S. Percy Smith was born in England and migrated to New Zealand with his parents at the age of nine. In 1855 he joined the Taranaki province’s survey department based in New Plymouth, and four years later he was sent by the New Zealand government to undertake the survey of the Kaipara and Northern Wairoa districts. This was followed by assignments in the Coromandel Peninsula and lower Waikato. Smith was appointed district surveyor for Taranaki in 1865, and in the years that followed he carried out surveys in the Taranaki, Auckland, and Hawke’s Bay provinces and also in the Chatham Islands. Over the next 35 years he served as chief surveyor for the Auckland land district (1877–1881), assistant surveyor-general (1881–1888), commissioner for Crown lands, Auckland (1888–1889), and surveyor-general and secretary for lands and mines (1889–1900).

264 •

SNELL, PETER GEORGE (1938– )

Smith’s career provided him with ample opportunity to observe, collect, and record a great deal of information about the traditional history of the Maori people, and this formed the basis of his later career as a Polynesian scholar. Between 1898 and 1915 he published several books on Maori history and society, including Hawaiki: The Whence of the Maori and The Lore of the Whare-wananga. He was also cofounder, with Edward Tregear, of the Polynesian Society in 1892 and was coeditor and chief contributor to the Journal of the Polynesian Society until his death. Described as “a gentleman scholar and self-educated amateur,” Percy Smith’s interpretations of Maori migrations influenced the perceptions of successive generations of New Zealanders, but today they are regarded as unreliable and unacceptable. Nevertheless, his work is still a valuable source of information on 19th-century Maori traditions. SNELL, PETER GEORGE (1938– ). Athlete. Born in New Zealand, Snell had a brilliant running career. Coached by Arthur Lydiard, he first came to prominence when he won the 800 meters in an Olympic record time at the 1960 Rome Olympics. Two years later he broke the world mile and 800-meter records. At the Tokyo Olympics in 1964 he won both the 800 meters (in a new Olympic record time) and the 1,500 meters. After he retired from international athletics, Snell pursued an academic career in the United States, specializing in human performance. He can well lay claim to being New Zealand’s greatestever middle-distance runner. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. SOCIAL CREDIT POLITICAL LEAGUE. A Social Credit Association was formed in the 1930s to promote the theories of British monetary reformer Major C. H. Douglas. This association did not participate directly in politics but it did influence some members of the First Labour Government. Dissatisfaction with its overall impact, however, led to the formation of a breakaway political wing, the Social Credit Political League, in 1953. Despite winning 11.2 percent of the vote in the 1954 general election, the league did not win its first parliamentary seat until 1966. (It lost it at the next general election in 1969.) In 1972, a “purist” monetary reform breakaway group, the

SOCIAL SECURITY ACT (1938)

• 265

New Democrat Party, was formed but rapidly disintegrated after its failure in that year’s general election. Subsequently, under the leadership of Bruce Beetham, the league’s policies became more pragmatic. By 1980 it had won two seats in Parliament (both initially in by-elections), and it reached its highest level of electoral support in 1981 when it won 20.7 percent of the popular vote. Although it retained two seats at the 1984 election, it steadily lost electoral support, and as the Democratic Party, lost both seats in 1987. The Democrats joined with the Alliance when it was formed in 1991, gaining representation in Parliament again between 1996 and 2002. Following the Alliance’s failure to win any parliamentary seats in the 2002 general election, the Democrats withdrew from the Alliance to stand once again as an independent party. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. SOCIAL SECURITY ACT (1938). Acknowledged as the crowning achievement of the First Labour Government, the Social Security Act established a comprehensive “cradle to the grave” social welfare structure for all citizens. The Act was based on the twin concepts that every citizen had a right to a reasonable standard of living and that the community had a responsibility to ensure that its members were protected against the economic ills from which they could not protect themselves. It made a wide range of benefits—medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, sickness, unemployment, family, widows, orphans, and old age—available to those in need. Since its inception, the range of benefits available has been steadily expanded. Until 1968 the Social Security scheme was funded through a special tax of 7.5 percent on all incomes, but since then benefits have been funded from general taxation revenue. In December 1990 the Fourth National Government (which had been elected six weeks earlier) announced major cutbacks in a wide range of benefits, a substantial increase in pharmaceutical prescription charges, and the abandonment of the century-old industrial relations framework and its replacement with the Employment Contracts Act, and signaled that further cuts in education, health, housing, and welfare would take place. The welfare state based on a system of universal benefits was effectively replaced by a safety-net approach to welfare delivery. However, with the election of the Fifth Labour Government in

266 •

SOCIAL WELFARE

1999, the philosophy once again changed, with a lessened emphasis upon compulsion and testing and more on encouraging beneficiaries to participate in the economic and social life of their communities. SOCIAL WELFARE. In the 19th century, welfare was distributed to the deserving poor through a variety of public and private institutions. The Constitution Act of 1852 made the provinces responsible for providing for their indigent persons; this was generally achieved by subsidizing voluntary institutions. After the provinces were abolished, responsibility was vested with near relatives. The first steps towards the establishment of a comprehensive, state-initiated welfare system were taken by the Liberal government in the 1890s. In 1898 the Old Age Pensions Act was passed, and during the next decade, the Public Health Act of 1900, which established the Department of Health, and legislation requiring the state registration of nurses (1901) and maternity nurses (1904) were passed. In 1907, the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (the Plunket Society, named after its first patron, the wife of the then governor, William Lee Plunket) was founded by Frederic Truby King. The first state rental-housing scheme was established following the passage of the Workers’ Dwelling Act in 1905, while the Advances to Workers Act of 1906 enabled persons on low incomes to borrow from the state to build their own houses. The first three decades of the 20th century was a period of consolidation and extension of welfare provisions already in place. In 1911, a means-tested pension for widows with children was introduced. Health care was expanded with the establishment of the school medical service (1920) and the school dental nursing service in 1921. The Child Welfare Act of 1925 established the Children’s Court and the Child Welfare Branch of the Department of Education, and the next year the first family benefit was introduced. The Unemployment Act of 1930 established an Unemployment Board to provide relief and promote employment. The 1930s and 1940s saw an explosion in the state’s involvement in the well-being of its citizens. In the aftermath of the Great Depression, the First Labour Government established a comprehensive and broad-based social policy structure with a strong emphasis on welfare. At its heart was the Social Security Act, but it also cre-

SOUTH AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH

• 267

ated the State Advances Corporation to enhance living conditions by erecting state houses for rental by low-income earners. By contrast, the decades from the 1950s through the 1980s were characterized more by the maintenance and gradual extension of the basic welfare framework instituted by the New Zealand Labour Party. Foremost among these were the introduction of a domestic purposes benefit in 1973, income-related accident compensation in 1974, a disability allowance for disabled persons (1975), and a guaranteed minimum family income for low earners with children (1986). For example, in 2003 family assistance had four parts: parental tax credits; family support; child tax credits; and family tax credits. In addition, age pensions and universal superannuation provisions were replaced by a more comprehensive superannuation scheme funded by the state. In 1998–1999, the delivery of social services was restructured around three main activities administered by separate organizations: the provision of social policy advice; income support and employment services; and services for children and young people. In 2001 the Ministry of Social Policy and the Department of Work and Income were merged into one as the Ministry of Social Development. See also FAMILY ASSISTANCE. SOCIALIST PARTY. Although a variety of small socialist groups sprang up during the 1880s and 1890s, the Socialist Party was not formed until 1901, following the arrival of nearly 200 British socialists. It soon espoused a policy of “revolution, not reform.” Despite this, more moderate elements helped to secure the election of the first socialist MP, John Robertson, in 1911. In 1913, many leading socialists (notably Peter Fraser, Michael Joseph Savage, and Paddy Webb) joined the newly formed Social Democratic Party. A rump of the Socialist Party continued in existence and helped to form the Communist Party in 1920–1921. See also POLITICAL PARTIES. SOUTH AMERICA, RELATIONS WITH. In South America, for so long neglected by New Zealand trade and foreign policies, important changes have taken place. Closer relations have been developed in recent years with Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and Argentina, in particular, and trade links have been developed despite the fact, for example, that a country like Chile can be seen as a serious competitor for some

268 •

SOUTH ISLAND

of the Southern Hemisphere produce, such as apples and kiwifruit, marketed by New Zealand in the Northern Hemisphere during their winter. SOUTH ISLAND. New Zealand’s largest island has an area of 151,215 sq. kilometers (58,093 sq. miles). It is much more mountainous than the North Island, with a massive mountain chain and many outlying ranges stretching almost its entire length. A fault line, marking the boundary between the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates, extends for approximately 485 kilometers (300 miles) from Fiordland in the southwest of the island to the Marlborough Sounds in the northeast. The population of the South Island at the time of the 2001 census was 907,476, nearly 49 percent of whom live in the two main urban centers of Christchurch and Dunedin. See also CANTERBURY; OTAGO; TE WAI POUNAMU. SOUTH PACIFIC BUREAU FOR ECONOMIC COOPERATION (SPEC). Established in 1972 by the Pacific Islands Forum countries, the bureau aims to promote regional free trade among members and to encourage collaboration in such areas as regional transport. SOUTH PACIFIC FORUM. See PACIFIC ISLANDS FORUM. SOUTH PACIFIC NUCLEAR-FREE ZONE. Originally promoted by the Third Labour Government in 1975 and given approval by the United Nations General Assembly, this proposal was dropped by the succeeding Second National Government under the leadership of Robert Muldoon. On its return to power in 1984, the Fourth Labour Government revived the proposal, and the Treaty of Rarotonga was signed on 6 August 1985 by Australia, New Zealand, and six South Pacific governments. By 2003 the treaty had been signed by 13 of the 15 regional governments, while four nuclear states—China, France, the Soviet Union (Russia), and the United Kingdom—had signed the appended protocols. See also ANTINUCLEAR POLICY; PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH. SOUTH PACIFIC REGIONAL TRADE AND ECONOMIC COOPERATION AGREEMENT (SPARTECA). Founded in 1981 and designed to promote industrial and economic development in the

SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS (1828–1832)

• 269

South Pacific Island countries, SPARTECA is a regional trade agreement providing unrestricted duty-free access on a nonreciprocal basis to Australia and New Zealand for most of the products produced by the 14 other Pacific Island Forum states. SOUTH-EAST ASIA TREATY ORGANIZATION (SEATO). Formed in 1954, SEATO, or the Manila Pact, was designed as part of United States secretary of state John Foster Dulles’s policy of containing the spread of Communism. Its membership comprised Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. SEATO added to ANZUS by committing the United States to the physical defense of states that lay between Australia and New Zealand, at one end of the axis, and China at the other. New Zealand troops were sent briefly to Thailand under SEATO obligations in 1962, but in that case, and with the subsequent decision to commit troops to the defense of South Vietnam, the decisions were made on an independent basis and not as a result of decisions of the SEATO Council (which was required to be unanimous—and was not). The participation of New Zealand troops in the Vietnam War took place largely as a result of U.S. pressure rather than obligations under the SEATO treaty. SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS (1828–1832). In 1828 the Ngati Toa chief, Te Rauparaha, sought utu (revenge) for an insult directed at him by a Ngai Tahu chief living at Kaikoura on the South Island’s east coast. In 1829 he returned to the attack, this time targeting the pa at Kaiapoi (previously known as Kaiapohia Pa). Ngai Tahu chiefs learned of Te Rauparaha’s intentions and struck first, killing a number of Ngati Toa chiefs, including Te Rauparaha’s uncle, Te Pehi Kupe. Te Rauparaha returned to his base on Kapiti Island (off Wellington’s west coast) to plan his revenge. In October 1830 Te Rauparaha offered John Stewart, captain of the brig Elizabeth, 25 tons of flax if he would transport his war party (140 men armed with muskets and traditional Maori weapons) to Ngai Tahu’s Takapuneke pa at Takamatua in Akaroa harbor. As the ship arrived, Te Rauparaha’s warriors hid below decks to conceal the real purpose of the visit. Unsuspecting Ngai Tahu were invited on board, captured, and imprisoned below decks. That night Te Rauparaha led a surprise attack on the settlement. Some 200 men and

270 •

SPEAKER

300–400 women and children were either killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners were transported back to Kapiti Island where they were distributed as slaves. After receiving 18 of the promised 25 tons of dressed flax, the Elizabeth sailed for Sydney where a cursory investigation was undertaken to determine whether Stewart had committed any offense punishable by British law for aiding and abetting in the slaughter of Ngai Tahu. Stewart escaped all penalty as a result of the indecision of the British authorities in Sydney, but the incident was instrumental in the appointment of James Busby as British resident in 1833. Meanwhile, Te Rauparaha’s thirst for utu to avenge the death of his uncle remained. In 1832 he returned to the South Island where he besieged and then destroyed the Ngai Tahu pa at Kaiapoi. He then intended to attack the Ngai Tahu pa on Ripapa Island in Lyttelton harbor. But when he found that the Ngai Tahu inhabitants had fled, he determined to attack the strongly fortified Onawe pa situated at the head of a narrow peninsula jutting into Akaroa harbor. There he laid siege before instituting a ruse in which Ngai Tahu prisoners were sent forward. The gates of the pa were opened to admit the prisoners who, the Ngai Tahu inhabitants believed, had come in peace. However, about 30 Ngati Toa warriors had also unobtrusively gained entry, and soon after opened fire on the unsuspecting Ngai Tahu. A massacre and enslavement followed; only an estimated 15 Ngai Tahu were reported to have escaped. The attack on Onawe pa marked the pinnacle of Te Rauparaha’s power. It also marked the nadir of Ngai Tahu power, because the iwi had lost large numbers of its members, its main source of pounamu, and all its main pa between Kaikoura and Taumutu and on the west coast were destroyed. See also SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. SPEAKER. The Speaker of the House of Representatives is elected by and from members of Parliament at the beginning of each new Parliament or whenever a vacancy occurs during a parliamentary term. Almost invariably, he or she is nominated by the whips from the party controlling a majority of the votes in the House, although in 1993 the Fourth National Government (the last to be elected under the first-past-the-post electoral system) nominated a Labour Party MP, Peter Tapsell, as Speaker to ensure that it commanded a major-

SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS

• 271

ity of votes in the House. Once elected, the Speaker retains office for the rest of the parliamentary term. The Speaker is responsible for maintaining discipline during proceedings of the House. He or she is responsible for ensuring that standing orders are adhered to; where they are breached the Speaker can order an MP to withdraw and apologize for any unparliamentary remarks that are made or for conduct that he or she determines is offensive or highly disorderly. The Speaker can also “name” an MP who flouts the chair’s authority; in such instances the Speaker may eject a member from the House for periods ranging from 24 hours to 28 days—the length of the suspension depends on whether the MP has previously been “named” during the current session. The way in which the Speaker handles his responsibilities has an important bearing on the overall conduct of the House and the standard of debate. The position of Speaker is seen as a very important one and the holder of the position ranks third in order of importance behind the governor-general and the prime minister. SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. New Zealanders are a sport-loving people and large numbers participate actively in a wide range of sporting activities. For a country with a small population, New Zealand has an enviable record of sporting achievements in a variety of sports. In terms of popularity, rugby football is New Zealand’s premier sport although it ranks only fifth in participation rates for men, well behind golf, which easily tops all other sports for men and ranks second only to netball for women. Tennis ranks second and third, respectively, with the increasingly popular touch rugby third for men and fifth for women. Rather surprisingly, cricket ranks fourth— ahead of rugby—for men, while the fourth-ranked sport for women is equestrian activities. New Zealanders have excelled in many team sports. In 1987, the All Blacks won the inaugural Rugby World Cup (played in New Zealand and Australia). The men’s softball team (the Black Sox) shared the world title with Canada and the United States in 1976 and won the title outright in 1984, 1996, 2000, and 2004. The New Zealand women’s netball team (Silver Ferns) has won the world championship on four occasions, the last in Jamaica in 2003. New Zealand has also been

272 •

SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS

prominent in international yachting: the Admiral’s Cup was won for the first time in England in 1987, and the One Ton Cup world title was won off San Francisco in 1988. New Zealand–designed and –crewed yachts have also featured prominently in Whitbread (now Volvo) Round the World races (overall winner 1990 and 1993) and the America’s Cup at every regatta since 1987 (winning in 1995 and 2000). A New Zealand yacht designer, United States–based Bruce Farr, is one of the world’s leading designers in his field. New Zealand’s first Olympic gold medalist was Malcolm Champion, who swam as part of the Australasian 800-meter swim relay team in 1912. Despite several individual gold medals, the next time a team was successful at the Olympics was in 1956, when Peter Mander and Jack Cropp won the gold medal in yachting’s Sharpie class. In 1968, the coxed fours rowing team won the gold medal; four years later the unfancied rowing eight beat the world’s best; and, in 1976, the men’s hockey team beat Australia in the final. At the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics yachtsmen Chris Timms and Rex Sellars won the gold medal in the Tornado class. At Athens in 2004, twins Georgina and Caroline Evers-Swindell won a rowing gold medal in the women’s double sculls. A number of individual gold medals have also been won at Olympic Games. In 1928, Ted Morgan won the heavyweight boxing title. Jack Lovelock won the 1,500 meters at the 1936 Berlin Olympics; Yvette Williams, the women’s long jump in 1952; Norman Read, the 50-kilometer walk in 1956; Peter Snell, the 800 meters in 1960, and the 800 and 1,500 meters double four years later; Murray Halberg, the 5,000 meters in 1960; and John Walker, the 1,500 meters in 1976. In 1984, Ian Ferguson and Paul Macdonald won five gold medals between them in kayaking, including Ferguson’s K1 500-meter individual gold medal; Alan Thompson won the K1 1,000-meter gold medal, while Russell Coutts won the gold medal in yachting’s Finn class. Mark Todd won the three-day equestrian event on Charisma in both 1984 and 1988, and Blyth Tait won the same event in 1996. Bruce Kendall and his sister, Barbara, won gold medals in boardsailing at successive Olympic Games (1988 and 1992). At the Atlanta Olympics in 1996, Danyon Loader won both the 200-meter and 400meter freestyle swimming gold medals, while at Sydney in 2000 Rob Waddell won the gold in the single-sculls rowing event. At the 2004

SPRINGBOK TOUR

• 273

Olympic Games held in Athens, Sarah Ulmer won the gold medal in the women’s 3,000-meter pursuit race in world-record time, and Hamish Carter won the men’s triathlon (with another New Zealander, Bevan Docherty, winning the silver medal in the same event). Individual New Zealanders have also excelled in other international arenas: Thomas (“Torpedo Billy”) Murphy won the world featherweight professional boxing title in 1890 and Robert (Bob) Fitzsimmons held the world middleweight title between 1891 and 1897. Anthony Wilding won the All-England Lawn Tennis championships at Wimbledon (1910–1913); Bob Charles, the British Open golf championship (1963); Denis Hulme, the World Motor Racing championship (1967); Ivan Mauger, the World Speedway Final (1977 and 1979); Ross Norman, the men’s world squash title (1986), and Susan Devoy, the women’s title (1985, 1987, and 1991); Blyth Tait, the World Equestrian Championship (1993); and Beatrice Faumuaina, the women’s world discus title (1997). John Walker was the first athlete to run one mile in under 3 minutes 55 seconds (Gothenberg, 1975) and was the first in history to run more than 100 subfour-minute miles. Cricket fast bowler Richard Hadlee held the record for the world’s greatest wicket-taker in test cricket between 1988 and 1993; in an international career spanning 86 test matches between 1972 and 1990, Hadlee took 431 wickets (the first bowler to take more than 400 test wickets) at an average of 22.29, and made 3,124 runs at an average of 27.61 per innings. Rob Waddell won back-to-back world single-sculls rowing titles in 1998 and 1999. In 1993 and 1994, a New Zealand pair won the women’s double sculls at the world rowing championships. This feat was repeated in 2002, 2003, and 2004 by twins Georgina and Caroline Evers-Swindell. See also GLENEAGLES AGREEMENT; LYDIARD, ARTHUR LESLIE; MOTOR RACING AND RALLYING; PORRITT, ARTHUR ESPIE; SPRINGBOK TOUR; UNDERARM DELIVERY. SPRINGBOK TOUR. Before the 1972 general election, the Labour Party promised not to prevent a projected South African rugby tour of New Zealand in 1973 if it was elected to power. However, in the face of fierce pressure group activity from the Halt All Racist Tours (HART) organization, the tour was cancelled on instructions from Prime Minister Norman Kirk. The New Zealand National Party under Robert

274 •

STAFFORD, EDWARD WILLIAM (1819–1901)

Muldoon capitalized on this by promising that the next such tour would go ahead because the party believed in the principle that sportsmen and sportswomen should have the right of choice to play whomever and wherever they pleased. Thus, the New Zealand Rugby Football Union invited a South African Springbok team to tour in 1981. Opinions about the correctness or otherwise of the tour racked this sports-loving nation, even dividing families in bitter disputes. Many of the games were held under siege conditions (two games were cancelled) with pitched battles between riot police and protesters; television transmissions were disrupted; and flour bombs were dropped from a light airplane that made several passes over the Eden Park (Auckland) playing field during the course of the final test match. It is widely believed, however, that these disorders helped the Muldoon administration to win (albeit very narrowly) a third term of office at the end of 1981. See also ALL BLACKS; GLENEAGLES AGREEMENT. STAFFORD, EDWARD WILLIAM (1819–1901). Premier. Born in Scotland, Stafford arrived in New Zealand in 1843 after two years in Australia. After exploring inland from Nelson, he imported sheep and horses from Australia. In 1853 he became the first superintendent of the Nelson province and implemented advanced schemes for free, secular, and compulsory education and a county roads act, all of which were to become models for the rest of New Zealand. In 1855 he was elected to the House of Representatives where he served for over 22 years, including a total of nearly nine years as premier, during which time he headed three distinct ministries. Stafford played an important role in the development of responsible government in New Zealand and was moderate in his Maori policies, believing that settlers and Maori had common interests. He accepted the need to open up land for immigration but was opposed to forced Maori land sales. He chose to treat the Land Wars of the 1860s as imperial, not settler, wars—an attitude which led to difficulties with the governor and the imperial government. Stafford was an able premier but had a reputation as the type of politician who would make all sorts of promises in order to secure votes. STATE ADVANCES CORPORATION. Commencing with the Advances to Settlers Act, successive governments have had a long history

STATE INSURANCE OFFICE

• 275

of direct involvement in the provision of housing for New Zealanders. A Department of State Advances was established in 1913 to loan money to individuals to enable them to build modest homes and to local authorities to encourage them to erect cheap rental accommodation. In 1935, the department was effectively privatized as the New Zealand Mortgage Corporation, but the next year the First Labour Government bought it out and established its own government-owned and controlled State Advances Corporation. In 1974, it merged with the Housing Construction Division of the Ministry of Works to form the Housing Corporation. Its functions were confined to providing loan facilities to low-income homeowners. After 1991 the government sold a number of its prime-rate mortgages to private interests, but in 2001, with the formation of the Housing New Zealand Corporation, the emphasis shifted again to providing home ownership options to people refused finance in the private sector as well as providing state-owned accommodation. See also SOCIAL WELFARE. STATE COAL MINES. Coal is New Zealand’s largest energy resource. Economically recoverable reserves are estimated to amount to approximately 8.6 billion tons. The state entered the coal-mining business when the government passed the State Coal-Mines Act in 1901, but the greatest expansion of its involvement in coal mining occurred during and after World War II when many private mines were purchased. In 1988, the government announced that it was preparing to sell Coalcorp (a state-owned enterprise) but was prevented from doing so by a Court of Appeal ruling that declared that the Crown should not enter into any agreement to sell until it had put measures in place that would protect the Tainui tribe’s land claim, which was then before the Waitangi Tribunal. Currently, the renamed state-owned enterprise, Solid Energy New Zealand, produces over three-quarters of New Zealand’s total coal production. See also CROWN-OWNED COMPANIES; CROWN COMPANY MONITORING ADVISORY UNIT; CROWN RESEARCH INSTITUTES; ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES. STATE INSURANCE OFFICE. This office, originally the State Fire Insurance Office, was established by the government in 1905 to provide insurance against fire and accident. Like the Government Life

276 •

STATE SECTOR ACT (1988)

Insurance Office, it functioned as a competitive trading entity and paid taxes. As part of its privatization policy, the government sold the State Insurance Office to become a subsidiary of the giant Britishbased Norwich Union Insurance group. In 2003 the company was sold to the Insurance Australia Group (IAG). STATE SECTOR ACT (1988). The State Sector Act imports private sector management practices into the public sector in order to improve its efficiency and effectiveness, clarifying accountability and specifying relations between the administrative and political wings of the government. Chief executives (formerly permanent heads) are now appointed for five years on renewable contracts and they, in turn, are responsible for the employment of staff. See also PUBLIC SERVICE; STATE SECTOR REFORMS. STATE SECTOR REFORMS. Until the mid-1980s a number of government departments combined policy and/or regulatory functions and commercial activities. Sweeping reforms undertaken by the Fourth Labour Government sought to clarify the distinction between the two areas. The first step was to separate the trading activities of several government departments and reestablish them as state-owned enterprises. The second phase was the enactment of the State Sector Act of 1988, which aligned the Public Service with the private sector and made chief executives fully accountable for managing their ministries or departments. STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES (SOE). Government trading activities have always been an important part of New Zealand’s economy. SOEs are limited-liability companies established under the State-Owned Enterprises Act of 1986 to manage the Crown’s trading activities. Their aim is to operate the government’s commercial activities as profitably and efficiently as comparable privately owned businesses. Between 1986 and 1994, 26 SOEs were established, covering the government’s commercial activities in air transportation, coal mining, electricity production, printing and publishing, property management, land management, forestry, oil and gas, banking, broadcasting, shipping, meteorological services, computing services, superannuation, postal services, railways, shipping, public

STEAD, CHRISTIAN KARLSON (1932– )

• 277

works, and tourism. Between 1994 and 1999 a further four SOEs were sold to private enterprise, but since then coalition governments have had a policy of not selling any commercial assets unless there are compelling commercial or legal reasons for doing so. There are currently 15 SOEs divided into four broad groups. The energy sector comprises the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand; three electricity companies (Genesis Power, Meridian Energy, and Mighty River Power); an electricity transmission lines company, Transpower New Zealand; and a coal-mining company, Solid Energy New Zealand. The land-based SOEs include AgriQuality (biosecurity assurance throughout the food chain); Asure New Zealand (meat inspection services); Landcorp Farming (pastoral farming and some forestry); Timberlands West Coast (management of plantation forest); and the Meteorological Service. The infrastructure sector comprises the Airways (air navigation services) and New Zealand Railways (ownership and management of the country’s railway lines) corporations, while the communications sector comprises New Zealand Post (postal and freight services) and Transmission Holdings (telecommunications services). See also CROWN-OWNED COMPANIES; CROWN RESEARCH INSTITUTES; GOVERNMENT COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES; GOVERNMENT LIFE INSURANCE OFFICE; PRIVATIZATION; STATE COAL MINES; STATE SECTOR REFORMS; STATE INSURANCE OFFICE; Appendix, tables 6 and 7. STATUTE OF WESTMINSTER (1931). This British statute granted full legal independence to the dominions and removed the right of the Imperial Parliament to make laws for them, unless at their request and consent. New Zealand, which enjoyed very close ties with Britain, did not adopt the statute until 1947. In the strictly legal sense, New Zealand became independent from Britain from that date. STEAD, CHRISTIAN KARLSON (1932– ). Writer. Born in New Zealand and educated both in New Zealand and England, Stead has been both an academic and a novelist. He has written several critical (sometimes combative) works, social commentaries, and volumes of poetry in addition to novels. His best-known novel, Smith’s Dream, was made into a successful movie entitled Sleeping Dogs. In 1981,

278 •

STEWART, WILLIAM DOWNIE (1878–1949)

Stead was one of many thousands of people who invaded the rugby ground at Hamilton to protest against the Springbok tour; he later said that he had never ever expected to come face-to-face with events such as those he had portrayed in Smith’s Dream. See also LITERATURE. STEWART, WILLIAM DOWNIE (1878–1949). Politician. A lawyer and son of an MP, Downie Stewart was elected to Parliament in 1914, and then, finding a “pair,” fought in France during World War I. A potential prime minister, he was so crippled by rheumatoid arthritis that he had to use a wheelchair. As minister of finance in the coalition ministry headed by George Forbes from 1931 until 1933, he favored a high exchange rate (the equivalent to a tariff on all imports) and was opposed to government attempts to control the exchange rate as advocated by Gordon Coates, a policy which was deemed to favor the farmers over the towns. Coates’s more unorthodox views prevailed, and in January 1933 Stewart resigned his portfolio and retired to the backbenches. STEWART ISLAND. Named for William Stewart, first officer of the Pegasus, who charted much of the southern coasts of the South Island while sailing from Port Jackson in Australia in 1809 on a sealing expedition, this is New Zealand’s third-largest island with an area of 1,680 sq. kilometers (670 sq. miles). It lies approximately 40 kilometers (25 miles) to the south of the South Island, from which it is separated by Foveaux Strait. The main economic activities of its population (384 at the time of the 2001 census) are aquaculture, fishing, and tourism. It is especially noted for its abundance of native flora and fauna. The island has a special attraction for Maori because of the presence of a special delicacy, the Titi, otherwise known as the sooty shearwater or muttonbird. The original Maori name for the island was Te Punga o Te Waka, or the anchor stone of Maui’s canoe, from which, in Maori mythology, he caught the great fish, the North Island. Today, however, the best-known Maori name for the island is Rakiura, “land of the glowing skies.” STOUT, ROBERT (1844–1930). Premier. Born and educated in Scotland, Stout emigrated to New Zealand in 1864 where he later practiced

SUPERANNUATION

• 279

law. Elected to Parliament in 1875, he served as attorney-general in George Grey’s government (1878–1879) and was premier throughout both Stout–Vogel governments (1884 and 1884–1887). Stout was a strong supporter of land reforms: state leasehold as opposed to freehold; the creation of smallholdings; and taxing of the unearned increment. He was also a staunch advocate of prohibition and equal rights for women. Following his retirement from politics in 1898 he served as chief justice of the old Supreme Court (now High Court) from 1899 to 1926. See also LANDS FOR SETTLEMENT ACT. SUPERANNUATION. The first step towards establishing a superannuation system for senior citizens was taken when the Old Age Pensions Act of 1898 was passed. This Act provided the basic structure for all state-funded retirement income until the 1970s, although a universal superannuation benefit, paid to every citizen over age 65 without a means test, was introduced as part of the Social Security Act of 1938. Thirty-six years later, the Third Labour Government passed the New Zealand Superannuation Act of 1974, which established a compulsory superannuation fund that all workers not already covered by private or employer-operated superannuation schemes were required to join. Both employers and workers were required to contribute a percentage of each worker’s income, and superannuation benefits received after retirement were to be directly related to income received during the beneficiary’s working life. In opposition, the New Zealand National Party strenuously opposed this scheme and, shortly after it was returned to power in the 1975 election, it abolished the system and replaced it with its own noncontributory National Superannuation scheme, which paid a taxpayer-funded pension to all citizens over the age of 60. The rate of payment was set, initially, at 80 percent of the average weekly wage for a married couple, while a single person received a pension equal to 60 percent of the married couple’s pension. Since 1977, when National Superannuation was first paid, there has been a continuing debate over the ability of New Zealand taxpayers to fund the scheme as the population grows older. A superannuation surcharge was introduced in 1985 (effectively a form of means test) but abolished in 1998, and a shift in the qualifying age

280 •

SUPREME COURT

from 60 to 65 over a 10-year period commenced in 1992. In 1993, the program was renamed New Zealand Superannuation. In 2001 legislation was passed providing for money to be set aside and invested for the future support of the scheme as the number of elderly increases over the next 50 years. The first investments were made from the fund in 2003, when 7.5 percent was invested in the New Zealand stock market, with the balance being invested in bonds (20 percent), overseas stocks (59.5 percent), and New Zealand and overseas property (13 percent). The New Zealand Superannuation Fund is governed by a separate Crown entity called the Guardians of New Zealand Superannuation. The fund began investing in September 2003 and contributions are scheduled to end about the mid2020s when the government of the day will start to draw down between 15 and 20 percent of the total annual costs of New Zealand superannuation. In September 2004 the Fifth Labour Government’s finance minister, Michael Cullen, released a proposal that would see every new employee automatically enrolled in a portable work-based savings plan aimed at increasing the level of personal retirement savings by deducting 5 percent of an individual’s income over $16,000 a year and depositing it in an account in the individual’s name. If adopted, it will come into effect in 2007. See also FITZGERALD v. MULDOON; NEW ZEALAND STOCK EXCHANGE. SUPREME COURT. See LEGAL SYSTEM. SURVILLE, JEAN-FRANCOIS MARIE DE (1717–1770). Explorer. Born in France, Surville served with the French India Company and French navy. On a trade and exploration expedition to the central Pacific, he visited New Zealand in 1769, probably passing within 50 kilometers of Captain James Cook’s vessels as they rounded North Cape. Initially relations with Maori were amicable but violence erupted near the end of the visit. After leaving New Zealand, Surville sailed east, making landfall in Peru, where he drowned. SUTCH, WILLIAM BALL (1907–1975). Public servant. Born in England but educated in New Zealand and the United States, Sutch had a distinguished career in policy making from the 1930s onward.

SWEATING COMMISSION

• 281

He is perhaps best known for his work as head of the Department of Industries and Commerce between 1958 and 1965 and for his efforts to foster the growth of manufacturing and processing in New Zealand. He also held important posts with international agencies, particularly United Nations agencies, where he served as chairperson of the Social Commission for two years. In a bizarre twist, in the latter part of his career when he was closely associated with New Zealand Labour Party prime minister Norman Kirk, Sutch was arraigned on a charge involving the alleged passing of secrets to members of the Embassy of the Soviet Union in Wellington. He was acquitted in 1975, but died shortly afterwards. SWAINSON, WILLIAM (1809–1884). Politician. Born in England and trained as a lawyer, Swainson was appointed by Lord John Russell as attorney-general of New Zealand in 1841. Soon after his arrival in New Zealand, he framed a series of enactments that provided for the establishment of law courts and municipalities as well as laws governing the transfer of property. Swainson was a strong upholder of the principles enshrined in the Treaty of Waitangi despite its vaguenesses, and this brought him into sharp conflict with the settlers. He found against the settlers over the Wairau Massacre in 1843. Swainson served in the Legislative Council from 1854 until 1867 and played a leading role before responsible government was achieved in 1856. SWEATING COMMISSION. High levels of unemployment resulting from the Long Depression of the 1880s meant that labor was cheap and exploitation, particularly of women, girls, and young boys, was prevalent. In 1885 the New Zealand Trades and Labour Council denounced the practice of “sweating”—subcontracting women and girls for long hours at low wages—in the clothing industry, and called, without success, for the organization of women into trade unions. In 1888 the Reverend Rutherford Waddell preached a sermon entitled “The Sins of Cheapness.” The increasing public pressure that followed the publication of Waddell’s trenchant criticisms forced the Harry Atkinson–led government to set up a Royal Commission to inquire into the allegations of sweated labor. The Sweating Commission recommended that factories should be registered, the hours of work undertaken by those

282 •

TAIAROA, TE MATENGA (c.1795–1863)

between the ages of 14 and 18 should be limited to 48 per week, a Department of Labour should be established, and conciliation and arbitration boards should be set up. Most of the commission’s recommendations found their way into legislation during the 1890s.

–T – TAIAROA, TE MATENGA (c.1795–1863). Maori chief. A member of Ngai Tahu, a South Island tribe, Taiaroa was heavily involved in intertribal wars in the 1820s and 1830s and, although generally favorably disposed towards European traders, he occasionally harassed the whaling communities. He played a leading role in South Island Maori land sales and in the 1860s attempted to mediate between Maori and Pakeha in the Land Wars. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TAIWHANGA, RAWIRI (c.1818–1874). Maori chief. A leader of the Nga Puhi tribe from Kaikohe, Taiwhanga is known to have participated in tribal war parties between 1818 and 1825, although he spent nearly 18 months between 1822 and 1824 with Samuel Marsden in Australia. He became interested in European agricultural methods and by 1826 was producing a variety of horticultural products, fruit, and wheat. By 1835 he was regularly selling butter—the earliest such sales of dairy produce known in New Zealand—and by the 1840s he was also farming sheep. A convert to Christianity in 1830, he signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Reputed to be 100 years old when he died in 1874, Taiwhanga serves to illustrate the scale and nature of the immense changes which affected Maori society during his lifetime. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TAKAHE. The flightless takahe (Porphyrio mantelli hochstetteri, formerly Notornis mantelli), or moho, is the largest living member of the rail family of birds and is a close relative of the pukeko. During the 19th century there were only four officially recorded sightings of the bird, and by 1930 it was presumed to be extinct. In 1948, it was rediscovered in the Murchison Mountains, Fiordland, in western

TAMIHANA, WIREMU (c.1805–1866)

• 283

Southland, and it was estimated that it numbered around 250 birds. By 1981 the takahe population had declined to 120 birds, and a recovery program was instituted two years later that aimed at establishing self-sustaining populations in Fiordland and on predator-free offshore islands. The most recent count (2000) placed the takahe population at around 221, of which approximately 133 were in the Murchison Mountains, 59 were on offshore islands, and a further 25 were in dedicated wildlife centers. Although still an endangered species, the success of the recovery program has ensured its survival into the foreseeable future. See also FLORA AND FAUNA. TAKAMOANA, KARAITIANA (?–1879). Maori chief; member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe of Heretaunga (Hawke’s Bay). Takamoana fought against northern tribes in the early 1820s and was captured by Waikato forces about 1824. Released shortly after, he was soon again involved in intertribal battles. In the 1840s he studied in William Colenso’s mission school and became a Christian. Takamoana participated in some of the extensive land sales of the 1850s but went to war again in 1857, winning a dispute over ownership of lands with a neighboring tribe. He took part in the defeat of Hauhau forces in 1866. Subsequently, Takamoana found himself forced to sell further lands because of his indebtedness which had arisen in part from the costs of fighting on the side of the British. In 1871 he became a member of the House of Representatives for the Eastern Maori electorate (a seat which he held until his death) and made known his intention of working through Parliament to settle land grievances. Later, however, he became an enthusiastic supporter of the Hawke’s Bay Repudiation Movement. See also LAND WARS. TAMIHANA, WIREMU (c.1805–1866). Maori chief. Born Tarapipipi Te Waharoa, a member of the Ngati Haua tribe, he was known as Wiremu Tamihana (William Thompson) after he was baptized in 1839. He did much for the social, moral, and political development of his people. In the late 1850s Tamihana became involved in the King Movement as a means of containing tribalism and forging a Maori nation. He also came to resist further land sales because of their tendency to undermine Maori society.

284 •

TARAIA, NGAKUTI TE TUMUHUIA (17?–1872)

Although he acted as a negotiator and mediator between Maori and Pakeha in the Taranaki War, his attempts to foster and maintain the autonomy of Maori society made him appear untrustworthy to European eyes. Soon his attempts at mediation were ignored as government troops set out to subdue the Waikato tribes. In 1865, Tamihana accepted that the queen’s laws should bind the Maori king; he believed, however, that a great wrong had been done and spent much of the rest of his life seeking a return of confiscated lands and an independent inquiry into the causes of the war. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT. TARAIA, NGAKUTI TE TUMUHUIA (17?–1872). Member of the Ngati Tama-Te-Ra tribe. Taraia was a leading Maori warrior by the 1820s, eagerly seeking muskets and powder to resist Nga Puhi raids and becoming involved in intertribal warfare over the ownership of land. Having acquired arms, Taraia extended his activity from his home base in the Coromandel to the East Coast. He refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi, claiming the right to solve disputes in the traditional manner—by force. Equally, he rejected Christianity and continued cannibalism. Although inclined to the King Movement in the 1860s, he was too old to fight and accepted a pension from the government. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS. TARANUI, TE POKIHA (?–1901). Maori chief. A member of the Ngati Pikiao hapu of Te Arawa, Taranui achieved prominence in the 1860s when he led Te Arawa in support of the government against the King Movement, as well as against Hauhau, and Te Kooti Arikirangi and his supporters. Although known for his personal daring, Taranui was a skillful and cautious war leader. In 1870, when Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, visited Tauranga, Taranui was presented with a sword of honor in recognition of his services, which otherwise had been poorly compensated. He did not favor land sales to Europeans, preferring instead to encourage Maori development. In 1892 Taranui was deeply humiliated when he was imprisoned for three days for refusing to pay a newly imposed dog tax. In 1893 he strongly supported the proposal for a Kotahitanga (unity) parliament. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT.

TAUPO, LAKE

• 285

TARAWERA, MOUNT. Part of the series of fault lines and volcanoes which form the circum-Pacific “rim of fire,” Mount Tarawera erupted in the early hours of 10 June 1886. A persistent story associated with the event is how, 10 days earlier, a party of tourists claimed to have seen a Maori war canoe appear from the mists on Lake Tarawera manned by Maori in traditional dress. A local tohunga claimed that it was a spirit canoe and an omen of a great calamity. On 10 June, eyewitnesses reported that the mountain had split open, burying two villages with volcanic mud, causing Lake Rotomahana to completely disappear, and destroying the celebrated pink and white terraces. Some 153 people are estimated to have died. The roar of the eruption was heard for hundreds of miles and it is estimated that more than 2 billion cubic yards of ash were scattered over more than 6,000 square miles. See also EARTHQUAKES. TASMAN, ABEL JANSZOON (c.1602–c.1659). Explorer. A Dutch national, Tasman was employed by the Dutch East India Company. In 1642 he was sent on an expedition in search of undiscovered but exploitable lands to the south and east of southwestern Australia, which had already been discovered by Dutch sailors. The expedition reached New Zealand, described in Tasman’s log as “a large land uplifted high,” in December 1642, over 125 years before James Cook’s discovery. In all probability Tasman was the first European to discover the country or to encounter Maori, although we cannot be absolutely certain since Spanish seafarers are known to have sailed through the New Hebridean (now Vanuatu) archipelago about 40 years earlier. Tasman’s meeting with Maori proved hostile: three sailors were killed and one mortally wounded. The expedition sailed northwards along the west coast of the South Island and North Island before sailing on to Tonga. Tasman had discovered no great riches or trading opportunities during his brief visit to New Zealand (which he initially named Staten Landt), so the Dutch authorities showed no further interest in the country. See also DISCOVERY OF NEW ZEALAND. TAUPO, LAKE. Best known as the largest freshwater lake in the Southern Hemisphere and a tourist magnet for trout fishing, the lake is also a very active caldera volcano which has erupted 28 times in

286 •

TAXATION

the last 27,000 years. Two eruptions were particularly significant. The Oruanui eruption, which took place 26,500 years ago, buried parts of the central North Island in volcanic ash, depositing an 11centimeter (4-inch) coating as far as 800 kilometers (500 miles) east in the Chatham Islands, as well as forming the caldera of which Lake Taupo is now part. The second eruption, about 1,800 years ago, has been described as the most violent eruption in the world in the past 5,000 years. It produced an eruption column 50 kilometers high or twice as high as the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption column. Calderas erupt less frequently but much more violently than cone volcanoes. See also EARTHQUAKES. TAXATION. The first tax—a customs duty—was levied on imported alcohol in 1841 and the first attempt to use taxation as a means of redistributing wealth occurred when Governor Robert FitzRoy attempted to replace customs duty with a type of property tax in 1844. This initiative lasted a mere six months. In 1878, the George Grey–led government instituted a land tax, but this was watered down to a rather ineffective property tax the following year. Income became a source of government revenue with the passage of the Land and Income Assessment Act of 1891. A graduated income tax scale was introduced in 1914, and although restructured several times, lasted until a two-tier structure was introduced in 1988. In 2001 a third, higher tier, to apply to incomes above $60,000, was added. Other direct and indirect taxes have also been imposed; the best known of these are the gasoline tax (1927), sales tax (1933), Social Security tax (1938–1968), and goods and services tax (GST) (1986). For the year ended June 2003, 67.3 percent of the government’s taxation revenue was derived from direct taxation—77.8 percent was income tax paid by individuals, and 22.2 percent came from company tax—and 32.7 percent came from indirect taxes, of which 67.2 percent came from GST. See also ECONOMY; SUPERANNUATION. TAYLOR, THOMAS EDWARD (1862–1911). Politician and prohibitionist. Taylor was born in England and arrived in New Zealand in 1873. He soon became the leading proponent of prohibition and the prohibitionist cause at a time when it had become a major political

TE AWEAWE, TE PEETI (c.1820–1884)

• 287

force. He was elected to Parliament on three separate occasions (1896, 1902, and 1908—and lost his seat in the elections of 1899 and 1905). In Parliament Taylor adopted a radical independent stance, opposing party government and corruption while promoting and supporting many social reforms. See also FOX, WILLIAM; WOMEN’S’ CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION. TE ANAUA, HORI KINGI (?–1868). Maori chief. A chief of the Ngati Ruaka of Te Ati Haunui-a-Paparangi, Te Anaua was one of the leaders of the Wanganui tribes in the tribal wars of the early 19th century. He signed the Treaty of Waitangi and later helped successfully to negotiate bigger reserves for his people. In the 1860s he did not support the King Movement, although earlier it had been suggested that he was a possible candidate himself. He also took an active role in putting down the Hauhau movement. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS. TE AUTE COLLEGE. Founded in 1854 by the Reverend Samuel Williams (son of Henry Williams) as a church boarding school for Maori, it attracted gifted children. In 1891 former pupils, young professional men from the East Coast and also from the Arawa and Ati Awa tribes, formed the Te Aute College Students’ Association which, in turn, developed into what came to be known as the Young Maori Party that sought to reconstruct Maori society on the basis of cooperation and assimilation. The group’s most prominent members included Peter Buck, Maui Pomare, and Apirana Ngata, who was, however, less of an assimilationist. The Young Maori Party played an important role in effectively articulating Maori needs to a Pakeha audience and institutions. See also CARROLL, JAMES. TE AWEAWE, TE PEETI (c.1820–1884). Maori chief. A chief of the Rangitane, Te Aweawe was involved in intertribal disputes over land and was an important seller of land to the Crown. He served with Major-General Trevor Chute in the Taranaki campaign and against Riwha Titokowaru in 1868–1869. He also managed to have several thousand acres returned to his tribe by taking action through the Native Land Court. He was a strong and by no means unqualified supporter of the settler government. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT.

288 •

TE HAPUKU (?–1878)

TE HAPUKU (?–1878). Maori chief. A leader of the Ngati Te Whatui-apiti, one of the Hawke’s Bay tribes, Te Hapuku was taken prisoner by Waikato Maori about 1824 and then was exchanged for obsidian. Reported to have engaged in cannibalism in the 1820s, he was originally noted for his overbearing conduct and contempt for Europeans; nevertheless, he signed both the 1835 Declaration of Independence of the United Tribes of New Zealand in 1839 and the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. He became an influential friend of Governor George Grey and was appointed a magistrate in 1852. An active land seller to cover his growing indebtedness, Te Hapuku alienated many of his followers and exasperated European settlers with his “overbearing and lawless” manner. He successively tolerated and then fought against members of Pai Marire, 1864–1868, and in the 1870s supported the Repudiation Movement, objecting to land sales despite his earlier advocacy of such sales. In 1871 he was granted a government pension and later in his life became involved in efforts to improve the educational standard of Maori, particularly through Te Aute College. See also LAND WARS; MAORI CIVIL WARS; MAORI LAND COURT; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TE HEUHEU TUKINO II, MANANUI (?–1846). Maori chief. A leader of the Ngati Tuwharetoa tribe of the central North Island, Mananui enjoyed a formidable reputation as a warrior. He refused to sign the Treaty of Waitangi and resolutely opposed British settlement except for traders. He died in a landslide in 1846 along with his second son, his eight wives, and 54 others. TE HEUHEU TUKINO IV, HORONUKU (c.1820s–1888). Maori chief of the Ngati Tuwharetoa tribe. The son of Te Heuheu Tukino II, he took the name Horonuku (“landslide”) after his father’s death in 1846. He became paramount chief in 1862 and, the next year, he honored his predecessor’s promise to aid Waikato Maori if they were attacked by the British. He was unsuccessful in breaking the British cordon, so returned home. While he was reported as being in favor of joining the fight against government troops in Taranaki, a large tribal meeting decided not to take up arms unless Ngati Tuwharetoa territory was invaded. When war broke out in the Taupo region in 1869,

TE HURA TE TAIWHAKARIPI (c.1816–1866)

• 289

Horonuku linked up with Te Kooti Arikirangi. Te Kooti was defeated and withdrew to the King Country while Horonuku’s force was overwhelmed and forced to surrender. Horonuku went into hiding until persuaded to surrender in 1870; when Te Kooti no longer appeared to be a threat, he was allowed to return to Taupo. The Tuwharetoa lands lying to the south of Lake Taupo (including Mounts Tongariro, Ruapehu, and Ngauruhoe) had been leased to European settlers in the 1860s. When the Maori owners learned that the mountains were to have trigonometric stations placed on them, Horonuku, with the agreement of a number of other chiefs, gifted the peaks to the people of New Zealand to be preserved as a national park. The Tongariro National Park was the first to be established in New Zealand and only the second such park in the world. See also ENVIRONMENT; PINK AND WHITE TERRACES; TARAWERA, MOUNT; TOURISM. TE HIKO PIATA TAMA-I-HIKOIA (?–1881). Maori chief; member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe. A leading Wairarapa chief, Te Hiko was closely associated with the Pakeha McMaster family to whom he leased land and acted as protector. This combination of Maori landowner and squatter proved mutually beneficial but was regarded as obstructive by a government keen to purchase land outright. Ironically, Te Hiko, a strong opponent of land sales, was remembered for his controversial sale to the government of fishing rights in Lake Wairarapa in 1876 (Hiko’s sale) following a quarrel amongst the beneficial multiple owners of the rights. See also MAORI LAND COURT. TE HORETA (?–1853). Maori chief; a leader of the Ngati Whanaunga tribe from the Hauraki Gulf. As a boy he met Captain James Cook in 1769. He appears to have been involved in many intertribal battles in the Auckland isthmus. Te Horeta’s relations with Europeans were cordial: in 1820 he visited Sydney, New South Wales; in 1840 he signed the Treaty of Waitangi; and in the early 1850s he allowed his land to be mined for gold. Te Horeta was baptized shortly before his death. TE HURA TE TAIWHAKARIPI (c.1816–1866). Maori chief; a member of the Ngati Awa tribe in the Bay of Plenty. Te Hura Te Taiwhakaripi

290 •

TE IKA A MAUI (“Fish of Maui”)

became an adherent of the Pai Marire faith in the 1860s and a strong opponent of European land settlement. His tribe was responsible for the death of Hemi Te Mautaraunui Fulloon. As a result, he was attacked by a substantial force of colonial troops and Te Hura was defeated, tried, and sentenced to death, and some 60 percent of his tribal lands were confiscated. His death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and, in 1988, Te Hura and all those condemned with him, were finally pardoned by an Act of Parliament, 123 years after a war in which he is now regarded as having fought to defend his heritage. See also LAND WARS; VÖLKNER, CARL SYLVIUS. TE IKA A MAUI (“Fish of Maui”). The Maori name for the North Island of New Zealand. Maori legend tells of Maui making a fishhook from an enchanted jawbone which he used to fish up the North Island. Some versions say that Maui’s canoe lies, petrified, on the peak of Mount Hikurangi near the North Island’s East Cape, while others assert that the South Island was Maui’s canoe. See also MAORI MYTHOLOGY AND LEGENDS. TE KANAWA, KIRI JANETTE (1944– ). Opera singer. Born in New Zealand and educated in New Zealand and England, Kiri Te Kanawa won the prestigious Melbourne Sun aria contest in 1965. Since then she has established herself as one of the world’s leading opera sopranos, singing at the world’s leading opera houses as well as at the wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer in 1981. TE KOOTI ARIKIRANGI TE TURUKI (?–1893). Military and religious leader. Te Kooti attended an Anglican mission school and was baptized, although he acquired a reputation for lawlessness as a youth. During the wars against the Pai Marire forces in the 1860s, when he fought with the government forces, he was twice arrested on suspicion of being a spy and eventually sent as a prisoner to the Chatham Islands. While there, he had visions and founded the Ringatu Faith. Subsequently, he led a mass escape, capturing a supply ship and its crew and sailing back to New Zealand. Sweeping aside opposition, both Pakeha and Maori, he seized control of Poverty Bay for a time and, faced by formidable forces, made a series of successful lightning raids combined with an equally successful series of escapes. He

TE MOANANUI, KURUPO (?–1861)

• 291

proved to be a remarkably successful guerrilla leader. Eventually, he withdrew into the Urewera country and then to the King Country. In 1873 Te Kooti accepted King Tawhiao’s pacifism and, for the next 10 years, lived at Te Kuiti where he evolved the rituals of his church. He was formally pardoned in 1883. See also LAND WARS. TE MAARI-O-TE-RANGI, PIRIPI (c.1837–1895). Maori leader. A member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe of the Wairarapa, Te Maari-ote-rangi was educated at a mission school and was a successful farmer. He was the principal advocate of Maori rights over the Wairarapa Lakes, fighting the issue of rights over the lake through the Native Land Court, through direct negotiations with successive native ministers, and appearing before a parliamentary commission of inquiry and the Court of Appeal. It was, however, not until 20 years after his death that compensation was finally granted. See also HIKO’S SALE; MAORI LAND COURT. TE MATAKATEA, WIREMU KINGI MOKI (?–1893). Maori chief; a member of the Taranaki tribe. Te Matakatea was engaged in intertribal warfare during the 1820s and 1830s. Baptized in 1841, he became a successful farmer, storeowner, and, later, founder of a college for 400 pupils at Umuroa. By the late 1850s, however, he was again engaged in intertribal hostilities and the first Taranaki War. He took no part in the second Taranaki War, and, when his house was burned by troops, he received compensation. He suffered many vexations and questionable treatment in his dealings with the government, including imprisonment, as a result of attempting to balance Maori interest with moderate cooperation. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; LAND WARS; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TE MOANANUI, KURUPO (?–1861). Maori chief. A leading member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe of Heretaunga (Hawke’s Bay), Kurupo Te Moananui was engaged in a number of intertribal battles over land issues in the 1820s and 1830s, particularly with Waikato tribes. By 1850 he had become a convert to Christianity and a keen seller of land, but he was not always scrupulous in compensating some of the other owners, a situation which led to serious intratribal tensions. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS.

292 •

TE PEHI KUPE (c.1795–1828)

TE PEHI KUPE (c.1795–1828). Maori chief; a member of the Ngati Toa tribe of Kawhia. Te Pehi Kupe was engaged in intertribal warfare between 1819 and 1824. In the latter year he boarded a visiting ship and demanded to be taken to see King George IV in order to obtain muskets. In England he was presented to the king and was given numerous other gifts of tools and clothing but not muskets. These he sold in Sydney, thereby acquiring his arms and ammunition. In 1828 Te Pehi, along with allied tribes, invaded the South Island seeking utu. He was killed at Kaiapoi pa (near present-day Kaiapoi) by Ngai Tahu while sleeping. His body was cooked and eaten, and some of his bones were later made into fishhooks. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TE PUEA HERANGI, PRINCESS (1884–1952). Maori leader. Daughter of a chieftainess and granddaughter of the second Maori king, Tawhiao, Princess Te Puea played an important role in promoting the resurgence of traditional Maori arts and crafts, the development of Maori lands, and the promotion of social welfare. An outstanding Maori leader, Te Puea was the first modern Maori woman to achieve national, in addition to tribal, distinction. See also WOMEN. TE PUNI-KOKOPU, HONIANA (?–1870). Maori chief; a leader of the Te Ati Awa tribe. Originally of Taranaki but subsequently of Waikanae, Te Puni-kokopu was involved in intertribal fighting in the 1820s, particularly against the Waikato tribes. As a result, many Te Ati Awa migrated about 1832, first to the Wairarapa and then to Wellington where, insecure and surrounded by enemies, they welcomed the New Zealand Company vessel Tory in 1839 when it arrived to purchase land prior to settlements being established. Te Puni was to be a staunch supporter of William Wakefield, whom he regarded as “his Pakeha.” Te Puni’s people built houses for the settlers and kept them supplied with food in exchange for clothing. Te Puni signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 and in the years following did much to help facilitate European settlement. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. TE PUREWA (?–1842). Maori chief; one of three noted brothers belonging to the Tuhoe tribe in the North Island Urewera country. In

TE RANGIKAHEKE, WIREMU MAIHI (c.1815–1896)

• 293

the intertribal conflicts of the early 19th century, Te Purewa came to the fore after the death of one his brothers, Tamahore. He was an outstanding warrior and tactician of great individual strength and bravery. In addition, he also enjoyed a reputation for putting an end to all human slaughter and cannibalism among his own people, and as an active peacemaker. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS. TE RANGI PAETAHI, METE KINGI (c.1813–1883). Maori chief; high-ranking leader of the lower Wanganui tribes and noted warrior. Mete Kingi was one of the most important chiefs to work with the government. In the 1850s he played an active role in seeking to bring to an end tribal warfare resulting from the issue of land sales. He was not opposed to land sales, providing sufficient provision was made for Maori concerns. He opposed both the King Movement and Pai Marire and played an active role along with the colonial troops in the 1860s war. In 1868 he became one of the first four Maori members of Parliament. He was defeated in the 1871 general election and by the mid-1870s had become a sheep farmer. See also LAND WARS. TE RANGIHAEATA (?–1855). Maori chief. Te Rangihaeata was a member of the Ngati Toa tribe and nephew of Te Rauparaha. Along with his uncle, he played an important role in the intertribal warfare of the 1820s and 1830s. A deed which he signed, selling all his rights and claims on both sides of Cook Strait to Colonel William Wakefield, was later invalidated. Te Rangihaeata signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 but, again, probably interpreted it in too limited terms. With Te Rauparaha, he was a party to the Wairau Massacre, during which he clubbed nine European prisoners to death. Following further serious land disputes, this time in the Wellington area, he ceased his active opposition to European expansion. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS. TE RANGIHIROA. See BUCK, PETER HENRY. TE RANGIKAHEKE, WIREMU MAIHI (c.1815–1896). Scholar and public servant. Educated by the Church Missionary Society, Te Rangikaheke was responsible for instructing Governor George Grey in the Maori language and customs. He produced a very large body of written work, most of which is now housed in the Grey collection

294 •

TE RANGI-TAKA-I-WAHO, TE MANIHERA (?–1885)

in the Auckland Public Library. As a tribal leader and government official, he was an important source of information during the Land Wars of the 1860s. A brilliant orator, in 1875 he became the first Maori to stand (unsuccessfully) for election to the House of Representatives in a European (now called general) seat. TE RANGI-TAKA-I-WAHO, TE MANIHERA (?–1885). Maori chief; a member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe (Wairarapa). Te Manihera took a leading role in land dealings and was regarded as a staunch friend of Pakeha. As with a number of other Maori land sellers, he frequently sold land over which others had rights without seeking their cooperation, often being more concerned to protect the rights of Pakeha leaseholders on their land than of other Maori. Equally, like others, he became indebted to traders and was forced to sell further land. Te Manihera was involved in land sales throughout the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s, including the controversial Hiko’s sale of fishing rights in Lake Wairarapa. See also MAORI LAND COURT. TE RANGITAKE, WIREMU KINGI. See KINGI, WIREMU. TE RAU, KEREOPA (?–1872). Pai Marire leader. Of obscure origins, Kereopa was a member of the Te Arawa tribe and was one of the five disciples of Te Ua Haumene, the founder of the Pai Marire faith. He is remembered mainly for his part in the murder of the missionary C. S. Völkner, who was seized and ritually killed in 1865. Following the decapitation of the body, Kereopa ate Völkner’s eyes, calling one the Parliament and the other the queen and British law. Protected for over five years by the Tuhoe tribe, he was eventually handed over to the authorities, tried, and sentenced to death. See also FULLOON, HEMI TE MAUTARANUI. TE RAUPARAHA (c.1768–1849). Maori chief; member of the Ngati Toa tribe. Te Rauparaha was an outstanding leader because of his skills as a warrior in intertribal warfare. He led a great southward migration of his tribe, and by the mid-1830s, he and his allies had conquered the southwest portion of the North Island and most of the northern half of the South Island. His sales of vast tracts of land to

TE UA HAUMENE (?–1866)

• 295

Colonel William Wakefield in return for guns, blankets, and other goods were later declared void by Lieutenant-Governor William Hobson. Te Rauparaha signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, apparently under the misapprehension that it would guarantee to him and his allies possession of the lands acquired by conquest over the previous 18 years. Following the Wairau Massacre in 1843 and resistance to European settlement in the Wellington area, Te Rauparaha was first visited by Governor George Grey, then seized by the authorities and held on a naval vessel without charge or trial for 10 months. The sale of the Wairau Plains was successfully negotiated while he was held. Te Rauparaha was returned to his people in 1848. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TE RAUPARAHA, TAMIHANA (?–1876). Maori chief; son of the Ngati Toa leader Te Rauparaha. Tamihana, along with his cousin, Matene Te Whiwhi, was responsible for bringing missionaries to their tribe. He was one of a number of young chiefs who adopted the clothing and lifestyle of English gentlemen, living in a Europeanstyle house with European servants. He eventually became a successful sheep farmer and a man of considerable wealth. In 1851 Tamihana (as he was known from the time of his baptism in 1841) visited England and was presented to Queen Victoria. After his return to New Zealand he played an important role in seeking to establish a monarchy for the Maori people, a move which resulted in the eventual establishment of the King Movement in 1858. He supported attempts to halt the sale of Maori land, but not by violence, believing that the two races could live side by side in peace. See also MAORI LAND COURT. TE UA HAUMENE (?–1866). Maori prophet. A member of the Taranaki tribe, Te Ua was the founder and prophet of the Hauhau church. Captured in his youth by Waikato Maori and taken as a slave, he was taught to read and write in the Maori language by his captors, became familiar with the Bible, and was baptized before being released. He opposed land sales and became associated with the Maori King Movement. In 1862 he experienced a vision which commanded him to cast off the Pakeha yoke and create a peaceful and righteous society. Although the central principle of the faith was pai

296 •

TE WAHAROA, WIREMU TAMIHANA TARAPIPIPI

marire, or “goodness and peace,” it rapidly acquired a violent aspect as evidenced in the murder of missionary C. S. Völkner and the military resistance which characterized the years from 1864 to 1872. Despite the militancy of a number of his followers, Te Ua himself was more moderate and has stature as a religious thinker whose contribution was to adapt aspects of missionary Christianity to Maori tradition. See also LAND WARS. TE WAHAROA, WIREMU TAMIHANA TARAPIPIPI. See TAMIHANA, WIREMU. TE WAI POUNAMU (“Greenstone Waters”). The Maori name for New Zealand’s South Island, an important source of pounamu (greenstone or New Zealand jade), which was highly prized by Maori for its beauty and toughness. Maori used it to make adzes, chisels, mere (short clubs used in hand-to-hand combat), and ornaments such as the hei-tiki and ear pendants. TE WHEORO, WIREMU TE MOREHU MAIPAPA (c.1826–1895). Maori chief. A leader of the Ngati Naho hapu of the powerful Waikato tribe, Te Wheoro quickly adapted to Pakeha ways and institutions. He served as a captain in the colonial militia during Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron’s invasion of the Waikato and subsequently acted as a mediator between the King Movement and the government. He resigned as native commissioner in 1879 when he believed that the government was not listening to his advice and that his people were being treated unfairly. In the same year Te Wheoro was elected to represent the Western Maori electorate in Parliament, where he played an active role in defense of Maori interests. Throughout this time he remained closely associated with the Maori king. In 1883, all four Maori MPs addressed a letter to the Aborigines Protection Society in London, proposing an appeal to the queen over land sales at Kawhia. He took part in a delegation and was received by the secretary of state for the colonies in London in 1884. Although this proved unsuccessful and he grew disillusioned with Pakeha institutions, he never rejected the Pakeha presence in the country. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT.

TE WHITI-O-RONGOMAI III, ERUETI (?–1907)

• 297

TE WHEROWHERO, POTATAU (?–1860). Maori king. A member of the Waikato tribe, he is known to have been involved in intertribal warfare and feuds during the 1820s. Following the defeat of his army by the Ngati Toa and Ngati Mutunga tribes (c.1820–1821), he is reputed to have fought a number of chiefs in single combat, armed only with a digging implement. In 1831, when he attacked the Te Ati Awa and many were massacred and eaten, he is said to have killed 150 prisoners with his patu (short club made of stone used in hand-tohand combat). Te Wherowhero was never baptized, but he did attend church. Although he declined to sign the Treaty of Waitangi, he was not opposed to European government as such, merely to certain policies such as declaring all land not actually occupied or cultivated by Maori as “waste land” and thus Crown property. In 1849 Te Wherowhero signed an agreement with Governor George Grey to provide military protection for Auckland, and in 1858, following widespread consultation among the tribes, he was installed as the first Maori king at Ngaruawahia. He always regarded the kingship as being complementary to, rather than in opposition with, the sovereignty of Queen Victoria. However, in a situation where extensive land alienation was becoming a concern of crisis proportions for Maori, he inevitably came into conflict with government policy. See also KING MOVEMENT; MAORI CIVIL WARS; MAORI LAND COURT; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TE WHITI-O-RONGOMAI III, ERUETI (?–1907). Taranaki tribal leader and prophet. Little is known of Te Whiti’s early life. Born at Ngamotu (the site of present-day New Plymouth) sometime between 1816 and 1832, he was educated at the mission school at Warea, where he later established a flour mill. As a person identified early in life as a teacher and prophet, Te Whiti’s grasp of traditional Maori knowledge (gained through the teachings of the tribal elders) was later tempered by Christian teachings and an acutely perceptive view of the world. Family tradition has him living at Parihaka (then called Repanga) in the 1840s, but others believe that he may not have gone there until the 1860s. Sympathetic towards the King Movement and

298 •

TELEVISION

Maori nationalism, Te Whiti is believed to have accompanied Taranaki war parties during early fighting and was among the leading warriors who attacked Sentry Hill in 1864 (armed with a tokotoko [walking stick] and chanting pai marire incantations). Thereafter, he is believed to have taken no further part in any hostilities. Te Whiti was an able orator. He protested against the confiscation and loss of all Maori land, particularly where it remained unoccupied for a long period before being settled by Europeans, and also at the government’s failure to set aside promised reserves. In 1879 he led a campaign of passive obstruction against surveyors working in Taranaki. This resulted in his arrest and imprisonment on at least two occasions. Though frequently described as a “fanatic,” Te Whiti was a man of high intelligence and integrity and was deeply respected by his followers, who were urged to restrain themselves from taking up arms. See also LAND WARS; PARIHAKA AFFAIR. TELEVISION. See BROADCASTING. TEMPSKY, GUSTAVUS FERDINAND VON (1828–1868). Soldier. Born in East Prussia and trained as a soldier, Tempsky went as a colonist to the Mosquito Coast of Central America in 1846, to California to seek his fortune in the gold rush of 1849 (where he became proficient in the use of the bowie knife, which he is said to have later introduced to New Zealand), to Australia in 1858, and, finally, to New Zealand in 1862, again seeking gold. His reputation as a brave and skillful leader came from the period when he was an officer in the Forest Rangers—a guerrilla force formed to combat the skills of Maori. He worked with both General Duncan Cameron and Major-General Trevor Chute in the campaigns that spanned the period 1863–1868. It was while covering a retreat in 1868 that he was shot in the head and killed. He has been described as a “flamboyant and apparently fearless” soldier, an “adventurer rather than a mercenary.” To the Maori he was known as Manurau— “the bird that flits everywhere.” He was also a skilled watercolor artist and an able newspaper reporter. See also GOLD RUSHES; LAND WARS. TERM OF PARLIAMENT. See PARLIAMENT, TERM OF.

THIERRY, CHARLES PHILIPPE HIPPOLYTE DE (1793–1864)

• 299

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES. See LOCAL GOVERNMENT. TERRORISM. Despite the fact that New Zealand is remote and an unlikely target for a terrorist attack, the possibility of terrorist activity can never be ruled out. The Rainbow Warrior Affair in 1985 is always a salutary reminder, and the arrest and imprisonment of two Israeli citizens for passport fraud as recently as 2004 was accompanied by strong suspicions that they might be Mossad agents. In addition, there are United Nations obligations to combat terrorism. These have resulted in two pieces of significant legislation. The Terrorism Suppression Act passed in 2002 was supplemented by the CounterTerrorism Act in 2003. These acts serve to provide additional police staff at airports and to create a dedicated terrorism investigation and intelligence group, together with the establishment of police liaison posts in London and Washington to improve intelligence gathering. New offenses have also been created to close potential gaps that might be exploited by terrorists and which enable police and customs officers to use electronic tracking devices as an investigative tool subject to the issue of a court warrant by a judge. The effect of this legislation is to intensify New Zealand’s state of preparedness and to fulfill all 12 United Nations conventions on terrorism. THIERRY, CHARLES PHILIPPE HIPPOLYTE DE (1793–1864). Adventurer, self-styled baron, and son of an equerry at the French court. In 1820 Thierry met two Maori chiefs and a New Zealand missionary in Europe. He claimed that he had arranged to buy 40,000 acres of land at Hokianga for 36 axes and that the New Zealand chiefs had appointed him sovereign chief of the islands. But before Thierry arrived in New Zealand, the British resident in New Zealand, James Busby, responded to the perceived threat by inducing 35 northern Maori chiefs to sign the Declaration of Independence of the United Tribes of New Zealand in which they proclaimed themselves to be the heads of a sovereign state. When Thierry finally arrived in New Zealand with a motley collection of colonists in 1837, he forewent his larger claim for a grant of 800 acres. Despite the failure of his schemes, he subsequently represented himself in his autobiography as the principal pioneer colonist of New Zealand.

300 •

THINK BIG

THINK BIG. The name given to the Robert Muldoon–led government’s growth strategy first announced in 1979. It proposed a program promoting heavy industries such as aluminum smelting, industries based on oil and natural gas (such as ammonia urea and methanol production), and the expansion of steel production to utilize projected surpluses of hydroelectric power in the belief that these would relieve pressures upon the balance of payments and promote employment. Given the overall lack of success of the policy, the term “Think Big” acquired a pejorative connotation in political debate similar to the “Black Budget.” See also ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCES; INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. THOMSON, ARTHUR SAUNDERS (1816–1860). Historian. Born in Scotland, Thomson graduated as a doctor of medicine and served in India with the British army before traveling to New Zealand. He was particularly interested in recording Maori health and customs. In 1859, after his return to England, he published The Story of New Zealand: Past and Present—Savage and Civilised, the country’s first major written history. THOMSON, JOHN TURNBULL (1821–1884). Surveyor and engineer. Born in Northumberland, England, Thomson served in Malaya before arriving in New Zealand in 1856. He was largely responsible for introducing the triangulation method of survey into New Zealand. When he was appointed first surveyor-general in 1876 he introduced this system throughout the country. TIRIKATENE, ERUERA TIHEMA (1895–1967). Politician. A member of the Ngai Tahu tribe, Eruera Tirikatene served in Egypt and France during World War I. He was elected member of Parliament for the Southern Maori electorate in 1932 and retained the seat until his death in 1967. He represented the Maori race in the Cabinet as a member of the Executive Council but was never given the portfolio of native minister (renamed in 1946 minister of Maori affairs). He was succeeded as MP for Southern Maori by his daughter, Mrs. Tini Whetu Marama Tirikatene-Sullivan, who served as an MP from 1967 to 1996, the longest term to date of any woman MP. She was minister of tourism in the Third Labour Government (1972–1975).

TIZARD, CATHERINE ANNE (1931– )

• 301

TITOKOWARU, RIWHA (c.1823–1888). Maori chief. A member of the Ngati Ruanui tribe, Titokowaru has been described as “arguably the best general New Zealand has ever produced.” Baptized as a Methodist, sometime between 1850 and 1854 he turned away from pacifism and missionary Christianity in the face of increasing land alienation and in the 1860s became involved in open warfare with Pakeha. He was involved in the new Pai Marire religion which came to involve, inter alia, ritual cannibalism. By 1867, however, he began his great peace campaign. Foreshadowing more modern techniques, he held a series of peace meetings and a peace march, during June and July 1867, on which he led 140 of his people. He also orchestrated a range of nonviolent resistance to land confiscation, such as persistently removing surveyors’ pegs and plowing up land. Despite Titokowaru’s emphasis on peaceful opposition to the government’s confiscation policies, war broke out again in 1868. Heavily outnumbered, Titokowaru and his lieutenants fought a brilliant guerrilla campaign which had national repercussions before his eventual defeat. In 1871 Titokowaru returned to his former territories and, following a tacit understanding that neither he nor the government would molest one another, he organized a highly successful commercial enterprise selling cocksfoot grass seed to settlers. When confiscation recommenced in 1878, Titokowaru was again forced back into nonviolent resistance including—among other techniques—overloading government resources with peaceful acceptance of mass arrest. Despite imprisonment on three occasions for his resistance to European expansion at Parihaka, he continued his peaceful opposition to European encroachment until his death in 1888. See also LAND WARS; MAORI LAND COURT. TIZARD, CATHERINE ANNE (1931– ). Local government politician and governor-general. Born and educated in New Zealand and formerly married to a minister in the 1972–1975 New Zealand Labour Party government, Catherine Tizard had extensive experience in local government, including a period as mayor of Auckland (1983–1990) before resigning to become the first woman governorgeneral of New Zealand in 1990.

302 •

TODD, MARK JAMES (1956– )

TODD, MARK JAMES (1956– ). Equestrian and double Olympic gold medalist. Todd won the prestigious Badminton Horse Trials in England in 1980. He won his first Olympic gold medal in the threeday event at Los Angeles in 1984, and his second at Seoul in 1988 (also gaining a silver medal in the team event). In 1987, he achieved the unusual distinction of gaining first and second place in the Burghley Horse Trials in England. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. TODD, (REGINALD STEPHEN) GARFIELD (1908–2002). Missionary and politician. New Zealand born, Todd spent most of his adult life in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) where he served as missionary of the Church of Christ. He became an MP in the United Rhodesia Party in 1946 and served as prime minister of Rhodesia, 1953–1958. He also served several periods of imprisonment or house arrest for opposing, successively, the unilateral declaration of independence by the government of Ian Smith (seeking to uphold British dominance of the country) and then the method of governance by the African-led Mugabe government. TOKELAU ISLANDS. Located some 500 kilometers (300 miles) to the north of Samoa, the Tokelau Island group comprises three tiny coral atolls, none more than 5 meters (16 feet) above sea level and with a total combined land area of 10 sq. kilometers (4 sq. miles). The administration of the islands passed from Britain to New Zealand in 1925, and with the passage of the Tokelau Act in 1948, New Zealand acquired sovereignty, although New Zealand law does not extend to the territory unless with the express consent of the Tokelauans— something that has never happened. An administrator with legal authority is appointed by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs; he or she has overall responsibility for administration of executive government, but most of the powers involved have been delegated to Tokelauans and Tokelauan institutions. In 1996, the formal step of devolving power was taken so that, legally, the General Fono (Tokelau’s paramount political institution) has rule-making power, and since 2000 steps have been taken to establish a system of government that blends the traditional practices with modern needs. In 2001 the resident population was estimated to be a mere 1,500, with approxi-

TOURISM

• 303

mately 6,200 more living in New Zealand. The islands’ subsistence economy requires that New Zealand contribute about three-quarters of Tokelau’s annual budget. See also PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES. TOPEORA, RANGI KUINI WIKITORIA (c.180?–1865 or 1873?). Maori leader of Ngati Toa tribe. Sister of Te Rangihaeata and a niece of Te Rauparaha, Wikitoria played an important role in intertribal relationships. In 1840 she was one of only five women to sign the Treaty of Waitangi. She was responsible for renting and selling land to Pakeha, had four marriages, and, when one of her husbands had an affair with a slave girl, she saw to it that the girl was killed and eaten. When she was baptized she insisted on taking the Maori name for Queen Victoria (Kuini Wikitoria). TOTARA (Podocarpus totara). A member of the Podocarpaceae family, totara is a tall coniferous forest tree native to New Zealand. Found in both the North Island and South Island, it is a tall (up to 30 meters, or approximately 100 feet) softwood tree whose crown is characterized by dark, dense green foliage. Its timber was highly prized by Maori because, although its heartwood is very durable, it could readily be worked with neolithic stone tools. Early European settlers also valued it as timber for housing and wharf piles. See also FLORA AND FAUNA. TOURISM. New Zealand has an international reputation as one of the world’s most beautiful countries. Its scenic attractions, which include mountains, volcanoes, geysers, and fiords; its system of national parks and wilderness areas; its distinctive flora and fauna; its “clean green” image; and its historic sites and buildings, all attract many hundreds of thousands of overseas visitors each year. The “great outdoors” also provides countless opportunities for strenuous physical activity and adventure—mountaineering, hiking, skiing, rock climbing, bungy jumping, cycling, and whitewater rafting. Tourism first developed in the early years of Pakeha settlement when the main attractions were the Pink and White Terraces and thermal pools centered on Rotorua in the volcanic plateau area of the central North Island. In 1901, the state became actively involved in tourism when the New Zealand government established the Department of

304 •

TOURISM

Tourism and Health Resorts to promote tourism to both New Zealanders and overseas visitors. Shortly after its establishment, the department began acquiring a number of hotels, beginning with the Hermitage at Mount Cook (Aoraki) in 1901. By the early 1950s its chain comprised 10 hotels and including the Waitomo Hotel and glowworm caves (1905), Milford Hotel (1928—the Milford Track had been acquired in 1903), Chateau Tongariro (1931), Wairakei Hotel (1946), Glacier Hotel, Franz Josef (1947), and Eichardt’s Hotel in Queenstown in 1951. In 1955, the government established the Tourist Hotel Corporation (THC) to manage the state’s hotel chain. Over the ensuing 34 years the THC operation expanded to 17 hotels, most of which were situated in remote locations where private enterprise ventures had failed or where private entrepreneurs would not go because profitability was, at best, uncertain. In 1990, when the annual turnover was $83 million, the Fourth Labour Government divested the corporation to private interests. With the advent of the jet era in the 1960s, the number of overseas visitors to New Zealand grew rapidly. In 1963, tourist numbers exceeded 100,000 for the first time, and over the next 30 years visitor numbers increased tenfold to reach 1,000,000. Since then, tourist numbers have accelerated rapidly: in 1999, visitor numbers exceeded 1.5 million for the first time, and by late 2004 it had reached 2.3 million on an annual basis. It is estimated that this figure will exceed 3 million before the end of the present decade. Nearly one-third of all overseas tourists come from Australia but as a proportion of all overseas tourists this number is declining with increased tourism from other countries. In 2001, 11.4 percent came from the United Kingdom, 10.6 percent from the United States. 8.5 percent from Japan, and 6.0 percent from China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. Today Maori culture is recognized as an important component of the overall tourism industry. Many of the more than 240 tourism ventures focus on Maori arts and crafts and adventure activities with Whale Watch Kaikoura, established in 1987, perhaps the best known internationally. Modern tourism has both a direct and indirect impact on New Zealand’s economy. It contributes almost 9 percent to the country’s

TRADE

• 305

GDP, and because it is labor intensive, it creates significant employment opportunities with one in 11 jobs contributing in some way to the tourist service industry. Present government policy is to establish and maintain a natural resources framework that will promote sustainable economic development and to promote New Zealand to the world as a destination of choice. The object is to balance the demands of increasing numbers of tourists with the protection and wise management of natural resources so that tourism will continue to have a positive impact. See also TARAWERA, MOUNT. TRADE. New Zealand’s economy is heavily dependent upon overseas trade. Throughout much of its history, the pattern of trade was predominantly bilateral, exporting agricultural products to Britain and importing manufactured goods in return. With Britain’s entry into the European Union (EU) that pattern was forced to change. Whereas in 1960, 53 percent of the country’s exports went to the United Kingdom (mainly meat, wool, and dairy products), the past 45 years has seen a marked shift in both export markets and sources of imports to Pacific Basin countries. As evidence of this reorientation, in late 2004 a free-trade agreement was signed with Thailand, and initial discussions toward a free-trade agreement with the People’s Republic of China were held at prime ministerial level in June 2005. While the EU as a group remains New Zealand’s second-largest export market, exports to Britain have dropped from a high point of 80 percent in 1940, to under 6 percent at the beginning of the 21st century. Australia, the United States, Japan, and the People’s Republic of China (in that order) have become New Zealand’s largest export markets, followed by the United Kingdom and the Asian countries of the Republic of Korea and Taiwan, although exports to the last-mentioned country are currently not as great as New Zealand’s exports to Germany. For the year ended June 2003, exports of dairy and meat products, wood products, and fish accounted for 42.8 percent of New Zealand’s export earnings. Wool, formerly a staple—and often the largest—export earner, accounted for only 3.2 percent of exports by value. New Zealand’s most rapidly growing export market is China: in the year to June 2004, exports to that country rose by 17.1 percent over the previous 12-month period.

306 •

TRADE UNION CONGRESS (TUC)

New Zealand’s principal suppliers of imports are also Australia, the United States, Japan, China, the United Kingdom, and Korea, in that order. In the year ended June 2003, imports of vehicles, mechanical and electrical machinery and equipment, mineral fuels, and plastics accounted for 51.0 percent of all imports. See also TRADE UNIONS; TRADERS AND TRADING. TRADE UNION CONGRESS (TUC). In the years immediately after World War II the trade union movement became increasingly divided between militants and moderates and, in 1949, the New Zealand Waterside Workers Union (NZWWU) openly challenged the authority of the Federation of Labour (FOL) and its vice president, Fintan Patrick Walsh. When the NZWWU leadership refused to apologize, the union was threatened with expulsion. Matters came to a head at the FOL’s annual conference in April 1950, but before an expulsion resolution was able to be put, the militant unions, led by NZWWU president Harold (“Jock”) Barnes, walked out. They then established the rival Trade Union Congress, but although a number of unions and unionists were sympathetic to the militant unions’ viewpoint, few were convinced that, with the First National Government under Prime Minister Sidney George Holland in power, militancy was the most appropriate course of action. The 1951 waterfront dispute, which was in full swing at the time of the split, gave the Holland government a Godsent opportunity to seriously weaken the trade union movement. After the defeat of the watersiders in July 1951 and the “snap” general election which followed soon after, the government passed the Police Offences Amendment Act, which effectively spelled an end to trade union militancy for a number of years. Without any power or influence, the TUC faded away during 1952. It took some years thereafter, however, for its former affiliated unions to be readmitted to the FOL. TRADE UNION FEDERATION (TUF). Formed in 1993, the Trade Union Federation comprised 12 unions with a total of approximately 35,000 members. It grew out of dissatisfaction with the Council of Trade Unions, which claimed to speak for, but did not represent, the whole trade union movement. A majority of the federation’s affiliated unions were industrial rather than craft and clerical unions. The

TRADE UNIONS

• 307

federation supported the welfare state and advocated replacing the Employment Contracts Act with new industrial laws based on the conventions of the International Labor Organization (ILO). Following the repeal of the Employment Contracts Act and the passage of the Employment Relations Act in 2000, the Trade Union Federation merged with the Council of Trade Unions in 2000. TRADE UNIONS. The earliest record of organized labor dates from 1842 when a benevolent Society of Carpenters and Joiners was formed in Wellington. Earlier, in 1821, sawyers went on strike for the right to be paid in money or gunpowder. In 1841 laborers at New Plymouth had held an unsuccessful strike designed to protest at the rise in cost of company-supplied provisions. The 1860s and 1870s saw the growth of craft unions, often branches of English trade unions, which had some success in securing improved wages and conditions, in particular, the introduction of the eight-hour day. However, it was not until the Trade Unions Act of 1878 that unions were legally recognized. The craft unions were essentially conservative bodies that sought to improve working conditions through negotiation and conciliation. Similarly, the Trades and Labour Councils, which developed in the four main centers during the 1880s, were conservative in outlook, although they did develop political programs and give support to selected parliamentary candidates. The first national strike took place in 1880 when operators at the Electric Telegraph Department unsuccessfully struck against a cut in their overtime allowances and a lengthening of the working day. The first National Congress of Unions was held in Dunedin in 1885. The 1880s also saw the development of more radical industrial unions encompassing noncraft unions—shearers, miners, watersiders, seamen, and laborers. Maritime councils, intended to coordinate the activities of these unions, were also established. A National Maritime Council was formed in 1889 and in the following year it sought to call a general seamen’s strike. The defeat of the union movement in the 1890 Maritime Strike represented a severe setback for the whole union movement in New Zealand. After 1894, unions had the choice of registering under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act (thereby forgoing the right to strike) or under the Trade Union Act (which did permit strike action).

308 •

TRADE UNIONS

The Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act operated for close to the next 80 years. A major theme from the late 1890s onward was the conflict between the large, militant, industrially based national unions and the smaller, more conservative craft unions. This split was apparent in the conflicts of 1890, 1913, and 1951 and was only resolved with the merger of the Council of Trade Unions and the Trade Union Federation at the beginning of the 21st century. The early part of the 20th century was marked by a series of important strikes. The Blackball Miners’ strike of 1908, which followed the sacking of seven miners for taking an extended “lunch hour” (30 minutes instead of the 15 minutes as provided in the award), was a deliberate challenge to the authority of the Act and the Arbitration Court. The company capitulated, resulting in a positive outcome for the union. The Waihi Strike occurred in 1912, at the root of which was another dispute between moderates who supported arbitration and radicals within the union movement, as well as with employers and the police. The government reacted with the use of force to deal with the perceived threat posed by the Red Feds and the attempts to call a general strike; this resulted in the death of Frederick John Evans, the only striker to be killed by police. The next year, 1913, employers on the Wellington wharves locked out a group of workers for attending a stop-work meeting. The resultant Waterfront Strike saw police and specially enlisted constables (Massey’s Cossacks) used to intimidate strikers and take over the waterfront where arbitration unions were established and registered. Henceforth, if workers wanted to work on the wharves, they had to join the new unions. A series of strikes against the use of military conscription, the use of nonunion labor, and unemployment occurred through the 1920s and 1930s until, in 1936, the newly elected First Labour Government introduced legislation to establish compulsory trade union membership (union membership nearly tripled as a result), a minimum wage, and a 40-hour week. In 1937, the Federation of Labour (FOL) was established to coordinate the work of the unions. The unions exercised considerable influence in the New Zealand Labour Party at this time, particularly through its president, James (Big Jim) Roberts. However, following the First Labour Government’s defeat in 1949, industrial disruption increased. Splits also oc-

TRADE UNIONS

• 309

curred within the union movement mainly between the moderates and militants, and in 1950 a number of the militant unions withdrew from the Federation of Labour to form a rival Trade Union Congress. In February 1951, at the height of the primary products exporting season, watersiders were locked out for refusing to work overtime. The 1951 waterfront dispute lasted for 151 days amidst great bitterness, at the end of which the more militant unions were crushed, an outcome to which the more moderate unions did not object. The virtual end of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act came in 1968, when the Arbitration Court issued a nil wage order, whereupon the government ordered the court to rehear the case with the result that a 5 percent across-the-board increase in wages was granted. Five years later, the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act was replaced by an Industrial Relations Act and accompanying Economic Stabilisation Regulations, which were used to establish a partial wage freeze. In 1976, Robert Muldoon’s New Zealand National Party government, which took office at the end of 1975, tightened the penalties available under the Industrial Relations Act and introduced measures to prevent nonindustrial stoppages. After having partly backed away from a commitment to abolish compulsory unionism in 1961, the Third National Government finally did so in 1983. Success was, however, short-lived: the Fourth Labour Government led by David Lange repealed the legislative restrictions upon compulsory unionism shortly after it was elected to office in 1984. In 1989, the Federation of Labour and the Combined State Unions set the pattern for the next few years by uniting to form the Council of Trade Unions (CTU). With the election of the James Bolger National government in 1990, pressure on the unions rapidly increased with the introduction of the Employment Contracts Act in 1991. As a result, trade union membership dropped dramatically as unionism again became noncompulsory. Continuing differences within the trade union movement itself were apparent when 11 unions from the construction, manufacturing, and transportation sectors broke away from the Council of Trade Unions and formed a separate Trade Union Federation (TUF). These unions reaffiliated with the main body when the succeeding Fifth Labour Government, elected in 1999, replaced the Employment Contracts Act with the Employment Relations Act (2000). Under this Act, the rights of workers to join a

310 •

TRADERS AND TRADING

union and negotiate collectively are recognized, and workers and employers are both required to participate in “good faith” bargaining in reaching fair outcomes of disputes. The Act was amended in 2004, when penalties for refusing to take part in “good faith” bargaining and, more controversially, a stipulation that it is a breach of “good faith” bargaining for an employer to pass on to nonunion employees those benefits negotiated by union members. Benefits obtained by the union could only be passed on to nonunion employees if the employer, employees, and the union all agreed to this. In effect, a form of compulsory unionism has been restored, as workers are required to be a member of a union in order in order to bargain collectively. See also EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT. TRADERS AND TRADING. Between the 1790s and 1840 New Zealand was an Australian frontier and Sydney was its principal entrepôt port. Commercial activity grew rapidly from the early 1820s as merchants developed trade in kauri for spars and gum, flax, potatoes, pork, fish, wheat, wool, and, for a period, the tattooed heads of Maori warriors. Maori helped cut timber and load ships in return for nails (which they used as chisels), fishhooks, axes and other iron tools, blankets, and, increasingly, muskets. A permanent population grew up in the Bay of Islands during the later 1820s and 1830s to cater to the needs of whalers and others and to whom they supplied liquor and tobacco. TRADES AND LABOUR COUNCILS. A product of the 1880s when the many small unions which proliferated discovered a need to combine, the Trades and Labour Councils have played an important role in labor history in New Zealand. In particular, they set up the Political Labour League in 1904, which supported several Labour candidates at the 1905 and 1908 general elections and formed the New Zealand Labour Party in 1910. See also FEDERATION OF LABOUR; TRADE UNIONS. TRANSPORTATION. New Zealand’s shape and geographic terrain, which creates substantial barriers, makes internal transportation of particular significance. Stretching over 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) in length from the North Cape to the Bluff and 450 kilometers (270 miles)

TRANSPORTATION

• 311

wide at its broadest point, New Zealand is bisected by Cook Strait separating the two main islands. The Southern Alps complicate east–west communication in the South Island. Further, external transportation is affected by the country’s extreme distance from its principal markets. Originally public transport in New Zealand consisted primarily of coaching. In late 1861 a firm, Cobb and Co., was set up by Charles Cole, who came from Australia, to provide transport to and from the Otago gold fields. Coaches remained an important mode of public transport until replaced by railways and the internal combustion engine. The first public railway in New Zealand was opened in 1863 between Christchurch and the temporary river port of Ferrymead, a distance of four miles. Today, there is a total of 3,898 kilometers (2,422 miles) of narrow-gauge (1.067-meter) railway line, of which 506 kilometers (314 miles) is electrified. The state owns the tracks, but an Australian company, Toll Holdings, owns the rolling stock. Railways are used principally for the transport of goods, although some passenger services continue to exist between Auckland and Wellington and between Picton and Christchurch. Commuter trains play an important role in Wellington and, to a lesser extent, Auckland, while the east–west line from Christchurch to Greymouth on the South Island’s west coast is used for the transport of coal from the west coast as well as providing a very scenic passenger line. A regular ferry service carrying road transport vehicles as well as passengers crosses Cook Strait, forming, in effect, a bridge between the North Island and South Island. New Zealand’s road system consists of 53,568 kilometers (33,286 miles) of paved roads and a further estimated 38,632 kilometers (24,005 miles) of unpaved roads that provide a communications network for some 3.1 million motor vehicles. Responsibility for the main state highway network lies with Transit New Zealand, which manages, maintains, and develops the highway network. Funding is provided by Land Transport New Zealand (a Crown entity), which allocates funds from the National Roads Board Account to achieve a safe, efficient road system. Local roads are the responsibility of territorial authorities such as city and district councils. Air travel is now the predominant mode of internal passenger travel. From the earliest days of aviation, New Zealand has been an airminded nation; a number of attempts to establish regular air services

312 •

TREATY OF WAITANGI

were made in the 1920s and early 1930s. Today, air travel is well established, with regular services with modern aircraft to the main cities as well as many provincial cities and holiday destinations. The country’s principal airport, Auckland, handles over 9 million passengers annually, many of them international travelers, while Christchurch and Wellington each handle approximately 4 million. Taking into account landing strips, the country has a remarkable number of airports for the size of its population—approximately 113, of which 46 have paved runways. Externally, New Zealand has always depended upon shipping for the passage of people and trade goods to and from the rest of the world. The first settlers, the Maori, arrived by seaborne transport, probably large double-hulled canoes. Internally, before the formation of roads, coastal shipping provided the main means of communication between the various settlements, practically all of which were on the coast. Shipping, in its various forms, has been instrumental in the development of the country and it remains of crucial importance. Today, nearly 83 percent of exports by value, and 99 percent by volume, are carried by sea. There are 13 important commercial ports and four smaller ports. Eight are container ports—Auckland, Tauranga, Napier, New Plymouth, and Wellington in the North Island; and Nelson, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers in the South Island. TREATY OF WAITANGI. See WAITANGI, TREATY OF. TREATY SETTLEMENTS. A special department of government was set up in 1995 to deal with claims under the Treaty of Waitangi. The office provides advice to the government on historical claims as well as negotiating and implementing settlements. The settlements process tends to be complex and protracted. Claimants first need to establish that a breach of the treaty has occurred. This is usually achieved by submitting a claim to the Waitangi Tribunal. The claimant group also needs to establish a clear mandate to negotiate on behalf of the people it claims to represent. Negotiations then proceed to deal with the basic elements of the claim and its settlement. This leads to an agreement in principle, a broad agreement on the form of remedy. Settlement of the details follows; this becomes the Crown’s formal offer and is submitted to the claimant group for ratification. Once approved, a parliamentary bill is prepared and becomes law be-

TUAIA, PENE TAKA (c.1810–1889)

• 313

fore implementation of the settlement can be completed. Several of the major settlements concluded have been with the Tainui, Ngai Tahu, Ngati Turangitukua, and Poukani iwi. Many of the thousand or so claims have been grouped for more rapid resolution. See also FISHING; MAORI LAND RIGHTS MOVEMENT. TREGEAR, EDWARD ROBERT (1846–1931). Soldier, public servant, Polynesian scholar, and writer. Born in England, Tregear emigrated to New Zealand with his widowed mother and younger sisters in 1863. He fought against Maori in the Tauranga district in 1867, after which he trained as a surveyor and traveled extensively to parts of the North Island where few Europeans had gone. He lived for months in Maori communities and became fluent in the Maori language and fascinated by their culture. He published a number of books on Maori language and culture, and in 1892 he cofounded the Polynesian Society with Stephenson Percy Smith. Tregear espoused socialism, which came “not from theory but from his experience of financial misfortunes.” This brought him into contact with Robert Stout, John Ballance, and William Pember Reeves during the 1880s, and after the Liberal government took office he was appointed as secretary to the Bureau of Industries (renamed the Department of Labour in 1894). He worked closely with Reeves in planning, drafting, and administering the government’s labor legislation, culminating in the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1894. After Reeves resigned from the government in 1896, Richard John Seddon took over the Labour portfolio but left labor matters largely in Tregear’s hands. His influence expanded as he assisted Seddon in developing other social legislation, most notably the Old Age Pensions Act in 1898. Following Seddon’s death, Tregear’s influence with the government waned, and he retired in 1910. He devoted much of the rest of his long life to actively supporting political labor, where he played an important role in bringing the labor movement’s warring factions together. He retired to Picton in 1921, where he continued to write poetry. See also BEST, ELSDON; LITERATURE. TUAIA, PENE TAKA (c.1810–1889). Maori chief. A member of the Ngai Te Rangi tribe of Tauranga, Pene Taka was one of the chiefs

314 •

TUATARA

who supported the King Movement against the government in the 1863 war in the Waikato. In 1864 his tribe met and drew up a code of chivalrous and humane rules of conduct for warfare and sent these, along with a challenge to attack, to the commander of the invading military force. Pene Taka was responsible for the construction of the Gate Pa, which successfully repulsed a British attack in 1864. Subsequently, he was involved in nonviolent resistance to extensions of Pakeha settlement. See also LAND WARS; PARIHAKA AFFAIR; TE WHITI-O-RONGOMAI III, ERUETI. TUATARA. Unique to New Zealand and the sole surviving representative of the Sphenodontia (one of the four orders which make up the reptile class which flourished with the dinosaurs), the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) is a nocturnal reptile noted for its extreme slowness. It rarely moves more than 5 meters (16 feet) from its burrow, and its eggs, which are held in the oviduct for seven months before being laid, take 12–16 months to hatch. Tuatara can grow up to 60 centimeters (2 feet) in length, weigh from 300 grams (10 ounces) to 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds), and may live for 60 years or more. They once lived in the wild throughout New Zealand but are now confined to 32 rodent-free offshore islands. See also ENDANGERED SPECIES; FLORA AND FAUNA. TUHAERE, PAORA (c.1825–1892). Maori chief; a member of the Ngati Whatua tribe (Auckland). Tuahaere was a leading proponent of the Kotahitanga Movement which aimed to secure greater Maori control of Maori affairs. He believed that the Treaty of Waitangi was valuable but that it had not been understood by those who signed; he accepted the sovereignty of Queen Victoria but was concerned about justice for Maori wishing to hold the government to the terms of the Treaty of Waitangi and use remaining Maori land as an economic base for the Maori people. An able and sophisticated advocate, he was a strong supporter of Maori unity and intertribal meetings to achieve Maori interests. TUHAWAIKI, HONE (?–1844). Maori chief; member of the Ngai Tahu tribe who was active both in intertribal warfare and in land

TUWHARE, HONE PENE (1922– )

• 315

sales to Europeans in the 1830s. Tuhawaiki visited Sydney in 1838 and 1840, developing several commercial interests, including coastal shipping. He signed the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 and actively sought a European missionary for his people in the early 1840s. He is counted among the great South Island chiefs, noted for his intelligence, commercial acumen, leadership, and charm. See also MAORI CIVIL WARS; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS. TURNBULL, ALEXANDER HORSBURGH (1868–1918). Merchant and bibliophile. Alexander Turnbull was born in Wellington, where his father had established a business, and he was educated in New Zealand and England. In 1884 he commenced work in the London office of the family drapery business, visiting New Zealand in 1885 and again in 1886. When the family business was sold in 1888, Turnbull indulged in travel, reading, and collecting books. He settled in New Zealand in 1892 and, over the next 26 years, he built up a collection of an estimated 55,000 books on New Zealand, Pacific exploration, Scottish history, and English literature—the largest private library in the country. In 1916, he housed his library in a specially designed home in Bowen Street, Wellington. He bequeathed his collections to the government, and they now form part of the National Library of New Zealand. Today, the New Zealand, Pacific, and John Milton collections in particular are internationally acclaimed. See also LITERATURE. TUWHARE, HONE PENE (1922– ). Boilermaker and poet. Born at Kokewai near Kaikohe, Tuwhare was educated at a number of schools (including the Kaikohe Native School) before taking up an apprenticeship at the New Zealand Railway Workshops, Otahuhu, in 1939. As a child he spoke the Maori language at home, but lost it through lack of use (he regained use of the language in the 1960s). He joined the Communist Party during the antifascist groundswell in the 1940s and remained a member until the aftermath of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. He rejoined the party in 1973, but was expelled five years later. Tuwhare’s first volume of poems, No Ordinary Sun, was published in 1964, the first published collection of poems in English by a

316 •

UNDERARM DELIVERY

Maori writer. Other collections followed, including Come Rain Hail (1970) and Making a Fist of It (1978), both illustrated by Ralph Hotere; Mihi (1987); Short Back and Sideways (1992); Shape Shifter (1997); and Piggy-Back Moon (2002), which was short-listed for the Montana Book Awards. He was awarded the University of Otago’s Burns Fellowship for 1969; in 1999, he was appointed Te Mata Poet Laureate; and in 2003 he received the Prime Minister’s Award for literary achievement. Commentators have described Tuwhare’s poetry as having a distinctive voice, one that has the knack of making ordinary events intimate and intimate events sensuous. He is one of the finest poets of his generation, writing verse which melds lyricism with imagery and a Maori perspective. See also LITERATURE.

–U– UNDERARM DELIVERY. In an international limited-overs cricket match between New Zealand and Australia played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in 1981, New Zealand needed to score six runs (the maximum possible) to win on the last ball of the match. The Australian captain, Greg Chapple, instructed his brother, Trevor, to bowl the last ball underarm (that is, along the ground). This made it impossible for the batsman to hit the ball for six (the rough equivalent of a home run in baseball) and Australia won the match. Since then, the term “underarm delivery” has become part of the New Zealand idiom. It is commonly used to describe any action deemed to be unfair and is applied particularly to Australian decisions which—from a New Zealander’s standpoint—appear to be directed against their country. An example of an “underarm delivery” occurred when an agreement signed in 1992 between the Australian and New Zealand governments, which would have allowed their national airlines to carry domestic passengers in each other’s country, was unilaterally abrogated by the Australian government only five days before it was due to come into effect on 1 November 1994. More recently, Australia unexpectedly announced that it would adopt international accounting standards after January 2005,

UNITED FUTURE NEW ZEALAND PARTY

• 317

a decision that forced the New Zealand Accounting Standards Review Board to adopt its own version of the standards, effective from the same date as Australia. UNEMPLOYMENT. See EMPLOYMENT AND UNEMPLOYMENT. UNITED FEDERATION OF LABOUR. See UNITY CONGRESS. UNITED FUTURE NEW ZEALAND PARTY. With the failure of the United New Zealand Party at the 1996 general election, its only surviving member of Parliament was Peter Dunne. Unopposed in his electorate by the New Zealand National Party in both 1996 and 1999, he easily retained his seat, thus ensuring United’s continuing parliamentary presence. Between 1997 and 2000, United absorbed a number of tiny parties, becoming a polyglot mix of different elements. In 2001, Dunne merged the Future New Zealand Party (formerly the Christian Democrat Party) with United to form the United Future New Zealand Party. Following highly successful television appearances by Dunne during the 2002 general election campaign, and with support from many Future New Zealand Party members, United Future won 6.7 percent of the party list vote, a level of electoral support entitling it to a total of eight seats in the new Parliament. It then negotiated an agreement with the New Zealand Labour Party–Progressive minority government to provide support in matters of confidence and supply without entering into a formal coalition. In 2004 the Outdoor Recreation Party (which campaigned on the backblocks recreational pursuits—hunting, fishing, and shooting—of New Zealanders) was absorbed into the United Future New Zealand Party. United Future stands for family concerns and broadly Christian values together with what it sees as a commonsense approach to government, with an emphasis upon stability. The absence of hard ideology coupled with its readiness to reach compromises in a variety of situations makes it a desirable ally for a minority government, while its ability to state an individual point of view helps promote its aspirations to be an effective center political party capable of working with governments of both left and right.

318 •

UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH

UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. For much of its history, New Zealand has had a very close relationship with Great Britain, fulfilling the classical colonial position of exporting raw materials to the metropolitan country and importing manufactured goods in return. As late as the 1960s, as the United Kingdom sought entry into the European Economic Community (EEC), over two-thirds of New Zealand exports continued to go to Britain. By the end of the 20th century, this long-established and overwhelming concentration upon the British market had gone. Still, in 2003 Britain continued to be New Zealand’s largest market in Europe and its fourth-largest market overall, particularly for sheep meat, butter, wool, fruit and vegetables, wine, cheese, meat products, aluminum, and transmission equipment. Britain was New Zealand’s second-largest source of imports from Europe (behind Germany) and the sixth-largest source of imports overall. Imports to New Zealand from Britain include motor vehicles, tractors, pharmaceuticals, and alcohol. Despite the decline in trade compared to the 20th century, close links continue to be maintained. British support, for example, can be particularly valuable when trade access issues are being sought into the European Union. Thus, while the individual countries of Europe have also assumed a much greater importance in a variety of fields, Britain retains a particular significance for New Zealand. New Zealand, after all, was originally a British settler colony where a deal was reached between Queen Victoria and the Maori people. As a result, important, if often declining, ties remain for both the European and Maori settlers through the institution of the monarchy. The parliamentary system, business, investment, and ties of kith and kin continue to be of great importance and are reflected in the fact that Britain is second only to Australia in the number of tourists visiting New Zealand. These aspects are reinforced by numerous reciprocal bilateral agreements, such as those dealing with double taxation, health services, and Social Security. Beyond that, at the turn of the 21st century, Britain continued to be the second-largest source of investment in New Zealand. Defense ties are no longer as close as they once were, but here too New Zealand has particularly close relations with Britain in peacekeeping concerns. Small New Zealand forces work in close association with British forces in such areas as Bosnia-Herzogovina,

UNITED NEW ZEALAND PARTY (1995–2001)

• 319

Kosovo, the Middle East, Afghanistan, and Iraq. In the broader diplomatic field, Britain is frequently helpful to New Zealand in dealings with third parties where New Zealand lacks diplomatic representation. See also COMMONWEALTH; CROWN COLONY GOVERNMENT; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; GOVERNORS AND GOVERNORS-GENERAL. UNITED NATIONS. New Zealand was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945. At the San Francisco Conference, New Zealand fought hard, but unsuccessfully, for an undertaking by all members “collectively to resist every act of aggression against any member” as well as opposing the use of the unanimity rule (veto) in the Security Council. It supported wide powers for the General Assembly, and the New Zealand prime minister, Peter Fraser, chaired the committee which drafted those parts of the charter dealing with trusteeship and non-self-governing territories. In 1950, New Zealand was one of 16 states which contributed military forces to the United Nations’ action in the Korean Peninsula. It has also played a particularly useful role in peacekeeping activities, contributing to peacekeeping operations between Israel and Syria, and in the Sinai, Angola, Yugoslavia, Cambodia, and Somalia, as well as contributing to the United Nations’ Special Commission on Iraqi Weapons of Mass Destruction. New Zealand also contributes to humanitarian relief and the work of the specialized agencies. It followed the United Nations’ rather than the United States’ lead in not participating in the Iraqi war in 2003. New Zealand has been a nonpermanent member of the Security Council on two occasions, 1954–1955 and 1993–1994. UNITED NEW ZEALAND PARTY (1995–2001). With a new electoral system imminent, the cohesive two-party system, which had been a central feature of New Zealand’s politics for 60 years, came under pressure. In June 1995 a United New Zealand Party was formed by members of Parliament drawn from the New Zealand Labour, New Zealand National, and Future New Zealand (itself a splinter from Labour) parties. With seven MPs, it immediately became the third-largest party in the House of Representatives. Avowedly a centrist party, it aimed at forming a coalition with either National or Labour under the new Mixed Member Proportional

320 •

UNITED PARTY (1927–1936)

electoral system. It was, however, defeated at the 1996 general election, retaining only one seat, and in 2001 it merged with the Future New Zealand Party to form the United Future New Zealand Party. UNITED PARTY (1927–1936). Formed in 1927 and more right-wing than the Reform Party under Joseph Gordon Coates, the United Party was the successor to the Liberal Party of Richard John Seddon and Joseph Ward that had dominated New Zealand politics during the last decade of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century. Under the leadership of an aging Ward, it rather surprisingly won more seats than any other party in the 1928 general election (even though it won fewer votes overall than the Reform Party) and was able to form a minority government with the support of the New Zealand Labour Party. In 1931, shortly before the general election, it joined in coalition with Reform, and the two parties continued to govern through the Great Depression years before merging as the National Political Federation in time to fight the 1935 election. Unsuccessful as a government, it suffered a heavy defeat in that election. Its significance is that its election in 1928 ushered in a period of political party realignment that ended with the formation of the New Zealand National Party in 1936. UNITED STATES, RELATIONS WITH THE. New Zealand’s relationship with the United States is, in some senses, ambivalent. On the one hand, the United States is the key concern in New Zealand’s foreign policy. Shared values, close cultural and government concerns, and private-sector, individual, and organizational contacts over a wide range of relationships create strong bonds. Moreover, the United States is a key trade partner, ranking in the top three countries for both imports and exports. On the other hand, having been quite a compliant ally of both the United Kingdom and the United States for many years, New Zealanders now wish to make their own decisions based upon their own geopolitical assessment of their geographical position and how they see themselves in the world. This expresses itself in a strong strain of humanitarianism combined with a long-held strain of pacifism by many. There is a deeply ingrained popular prejudice against big corporations, globalism, and anything

UNKNOWN WARRIOR

• 321

that smacks of pressure by large nations on their smaller counterparts. This may be expressed as anti-Americanism in the sense of domineering U.S. government policies, although it should be noted that, as individuals, New Zealanders and Americans generally have warm and easy relationships. Nevertheless, New Zealand’s relationship with the United States inevitably suffers from the downgrading from “ally” to “friendly state” that has resulted from New Zealand’s persistent adherence to its antinuclear policy since the mid-1980s. Apart from defense and diplomacy, however, numerous ties remain. The United States is a key market both for exports and imports as well as investment. There are close ties at the cultural, educational, and scientific levels, and the United States has long retained an Antarctic servicing base in Christchurch. Despite improvements in relations, the failure of New Zealand—in sharp contrast to Australia—to join the “coalition of the willing” directed against Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi regime in March–April 2003 again strained relations and further prejudiced any remote chance that New Zealand might have had of a free-trade agreement with the United States in the near future. See also FOREIGN AFFAIRS. UNITY CONGRESS. A meeting called by the “Red Feds” in response to the militant trade unions’ defeat in the Waihi Strike. It included both the militant and the arbitration unions as well as the United Labour Party. The conference resulted in the formation of the United Federation of Labour (which would have responsibility for organizing concerted trade union action) and a Social Democratic Party (which would concentrate on political action). While significant, the compromises reached at the conference were not sufficient to persuade the United Labour Party to remain part of the new organization. See also NEW ZEALAND LABOUR PARTY. UNKNOWN WARRIOR. During the wars of the 20th century in which New Zealand participated, some 30,000 New Zealanders were killed, approximately 9,000 of whom were never identified or whose bodies were never recovered. On 11 November 1920, unknown soldiers were laid to rest with full military honors in Westminster Abbey, London, and the Arc de

322 •

UPHAM, CHARLES HAZLITT (1908–1994)

Triomphe, Paris. In the years that followed, most Allied nations followed suit, but despite support from the prime minister, William Massey, the New Zealand government rejected the idea in 1921, on the grounds that the country’s war dead were already represented by the unknown soldier in Westminster Abbey. The New Zealand Returned Services Association (RSA) revived the proposal in the 1940s, calling for an unknown New Zealand soldier to be interred at the National War Memorial in Wellington. It was not until April 2002, however, that both the New Zealand Labour and New Zealand National parties announced their intention to establish a Tomb to an Unknown Warrior. The remains of the Unknown Warrior were exhumed from the Caterpillar War Cemetery, Longueval, France, on 6 November 2004 and returned to New Zealand for burial with full military honors at the National War Memorial following a memorial service on 11 November. All that is known about the soldier is that he is a New Zealander. His tomb will serve as a focal point for remembering the sacrifices made by New Zealand servicemen and women during the conflicts of the 20th century. See also ARMED FORCES; BOER WAR; KOREAN WAR; MALAYAN EMERGENCY; VIETNAM WAR; WORLD WAR I; WORLD WAR II. UPHAM, CHARLES HAZLITT (1908–1994). Born and educated in New Zealand, Upham served in the New Zealand forces in the Middle East in World War II. He attained the rare distinction of being awarded the Victoria Cross for sustained gallantry, skill, and leadership, followed by an unprecedented Bar to the Cross for outstanding gallantry and magnificent leadership. After the war he took up farming in North Canterbury. After his death a statue was erected in his honor in the small North Canterbury town of Amberley.

–V – VALUES PARTY. Formed in 1972 as a response to growing environmental concerns, the New Zealand Values Party was the first such nationwide party formed in the Western world, preceding the Euro-

VOGEL, JULIUS (1835–1899)

• 323

pean “Green” parties. The party stood for radical changes in the existing social and economic order to achieve a sustainable economy. Originally, it represented a nonsocialist alternative to the established order, but after 1978, it divided into a radical “dark green” left and a less doctrinaire wing. The main successes were to be seen in its influence on the policies of the major political parties, even though it failed to win a parliamentary seat. At the peak of its electoral support in 1975, it won only 5.2 percent of the popular vote. The Green Party which first emerged as political force shortly before the 1990 general election is its logical successor. VAN DER VELDEN, PETRUS (1837–1913). Artist. Born and educated in Holland, Van der Velden was an established Dutch artist before settling in New Zealand in 1890. Although his Dutch-style paintings— which he continued in New Zealand—are well regarded, he is, perhaps, most famous for his New Zealand landscapes such as those featuring the Otira Gorge. See also ART GALLERIES. VIETNAM WAR. New Zealand’s involvement in the Vietnam War took place largely at the behest of the United States and Australia (its partners in ANZUS) but under the general auspices of the SouthEast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). Initially, New Zealand’s contribution was a small, noncombatant field engineer detachment, sent in 1964. At that stage New Zealand’s principal role in the stability of the region was still considered to be in Malaya. Subsequently, however, a 120-man artillery battery was sent. Although New Zealand’s contribution at its maximum did not exceed 500 men, it became a matter of considerable controversy at home, spawning a widespread protest movement and ending a long period of bilateral political party agreement in matters of foreign policy. See also ARMED FORCES; DEFENSE; FOREIGN AFFAIRS; MALAYAN EMERGENCY. VOGEL, JULIUS (1835–1899). Journalist and premier. Born of a wellto-do Jewish family in London, Vogel arrived in New Zealand in 1861 after a period in Victoria, Australia (1852–1861). Within a month of his arrival in Dunedin, he was instrumental in commencing publication of

324 •

VOLCANOES

the Otago Daily Times, New Zealand’s first daily newspaper. First elected to the House of Representatives in 1863, he remained an MP until 1876 when he resigned to take up the position of New Zealand agent-general in London. He was again elected to the House in 1884, finally retiring in 1889. Vogel was appointed colonial treasurer in the William Fox ministry in 1869, and in the following year presented his bold public works and immigration budget. As premier, he formed his own ministry (1873–1875) and, after being supplanted by Daniel Pollen, formed his second, short-lived ministry in 1876. After his return to Parliament in 1884, he was a senior member of the two Stout-Vogel ministries (1884 and 1884–1887). Vogel was an exponent of large-scale borrowing for development and promoted ambitious immigration and public works policies such as railway building. He was essentially a far-sighted politician of a type unusual in New Zealand. He opposed federation with Australia because he believed that New Zealand would be dominated by that country. He proposed Imperial Federation, later espoused by Richard John Seddon, and believed that New Zealand’s destiny lay in the Pacific. He also wrote a futuristic novel entitled Anno Domini 2000; or, Woman’s Destiny in which he foresaw women holding the highest posts in government, poverty abolished, intercontinental “aircruisers,” electricity as the prime source of domestic heat and light, and air conditioning. Vogel also saw tourism, fishing, horticulture, and wine as major sources of wealth for New Zealand. See also BUDGET (1870); PACIFIC ISLANDS, RELATIONS WITH; PACIFIC ISLANDS TERRITORIES. VOLCANOES. New Zealand is part of the circum-Pacific “rim of fire.” Volcanoes that continue to be active include Ruapehu, Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, White Island, and Tarawera and are regarded as significant potential hazards. Mount Taranaki (formerly known as Egmont) and Rangitoto are dormant. Rangitoto, one of 48 volcanic craters and cones in the Auckland volcanic field, erupted approximately 600 years ago; Mt Taranaki, about 350 years ago. The most violent volcanic eruption known in New Zealand was at Taupo, where the crater of the former volcano now forms New Zealand’s largest lake. The bed of Lake Taupo is still volcanically active. Mt.

VOTING

• 325

Tarawera erupted in 1886, destroying the famous nearby pink and white terraces. See also DISASTERS; EARTHQUAKES. VÖLKNER, CARL SYLVIUS (1819–1865). Missionary. Völkner was born in Germany where he trained as a missionary. He arrived in New Zealand in 1849 and worked principally among the Te Whakatohea tribe of the eastern Bay of Plenty in the North Island. In 1864–1865 the tribe was in conflict with British troops. Ignoring warnings from the tribe, he returned from Auckland to Opotiki in February 1865 where he was taken prisoner by the tribe, hanged, and decapitated, and his blood smeared on those present. A member of another tribe, Kereopa Te Rau, then ate his eyes, calling one the Parliament and the other the queen and British law. The actions were associated with the Pai Marire (Hauhau) faith. Various explanations, including the (documented) allegation that Völkner was a spy, have been offered to explain the murder. It was, however, the nature of his death and its aftermath that led to the outrage and subsequent retribution on behalf of the Europeans. Over 120 years later, the three men hanged for the crime—including the Whakatohea chief, Mokomoko—were granted posthumous pardons by an Act of Parliament. See also FULLOON, HEMI TE MAUTARANUI; LAND WARS. VON HAAST, JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS. See HAAST, JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON. VON HOCHSTETTER, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB FERDINAND. See HOCHSTETTER, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB FERDINAND VON. VON TEMPSKY, GUSTAVUS FERDINAND. See TEMPSKY, GUSTAVUS FERDINAND VON. VOTING. Although registration as an elector has been compulsory for all persons qualified to be on the general electoral roll since 1924, and for persons on the Maori roll since 1956, it has never been compulsory to vote in elections in New Zealand. Despite this, turnout at general elections is high by world standards. In the 23 general elections since the advent of the two-party system in 1935, the official turnout of registered

326 •

WADDELL, RUTHERFORD (c.1852–1932)

electors voting has averaged 88.1 percent. In seven of these elections, the turnout has exceeded 90 percent and only once (2002) has it clearly declined below 80 percent. Despite the compulsory registration requirement, however, not all qualified persons actually register; in recent years estimates have placed nonregistration at an estimated 7–8 percent. See also MAORI ELECTORAL OPTION.

–W– WADDELL, RUTHERFORD (c.1852–1932). Clergyman, writer, and social reformer. Born and educated in Ireland before migrating to New Zealand in 1877, Reverend Waddell served as a Presbyterian clergyman in Canterbury (1877–1879) and at St. Andrews Presbyterian Church in Dunedin (1879–1919). Initially, his radical views aroused suspicion, but he soon won the confidence of his parishioners and thereafter exercised wide influence through his preaching, writing, and involvement in public affairs. He is best known for his 1888 sermon “The Sins of Cheapness,” in which he exposed the practice of sweated labor (which he had previously experienced when apprenticed to a draper in Ireland) in the colony. The press took up his theme and forced the government to set up a Royal Commission (the “Sweating Commission”) to investigate the issue. Its report resulted in the passage of important social legislation during the 1890s. Waddell was convinced that social change could be achieved through positive action. He set up a savings bank, free library, and the first free kindergarten, all in his own church’s mission hall. A firm believer in the importance of trade unions, he became the first president of the Tailoresses’ Union in 1889. He was also actively involved in temperance reform and in promoting “Bible in Schools” (a program used as a means of incorporating Christian religious teachings within a secular state-ordered curriculum). He was editor of the national Presbyterian weekly paper, the Christian Outlook, for eight years and was a columnist for Dunedin’s Evening Star for 27 years. Waddell was one of New Zealand’s most notable preachers, whose radical outlook was an important liberalizing influence on the hitherto staid Presbyterian Church. See also LIQUOR LICENSING; PROHIBITION; WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION.

WAIRAU BAR MOA-HUNTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE

• 327

WAHAWAHA, RAPATA (c.1820–1897). Maori chief. A member of the Ngati Porou tribe of Waiapu (East Coast, North Island), Wahawaha was captured and taken into slavery as a child. By the 1860s he was a leading lay member of the Anglican diocese of Waiapu and a strong supporter of the government. He was actively engaged in campaigns against the Hauhau and against Te Kooti Arikirangi. He succeeded in taking revenge upon his childhood captors and in keeping Ngati Porou land largely intact. In 1878 Wahawaha was awarded a sword of honor by Queen Victoria in recognition of his war services, and in 1887 he was appointed to the Legislative Council. As a prosperous sheep farmer later in life, he was to collaborate with the government in the eradication of animal diseases, particularly eczema, in sheep. See also LAND WARS. WAIHI STRIKE. In 1911, the Waihi Workers’ Union canceled its registration under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and registered under the Trade Union Act, which permitted strikes. It also joined the Federation of Labour and won significant improvements in wages and conditions of employment. In 1912, employers began to organize to counteract the Red Feds’ militancy, and in May the Waihi Goldmining Company encouraged the formation of an arbitration union, which it then endeavored to use to impose a new agreement on the entire workforce. The workers threatened to strike; the employers responded by locking out all except the members of the new arbitration union. The strike by 700 men was initially peaceful but after the Reform Party government assumed office in July 1912 and sent additional police to Waihi, conflict between the two sides escalated. The mine owners brought in nonunion (scab) labor to work the mine. On 12 November police and arbitrationists engaged in direct conflict with strikers, during which a Red Fed engine driver, Fredrick George Evans, was killed. The strike ended two days later in a comprehensive defeat for the Red Feds. Evans is still remembered today by trade unionists as the only trade union martyr in New Zealand’s history. WAIRAU BAR MOA-HUNTER ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE. In 1939, a 13-year-old schoolboy, Jim Eyles, was searching for stone adzes on Boulder Bank at the mouth of the Wairau River, Marlborough, where his grandfather had previously made similar discoveries,

328 •

WAIRAU MASSACRE

when he uncovered the skeleton of a male. He had been buried wearing a bead necklace made of whales’ teeth and stone adzes were laid beside him. Three years later Eyles discovered a second gravesite. In the years that followed, Roger Duff, the Canterbury Museum’s ethnologist (later the museum’s director), carried out extensive excavations at the archaeological site, which turned out to be a large permanent or semipermanent camp containing ovens, bone fishhooks, harpoon heads, barbed spears, and the charred bones of moa, black swan, and other birds, many of which are now extinct. Duff’s researches enabled him to conclude that the moa-hunter culture was an early form of Maori culture. Initial carbon dating of the site using charcoal indicated an age of AD 1225 ⫾50 years. Subsequent excavations at other sites, notably at the mouth of the Waitaki River in North Otago, at Pounawea in South Otago, and Houhora in the far north of the North Island gave added support to Duff’s conclusions. The Wairau Bar archaeological site is important in several respects. In 1964, ethnologists Kenneth Emory and Yosihiko Sinoto unearthed tools and burial ornaments on the island of Maupiti in the western Tahitian archipelago, which were identical to those found at the Wairau Bar site, thus confirming the legendary origin of the moahunter culture. More recent studies of Wairau Bar artifacts held in the Canterbury Museum have reinforced the conclusion that this site is among the earliest settlements in New Zealand. Recent AMS radiocarbon dating using shell collagen (a technique that has shown to give dates of greater accuracy) by Thomas Higham, Athol Anderson, and Chris Jacomb in 1999 has placed the settlement in the late 13th century but concludes that the period was short because of what appears to have been a rapid decline in the number of big game. The Wairau Bar settlement belongs to the archaic phase of Eastern Polynesian culture, is at present the oldest accurately dated settlement in New Zealand. The current archaeological view is that the country was first settled as part of an expansionary phase of exploration from eastern Polynesia about 750 years ago. See also POLYNESIAN SETTLEMENT. WAIRAU MASSACRE. In 1839 the Maori chief Te Rangihaeata was induced to sign a deed purporting to sell all his rights and claims on both sides of Cook Strait. The deed was later invalidated. In 1842,

WAITANGI, TREATY OF

• 329

however, pressure by Nelson settlers, resulting from a shortage of arable land, forced the New Zealand Company to search for additional land suitable for farming. A survey party discovered the Wairau Valley some 80 kilometers (50 miles) to the east of the Nelson settlement and, in April 1843, commenced to survey the plain. Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata warned the company not to continue with the survey and, when it failed to heed their warning, survey markers were interfered with and a raupo thatch hut was burned down—after movable property had been carefully removed. A 49-strong armed party, led by H. A. Thompson, a police magistrate, and Captain Arthur Wakefield (the third-eldest of the six Wakefield brothers) was sent from Nelson to arrest the two chiefs, ostensibly on charges of arson but, in reality, because of their opposition to the New Zealand Company’s attempts to survey the plains. When the two groups came face to face at Tuamarina on 17 June 1843, the Maori leaders seemed prepared to discuss the issue, but, when a musket was discharged, fighting broke out. The Maori, enraged by the deaths of some of their number (including Te Rangihaeata’s wife), sought utu and charged the Europeans, who fell back in disorder. In all, 22 Europeans, including Thompson and Wakefield, and four Maori were killed. Although Governor Robert FitzRoy rebuked Te Rangihaeata and Te Rauparaha for their part in the affray, he also admitted publicly that the Europeans had been in the wrong and that, while the Ngati Toa had committed a “horrible crime,” they would be guaranteed possession of their pa, cultivated lands, and burial grounds. To many Maori this act of conciliation seemed an act of weakness. WAITANGI, TREATY OF. Signed on 6 February 1840, the treaty was essentially a pact between the British sovereign and representatives of the Maori people. The English-language version of the treaty ceded the sovereignty of New Zealand to Britain and gave the Crown the exclusive right of preemption—the sole right to buy any lands that Maori wished to sell. (This was an attempt to protect Maori interests from unscrupulous individual purchasers.) In return, Maori were guaranteed full rights of possession of their lands, forests, fisheries, and other properties. The treaty also promised Maori the rights and privileges of British subjects, together with assurances of Crown protection. Only 39 chiefs signed the English version of the treaty.

330 •

WAITANGI DAY

The treaty was hastily translated into the Maori language by Henry Williams, New Zealand head of the Church Missionary Society. This translation failed to convey the meaning of the English version. By the Maori text, chiefs ceded only the right to govern (kawanatanga) to the Crown; in return their rights of chieftainship (rangatiratanga) were confirmed. Since rangatiratanga was a fair translation of Maori sovereign rights, the chiefs no doubt believed that they were giving away little; at most it would be a sharing of power. Thus the two versions, one in English and the other in Maori, were open to marked differences of interpretation, and each party was left with different expectations about the power they would exercise. Nor did the treaty have any legal standing. Only in the latter part of the 20th century did it begin to occupy its place as the founding document of New Zealand for both races. See also PRENDERGAST, JAMES; TREATY SETTLEMENTS; WAITANGI DAY; WAITANGI TRIBUNAL. WAITANGI DAY. The signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on 6 February 1840 is now celebrated each year as New Zealand’s national day. This was not always so; until 1960, the treaty was regarded by many as being of only symbolic and historical interest. Official recognition ultimately came with the passage of the Waitangi Day Act in 1960, although 6 February was not declared a national holiday until 1973, the same year that the Third Labour Government renamed it “New Zealand Day.” Following objections by Maori, it was officially redesignated “Waitangi Day” in 1976. The annual Waitangi Day celebration, the first of which was held in 1940, is now the focal point of New Zealand’s nationhood. The commemoration of the signing of the treaty symbolizes the partnership between Maori and Pakeha that was entered into in 1840. In recent years, however, the celebrations have frequently been used by some Maori and Pakeha protesters to draw attention to past injustices to Maori and to demand their redress. The government’s response to these protests has been to adopt a less prominent role for itself in the celebrations at Waitangi. WAITANGI TRIBUNAL. The Waitangi Tribunal was established under the Treaty of Waitangi Act (1975) to consider any legislation, pol-

WAITARA PURCHASE

• 331

icy, or practice which is seen by Maori as inconsistent with the Treaty of Waitangi. It has the exclusive authority to determine the meaning and effect of the treaty in terms of both the English and Maori texts. In 1985, the tribunal’s jurisdiction was extended back to 1840. The tribunal consists of up to 16 members plus a chairperson who is either a judge or retired judge (including the chief judge of the Maori Land Court). The 16 members, who are appointed by the governor-general, reflect the principle of partnership through equal representation of Maori and Pakeha. The tribunal is an advisory body only, limited to making recommendations to the government, but it enjoys considerable prestige and influence and does have binding powers in some limited situations. The Office of Treaty Settlements (a government agency) handles the detailed negotiations with claimants. By 2004, about three-quarters of claims lodged, totaling around $675 million, had been settled or were under active negotiation. It is estimated that it will take about another 10 years before all claims are resolved. WAITARA PURCHASE. Following the onset of economic depression in Taranaki in 1856, settlers became increasingly anxious to acquire the land lying between New Plymouth and the Waitara River which was suitable for pastoral farming. Pressure mounted on the central government to abandon its policy of requiring that all Maori claimants to land should give their assent before it purchased Maori land. During a visit to Taranaki in March 1859, Governor Thomas Gore Browne, while advising Maori to sell their unoccupied lands, assured them that he would not purchase any land unless the owners agreed to sell. Immediately after Browne sat down, a Maori named Teira offered to sell the government land situated at the mouth of the Waitara River. Browne accepted Teira’s offer, provided his title could be confirmed. Wiremu Kingi, the principal chief at Waitara, objected and, along with most of his tribe, withdrew from the meeting. Browne reiterated that if Kingi had a joint interest in the land, it would not be purchased without his consent, but that he would not allow him to use his position as a chief to prevent the sale. By agreeing to buy land from any group of Maori who were prepared to sell, Browne effectively abandoned the established procedure of tribes speaking through their chiefs. Taranaki settlers supported the

332 •

WAKE, NANCY GRACE AUGUSTA (1912– )

government’s new stance (which was little different from what they had been demanding) and the local member of the House of Representatives and native minister, C. W. Richmond, would not stop the purchase. In January 1860, the government decided to survey the land. After the surveyors met with passive resistance, martial law was imposed and, in the skirmishes that followed, troops captured Kingi’s empty pa. For the settlers, the purchase acquired a symbolic significance as an indication of the breaking of Maori resistance to land sales. The dispute flared into the Taranaki War, which lasted for just over a year, restarted again in 1863, and led eventually to land confiscations as a penalty for rebellion. It was not until 1927 that a Royal Commission charged with inquiring into the controversy concluded that Kingi and his people had been wrongly condemned. It is clear that Browne did not understand the fundamental nature of Maori land tenure—that land belonged to the tribe as a whole and not just to the hereditary occupants. Consequently, the government’s investigation into Teira’s title was cursory. It is now clear that Kingi and a considerable number of other Maori had hereditary claims to parts of the block that Teira offered to the government and that Kingi and about 300 other members of his tribe had been living on the land since 1848. Teira’s motivation for offering to sell the land was to seek revenge after a quarrel with his chief over a woman. See also LAND WARS. WAKE, NANCY GRACE AUGUSTA (1912– ). World War II resistance fighter code-named the “White Mouse.” Born in New Zealand, Wake moved with her family to Australia while still a baby. She led a colorful life before marrying Henri Fiocca, a rich Frenchman, in 1939, and settling in France. She joined the resistance movement against the Germans, serving first as a courier and then helping Allied personnel to escape from France to Spain. She finally had to escape herself. Wake then went to Britain where she joined the Special Operations Executive and undertook training in sabotage and resistance organization. Back in France, she was responsible for many daring raids and was even reported as being responsible for killing a German sentry with her bare hands. Her bravery was recognized in top rewards for heroism from most of the major Allies.

WAKEFIELD, EDWARD JERNINGHAM (1820–1879)

• 333

Nancy Wake returned to Australia in 1949 and, in 1951, she stood as the Liberal Party’s candidate for the Barton electorate against Labour’s H. V. Evatt. Her first husband had been executed by the Gestapo in 1943; in 1957, she married John Melvin Phipps Forward. In 2004 she was made a member of the Order of Australia. WAKEFIELD, EDWARD GIBBON (1796–1862). Theorist and promoter. Wakefield played a leading role in the establishment of the New Zealand Association (later to become the New Zealand Company) in England in 1837. His theory of colonization formed the basis of five settlements which were established in New Zealand during the 1840s—Wellington (1840), New Plymouth (1841), Nelson (1842), Otago (1848), and Canterbury (1850). He played a leading role in establishing the Church of England settlement in Canterbury and was a powerful advocate for the establishment of self-government. Following his election to the first House of Representatives in 1853, he played an important if controversial role in the achievement of responsible, as distinct from representative, government. Edward Gibbon Wakefield was a man of extraordinary energy and compelling enthusiasm. He was an unrivaled propagandist but could also be unscrupulous, treacherous, and vindictive. He was the creator of the “Wakefield legend” (that by his faith and perseverance he “was mainly responsible for the colonization of New Zealand by British people”), but today, while he is still regarded as an important figure in the history of early British settlement in New Zealand, his claim that he was primarily responsible for forcing the British government to annex New Zealand in 1840 is not regarded as tenable. See also AKAROA; WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. WAKEFIELD, EDWARD JERNINGHAM (1820–1879). Adventurer and writer. Born in England, the only son of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, Jerningham arrived in New Zealand on the Tory in 1839 in company with his uncle, Colonel William Wakefield. As agent for the New Zealand Company, he was responsible for its land-purchasing activities in Wanganui in 1840. He returned to London in 1844 and

334 •

WAKEFIELD, WILLIAM HAYWARD (1803–1848)

spent the next few years working for the New Zealand Company and the Canterbury Association. In 1850 he again sailed for New Zealand on the Lady Nugent, one of the so-called first four ships. He was elected to the first House of Representatives (1853–1855) and again to the sixth Parliament (1871–1875). He is best known for his book Adventure in New Zealand, published in 1845 after his return to England. WAKEFIELD, WILLIAM HAYWARD (1803–1848). Adventurer and principal agent of the New Zealand Company. A younger brother to Edward Gibbon Wakefield, he was born and educated in England. Attached, for a time, to the British embassy in Turin, he was imprisoned for his role in the abduction by his brother of the heiress Ellen Turner. He then traveled widely. In the 1830s he distinguished himself in the service of Portugal and with the British Legion in Spain. As principal agent of the New Zealand Company, he sailed to New Zealand on the Tory, arriving at Port Nicholson (Wellington) in August 1839. He negotiated with the Ati Awa chief, Epuni, for the purchase of over 110,000 acres of land to be used for the first of the company’s settlements. He then purchased large tracts of land on both sides of Cook Strait from Te Rauparaha at Kapiti before sailing to the far north where he sought possession of the land bought by the 1825 New Zealand Company. As the New Zealand Company’s chief administrator in New Zealand, William Wakefield was responsible for purchasing land and allocating it to settlers, receiving and helping new arrivals to settle in, and controlling the company’s staff in New Zealand. A competent administrator and astute political negotiator, his authority at times rivaled that of the governor. He was also president of a committee elected to resolve disputes between settlers according to English law. Although this role ended in June 1840 with the arrival of Willoughby Shortland (whom the British government had appointed as magistrate), Wakefield remained the main channel of communication between the Wellington settlers and the governor. As such, he bore the brunt of settlers’ anger at the delays in acquiring land after the government enforced the preemption provision of the Treaty of Waitangi. Land problems colored the Wellington settlement’s life for a number of years and even resulted in a pistol duel between Wakefield

WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION

• 335

and Isaac Featherstone in 1847. His only daughter, Emily Charlotte, married E. W. Stafford, premier of New Zealand between 1856 and 1861. WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. In 1829, while imprisoned for abducting Ellen Turner, an heiress, Edward Gibbon Wakefield wrote his extremely influential tract, A Letter from Sydney. Although he had never been to Australia, the Letter purported to be a firsthand analysis of the weaknesses of current colonization practices and proposed remedies. He believed that the problems faced by the Australian colonies were threefold: economic (a scarcity of labor because land was too cheap), social (gender imbalance resulting in criminal activity, insecurity, and a lowering of moral standards), and political (temporary governors who were little more than jailers and which led, inevitably, to opposition from settlers and demands for self-government). To eliminate these problems he proposed that all land should be sold at a “sufficient price” which, he believed, would self-regulate the relationship between land sales and immigration by restricting the speed at which colonial wage-earners could become proprietors, while building up a fund which would allow the greatest possible number of wage-earners to emigrate free of charge to the colonies; that the prevailing (conservative) structure of English society should be maintained and preserved through the carefully balanced selection of immigrants which would be a “slice of English society”; and that colonies should be self-governing. Of the Wakefield settlements established in New Zealand, only the Canterbury settlement can be regarded as reasonably successful. In order to raise money to provide free passages for immigrants, colonists were required to buy, and pay for, land orders before they left England. The land order gave them the right to participate in a ballot, held only after the immigrant ship carrying settlers had arrived at its destination in New Zealand, to determine the order in which they would be able to choose their section or sections in the colony. The revenue thus raised was used to purchase land from Maori and carry out public works before the settlers arrived and also to provide free passages. Apart from the Canterbury settlement, however, many purchasers of land orders were speculators anticipating a quick profit

336 •

WALKER, KAREN (1970– )

once settlers reached New Zealand. With comparatively few potential landowners actually taking up their land entitlements, there were often too few employers to employ the available immigrant labor. Unemployment was, therefore, a major drawback in the early years of most settlements. WALKER, KAREN (1970– ). Fashion designer. An example of the creative designs and fashion flare flourishing in New Zealand with a young generation of designers, Karen Walker went direct to fashion college from school, and after graduating from there immediately began selling her work in Auckland. By 1998, Walker was selling her wares in Australia and New York. Creating a reputation at international fashion shows with her creative presentations, she received laudatory reviews in top fashion publications such as Vogue, Elle, and Harper’s Bazaar. Her work is now to be found in some 90 stores worldwide including some of the most prestigious. In 2003 she also launched a jewelry collection. WALSH, AUSTIN LEONARD (1881–1951) and WALSH, VIVIAN CLAUDE (1887–1950). Aviation pioneers. Leo Walsh was born in Britain and Vivian in Auckland. The two brothers, who established an engineering and motorcar importing business, founded the Aero Club of New Zealand in 1910. They successfully assembled an imported biplane kit and flew the airplane in February 1911. They then designed and built a flying boat that had its first flight in January 1915. In the same year the brothers formed the New Zealand Flying School, training pilots, engineers, and mechanics. Many of the pilots they trained saw service in World War I, often with distinction. After the war they attempted to establish an airmail service and sought to promote the use of aircraft for aerial surveying purposes. WALSH, FINTAN PATRICK (1896–1963). Trade unionist. A member of the Communist Party, 1920–1922, Fintan Walsh later became staunchly anticommunist. President of the Seamen’s Union, 1927– 1963, he also dominated the New Zealand Federation of Labour as no one before or after him. He worked closely with the First Labour Government but also, in effect, sided with its successor, the Sidney Holland–led New Zealand National Party government, against the watersiders in the 1951 waterfront dispute. He was described as rough, tough, and ruthless.

WARING, MARILYN JOY (1952– )

• 337

WALSH, VIVIAN CLAUDE (1887–1950). See WALSH, AUSTIN LEONARD (1881–1951) and WALSH, VIVIAN CLAUDE (1887–1951). WARD, JOSEPH GEORGE (1856–1930). Prime minister. Born in Australia, Ward arrived in New Zealand in 1860. In 1881 he was elected mayor of Campbelltown (now Bluff) in Southland. First elected to Parliament in 1887, he served as postmaster-general and, later, colonial treasurer in the John Ballance and Richard Seddon Liberal governments (1891–1896). Ward resigned from the ministry in 1896, and then from Parliament in 1897, following his involvement in the Colonial Bank scandal and his bankruptcy soon after in circumstances described as “far from creditable.” He was, however, promptly returned to Parliament by his electorate and in 1899 was back in the Cabinet, holding the portfolios of colonial secretary, industries and commerce, and postmaster-general. (In this latter role he instituted penny postage in 1901; the next year the department made a small profit.) After Seddon’s death, Ward served as prime minister (1906– 1912) and was a member of the wartime coalition government (1915–1919). He lost his seat in the 1919 election and was not reelected to Parliament until 1925 when he was the only publicly declared Liberal Party member. Elected leader of the United Party in 1927, his party won the 1928 general election (to everyone’s surprise) after he publicly promised to borrow what was then the enormous sum of £70 million in a single year! (The promise was a mistake, attributed to poor eyesight; the text of his speech is reputed to have read “£7 million.”) Thus, Ward again became prime minister more than 20 years after first taking office and 41 years after entering the House of Representatives. His last government was, however, a failure, and after clinging grimly to power, he finally resigned the prime ministership only six weeks before his death in 1930. WARING, MARILYN JOY (1952– ). Politician, university lecturer, and feminist. Born and educated in New Zealand, she served as a research officer in the parliamentary legislative department before being elected to Parliament as a New Zealand National Party candidate in 1975. An outspoken critic of the Robert Muldoon–led government’s policies and a strong antinuclear policy advocate, Waring eventually left the parliamentary party over the nuclear issue,

338 •

WARS

thus helping precipitate the 1984 snap election. Her main role, however, has been as a leading member of the women’s movement, a topic on which she has written widely and for which she acquired a widespread reputation. In 2004 she was appointed a director of the Reserve Bank, replacing Ruth Richardson. WARS. See ARMED FORCES; BOER WAR; DEFENSE; KOREAN WAR; LAND WARS; MAORI CIVIL WARS; NORTHERN WARS; SOUTHERN CIVIL WARS; VIETNAM WAR; WORLD WAR I; WORLD WAR II. WATERFRONT DISPUTE (1951). Industrial unrest in the years following the end of World War II persuaded the New Zealand Labour Party government to amend the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1949 to permit industrial awards to apply to localities. In 1950, a number of the more militant unions withdrew from the Federation of Labour, formed a rival Trade Union Congress, and successfully bargained directly with employers. In January 1951 the Arbitration Court granted a general wage increase of 15 percent. The Watersiders Union (which by now was not covered by the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act) sought the same increase plus an additional seven pence (six cents) an hour to restore their traditional advantage over freezing workers. The employers responded by offering a 9 percent increase. The watersiders then refused to work more than a 40-hour week—it was the height of the primary products export season—upon which the employers locked them out for refusing to work overtime. The New Zealand National Party government invoked the Public Safety Conservation Act to promulgate the Waterfront Strike Emergency Regulations, which defined a strike as “refusing or failing to work overtime,” gave police extraordinary powers to freely enter premises and arrest without warrant, banned newspapers from publishing stories about the strike, and provided that the armed forces could be ordered to undertake any kind of work under penalty of military law. During the strike, which lasted for 151 days between February and July 1951, the Watersiders’ Union was deregistered and its funds and records seized, and 26 local watersiders’ unions were set up in its place. Parliament, which remained in recess until shortly before the strike collapsed, was dissolved as the strikers capitulated. In the “snap” election that followed, the government was returned with an increased parlia-

WEBB, PATRICK CHARLES (PADDY) (1884–1950)

• 339

mentary majority. See also TRADE UNIONS; WATERFRONT STRIKE (1913). WATERFRONT STRIKE (1913). After its defeat in the 1912 Waihi Strike, the “Red Feds” called a Unity Congress to unite the labor movement. The outcome was the formation of the United Federation of Labour and the Social Democratic Party. Aware that the United Federation of Labour had not yet established a strong organization or financial base, employers maintained their pressure on wages and conditions in an attempt to consolidate their victory at Waihi. In October 1913 the employers locked out a group of waterfront workers for attending a stopwork meeting and cancelled their agreement. Waterside workers struck in support of their dismissed colleagues, demanding their reinstatement. When shipowners announced that they would employ only workers belonging to an arbitration union, strikes in support of the Wellington waterside workers were called at other ports and in mining areas. The police recruited thousands of “special” constables to confront the strikers and their supporters, to form arbitration unions, and to take the place of watersiders and seamen. The armed forces were also called in to assist. Arrests during the violence that erupted resulted in 169 strikers being convicted; most went to jail. After two months the unionists gave in, arbitration unions were formed at ports (watersiders had to join if they wanted to work on the wharves in the future), and Prime Minister William Massey awarded medals to the Waikato farmers who helped break the strike. The result was a victory for the government, employers, and the arbitration laws. The militant unions were humiliated both by their defeat and subsequent legislation which severely curtailed both the right to strike and picketing by strikers. See also MASSEY’S COSSACKS; WATERFRONT DISPUTE (1951). WEBB, PATRICK CHARLES (PADDY) (1884–1950). Trade unionist and politician. Born in Australia, Webb came to New Zealand in 1905. After a variety of manual jobs, he helped to establish the Socialist Party on the west coast of the South Island and was a founder, and later president, of the Federation of Labour. Elected to Parliament representing the Social Democrat Party in 1913, Webb forfeited his seat in 1918 for not attending Parliament after he had been imprisoned for two years (and thus lost his civil rights for 10 years) for refusing to be conscripted into the army. He was reelected

340 •

WELD, FREDERICK ALOYSIUS (1823–1891)

to Parliament, this time for the New Zealand Labour Party, in 1933, taking over H. E. Holland’s seat. An important, and genial, member of the First Labour Government, he held a number of Cabinet portfolios, including minister of labor and of mines. He retired from Parliament in 1946. WELD, FREDERICK ALOYSIUS (1823–1891). Premier. Born in England of aristocratic parentage, Weld arrived in New Zealand in 1844 and engaged in sheep farming. He was an active advocate for representative—and later responsible—government for the Crown colony and was elected to the first House of Representatives in 1853 and again from 1858–1866. Weld was a member of the Executive Council and minister of native affairs (1860–1861) and, in 1864, formed his own ministry. The core of his “self-reliant” policy was for settlers to take over control and direction of the Land Wars—the imperial troops were to be sent back to England—a policy which was to be financed, in part, by the confiscation of Maori land. The policy was not a success. Weld retired from politics in 1866 and left the country in 1867. A major object in his career was just treatment for his fellow Roman Catholics. His achievements include some notable explorations, his political and pastoral contributions, and a reputation as a watercolor painter. WELFARE STATE. See SOCIAL WELFARE. WELLINGTON. Like Auckland and Dunedin, Wellington—the first “Wakefield settlement” to be established in New Zealand—is a port city set around a fine harbor. It was originally settled by Maori of the Ngai Tara and Rangitane iwi who had moved south. Initial preparations for European colonization began in 1839 after the first site, chosen by Colonel William Wakefield of the New Zealand Company and tucked against steep hills along the foreshore of Lambton Harbor, was moved to Pito-One (Petone) near mouth of the Heretaunga (now Hutt) River at the northern end of Port Nicholson where there was flat land, before the arrival of the main body of immigrants in the Aurora in January 1840. After the river flooded in March 1840, however, the town—named Wellington in honor of the British Duke of Wellington, partly in recognition

WENDT, ALBERT (1939– )

• 341

of the Duke’s support for Wakefield’s colonization scheme—was reestablished at the site originally selected. Despite problems of development such as the clearing of heavy forest cover and earthquakes, Wellington became a borough in 1853 and capital of New Zealand in 1865 (although interestingly enough it did not acquire city status until 1903). Major earthquakes were sustained in 1848, 1855 (when much of the harbor coast was raised approximately 5 feet), and 1942 (when considerable damage was done to buildings), among many others. The city is also prone to high winds as the air flow funnels through Cook Strait. As capital of New Zealand, Wellington has the advantage of its central position in the country together with its excellent deepwater harbor. Today, it is mainly a government, administrative, and commercial center, although there is also important industrial development in the flatter areas of the Hutt Valley. At the 2001 census, Wellington had a usually resident population of 339,750. See also WAKEFIELD’S THEORY OF SYSTEMATIC COLONIZATION. WENDT, ALBERT (1939– ). Novelist, poet, playwright, and educator. Born in Samoa of mixed German and Polynesian ancestry, Wendt was educated in New Zealand. He exemplifies the acute observer able to move readily between two societies, both culturally and bilingually. Perhaps better than anyone else he represents the South Pacific in its totality—so far as that is possible. His work is rich in Polynesian myth and traditions and he can see the impact of European colonization on the local culture both in terms of threatening (greed and racism in particular) as well as invigorating it. Wendt’s best-known novels are Sons for the Return Home (1973) and The Leaves of the Banyan Tree (1979), but he has written numerous short stories and poems since that time, as well as editing anthologies and collections of poems. Another novel, Mango’s Kiss, was published in 2003. Wendt held the first chair of Pacific literature at the University of the South Pacific in Fiji and, in 1988, was appointed a professor of English at the University of Auckland, specializing in New Zealand and Pacific literature. His play The Songmaker’s Chair, about the Samoan and Pacific migrant experience in New Zealand, was produced in 2003.

342 •

WESTERN SAMOA

WESTERN SAMOA. See SAMOA. WHAANGA, IHAKA (?–1875). Maori chief; a member of the Ngati Kahungunu tribe of Hawke’s Bay. Whaanga became patron of a whaling station set up in his territory in 1837. By 1851 he was reported to have had at least 140 Europeans and 280 Maori whalers living under his protection. He was a strong supporter of both European traders and settlers and actively opposed both the Hauhau movement in the 1860s and the Repudiation Movement in the 1870s. WHALERS AND WHALING. Whaling was the dominant economic activity in New Zealand through the first four decades of the 19th century. In the early 1800s ships stopped over at the Bay of Islands, and Kororareka was soon established as the principal whaling base of the southwest Pacific and an ideal port for rest and relaxation. Two types of whaling took place in and around New Zealand waters. British, French, and American vessels engaged in deep-sea whaling, where ships sometimes spent months hunting sperm (or cachalot) whales for their blubber and spermaceti oil across the vast expanses of the South Pacific Ocean. These whalers used the Bay of Islands as their main port of call between voyages. The other form of whaling was shore or bay whaling. Here, whaling stations were established principally around Cook Strait, the Kaikoura and Banks Peninsulas, and the Otago coast. In these places whaleboats set out from shore whenever a whale was sighted. The whalers hunted the southern right or black whale for its oil and whalebone. The peak years were the 1830s, but indiscriminate slaughter led to a rapid decline in catches by the late 1840s. New Zealand’s last shore whaling station, in Tory Channel, closed in 1966. In more recent years New Zealand has sought to play an important role in the International Whaling Commission, opposing whaling in general and seeking (with Australia) to establish a South Pacific whaling sanctuary in order to protect the breeding grounds of the region’s whales. At Kaikoura, the former whaling station has now been replaced by flourishing whale-watching enterprises, the best-known of which is run by Ngai Tahu interests. See also TOURISM. WHEAT BONANZA. See BONANZA WHEAT FARMING.

WHITAKER, FREDERICK (1812–1891)

• 343

WHIP. Derived from an old English hunting term, “whipper-in.” The principal task of the party whips today is to ensure support for their political parties in parliamentary divisions, or votes. Because New Zealand members of Parliament serve full-time in their duties, and since the Mixed Member Proportional electoral system has been introduced, divisions are based on bloc party votes (unless an MP expresses a particular wish to abstain or vote differently from the party). Thus the role of the whips is no longer the same as their British equivalents. However, they are responsible for their parties acting as teams in the House of Representatives. In particular, they are responsible for arranging the speaking order for their members; they are the main channels of organizational communication with other parties; and they are essential components in the overall smooth running of the House. WHITAKER, FREDERICK (1812–1891). Premier. Born in England of “county” stock, Whitaker arrived in New Zealand from Australia in 1840. Practicing as a lawyer and speculating in land, he played an important role in early colonial government along with Attorney-General William Swainson and Chief Justice William Martin, particularly as a law draftsman—a craft at which he excelled. In 1853 Whitaker was appointed to the Legislative Council of the new General Assembly, and, in a political career spanning over 40 years, he served as attorneygeneral on no fewer than 10 occasions. He became premier for the first time in 1863, heading a government that stood, inter alia, for the suppression of Maori “rebels” and easier access for settlers to Maori land. On his defeat in 1864 Whitaker resigned from the Legislative Council and in the following year was elected unopposed to the House of Representatives. He resigned his seat in 1867 but returned to the House and the government in 1876. He lost his parliamentary seat in the 1879 election but was immediately reappointed to the Legislative Council from where he became premier and headed another government from April 1882 until September 1883. Whitaker exemplifies the business/political nexus of his day, playing a highly influential role in both spheres. He represented a typical settler attitude to the rights of the Maori while at the same time (by 1878 at least) advocating—for Pakeha—manhood suffrage, proportional representation, and more equal electorates.

344 •

WHITE, WILLIAM (1794–1875)

WHITE, WILLIAM (1794–1875). Missionary. English-born White came to New Zealand from Australia in 1823. He eventually became head of mission stations that he established at Hokianga (Northland) and, later, at Raglan in the Waikato. Concerned at the exploitation of Maori by unscrupulous Europeans, he sought to forestall them by a scheme whereby he purchased land which he then, in effect, returned to the Maori by an arrangement that allowed them to cut timber on the land and sell it through his agency. Although the money thus raised was used to fund the purchase price, he was accused of commercializing the mission and frustrating Europeans in their lawful activities. White also sought to put an end to the importation of strong alcohol and threatened to draw up his own code of laws for the area, backed by Maori force and authority. He was finally removed from his position by the Wesleyan authorities on the grounds of excessive commercial activity and misapplication of mission property. WHITMORE, GEORGE STODDART (1829–1903). Military leader. Born in Malta into an army family, Whitmore served in South Africa, the Crimean War, and Canada, before traveling to New Zealand in 1861 as military secretary to Lieutenant-General Duncan Cameron, commander of the military forces in New Zealand. He resigned after a year and acquired a large landholding on which sheep were grazed. He was appointed to the Legislative Council in 1863 where he sat for 40 years. Subsequently, he played an important role in the Land Wars, leading the colonial forces in seven distinct campaigns and rising to what was, in effect, the position of commander-in-chief of the forces. Whitmore was a formidable tactician and strategist, although his condoning of the massacre of prisoners at Ngatapa (near Gisborne on the North Island’s East Coast) and the bounty hunting of heads during the pursuit of Titokowaru has been questioned. He also served as commander of the defense forces during the Russian War scare of the 1880s. WILDING, FREDERICK ANTHONY (1883–1915). New Zealand’s most successful tennis player. Born in New Zealand and educated both there and in England, he won eight Wimbledon titles in the early years of the 20th century, including four successive men’s singles

WILSON, GEORGE (1869–1939)

• 345

from 1910–1913, a record not surpassed until 2000 by Pete Sampras of the United States. A crowd favorite, he lived a flamboyant life before being commissioned as a captain in the army in World War I. He was killed at Ypres in May 1915. See also SPORT AND SPORTING ACHIEVEMENTS. WILLIAMS, HENRY (1792–1867). Missionary. Born in England, Henry Williams served in the Royal Navy before joining the Anglican Church Missionary Society and being ordained as a priest. He arrived in New Zealand in 1823. He differed from the founder of the mission, Samuel Marsden, who had placed an emphasis upon “civilizing” Maori by teaching them agricultural and other skills. (In the 10 years prior to the arrival of Williams, there had not been a single Maori convert.) Williams first sought to make the mission independent of local influences, and then to emphasize spiritual teaching through learning the Maori language and preaching to the local tribes. His work proved successful and by the late 1820s he had sufficient mana to mediate in local tribal disputes. By 1842 over 3,000 local Maori had been baptized, and his mission had become the center of a widening circle of influence. In 1840, Williams was responsible for translating the English version of the Treaty of Waitangi into Maori—a version which has been the source of considerable controversy since that time. His younger brother, William Williams, who was also a missionary, published his Dictionary of the New Zealand Language in 1844. A revised edition is still in print today. A son, the Reverend Samuel Williams, founded Te Aute College. WILSON, GEORGE (1869–1939). Businessman. Born in England, Wilson started a business in Canada and visited New Zealand in 1906, in order to arrange the export of meat, hides, and other produce to Canada. He founded branches of his own business in New Zealand and lived there permanently after 1910. He was a director of New Zealand Newspapers Ltd. and the New Zealand Insurance Company. He became first president of the newly formed New Zealand National Party in 1936. He resigned later that same year, although he continued to support the party actively and financially. See also NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES.

346 •

WILSON, MARGARET ANNE (1947– )

WILSON, MARGARET ANNE (1947– ). First woman president of the New Zealand Labour Party (1984–1987) and an active campaigner for women’s rights, Wilson headed Waikato University’s Law School before entering Parliament as a party list candidate in 1999. She was immediately appointed to the executive positions of attorneygeneral, minister of labor, minister in charge of Treaty of Waitangi negotiations, associate justice minister, and associate minister for state services. In February 2005 she was elected Speaker of the House of Representatives, the first woman to hold this position. WINE INDUSTRY. Samuel Marsden planted the first grapes at Kerikeri in 1819, and by the 1860s the Northland and Hawke’s Bay regions were producing wines. A lack of experience of New Zealand’s soils and climate hindered early development; early plantings were often made in the most fertile soils, which produced large quantities of mediocre-quality grapes. The root disease phylloxera appeared in the Auckland area in the 1890s but was confined there until 1964 when it appeared in Hawke’s Bay. Around the turn of the 20th century, Dalmatian families established commercial vineyards to the north of Auckland. An acute shortage of spirits during World War II resulted in a rapid increase in demand, but the increased output was generally of inferior quality. Emphasis on the production of quality wines really began only in the early 1970s. Today New Zealand white wines compare very favorably with those of other winemaking countries, and the quality of its red wines has also improved dramatically; Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc has become world famous, and New Zealand is carving out a formidable reputation for its Pinot Noir. The number of wineries has more than trebled over the past 15 years to reach 421 in 2003. The main wine-producing areas now extend from the subtropical Auckland region to the cool temperate valleys of Central Otago. Just under half of the total wine production (55 million liters) for the year ended June 2003 was exported, mainly to the United Kingdom and Europe, the United States, and Australia. Latest projections forecast that international sales will reach 73 million liters by 2007. WINE BOX INQUIRY. In 1992 Winston Peters first called for an inquiry into alleged favors granted by both New Zealand Labour

WOMEN

• 347

Party and New Zealand National Party governments to the Bank of New Zealand (BNZ) and the Fay Richwhite merchant bank, accusing them of tax evasion. The mass of documentation to support his accusations was carried into Parliament in a cardboard carton intended for bottles of wine. Henceforth, the series of inquiries and events which the accusations triggered came to be known as the “Wine Box Inquiry.” As a result of dogged persistence by Peters, a formal Commission of Inquiry, conducted by a former chief justice, Ronald Davison, was established in 1994. Davison found that the actions were within the letter of the law even though they avoided hundreds of millions of dollars in tax. Peters appealed this finding to the High Court, which decided that the commission’s findings were not open to judicial review for errors in law. That decision was overturned by the Court of Appeal and the matter was referred back to the High Court, which found that material errors of law had been made by the commission which went to the substance of a significant part of the Wine Box Inquiry. Following this, the Inland Revenue Department brought a case claiming that between 1989 and 1993 Fay Richwhite and the BNZ had jointly conspired to avoid tax on a number of transactions including some of those cited in the Wine Box Inquiry. The High Court, however, failed to uphold the claim. WOMEN. As early as 1889, even before women won the vote, former premier Julius Vogel was forecasting in his futuristic novel Anno Domini 2000; or, Women’s Destiny that by the year 2000 New Zealand would be led by a woman premier and most other powerful political positions would be held by women. His prophecy turned out to be astonishingly accurate. By 2001 women were occupying the positions of governor-general, prime minister, chief justice, and attorney-general. As early as 1867 the Municipal Corporations Act permitted women to vote although this was not widely adopted. In 1877 an Education Act provided for equal educational opportunities for both boys and girls. In 1884 the Married Women’s Property Act provided that Pakeha women could hold land after marriage, a right previously denied them. Maori women already had the right, although traditionally Maori land had been held in common by the hapu. Women generally were given the right to vote in elections for hospital and charitable boards in 1885.

348 •

WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION (WCTU)

In 1893, partly as a result of the efforts of English-born activist Kate Sheppard, New Zealand became the first country in the world to give women the right to vote for their parliamentary representatives, although it was not until the passing of the Women’s Parliamentary Rights Act in 1919 that women could be elected to the House of Representatives, and not until 1933 that the first woman won a seat in that House. In 1947, Mabel Howard became the first woman to be appointed a Cabinet minister. Forty-three years later (1990) Catherine Tizard became the first female governor-general and, in 1997, Jenny Shipley became the first woman prime minister. Meanwhile the number of women MPs steadily increased from virtually token representation of 1 percent in the 1930s to over 30 percent of the House in 1999. Representation in the Cabinet increased by virtually the same quantum—from nil in the 1930s to 28.3 percent in 2002. Despite such political gains, and although women and men have equal status under the law, women have yet to gain full equality in economic and social status. There is a special Ministry of Women’s Affairs designed to provide advice to the government not only about gender disparities but also about the disparities between Maori and non-Maori women. For the year ended December 2001, the male participation in the labor force was 74.8 percent compared to 59.4 percent for women. Partly this may be attributed to the importance of the child-bearing years (20–39) where the disparities are greatest, but this does not alter the fact that female participation in the labor force is lower in all age groups. At the same time, women live longer than men; life expectancy for men in 1998–2000 was 75.7 years compared to 80.8 years for women. It is not surprising therefore that one area where good progress has been made is in female health. An extensive national cervical screening program has been in place since 1990 with good results, and a national breast screening program was established in 1998. A particular target has been Maori health, where life expectancy for Maori females is approximately nine years less for females than for their non-Maori equivalents. See also FEMALE SUFFRAGE; NATIONAL COUNCIL OF WOMEN; POPULATION; YATES, ELIZABETH. WOMEN’S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION (WCTU). In 1885 an American, Mary Clement Leavitt, traveled to New Zealand to seek the signatures of women to a petition calling for governments

WOOL INDUSTRY

• 349

to pass laws prohibiting the production and sale of alcohol. Branches of the WCTU were established later in the same year. In addition to campaigning for prohibition, the WCTU also became actively involved in a number of other reform campaigns, notably female suffrage, the purity of the home, religious teaching in schools, and welfare work. Today, the WCTU is involved mainly in lobbying MPs on a range of issues concerning liquor, gambling, home, and family. See also SHEPPARD, KATHERINE WILSON. WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE. See FEMALE SUFFRAGE. WOOD, SUSANNE MARY (SUE) (1948– ). Businesswoman. Born and educated in New Zealand, Sue Wood was successively a schoolteacher, journalist, and communications consultant. From 1982 until 1986 she was the first woman (and the youngest person) to hold the presidency of the New Zealand National Party at a time when it was still elected by the annual conference of the party. WOOL BOARD. See WOOL INDUSTRY; PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS. WOOL INDUSTRY. Sheep were first introduced into New Zealand in the 1830s. Much of the South Island plains and high country, and parts of the North Island, were well suited to pastoral farming, so the industry grew rapidly. In 1861 there were over 2.8 million sheep, and wool had established itself as the country’s premier export earner. While, occasionally, its earnings were surpassed (for example, during the gold rushes), wool remained largely unchallenged as the country’s single most important export until the Great Depression years (1929–1935) and again between 1950 and (except for one year) 1966. New Zealand is the world’s largest producer of coarser cross-bred wools—those used for carpets, hand-knitting yarns, blankets, and upholstery. Wools of New Zealand (formerly the Wool Board) became a promotional rather than a trading board in 1996, undertaking research and promotion of wool in both new and existing markets. Following a referendum in 2002, 96.9 percent of wool growers voted in favor of closing the board, and in 2004 it was disestablished and its functions transferred to a new organization, SheepCo.

350 •

WORKERS’ DWELLING ACT

With the substantial decline in sheep numbers over the past two decades, fish, crustacean, and mollusk exports have regularly exceeded wool and animal hair exports in value since 1998. See also AGRICULTURE; PRODUCER AND MARKETING BOARDS; TRADE. WORKERS’ DWELLING ACT. The Workers’ Dwelling Act (1905) gave the state the authority to build and rent dwellings for workers earning less than £156 ($312) per annum. This was the first state housing program, but the government had difficulty persuading people to occupy the houses it built for rental. This measure was largely superseded by the Advances to Workers Act in 1906. WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION (WTO). Established in 1995 to further the work of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO covers services and intellectual property as well as the trade in goods. Although it has been opposed by many as the protagonist of globalization, it has nevertheless been useful to small countries like New Zealand. In July 1999, for example, the United States imposed temporary tariffs and quotas on all lamb imports from Australia and New Zealand for three years. Following a WTO ruling, the United States agreed to terminate the quota system in November 2001. In June 2002 the United States imposed a tariff of between 8 and 30 percent on steel imports in an attempt to protect the United States steel industry, a decision that impacted on New Zealand’s steel exports to that country. In November 2003, following an application by the European Union, the WTO ruled that the steel tariffs imposed by the United States were illegal. In 1999, following a fiercely contested election which resulted in a compromise, New Zealander Mike Moore became director-general for the first half of the six-year term, with Dr. Supachai Panitchpakdi of Thailand serving the remaining three years. WORLD WAR I (1914–1918). Unlike World War II, Britain’s declaration of war in 1914 automatically applied to New Zealand, although at the end of the war New Zealand signed the armistice as a separate state. During the course of the war, New Zealand mobilized 41 percent of its male population between the ages of 20 and 45. Until 1914 the British government would not use nonwhites in combat with whites, so conscription was not at first applied to Maori, but a

WORLD WAR II (1939–1945)

• 351

volunteer Maori Pioneer Battalion was raised and sent to Egypt. From the time of the Gallipoli campaign, however, Maori also served as combat troops both in Gallipoli and France, although, unlike Pakeha, there was no rehabilitation assistance for Maori when they returned home. Australian and New Zealand troops featured prominently in the campaign at Gallipoli, where the ANZAC tradition was forged. The anniversary of the initial landing at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 continues to be a special day of commemoration. With 58,019 casualties (16,317 killed and 41,702 wounded), New Zealand is reputed to have suffered more casualties per capita than any other nation in the course of World War I. See also ARMED FORCES; COMMANDEER SYSTEM; UNITED KINGDOM, RELATIONS WITH. WORLD WAR II (1939–1945). New Zealand declared war on Germany almost simultaneously with Britain; as Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage explained in a famous statement, “Both with gratitude for the past and with confidence in the future we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes we go. Where she stands we stand.” New Zealand thus viewed the conflict largely through British eyes. It has been claimed that New Zealand mobilized a higher proportion of its population for service in World War II than any other country except the Soviet Union. Individual New Zealanders frequently served with distinction in the British forces, and New Zealand contingents served in Greece, Crete, the Middle East, and Italian campaigns. They played a lesser part in the war in the Pacific, partly because it was agreed to substitute United States troops for the New Zealand troops already committed to the Middle East and Europe, and partly because of a reluctance of the United States to share the Pacific war with Australia and New Zealand. New Zealand forces suffered a total of 36,038 casualties (11,625 killed and 24,413 wounded). Over 1,700 Maori volunteered for active service and the Maori Battalion developed a formidable reputation as a combat unit, particularly in the North African and Italian campaigns. In marked contrast to the situation which had prevailed after World War I, Maori servicemen were accorded equal treatment with all other servicemen under rehabilitation schemes put in place after World War II.

352 •

WYNYARD, ROBERT HENRY (1802–1864)

As a result of the outbreak of war, the British government offered to buy all of New Zealand’s exportable surplus of meat, dairy products, and wool, the effect of which was to tie the New Zealand economy still more closely to Britain. This arrangement lasted until 1954, long after the war had ended. See also ARMED FORCES; KAIN, EDGAR (COBBER); NGARIMU, TE MOANANUI-A-KIWA; PARK, KEITH; UPHAM, CHARLES HAZLITT. WYNYARD, ROBERT HENRY (1802–1864). Soldier and administrator. Born in England at Windsor Castle, the son of a lady-in-waiting, Wynyard pursued a military career. In 1844, along with 200 troops, he was ordered from Australia to New Zealand to fight Maori forces led by Hone Heke and Te Ruki Kawiti in the Bay of Islands. In 1851 he was appointed commander of the armed forces, comprising approximately 1,000 imperial troops and 500 Fencibles (British ex-regular soldiers turned settlers), in New Zealand. Elected superintendent of the Auckland province in 1853, he served as acting governor of the colony between George Grey’s departure in 1853 and the arrival of Thomas Gore Browne nearly two years later. This interregnum period came at a particularly difficult time with completion of the introduction of the 1852 Constitution and the demands of settlers who were pressing strongly for responsible government in addition to their representative assembly. Wynyard, described as “weak but well-meaning,” subsequently resumed his military career and was promoted to major-general following his return to England in 1858.

–Y – YATES, ELIZABETH (?–1918). Local government politician. Scottishborn Elizabeth Yates emigrated to New Zealand with her parents as a young child. In 1888 her husband, Michael, was elected mayor of Onehunga Borough and held office until 1892, during which time Elizabeth helped him to carry out the mayoral duties. She was elected mayor of the borough in 1893, the first woman in the British Empire to hold such a position. Throughout her term as mayor, she faced much opposition—four councilors and the town clerk resigned immediately,

YOUNG MAORI PARTY

• 353

while another three councilors carried out an orchestrated and persistent campaign of opposition to all of her proposals—which was made worse by her lack of tact and somewhat dictatorial manner. She was soundly defeated in the 1894 mayoral election. Nevertheless, she achieved a great deal: the borough’s debt was liquidated and a sinking fund established, the fire brigade was reorganized, and roads, footpaths, and sanitation facilities were upgraded. She was reelected to the Council in 1899 but lost her seat again in 1901. Elizabeth Yates was a strong supporter of female suffrage and was the first woman to cast a vote in her electorate in the 1893 general election. Her position as mayor also meant appointment as a justice of the peace. After she was sworn in, she occasionally officiated in cases involving women. See also LOCAL GOVERNMENT. YOUNG MAORI PARTY. Essentially a social movement of young professional men mainly from the East Coast of the North Island who had been educated at Te Aute College, this political party was established by Apirana Ngata, Peter Buck (Te Rangihiroa), and Maui Pomare following the formation of the Te Aute College Students’ Association in 1897. They believed that the future for Maori depended on the selective adoption of European ways, especially in health matters and agricultural technology. They were equally determined, however, to preserve Maoritanga, although they sought to abolish a number of Maori customs and practices, most notably hui, tangihanga, and tohunga. Their political mentor was James Carroll on whom they modeled themselves, but although all were members of Parliament in the first decade of the 20th century, they did not formally constitute themselves as a political party until 1909. It broke up after Pomare joined the Reform Party government in 1912. The party fulfilled an important function in articulating some Maori needs to Pakeha audiences, but, generally, it had little influence outside the parliamentary electorates of its members.

Appendix

Table 1. Year 1769* 1835* 1858 1874 1896 1916 1936 1956 1966 1976 1986 1991† 2001

Population of New Zealand New Zealand

% North Island

% South Island

% Urban

% Rural

c.200,000 c.136,500 115,462 334,984 743,214 1,149,225 1,573,812 2,174,062 2,676,919 3,129,383 3,307,084 3,434,950 3,737,277

75.5 45.1 50.9 60.5 64.7 68.9 70.7 72.5 73.8 74.3 75.7

24.5 54.9 49.1 39.5 35.3 31.1 29.3 27.5 26.2 25.7 24.3

41.3 50.9 67.8 73.6 79.2 83.5 83.8 84.9 85.7

58.7 49.1 32.2 26.4 20.8 16.5 16.2 15.1 14.3

*Estimate. † 1991 urban/rural population figures established on new local government territorial units. In April 2003, New Zealand’s population passed 4 million. Source: Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbook 2004. Auckland: David Bateman, 2004.

355

356 • Table 2. Year 1769 1835* 1858 1874 1896 1916 1936 1956 1966 1976 1986 1996§ 2001§

APPENDIX

Ethnic Composition of Population (%) European

Pacific Maori

1.1 43.5 84.9 93.8 95.2 94.5 92.9 90.8 88.6 87.1 81.9 78.4

100 98.9 56.5 13.7 5.7 4.6 5.3 6.3 7.6 8.6 8.9 14.5 14.7

Pacific Island

Asian

Other

† † 0.4 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.8 6.7

1.4 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 4.0 5.8

† † † † † † † 0.4 0.3

*Estimate †Present but less than 0.1% § The 1996 census changed the wording of the ethnicity question, the effect of which was to emphasize that people may identify with more than one ethnic group. Consequently the aggregate responses in the 1996 (106.6) and 2001 (105.9) census data is greater than New Zealand’s total population because multiple responses are counted. Source: Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbooks 1990, 1998, 2004. Wellington: Government Printer, 1990; Wellington: Statistics New Zealand, 1998; Auckland: David Bateman, 2004.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS Table 3.

Destination of Main Exports (%)

Year

U.K.

Australia

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2003

75 81 90 66 53 36 14 6.5 5.9 4.6

5 3 1 2 4 8 13 18.6 21.2 20.7

Japan

U.S.A.

1 3 10 13 16.6 13.0 11.5

15 5 3 10 13 16 14 13.0 14.3 14.9

China

Other

1.2 2.9 5.0

5 11 6 21 27 30 46 44.1 42.7 43.3

Source: Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbooks 1990, 2004. Wellington: Department of Statistics, 1990; Auckland: David Bateman, 2004.

Table 4.

Major Commodities Exported (%)

Year

Wool

Meat

Dairy

Forestry

Other

1870 1900 1930 1960 1990 2000 2003

35.3 36.4 17.3 34.2 8.7 4.2 4.0

16.3 24.7 25.4 15.3 12.9 14.0

0.5 7.6 42.5 26.1 13.3 18.1 19.2

6.5 1.1 2.7 9.0 11.7 10.9

64.2 33.2 14.4 11.6 53.7 53.1 51.9

Source: Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbooks 1990, 2004. Wellington: Department of Statistics, 1990; Auckland: David Bateman, 2004.

Table 5.

Sources of Main Imports (%)

Year

U.K.

Australia

Japan

U.S.A.

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2003

49 47 47 61 44 30 14 7.0 4.0 3.5

17 8 16 12 18 21 19 20.3 23.4 22.6

2 1 2

18 18 12 7 10 13 14 17.0 17.6 12.6

3 8 13 15.3 11.9 12.1

China

Other

1.4 5.6 8.4

14 26 23 20 25 28 40 39.0 37.5 40.8

Source: Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbooks 1990, 2004. Wellington: 1990; Auckland: David Bateman, 2004.

358 •

APPENDIX

STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES CREATED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE STATE-OWNED ENTERPRISES ACT, 1986, AND CROWN ENTITIES (AS OF NOVEMBER 2004) Table 6.

State-Owned Enterprises

Agriquality New Zealand Ltd. Airways Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. Asure New Zealand Ltd. Electricity Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. Genesis Power Ltd. Landcorp Farming Ltd. Meridian Energy Ltd Meteorological Services of New Zealand Ltd. Mighty River Power Ltd. New Zealand Post Ltd. New Zealand Railways Corporation (renamed Ontrack, December 2004) Solid Energy New Zealand. Ltd. Terralink New Zealand Ltd (in liquidation) Timberlands West Coast Ltd. Transmission Holdings Ltd Transpower New Zealand Ltd. Source: Department of Statistics, New Zealand Official Yearbook 2004. Auckland: David Bateman, 2004

Table 7.

Crown-Owned Companies

Animal Control Products Ltd. Learning Media Ltd. New Zealand Venture Investment Fund Ltd. Quotable Value Ltd. Radio New Zealand Ltd. Television New Zealand Ltd. In partial ownership with Territorial Local Authorities: Christchurch International Airport Ltd. Dunedin International Airport Ltd. Invercargill Airport Ltd. Source: http//www.ccmau.govt.nz.

APPENDIX

Table 8.

• 359

Crown Research Institutes

AgResearch Ltd. Industrial Research Ltd. (IRL) Institute for Crop & Food Research Ltd. Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd. (ESR) Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences Ltd. (GNS) Landcare Research New Zealand Ltd. National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd. (NIWA) New Zealand Forest Research Institute Ltd. Horticulture & Food Research Institute of New Zealand Ltd. (HortResearch) Source: http//www.ccmau.govt.nz.

Table 9.

New Zealand Government Asset Sales, March 1988–November 2004

State-Owned Enterprise Communications Sector Telecom Corporation Energy Sector Contact Energy Ltd. Maui Gas/Synfuels Petrocorp Petroleum Mining Licences Financial Sector Bank of New Zealand Development Finance Corporation Government Supply Brokerage Corp. Housing Corporation Mortgages Landcorp Mortgages PostBank Rural Bank Forestry Sector Cutting Rights Forestry Corporation of N.Z. Ltd Timberlands Ltd. Industrial Sector New Zealand Steel Insurance Sector State Insurance Office Export Guarantee Ltd. Printing and Publishing Sector Government Printing Office

Sale Completed (Date)

Sale Price ($NZmillion)

September 1990

$4,250.00

February 1996 July 1990 March 1988 April 1992

$2,331.00 $246.31 $801.06 $121.14

November 1992 November 1988 January 1992 March 1993 February 1990 February 1989 October 1989 October 1990 August 1996 May 1992

$849.95 $111.28 $3.20 $904.03 $77.00 $678.48 $687.50 $1,027.06 $1,600.00 $366.00

March 1988

$327.22

June 1990 June 1993

$735.00 $17.78

June 1990

$38.58 (continued )

360 •

APPENDIX

Table 9. New Zealand Government Asset Sales, March 1988–November 2004 (continued ) State-Owned Enterprise Transport Sector Air New Zealand New Zealand Rail Shipping Corporation Vehicle Testing of New Zealand Ltd. Tourism Sector Communicate New Zealand Tourist Hotel Corporation Miscellaneous Company Shares (2 parcels) Government Computing Services Health Computing Services National Film Unit Works and Development Services Corporation Ltd

Sale Completed (Date)

Sale Price ($NZmillion)

April 1989 September 1993 March 1990 September 1999

$660.00 $328.19 $31.73 $19.90

December 1989 June 1990

$0.06 $71.85

December 1993 November 1994 November 1988 September 1990

$421.51 $47.00 $4.25 $2.50

November 1996

$108.00

Total Revenue from Sales: Source: Office of the Minister for State-owned Enterprises, 1994. Update: Crown Companies Monitoring Advisory Unit, 2004.

$16,866.88

Ministry

Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Liberal Association Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry

Premier

Frederick Aloysius Weld Edward William Stafford William Fox Edward William Stafford George Marsden Waterhouse William Fox Julius Vogel Daniel Pollen Julius Vogel Harry Albert Atkinson George Grey John Hall Frederick Whitaker

Lost confidence of House of Representatives *Date of first use of the term “Premier”

1

Henry Sewell William Fox Edward William Stafford William Fox Alfred Domett Frederick Whitaker Frederick Aloysius Weld

Ministry

First Ministers, Premiers, and Prime Ministers, 1856–2005

First Minister

Table 10.

26 June 1865 16 October 1865 28 June 1869 10 September 1872 11 October 1872 03 March 1873 08 April 1873 06 July 1875 15 February 1876 01 September 1876 13 October 1877 08 October 1879 21 April 1882

Date Appointed

07 May 1856 20 May 1856 02 June 1856 12 July 1861 06 August 1862 30 October 1863 24 November 1864

Date Appointed

16 October 18651 28 June 18691 10 September 18721 11 October 18721 03 March 18731 08 April 18731 06 July 18751 15 February 18761 01 September 18761 13 October 18771 08 October 18791 21 April 18821 25 September 18831 (continued )

Date Relinquished

20 May 18561 02 June 18561 12 July 18611 06 August 18621 30 October 18631 24 November 18641 26 June 1865*

Date Relinquished

Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Continuous Ministry Liberal Party Liberal Party

Harry Albert Atkinson Robert Stout Harry Albert Atkinson Robert Stout Harry Albert Atkinson John Ballance Richard John Seddon

Ministry Liberal Party Liberal Party Liberal Party Reform Party National Ministry‡ Reform Party Reform Party Reform Party United Party¶ United Party United/Reformƒ Labour Party Labour Party§

Prime Minister

William Hall-Jones Joseph George Ward Thomas Mackenzie William Ferguson Massey William Ferguson Massey William Ferguson Massey Francis Henry Dillon Bell Joseph Gordon Coates Joseph George Ward George William Forbes George William Forbes Michael Joseph Savage Peter Fraser

†

2

Lost confidence of House of Representatives. Defeated in general election. Died in office.

1

Ministry

21 June 1906 06 August 1906 28 March 1912 10 July 1912 12 August 1915 25 August 1919 14 May 1925 30 May 1925 10 December 1928 28 May 1930 22 September 1931 06 December 1935 01 April 1940

Date Appointed

25 September 1883 16 August 1884 28 August 1884 03 September 1884 08 October 1887 24 January 1891 01 May 1893

Date Appointed

First Ministers, Premiers, and Prime Ministers, 1856–2005 (continued )

Premier

Table 10.

06 August 1906 28 March 1912 10 July 19121 12 August 1915 25 August 1919 10 May 1925† 30 May 1925 10 December 19282 28 May 19303 22 September 1931 06 December 19352 27 March 1940† 13 December 19492

Date Relinquished

16 August 18841 28 August 18841 03 September 18841 08 October 18871 24 January 18912 27 April 1893† 10 June 1906†

Date Relinquished

National Party National Party Labour Party National Party National Party Labour Party Labour Party National Party Labour Party Labour Party Labour Party National Party National/Right of Centre National/Right of Centre# National Party¶ National/United National/United National/NZ Firstƒ National/NZ Firstƒ National/Mauri Pacific# Labour/Alliance# Labour/Progressive#

2

Lost confidence of House of Representatives Defeated in general election 3 Resigned office † Died in office ‡ Wartime coalition § Includes Labour/National War Cabinet, 1940–1945, and War Administration, 1942 ƒ Majority coalition government ¶ Single-party minority government # Multiparty minority coalition government

1

Sydney George Holland Keith Jacka Holyoake Walter Nash Keith Jacka Holyoake John Ross Marshall Norman Eric Kirk Wallace Edward Rowling Robert David Muldoon David Russell Lange Geoffrey Winston Russell Palmer Michael Kenneth Moore James Brendan Bolger James Brendan Bolger James Brendan Bolger James Brendan Bolger James Brendan Bolger James Brendan Bolger James Brendan Bolger Jennifer Mary Shipley Jennifer Mary Shipley Helen Elizabeth Clark Helen Elizabeth Clark

13 December 1949 20 September 1957 12 December 1957 12 December 1960 07 February 1972 08 December 1972 06 September 1974 12 December 1975 26 July 1984 08 August 1989 04 September 1990 02 November 1990 11 September 1994 09 May 1995 28 August 1995 28 February 1996 06 March 1996 12 December 1996 08 December 1997 26 August 1998 10 December 1999 15 August 2002

20 September 19573 12 December 19572 12 December 19602 07 February 19723 08 December 19722 31 August 1974† 12 December 19752 26 July 19842 08 August 19893 04 September 19903 02 November 19902 11 September 1994 09 May 1995 28 August 1995 28 February 1996 06 March 1996 12 December 1996 08 December 19973 26 August 1998 10 December 19992 15 August 2002

Glossary of Maori Words

Maori is one of New Zealand’s two official languages. In recent years New Zealanders, both Maori and non-Maori, increasingly use Maori words in both spoken and written English, and an increasing number of Maori words are finding their way into various editions of the Oxford English dictionaries. Throughout the dictionary, we use the word Maori as both singular and plural. This is in accord with current standard usage which recognizes that the oral form of the Maori language has no letter “s.” Apart from proper names, all Maori words used in the text have been italicized. Where appropriate, we have included an approximate meaning in parentheses; where we have not done so, a translation may be found in this glossary. Ariki

haka hapu Hawai‘iki hui huia iwi kaianga kaimoana kauhanganui

Paramount chief tracing descent from one of the oceangoing vessels that brought Maori to New Zealand Ritual chant of defiance accompanied by stylized dance; a challenge Subtribe Legendary homeland of the Maori, probably in eastern Polynesia Assembly; meeting; gathering (often for political as well as social purposes) Extinct bird, native to New Zealand, whose feathers were worn by Ariki Tribe; people; nation Open, unfortified village Seafood Parliament 365

366 •

GLOSSARY OF MAORI WORDS

kaumatua kauri kawanatanga kingitanga koro kotahitanga kuia mana mana Maori motuhake Maori Maoritanga

marae

mere

moko Moriori pa Pakeha patu pounamu rangitira rangitiratanga runanga

Elder; family head Forest tree (Agathis australis) valued for its timber and resinous gum Government; governance Kingship Old man Unity (of purpose); unity movement Old woman; female elder Authority; control; prestige Maori sovereignty The native Polynesian people of New Zealand Maoriness; Maori culture (stresses maintenance of Maori history, traditions, ceremony, and the continuing individuality of the Maori people) Place of assembly (open space in front of a whare nui); the spiritual and symbolic center of tribal affairs A patu made of pounamu or greenstone (a mere is usually highly prized and is sometimes given as a gift to an important or respected person) Tattooing on face, arms, thighs, or buttocks The original Polynesian inhabitants of the Chatham Islands Fortified place A person of non-Maori descent (usually European) Small flat hand-held weapon made of stone and used as a club Greenstone (New Zealand jade) Chief (either male or female); a person of noble birth or breeding Chieftainship; authority Meeting; council; assembly

GLOSSARY OF MAORI WORDS

tangata whenua tangi, tangihanga taonga tapu tikanga tiki (hei tiki)

tino rangatiratanga tohunga turangawaewae utu waka

whakapapa whanau whanaungatanga whare whare nui whenua

• 367

Original inhabitants (lit. “people of the land”) Funeral, funeral rites (lit. “to weep”) Treasures; cultural heritage Under spiritual restriction; sacred Custom; customs (hence, tikanga Maori—things Maori) Ornament made of pounamu carved in the form of a flat grotesque figure and worn on a string around the neck The unqualified exercise of chieftainship Specialist; expert (especially on religious matters) Ancestral home (lit. “standing place for the feet”) Satisfaction; revenge; recompense; reciprocity Tribal confederation based on common descent from occupants of an early migratory canoe (lit. “canoe”) Genealogy Extended family Kinship Building; house Meetinghouse (lit. “large” or “big” house) Land, country

Selected Bibliography

CONTENTS Introduction A. General References B. History 1. General 2. Pre-European 3. European Discovery and Settlement 4. Maori and Pakeha 5. The Transition Years 6. Modern New Zealand 7. Political History 8. Social History 9. Regional History 10. Military History C. International Relations and Foreign Policy D. Biography E. Autobiography and Memoirs F. Politics 1. General 2. The Constitution 3. The Electoral System and Elections 4. Political Parties 5. Parliament 6. Government and the Executive G. The Economy 1. Economic History 2. The Political Economy

369

370 375 376 376 378 379 382 384 385 386 387 389 393 395 399 404 407 407 409 409 412 413 414 415 415 417

370 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

H. Literature 1. General 2. Novels 3. Short Stories 4. Fiction for Children and Adolescents 5. Stage Plays 6. Poetry I. About Women and Women’s Writing J. New Zealand Society and Culture 1. General 2. Arts and Culture 3. Education 4. Environmental Issues 5. Gender Issues 6. Health Issues 7. Industrial Relations 8. The Justice System 9. Population Issues 10. Race Relations 11. Religion 12. Security and Welfare K. Maori Society—Past and Present L. Journals and Periodicals M. Selected Internet Websites 1. Government 2. Ministries and Departments 3. Finance 4. Media 5. Organizations

419 419 420 425 426 427 428 429 432 432 434 435 436 437 437 438 438 438 439 440 440 441 446 447 447 448 448 448 449

INTRODUCTION For all practical purposes, New Zealand has no ancient or medieval history in the conventional sense of those terms. For much of the greater part of its existence as a separate geographical entity, the only landbased inhabitants were plants, birds (frequently flightless), and some reptiles and insects, the only endemic mammals being two small species

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 371

of bats. Hence, human habitation begins relatively late and, even then, until its discovery by Europeans, there were no written records, only oral tradition. Much of this country’s history is, therefore, modern history written by Europeans, for Europeans, and from a European perspective. Frequently, an underlying assumption is that the superior beings of a civilized nation are bringing the benefits of civilization to natives who were not only uncivilized but frequently cannibals. Such assumptions often do not fit comfortably with the facts. Certainly, many of the missionaries had altruistic intentions, even if they were not always in the best interests of Maori. Many of the settlers were much more self-interested. Moreover, Maori turned out to be adaptable and quick to learn. Modern New Zealand history has become much more concerned with many of the largely ignored achievements of Maori, the misunderstandings to which they were subject, and—even more importantly— the deep injustices which many of them suffered. New Zealand, more than most countries, has been undergoing its “revisionist” phase of history. But this is not just history for the sake of understanding the past. Since the establishment of the Waitangi Tribunal in 1977, history has acquired an important practical significance as attempts are made to “right the wrongs” of the past 150 years or so. Early Maori history is the subject of archaeologists and anthropologists. Here, New Zealand has been well served, in particular with works by Elsdon Best; Sir Peter Buck (Te Rangihiroa), The Coming of the Maori (Wellington: Maori Purposes Fund Board; Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952); and D. R. Simmons, The Great New Zealand Myth: A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori (Wellington: Reed, 1976); and the work of archaeologists such as R. C. Green and Michael Trotter. The question of the Maori discovery of New Zealand was long a vexed issue with Andrew Sharp, who presented a persuasive case in the 1960s that Polynesian settlement was the result of one-way, predominantly “accidental,” voyaging. This view has now been largely superseded as a result of greater understanding, not only about Polynesian navigation and boat-building techniques, but also about their ability to “live off” the ocean and survive for long periods at sea. The results of these researches are set out in Jack Golson (ed.), Polynesian Navigation, 3rd ed. (Wellington: Reed, 1972), Douglas Sutton (ed.), The Origins of the First New Zealanders (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994),

372 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

and most recently K. R. Howe, The Quest for Origins (Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003). European discovery is, naturally, far better documented, with the work of J. C. Beaglehole culminating in his magisterial three-volume edition of The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1955–1969) for the Hakluyt Society. Similarly, the settlement of New Zealand and the establishment of government is well documented with the extensive C. O. 209 series of Colonial Office files at the Public Record Office in London having proved a cornucopia of material for historians. If less is known about the impact upon Maori, the shortage of material is much less significant than in earlier times. Many Maori quickly learned to read and write and, from the 1840s onwards, when Governor Grey and others began gathering materials, a respectable body of written material in Maori was collected and is available (frequently still untranslated) in public collections, particularly in Auckland. There is also a considerable quantity of Maori material (with translations) to be found in the copious Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives of the time. Maori materials have been drawn upon extensively in the important Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, 1769–1960 (5 volumes. Wellington and Auckland: Allen & Unwin; Bridget Williams Books, Auckland University Press, in association with the Department of Internal Affairs, 1990–2000). Between one-quarter and one-third of the biographies tell the life stories of Maori people, and the dictionary is playing a particularly important role in drawing to New Zealanders’ attention what might be termed the “other side” of the traditional historical coin. We still lack, however, important works on the history of the tribes. This same dictionary has also done much to redress the historical balance which has too often played down or ignored the role of women. Approximately one-fifth of its entries are devoted to women. Not surprisingly, one of the most controversial areas of history is to be found in what have been varyingly called “The Maori Wars,” the “Land Wars,” “te riri pakeha” (White Man’s Wars), and, most recently by Sir Keith Sinclair in Kinds of Peace: Maori People after the Wars, 1870–1885 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1991), “The AngloMaori Wars.” Sinclair’s earlier work The Origins of the Maori Wars, 2nd ed. (Wellington: New Zealand University Press, 1961), was a classic of its time. More recently, a key work which has become indispen-

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 373

sable in looking behind the causes of the wars to understand the position of the Maori who became a minority in their own land is Claudia Orange’s The Treaty of Waitangi (Wellington: Allen & Unwin; Port Nicholson Press, 1987; revised, illustrated edition, 2004). In the past, New Zealand has been perhaps best known overseas for its dedication to egalitarian principles and its work in developing a welfare state. In the 1890s this attracted the attention of such overseas writers as Albert Métin, Socialism without Doctrine (Sydney: Alternative Publishing Co-operative, 1977), and André Siegfried, Democracy in New Zealand, 2nd ed. (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1982), as well as Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The Webbs in New Zealand, 2nd ed. (Wellington: Price Milburn, 1974). The observations of these writers need to be seen alongside those of New Zealander William Pember Reeves in State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand (London: Grant Richards, 1902; reissued, Melbourne: Macmillan Australia, 1969). The further development of the welfare state under the First Labour Government in the 1930s failed to attract the same degree of international attention. One of the best books of its time was New Zealand in the Making, 2nd ed. (London: Allen & Unwin, 1959) by J. B. Condliffe, an economist. Less satisfactory is his Welfare State in New Zealand (London: Allen & Unwin, 1959). The struggle to win and maintain equality is also to the fore in The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840–1966 (Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1966) by W. B. Sutch, a prolific author as well as an influential member of the Labour Party’s think tank during the Depression years of the 1930s and a “mover and shaker” after Labour came to power in 1935. The dramatic changes—New Zealand’s perestroika—which resulted in the scaling down (some might say “dismantling”) of the welfare state since 1984 are covered in Colin James, The Quiet Revolution (Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1986) and New Territory (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1992). The case for dismantling the welfare state has been argued by the prime architect of change, Sir Roger Douglas, in Toward Prosperity (Auckland: David Bateman, 1987) and Unfinished Business (Auckland: Random House, 1993). The most useful general histories (of which there are few) are The Oxford History of New Zealand (Auckland: Oxford University Press, ed. W. H. Oliver, 1981; 2nd ed., ed. Geoffrey Rice, 1992); Sir Keith Sinclair’s History of New Zealand, 5th rev. ed. (Auckland: Penguin Books, 2000);

374 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1990), which was edited by Sinclair; and his and Wendy Harrex’s Looking Back: A Photographic History of New Zealand (Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1978). A recent general history written from a Maori perspective is Ranginui Walker’s Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle without End (Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990). Until recently, books by New Zealand politicians have been a rarity. Some of the earlier colonial politicians did commit themselves to print, and Sir Julius Vogel even wrote a futuristic novel entitled Anno Domini 2000; or, Women’s Destiny (London: Hutchinson, 1889), in which women held the highest posts in government and poverty had been conquered. Alfred Saunders, whose History of New Zealand, 1642–1893, 2 vols. (Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1893–1896), has been described as being without historical merit, and William Pember Reeves, in particular, were also politician-authors. Towards the end of the last century, Sir Robert Muldoon proved a prolific author, and historianturned-politician Michael Bassett chronicled the politics of the period between 1972 and 1975 in The Third Labour Government (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1976). A former prime minister, David Lange, has contributed a book on New Zealand’s antinuclear policy: Nuclear Free—The New Zealand Way (Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990), whilst another former prime minister, Geoffrey Palmer, has written books dealing with New Zealand’s constitution and government structure. A minister in the Fourth National Government, Simon Upton, displays a more philosophical approach to the state and its workings. Autobiographies of leaders are rare, the only examples being those of Sir John Marshall (who, whilst in parliament from 1946 until 1975, served as prime minister for less than a year) and David Lange. Facets of the social fabric of New Zealand society are well covered in The Listener Bedside Book (Auckland: W & H Publications, 1997– ), five volumes of which have appeared to date. For more than 60 years, the New Zealand Listener has mirrored New Zealand’s cultural and literary life ranging from political and current affairs to poetry, short stories, and informed opinion. For reasons of space, only books and monographs have been listed. Journal articles, although a rich source for New Zealand history, are omitted and readers seeking more detailed articles should consult The New Zealand Journal of History (Auckland: 1967– ), Political Science (Wellington: 1948– ), and The Journal of the Polynesian Society

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 375

(Wellington and Auckland: The Society, 1892– ). Several of the books listed, especially The Oxford History of New Zealand, 2nd ed., ed. Geoffrey Rice (Auckland: Oxford University Press), and Paul Spoonley et al., New Zealand Society, 2nd ed. (Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994) contain excellent bibliographies which include many references to articles published in periodicals. Other reference works that have proven to be particularly useful in the compilation of this dictionary include (in addition to the invaluable Dictionary of New Zealand Biography mentioned above) the Encyclopedia of New Zealand (edited by A. H. McLintock), published in 1966; the smaller Bateman: New Zealand Encyclopedia, 6th ed. (Auckland: Bateman, 2005), edited by Lynne Richardson; the 12th edition of Who’s Who in New Zealand (Auckland: Reed Books, 1991), edited by Max Lambert; and New Zealand Who’s Who Aotearoa (Auckland: Alister Taylor, 2001), edited by Alister Taylor.

A. GENERAL REFERENCES Bradley, Barry, ed. Penguin New Zealand Atlas. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1999. Buller, Walter Lawry. Buller’s Birds of New Zealand. London: John Van Voorst, 1873; Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1967. Crampton, Peter, Clare Salmond, and Russell Kirkpatrick, with Robyn Scarborough and Chris Kelly. Degrees of Deprivation in New Zealand: An Atlas of Socioeconomic Difference. Auckland: David Bateman, 2000. Cyclopaedia of New Zealand. Christchurch: Cyclopaedia Coy, 1903. Enting, Brian, and Les Molloy. The Ancient Islands: New Zealand’s Natural Environments. Wellington: Port Nicholson Press, 1982. Fell, Derek. Campbell Island: Land of the Blue Sunflower. Auckland: David Bateman, 2002. Gold, Hyam, and Alan Webster. New Zealand Values Today: The Popular Report of the November 1989 New Zealand Study of Values. Palmerston North: Alpha, 1990. Gully, John. New Zealand Scenery. London: Marcus Ward, 1877. Hutching, Gerard. The Natural World of New Zealand: An Illustrated Encyclopaedia of New Zealand’s Natural Heritage. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1998.

376 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kelly, Jan, and Brian Marshall. Atlas of New Zealand Boundaries. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1996. Kirkpatrick, Russell. Contemporary Atlas of New Zealand: The Shapes of Our Nation. Auckland: David Bateman, 1999. Lambert, Max, ed. Air New Zealand Almanac. Wellington: New Zealand Press Association, 1989. Ngata, H. M. English-Maori Dictionary. Wellington: Ministry of Education for Learning Media, 1993. Orsman, Elizabeth, and Harry Orsman, eds. The New Zealand Dictionary. Auckland: New House, 1994. Orsman, H. W., ed. The Dictionary of New Zealand English: New Zealand Words and Their Origins. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1997. Richardson, Lynne, ed. Bateman: New Zealand Encyclopaedia, 6th ed. Auckland: Bateman, 2005. Smith, Katherine J., and Jonathan Eisen. The New Zealand Book of Records. Auckland: Auckland Institute of Technology Press, 1994. Social Indicators Survey. Report on the Social Indicators Survey, 1980–1981. Wellington: Department of Statistics, 1984. Thornton, Jocelyn. The Reed Field Guide to New Zealand Geology: An Introduction to Rocks, Minerals and Fossils. 2nd ed. Auckland: Reed, 2003. Wards, Ian, ed. New Zealand Atlas. Wellington: Government Printer, 1976. Williams, H. W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed. Wellington: Government Printer, 1971. Wilson, J. O., ed. New Zealand Parliamentary Record, 1840–1984. Wellington: Government Printer, 1985. Wises New Zealand Guide. 8th ed. Auckland: Wises, 1984. (Earlier editions, 1899–1979.) B. HISTORY 1. General Belich, James. Making Peoples: A History of New Zealanders from Polynesian Settlement to the End of the Nineteenth Century. Auckland: Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 1996.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 377

———. Paradise Reforged: A History of New Zealanders from the 1880s to the Year 2000. Auckland: Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 2001. Binney, Judith, Judith Bassett, and Erik Olssen. The People and the Land: Te Tangata me Te Whenua: An Illustrated History of New Zealand, 1820–1920. Rev. ed. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1998. Binnie, Judith, ed. The Shaping of History: Essays from the New Zealand Journal of History. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2001. Brockie, Bob, ed. The Penguin Eyewitness History of New Zealand. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2002. Eldred-Grigg, Stevan. The Rich: A New Zealand History. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1996. Grant, Ian F. The Unauthorised Version: A Cartoon History of New Zealand. Auckland: Cassell, 1980. Hill, Richard S. The Colonial Frontier Tamed: New Zealand Policing in Transition, 1867–1886. Wellington: Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs/GP Books, 1989. ———. The Iron Hand and the Velvet Glove: The Modernisation of Policing in New Zealand, 1886–1917. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1995. ———. Policing the Colonial Frontier: The Theory and Practice of Coercive and Social Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867. 2 parts. Wellington: Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1986. King, Michael. A Penguin History of New Zealand. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. McIntyre, W. D., and W. J. Gardner. Speeches and Documents on New Zealand History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. McKinnon, Malcolm, ed. New Zealand Historical Atlas. Auckland: David Bateman in association with the Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1997. Oliver, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. London: Faber and Faber, 1960. Oliver, W. H., with B. R. Williams, eds. The Oxford History of New Zealand. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981; 2nd ed., ed. Geoffrey W. Rice, Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1992. Pawson, Eric, and Tom Brooking, eds. Environmental Histories of New Zealand. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2002.

378 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reeves, W. P. The Long White Cloud. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1898; 4th rev. ed., 1950 (with additional chapters by A. J. Harrop). Saunders, Alfred. History of New Zealand, 1642–1893. 2 vols. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1893 and 1896. Sinclair, Keith. A History of New Zealand, 5th rev. ed. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2000. ———, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of New Zealand, 2nd ed. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1996. Sinclair, Keith, and Wendy Harrex. Looking Back: A Photographic History of New Zealand. Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1978. Sutch, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand: A Reassessment. Wellington: Reed, 1969. ———. The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840–1966. Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1966. Thomson, Arthur. The Story of New Zealand: Past and Present—Savage and Civilised. 2 vols. London: John Murray, 1859; Christchurch: Capper Press, 1974. Trollope, Anthony. New Zealand. London: Chapman and Hall, 1875. Vaggioli, Dom Felice. History of New Zealand and Its Inhabitants, trans. John Crockett. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2000. (First published 1896.) Walker, Ranginui. Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle without End. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990. Wolfe, Richard. Moa: The Dramatic Story of the Discovery of a Great Bird. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. Wright, Matthew. The Reed Illustrated History of New Zealand. Auckland: Reed, 2004. Young, David. Our Islands, Our Selves: A History of Conservation in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2004. 2. Pre-European Anderson, Atholl. “The Chronology of Colonisation in New Zealand.” Antiquity 65 (1991): 769–95. Buck, Peter (Te Rangihiroa). The Coming of the Maori. Wellington: Maori Purposes Fund Board; Whitcombe & Tombs, 1952. ———. Vikings of the Sunrise. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1954.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 379

Davidson, Janet. The Prehistory of New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1984. Duff, Roger S. The Moahunter Period of Maori Culture. 2nd ed. Wellington: Government Printer, 1956. Firth, Raymond. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. Wellington: Government Printer, 1959. Golson, Jack, ed. Polynesian Navigation. 3rd ed. Wellington: Reed, 1972. Green, R. C. Adaptation and Change in Maori Culture. Auckland: Stockton House, 1977. Howe, K. R. The Quest for Origins: Who Discovered and Settled New Zealand and the Pacific Islands? Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. Higham, Thomas, Atholl Anderson, and Chris Jacomb. “Dating the First New Zealanders. The Chronology of the Wairau Bar.” Antiquity 73 (1999): 420–27. ———. Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia. Auckland: Paul’s Book Arcade, 1963. Sharp, Andrew. Ancient Voyagers in the Pacific. London: Penguin Books, 1957. Simmons, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth: A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wellington: Reed, 1976. Sorrenson, M. P. K. Maori Origins and Migrations. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1979. Sutton, Douglas G., ed. The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994. Trotter, Michael, and Beverley McCulloch. Unearthing New Zealand. Wellington: GP Books, 1989. 3. European Discovery and Settlement Arnold, Rollo. The Farthest Promised Land: English Villagers, New Zealand Immigrants of the 1870s. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1981. ———. New Zealand’s Burning: The Settlers’ World in the Mid-1880s. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1994. Barker, Lady. Station Amusements in New Zealand. London: William Hunt, 1873. ———. Station Life in New Zealand. Auckland: Random Century, 1991. (First published 1883.)

380 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beaglehole, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1961. ———. The Exploration of the Pacific. 3rd ed. London: Black, 1966. ———, ed. The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768–1771. 2 vols. Sydney: Trustees of the Public Library of New South Wales in association with Angus and Robertson, 1962. ———, ed. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for the Hakluyt Society, 1955–1969. Burns, Patricia. Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company, ed. Harry Richardson. Auckland: Heinemann Reed, 1989. Butler, Samuel. A First Year in Canterbury Settlement, ed. A. C. Brassington and P. B. Maling. Auckland: Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1964. Byrnes, Giselle. Boundary Markers: Land Surveying and the Colonisation of New Zealand. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2001. Colenso, William. The Authentic and Genuine History of the Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Government Printer, 1890. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1971.) Davis, R. P. Irish Issues in New Zealand Politics, 1868–1922. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1974. Earle, Augustus. A Narrative of Nine Months Residence in New Zealand in 1827. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1909. (First published 1832.) Fairburn, Miles. The Ideal Society and Its Enemies: The Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society, 1850–1900. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1989. ———. Nearly Out of Heart and Hope: The Puzzle of a Colonial Labourer’s Diary. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. Fell, Alfred. A Colonist’s Voyage to New Zealand. Exeter, England: James Townsend, 1926. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1973.) Fox, William. The Six Colonies of New Zealand. London: 1851. (Dunedin: Hocken Library facsimile, 1972.) Hursthouse, Charles. An Account of the Settlement of New Plymouth. London: Smith, Elder, 1849. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1975.) Maling, Peter, ed. The Torlesse Papers, 1848–1851. Christchurch: Pegasus Press, 1958; 2nd ed., Christchurch: Caxton Press, 2003. Maning, F. E. “Pakeha Maori.” Old New Zealand: A Tale of the Good Old Times. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1906.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 381

Martin, Lady Mary Ann. Our Maoris. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1884. McClymont, W. G. The Exploration of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. McIntyre, W. David. The Journal of Henry Sewell, 1853–1857. 2 vols. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1980. McNab, Robert, ed. Historical Records of New Zealand. 2 vols. Wellington: Government Printer, 1908. Miller, John. Early Victorian New Zealand: A Study of Racial Tension and Social Attitudes, 1839–1852. London: Oxford University Press, 1958. Millow, J. G. Diary, 1874: A Voyage of the “Tweed.” Christchurch: Mud Hut Press, 1974. Money, Charles L. Knocking about New Zealand. Melbourne: Samuel Mullen, 1871. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1972.) Morrell, W. P., ed. Sir Joseph Banks in New Zealand: From His Journal. Wellington: Reed, 1958. Morton, Harry. The Whale’s Wake. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1982. Muller, Gerhard. My Dear Bannie: Gerhard Mueller’s Letters from the West Coast, 1865–1866, ed. M. V. Mueller. Christchurch: Pegasus Press, 1958. Natusch, Sheila. The Cruise of the Acheron, 1848–1851. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1978. Owens, J. M. R. Prophets in the Wilderness: The Wesleyan Mission to New Zealand, 1819–1827. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Oxford University Press, 1974. Petre, Henry William. The Settlements of the New Zealand Company. London: Smith Elder, 1842. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1971.) Preshaw, G. O. Banking under Difficulties; or, Life on the Goldfields. Melbourne: Edwards Dunlop, 1888. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1971.) Reed, A. H., and A. W. Reed, eds. Captain Cook in New Zealand: Extracts from His Journals. 2nd ed. Wellington: Reed, 1969. Rhodes, W. B. The Whaling Journal of Captain W. B. Rhodes, 1836–1838, ed. C. R. Straubel. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1954.

382 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Salmond, Anne. The Trial of the Cannibal Dog: Captain Cook in the South Seas. London: Allen Lane, 2003; Penguin Books, 2004. Savage, John. Some Account of New Zealand. London: J. Murray and A. Constable, 1807. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1973.) Stack, James W. Kaiapohia: The Story of a Siege. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1893. (Reprinted, Rangiora: Wilson Brothers, 1990.) Tapp, E. J. Early New Zealand: A Dependency of New South Wales. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1958. Temple, Philip. A Sort of Conscience: The Wakefields. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2002. Tremewan, Peter. French Akaroa: An Attempt to Colonise Southern New Zealand. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1990. Turnbull, Michael. The New Zealand Bubble: The Wakefield Theory in Practice. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1959. Vogel, Julius. Great Britain and Her Colonies. London: Smith, Elder, 1865. Wakefield, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand, ed. Joan Stevens. Abr. ed. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. Wakelin, Richard. History and Politics. Wellington: Lyon and Blair; George W. Dutton, 1877. (Dunedin: Hocken Library facsimile, 1973.) Ward, J. Information Relative to New Zealand. London: John W. Parker, 1840. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1975.) Wright, Harrison M. New Zealand, 1769–1840: Early Years of Western Contact. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959. 4. Maori and Pakeha Belich, James. “I Shall Not Die”: Titokowaru’s War: New Zealand, 1868–1869. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1989. ———. The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1986. Buddle, Thomas. The Maori King Movement in New Zealand: With a Full Report of the Native Meetings Held at Waikato, April and May 1860. Auckland: New Zealander, 1860. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 1998.) Buick, T. Lindsay. The French at Akaroa: An Adventure in Colonisation. Wellington: New Zealand Book Department, 1928. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 1998.)

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 383

———. The Treaty of Waitangi; or, How New Zealand Became a British Colony. Wellington: Mackay, 1914. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1976.) Busby, James. The First Settlers in New Zealand and Their Treatment by the Government. Auckland: New Zealander, 1856. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi 2000.) Calman, Ross. The New Zealand Wars. Auckland: Reed, 2004. Clark, Paul. “Hauhau”: The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1975. Colenso, William. Contributions towards a Better Knowledge of the Maori Race. Napier: Hawkes Bay Philosophical Institute, 1878. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi 2000.) Dalton, B. J. War and Politics in New Zealand, 1855–1870. Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1967. Gorst, J. E. The Maori King, ed. Keith Sinclair. Hamilton: Paul, 1959. (First published 1863.) Miller, Harold. Race Conflict in New Zealand, 1814–1865. Auckland: Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1966. Orange, Claudia. An Illustrated History of the Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1990; rev. ed., Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2004. ———. The Treaty of Waitangi. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987. Pocock, J. G. A., ed. The Maori in New Zealand Politics. Auckland: Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1965. Ryan, Tim, and Bill Parkham. The Colonial New Zealand Wars. Rev. ed. Wellington: Grantham House, 2002. Salmond, Anne. Between Worlds: Early Exchanges between Maori and Europeans, 1773–1815. Auckland: Viking, 1997. ———. Two Worlds: First Meetings between Maori and Europeans, 1642–1772. Auckland: Penguin Viking, 1991. Sinclair, Keith. Kinds of Peace: Maori People after the Wars, 1870–1885. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1991. ———. The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Wellington: New Zealand University Press, 1961. Stenson, Marcia. The Treaty: Every New Zealander’s Guide to the Treaty of Waitangi. Auckland: Random House New Zealand, 2004. Stoney, Henry Butler. Taranaki: A Tale of War. Auckland: Wilson, 1861.

384 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ward, Alan. A Show of Justice: Racial “Amalgamation” in NineteenthCentury New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1973. (Republished, with minor changes, 1995.) ———. An Unsettled History: Treaty Claims in New Zealand Today. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1999. Ward, Crosbie. Letter to the Right Hon the Lord Lyttelton on the Relations of Great Britain with the Colonists and Aborigines of New Zealand. London: Edward Stanford, 1863. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 2000.) Wards, Ian. The Shadow of the Land: A Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict in New Zealand, 1832–1852. Wellington: Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1968. Williams, John A. Politics of the New Zealand Maori: Protest and Cooperation, 1891–1909. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1969. Wilson, Ormond. From Hongi Hika to Hone Heke, a Quarter Century of Upheaval. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1985. 5. The Transition Years Beaglehole, J. C., ed. New Zealand and the Statute of Westminster. Wellington: Victoria University College, 1944. Burdon, R. M. The New Dominion: A Social and Political History of New Zealand between the Wars. Wellington: Reed, 1965. Grimshaw, Patricia. Women’s Suffrage in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1972; 2nd ed., 1987. Métin, Albert. Socialism without Doctrine, trans. Russel Ward. Sydney: Alternative Publishing Co-operative, 1977. (First published 1901.) Olssen, Erik. The Red Feds: Revolutionary Industrial Unionism and the New Zealand Federation of Labour, 1908–1913. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1988. Reeves, William Pember. State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand. 2 vols. Melbourne: Macmillan Australia, 1969. (First published 1902.) Rice, Geoffrey W. Black November: The 1918 Influenza Epidemic in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1988.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 385

Salmond, J. D. New Zealand Labour’s Pioneering Days: The History of the Labour Movement in New Zealand from 1840 to 1894, ed. Desmond Crowley. Auckland: Forward Press, 1950. Siegfried, André. Democracy in New Zealand, trans. E. V. Burns. 2nd ed. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1982. (First published 1914.) Webb, Beatrice. The Webbs in New Zealand: Beatrice Webb’s Diary with Entries by Sidney Webb, 1898, ed. D. A. Hamer. 2nd ed. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1974. 6. Modern New Zealand Aimer, Peter. Wings of the Nation: A History of New Zealand National Airways Corporation, 1947–1978. Auckland: Bush Press, 2000. Bassett, Michael. Confrontation ’51: The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wellington: Reed, 1972. Hanson, Elizabeth. The Politics of Social Security. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1980. James, Colin. New Territory: The Transformation of New Zealand, 1984–1992. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1992. ———. The Quiet Revolution: Turbulence and Transition in Contemporary New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1986. Lee, John A. Socialism in New Zealand. Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1938. Introduction by Clement R. Attlee. McClure, Margaret. A Civilised Community: A History of Social Security in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1998. McGreal, Maurice E. A History of Civil Aviation in New Zealand. Auckland: David Bateman, 2003. Nash, Walter. New Zealand: A Working Democracy. London: John M. Dent, 1944. Roth, Herbert. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wellington: Reed, 1973. Smith, P. M. Maternity in Dispute: New Zealand, 1920–1939. Wellington: Government Printer, 1986. Templeton, Malcolm. A Wise Adventure: New Zealand and Antarctica, 1920–1960. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2000. Thomson, David. Selfish Generations? The Ageing of New Zealand’s Welfare State. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1991.

386 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

7. Political History Bassett, Michael. Three-Party Politics in New Zealand, 1911–1931. Auckland: Historical Publications, 1982. Brown, Bruce. The Rise of New Zealand Labour. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1962. Chapman, Robert M., ed. Ends and Means in New Zealand Politics. Bulletin No. 60, History Series No. 7. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1961. ———. The Political Scene, 1918–1931. Auckland: Heinemann, 1969. Chapman, Robert M., and Keith Sinclair, eds. Studies of a Small Democracy. Auckland: University of Auckland, 1963. Francis, Mark. Governors and Settlers: Images of Authority in the British Colonies, 1820–1860. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1992. Gardner, W. J. The Farmer Politician in New Zealand History. Palmerston North: Massey University, 1970. ———. A Pastoral Kingdom Divided: Cheviot, 1889–1894. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1992. Gustafson, Barry. Labour’s Path to Political Independence. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1980. Holt, James. Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1986. Lipson, Leslie. The Politics of Equality: New Zealand’s Adventures in Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948. May, Philip Ross, ed. Miners and Militants: Politics in Westland, 1865–1918. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1975. McLintock, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1958. McLintock, A. H., and G. A. Wood. The Upper House in Colonial New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1987. Morrell, W. P. The Provincial System in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1964. Walsh, Pat, ed. Pioneering New Zealand Labour History. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994. Wilson, T. G. The Grey Government, 1877–1879: An Episode in the Rise of Liberalism in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University College, 1954.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 387

———. The Rise of the New Zealand Liberal Party, 1880–1890. Auckland: Auckland University College, 1956. 8. Social History Andresen, Ø. M. Johanna’s World, trans. Johan Bonnevie. Auckland: HarperCollins (New Zealand), 2000. Bonisch-Brednich, Brigette. Keeping a Low Profile: An Oral History of German Immigration to New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2002. Brooking, Tom, and Jennie Coleman, eds. The Heather and the Fern: Scottish Migration and New Zealand Settlement. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2003. Chester, Rod, Ron Palenski, and Neville McMillan. Men in Black: Commemorative 20th-Century Edition. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett, 2000. Dalley, Bronwyn. Family Matters: Child Welfare in Twentieth-Century New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1998. Dalley, Bronwyn, and Margaret Tennant. Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2004. Day, Patrick. The Making of the New Zealand Press. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1990. ———. Radio Years. Vol. 1 of A History of New Zealand Broadcasting. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Broadcasting History Trust, 1994. ———. Voice and Vision. Vol. 2 of A History of New Zealand Broadcasting. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Broadcasting History Trust, 2000. Drummond, Alison, ed. Married and Gone to New Zealand. Hamilton: Paul’s Book Arcade, 1960. Dunstall, Graeme. A Policeman’s Paradise? Policing in a Stable Society, 1918–1945. Vol. 4 of History of Policing in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press and Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1999. Eldred-Grigg, Stevan. New Zealand Working People, 1870–1990. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1990. ———. Pleasures of the Flesh: Sex and Drugs in Colonial New Zealand, 1840–1915. Wellington: Reed, 1984.

388 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. A Southern Gentry: New Zealanders Who Inherited the Earth. Wellington: Reed, 1980. Fraser, George. Ungrateful People. 2nd ed. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1961. Grant, David. On a Roll: A History of Gambling and Lotteries in New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press in association with the New Zealand Lotteries Commission and the Historical Branch of the Department of Internal Affairs, 1994. Hankin, Cherry A., ed. Life in a Young Colony: Selections from Early New Zealand Writing. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1981. Heinz, William F., ed. Bright Fine Gold: Stories of the New Zealand Goldfields. Wellington: Reed, 1974. Hill, Richard S. The Colonial Frontier Tamed: New Zealand Policing in Transition, 1867–1886. Vol. 2 of History of Policing in New Zealand. Wellington: Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, and GP Books, 1989. ———. Iron Hand in the Velvet Glove: The Modernisation of Policing in New Zealand, 1886–1917. Vol. 3 of History of Policing in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press and New Zealand Police Association, 1995. ———. Policing the Colonial Frontier: The Theory and Practice of Coercive Social and Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867. Vol. 1 (in 2 parts) of History of Policing in New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1986. Ip, Manying. Unfolding History: The Chinese in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003. Leitch, David B. Railways of New Zealand. Newton Abbot, England: David Charles, 1972. Leitch, David B., and Brian Scott. Exploring New Zealand’s Ghost Railways. 2nd ed. Wellington: Grantham Press, 1998. McRobie, Alan. These Are the Times: A History of the 17th Dunedin (Knox Church) Scout Group, 1931–1991. Dunedin: 17th Dunedin (Knox Church) Scout Group Historical Committee, 2000. Neely, D. O., Richard King, and Francis Payne. Men in White: The History of New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1985. Auckland: Moa Beckett, 1986. Neely, D. O., and P. W. Neely. The Summer Game: The Illustrated History of New Zealand Cricket. Auckland: Moa Beckett, 1994.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 389

Ogilvie, Gordon. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. 4th ed. Auckland: Reed, 2003. Olssen, Erik, and Marcia Stenson. A Century of Change: New Zealand, 1800–1900. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1989. Richards, Trevor. Dancing on Our Bones: New Zealand, South Africa, Rugby and Racism. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1999. Richardson, Len. Coal, Class and Community: The United Mineworkers of New Zealand, 1880–1960. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. Simpson, Tony. The Road to Erewhon: A Social History of the Formative Years in New Zealand, 1890–1976. Auckland: Beaux Arts, 1976. ———. Shame and Disgrace: A History of Lost Scandals in New Zealand. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1992. ———. The Slump: The 1930s Depression: Its Origins and Aftermath. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990. ———. The Sugarbag Years: An Oral History of the 1930s Depression in New Zealand. Wellington: Alister Taylor, 1974. Stewart, Graham. The End of the Penny Section: When Trams Ruled the Streets of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wellington: Grantham House, 1993. Sullivan, Jim, ed. As I Remember: Stories from “Sounds Historical.” Auckland: Tandem Press, 2002. Templeton, Malcolm. Human Rights and Sporting Contacts: New Zealand’s Attitudes to Race Relations in South Africa, 1921–1994. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1998. Tennant, Margaret. Children’s Health, Nation’s Wealth: A History of Children’s Health Camps. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1994. Weekly News, The. Those Were the Days. 5 vols. Auckland: Moa Beckett, 1987–1993. A pictorial history of New Zealand from the 1920s to the 1960s by news photographers. Yska, Redmar. All Shook Up: The Flash Bodgie and the Rise of the New Zealand Teenager in the 1950s. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1993. 9. Regional History Acland, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th ed., rev. by W. H. Scotter. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1975. Allan, Ruth M. Nelson: A History of Early Settlement. Wellington: Reed, 1965.

390 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amodeo, Colin. The Summer Ships. Christchurch: Caxton Press, 2001. Amodeo, Colin, with Ron Chapman. Forgotten Fortyniners: Being an Account of the Men and Women Who Paved the Way in 1849 for the Canterbury Pilgrims in 1850. Christchurch: Caxton Press, 2003. Barber, Laurie H. Frontier Town: A History of Te Awamutu. Auckland: Ray Richards, 1984. ———. Introduction to Sketches from Early New Zealand: Some 19thCentury Engravings. Auckland: David Batemen, 1985. ———. No Easy Riches: A History of Ohinemuri County, Paeroa and Waihi, 1885–1985. Auckland: Ray Richards and Ohinemuri County Council, 1985. ———. The View from Pirongia: A History of Waipa County. Te Awamutu: Ray Richards and Waipa County Council, 1978. Barber, Laurie H., and R. J. Towers. Wellington Hospital, 1847–1976. Wellington: Wellington Hospital Board, 1976. Bass, May. The Northwest King Country: A History of the Land and Its People. Hamilton: Department of Conservation, 1993. Button, John. Studholme: The Junction and the District. Waimate: Studholme District Historical Committee, 2003. Campbell, John Logan. Poenamo: Sketches of the Early Days of New Zealand. Auckland: Wilson and Horton, 1970. Challinor, Deborah. Waikato. Auckland: Whitcoulls, 2002. Cookson, John, and Graeme Dunstall, eds. Southern Capital: Christchurch, towards a City Biography, 1850–2000. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2000. Eldred-Grigg, Stevan. A New History of Canterbury. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1982. Ensor, Rosemary. “Much Ado . . .”: A Century in Hanmer Springs, 1883–1993. Hanmer Springs: Hanmer Springs Centennial Committee, 1983. Field, Arthur N. Nelson Province, 1642–1842: From Discovery to Colonisation. Nelson: Betts and Son, 1942. Gardner, J. W. Amuri County: A History. 2nd ed. Culverden: Amuri County Council, 1983. ———, ed. General History, 1854–1876, and Cultural Aspects, 1850– 1950. Vol. 2 of A History of Canterbury. Christchurch: Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee and Whitcombe & Tombs, 1971.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 391

Hall-Jones, John. The Fjords of Fiordland. Invercargill: Craig Printing, 2002. Hamer, D. A., and Roberta Nicholls, eds. The Making of Wellington, 1800–1914. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1990. Hawes, Carolyn. Great Expectations: The Colonisation of Buller. Christchurch: Cadsonbury, 2004. Hawkins, D. N. Beyond the Waimakariri. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957; 3rd ed., Christchurch: Gadsonbury, 2001. Hight, James, and C. R. Straubel. To 1854. Vol. 1 of A History of Canterbury. Christchurch: Canterbury Centennial Association and Whitcombe & Tombs, 1957. Hodgson, Terence E. R., and A. M. Ringer. Auckland and Northland. Auckland: Whitcoulls, 2002. Holcroft, M. H. Old Invercargill. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1976. Jacobson, H. C. Tales of Banks Peninsula. Akaroa: Akaroa Mail Office, 1914. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Capper Press, 1976.) Looser, Frieda. Fendall’s Legacy: A History of Fendalton and Northwest Christchurch. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2002. McAloon, Jim. No Idle Rich: The Wealthy in Canterbury and Otago, 1840–1914. Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2002. McDonald, K. C. Dunedin: A Century of Civic Enterprise. Dunedin: Dunedin City Council, 1965. ———. White Stone Country: The Story of North Otago. Oamaru: North Otago Centennial Committee, 1962. McGill, David. Wellington: A Capital Century. Wellington: Transpress, 2003. McIntyre, Roberta. The Canoes of Kupe: A History of Martinborough District. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2002. McLean, Gavin. Wellington and Wairarapa. Auckland: Whitcoulls, 2002. McLintock, A. H. The History of Otago: The Origins and Growth of a Wakefield Class Settlement. Dunedin: Otago Centennial Historical Publications, 1949. McNab, Robert. Murihiku and the Southern Islands. Invercargill: William Smith, 1907. Miller, F. W. G. Golden Days of Lake County. 4th ed. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1966.

392 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mingins, Dorothy. Feilding and the Manchester Block: The European Settler Families—Swamps, Sandflies and Settlers. Feilding: Feilding and District Historical Society, 2000. Mitchell, Maui John, and Hilary Mitchell. Tetau ihi o to Waka: A History of Maori of Marlborough and Nelson. Wellington: Huia and Wakatu, 2004. Monin, Paul. This Is My Place: Hauraki Contested, 1769–1875. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2001. Oliver, W. H., and Jane M. Thomson. Challenge and Response: A Study of the Development of the Gisborne-East Coast Region. Gisborne: East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. Olssen, Erik. Building the New World: Work, Politics and Society in Caversham, 1880s–1920s. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. ———. A History of Otago. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1984. Peat, Neville. Southern Land, Southern People. Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2002. Pilkington, Dorothy, and Penny Robinson. Manawatu and Wanganui. Auckland: Whitcoulls, 2002. Pinney, Robert. Early North Otago Runs. Auckland: Collins, 1981. Reed, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wellington: Reed, 1956. Rice, Geoffrey W. Christchurch Changing: An Illustrated History. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1999. Riseborough, Hazel. Days of Darkness: Taranaki, 1878–1884. 2nd ed. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2002. Ross, W. Hugh. Turbulent Beginnings of Wanganui Settlement. Ngongotaha: Faircroft Trust, 2004. Scotter, W. H. 1876–1950. Vol. 3 of A History of Canterbury. Christchurch: Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee and Whitcombe & Tombs, 1965. Sherrard, J. M. Kaikoura: The History of the District. Kaikoura: Kaikoura County Council, 1966. Stone, R. C. J. From Tamaki-Makau-Rau to Auckland. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003. Watson, Lancelot. The Story of Oxford, 1852–1932. Christchurch: E. A. Jordan, 1932. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Cadsonbury, 2003.) Wright, Matthew. Hawke’s Bay: The History of a Province. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 393

10. Military History Baker, J. V. T. The New Zealand People at War: The War Economy. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1965. Baker, Paul. King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1988. Barber, Laurie H. Kia Kaha: A History of the Haurakis, 1898–1978. Tauranga: 6 Battalion (Hauraki) Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment, 1978. ———. Red Coat and Jungle Green: New Zealand’s Army in Peace and War. Lower Hutt: INL Print, 1984. ———. Swift and Sure: A History of the Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals and Army Signalling in New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand Signals, 1996. ———. War Memorial: A Chronology of New Zealand and World War II. Auckland: Heinemann Reed, 1989. Campbell, Richard, and Peter Liddle, eds. For Five Shillings a Day: Personal Histories of World War II. London: HarperCollins, 2000. Carkeck, Rikihana. Home Little Maori, Home: A Memoir of the Maori Contingent, 1914–1916. Wellington: Totika, 2003. Cody, J. F. 28 (Maori) Battalion. Wellington: War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1959. Crawford, John. Kia Kaha: New Zealand in the Second World War. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2000. Crawford, John, and Ian McGibbon. One Flag, One Queen, One Tongue. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003. Davin, D. M. Crete. Wellington: War History Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1953. Dawson, Bee. Spreading Their Wings: New Zealand WAAF in Wartime. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2004. Gardiner, Wira. Te mura o to ahi: The Story of the Maori Battalion. Auckland: Reed, 1992. Jacobs, Susan. Fighting with the Enemy: New Zealand POWs and the Italian Resistance. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. Judd, Brendan. The Desert Railway: The New Zealand Railway Group in North Africa and the Middle East during the Second World War. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2004.

394 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

King, Michael. New Zealanders at War. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. (First published 1981.) McGibbon, Ian. New Zealand and World War 2: The People, The Battles, and The Legacy. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett, 2004. ———, ed. The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2000. Pugsley, Christopher. From Emergency to Confrontation: The New Zealand Armed Forces in Malaya and Borneo, 1949–1966. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2003. ———. Gallipoli: The New Zealand Story. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1984; 2nd ed., Auckland: Reed, 1998. ———. On the Fringe of Hell: New Zealanders and Military Discipline in the First World War. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1991. Pugsley, Christopher, with Laurie Barber. Scars on the Heart: Two Centuries of New Zealand at War. Auckland: David Batemen and Auckland Museum, 1996. Rolfe, James. The Armed Forces of New Zealand. St. Leonards, NSW, Australia: Allen & Unwin, 1999. Ryan, Tim, and Bill Parham. The Colonial New Zealand Wars. Wellington: Grantham House, 2002. (First published 1986.) Sullivan, Jim, ed. Doing Our Bit: New Zealand Women Tell Their Stories of World War II. Auckland: HarperCollins, 2002. Taylor, Nancy M. The New Zealand People at War: The Home Front. 2 vols. Wellington: Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1986. Thomson, John. Warrior Nation: New Zealanders at the Front, 1900–2000. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2000. Waite, Fred. The New Zealanders at Gallipoli. Auckland: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1919. (Reprinted, Uckfield: Naval and Military Press, 2003.) Williams, Tony. ANZACs: Stories from New Zealanders at War. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett, 2000. Wolfe, Richard. New Zealand at War. Auckland: Whitcoulls, 2004. Wood, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War: Political and External Affairs. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1958. Wright, Matthew. Battle for Crete: New Zealand’s Near-run Affair, 1941. Auckland: Reed, 2003.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 395

———. Italian Odyssey: New Zealanders in the Battle for Italy, 1943–1945. Auckland: Reed, 2003. ———. Pacific War: New Zealand and Japan, 1941–1945. Auckland: Reed, 2003.

C. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND FOREIGN POLICY Albinski, H. S. ANZUS, the United States and Pacific Security. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1987. Alley, Roderic M., ed. Alternatives to ANZUS. Auckland: Foundation for Peace Studies, 1984. ———. The Domestic Politics of International Relations: Cases from Australia, New Zealand and Oceania. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2002. ———, ed. New Zealand and the Pacific. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1984. Bade, James, N., ed. Out of the Shadow of War: The German Connection with New Zealand in the Twentieth Century. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1998. Baker, Richard, ed. Australia, New Zealand and the United States: Internal Change and Alliance Relations in the ANZUS States. New York: Praeger, 1991. Ball, D., ed. The ANZAC Connection. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1985. Bercovitch, J., ed. ANZUS in Crisis: Alliance Management in International Relations. London: Macmillan, 1988. Brocklebank, Laurie. Jayforce: New Zealand and the Military Occupation of Japan. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1997. Brown, Bruce M. New Zealand in the Pacific. Wellington: New Zealand Institute for International Affairs, 1970. ———, ed. Asia and the Pacific in the 1970s. Wellington: Reed, 1971. ———, ed. New Zealand and Australia: Where Are We Going? Wellington: New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 2001. ———, ed. 1972–1990. Vol. 3 of New Zealand in World Affairs. Wellington: Victoria University Press and New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1999. Burnett, A. The A–NZ–US Triangle. Canberra: ANU, 1988.

396 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Catley, Bob. Waltzing with Matilda: Should New Zealand Join Australia? Wellington: Dark Horse, 2001. Clements, Kevin. Back from the Brink: The Creation of a Nuclear-Free New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1988. Cozens, Peter. A Maritime Nation: New Zealand’s Maritime Environment and Security. Wellington: Centre for Strategic Studies, 1996. Eyley, Claudia Pond. Protest at Mururoa: First-hand Accounts from the New Zealand-Based Flotilla. Auckland: Tandem Press, 1997. Fenton, Damien. A False Sense of Security: The Force Structure of the New Zealand Army, 1946–1978. Wellington: Centre for Strategic Studies, 1998. Gordon, B. K. New Zealand Becomes a Pacific Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960. Hayburn, H. R. C., ed. New Zealand and the ASEAN Countries. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1988. Henderson, John, Keith Jackson, and Richard Kennaway, eds. Beyond New Zealand: The Foreign Policy of a Small State. Auckland: Methuen, 1980. Henderson, John, and Richard Kennaway, eds. Beyond New Zealand II: Foreign Policy into the 1990s. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1991. Hoadley, Stephen. The New Zealand Foreign Affairs Handbook. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1989. ———. New Zealand Taiwan Relations. Auckland: New Zealand Asia Institute, University of Auckland, 1998. ———. New Zealand United States Relations: Friends, No Longer Allies. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 2000. Holmes, Frank. The Trans-Tasman Relationship. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, 1996. Jennings, P. The Armed Forces of New Zealand and the ANZUS Split: Costs and Consequences. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1988. Kennaway, Richard. New Zealand Foreign Policy, 1951–1971. Wellington: Hicks Smith, 1972. King, Michael. Death of the Rainbow Warrior. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1986. Larkin, T. C., ed. New Zealand’s External Relations. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1962.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 397

Locke, Elsie. Peace People: A History of Peace Activities in New Zealand. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 1992. Lodge, Juliet. The European Community and New Zealand. London: Frances Pinter, 1982. McGibbon, Ian. Blue-water Rationale: The Naval Defence of New Zealand, 1914–1942. Wellington: Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1981. ———. The Path to Gallipoli: Defending New Zealand, 1840–1915. Wellington: GP Books, 1991. ———. Unofficial Channels: Letters between Alister McIntosh and Foss Shanahan, George Laking and Frank Corner, 1946–1966. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1999. McIntosh, A. D., et al. New Zealand in World Affairs. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1977. McIntyre, W. D. The Commonwealth of Nations: Origins and Impact, 1869–1971. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977. ———. Neutralism, Non-Alignment and New Zealand. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1969. ———. New Zealand Prepares for War: Defence Policy, 1919–1939. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1988. McKinley, M. The ANZUS Alliance and New Zealand Labour. Canberra: Department of International Relations, ANU, 1986. McKinnon, Malcolm. Independence and Foreign Policy: New Zealand in the World since 1935. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1993. McLean, Denis. The Prickly Pear: Making Nationalism in Australia and New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2003. McMillan, Stuart W. Neither Confirm nor Deny: The Nuclear Ships Dispute between New Zealand and the United States. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987. McMillan, Stuart W., Bala Ramasamy, and Frank Holmes. APEC in focus: Views from New Zealand and Malaysia. Lincoln, New Zealand: Lincoln University Press and Daphne Brasell Associates, 1999. Millar, T. B., ed. Australian-New Zealand Defence Co-operation. Canberra: ANU Press, 1968. Peren, Roger, ed. Japan and New Zealand: 150 Years. Palmerston North: New Zealand Centre for Japanese Studies, Massey University on behalf of Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Tokyo, 1999.

398 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Pugh, M. C. The ANZUS Crisis, Nuclear Visiting and Deterrence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. Reese, T. R. Australia, New Zealand and the United States, 1941–1968. London: Oxford University Press, 1969. Roberts, Nigel S. New Zealand and Nuclear Testing in the Pacific. Wellington: New Zealand Institute for International Affairs, 1972. Ross, Angus. New Zealand’s Aspirations in the Pacific in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964. ———, ed. New Zealand’s Record in the Pacific Islands in the Twentieth Century. Auckland: Longman Paul for NZIIA, 1972. Sinclair, Keith. Towards Independence: International Relations, New Zealand and the World since 1945. Auckland: Heinemann Educational Books, 1976. ———, ed. Tasman Relations: New Zealand and Australia, 1788–1988. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1987. Starke, J. G. The ANZUS Treaty Alliance. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1965. Subritzky, John. Confronting Sukarno: British, American, Australian and New Zealand Diplomacy in the Malaysian Indonesian Confrontation, 1961–1965. London: Macmillan, 2000. Templeton, Malcolm. Defence and Security: What New Zealand Needs. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1986. ———. Human Rights and Sporting Contacts: New Zealand Attitudes to Race Relations in South Africa, 1921–1994. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1998. ———. Ties of Blood and Empire: New Zealand Involvement in Middle East Defence and the Suez Crisis. Auckland: Auckland University Press and New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1994. Thakur, R. In Defence of New Zealand: Foreign Policy Choices in the Nuclear Age. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1986. Trapeznik, Alexander, and Aaron Fox. Lenin’s Legacy Down Under: New Zealand’s Cold War. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2004. Trotter, Anne. New Zealand and Japan, 1945–1952. London: Athelone Press, 1990. ———, ed. New Zealand and China. Dunedin: University of Otago, 1988. ———, ed. New Zealand, Canada and the United States. Dunedin: University of Otago, 1987.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 399

Wevers, M. Japan, Its Future and New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press for Institute of Policy Studies, 1988. Wilson, A. C. New Zealand and the Soviet Union, 1950–1991: A Brittle Relationship. Wellington: University of Victoria Press and New Zealand Institute of International Relations, 2004. Wood, F. L. W. New Zealand in the World. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1940.

D. BIOGRAPHY Alpers, Antony. The Life of Katherine Mansfield. London: Jonathan Cape, 1980. Barber, Laurie H., and John Tonkin-Covell. Freyberg: Churchill’s Salamander. Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989. Barrowman, Rachael. Mason: The Life of R. A. K. Mason. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2003. Bassett, Judith. Sir Harry Atkinson. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1975. Bassett, Michael. Coates of Kaipara. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. ———. Sir Joseph Ward: A Political Biography. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1993. Bassett, Michael, and Michael King. Tomorrow Comes the Song: A Life of Peter Fraser. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2000. Beaglehole, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London: Black, 1974. Binney, Judith. The Legacy of Guilt: A Life of Thomas Kendall. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1968. ———. Redemption Songs: A Life of Te Kooti Arikirangi Te Turuki. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Bridget Williams Books, 1995. Bohan, Edmund. “Blest Madman”: Fitzgerald of Canterbury. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1998. ———. Burdon: A Man of Our Time. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2004. ———. Edward Stafford: New Zealand’s First Statesman. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 1994. ———. To Be a Hero: Sir George Grey, 1812–1898. Auckland: HarperCollins, 1998.

400 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Booth, Pat. Edmund Hillary: The Life of a Legend. Auckland: Moa Beckett, 1993. Brady, Anne-Marie. The Myth of Rewi Alley. London: Routledge-Curzon, 2002. Brooking, Tom. Lands for the People? A Biography of John McKenzie. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1996. Bryant, George. Beetham. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1981. Burdon, R. M. King Dick: A Biography of Richard John Seddon. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1955. ———. The Life and Times of Sir Julius Vogel. Christchurch: Caxton Press, 1948. Burns, Patricia. Te Rauparaha. Wellington: Reed, 1980. Carrington, C. E. John Robert Godley of Canterbury. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1950. Carter, Ian. The Gadfly: The Life and Times of James Shelley. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Broadcasting History Trust, 1993. Caughey, Angela. The Interpreter: The Biography and “Dicky” Barrett. Auckland: David Batemen, 1998. ———. Pioneer Families: The Settlers of 19th-Century New Zealand. Auckland: David Batemen, 1994. Challis, Derek, and Gloria Rawlinson. The Book of Iris: A Life of Robin Hyde. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2002. Chapman, Lloyd. In a Strange Garden: The Life and Times of Truby King. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. Clark Margaret. Muldoon Revisited. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004. ———. Peter Fraser: Master Politician. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1998. ———. Sir Keith Holyoake: Towards a Political Biography. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1997. ———. Three Labour Leaders: Nordmeyer, Kirk, Rowling. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2001. ———, ed. Holyoake’s Lieutenants. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2003. Cloher, Dorothy Urlich. Hongi Hika: Warrior Chief. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. Cody, J. F. Man of Two Worlds: Sir Maui Pomare. Wellington: Reed, 1953.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 401

Condliffe, J. B. Te Rangihiroa: The Life of Sir Peter Buck. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1971. Craig, E. W. G. Man of the Mist: A Biography of Elsdon Best. Wellington: Reed, 1964. Dalziel, Raewyn. Julius Vogel: Business Politician. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1986. Devaliant, Judith. Kate Sheppard: A Biography. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1992. Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, 1769–1960. 5 vols. Vol. 1 ed. W. H. Oliver; vols. 2–5 ed. Claudia Orange. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Bridget Williams Books and Department of Internal Affairs, 1990–2000. Doughty, Ross. The Holyoake Years. Feilding: Ross A. Doughty, 1977. Duder, Tessa. Margaret Mahy: A Writer’s Life. Auckland: HarperCollins, 2005. Edwards, Brian. Helen: Portrait of a Prime Minister. Auckland: Exisle, 2001. Farland, B. H. Coates’ Tale. Wellington: Bruce Farland, 1995. Fitzsimons, Peter. Nancy Wake. Sydney: HarperCollins, 2001. Fry, Ruth. Maud and Amber. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1992. Gee, David. Our Mabel. Wellington: Millwood Press, 1977. Gilderdale, Betty. The Seven Lives of Lady Barker. Auckland: David Bateman, 1996. Goldsmith, Paul. The Rise and Fall of TeHemara Tauhia. Auckland: Reed, 2003. Graham, Jeanine. Frederick Weld. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1983. Gustafson, Barry. From the Cradle to the Grave: A Biography of Michael Joseph Savage. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1986. ———. His Way: A Biography of Robert Muldoon. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2000. Hames, Martin. Winston First: The Unauthorised Account of Winston Peters’ Career. Auckland: Random House, 1995. Hanna, Tim. John Britten. Nelson: Craig Potten, 2003. Harrison, Noel. Graham Latimer: A Biography. Wellington: Huia, 2002.

402 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Henderson, J. M. Ratana: The Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wellington: Reed, 1972. Henderson, John. Rowling: The Man and the Myth. Auckland: ANZ Books, 1981. Hood, Lynley. Minnie Dean: Her Life and Crimes. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1994. ———. Sylvia: The Biography of Sylvia Ashton-Warner. Auckland: Viking, 1998. Hough, Richard. Captain James Cook: A Biography. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1994. Howe, K. R. Singer in a Songless Land: A Life of Edward Tregear, 1846–1931. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1991. Hunt, Graeme. Black Prince: The Biography of Fintan Patrick Walsh. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2004. King, Michael. An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2002. ———. Te Puea. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. ———. Whina. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1983. ———. Wrestling with the Angel: A Life and Times of Janet Frame. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2000. Lambert, Max, ed. Who’s Who in New Zealand. 12th ed. Auckland: Reed Books, 1991. Lovell-Smith, Margaret. Easily the Best: The Life of Helen Connon. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 2004. Mackersey, Ian. Jean Batten: The Garbo of the Skies. London: Macdonald, 1990. McIvor, Timothy. The Rainmaker: A Biography of John Ballance, Journalist and Politician, 1839–1893. Auckland: Heinemann Reed, 1989. McNeish, James. Dance of the Peacocks: New Zealanders in Exile in the Time of Hitler and Mao Tse-Tung. Auckland: Vintage, 2003. Moon, Paul. Fitzroy: Governor in Crisis, 1843–1845. Auckland: David Ling, 2000. ———. Hone Heke: Nga Puhi Warrior. Auckland: David Ling, 2001. Munro, Jessie. The Story of Suzanne Aubert. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Bridget Williams Books, 1996. Nga Tangata Taumata Rau, 1769–1960. 5 vols. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Te Tari Taiwhenua, 1990–2000. Maori biographies from the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 403

O’Farrell, P. J. Harry Holland: Militant Socialist. Canberra: ANU, 1964. Ogilvie, Gordon. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. Wellington: Reed, 1973. Olssen, Erik. John A. Lee. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1977. O’Sullivan, Vincent. Long Journey to the Border: A Life of John Mulgan. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. Ovenden, Keith. A Fighting Withdrawal: The Life of Dan Davin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. Owens, J. M. R. The Mediator: A Life of Richard Taylor, 1805–1873. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2004. Porter, Frances. Born to New Zealand: A Biography of Jane Maria Atkinson. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1989. Price, Felicity. Dare to Dream: The John Britten Story. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2003. Reid, Bryan. After the Fireworks: A Life of David Ballantyne. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2004. Rice, Geoffrey W. Heaton Rhodes of Otahuna. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 2001. Richardson, Len, and Shelley Richardson. Anthony Wilding: A Sporting Life. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 2005. Rutherford, J. Sir George Grey, K.C.B., 1812–1898: A Study in Colonial Government. London: Cassell, 1961. Sandford, K. L. Mark of the Lion: The Story of Captain Charles Upham, VC and Bar. London: Hutchinson, 1962. (Reprinted, Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003.) Scholefield, G. H. Captain William Hobson: First Governor of New Zealand. London: Oxford University Press, 1934. ———, ed. Dictionary of New Zealand Biography. 2 vols. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1940. Scott, Dick. A Stake in the Country: Assid Abraham Corban and His Family, 1892–2002. Auckland: Reed, 2002. Sinclair, Keith. Walter Nash. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1976. ———. William Pember Reeves: New Zealand Fabian. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965. Stewart, William Downie. William Rolleston: New Zealand Statesman. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1940. Stokes, Evelyn. Wiremu Tamihana, Rangitira. Wellington: Huia, 2002.

404 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stone, R. C. J. The Father and His Gift: John Logan Campbell’s Later Years. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1987. ———. Young Logan Campbell. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Oxford University Press, 1982. Stuart, Peter. Edward Gibbon Wakefield in New Zealand: His Political Career. Wellington: Price Milburn for Victoria University of Wellington, 1971. Sturm, Terry. An Unsettled Spirit: The Life and Frontier Fiction of Edith Lyttelton. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003. Taylor, Alister, ed. New Zealand Who’s Who Aotearoa. Auckland: Alister Taylor, 2001. Thorn, James. Peter Fraser: New Zealand’s Wartime Prime Minister. London: Odhams, 1959. Tolerton, Jane. Ettie: A Life of Ettie Rout. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1992. Trevelyan, Jill. Toss Woollaston: A Life in Letters. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2004. Yarwood, Vaughan. The History Makers: Adventures in New Zealand Biography. Auckland: Random House, 2002. Zavos, Spiro. The Real Muldoon. Wellington: Fourth Estate Books, 1978.

E. AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND MEMOIRS Awatere, Arapeta. Awatere: A Soldier’s Story, ed. Hinemoa Ruataupare Awatere. Wellington: Hinemoa, 2003. Barber, Laurie H., Gary Clayton, and John Tonkin-Covell, eds. Sergeant, Sinner, Saint, and Spy: The Taranaki War Diary of Sergeant Wm Marjoriam, R.A. Auckland: Random Century, 1990. Baxter, Archibald. We Will Not Cease. London: Gollancz, 1939. (Reprinted, Auckland: Cape Catley, 2003.) Bevan, Thomas. The Reminences of an Old Colonist. Otaki: Otaki Mail, 1907. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 2001.) Bolger, Jim. Bolger: A View from the Top. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1998. Chapman, George. The Years of Lightning. Wellington: Reed, 1980. Davies, Sonja. Bread and Roses. 2nd ed. Auckland: Bateman Fraser, 1993.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 405

Davin, Dan. Closing Times. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1985. Doornbus-Luytenburg, Judi. Judi’s Story. Wellington: Inlet View Press, 2003. Duff, Alan. Out of the Mist and Steam: A Memoir. Auckland: Tandem Press, 1999. Edmond, Lauris. An Autobiography. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2001. Eunson, Keith. Mirrors on the Hill: Reflections on New Zealand’s Political Leaders. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2001. Fitzgerald, Caroline, ed. Letters from the Bay of Islands: The Story of Marianne Williams. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2004. Frame, Janet. An Autobiography. Auckland: Random Century, 1989. ———. Letters for Jean, ed. Sheila Natusch. Wellington: Nestegg Books, 2004. Fry, Margaret, ed. Tom’s Letters: The Private World of Thomas King, Victorian Gentleman. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2001. Hayward, Margaret. Diary of the Kirk Years. Wellington: Cape Catley/Reed, 1981. Henderson, Jim. Gunner Inglorious. Wellington: H. H. Tombs, 1945. (Reprinted, Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton, 1984.) Hillary, Edmund P. High Adventure. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1955. (Reprinted, Crows Nest, Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2003.) ———. View from the Summit. London: Doubleday, 1999. Jones, Bob. Memories of Muldoon. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1997. Kippenberger, Howard L. Infantry Brigadier. London: Oxford University Press, 1949. Lange, David. Nuclear Free—The New Zealand Way. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990. ———. My Life. Auckland: Viking, 2005. Laws, Michael. The Demon Profession. Auckland: HarperCollins, 1998. Lee, John A. The John A. Lee Diaries, 1936–1940. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1981. ———. Political Notebooks. Wellington: Alister Taylor, 1973. ———. Simple on a Soapbox: A Political Testament. Auckland: Collins, 1963. Lee, Mary Isabella. The Not So Poor: An Autobiography, ed. Annabel Cooper. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1992.

406 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Mansfield, Katherine. Mansfield’s Letters and Journals, selected by C. K. Stead. Auckland: Vintage, 2002. Marshall, John. Memoirs. 2 vols. Auckland: Collins, 1983 and 1989. McCarten, Matt. Rebel in the Ranks. Auckland: Random House, 2002. Minehan. Mike. O Jerusalem. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2002. Muldoon, R. D. Muldoon. Wellington: Reed, 1977. ———. My Way. Wellington: Reed, 1981. ———. Number 38. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1986. ———. The Rise and Fall of a Young Turk. Wellington: Reed, 1974. Newnham, Tom. Interesting Times: A Kiwi Chronicle. Auckland: Graphic, 2004. Oliver, W. H. Looking for the Phoenix: A Memoir. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2002. Richards, Eva C., ed. Diary of E. R. Chudleigh, 1862–1921, Chatham Islands. Christchurch: Gadsonbury, 2003. Richardson, Ruth. Making a Difference. Christchurch: Shoal Bay Press, 1995. Scott, Margaret. Recollecting Mansfield. Auckland: Random House, 2001. Seddon, T. E. Y. The Seddons. Auckland: Collins, 1968. Shadbolt, Maurice. From the Edge of the Sky. Auckland: David Ling, 1999. ———. One of Ben’s: A New Zealand Medley. Auckland: David Ling, 1993. Sim, Karl F., and Tim Wilson. Good as Goldie: The Amazing Story of New Zealand’s Most Famous Art Forger. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett, 2003. Skinner, Tom. Man to Man. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1980. Stack, Eliza R. G. Eliza’s Journal: A Gentlewoman’s Experience in New Zealand in the Late 1850s, ed. Virginia M. Perry. Dunedin: V. M. Perry, 2004. Templeton, Hugh. All Honourable Men: Inside the Muldoon Cabinet, 1975–1984. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, 1995. Waring, Marilyn. In the Lifetime of a Goat: Writings, 1984–2000. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2001. Wilson, Ormond. An Outsider Looks Back. Wellington: Port Nicholson Press, 1982.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 407

Woollaston, Toss. Sage Tea: An Autobiography. Wellington: Te Papa Press, 2001.

F. POLITICS 1. General Castles, Francis G., Rolf Gerritson, and Jack Vowles, eds. The Great Experiment: Labour Parties and Public Policy Transformation in Australia and New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1996. Catt, Helena, and Elizabeth McLeay, eds. Women and Politics in New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1993. Cleveland, L., and A. D. Robinson, eds. Readings in New Zealand Government. Wellington: Reed, 1972. Drage, Jean. Weaving a New Pattern: Women Political Leaders in Local Government. Wellington: New Zealand Local Government Association, 1997. Electoral Commission. The New Zealand Electoral Compendium. 3rd ed. Wellington: Electoral Commission, 2002. Gold, Hyam, ed. New Zealand Politics in Perspective. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1985; 2nd ed., 1989; 3rd ed., 1992. Hager, Nicky. Seeds of Distrust: The Story of a GE Coverup. Nelson: Craig Potton, 2002. Henderson, J., and P. Bellamy. Democracy in New Zealand. Stockholm: IDEA and Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Canterbury, 2002. Jackson, Keith. New Zealand: Politics of Change. Wellington: Reed, 1973. Jesson, Bruce, Allanah Ryan, and Paul Spoonley. Revival of the Right: New Zealand Politics in the 1980s. Auckland: Heinemann Reed, 1988. Kelsey, Jane. Rolling Back the State: Privatisation of Power in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1993. Levine, Stephen. New Zealand Politics: A Reader. Melbourne: Cheshire, 1975. ———. The New Zealand Political System. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1979.

408 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———, ed. Politics in New Zealand: A Reader. Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1978. Local Government Law in New Zealand. Wellington: Brookers, 2003. McLeay, Elizabeth, ed. New Zealand Politics and Social Patterns: Selected Works by Robert Chapman. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1999. Miller, Raymond, ed. New Zealand Government and Politics. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2001; 3rd. ed., 2003. ———, ed. New Zealand Politics in Transition. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1997. Mitchell, Austin. Politics and People in New Zealand. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1969. Mulgan, Richard. Democracy and Power in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1984; 2nd ed., 1989. ———. Politics in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994. Palmer, Geoffrey. New Zealand’s Constitution in Crisis: Reforming Our Political System. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1992. ———. Unbridled Power? An Interpretation of New Zealand’s Constitution and Government. Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1979; 2nd ed., 1987. Palmer, Geoffrey, and Matthew Palmer. Bridled Power: New Zealand Government under MMP. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1997; 4th ed., 2004. Perry, Paul, and Alan Webster. New Zealand Politics at the Turn of the Millennium: Attitudes and Values about Politics and Government. Auckland: Alpha, 1999. Ringer, J. B. An Introduction to New Zealand Government. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 1991. Sharp, Andrew, ed. Leap into the Dark: The Changing Role of the State in New Zealand since 1984. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1994. Wilson, Vivienne, and Jonathan Salter. A Guide to the Local Government Act 2002. Wellington: Brookers, 2003. Wishart, Ian. The Paradise Conspiracy. Auckland: Moon Productions, 1995. Wood, G. A. Governing New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1988. Wood, G. A., and Chris Rudd. The Politics and Government of New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2004.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 409

2. The Constitution A Bill of Rights for New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1985. Government White Paper. Boston, Jonathan, Stephen Levine, Elizabeth McLeay, and Nigel S. Roberts. Electoral and Constitutional Change in New Zealand: An MMP Source Book. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1999. Brook-Cowen, Penelope, Tyler Cowan, and Alexander Tabarrok. An Analysis of Proposals for Constitutional Change in New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand Business Roundtable, 1992. Chen, Mai, and Geoffrey Palmer, eds. Public Law in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. Constitutional Reform: Reports of an Officials Committee. Wellington: Department of Justice, 1986. Elkind, Jerome B., and Antony Shaw. A Standard for Justice: A Critical Commentary on the Proposed Bill of Rights for New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1986. Harris, Paul, and Stephen Levine, eds. The New Zealand Politics Source Book. 2nd ed. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994. James, Colin, ed. Building the Constitution. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 2000. Joseph, Philip A. Constitutional and Administrative Law in New Zealand. Sydney: Law Book, 1993. ———, ed. Essays on the Constitution. Sydney: Law Book, 1995. Palmer, Geoffrey. Constitutional Conversations, 1994–2001. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2002. Scott, K. J. The New Zealand Constitution. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. 3. The Electoral System and Elections Atkinson, Neill. Adventures in Democracy: A History of the Vote in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press in association with the Electoral Commission, 2003. Boston, Jonathan, Stephen Church, Stephen Levine, Elizabeth McLeay, and Nigel S. Roberts. Left Turn: The New Zealand General Election of 1999. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2000. ———. New Zealand Votes: The General Election of 2002. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2003.

410 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Boston, Jonathan, Stephen Levine, Elizabeth McLeay, and Nigel S. Roberts. New Zealand under MMP: A New Politics. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Bridget Williams Books, 1996. Catt, Helena, Paul Harris, and Nigel S. Roberts. Voter’s Choice: Electoral Change in New Zealand? Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1992. Chapman, R. M. Marginals ’72: An Analysis of New Zealand’s Marginal Electorates. Auckland: Heinemann Education Books, 1972. Chapman, R. M., W. K. Jackson, and A. V. Mitchell. New Zealand Politics in Action: The 1960 General Election. London: Oxford University Press, 1962. Eagles, Jim, and Colin James. The Making of a New Zealand Prime Minister. Wellington: Cheshire, 1973. Edwards, Brian, ed. Right Out: Labour Victory ’72, the Inside Story. Wellington: Reed, 1973. Electoral Law Committee. Inquiry into the Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System. Wellington: House of Representatives, 1988. ———. Interim Report on the Inquiry into the 1996 General Election. Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1996–1999, I.17A. Wellington: House of Representatives, 1998. Garnier, Tony, and Stephen Levine. Election ’81: An End to Muldoonism? Auckland: Methuen, 1981. The Guide to the Electoral Referendum. Wellington: Electoral Referendum Panel, 1992. Hawke, G. R., ed. Changing Politics? The Electoral Referendum, 1993. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, 1993. Hoadley, Stephen, ed. Improving New Zealand’s Democracy. Auckland: New Zealand Foundation for Peace Studies, 1979. Holland, Martin, ed. Electoral Behaviour in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1992. Hunt, Graeme. Why MMP Must Go. Auckland: Waddington Press and National Business Review, 1998. Jackson, Keith, and Alan McRobie. New Zealand Adopts Proportional Representation: Accident? Design? Evolution? Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1998. James, Colin, and Alan McRobie. Changes? The 1990 Election. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1990.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 411

———. The Election Book. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987. ———. Turning Point: The 1993 Election and Beyond. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1993. Levine, Stephen, and Juliet Lodge. The New Zealand General Election of 1975. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1976. Levine, Stephen, and Alan McRobie. From Muldoon to Lange: New Zealand Elections in the 1980s. Rangiora: MC Enterprises, 2002. Levine, Stephen, and Alan Robinson. The New Zealand Voter: A Survey of Public Opinion and Electoral Behaviour. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1976. Local Authority Election Statistics. Vol. 17. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1959– . McLeay, E. M., ed. The 1990 General Election: Perspectives on Political Change in New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1991. McRobie, Alan. Election ’84. Christchurch: MC Enterprises, 1984. ———. New Zealand Electoral Atlas. Wellington: GP Books, 1989. ———, ed. Taking It to the People? The New Zealand Electoral Referendum Debate. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 1993. McRobie, Alan, and Nigel S. Roberts. Election ’78: The 1977 Electoral Redistribution and the 1978 General Election in New Zealand. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1978. Miller, Raymond, and Helena Catt. Season of Discontent: By-elections and the Bolger Government. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1993. Mitchell, Austin. Waitaki Votes: A Study of a New Zealand By-election, 1962. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1962. MMP Review Committee. Inquiry into the Review of MMP. Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, 1999–2002, I.23A. Wellington: House of Representatives, 2001. Norton, Clifford. New Zealand Parliamentary Election Results, 1946–1987. Occasional Publication No. 1. Wellington: Department of Political Science, University of Victoria, 1988. Page, Warren, and Brian Lockstone. Landslide ’72. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1973. Penniman, Howard R., ed. New Zealand at the Polls: The 1978 General Election in New Zealand. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1980.

412 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Referendum: The Guide. Wellington: Electoral Referendum Panel, 1993. Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System: Towards a Better Democracy. Wellington: Government Printer, 1986. Simpson, Alan, ed. Referendums: Constitutional and Political Perspectives. Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992. Templeton, Ian, and Keith Eunson. Election ’69. Wellington: Reed, 1969. ———. In the Balance: Election ’72. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1972. Vowles, Jack, and Peter Aimer. Voters’ Vengeance: The 1990 Election and the Fate of the Fourth Labour Government. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1993. ———, eds. Double Decision: The 1993 Election and Referendum in New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1994. Vowles, Jack, Peter Aimer, Jeffrey Karp, and Susan Banducci, eds. Voters’ Victory? New Zealand’s First Election under Proportional Representation. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1998. Vowles, Jack, Peter Aimer, Jeffrey Karp, Susan Banducci, and Raymond Miller, eds. Voters’ Veto: The 2002 Election in New Zealand and the Consolidation of Minority Government. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2004. Vowles, Jack, Peter Aimer, Jeffrey Karp, Susan Banducci, Raymond Miller, and Ann Sullivan, eds. Proportional Representation on Trial: The 1999 General Election and the Fate of MMP. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2002. Vowles, Jack, Helena Catt, Jim Lamare, and Raymond Miller, eds. Towards Consensus? The 1993 Election and the Transition to Proportional Representation. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. 4. Political Parties Bean, Clive. “Class and Party in the Anglo-American Democracies: The Case of New Zealand in Perspective.” British Journal of Political Science 18 (1988): 303–21.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 413

Clark, Margaret, ed. The Labour Party after 75 Years. Wellington: Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, 1992. Grierson, Josephine. The Hell of It: Early Days in the New Zealand Party. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1985. Gustafson, Barry. The First 50 Years: A History of the New Zealand National Party. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1986. ———. Social Change and Party Reorganisation: The New Zealand Labour Party since 1945. London: Sage, 1976. Hamer, David. The New Zealand Liberals: The Years of Power, 1891–1912. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1988. Milne, R. S. Political Parties in New Zealand. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1966. Mitchell, Austin, ed. Government by Party. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1966. Sheppard, Simon. Broken Circle: The Decline and Fall of the Fourth Labour Government. Wellington: PSL Press, 1999. 5. Parliament Baysting, Arthur, Dyan Campbell, and Margaret Dagg. Making Policy Not Tea: Women in Parliament. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. Gilling, Bryan. The Ombudsman in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press and Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1998. Hill, Larry B. The Model Ombudsman: Institutionalizing New Zealand’s Democratic Experiment. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1976. Jackson, Keith. The Dilemma of Parliament. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987. ———. The New Zealand Legislative Council: A Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1972. Marshall, John, ed. The Reform of Parliament. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1978. Martin, John E. The House: New Zealand’s House of Representatives, 1854–2004. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2004.

414 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

McGee, David. Parliamentary Practice in New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1985; 2nd ed., Wellington: GP Books, 1994. McRae, Tom. A Parliament in Crisis: The Decline of Democracy in New Zealand. Wellington: Shieldaig, 1994. Ombudsman, New Zealand, 1962–1982. Wellington: Victoria University Law Review, 1982. Skene, Geoffrey. New Zealand Parliamentary Committees. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 1990. 6. Government and the Executive Alley, R. M. State Servants and the Public in the 1980s. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1980. Bassett, Michael. The Third Labour Government. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1976. Berthold, T. M. The Accountability of the Executive. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1981. Boston, Jonathan. Governing under Proportional Representation: Lessons from Europe. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 1998. ———. Public Management: The New Zealand Model. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1996. ———, ed. The State under Contract. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1995. Boston, Jonathan, and Martin Holland, eds. The Fourth Labour Government: Radical Politics in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1987. Boston, Jonathan, John Martin, June Pallot, and Pat Walsh, eds. Reshaping the State: New Zealand’s Bureaucratic Revolution. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1991. Bush, Graham. Local Government and Politics in New Zealand. Auckland: Allen & Unwin, 1980; 2nd ed., Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. Cabinet Office Manual. Rev. ed. Wellington: Cabinet Office, 2001. Garnier, Tony, Bruce Kohn, and Pat Booth. The Hunter and the Hill: New Zealand Politics and the Kirk Years. Auckland: Cassell, 1978. Goldstein, Ray, and Rod Alley, eds. Labour in Power: Promise and Performance, 1972–1975. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1975.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 415

Gregory, R. J. The Official Information Act: A Beginning. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1984. Holland, Martin, and Jonathan Boston, eds. The Fourth Labour Government: Politics and Policy in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1990. Martin, John E. Holding the Balance: A History of New Zealand’s Department of Labour, 1891–1995. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1996. McQueen, Harvey. The Ninth Floor: Inside the Prime Minister’s Office—A Political Experience. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1991. Norman, Richard. Obedient Servants? Management Freedoms and Accountabilities in the New Zealand Public Sector. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2003. Polaschek, R. J. Government Administration in New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1958. Roberts, John. Politicians, Public Servants and Public Enterprise. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1987. Smith, Thomas. The New Zealand Bureaucrat. Wellington: Cheshire, 1974. Wilson, Margaret. Labour in Government, 1984–1987. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1989. G. THE ECONOMY 1. Economic History Bassett, Michael. The State in New Zealand, 1840–1984: Socialism without Doctrines? Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1998. Bollinger, Conrad. Against the Wind: The Story of the New Zealand Seamen’s Union. Wellington: New Zealand Seamen’s Union, 1968. Chapman, R. M., and E. P. Malone. New Zealand in the Twenties: Social Change and Material Progress. Auckland: Heinemann, 1969. Condliffe, J. B. New Zealand in the Making. 2nd ed. London: Allen & Unwin, 1959. ———. The Welfare State in New Zealand. London: Allen & Unwin, 1959. Dalziel, Paul, and Ralph Lattimore. The New Zealand Macroeconomy. 3rd ed. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1999.

416 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Easton, Brian, and Norman Thomson. An Introduction to the New Zealand Economy. St. Lucia, Brisbane, Australia: University of Queensland Press, 1982. Gould, John. The Rake’s Progress? The New Zealand Economy since 1945. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1982. Hawke, G. R. Between Governments and Banks: A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1973. ———. The Making of New Zealand: An Economic History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Lloyd Prichard, Muriel F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Auckland: Collins, 1970. May, Philip Ross. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd ed. Christchurch: Pegasus, 1967. McKinnon, Malcolm. Treasury: The New Zealand Treasury, 1840–2000. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2003. McLean, Gavin. Rocking the Boat? A History of Scales Corporation Limited. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2002. ———. The Southern Octopus: The Rise of a Shipping Empire. Wellington: New Zealand Ship and Marine Society and the Wellington Harbour Board Maritime Museum, 1990. Salmon, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1963. Simkin, C. G. F. The Instability of a Dependent Economy: Economic Fluctuations in New Zealand, 1840–1914. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962. ———, ed. Statistics of New Zealand, 1840–1852. Wellington: University of New Zealand, 1954. Smith, Nigel. Heritage of Industry: Discovering New Zealand’s Industrial History. Auckland: Reed, 2001. Spiller, Peter, ed. Dispute Resolution in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1999. Stone, R. C. J. A Colonial Business Community and Its Fall. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1973. ———. Economic Development, 1870–1890, and the Social Consequences. Auckland: Heinemann, 1967. ———. Makers of Fortune. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1973. Sutch, W. B. Colony or Nation? Economic Crises in New Zealand from the 1860s to the 1960s, ed. Michael Turnbull. Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1966.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 417

Westrate, C. Portrait of the Modern Mixed Economy. Wellington: New Zealand University Press, 1959. 2. The Political Economy Ashton, Toni, and Susan St. John. Superannuation in New Zealand: Averting the Crisis. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1988. Birks, Stuart, and Srikanta Chatterjee, eds. The New Zealand Economy: Issues and Policies. 2nd ed. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1992. Bollard, A., and R. Buckle, eds. Economic Liberalisation in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1987. Boston, Jonathan, and Paul Dalziel, eds. The Decent Society? Essays in Response to National’s Economic and Social Policies. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Boston, Jonathan, Paul Dalziel, and Susan St. John, eds. Redesigning the Welfare State in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1999. Britton, Steve, Richard Le Heron, and Eric Pawson, eds. Changing Places in New Zealand: A Geography of Restructuring. Christchurch: New Zealand Geographical Society, 1992. Business Roundtable. Fiscal Strategy: The Next Stages. Auckland: Business Roundtable, 1987. ———. The Old New Zealand and the New. Wellington: New Zealand Business Roundtable, 1994. ———. Towards an Enterprise Culture. Wellington: New Zealand Business Roundtable, 1993. Campbell, Rob, and Alf Kirk. After the Freeze: New Zealand Unions in the Economy. Wellington: Port Nicholson Press, 1984. Carter, Bill, and John MacGibbon. Wool: A History of New Zealand’s Wool Industry. Wellington: Ngaio Press, 2003. Caygill, David F. Health: A Prescription for Change. Wellington: Government Printer, 1988. Coddington, Deborah. Turning Pain into Gain: The Transformation of New Zealand, 1984–1993. Auckland: Alister Taylor, 1993. Crocombe, Graham T., Michael J. Enright, and Michael E. Porter. Upgrading New Zealand’s Competitive Advantage. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Davis, Peter. Health and Health Care in New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1981.

418 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———, ed. New Zealand Labour Perspectives: The Challenge of the Third Depression. Auckland: Peter Davis/Ross, 1981. Deeks, John, and Nick Perry, eds. Controlling Interests: The State and Society in New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1992. Douglas, Roger. Completing the Circle. Auckland: Seascape Press, 1996. ———. There’s Got to Be a Better Way: A Practical ABC to Solving New Zealand’s Major Problems. Wellington: Fourth Estate Books, 1980. ———. Unfinished Business. Auckland: Random House, 1993. Douglas, Roger, and Louise Callan. Toward Prosperity: People and Politics in the 1980s. Auckland: David Bateman, 1987. Easton, Brian, The Making of Rogernomics. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1989. ———. The Whimpering of the State: Policy after MMP. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1999. ———, ed. The Commercialisation of New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1997. Else, Anne, and Susan St. John. A Super Future? The Price of Growing Older in New Zealand. Auckland: Tandem Press, 1998. Fairweather, J., ed. Proceedings of the Rural Economy and Society Study Group Symposium on Rural Research Needs. Christchurch: Lincoln College Agribusiness and Economics Research Unit, 1987. Franklin, S. Harvey. Cul de Sac: The Question of New Zealand’s Future. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1985. Hawke, Gary R., ed. A Modest Safety Net? The Future of the Welfare State. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 1991. Holmes, Frank. A New Approach to Central Banking: The New Zealand Experiment and Comparisons with Australia. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, 1994. Hyman, Prue. Women and Economics: A New Zealand Feminist Perspective. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1994. Jesson, Bruce. Fragments of Labour. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1989. Kelsey, Jane. At the Crossroads: Three Essays. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2002. ———. A Model Country? Economic Fundamentalism and Its Consequences in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, 1995.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 419

———. The New Zealand Experiment: A World Model for Structural Adjustment? Auckland: Auckland University Press and Bridget Williams Books, 1997. ———. Reclaiming the Future: New Zealand and the Global Economy. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1999. Lane, Peter. Economy on the Brink: An Introduction to the New Zealand Economy. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1983. Marston, Alan. Steps to a Green Land: A Green Paper on Directions for New Zealand’s Economy, Society and Environment. Auckland: Learning by Doing, 1992. Muldoon, R. D. The New Zealand Economy: A Personal View. Auckland: Endeavour Press, 1985. Roper, Brian, and Chris Rudd, eds. State and Economy in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. Rosenberg, Wolfgang. New Zealand Can Be Different and Better: Why Deregulation Does Not Work. Christchurch: New Zealand Monthly Review Society, 1993. Rudd, Chris, and Brian Roper, eds. The Political Economy of New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1997. Walker, Simon, ed. Rogernomics: Reshaping New Zealand’s Economy. Wellington: GP Books, 1989. Wallace, L. T., and R. Lattimore, eds. Rural New Zealand: What Next? Christchurch: Lincoln College Agribusiness and Economics Research Unit, 1987. H. LITERATURE 1. General Beatson, P. The Healing Tongue: Themes in Contemporary Maori Literature. Palmerston North: Department of Sociology, Massey University, 1989. Bell, Allan, and Konrad Kuiper, eds. New Zealand English. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2000. Calder, Alex. The Writing of New Zealand: Inventions and Identities. Auckland: Reed, 1993. Evans, Patrick. The Penguin History of New Zealand Literature. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990.

420 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Haami, Bradford. Putea Whakairo: Maori and the Written Word. Wellington: Huia Publishing in association with the Ministry for Culture and Heritage, 2004. Ihimaera, Witi, and D. S. Long, eds. Into the World of Light. Auckland: Heinemann, 1982. Jackson, M. P., and V. O’Sullivan. The Oxford Anthology of New Zealand Writing since 1945. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1983. Jones, Jenny Robin. Writers in Residence: A Journey with Pioneer New Zealand Writers. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2004. Morrissey, Michael, ed. The New Fiction. Auckland: Lindon, 1985. Roberts, Heather. Where Did She Come From? New Zealand Women Novelists, 1862–1987. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1989. Robinson, R., and N. Wattie. The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Literature. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1998. Stead, K. C. Kin of Place: Essays on 20 New Zealand Writers. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2002. Sturm, T. The Oxford History of New Zealand Literature in English. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Wevers, Lydia. Country Writing: Travel Writing and New Zealand, 1809–1900. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2002. 2. Novels Anderson, Barbara. Girls High. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1990. Anderson, Mona. A River Rules My Life. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1963. Ashton-Warner, Sylvia. Spinster. London: Secker and Warburg, 1958; Auckland: Heinemann, 1972. ———. Teacher. London: Secker and Warburg, 1963. Ballantyne, David. The Cunninghams. New York: Vanguard Press, 1948. Butler, Samuel. Erewhon; or, Over the Range. London: Trübner, 1872. (Reprinted, New York: AMS Press, 1968.) Cowley, Joy. The Growing Season. New York: Doubleday, 1978. ———. Man of Straw. New York: Doubleday, 1970.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 421

———. The Mandrake Root. New York: Doubleday, 1975. ———. Nest in a Falling Tree. New York: Doubleday, 1967; Auckland: New Women’s Press, 1984. ———. Of Men and Angels. New York: Doubleday, 1972. ———. The Silent One. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1981; New York: Knopf, 1981; London: Methuen, 1982. Cross, Ian. After Anzac Day. London: Andre Deutch, 1961. ———. The Family Man. Auckland: Random House, 1993. ———. The God Boy. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1957. Crump, Barry. The Adventures of Sam Cash. Auckland: Beckett, 1985. ———. A Good Keen Man. Wellington: Reed, 1960. ———. Hang on a Minute Mate. Wellington: Reed, 1961. ———. Scrapwaggon. Wellington: Reed, 1965. Davin, D. M. Roads from Home. London: Michael Joseph, 1949. ———. The Sullen Bell. London: M. Joseph, 1956. Duckworth, Marilyn. Disorderly Conduct. Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton, 1984. ———. Leather Wings. Auckland: Vintage, 1995. ———. Matchbox House. London: Hutchinson, 1960. ———. Pulling Faces. Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton, 1987. ———. Seeing Red. Auckland: Vintage, 1993. Duff, Alan. Both Sides of the Moon. Auckland: Vintage, 1998. ———. Jake’s Long Shadow. Auckland: Random House, 2002. ———. Once Were Warriors. Auckland: Tandem Press, 1990. ———. One Night Out Stealing. Auckland: Tandem Press, 1991. ———. State Ward. Auckland: Vintage, 1994. Eldred-Grigg, Stevan. Gardens of Fire. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1993. ———. Oracles and Miracles. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1987. ———. The Shining City. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1991. ———. The Siren Celia. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1989. Ewing, Barbara. A Dangerous Vine. London: Little, Brown, 1999. Frame, Janet. Adaptable Man. Christchurch: Pegasus Press, 1965; New York: Braziller, 1999. ———. The Carpathians. Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1988. ———. Faces in the Water. London: Women’s Press, 1980. ———. Intensive Care. Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1987.

422 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. Living in the Maniototo. London: Women’s Press; Auckland: Hutchinson, 1981. ———. Owls Do Cry. Auckland: Hutchinson, 1985. (First published 1957.) Gee, Maurice. The Burning Boy. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990. ———. Crime Story. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1994. ———. Going West. London: Viking, 1992. ———. In My Father’s Den. London: Faber, 1972; Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1984. ———. Meg. London: Faber and Faber; Auckland: Penguin Books, 1981. ———. Plumb. London: Faber and Faber, 1978. ———. Prowlers. London: Faber and Faber, 1987. ———. The Scornful Moon: A Moralist’s Tale. London: Faber, 2003. ———. Sole Survivor. London: Faber and Faber; Auckland: Penguin Books, 1983. Grace, Patricia. Potiki. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1986. ———. Tu. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2004. Grossman, Edith Searle (née Howitt). Angela: A Messenger. Christchurch: Simpson & Williams, 1890. ———. In Revolt. London: Eden, Remington, 1893. Haworth, Jenny. Hobson’s Chance. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2003. Hilliard, Noel. Maori Girl. London: Heinemann, 1960. ———. Maori Woman. London: Robert Hale, 1974. Hulme, Keri. The Bone People. Auckland: Spiral/Hodder and Stoughton, 1984. Hyde, Robin. The Godwits Fly. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2001. (1st ed., Hurst and Blackett, 1938.) ———. Nor the Years Condemn. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1995. (1st ed., Hurst and Blackett, 1938.) Ihimaera, Witi. The Matriarch. Auckland: Heinemann, 1986. ———. The New Net Goes Fishing. Auckland: Heinemann, 1977. ———. Pounamu, Pounamu. Auckland: Heinemann, 1972. ———. Skydancer. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. ———. Tangi. Auckland: Heinemann, 1973. ———. The Whale Rider. 3rd ed. Auckland: Reed, 2002. ———. Whanau. Auckland: Heinemann, 1974. ———. Whanau II. Auckland: Reed, 2004.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 423

Jones, Bob. Full Circle. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 2000. ———. The Permit. Auckland: Collins, 1984. Jones, Lloyd. The Book of Fame. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2002. Joseph, M. K. I’ll Soldier No More. London: Gollancz, 1958. Kidman, Fiona. The Book of Secrets. London and Auckland: Heinemann, 1987. ———. A Breed of Women. Sydney: Harper Row, 1979. ———. Mandarin Summer. Auckland: Heinemann, 1981. ———. Paddy’s Puzzle. Auckland: Random House, 1983. ———. Ricochet Baby. Auckland: Vintage, 1998. ———. Songs from the Violet Café. Auckland: Vintage, 2003. Knox, Elizabeth. Daylight. New York: Ballantine Books, 2003. ———. The Vintner’s Luck. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1998. Lee, John A. Children of the Poor. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1986. (First published 1934.) ———. The Politician. Auckland: Century Hutchinson New Zealand, 1987. ———. Shiner Slattery. Auckland: Collins, 1964. Mahy, Margaret. Alchemy. New York: Margaret K. McEldowney Books, 2003. ———. Wonderful Me: Poems and Stories. London: Dolphin Paperbacks, 2002. Mander, Jane. The Story of a New Zealand River. Auckland: Godwit, 1994. (First published 1920.) Marsh, Ngaio. Died in the Wool. London: Collins for the Crime Club, 1945. ———. Singing in the Shrouds. London: Collins for the Crime Club, 1959. ———. Spinster in Jeopardy. London: Collins for the Crime Club, 1953. ———. Tied up in Tinsel. London: Collins for the Crime Club, 1972. Marshall, Owen. Harlequin Rex. Auckland: Random House, 1999. McAlpine, Rachael. Farewell Speech. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1990. Novel centered on Kate Sheppard. Morrieson, Ronald Hugh. Came a Hot Friday. Melbourne: Angus and Robertson, 1964. ———. The Scarecrow. Melbourne: Angus and Robertson, 1963. Mulgan, John. Man Alone. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1969. (First published, Selwyn and Blount, 1939.) Pattrick, Jenny. The Denniston Rose. Auckland: Random House New Zealand, 2003.

424 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. Heart of Coal. Auckland: Random House New Zealand, 2004. Pearson, Bill. Coal Flat. London: Heinemann, 1976. (First published, Longman Paul, 1963.) Sargeson, Frank. Hangover. London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1967. ———. Joy of the Worm. London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1969. ———. Memoirs of a Peon. London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1965; Auckland: Godwit, 1994. Satchell, William. The Greenstone Door. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1914; Auckland: Viking, 1987. Shadbolt, Maurice. Among the Cinders. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1965. ———. The House of Strife. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1993. ———. The Lovelock Version. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1980. ———. Monday’s Warriors. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1990. ———. The New Zealanders. London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1959. ———. The Season of the Jew. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1986. ———. Strangers and Journeys. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Simpson, Peter, ed. Seven Novellas. Auckland: Reed, 2003. Smith, Peter A. 1951. Auckland: David Ling, 2002. Stead, C. K. All Visitors Ashore. United Kingdom: Harvill Press, 1984. ———. Five for the Symbol. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1981. ———. The Singing Whakapapa. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1994. ———. Smith’s Dream. Auckland: New House, 1993. (First published, Longman Paul, 1971.) Vogel, Julius. Anno Domini 2000; or, Women’s Destiny. London: Hutchinson, 1889. New ed., ed. Roger Robinson, Auckland: Exisle, 2000. Wendt, Albert. Black Rainbow. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1992. ———. Leaves of the Banyan Tree. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1979. (Reprinted, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994.) ———. The Mango’s Kiss. Auckland: Vintage, 2003. ———. Ola. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1991. (Reprinted, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995.) ———. Pouliuli. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1977. ———. Sons for the Return Home. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1973. (Reprinted, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996.)

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 425

3. Short Stories Cowley, Joy. Heart Attack, and Other Stories. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985. Crump, Barry. Barry Crump’s Bedtime Yarns: A Collection of Short Stories and Poems, ed. Wendy Herron. Auckland: Barry Crump Associates, 1988. ———. Warm Beer, and Other Stories. Wellington: Reed, 1969. Davin, D. M. Breathing Spaces. London: Hale, 1975. ———, ed. New Zealand Short Stories. London: Oxford University Press, 1953. ———, ed. Selected Stories. London: Hale, 1981. Fairburn, A. R. D. The Woman Problem, and Other Prose. Auckland: Blackwood and Janet Paul, 1967. Frame, Janet. You Are Now Entering the Human Heart. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1983. Gaskell, A. P. All Part of the Game. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1978. Gifkins, Michael. After the Revolution, and Other Stories. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1982. Huia Short Stories 5: Contemporary Maori Fiction. Wellington: Huia, 2003. Hulme, Keri. Stonefish. Wellington: Huia, 2004. Kidman, Fiona. New Zealand Love Stories. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1999. ———. Unsuitable Friends. Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1988. Mansfield, Katherine. The Complete Stories of Katherine Mansfield. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1988. Marsh, Ngaio. Alleyn and Others: The Collection of Short Fiction of Ngaio Marsh, ed. Douglas G. Green. New York: International Polygonics, 1995. Marshall, Owen, ed. Essential New Zealand Short Stories. Auckland, Random House, 2002. Sargeson, Frank. Collected Stories, 1935–1963, with an introduction by Bill Pearson. Auckland: Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1964. ———. The Stories of Frank Sargeson. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1973. Stead, C. K. The Blind Blonde with Candles in Her Hair. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1998.

426 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———, ed. New Zealand Short Stories (Second Series). London: Oxford University Press, 1966. Sturm, J. C. House of the Talking Cat: Stories. Auckland: Spiral in association with Hodder & Stoughton, 1986. (Reprinted, Wellington: Steele Roberts, 2003.) Wendt, Albert. Flying-Fox in a Freedom Tree. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1974. Wevers, Lydia. New Zealand Short Stories (Fourth Series). Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1984. 4. Fiction for Children and Adolescents Cowley, Joy. Bow Down Shadrach. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1991. ———. Brodie. Auckland: Scholastic Books, 2001. ———. Classical Music. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1999. ———. The Duck in the Gun. New York: Doubleday, 1969. ———. Gladly Here I Come. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1994. ———. Holy Days. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2001. ———. Pigeon Princess: A Modern Fantasy. Auckland: Shortland, 2002. ———. Salmagundi. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1985. ———. The Screaming Mean Machine. New York: Scholastic Books, 1993. ———. Shadrach Girl. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2000. ———. The Terrible Taniwha of Timberditch. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1982. Dodd, Lynley. Cats Whiskers: Four Favourite Lynley Dodd Stories. Wellington: Mallinson Rendel, 2003. ———. Find Me a Tiger. Wellington: Mallinson Rendel, 1991. ———. Hairy Maclary and Friends: Five More Lynley Dodd Stories. London: Puffin Books, 2003. ———. Hairy Maclary from Donaldson’s Dairy. Wellington: Mallinson Rendel, 1983. ———. Schnitzel von Krumm Forget-me-not. Wellington: Mallinson Rendel, 1996. ———. Slinky Malinky. Wellington: Mallinson Rendel, 1990. Duder, Tessa. Alex. Auckland: Puffin Books, 2003.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 427

———. Alex in Rome. Boston: Houghton and Mifflin, 1989; Auckland: Puffin Books, 2003. ———. Alex in Winter. Auckland: Puffin Books, 2003. ———. The Alex Quartet. Auckland, Oxford University Press, 1992; Auckland: Penguin Books, 1993. ———. Jellybean. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1987. ———. Night Race to Kawau. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1982. ———. Tizzie Thompson’s Longest Journey. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2003. ———, ed. A Book of Pacific Lullabies. Auckland: HarperCollins, 2002. ———, ed. Falling in Love. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1995. ———, ed. Nearly Seventeen. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1993. Gee, Maurice. The Champion. Auckland: Puffin Books, 1989; New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993. ———. Ellie and the Shadow Man. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2001. ———. The Fat Man. Auckland: Viking, 1994. ———. The Fire-Raiser. Auckland: Puffin Books, 1986. ———. The Halfmen of O. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1982. ———. Hostel Girl. Auckland: Puffin Books, 1999. ———. Under the Mountain. Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1980. Mahy, Margaret. Alchemy. London: Collins Flamingo, 2003. ———. The Baby Sitter. Auckland: Shortland, 1988. ———. Beautiful Pig. Auckland: Shortland, 1986. ———. Lion in the Meadow. London, Dent, 1969. ———. 17 Kings and 42 Elephants. London: Dent, 1987. 5. Stage Plays Hall, Roger. Fifty-Fifty. Wellington: Price Milburn and Victoria University Press, 1982. ———. Glide Time. Wellington: Price Milburn and Victoria University Press, 1977. ———. Middle-Age Spread. Wellington: Price Milburn and Victoria University Press, 1978. Mason, Bruce. Awatea. Wellington: New Zealand University Press and Price Milburn, 1969.

428 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

———. End of the Golden Weather. Wellington: Price Milburn, 1962. ———. The Healing Arch. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1987. ———. The Pohutukawa Tree. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1984. McGee, Greg. Foreskin’s Lament. Wellington: Price Milburn and Victoria University Press, 1981. Wendt, Albert. The Songmaker’s Chair. Wellington: Huia, 2004. 6. Poetry Adcock, Fleur. Below Loughrigg. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England: Bloodaxe Books, 1979. ———. Eye of the Hurricane. Wellington: Reed, 1964. ———. The Incident Book. Oxford and Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1986. ———. Looking Back. Oxford and Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1997. ———. Poems, 1962–2000. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England: Bloodaxe Books, 1979. ———. Time Zones. Oxford and Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Campbell, Alistair. Fantasy with Witches. Christchurch: Hazard Press, 1998. ———. The Frigate Bird. Auckland: Heinemann Reed, 1989. ———. Gallipoli, and Other Poems. Wellington: Wai-te-ata Press, 1999. ———. The Sidewinder. Auckland: Reed, 1991. Curnow, Allen. A Book of New Zealand Verse, 1923–1950. 2nd ed. Christchurch: Caxton Press, 1951. ———. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1960. Duckworth, Marilyn. Other Lovers’ Children: Poems, 1958–1974. Christchurch: Pegasus Press, 1975. Edmonds, Lauris, and Bill Sewell, eds. Essential New Zealand Poems. Auckland: Random House, 2001. Evans, M., H. McQueen, and I. Wedde. The Penguin Book of Contemporary New Zealand Poetry. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1989. Fairburn, A. R. D. He Shall Not Rise. London: Columbia Press, 1930. O’Leary, Michael. Toku Tinihanga (Self-Deception): Selected Poems, 1982–2002. Wellington: Headworx, 2003.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 429

Tuwhare, Hone. Come Rain Hail. Dunedin: Square One Books, 1989. (First published 1970.) ———. Making a Fist of It. Dunedin: Jackstraw Press, 1978. ———. Mihi. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1987. ———. No Ordinary Sun. Auckland: Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1964. ———. Piggyback Moon. Auckland: Godwit Press, 2001. ———. Shape-shifter. Wellington: Steele Roberts, 1997. ———. Short Back and Sideways. Auckland: Godwit Press, 1992. Wedde, I., and H. McQueen, eds. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1985. Wendt, Albert. Inside Us the Dead: Poems, 1961–1974. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1977. ———. Shaman of Visions: Poems. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1984. Wevers, Lydia. Yellow Pencils: Contemporary Poetry by New Zealand Women. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1988.

I. ABOUT WOMEN AND WOMEN’S WRITING Barrington, R., and A. Gray. The Smith Women: 100 New Zealand Women Talk about Their Lives. Wellington: Reed, 1981. Bell, C., and V. Adair. Women and Change: A Study of New Zealand Women. Wellington: National Council of Women, 1985. Brooks, Barbara, Charlotte Macdonald, and Margaret Tennant. Women in History: Essays on European Women in New Zealand. Vol. 1, Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1986; vol. 2, Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1992. Bryder, Linda. A Healthy Country: Essays on the Social History of Medicine in New Zealand. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1991. Bunkle, Phillida, and Beryl Hughes. Women in New Zealand Society. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1980. Coney, Sandra. Standing in the Sunshine: A History of New Zealand Women since They Won the Vote. Auckland: Penguin Viking, 1993. Cox, S., ed. Public and Private Worlds: Women in Contemporary New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987. Daley, Christine, and Deborah Montgomerie, eds. The Gendered Kiwi. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1999.

430 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dann, Christine. Up from Under: Women and Liberation in New Zealand, 1970–1985. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1985. Devanny, Jean. The Butcher Shop, ed. Heather Roberts. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1981. Ebbett, Eve. Victoria’s Daughters: New Zealand Women of the Thirties. Wellington: Reed, 1981. Ell, Sarah, ed. The Lives of Pioneer Women in New Zealand. Vol. 2. Auckland: Bush Press, 1993. Else, Anne. Women: A History of Women’s Organisations in New Zealand. Wellington: Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, and Daphne Brassell, 1993. ———. Women Together. Wellington: Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, and Daphne Brassell, 1993. Else, Anne, and Heather Roberts, eds. A Woman’s Life: Writing by Women about Female Experience in New Zealand. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1989. Holt, Betty, with Joyce Herd and Dorothea Horsman. Women in Council: A History of the National Council of Women of New Zealand. Wellington: National Council of Women, 1980. Horsfield, Anne. Women in the Economy: A Research Report on the Economic Position of Women in New Zealand. Wellington: Ministry of Women’s Affairs, 1988. Hyman, Prue. Women and Economics: A New Zealand Feminist Perspective. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1994. Kirker, A. New Zealand Women Artists. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1986. Lovell-Smith, Margaret. The Woman Question: Writings by Women Who Won the Vote. Auckland: New Women’s Press, 1992. Macdonald, Charlotte. A Woman of Good Character: Single Women as Immigrant Settlers in Nineteenth-Century New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Historical Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1990. ———, ed. The Vote, The Pill and the Demon Drink: A History of Feminist Writing in New Zealand, 1869–1993. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1993. Mahy, Margaret. A Dissolving Ghost: Essays and More. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2000.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 431

McCallum, Janet. Women in the House. Wellington: Cape Catley, 1993. Mein Smith, P. Maternity in Dispute. Wellington: Historical Publications Branch, Department of Internal Affairs, 1986. Myers, Virginia. Head and Shoulders. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1986. Nicholls, Roberta. The Women’s Parliament: The National Council of Women of New Zealand, 1896–1920. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1996. Nolan, Melanie. Breadwinning: New Zealand Women and the State. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 2000. Page, Dorothy, ed. The Suffragists: Women Who Worked for the Vote. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books/Dictionary of New Zealand Biography, 1993. Phillips, J. O. C. The Mother Manual. Auckland: Reed Methuen, 1986. ———. Mothers Matter Too. Wellington: Reed, 1983. Porter, Frances, and Charlotte Macdonald, eds. My Hand Will Write What My Heart Dictates: The Unsettled Lives of Women in New Zealand, c.1820–1915. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, 1995. Scott, Claudia. Women and Taxation. Wellington: Victoria University Institute of Policy Studies, 1993. Select Committee on Women’s Rights. The Role of Women in New Zealand Society. Wellington: Government Printer, 1975. Simpson, Helen. The Women of New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Internal Affairs, 1940. Waring, Marilyn. Masks, Myths and Other Realities. Auckland: Auckland University Press/Bridget Williams Books, 1995. ———. Three Masquerades: Essays on Equality, Work, and Human Rights. Auckland: Auckland University Press and Bridget Williams Books, 1996. ———. Women, Politics and Power. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1985. Westaway, Jane, and Tessa Copeland, eds. It Looks Better for New Zealand Women: New Zealand Women Writers and Their Friendships. Dunedin: Longacre Press, 2003. Williams, Bridget, Merimeri Penfold, and Charlotte Macdonald. The Book of New Zealand Women. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1991.

432 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wood, Jeanne. A Challenge, Not a Truce: A History of the New Zealand Women’s Christian Temperance Union, 1885–1985. Nelson: WCTU, 1985. J. NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY AND CULTURE 1. General Anderson, G. H. New Zealand in Crisis: A Socialist Perspective. Auckland: Socialist Party of Aotearoa, 1993. Ausubel, David P. The Fern and the Tiki: An American View of New Zealand National Character, Social Attitudes, and Race Relations. London: Angus and Robertson, 1960. Bollinger, Conrad. Grog’s Own Country. 2nd ed. Auckland: Minerva, 1967. Bryant, George., ed. New Zealand, 2001. Auckland: Cassell New Zealand, 1981. Commission for the Future. New Zealand in the Future World. 4 vols. Wellington: Government Printer, 1979. Duncan, Grant. Society and Politics: New Zealand Social Policy. Auckland: Pearson Education New Zealand, 2004. Fleming, C. A. Science, Settlers and Scholars: The Centennial History of the Royal Society of New Zealand. Wellington: Royal Society of New Zealand, 1987. Forster, John, ed. Social Process in New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1969. Franklin, S. Harvey. Trade, Growth and Anxiety: New Zealand beyond the Welfare State. Wellington: Methuen, 1978. Holmes, Frank. New Zealand at the Turning Point: Report of the Task Force on Economic and Social Planning. Wellington: Government Printer, 1976. Jackson, Keith, and John Harre. New Zealand. London: Thames and Hudson, 1967. Jesson, Bruce. Behind the Mirror Glass: The Growth of Wealth and Power in New Zealand in the Eighties. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1987. Jones, Bob. New Zealand the Way I Want It. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1978.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 433

Kerr, Donald, ed. Enduring Legacy: Charles Brasch, Patron, Poet, and Collector. Dunedin: University of Otago Press and University of Otago Library, 2003. King, Michael, and Eric Taylor. New Zealand. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1987. Koopman-Boyden, Peggy G., ed. Families in New Zealand Society. Wellington: Methuen, 1978. The Listener Bedside Book. 5 vols. Auckland: W and H, 1997–2001. McGregor, Judy, ed. Dangerous Democracy? News Media Politics in New Zealand. Palmerson North: Dunmore Press, 1996. McKinnon, Malcolm. Immigrants and Citizens: New Zealanders and Asian Immigration in Historical Context. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, 1996. McLauchlan, Gordon. The Passionless People: New Zealanders in the 1970s. Auckland: Cassell New Zealand, 1976. McLennan, R., and D. Gilbertson., eds. Work in New Zealand. Wellington: Reed, 1984. McLeod, A. L., ed. The Pattern of New Zealand Culture. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1968. Meurant, Ross. The Red Squad Story. Auckland: Harlen, 1982. Mitchell, Austin. The Half-Gallon, Quarter-Acre, Pavlova Paradise. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1972. ———. Pavlova Paradise Revisited: A Guide to the Strange but Enduring Land Where Kiwis Live. Auckland: Penguin Books, 2002. Moloney, Pat, and Kerry Taylor. On the Left: Essays on Socialism in New Zealand. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2002. Morton, Harry. Which Way New Zealand? Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1975. National Housing Commission. Housing in New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1989. Novitz, David, and Bill Willmott, eds. Culture and Identity in New Zealand. Wellington: GP Books, 1989. ———, eds. New Zealand in Crisis. Wellington: GP Books, 1992. Pearson, Bill. Fretful Sleepers, and Other Essays. Auckland: Heinemann, 1974. People: Famous, Eccentric, and Ordinary People from the Pages of the New Zealand Listener, 1939–2004. Auckland: Random House, 2004.

434 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Phillips, J. O. C., ed. Te Whenua, Te Iwi: The Land and the People. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987. Rishworth, Paul. The New Zealand Bill of Rights. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 2003. Ritchie, James, and Jane Ritchie. Growing Up in New Zealand. Auckland: Allen & Unwin, 1978. Sinclair, Keith. A Destiny Apart: New Zealand’s Search for National Identity. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1986. Spiller, Peter. The Disputes Tribunals of New Zealand. Wellington: Brookers, 2003. Spoonley, Paul. New Zealand Society: A Sociological Introduction. 2nd ed. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994. Spoonley, Paul, David Pearson, and Ian Shirley, eds. New Zealand Sociological Perspectives. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1982. Sweetman, Rory. Bishop in the Dock: The Sedition Trial of James Liston. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1997. Tait, D. New Zealand Recreation Survey: 1974–1975. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, 1984. Trainor, Luke, ed. Republicanism in New Zealand. Palmerson North: Dunmore Press, 1996. Upton, Simon. The Withering of the State. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press in association with the National Business Review, 1987. Vasil, Raj, and Hong-key Loon. New Zealanders of Asian Descent. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, 1996. von Tunzelmann, Adrienne, and J. Johnston, eds. Responding to the Revolution: Careers, Culture and Casualties. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1987. Walker, Ranginui. Nga Pepa a Ranginui: The Walker Papers. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1996. Wards, Ian, ed. Thirteen Facets. Wellington: Government Printer, 1978. 2. Arts and Culture Dennis, Jonathan, and Jan Bieringa, eds. Film in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1992.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 435

Dunn, Michael. A Concise History of New Zealand Painting. Auckland: Bateman, 1991; 2nd ed., Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003. Lay, Graeme, and Stephen Stratford, eds. An Affair of the Heart: A Celebration of Frank Sargeson’s Centenary. Auckland: Cape Catley, 2003. Murray-Oliver, Anthony. Augustus Earle in New Zealand. Christchurch: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1968. Reid, Nicholas. A Decade of New Zealand Film: Sleeping Dogs to Came a Hot Friday. Dunedin: John McIndoe, 1986. Shepard, Deborah. Reframing Women: A History of New Zealand Film. Auckland: HarperCollins, 2000. Skinner, Damien. Don Binney: Nga Mana/Nga Motu (Birds/Islands). Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2003. Smith, Anna, and Lydia Wevers. On Display: New Essays in Cultural Studies. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2004. Tarling, Nicholas. On and Off Opera in Auckland, 1970–2000. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2002. Thomson, J. M. The Oxford History of New Zealand Music. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Wild Food for Old Souls: A Collection of West Coast Writing from the Past. Hokitika: Hokitika Live Poets Society, 2001. 3. Education Benseman, J., B. Finesen, and M. Scott, eds. The Fourth Sector: Adult and Community Education in Aotearoa New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1996. Clark, Margaret, ed. The Politics of Education in New Zealand. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1981. Cumming, Ian, and Alan Cumming. History of State Education in New Zealand, 1840–1975. Wellington: Pitman, 1978. Fletcher, W. John. A Sense of Community: The Christchurch College of Education, 1877–2000. Christchurch: Christchurch College of Education, 2001. Fry, Ruth. It’s Different for Daughters: A History of the Curriculum for Girls in New Zealand Schools, 1900–1975. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1985. Hames, Martin. The Crisis in New Zealand Schools. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2002.

436 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Keen, David. In a Class of Its Own: A Dunedin College of Education Anniversary History. Dunedin: Dunedin College of Education, 2001. Lange, David Russell. Tomorrow’s Schools: The Reform of Educational Administration in New Zealand. Wellington: Government Printer, 1988. May, Helen. Politics in the Playground: The World of Early Childhood in Post War New Zealand. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books and New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 2001. Middleton, S., ed. Women and Education in Aotearoa. Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1988. Morrell, W. P. The University of Otago: A Centennial History. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1969. Morton Johnston, Carol, and Harry Morton. Dunedin Teachers’ College: The First Hundred Years. Dunedin: Dunedin Teachers’ College, 1976. Openshaw, R., and D. McKenzie, eds. Reinterpreting the Educational Past. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1987. Simmonds, E. J. NZEI 100: An Account of the New Zealand Educational Institute, 1883–1983. Wellington: NZEI, 1983. Sweetman, Rory. A Fair and Just Solution? A History of the Integration of Private Schools in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 2002. Task Force to Review Education Administration in New Zealand. Administering for Excellence (The “Picot Report”). Wellington: Government Printer, 1988. Wellington, Mervyn. New Zealand Education in Crisis. Auckland: Endeavour Press, 1985. 4. Environmental Issues Buhrs, Ton, and Robert V. Bartlett. Environmental Policy in New Zealand: The Politics of Clean and Green. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. Cockayne, Leonard. New Zealand Plants and Their Story. Wellington: Government Printer, 1910. (Reprinted, 1967). Hawke, Gary, ed. Guardians for the Environment. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, 1997.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 437

Peat, Neville. Manapouri Saved! New Zealand’s First Great Conservation Success Story. Dunedin: Longacre Press, 1995. Rainbow, Stephen. Green Politics. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. 5. Gender Issues Gatfield, Gill. Without Prejudice: Women in the Law. Wellington: Brookers, 1996. Gray, A. The Jones Men: 100 New Zealand Men Talk about Their Lives. Wellington: Reed, 1983. James, B., and K. Saville-Smith. Gender, Culture and Power: Challenging New Zealand’s Gendered Culture. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1989. Kedgeley, Sue. The Sexual Wilderness: Men and Women in New Zealand. Auckland: Methuen, 1985. King, Michael, and Eric Taylor., ed. One of the Boys? Changing Views of Masculinity in New Zealand. Auckland: Heinemann, 1988. Phillips, J. O. C. A Man’s Country: The Image of the Pakeha Male. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1987. 6. Health Issues Blank, Robert H. New Zealand Health Policy: A Comparative Study. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1994. Hay, I. The Caring Community. The Provision of Health Care in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1989. Lydiard, Arthur, with Garth Gilman. Jogging with Lydiard. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1983. ———. Run for Your Life: Jogging with Arthur Lydiard. Auckland: Minerva, 1965. ———. Running with Lydiard. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1983. Muthumala, D., W. Scott, J. Westrate, and A. Morris. Health Expenditure Trends in New Zealand. Wellington: Department of Health, 1989. Wilkes, Chris, and Ian Shirley, eds. In the Public Interest: Health, Work and Housing in New Zealand. Auckland: Benton Ross, 1984.

438 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

7. Industrial Relations Bray, Mark, and Nigel Haworth, eds. Economic Restructuring and Industrial Relations in Australia and New Zealand: A Comparative Analysis. Sydney: Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Teaching, University of Sydney, 1993. Hince, K., and A. Williams., eds. Contemporary Industrial Relations in Australia and New Zealand: Literature Surveys. Wellington: Industrial Relations Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, 1987. Holt, James. Compulsory Arbitration in New Zealand: The First Forty Years. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1987. Scott, Dick. 151 Days: History of the Great Waterfront Lockout and Supporting Strikes, February 15–July 15, 1951. Auckland: NZ Waterside Workers’ Union (Deregistered), 1952. Turkington, D. J. Industrial Conflict: A Study of Three New Zealand Industries. Wellington: Methuen, 1976. 8. The Justice System Hood, Lynley. A City Possessed: The Christchurch Civic Creche Case: Child Abuse, Gender, Politics, and the Law. Dunedin: Longacre Press, 2001. Lashlie, Celia. The Journey to Prison: Who Goes and Why? Rev. ed. Auckland: HarperCollins, 2003. Morris, A., and W. Young. Juvenile Justice in New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University of Wellington, Institute of Criminology, 1987. 9. Population Issues Crothers, C., and R. Bedford., eds. The Business of Population. Wellington: New Zealand Demographic Society, 1988. ESCAP, Population Division, ed. Population of New Zealand. Country Monograph Series No. 12. New York: United Nations, 1985. Johnston, Ron J., ed. Urbanisation in New Zealand: Geographical Essays. Wellington: Reed Education, 1973. Neville, R. J. W., and C. J. O’Neill, eds. The Population of New Zealand: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1979.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 439

Palenski, Ron. Kiwi Milestones: New Zealand’s Population through the Millions. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett, 2004. Shirley, Ian. Planning for Community. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1979. 10. Race Relations Ballara, Angela. Proud to Be White? A Survey of Pakeha Prejudice in New Zealand. Auckland: Heinemann, 1986. Caughey, Catherine M. Uniting Our Cultures: A History of Auckland Multicultural Society Inc., 1978–2000. Auckland: Auckland Multicultural Society, 2001. Kimber, James, and Paul Clark. China and New Zealand: A Thriving Relationship 30 Years On. Auckland: New Zealand-Asia Institute and University of Auckland, 2003. King, Michael. Being Pakeha: An Encounter with New Zealand and the Maori Renaissance. Auckland: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985. ———. Being Pakeha Now: Reflections and Recollections of a White Native. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1999. ———, ed. Pakeha: A Quest for Identity in New Zealand. Auckland: Penguin Books, 1991. Morgan, Teupoko Ina. Cook Islands Women Pioneers: Early Experiences in New Zealand. Tokoroa: Anau Ako Pacifika, 2001. Pearson, David. A Dream Deferred: The Origins of Ethnic Conflict in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1990. Spoonley, Paul. The Politics of Nostalgia: Racism and the Extreme Right in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1987. ———. Racism and Ethnicity. Rev. ed. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. Spoonley, Paul, and Walter Hirsh. Between the Lines: Racism and the New Zealand Media. Auckland: Heinemann Reed, 1990. Tauroa, Hiwi. Report of the Advisory Committee on Youth and Law in Our Multicultural Society. Wellington: Department of Justice, 1985. Temm, Paul. The Waitangi Tribunal: The Conscience of the Nation. Auckland: Random Century, 1990. Thompson, Richard. Retreat from Apartheid: New Zealand’s Sporting Contacts with South Africa. Wellington: Oxford University Press, 1975.

440 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Vasil, Raj. Biculturalism: Reconciling Aotearoa with New Zealand. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1988. 11. Religion Ahdar, Rex, and John Stenhouse, eds. God and Government: The New Zealand Experience. Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2000. Boston, Jonathan, and Alan Cameron, eds. Voices for Justice: Church, Law and State in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994. Breward, Ian. A History of the Churches in Australasia. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001. Colless, B., and P. Donovan, eds. Religion in New Zealand Society. 2nd ed. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1985. Webster, A. C., and P. E. Perry. The Religious Factor in New Zealand Society. Palmerston North: Alpha, 1989. 12. Security and Welfare Bedggood, David. Rich and Poor in New Zealand. Auckland: Allen & Unwin, 1980. Bryant, George. The Widening Gap: Poverty in New Zealand. Auckland: Cassell New Zealand, 1979. Castles, F. The Working Class and Welfare: Reflections on the Political Development of the Welfare State in Australia and New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1985. Easton, Brian. Pragmatism and Progress: Social Security in the Seventies. Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 1981. ———. Social Policy and the Welfare State in New Zealand. Auckland: Allen & Unwin, 1980. Green, Paul F., ed. Studies in New Zealand Social Problems. 2nd ed. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1994. Pearson, David, and David Thorns. Eclipse of Equality. Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1983. Phillips, R. Divorce in New Zealand: A Social History. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1981. Pitt, David, ed. Social Class in New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1977.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 441

Report of the Royal Commission on Social Policy. Wellington: Government Printer, 1988. Report on the Social Indicators Survey, 1980–1981. Wellington: Department of Statistics, 1984. Smith, A. B., and D. A. Swain. Childcare in New Zealand: People, Programmes, Politics. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1988. Social Security in New Zealand: Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry. Wellington: Government Printer, 1972. Tennant, Margaret. Paupers and Providers: Charitable Aid in New Zealand. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1989. Trlin, A. D., ed. Social Welfare and New Zealand Society. Wellington: Methuen, 1977.

K. MAORI SOCIETY—PAST AND PRESENT Alpers, Anthony, ed. Maori Myths and Tribal Legends. Auckland: Longman Paul, 1964. Awatere, Donna. Maori Sovereignty. Auckland: Broadsheet, 1984. Barlow, Cleve. Tikanga Whakaro: Key Concepts in Maori Culture. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Beattie, James Herries. Traditional Lifeways of the Southern Maori, ed. Athol Anderson. Dunedin: Otago University Press, 1994. Best, Elsdon. The Maori. Wellington: H. H. Tombs, 1924. (Reprinted, New York: AMS Press, 1979.) ———. Polynesian Voyagers: The Maori as a Deep-sea Navigator, Explorer and Coloniser. 2nd ed. Wellington: Government Printer, 1954. ———. Tuhoe: The Children of the Mist. 2nd ed. Wellington: Reed/Polynesian Society, 1972. Brailsford, Barry J. Greenstone Trails: The Maori in Search of Pounamu. Wellington: Reed, 1984. Brown, Amy, ed. Mana Wahine: Women Who Show the Way. Auckland: Reed, 1994. Byrnes, Giselle. The Waitangi Tribunal and New Zealand History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2004. Capper, Rosalie, and Amy Brown. Vision Aotearoa: Kaupapa New Zealand, ed. Witi Ihimaera. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1994.

442 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cox, Lindsay. Kotahitanga: The Search for Maori Political Unity. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1993. Crosby, R. D. The Musket Wars: A History of Inter-Iwi Conflict, 1806–1845. Auckland: Reed, 1999. Dow, Derek A. Maori Health and Government Policy, 1840–1940. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1999. Duff, Alan. Maori: The Crisis and the Challenge. Auckland: HarperCollins, 1993. Durie, Mason. Whaiora: Maori Health Development. 2nd ed. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1998. Eldridge, C. C. Victorian Imperialism. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. Elsmore, Bronwyn. Mana from Heaven: A Century of Maori Prophets in New Zealand. Tauranga: Moana Press, 1989. Evison, Harry C. The Long Dispute: Maori Land Rights and European Colonisation in Southern New Zealand. Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1997. ———. Ngai Tahu Land Rights and the Crown Pastoral Lease Lands in the South Island of New Zealand. Christchurch: Ngai Tahu Maori Trust Board, 1986. ———. Te Waipounamu: The Greenstone Land. Wellington: Aoraki Press, 1993. ———. The Treaty of Waitangi and the Ngai Tahu Claim: A Summary. Christchurch: Ngai Tahu Maori Trust Board, 1988. Fleras, Augie, and Paul Spoonley. Recalling Aotearoa: Indigenous Politics and Ethnic Relations in New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1999. Gardiner, Wira. Te Mura o te Atu: The Story of the Maori Battalion. Auckland: Reed, 1992. Goldie, C. F. Famous Maori Leaders of New Zealand. Auckland: Alister Taylor, 1993. Grace, John Te H. Tuwharetoa: A History of the Maori People of the Taupo District. Auckland: Reed, 1992. (First published 1959.) Grey, George. Legends of Aotearoa, ed. S. M. Mead. Hamilton: Silver Fern Books, 1988. (Original edition published under the title Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the Maori, 1856.) Haveman, Paul. Indigenous Peoples’ Rights in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1999.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 443

Hayward, Janine, ed. Local Government and the Treaty of Waitangi. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Highland, Genevieve A., Roland W. Force, Alan Howard, Marion Kelly, and Yosihiko Sinoto, eds. Polynesian Culture History: Essays in Honor of Kenneth P. Emory. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1967. Hohepa, P. W. A Maori Community in Northland. Wellington: Reed, 1964. Horsfield, Anne, and M. Evans. Maori Women in the Economy—A Preliminary View of the Economic Position of Maori Women in New Zealand. Wellington: Ministry of Maori Affairs, 1988. Hunn, J. K. Report on the Department of Maori Affairs. Wellington: Government Printer, 1960. Jackson, Moana. The Maori and the Criminal Justice System, Part 2. Wellington: Department of Justice, 1988. Jones, Pei Te Hurunui, and Bruce Biggs. Nga Iwi O Tainui: The Traditional History of the Tainui People. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1995. Kawharu, I. H. Maori Land Tenure: Studies of a Changing Institution. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977. ———, ed. Conflict and Compromise: Essays on the Maori since Colonisation. Auckland: Reed, 2003. ———, ed. Waitangi: Maori and Pakeha Perspectives of the Treaty of Waitangi. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1989. Keene, Florence. Tai Tokerau. Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1975. Kelly, Leslie G. Tainui: The Story of Hoturoa and His Descendents. Christchurch: Cadsonbury, 2002. (First published as Polynesian Society Memoir No. 24, 1949.) King, Michael. Maori: A Photographic and Social History. Auckland: Reed, 1983. ———. Moriori: A People Rediscovered. Auckland: Viking, 1989. ———, ed. Te Ao Hurihuri: The World Moves On: Aspects of Maoritanga. Wellington: Hicks Smith, 1975. ———, ed. Tihei Maori Ora. Auckland: Methuen, 1978. King, Michael, and Marti Friedlander. Moko: Maori Tattooing in the Twentieth Century. Auckland: Bateman, 1992. Kirkwood, Carmen. Koroki, My King. Ngauruawahia: Turongo House, 1999.

444 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lange, Rayburn. May the People Live: A History of Maori Health Development, 1900–1920. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1999. Levine, Stephen, and Raj Vasil. Maori Political Perspectives. Auckland: Hutchinson, 1985. Lewis, David, and Werner Forman. The Maori: Heirs of Tane. London: Orbis, 1982. Marr, Cathy. The Alienation of Maori Land in the Rohe Potae (Aotea Block), 1840–1920. Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal Division, 1996. ———. The Alienation of Maori Land in the Rohe Potae (Aotea Block), 1900–1960. Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal Division, 1999. Mataira, K. Maori Artists of the South Pacific. Raglan: New Zealand Maori Artists and Writers Society, 1984. Matiu, McCully, and Margaret Mutu. Te Whanau Moana: Customs and Protocols. Auckland: Reed, 2003. McCan, David. Whatiwhatihoe: The Waikato Raupatu Claim. Wellington: Huia, 2001. McHugh, Paul. The Maori Magna Carta: New Zealand Law and the Treaty of Waitangi. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1991. Mead, S. M., ed. Te Maori: Maori Art from New Zealand Collections. Auckland: Heinemann, 1984. Metge, Joan. The Maoris of New Zealand: Ruatahi. London: Routledge & Keegan Paul, 1976. ———. A New Maori Migration: Rural and Urban Relations in Northern New Zealand. London: Athelone Press, 1964. Moon, Paul. Te Ara Ki Te Tiriti: The Path to the Treaty of Waitangi. Auckland: David Ling, 2002. Mulgan, Richard. Maori, Pakeha and Democracy. Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1989. Nicholas, D., and K. Kaa. Seven Maori Artists. Wellington: Government Printer, 1986. Oliver, W. H. Claims to the Waitangi Tribunal. Wellington: Waitangi Tribunal Division, Department of Justice, 1991. Phillips, J., ed. Te Whenua Te Iwi: The Land and the People. Wellington: Allen & Unwin, 1987. Pomare, E., and W. de Boer. Hauhora, Maori Standards of Health: A Study of the Years 1970–1984. Wellington: Department of Health, 1988. Pool, Ian. The Maori Population of New Zealand, 1769–1971. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1977.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 445

———. Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population, Past, Present and Projected. Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1991. Pool, Ian, and N. Pole. The Maori Population to 2100: Demographic Change and Its Implications. Wellington: New Zealand Demographic Society, 1987. Reed, A. W. The Reed Book of Maori Mythology. Rev. ed., ed. Ross Calman. Auckland: Reed, 2004. ———. Taonga Tuku Iho: Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Traditional Maori Life. Rev. ed., ed. Buddy Mikaere. Auckland: NewHolland, 2002. Renwick, William, ed. Sovereignty and Indigenous Rights: The Treaty of Waitangi in International Contexts. Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1991. Ritchie, J. E. The Making of a Maori. Wellington: Reed, 1963. Salmond, Anne. Hui: A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wellington: Reed, 1975. Schwimmer, Erik, ed. The Maori People in the 1960s. Auckland: Blackwood & Janet Paul, 1968. Simpson, Miria, and Pat Parsons, eds. Nga taumata: He whakaahua o Ngati Kahugnunu (a Portrait of Ngati Kahungunu), 1870–1906. Wellington: Huia, 2003. Smith, Stephenson Percy. Hawaiki: The Whence of the Maori. Wellington: Whitcombe & Tombs, 1898. ———. History and Traditions of the Maoris of the West Coast, North Island of New Zealand, pre-1840. New Plymouth: Polynesian Society, 1910. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 1999.) ———. The Lore of the Whare-Wananga. New Plymouth: Polynesian Society, 1913. Spoonley, Paul, ed. Tauiwi: Racism and Ethnicity in New Zealand. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1984. Stokes, Evelyn. The Individualisation of Maori Interests in Land. Hamilton: University of Waikato, 2002. Stratford, D. M. Te Arawa: A History of the Te Arawa People. Auckland: Reed, 1967. Sutherland, I. L. G., ed. The Maori People Today. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of International Affairs and New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1940. Tauroa, Hiwi. Healing the Breach: One Maori’s Perspective on the Treaty of Waitangi. Auckland: Collins, 1989.

446 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Taylor, A. Maori Folk Art. Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1988. Tregear, Edward. Aryan Maori. Wellington: Government Printer, 1885. ———. Maori Race. Wanganui: A. D. Willis, 1904. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 2001.) ———. Maoris of New Zealand. New York: Appleton, 1893. Vasil, Raj. What Do the Maori Want? New Maori Political Perspectives. Auckland: Random Century, 1990. Ward, Alan. An Unsettled History: Treaty Claims in New Zealand Today. Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1999. Webster, P. Rua and the Maori Millennium. Wellington: Price Milburn and Victoria University Press, 1979. Williams, Thomas C. The Manawatu Purchase Completed; or, The Treaty of Waitangi Broken. Wellington: New Zealand Times, 1867. (Reprinted, Christchurch: Kiwi, 2000.) Winiatan, Maharaia. The Changing Role of the Leader in Maori Society: A Study in Social Change and Race Relations. Auckland: Paul, 1967.

L. JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS Art New Zealand. Auckland: Pacific Graphics, 1976– . The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology. Melbourne: Sociological Association of Australia and New Zealand, 1965– . Islands. Christchurch, 1972–1976; Auckland: 1977–1981 and 1984– . The Journal of New Zealand Art History. Dunedin: Hocken Library, University of Otago, 1980– . Journal of New Zealand Studies (new series). Wellington: Stout Research Centre, 2002– . Journal of the Polynesian Society. Wellington and Auckland: The Society, 1892– . Journal of the Polynesian Society Centennial Index. Auckland: The Society, 1993. Landfall. Christchurch, Auckland: 1947–1992; new series, Auckland and Otago: 1993– . New Zealand Agricultural Science. Auckland: Trade Publications, 1964–1984; Palmerston North: Dunmore Press, 1984– .

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

• 447

New Zealand Geographer. Christchurch: New Zealand Geographic Society, 1945– . New Zealand Geographic. Auckland: New Zealand Geographic, 1989– . New Zealand International Review. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1976– . New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies. Wellington: New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1966– . New Zealand Journal of History. Auckland: University of Auckland, 1967– . New Zealand Journal of Industrial Relations. Kaikohe: The News, 1976. New Zealand Listener. Wellington: New Zealand Listener, 1939–1973; Wellington: NZBC, 1973–1975; Wellington: BCNZ, 1975–1988; Auckland: New Zealand Magazines, 1988– . New Zealand Medical Journal. Wellington: New Zealand Medical Association, 1887– . New Zealand Population Review. Wellington: New Zealand Demographic Society, 1980– . Political Science. Wellington, School of History, Philosophy, Political Science, and International Relations, Victoria University of Wellington, 1948– . Public Sector. Wellington: New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1978– . Women’s Studies Journal. Dunedin: Women’s Studies Association and Otago University Press, 1984– .

M. SELECTED INTERNET WEBSITES 1. Government Crown Company Monitoring Advisory Unit (CCMAU) cmau.govt. nz Electoral Commission www.elections.org.nz Human Rights Commission www.hrc.co.nz National Library of New Zealand www.natlib.govt.nz Ombudsmen www.ombudsman.govt.nz Parliament www.parliament.govt.nz

448 •

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

2. Ministries and Departments Agriculture and Forestry www.maf.govt.nz Conservation www.doc.govt.nz Consumer Affairs www.consumer-ministry.govt.nz Corrections www.corrections.govt.nz Courts www.courts.govt.nz Culture and Heritage www.mch.govt.nz Defence www.defence.govt.nz Economic Development www.moc.govt.nz Education www.minedu.govt.nz Environment www.mfe.govt.nz Foreign Affairs and Trade www.mft.govt.nz Health www.moh.govt.nz Housing www.minhousing.govt.nz Inland Revenue www.ird.govt.nz Internal Affairs www.dia.govt.nz Justice www.justice.govt.nz Labour and Immigration www.dol.govt.nz Local Government New Zealand www.lgnz.co.nz Pacific Island Affairs www.minpac.govt.nz Prime Minister and Cabinet, Department of www.dpmc.govt.nz Research, Science, and Technology www.morst.govt.nz Te Puni Kokiri www.tpk.govt.nz Transport www.transport.govt.nz Women’s Affairs www.mwa.govt.nz Work and Income www.winz.govt.nz Youth Affairs www.youthaffairs.govt.nz 3. Finance New Zealand Futures and Options Exchange New Zealand Stock Exchange

www.nzfoe.co.nz www.nzse.co.nz

4. Media Film New Zealand Independent Newspapers Ltd. (INL)

www.filmnz.org.nz www.inl.co.nz

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

New Zealand Press Association NZ On Air Radio New Zealand Te Mango Paho Television New Zealand TV3 Network

• 449

www.nzpa.co.nz www.nzonair.govt.nz www.rnz.co.nz www.tmp.govt.nz www.tvnz.co.nz www.tv3.co.nz

5. Organizations Political Parties ACT New Zealand www.act.org.nz Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand www.greens.org.nz Labour Party, New Zealand www.labour.org.nz Maori Party www.maoriparty.com National Party, New Zealand www.national.org.nz New Zealand First www.nzfirst.org.nz United New Zealand www.united.org.nz Selected Interest Groups Auckland Chamber of Commerce www.chamber.co.nz Business Roundtable, New Zealand www.nzbr.org.nz Consumers’ Institute www.consumer.org.nz Contractors’ Federation, New Zealand www.nzcontractors.co.nz Council of Trade Unions, New Zealand www.union.org.nz Employers and Manufacturers Federation www.businessnz.org.nz Fishing and Hunting New Zealand www.fishnhunt.co.nz Federated Farmers of New Zealand www.fedfarm.org.nz Medical Association, New Zealand www.nzma.org.nz Professional Engineers New Zealand, Institution of www.ipenz.org.nz Tourism Motel Association of New Zealand www.nzmotels.co.nz Snowsports Council, New Zealand www.snow.co.nz/snowsports Tourism New Zealand www.tourismnewzealand.com Waitangi Tribunal www.knowledge-basket.co.nz/waitangi

About the Authors

Keith Jackson (University of London Teaching Certificate; BA [Hons] in medieval and modern history, University of Nottingham; PhD in political science from the University of Otago) is emeritus professor of political science at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. He has taught at the Universities of Otago and Canterbury and has contributed lectures at a number of British and American colleges and universities. For some years he was responsible for weekly radio broadcasts on current affairs to schools and has been a regular radio and television current affairs commentator. In 1998 he coauthored (with Alan McRobie) New Zealand Adopts Proportional Representation: Accident? Design? Evolution? a definitive study of New Zealand’s shift from a simple plurality to a fully proportional election system. Alan McRobie (Dunedin Teachers College [Diploma in Teaching]; Universities of Otago [MA in history]; and Canterbury [MA (Hons) in political science]) is a political analyst and independent electoral consultant. He taught courses in New Zealand history, politics, and society at the Christchurch College of Education from 1969 to 1989 and still lectures study groups visiting New Zealand. He has held visiting teaching fellowships, a visiting professorship (California State University, Chico), and a Claude McCarthy Research Fellowship. Since 1990 he has undertaken consultancy work in a number of election-related fields. In 2001 he was elected to the Waimakariri District Council and is chair of the Council’s Audit Committee. He has written extensively on New Zealand politics, particularly its electoral system, and was, for many years, a regular commentator on New Zealand’s electoral politics. His latest book, coauthored (with Stephen Levine), is From Muldoon to Lange: New Zealand Elections in the 1980s (2002).

451