RELIGION • BAHÁ’Í
HISTORICAL DICTIONARY ADAMSON
Praise for the First Edition “The bibliography is among the best of its kind, and the many appendixes help the reader with detailed information. The dictionary is readable and comprehensive to the general reader. As an introduction to the religion, it serves as a gathering place for the data.”
BAHÁ’Í
FAITH
—American Reference Books Annual
terms it uses abundantly, and its basic ideas.”
—Quest magazine
Growing out of the teachings of the Báb, who introduced the idea of the coming of a the Bahá’í Faith was founded by Bahá’u’lláh when, in 1866, he publicly declared that he was the One the Báb had prophesized. This second edition of Historical Dictionary gions and a theological overview of the Bahá’í Faith, from its inception in the middle of the 19th century to the present. It presents biographical details of the Founders and Central Figures as well as numerous leaders and pioneers, basic principles and precepts, and aspects of the organization and its administration. With photographs, a list of acronyms, a chronology, an introductory essay, a bibliography, hundreds of cross-referenced dictionary entries on nearly every aspect of the religion, and appendixes listing the genealogy of the Founders, statistical information, and lists of apostles, disciples, Hands of the Cause, Knights of Bahá’u’lláh, and more than 930 believers, this book is an fundamental reference tool for the Bahá’í Faith.
HUGH C. ADAMSON served for 11 years as the secretary general of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá’í in the United Kingdom and is a Bahá’í of 35 years. He currently lives and teaches in the United States, where he is active in dealing with interfaith relations and action against racism.
For orders and information please contact the publisher SCARECROW PRESS, INC. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 • fax 717-794-3803 www.scarecrowpress.com Cover photo of the Shrine of the Báb on Mt. Carmel, Haifa, Israel Cover design by Allison Nealon
BAHÁ’Í FAITH
of the Bahá’í Faith presents a general historical overview of both Bábí and Bahá’í reli-
OF THE
great prophet (the one promised in the scriptures of all the world’s major religions),
HISTORICAL DICTIONARY
“A useful source of information about people active in the Bahá’í religion, the Persian
HD Bahai Faith_LITHO.indd 1
OF THE
ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-5096-5 ISBN-10: 0-8108-5096-6
HUGH C. ADAMSON
9/6/06 2:54:14 PM
Historical Dictionary of the Baha' 9 ' 1 Faith Second Edition Hugh C. Adamson Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements, No. 71
The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland Toronto Oxford 2007
SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com PO Box 317 Oxford OX2 9RU, UK Copyright O 2007 by Hugh C. Adamson First edition, 0-8108-3353-0, published in 1998
All rights resewed. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationData Adamson, Hugh C. Historical dictionary of the BahA'i Faith 1Hugh C. Adamson. -2nd ed. p. cm. - (Historical dictionaries of religions, philosophies, and movements ; no. 71) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-5096-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8108-5096-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Bahai Faith-History-Dictionaries. I. Title. BP327.A33 2006 297.9'3034~22 2006020839 @'"The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSIINISO 239.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America.
For my dear departed and very much missed friends: Badieh, Charles, Fuad, Jeffrey, Meheranghiz, Mildred, Muhammad-R&ollih, and Philip. Heroes and heroines all . . . They "made a mark among those enduring traces which the mind of the Master perceived." Also for Lynda and Lois.
In extolling the unprecedented potential of the twentieth century, the beloved Master averred that its traces will last forever. Seized with such a vision, the mind of the alert follower of the Blessed Beauty must undoubtedly be astir with anxious questions as to what part he or she will play in these few fleeting years, and as to whether he or she will, at the end of this seminal period, have made a mark among those enduring traces which the mind of the Master perceived. -The Universal House of Justice, Ridvan Message 155 (1998), "To the Bahh'is of the World"
Contents
Series Editor's Foreword Preface
vii
The Epochs of the Formative Age
xii
Chronology Introduction THE DICTIONARY Appendixes 1. Genealogy of Bahi'u'llhh 2. Genealogy of 'Abdu'l-Bahii 3. Genealogy of the Bbb 4. Kinship Listing of the Baha'u'llhh 5. Letters of the Living 6. Apostles of Bahb'u'llhh 7. Disciples of 'Abdu'l-Baha 8. Hands of the Cause of God (by Contingent) 9. First Five Auxiliary Boards 10. Knights of Bahb'u'llhh 11. Members of the International Bahii'i Council 12. Members of the Universal House of Justice (1963-2005) 13. Obituaries 14. Badi Calendar 15. Statistics 16. Martin Sheil Letter Notes Bibliography About the Author
Series Editor's Foreword
Only a little more than a century and a half old, the Baha'i Faith has grown vigorously, with more than 5 million members. Its geographic expansion is even more impressive, with adherents living in nearly every country and territory in the world. The Baha'is consider that their religion is in the chain of ongoing progressive revelation, with Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and other theistic and nontheistic faiths. They also actively address many present-day issues, such as democracy, racial and sexual equality, economic development, environmental protection, human rights, and peace. But the Baha'i Faith is not as well known as it should be. This substantially updated and expanded historical dictionary will bring knowledge of the religion to outsiders while allowing believers to deepen their understanding. Both an introduction entitled "The Epochs of the Formative Age" and the chronology provide a timeline of the faith as a whole and of its components. The preface and introduction provide a general framework. But the crucial section is the dictionary, with several hundred entries on founders, leaders, and pioneers; many of the faith's basic principles and precepts; aspects of organization and administration; and significant historical events. Finally, there are a number of appendixes containing statistical information and a substantial bibliography for M e r reading. Hugh C. Adamson wrote this second edition; the first edition was coauthored by Adamson and Philip Hainsworth, who passed away in 2001. Adamson is the former secretary-general of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United Kingdom and has written extensively about the subject. He currently lives in the United States, where he teaches and is active in promoting interfaith relations and action against racism. Jon Woronoff Series Editor
Preface
A new edition of a book allows an author to correct errors and supplement previous materials with new and updated entries-and for this I am grateful! It is important to note, however, that this is a work of secondary (as opposed to primary) research and that discrepancies in source materials will, almost invariably, be repeated herein. The Bahh'i Faith came into being in the middle of the 19th century with a well-recorded and voluminously documented history-"in the full light of history," so to speak. Therefore, I have had great difficulty in choosing exactly what to include and what to exclude. I have tried to cover as many of the major and important aspects of the Bahh'i Faith as are known to me. Nevertheless, the nonencyclopedic nature of this work means that some topics will be missing, whether by choice or simple oversight. This is a historical dictionary, and history is about people. Sadly, a great many people who have contributed significantly to the historical development of the Bahb'i Faith have been excluded due to the limits of space. The choice of whom to include and whom to leave out was difficult, and ultimately only a representative sampling of "eligible" people could be included. The appendixes (added since the first edition) will hopefully offer some compensation to those left As a general rule, people now living are excludeddespite their many outstanding contributions to the development of the Bahb'i Faith; the sole exception is the single remaining living Hand of the Cause of God, 'Ali Muhammad Varqh. Also, in an effort to conserve space, I have made no attempt to provide a comprehensive review of the lives, teachings, family, and sufferings of the three Central Figures of the Bahb'i Faith (the Bhb, Bahh'u'llhh, and 'Abdu'l-Bahh) or Shoghi Effendi (the Guardian of the Bahh'i Faith)-since these details can be easily obtained from a growing number of publications now readily available. (A bibliography of major works dealing with their lives and teachings is, however, included.) An overview of the major historical events relating to Their lives and the evolution of the Bahb'i Faith can also be found in the five
viii
PREFACE
sections of the chronology: "The Bhb and Bahh'u'llhh," "The 'Abdu'lBahh," "The Guardianship," "The Chief Stewards of the Ministry of the Custodians (Interregnum)," and "The Universal House of Justice." While not definitive, this chronology should nonetheless assist researchers and readers alike in identifying major historical events and pointing to source documents relating to them. The restriction of textual entries to essential details has permitted entries on many more of their followers than would otherwise have been possiblesouls who rendered service to the Bahh'i Faith throughout their Baha'i lives and in so doing significantly influenced the historical development of the Bahh'i Faith. Of particular note are entries on the 50 Hands of the Cause of God. If these and other entries appear slightly hagiographic in nature, it is because they are. Perhaps the reader will indulge me in this breach of academia's current preference for methodological atheism in research matters relating to religious subjects, as a great many of the 20th-century personages mentioned were known both to me and to the coauthor of the first edition personally, and their characters and services are all the more cherished for that. Readers will quickly realize that the body of this work is replete with quotations from Bahh'u'llhh, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, and Shoghi Effendi. There are two reasons for choosing this method of presentation. First, in His Will and Testament, Bahh'u'llhh (Kitlb-i-'Ahd) appointed His Son 'Abdu'l-Bahh as the sole Interpreter of His Words (see B A ~ ~ U ' L L A H WILL , AND TESTAMENT OF). 'Abdu'l-Bahh, in turn, in His Will and Testament, appointed His grandson Shoghi Effendi the "Guardian" (Head) of the Baha'i Faith and the sole interpreter of matters not already pronounced on by Bahh'u'llhh or Himself WILL AND TESTAMENT OF; THE GUARD(see 'ABDU'L-B&, IANSHIP). This means that "authoritative" statements on the meaning of Bahh'u'llhh's utterances can be found only in the Writings of Bahh'u'llhh (i.e., His own interpretation of passages of Scripture) or the commentaries of 'Abdu'l-BahB and Shoghi Effendi. As such, interpretation of BahB'i Writings is forbidden to everyone else. Naturally, anyone may hold an opinion as to the meaning of any given passage, but individual Bahh'is have no right to insist on the correctness of their position. Presenting the words of Bahh'u'llhh, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, and Shoghi Effendi in combination with the elucidations of the Universal House of Justice throughout this dictionary will provide access to authoritative meaning rather than speculative opinion. Second, the use of quotations throughout gives readers immediate access to source materials, thereby allowing them to decide whether
PREFACE
ix
they want to access the originals for further contextual analysis; the vast majority of these have reference pointers to original English-language sources. This should provide researchers and general readers with specific access to both primary and secondary sources, with minimal additional research. The source referencing system used is a numbered list style, which works as follows: [3:41 refers to page 4 of citation number 3 in 'Wotes," which follows the dictionary. The use of Bahi'i terminology, such as Cause for Bahi'i Faith, declaration for conversion/acceptance, and Mission for the duties assigned by God to His Manifestation, permeates the text. Unless the meaning is truly obscure, I have avoided separate entries or repetitive explanations of such terms. The bibliography has been revised to reflect a number of new commentaries that have been published since the first edition in 1998. Hopefully this will prove valuable to both academic researchers and casual browsers alike. As with the previous edition, the bibliography contains a section on autobiographies and biographies that contain a wealth of personal historical information that will assist researchers in their understanding the historical development of the Bahb'i Faith (given that this is often the only public source of such information). Given the rise in usage of the Internet and World Wide Web, a number of official Bahi'i web URLs and FTP sites are provided for those wishing to access Bahii'i materials via that media. The Bahi'i World Centre operates an FTP site fiom which all the English-language Bahi'i Sacred Writings can be downloaded at no cost (http://library.bahai.org/serv/ iIpc.htm1). The site also contains a large number of other materials. Since the publication of the first edition, a number of new Bahi'i software research programs have been developed. Without a doubt the best of those currently available is Ocean. Indeed, it is hard to exaggerate the importance of this new research tool. It is fieeware and can Significantly, it be downloaded fiom http://bahai-education.org/ocean~. provides searchable access not only to a considerable number of Bahi'i texts but also to Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Isliimic, Judaic, Sikh, Tao, and Zoroastrian texts (in English as well as Spanish, French, German, Russian, Dutch, and Portuguese). As with the previous edition, I remain indebted to the Universal House of Justice for their consent to the reproduction of the unpublished article entitled "The Epochs of the Formative Age," which appears in the fiont matter of this book, preceding the chronology. I have updated this to include further epochal developments occurring in the years since the publication of the first edition and strengthened it by adding a number
x
PREFACE
of schematic representations. I remain grateful, too, for their permission to use their definitions of oriental terms found as published in several ~ ~ ~definitions ff] have been inserted issues of The Bah6'i W ~ r l d . [ ' ~ :The directly into the body of the dictionary and are identified by a EL! mark in the citation reference (e.g., [18:735ff]" >. The question of how best to place oriental "name" entries proved more than a little vexing, since the average nonacademic Western reader has no concept of the meaning of the sometimes many honorific "titles" that may proceed an oriental name--such as Hiji (a Muslim who has performed a pilgrimage to Mecca), Mulli (roughly, priest), or Mirzi ( p r i n c e h r the fact that the last part of most names normally designates the geographic region or town from which the person's family originated. As such, most Western readers often think of these names as a single name. The frequent conferment of such honorific titles by the Central Figures of the Faith on believers and (in some cases) nonbelievers adds to the difficulty. As a general rule, in keeping with my observation of how the average Bahi'i most often refers to people with oriental names (i.e., as a single name), I have opted to place entries according to that stylebelieving that that is how the average Western reader will first look for them in the dictionary. For instance, Hhji Mirzh Muhammad-Taqi-i-Afnhn has been entered in the H section of the dictionary. On the other hand, Mulli Mulpnmad-i-Zarandi, the author of the well-known narrative history of the early days of the Bibi and Baha'i Faiths (The Dawn-Breake r ~ [ ~is ~ normally ]), referred to by the conferred title of Nabil-i-A'?am. As such, the main entry on him has been entered in the N section of the dictionary, with Mulld M*ammad-i-Zarandi cross-referenced to Nabil-i-A'zam. Mullh Husayn-i-Bu&rfi'i, entitled Bhbu'l-Bhb, on the other hand, is normally referred to as Mulld Husayn. As such he has been entered in the M section. Eastern believers who have lived in the West for many years, however, have been alphabetized according to the Western custom of surname first, with a cross-reference from their full oriental names. Naturally it would not be sensible to attempt crossreferencing of every possible combination, so I have limited this to those I felt essential and appropriate. American spelling has been used throughout the text except where a quotation uses English spelling (in which case the original has been retained). Note that pronouns referring to the Bib, Bahd'u'llih, and 'Abdu'l-Bahi are capitalized throughout in keeping with Bahi'i practice. The system of transliteration used is that specified by Shoghi Effendi for use within the Bahi'i Community by B a h i ' i ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
PREFACE
xi
Words or phrases in bold refer to other dictionary entries, and the pronunciation of Persian words is according to the following sChema:[17:895fl a as in account i as (e) in best i as in arm i as (ee) in meet as (00) in moon u as (0) in short dh like z aw as in mown like z Z like z z d like z th like ss s like ss S like ss Kh like ch in loch Zh like s in pleasure gh as q H like h means pause h6 like h means pause Y
Although his name no longer appears as a coauthor, Philip Hainsworth remains a part of this edition. Finally, I remain keenly aware of the many shortcomings of this work and, as before, offer it as a beginning effort rather than a final product.
The Epochs of the Formative Age
In disclosing the panoramic vision of the unfoldrnent of the Dispensation of Bahai'u'llaih, Shoghi Effendi refers to three major evolutionary stages through which the Faith must pass-the Apostolic or Heroic Age the (1844-1921) associated with the Central Figures of the Faith;[35:41 ~ '"hall-mark"[36:981 ~~] Formative or Transitional Age (1921 o n ~ a r d ) / ~the of which is the rise and establishment of the Administrative Order, based on the execution of the provisions of 'Abdu'l-Bahai's Will and and the Golden Age, which will represent the "consum~ ~ ~ ~ examination ~] of the mation of this glorious D i s p e n ~ a t i o n . " [ Close details of Bahh'i history reveals that the individual Ages are composed of a number of periods-inseparable parts of one integrated w h ~ l e . [ ~ ~ " ~ ] In relation to the Heroic Age of our Faith, the Guardian, in a letter dated 5 June 1947 to the American Bahti'is, specified that this Age consisted of three epochs and described the distinguishing features of each: The Apostolic and Heroic Age of our Faith fell into three distinct epochs, of nine, of thirty-nine and of twenty-nine years' duration, associated respectively with the Bhbi Dispensation and the ministries of Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahir. This Primitive Age of the Bahir'i Era, unapproached in spiritual fecundity by any period associated with the mission of the Founder of any previous Dispensation, was impregnated, fiom its inception to its termination, with the creative energies generated through the advent of two independent Manifestations and the establishment of a Covenant unique in the spiritual annals of m a n l ~ i n d . [ ~ ~ ~ ]
The Formative Age, in which we now live and was ushered Its major thrust is the shapin with the passing of 'Abd~'l-Bahh.[~~"~~~] ing, development, and consolidation of the local, national, and internaIt is clear fi-om the enumeration tional institutions of the Faith.[37:3241 Prepared by the Research Department of the Universal House of Justic-January (Reprinted with the kind permission of the Universal House of Justice).
1986
THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
xiii
of the tasks associated with the Formative Age that their achievement will require increasingly mature levels of functioning of the Bahd'i community: During this Formative Age of the Faith, and in the course of present and succeeding epochs, the last and crowning stage in the erection of the framework of the Administrative Order of the Faith of Bahii7u'll6l-the election of the Universal House of Justice-will have been completed, the Kithb-i-Aqdas, the Mother-Book of His Revelation, will have been codified and its laws promulgated, the Lesser Peace will have been established, the unity of mankind will have been achieved and its maturity attained, the Plan [see TABLETS OF THE D M N E PLAN] conceived by 'Abdu'l-Bahh will have been executed, the emancipation of the Faith from the fetters of religious orthodoxy will have been effected, and its independent, religious status will have been universally recogni~ed.[~~:~]
The epochs of the Formative Age mark progressive stages in the evolution of the organic Bahb'i community and signal the maturation of its institutions, thus enabling the Faith to operate at new levels and to initiate new functions. The timing of each epoch is designated by the Head of the Faith, and given the organic nature of evolutionary development, the transition from one epoch to another may not be abrupt, but may well occur over a period of time. This is the case, for example, in relation to both the inception of the Formative Age and the end of its first epoch. In relation to the former, the passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahh is the transitional event most often identified with the close of the Heroic Age and the beginning of the Formative However, the Guardian also asserts that the Apostolic Age of the Faith concluded "more particularly with the passing (in 1932) of His well-beloved and illustrious sister the Most Exalted With regard to Leaf-the last survivor of a glorious and heroic age."[36'981 the termination of the first epoch of the Formative Age, Shoghi Effendi and 1946.[38:891 has placed this between the years 1944[35:51 Before describing the individual epochs of the Formative Age, it is important to comment on the use of the term epoch in the writings of the Guardian. In a letter dated 18 January 1953, written on his behalf to a National Spiritual Assembly, it is explained that the term is used to apply both to the stages in the Formative Age of the Faith and to the phases in the unfoldment of 'Abdu'l-Bahd's Divine Plan. We are currently in the fourth epoch of the Formative Age (unpublished letter dated 2 January 1986 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahh'is of the World) and the second epoch of 'Abdu'l-Bahd's Divine Plan.[39:251 (The first epoch of the Divine Plan began in 1937 with the
xiv
THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
inception of the first Seven Year Plan of the North American Bahh'i community and concluded with the successful completion of the Ten Year Crusade in 1963. The second epoch of 'Abdu'l-Bahb's Divine Plan commenced in 1964 with the inauguration of the Nine Year Plan of the Universal House of Justice.) The primary focus of this statement is on the epochs of the Formative Age of the Dispensation of Bahb'u'llih.
THE FIRST EPOCH OFTHE FORMATIVE AGE: 1921-1944146
The first epoch of this Age witnessed the "birth and the primary stages in the erection of the framework of the Administrative Order of the Faith."[35:51The epoch was characterized by concentration on the formathereby tion of local and national institutions on all five ~ontinents,[~~'~1 initiating the erection of the machinery necessary for future systematic teaching activities. This epoch was further marked by the launching, at the instigation of the Guardian, of the first Seven Year Plan (1937-1944) by the American Bahii'i community. This Plan, drawing its inspiration represented the first systematic from the Tablets of the Divine teaching campaign of the Bahh'i community and inaugurated the initial stage of the execution of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Divine Plan in the Western Hemi~phere.[~~:~l
THE SECOND EPOCH OF THE FORMATIVE ACE: 1946-1 963
This epoch extended the developments of the first epoch by calling for the "consummation of a laboriously constructed Administrative Order"[35:61and was to witness the formulation of a succession of teaching plans designed to facilitate the development of the Faith beyond the confines of the Western Hemisphere and the continent of This epoch was distinguished, in the first instance, by the simultaneous and often spontaneous prosecution of Bahh'i national plans in both For ~ lexample, ~] in a letter written at Naw-Rk the East and the W e ~ t . [ ~ 105 B.E. to the Bahh'is in the East, the beloved Guardian listed the specific plans undertaken by the United States, British, Indian, Persian, Australian and New Zealand, and Irhqi National Spiritual Assemblies and indicated that this concerted action signalized the transition into the second epoch of the Formative Age. (Unpublished: Tawqi'ht-IMubiirakih, 102-109 B.E. Tihrh: Bahh'i Publishing Trust, 125 B.E.,
THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
xv
pp. 99-188. Letter dated Naw-Rk 105 B.E. to the Bahh'is of the East.) The Guardian utilized and mobilized the internal consolidation and the administrative experience gained by the National Assemblies with the crusade involving the launching of the Ten Year World Cru~ade[~~:'~~]-a simultaneous prosecution of 12 national plans. The plans derived their direction from 'Abdu'l-Baha's Divine Plan, and the goals were assigned by Shoghi Effendi from the World Centre of the Faith.[38:151ffl A second and : ' ~"steady ] condistinguishing feature of this epoch was the " r i ~ e " [ ~ ~ of the World Centre of the Faith. soli~lation"[~~:~~1 The second epoch thus clearly demonstrated the further maturation of the institutions of the Administrative Order. It witnessed the : l ~introduction ffl of AUXappointment of the Hands of the C a u ~ e , [ ~ ~the of the International BahP'i iliary B o a r d ~ , [ ~and ~ : the ~ ~ establishment ] event of the epoch was the election of C ~ u n c i l . [ ~The ~ ~ culminating fl the Universal House of Justice in 1963. It further demonstrated the more effective and coordinated use of the administrative machinery to prosecute the goals of the first global spiritual crusade and the emergence in ever sharper relief of the World Centre of the Faith.
THE THIRD EPOCH OF THE FORMATIVE AGE: 1963-1986
In addressing the BritishNational SpiritualAssembly in 1951,the Guardian foreshadowed "world-wide enterprises destined to be embarked upon, in future epochs of that same (Formative) Age, by the Universal :~~~] the Nine Year Plan, "the second House of J ~ s t i c e . " [ ~In~ announcing of those world-encircling enterprises destined in the course of time to ~ ~Universal ~ ' ~ ~ House carry the Word of God to every human s ~ u l , " the of Justice embarked upon the process anticipated by the Guardian and proclaimed the commencement of the third epoch of the Formative Age, an epoch that called the Baha'is to a yet more mature level of administrative functioning, consistent with the expected vast increase in the size and diversity of the community, its emergence as a model to humankind, and the extension of the influence of the Faith in the world at large. The House of Justice, in a letter dated October 1963, stated, Beloved friends, the Cause of God, guarded and nurtured since its inception by God's Messengers, by the Center of His Covenant, and by His Sign on earth, now enters a new epoch, the third of the Formative Age. It must now grow rapidly in size, increase its spiritual cohesion and executive ability, develop its institutions, and extend its influence into all strata
xvi
THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
of society. We, its members, must, by constant study of the life-giving Word, and by dedicated service, deepen in spiritual understanding and show to the world a mature, responsible, fundamentally assured, and happy way of life, far removed from the passions, prejudices, and distractions of present-day s~ciety.[~~'~fl The period of the third epoch encompassed three world plans, involving all National Spiritual Assemblies, under the direction of the Universal House of Justice, namely, the Nine Year Plan (1964-1973), the Five Year Plan (1974-1979), and the Seven Year Plan (1979-1986). This third epoch witnessed the emergence of the Faith from obscurity (unpublished letter dated 19 May 1983 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahi'is of the World) and the initiation of activities designed to foster the social and economic development of communities (unpublished letter dated 20 October 1983 written by the Universal House of Justice to the BaM'is of the World). The institution of the Continental Boards of Counsellors was brought into e x i s t e n ~ e [ ~leading ~ : ' ~ ~ ]to the establishment of the International Teaching Centre (unpublished letter dated 8 June 1973 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahi'is of the World). Assistants to the Auxiliary Boards were also introduced (unpublished letter dated 8 June 1973 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Continental Board of Counsellors, and 7 October 1973 to the Bahii'is of the World). At the World Centre of the Faith, the historic construction and occupation of the Seat of the Universal House of Justice was a crowning event (unpublished telex dated 1 February 1983 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahi'is of the World).
THE FOURTH EPOCH OF THE FORMATIVE AGE: 1986-2001
In a letter dated 2 January 1986 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahi'is of the World, the Supreme Body announced the inception of the fourth epoch of the Formative Age. It highlighted the significant developments that had taken place in the "organic growth of the Cause of God" (unpublished letter dated 2 January 1986 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahi'is of the World) during the course of the recently completed third epoch, by assessing the readiness of the Bahi'i community to begin to address the objectives of the new Six Year Plan scheduled to begin on 21 April 1986, and outlined the general aims and characteristics of this new Plan. Whereas national plans had previously derived largely from the World Centre, in this new epoch
THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
xvii
the specific goals for each national community would be formulated, within the framework of the overall objectives of the Plan, by means of consultation between the particular National Spiritual Assembly and the Continental Board of Counsellors. As the Universal House of Justice stated, "This new process . . . signalizes the inauguration of a new stage in the unfoldment of the Administrative Order. Our beloved Guardian anticipated a succession of epochs during the Formative Age of the Faith; we have no hesitation in recognizing that this new development in the maturation of Bahi'i institutions marks the inception of the fourth epoch of that Age" (unpublished letter dated 2 January 1986 written by the Universal House of Justice to the Bahi'is of the World).
FUTURE EPOCHS
The tasks that remain to be accomplished during the course of the Formative Age are many and challenging. Additional epochs can be anticipated, each marking signi6cant stages in the evolution of the Administrative Order and culminating in the Golden Age of the Faith.[35:61 The Golden Age itself will involve "successive e p o c h ~ " [ ~ ~ : l ~ ~ ] leading ultimately to the establishment of the Most Great Peace, to the World Bahi'i Commonwealth, and to the "birth and efflorescence of a world ~ivilization.''[~~'~] Development Stages since 1986 Author's Postscript
Since the issuance of the foregoing letter in January 1986 the Faith has entered the f i f i epoch of the Formative Age as well as passing through several additional stages of the second epoch of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's Divine Plan. The Fifth Epoch of the Formative Age: 2001-
In a letter dated 6 January 2001 addressed to the Bahi'is of the World the Universal House of Justice announced the commencement of the fifth epoch: As we write you this message, the Conference of the Continental Counsellors approaches a triumphant conclusion. For eight days the Counsellors from all the continents have consulted on the next phase of the process of entry by troops. While they were meeting during the first five days, 849
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THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
members of their Auxiliary Boards from 172 countries were arriving at the Bahl'i World Centre and paying their respects at the Holy Shrines in anticipation of the moment when they would all come together in a series of soul-stirring events: ascent of the newly built Terraces on Mount Carmel; circumambulation of the Shrine of the Bhb; procession along the Arc path for a visit to the International Teaching Centre Building; a devotional ceremony to mark the occupation by the Teaching Centre of its permanent seat; and subsequent joint consultations concerning their indispensable role in the Five Year Plan on which the Bahgi world will embark at Rigvan 200 1. The deliberations of the Counsellors themselves have been the heart of these stupendous activities. Their consultations have been marked by a combination of sobriety and effervescence that has refined the character of their discussions and illumined understanding. It is clear from the confident atmosphere in which they have conferred that their institution has reached a new stage in its maturation. Even though they function principally as individuals, the Counsellors across all Boards have become of one mind. By internalizing and integrating the lessons and experiences of systematization called for in the Four Year Plan, they have indeed been transformed into channels of W e d thought. We appreciate that the new height in the evolution of their institution is a reflection, too, of the measure to which, with their wise and constant advice, the Spiritual Assemblies and other institutions of the world community have evolved. As the time for the Conference drew near, there were signs that the Faith had arrived at a point in its development beyond which a new horizon opens before us. Such intimations were communicated in our report last Ridvh of the change in culture of the Bahl'i community as training institutes emerged, as the construction projects on Mount Carmel approached their completion, and as the internal processes of institutional consolidation and the external processes towards world unity became more Mly synchronized. They were elaborated in the message we addressed to the Conference of the Continental Boards of Counsellors a few days ago. But the extraordinary dynamics at work throughout the Conference crystallized these indications into a recognizable reality. With a spirit of exultation we are moved to announce to you: the Faith of Bahl'u'llkh now enters the fifth epoch of its Formative Age. Recognition of this milestone falls within the patterns established by Shoghi Effendi for marking measures of time in the history of the Cause; he foresaw among these a succession of epochs occurring in the Formative Age. It must fill every devoted follower of Bahl'u'llkh with joy and wonder that His Administrative Order has reached so important a point at so crucial a time, when so many members of the institution of the Counsellors are gathered in splendid array at the World Centre of His Faith. They will return to the far comers of the earth as torches d a m e with the spirit of
THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIVE AGE
xix
service. That they will pour fkesh energy into their activities, there can be no doubt. Their efforts will surely widen the path leading to the success of the Twelve Month Plan, and through that to the launching at Ridvh of the five year enterprise that will be the first in a series of Plans to be pursued until the centenary of the Formative Age. . . . In the waning moments of these eventful days, our hearts are turned in humble gratitude to the Ancient Beauty for the abundance of the blessings He has bestowed. The very earth of Carmel is astir with the wonders of His grace as she responds to the redemptive call He raised in the Tablet bearing her name. His fervent wish expressed therein resounds in the souls of His lovers throughout the planet: "Oh, how I long to announce unto every spot on the surface of the earth, and to carry to each one of its cities, The fiends now gathered amid the glad-tidings of this Re~elation."[~~:*~] the splendour at Carmel's heart have heard it with new ears and have reaffirmed their pledge to respond to this divine longing. May their exploits in the Name of Bahh scatter more widely the fragrance of His Revelation, strengthen more firmly the foundation of His institutions, and embolden more resolutely the activities of His worldwide community, impelling forward the process by which troop after troop will enter into the stronghold of the Ark of Salvation.
Stages of the Fifth Epoch of the Formative Age: 1986-2021
"Stages" in the unfoldment of the Tablets of the Divine Plan coincide with the Global Plans initiated by the Universal House of Justice. See the following figures for information on the Bahh'i cycle: era, ages, epochs, and stages.
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THE EPOCHS OF THE FORMATIYE AGE
Plans Subsidiaw
Plan .Ioba'
Preparation Period
Minid
Age
I
I
7 Year Plan 1937-1944
British Isles
I
I
a$
II
I 19:lor11~~Ian 45 Month Plan 1951-1953
5 Year Plan 1948-1953
Germany &Austria
6 Year Plans 13 NSAs & RSAs formed April 1957
Global Crusade
Central & South America
5 Year Plan 1948-1953
6 Year Plan 1947-53
; ;I
4.5 Year Plan 1946-1950
Eygpt & Sudan
I
I
2 Year Plan 1951-1953
7 Year Plan 1946.1953
6 Year Plan 1944-1950
5 Year Plan 1948-1953
I
12 1
Canada
Australia & New Zealand
Persia / Iran
India, Pakistan & Burma
USA & Canada
1921-1936
Stages
Epoch
I
I
-- Ministry of Shoghi Effendi 81The Custodians
Subsidiaw 6 Year Plans 1951-1963
10 Year Global Crusade 1953-1963
Affairs of the Cause administered by the Custodians
"Plans" derived by Shoghi Effendi from "The Tablets of the Divine Plan" First 1937.1963 1 c 2 3 O L D . 1953-1963 1937-1944 G m u m 1946-1953 7 Holy Year I I 1952-195 c m ,
L7LL-L7-T"
lrmative Age ( The Guardi
The Bah6'i Cvcle, Era, Ages, Epochs and Stages
r --
I
I
I
I
I
I
1 1
-
-
Chronology
The Baib and Bahai'u'llaih 1817 12 November: Birth of Bahai'u'llaih, the hour of dawn, Tihrain, irhn.[34:121 1819 20 October: Birth of the Baib in & i r k , iriin.[34:14943:721 1842: Marriage of the Bib to KJ~adijih-Bagurn.[~~~~] 1844 23 May: Declaration of the Bib to Mulll Husayn-i-Bu&rii'i (Babu'l-Bab-gate of the Gate) 2 hours and 11 minutes after sunset. Birth of The Bib was aged 25 years, 4 months, and 4 days old;[34:57ffl 'Abd~'l-Bahai.[~~:~~~1August: Mulli Husayn (throughMulliMulpmmad) delivers a scroll from the Bib to Bahi'u'llih in T i h ~ - i n . [ ~October: ~l~] The Bib receives Mu119 Husayn's first letter from Makad conveying Bahi'u'llih's response to His Divine The Bib undertakes a pilgrimage to Mecca in the company of Quddus, arriving nine days 20 December: The Bib, taking hold of the ring on the door of the Ka'bah, proclaims three times the words "I am that Qh'im whose advent you have been May: The Bib and 1845 1January: The Bib arrives in Medina.[34:1401 His companion return to Persia. 23 September: The Bib is placed under arrest at the home of His uncle Hiji Mirzd Siyyid 'Ali in m&.[34:1511 1846: Bahiyyih mainurn (daughter of Bahi'u'llih; full sister of 'Abdu'l-Bahi) is born in Tihrin, kin. September: The Bib proceeds from to I ~ f i h a n . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 1 1847 29 March: The Bib is imprisoned for 20 days in Kulayn 1April: after being summoned by Mulpmmad f i i h to Bahi'u'llih sends a letter and gifts to the Bib in Kulayn.[34:2271 July: n nine The Bib is imprisoned in the fortress of Maih-Ku, ~ a r b i y j i i for months.[34:230,x31 November-December: Bahi'u'llhh is imprisoned for a few days after He was seen helping the Baibis of
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1848 20 March: Mulli Husayn arrives at Miih-K~on foot fiom Mahad to visit the 10 April: The Bib is transferred to the fortress u l~yl: Conference of Badaht of mihriq, ~ d & r b i ~ j i n . [J~u~n~d ~ (22 days).[34:2881 July: The Bib is summoned to Tabriz, ~ & i r b i ~ j i i n , for interrogation and subsequent incarceration.[34'3151 21 July: On the instructions of the Bib, Mulli Husayn hoists the Black Standard and Octoberwith 202 followers leaves Mahad for SJaykJ May 1849: The MBzindarPn upheaval occurs at s a y & Tabarsi near B h f b n i h and in the forest of Mbindariin; Mulli Husayn, Quddb, and "fl some one-half of the Letters of the Living lose their l i v e ~ . [ ~ ~ ~10 October: Mulli Husayn arrives at Bhfbni&.[34:3291 12 October: Mulli Husayn arrives at s a y & T a b a r ~ i . [ ~October: ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]Baha'u'lliih visits and inspects Bay& Tabarsi and instructs Mulli Husayn to send Mulli Mihdiy-i-Bu'i with six companions to Siri to demand the release of November: Quddhs arrives at Fort Tabarsi after Mulli Husayn secures his release from Siri.[34:3541 December: Bahi'u'lliih is again imprisoned, this time in h u l , preventing Him from joining the Bib's followers in Shavkh Tabarsi. He suffers the bastinado on behalf of His companions (who were spared through His 1849 2 February: Mulla Husayn is killed at Fort T a b a r ~ i . [ 16 ~~~~~] May: Qudd& is killed in Bkii.mi&[34:4101 1850 Seven Martyrs of Tihrtin are 29 June: Execution 9 July: The Bib is executed in the of Vahid takes place in Nayriz.[34:4941 Barrack Square, Tabriz at noon. His mangled remains are exposed on f l The remains of the July: the edge of the moat outside the ~ i t y . [ ~ ~ ~11l O Bib are removed and taken by Hiji Sulaymin Qiin to a silk factory 12 July: Remains of the Bib owned by one of the Bibis in Milin.[34:517ffl are placed in a wooden c o f i and taken to "a place of safety." Subsequently, on Bahi'u'lliih's instructions, they are moved to Tihriin and placed in the shrine of the Imh-Zadfh Hasan. They are later removed to the home of Hiji Sulaymiin B i i n in the Sar-Chashmih quarter of Tihriin and from there to the shrine of the Imh-Zadih M a ' ~ ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ f l 1851 1 August: Hujjat, The Proof (Mulli Mu?mnmad-'Ali of Zanjiin), is killed in Zanjin.[34:5731 30 August: Bahi'u'lliih visits the holy city of Karbili, 'Iriq.P4:582ffl 1852 August: TPhirih is killed in Tihrhr~.[~~:~~ffl 15August: TWOBibis (Sidiq-i-Tabrizi and Fa@u'lliih-i-Qumi) attempt to assassinate Ni~iri'dDin &iih outside his imperial court at N i y i ~ a r i n . [ ~16~ August: :~~~] Bahi'u'lliih is arrested Niyivariin, taken to Tihriin, and imprisoned in
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the Siyih-mi1 (Black Pit). He is 36 years old. This imprisonment lasts four months. It is during this time that the "Maid of Heaven'' came to Bahi'u'llhh to invest Him with His Mission as the Manifestation of God for this Age.[34:607,631, 37:101] 1853 12 January: Bahi'u'llhh's exiles begin with His banishment to Baadaid. He is accompanied by members of His family, the more important of whom are His wife, Navvaib, His nine-year-old son, 'Abdu'l-Bahi, His seven-year-old daughter, Bahiyyih Khhnum, as well as two of His brothers, Mirzai Mush (called AqiY-i-~alim)and Mirzi M~d.~arntnad-Qudi.[~~:l~, loam 8 April: Bahi'u'llih arrives in Ba&did. At first He resides in Kkimayn, three miles north of the city. Soon He moves to rented accommodations in the house of Hhji 'Ali-Madad. Works revealed during this period include Qullul?-Ta'cim. [37:1091 1854 10 April: Bahi'u'llhh departs for Sulaymhdyyih, Kurdisthn. Before reaching Sulayminniyyih, Bahi'u'llhh lives for a period on the Sar-Galfi mountain. His family moves to the house of Sulaymhn-iGhannihn to await His return. Works: Prayers; Qasidiy-i- Ergha 'i'ih;
Sciqi-Az-Ghayb-i-Baqci.[46:1151 1856 19 March: Bahi'u'llih returns to B a a d i d from His twoyear retreat to Sulaymhiyyih and resides in the house of Sulaymini-mannim. Works (1856-1 862): Tafsir-i-Hhfit-i-Muqattah'ih, Sahify-i-aaniyyih, Haft-Vidi (Seven Valleys), Tafsir-i-Hzi, Lawh-iJavcihiru 'I-Asrcir, Lawh-i-Hzirijyih, ~itcib-i-jqcin(Book of Certitude), Kalimcit-i-Maknzinih (Hidden Words). [46:1221 1862 Bahi'u'llhh transfers His residence to the house of Ridi Big for about one year. Work: Lawh-i-Say~cih.['~:~~~] 1863 26 March: Bahi'u'llhh departs from Mazra'iy-i-Vash-shish. Works: Subhcina-Rabbiya'l-A'la, Shikkar-i-Shikan-Shavand,Hziri-'Ujcib, Halih-Halih-Yci Bishcircit, @u1imuJl-auld, Az-Badi-Ilahi, B&-AV-u-~idih-~cimi, Mallcihu'l-Quds (Holy Mariner), Sziriy-i-Sabr.[18:5821 21 April: Declaration of Bahi'u'llhh (in Ba&&d) is made to a few followers as the "One proclaimed and promised by the Bib." 22 April: Public declaration of Bahi'u'llhh takes place in the Garden of Ridvain (Najibiyyih) on the shores of the River T i g r i ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 22 April: Commencement of Bahi'u'llhh's exile from B a a d i d for Constantinople. He arrives in the Garden of Ridvhn (Najibiyyih) where 30 April: Bahi'u'llhh's family joins Him in He spends 12 the Garden of Ridvhn. 3 May: Bahi'u'llhh leaves the Ridvin Garden at noon to begin the next phase of His exile. Work: Lawh-i-Hawdaj (while
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approaching SAmsh on the last day of overland t r a ~ e l ) . [ l9~ May: ~~~] Bahb'u'llhh departs for Constantin~ple.[l~~~~] June Bahi'u'llhh moves to the house of Khhiy-i-Amru'llhh near Sulth-Salim Mosque. Works: Alvah-i-Laylatu'l-Quds, Munajathciy-i-Si'yam (Prayers for fasting). 13August: Bahii'u'llhhleaves ShshbysteamerforConstantin~ple.[~~~~~] 14 August: The steamer carrying Bahi'u'llhh calls at S i n ~ p e . [ ~ ~ ' l ~ ~ ] 15 August: The steamer carrying Bahti'u'llah calls at A n y a b ~ l i . [ ~ ~ : l ~ ~ ] 16 August: Bahti'u'llah arrives in Constantinople about noon. Residences include Constantinople, house o f a a m s i Big (near Uirgih a a r i f Mosque) for one month; house of Visi Piis& (near Sul@ Maammad Mosque) for three months. Works: Subhcinika-Yci-Hzi, Lawh-i-Ybdu'lAzli Va-V~kalci.[~~'~~, 18:583ffl 1December: Bahii'u'llhh departs for AdriBahh'u'llilh arrives in Adrianople. He a n ~ p l e . [ l ~12 : ~December: ~~] stays three nights at the ah-i-'Arab, a two-story caravanserai, near the house of '1zzat-Aqb. Works: Sziriy-i-A~hab,Lawh-i-Hq~I, Lawh-iH~JJII.[18:584 15 December: Bahb'u'llhh moves to a house in the Muradiyyih quarter near Takyiy-i-Mawlavi for one week. Works: Kitcib-i-Badi', Suriy-i-Mulzik (Tablet to the K i n g ~ ) . [ l ~23: ~December: ~~] Bahk'u'llhh moves again to another house in Mura-diyyih, where He stays for about six months. Works: Lawh-i-Ru 'ya, Sziriy-i-Amr, Sziriyi-Damm.[18:5841 1864 Bahi'u'llhh moves to the house of Amru'llhh (north of SultiinSalim Mosque), for about three months. Work: Lawh-i-Ncipulyzin I (1st Tablet to Napoleon III).[18:5841 1865 Bahh'u'lliih moves to the house of '~zzat-Aqhfor 11 months. Works: Lawh-i-Sullcin (Tablet to the Bcih of Persia), Lawh-iNUqfih.[18:5841 1867-1868 Remains of the Bhb are removed £tom the shrine of the I m h - Z a d i i M a ' s h by Mull9 'Ali Akbar-i-&ahmirzadi and Jamidi-Bdjirdi, on the instructions of Baha'u'llhh, to "another spot," the walls of a dilapidated building, Masjid-i-Ma&9'u'llhhY on the road to Chashmih-'Ali. The next day, hearing that they had been discovered, the remains are moved to the house of Mirza Hasan-i-Vazir (son-in-law of Hiji Mirzti Siyyid 'Aliy-i-TaM&), where they stay for 14 m o n t h ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 1868 26 July: Sulgn 'Abdu'L'Aziz issues a public farmin that condemns Bahii'u'llhh (and members of His family) to perpetual banishment and strict incarceration and forbids them to meet among themselves or 12 August: Bahii'u'llhh departs on the with local inhabitant~.[~~:l~~,~~:~~~] 30 August: Bahb'u'lliih final stage of His exile to 'AkkP, Palestine.[18'5841
CHRONOLOGY xxix
arrives in Port Said in the morning and leaves the same day for Jaffa, Haifa, where He stays for a few hours before leaving by sail boat 31 August: Bahb'u'llhh arrives in 'Akkb. During His for 'Akkh.[18:5851 time in 'MHe stays in the following houses: Barracks (two years, two months, five days), House of Mblik and House of Rabi'ih (three months), House of Mansh (two or three months), House of 'Abb6d (Kitab-i-Aqdas revealed), Mazra'ih, Qasr (Mansion of Bahji). Works: Kithb-i-Aqdas, Lawh-i-Napulyzin II(2nd Tablet to Napoleon 111),Lawhi-Malikih (Tablet to Queen Victoria), Lawh-i-Malik-i-Rzis (Tablet to the Czar), Sziriy-i-Haykal, Lawh-i-Burhhn, Lawh-i-Ibn-i-&iJb (Epistle to the Son of the Wolf), Lawh-i-Php ( P ~ p e ) . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 1868-1870 Custody of the remains of Bbb is given to HBji f&Bh Muhammad-i-Man&Bdi, surnamed Aminu'l-Bayh, and they are hidden beneath the floor of the inner sanctuary of the shrine of the I m h Zbdih Zayd, where they lie until Bahb'u'lliih instructs MirzbAsadu'llhhi-IsfAhhi to move them to other locations in Tihrh.[47:211 1870 23 June: Bahb'u'lliih's son MirzB Mihdi dies as a result of a fall through a skylight on the roof of the Barracks, 'Akka.[18:5851 1877 June: Bahb'u'llbh leaves 'Akkb and moves to M a ~ r a ' i h . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 1879 September: Bahb'u'llbh leaves Mazra'ih and moves to Bahji.[18:5851 1890 Bahb'u'lliih's tent is raised on Mount Carmel. Bahb'u'lliih visits Mount Carmel four times, the longest visit lasting three m ~ n t h s . [ ~ ~ " ~ " ] 15-20 April: Prof. E. G. Browne of Cambridge is granted four interviews with Bahb'u'llhh at Bahji over five 1892 29 May: Ascension of Bahb'u'lliih, age 74, occurs eight hours after sunset (3:OO AM) in the Mansion of Bahji.[37:221-2331
1844 23 May: Birth of 'Abdu'l-BahB in TihrBn.[48'91 1833 10 December: Possibly the first mention is made of Bahb'i Faith in the United States in a newspaper-The Sun, published in New York City, under a column heading of "The Babs and Their Pr~phet."[~:~~'] 1893 23 September: First major public mention is made of the Bahb'i Faith in America-a paper written by Rev. Henry Jessup,
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D.D., director of Presbyterian Missionary Operations in North Syria, and read by Rev. George A. Ford of Syria at the World Parliament of Religions in C h i ~ a g o . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 1894 Thornton C h a s e f i r s t American believer-is enrolled (as designated by 'Abdu'l-Bahh). 'Abdu'l-Bahh surnames him 'Bhbit-the February: First Bahh'i Centre is established in the West 4 July: Green Acre opens, culminating in the raising of a flag of World Peace by Sarah 1898 'Abdu'l-Bahh gives instructions to Mirzh Asad-u'lliih regarding ~ March: ~'] the transportation of the remains of the B i b to P a l e ~ t i n e . [ ~31 Fifly lunar years after His execution in Tabriz, the remains of the Bhb arrive in the Holy Land (via Isfhhhn, Kirmhn&hh, B a a d i d , and D a m a s c u ~ ) . [November: ~~~~] 'Abdu'l-Bahh ends the period of mourn:~~~] ing for Bahi'u'llih by opening His Tomb to p i l g r i t n ~ . [ ~10~ December: First Western pilgrims (the Getsingers) visit ' A b d ~ ' l - B a h a . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 20 December: Second Western pilgrim group arrives in 'Akki (among whom were Phoebe Hearst, Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper, May Bolles Maxwell, and Robert 1899 January: Purchase is made of the land designated by Bahh'u'lliih as the Resting Place of the Bib, and the construction is started of a marble sarcophagus by the Burmese believers in accordance with 'Abdu'lBahh's suggestion. 'Abdu'l-Bahh lays the cornerstone of what is to become the Shrine of the Bhb.[47:211 1901 20August: Following a long period ofrelative fieedom, 'Abdu'lBaha is reimprisoned in 'A&&.[l8:586, 48:941 1902 First Bahi'i Publishing Society is formed in Chicago; Baha'i News is inaugurated, developing later into Star of the West maga28 November: Construction begins on the first Bahh'i House zine.[37:2611 :~~~, of Worship (Mahriqu'l-Ankir) in 'I&qhbhd, R u s ~ i a . [ ' ~48:1081 1903 7 June: 'Abdu'l-Bahh writes to the House of Spirituality of Chicago advising them to begin construction of the first Mamqu'l-Ad&hr in the West.[s0'641 1907 26 November: First (NorthAmerican) Mamqu71-Acllkir Convention meeting is held in Chicago. A Temple Committee of nine members is appointed to locate a suitable ~ i t e . [ ~ " ~ ~ ] 1908 22 March: Second (North American) Ma~hriqu'l-A* Convention meeting (22123) takes place, resulting in the formation of the
CHRONOLOGY xxxi
Bahi'i Temple Unity. The convention adopts a constitution and elects an executive board charged with the purchase of land and the erection ~ : ~ ~ ]Two plots of land are purchased at a cost of 9 April: of the t e m ~ l e . [ ~ $2,000 (with an option to purchase another 12) for the North American MaMqu'l-A_diir by the House of Spirituality of Chicago (the lots Septemare subsequently transferred to the Bahi'i Temple Unity).[50:671 ber: 'Abdu'l-Bahi is released from His incarceration by the "Young ~~k~.y~[18:586] 1909 March: Bahi'i Temple Unity is formed as an "incorporated religious corporation" in the state of Illinois. An Executive Board is elected by representatives from 36 U.S. cities to hold properties and full legal authority to proceed with the construction of the Ma&riqu'lAd&iir.[3:137121 March: 'Abdu'l-Bahh places remains of the Bhb in His h a 1 resting place on Mount Carmel, I ~ r a e l . [ ~The ~ ' ~first ~ ] convention of the Bahh'is of the United States and Canada is held.[5'1371 1910 'Abdu'l-Baha visits Egypt.[48:1311 21 March: The Bahi'i magazine Bahci 'i News is founded by Alfred Windust and Gertrude Buikema in Chicago and renamed Star of the West in 1911.[1'1901 September: 'Abdu'l-Bahi leaves Egypt for P a l e ~ t i n e . [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] 1911 11 August: 'Abdu'l-Bahh boards the SS Corsica for Marseilles, '~~14 thereby beginning the first of two epic journeys to the W e ~ t . [ ~ ~ 'September: Arrives in London (following a few days rest at Thonon-lesExcept for a few days in Bristol, He resides in the home Bain~).[~~:'~O] of Lady Blomfield, 97 Cadogan Gardens, London, where He receives He visits the Lord Mayor of London (on many guests and visitor~.[~':~~] ~] the invitation of the mayor) in the Mansion H o ~ s e . [ ~ "8' ~September: Meets with "friends" during a Unity Meeting in the home ofEthel Rosen9 September: Visits Vanners, Bfleet.[51:851 10 September: berg.[s1:441 ~"~] Gives a public address in the City Temple, Holborn, L o n d ~ n . [ ~This 13 September: is the first time He has spoken to a public a~dience.1~~1 Gives a short discourse in the home of Mrs. Thornb~rgh-Cropper.[~l:~~] 17 September: Addresses the congregation of St. John the Divine 23 September: Gives a short discourse in Church, Westminster.[51'19,211 23-25 September: Visits the home of Mrs. Thornburgh-Cr~pper.[~l:~~] ~'~'] Bristol, where He stays in the Clifton Guest House, C l i f t ~ n . [ ~28-29 September: Second visit to Vanners, Bfleet.[51:861 On this occasion He " ~ September: ~l Some 460 visits the Brooklands aviation g r ~ u n d s . [ ~29 people gather in the Passmore Edwards' Settlement, Tavistock Place, London, at the invitation of Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropperto bid farewell to 'Abdu'l-Bahh on the eve of His departure for P a r i ~ . [ ~30 l ' ~September: ~]
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'Abdu'l-Bahd gives a discourse in the Theosophical Headquarters at the 271 1 October: 'Abdu'lrequest of their president, Mrs. A. Be~ant.[~l:l~, Bahd unites Regina N h M&al Khhnum and Mirzd Yuhanna Ddwud in marriage. He says to them, 'Wever have I united anyone in marriage 3 October: Arrives in Paris before, except My own daughter~."[~l:~~] and remains for approximately nine weeks. He resides at 4 Avenue de Camoen in the area of Quai de Passy, Paris, where He speaks daily to a gathering of interested people in His salon. His morning addresses are November: Addresses the Theorecorded in the book Paris sophical Society and elaborates 11 central principles of Bahd'i Teachi n g ~ . [ ~ These ~ : ' ~ ~are ] restated in a variety of ways during subsequent '~~a Speaks at L'Alliance Spirituamorning m e e t i n g ~ . [ ~9~ November: liste, Salle de 1'Ath6n6e7St. Germain, 10 November: Speaks 26 November: Speaks at Church of Pastor at 15 Rue Greuze, 1 December: Speaks at 15 Rue Wagner, Foyer de l ' h e , Greuze, Paris, His last meeting in P a r i ~ . [ ~2~December: :'~~] Departs for Egypt.[48:1671 December: Returns to Egypt, where He takes up residence in Ramlih. He winters in Egypt before leaving for America in March of the next year.[48:1711 1912 Green Acre Fellowship is given control of the Green Acre Properties in Eliot, Maine.[50'891 Lake shore tract of 293 feet of fkontage is 25 March: 'Abdu'l-Bahd sails on contracted at $17,000 (Wilmette).[50'681 the steamship SS Cedric fkom Alexandria for New York (via N a p l e ~ ) . [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ] 26 March: Shoghi Effendi, eldest grandson of 'Abdu'l-Bahii and future Guardian of the Bahd'i Faith, is required to leave the ship (due to a ~ 'April: ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bahd arrives in New diagnosed eye i n f e ~ t i o n ) . [ ~11 ~ ' ~ ~in] York, where He takes up residence in the Hotel A n ~ o n i a . [ ~Later the day He visits the home of Mr. and Mrs. Edward B. Kinney, 780 West End Ave., N.Y.[53:1112 April: Visits the home of Mr. and Mrs. Howard MacNutt, 935 Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, N.Y.[53:21 Later that 13 day He visits the studio of Miss Phillips, 39 West 67th St., N.Y.[53:51 April: Visits the home of home of Mr. and Mrs. Alexander Morten, 141 14 April: Gives His first public address in AmerEast lOlst St., N.Y[53:71 ica in the Church of the Ascension, Fifth Ave., and 10th St., N.Y.[53:91 Later that day He addresses the Union Meeting of Advanced Thought in the Carnegie Lyceum, West 57th St., N.Y.[53:11115 April: Visits the 16 April: home of Mr. Montford Mills, 327 West End Ave., N.Y.[53:141 Addresses the Bahd'i friends of New Jersey in the Hotel Ansonia, 17 April: Speaks in the Hotel AnsoBroadway and 73rd St., N.Y.[53:161 nia, Broadway and 73rd St., N.Y[53:181 Later that day He visits the Kinney
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h~me.[~~:~O] 18 April: Visits the home of Mr. and Mrs. Marshall L. Emery, He attends a play, The Terrible Meek, about 273 West 90th St., N.Y.[53:201 19 the crucifixion of Christ, in the Little Theater, 44th St., N.Y.[53:201 April: Speaks in Earl Hall, Columbia Univer~ity.[~~:~~] Later that day He addresses the residents of the Bowery Mission, 227 Bowery, N.Y.[53:301 At the end of this meeting 'Abdu'l-Bahii stands at the Bowery entrance to Mission Hall shaking hands with each one of the 400-500 men attend20 April: He travels ing and placing a piece of silver in each hand.[48:1771 to Washington, D.C., where He and an interpreter are guests in the home of Mr. Arthur and Mrs. Agnes Parsons, 1700 18th Street N o r t h ~ e s t . [ ~ ~ " ~ ~ ] That evening He addresses a meeting of the Orient-Occident-Unity 21 April: Speaks in Studio Hall, Conference in the public Later that day He speaks in the Universalist 1219 Connecticut Ave.[53:341 22 April: Visits the home of Mrs. ParChurch, 13th and L and visits the s o n ~ . [ ~23~ April: : ~ ~ ] Speaks at Howard Univer~ity[~~:~l] ~ : ~ that ~ ] day He speaks in the Metropolitan home of Mrs. P a r s o n ~ . [ ~Later African Methodist Episcopal Church, M 24 April: Addresses a Later that day He visits the Children's Reception in Studio Ha11.[53:491 home of Mrs. Parsons, followed by a visit to the home of Mrs. Andrew Dyer, 1937 13th St. NW.[53:511 At Mr. Bell's invitation he visits Alexander Graham Bell in his home and stays o~ernight.[~~:l~~] 25 April: He receives ; ~speaks ~ ~ ~ to ~ ~the~ Theoformer U.S. President Theodore R o ~ s e v e l the sophical Society in the home of Mrs. Parsons as well as receiving other v i s i t o r ~ . [ ~Later ~:~~ that ] evening He attends a dinner hosted in His honor 27 April: Lee by the Turkish Ambassador, Y k u f Diyii Ph&ii.[48:1831 McClung, treasurer of the United States, has lunch with 'Abdu'l-Bahii; later that day He attends a farewell dinner hosted by Mrs. Parsons; among the guests are Admiral Peary of North Pole fame, eminentjudges, members of Congress, and representatives of foreign govern~nents.[~~:~~~] 28 April: 'Abdu'l-Bahh receives a number of important ambassadorial and ministerial callers (including the British ambassador, James Bryce, later Viscount Bryce). He leaves by train for Chicago in the late afternoon.[48:1841 29 April: Arrives in Chicago and takes up residence in the 30 April: Fifth (North American) MaMqu9l-Amhr Plaza Convention (29 April-1 May), Chicago; 'Abdu'l-Bahii is p r e ~ e n t . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bahii addresses a number of different meetings, including the Bahii'i Convention, Drill Hall, Masonic Temple, Chicago; a public a gathermeeting concluding convention of Bahii'i Unity ~ : ~th~elFourth Annual Conference of ing in Hull House, C h i ~ a g o ; [ ~and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Handel Hall, C h i ~ a g o . [ ~1~May: : ~ ~ lGives an address at the Dedication of the
xxxiv
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Ma~_hriqu'l-Aakirg r o ~ n d s . [ ~Dedication ~:~~l of (North American) MaMqu'l-A* grounds by 'Abdu'l-Bahi and the laying of the cor2 May: Hotel Plaza, Chicago, gives two disnerstone by Him.[48:1861 c o u r s e ~ ; [ ~ Hotel ~ : ~ ~ ,LaSalle, ~~] Chicago, Federation of Women's Chicago, Bahii'i Women's R e c e p t i ~ n . [ 3~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] C l ~ b s ; [ ~Hotel ~ : ~ LaSalle, ~] May: Hotel Plaza, Chicago, gives two discour~es;[~~:~0f] the Association of East Indians makes a presentation to 'Abdu7l-Bahii expressing their ' l ~ ~ ] Speaks at Northgratitude for His visit to North A r n e r i ~ a . [ ~4~ May: :~~] western University Hall, Chicago, Theosophical S o ~ i e t y . [ ~5 ~May: Speaks at Hotel Plaza, Chicago, children's meeting;[53:881 at the Plymouth at All-Souls Congregational Church, 935 East 50th St., Chicag0;[~~'~~1 : ~ ~ l Leaves Chicago for Church, Lincoln Center, C h i ~ a g o . [ ~6~May: Cleveland; gives an address at Euclid Hall and stays in the Euclid Later that day He visits the Sanitarium of Dr. C. S ~ i n g l e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l 7 May: Leaves for Pittsburgh; on arrival at the Hotel Schenley He gives " ~ ~ ]Returns to Washington, D.C., where He a public a d d r e ~ s . [ ~8~May: 11 May: stays in a rented accommodation at 14 Harvard Street.[48:1891 Leaves by train for New York, where He takes up residence in an apartment in the Hudson Apartment House, 227 Riverside Drive, N.Y.;[48:1901 later that day He gives an a d d r e s ~ . [ ~12 ~ :May: l ~ ~ ] Speaks at Unity Church, He then addresses a meeting of International Peace Montclair, N.J.[53:1091 Forum in Grace Methodist Episcopal Church, West 104th St., N.Y.[53:1121 13 May: Attends a reception by New York Peace Society in the Hotel A ~ t o r . [ ~ ~14 : l lMay: ~ ] Goes to the Conference on Peace and Arbitration, 19 May: Speaks in the Lake Mohonk, and stays for three speaks Church of the Divine Paternity, Central Park West, N.Y.;[53:1221 in the Brotherhood Church, Bergen and Fairview Aves., Jersey City, N.J.[53:1251 20 May: Addresses the Woman's S u f i g e meeting in the Met22 May: Travels to ropolitan Temple, 7th Ave. and 14th St., N.Y.[53:1281 Boston and remains there until 26 May. In addition to His public addresses He also visits the al-Halqadath-Dhahabiyyah (The Golden Circle), the largest association of Syrians in the United States at that 23 May: Speaks time. Later that day He visits Worchester by car.[48:1981 in the home of Mr. and Mrs. Francis W. Breed, 367 Harvard St., Cam53:1331 24 May: Addresses the Free Religious Associabridge, Mass.[48:199, ~ " ~25 ~ ,May: tion at the Unitarian Conference, Ford Hall, B o ~ t o n . [ ~53:1381 Makes a farewell address at Huntington Chambers, B o s t ~ n . [ ~ 26 ~'l~~] May: Leaves Boston at noon, by train, arriving in New York at 6 PM. He goes straight to the Kinney home and fiom there to address the congregation of Mount Morris Baptist Church, 5th Ave. and 126th St. He is very tired and has to lean on a pillar when He rises to
CHRONOLOGY xxxv
28 May: Attends a reception in the Metropolitan T e m ~ l e . [ ~29 ~ :May: '~~] 30 May: Speaks in the Theosophical Speaks in the Kinney 31 May: Speaks in the Town Hall, Fanwood, N.J.[53:1551 Lodge, N.Y.[53:1511 1June: Has His first sitting for the portrait painted by Juliet Thompson 2 June: Speaks at Church of the Ascenin her studio in New York.[54:2991 3 June: Visits Milford, Pennsylvania, and stays oversion, N.Y.[53:1571 night.[48:2081 4 June: Returns to New York and takes up residence for the
duration of His stay in the home of Mr. and Mrs. Champney, 309 West 8 June: Speaks in the Champney and 79th Street, N.Y.[48:2081 then leaves for Philadelphia. On arrival He is so tired that He has to 9 June: Speaks in the Unitarian cancel some of His engagernent~.[~~~"~] and then in the Church, 15th St. and Girard Ave., Philadelphia,[53:1671 ~ "June: ~ ~ ] Returns to New Baptist Temple, Broad and Berks S t r e e t ~ . [ ~10 11June: Speaks to the Open Committee meeting in the Kinney home;[53'1781 later that day He gives two d i s c ~ u r s e s . [ ~l8l1 ~ :12 l ~June: ~, ~ ~ ] Speaks in the Kinney Speaks in the Kinney h ~ m e . [ ~ ~15: ' June: 16 June: Speaks in the Fourth Unitarian Church, Beverly ~ " ~ ~ in ] the MacNutt home, 935 EastRoad, Flatbush, B r o ~ k l y n ; [ ~speaks ~ " ~that ~] ern Parkway, Brooklyn. He has lunch with the M a c N u t t ~ ; [ ~later day He speaks in the Central Congregational Church, Hancock St., B r o ~ k l y n . [ ~17 ~ : 'June: ~ ~ ] He speaks in the Kinney home.[53'1991 18 June: A motion picture is made of 'Abdu'l-Bahi in the MacNutt home;[48'2201 19 June: 'Abdu'l-Bahi 'Abdu'l-Bahi speaks in the Kinney home.[53'2001 names New York City the "City of the Covenant." On the same day He :~~~] designates Lua Getsinger a Herald of the C o ~ e n a n t . [ ~20~ June: 23 June: Visits Montclair, N.J. He Speaks in the Kinney home.[53'2011 29 June: stays for a week, with one overnight visit to Newark.[48:221,53:2051 Visits West Englewood, New Jersey. He attends a Unity Feast held outdoors, on properties owned by the Wilhelms, during which many unique 53:2081 30 June: Motors photographs are taken. He stays overnight.[48:223,225, to Morristown, New Jersey, lunching in the home of Mr. Topakiyan, the consul-general for Persia. He returns to New York later that e ~ e n i n g ! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 1July: Gives two discourses in the Kinney home.[53:211*2131 5 July: Gives 6 July: Speaks in the Kinney two discourses in the Kinney home.[53:212~2151 h ~ m e . [ ~ ~14 ' " July: ~ ] Speaks in the All Souls Unitarian Church, 4th Ave. 15 July: Speaks in the home of Mrs. Florian and 20th St., N.Y.[53:2241 17 July: Presides over the marriage of Krug, 830 Park Ave., N.Y.[53:2301 22 July: Is received by Grace Robarts (Ober) and Harlan Ober.[48:2301 23 Prince Mulprnmad-'Ali Pi&, brother of the Khedive of Egypt.[48:2301 July: Travels to B o s t ~ n ; [ ~gives ~ : ~a~ta ~lk ] in the Hotel V i c t o ~ - i a . [ 24 ~~'~~~] July: Pays a second visit to the al-Halqadath-Dhahabiyyah;[48:2321
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addresses the Theosophical Society in The Kensington, Exeter and Boylston S t r e e t ~ . [ ~25 ~ :July: ~ ~ ~ ]Speaks in the Hotel V i ~ t o r i a . [ ~26 ~:~~~] July: Travels to Dublin, New Hampshire, where He resides at an estate ~ ~ ~ ~ Speaks ] at the Dublin Inn,Dubowned by Mrs. P a r s o n ~ . [5~August: lin.[53:2401 6 August: Speaks in home of Mrs. P a r s o n ~ . [ ~14 ~ August: :~~] Speaks in home of Mrs. 15August: Mrs. Parsons hosts a farewell meeting with musical r e c i t a t i ~ n . [ ~16~August: : ~ ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bahh travels by car to Green Acre, Eliot, Maine, and within minutes of arrival gives a discourse to a large group of people. He then visits Sarah Farmer in a sanitarium in Portsmouth. On His return to Green Acre He 53:x71 17 August: gives one of the longest talks of His entire tour.[48:x0f, Gives four discourses at Green A ~ r e . [ ~ ~ : ~August: ~ ~ f f l 2Fred 0 Mortensen arrives at Green A ~ r e . [ 23 ~ ~August: ~ ~ l 'Abdu'l-Bahh leaves for Malden, where He stays in the home of Miss Wilson. Enroute He calls again at the Portsmouth sanitarium to visit Miss Fa~-mer.[~~:~~'fl 25 August: Addresses the New Thought Forum, in the Metaphysical Club, 26 August: Speaks at Franklin Square House, ~ :August: ~ ~ ~ 1 Speaks 27 August: Addresses the Metaphysical C 1 ~ b . [ ~29 in the home of Madame Morey, 34 Hillside Ave., Malden, Mass.[53:2831 30 August: Arrives in Montreal, Canada, and stays the night in the home of Mr. and Mrs. William Sutherland Maxwell, 716 Pine Avenue 551 On arrival He goes West. He then moves to the Windsor for a drive, and on noticing the Roman Catholic Church of Notre Dame 1 September: At the request of Mr. and Mrs. Birk, He goes in.[48:2601 owners the prestigious Birk's Jewelers store on Ste. Catherine's Street, Montrdal, and neighbors of the Maxwells, He visits their nine-year-old daughter, Geraldine, who was an invalid, and holds her in His arms; she ~ : ~ ~ ~atl the Church of the M e s ~ i a h ; [ ~gives ~:~~~] later r e ~ o v e r e d ; [ ~speaks 2 September: Speaks in the two discourses in the Maxwell home.[53:2961 3001 3 September: Gives an address in Coronation Maxwell home.[53:296, Hall.[48:2641 5 September: Gives an address in St. James Methodist C h ~ r ~ h . 9[ ~September: ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Leaves Montreal for B ~ a l oN.Y., , several days behind schedule because of ill health; He changes trains in Toronto and gets out and walks for a few moments on the station p l a t f ~ r m . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 11 September: Speaks in the Church of the Messiah, North and Mari~~~l 1:September: Visits Niagara 12 ner Streets, B ~ f f a l o . [ ~1~ September: Departs for Chicago by train,[48'2661 where He is greeted by a large throng of people, and then He is driven to the home of Mrs. Corinne True, 5358 Kenmore A v e n ~ e . [ ~14~ :September: ~~~l Speaks at ~ ~September: ~~~l Travels by the Theosophical Society, C h i ~ a g o . [ 15 train to Kenosha, Wisconsin. On arrival He addresses the Bahh'i friends
CHRONOLOGY xxxvii
and then gives a public presentation in the evening in the Congrega~ : September: ~~~] Speaks in home of Corinne tional C h ~ r c h . [ ~16 following which He leaves for Minneapolis, Minnesota, 19 September: where He stays in Suite 603 of the Plaza Hotel.[48:2731 Addresses the Commercial Club, Minneapolis; speaks in the Jewish 20 September: Reform Temple, 10th Street and 5th Avenue Speaks in home of Mr. Albert L. Hall, 2030 Queen Ave., South, Minnea p o l i ~ ; [ ~speaks ~ : ~ l ~in ] the home of Dr. and Mrs. Clement Woolson, 870 21 September: Leaves Minneapolis Laurel Ave., St. Paul, Minn.[53:3231 22 September: Visits the and stays overnight in Omaha, home of William Jennings Bryan (the future secretary of state in the Wilson administration) in Lincoln, Nebraska. Mr. Bryan was not home (he was campaigning on Woodrow Wilson's behalf); however, 'Abdu'l23 September: Arrives in Bahii meets with his wife and 24 September: Denver, Colorado, and stays in the Shirley H~tel.[~~:~~Ol Speaks in the home of Mrs. Sidney Roberts, Sherman St., 25 September: Speaks in the Second Divine Science Church, 3229 ~ : September: ~~l] Leaves Denver for CaliWest 38th Ave., D e n ~ e r . [ ~27 28 September: Stays overnight in Glenwood Springs, where He goes to the mineral baths and has lunch on the lawn of the 29 September: Colorado Hotel; He leaves by train at midnight.[48:2831 Decides to visit Salt Lake City, Utah, where He stays in the Kenyon 30 September: Visits the Agricultural Conference and ExhiHotel.[48:2841 bition, which is in progress, and orders flower seeds for the gardens 1 October: Reaches around the Bahii'i Shrines in the Holy San Francisco around midnight and stays in a house at 1815 California Street.[48:2861 1 October: Final payment 12 land lots for (North Arnerican) M a ~ q ~ ' l - A ~6 October: ~ . [ ~ Speaks ~ ~ ~ inl a Unitarian Church in San Francisc0.[~~'~~~17 October: Addresses the Japanese Young Men's Christian Association in the Japanese Independent Church, Oak8 October: Speaks in the Palo Alto Unitarian Church, Stanland.[53:3371 10 October: Addresses the Open Forum ford University, Palo Alto.[48:2951 in San F r a n c i ~ c o . [ ~12~ :October: ~ ~ ~ ] Speaks in Temple Emmanu-El, 450 : ~ ~ ~ ] Speaks in the home of Mrs. Sutter St., San F r a n ~ i s c o . [ ~12~ October: G o ~ d a l l . [13 ~ ~October: ~ ~ ~ ] For three days He is the guest of Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, who had led the first party of American pilgrims to visit 16 October: Attends a Nineteen Day Feast in the Him in 'Akki.[48:3071 17 October: home of Mrs. Goodall and Mrs. Cooper in Oakland.[48:3091 Discovers His signet ring is missing and for the rest of His sojourn 18 signs (instead of sealing) every Tablet He writes or di~tates.[~~:~O~] October: Travels to Los Angeles to visit the grave of Thornton Chase.
xxxviii
CHRONOLOGY
Traveling to the cemetery by tram car, He visits the grave on 19 October.[48:3091 21 October: Returns to San Francisc0.[~~~~~1 23 October: Vis24 October: Leaves San Francisco its Oakland for the last time.[48:3111 25 October: Speaks in the Assembly Hall, Hotel for Sacrament~.[~~~ll] 26 October: Speaks in the Assembly Sacramento, Sacrament0.[~~:~~~1 ~ : ~then ~ l ] departs California by train for Hall, Hotel S a c r a m e n t ~ ; [ ~He C h i ~ a g o . [ ~28 ~ : October: ~l~] Stays overnight in Denver, where He speaks in the home of Mrs. Roberts and also the Church of the M e s ~ i a h . [ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ] 31 October: Arrives in C h i c a g ~ ; [ ~speaks ~ ~ l ~in] the Hotel Plaza.[53:3751 1 November: Speaks in the home of Mrs. Corinne November: Speaks in the Hotel Plaza; gives an address in the Englewood Church and then another in the Congregational Church; attends a Nine5 November: Speaks teen Day Feast in the home of Mrs. in the Grand Hotel, Cincinnati, Ohio. A banquet is prepared in His honor.[53:3821 6 November: Speaks in the Grand Hotel, Cincinnati, Ohio; He leaves for Washington, D.C., on the noon train. On arrival He takes up residence in the home of Mrs. P a r ~ o n s ; [ ~in~the : ~ ~afternoon ~] He :~~~] speaks in the Universalist Church, 13th and L S t r e e t ~ . [ ~7 ~Novem~ : ~8~ l , ber: Gives two discourses in the home of Mrs. P a r s o n ~ . [ ~3941 November: Gives an address in the Eighth Street Temple, Jewish Syna9 November: Gives two discourses in gogue, Washington, D.C.[53:3971 the home of Mrs. parson^;[^^:^^^, 4101 attends a BahB'i Banquet in His honor in Rauscher's Hall. 'Abdu'l-BahB presents everyone present with ~'~l~] flowers and sweets. This is the first BahB'i interracial b a n q ~ e t . [ ~10 November: Speaks in the home of Mrs. P a r s o n ~ ; [ ~ speaks ~ : ~ l ~ ]in the home of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph H. Hannen, 1252 8th St., NW, Washingspeaks at 1901 18th St. NW, Washington D.C.[53:4231 11 ton D.C.;[53:4201 November: Leaves for Baltimore by train; on arrival He addresses a number of people in a hotel; He then addresses the congregation of a Unitarian Church followed by lunch in the home of Mr. and Mrs. Struven; in the afternoon He departs for Philadelphia, where He meets and talks with BahB'is in the station before boarding a third train for New York City, which reaches its destination at 1:00 o'clock the next morn12 November: Receives guests in His residence (the ing.[48:3281 Champney home, 309 West 78th Street, is placed at His disposal); regular meetings are also held in the home of Mrs. Krug during the day and ~~~] Speaks in the the Kinney home in the e v e n i n g ~ . [ ~15~ :November: 16 November: home of Juliet Thompson, 48 West 10th St., N.Y.[53:4261 17 November: Gives an Gives an address in the Champney home.[53:4321 18 address in the Genealogical Hall, 252 West 58th St., N.Y.[53:4331 November: Speaks in the home of Mr. and Mrs. Frank K. Moxey, 575
CHRONOLOGY xxxix
Riverside Drive, N.Y.; visits J. Pierpont Morgan's library and inscribes ~ :November: ~~~] Attends a a blessing to him for his p h i l a n t h r ~ p y . [ ~23 banquet in His honor in the Great Northern Hotel, 118 West 57th St., N.Y.;[53:4421 speaks in the Champney 29 November: Speaks 2 December: Gives two discourses in the in the Kinney Kinney home.[53:448*4491 3 December: Speaks in the home of Mrs. Florian Krug;[53:4531 He addresses Mr. Edward J. Kinney's Bible class in the Kinney home and gives a general discourse to those gathered.[53'454, 4561 4 December: Addresses the Theosophical Society, 2228 Broadway, N.Y.[53:4581 5 December: Gives a discourse on board the SS Celtic, New York, to those who have come to bid Him farewell on the day of depar~ : ~for ~ ~England.[48:3371 ] 13 December: Arrives in ture for E u r ~ p e ; [ ~sails 14 December: Liverpool, England, and stays in the Adelphi Hote1.[48:3431 ~ ~December: ~~~] Speaks Speaks at Theosophical Society, L i v e r p o ~ l . [15 in Pembroke Chapel, L i v e r p o ~ l . [16 ~ ~December: ~~~] Leaves Liverpool by train for London, where He stays at 97 Cadogan Gardens, London (the apartment home of Lady Blomfield). He receives an almost constant 17 stream of visitors (among whom was Mrs. Emily Pankhur~t).[~~:~~~fl December: Addresses a reception held in His honor by Miriam Thornb~rgh-Cropper.[~~~+'] 18 December: Receives Professor Edward Granville Browne, the noted Cambridge Orientalist, the only Westerner to ~ :December: ~~~] Mu~hiru'l-Mulk, have been received by B a h h ' ~ ' l l h h . [ ~20 the Persian Minister in London, calls on 'Abdu'l-Bahh during the course of the afternoon; 'Abdu'l-Bahh speaks in the Westminster Hotel, London ~ ~ ~ ] 2 2 Attends a perfor(Sir Thomas Barclay in the C h a i 1 - ) . [ ~ ~ December: mance of Alice Buckton's mystery play, Eager Heart, at Church House, Westmin~ter.[~~:~~~] 24 December: Gives a series of long interviews to a ~ :December: ~~~] Visits Lord Larnnumber of newspaper r e p ~ r t e r s . [ ~25 ington in the afternoon; that evening visits a Salvation Army hostel, where He donates 20 guineas to the hostel for an extra evening meal. He inspects the sleeping accommodation of the hostel and visits a children's home.[48:3511 26 December: Speaks on the subjects of prayer, evil, and ~ : lDecember: ~~] the progress of the soul at 97 Cadogan G a r d e n ~ . [ ~ 27 Goes for a walk in Hyde Park and Kensington Gardens followed by a December: The Maharareception arranged by Lady Bl0mfield.[~~:~~~129 jah of Jalawar visits 'Abdu'l-Bahii; in the afternoon 'Abdu'l-Bahh speaks in the home of Miss Annie Gamble; later that evening He speaks fiom a ~ :December: ~~~l Attends a Methodist pulpit at Kingsway H o ~ s e . [ ~30 :~~~] Nineteen Day Feast in the home of Mrs. R o b i n s ~ n . [ ~31~ December: Arrives at Manchester College, Oxford University, Oxford, for meetings arranged on the initiative of Dr. T. K. Cheyne; 'Abdu'l-Bahh meets
XI CHRONOLOGY
separately with Dr. Cheyne and also has lunch with him and his wife; the meeting is presided over by the principal of the college, Dr. E. Estlin Ca~-penter.[~~:~~~ffl 1913 2 January: 'Abdu'l-Bahi addresses a meeting arranged by Mrs. Despard for a number of her colleagues in the Suffragette Movement.[48'3541 4 January: Speaks on the "Four Kinds of Love" at 97 Cadogan G a r d e n ~ . [ ~6~January: : l ~ ~ ] Travels to Edinburgh on the invitation of Dr. and Mrs. Alexander Whyte. He arrives at Edinburgh Waverley Station at 5:00 PM. He stays in the Whyte home, West Register House, 7 Charlotte Square. 'Abdu'l-Bahi receives a continual stream of v i s i t o r ~ . [ ~ ~7: January: ~~ffl Visits Castle Hill and the Outlook Tower museum, where He is received by Professor Sir Patrick Geddes, the founder and president of the Outlook Tower Society. Later that day He drives down the Royal Mile and past Holyrood Palace; that evening He addresses the Esperanto Society in the Freemasons' Hall, 96 George : ~ ~ f f l 8 Under the auspices of the Outlook Street, E d i n b ~ r g h . [ ~ ~ January: Tower Society, 'Abdu'l-Bahi gives an address in Rainy Hall, New College (Divinity Faculty). That evening He attends a recital of Handel's Messiah in St. Giles Cathedral.[56:85ff19 January: Addresses a gathering of suffragettes and a number of prominent men opposed to them (7 Charlotte Square); that evening he is the dinner guest of the Theosophical Society, 28 Great King Street; after dinner He addresses the s~ciety.[~~:'~'ffl 10 January: Returns to L ~ n d o n . [ ~ ~ :1'1 ~ ~January: ffl Speaks at Caxton Hall, West~ninster.[~~:~~~] 12 January: Speaks in the Friends' Meetinghouse, St. Martin's attends a dinner in His 14 January: honor in the home of Sir Richard and Lady Stapley.[48:3691 Speaks in a Congregational Church in the East End of London; attends a dinner in His honor hosted by the Persian Minister (Mu&iru71-Mulk) at the Legation in London.[48:3681 15 January: Travels to Bristol, where He stays in the Clifton Guest House (which belongs to Mr. and Mrs. Tudor-Pole). He addresses a gathering in the Guest House that eve16 January: Returns to L o n d ~ n . [ ~ ~17 : ~ ~January: O] Tells ning.[48:3691 Mrs. Gabrielle Enthoven that He would give her a play, Drama of the Kingdom. Mrs. Enthoven allows Mary Basil Hall (Lady Blomfield's daughter) to write it (it was published in London in 1933).[48:388, 497ffl 18 January: Visits the mosque in Woking, Surrey, England. Before speaking in the court outside the mosque (which was too small to hold the assembled participants) He lunches with a number of Muslim and Christian notables. Ameer 'Ali Syed (then a member of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, as well as the author of The Spirit of
CHRONOLOGY
XI i
Islam) also addresses the gathe~-ing.[~~:~~O] 19 January: 'Abdu'l-Bahh is 20 January: attends the luncheon guest of Rev. Dr. R. J. Campbell.[48'3711 an afternoon reception in His honor in the home of Dr. Felix Moscheles; is the dinner guest of a Rajput prince; speaks in the Higher Thought ~ ' ~January: ~l] Leaves Center-His last engagement in L o n d ~ n . [ ~ 21 London for Paris, where He stays in a house rented for Him by M. et Mme. Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney at 30 Rue St. Didier. A constant 27 January: stream of visitors visit with Him in the drawing room.[48:3731 The Persian minister in Paris, the Mumth's-Salmih, 'Abdus-Samad K h h , calls on 'Abdu'l-Bahk as a matter of courtesy and in conformity with custom, 'Abdu'l-Bahh returns his call that same day.[48:3741 28 January: A l p a d Ph&h and Munir PA&, prominent Ottomans, the latter of whom was Sul@ 'Abdu'l-Hamid's ambassador in Paris, call on 'Abdu'lBahh.[48:3741 29 January: Ra&id Ph&b, an ex-vhli of Beirut and a fierce persecutor of 'Abdu'l-Bahh under the old regime, calls on Him and shows great reverence and contrition; 'Abdu'l-Bahh returns his call that 31 January: jrhnian students call on 'Abdu'l-Bahb; He same day.[48:3751 speaks in the home of M. et Mme. Dreyfus-Barney; this is part of a series of weekly meetings that take place in other homes as well, notably : ~ ~ ~ ] VisM. et Mme. Scott's and Miss Edith S a n d e r s o n ' ~ . [ ~6~February: its Versailles. That evening He is entertained by the music, song, and art 12 February: The guest of the of Professor 'Inhyatu'llhh ihh.[48:3761 Esperantists at a banquet in His honor in the H8tel Moderne; He delivers ~ ~February: ~~~] Addresses the T h e o s o p h i s t ~ . [ ~17~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] an a d d r e s ~ . [13 February: Speaks separately in the homes of three Bahh'is; that evening He visits Pasteur Monnier's Theological Seminary and answers his q ~ e s t i o n s . [ ~21~ :February: ~~~] Speaks in the Salle de Troyes to the LYAllianceS p i r i t u a l i ~ t e . [9~March: ~ ~ ~ ~ ]Professor and Mrs. E.G. Browne 19 March: 'Abdu'l-Bahb moves from the Dreyfusvisit Him.[48:3791 Barney home to a hotel in Rue Lauriston, near the Place de l ' ~ t o i l e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 21 March: Celebrates Naw-Ruz and entertains guests at lunch (many of them Eastern notables). Later that day, accompanied by M. Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney, He calls on the irhnian Legation; He closes the day by ~~~~~] giving a discourse in the home of M. et Mme. D r e y f u ~ - B a r n e y . [30 March: Leaves Paris and travels to Stuttgart; He arrives on 1 April and ' ~ ~ ~Speaks ] 3~ April: in the upper hall of stays in the Hotel M a r q ~ a r d t . [ ~ 4 April: Visits a children's the City (Burger) Museum, St~ttgart.[~~~~O] ~ ~ ~ ~Addresses ] a number of meetings meeting in E s ~ l i n g e n . [5~April: and in the evening speaks to the Esperanto Society; He ends the day by : ~ ~ ~ lGives an having dinner in the home of Herr E ~ k s t e i n . [ ~6~April: address in the Hotel Marquardt. He is driven to the Black Forest and
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meets with Bahi'is in Wangenburg, where photographs are taken. He gives a discourse in the Obere Museum. He dines that evening in the home of Miss Fannie Knobloch (Hannen) and Fraulein 7 April: Visits Bad Mergentheim at the request of Consul Schwartz, who owns the hotel and mineral bath.[48:3831 8 April: Returns to Stuttgart ~~~~] and lunches in the home of Consul and Frau S ~ h w a r z . [9~April: Leaves Stuttgart by train for Budapest (changing trains in Vienna). He 10 April: Well-known academics call upon stays in the Hotel Ritz.[48:3841 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Among them are Dr. Agnas Goosen, rector of the University, Professor Julius Germanus, and Dr. Alexander Giesswein; M.P. Sirdar Omrah Singh also calls and expresses the regrets of Professor Arminius Vambkry, who is too ill to leave his house. That evening 'Abdu'l-Bahi addresses the Theosophical S o ~ i e t y . [ ~11 ~ 'April: ~~~] Abdu'l-Bahi receives a delegation from the Turkish Association. That afternoon He returns the call of Professor Ignaz Goldziher and others. Later He delivers a discourse in the Old Building of Parliament (at that time a m u ~ e u r n ) . [ ~12~April: ' ~ ~ ~ ]The president of the Tiuiinian Society calls on 'Abdu'l-Bahti. That afternoon 'Abdu'l-Bahti visits Professor 13April: Despite failing health, Professor Vambkry tries to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahi but finds Him absent visiting Professor Robert A. Nadler, and later in the day Sirdar Omrah Singh. Later that evening, despite a blizzard, 'Abdu'l-Bahi delivers a discourse in His hotel.[48'3871 14 April: 'Abdu'l-Bahi delays His departure at the request of the president of the Tiuiinian Society to address a meeting organized by him in the hall of the Old Parliament Building. The delay allows Him to return Professor Vambkry's visit (much to the professor's delight). 'Abdu'lBahi attends a dinner party in the home of 'Ali 'Abbis Aqi, where 15April: ISprevented guests include the Ottoman ~onsul-general.[~~'~~~1 ~ ~ ~ 1Leaves 1 9 Budafrom traveling to Vienna by a severe ~ o l d . [ ~ ~ :April: 19 pest and travels to Vienna, where He stays in the Grand Hotel.[48'3881 April: Calls upon the Turkish ambassador, who insists He stay for lunch. Following lunch He returns to His hotel, where He is greeted by Frau Tyler and Herr Kreuz, who request Him to give a discourse. He consents and that evening speaks in the Theosophical Hall. In the afternoon He goes for a walk and gives money to a charity collector as well 20 April: Is the guest of as to some children playing in the park.[48'3881 the Persian minister and the Turkish ambassador, r e s p e c t i ~ e l y . [ ~21~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] April: The Persian minister calls on 'Abdu'l-Bahi in the morning. Later that day He goes for a drive and in the evening addresses the Theo: ~ ~ ~ liriinian residents call on 'Abdu'l-Bahi. sophical S o ~ i e t y . [ ~23~ April: That evening He addresses the Theosophists for the third time.[48:3881
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24 April: 'Abdu'l-Bahh returns to Stuttgart fiom Vienna. He arrives in the early hours of the next day and stays in the Hotel Marquardt. He is : ~ ~ ~ ]Speaks 25~April: unwell for most of this second week in S t ~ t t g a r t . [ ~ 27 April: A in the Burger Museum (despite extremely poor health).[48:3891 number of children are brought to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahh at His hotel.[48:3901 1 May: After addressing the Bahh'is in three groups, 'Abdu'l-Bahh returns to Paris, where He stays in the H8tel California, Rue Colbert, near the Bibliothkque Nationale. As usual, He receives a large number of visitors 18 May: 'Abdu'l-Bahh is taken to the famous raceon a daily course at Longchamps, where He walks with Dr. M ~ a f n m a ad i i n (one of the &an Bahii'is then resident in Paris). That evening He dines with ~ ~ ~ ]Visits an eminent M. et Mme. Richard until m i ~ l n i g h t . [ ~22~ :May: member of the Persian aristocracy. Later that day He visits Mme. Jackson and receives Albert Dawson, editor of the Christian Common23 May: Bahh'is visit 'Abdu'l-Bahh offering flowers in celebration of His birthday, but He tells them that the day must be considered only the anniversary of the Declaration of the Bhb-an event He celebrates that night in the home of M. et Mme. Dreyfi~s-Barney.[~~:~~~] 27 May: Returns to the hotel in Rue L a u r i ~ t o n . [30 ~ ~May: ~ ~ ] Speaks in the home of M. et Mme. D r e y f u ~ - B a r n e y . [ ~ 1 ~June: ~ ~ ~ ]Mirzh 'AliAkbar-i-Nwaviini arrives fkom the Holy Land and informs 'Abdu'l6 June: Bahh that a large number of pilgrims there await His m a d 'Izzat Ph&h, a member of S u l w 'Abdu'l-Hamid's inner circle, 12 June: 'Abdu'l-Bahii leaves His hotel at calls on 'Abd~'l-Bahii.[~~~~~] 8:00 AM for the train station, where He addresses Bahh'is before taking the noon train for Marseilles. The train reaches Marseilles at midnight, ~~~~~] and 'Abdu'l-Bahh stays overnight in a hotel next to the s t a t i ~ n . [13 June: Sails aboard the P&O steamer SS Himalaya fiom Marseilles for Port Said, Egypt, at 9:00 AM.[^^^^^^ 27 June: Mirzd Ja'far-i-Ralpnhiy-iShirbi invites the Bahb'is in Port Said to dinner; they eat under a canvas tent, and 'Abdu'l-Baha serves the food.[48:3991 17 July: 'Abdu'l-Bahh moves to Alexandria, where He stays for two weeks in the Hotel Victoria in Ramlih before moving into rented accommodation in the proxirnn Stati~n.[~~'~"] 1 August: Bahiyyih mhnum and ity of the M ~ l i u Ph&h Shoghi Effendi (the sister and grandson of 'Abdu'l-Bahh) arrive in Ramlih fiom Haifa.[48'4011 17 August: 'Abbhs Hilmi P&h ('Abbh 11), the Khedive of Egypt, calls on 'Abdu'l-Bahh for the third time, followed a 2 December: month later by his brother, Prince M~ammad-'Ali.[48:4011 'Abdu'l-Bahh boards a Lloyd Triestino boat and sets sail for Haifa (stop5 December: His early afterping enroute in Port Said and Jaffa).[48:4021 noon arrival in Haifa concludes His epic travels in Europe and North
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A m e r i ~ a . [6~ December: ~~~l Visits the Shrine of the Bhb; a large group of pilgrims is present; 'Abdu'l-Bahh directs them to the eastern foreroom of the Shrine while He enters the western foreroom a l ~ n e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 1914 2 February: Final payment made on the Wilmette lakeshore &act.[S0:721 1915 Eighth (North America) Mas_hriqu'l-Auk Convention meeting and First Bahh'i Congress in San Francisco, Calif0rnia.[~~:~~1 1916 26 March: 'Abdu'l-Bahii reveals the first of the Tablets of the in the house at Bahji. This Divine Plan (~lvcih-i-~abli&i-i-~mrikh), first Tablet is addressed to the Bahil'is of 9 northeastern states: Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Vermont, Pennsylvania, 27 March: Reveals the Massachusetts, New Jersey, and New York.[48:4201 second of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in the garden adjacent to the Shrine of Bahh'u'llih at Bahji. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of 16 southern states: Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, ~ ' March: ~~l] Kentucky, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and T e x a ~ . [ ~29 Reveals the third of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, outside the house in Bahji. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of 12 central states: Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North ' ~ ~ ~Reveals ] Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and K a n s a ~ . [ ~1~April: the fourth of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in His room in the house in Bahji. This fourth Tablet is addressed to the Bahh'is of 11 western states: New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, California, Wyoming, : ~ ~ ~ ]Reveals the Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and W a s h i n g t ~ n . [ ~5~April: fifth of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in the garden adjacent to the Shrine of Bahh'u'llih at Bahji. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of C a n a d a Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Manitoba, Alberta, Ontario, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, Yukon, Mackenzie, Ungava, Keewatin, and Franklin Island-and Green8 April: Reveals the sixth of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, land.[48:4211 in the garden outside the Shrine of Baha'u'llih at Bahji. It is addressed 11 April: Reveals to the Bahh'is of the United States and Canada.[48'4211 the seventh of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in His room in Bahji. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of the United States and Canada.[48:4211 1917 2 February: Reveals the eighth of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in His room in the house in Bahji. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of the United States and 2 February: Reveals the ninth ' s in the house of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in Ismh'il ~ ~ 6room
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of 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Haifa. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of the 9 north: ~ ~ ~ ] Reveals the tenth of the Tablets of the 3 ~February: eastern s t a t e ~ . [ ~ Divine Plan, in the Ismh'il Aqh7s room in the house of 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Haifa. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of the 16 southern 8 February: Reveals the eleventh of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in the room of Bahh'u'lliih in the house of 'Abbhd in 'Akki. It is addressed ' ~ ~ ~ ] Reveals the 15~February: to the Bahh'is of the 12 central s t a t e ~ . [ ~ twelfth of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in the room of Bahh'u'llih in the house of 'Abbhd in ' A M . It is addressed to the Bahi'is of the 11 western 21 February: Reveals the thirteenth of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in the room of Bahi'u'lliih in the house of 'Abbhd in 8 March: Reveals 'Akkh. It is addressed to the Bahh'is of Canada.[48:4221 the fourteenth (and final) of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, in the summer house (Ismh'il Aqh7sroom in the house of 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Haifa). It is addressed to the Bahh'is of the United States and Canada.[48'4221 1918 23 September: General Allenby's (British) forces take Haifa, 23 Decemand Allenby cables London that 'Abdu'l-Bahh is safe.[48'4251 ber: Q m a d Sohrhb (one of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's secretaries) is sent to the United States to deliver the Tablets of the Divine Plan.[48'4331 1919 February: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Hhji Mirzh Muhammad Taqiy-i-Abhari. 26-30 April: Bahh'i Temple Unity Annual Meeting (Convention), during which the Tablets of the Divine Plan are released to the Bahh'i community. 4 October: On the invitation of Major Williamson, the acting Military Governor of Haifa, 'Abdu'lBahh goes aboard the warship HMS M a r l b o r o ~ g h . [ ~17~ December: :~~~l 'Abdu'l-Bhh reveals a Tablet to the Central Organization For A Durable Peace at the H a g ~ e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 1920 27 April: Louis Bourgeois's design of the North American Ma&riqu71-Auk is selected during National C o n ~ e n t i o n . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 1 24 September: Work begins on the site of the Ma&iqu71-Aakhr. 27 September: 'Abdu'l-Bahi is invested with the insignia of a Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire, for His humanitarian work in relieving distress and famine during World War I. The investiture is in the garden of the military governor of Haifa.[48'4431 1921 5 January: (North American) MaAriqu'l-Auhr structural ~ ~March: ~~] engineer and superintendent of construction a p p ~ i n t e d . [19 The building permit is granted by Village of Wilmette.[50'741 19 May: As instructed by 'Abdu'l-Bahh, first conventions are held for Amity Between the Colored and White Races (19-21 May) in Washington, D.C.
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Similar conventions are held in Philadelphia, Dayton, Green Acre, Brooklyn, Boston, Chicago, Montrkal, New York, Seattle, and Portland. Race Amity convention^.["^^^ 200ffl 28 November: Passing of 'Abdu'lBahii at 1 AM.
The Guardianship 1897 1 March: Birth of Shoghi Effendi in the house of 'Abdu'lliih pishii, - 'A&& [57:21 1920 April: Shoghi Effendi leaves Haifa to study at Balliol College, Oxford. On the instruction of 'Abdu'l-Bahh he spends time in a sanitarium in Neuilly before proceeding to England in the month of J ~ l y . [ ~11 ~ :October: ~ ~ ~ 1 Attends the first lecture of Logic course (given 12 October: Attends the first lecture of the by Mr. Ross, M.A.).[58:361 Political Economy course (given by Sir T. H. Penson, M.A.); attends the first lecture of the Eastern Question course (given by F. E Urquhart, 13 October: Attends the first lecture of the Social and IndusM.A.).[58:361 14 October: trial Questions course (given by the Rev. Carlyle).[58:361 Attends the first lecture of the Political Science course (given by the ~ ~October: ~~] Attends the first lecture of the Social Rev. C a r l ~ l e ) . [15 16 October: and Political Problems course (given by Mr. Smith).[58:361 Attends the first lecture of the English Economic History since 1688 course (given by Sir T. H. Penson, M.A.).[58:361 19 October: Attends the first lecture of the Relations of Capital and Labor course (given by Mr. Clay, New C ~ l l e g e ) . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] 1921 28 November: Bahiyyih m h n u m cables the office of Major Tudor-Pole, 61 St. James's Street, London, saying, "His Holiness 'Abdu'lBahii ascended to the Kingdom of Abha. Please inform friends." The cable arrives at 9:30 AM,29 November. Shoghi Effendi arrives around noon that day, and while waiting for Tudor-Pole to arrive in his office he reads the cable, which was lying open on the desk. He collapses and is taken to the home of Miss Grand and put to bed for a few days. A similar cable is dispatched to the North American Bahi'i community through Roy Wilhelm in New York. Messages of condolence flood in from around the world (from, among others, Winston Churchill, then 16 December: Shoghi Effendi secretary of state for the colonies).[58~391 ~~~~l sails for Haifa with Lady Blomfield and his sister R o ~ h a n g e z e . [29 December: Arrives in Haifa by train from Egypt (where his boat had docked at 5:20 P M . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~
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1922 3 January: The Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahb (see 'ABDU'L-BAHA, WILL AND TESTAMENT) designates Shoghi Effendi as the successor to 'Abdu'l-Bahi and the Head of the worldwide Baha'i community, "the Guardian of the Faith," "the expounder of the words of God," "the Sign of God on earth," among other titles. Shoghi Effendi instructs that the Will and Testament be read aloud later that same day (but not in his presence) to nine men, mostly members of his family, and the seals, signature, and writing shown to them (by way of proof that the Will was genuine). He gives instructions that a : ~ ~ f f l 7 On true copy should be made by one of those p r e ~ e n t . [ ~ ~January: Shoghi Effendi's instruction, but without his presence, 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Will and Testament is read to a gathering of Bahii'is fiom Persia, India, 7 January: Egypt, England, Italy, Germany, America, and Japan.[58:461 Bahiyyih =hum cables the Persian Bahii'i community, announcing 16 January: Shoghi Effendi as the successor to 'Abd~'l-Bahii.[~~:~~] Bahiyyih =hum cables the most important content of 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Testament to the Baha'i world (via the United States): "In Will Shoghi Effendi appointed Guardian of Cause and Head of House of J ~ s t i c e " [ ~(see ~ : ~UNIVERSAL ~] HOUSE OF JUSTICE). Shoghi Effendi immediately begins the duties of his new role and writes his first letters as Guardian (separate communications to the Persian, American, ~ ' January: ~~] Covenant breakers (Mirzai and Japanese B a h i i ' i ~ ) . [ ~30 Badi'u'llaih and others) seize the keys of the Shrine of Bahai'u'llaih fiom the Bahii'i caretaker, thereby asserting Muhammad 'Ali's (half brother of 'Abdu'l-Bahii) right as lawful custodian. The governor of ' A M demands that the keys be turned over to him and refuses to return 5 March: Shoghi Effendi sends his first the keys to either party.[58:531 letter to the Baha'is of the world referring to the mission of the Cause and to the formation of local and National Spiritual As~emblies.[~~'~ffl 5 April: Shoghi Effendi leaves Haifa for the Bernese Oberland with his eldest cousin. In the words of Bahiyyih Khhum, Shoghi Effendi had left "in order to rest and recuperate, and then return to the Holy Land to render his services and discharge his responsibilities." The Star of the West subsequently carried a facsimile of a letter written by Shoghi Effendi communicating his decision to place Bahiyyih Qhum at the Head of the Cause in his a b ~ e n c e . [ ~April: ~ ~ ~ 1Bahiyyih 8 Uhum writes a letter to Bahii'is explaining the current situation with respect the G ~ a r d i a n . [15 ~ ~December: ~~] Shoghi Effendi returns to the Holy Land ~ ~December: :~~] Writes to America, to resume his duties as G ~ a r d i a n . [ 16 "Prolonged though this period has been, yet I have strongly felt ever since this New Day has dawned upon me that such a needed retirement,
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despite the temporary dislocations it might entail, would far outweigh in its results any immediate service I could have humbly tendered at the he also writes to the Baha'is of Great Threshold of Bahi'~'llhh";[~~:~~1 Britain care of the members of the Spiritual Council conveying the same sentirnent~.[~l'~] 23 December: First letter to the newly elected National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada (which replaced the Bahii'i Temple also writes his first letter to the Baha'is of Great Britain care of the Baha'i Council in reply to the first letter he receives from the West after his ret~rn.[~~:ll] 1923 12 March: Calls for the establishment of national and local Baha'i June: For health reasons, Shoghi Effendi again leaves Haifa for a prolonged stay in S w i t ~ e r l a n d . [ ~November: ~'~~] Returns to Haifa.[58:731 1925 February: Shoghi Effendi conceives, in discussion with Mrs. Stannard, of the International Bahii'i Bureau (to be sited in Geneva, S w i t ~ e r l a n d ) . [10 ~ ~May: ~ ~ ~ ]Divisional session of the religious court of Beba decides cases No. 913, 814 (1923), and 915 (1924); Baha'i religion is a religion independent of Islim, Kowno, Saayedeh (District of Soweif), 22 November: Passing of Dr. John E. Esslemont in Haifa, 30 November: Shoghi Effendi appoints Dr. Esslemont to the rank of Hand of the Cause of 1926 30 January: Martha Root secures the first of eight audiences (covering the period January 1926 to February 1936) with Her Royal Highness Queen Marie of Romania in Controceni Palace, Bucharest. Queen Marie becomes the first monarch to accept the Faith of Bahi'u'llfi. [37:387, 33-351 29 April: National Spiritual Assembly of United States and Canada approves incorporation as a Voluntary Trust with a Declaration of Trust and attendant Bylaws. Adopted during San Fran16 July: The cisco Annual Convention (29 April to 2 May 1926).[1'891 National Spiritual Assembly of the United States writes to the Shah of Persia pleading for justice on behalf of the persecuted Baha'i com27 August: Queen Marie of Romania writes for the munity there.[1:37"871 first time to Shoghi Effendi (in response to a letter from 1927 4 April: Incorporation of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of United States and Car~ada.[l:~~ff] 1928 27 May: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Hiijiji Abu'lHa~an.[~~:""] June: Russian law expropriating religious edifices is applied to the Maariqu'l-Amhr of 'I&qibid, Turkish. The use of
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the building as a house of worship is continued on a five-year l e a ~ e . [ ~ : ~ ~ f f l 11 September: National Spiritual Assembly Bahh'is of 'IrBq submits a petition to the Permanent Commission of the League of Nations for protection and aid in the return of the House occupied by Bahii'u711& during His sojourn in Ba&dad.[2:50ffl 1929 4 March: Council of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland, adopts a resolution directing the Mandatory Power (Great Britain) "to make representations to the government of 'Iriiq" to return houses occupied by Bahh'u'lliih to the National Spiritual Assembly of 'Irhq.[2:50ffl 4 May: Bahii'i Community of Haifa petitions Palestinian authorities for official recognition as a community with full powers to administer its own affairs in the same way as other religious communi27 November: M&arnrnad-'Ali and ties. The petition is granted.[37'3551 family leave the Mansion of Bahji, and restoration work b e g i n ~ . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] 1930 8 April: Registration in Haifa, Palestine, of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of the United States and Canada as a recognized religious society in Palestine, under the name the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahii'is of the United States and Canada, Palestine Branch. The association comprises Shoghi Effendi Rabbiini and Rihi Afni~n.[~:l~~ffl4 July: Sho& Effendi completes his translation of the ~ittib-i-iqtin(the Book of Certitude); this is the first of the Works that he translate~.[~~'~l~] 1931 April: Completion of the main superstructure of the (North American) Ma&riq~'l-A-r.[~:l~~ffl 1 May: Dedication of the first Bahh'i House of Worship in the Western world (the Mother Temple) and the first devotional service in the new structure on the 19th anniversary 14 December: of the dedication of the grounds by 'Abd~'l-Bahii.[~:l~~ff1 National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada writes to the prime minister of Egypt, drawing his attention to the persecution of the Egyptian Bahii'i community and asking the adoption of a decree recognizing the Egyptian Baha'i community as a religion in its own right.[3:166ffl 1932 31 March: New York Spiritual Assembly incorporated using constitution and bylaws to be used as a model by other Assemblies ~ ~July: f f l Passing of the Greatest Holy Leaf, throughout the ~ o r l d . [ ~ : '15 ~&iYyihugnum.[4:169,37:1081 1933 23 October: Passing of Keith Ransom-Kehler in Isfhhhn, Persia; Shoghi Effendi appoints her a Hand of the Cause of
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1936 11 March: Shoghi Effendi writes the letter subsequently published as "The Unfoldment of World Civilizationyyto the "beloved of God and the handmaids of the Merciful throughout the 1937 25 March: Marriage of Shoghi Effendi to Mary Maxwell (see 'AMATU'L-BA~RI~@YYIH in the room of Bahiyyih &hum in the house of 'Abdu'l-Bahii. His mother cables America and Persia, "Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian Inestimable honor conferred upon handmaid of Bahh'u'llhh R@iyyih B h u m Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by ~'~~] Bahii'i Faith cemented. Ziiiiyyih mother of the G ~ a r d i a n . " [ ~April: The first Seven Year Plan (1937-1944) is launched in the United StateS.[60:7,9, 39,61:385ff, 62251 1938 28 April: Shoghi Effendi cables Bahii'i conventions regarding the passing of Munirih KhPnum, wife of ' A b d ~ ' l - B a h i i . [ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ , 41:1181 4 July: Cables National Spiritual Assembly of India, Phkisth, and Burma approving their decision to launch their first Six Year Plan (1938-1944.)[62403, 63:70ffl 25 December: Writes the letter subsequently published as The Advent of Divine Justice to the "beloved of the Lord and the handmaids of the Merciful throughout the United States and 1939 11 March: Grand Mufti of Egypt (the highest exponent of Isliimic Law in Egypt) issues a fatvii (judgment) stating clearly that the Bahii'i religion is quite separate and independent of I s l h (i.e., a 28 September: Passing of Martha religion in its own right).[37:366ffl ~ : ~ ~3~October: , Shoghi Effendi appoints MarRoot in H o n o l u l ~ . [ 59:xxiil tha Root (posthumously) to the rank of Hand of the Cause of 24 November: Following Shoghi Effendi's guidance, the first Bahii'i in the British Isles to appeal for noncombatant service after the outbreak of World War 11, Philip Hainsworth, appears before a court in Leeds, England, and has his appeal granted, thereby establishing a precedent that was accepted for other Bahii'is in the British Isles and in other countries when called into the armed forces. This is the first time an individual Bahii'i has the Bahii'i Faith recognized as the legal basis for a court appeal. It is also the first time an army has to issue a name 5 December: The remains of tag (dog tag) with "Bahii'i" on Bahii'u'llhh's wife, NawPb, the Most Exalted Leaf, and His son, MirzP Mihdi, the Purest Branch, are transferred to the precincts of the Shrine 24 December: The remains of Nawhb and Mit-z6 of the BPb.[7:x5"37:1881 7:x5ffl 25 December: Mihdi are laid in state in the Shrine of the Biib.[37:1889
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The remains of Nawhb and Mirzh Mihdi are reinterred together in the Bahh'i Monument Gardens on Mount Carmel.[37"88, 7:245ffl 1940 1March: Passing of May Ellis Bolles Maxwell in BuenosAires. 2 June: Shoghi Effendi, 'Amatu'l-Baha Ri@yyih K&mum, and Mr.
Sutherland Maxwell leave St. Malo for Southampton, England.[58:1781 28 July: Shoghi Effendi departs from England for Cape Town, South Africa, on board the SS Cape Town Castle with 'R@iyyih Khhnum and
her father. Shoghi Effendi and Rwyyih Khhum proceed overland to ~l~~fl Khartoum, where they are rejoined by Mr. M a ~ w e l l . [ ~ October: Arrives back in Haifa.[58:1811 1941 17 February: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God John Henry 28 March: Shoghi Effendi Hyde Dunn in Sydney, Au~tralia.[~~:"~~] writes the letter subsequently published as The Promised Day Is Come to "Friends and fellow-heirs of the Kingdom of Bahh'u'll~ih."[~~] 1942 13 March: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Siyyid M~gtafsiy-i-Riirni.[~~:~~] 25 June: Passing of the Hand of the Cause of God (appointed posthumously on the day of his death) 'Abdu'l-JaM Bey Sa'ad.r5%-1 14 August: U.S. quartermaster general approves the use of the Greatest Name on stones marking the graves of Bahh'is killed in World War I1 and who are buried in military or private ~emeteries.[~:~~~] 1944 22 January: Shoghi Effendi finishes God Passes (originally titled Prospect and Retrospect). 23 May: Celebrations of the Centenary of the Declaration of the Bhb. 25 May: Shoghi Effendi
cables his approval of the British National Spiritual Assembly's adoption their first Six Year Plan (1944-1950) as follows: "Welcome spontaneous decision advise formation nineteen SpiritualAssemblies spread over England Wales Scotland Northern Ireland and Eire praying signal ViCtOTy.)~[41:169, 62:393] 1945 May: National Spiritual Assembly of Germany and Austria adopt a Five Year Plan (1948-1953).[62:4121 14 July: Shoghi Effendi appoints Siyyid Mugtafriy-i-Riimi posthumously to the rank of Hand of the Cause of 1946 9 January: National Spiritual Assembly of India, Phkisthn, April: Second and Burma adopt a Four Year Plan (19461950).[62:4031 American Seven Year Plan (19461953) (launched following a twoyear respite).[60:87ff,":395,65:331 11October: National Spiritual Assembly of k i n adopts a Four Year Plan (1946-1950).[62:4051 22 November: Shoghi
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Effendi advises Amelia Collins by cable that she is a Hand of the Cause of God and that she is the first to be told during her lifetime. He advises that the announcement is to be held pending his discretion (which 13 December: Appoints Muhammad was 24 December 1951).[58:2581 Taqiy-i-Isfsihsini to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God (d. Egypt, 13 December 1946).[59'""l 1947 14 March: Writes to the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand encouraging them to adopt a Plan (Six Year 62:4071 April: National Spiritual Assembly of the Plan [1947-1953]).[41:69f, United States and Canada is accredited as an NGO (nongovernmenSpiritual ~ ~National ~ff] tal organization) with the United N a t i o n ~ ; [ ' ~ :the Assembly of Irdq adopts a Three Year Plan (1947-1950).[62:4071 1948 14 April: Shoghi Effendi writes to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Canada (about to be formed during convention later that month) congratulating them and urging them to adopt a Five Year Plan.[62:409, 66:71 May: The National Spiritual Assembly of Egypt adopts a Five Year Plan (1948-1953).[62:4111 1949 21 January: Shoghi Effendi meets with Prime Minister Ben 7 March: Announces that work would begin Gurion of Israel.[58:174,2891 2891 A on the Shrine of the Bhb on the Spot chosen by Bahd'~'llhh.[~~:'~~, superstructure, comprising a colonnade and arcade, an octagon above, a drum with 18 windows, and a golden dome and lantern, is to be built on the existing building. 1950 April: Shoghi Effendi announces to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of the British Isles the launch of the A£rica Plan (1951-1953).[41:245, 62:4131 16 December: Mazra'ih is leased from the Israeli authorities; Shoghi Effendi announces to the Bahd'i world This he says, that the keys to Mazra'ih have been delivered to him.[58:2901 anticipated the "opening door to ~ilgrimage."[~~:~] 1951 9 January: Shoghi Effendi announces the appointment of the first International Bahsi'i Council (forerunner of the Universal House of Justice): 'Amatu'l-BahB R@iyyih Khinum (liaison between Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Bahd'i Faith and the Council), Amelia Collins (Vice President), Ugo Giachery (Member at Large), Lutfu'llsih Hakim (Eastern Assistant Secretary), Leroy Ioas, Secretary-General, Mason Remey (President), Ethel Revell (Western Assistant Secretary), ~~~~, Jessie Revell (Treasurer), Ben Weedon, and Gladys W e e d ~ n . [ '38:71 April: Shoghi Effendi writes the National Spiritual Assembly of India,
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Phkisth, and Burma approving the launch of their Nineteen Month Plan (1951-1953.)[62:403,63:1491 3 April: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Corrine True in Chicag0.[~*"~~]30 July: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Louis Gregory in Eliot 5 August: Shoghi Effendi appoints Louis Gregory to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God.[59:"ii1 20 December: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Roy C. Wilhelm in North Lovell, 23 December: Shoghi Effendi appoints Roy C. Wilhelm to the rank of Hand of the Cause of 24 December: Appoints first contingent of (12) Hands of the Cause of God (previous appointments having been posthumous): Dorothy B. Baker, Amelia E. Collins, 'Ali Akbar Furutan, Ugo Giachery, Hermann Grossman, Horace Holley, Leroy C. Ioas, William Sutherland Maxwell, Taraizu'llhh Samandari, George Townshend, and Valiyu'llhh Varqh. Cables of appointment were sent the previous da~.[~*-~] 1952 29 February: Appoints second contingent of (6) Hands of the Cause of God: Clara Dunn, Adelbert Miihlschlegel, Uu'u'llsih 'AlP'i, Dhikru'llsih u s i d e m , Corrine True, and Siegfried Schopflocher. Cables of appointment were sent the previous day.[59:"ui18 March: Announces the members of and enlargement of the International BahB'i Council: 'Amatu'l-BahB R@iyyih K&mum, Mason Remey, Amelia Collins, Ugo Giachery, Leroy Ioas, Jessie and Ethel Revell, and Lutfu'llAh 25 March: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God WilHakim.[12:3951 26 March: Shoghi Effendi liam Sutherland Maxwell in Montr~5al.[~*"~~~] appoints 'Amatu'l-Bahh R@iyyih U h u m as a Hand of the Cause of God (replacing her illustrious April: One Year Plan Cen26 April: Appoints John Henry Dunn tral America. (1952-1953)[62:4141 to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God. (b. 5 March 1855, d. 17 February 1941.)[59:"ii1October: Centenary Celebrations birth of BahhYu'llAh's Mission in the Siysih-Chsil.[38:341 8 October: S h o a Effendi announces the Ten Year Crusade (1953-1963) to be conducted by 12 National Spiritual Assemblies.[35,62:417ff]
1953 12-18 February: First International Teaching Conference, Kampala, Uganda, Africa. Hand of the Cause of God Leroy Ioas rep21 April: Ten Year Crusade (1953-1963) resents Shoghi Effendi.[38:261 (International Bahii'i Teaching and Consolidation Plan) launched. Nine 38:40, 65:451 1 May: National Spiritual Assemblies exist at that time.[11:253ff* BahB'i dedication of North American Ma&riq~'l-Adhkhr.[ll:~~~ff] 2 May: Public dedication of North American Ma&~-iqu'l-Ad&k-.[~~:~~~ff] 3-6 May: A11American Bahh'i (Second) Intercontinental Teaching Conference, Chicago. The Guardian is represented by Hand of the Cause of
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God 'Amatu'l-Bahb Rf&iyyih Khhum.[38:331 21-26 July: Third Bahb'i Intercontinental Teaching Conference, Stockholm, Sweden. Hand of the 27 July: Cause of God Ugo Giachery represents Shoghi Effendi.[38:331 Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Sieg£iied Schopflocherin Montreal (b. 1877, October: Completion of the construction of the Shrine of the Biib;[11:2351 7-15 October: Fourth Bahi'i Intercontinental Teaching Conference, New Delhi, India. Hand of the Cause 6 December: of God Mason Remey represents Shoghi Effendi.[38:331 Shoghi Effendi appoints Hand of the Cause of God Jalail 13 December: The State of Israel establishes a separate Department for the Bahh'i Faith within the Ministry of Religious A f f a i r ~ . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] 1954 10 January: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Dorothy Baker in a plane crash into the Mediterranean Sea (b. Newark, 21 December, 1898).[59:""il19 March: Shoghi Effendi appoints Paul E. Haney as a Hand 19 April: Shoghi Effendi appoints the first of the Cause of Auxiliary Board members to act as deputies to the Hands of the Cause of God. Africa: John Allen, Elsie Austin, Mubarnad Musmphh Soleiman, 'Ali NakhJavM, Jalail Namavaini, John Robarts, William Sears, Valerie Wilson, 'Aziz Yazdi; America: Esteban Canales, Rowland Estall, William de Forge, Florence Mayberry, Margery McConnick, Katherine McLaughlin, Sarah Pereira, Gayle Woolson, Margot Worley; Asia: Agnes Alexander, 'Abbhs 'Ali Butt, Abu'l-Qaisim Faui, Elena Marsella (Femie), Kazim Kazimzadeh, Carl Scherer, Daod Toeg; Europe: Tove Deleuran, Dorothy Ferraby, Angeline Giachery, Anna Grossmann, Louis Henezet, Marion Hofman, Joel Marangella, Eugen Schmidt, Elsa Steinmetz; Australasia: H. Collis Featherstone, Thelma Perk~.[ll'~~~, 38:591 25 April: Shoghi Effendi receives the first official visit of the Israeli President and Mrs. Ben Zvi in the home of 'Abd~'l-Bahh.[~~~~~1 1955 4 May: Shoghi Effendi announces appointment of Sylvia Ioas to the InternationalBahb'i Council, thereby raising its number to nine.[12:3951 26 May: Accompanied by 'Amatu'l-Bahb Rf&iyyih Khbnum, pays a :~~~] return visit to the president of Israel in J e r ~ s a l e m . [ ~12~ November: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Valiyu'llhh Varqb (b. 1884.)[59:""i1 15 November: Shoghi Effendi appoints 'Ali-Muhammad Varqh as a Hand of the Cause of 1956 20 May: Passing of Louisa Matthew Gregory, wife of Hand of the Cause of God Louis Gregory. The couple were married at the suggestion of 'Abdu'l-Bahb during His visit to the United States. They were the first interracial Bahd'i marriage in the
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1957 25 March: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God George Townshend in Dublin, Ireland (b. 14 June 1876, D~blin.)[~*"~~'] 27 March: Shoghi Effendi appoints Agnes Alexander as a Hand of the Cause of G ~ d . [ ~ 2* October: ~~l Shoghi Effendi cables appointment third (and last) contingent of (eight) Hands of the Cause of God; Abu'l-Qasim Faizi, John Robarts, William Sears, Enoch Olinga, John Ferraby, Ruhmatu'llaih Muhaijir, Collis Featherstone, and Hasan Balyti~i.[~* "'a 4 November: Passing of Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, in London. 'Amatu'l-Bahi Raiyyih Khinum telephones Hands of the Cause of God Hasan Balyki (who in turn phones John Ferraby) and Ugo Giachery advising them of the passing of Shoghi Effendi. Later Mr. Ioas seals that afternoon a call is placed to Leroy Ioas in Haifa.[59:251 and secures the Guardian's apartment and office (as well as the Shrines of the Bhb, Bahh'u'llhh, and the Mansion at Bahjo until such time as an official search could be made for Shoghi Effendi's Will and Testament. 'Amatu'l-Bahh Raiyyih Khhnum cables the tragic news to the Bahh'i 58:446fl 5 November: 'Amatu'l-Baha Raiyyih a 9 nurn cables all National SpiritualAssemblies advising that the funeral of Shoghi Effendi will take place on Saturday 9 November in L o n d ~ n . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 9 November: The funeral of Shoghi Effendi in the Great Northern London Cemetery takes place at 2:OO ~ ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f f l
The Chief Stewards of the Ministry of the Custodians (Interregnum) 1957 10 November: 'Amatu'l-Bahai Rtihiyyih mainum cables Bahh'i World asking for Memorial Meetings to be held on 18 Novem12 November: The Chief ber in memory of Shoghi Effendi.[58:4471 Stewards (Hands of the Cause of God) cable National Spiritual Assemblies calling on them to remain united within the framework of 18 November: Memorial ceremony held for Shoghi the Cause.[58:4501 Effendi in the Shrine of Bahai'u'llaih at 2:00 P M . [ 18-25 ~ ~ ' ~November: ~~ The first Conclave of the Hands of the Cause of God held at the Man19 November: Nine Hands of the Cause of sion of Bahji, 'Akk~i.[~*~~] God (the five who sealed his safe and desk plus Horace Holley, Mush Banaini, Hasan Balyuzi, and 'Ali-Muhammad Varqai) enter the office of Shoghi Effendi at 9:00 AM and search his safe and desk for a Will and Testament. An official statement, signed by them, is issued stating that no Will and Testament has been found and, therefore, no heir can 25 November: Unanimous proclamation (signed by be de~ignated.[~*~~]
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26 of the Hands, the 27th member Corinne True being absent due to ill health) is issued to the Bahh'i world by all 27 Hands stating that no Will and Testament has been found and, as the Chief Stewards of the Faith and in accordance with the provisions of 'Abdu'l-BahP's Will and Testament, that they have appointed 9 from among their number to act on their behalf as Custodians of the Baha'i World Faith (with full powers and authority to act on behalf of the Faith) until such time as the Universal House of Justice can be elected in conformity with the '~~] 25~November: Hands issue a unanimous certificaBaha'i W r i t i n g ~ . [ ~ tion naming the body of 9 Custodian Hands: 'Amatu'l-Bahh R@iyyih Khhum, Mason Remey, Amelia Collins, Leroy Ioas, Hasan Balyhi, 'Ali Akbar Funitan, Jalail IQaizeh, Paul Haney, and Adelbert Miihlschlegel. Ugo Giachery is appointed as an alternate member to fill any temporary vacancy that o c c u r ~ . [25 ~ ~November: ~~] Hands issue a resolution setting out the principles applying to the relations between the Hands and the 9 Custodians as well as to their activities. A second resolution is issued setting forth the relationship of the Hands with the Hands issue a proclamation other institutions of the Baha'i Faith;[59:28:321 to the Baha'is of the East and West advising that no Will and Testament has been found and therefore no heir appointed. The proclamation also advises the Baha'i world of the steps taken by the Hands to preserve and protect the unity of the Cause until the Universal House of Justice can be elected, as well as to ensure that the work initiated by Shoghi Effendi in ~ ~Novem:~~l the Ten Year Crusade is actively and faithfully p u r s ~ e d . [ 30 ber: Affidavit issued by Hand of the Cause of God Corinne True declaring her to be in full agreement with the unanimous proclamation issued 2 December: The Hands by the other Hands on 25 November 1957.[59:301 ask National Spiritual Assemblies to undertake steps to secure the legal recognition of the Hands of the Cause in the Holy Land (Custodians) under the name of "The Custodians of the Baha'i World Faith" and asking for National Spiritual Assemblies to pledge allegiance to the body of ~ ~December: :~~] the C u s t o d i a n ~ . [ 5 Hands cable Baha'i world announcing transfer of all remaining properties in the vicinity of the Shrine of Baha'u'llih to the Israel Branch of the United States National Assem25 December: Hands cable Baha'i world advising demolition bly.[59:501 of the house adjacent and to the Mansion of Bahji (which had been occupied by Covenant 1958 1 January: Hands cable Bahh'i world calling for the entire Community to refrain from religious festivity for a period of nine 23 January: Intermonths from the day of Shoghi Effendi's
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continental Conference,Kampala, 12 March: IntercontiApril: Under supervision nental Conference, Sydney,A~stralia.[~~~~'~~121 of the Hands the National Spiritual Assembly of France 2 May: IntercontinentalConference, 12 June: The Hands in the Holy Land issue a "Statement regarding the G u a r d i a n ~ h i p . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 25 July: Intercontinental Conference, Frankfurt, Germany.[59'1021 24 August: Hands cable Baha'i world that pilgrimages to the Holy Land 21 September: Intercontinental Conwould again be permitted.[59'1101 1 November: Hands announce ference, Djakarta and Singap~re.[~~'lll] completion of the monument on Shoghi Effendi's grave in New Southgate Cemetery, L o n d ~ n . [ ~ ~21 ' " November: ~] Second Conclave of the 30 November: Hands issue a ConHands of the Cause, Bahji.[59'1081 clave Message (through National Spiritual Assemblies) to the Baha'i
1959 21 April: Under supervision of the Hands the new National Spiritual Assemblies of Turkey, Burma, Austria, and the South Pacific ~~ff] Regional National Spiritual Assembly are e l e ~ t e d . [ ~ ~7 lNovember: Message is issued to the Baha'is of the East and the West (via National SpiritualAssemblies) by the Hands from their third Conclave. This message announces the plans and procedure for the election of the Universal House of Justice on 21 April 1963 in Holy Land. The message also provides for the election of an International Bahsi'i Council at Ridvrin 1961.[59:1661 1960 28 April: Hands cable National Spiritual Assemblies advising that Mason Remey issued a statement claiming that he was the second Guardian and calling upon believers everywhere to repudiate this "misguided action." Only the National Spiritual Assembly of France voted to accept Remey's claim (8 members were in favor; 4 subsequently repented and cabled the Hands for forgiveness). Some 15 individual believers decided to follow Remey (10 in France and 5 in the United S t a t e ~ ) . [ ~29 ~ ' April: ~ ~ 1 The United States National Convention sends a cable to the Hands pledging the loyalty of the body of the believers and completely rejecting Remey's claims. Over the next 22 days all other National and Regional Spiritual Assemblies or National Conventions pledge their complete loyalty (with the exception of France): 29 April, Austria, Benelux, Scandinavia, and Finland; 30 April, Alaska, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, Australia, Burma, India, and South Pacific Islands, as well as the Australian National Convention; 1 May, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela, and the United States, as well as the Alaskan and Greater Antilles National
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Conventions; 2 May, Central America, Mexico and Panama, North East Asia, South East Asia; 3 May, Canada and Pakistan, as well as the Canadian and South Pacific Islands National Conventions; 4 May, Arabian Peninsula; 5 May, Central and East Africa, irhn and Italo-Swiss; 8 May, the British Isles; 9 May, North East Africa; 10 May, Germany; 12 May, South and West Africa; 13 May, Turkey; 14 May, New Zealand; 16 May, the Iberian Peninsula; 17 May, North West Africa; 21 May, 'IrBq.[59:199ffl 30 April: Hands write to Mason Remey conveying the text of their l~~] cable to the Baha'i world thereby rejecting his ~ l a i m . [ ~ 5~ :May: Hands write to the National Spiritual Assembly of France advising that they are sending Hand of the Cause of God Abu'l-QBsim F a u i to meet with them to take whatever steps are felt by him to be necessary to protect the Faith in France. The Assembly is subsequently dissolved and the five members who accepted Remey's claim declared ineligible for reelection. In the interim, the local Spiritual Assembly of Paris, which remained loyal, takes over as the Central Assembly for F ~ - a n c e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 10 May: The Hands write to National and Regional SpiritualAssemblies throughout the world advising them that Remey's claim to be the second Guardian strips him of his rank as a Hand. The letter calls upon the 13 May: Baha'is everywhere to have no association with Remey.[59'1981 International Baha'i Council cables its loyalty and complete rejection of Remey's claims per resolution made at its 27 April 1960 meet12 July: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Horace Holley ing.[59:2071 (b. in Haifa Tomngton, Conn. 7 April 1887).[59'"iiil26 July: In a letter to all National Spiritual Assemblies, the Hands expel Mason Remey fiom the Cause and declare him a Covenant breaker. 15 October: The Hands write to all National Spiritual Assemblies in detail setting out a system18 October: Fourth Conclave atic refutation of Remey's claim.[59:2311 18 November: Passing of the Hands of the Cause of God, Bahji.[59:2291 of Hand of the Cause of God Clara Dunn in Sydney, A u s t ~ - a l i a . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 20 November: The cornerstone of the Mother Temple (Mahriqu'lA a k B r ) of Europe (Langenhain, near Frankfurt, Germany), is laid during a ceremony attended by nearly 1,000 Baha'is and guests.[59'2411 1961 14 January: Dedication of the Mother Temple ofAfiica, Kampala, Uganda.[59:"9Q21 April: The Hands call for elections in 21 Latin American National Spiritual Assemblies: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaraelecgua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela;[59'255,2741 tion by the members of pre-Ridvan National and Regional Spiritual
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Assemblies of International Bahi'i Council ('Ali N&j.avhni, President; Charles Wolcott, Secretary-General; Sylvia Ioas, Vice President; Ian Semple, Assistant Secretary; Borrah Kavelin, Member at Large; Lutfu'lllh Hakim; Ethel Revell; Jessie Revell, Treasurer; Mildred M ~ t t a h e d e h ) . [ l ~59:285ffl : ~ ~ ~25 , June: First full meeting of the Internathe Hands convene a joint meettional Bahi'i Council in Haifa;[59'285ffl ing with the newly elected International Bahi'i Council and give to 14 September: Dedication of the them their operating mandate.[59'285a ~ ~October~~~] Mother Temple of the Antipodes, Sydney, A u ~ t r a l i a . [15 2 November: Fourth Conclave Meeting of the Hands of the Cause of God in B&ji.[59:3131 1962 1 January: Passing of the Hand of the Cause of God Amelia 3331 21 April: Eleven new independent Collins, in Haifa, European National Spiritual Assemblies elected: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Holland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland (these are in addition to the National Spiritual Assemblies of the British Isles, France, Germany, and A ~ s t r i a ) . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l 1963 April: Completion of the Ten Year C r u ~ a d e . [ ~ 9~ April: ~~~ffl The Hands cable all National Spiritual Assemblies calling on them to ask the Bahi'i community, either individually or in groups, to unite in prayers beginning sundown on 21 April to beseech God to inspire and guide the delegates in their votes for the Universal House of Jussixth Conclave of the Hands of the Cause of God.[59:4031 12 tiCe;[s9:420~ April: Hands write the International Bahi'i Council expressing deep gratitude and appreciation for the services rendered by its members (that institution being rendered superiluous by the upcoming election of the Universal House of Justice). They also set out in detail the program for the World Congress to be held immediately following the election. The letter also gives guidance with respect to the position agreed on by the Hands of the Cause of God regarding their eligibility for service as members of the Universal House of J u ~ t i c e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 21 April: Election of the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [9~ May: ~~~~] Hands draw up principles governing the relationship of the five in the 19 May: Hands cable all National Holy Land to the full body.[59:4261 Conventions expressing loving appreciation for the dedication that resulted in the triumphant conclusion of the Ten Year Crusade and ~ ' ~ ~ The ~ ] Hands of the 7 June: setting out their new operating f ~ r m a t . [ ~ Cause of God submit their official report on the proceeding of the First International Convention to the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 7 June: The Universal House of Justice, with the unanimous agreement
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of the Hands of the Cause of God, legally terminated the legal entity known as the Custodians of the Bahi'i World
The Universal House of Justice 1963 21-23 April: Election of the Universal House of J u s t i c e First International Convention-representatives of 56 National and Regional Assemblies gather for the election in the House of 'Abdu'lBahsi, 7 Haparsim Street, Haifa. Casting of ballots begins at 9:30 AM, on Sunday 21 April. The members of the first Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes received) Charles Wolcott, 'Ali N a a v h i , H. Borrah Kavelin, Ian Semple, Lutfu'llsih Hakim, David Hofman, Hugh Chance, Amoz Gibson, HuS_hmand Fathe-ham. Convention sessions on 22-23 April take place in the Beit 28 April-2 May: Harofe Auditorium, 2 Wingate Avenue, Haifa.[59'4241 First Bahi'i World Congress-Celebration of the Most Great Jubilee 30 April: Presentation of the first in London Woyal Albert Hall).[13:571 Universal House of Justice and the reading of its first message to the Bahi'is of the World in the Royal Albert Hall, L o n d ~ n . [ ~7~June: l] The Universal House of Justice terminates the legal entity known as the Custodians of the Bahi'i World Faith. October: Announces Nine The Third Epoch of the Formative Age is Year Plan (1963-1972).[39:141 a n n o u n ~ e d . [ ~(For ~ l ~a]detailed analysis of epochs refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age.") 6 October: Statement is issued: "No way to appoint or legislate to make it possible to appoint a second Guardian to succeed Shoghi 1964 21 April: Nine Year Plan 4 July: Dedication of the Mother Temple (Ma&riqu'l-Auksir) of Europe, Langenhain, Gemmy.[39:281 1965 21 April: Announcement is made about holding six Intercontinental Conferences in October 1965; also calling of Oceanic confere n c e ~ . [ 22 ~ ~July: : ~ Passing ~ ~ ~ ofHand ~ ~ ~ ~of]the Cause of God, Leroy C. Ioas, Haifa.rs9:-1 1967 September-October: Celebration of the Centenary of the Revelation of the Siuiy-i-Mulik. October: Luvu'llsih Hakim resigns as a member of the Universal House of Justice due to health problems. Because new elections are to be held in six months, a by-election is not called. Inauguration of major proclamation campaign by the presentato 140 tion of a special edition of "The Proclamation of Bahi'~'llhh"[~~]
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heads of state by the Universal House of Ju~tice.['~:'~~" 39:1161 Intercontinental Conference, Chicago. Hand of the Cause of God TarBzu'llhh Samandari represents the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ ' ~6-9 : ~ ~ Octo~1 ber: Intercontinental Conference, Sydney, Australia. Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Giachery represents the Universal House of J u ~ t i c e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ Intercontinental Conference, Kampala, Uganda. Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali Akbar Furhtan represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ Intercontinental Conference, Frankfurt, Germany. Hand of the Cause of '~~~1 God Paul Haney represents the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ ' ~7-9 October: Intercontinental Conference, New Delhi, India. Hand of the Cause of God Abu'l-Qaisim Fa@ represents the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ ' ~Intercontinental :~~~] Conference, Panama City, Panama. Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rhhiyyih m h n u m represents the Universal House of J ~ s t i ~ e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l 1968 Following earthquake damage, the Ma&riqu'l-A&kiir of 'I&qiibiid is demolished on order of the Soviet authoritie~.[l~:~~~] 19 February: His Highness Malietoa Tanumafili 11, head of state of Western Samoa, embraces the Faith of Bahii'u'llih. He is the first ruling monarch to do so. [14:1801 22 April: Second International Convention-representatives of 81 National and Regional Spiritual Assemblies gather for the election of the Universal House of Justice in the Beit Harofe, Haifa. The members of the second Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes they received) Amoz Gibson, 'Ali NfiL javiini, Hu&mand Fathe-Azam, Ian Semple, Charles Wolcott, David 21 Hofman, H. Borrah Kavelin, Hugh Chance, and David Ruhe.[14:5651 June: Establishment of the Continental Boards of Counsellors by the Universal House of Justice. The members (36) of the first Boards: Northwestern A£rica (3eHusayn Ardikhi, M&ammad Kebdani, William Maxwell; Central and East Africa ( 5 w l o r o Epyeru, Kolonario Oule, Isobel Sabri, Mihdi Samandari, 'Aziz Yazdi; Southern Africa (3)-Seewoosumbur-Jeehoba Appa, a i d i n Fath-i-'Azam, Bahiyyih Ford (Winkler); North America (3)-Lloyd Gardner, Florence Mayberry, Edna True; Central America (3)-Carmen de Burafato, Artemus Lamb, Alfred Osborne; South America (3)-Athos Costas, Hooper Dunbar, Donald Witzel; Western Asia (5)-Mas@ Farhangi, Mas'6d Khamsi, Hiidi Ralpnhi, Manhdihr Salmhnpk, Sankaran-Nair Vasudevan; Southeast Asia (3)-Yan Lee Leong, Qudhrahm Paymin, Chellie Sundram; Northeast Asia (2)-Rid~u'llih Mumtizi, Vicente Samaniego; 'Alii'i, Howard Harwood, Thelma Perks; Europe Australasia (3)-Suhayl :~~ 7~ , (3)-Erik Blumenthal, Dorothy Ferraby, Louis H k n ~ z e t . [ ' ~67:41 July: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Hermann Grossman in
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10 August: Passing of Lutfu'lltih Hakim, member of the 23-25 August: First Oceanic Universal House of Justice, in Haifa.[14'4301 Conference, Palermo, Sicily in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of Bahh'u'llhh's journey on the Mediterranean Sea (£tom Gallipoli to 'Akki).[14:73,67:101 31 August: Commemoration of 100th anniversary of the arrival of Bahi'u'lltih in the Holy Land. 2 September: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God TarhylltihSamandari, in Haifa.[14'4101 1969 10 July: The number of Continental Board of Counsellors on the Northwest Asia and South America Boards is increased by 1 member each, bringing the total number of Counsellors to 38.[67:281 1970 21 April: Number of Continental Board of Counsellors on Western Asia Board is raised by 1 and in Europe by 2, bringing the total number of Counsellors to 41.[67:521 27 May: Bahh'i International Community accorded category I1 consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).[14:358, 18:587,67:501 23 June: Commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the death of Mirzai Mihdi, "The l ~ ~ 1~ 6* 1 5 August: Oceanic and Continental Purest B r a n ~ h . " [ l ~18:5871 Conference La Paz, Bolivia. Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahi ~~~~] R w y y h Khkum represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ 'Oceanic and Continental Conference Rose Hall, Mauritius. Hand of the Cause of God William Sears represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 1971 1 January: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Agnes B. Alex1-3 January: Oceanic and Continental ander, Honolulu, Conference Monrovia, Liberia. Hand of the Cause of God 'Arnatu'lBahS R@iyyih Khhum represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Oceanic and Continental Conference Singapore. Hand of the Cause of God Enoch Olinga represents the Universal House of 21-23 May: Oceanic and Continental Conference Kingston, Jamaica. Hand of the Cause of God mikru'llaih maidem represents the Universal House of Oceanic and Continental Conference Suva, Fiji Islands. Hand of the Cause of God Ruhmatu'llaih Muhaijir repre~ ~ ~September: ~] Oceanic and sents the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ '3-5 Continental Conference Sapporo, Japan. Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali Oceanic Akbar Funitan represents the Universal House of and Continental Conference Reykjavik, Iceland. Hand of the Cause of 4 God William Sears represents the Universal House of September: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God M6sh Banhni in 26-28 November: Commemorationof the 50th Kampala,
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anniversary of the passing of 'Abd~'l-BahB.[~~:~~~ffl17 December: Completion of Obelisk, Mt. Carmel, marking site of a future Mas_hriquYlA&h.[18:587] -
1972 29-30 April: Dedication of the Mother Temple of Latin Amer26 November: Adoption of a constitution by the Uniica, Panama.[14:6331 versal House of J ~ s t i ~ e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ " ~ : ~ ~ ~ l 1973 15 March: The house at Mazra'ih (the Farm) is purchased. Bahi'u'llhh lived in this house for two years £rom June 1877 before moving to the Mansion at Bahji.[67:1121 21 April: Third International Convention-representatives of 113 National and Regional Assemblies gather for the election of the Universal House of Justice in the Beit Harofe, Haifa. The members of the third Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes received) 'Ali N w a v a n i , H u b a n d Fatheh a m , Amoz Gibson, Ian Semple, David Hofman, Charles Wolcott, :~~~] H. Borrah Kavelin, David Ruhe, and Hugh C h a n ~ e . [ l ~Publication the Laws and Ordinances of the of "A Synopsis and Codification of Kitrib-i-Aqda~."[l~~~ffl5 June: International Teaching Centre is established by the Universal House of Justice. Its membership includes all the Hands of the Cause of God and three Counsellors (Hooper Dunbar, Florence Mayberry, and 'Aziz Ya~di).[l~:~l~] 5 September: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God John Ferraby in Cambridge, England.[15:5111 1974 14 January: Universal House of Justice announces the purchase of the house of Abdu'llih Pishi, the home of 'Abdu'l-BahB in 'Akksi and the birthplace of Shoghi Effendi. 2 February: Passing of Mason Remey (Covenant breaker). 7 February: Announcement by the Universal House of Justice of the selection of the design for its Permanent Seat.[15:397ffl 21 April: Five Year Plan laun~hed.[l~"~~" lk71ffl 1976 8 March: Baha'i International Community granted consultative 5-8 July: status with United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF).[15:3371 International Teaching Conference Helsinki, Finland. Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Giachery represents the Universal House of Just i ~ e . [ l ~23-25 l ~ ~ ] July: International Teaching Conference Anchorage, Alaska. Hand of the Cause of God Collis Featherstone represents the ~ August: ~ ~ ~ ] International Teaching Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [3~ 4 Conference Paris, France. Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rmiyyih a i i n u m represents the Universal House of 15-17 October: International Teaching Conference Nairobi, Kenya.
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Hand of the Cause of God William Sears represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ l ~27-30 l ~ ~ ] November: International Teaching Conference Hong Kong. Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali Akbar F d t a n represents the Universal House of J u ~ t i c e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 1977 19-22 January: International Teaching Conference Auckland, New Zealand. Hand of the Cause of God Abu'l Qisim Faizi reprel ~ ~ ] January: Internasents the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ l ~27-30 tional Teaching Conference Bahia, Brazil. Hand of the Cause of God ~~~~~] Enoch Olinga represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ 4-6 February: International Teaching Conference Merida, Mexico. Hand of the Cause of God Paul Haney represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [June: ~ ~ ~ ~Commemoration ~] of the Centenary of the termination of Bahi'u'llhh's confinement in the prison-city of 'Akki.[16:51ffl 17 October: Foundation stone laid in New Delhi for the Mother Temple of the Indian s u b c ~ n t i n e n t . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] 1978 29 April: Fourth International Bahi'i Convention-representatives of 123 National and Regional Assemblies gather for the election of the Universal House of Justice in the Haifa Auditorium. The members of the Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes received) 'Ali NakhjavM, HuS_hmand Fathe-Azam, Amoz Gibson, Ian Semple, David Ruhe, David Hofman, Charles Wolcott, Hugh Chance, and H. Borrah K a ~ e l i n . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 1979 27 January: Foundation stone laid in Samoa for the first Ma&riqu'l-A_dir of the Pacific Islands by His Highness Malietoa 21 April: Seven Year Global Crusade Plan Tanumafili II.[16:371ffl laun~hed.['~:~lffl 4 July: The Universal House of Justice announces the appointment of Anneliese Bopp to the International Teaching Centre. 16 September: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Enoch Olinga, 29 sadly, murdered with four members of his family in Uganda.[17:6181 December: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Rdpnatu'llhh Muhijir in E~uador.[l~:~~l] 1980 12 February: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Hasan M. Balyuzi in L o n d ~ n . [ l ~29' ~July: ~ ~ ] Passing of Hand of the Cause of 4 November: The God Adelbert Miihlschlegel in Athens, Gree~e.['~:~ll] Universal House of Justice announces the melding of the 12 Continental Boards of Counsellors into five Zones (63 Counsellors) in effect fiom 26 November 1980 (Zone 1, Africa, 15 Counsellors; Zone 2, the Americas, 16 Counsellors; Zone 3, Asia, 16 Counsellors; Zone 4, Australasia, including the Hawaiian Islands and Micronesia, 7 Counsellors; Zone 5,
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Europe, 9 counsellor^).['^'^^^^ 19 November: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Abu'l-Qhsim 1982 14 May: Passing of Amoz Gibson, member of first Universal House of Justice, in Haifa, I ~ r a e l . [ ' ~27-29 International Con: ~ ~ ~June: ] ference in Dublin, Ireland. Hand of the Cause of God Collis Featherstone represents the Universal House of Ju~tice.['~~lm 15 July: Universal House of Justice announces election of Mr. Glenford Mitchell to their membership. 6-8 August: International Conference in Quito, Ecuador. Hand of the Cause of God Paul Haney represents the Universal House of J~stice.['~:'~~1 19-22 August: International Conference in Lagos, Nigeria. Hand of the Cause of God John Robarts represents the Universal ~] International Conference in CanHouse of J u s t i ~ e . [ ' ~2' ~September: berra, Australia. Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Giachery represents the Universal House of Ju~tice.['~:'~~12-5 September: International Conference in Montrkal, Canada. Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahh Raiyyih = h u m represents the Universal House of J u s t i ~ e . [ ' ~ 3' ~ ~ 1 December: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Paul Haney in a car accident in Haifa.[17'6131 1983 31 January: The Universal House of Justice officially occupies its Permanent Seat on the slopes of Mount Carmel.[18'5881 April: House of 'Abdu'llih Ph&h opened to pilgrims for the first time since the time of 'Abd~'l-Bahh.['~~~~129 April: Fifth International Convention-representatives of 133National and RegionalAssemblies gather for the election of the Universal House of Justice. The election takes place in the Concourse of the Seat while the consultative sessions are held in the Haifa Auditorium. The members of the Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes received) 'Ali NakhJavM, Hus_hrnand Fathe-ham, Ian Semple, David Ruhe, Glenford Mitchell, David Hofman, H. B o d Kav~ May: : ~ ~ ~ The ] Universal elin, Charles Wolcott, and Hugh C h a n ~ e . [ ~10 House of Justice raises the number of resident members of the International Teaching Centre to nine: Hands of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rwyyih Khinum and 'Ali Akbar Funitan and Counsellors Anneliese Bopp, Magdalene Carney, Hooper Dunbar, Masb6dKhamsi, Peter Khan, Isobel Sabri',and 'Adz Yazdi. The term of office for Counsellor members of the International Teaching Centre was set at five years in effect fiom 23 May immediately following the International Bahh'i Conventi~n.['~:~~~] 29 August: The government of hiin announces the banning of the Bahh'i Administration in j r h ; the Bahh'is are left fiee to practice their beliefs provided they do not teach their faith to others, form local Spiritual 18:177ffl Assemblies, or take part in administrative activitie~.['~~~"
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1984 1 September: Dedication of the MaAriqu'l-Amdr of the : ~November: ~~] Passing of Pacific Islands in Apia, Western S a ~ n o a . [ ' ~16 Hand of the Cause of God Shu'u'llhh 6Alh'i.[18:5931 1985 24 October: Universal House of Justice releases statement entitled the "Promise of World to the peoples of the ~ o r l d . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 1986 2 January: Universal House of Justice announces the opening phase of the fourth epoch of the Formative Age of the 21 April: Six Year Plan laun~hed.[l~'~~ffl13 November: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God fiikru'lldh a d d e m . 24 December: Dedication of the Mother Temple of the Indian subcontinent, New Delhi, India. 1987 26 January: Passing of Charles Wolcott in Haifa, member of the Universal House of Justice. 21 March: Universal House of Justice announces election of Peter Khan to their membership. 1988 21 April: Sixth International Convention-representatives of 132 National and Regional Assemblies gather for the election of the Universal House of Justice in the Haifa Auditorium. The members of the Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes received) 'Ali NakhJavini, Glenford Mitchell, Hu~hmandFathe-Azam, Ian Semple, Peter Khan, David Ruhe, Hugh Chance, Hooper Dunbar, and Adib Taherzadeh. David Hofman and Borrah Kavelin announce their retirement prior to the election. 23 May: The Universal House of Justice announces the appointment of a nine-resident Counsellor membership International Teaching Centre. 18 December: Passing of H. Borrah Kavelin, member of the Universal House of Justice, in Albuquerque, New Mexico. 1989 5 July: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Giachery in Western Samoa. 1990 20 February: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God Jaldl BAzeh. March: Abbds and Rezvanieh Katirai (Knights of Bahh'u'llhh) arrive on Sakhalin-thereby completing the goals of the Ten Year Crusade. 29 March: Bahd'i International Chinese Symposium held in San Francisco. 14 June: Bahb'i International Chinese Symposium, Kingston, Jamaica. 27 June: First Sino-AmericanConference on Women's Issues, Beijing. 29 September: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God H. Collis Featherstone in Kathmandu, Nepal. 1991 18 June: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God John Robarts. 1992 25 March: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God William Sears. 21 April: Bahd'i Holy Year commences. 21 April: Universal
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House of Justice announces worldwide application of the Law of Huqiiqu'llih. 28-29 May: Centenary Commemoration of the Ascension of Bahh'u'llhh in Haifa and Bahji. Laying of the Scroll of Honor recording the names of the Knights of Bahh'u'lltih into the threshold of His Shrine. 22 November: Second BahB7iWorld Congress, City of the Covenant, New York City. 1993 21 April: The Three Year Plan is launched (1993-1996). 29 April: Seventh International Convention-representatives of 132 National and Regional Assemblies gather for the election of the Universal House of Justice in the Haifa Auditorium. The members of the Universal House of Justice are (in order of the number of votes received) 'Ali Nwaviini, Ian Semple, Ad% Taherzadeh, Hooper Dunbar, Hus&rnand Fathe-Azam, Glenford Mitchell, Peter Khan, Farzhm Arbhb, and Douglas Martin. Hugh Chance and David Ruhe announced their retirement prior to the election. 1994 22-23 July: The president of the republic of the Seychelles, His Excellency France Albert Rend, visits the Bahh'i World Centre for consultations with the Universal House of Justice regarding "issues affecting global peace and challenges facing the Seychelles, the Indian Ocean, and the ~ o r l d . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] 1996 21 April: The Four Year Plan is launched (1996-2000). 1997 30 May: Regional Bahh'i Councils are establi~hed.[~~:~~] 2000 19 January: Passing of Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'lBahh R*iyyih Biinum. 23 January: Passing of Universal House of Justice member Adib Taherzadeh (Kiser Barnes is elected to replace him). 21 April: Twelve Month Plan launched. 2001 January: International Teaching Centre inauguration takes place in the presence of "nearly one thousand members of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and their Auxiliary Boards on Mount Commencement of the fifth epoch of the FormaCarmel, Haifa.[30'411 tive Age announced at the conclusion of a meeting of the Continental Boards of Counsellors. (For a detailed analysis of epochs refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age.") 21 April: Announcement of a series of four Five Year Plans covering the periods 2001-2006,2006-2011, 31:311 announcement of plans to erect a 20 11-201 6, 2016-202 l;[29:283 Mahriqu'l-Amkir in Santiago, Chile.[31:311 22 May: At dusk, the Terraces of the Shrine of the B i b are opened officially in the presence of some 3,000 members of the Bahh'i Faith and more than 600
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special guests, thereby marking the completion of the projects on Mount Carmel.[31'37ffl 2003 21-29April: Postal ballots for the Ninth International Convention (which had been physically cancelled due to dangerous conditions throughout the region) are tallied and the members of the Universal House of Justice announced: Peter Bin,F a r z h Arbab, Hooper Dunbar, Glenford Mitchell, Douglas Martin, Ian Semple, Kiser Barnes, Hartrnut Grossmann, Firaydoun J a ~ a h e r i . [27 ~ ~November: ~~] Passing of Hand of the Cause of God 'Ali Akbar F u r ~ t a n . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 2005 21 March: Ian Semple and Douglas Martin "retire" from membership of the Universal House of Justice, and Payman Mohajer and Paul Lample are elected to replace them.[70:M"20051
Introduction
The Baibi and Baha'i Faiths came into being in Persia (modern hain) in the first half of the 19th century. The three Central Figures, the Baib, Bahai'u'llaih, and 'Abdu'l-Bahai, were Persian by birth. The religions revealed by the Bib (Baibi) and Bahi'u'llih (Bahi'i) bear a collective I s l h similar to the relationship Christianity holds relationship to &$ah to Judaism. Both the Bibi and Bahi'i Faiths are monotheistic Faiths that assert that God reveals Himself to humanity progressively (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION) through divine Manifestations of God (also referred to as Messengers or Prophets, among whose ranks are Adam, Noah, Hud, Salih, Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Krishna, Buddha, Confucius, Christ, Mu~amrnad,the Bib, and Bahi'u'llhh). Bahi'u'llhh is held to be the latest Manifestation in not only the monotheistic Zoroastrian, Judaic, Christian, and I s l h i c lines but also in the polytheistic and nontheist Faiths of Sabeanism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism (with the proviso that there are others now lost to written history). The combined period of the Writings of the Central Figures spans more than 77 years-£rom 1844 to 1921. Its source Writings are in five languages-ancient classical Persian, modern Persian, classical Arabic, modern Arabic, and Turkish. Together they form Bahi'i Scripture. Coupled with the Writings of Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahi'i Faith, mostly in English but also in Arabic, Persian, and French, they provide the authentic text. As of April 2005, official Bahai'i World Centre statistics estimate registered believers at more than 5 million Bahi'is in some 236 countries, territories and dependencies. (Refer to the appendixes.)
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Toward the end of the 18th century a learned and saintly Muslim, Shaym Ahmad-i-AhsP'i, believed that a great world Teacher, whose
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appearance had been prophesied in the scriptures of the world's great religions, would shortly make himself known. He moved from his home town to Karbil6, a holy city in 'Irhq, and attracted a group of students to his teachings. Shortly before his death in 1826 he appointed his star pupil, Siyyid K9im-i-Ra&ti, as his successor with a mandate to continue to instruct his students and prepare them for the coming of the "Promised One" or Qsi'im. Siyyid KMm taught his pupils to look for certain signs that would be manifest in this Promised One: He would be of noble lineage--a Siyyid (a descendant of the Prophet Maammad); He would be young but possessed of innate knowledge; His learning would not be from &ay& m a d but from God; He would be of medium height, would abstain from smoking, and would be of extreme devoutness and piety. He then urged his followers to scatter far and wide to seek the Promised One who, he told them, was even then alive. One pure-hearted student, an eager searcher after truth and a brilliant scholar, Mullh Husayn-i-Bu&r6'i, was sent by Siyyid K&im to kin.By the time Mullh Husayn returned, his master had died. On Siyyid K&im's instruction his students were preparing to begin their search for the Promised One. Mullh Husayn, with several friends, spent 40 days in prayer and fasting, and then he set off with his brother and nephew to begin their search. Mull6 Husayn felt drawn toward the city of m i r b , famous for its poets, its flower gardens, and its nightingales-and it was to that city that he traveled with several other companions. He arrived dusty, hungry, and tired at the gates of Shirb late one afternoon. Sending his companions ahead into the town ;look for food and accommodation, Mull6 Husayn lingered for a while, and in due course he was approached by a young stranger who welcomed him to the city as though he was a long-lost fiiend. His demeanor impressed Mull6 Husayn most favorably, and when the stranger invited him to His house for refreshment, Mullh Husayn explained that his companions were expecting him to join them and that he felt it best not to accept the kind invitation. To this the stranger replied, "Commit them to the care of God. He will surely protect and watch over Mull6 Husayn went with his new friend, Siyyid 'Ali-Mu?xxnrnad, the B6b, to His house in the city. According to Shoghi Effendi in God Passes his history of the first Bahh'i century, the opening scene of the initial act of this great drama was laid in the upper chamber of the modest residence of the son of a mercer of Shirk, in an obscure corner of that city. The time was the hour before sunset, on
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the 22nd day of May, 1844. The participants were the Bib, a twenty-five year old Siyyid, of pure and holy lineage, and the young Mulld Husayn, the first to believe in Him. Their meeting immediately before that interview seemed to be purely fortuitous. The interview itself was protracted till the hour of dawn. The Host remained closeted alone with His guest, nor was the sleeping city remotely aware of the import of the conversation they held with each other. No record has passed to posterity of that unique night save the fragmentary but highly illuminating account that fell from the lips of Mull6 Husayn. "I sat spellbound by His utterance, oblivious of time and of those who awaited me," he himself has testified, after describing the nature of the questions he had put to his Host and the conclusive replies he had received from Him, replies which had established beyond the shadow of a doubt the validity of His claim to be the promised Qi'im. "Suddenly the call of the M u ' a m i n , summoning the faithful to their morning prayer, awakened me from the state of ecstasy into which I seemed to have fallen. All the delights, all the ineffable glories, which the Almighty has recounted in His Book as the priceless possessions of the people of Paradisethese I seemed to be experiencing that night. . . . Sleep had departed from me that night. I was enthralled by the music of that voice which rose and fell as He chanted; now swelling forth as He revealed verses of the Qayy6mu'l-Asmh, again acquiring ethereal, subtle harmonies as He uttered the prayers He was revealing. At the end of each invocation, He would repeat this verse: 'Far from the glory of thy Lord, the All-Glorious, be that which His creatures affirm of Him! And peace be upon His Messengers! And praise be to God, the Lord of all beings!' "This Revelation," Mu116 Husayn has fUrther testified, "so suddenly and impetuously thrust upon me, came as a thunderbolt which, for a time, seemed to have benumbed my faculties. I was blinded by its dazzling splendor and overwhelmed by its crushing force. Excitement, joy, awe, and wonder stirred the depths of my soul. Predominant among these emotions was a sense of gladness and strength which seemed to have transfigured me. How feeble and impotent, how dejected and timid, I had felt previously! Then I could neither write nor walk, so tremulous were my hands and feet. Now, however, the knowledge of His Revelation had galvanized my being. I felt possessed of such courage and power that were the world, all its peoples and its potentates, to rise against me, I would, alone and undaunted, withstand their onslaught. The universe seemed but a handful of dust in my grasp. I seemed to be the voice of Gabriel personified, calling unto all mankind: 'Awake, for, lo! the morning Light has broken. Arise, for His Cause is made manifest. The portal of His grace is open wide; enter therein, 0 peoples of the world! For He Who is your promised One is come!"'[37:51
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THE DISPENSATION OF THE BAB (1844-1863) The religion thus inaugurated by the Bhb was known as the Biibi Faith and had a fourfold objective--to fullill the promises of Islim, bring a new spirit amongst the people, annul the laws of the Qur'in, and prepare the world for the coming of the Promised One of all religions-"Him Whom God shall make Manifest" (see CREATION; EMANATION; MANIFESTATION OF GOD). During the following 40 days, 16 more students of Siyyid Kkim independently reached the city, recognized the Bhb, and became His disciples. The 18th disciple was Thhirih, a well-known poetess who recognized Him in a dream and wrote to Him declaring her allegiance. Collectively these souls were designated the Letters of the Living. The Bhb called upon them to scatter throughout the country and spread His Teachings and thereby prepare the people for the coming of that Promised One. He told them that they would face extreme opposition, torture, and even death as a reward for their efforts-and this they did, with reports of as many as 20,000 meeting their death in the ensuing several decades. The Bhb Himself faced immediate opposition, but somewhat surprisingly He retained relative freedom to teach His Faith, which spread with such tremendous rapidity that both the religious authorities and the representatives of government rose up against Him and His followers. Eventually, beginning in 1845 He suffered a series of imprisonments (see "The Bhb" and "Bahh'u'llhh" in "Chronology") culminating in a three-year incarceration in CJihriq and then Miih-KL Finally, in 1850, He was transferred to the northern town of Tabriz, where, at noon on 9 July 1850, He was executed before a multitude of onlookers (see~ h MARTYRDOM OF). His martyrdom was accompanied by several sigmficant events. In the moments leading up to His execution the Bhb was in His prison cell giving some final instructions to one of His amanuenses. At the appointed hour, Shm m h n , the Christian colonel in command of the ChristianArmenian regiment of 750 soldiers who were to carry out the execution, ordered the Bhb to go immediately to the barrack square so that the sentence might be carried out. The Bhb advised him that He had not finished giving final instructionsto His secretary and that until He had, no force on earth could remove Him. Sim B i n expressed his personal reservations and concern about the role that had been allotted to him. He said that were the Bhb to be Who He claimed to be, He would surely have it within His power to prevent His execution. By way of response the Bib assured him that he should carry out his orders and, if his intention was sincere, the Almighty
,
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was surely able to relieve him fiom his perplexity. The Bhb, together with a follower (Anis) who had asked to die with Him, was then taken to the place of execution. The regiment lined up in three rows, and the command to fire was given. When the smoke fiom the rifle muzzles cleared it was found that the shots had severed the ropes by which He and His companion had been suspended from the spike driven for that purpose into the barrack wall, and that the Bhb had disappeared. (His companion was standing quietly beneath the spot where he had seconds before been suspended.) After great confusion and commotion the Bhb was eventually found back in His original cell engaged in conversation with His amanuensis. When the authorities came into the cell He informed them that He had now completed his task and that they were fiee to carry on with their task. S h n =in refused to take any M e r part in the execution, resigned his position, and marched his men away. Another regiment was found and, this time, under the command of the Muslim colonel of i i the task was carried to completion the bodyguard, ~ ~Jhn-i-mamsfh, without further incident. The bodies of the Bhb and His companion were riddled with bullets though their faces were little marred. The corpses were thrown in the moat of the city, and it was stated by the authorities that dogs had devoured the bodies. The precious Remains were in fact recovered by His followers and remained hidden in various places for more than half a century until, on 'Abdu'l-Bahh's instruction, they were delivered to the Holy Land for proper interment.
THE DISPENSATION OF B A ~ ' U ' L L & (1863-1892) Among the high-ranking Bhbis was a nobleman of Tihrin-Mirzh Husayn 'Ali (Bahh'u'llih). He took a leading part in organizing a gathering of Bhbis in an area known as B a d a a t in 1849. The Conference, as the gathering was later referred to, was initially called to plan for the release of the Bib, but this did not prove possible. However, it was during this gathering that the new religion severed irrevocably its ties with S i ' a h I s l h . This took place when Thhirih, in a symbolic gesture, appeared before the assembled participants without her veil. During the Conference Mirzh Husayn 'Ali gave the participants a new name, and He assumed the title of Bahh'u'llhh. The execution of the Bhb did little to stem the opposition to the Bhbis, and their persecution continued unabated, with many being killed for their adherence to His Cause. Two years after His death, two of His followers, blaming the &ih for the unceasing persecutions, made a futile,
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ill-conceived, and unauthorized attempt on his life. The outcome was predictable, and a renewed outbreak of persecution began immediately. To stem the loss of life, Bahb'u'llh immediately offered Himself as a ransom. He was arrested and cast into the SiyPh-mPl (Black Pit) prison in Tihrh. It was in this foul prison that He received the first intimation of His own Divine Station and Mission (described in some detail in the dictionary entry under His Name.) Though no evidence could be found against Him, Bahi'u'llhh was stripped of His possessions and given one month to remove Himself and His family from the country. This began the series of exiles and banishments that would eventually bring Him to His final imprisonment in 'Akkai, Palestine. Although offered asylum in Russia, He accepted banishment to Baadaid and arrived there after a most difficult journey in April 1853. In the 10 years following His arrival in Baghdhd, the leaderless (see M ~ Z A Y A ~ AZAL) A and divided Bbbi community was changed through His influence into a dynamic united group. Indeed, it attracted the favorable attention of the local populace and its many officials, so much so that the Persian government persuaded the Turkish authorities to exile Bahb'u'llh once again, this time to Constantinople and from there to Edirne (Adrianople). Immediately before His departure, Bahb'u'llh, His family, and close companions spent 12 days in what became known as the RiPvPn Garden on the banks of the River Tigris. During this time He announced publicly that He was the long-awaited "Promised One." The arrival of Baha'u'llih in the Ridvan Garden initiated what has come to be recognized as the holiest and most significant of all Baha'i festivals, the Ridvan Festival, commemorating the Declaration of His Mission to His companions. This public announcement may be regarded as the prelude to His later proclamation of that same Mission to the world and its rulers from Adrianople. The departure of Bahb'u'llbh from the Garden, at noon, on 3 May 1863, witnessed scenes of tumultuous enthusiasm no less spectacular and even more touching than those that greeted Him when he left His house in B a a a d . Believers and unbelievers alike sobbed and lamented. The chiefs and notables who had congregated were struck with wonder. Mounted on a red roan stallion of the finest breed, and leaving behind Him a bowing multitude of admirers, He rode forth on the first stage of a journey that was to carry Him to the city of Constantinople. After a brief stay in Constantinople, Bahb'u'llh and His family were moved on to Adrianople. His presence in that town attracted many to His Cause, and it was there that the followers began to be known as Baha'is rather than Babis. While in
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Adrianople Bahb'u'llhh began to write what was to become a series of letters to the rulers and kings of the earth (see PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND RULERS; TABLETS TO THE KINGS). It was also in Adrianople that the long-standing covenant-breaking activities of his half brother Azal (Mirza Yay6 Azal) came to a head. When the government banished Him fiom Persia, this time to the prison city of 'Akka, Palestine, they decided to split the group of exiles. Azal and some of his followers, as well as a few faithhl Baha'is, were sent to Cyprus, while Baha'u'llhh and the main group were sent to 'M. Bahk'u'llhh left for Palestine by ship and reached 'Akkh on 31 August 1868. On arrival in that prison city His party met with a great hostility fiom the local inhabitant-who had been advised that a group of vile and despicable criminals was about to arrive. Indeed, when they arrived, an edict imposing perpetual banishment was read aloud fiom the steps of the mosque as a warning to the populace that they should have nothing to do with the prisoners. Bahti'u'llBh was first placed in the Citadel (a prison within the prison) in a small cell completely open to the elements. It was in this prison, which he designated "the Most Great Prison," that His youngest son, Mirzh Mihdi, accidentally fell through a skylight to his death. Notwithstanding this tragedy, and under appalling circumstances, He continued to write letters to the kings and leaders of the world, calling on them to accept His Station and Teachings. Two years later He was removed to a series of houses in the city, where He was kept under close arrest. Throughout this entire period He continued to reveal mes(Book of Law). sages of guidance, including the Kitrib-i-Aqd~s[~~] Gradually, His eldest son, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, became the one on whom the responsibility fell for the general affairs of the exiles, for negotiations with officials, for the improvement of the conditions under which the exiles lived, and for attending to the needs of the growing number of pilgrims who began to arrive in the city hoping to catching a glimpse of their Beloved. Eventually the positive changes that had taken place among the people and officials in B a a d i d , Constantinople, and Adrianople began to be seen in 'AM, and when, after nine years, 'Abdu'l-Bahi rented a property outside the city and (with great difficulty) persuaded His father to move to it, no voice was raised in opposition, and He left the city for Mazra'ih. Two years later 'Abdu'l-BahB secured a more spacious dwelling, the Mansion of Bahji, for BahB'u'llhh and his family. 'Abdu'l-BahB remained in 'AkkB to attend to the many details of the day-to-day administration of His Father's Faith.
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Two years before He passed away, Bahh'u'llhh allowed a visiting Cambridge Orientalist, Edward Granville Browne, to stay with Him at Bahji as His guest. The visit, lasting five days (15-20 April 1890) has provided the only known Western pen portrait of Bahh'u'llhh: "The face of Him on Whom I gazed," is the interviewer's memorable testimony for posterity, "I can never forget, though I cannot describe it. Those piercing eyes seemed to read one's very soul; power and authority sat on that ample brow. . . .No need to ask in whose presence I stood, as I bowed myself before one who is the object of a devotion and love which kings might envy and emperors sigh for in vain." "Here," the visitor himself has testified, "did I spend five most memorable days, during which I enjoyed unparalleled and unhoped-for opportunities of holding intercourse with those who are the fountain-heads of that mighty and wondrous spirit, which works with invisible but ever-increasing force for the transformation and quickening of a people who slumber in a sleep like unto death. It was, in truth, a strange and moving experience, but one whereof I despair of conveying any save the feeblest i m p r e s ~ i o n . " [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ Browne also recorded the following written report of the Words spoken by Bahh'u'llhh: Praise be to God that thou hast attained! . . . Thou hast come to see a prisoner and an exile. . . . We desire but the good of the world and happiness of the nations; yet they deem us a stirrer up of strife and sedition worthy of bondage and banishment. . . . That all nations should become one in faith and all men as brothers; that the bonds of affection and unity between the sons of men should be strengthened; that diversity of religion should cease, and differences of race be annulled-what harm is there in this? . . .Yet so it shall be; these fruitless strifes, these ruinous wars shall pass away, and the 'Most Great Peace' shall come. . . . Do not you in Europe need this also? Is not this that which Christ foretold? . . . Yet do we see your kings and rulers lavishing their treasures more fieely on means for the destruction of the human race than on that which would conduce to the happiness of mankind. . . . These strifes and this bloodshed and discord must cease, and all men be as one kindred and one family. . . . Let not a man glory in this, that he loves his country; let him rather glory in this, that he loves his kind.[72:1571 In the last years of His life Bahh'u'llhh made four visits to Haifa. During one of these visits He indicated to 'Abdu'l-Bahh the exact Spot where He should build the Shrine to receive the remains of the Bhb. Bahh'u'llhh passed away on 29 May 1892 and was buried in a room in the vicinity of the Mansion at Bahji. This is now the Qiblih of the Bahh'i world to
INTRODUCTION lxxvii
which the believers turn daily while saying their obligatory prayers. (See PRAYER, OBLIGATORY.)
C ~ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ - ~OFATHE I COVENANT L k - C (1892-1921) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Bahii'u'lliih's Will and Testament, being part of God's Covenant, designated His eldest Son, 'Abdu'l-Bahi, as His successor and the sole Interpreter of His Writings. He was very well known and highly respected in 'Akki and Haifa, but the attacks on His good name by His enemies and by disaffected members of His own family resulted in periods of great personal restriction. Indeed, the situation was so difficult that it was not until 1898 that the first group of Western pilgrims was able to visit Him in 'Akkii. It was these pilgrims who spread the news to Europe and America that the Promised One had come. Notwithstanding the restrictions imposed on Him as a prisoner, the construction of the Bhb's Sepulcher, whose foundation stone had been laid by Him on the site blessed and selected by Bahh'u'llhh, went on without interruption. Neither did 'Abdu'l-Bahh allow obstacles, no matter how formidable they appeared, to interfere with the daily flow of Tablets that poured forth fiom His pen. He wrote and dictated answers to a vast number of letters, reports, inquiries, prayers, and confessions of faith received fiom countless followers and admirers in both the East and the West. Eyewitnesses have testified that, during that period of His life, they had known Him to write, with His own Hand, no fewer than 90 Tablets in a single day and to pass many a night, fiom dusk to dawn, alone in His bedchamber engaged in a correspondence that the pressure of His manifold responsibilities had prevented Him fiom attending to in the daytime. During these years, in the heyday of His life and in the full tide of His power, He, with inexhaustible energy, marvelous serenity, and unshakable confidence, initiated and prosecuted the varied enterprises associHe conceived the plan for ~ ~these ~ ~ ~years ] ated with His m i n i ~ t r y . [In and implemented the construction of the first Baha'i House of Worship (Maariqu'l-Amkiir) in 'I&qhbid in Turkisthn (damaged in an earthquake and finally demolished in 1962). Moreover, despite the disturbances that agitated His native country, He issued instructions for the restoration of the holy and historic House of the Bhb in &irk. Also, chiefly through His constant encouragement, the initial measures were taken for the purchase of land for the construction of the Mother Temple of the West at Wilmette on the shore of Lake Michigan.
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He was fieed in 1908 and during the next five years devoted His last energies to traveling in Egypt, France, the British Isles, the United States, Canada, Germany, and Hungary to share the Message of His Father. His epic journeys in these lands are recorded in some detail in the chronologies that form part of this dictionary. Immediately following World War I 'Abdu'l-Bahii sent a series of Tablets to the American Bahii'is calling on them to undertake the spiritual conquest of the planet. These Tablets became known as the Tablets of the Divine and listed the countries in the world to which He called the believers to settle and carry the Message of Bahii'u'llih. Although a few souls immediately responded and blazed the way for the thousands who eventually followed, it was Shoghi Effendi who initiated the process in a systematic manner through the formulation and prosecution of a series of teaching plans. 'Abdu'l-Bahb passed away on 28 November 1921 in Haifa, Palestine, and was buried in the Shrine of the Bbb in an adjacent vault to the east of the building.
SHOGHI EFFENDI--GUARDIAN OF THE BAIX&'~ FAITH (1921-1957) 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Testament appointed Shoghi Effendi, His eldest grandson and the great-grandson of Bahii'u'llih, as Guardian of the Bahii'i Faith. In that same document He designated the Guardian the infallible interpreter of the Bah6'i Writings, specified his duties and relationship to the Universal House of Justice (on which twin institution he was to serve as chair). In that same document He also enunciated the operating structure of the Bahii'i Administrative Order first specified in the Writings of Bahb'u'llih. The world order designated in the Writings of Bahii'u'llih, expanded and clarified in the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahb and elaborated on by Shoghi Effendi, is unique (see COVENANT). Leadership rests in elected bodies and not in the hands of any individual-there is no priesthood or clergy. As such, it is necessary to attempt briefly to explain the character and functions of the twin pillars that support this administrative structure-the institutions of the Guardianship and of the Universal House of Justice. Shoghi Effendi described them as follows: It should be stated, at the very outset, in clear and unambiguous language, that these twin institutions of the AdministrativeOrder of Bahh'i should be
INTRODUCTION lxxix
regarded as divine in origin, essential in their functions and complementary in their aim and purpose. Their common, their fundamental object is to insure the continuity of that divinely-appointed authority which flows from the Source of our Faith, to safeguard the unity of its followers and to maintain the integrity and flexibilityof its teachings.Acting in conjunction with each other these two inseparable institutions administer its affairs, coordinate its activities, promote its interests, execute its laws and defend its subsidiary institutions. Severally, each operates within a clearly defined sphere of jurisdiction; each is equipped with its own attendant institutions-instruments designed for the effective discharge of its particular responsibilities and duties. Each exercises, within the limitations imposed upon it, its powers, its authority, its rights and prerogatives. These are neither contradictory, nor detract in the slightest degree from the position which each of these institutions occupies. Far from being incompatible or mutually destructive, they supplement each other's authority and functions, and are permanently and fundamentally united in their aims.[73'1481
In 1937, in line with the guidance set out in the Tablets of the Divine Shoghi Effendi called upon the National SpiritualAssembly of United States and Canada to launch a systematic plan to achieve certain specified objectives throughout the American continent. This call saw the adoption by that community of the first Seven Year Plan. This was followed by similar plans in India and Burma, the British Isles, Egypt and Sudan, Germany and Austria, and Persia and 'Iraq. In 1951 the British Baha'is were called upon to initiate the first international expansion campaign in Afiica. This culminated in 1953 with the launch of the Ten Year Crusade (or Global Campaign). The object of this world-wide campaign was to take the Faith to every country 'Abdu'l-Bahh mentioned in His Divine Plan. Also, it was designed to raise the number of National Spiritual Assemblies to the level necessary for the election of the Universal House of Justice. Shoghi Effendi passed away in London on 4 November 1957 and was buried in the New Southgate Cemetery, Barnet, London. His passing came slightly before the midpoint of the Global Crusade. This left the embryonic Baha'i Community without a leader, and had it not been for the heroic efforts and sterling leadership of the Hands of the Cause of God (Hands), the newborn Faith may well have degenerated into numberless sects. Fortuitously, Shoghi Effendi in a letter dated only a few weeks before his passing (2 October 1957) had made a third (and final) appointment of Hands and had referred to them as "the Chief Stewards of BahSl'u'llSlh's embryonic World Commonwealth, who have been invested by the unerring Pen of the Centre of His Covenant with
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the dual function of guarding over the security, and of insuring the propagation, of His Father's Faith."[38:1271 Under the unerring guidance and leadership of the Hands, the Bahb'i Community remained united and accomplished every one of the goals assigned by the Plan. Indeed, the Crusade was an overwhelming success, and the only parts of the world not opened to the Faith were those where antipathetic governments would not allow Bahb'is to enter to teach. UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE (1963-) The essential conditions for the election of the Universal House of Justice having been reached by 1963, the Hands of the Cause of God called for its election. Significantly in the annals of religious history, they disqualified themselves from membership lest they be seen to be seeking personal self-advancement or power. The elections took place in Haifa during April 1963. In the weeks following their election the House of Justice launched its first Global Plan, which maintained the momentum and alignment of teaching, pioneering, and consolidation efforts within the boundaries established by Shoghi Effendi. This pattern has continued with the issuance of a series of plans by the Universal House of Justice. The Universal House of Justice is the Supreme Head of the Bahb'i Faith and the Institution under which all other Bahb'i Institutions fall. It adopted a constitution 26 November 1972 and now governs its affairs according to that AIMS AND OBJECTS Shoghi Effendi, in a Summary Statement to the Special UN Committee on Palestine in 1947, condensed the primary aims and objectives of the Bahb'i Faith in these words: The fundamental principle enunciated by Bahii7u'll6h,the followers of His Faith firmly believe, is that Religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process, that all the great religions of the world are divine in origin, that their basic principles are in complete harmony, that their aims and purposes are one and the same, that their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are complementary, that they differ only in the non-essential aspects of their doctrines and that their missions represent successive stages in the spiritual evolution of human society.
INTRODUCTION lxxxi
The aim of Bahi'u'llih, the Prophet of this new and great age which humanity has entered upon-He whose advent fulfils the prophecies of the Old and New Testaments as well as those of the Qur'in regarding the coming of the Promised One in the end of time, on the Day of Judgment-is not to destroy but to fulfill the Revelations of the past, to reconcile rather than accentuate the divergences of the conflicting creeds which disrupt present-day society. His purpose, far from belittling the station of the Prophets gone before Him or of whittling down their teachings, is to restate the basic truths which these teachings enshrine in a manner that would conform to the needs, and be in consonance with the capacity, and be applicable to the problems, the ills and perplexities, of the age in which we live. His mission is to proclaim that the ages of the infancy and of the childhood of the human race are past, that the convulsions associated with the present stage of its adolescence are slowly and painfully preparing it to attain the stage of manhood, and are heralding the approach of that Age of Ages when swords will be beaten into plowshares, when the Kingdom promised by Jesus Christ will have been established, and the peace of the planet d&nitely and permanently ensured. Nor does Bahi'u'llih claim finality for His own Revelation, but rather stipulates that a fuller measure of the truth He has been commissioned by the Almighty to vouchsafe to humanity, at so critical a juncture in its fortunes, must needs be disclosed at future stages in the constant and limitless evolution of mankind. The BahB'i Faith upholds the unity of God, recognizes the unity of His Prophets, and inculcates the principle of the oneness and wholeness of the entire human race. It proclaims the necessity and the inevitability of the unification of mankind, asserts that it is gradually approaching, and claims that nothing short of the transmuting spirit of God, working through His chosen Mouthpiece in this day, can ultimately succeed in bringing it about. It, moreover, enjoins upon its followers the primary duty of an unfettered search afier truth, condemns all manner of prejudice and superstition, declares the purpose of religion to be the promotion of amity and concord, proclaims its essential harmony with science, and recognizes it as the foremost agency for the pacification and the orderly progress of human society. It unequivocally maintains the principle of equal rights, opportunities and privileges for men and women, insists on compulsory education, eliminates extremes of poverty and wealth, abolishes the institution of priesthood, prohibits slavery, asceticism,mendicancy and monasticism, prescribes monogamy, discourages divorce, emphasizes the necessity of strict obedience to one's government, exalts any work performed in the spirit of service to the level of worship, urges either the creation or selection of an auxiliary international language, and delineates the outlines of those institutions that must establish and perpetuate the general peace of mankind.
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BAHA'~INSTITUTIONS-ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER In the same statement to the UN, Shoghi Effendi went on to summarize the key features of the Bahi'i Institutions (Administrative Order) charged with the prosecution of Baha'u'lltih's mandate: This Administrative Order, unlike the systems evolved after the death of the Founders of the various religions, is divine in origin, rests securely on the laws, the precepts, the ordinances and institutions which the Founder of the Faith has Himself specifically laid down and unequivocally established, and functions in strict accordance with the interpretations of the authorized Interpreters of its holy scriptures. Though fiercely assailed, ever since its inception, it has by virtue of its character, unique in the annals of the world's religious history, succeeded in maintaining unity of the diversified and far-flung body of its supporters, and enabled them to launch, unitedly and systematically, enterprises in both Hemispheres, designed to extend its limits and consolidate its administrative institutions. The Faith which this order serves, safeguards and promotes, is, it should be noted in this connection, essentially supernatural, supranational, entirely non-political, non-partisan, and diametrically opposed to any policy or school of thought that seeks to exalt any particular race, class or nation. It is free from any form of ecclesiasticism, has neither priesthood nor rituals, and is supported exclusively by voluntary contributions made by its avowed adherents. Though loyal to their respective governments, though imbued with the love of their own country, and anxious to promote, at all times, its best interests, the followers of the Bahii'i Faith, nevertheless, viewing mankind as one entity, and profoundly attached to its vital interests, will not hesitate to subordinate every particular interest, be it personal, regional or national, to the over-riding interests of the generality of mankind, knowing full well that in a world of interdependent peoples and nations the advantage of the part is best to be reached by the advantage of the whole, and that no lasting result can be achieved by any of the component parts if the general interests of the entity itself are neglected. Nor should the fact be overlooked that the Faith has already asserted and demonstrated its independent religious character, has been emancipated from fetters of orthodoxy in certain Islamic countries, has obtained in one of them an unsolicited testimony to its independent religious status, and succeeded in winning the allegiance of royalty to its Writing elsewhere, he reviewed the "guiding principles" of Bahi'i Administration in these words: The administrative machinery of the Cause having now sufficiently evolved, its aim and object fairly well grasped and understood, and its
INTRODUCTION lxxxi ii
method and working made more familiar to every believer, I feel the time is ripe when it should be fully and consciously utilized to further the purpose for which it has been created. It should, I strongly feel, be made to serve a twofold purpose. On one hand, it should aim at a steady and gradual expansion of the Movement along lines that are at once broad, sound and universal; and on the other it should insure the internal consolidation of the work already achieved. It should both provide the impulse whereby the dynamic forces latent in the Faith can unfold, crystallize, and shape the lives and conduct of men, and serve as a medium for the interchange of thought and the coordination of activities among the divers elements that constitute the Bahb'i community. Whether it be by an open and bold assertion of the fundamental verities of the Cause, or the adoption of a less direct and more cautious method of teaching; whether by the dissemination of our literature or the example of our conduct, our one aim and sole object should be to help in the eventual recognition by all mankind of the indispensability, the uniqueness and the supreme station of the BahA'i Revelation. Whatever method he adopts, and however indirect the course he chooses to pursue, every true believer should regard such a recognition as the supreme goal of his endeavor. Whilst consciously laboring towards the attainment of this end, he should, by supporting every branch of the administrative activities of his national and local assembly, seek and obtain the fullest information on the character and extent of the worldwide progress of the Cause, and strive to contribute his share towards the strengthening of the spirit of solidarity among the component parts of the BahA'i world. Such in their broad outline are the guiding principles which those who have been placed in charge of the administration of the affairs of the Cause should at present endeavor to promote, explain and securely establi~h.[~~'~~1
Funding of these activities is provided entirely by the Bahb'i community itself. Baha'i Institutions are composed of two main branches: those that are elected (the Rulers) and those that are appointed (the Learned).
THE ELECTED ARM (RULERS)
All adult believers 21 years and older (see MATURITY) participate in the election processes. Local administrative bodies, presently known as local Spiritual Assemblies, are elected every year on 21 April in all local districts that have nine or more adult believers. Elections are by secret ballot and without nomination or electioneering. The nine believers receiving the highest number of votes compose the membership of the local Spiritual Assembly.
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National level bodies, National Spiritual Assemblies, are elected by a different procedure. Delegates are elected fiom adult Bahb'is on a proportional representation basis; their function is to attend an annual convention later in the RiPvsin period (21 April to 2 May) to elect the nine members of the national body, the National Spiritual Assembly. The nine believers receiving the highest number of votes compose the membership of the National Spiritual Assembly. International Conventions elect the Universal House of Justice every five years (normally in Haifa, Israel). The delegates' body is composed of the members of the National Spiritual Assemblies elected in the previous year. The nine male believers receiving the highest number of votes compose the membership of the Universal House of Justice. THE APPOINTED ARM (LEARNED) The "appointed" arm allows an element of continuity that is subject to but not a part of the elected arm. During His lifetime, Bahb'u'llih appointed a few believers distinguished for their outstanding services to the Faith as "Hands of the Cause of God." 'Abdu'l-Bahb, although possessing the authority to appoint Hands, did not do so. In His Will, 'Abdu'l-Bahh stipulated that the Guardian had the authority to appoint ~ ' ~ ~ Effendi's ] first appointments were by Hands of the C a u ~ e . [ ~Shoghi way of posthumous announcement. It was not until December 1951 that he appointed the first contingent of living Hands of the Cause. By the time of his death the total number of Hands came to 50, and the authority to appoint more was extinguished with him. To preserve the functions of an appointed arm, the Universal House of Justice, through legislation, created Continental Boards of Counsellors. Counsellors have the delegated power to appoint assistants known as Auxiliary Board members (a body first created by Shoghi Effendi to assist the Hands of the Cause of God). The work of the Continental Boards of Counsellors is directed by the International Teaching Cent r e a body that reports directly to the Universal House of Justice. For the most part Auxiliary Board members have a geographical area of responsibility and can, in turn, appoint assistants. A NEW WORLD ORDER There are no clergy in the Baha'i Faith; its growth and development rest with its institutions as supported by the individual Baha'i. To teach the
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Faith (share the Message) is an obligation placed upon every Bahh'i, each according to his or her capacity and opportunity. The aim is to establish the new world order enunciated in the Teachings of Bahb'u711&: The world's equilibrium hath been upset through the vibrating influence of this most great, this new World Order. Mankind's ordered life hath been revolutionized through the agency of this unique, this wondrous System-the like of which mortal eyes have never witnessed. . . . Immerse yourselves in the ocean of My words, that ye may unravel its secrets, and discover all the pearls of wisdom that lie hid in its depths. Take heed that ye do not vacillate in your determination to embrace the truth of this Causes Cause through which the potentialities of the might of God have been revealed, and His sovereignty established. With faces beaming with joy, hasten ye unto Him. This is the changeless Faith of God, eternal in the past, eternal in the future. Let him that seeketh, attain it; and as to him that hath refused to seek it-verily, God is Self-sufficient, above any need of His c r e a t u r e ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
The fact that within a century and a half of its birth the Baha'i Faith has been established in nearly every country, territory, and dependency in the world, without benefit of aggressive proselytization, paid missionaries, or clergy, is indeed a testimony to the enthusiasm and dedication of those who have embraced it. Their history and beliefs are set out in more detail in the pages that follow.
CENTRAL TENETS AND BELIEFS
Among the central tenets and beliefs of the Baha'i Faith are Teachings concerning the following: Unity: The Oneness of God. The Oneness of Religion. The Oneness of Mankind. Unity in Diversity. God: The Creator of all existence: "The purpose of God in creating man hath been, and will ever be, to enable him to know his Creator and to attain His Presen~e."[~~:~~] The reality of God is beyond any comparison or likeness to the human form.
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INTRODUCTION
God is omnipotent, omniscient and eternally transcendent. The essence of God is unknowable to His creation; humanity may know God only indirectly through His attributes and qualities as manifested in His creation. Manifestations of God: The Will of God is revealed in the world of creation through Manifestations of God. They serve as immanent and not incarnate channels for the progressive revelation of the Word of God to humanity. However, "were any of the all-embracing Manifestations of God to declare: 'I am God,' He, verily, speaketh the truth, and no doubt attacheth thereto. For it hath been repeatedly demonstrated that through their Revelation, their attributes and names, the Revelation of God, His names and His attributes, are made manifest in the world. . . .And were any of them to voice the utterance, 'I am the Messenger of God,' He, also, speaketh the truth, the indubitable truth. . . . Viewed in this light, they are all but Messengers of that ideal King, that unchangeable Essence. . . . For they are all but one person, one soul, one spirit, one being, one revelation. They are all the manifestation of the 'Beginning' and the 'End,' the 'First' and the 'Last,' the 'Seen' and the 'Hidden'-all of which pertain to Him Who is the Innermost Spirit of Spirits and Eternal Essence of Essences. And were they to say, 'We are the Servants of God,' this also is a manifest and indisputable fact. For they have been made manifest in the uttermost state of servitude, a servitude the like of which no man can possibly attain. Thus in moments in which these Essences of Being were deep immersed beneath the oceans of ancient and everlasting holiness, or when they soared to the loftiest summits of Divine mysteries, they claimed their utterances to be the Voice of Divinity, the Call of God Hi~nself."[~~:~~fl Each has a twofold station: "One is the station of pure abstraction and essential unity. In this respect, if thou callest them all by one name, and dost ascribe to them the same attributes, thou hast not erred ii-om the truth. Even as He hath revealed: 'No distinction do We make between any of His Messengers.' For they, one and all, summon the people of the earth to acknowledge the unity of God, and herald unto them the Kawt_har of an infinite grace and bounty. They are all invested with the robe of prophethood [see PROPHET], and are honored with the mantle of glory. . . . The other station is the station of distinction, and pertaineth to the
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world of creation, and to the limitations thereof. In this respect, each Manifestation of God hath a distinct individuality, a definitely prescribed mission, a predestined revelation, and specially designated limitations. Each one of them is known by a different name, is characterized by a special attribute. . . . It is because of this difference in their station and mission that the words and utterances flowing from these Well Springs of Divine knowledge appear to diverge and differ. Otherwise, in the eyes of them that are initiated into the mysteries of Divine wisdom, all their utterances are, in reality, but the expressions of one T r ~ t h . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ f f l They are the educators and trainers of mankind.[51:421 Bahh'u'llbh as the Manifestation of God for this age: Shoghi Effendi identifies, and Bahb'is accept, Bahh'u'llhh as "the Judge, the Lawgiver and Redeemer of all mankind, as the Organizer of the entire planet, as the Unifier of the children of men, as the Inaugurator of the long-awaited millennium, as the Originator of a new 'Universal Cycle,' as the Establisher of the Most Great Peace, as the Fountain of the Most Great Justice, as the Proclaimer of the coming of age of the entire human race, as the Creator of a new World Order, and as the Inspirer and Founder of a world civilization. To Israel He was neither more nor less than the incarnation of the 'Everlasting Father,' the 'Lord of Hosts' come down 'with ten thousands of saints'; to Christendom Christ returned 'in the glory of the Father,' to Shi'ah I s l h the return of the I m h Husayn; to Sunni I s l h the descent of the 'Spirit of God' (Jesus Christ); to the Zoroastrians the promised ShhhB a h r h , to the Hindus the reincarnation of Krishna; to the Buddhists the fifth Buddha. . . . He was formally designated Bahh'u'llhh, an appellation specifically recorded in the Persian Bayhn, signifying at once the glory, the light and the splendor of God, and was styled the 'Lord of Lords,' the 'Most Great Name,' the 'Ancient Beauty,' the 'Pen of the Most High,' the 'Hidden Name,' the 'Preserved Treasure,' 'Him Whom God will make manifest,' the 'Most Great Light,' the 'All-Highest Horizon,' the 'Most Great Ocean,' the 'Supreme Heaven,' the 'Pre-Existent Root,' the 'Self-Subsistent,' the 'Day-Star of the Universe,' the 'Great Announcement,' the 'Speaker on Sinai,' the 'Sifter of Men,' the 'Wronged One of the World,' the 'Desire ofthe Nations,' the 'Lord of the Covenant,' the 'Tree beyond which there is no
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INTRODUCTION
passing.' . . . To Him Isaiah, the greatest of the Jewish prophets, had alluded as the 'Glory of the Lord,' the 'Everlasting Father,' the 'Prince of Peace,' the 'Wonderfid,' the 'Counsellor,' the 'Rod come forth out of the stem of Jesse' and the 'Branch grown out of His roots,' Who 'shall be established upon the throne of David,' Who 'will come with strong hand,' Who 'shall judge among the nations,' Who 'shall smite the earth with the rod of His mouth, and with the breath of His lips slay the wicked,' and Who 'shall assemble the outcasts of Israel, and gather together the dispersed of Judah fiom the four corners of the earth.' Of Him David had sung in his Psalms, acclaiming Him as the 'Lord of Hosts' and the 'King of Glory.' To Him Haggai had referred as the 'Desire of all nations,' and Zachariah as the 'Branch' Who 'shall grow up out of His place,' and 'shall build the Temple of the Lord.' Ezekiel had extolled Him as the 'Lord' Who 'shall be king over all the earth,' while to His day Joel and Zephaniah had both referred as the 'day of Jehovah,' the latter describing it as 'a day of wrath, a day of trouble and distress, a day of wasteness and desolation, a day of darkness and gloominess, a day of clouds and thick darkness, a day of the trumpet and alarm against the fenced cities, and against the high towers.' His Day Ezekiel and Daniel had, moreover, both acclaimed as the 'day of the Lord,' and Malachi described as 'the great and dreadll day of the Lord' when 'the Sun of Righteousness' will 'arise, with healing in His wings,' whilst Daniel had pronounced His advent as signalizing the end of the 'abomination that maketh desolate.' To His Dispensation the sacred books of the followers of Zoroaster had referred as that in which the sun must needs be brought to a standstill for no less than one whole month. To Him Zoroaster must have alluded when, according to tradition, He foretold that a period of three thousand years of conflict and contention must needs precede the advent of the WorldSavior Shih-Bahrh, Who would triumph over Ahriman and usher in an era of blessedness and peace. He alone is meant by the prophecy attributed to Gautama Buddha Himself, that 'a Buddha named Maitreye, the Buddha of universal fellowship' should, in the lllness of time, arise and reveal 'His boundless glory.' To Him the Bhagavad-Gita of the Hindus had referred as the 'Most Great Spirit,' the 'Tenth Avatar,' the 'Immaculate Manifestation of Krishna.' To Him Jesus Christ had referred as the 'Prince of this world,' as the 'Comforter' Who will 'reprove the world of sin, and of righteousness, and of judgment,' as the 'Spirit of Truth' Who
INTRODUCTION lxxxix
'will guide you into all truth,' Who 'shall not speak of Himself, but whatsoever He shall hear, that shall He speak,' as the 'Lord of the Vineyard,' and as the 'Son of Man' Who 'shall come in the glory of His Father' 'in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory,' with 'all the holy angels' about Him, and 'all nations' gathered before His throne. To Him the Author of the Apocalypse had alluded as the 'Glory of God,' as 'Alpha and Omega,' 'the Beginning and the End,' 'the First and the Last.' Identifymg His Revelation with the 'third woe,' he, moreover, had extolled His Law as 'a new heaven and a new earth,' as the 'Tabernacle of God,' as the 'Holy City,' as the 'New Jerusalem, coming down from God out of heaven, prepared as a bride adorned for her husband.' To His Day Jesus Christ Himself had referred as 'the regeneration when the Son of Man shall sit in the throne of His glory.' To the hour of His advent St. Paul had alluded as the hour of the 'last trump,' the 'trump of God,' whilst St. Peter had spoken of it as the 'Day of God, wherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat.' His Day he, furthermore, had described as 'the times of refreshing,' 'the times of restitution of all things, which God hath spoken by the mouth of all His holy Prophets since the world began.' To Him M~arnmad,the Apostle of God, had alluded in His Book as the 'Great Announcement,' and declared His Day to be the Day whereon 'God' will 'come down' 'overshadowed with clouds,' the Day whereon 'thy Lord shall come and the angels rank on rank,' and 'The Spirit shall arise and the angels shall be ranged in order.' His advent He, in that Book, in a surih said to have been termed by Him 'the heart of the Qur'in,' had foreshadowed as that of the 'third' Messenger, sent down to 'strengthen' the two who preceded Him. To His Day He, in the pages of that same Book, had paid a glowing tribute, glorifying it as the 'Great Day,' the 'Last Day,' the 'Day of God,' the 'Day of Judgment,' the 'Day of Reckoning,' the 'Day of Mutual Deceit,' the 'Day of Severing,' the 'Day of Sighing,' the 'Day of Meeting,' the Day 'when the Decree shall be accomplished,' the Day whereon the second 'Trumpet blast' will be sounded, the 'Day when mankind shall stand before the Lord of the world,' and 'all shall come to Him in humble guise,' the Day when 'thou shalt see the mountains, which thou thinkest so firm,pass away with the passing of a cloud,' the Day 'wherein account shall be taken,' 'the approaching Day, when men's hearts shall rise up, choking them, into their throats,' the Day when 'all
xc
INTRODUCTION
that are in the heavens and all that are on the earth shall be terror-stricken, save him whom God pleaseth to deliver,' the Day whereon 'every suckling woman shall forsake her sucking babe, and every woman that hath a burden in her womb shall cast her burden,' the Day 'when the earth shall shine with the light of her Lord, and the Book shall be set, and the Prophets shall be brought up, and the witnesses; and judgment shall be given between them with equity; and none shall be w r ~ n g e d . " ' [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ Q The relationship of the Bah6'i Revelation to those gone before: "The fundamental principle enunciated by Bahii'u'llih, the followers of His Faith firmly believe, is that Religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is a continuous and progressive process, that all the great religions of the world are divine in origin, that their basic principles are in complete harmony, that their aims and purposes are one and the same, that their teachings are but facets of one truth, that their functions are complementary, that they differ only in the non-essential aspects of their doctrines and that their missions represent successive stages in the spiritual evolution of human "The aim of Bahii'u'llih, the Prophet of this new and great age which humanity has entered upon-He whose advent fulfils the prophecies of the Old and New Testaments as well as those of the Qur'iin regarding the coming of the Promised One in the end of time, on the Day of Judgment-is not to destroy but to fulfill the Revelations of the past, to reconcile rather than accentuate the divergences of the conflicting creeds which disrupt present-day "The Revelation identified with Bahii'u'llih abrogates unconditionally all the Dispensations gone before it, upholds uncompromisingly the eternal verities they enshrine, recognizes firmly and absolutely the Divine origin of their Authors, preserves inviolate the sanctity of their authentic Scriptures, disclaims any intention of lowering the status of their Founders or of abating the spiritual ideals they inculcate, clarifies and correlates their functions, reaffirms their common, their unchangeable and fundamental purpose, reconciles their seemingly divergent claims and doctrines, readily and gratellly recognizes their respective contributions to the gradual unfoldment of one Divine Revelation, unhesitatingly acknowledges itself to be but one link in the chain of continually
INTRODUCTION xci
progressive Revelations, supplements their teachings with such laws and ordinances as conform to the imperative needs, and are dictated by the growing receptivity, of a fast evolving and constantly changing society, and proclaims its readiness and ability to fuse and incorporate the contending sects and factions into which they have fallen into a universal Fellowship, functioning within the framework, and in accordance with the precepts, of a divinely conceived, a world-unifying, a world-redeeming Order."[37'1001 Human beings and their relationship to God: Human beings gain knowledge of God through prayer, meditation on, and study of the revealed Word of God (i.e., the sacred scriptures revealed by His Manifestations); knowledge of the Manifestations of God is "identical with the knowledge of His own Self."[78:491 Human beings are endowed with an eternal soul that comes into existence at the moment of conception and that, following physical death, progresses through the spiritual world seeking to draw ever nearer to God: "When the channel of the human soul is cleansed of all worldly and impeding attachments, it will unfailingly perceive the breath of the Beloved across immeasurable distances, and will, led by its p e r h e , attain and enter the City of Certitude. . . . That city is none other than the Word of God revealed in every age and dispensation. . . .All the guidance, the blessings, the learning, the understanding, the faith, and certitude, conferred upon all that is in heaven and on earth, are hidden and treasured within these Cities."[79"99fl
SOCIAL PRINCIPLES The basic principles enunciated by Bahai'u'llsih and enlarged upon by 'Abdu'l-Bahsi during His visits to Europe and America include, among others, the following: Independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition Oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and hdamental doctrine of the Faith Unity of all religions
xci i
INTRODUCTION
Condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class, or national Essential harmony between religion and science Equality of men and women Compulsory education for all children Adoption of a universal auxiliary language Abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty Institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations Exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship Glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations Establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind Noninvolvement in politics and obedience to government Need for the application of spiritual solutions to economic problems Moderation in all things See also PRINCIPLES, B A H ~ L ' ~ . LAWS, ORDINANCES, PROHIBITIONS, AND EXHORTATIONS God's Will has been revealed progressively (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION) through His Manifestations to the peoples of the world (laws and ordinances required for the progress and development of humanity being revealed by the Manifestation according to the needs and exigencies of the age in which He appeared and the people to whom they appeared). The main source of law within the Bahh'i Faith is the Kitlib-i-Aqda~[~~] along with appended questions posed to Bahti'u'llih and the answers He gave, and further illumination through authorized interpretation of the meanings of passages by 'Abdu'l-Bahh and Shoghi Effendi (as Guardian). Among the three powers vested in the Universal House of Justice is the authority to legislate on matters not explicitly mandated by Bah6'uYllih(the other two being judicial and executive authority), thereby providing for ongoing introduction of law relevant to the exigencies of hture times and social conditions.
INTRODUCTION xciii
Examples of the laws, ordinances, prohibitions, and exhortations revealed by Bahb'u'llhh in the Kitbb-i-Aqdas include regulations governing the following: 1. Obligatory prayer is binding on men and women on attaining the age of maturity (fixed at 15); believers are free to choose one or more of three prayers revealed by Bahzi'u'llhh and, after performing ablutions, to recite them facing the Qiblih (with exemptions granted under certain conditions). 2. Obligatory fasting, abstinence from food and drink from sunrise to sunset, is binding on men and women on attaining the age of maturity, during a 19-day period between the termination of the Intercalary Days, and ends with the Naw-Ruz Festival; exemptions are granted under certain conditions. 3. Laws relating to personal status include the following: Marriage is highly recommended but not obligatory and requires that both parties have reached the age of maturity (15) and is conditioned on the consent of both parties and their parents. Bigamy, or plurality of wives, is forbidden. Betrothal: The period of engagement must not exceed 95 days; it is unlawful to become engaged to a girl before she reaches the age of maturity. Dowry: Marriage is conditioned on payment of a dowry. Divorce, while permitted, is strongly condemned. Inheritance: While left to the individual to decide, in the case of intestacy specific shares have been specified in the Kitbb-iAqdas. 4. Miscellaneous laws and ordinances include the following: Pilgrimage. Payment of the Huqiqu'lliih-the Right of God. Endowments. The Maariqu'l-Aakiir. Bahb'i Festivals (e.g., Naw-Ruz, Ridvhn, etc.). The Nineteen Day Feast. Burial of the dead. Engaging in a trade or profession is made obligatory and is exalted to the rank of worship. Obedience to government. Education of children. The writing of a will and testament.
xciv
INTRODUCTION
Among those things prohibited are the interpretation of the Holy Writings; slave trading and slavery; asceticism; monasticism; mendicancy (begging); priesthood or clergy; confession and or absolution of sins; intoxicating drinks such as alcohol, opium, and other drugs (unless prescribed by a doctor for medical reasons); gambling; arson; adultery; murder; t h e e homosexuality; congregational prayer except for the dead (see DEATH); cremation; backbiting; and carrying arms unless essential. Certain laws of the Kithb-i-Aqdas are not yet universally applied including, but not limited to, laws governing betrothal and the payment of a dowry by the groom to the bride on marriage; the law of inheritance (this is normally covered by civil laws of intestacy at the present time); the law of pilgrimage; and the law of tithes. In addition, the law of the Ma&riqu'l-Ad&iir is gradually being put into effect; the Bahh'i Festivals are being celebrated by the Western friends on their anniversaries in the Gregorian calendar until such time as the Universal House of Justice deems it desirable to pass supplementary legislation necessary for the full implementation of the Bad calendar; the age of maturity applies only to Bahh'i religious duties as yet+n other matters it is subject to the civil law of each country, with the age of administrative maturity in the Bahh'i community, for the time being, being fixed at 21; for the burial of the dead the only requirements now binding in the West are to bury the body (not to cremate it), not to carry it more than a distance of one hour's journey from the place of death, and to say the Prayer for the Dead if the deceased is a believer over the age of 15; arson, adultery, murder and theft are all forbidden to Bahh'is, but the punishments prescribed for them in the Kithb-i-Aqdas are designed for a future state of society with such matters currently covered by the civil laws of each country (Universal House of Justice, letter February 8, 2001, Laws of the Aqdas not yet Universally Applied).
RITUALS AND RITES The Bahh'i Faith is largely "free from any form of ecclesiasticism, has neither priesthood nor rituals, and is supported exclusively by voluntary contributions made by its avowed adherents."[64'~l Among the few simple rituals in force are specific rules governing pilgrimage to the House of the BBb in &irk and the House of BahB'u'llBh in BaadPd.
INTRODUCTION xcv
Minimal rites are associated with the burial of the dead (the preparation of the body and its interment). The Prayer for the Dead is designated a congregational prayer and has, therefore, a ritual aspect to it. The Bahb'i marriage ceremony requires the separate recitation of an identical verse by the bride and groom ("We will all, verily, abide by the and can, therefore, be considered a form of ritual. Will of God"[71:1051) The actions (prostrations and supplications) associated with the recitation of the two longer obligatory prayers have ritualistic overtones designed to simulate the correct inner attitude of the suppliant.
DEMOGRAPHICS The mid-2004 Britannica Online database (drawn from data gleaned from the World Christian indicates that the Bahb'i Faith has been established in 218 countries, territories, and dependencieswith Christianity in 260, I s l h in 184, and Judaism in 134. The official Baha'i World Centre places the number at 238 countries, territories, ~ ~addition, : ~ ~ ~ ] selections of its Scripture are availand d e p e n d e n c i e ~ . [ In able in more that 802 languages, and its adherents have been enrolled from more than 2,112 different tribes and ethnic groups. That it has such a wide global spread in less than a century and a half demonstrates not only its right to be classed as an independent world religion but also its need to be examined as a unique religious phenomenon. Official Bahb'i statistics tend to be conservative in terms of numbers of believers, with other non-Bahb'i sources tending to estimate higher numbers. For example, Encyclopedia Britannica Online estimates mid-2004 worldwide numbers at 7,496,000 (0.1%) of total worldwide adherents of all religions, a number derived from the World Christian whereas the official Bahb'i numbers place the number at "more than five m i l l i ~ n . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
The Dictionary
'ABA. A loose, sleeveless cloak or mantle, open in the fr0nt.['~:~~~1" 'ABBAS EFFENDI. See G
~
~
~
~
y
~
-
~
'ABBAS-RIDA, ~ I (1911-1980). L (Knight of Bahb'u'llhh.) An 'Iriqi believer who served on the local Spiritual Assembly of Bag&diid and then the National Spiritual Assembly of 'Iriiq. In 1953 he pioneered to the Seychelles Islands, for which service he was designated a Knight of Bahii'u'lliih. In 1957 he was appointed an AUXiliary Board member. In 1966 he assisted his father ( M ~ a m m a d Husayn Rawhhi) in the transference of the remains of the father of Bahti'u'llhh, Mirzii Buzurg, to a Bahb'i cemetery. He served for nearly 20 years as secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of 'Iriiq. He was arrested in Baadbd in 1973 and sentenced to life imprisonment for his belief in Bahb'u'llhh. He passed away a few months after his release in 1980.[17:7221 'ABD. Servant, bondsman, worshipper (of 'ABDU'L-B&. ('Abbis Effendi; the Centre of the Covenant; Sirm'llbh-Mystery of God; mupi-A'?am-Most Great Branch; K.B.E.-Knight of the British Empire.) Bahii'u'lliih's eldest surviving son, His appointed Successor and interpreter of His revealed Word. He was knighted in 1920 as Sir 'Abdu'l-Bahb 'Abbh for His services in averting famine in 'Akkii during World War I. He was born in Tihriin, iriin, on 23 May 1844, the same day that the Biib made His Declaration in mirhz. He accompanied Bahb'u'llhh throughout His exile and took on increasing responsibility for the family and for the Bahb'is, acting as Bahb'u'llhh's deputy when they dealt with the public and officials.
~
On the death of His Father in 1892, 'Abdu'l-Bahh was appointed in His Will and Testament (Kitib-i-'Ahd) as His Successor and Center of His Covenant. This meant that He was the Head of the Bahb'i Faith with the sole right to interpret Bahh'u'llih's Words and to chart, in compliance with and according to Baha'u'llih's Covenant, the future course of the growth and development of the Faith. Despite the indisputable provisions of Baha'u'llih's Will and Testament, there were those who chose to reject 'Abdu'l-Bahi as its Center and in so breaking its terms rendered themselves Covenant breakers. 'Abdu'l-Bahi received several titles from Bahh'u'llhh: "The Most Great Branch," "The Most Mighty Branch," "The Mystery of God," and "The Master" (a title bestowed on Him while still in His teens Of all the titles, He choose to be known simply as in Ba&~daid).[~l:~] 'Abdu'l-Bahb (Servant of Bahh): "My Name is Abdu'l-Bahh. My Reality is Abdu'l-Bahh: and Service to all the human race is my perpetual Religion. . . . Abdu'l-Bahh is the Banner of the Most Great Peace. . . . The Herald of the Kingdom is he, so that he may awaken the people of the East and the West. The Voice of Friendship, of Truth, and of Reconciliation is he, quickening all regions. No name, no title will he ever have, except Abdu'l-Bahh. This is my longing. Shoghi This is my Supreme height. 0 ye friends of God!'y[51:1081 Effendi wrote of His unique characteristics as follows: He it was Whose tender soul had been seared with the ineffaceable vision of a Father, haggard, disheveled, freighted with chains, on the occasion of a visit, as a boy of nine, to the Siyih-Chi1 of Tihrh. Against Him, in His early childhood, whilst His Father lay a prisoner in that dungeon, had been directed the malice of a mob of street urchins who pelted Him with stones, vilified Him and overwhelmed Him with ridicule. . . . He it was Who, in His inconsolable grief at His separation from an adored Father, had confided to Nabil [see NABL-I-A'zAM], as attested by him in his narrative, that He felt Himself to have grown old though still but a child of tender years. His had been the unique distinction of recognizing, while still in His childhood, the full glory of His Father's as yet unrevealed station, a recognition which had impelled Him to throw Himself at His feet and to spontaneously implore the privilege of laying down His life for His sake. . . . On Him Bahh'u'llhh, as the scope and influence of His Mission extended, had been led to place an ever greater degree of reliance, by appointing Him, on numerous occasions, as His deputy, by enabling Him to plead His Cause before the public, by assigning Him the task of transcribing His Tablets, by allowing Him to assume the responsibility of shielding Him fiom His enemies, and by investing Him with the
function of watching over and promoting the interests of His fellowexiles and companions. . . . He it was Who had been chiefly instrumental in providing the necessary means for Bahir'u'llhh's release fiom His nine-year confinement within the city walls of 'Akki, and in enabling Him to enjoy, in the evening of His life, a measure of that peace and security fiom which He had so long been debarred. . . . He alone had been accorded the privilege of being called "the Master," an honor fiom which His Father had strictly excluded all His other sons. Upon Him that loving and unerring Father had chosen to confer the unique title of "Sirm'llW [the Mystery of God], a designation so appropriate to One Who, though essentially human and holding a station radically and fundamentallydifferent fiom that occupied by BahB'u'llhh and His Forerunner [see ~ b ]could , still claim to be the perfect Exemplar of His Faith, to be endowed with super-human knowledge, and to be regarded as the stainless mirror reflecting His light. . . . On Him, at a later period, the Author of the Kitaib-i-Aqdas, in a celebrated passage, subsequently elucidated in the "Book of My Covenant" [see KIT~LBI'AHD~], had bestowed the function of interpreting His Holy Writ, proclaiming Him, at the same time, to be the One "Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched fiom this Ancient Root." And now to crown the inestimable honors, privileges and benefits showeredupon Him, in ever increasing abundance, throughout the forty years of His Father's ministry in Baadftd, in Adrianople and in 'Akka, He had been elevated to the high office of Center of Baha'u'llfih's Covenant, and been made the successor of the Manifestation of God Himself-a position that was to empower Him to impart an extraordinary impetus to the international expansion of His Father's Faith, to amplify its doctrine, to beat down every barrier that would obstruct its march, and to call into being, and delineate the features of, its Administrative Order, the Child of the Covenant, and the Harbinger of that World Order whose establishment must needs signalize the advent of the Golden Age of the Baha'i D i s p e n s a t i ~ n . [ ~ ~ ~ f f ]
The arrival of 15 American visitors to 'Abdu'l-Bahii in the last days of 1898 dramatically changed the development of the Bahii'i Faith. Shoghi Effendi described the impact of these pilgrims on the spread of the Faith: "The return of these God-intoxicated pilgrims . . . was the signal for an outburst of systematic and sustained activity, which, as it gathered momentum, and spread its ramifications over Western Europe and the states and provinces of the North American continent, grew to so great a scale that 'Abdu'l-Bahii Himself resolved that, as soon as He should be released from His prolonged conhement in 'Akkii, He would undertake a personal mission to the West."[37:2591
The opportunity to visit the West came in 1910 when He left for Egypt but was unable to continue His journey to London until 1911, where He arrived on 4 September. Describing this journey, Shoghi Effendi wrote, 'Abdu'l-B& was at this time broken in health. He suffered from several maladies brought on by the strains and stresses of a tragic life spent almost wholly in exile and imprisonment. He was on the threshold of three-score years and ten. Yet as soon as He was released from His forty-year long captivity, as soon as He had laid the Bib's body in a safe and permanent resting-place, and His mind was free of grievous anxieties connected with the execution of that priceless Trust, He arose with sublime courage, confidence and resolution to consecrate what little strength remained to Him, in the evening of His life, to a service of such heroic proportions that no parallel to it is to be found in the annals of the first Bahi'i
After about a month in England, nine weeks in Paris, and three months back in Egypt, He sailed to New York, arriving there on 11 April 1912. Following a tour of eight months He returned to England, then Paris and, after brief visits to Germany, Hungary, Austria, Paris, and Egypt, returned to Haifa on 5 December 1913. Refer to the introduction. During World War I 'Abdu'l-Bahii was subjected to oppressive and humiliating restrictions by the Turkish authorities. They threatened to crucify Him and raze the Tomb of Bahii'u'llih to the ground. During this time He helped feed large numbers of the Palestinian population (a course of action that was at least in part responsible for His receiving a knighthood from the British Government). During this time He wrote and dispatched the Tablets of the Divine Plan to the Bahb'is of North America. In the spring of 1918 Lady Blomfield received a telephone message from "an authoritative s o u r ~ e " : [ ~"~'AbduY1-Bahii :~~~l in serious danger. Take immediate action." She went at once to Lord Lamington, who put the matter into the hands of the Right Honourable Arthur Balfour, secretary of state for foreign affairs, and a cable was immediately sent to General Allenby: "Extend every protection and consideration to 'Abdu'l-Bahii, His family and His fiends, when British march on Haifa." When Allenby took Haifa, several days before it was believed possible for him to do so, he cabled London, "Have today taken Palestine. Notify the world that 'Abdu'l-Bahii is safe." This episode is reported in full in Lady Blomfield's book, The Chosen
'Abdu'l-Bahb passed away in Haifa in the early hours of 28 November 1921. To the end He carried on His normal activities, receiving, on the afternoon before He died, the Mufti of Haifa, the mayor and head of the police. Before He retired that last night, He inquired after the health of every member of His household, of the pilgrims, and of the fiends in Haifa. 'Abdu'l-Baha's contributions to His Father's Faith were summarized by Shoghi Effendi: 'Abdu'l-Bahi . . . had erected the standard of His Father's Faith in the North American continent, and established an impregnable basis for its institutions in Western Europe, in the Far East and in Australia. He had, in His works, Tablets and addresses, elucidated its principles, interpreted its laws, amplified its doctrines, and erected the rudimentary institutions of its future Administrative Order. In Russia He had raised its first House of Worship [see MA~QU'L-AD-K~IR], whilst on the slopes of Mt. Carmel He had reared a befitting mausoleum for its Herald [see ~ h ]and , deposited His remains therein with His Own hands. Through His visits to several cities in Europe and the North American continent He had broadcast Bahi'u'll6hYsMessage to the peoples of the West, and heightened the prestige of the Cause of God to a degree it had never previously experienced. And lastly, in the evening of His life, He had through the revelation of the Tablets of the Divine Plan issued His mandate to the community which He Himself had raised up, trained and nurtured, a Plan that must in the years to come enable its members to diffuse the light, and erect the administrative fabric, of the Faith throughout the five continents of the gl~be.['~:~~~fl Refer to the introduction for key events associated with His life.
'ABDU'L-B&, ASCENSION OF. A Baha'i Holy Day cornrnemorating the time of His passing (1 AM 28 November 1921). It is one of two Holy Days on which work is not suspended (the other being the Day of the Covenant). 'ABDU'L-BAHA, SHRINE OF. The stone building on Mount Carme1 that houses the Remains of the Bsib, built by 'Abdu'l-Bahi as directed by Baha'u'llih and on the Spot chosen by Him. Originally 'Abdu'l-Bahb built six rooms, to which Shoghi Effendi subsequently added another three rooms on the south side, for a total of nine rooms. When 'Abdu'l-Bahh passed away, His remains were entombed in the center room of the three north-facing rooms-on the side nearest to ' A M . The centermost room contains the Sacred Remains of the Bbb. The remaining rooms are places for the private prayer and meditation of the pilgrims and visitors.
6
'ABDU'LB&,
WILL AND TESTAMENT OF
'ABDU'L-BAH& WILL AND TESTAMENT OE The Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahh is a central document in the creation of the Administrative Order. Described by Shoghi Effendi as one of the three Charters for the worldwide development of the Faith (the other two being the Tablet of Carmel [Lawh-i-Khnil] and the Tablets of the ~ ~written ~ ] in three parts, each composed in a difDivine P l ~ n ) . [It~was ferent time period. Shoghi Effendi details its importance as follows: The triple impulse generated through the revelation of the Tablet of Carmel by Bahi'u'llhh and the Will and Testament as well as the Tablets of the Divine Plan bequeathed by the Center of His Covenantthe three Charters which have set in motion three distinct processes, the first operating in the Holy Land for the development of the institutions of the Faith at its World Center and the other two, throughout the rest of the Bahi'i world, for its propagation and the establishment of its Administrative Order.[38:841 The Charter which called into being, outlined the features and set in motion the processes of, this Administrative Order is none other than the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahir, His greatest legacy to posterity, the brightest emanation of His mind and the mightiest instrument forged to insure the continuity of the three ages which constitute the component parts of His Father's Dispensation. The Covenant of Bahi'u'llih had been instituted solely through the direct operation of His Will and purpose. The Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahi, on the other hand, may be regarded as the offspring resulting from that mystic intercourse between Him Who had generated the forces of a God-given Faith and the One Who had been made its sole Interpreter [see INTERPRETATION] and was recognized as its perfect Exemplar. The creative energies unleashed by the Originator of the Law of God in this age gave birth, through their impact upon the mind of Him Who had been chosen as its unerring Expounder, to that Instrument, the vast implications of which the present generation . . . is still incapable of l l l y apprehending. This Instrument can, if we would correctly appraise it, no more be divorced from the One Who provided the motivating impulse for its creation than from Him Who directly conceived it. . . . The Administrative Order which this historic Document has established, it should be noted, is, by virtue of its origin and character, unique in the annals of the world's religious systems. No Prophet before Bahi'u'llhh . . . has established, authoritatively and in writing, anything comparable to the Administrative Order which the authorized Interpreter of Bahi'u'llhh's teachings has instituted, an Order which, by virtue of the administrative principles which its Author has formulated, the institutions He has established, and the right of interpretation with which He has invested its Guardian, must and will, in a manner unparalleled in any previous religion, safeguard from schism the Faith from which it has sprung.
'ABDU'L-JAL~LBEY SA'AD
7
Nor is the principle governing its operation similar to that which underlies any system, whether theocratic or otherwise, which the minds of men have devised for the government of human institutions. Neither in theory nor in practice can the Administrative Order of the Faith of Bahi'u'llih be said to conform to any type of democratic government, to any system of autocracy, to any purely aristocraticorder, or to any of the various theocracies . . . which mankind has witnessed in the past. It incorporates within its structure certain elements which are to be found in each of the three recognized forms of secular government, is devoid of the defects which each of them inherently possesses, and blends the salutary truths which each undoubtedly contains without vitiating in any way the integrity of the Divine verities on which it is essentially founded. . . . These are among the features which combine to set apart the Order identified with the Revelation of Bahi'u'llih from any of the existing systems of human g o ~ e r n m e n t . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ f f l 'Abdu'l-Bahh, Who incarnates an institutionfor which we can find no parallel whatsoever in any of the world's recognized religious systems, may be said to have closed the Age to which He Himself belonged and opened the one in which we are now laboring. His Will and Testament should thus be regarded as the perpetual, the indissoluble link which the mind of Him Who is the Mystery of God has conceived in order to insure the continuity of the three ages that constitute the component parts of the Bahh'i Di~pensation.[~~l~~fl It is, then, the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahi that brought into being the institution of the Guardian and designated Shoghi Effendi ~ ~ sole ~ ~ ] interpreter of the Writings of its as the first i n c ~ m b e n t , [the Central and the "sacred head and the distinguished member for life" of the Universal House of Justice when that Body came into
'ABDU'L-JAL~LBEY SA'AD (d. 1942). (Hand of the Cause of God.) An early Egyptian believer and a civil magistrate by profession, he was introduced to the Faith by Mirzh Abu'l-Fapl-i-Gulphyglni. He was a distinguished judge of the civil courts and as such was able to render significant services to the Faith. He wrote extensively advocating the principle that all religions should be treated equally. In spite of much opposition he was able to ensure that the Bahi'i Declaration of Trust for legal recognition of the Faith was accepted. After writing a series of articles in defense of the Faith he was transferred, as a disciplinary measure, to a remote locality in upper Egypt, where he used the opportunity to translate The Dawn-Breakers and Bahri 'u'llhh and the New Era into Arabic. For many years chairman of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Egypt and the
Sudan, he served not only as a wise and learned teacher but as a capable administrator. He obtained the permission to build a Bahb'i headquarters (Hq'ratu'l-Quds) in Cairo and was often found on site supervising the work. He died suddenly on 25 May 1942 and was appointed posthumously by Shoghi Effendi, in 1943, as Egypt's first and only Hand of the Cause of God.[8:5971
ABHA.
The superlative of "Bahai" (Glory) and means "Most GlorioUS."[18:7351~
A B d BEAUTY. A title of Bahai'u'llaih. A B d KINGDOM. The spiritual world into which the soul passes after physical death. Its inhabitants include the Manifestations of God, the Concourse on High, angels, martyrs, and heroes and heroines of past ages as well as the souls of all human beings who have left this mortal world. ABLUTIONS. The washing of the hands and face required before the reciting of the obligatory prayer~.[~l:l~~] ABSOLUTION. The Kitdb-i-Aqdas stipulates that no one has the power to grant absolution of sins. It is a matter between the person seeking it and God: "To none is it permitted to seek absolution fiom another soul; let repentance be between yourselves and God. He, verily, is the Pardoner, the Bounteous, the Gracious, the One Who absolveth the rqentaflt."[71:301
. of.[17:8971m ABu, ABA, A B ~ Father
ABU'L-QASIM,
FAI?;~.See FA@, AWL-QASIM.
~ H I R B A Y J ~ .Northwestern province of hain, where the Baib was imprisoned. The provincial capital is Tabriz. AD&. Refined, cultured, learned; writer, scholar, man of letters.[18:7351m A D ~ BTAHERZADEH. See TAHERZADEH, A D h . ADMINISTRATION. The name by which Bahb'is refer to the Administrative Order and organizational operating structure of the Bahb'i Faith.
ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER, ~ A H t i ' i 9
ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER, BAHA'~. The name given to the institutions that form the operating structure of the Bahb'i Faith. The Bahb'i administration is composed of the "elected" and the "appointed" arms. The former includes the Universal House of Justice and the local and National Spiritual Assemblies (in the future to be designated "Houses of Justice"), while the "appointed" arm includes the institutions of the Hands of the Cause, the International Teaching Centre, the Continental Boards of Counsellors, and the Auxiliary Board and Assistants. The elected members are referred to as the "rulers," while the appointed members are referred to as the "learned." The elected institutions function as bodies, while the appointed members act as individuals and have no administrative powers but have an advisory and inspirational role. In the Book of His Covenant (Kitcib-iHhd) Bahb'u'llhh wrote, "Blessed are the In this connecrulers and learned among the people of Bahd.'y[71:2451 tion Shoghi Effendi wrote, "In this holy cycle the 'learned' are, on the one hand, the Hands of the Cause of God, and, on the other, the teachers and diasers of His Teachings who do not rank as Hands, but who have attained an eminent position in the teaching work. As to the 'rulers' they refer to the members of the Local, National and International Houses of Justice. The duties of each of these souls will be determined in the The Administrative Order was designated by Bahai'u'llaih, elaborated and established in 'Abdu'l-Bahai's Will and Testament, developed by Shoghi Effendi during his lifetime as Guardian, and is now being further developed by the Universal House of Justice. The "twin pillars" of the Administrative Order are the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice. Elaborating on the role of the Administrative Order Shoghi Effendi wrote, This newborn Administrative Order incorporates within its structure certain elements which are to be found in each of the three recognized forms of secular government, without being in any sense a mere replica of any one of them, and without introducingwithin its machinery any of the objectionable features which they inherently possess. It blends and harmonizes . . .the salutary truths which each of these systems undoubtedly contains. . . . The Administrative Order of the Faith of Baha'u'llfh must in no wise be regarded as purely democratic in character inasmuch as the basic assumption which requires all democracies to depend fundamentally upon getting their mandate ffom the people is altogether lacking in this Dispensation. In the conduct of the administrative affairs of the Faith, in the enactment of the legislation necessary to supplement the laws of the Kithb-i-Aqdas, the members of the Universal House of
10 ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER,ROLE OF THE AMERICAN ~
dCOMMUNITY i
Justice, it should be borne in mind, are not . . . responsible to those whom they represent, nor are they allowed to be governed by the feelings, the general opinion, and even the convictions of the mass of the faithhl, or of those who directly elect them. They are to follow, in a pray& attitude, the dictates and promptings of their conscience. They may, indeed they must, acquaint themselves with the conditions prevailing among the community, must weigh dispassionately in their minds the merits of any case presented for their consideration,but must reserve for themselves the right of an unfettered d e c i s i ~ n . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ f l ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER, ROLE OFTHEAMERICAN B U COMMUNITY. As the recipients of the Tablets of the Divine the American believers (mainly in Canada and the United States) share primary responsibility for creating and maintaining the Administrative Order. Shoghi Effendi, referring to specific statements of 'Abdu'lBahsi, wrote as follows: Let any one inclined to either belittle the unique station conferred upon this community (North America), or to question the r6le it will be called upon to play in the days to come, ponder the implication of these pregnant and highly illuminating words uttered by 'Abdu'l-Bahir, and addressed to it at a time when the fortunes of a world groaning beneath the burden of a devastating war had reached their lowest ebb. "The continent of America," He so sigmhintly wrote, "is, in the eyes of the one true God the land wherein the splendors of His light shall be revealed, where the mysteries of His Faith shall be unveiled where the righteous will abide, and the free assemble." The communityof the organizedpromoters of the Faith of Bahir'u'llAh in the American continent-the spiritual descendants of the dawnbreakers of an heroic Age, who by their death proclaimed the birth of that Faith-must, in turn, usher in, not by their death but through living sacrifice, that promised World Order, the shell ordained to enshrine that priceless jewel the world civilization, of which the Faith itself is the sore begetter. While its sister communities are bending beneath the tempestuous winds that beat upon them fiom every side, this community, preserved by the immutable decrees of the omnipotent Ordainer and deriving continual sustenance from the mandate with which the Tablets of the Divine Plan have invested it, is now busily engaged in laying the foundations and in fostering the growth of those institutions which are to herald the approach of the Age destined to witness the birth and rise of the World Order of Bahii'~'lltih.[~~~~] Details of America's role in the creation not only of the Administrative Order of Bahh7u'l16h but also of the "Most Great Peace" announced in the Writings of Baha'u7116h can be found in a letter
~
AFR-EH,
YOUNESS
11
written by Shoghi Effendi "to the beloved of the Lord and the handmaids of the Merciful throughout the United States and Canada" in April 1933 (published in The World Order of Bahd'u 'lldh).[36:681 ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS (VOTING RIGHTS). All registered Bahh'is possess certain community rights: For example, adults (those have the right to vote in Bahh'i elections and aged 21 and to serve on Bahh'i administrative bodies, to attend Nineteen Day Feasts, to have a Bahh'i marriage ceremony, and to contribute to the Bahh'i funds. Where an individual breaches Bahh'i law in a flagrant manner, his or her "rights" may be wholly or partially withdrawn by an appropriate Bahh'i administrative body as a sanction, with restoration depending on corrective action on the part of the person so deprived. Shoghi Effendi wrote as follows on the subject of deprivation of voting rights: The general basis for the deprivation of voting rights is of course gross immorality and open opposition to the administrative h c t i o n s of the Faith, and disregard for the laws of personal status; and even then it is the duty of the National Assembly, before exercising this sanction, to confer with the individuals involved in a loving manner to help them overcome the problems; second, to warn them that they must desist; three, to issue further warning if the original warnings are not followed; and finally, if there seems no other way to handle the matter, then a person may be deprived of voting rights. The Guardian however, wishes the National Assemblies to be very cautious in using this sanction, because it might be abused, and then lose its efficacy. It should be used only when there seems no other way to solve the pr0blem.[~~~0ffl
ADRIANOPLE. (Edirne.) A city in European Turkey, almost on the border with Greece, to which Bahai'u'llaih was exiled in 1863. It was while He was in Adrianople that He issued Tablets to the Kings to rulers of the day advising them of His advent. Bahh'u'llhh referred to this city as Ard-i-Sirr, literally "the Land of Mystery." AFNAN. (Twigs.) The name given to the descendants of the two brothers of the Bib's wife, as well as the Bhb's maternal uncles. AFRUUTEH, YOUNESS (d. 1948). (Youness ah.) An early Persian believer. He served 'Abdu'l-Bahai as secretary and translator in ' A M for a period of nine years (190C1909). Following his graduation as a physician he served for a brief period as 'Abdu'l-Bahh's
doctor. He published his recollections of that period in a book entitled
Bcihircit-i-Nuh-Sciliy-i-Zkkd, which has been translated into English His memoires provide insight as Memories of Nine Years in Zkk~5.[~~1 into the life of 'Abdu'l-Baha and His dealings with the Turkish authorities who held Him prisoner. It is a source of much information about the attitudes and actions of the many Covenant breakers then resident in the Holy Land as compared to the forbearance and loving kindness shown by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Following his final departure fiom 'Akki in 1909 he traveled extensively throughout America and Europe as a teacher of the C a u ~ e . [ l l : ~ ~ ~ ]
Am.
Originally lord, nobleman; officer, commander; placed after a woman's name A&i is a courtesy title comparable with Aq8. It may also form a part of a compound proper name.[18:7351m
~ m $ h(Branches.) . The family and descendants of Bahii'u'lliih. 'Abdu'l-Bahii was named "The Most Great Branch" and took precedence over Mirzii Muhammad-'Ali, "The Greater Branch." Refer to appendixes 14. A.H. Anno Hegirae (in the year of the Emigration): denotes the Muslim Era, reckoned from the year of Mubarnad's flight from Mecca to Medina in A.D. 622. See also HIJRAT.[1g:7351m 'AHD. Covenant, bond, treaty; the Covenant (of God).[18:7351m AHMAD, S O H ~ B('ABU'L) (1893-1958). (Alpnad-i-Isfahhi; Covenant breaker.) A one-time secretary and interpreter of 'Abdu'lBahii, he was the first in the West to arise in opposition to Shoghi Effendi; his actions forced Shoghi Effendi to expel him fiom the Faith. See also COVENANT BREAKER for a partial description of his nefarious activities. AKBAR. Greater, greatest. See also ALLAH'U'AKBAR.
[18:7351m
'~m A city . on the coast of Israel to which Bahii'u'lliih was exiled from Adrianople in 1868. At that time it was a penal colony serving the needs of the Turks to house the worst criminals; it was, literally, a place where criminals and other undesirables were sent to die (which they usually did of disease). On arrival, Bahd'u'llhh and His family were imprisoned in the prison within the barracks for two years, two
13
ALEXANDER, AGNES BALDWIN
months, and five days. During this period, His son Mirzh Mihdi, while walking rapt in prayer on the rooftop of the barracks, fell to his death through a skylight. Bahh'u'llhh continued to write letters to the and many rulers, including His letter to Queen Victoria (1870)J42:331 other Tablets, including the Kitdb-i-Aqdas. It was in this city that 'Abdu'l-Bahsi was married and received His first Western pilgrims (1898-1 899) and where Shoghi Effendi was born in 1897.Bahh'u'llhh passed the last years of His life in Bahji (several miles outside the city). Following the death (1892) and interment of Bahh'u'llih in a rented (now Bahh'i-owned) property (Bahjf) just north of the city walls, 'Abdu'l-BahL remained resident in 'Akkh until 1910, when He moved to Haifa following His release by the "young Turks."
A'LA. Most Exalted. See also HADRAT-I-'ALA; QALAM-IALA, [18:735]m A L - A B ~ The . Most Glorious. See also B A ~ ' U ' L - A B H A . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] "
'ALA'~, GENERAL SHU'A'U'LL~. See GENERAL 'ALA'~. ALCOHOL. Forbidden in the Kitdb-i-Aqdas except for medical use ~ ~ "The : ~ ~ ~drinking , of wine," writes as prescribed by a p h y s i ~ i a n . [ 2391 'Abdu'l-Bahsi, "is, according to the text of the Most Holy Book, forbidden; for it is the cause of chronic diseases, weakeneth the nerves, Elsewhere, Shoghi Effendi wrote that and consumeth the mind."[61:331 "the believers should certainly, under no circumstances, drink any alcoholic beverages as this has been forbidden in the A q d a ~ . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ l See also DRUGS. "9
ALEXANDER, AGNES BALDWIN (1875-1971). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, of Christian missionary heritage on 2 1 July 1875. In 1900 she traveled to Rome, where she encountered the Bahh'i Faith. While in Rome she was attracted to Mrs. Charlotte Dixon and her two daughters because of their "radiant happiness," and though they did not mention the full nature of their faith to her, after three days she spontaneously announced to Mrs. Dixon, "Christ is on this earth!" To which Mrs. Dixon replied, She wrote of "Yes, I can see by your face that you know it."[14:4M1 her instinctive declaration of faith to 'Abdu'l-Bahh on 26 November 1900. Later she made contact with some Bahh'is in Paris, and while living in Milan received a loving letter from May Ellis Bolles
14
ALEXANDER, AGNES BALDWIN
(Maxwell). She then moved to Paris and after some time decided to take her newfound faith to her homeland (Hawaii). On the morning before leaving she received a letter fiom 'Abdu'l-Bahi in which He admonished her to be like a divine bird, return to Hawaii, spread the wings of sanctity over the island, warble melodies in praise of God's cause, seeking souls to be attracted as moths to a lighted lamp, and be ~:l~l the means of making Hawaii illumined by the Light of G ~ d . [ ~ She arrived, to "open" the islands to the Faith, on 26 December 1901. She remained in Hawaii for 12 years, and in her published memoirs, Pershe sonal Recollections of a Bahci'i Life in the Hawaiian tells stories of the early believers of those islands. They included the second Bahh'i from the island, Clarence Hobron Smith (also from a missionary background); Dr. George Augur (one of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's 19 Disciples); and Kanichi Yamamoto, the first Japanese to accept the Faith. With the same intuitive knowledge that led her to accept the Faith, she began to study Japan and its culture. In early 1913 her parents passed away, her sister lefl the island, and she went to Canada to spend a month with the Maxwells before going on to New York. During this time she received a letter from 'Abdu'l-Bahh, written just as she was leaving Hawaii, in which He encouraged her to take the Faith to Japan. Although the hazards of wartime travel necessitated changes in her plans, she arrived in Japan in 1914 and made it her base for the next 23 years. In 1921 she spent a month in Korea, where she introduced the Faith to many waiting souls. Although she traveled widely, she did not reach the Holy Land in time to meet 'Abdu'lBahh. In 1924 she accompanied Martha Root to China, where they spoke of the Faith to Sun Yat-sen. She also traveled, proclaiming the Faith, to Taiwan, Hong Kong, the Philippines, the United States, Canada, and Europe. Much of her teaching was in Esperanto. In 1937 she visited the Holy Land, where Shoghi Effendi lavished her with praise and appreciation for her outstanding teaching and pioneering services. Not until 1950 was she able to return to Japan. By this time she had served the Faith for 50 years, but she was as enthusiastic as ever. At 54 years of age she had climbed Mount Fuji with a band of Buddhist pilgrims; at 85 she had accompanied a Bahi'i to the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines, riding for hours in a jeep. On several occasions she went from cell to cell in the national prison of Manila, teaching and giving solace to prisoners, "because Bahh'u'llih had been a prisoner." In 1954 she was in the first contingent to be appointed Auxiliary Board members, and on 27 March 1957 she was elevated to the rank of a Hand of the Cause.
Over the years she received approximately 100 letters from Shoghi Effendi, and she was able successively to serve 'Abdu'l-Bahh, the Guardian, and the Universal House of Justice. Although free from personal financial worries, she lived very frugally, expending little on herself and always giving to the Faith and to others in need. Wherever she traveled, however, she always regarded Hawaii as her home. When the islands were able to elect their first National Spiritual Assembly, just over 62 years after she had first accepted the Faith there, she attended as the representative of the Universal House of Justice. In 1957 she witnessed the formation of the Regional National Spiritual Assembly of the B M i s of Northeast Asia with its seat in Tokyo and was a member of that body until 1963. During those years she visited the Holy Land to attend the meetings of the Hands of the Cause. Immediately following the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963 (which had been called and supervised by the Hands) she attended the World Congress in London. In 1965, about to attend the World Congress of Esperantists, she fell and broke her hipsadly, she was never again able to walk without the help of others. With no word of complaint she stated positively that God had a purpose in confining her to a Tokyo hospital for two years. However, unable to walk and write, she felt 'Abdu'l-Bahh now wished her to return to Hawaii. Because she was 92 years old, very frail, with failing memory, her friends were concerned about her ability to undertake such a long journey. She was adamant, however, and disposed of her trunks full of books, Writings, and relics and returned to a home prepared for her almost opposite her childhood home in Honolulu, where she passed away quietly on 1 January 1971. She was buried only a few miles from the other distinguished Hand Martha Root. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "Profoundly grieved passing illumined soul Hand Cause Agnes Alexander longstanding pillar Cause Far East, first bring Faith Hawaiian Islands. Her long dedicated exemplary life service devotion Cause God anticipated by Center Covenant selecting her share May Maxwell imperishable honor mention Tablets Divine Plan. Her unrestrained unceasing pursuit teaching obedience command Bahh'u'llih, exhortations Master, guidance beloved Guardian shining example all followers Faith. Her 92:158fc93:11 passing severs one more link Heroic Age."[14'430,
'AL~.The first Imam and rightfhl successor of M&ammad; also the fourth caliph according to the S ~ n n a h . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ~ ' A L ~AKBAR F U ~ T A N(1905-2003). (Hand of the Cause of God.) An educator, author and, in the words of Shoghi Effendi, the
"establisher and promoter" of the Bahi'i Administrative Order in the Cradle of the Faith. He was born in Sabzivhr, Khurusan, Persia, in 1905. When he was but five years old his father became the first Bahi'i in the family, followed immediately by his mother and grandmother. In 1914 he moved with his family to 'Ishqsibsid, Russia, and attended the elementary Bahi'i boys' school, where, on his graduation at age 14, he was asked to teach the children of the first grade. He did this until 1922, when he began his secondary education. This was completed in 1925, and he went to work as principal of the Bahi'i schools for a year prior to going on to the University of Moscow (where he graduated in psychology and education). Always active in the Faith, he traveled widely throughout the Caucasus region even while young and also taught in Leningrad and other Russian cities. In 1930 he was expelled fiom the Soviet Union for his participation in Bahi'i activities, an event which seems only to have strengthened his resolve, because fiom that time forward he immersed himself totally in the administrative affairs of the Faith. A year (1931) after his return to irin he married Ata'iyyih Azizm a s h i . Together they settled in the remote village of Saysin and established a Bahi'i school for girls and another for boys; this was the first access to modern education available to these children (eventually the schools had an attendance of about 700 students). In 1933 he was offered the position of principal of the Tarbiyat School for boys in Tihrsin but declined in order to remain in Saysin. In 1934 he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of iran and served as its secretary. He was also elected to the local Spiritual Assembly of Tihrin and served on both simultaneously-ften as secretary of both bodies-for a great many years. Also in 1934, at the request of the Guardian, he accepted the position of principal of the Tarbiyat School. A few months after he took on this role, Rezi &ih Pahlavi issued an order to close all the Bahi'i schools in irin. In 1941, with his wife, mother, and daughter, he went on his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In 1946 the h h i a n Radio and Broadcasting Service invited him to give a series of lectures on children's education, the text of which was published as Essays on Education, which subsequently was published in English as Mothers, Fathers and Children. He was elevated to Hand of the Cause in the first contingent, 24 December 1951. He participated in all four of the first Intercontinental Conferences, held in 1953-Kampala, February; Chicago,
April-May; Stockholm, July; and New Delhi, October. During 19531954 he visited centers in the United States, Canada, France, Spain, and Portugal and more than 40 centers in Australasia. He represented Shoghi Effendi at the convention of SoutheastAsia in April 1957 and was one of the Nine Hands of the Cause resident in the Holy Land, 1957-1 963. He visited centers in Persia and Turkey from November 1959 to April 1960 and represented the World Centre at the conventions of Brazil and Uruguay in April 1961. Following this he visited centers in Argentina, the British Isles, and Cyprus. Although his many duties in the Holy Land included assisting with the pilgrimage program, during 1963-1968 he undertook teaching trips in Turkey, him, East AfXca, and Ethiopia and wrote a pamphlet answering the attacks made on the Bahh'is in his native him. Again in 1973 and 1975 he toured Western Europe and was in k i n for five months in 1974. In 1976 his travels took him to the United States and Canada, India, and Hong Kong. In 1977 he visited England, the United States, Canada, Alaska, Japan, and him and went on to Western Europe in 1978. His travels continued throughout the 1980s, mostly in Europe. But it was not until 1990 that he was able to fulfill his long-held wish to return to Russia, where he visited 'Ishqhbhd, Dushanbe, Samarkand, Mary, Tashkent, Leningrad, and Murmansk and witnessed the re-formation, after a lapse of more than 60 years, of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Moscow. A year later he represented the Universal House of Justice at the election of the first Spiritual Assembly of the Soviet Union and the following year, the Regional Assembly of the Baltic States and the National Spiritual Assembly of the BahB'is of Hungary. During that Holy Year, 1992, he attended the Second Bahh'i World Congress in New York City. He died, as he had lived, in service to the Faith he loved so much. On 27 November 2004, following his custom of meeting visiting pilgrims, his heart gave out as he was leaving the room where he had, seconds before, been talking with them with no sign of illness or undue fatigue. In the words of the Universal House of Justice, in a letter announcing his passing to the Bahh'is of the world, "He had fulfilled his longing to serve the Cause to his last breath." That same letter eulogized him as follows: 'Ali Akbar Funitan's single-minded devotion to the Faith and its Guardian, the vital role he played in the establishment of the Administrative Order in hh, his contribution to the spiritual and material education of children, his services as a Hand of the Cause of God, and his unswerving support of the Universal House of Justice together constitute an
imperishable record of service in the annals of the Cause. His penetrating mind, his loving concern and his sparkling humour are ineffaceable memories in the hearts of the thousands of believers with whom he spoke. . . . We advise friends in all lands to commemorate his passing and to hold memorial services in his honour in all Mahriqu'l-
-
AdhEr.[33:227ffl -
'mi-KULI
(1879-1966). irhian by birth, he was a skilled interpreter and author, as well as a distinguished Persian diplomat, who led a lifetime of service within the Bahb'i community. He visited 'Abdu'l-Bahh in the Holy Land in 1899 and served as His amanuensis for over a year. In 1901 'Abdu'l-BahB sent him to America to serve as interpreter for Mirzai Abu'l-Fagl-i-Gulpaiygaini. In 1902 he became secretary to the Persian minister in Washington, D.C. In 1906 he journeyed with his wife, Florence Breed Khan, to Persia and returned to Washington as consul-general. In 1910-1 9 1 1 he was appointed chief diplomatic representative and chargC d'affaires in Washington. In 1912 he extended a befitting welcome to 'Abdu'lBahb during His visit to America. From 1921 to 1923 he was chief minister of the Crown Prince Regent's Court in Tihrain and was then appointed minister plenipotentiary of the Five Republics of the Caucasus. He was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of 92:48fflHe was the United States and Canada in 1925 and 1926.[13:351, responsible for the translation of a great many of the early English renditions of BahB'i works (sometimes under the nom de plume Eshte'al al-Ebn Kalhter [Ishti'al Ibn-i-Kalhtar]) or in cooperation with his daughter, Marzieh Gail.[48:5271
mi MUHAMMAD VARQA. See VARQA, ' A L ~MU-.
A L L ~ I ' u ' A B ~ "God . is Most Glorious, God is All-Glorious." Used as a greeting among BahB'is. See also GREATEST NAME. ALLAH'U'AKBAR. "God is Most Great." Muslim salutation and opening words of the call to prayer, superseded by Allaih'u'Abhai as a greeting among the Bahh'is during the Adrianople p e r i ~ d . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] " ALLEN, JOHN WILLIAM (1907-1980). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An American believer who in 1954 pioneered with his wife (Valera)
to Swaziland, for which they were designated Knights of Bahi'u'llhh. He served as a member of the Regional National Spiritual Assembly of Southern Africa; later he served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Swaziland. While visiting Haifa he assisted Ugo Giachery in driving the stakes and stretching the strings to lay out the location of the International Archives Building on Mount Carmel (the first building to form part of the Arc). In 1954 he was in the first contingent to be appointed Auxiliary Board members (serving for Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, and Mozambiq~e).[l~:~~~] ALMOND, MAYSIE (d. 1960)AND PERCY MEADE (18961970). The Almonds were the first two believers in South Australia (1923). M a y ~ i e [ ' ~served : ~ ~ ~as ] a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Adelaide; served on the first National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand (1934). ALTASS, FLORENCE ELIZABETH (18841982). An early British believer who embraced the Faith in her early teens. In 1913 while on a visit to Edinburgh she attended a Bahi'i meeting in the home of Dr. and Mrs. Alexander Whyte, where she met 'Abdu'l-Bahii (who was a guest in the Whytes' home). This single meeting with 'Abdu'l-Bahi formed the theme of many poems she wrote during her life. Following nursing care training she found work in the Austrian Imperial Court of the House of Habsburg as a nurse to a lady-in-waiting. As time passed she became well liked by the Archduke Franz-Ferdinand and the Archduchess and was able to share with them many "Bahi'i ideas." She served in later life as a member of the local Spiritual Assemblies of Horsham and Hastings. She was active in the promotion of the Cause throughout her long life.[17:7881 AMANUENSIS. (Secretary.) A person who wrote down or copied the Words revealed by the Biib, Bahii'u'lliih, and 'Abdu'l-Bahii. 'AMATU'L-BAHA. Maidservant of Bahi.[18:7351m 'AMATU'L-BAIL& R U H ~ -UHM (19162000).[29:167ff1 (NBe Mary Sutherland Maxwell, wife of Shoghi RabbhdShoghi Effendi; known publicly as Madame Rabbtid; Hand of the Cause of God.) Born in Canada in 1910 to William Sutherland Maxwell and May Ellis Bolles Maxwell, she had the most illustrious of Bahi'i parents.
From her earliest childhood she was active in teaching the Faith. She was two years old when 'Abdu'l-Bahh was a guest in her parent's home, 7 16 Pine Avenue, Montreal, Canada (now 1548 Pine Avenue). At the age of nine she was one of several youths chosen to read portions of the first and second Tablets to Canada of the Tablets of the Divine Plan to the 1919 Annual Convention in New Y ~ r k . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ l ] She made two pilgrimages, once in 1923 with her mother and She : ' ~made ~] a again three years later with friends of her m ~ t h e r . [ ~ ~ third life-changing pilgrimage in 1937. It was during this visit that Shoghi Effendi asked Mrs. Maxwell for her daughter's hand in marriage. The marriage took place on 25 March 1937. Ri&iyyih Uhum describes it in these words: No one, with the exception of his parents, my parents and a brother and two sisters of his living in Haifa, knew it was to take place. He felt strongly urged to keep it a secret, knowing from past experience how much trouble any major event in the Cause invariably stirred up. It was therefore a stunning surprise to both the servants and the local Bahi'is when his chauffeur drove him off, with me beside him, to visit the Holy Tomb of Bahh'u'llhh on the afternoon of 25 March 1937. . . . When we arrived at Bahji and entered the Shrine he requested me to give him his ring, which I was still wearing concealed about my neck, and this he placed on the ring-finger of my right hand, the same finger that corresponded to the one of his own on which he himself had always worn it. This was the only gesture he made. He entered the inner Shrine, beneath the floor of which Bahi'u'llih is interred, and gathered up in a handkerchief all the dried petals and flowers that the keeper of the Shrine used to take from the threshold and place in a silver receptacle at the feet of Bahi'u'llih. After he had chanted the Tablet of Visitation we came back to Haifa and in the room of the Greatest Holy Leaf our actual marriage took place. . . . Except for this visit, the day he told me he had chosen to confer this great honour on me, and one or two brief moments in the Western Pilgrim House when he came over for dinner, I had never been alone with the Guardian. There was no celebration, no flowers, no elaborate ceremony, no wedding dress, no reception. His mother and father, in compliance with the laws of Bahi'u'llih, siplied their consent by signing our marriage certificate and then I went back to the Western Pilgrim House across the street and joined my parents (who had not been present at any of these events), and Shoghi Effendi went to attend to his own affairs. At dinner-time, quite as usual, the Guardian appeared, showering his love and congratulations on my mother and father. He took the handkerchief, full of such precious flowers, and with his inimitable smile gave them to my mother, saying he had brought them for her from the inner Shrine of
Bahii'u'llfth. My parents also signed the marriage certificate and after dinner and these events were over I walked home with Shoghi Effendi, my suitcases having been taken across the street by Fujita while we were at dinner. We sat for a while with the Guardian's family and then went up to his two rooms which the Greatest Holy Leaf had had built for him so long ago. The quietness, the simplicity, the reserve and dignity with which this marriage took place did not signify that the Guardian considered it an unimportant event-on the contrary. Over his mother's signature, but drafted by the Guardian, the following cable was sent to America: "Announce Assemblies celebration marriage beloved Guardian. Inestimable honour conferred upon handmaid of Bahi'u'llhh R*iyyih Khcinum Miss Mary Maxwell. Union of East and West proclaimed by Bahi'i Faith cemented. Ziioullhh mother of Guardian." A telegram similar to this was sent to Persia. This news, so long awaited, naturally produced great rejoicing amongst the Bahi'is, and messages flooded in to Shoghi Effendi fiom all parts of the ~ o r l d . [ ~ ~ : l ~ ~ ] On 28 March 1937 the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada cabled "Joyously Acclaim Historic Event so Auspiciously Uniting in Eternal Bond the Destiny of East and West." Shoghi Effendi himself replied formally, "Deeply moved your message. Institution Guardianship, head cornerstone Administrative Order Cause Bahb'u'llhh, already ennobled through its organic connection with Persons of Twin Founders Bahb'i Faith, is now M e r reinforced through direct association with West and particularly with American believers, whose spiritual destiny is to usher in World Order Bahii'u'llhh. For my part desire congratulate community American believers on acquisition tie vitally binding them to so weighty an organ of their Faith."[57:691 'Amatu'l-Bahb R@iyyih Uhum wrote that "although I was from the West Shoghi Effendi desired me to fit into the pattern of the life in his house--which was a very oriental one--as naturally and inconspicuously as possible and I was only too happy to comply with his wishes in every This could not have been an easy transition, and it is undoubtedly a testament to her faith, strength of character, and deep and abiding love for her husband that she adjusted to life in an oriental household. Apart from accompanying Shoghi Effendi when he traveled overseas, she remained in Haifa at his side. Moreover, until his death in 1957 she served not only as his secretary and trusted confidant, but in Shoghi Effendi's own words, his "helpmate," "shield," and "tireless collaborator in the arduous tasks I sho~lder."[~~:~~1
On 9 January 1951 the International BahP'i Council was appointed by Shoghi Effendi with 'Amatu'l-Bahh R3iyyih B h u m as liaison member between Shoghi Effendi and the Council. On 26 March, 1952, following the death of her father, she was appointed, in his stead, a Hand of the Cause: "With sorrowful heart announce through national assemblies that Hand of Cause of Baha'u'llhh, highly esteemed, dearly beloved Sutherland Maxwell, has been gathered into the glory of the Abhh Kingdom. . . . The mantle of Hand of Cause now falls upon the shoulders of his distinguished daughter, 'Amatu'l-Baha R3iyyih Khhum, who has already rendered and is still rendering manifold no less meritorious self-sacrificing services at World Center of Faith of B&a~u~llfi."[35:167] Among her first tasks as a Hand was attending the Intercontinental Teaching Conference in Chicago-Wilmette, Illinois, April-May 1953 as Shoghi Effendi's representative. After his passing, she fulfilled his wish that she should be his representative at the second Intercontinental Conference in Kampala, Uganda, in January 1958. After the death of Shogh~Effendi in 1957until the election of the Universal House of Justice in April 1963, she was a member of the Nine Hands of the Cause resident in the Holy Land and continued to live in the Haparsim Street, Haifa, home of 'Abdu'l-Baha until her own death in 2000. A year after Shoghi Effendi's passing she supervised the construction of the monument at his grave in the New Southgate Cemetery, London. During this period she began to attend a series of meetings as representative of the World Centre of the Faith: conference of European Hands of the Cause, Copenhagen, 1959; conventions of United States and Canada, 1960; dedication of Bahi'i Houses of Worship, Kampala, in January and Sydney, Australia, in September 1961. She toured centers in Uganda, Kenya, and Tanganyika, in January-February 1961, and centers in Australia, Malaya, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Burma, in Septemberactober 1961. She attended the European Hands of the Cause conference in Luxembourg, December 1962. She traveled almost unceasingly, bringing the Message of Bahb'u'llhh and the love of Shoghi Effendi to as many of the world peoples as possible--from the highest in the land to the most primitive of villagers in the remotest of areas. Notable among these travels were trips to India, Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, Africa, Europe, and Central and South America. She visited places where neither Baha'i teachers nor Hands of the Cause had been. Commencing in February 1964 she traveled almost 55,000 miles in nine months in India. This took her to all but three states and included visits to some remote
and almost extinct tribes; she was also received by the president, the prime minister and many notables, distinguished officials, and leaders of thought. She also attended several conventions and broke off her visit to the Indian subcontinent to attend the dedication of the Mother Temple (Mahriqu'l-AmkPr) of Europe in Frankfurt, Germany, in July. In 1967 she visited Sikkim, India, and the Indian Ocean islands of Reunion, Madagascar, and Mauritius, and in 1972 she visited the Seychelles. During this period she also attended the Intercontinental Conference in Panama (1967), after which she spent seven months visiting the tribal areas of Panama, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Venezuela, Colombia, and Brazil. These trips often took place under the most arduous conditions, including transport by truck or jeep, on foot or horseback, along tortuous mountain trails at high altitudes, sometimes in rain and mud, often sleeping in the most primitive houses in hammocks or on the floor. In 1968 she visited Surinam and Guyana. From 1970 to 1973 she made four journeys throughout Africa, which became known as "The Great Safari." Interrupted only by visits to other parts of the world to attend functions of historic importance to the Bahi'i world, she visited most parts of East, West, South, and Central Africa. She was by then in her midsixties and drove her Land Rover for well over half of the 36,000 miles of her journeys. It was during this period that she penned the series of poems, perhaps best described as a crie-de-coeur expression of her grief at the passing of her husband and Guardian, later published as Poems of the Between 1973 and 1976, she visited India, Bangladesh, Burma, Hong Kong, the United States, and Canada. In 1975-1976, showing characteristic courage and audacity, at the age of 73, by which time she had already visited 109 countries, she was accompanied by a team of filmmakers on her epic voyage up the tributaries of the Amazon Basin and onward to the mountains ranges of Peru and Bolivia to visit the indigenous tribes of those regions. The film of this arduous and undoubtedly dangerous trip was later released as a two-hour documentary, The Green Light Expedition, with English, Spanish, and Persian commentaries. In August 1976 she attended the largest International Conference to date when over 6,000 Bahi'is met in Paris. After this she spent some time in Bermuda and in 1977 returned to India, followed by visits to Australia and an eight-month round-the-world trip culminating with a nine-week tour of Australasia, when she represented the Universal House of Justice at the laying of the foundation stone of the Bahi'i House of Worship in Samoa.
Her travels continued, and in 1980 she visited Europe and Canada, where she directed, edited, and narrated a two-hour documentary film she had written entitled The Pilgrimage, an attempt on her part to allow those unable to undertake an actual pilgrimage to the Holy Land to view vicariously several of the Holy Places as well as several precious archives in her personal care. January 1981 found her attending a conference for members of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Panama followed by a tour of Central America and the Caribbean, where she was received by many dignitaries and a host of tribal villagers. She then completed an almost one-year tour of the Americas with a visit to Canada. Commencing 11 August 1982 she went on a tour of Canada, Greenland, and Iceland, where again she was well received by many dignitaries and senior officials and met with many hundreds of North American Indians and Eskimos. After visiting conferences and centers in Europe in mid- 1983, she set out on an extensive tour of Asia and Australasia in April 1984, which included the dedication of the Samoan Temple (Ma~fiqu'l-Auiir).In January 1985, after more visits to South America and Panama, she was in New York by 22 November to present the newly released "peace statement," entitled The Promise to the secretary-general of the United Nations. of World In 1988, at the age of 78, she undertook a grand tour of China and Mongolia. In 1992 she visited the republics of the USSR. Throughout her travels, in her lectures, and using her personal funds, she actively campaigned for the protection of the environment. She associated with the top officials of the World Wide Fund for Nature, and at St. James's Palace, London, on 28 July 1994 she shared the platform with HRH The Duke of Edinburgh at a World Forestry Charter gathering. Her books include the insightful study of her husband's life and and its sister volumes, The Guardmission, The Priceless ian of the Baha'i Faith;Ls71Twenty-jive Years of and her compilations of the letters and cables of the Hands of the Cause of God during the interregnum years, The Ministry of the Custodians. 1957-1 963.[591 As the "First Lady" of the Bahh'i Faith, she continued to travel from the Holy Land to attend special historic gatherings and to teach and proclaim the Faith of Bahh'u'llhh until near the end of her long life. She passed away on 19 January 2000 in the Haparsim Street, Haifa House of 'Abdu'l-Bahh that had been her home since her marriage to Shoghi Effendi in 1937. On her passing the Universal House
of Justice issued the following message to the Bahb'is of the world on 19 January 2000: In the early hours of this morning, the soul of 'Amatu'l-Bahi Rfihiyyh Khhum, beloved consort of Shoghi Effendi and the Bahi'i world's last remaining link with the family of 'Abdu'l-Bahii, was released from the limitations of this earthly existence. In the midst of our grief, we are sustained by our confidence that she has been gathered to the glory of the Concourse on High in the presence of the Abhi Beauty. For all whose hearts she touched so deeply, the sorrow that this irreparable loss brings will, in God's good time, be assuaged in awareness of the joy that is hers through her reunion with the Guardian and with the Master, Who had Himself prayed in the Most Holy Shrine that her parents be blessed with a child. Down the centuries to come, the followers of Bahii'u'llkh will contemplate with wonder and gratitude the quality of the serviceeardent, indomitable, resourceful-that she brought to the protection and promotion of the Cause. In her youth, 'Amatu'l-Bahii had already distinguished herself through her activities in North America, and later, both with her dear mother and on her own, she had rendered valuable service to the Cause in Europe. Her twenty years of intimate association with Shoghi Effendi evoked from his pen such accolades as "my helpmate," "my shield," "my tireless collaborator in the arduous tasks I shoulder." To these tributes he added in 1952 his decision to elevate her to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God, after the death of her illustrious father. The devastating shock of the beloved Guardian's passing steeled her resolve to lend her share, with the other Hands of the Cause, to the triumph of the Ten Year Crusade, and subsequently to undertake, with characteristic intrepidity, her historic worldwide travels. A life so noble in its provenance, so crucial to the preservation of the Faith's integrity, and so rich in its dedicated, uninterrupted and selfless service, moves us to call for befitting commemorations by Bahi'i communities on both national and local levels, as well as for special gatherings in her memory in all Houses of Worship. With yearning hearts, we supplicate at the Holy Threshold for idnite heavenly bounties to surround her soul, as she assumes her rightful and well-earned position among the exalted company in the Abhi Kingdom.
She was interred opposite the House of 'Abdu'l-Bahii in a plot adjacent to the Western Pilgrim House. In a tribute published in The Bahh 'i World 199%2000,[29:167fflMrs. Violette N a a v i i n i summarized her funeral proceedings: "Her funeral was held in the central hall of the Master's House. The two Hands of the Cause were present, together with members of the Universal House of Justice, the
Counsellor members of the International Teaching Centre, and twenty-four Continental Counsellors from all over the world. Also attending were her family members and representatives from seventysix National Spiritual Assemblies, senior officials from the Canadian and United States embassies, representatives of the Israeli government, the mayors of Haifa and Acre, other prominent Israeli citizens, and special invited guests. Following the readings and the chanting of the Prayer for the Dead, she left for the last time that house which she had entered as a bride sixty-three years before. Her c o f i was carried out by members of the Universal House of Justice, then borne across the street and lowered into its vault by believers representing a variety of ethnic origins. Almost one thousand people, including pilgrims and volunteers serving at the Bahii'i World Centre, stood outside her home, in the closed-off street and in the garden where her grave had been prepared. The interior of the grave was carpeted on all sides with hundreds of roses and carnations, just as she had arranged for her beloved Shoghi Effendi forty-two years before. And as the rain poured down, more prayers were recited and chanted before her casket was lowered into the ground. The rainstorm that began the night she passed away finally subsided to a drizzle as her precious remains were laid to re~t."[~~:l"fl AMIH. Maid (servant), handmaiden. 'Amatu'l-Bahai Rlihiyyih Khainum-Maidservant of Bahai. 'Amatu'lliih-Handmaiden of God.[l7:8971"
&.
Faithful, trustworthy, honest; t r ~ s t e e . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] "
AM~N-I-AM~N (d. 1938). (Trustee of the trustees; trustee of the Huqliqu'llhh.) Mirzii Ghulh~-Ridii.[~~:~~, 97:2631 A M k . Prince, ruler; commander,
ANCIENT BEAUTY. A title of Bahai'u'llaih. ANCIENT COVENANT (OR GREATER COVENANT). God's promise to His creation, humankind, that He will never leave them without guidance. See also COVENANT; MANIFESTATION OF GOD; PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. ANCIENT OF DAYS. A title designating God.
ARC
27
MS.Literally companion, friend, a s ~ o c i a t e . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] " MS.(Martyr.) Appellation given by the B i b to MirzP Muhammad'Aliy-i-Zun6n', [37:521 the youthful disciple who shared His martyrdom.[18:7351m See also BAB, MARTYRDOM OF.
. of the Faith.) While in His APOSTLES OF B A ~ % & ' u ' L L ~(Pillars 'Abdu'l-BahP addressed the Bahb'is Tablets of the Divine of North America and referred to them as "Apostles of Bahb'u'llhh," Shoghi Effendi listed 19 distinguished early ir6nian Baha'is as "Pillars of the Faith" or "Apostles of Bahii'u'lliih," and it is to these the title is normally applied. Refer to appendix 6 for a list of apostles. APPA, SEEWOOSUMBUR JEEHOBA (1912-1981). A Mauritian believer (1956) who served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Vacoas and in 1964 was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Indian Ocean. That same year he was appointed an Auxiliary Board member for the Indian Ocean region, and in 1968 he was made a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for the South African Zone.[17:7541 AQA. (Master; the master.) Title given by Bahii'u'lliih to 'Abdu'l-Bahii. Also used preceding a name in an honori6c sense: Mister, Sir.[18:7351m AQA B U Z U R G - ISee -N BAD^'. ~~M.
AQA HUSAYN-I-IQFAHAN~.See M I ~ K ~ N - Q A L A M .
AQA ~h-I--s~H. The Muslim colonel of the bodyguard who commanded the regiment that carried out the execution of the Bib. MARTYRDOM , OF. See also ~ h AQDAS. Most holy. See also IUT~B-I-AQDAS.[~~:~~~~" ARC (ARK). A section of the nine concentric circles around the Holy Remains of the Biib entombed in the Shrine of the Bab on Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel, designated by Bahii'u'lliih as the site on which the Baha'i World Administrative Order should be situated. It is composed of five buildings with the Seat of the Universal House of Justice at its apex, flanked on either side by the International Teaching Centre, the Centre for the Study of the Texts, the International
28
ARK
Archives Building, and the International Bahai'i Library. The Arc encircles the Shrine of the Bhb (and of 'Abdu'l-Bahai) as its focal point and includes within its circumference the Monuments of the Greatest Holy Leaf, her mother (Nawaib), and her younger brother, the Purest Branch QWrzai M i h d Q and, slightly lower in that same area, the wife of 'Abdu'l-Bahii, Munirih m i i n u r n . Shoghi Effendi described the sigmficance of the Arc in these words: These Edifices will, in the shape of a far-flung arc, and following a harmonizing style of architecture, surround the resting-places of the Greatest Holy Leaf, ranking as foremost among the members of her sex in the Bahii'i Dispensation, of her Brother, offered up as a ransom by Bahh'u'llfi for the quickeningof the world and its unification,and of their Mother, proclaimed by Him to be His chosen "consort in all the worlds of God." The ultimate completion of this stupendousundertaking will mark the culmination of the development of a world-wide divinely-appointed Administrative Order whose beginnings may be traced as far back as the concluding years of the Heroic Age of the Faith. For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the FormativeAge."] This vast and irresistible process, unexampled in the spiritual history of mankind, and which will synchronize with two no less significant developments-the establishment of the Lesser Peace and the evolution of Bahh'i national and local institutions-the one outside and the other within the Bahh'i world-will attain its final consummation, in the Golden Age of the Faith, through the raising of the standard of the Most Great Peace, and the emergence, in the plenitude of its power and glory, of the focal Center of the agencies constituting the World Order of Bahh'u'llhh. The final establishment of this seat of the future Bahir'i World Commonwealth will signalize at once the proclamation of the sovereignty of the Founder of our Faith and the advent of the Kingdom of the Father repeatedly lauded and promised by Jesus Christ. This World Order will, in turn, in the course of successive Dispensations of the Bahb'i Cycle, yield its fairest h i t through the birth and flowering of a civilization, divinely inspired, unique in its features, world-embracing in its scope, and hdamentally spiritual in its character-a civilization destined as it unfolds to derive its initial impulse from the spirit animating the very institutions which, in their embryonic state, are now stirring in the womb of the present Formative Age of the Faith.[38:741 With the completion of its sister project, the Terraces and Gardens, in May 2001, the instructions inherent in the Tablet of Carmel in respect to the Arc were fulfilled.
ARK. See ARC.
ARMSTRONG, LEONORA STIRLING (1895-1980). (Holsapple; Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahii; Herald of the Kingdom.) An early American believer who, following the death of her mother in 1890, was raised by her grandmother, who taught her the Faith. Following the to the 1919 Bahi'i conunveiling of the Tablets of the Divine vention in New York, she wrote to 'Abdu'l-Bahi offering her services in the pioneering field. She shared the Tablet she received by way of reply from 'Abdu'l-Bahii with Miss Martha Root, who promptly urged her to go to Brazil (where Miss Root had been the first Bahi'i visitor in 1919). Miss Armstrong arrived in Rio de Janeiro in February 1921 and immediately moved to Santos, just south of Rio. Three months after her arrival in Santos she received a second Tablet from 'Abdu'l-Bahi (written just before His passing) in which He referred to her as a "Herald of the Kingdom." It was addressed with nothing more than "Brazil. To the Maidservant of God, Leonora Stirling Holsapp1e"-somehow it was delivered to her! For the next six decades she traveled extensively throughout Brazil. She established the Faith in Rio de Janeiro and SZio Paulo. In 1927 she became the first Bahi'i to visit and proclaim the Cause in Colombia, Venezuela, Curaqao, Trinidad, Barbados, Haiti, and British Guiana. She translated a large volume of Bahi'i literature and Writings into Portuguese and later into Spanish. In 1941 she married an Englishman, Harold Armstrong, who joined her in her efforts to promote the Cause. In 1973 she was appointed a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in South America. According to 'Amatu'l-Bahii Rtihiyyih KJiinum, Shoghi Effendi considered Leonora "as one of the Faith's most outstanding and most distinguished believers in the W e ~ t . " [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ARNADOTTIR, H O L M F R ~ U R (1873-1955). The first (1924) and, during her lifetime, the only Bahi'i in Iceland. She translated Bahri 'u 'llrih and the New Era into I c e l a n d i ~ . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ARPUSHANA, FRANCISCO PIMIENTA (d. 1966). (First Guajiro Martyr.) An Indian of the Guajiro area of Colombia, he was the chief of the Arpushana clan and embraced the Cause in 1964. Sadly, he was murdered in 1966 for his efforts to bring peace and harmony to the clans in the area.[13:3191
b
~
~
m
~
~
~
DIA~U'LLAH (1880-1956). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An early Persian believer who made his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1903. At that time he brought with him a silk carpet that 'Abdu'l-Bahii laid in the Inner Shrine of Bahii'u'lliih.
~
During the time of Shoghi Effendi, with Dii'u'llih's approval, the carpet was presented to the Wilmette Temple (Ma&riqu'l-Amkiir) in Illinois, where it now hangs in Foundation Hall. Following his second pilgrimage, Dii'u'lliih pioneered to Great Britain fiom 1925 to 1940; for 14 years he served there on the National Spiritual Assembly. He again pioneered during the Ten Year Crusade to Jersey (for which service he received the title Knight of B a h i ' ~ ' l l i h ) . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ASMH ~ A N U MSee . NAWAB.
ASSEMBLY. An essential institution of the Baha'i Administrative Order composed of nine adult Bahi'is, this body is elected annually by secret ballot, without nomination or electioneering, by adult Bahi'i community believers (those aged 21 years or older). Assemblies function at both local (local Spiritual Assembly), national (National Spiritual Assembly) and, in some instances, Regional National Spiritual Assembly levels. In the future these Assemblies will be known as Houses of Justice. ASSISTANTS TO THE AUXILIARY BOARD. See AUXILIARY BOARDS, ASSISTANTS TO THE. AUGUR, GEORGE JACOB (1853-1927) AND RUTH (d. 1936). A homeopathic physician by profession, George lived with his wife, Ruth, in Oakland, California, before moving to Honolulu. Ruth's sister, Mrs. Otis, heard of the Faith from Elizabeth Muther in 1904 and then spent some time with Helen Goodall while in Oakland. She embraced the Cause on her return to Honolulu and held regular Bahi'i meetings at her home. Soon afterward George and Ruth became Bahi'is. When Mrs. Otis left Hawaii early in 1907, the Augurs' held Bahi'i meetings in their home. George began a correspondence with 'Abdu'l-Bahii in early 1909, and during the following years he was encouraged to visit Japan to try to establish the Faith in that land. Several Bahi'is had been to Japan, but when George went there in May 1914 and stayed for 10 months, he became the first resident Bahi'i. On 6 November 1914 Agnes Alexander joined him, and a week later they held the first Bahi'i meeting in that country, with three other people in attendance. He returned to Honolulu in April 1915 and stayed there for six months, and then they returned together on 12 October 1915. The Augurs received several letters from 'Abdu'l-Bahi paying tribute to their sewices in
AUSTIN, ELSIE HELEN
31
Hawaii and Japan as well as their dedicated efforts to hold regular meetings in their home (a practice that continued until 1927, when George retired due to ill health). He passed away following a stroke at the age of 73 on 14 September 1927. Ruth remained constant in her service to the Faith until her death in Oakland, California, on 21 April 1936.
AUSTIN, ELSIE HELEN (1908-2004). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) A Bahh'i pioneer, diplomat, administrator, and distinguished lawyer, she was the first black woman graduate of the law school at the University of Cincinnati and in 1937 became the first black woman to serve as assistant attorney general in Ohio. She became a Bahi'i in the mid-1930s. During these years she rose through positions of increasing responsibility within the District of Columbia and the U.S. government. From 1939 to 1944, served as national president of Delta Sigma Theta, a public service sorority. Her Bahi'i service included membership of the local Spiritual Assembly of Cincinnati. In 1945 she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada. In 1953 she went on pilgrimage and met Shoghi Effendi. On returning to the United States she resigned from the National Spiritual Assembly to fulfill a pioneer goal of the Ten Year Crusade. She amved in Morocco in May 1953 and in so doing earned the title Knight of Bahh'u'llhh for that country. She was elected to the first local Spiritual Assembly of Tangiers. She was appointed a member of the first contingent of Auxiliary Board members. She assisted Hand of the Cause of God Mush Banhni and served in that capacity for 4 years. In 1956 she was elected to the Regional Spiritual Assembly of North and West A£iica, serving on that body until ill health necessitated her return to the United States in 1958. In 1960 she returned to A£iica, this time settling briefly in Nigeria and then Kenya. During the next 10 years she worked as a foreign service officer for the U.S. InformationAgency. She retired from her government position in 1969 and resettled in suburban Washington, D.C. It was around this time that she received honorary doctoral degrees in recognition of her services fiom the University of Cincinnati and Wilberforce University. In 1971 she moved to the Bahi'i World Centre to assist in a research project. In 1977-1978 she again pioneered to the Bahamas. In the later years of her life she served as a member of the board of trustees of the Huququ'llaih. On her passing in October 2004 the Universal House of Justice sent the following message to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States:
32
AUXILIARY BOARDS
We grieve at the passing of dearly loved, keen-sighted, stalwart promoter and defender of the Cause of God Elsie Austin. Having distinguished herself in her early Bahir'i career by outstanding administrative services in North America, she arose in response to the Guardian's call for pioneers during the Ten Year Global Crusade and earned the accolade of Knight of Bahft'u'lliih for Morocco. We recall with deep admiration her wise and cligmiied teaching and proclamation initiatives on both continents. The shining example of her sacrificial life will remain a source of inspiration to her fellow believers for generations to come.
AUXILIARY BOARDS. An institution of the appointed arm of the Bahi'i Administrative Order created by Shoghi Effendi in 1954 to assist the Hands of the Cause: Call upon fifteen Hands fiom five continents, by virtue of their supreme function as chosen instruments for the propagation of the Faith, to inaugurate historic mission through the appointment, during Ridvan 1954, of four auxiliary boards one each continent, of nine members each, who will, as their adjuncts, or deputies, and working in conjunction with the various National Assemblies functioning on each continent, assist, through periodic systematic visits to Bahi'i centers, in the efficient, prompt execution of the twelve projected National
In 1968 the Universal House of Justice created the institution of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and placed the Auxiliary Boards under their direct jurisdiction. The Counsellors were authorized to appoint Auxiliary Board members on a geographical basis. In 1973 the Universal House of Justice extended further authority allowing Auxiliary Board members to appoint Assistants. Each geographical area normally has two Boards, one for "Propagation" and one for "Protection." The main responsibility of the propagation Board members is to encourage individual Bahi'is, local Spiritual Assemblies, and Groups in their teaching work, in the achievement of the goals of their plans and in their contributions to Baha'i funds. Protection Board members are mainly concerned with the protection of the Faith £rom attack by those who are not Bahi'is or are Covenant breakers. They are also responsible for assisting believers to deepen in their Bahi'i knowledge and loyalty to the Covenant and to promote the unity of Bahi'i communities. They do not become involved in the administrative decision making or pass judgments, though they may give advice and mature counsel. In exceptional instances only are they permitted to be members of local or National Spiritual Assemblies; if elected to a National Spiritual Assembly
they must choose between being an Assembly or a Board member. If elected to the Universal House of Justice they cease to be members of the Board. AUXILIARY BOARDS, ASSISTANTS TO THE. As their title indicates, they assist Auxiliary Board members in the discharge of their duties. This branch of the learned arm (see ADMINISTRATIVE was created by the Universal House of Justice ORDER, ~Al%4'i) on 7 October 1973: We have decided to take a M e r step in the development of the institution by giving to each ContinentalBoard of Counsellors the discretion to authorize individual Auxiliary Board members to appoint assistants. Such authorization does not have to be given to all the Auxiliary Board members in a zone nor does the number assigned have to be the same for all Board members; indeed certain Boards of Counsellors may decide that the present circumstances in their zones do not require them to take advantage of this possibility. Such matters are left entirely to the discretion of each Continental Board of Counsellors. The exact nature of the duties and the duration of the appointment of the assistants is also left to each Continental Board to decide for itself. Their aims should be to activate and encourage Local Spiritual Assemblies, to call the attention of local Spiritual Assembly members to the importance of holding regular meetings, to encourage local communities to meet for the Nineteen Day Feasts and Holy Days, to help deepen their fellow-believers' understanding of the Teachings, and generally to assist the Auxiliary Board members in the discharge of their duties. Appointments may be made for a limited period, such as a year or two, with the possibility of reappointment. Believers can serve at the same time both as assistants to Auxiliary Board members and on administrative i n s t i t u t i o n ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
AUXILIARY LANGUAGE. See INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE.
A Y ~ ILiterally . hands; Hands of the C a u ~ e . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] "
AWAM-I-HA.
The name given to the four Intercalary Days (five in a leap year), which fall just before the last month in the year in the Bahh'i calendar. The four or five days are devoted to spiritual preparation for the Fast, for extending hospitality, feasting, charitable works, and gift giving.
AZAL, IW~RZA Y ~ A See . M~RZAYAWA AZAL. AzAL~s. Followers of Mirzii Yahyii Azal.
'A?;IM. Literally mighty, great, g l o r i o ~ s . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ~ 'AZiz ISMAYN YAZD~.See YAZD~,'AZiz ISMAYN.
~ h (The . Primal Point;
the Qii'im; the Gate; f$iihibu'z-ZamiinLord of the Age; Baqiyyatu'lliih-Remnant of God.) The Prophet Founder (Manifestation of God) of the Babi Faith. Born in miriiz, iriin, on 20 October 1819 as Siyyid 'Ali M&ammad, He was, as 'Abdu'l-Bahii explains below, raised by His maternal uncle: "The Bab was a young merchant of the Pure Lineage. . . . And when after a few years His father Siyyid M&ammad-Rida died, He was brought up in miriiz in the arms of His maternal uncle Mirza Siyyid 'Ali. On attaining maturity He engaged in trade in Bk&hr, first in partnership with His maternal uncle and afterwards independently. On account of what was observed in Him He was noted for godliness, devoutness, virtue, and piety, and was regarded in the sight of men as so characteri~ed."[l~~:~] He married Uadijih-Bagum in 1842. They had one son, who DECLARATION , OF) that died in infancy. He announced (see ~ h He was the Bab (the Gate) to Mullii Husayn during the night of 22-23 May 1844. The Teachings of this new Revelation inflamed the clergy, and the whole country of iriin was in turmoil. State officials and the religious leaders combined in their attempts to exterminate this new faith that was sweeping the country, and the persecutions intensified almost immediately. The Bib Himself made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where in December 1844 He publicly proclaimed His Station as the Qi'im. After His return to &irk He was arrested, His books and documents were confiscated, and He was subsequently released on the condition that He leave the city. For a time, some three years (18441847), until He was sent to the prison of Miih-KC, He was relatively free to teach His Faith, but the remaining three years of His life were spent
BAB, DECLARATION OF
35
in total captivity. He was in M a - K c for nine months before being sent to the fortress of u i h r i q . (See CONFERENCE OF B A D A B T it was from Chihriq that He was taken to Tabriz for execution. See also BAB, MARTYRDOM OF.) Summarizing this period Shoghi Effendi wrote, The period of the Bib's banishment to the mountains of ~dAirbi~jhn, lasting no less than three years, constitutes the saddest, the most dramatic, and in a sense the most pregnant phase of His six year ministry. It comprises His nine months' unbroken coniinement in the fortress of Mfih-KI~,and His subsequent incarceration in the fortress of C q,h iJr which was interrupted only by a brief yet memorable visit to Tabriz. . . . It corresponds to the most critical stage of the mission of Bahii'u'llfi, during His exile to Adrianople . . . and is paralleled by the darkest days of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's ministry in the Holy Land. . . .&irk had been the memorable scene of the Bib's historic Declaration; I s f f i h had provided Him, however briefly, with a haven of relative peace and security; whilst AdAirbiyjin was destined to become the theater of His agony and martyrdom. These concluding years of His earthly life will go down in history as the time when the new Dispensation attained its 111 stature, when the claim of its Founder was fully and publicly asserted, when its laws were formulated, when the Covenant of its Author was firmly established,when its independence was proclaimed, and when the heroism of its champions blazed forth in immortal glory. For it was during these intensely dramatic, fate-laden years that the full implications of the station of the Bib were disclosed to His disciples, and formally announced by Him in the capital of ~ d A i r b i ~ j i n , in the presence of the Heir to the Throne; that the Persian Bayin, the repository of the laws ordained by the Bib, was revealed; that the time and character of the Dispensation of the "One Whom God will make manifest" were unmistakably determined; that the Conference of Bada&t proclaimed the annulment of the old order; and that the great conflagrations of Mazindarkn, of Nayriz and of Zanjan were kindled.Wl71
See also B h , SHRINE OF; B h , STATION OF. Refer to the introduction for key events associated with His life. ~ h 3 DECLARATION , OF. At two hours and 11 minutes after sunset on the evening of 22 May 1844 Siyyid 'Ali Mdprnmad, the B i b , announced to His visitor, Mull6 Husayn-i-Bhrfuruhi, that He was the Promised One, the QB'im, awaited by Isliun. This date marks the beginning of the Bibi religion, the opening of the Bahi'i Dispensation and of the Bahi'i Era (now commemorated in the Bahi'i
36
~ h DECLARATION , OF
calendar as one of the nine Holy Days when work is suspended.) It is described in the following passage: The opening scene of the initial act of this great drama was laid in the upper chamber of the modest residence of the son of a mercer of a i r & , in an obscure corner of that city. The time was the hour before sunset, on the 22nd day of May, 1844. The participants were the Bib, a twentyfive year old Siyyid, of pure and holy lineage, and the young Mulli Husayn, the first to believe in Him. Their meeting immediately before that interview seemed to be purely fortuitous. The interview itself was protracted till the hour of dawn. The Host remained closeted alone with His guest, nor was the sleeping city remotely aware of the import of the conversation they held with each other. No record has passed to posterity of that unique night save the fragmentary but highly illuminating account that fell fiom the lips of Mu116 Husayn. "I sat spellbound by His utterance, oblivious of time and of those who awaited me," he himself has testified, afler describing the nature of the questions he had put to his Host and the conclusive replies he had received from Him, replies which had establishedbeyond the shadow of a doubt the validity of His claim to be the promised QB'im. . . . Sleep had departed from me that night. I was enthralledby the music of that voice which rose and fell as He chanted; now swelling forth as He revealed verses of the Qayyiimu'l-Asmi, again acquiring ethereal, subtle harmonies as He uttered the prayers He was revealing. . . . "This Revelation," Mulli Husayn has further testified, "so suddenly and impetuously thrust upon me, came as a thunderbolt which, for a time, seemed to have benumbed my faculties. I was blinded by its dazzling splendor and overwhelmed by its crushing force. Excitement, joy, awe, and wonder stirred the depths of my soul. Predominant among these emotions was a sense of gladness and strength which seemed to have transfigured me." A more sigmficant light, however, is shed on this episode, marking the Declaration of the Mission of the Bib, by the perusal of that 'Yirst, greatest and mightiest" of all books in the Bibi Dispensation, the celebrated commentary on the SIMI of Joseph (Qayyhu'l-Asmi), the first chapter of which, we are assured, proceeded, in its entirety, in the course of that night of nights from the pen of its divine Revealer. The description of this episode by Mulli Husayn, as well as the opening pages of that Book attest the magnitude and force of that weighty Declaration. A claim to be no less than the mouthpiece of God Himself, promised by the Prophets of bygone ages; the assertion that He was, at the same time, the Herald of One immeasurably greater than H i m ~ e l f . [ ~ ~ ~ f l Sixteen male searchers and one woman, the poetess Thhirih (who recognized the Bhb in a dream), followed in Mullh Husayn's footsteps
~ h MARTYRDOM , OF
37
and became known as the eighteen Letters of the Living. Shoghi Effendi described the Bib's relationship to them in these words: He enjoined them to observe the utmost caution and moderation in their behavior, unveiled the loftiness of their rank, and stressed the magnitude of their responsibilities. He recalled the words addressed by Jesus to His disciples, and emphasized the superlative greatness of the New Day. He warned them lest by turning back they forfeit the Kingdom of God, and assured them that if they did God's bidding, God would make them His heirs and spiritual leaders among men. He hinted at the secret, and announced the approach, of a still mightier Day, and bade them prepare themselves for its advent. He called to remembrance the triumph of Abraham over Nimrod, of Moses over Pharaoh, of Jesus over the Jewish people, and of Mu?pmmad over the tribes of Arabia, and asserted the inevitability and ultimate ascendancy of His own
B& HOUSE OF. Situated in a i r & , in the Province of Fars, j r h , it was the site wherein the Bsib revealed His Station as the Promised One, the Qsi'im, awaited by I s l h to Mullsi Husayn-i-Bsirfurushi (see ~ hDECLARATION , OF). It was designated by Bahsi'u'llsih, in the Kitrib-i-Aqda~,[~~'~~~] as one of two obligatory sites of pilgrimage (the other being the House of Bahi'u'llih in Baadsid (see B A H ~ U ~ L L A HHOUSE , OF); after the passing of Bahi'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahsi designated Bahi'u'llih's Shrine at Bahji a third place Pilgrimage of pilgrimage (see B ~ ' u ' L L & , SHRINE OF).[71:1911 to any one of the three designated places fulfills believers' obligations in this regard. While designated as obligatory, Bahi'u'llih nonetheless qualifies the requirement with the clause that this should be done only "if one can afford it and is able to do so, and if no obstacle stands in one's In two separate Tablets entitled the Sziriy-i-HUJJ, revealed in Adrianople in 1863, Baha'u'llih prescribed specific rites for this pilgrimage. Pilgrimage to the House of the Bab is currently not possible due to its destruction, for the second time, in 1979 shortly after the Islimic revolution. BAB, MARTYRDOM OF. The execution of the Bib took place at noon on 9 July 1850 in the barrack square of Tabriz, Northern hain. It is commemorated as one of the Nine Holy Days in the Baha'i calendar. Summarizing the scene just prior to His execution, Shoghi Effendi wrote, The waves of dire tribulation that violently battered at the Faith, and eventually engulfed, in rapid succession, the ablest, the dearest and
38
~ h MARTYRDOM , OF
most trusted disciples of the Bib, plunged Him . . . into unutterable sorrow. For no less than six months the Prisoner of mihriq, His chronicler has recorded, was unable to either write or dictate. Crushed with grief by the evil tidings that came so fast upon Him, of the endless trials that beset His ablest lieutenants, by the agonies suffered by the besieged and the shameless betrayal of the survivors, by the woeful afflictions endured by the captives and the abominable butchery of men, women and children, as well as the foul indignities heaped on their corpses, He, for nine days, His amanuensis has affirmed, refused to meet any of His friends, and was reluctant to touch the meat and drink that was offered Him. Tears rained continually fiom His eyes, and profuse expressions of anguish poured forth from His wounded heart, as He languished, for no less than five months, solitary and disconsolate, in His prison. The pillars of His infant Faith had, for the most part, been hurled down at the first onset of the hurricane that had been loosed upon it. Quddus, immortalizedby Him as 1smu'llahi71-&ir (the Last Name of God) . . . such a man had, in the full bloom of his youth, suffered, in . . . B-sh, a death which even Jesus Christ, as attested by Bahi'u'llih, had not faced in the hour of His greatest agony. Mullh Husayn, the first Letter of the Living, surnamed the Bibu'l-Bib (the Gate of the Gate); designated as the "Primal Mirror;" on whom eulogies, prayers and visiting Tablets of a number equivalent to thrice the volume of the Qur'h had been lavished by the pen of the Bib. . . . Such a one had likewise, in the prime of his manhood, died a martyr's death at Tabarsi. Vahid, pronounced in the ~ithb-i-iqhnto be the "unique and peerless figure of his age," a man of immense erudition and the most pre-eminent figure to enlist under the banner of the new Faith, to whose "talents and saintliness," to whose "high attainments in the realm of science and philosophy" the Bib had testified . . . had already, under similar circumstances, been swept into the maelstrom of another upheaval, and was soon to quaff in his turn the cup drained by the heroic martyrs of Mkindarh. Hujjat, another champion of conspicuous audacity, of unsubduable will, of remarkable originality and vehement zeal, was being, swiftly and inevitably, drawn into the fiery furnace whose flames had already enveloped Zanjin and its environs. The Bib's maternal uncle, the only father He had known since His childhood, His shield and support and the trusted guardian of both His mother and His wife, had, moreover, been sundered from Him by the ax of the executioner in Tihrh. No less than half of His chosen disciples, the Letters of the Living, had already preceded Him in the field of martyrdom. Thhirih, though still alive, was courageously pursuing a course that was to lead her inevitably to her doom. . . .A fast ebbing life, so crowded with the accumulated anxieties, disappointments, treacheries and sorrows of a tragic ministry, now moved swiftly towards its climax. The most turbulent period of the Heroic Age of the
~ h MARTYRDOM , OF
39
new Dispensation was rapidly attaining its culmination. The cup of bitter woes which the Herald of that Dispensation had tasted was now full to overflowing. Indeed, He Himself had already foreshadowed His own approaching death. In . . . one of His last works, He had alluded to the fact that the sixth Naw-Rh after the declaration of His mission would be the last He was destined to celebrate on earth. . . . Forty days before His final departure from mhriq He had even collected all the documents in His possession, and placed them, together with His pen-case, His seals and His rings, in the hands of MullP BPqir . . . to deliver them to Bahb'u'llih in Tibrh. [37:49a
The events that occurred at this time are attested by many independent witnesses and described in some detail by Shoghi Effendi: An official . . . had abruptly interrupted the last conversation which the Bib was confidentially having in one of the rooms of the barracks with His amanuensis Siyyid Husayn, and was drawing the latter aside, and severely rebuking him, when he was thus addressed by his Prisoner: "Not until I have said to him all those things that I wish to say can any earthly power silence Me. Though all the world be armed against Me, yet shall it be powerless to deter Me from m l l i n g , to the last word, My intention." To the Christian SPm UPn-the colonel of the Armenian regiment ordered to carry out the execution-who, seized with fear lest his act should provoke the wrath of God, had begged to be released fiom the duty imposed upon him, the Bib gave the following assurance: "Follow your instructions, and if your intention be sincere, the Almighty is surely able to relieve you of your perplexity." . . . S h K h h accordingly set out to discharge his duty. A spike was driven into a pillar which separated two rooms of the barracks facing the square. Two ropes were fastened to it from which the Bib and one of his disciples [see M~RZAM U I ~ A M M A D - ' A L ~ - I - Z ~.Z. ~. were ] separately suspended. The firing squad ranged itself in three files, each of two hundred and fifty men. Each file in turn opened fire until the whole detachment had discharged its bullets. So dense was the smoke fiom the seven hundred and fifty rifles that the sky was darkened. As soon as the smoke had cleared away the astounded multitude of about ten thousand souls, who had crowded onto the roof of the barracks, as well as the tops of the adjoining houses, beheld a scene which their eyes could scarcely believe. The Bib had vanished from their sight! Only his companion remained, alive and unscathed, standing beside the wall on which they had been suspended. The ropes by which they had been hung alone were severed. "The Siyyid-i-Bib has gone from our sight!" cried out the bewildered spectators. A fienzied search immediately ensued. He was found, unhurt and unruffled, in the very room He had occupied the night before, engaged in completing His interrupted conversation with His amanuensis. "I have finished My conversation with
40
~ h MARTYRDOM , OF
Siyyid Husayn" were the words with which the Prisoner, so providentially preserved, greeted the appearance of the f a r r i a - b a M , 'Wow you may proceed to fulfill your intention." Recalling the bold assertion his Prisoner had previously made, and shaken by so stunning a revelation, the far@-bas& quitted instantly the scene, and resigned his post. S h a h , likewise, remembering, with feelings of awe and wonder, the reassuring words addressed to him by the Bab, ordered his men to leave the barracks immediately, and swore, as he left the courtyard, never again, even at the cost of his life, to repeat that act!37:521
Another regiment was called in and the execution carried out: Aq6 Jin-i-Uamsih, colonel of the body-guard, volunteered to replace him. On the same wall and in the same manner the Bab and His companion were again suspended, while the new regiment formed in line and opened fire upon them. This time, however, their breasts were riddled with bullets, and their bodies completely dissected, with the exception of their faces which were but little marred. "0 wayward generation!" were the last words of the Bab to the gazing multitude, as the regiment prepared to fire its volley, "Had you believed in Me every one of you would have followed the example of this youth, who stood in rank above most of you, and would have willingly sacrificed himself in My path. The day will come when you will have recognized Me; that day I shall have ceased to be with you." Nor was this all. The very moment the shots were fired a gale of exceptional violence arose and swept over the city. From noon till night a whirlwind of dust obscured the light of the sun, and blinded the eyes of the people. In S h i r k an "earthquake," foreshadowed in no less weighty a Book than the Revelation of St. John, occurred in 1268 A.H. which threw the whole city into turmoil and wrought havoc amongst its people, a havoc that was greatly aggravated by the outbreak of cholera, by famine and other dictions. In that same year no less than two hundred and fifty of the firing squad, that had replaced S h a h ' s regiment, met their death, together with their officers, in a terrible earthquake, while the remaining five hundred suffered, three years later, as a punishment for their mutiny, the same fate as that which their hands had inflicted upon the Bhb. To insure that none of them had survived, they were riddled with a second volley, after which their bodies, pierced with spears and lances, were exposed to the gaze of the people of Tabriz. The prime instigator of the Bhb's death, the implacableArnirN i z h , together with his brother, his chief accomplice, met their death within two years of that savage
Shoghi Effendi wrote of the closing of the Bhb's Ministry: Thus ended a life which posterity will recognize as standing at the confluence of two universal prophetic cycles, the Adamic Cycle stretching
~ h SHRINE , OF
41
back as far as the first dawnings of the world's recorded religious history and the Bahi'i Cycle destined to propel itself across the unborn reaches of time for a period of no less than five thousand centuries. The apotheosis in which such a life attained its consummation marks, as already observed, the culmination of the most heroic phase of the Heroic Age of the Bahii'i Dispensation. It can, moreover, be regarded in no other light except as the most dramatic, the most tragic event transpiring within the entire range of the first Bahi'i century. Indeed it can be rightly acclaimed as unparalleled in the annals of the lives of all the Founders of the world's existing religious s y s t e m ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
These events were also described by a British diplomat, Martin Sheil, who was present in Persia at the time, and who made a report of the incident to the British Foreign Office on 22 July 1850, which is partially reproduced in appendix 16.
~ h SHRINE , OF. It was in 1891 when Bahh'u'llhh
made one of His few visits to Haifa that He indicated to 'Abdu'l-Bahh the specific location on Mount Carmel where the Remains of the Bbb should be interred. In 1898 'Abdu'l-Bahb gave instructions for the casket that contained the remains of the Bib and His disciple Anis (who was executed with Him) to be brought to ' A M , where it was concealed in the room of the Greatest Holy Leaf in the house of 'Abdu'lltih Pishi. It arrived in January 1899, and later that year 'Abdu'l-Bahi laid the foundation stone for the Shrine. In the meantime, the Bahi'is of Rangoon, Burma, had prepared a marble sarcophagus, which was shipped to Haifa. Afier a great many difficulties, the building was completed in 1909, and on Naw-Ruz the Sacred Remains that "constitute the heart and center of what may be regarded as nine concentric circles9~[35:95~ were entombed with deep emotion by 'Abdu'l-Bahb: On the 28th of the month of Safar 1327 A.H., the day of the first NawR k (1909), which He celebrated after His release fiom His confinement, 'Abdu'l-BahB had the marble sarcophagus transported with great labor to the vault prepared for it, and in the evening, by the light of a single lamp, He laid within it, with His own hands-in the presence of believers from the East and fiom the West and in circumstances at once solemn and moving-the wooden casket containing the sacred remains of the Bib and His companion. When all was finished, and the earthly remains of the Martyr-Prophet of a i r & were, at long last, safely deposited for their everlasting rest in the bosom of God's holy mountain, 'Abdu'l-Baha, Who had cast aside His turban, removed His shoes and thrown off His cloak, bent low over the still open sarcophagus, His silver hair waving about His head and His face transfigured and luminous, rested His forehead on the border
42
~ h STATION , OF
of the wooden casket, and, sobbing aloud, wept with such a weeping that all those who were present wept with Him. That night He could not sleep, so overwhelmed was He with emotion. "The most joyhl tidings is this," He wrote later in a Tablet announcing to His followers the news of this glorious victory, "that the holy, the luminous body of the Bib . . . afier having for sixty years been transferred from place to place, by reason of the ascendancy of the enemy, and from fear of the malevolent, and having known neither rest nor tranquility has, through the mercy of the AbhP Beauty, been ceremoniously deposited, on the day of Naw-Rb, within the sacred casket, in the exalted Shrine on Mt. Carmel." By a strange coincidence, on that same day of Naw-Rb, a cablegram was received from Chicago, announcing that the believers in each of the American centers had elected a delegate and sent to that city . . . and definitely decided on the site and construction of the Mashriqu'l-Amkir. With the transference of the remains of the Bib-Whose advent marks the return of the Prophet Elijah-to Mt. Carmel, and their interment in that holy mountain, not far from the cave of that Prophet Himself, the Plan so gloriously envisaged by Bahi'u'llih, in the evening of His life, had been at last executed, and the arduous labors associated with the early and tumultuous years of the ministry of the appointed Center of His Covenant crowned with immortal success. A focal center of Divine illumination and power, the very dust of which 'Abdu'lBahii averred had inspired Him, yielding in sacredness to no other shrine throughout the Bahii'i world except the Sepulcher of the Author of the Bahi'i Revelation Himself, had been permanently established on that mountain, regarded from time immemorial as
Many years later Shoghi Effendi had three additional rooms added on the south wall. Sutherland Maxwell was asked subsequently to design a superstructure for the building. The design, developed under the guidance of Shoghi Effendi, and a model were completed and displayed in May 1944. Contracts were placed in Italy for granite columns in 1948,and the foundations were completed. Work began on the superstructure in 1949 and was complete by October 1953. The new superstructure was composed of a colonnade and arcade, an octagon above, a drum of the dome with 18 lancet windows, one for each of the Letters of the Living, and crowned with a dome and lantern clothed in golden tiles.
~ h STATION , OF. The station occupied by the B6b and the significance of His appearance is described by Shoghi Effendi as follows: The Bib, acclaimed by Bahi'u'llih as the "Essence of Essences," the "Sea of Seas," the "Point round Whom the realities of the Prophets
~ h STATION , OF and Messengers revolve," '%om Whom God hath caused to proceed the knowledge of all that was and shall be," Whose "rank excelleth that of all the Prophets," and Whose "Revelation transcendeth the comprehension and understanding of all their chosen ones," had delivered His Message and discharged His mission. He Who was, in the words of 'Abdu'l-Baha, the "Morn of Truth" and "Harbinger of the Most Great Light," Whose advent at once signalized the termination of the "Prophetic Cycle" and the inception of the "Cycle of Fulfillment," had simultaneously through His Revelation banished the shades of night that had descended upon His country, and proclaimed the impending rise of that Incomparable Orb Whose radiance was to envelop the whole of mankind. He, as affirmed by Himself, the "Primal Point fiom which have been generated all created things," "one of the sustaining pillars of the Primal Word of God," the "Mystic Fane," the "Great Announcement," the "Flame of that supernal Light that glowed upon Sinai," the "Remembrance of God" concerning Whom "a separate Covenant hath been establishedwith each and every Prophet" had, through His advent, at once ful6lled the promise of all ages and ushered in the consurnmation of all Revelations. He the "Qh'im" [He Who ariseth] promised to the ai'ahs, the "Mihdi" (One Who is guided) awaited by the Sunnis, the "Return of John the Baptist" expected by the Christians, the "U&idar-MW referred to in the Zoroastrian scriptures, the "Return of Elijah" anticipated by the Jews, Whose Revelation was to show forth "the signs and tokens of all the Prophets," Who was to "manifest the perfection of Moses, the radiance of Jesus and the patience of Job" had appeared, proclaimed His Cause, been mercilessly persecuted and died gloriously. The "Second Woe," spoken of in the Apocalypse of St. John the Divine, had, at long last, appeared, and the first of the two "Messengers," Whose appearance had been prophesied in the Qur'in, had been sent down. The first "Trumpet-Blast," destined to smite the earth with extermination, announced in the latter Book, had finally been sounded. "The Inevitable," "The Catastrophe," "The Resurrection," "The Earthquake of the Last Hour," foretold by that same Book, had all come to pass. The "clear tokens" had been "sent down," and the "Spirit" had "breathed," and the "souls" had "waked up," and the "heaven" had been "cleft," and the "angels" had "ranged in order," and the "stars" had been "blotted out," and the "earth" had "cast forth her burden," and "Paradise" had been "brought near," and "hell" had been "made to blaze," and the "Book" had been "set," and the "Bridge" had been "laid out," and the "Balance" had been "set up," and the "mountains scattered in dust." The "cleansing of the Sanctuary," prophesied by Daniel and confirmed by Jesus Christ in His reference to "the abomination of desolation," had been accomplished. The "day whose length shall be a thousand years," foretold by the Apostle of God in His Book, had terminated. The "forty and two months," during which the "Holy
43
City," as predicted by St. John the Divine, would be trodden under foot, had elapsed. The "time of the end" had been ushered in, and the fist of the "two Witnesses" into Whom, "after three days and a half the Spirit of Life fiom God" would enter, had arisen and had "ascended up to heaven in a cloud." The "remaining twenty and five letters to be made manifest," according to I s l h i c tradition, out of the "twenty and seven letters" of which Knowledge has been declared to consist, had been re~ealed.[~~:~~fl
hi. A follower of the Bib; of or pertaining to the Revelation of the Bhb. It was during the latter part of Bahsi'u'llsih's stay in Adrianople that His followers became known as Bahd'is rather than Bhbfs. 'Abdu'l-Bahsi stated that over 20,000 Bhbis were martyred for their faith during this period a l ~ n e [ ~ ~ ~ ~ L after o f ttorture e n at the hands of the Muslim clergy and the irhian government, whose only object was to make them recant their faith.
hi DISPENSATION. The period covering the time £rom the Declaration of the Bsib in May 1844 until the Declaration of Bahsi'u'llsih, during Ridvsin (April) 1863. See also DISPENSATION.
B ~ U 'The Lgate -~ of the hGate: . title of Mull6 H ~ s a y n . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ~ BACKBITING. Any act of slandering, speaking ill of someone behind his or her back. Along with calumny, backbiting is forbidden by Bahsi'~'llsih.[~~:~~] Described by Him as "grievous error. . . inasmuch as backbiting quencheth the light of the heart, and extinguisheth the ~'~~1 commented, "If any soul speak life of the s o ~ l . " [ ~'Abdu'l-Bahsi ill of an absent one, the only resulty'will be that "he will dampen the zeal of the fiends and tend to make them indifferent. For backbiting is divisive."[1~~:2301 BACKWELL, RICHARD (1914-1972). An early (1944) British believer. During the period 1946 to 1950 he pioneered successively to the British cities of Nottingham, Newcastle, Glasgow, and Edinburgh. He served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles from 1947 to 1955. For a number of years he was part-time manager of the British Bahsi'i Publishing Trust, during The which time he compiled Principles of Bah6'i Covenant of Bahd 'u 'l16h,[1021and Pattern of Bah6 'i Life[lo31(his last book, The Christianity of was published posthumously in 1972). He also served as editor of the British Bah6'i Journal on two
separate occasions. In 1951 he (and his wife Vida Johnson) pioneered to British Guiana (now Guyana), where he was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Georgetown, paving the way for the formation of the National Spiritual Assembly of Guyana, Surinam, and French Guiana. In 1961 he returned with his wife to England and in 1963 pioneered to Northern Ireland, where he served on the first Spiritual Assembly of Lame Rural District. In 1963 he was again elected to the British National Spiritual Assembly and served on it until his 93:2701 appointment as Auxiliary Board member in 1968.[14:525, B A D A m . See CONFERENCE OF BADABT.
BAD^'. (Wondefil; Pride of Martyrs; Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh.)
Born liqh Buzurg-i-Ni&fipM, the son of a devoted Bhbi, he was later given the title Badi' (unique, wonderfid) by Bahsi'u'llsih. Reputed to be a wild, unruly youth, he had no interest in his father's affairs until, during the visit to his home of a traveling teacher, Mullii M*ammad-i-Zarandi (Nabfl-i-A'~am),he listened to some verses fiom a long poem by Bahii'u'llih and was so entranced that he devoted the balance of his life to serving Him. After his conversion he set out to visit Him, traveling on foot fiom Mosul to ' A M . It was during this visit that he was chosen to deliver a letter (Tablet) fiom Bahfi'u'llih to Naisiri'd-Din a a i h . Shoghi Effendi describes these events in the following passage: Aq6 Buzurg of Khurirsh, the illustrious "Badi" (Wonderful); converted to the Faith by Nabil; surnamed the "Pride of Martyrs"; the seventeenyear old bearer of the Tablet addressed to Nir~iri'd-Din s & , in whom, as a h e d by Bahir'u'llhh, "the spirit of might and power was breathed," was arrested, branded for three successive days, his head beaten to a pulp with the butt of a rifle, after which his body was thrown into a pit and earth and stones heaped upon it. After visiting Bahir'u'lltih in the barracks, during the second year of His confinement, he had arisen with amazing alacrity to carry that Tablet, alone and on foot, to Tihran and deliver it into the hands of the sovereign. A four months' journey had taken him to that city, and, after passing three days in fasting and vigilance, he had met the Shih proceeding on a hunting expedition to Shimiran. He had calmly and respectfully approached His Majesty, calling out, "0 King! I have come to thee from Sheba with a weighty message"; whereupon at the Sovereign's order, the Tablet was taken from him and delivered to the mujtahids of Tihrh who were commanded to reply to that Epistle--a command which they evaded, recommending instead that the messenger should be put to death. That Tablet was subsequentlyforwarded by the s h h to
46
BAD^' CALENDAR
the Persian Ambassador in Constantinople, in the hope that its perusal by the Sulth's ministers might serve to further inflame their animosity. For a space of three years Bahb'u'llih continued to extol in His writings the heroism of that youth, characterizing the references made by Him to that sublime sacdice as the "salt of My T a b l e t ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1
BAD^' CALENDAR. The calendar originated by the Bib on which the Bahh'i calendar is based. Refer to appendix 14 for a listing of Bahh'i calendar events. ~A-bi, ZS(d. 1937). Named Zih at birth by Bahai'u'llih (in later life called "Mabsoot"-the happy one--by Bahh'u'llhh). Following his arrival in America in 1909 (as a medical student; graduating in 1911), he became associate editor of the Star of the West[lo5, lo61 magazine in 1911, and in later years he prepared the Persian pages section of that same magazine. He remained in America until his death in 1937 in Augusta, He was a stalwart of the community, often consulted and called upon over the years to counter Covenant-breaker activities. Shoghi Effendi sent the following cable on learning of his passing: "Distressed sudden passing dearly beloved Dr. Ba&&di. Loss inflicted national interests faith irreparable. His exemplary faith audacity unquestioning loyalty indefatigable exertion unf~rgettable."[~~~:~~] BA-h. The city in 'Iraiq to which Bahai'u'llaih was exiled fiom irain in 1853 and where He lived until His fkther exile to Turkey in 1863. It was in this city in 1863, in the garden of Najibiyyih, subsequently designated the RiQvin Garden, that He declared publicly that he was the Manifestation of God for this day (see BAHL~TJ'LLAH, DECLARATION OF). The House He occupied while in this city was designated by Him as "the Most Great House" (see HUSAYN~YYIH) and a place of pilgrimage. Shoghi Effendi designated this city as the third holiest city of the Bahh'i ~ o r l d . [ ~See ~ :also ~ ~ BAHL~TJ'LLAH, ] HOUSE OF. BAGUM. Lady (of rank), dame, Begum; placed after a woman's given name, Bagum is a courtesy title comparable with Big.[18:7361m B&. (Glory.) The Greatest Name. A Title by which Bahi'u'llih is known.
~ A H t i ' INTERNATIONAL i COMMUNITY 47
BAHA'~.A follower of Bahh'u'llhh; of, or pertaining to, the Revelation of Bah6'u'llhh. It was first used while Bahh'u'llhh was in exile in A d r i a n ~ p l e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] BAHA'~CENTER. See ~ ~ R A T U ' L - Q U D S . BAHA'~CYCLE. See CYCLE. A period designated to last 5,000 centuries. (For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"; see also BAHA'~DISPENSATION.) BAHA'~DISPENSATION.Although strictly speaking this is the period commencing with the Declaration of Bahh'u'llhh in the Ridvhn Garden, Baadhd (21 April 1863 being the date He announced His Station to a small group of believers, followed on 22 April with the public announcement to the world), it is in fact taken to include the Dispensation of the Bhb and, therefore, begins with His Declaration in May 1884. The Bahh'i Dispensation will last until the advent of the next Manifestation of God, which, according to Bahh'u'llhh, will not happen before the lapse of at least 1,000 y e a r ~ . [ ~ l : ~ ~ ] BAHA'~ERA. The period of the Bahh'i Dispensation that began with the Declaration of the Bhb and will end with the appearance of the next Manifestation of God. Bahh'u'llhh promises that this next appearance will not happen for at least 1,000 years. (For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"; see 'i CYCLE.) also ~ ~ H f kDISPENSATION; BAI%&'~FAITH. The independent world religion founded by Bahh'u'llhh. Refer to appendix 15.
B m i INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY. In a statement issued in 2002, the B W i International Community represented itself as follows: The Baha'i International Community is a non-governmental organization (NGO) that both encompasses and represents the world-wide membership of the Baha'i Faith, including more than five million men and women from over 2,100 ethnic groups and almost every nationality, economic class, trade and profession. There are significant Bahb'i communities in 235 countries and territories, of which 182 are organized as national (or regional) affiliates, with more than 12,500 organized local communities. As an NGO at the United Nations, the Bahb'i
48
~
dINTERNATIONAL i COMMUNITY
International Community is an association of democratically elected national governing bodies known as National Spiritual Assemblies. The Bahi'i International Community has a long history of involvement with international organizations. At League of Nations headquarters in Geneva, an International Bahh'i Bureau, established in 1926, served as a base for Baha'is participating in League activities. In 1945 when the UN Charter was signed in San Francisco, Bahh'i representatives were present. In 1948 the Baha'i International Community registered with the UN as an international non-governmental organization (NGO) and in 1970 was granted consultative status (now called "special" consultative status) with the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). Consultative status with the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) followed in 1976, and with the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) in 1989. Working relations with the World Health Organization (WHO) were also established in 1989. Over the years, the Community has worked closely with the UN Environment Program (UNEP), the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the UN Development Program (UNDP). The Bahb'i InternationalCommunity has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representationsto United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna. In recent years an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office. An Office of Public Information, based at the Bahh'i World Centre in Haifa and with a branch in Paris, disseminates information about the Bahb'i Faith around the world and publishes a quarterly newsletter, ONE COUNTRY. Distributed in English, French, Chinese, Russian, Spanish, and German to readers in over 170 countries, ONE COUNTRY covers social and economic development projects, relations with the United Nations system, and global issues of interest to decision makers.[lo81 The Community's goals and activities are stated as follows: Baha'i communities the world over are engaged in activities to help achieve the humanitarian, social and economic goals set forth in the UN Charter. These activities include, but are not limited to, fostering grass-roots participation in sustainable developmentinitiatives, advancing the status of women, educating children, preventing drug abuse, eliminating racism, and promoting human rights education. Over 1600projects are currently operated by Baha'i communities around the world, including approximately 300 schools owned and operated by Baha'is and at least 400 village tutorial schools. The Baha'i International Community United Nations Office cooperates as an NGO, sharing its experience, and participating in regular
~ A H t i ' INTERNATIONAL i COMMUNITY 49
sessions of such UN bodies as the Commission on Human Rights, the Commission on the Status of Women, the Commission on Social Development, and the Commission on Sustainable Development. According to its most recent quadrennial report to the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) the Community participated in approximately 150 UN-sponsored meetings between January 1994 and December 1997, offering over 80 statements on a wide range of issues. The Bahl'i International Community UN Office was also fully involved, along with a number of its national affiliates, in the recent series of UN world conferences on pressing global issues and in parallel NGO activities. These conferencesincluded the 1990World Summit for Children, the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro, the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, the 1994 Global Conference on Small Island States in Barbados, the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, the 1995 World Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen, the 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, the 1996 UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat 11) in Istanbul, and the 1996 World Food Summit in Rome. The NGO Forums held in conjunction with these UN conferences also drew enthusiastic and substantive Bahir'i participation from all over the world. In its relations with the United Nations, the Bahir'i International Community promotes the principles on which a lasting peace can be built. Oneness of humanity. Recognition of the oneness of humanity is the foundation for peace, justice and order in the world. It implies an organic change in the structure of society. Equality of men and women. The emancipation of women is a prerequisite of peace. Indeed, only as women are welcomed into fill partnership with men in all fields of human endeavor will the moral and psychological climate be created in which international peace can emerge. Universal standard for human rights. Human rights are inseparable from responsibilities. If peace, social progress and economic prosperity are to be established, human rights must be recognized and protected locally, nationally, and internationally. Moreover, individuals must be educated to recognize and respect their own rights and the rights of others. Economic justice and cooperation. A vision of human prosperity in the fullest sense of the tern-an awakening to the possibilities of the spiritual and material well-being of all the planet's inhabitants-will help galvanize the collective will to overcome such barriers to peace as the inordinate disparity between rich and poor. Universal education. Because ignorance is the principal reason for the decline and fall of peoples and the perpetuation of prejudice, no nation can achieve success unless education is accorded all its citizens,
50
~ & i TEMPLE UNITY
both men and women. Education should promote the essential unity of science and religion. An international auxiliary language. As the world becomes more interdependent, a single, universally agreed-upon auxiliary language and script must be adopted and taught in schools worldwide, as a supplement to the languages of each country. The adoption of such a language will improve communication among nations, reduce adrninistrative costs, and foster unity among peoples and nations. ['O81
B&f TEMPLE UNITY. In accordance with guidance given by 'Abdu'l-Bahai, this first national Bahb'i administrative institution was formed during a March 1909 convention of 39 Bahb'i delegates, representing 36 cities, in Chicago, Illinois. It was legally incorporated as a religious body in Illinois and given full authority to hold the title of the Bahb'i Temple (Mahriqu'l-Aukair) property as well as cany out its construction and raise the necessary f ~ n d s . [ ~Its~ functions :~~~l were taken over by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of the United States and Canada when that body formed in 1925.[37:3331 The "corner stone" of the Temple was laid by 'Abdu'l-Bahb during His epic visit to the United States in 1912, on a Lake Michigan waterfront site in Wilmette, Illinois. It was designated by Shoghi Effendi as the "Mother Temple" of the West and publicly dedicated on his instructions during Ridvain (April) 1953 to coincide with the 100th Anniversary of the Declaration of Bahai'u'llaih and the 50th year ~ : ' ~also ~ ] GILLEN, CHARsince the inception of the p r o j e ~ t . [ ~ See LOTTE THOMAS ZUTAVERN; TRUE, CORINNE KNIGHT. BA~~'u'L-ABI%~.The Glory of the Most G l o r i o ~ s . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ~
BAH~U'LLAH. (The Glory of God.) The Prophet-Founder
(Manifestation of God) of the Bahb7iFaith. He was born Mirzi Husayn 'Ali-i-Niu-i on 12 November 1817 in Nir, Maizindarain, frain, to Mirzai Buzurg-i-Vazir and m a d i j i h mainurn. Shoghi Effendi wrote of His ancestry (refer to appendixes 1 through 4), "He derived His descent, on the one hand, fiom Abraham (the Father of the Faithful) through his wife Katurah, and on the other fiom Zoroaster, as well as fiom Yazdigird, the last king of the Sbshiyan dynasty. He was moreover a descendant of Jesse, and belonged, through His father, Mirzb 'Abbh, better known as Mirzb Buzurg-i-Vazir-a nobleman closely associated with the ministerial circles of the Court of Fath-'Ali Bhl-to one of the most ancient and renowned families of M&nindarh."[37'941
While living in Tihrhn in 1844, on receipt of a message from the Bhb delivered to Him by MUUP Husayn, He accepted the claim of the Bhb and declared Himself a follower. Although He and the Bhb never met, They corresponded and, as Mirzi Husayn 'Ali-i-NM, He became known as a leader of the Bibi community (see MULLA BAQIR-I-TABR~Z~). It was during the Conference of B a d a a t in JuneIJuly 1848 that He was titled Bahi'u'lliih. After an abortive attempt on the life of the &iih by two misguided Bibis in 1853, Baha'u'lliih was imprisoned for four months in the Siysih-mail, and it was there that He received the first experience of His call to proclaim a new Revelation. A passage in His own words describes His experience: "During the days I lay in the prison of Tihrh, though the galling weight of the chains and the stench-filled air allowed Me but little sleep, still in those infrequent moments of slumber I felt as if something flowed from the crown of My head over My breast, even as a mighty torrent that precipitateth itself upon the earth from the summit of a lofty mountain. Every limb of My body would, as a result, be set afire. At such moments My tongue recited what no man could bear to hear."[109:221 Shoghi Effendi elaborated on Bahi'u'lliih's first experience of Revelation in God Passes By: He thus describes those breathless moments when the Maiden, symbolizing the "Most Great Spirit" proclaimed His mission to the entire creation: "While engulfed in tribulations I heard a most wondrous, a most sweet voice, calling above My head. Turning My face, I beheld a Maiden-the embodiment of the remembrance of the name of My Lord--suspended in the air before Me. So rejoiced was she in her very soul that her countenance shone with the ornament of the good-pleasure of God, and her cheeks glowed with the brightness of the All-Merciful. Pointing with her finger unto My head, she addressed all who are in heaven and all who are on earth, saying: 'By God! This is the BestBeloved of the worlds, and yet ye comprehend not. This is the Beauty of God amongst you, and the power of His sovereignty within you, could ye but understand. This is the Mystery of God and His Treasure, the Cause of God and His glory unto all who are in the kingdoms of Revelation and of creation, if ye be of them that perceive.' . . . This thing is not from Me, but from One Who is Almighty and All-Knowing. And He bade Me lift up My voice between earth and heaven, and for this there befell Me what hath caused the tears of every man of understanding to flow. . . .This is but a leaf which the winds of the will of Thy Lord, the Almighty, the All-Praised, have stirred. . . .His all-compelling summons hath reached Me, and caused Me to speak His praise amidst
all people. I was indeed as one dead when His behest was uttered. The hand of the will of Thy Lord, the Compassionate, the Mercill, transformed Me." "By My Life!" He asserts in another Tablet, "Not of Mine own volition have I revealed Myself, but God, of His own choosing, hath manifested Me." And again: "Whenever I chose to hold My peace and be still, lo, the Voice of the Holy Spirit, standing on My right hand, aroused Me, and the Most Great Spirit appeared before My face, and Gabriel overshadowed Me, and the Spirit of Glory stirred within My bosom, bidding Me arise and break My s i l e n ~ e . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
Through the persistent and decisive intervention of the Russian minister, Prince Dolgorouki, the testimony established by competent tribunals as to Bah6'u'llhh's noncomplicity in the attack on the &Ah, and the efforts of His family and fiends, He was released from prison, but shortly thereafter He was sentenced to exile to a place of His choosing. He refused to choose, and the Turkish authorities banished Him, via a series of stopping points, to B a a d i d (refer to the introduction for details). Shoghi Effendi elaborates on this period as follows: The Shih's edict, equivalent to an order for the immediate expulsion of Bahi'u'llih fiom Persian territory, opens a new and glorious chapter in the history of the first BahB'i century. Viewed in its proper perspective it will be even recognized to have ushered in one of the most eventll and momentous epochs in the world's religious history. [For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age."] It coincides with the inauguration of a ministry extending over a period of almost forty years-a ministry which, by virtue of its creative power, its cleansing force, its healing influences, and the irresistible operation of the world-directing, world-shaping forces it released, stands unparalleled in the religious annals of the entire human race. It marks the opening phase in a series of banishments, ranging over a period of four decades, and terminating only with the death of Him Who was the Object of that cruel edict. The process which it set in motion, gradually progressing and unfolding . . . finally carried Him as far as the shores of the Holy Land, thereby W l l i n g the prophecies recorded in both the Old and the New Testaments, redeeming the pledge enshrined in various traditions attributed to the Apostle of God and the I m h s who succeeded Him, and ushering in the long-awaited restoration of Israel to the ancient cradle of its Faith. . . . This enforced and hurried departure of Bahi'u'llih from His native land, accompanied by some of His relatives, recalls in some of its aspects, the precipitate flight of the Holy Family into Egypt; the sudden migration of Mulpmmad, soon after His assumption of the prophetic office, fiom Mecca to Medina; . . . and above all the banishment of Abraham fiom Ur of the Chaldees to the Promised Land-a banishment which, in the multitudinous benefits it
conferred upon so many divers peoples, faiths and nations, constitutes the nearest historical approach to the incalculable blessings destined to be vouchsafed, in this day, and in future ages, to the whole human race, in direct consequence of the exile suffered by Him Whose Cause is the flower and h i t of all previous R e v e l a t i ~ n s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
One year after His arrival (during the years 1854-1856), He left Ba&&d for an undeclared destination. This was subsequently discovered to be the mountains of Sulayrnhiyyih, where He lived as a dervish until His eldest son, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, eventually traced Him and persuaded Him to return. After His return, the Bibi Faith, under Bahi'u'llhh's leadership, began to attract the attention of a large number of people, including scholars, renowned clerics, and government officials, all enamored of the person of Bahi'u'llhh and His uplifting teachings and explanations of the new religion. Then suddenly, in April 1863, He was told He must renew His exile and leave for Constantinople in Turkey. On the eve of His further exile He moved to a garden known as Najibiyyih (see RIDVAN GARDEN) situated opposite His House on the river Tigris. It was here, on 21 and 22 April 1863, that He proclaimed His Mission to be not only the Promised One foretold by the Bib but, moreover, by ~ ~ ~Bahi'i ~ ~ ~ ]Faith dates its existence all other world r e l i g i o n ~ . [The from this event, which has since been commemorated annually as the Festival of Ri(lvhn with the lst, 9th, and 12th Days being three of the nine Bahi'i Holy Days during which all work is suspended. Shoghi Effendi wrote that "of the exact circumstances attending this Declaration we, alas, are but scantily i n f ~ r m e d . " [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ] As to the sigmficance of that Declaration let Bah$u'll6h Himself reveal to us its import. Acclaiming that historic occasion as the "Most Great Festival," the "King of Festivals," the "Festival of God," He has, in His Kithb-i-Aqdas, characterized it as the Day whereon "all created things were immersed in the sea of purification," whilst in one of His specific Tablets, He has referred to it as the Day whereon "the breezes of forgiveness were wafted over the entire creation." "Rejoice, with exceeding gladness, 0 people of Baha! . . . as ye call to remembrance the Day of supreme felicity." Such is the inebriating effect of the words of God upon the Revealer of His undoubted proofs that His pen can move no l ~ n g e r . [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ s
And again: The Divine Springtime is come, 0 Most Exalted Pen, for the Festival of the All-Merciful is fast approaching. . . . Take heed lest anythng deter Thee from extolling the greatness of this Day. . . . This is the Day
whereon the unseen world crieth out: "Great is thy blessedness, 0 earth, for thou hast been made the footstool of thy God, and been chosen as the seat of His mighty throne." . . . "Arise, and proclaim unto the entire creation the tidings that He who is the All-Merciful hath directed His steps towards the Ridvh and entered it. . . . This is the Day whereon He Who is the Desire of all nations hath shed upon the kingdoms of the unseen and of the seen the splendors of the light of His most excellent names, and enveloped them with the radiance of the luminaries of His most gracious favors, favors which none can reckon except Him Who is the Omnipotent Protector of the entire ~reation.''[~~'~~ffl Baha'u'lliih's time in Turkey, first in Constantinople and then in Adrianople (Edirne) witnessed some of the most heart-rending events of His life, including the rebellion and Covenant-breaking activities of His half brother, Mirzsi Yahysi Azal, who not only corrupted the text of the Writings of the B i b while displaying dismal despondency and downright cowardice in his assigned role as titular leader[37'901 of the Bibi community until the advent of "Him Whom God shall make manifest," but also administered poison to Bahi'u'lliih, [37:1851 the effects of which lasted until the end of His life. Notwithstanding these events, it proved nonetheless to be a period of tremendous significance, of which Shoghi Effendi wrote, Though He Himself was bent with sorrow, and still suffered from the effects of the attempt on His life, and though He was well aware a further banishment was probably impending, yet, undaunted by the blow which His Cause had sustained, and the perils with which it was encompassed, Bahi'u'llah arose with matchless power, even before the ordeal was overpast, to proclaim the Mission with which He had been entrusted to those who, in East and West, had the reins of supreme temporal authority in their grasp. The day-star of His Revelation was, through this very Proclamation, destined to shine in its meridian glory, and His Faith manifest the plenitude of its divine power. . . . A period of prodigious activity ensued which, in its repercussions, outshone the vernal years of Bahh'u'llkh's ministry. "Day and night," an eye-witness has written, "the Divine verses were raining down in such number that it was impossible to record them. Mirza Aqa Jan, one of His secretaries, wrote them as they were dictated, while the Most Great Branch was continually occupied in transcribing them. There was not a moment to spare." "A number of secretaries," Nabil-i-A'zam has testified, "were busy day and night and yet they were unable to cope with the task. 'q37:170f1 [See TABLETS TO THE KINGS.] It was in Adrianople that the followers of Bahi'u'llhh began to be
known as "B~~'is."[59:1491
On 12 August 1868 Bahb'u'lliih, along with His family and other exiles, were sent to Gallipoli and from there to 'Akkh (via Alexandria, Port Said, Jaffa, and Haifa), arriving at the Prison City on 31 August. Mirz6 Y&yb and his supporters (Azalis) were sent to Cyprus with four of Baha'u'llih's followers; several Azalis were, however, assigned by the authorities to accompany BahB'u711iihto 'Akkii. The prison in which the exiles were incarcerated was the barracks building (a prison within a prison) within the old Citadel of 'Akki, adjacent to the sea and surrounded by a moat. Bahii'u'llah designated this city "the Most Great Prison3,-"More grievous became Our plight from day to day, nay, from hour to hour, until they took Us forth from Our prison and made Us, with glaring injustice, enter the Shoghi : ~ l ] Effendi described the general situaMost Great P r i s ~ n . " [ ~ ~ tion in 'Akkh at the time: ' M ,the ancient Ptolemais, the St. Jean d'Arc of the Crusaders, that had successfully defied the siege of Napoleon, had sunk, under the Turks, to the level of a penal colony to which murderers, highway robbers and political agitators were consigned fiom all parts of the Turkish empire. It was girt about by a double system of ramparts; was inhabited by a people whom Baha'u'lliih stigmatizedas "the generation of vipers;" was devoid of any source of water within its gates; was flea-infested, damp and honey-combed with gloomy, filthy and tortuous lanes. "According to what they say," the Supreme Pen has recorded in the Lawh-i-Sulm, "it is the most desolate of the cities of the world, the most unsightly of them in appearance, the most detestable in climate, and the foulest in water. It is as though it were the metropolis of the owl." So putrid was its air that, according to a proverb, a bird when flying over it would drop dead. Explicit orders had been issued by the Sulm and his ministers to subject the exiles, who were accused of having grievously erred and led others far astray, to the strictest confinement. Hopes were confidently expressed that the sentence of life-long imprisonment pronounced against them would lead to their eventual e~termination.''[~~:~~~fl
While in the barracks prison, on the 23 June 1870, Bahb'u'lliih's youngest son, Mirzii Mihdi, the Purest Branch, fell through a skylight and suffered injuries that proved fatal. Some four months after this terrible incident a mobilization of Turkish troops required the ejection of Bahb'u'lliih, His family, and companion prisoners from the barracks. Shoghi Effendi writes that He and His family were accordingly assigned the house of Malik, in the western quarter of the city, whence, after a brief stay of three months, they were moved by the authorities to the house of Khawim which
faced it, and from which, after a few months, they were again obliged to take up new quarters in the house of Rabi'ih, being finally transferred, four months later, to the house of Udi Khammar, which was so insufficient to their needs that in one of its rooms no less than thirteen persons of both sexes had to accommodate themselves. Some of the companions had to take up their residence in other houses, while the remainder were consigned to a caravanserai named the Khan-i-'A~amid.[~~'~~]
While He was in the House of ' ~ dKhammSu; i which was adjacent to, and later became a part of, the House of 'Abbhd, Bahh'u'llhh revealed the Kitdb-i-Aqdas. Shoghi Effendi wrote of this event as follows: What may well rank as the most signal act of His ministry-the prom~ nprin; ulgation of the Kithb-i-Aqdas. Alluded to in the ~ i t h b - i - i ~the cipal repository of that Law which the Prophet Isaiah had anticipated, and which the writer of the Apocalypse had described as the "new heaven" and the "new earth," as "the Tabernacle of God," as the "Holy City," as the "Bride," the "New Jerusalem coming down fiom God," this "Most Holy Book," whose provisions must remain inviolate for no less than a thousand years, and whose system will embrace the entire planet, may well be regarded as the brightest emanation of the mind of Bahk'u'llih, as the Mother Book of His Dispensation, and the Charter of His New World Order.[37'2131
Bahh'u'llAh remained within the prison city for nine years, and although officially a prisoner until His death, he did eventually move to a country location just north of the city walls. The manner of his leaving and establishment in His final residence in Bahji is described in this extract from God Passes By: Shaykh Aliy-i-Miri, the Mufti of 'Akka, had even, at the suggestion of 'Abdu'l-Baha, to plead insistently that He might permit the termination of His nine-year confinement within the walls of the prison-city, before He would consent to leave its gates. The garden of Na'mayn, a small island, situated in the middle of a river to the east of the city, honored with the appellation of Ri&4n, and designated by Him the "New Jerusalem" and "Our Verdant Isle," had, together with the residence of Abdu'llah Pasha,-rented and prepared for Him by 'Abdu'l-Bahii, and situated a few miles north of 'Akka-become by now the favorite retreats of One Who, for almost a decade, had not set foot beyond the city walls, and Whose sole exercise had been to pace, in monotonous repetition, the floor of His bed-chamber. Two years later the palace of Udi Khammar, on the construction of which so much wealth had been lavished, while Bahi'u'llih lay imprisoned in the barracks, and which its owner had precipitately abandoned with his family owing to the outbreak of an epidemic disease, was rented and later purchased for Him-a dwelling-placewhich He characterized
as the "lofty mansion," the spot which "God hath ordained as the most sublime vision of mankind."[37'1921 It was in this House that He granted an audience to Prof. Edward Granville Browne, a Cambridge University Orientalist (15-20 April 1890). He passed away while in residence at Bahji at three hours after midnight on 29 May 1892. 'Abdu'l-Baha immediately sent news of His ascension to Sul$in 'Abdu'l-Hamid in a telegram, which started with the words "the Sun of Bahh has set." The telegram also advised the monarch of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's intention to inter His Father within the precincts of the Mansion. On receipt of the Sul$inYsassent Bahh'u'llhh was buried under the northernmost room of the most northerly of the three houses lying to the west of the main Building. He was interred shortly after sunset, on the very day of His a s c e n s i ~ n . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] His Will and Testament (Kithb-i'Ahd) was read in the presence of witnesses nine days later. Shoghi Effendi refers to this "unique and epoch-making document" in which Bahh'u'llhh clearly r e a h s 'Abdu'l-Bahb as His Successor in the following words: To direct and canalize these forces let loose by this Heaven-sent process, and to insure their harmonious and continuous operation after His ascension, an instrument divinely ordained, invested with indisputable authority, organically linked with the Author of the Revelation Himself, was clearly indispensable. That instrument Bahii'u'lliih had expressly provided through the institution of the Covenant, an institution which He had firmly established prior to His ascension. This same Covenant He had anticipated in His Kitiib-i-Aqdas, had alluded to it as He bade His last farewell to the members of His family, who had been summoned to His bed-side, in the days immediately preceding His ascension, and had incorporated it in a special document which He designated as "the Book of My Covenant," and which He entrusted, during His last illness, to His eldest son 'Abdu'l-Bahii. Written entirely in His own hand . . . this unique and epoch-making Document, designated by Bahii'u'lliih as His "Most Great Tablet," and alluded to by Him as the "Crimson Book" in His "Epistle to the Son of the can find no parallel in the Scriptures of any previous Dispensation. . . . For nowhere in the books pertaining to any of the world's religious systems . . . had any single document establishing a Covenant endowed with an authority comparable to the Covenant which Bahii'u'll6h had Himself i n ~ t i t u t e d . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
In his survey of the first Bahh'i century, Shoghi Effendi wrote of the dynamic process, divinely propelled, possessed of undreamt-of potentialities, world-embracing in scope, world-transforming in its ultimate consequences, which had been set in motion by the Biib and which
"acquired a tremendous momentum with the first intimations of Bahi'u'llih's dawning Revelation amidst the darkness of the Siyiha i r l of Tihrh. It was further accelerated by the Declaration of His mission on the eve of His banishment fiom Baghdird. It moved to a climax with the proclamation of that same mission during the tempestuous years of His exile in Adrianople. Its full significance was disclosed when the Author of that Mission issued His historic summonses, appeals and warnings to the kings of the earth and the world's ecclesiastical leaders. It was finally consummated by the laws and ordinances which He formulated, by the principles which He enunciated and by the institutions which He ordained during the concluding years of His ministry in the prison-city of 'Akki."[37:2371
Many works covering the life and Writings of Bahi'u'llih have been published in English, but the following are to date of significance: God Passes Bahh'u'llhh-The King of The Revelation of ll0-ll21 Bahh 'u'llhh-The Prince ofPeace,[ll31 and Robe Bahh 'u'11hh,[43,96, of Light: The Persian Years of the Supreme Prophet Bahh'u 'llhh.[1141 Refer to the introduction for key events associated with His life.
B A H ~ ~ ' u ' L LASCENSION ~I, OF. A Holy Day commemorating the anniversary of the passing of Bahh'u'llhh that took place at three hours after midnight on 29 May 1892. It is one of the nine Holy Days on which work is suspended. BAH~U'LLAH,DECLARATION OF. The period of 12 days in the Garden of Ridvhn, Bafidhd, 2 1 April to 2 May 1863 during which Bahh'u'llhh announced that He was the Promised One of all religions and, thereby, initiating what is now known as the Bahi'i Faith. The 1st, 9th, and 12th days of this period are three of the nine Holy Days on which work is suspended. See also REVELATION. B ~ U ' L L A H ,HOUSE OF. Situated in Baadhd, 'IrQ, it was designated by Bahi'u'llih as the "Most Great House" and a place of obligatory pilgrimage. Writing in God Passes By, about B a a did, Shoghi Effendi summarized its exalted position as follows: "Within its walls the 'Most Great House of God,' His 'Footstool' and the 'Throne of His Glory,' 'the Cynosure of an adoring world,' the 'Lamp of Salvation between earth and heaven,' the 'Sign of His remembrance to all who are in heaven and on earth,' enshrining the 'Jewel whose glory hath irradiated all creation,' the 'Standard' of His Kingdom, the 'Shrine round which will circle the concourse of the
faithful' was irrevocably founded and permanently consecrated. Upon it, by virtue of its sanctity as BahP'u'llBh's 'Most Holy Habitation' and 'Seat of His transcendent glory,' was conferred the honor of being regarded as a center of pilgrimage second to none except the city of ' A M , His 'Most Great Prison,' in whose immediate vicinity His holy Sepulcher, the Qiblih of the Bahii'i world, is ensl1rined."[~~~~~1 It was designated by Bahii'u'llhh, in the Kitcib-i-Aqda~,[~~'~~~] as one of two obligatory sites of pilgrimage (the other being the House of the Baib in Shirk, irain (see B h , HOUSE OF); after the passing of Bahii'u'llhh, 'Abdu'l-Bahai designated Bahii'u'llhh's Shrine at Bahji a third place of pilgrimage (see B & ' u ' L L ~ , SHRINE OF).[71:1911 Pilgrimage to any one of the three designated Places fulfills a believer's obligations in this regard. While designated as obligatory, Bahii'u'llhh nonetheless qualifies the requirement with the clause that this should be done only "if one can afford it and is able to do so, and if no obstacle stands in one's In two separate Tablets entitled the S~riy-i-Haj~, revealed in Adrianople in 1863, Bahii'u'llhh prescribed specific rites for this pilgrimage. Pilgrimage to the House of the Baha'u'llhh is currently suspended due to the current situation in 'Iraq. B A H A ' u ' L L ~ , SHRINE OF. For the last 13 years of His life, Bahii'u'lliih lived in the Mansion of Bahji, a few miles to the north of 'Akkai off the Beirut road, and when He passed away on 29 May 1892, He was buried beneath the floor of a room in a house adjacent to the Mansion. This is, for the Bahii'is, the Qiblih, the Holiest Spot on Earth, it is the only one of the three Holy Places for pilgrimage presently available and described by 'Abdu'l-BahB (Who, following Bahii'u'llhh's passing, designated it a site of obligatory pilgrimage)[71'1911 as the "Most Holy Shrine." While designated as obligatory, like pilgrimage to the other two Sites the requirement is qualified by the clause that this should be done only "if one can afford it and is able to do so, and if no obstacle stands in one's There are no specific rites associated with pilgrimage to this Site. See also ~ h HOUSE , OF; B & ' u ' L L ~ , HOUSE OF. BAHA'U'LLAH, WORLD ORDER OF. See WORLD ORDER OF BAH~U'LLAH. BAH~YYIH -UM (18461932). (Greatest Holy LeafNaraqiyi-'Ulyii.) The only daughter of the marriage of BahB'u'llPh and
Nawib, she was distinguished for the purity of her life, her generosity and love, at once disinterested and undiscriminating, all combined with a forgiving nature. She is also unique in being the only woman ever to serve as acting head of a world religion4uties she was called upon to assume when, soon after the passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahsi, in the earliest days of his Guardianship, Shoghi Effendi placed the affairs of the Cause in her care while he sojourned in Switzerland gathering his strength before taking up his life's work as Guardian. He described her as having "a saintly life which history will acknowledge as having been endowed with a celestial potency that few of the heroes of the past possessed . . . and as an object worthy He paid further testimony in of the admiration of all mankind."[76'1951 remarkably poetic terms, "In the innermost recesses of our hearts, we have reared for thee a shining mansion that the hand of time can never undermine, a shrine which shall fiame eternally the matchless beauty of thy countenance, an altar whereon the fire of thy consuming love shall burn for e ~ e r . " [ ' ~She : ~ ~was ] born in Tihrsin in 1846 and died 15 July 1932. On her death, Shoghi Effendi sent this cable to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada: Greatest Holy Leaf's immortal spirit winged its flight Great Beyond. Countless lovers her saintly life in East and West seized with pangs of anguish. Plunged in utterable sorrow humanity shall ere long recognize its irreparable loss. Our beloved Faith, well nigh crushed by devastating blow of 'Abdu'l-Bahl's unexpected Ascension, now laments passing of last remnant of Baha'u'llhh, its most exalted member. Holy Family cruelly divested of its most precious great Adorning. I for my part bewail sudden removal of my sole earthly sustainer, the joy and solace of my life. Remains will repose in the vicinity of the Holy Shrines. So grievous a bereavement necessitates suspension for nine months through Bahi'i world every manner religious festivity. Inform local Assemblies and groups hold in befitting manner memorial gatherings to extol a life so laden with sacred experiences, so rich in imperishable memories. Advise holding additional Commemoration Service of strictly devotional character in the Auditorium of the Mashriq~'l-Adhkfir.[~~~:~]
Among the many references of Shoghi Effendi to Bahiyyih U k u m these are among the most poignant tribute and lament: 0 thou Scion of Bahl! I weep over thee in the night season, as do the bereaved; and at break of day I cry out unto thee with the tongue of my heart, my limbs and members, and again and again I repeat thy well-loved name, and I groan over the loss of thee, over thy meekness and ordeals, and how thou didst love me, over the sufferings thou didst
bear, and the terrible calamities, and the wretchedness and the griefs, and the abasement, and the rejection-and all this only and solely for the sake of thy Lord and because of thy burning love for those, out of all of creation, who shared in thine ardour. Whensoever, in sleep, I call to mind and see thy smiling face, whensoever, by day or night, I circumambulate thine honoured tomb, then in the innermost depths of my being are rekindled the fires of yearning, and the cord of my patience is severed, and again the tears come and all the world grows dark before my eyes. And whensoever I remember what blows were rained upon thee at the close of thy days, the discomforts, trials and illnesses-and I picture thy surroundings now, in the Sanctuary on High, in the midmost heart of Heaven, beside the pavilions of grandeur and might; and I behold thy present glory, thy deliverance, the delights, the bounties, the bestowals, the majesty and dominion and power, the joy, thine exultation, and thy triumph-then the burden of my grieving is lightened, the cloud of sorrow is dispelled, the heat of my torment abates. Then is my tongue loosed to praise and thank thee, and thy Lord, Him Who did fashion thee and did prefer thee to all other handmaidens, and did give thee to drink from His sweetscented lips, Who withdrew the veil of concealment from thy true being and made thee to be a true example for all thy kin to follow, and caused thee to be the fragrance of His garment for all of creation. And at such times I strengthen my resolve to follow in thy footsteps, and to continue onward in the pathway of thy love; to take thee as my model, and to acquire the qualities, and to make manifest that which thou didst desire for the triumph of this exalted and exacting, this most resplendent, sacred, and wondrous Cause. Then intercede thou for me before the throne of the Almighty, 0 thou who, within the Company on High, dost intercede for all of humankind. Deliver me fiom the throes of my mourning, and confer upon me and those who love thee in this nether world what will remove our afflictions, and bring assurance to our hearts, and quiet the winds of our sorrows, and console our eyes, and fulfil our hopes both in this world and the world to c o m e - 0 thou whom God hast singled out from amongst all the countenances of the Abha Paradise, and hast honoured in both His earth and His Kingdom on high, and of whom He has made mention in the Crimson Book, in words which wafted the scent of musk and scattered its fragrance over all the dwellers on earth! 0 thou Greatest Holy Leaf! If I cry at every moment out of a hundred mouths, and from each of these mouths I speak with a hundred thousand tongues, yet I could never describe nor celebrate thy heavenly qualities, which are known to none save only the Lord God; nor could I befittingly tell of even the transient foam fiom out the ocean of thine endless favour and grace.
Except for a very few, whose habitation is in the highest retreats of holiness, and who circle, in the furthermost Sanctuary, by day and by night about the throne of God, and are fed at the hand of the Abhh Beauty on purest milk+xcept for these, no soul of this nether world has known or recognized thine immaculate, thy most sacred essence, nor has any befittingly perceived that ambergris fragrance of thy noble qualities, which richly anoints thy brow, and which issues from the divine wellspring of mystic musk; nor has any caught its sweetness. To this bear witness the Company on High, and beyond them God Himself, the Supreme Lord of all the heavens and the earths: that during all thy days, from thine earliest years until the close of thy life, thou didst personify the attributes of thy Father, the Matchless, the Mighty.U16:4W
She is buried in the Monument Gardens on Mount Carmel, Haifa,
B.-
A hamlet situated on the plain of 'Akkh just north of the city that i itself. It gave its name to the Mansion built by ' ~ d JQarnrnhr was the final residence (the "Place of Delight," the "Most Holy Shrine") of Bahh'u'llhh (from 1879 to 1892). It was while living here that He revealed many of His outstanding works, described by Shoghi Effendi as "among the choicest h i t s which His mind has yielded and which mark the consummation of His forty-yearlong ministry." It was here too that He received E. G. Browne, the Cambridge orientalist, in 1890. When Baha'u'llih passed away 29 May 1892 He was interred in a small house in the precincts of the Mansion, thereby making it the Qiblih of the Baha'i Faith, its holiest spot on earth and the major focus for the Bahi'i pilgrims who visit the Holy Land every year. The beautification of the large area of land purchased around the Shrine has continued in the pattern that Shoghi Effendi began during his lifetime. See also IjARAM-I-AQDAS.
BAILEY, ELLA (18641953). (Martyr.) An early American believer. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahh during His visit to America and was much loved by Him and, later, by Shoghi Effendi. She traveled widely as a teacher of the Cause and was elevated by Shoghi Effendi to the rank 63:2a1 of Martyr following her death.[11:685, BAKER, DOROTHY BEECHER (1898-1954). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Born in Newark, New Jersey, 21 December 1898. She was the granddaughter of "Mother" Beecher, herself a Baha'i, who took
BAKER, DOROTHY BEECHER
63
her to see 'Abdu'l-BahB in New York in 1912. Dorothy was too shy to speak during that meeting, although she wrote afterward to Him stating that she wished to serve the Cause. 'Abdu'l-Bahh responded that He would pray that God would grant her desire. She developed into a most eloquent, persuasive, and convincing teacher for small groups or large audiences, and in addition to an inimitable charm she had a sincerity that was with her always-she was an ardent Bahi'i first, last, and at all times. As a public speaker she was much in demand, traveled throughout the United Sates and Canada, and became well known for her interracial concerns4uring one year alone she lectured in 90 colleges throughout the South proclaiming fearlessly the principle of the oneness of mankind. She was called upon by Shoghi Effendi to travel in Central and South America, which she toured on several occasions, as well as visiting Europe. She was also a most competent administrator and served as a member of the United States National SpiritualAssembly for 16 years (chair for four of them). After being appointed a Hand of the Cause her service intensified, and she was present with other Hands at the series of four International Teaching Conferences called for 1953, the fist one in Kampala, Uganda, which she attended immediately following her long-awaited pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During this conference some of the Hands met each other for the first time. In that same year (1953) she was again elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States, and such was the spirit of the times that five of the nine members resigned to go pioneering. Her husband, 93:2711 whom she married in Frank Albert Baker (1889-1963),[13:321, 1921, was her mainstay and supporter throughout her married life. A friend once wrote about Frank, "I don't believe the extent to which he sacrificed to make it possible for Dorothy to do all the things she did is generally realized. He loved her very much, and he loved being with her. . . . I've always felt that in many ways he was an unsung hero of the Faith." Frank himself is on record of having confided to another Hand, "First of all, she's not just my wife. She's my queen. I would never consider her my equal. As far as her services go, my main recollections are of packing and unpacking. I send her off on a teaching trip and when she returns I help her unpack. Those moments when we're home together are the sweetest moments of my life."[118:27341 During September 1953 she attended the last of the Intercontinental Conferences in New Delhi, India. While she was there Frank was continuing with their plans to move and settle in Grenada, Windward
64
BAKER, EUPHEMIAELEANOR
Isles. Following the very successful conference, Dorothy and some other Hands were asked by the Guardian to stay over for some time to travel teach in various locations throughout India. At that time the Bakers had homes in the United States and in Lima, Peru. To relocate to Grenada they were in the process of selling both houses. During that period Frank wrote to a friend, "Dorothy will be home about December 14th. . . . This will probably be our last long separation-hope so at any rate as I miss her more than on any of her other trips." Due to a very intensive teaching and lecture tour throughout India and a final day of meetings in Karachi, Pikisthn, on 9 January 1954, Dorothy was not able to keep to that timetable. On the 10th she flew to Beirut and then to Rome, where she posted her final reports to Shoghi Effendi and left at 9:3 1 AM. The plane exploded south of Elba, killing all on board. Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Hearts grieved lamentable untimely passing Dorothy Baker, distinguished Hand Cause, eloquent exponent its teachings, indefatigable supporter its institutions, valiant defender its precepts. Long record outstanding service enriched annals concluding years heroic opening epoch Formative Age Bahti'i dispensation. [For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age."] Fervently praying progress soul Abhti Kingdom. Assure relatives profound loving sympathy. Noble spirit reaping bountiful reward. Advise hold memorial gathering Temple befitting her rank imperishable s e r ~ i c e s . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ - ~ ]
BAKER, EUPHEMIA ELEANOR (EFFIE) (188C1968). The first Australian believer (1922), she embraced the Cause through the efforts of Father and Mother Dunn. She served Shoghi Effendi for a period of 11 years in Haifa, where she took a great many photographs. About 1930 at the request of Shoghi Effendi she visited and photographed historical places in Persia, Syria, and 'Irsiq (many of which were included by Shoghi Effendi in the first edition of the DawnIn 1937 she returned permanently to A ~ s t r a l i a . [ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] BAKER, RICHARD ST. BARBE (1889-1982). (O.B.E.: Order of the British Empire.) An environmentalist who founded the Men of the Trees and who became known as "the Man of the Trees," he achieved wide international recognition. In 1978, HM Queen Elizabeth I1 awarded him an O.B.E. for his forestry and environmental work. He was born 9 October 1889 in a country house in South Hampshire, England. It was while he was living in Kenya in 1922 that he created the embryonic organization that was to become "the Men of
the Trees"; in 1979 His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales became patron of the organization (now known as International Tree Foundation). Shoghi Effendi was the first person to become a life member of the organization. Through his inspiring environmental work St. Barbe (as he was mainly known) was a powerful advocate of the Cause. He died 9 June 1982 and is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery, Saskatoon, Canada. [17:802,93:1661 BALY~JZ~, W S A N MUVAQQAR (1908-1980). (Hand of the Cause
of God.) A linguist, historian, author, and BBC Radio announcer by profession, he was born on 7 September 1908 in Shirhz, irhn, into a very distinguished BhbilBahh'i family (his parents were Mirzh 'Ali Aqh and Munawar K&mum). He was related to Shoghi Effendi through a common great-grandfather, Hhji Mirzh Abul-Qhsim, and was therefore a member of the Afnhn family. His superb mastery of the English language is perhaps due to the fact that he was brought up fiom the age of four in a diplomatic environment-his father being at one time the governor of the Gulf Ports and Islands. Two scholarly fiends of his father tutored him in Persian, Arabic, and history. When his father was exiled to India during World War I, he learned Urdu and pursued his studies of English in Bishop's College, Poona. After returning to hiin, where his father died in 1921, he was sent, at the age of 17, to the Preparatory School of the American University of Beirut, where he met Shoghi Effendi. Having taken a bachelor's degree in chemistry and a master's degree in diplomatic history, he left Beirut to take his M.S. (in economics) at the London School of Economics (he achieved this in 1935, but the outbreak of World War I1 cut short his studies for a doctorate). In 1932, before leaving the Near East, he went on pilgrimage to Haifa (the last time he met Shoghi Effendi). In April 1933, within a few months of his arrival back in London, he was elected to the British National Spiritual Assembly, where he served until February 1960. While still in Beirut he had been a leading light in the activities of the various university societies, including the Bahh'i Society, and continued after he left to encourage the other students by, in the words of one, "his beautiful letters." Himself encouraged by Shogh~Effendi to remain similarly active in the Bahb7i administrative, teaching, and consolidation work in the British Isles, he rapidly established his reputation as a brilliant speaker; a loving, wise, and humorous counselor; a powerful writer; and an indefatigable administrator. Working for the Persian Section of the BBC he wrote many special features, such as talks on
current affairs, English writers, and history, translated English poetry and short stories, and assisted in productions of Shakespeare and a series on English. He produced more than 1,000 radio programs on kin, its history, and its literature, and some of his translations of English literature became part of modern Persian literature and coined many words now currently in use; "He made new and different uses of old words to convey new meanings."[17'2401 In 1941 he married Mary (Molly) Brown, and with the birth of their first son, Hushang, Molly had to abandon a promising career in ballet. They had five sons in all (Hushang, Robert, Felix, Richard, and Simeon), and her devotion to the family and support of Hasan throughout their nearly 40 years of marriage enabled him to continue his outstanding services in so many fields. His dedication to the Shoghi Effendi as Guardian is summed up in two brief instances. Once, when asked how he could do so much and carry out so many engagements, he nodded to his chair and desk in his room and said, "Many nights I sit there all night and do not go to bed," and when asked how he could subject himself to such continuous hardship, he replied, "Whenever I think of what our beloved Guardian is doing for us I am ashamed of how little we are doing in response and sleep escapes my eye^.''['^^^] The second was when his mother died in hhn, and he inherited substantial wealth and properties there, which meant he could live in comfort and ease provided he returned to that country. However, he explained to a friend, "I am only interested in serving the Cause wherever the beloved Guardian wants me to serve, and I am not a bit interested in all that belongs to me in kin." [17:6421 In 1953 he convened and attended, at Shoghi Effendi's insistence, the first Intercontinental Conference in Kampala, Uganda. Also, as chairman of the British National Spiritual Assembly, he attended the Stockholm Conference later that year. His next trip overseas was to preside at the opening of the 1956 convention in Kampala, when the Regional National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of Central and East Africa was elected. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause of God in the last contingent in October 1957. The first responsibility he had to assume after his appointment was to work with his fellow Hands John Ferraby and Ugo Giachery in giving assistance to 'Amatu'l-Bahai Rihiyyih nainum in respect to funeral arrangements for Shoghi Effendi following his unexpected demise in London on 4 November 1957. During the first Conclave of the Hands of the Cause in the Holy Land, Hasan was one of the nine chosen by 'Amatu'l-Bahh Ri&iyyih
=hum to unseal the Guardian's apartment to search for Shoghi Effendi's Will and Testament and other instructions he may have left. However, following a thorough search they reported to the others that no Will or Testament of any nature whatsoever executed by Shoghi Effendi had been found (see GUARDIANSHIP). During the long, emotional, and grief-stricken consultations of that first Conclave, when every word spoken had to be translated into English and Persian, the burden of translation fell to Hasan and Abu'lQiisim Fa@. Although appointed one of the Nine Hands resident in the Holy Land, he was unable to settle his personal affairs to make this possible. He would from time to time spend weeks, sometimes months, in Haifa. One of his outstanding contributions at that time was the preparation of the World Centre Archives for their housing in the special building (International Archives Building) designed for them on Mount Carmel, particularly in the identification of the original Bahii'i Writings and other sacred materials. As a fellow Hand, himself a Persian scholar stated, "I have met many Bahii'i scholars in i r h but he was to me one of the outstanding figures. . . I have never found in my life such a modest and humble man as B a l w i . . . . I loved him dearly." Another Hand wrote after working closely with him in Haifa, "His life of service and spiritual obedience and sacrifices remain an effulgent example to em~late."[~~:"~] Throughout his life he would cheer people in his company with his unique sense of humor, seen equally in his English stories and jokes and in his stories of Persia. In the months following the passing of Shoghi Effendi he was a tower of strength, visiting communities and conferences in the British Isles to help friends to overcome the shock of Shoghi Effendi's death and to keep them on the right pathway to carry out the plans he had given to them. During the period of 1958 to June 1964 he attended some 10 conferences of European Hands of the Cause and their Auxiliary Board members and met oRen with National Spiritual Assembly members, contributing wise and practical advice. In addition to these European travels he made visits in April 1961 to Ecuador and Peru for their first annual conventions, which were followed by a cross-Canada trip, when he met with many Indian tribes. His time at home was characterized by his numerous visits to teaching conferences and summer schools and Bahii'i communities throughout the British Isles, where he never failed to inspire friends and deepen their knowledge of the Faith and leave them strengthened to serve with renewed vigor. By 1960, however, his health was causing increasing concern, and he had
to contend repeatedly with various kinds of illnesses and injury. His researches and writing continued, with the real extent of his scholarship being evident in his many publications. Outstanding among these were Baha 'u 'llhh; Edward Granville Browne and the Baha'i Faith;[llg1 2bdu'l-BahS The Center of the Covenant of Bah6'u'll~ih;[~~] The Bab, the Herald of the Day of Muhammad and the Course It was his CUSof blam;[1201and Bahci'u'llah-The King of tom to work on two or three books at the same time so that he was relieved of concentrating on a single manuscript. He would write far into the night and turn to reading for background or to research as a break fkom writing. He would submit all his books to the publisher in his own handwriting, even the quotations, to ensure that his choice of selections would be observed. References fkom other scholars to his encyclopedic mind and his knowledge of the Faith, of Persian history, literature, and culture, of 19th- and 20th-century kiin and its leading figures, and of current developments in the world-political, artistic or literary-are numerous. Typical are these: "His fluency in Persian, English, Arabic, French as well as familiarity with some other language had made him . . . unique among orientalists"; "He produced a monumental work on I s l h which will eclipse most of the books on this subject"; "His gem-like books will remain among the most outstanding writings to enlighten the paths of seekers for Even while writing his works in English he centuries to come."[17:2501 had three books in Persian published in hiin, and his copious notes enabled some of his works to be published posthumously. His large collection of books donated for scholarly research now form the basis for the A M n Trust Library. They are a testimony to the depth of his own studies as well as his burning desire to give all in the service of the Faith, which occupied so many of his waking hours right up to his death. It had been his intention to personally take a leatherbound copy of his last book to place it on the threshold of the Shrine of Bahb'u'll6h at Bahji. When the first copy reached England early in February 1980, he had it sent unseen for binding. However, he never saw it, as he had a stroke and passed away on 12 February; he was buried in New Southgate Cemetery, London, in a special plot near the grave of his beloved Guardian on 15 February, and his son, Robert, carried the book to Israel in the following month to carry out his father's wishes. The Universal House of Justice released the following message: "With broken hearts announce passing dearly loved Hand Cause Hasan B a l m i . Entire Bahb'i world robbed one of its most powerll defenders, most resourcell historians. His illustrious
lineage, his devoted labors Divine Vineyard, his outstanding literary works combine in immortalizing his honored name in annals beloved Faith. Call on £tiends everywhere hold memorial gatherings. Praying Shrines his exemplary achievements,his steadfastnesspatience humility, his outstanding scholarly pursuits will inspire many devoted workers among rising generations follow his glorious f o ~ t s t e p s . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
BAN^^, MUSA (18861971). (Hand of the Cause of God; Father of Africa; Lion of Africa.) Born into a Jewish family in Baadiid in 1886, his father died when he was 4, and he migrated to Persia when he was only 12. The grim struggle for existence left him no opportunity for schooling, and to the end of his life he could read and write only in Arabic and Persian with written communications being in the Hebrew script he had learned as a very small child. In Persia his elder brother accepted the Faith, but it was of no interest to M b h until in 1911, while he lived in Kirmfin&hh, some distinguished Bahh'is were visiting the area and were photographed with local Bahh'is, including his brother. The visitors were arrested and maltreated, and the photograph was used to round up the local Bahh'is pictured to force them to recant their Faith. During this process Mhsh was mistakenly arrested because he resembled his brother. By convincing the authorities that he was not in fact a Baha'i he was able to obtain his release, but he had been deeply moved by the refusal to recant, in spite of cruel torture, of his cell-mate--a frail old man. He subsequently reproached himself for denouncing a Faith about which he knew nothing, and as a result of his efforts to learn more he became a Bahh'i. His conversion amazed his associates, particularly his decision to marry only a Bahh'i so that his children might have a firm Bahh'i upbringing. Several years later when he married, it became known that his wife's father was one of those Bahh'i teachers who visited Kirmfin&hh and were instrumental in his interest in the Faith. In 1934 he made his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which created an intense flame of love for and loyalty to Shoghi Effendi. This remained the hallmark of his character until the end of his life. The Guardian, recognizing the simplicity, directness, unbounded energy, and spiritual potential of MGsh Banfini, surprised one group of pilgrims, who could not understand why he should speak glowingly of an unlettered man, stating that he "is one equal to a thousand." His particular qualities were recognized in Persia when he was on the committee for identifying and acquiring historic sites associated with
the Cause and particularly with the purchase and restoration of the house of Bahh'u'llhh in Tihrhn. Although his business enterprise and activity had made him a man of considerable means, when Shoghi Effendi called in 1950 for pioneers for Africa, he abruptly ended all business concerns and with the full approval of Shoghi Effendi left Persia for London to prepare for pioneering to East Africa. Accompanied by his wife, Samihih; his daughter, Violette; his son-in-law, 'Ali N u a v i n i ; his granddaughter, Bahiyyih; and an English Bahh'i, Philip Hainsworth, he left London for Dar es Salaam, where the party received their final destination instructions. They arrived in their pioneer post of Kampala, Uganda, on 2 August 1951. When Shoghi Effendi announced the reopening of pilgrimages, Mhsh and Samihih were among the first to visit the Holy Land. Toward the end of their pilgrimage, Shoghi Effendi told Mhsh that he had announced his appointment as a Hand of the Cause to the Bahh'i world on 29 February 1952. From this moment forward his life was dedicated to carrying out the wishes of Shoghi Effendi in respect to the expansion of the Faith throughout the whole of the African continent. He did this with his customary zeal and sense of urgency despite some severely disabling illnesses. Serious eye surgery with the eventual loss of sight in one eye, paralysis of one side of his body, and amputation of one leg hindered his energetic service, but the radiant quality of his faith overwhelmed and conquered all. He participated in the Intercontinental Conferences in Kampala, Wilmette, Stockholm, and New Delhi in 1953, and in Kampala and Frankfix$ in 1958. He represented Shoghi Effendi at the conventions in Africa for the elections of the Regional National Spiritual Assemblies of Central and East Africa, South and West Africa, Northwest Africa, and Northeast Africa in April-May 1956, respectively in Kampala, Johannesburg, Tunis, and Cairo. He was directly involved in the purchase of the Hq'ratu'l-Quds in Kampala and the African Temple (Ma&riqu'l-Aukair) site in Kampala. Through his encouragement and his direction of the work of his Auxiliary Board members, the Bahh'i enrollments throughout Africa during the 1950s exceeded those in any other part of the world; Shoghi Effendi called him "the Father of Africa" and "the Lion of Africa." Toward the end of his life while he lay paralyzed and bedridden, his prayers, no doubt, supported and sustained the teaching work. He passed away in Kampala on 2 September 1971 and was buried in his favorite spot in the vicinity of the Kampala House of Worship. The Universal House of Justice cabled,
BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD 71
Profoundly mourn passing dearly loved Hand Cause M h i Banhi. Recall with deep affection his selfless unassuming prolonged services Cradle Faith, his exemplary pioneering Uganda culminating his appointment as Hand Cause Africa and praise beloved Guardian as spiritual conqueror that continent. Interment his remains African soil under shadow Mother Temple enhances spiritual lustre that blessed spot. Fervently praying Shrines progress his noble soul. May Africa now robbed staunch venerable promoter defender Faith follow his example cheer his heart Abhl Kingdom. Convey family most tender sympathies advise hold memorial meetings all communities Bahi'i world befitting gatherings Mother
BAPTISM. Baptism, in any form, let alone for the removal of sins, is 'Abdu'l-BahB wrote, "The principle of baptism not pra~ticed.[~~:'~~] is purification by repentance. John admonished and exhorted the people, and caused them to repent; then he baptized them. Therefore, it is apparent that this baptism is a symbol of repentance from all sin: its meaning is expressed in these words: '0 God! as my body has become purified and cleansed from physical impurities, in the same way purify and sanctify my spirit from the impurities of the world of nature, which are not worthy of the Threshold of Thy Unity!'"[121:911 Shoghi Effendi elaborated as follows: We should also bear in mind that the distinguishing character of the Bahi'i Revelation does not solely consist in the completeness and unquestionable validity of the Dispensation which the teachings of Bahi'u'lllh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi have established. Its excellence lies also in the fact that those elements which in past Dispensations have, without the least authority fiom their Founders, been a source of corruption and of incalculable harm to the Faith of God, have been strictly excluded by the clear text of Bahir'u'llhh's writings. Those unwarranted practices, in connection with the sacrament of baptism, of communion, of confession of sins, of asceticism, of priestly domination, of elaborate ceremonials, of holy war and of polygamy, have one and all been rigidly suppressed by the Pen of Bahi'u'llhh; whilst the rigidity and rigor of certain observances, such as fasting, which are necessary to the devotional life of the individual, have been considerably abated.[36'221
B A Q ~ A T U ' L L ~Remnant . of God: traditional appellation of the QB'im, derived from the Qur'h; designation of the B i b as the Promised One of I s l h and applied by Him to BahB'u'llBh. BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD. See DREYFUS-BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD.
72
BATTRICK, JEANNETTE HILDA
BATTRICK, JEANNETTE HILDA (1922-1978). A British believer (c. 1951) who along with her husband (Owen) pioneered extensively in the promotion of the Cause. In 1957 she and her family moved to Edinburgh for 6 months to reestablish the local Spiritual Assembly. In 1960 she pioneered for 10 months to Luxembourg before returning to teach in Edinburgh, Cardiff, Belfast, Dublin, London, and the North Sea islands of Shetland and Orkney. In 1967 the family decided to pioneer to the South Pacific and set out for that region via New Zealand. While her husband went on to the Solomon Islands to assist in building that community (with the eventual aim of gaining a foothold in New Caledonia), Jeannette remained in New Zealand, where she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly in April 1968. She was reelected the following year but left to settle with her husband in New Caledonia. From 1971 to 1975 she served on the National Spiritual Assembly of the Southwest Pacific. In 1975 the family moved back to Auckland after an 18-month pioneering stay in Ouvea, Loyalty Islands. In 1976 her husband was appointed a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors, and Jeannette served as his secretary until her death in 1978.[16:471,93:2741 BAXTER, EVELYN (1883?-1969). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An early (1923) British believer who embraced the Cause through the reading of Bahh'i books alone (i.e., she had not met a Bahh'i to discuss matters). She served on the local Spiritual Assembly of London and then the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles before pioneering during the Six Year Plan (first to Birmingham and then to Nottingham, Hove, Oxford, and Cardin). Her final pioneer move took her in 1953 to the Channel Islands (Jersey), for which she was designated a Knight of Bahh'~'llhh.['~~~~1
BAY^. Literally exposition, explanation, lucidity, eloquence, utterance: title given by the Bhb to His Revelation and two of His Writings, one in Persian, the other in A r a b i ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ BAYT. BAYTU'L-'ADL-I-A'ZAM. The Supreme House of Justice: a title of the Universal House of Ju~tice.['~:~~~1" B.E. Bahh'i Era (see CYCLE): denotes the Badi' calendar, reckoned from the year of the Bhb's declaration of His Mission in 1844.[18:7361"
BELCHER EDWARD
73
BECKER, MATILDA (BETTY) (1887-1974). An early (1933) American believer, she helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly in Kansas City (1935). In 1939 she pioneered to Alaska, where she settled in Anchorage in March 1941, following unsuccessful efforts to establish herself in Juneau and Sitka. She was elected in 1943 to the first local Spiritual Assembly of Anchorage, which was also the first in Alaska. In 1959, at the age of 72, she again pioneered, this time to Valdivia, Chile. In 1960 she moved to Punta Arenas, C h i l e t h e southernmost outpost of the Faith. In 1945 she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Punta Arenas (one of the first in South America).[15:538,93:2751 BEDIKIAN, VICTORIA (1879-1955). An early American believer. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahai during His visit to America and in 1927 spent three months as the guest of Shoghi Effendi in Haifa. She traveled widely throughout the United States following the death of her husband in 1945 and in later years entered into an extensive international correspondence with Bahh'is in India, Pikistiin, Burma, Ceylon, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, and the Islands of the Indian O ~ e a n . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] BEETON, JAMES HENRY ISAAC (1907-1975). The first (1971) Cape Barren Islander to embrace the Cause, he helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Glenorchy, Tasmania, Au~tralia.[~~:~~~l BEGGING. Forbidden in the Kitrib-i-Aqdas: "It is unlawful to beg, and it is forbidden to give to him who beggeth. All have been enjoined to earn a living, and as for those who are incapable of doing so, it is incumbent on the Deputies of God and on the wealthy to make See also SERVICE; WORK. adequate provision for them."[71'721 BELCHER, EDWARD (1900-1985). An American believer (1931) who embraced the faith following a dream in which 'Abdu'l-Bahai came to him. In 1938 he pioneered from his home in Binghamton, New York, to Syracuse, New York, to assist in the formation of the first (1939) local Spiritual Assembly of that town. In 1943 he pioneered to Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and later moved on to Los Angeles. In 1955 he pioneered to Uruguay, where he was the first Bahii'i to settle in Salto. In 1958 he pioneered to Minas and lived there until the formation of the first (1966) local Spiritual Assembly in Minas (the second local Spiritual Assembly to form in Uruguay). In 1966 he moved on to Pando to assist in the formation of a local
74
BENKE, GEORGE ADAM
Spiritual Assembly in that town. He remained in Pando until his death in 1985.[18:6571
BENKE, GEORGE ADAM (d. 1932). (Martyr.) A pioneer from Germany to Sofia, Bulgaria, he was designated by Shoghi Effendi as "the first European martyr for the Faith."[89:2631 BIG. Literally lord, prince, governor, bey: placed after the given name, Big was used as a courtesy title for middle-ranking officials. See also BAGUM. ~&.[18:736]68 9-
BIGAMY. Not permitted.[98:4491 See also MARRIAGE. B I S ~ T . Glad Tidings. A in the prison city of ' A M .
revealed by Bahi'u'llih while
BISMILL~~R--1,~-R~IM. In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful: an invocation that is prefixed to all but the ninth Surih of the Qur'h and composed (in Arabic) of 19 letterS.[18:7361m BLACKWELL, ELLSWORTH (1902-1978). An American believer (1934) who served for a time on the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and whose pioneer activities spanned nearly 25 years from 1940 until his death. In 1940 he, along with his wife (Ruth Browne), pioneered to Haiti on three separate occasions. In 1940 they went for a period of three years, returning in 1950 and again in 1960, remaining until 1975. He was a member of the first (1942) local Spiritual Assembly of Port-au-Prince and in 1961 served on the first National Spiritual Assembly of Haiti. He was later appointed the first Auxiliary Board member in Haiti. In 1975 he and his wife again pioneered, this time to the Malagasy Republic on the island of Madagascar, where he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly in 1976-1977. In 1977 he and his wife pioneered to the Republic of Zaire.[16:452,93:279] BLAKE, CECILIA KING (1911-1980). A Panamanian believer who embraced the Cause in 1957 and immediately pioneered to the Chitrk Zone. On several occasions she served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Panama. She traveled widely throughout Central America pioneering at the end of the Ten Year Crusade
BLOMFIELD, LADY SARA LOUISA
75
(1961) to Nicaragua, where she helped form the first (1961) local Spiritual Assembly of Bluefields. In the 1970s she resettled in Costa RiCa.[17:723] THE BLESSED BEAUTY. A title of Bahai'u'llaih. BLOMFIELD, LADY SARA LOUISA (1859-1939). (Sit6rih Binum; nCe Ryan.) An eminent early (1907) British Bahi'i who is perhaps best remembered for her memoire detailing her meetings with 'Abdu'l-Bahai (The Chosen Highway)Ls21and her assistance in the compilation of 'Abdu'l-Bahi's talks while in Paris (Paris Born in Ireland, she married a distinguished architect some 30 years her senior, Sir Arthur William Blomfield. They had two daughters, Mary Esther and Rose Ellinor Cecilia. When Sir Arthur died in 1899, Lady Blomfield and her two daughters moved from their London house. Later she began to develop a deep respect for Christianity as taught by Basil Wilberforce, then archdeacon of Westminster, and would take her daughters every Sunday to St. John's, Westminster, to hear him preach. Some eight years after the death of Sir Arthur, Lady Blomfield and her daughter Mary were in Paris, where they attended a reception at the home of Madam Lucien Monod. It was here that she met Miss Bertha Herbert, who introduced her to the Bahii'i Message, saying, "If I look happy it is because I am happy. I have found the desire of my heart." Asked to say more, Miss Herbert said, "It is true! True! We have been taught to believe that a great Messenger would again be sent to the world. He would set forth to gather together all the peoples of good will in every race, nation, and religion on the earth. Now is the appointed time! He has come! He has come!" Miss Herbert explained that there was a woman in Paris who had recently visited 'Abdu'l-Bahi and said that a meeting could be arranged for her to hear more. The woman was Miss Ethel Jenner Rosenberg, who had, in the summer of 1899, become the second Bahi'i to enroll in the British Isles. The Blomfields met with Miss Rosenberg and the first French Bahi'i, the scholar Hippolyte Dreyfus. During this meeting Lady Blomfield embraced the Bahii'i Message. On returning to London the Blomfields contacted Ethel Rosenberg and Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper and dedicated themselves to spreading the Faith in England. They were then living at 97 Cadogan Gardens, London, and in early August 1911 when 'Abdu'l-Bahi visited Great Britain, she invited Him to stay at her house. 'Abdu'l-Bahii left London for Paris on 3 October 1911, and Lady Blomfield, her daughters,
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BLUM, GERTRUDE
and a friend, Miss Beatrice Marion Platt, followed Him, took notes of His talks, and published them under the title Paris Talks. When World War I began, the Blomflelds were living in Geneva and moved to Paris to work for the French Red Cross. In the spring of 1918 she received a telephone message that disturbed her greatly: " 'Abdu'l-Baha in serious danger. Take immediate action." She went at once to Lord Larnington, who put the matter into the hands of the Right Honorable Arthur Balfour, secretary of state for foreign affairs, and a cable was immediately sent to General Allenby: "Extend every protection and consideration to 'Abdu'l-Baha, His family and His friends, when British march on Haifa."[371The Turks had threatened to crucify 'Abdu'l-Baha, but when Allenby took Haifa, several days before it was believed possible for him to do so, he cabled London, "Have today taken Palestine. Notify the world that 'Abdu'l-Bahii is ~ a f e . " [ ~ ~Around ~ O ~ ] 1920 Lady Blomfield decided to spend part of each year in Geneva, and it was there that she befriended Eglantyne Jebb, founder of the Save the Children Fund, and set up an assisting group, the Blomfleld Fund, under the sponsorship of Lord Weardale in London. During this time she used her considerable influence to get the five-point text, drawn up by the Save the Children Fund International, of the Geneva Declaration accepted by the League in 1924, which eventually was expanded into the Declaration of the Rights of the Child by the United Nations General Assembly in 1959. When Shoghi Effendi went to England to perfect his studies of English at Balliol College, Oxford, he became very close to Lady Blomfield to the extent that she accompanied him to Haifa in December 1921, following the news of the passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahi. For several months she remained in the Holy Land assisting him in his new role of Guardian. To the end of her life she remained dedicated to the service of her beloved Faith. In addition to her teaching she served for 8 of the first 11 years on the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles. She died on 31 December 1939. On learning of her passing Shoghi Effendi sent the following cable: "Profoundly grieve passing dearly beloved outstanding coworker SitArih Khhum. Memory her glorious services imperishable. Advise English community hold befitting memorial gatherings. Assure relatives my heartfelt sympathy loving fervent prayers."[7:651. 93:29, 123:1011 BLUM, GERTRUDE (1909-1993). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh; M.B.E., Member of the British Empire.) An early (1927) American believer. She and her husband, Alvin J. Blum (1912-1968), were designated
BODE, EDWARD L.
77
Knights of Bahb'u'llhh for their pioneer move to the Solomon Islands in 1954. She served on the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand as well as the first Regional Spiritual Assembly of the South Pacific Ocean. In 1989, HM Queen Elizabeth I1 awarded her an M.B.E. for her services to the community and to the Bahb7iFaith.[18:3191
BLUMENTHAL, ERIK (1914-2004). An eminent Adlerian psychologist and Bahb'i author of German Jewish origin, he was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany fi-om 1955 to 1963, following which he served as a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Europe fi-om its inception in 1968 until his retirement in 1985. In 1964 he became president of the Swiss Society for Individual Psychology, and in 2001 he was awarded the Medal of Honor by the Guild of Counsellors of Individual P s y ~ h o l o g y . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ MD-040805-1-Blumenthal-31-01
BLUNDELL, HUGH K. (18861976). An early New Zealand believer of British birth. His parents came into the Cause through the efforts of Father and Mother Dunn, who were invited to hold meetings in the Blundell home during their first (1923) visit to that country. In 1925 Hugh, although not yet a declared Bahb'i (he became a ~:~~~~ Bahb'i the following year), with his wife Sarah B l ~ n d e l l [93:2831 (1850-1934), was among the first party of Australasian pilgrims to visit the Holy Land. He served on the local Spiritual Assembly of Auckland fi-om 1927 onward and was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand for some time. In 1957 he was appointed as the first Auxiliary Board member in New Zealand, an appointment he held for 11 years, traveling extensively in the promotion of the Cause throughout New Zealand and the Pacific I s l a n d ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] BODE, EDWARD L. (1906-1976). An American believer who pioneered (1946) with his wife (Mary Hotchkiss Bode) to Rio de Janeiro during the first Seven Year Plan, where they helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly. They also assisted in the formation of the Bahai'i Publishing Trust for the Portuguese language. During the period 1949-1950 they traveled extensively in Holland and Portugal. From 1954 to 1956 they pioneered to Mexico, followed by a brief stay in the Canal Zone, Panama, and then returned to the United States. In 1959 they moved to Holland again and stayed for a period
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of nine years, for five of which Edward served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly. In 1969 they took up a pioneer post in Funchal, Madeira.[1s'5661
BODE, MARY HOTCHKISS (18961969). An early American believer who met 'Abdu'l-Bahi when she was still a child during His visit to America. He named her Ruqiyyih ("lofty" or "exalted") and revealed several Tablets in her name. In 1919, together with her sister, or "radiantyy-by Helen Hotchkiss Lielnors (named Lafifih-''pure" 'Abdu'l-Bahil), she formally presented the first and second sections of the Tablets of the Divine Plan to the southern states. ('Amatu'lBahi Rtihiyyih Khinum, then Miss Mary Maxwell, also took part in the presentation.) In 1946 she and her husband, Edward L. Bode, pioneered to Brazil and assisted in the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly in that country. In 1948 they moved to Chile and then Panama, Mexico, Portugal, and Holland. In 1969 they moved to Funchal in the Madeira BODY, MIND, SPIRIT. In a talk given in Paris in November 1911, 'Abdu'l-Bahi outlined the differences between body, mind, and spirit: It is quite apparent to the seeing mind that a man's spirit is something very different fiom his physical body. The spirit is changeless, indestructible. The progress and development of the soul, the joy and sorrow of the soul, are independent of the physical body. If we are caused joy or pain by a friend, if a love prove true or false, it is the soul that is affected. If our dear ones are far fiom us-it is the soul that grieves, and the grief or trouble of the soul may react on the body. Thus, when the spirit is fed with holy virtues, then is the body joyous; if the soul falls into sin, the body is in torment! When we find truth, constancy, fidelity, and love, we are happy; but if we meet with lying, faithlessness, and deceit, we are miserable. These are all things pertaining to the soul, and are not bodily ills. Thus, it is apparent that the soul, even as the body, has its own individuality. But if the body undergoes a change, the spirit need not be touched. When you break a glass on which the sun shines, the glass is broken, but the sun still shines! If a cage containing a bird is destroyed, the bird is unharmed! If a lamp is broken, the flame can still bum bright! The same thing applies to the spirit of man. Though death destroy his body, it has no power over his spirit-this is eternal, everlasting, both birthless and deathless. As to the soul of man after death, it remains in the degree of purity to which it has evolved during life in the physical body, and after it is fieed fiom the body it remains plunged
BOON, CHOO YEOK
79
in the ocean of God's Mercy. From the moment the soul leaves the body and arrives in the Heavenly World, its evolution is spiritual, and that evolution is: The approaching unto God. In the physical creation, evolution is fiom one degree of perfection to another. The mineral passes with its mineral perfections to the vegetable; the vegetable, with its perfections, passes to the animal world, and so on to that of humanity. This world is 111of seeming contradictions; in each of these kingdoms (mineral, vegetable and animal) life exists in its degree; though when compared to the life in a man, the earth appears to be dead, yet she, too, lives and has a life of her own. In this world things live and die, and live again in other forms of life, but in the world of the spirit it is quite otherwise. The soul does not evolve fiom degree to degree as a law-it only evolves nearer to God, by the Mercy and Bounty of God.[52:651
See also MIND; SOUL.
BOLLES, MAY ELLIS. See MAXWELL, MAY ELLIS BOLLES. BOLTON, MARIETTE GERMAINE (ROY) (1900-1968). An early (c. 1924) Australian believer of French Canadian birth. She helped establish many local Spiritual Assemblies and was secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand fiom 1948 to 1951. In 1952 she and her husband (William Stanley Bolton) donated their home in Yerrinbool to the National Spiritual Assembly, a donation that saw the creation of the first official cultural center Baha'i Summer (and Winter) S ~ h o o l . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 BOLTON, STANLEY WILLIAM (1892-1966). (Knight of Bahsi'u'llsih.) An early Canadian believer who in 1924 moved to Australia (as a representative of the Fuller Brush Company). He became a Baha'i shortly after his arrival. In the early 1930s, due to the Depression, he was forced to return to the United States, where he and his wife, Mariette Germaine Bolton, qualified as chiropractors. They returned to Australia. In 1953 they were given the privilege of representing Australia and New Zealand at the dedication of the Wilmette Temple (Maariqu'l-Amksir). On their return they visited Haifa as pilgrims and brought back from that visit gifts fiom Shoghi Effendi for the community, among which was a cream fez worn by 'Abdu'l-BahP. Bolton served on the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia for 17 years, frequently as ~ h a i r . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] BOON, CHOO YEOK (1945-1976). The first (early 1960s) SinoThai of Malaysia to embrace the Cause. He was a member of the
80 BOSCH, JOHN DAVID
National Spiritual Assembly of Malaysia at the time of his premature death.[16:4051 BOSCH, JOHN DAVID (1855-1946). An early American believer of Swiss birth. He met 'Abdu'l-Bahai on several occasions. He deeded his property in Geyserville, California, to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, and this became the first Baha'i School in the West.[10'285~93:2851 BOSCH, LOUISE (1870-1952). An early American believer of Swiss birth, she was the wife of John David Bosch. She was among the pilgrim group of 1909 that met 'Abdu'l-Bahai in 'Akkti.[11:7051 BOURGEOIS, JEAN-BAPTISTE LOUIS (1856-1930). An Acadian (Canadian) Bahi'i architect and sculptor, he was the designer of the first Bahi'i Mafiriqu'l-Aukair (House of Worship) in the West (situated in Wilmette, Illinois, on the shores of Lake Michigan). He became a Baha'i in New York City sometime during the winter of 1906. Following the April 1909 call by the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada for design proposals for the first Baha'i House of Worship in the West, he submitted a design in October that year; following modifications, his design was finally accepted during the April 1920Baha'i National Convention. In January 1921, Mr. Bourgeois and his wife (Alice) sailed for Haifa to present the design to 'Abdu'l-Bahai. On his return to Wilmette he devoted his entire energies to various aspects of the temple's construction. He passed away on 20 August 1930, on which the Guardian cabled the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada, "Grieve passing [of] Bourgeois. May Almighty reward richly his high, unforgettable endeavors. Convey his family heartfelt condolence^."[^^^^^ 451 The Temple was officially opened in 1953.[125:76ffl BOWMAN, AMELIA (1897-1976). An American believer (1933) who pioneered (1947) to Europe during the second Seven Year Plan. In 1947 she moved to Sweden, where she helped form the first (1948) local Spiritual Assembly of Stockholm. In 1949 she pioneered to Norway and settled in Oslo. In 1952 she transferred to Bergen, where she helped form the first (1955) local Spiritual Assembly of that city. In 1957 she relocated to France for two years, where she served as a member of the National Teaching Committee. She returned to Norway in 1959 and assisted in the formation of the first (1962) local Spiritual
BREAKWELL, THOMAS
81
Assembly of Stavanger. In 1962 she was elected a member of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Norway and served until 1967.[16:4091
BRANCH, THE GREATER. See M~RZAMUHAMMAD-'AL~-I-
zwjzi.
BRANCH, THE MOST GREAT. See 'ABDU'L-B&. BRANCHES.See AGHSAN. BRAUNS-FOREL, MARTA (188&1948). The daughter of Dr. Auguste Fore1 and an early European b e l i e ~ e r . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ' ] BREAKS, VIRGINIA (1906-1993). (Knight of BahP9u'llPh.) An American believer (1947) who in 1953 pioneered to Chuuk, Eastern Caroline Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahi'u'llhh. She remained on the island until 1987, serving for some time as an Auxiliary Board member.[18'3201 BREAKWELL, THOMAS (1872-1902). The first English Bahi'i. Born in Woking, Surrey, 31 May 1872, along with George Townshend and John Esslemont he was designated "one of three lurninaries shedding brilliant lustre annals Irish English Scottish Bahi'i c o m m ~ n i t i e s . " [ ~He ~ ' ~was ~ ~ ]the youngest of five children and was educated in the state school system in Woking before he moved with the family to the United States. He found a well-paid and responsible post in a southern cotton mill that was, according to the practice of the day in that region, operated with child labor. His high salary permitted him the luxury of long summer vacations in Europe. In the summer of 1901, on a steamship crossing to France, he made friends with a Mrs. Milner, who noted his interest in Theosophy and felt moved to invite him to go with her to meet a special friend in Paris. This special friend was May Ellis Bolles (Maxwell). Providentially, May Bolles had been asked by 'Abdu'l-Bahii to stay in Paris despite her mother's disapproval of May's wholehearted dedication to her new religion and her wish that they go to Brittany for the summer of 1901. In fact, May's mother had written to 'Abdu'l-Baha on her daughter's refusal to leave Paris, but He still did not wish her to leave. It was at this juncture that Mrs. Milner arrived with Thomas Breakwell. May described her first sight of him: "It was like looking at a veiled light. I saw at once his pure heart, his thirsty soul, and over
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all was cast the veil which is over every soul until it is rent asunder by the power of God in this day." In another report, she wrote that he was "of medium height, slender, erect, and gracehl with intense eyes and an indescribable charm. . . . I discerned a very rare person of high standing and culture, simple, natural, intensely real in his attitude toward life and his fellowmen. . . . He asked to see me the following day.'7[123:661 Breakwell showed remarkable insight into the Faith and readily accepted its teachings and absorbed its history. She told him of her visit to 'Abdu'l-Bahb, and as she later wrote, "his heart was filled with such longing that all his former life was swept away, he gave up his journey, canceled his plans and had but one hope in life, to be permitted to go himself and behold the face of 'Abdu'l-Bahii. . . . He wrote the following supplication, 'My Lord, I believe, forgive me, Thy servant Thomas Breakwell."'[123:671 Breakwell and a friend then set off immediately for Egypt in anticipation of acceptance given that May had sent his petition with her eager support and request for the answer to be sent to Port Said. That very evening when May went to collect her mail she found a cablegram from 'Abdu'l-Baha: "You may leave Paris at any time!" Breakwell's visit with 'Abdu'l-Bahb-the first visit of an English pilgrim-set him on fire, and he rapidly freed himself from all his earthly possessions. When he told 'Abdu'l-Bahb of the child labor in his factory, the Master had said, "Cable your re~ignation,"[l~~:~~] which he did immediately. On his return to Paris he threw himself into the teaching work with energy and enthusiasm, and such was his overflowing love and depth of understanding that many enrolled. His parents, having moved back to England, went to Paris with the intention of persuading him to return to London with them. He told his father that he could not leave, as 'Abdu'l-Bahb had asked him to stay in Paris, and such was his loving treatment of his father that he too wrote a letter of supplication to 'Abdu'l-Bahb. Breakwell's health was rapidly declining, and he was found to have advanced consurnption (tuberculosis). He wrote, "Suffering is a heady wine; I am prepared to receive that bounty which is the greatest of all; torments of the flesh have enabled me to draw much nearer to my L ~ r d . " [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] This was in a letter to 'Abdu'l-Bahb's secretary, Dr. Y h i s (also known as Youness Afrumteh), and a few days after the letter was received, Breakwell died, on 13 June 1902-'Abdu'l-Bahb appeared to know long before the official news reached Him. Deeply grieved, ~:~~] 'Abdu'l-Bahb revealed a prayer of visitation for B r e a k ~ e l l [ ' ~and gave it to two translators to put into English with the instruction to
BROWNE, EDWARD GRANVILLE 83
translate it well so that whoever read it would weep. Its words are heartbreaking yet joyfbl in the assurances they contain of the exalted spiritual station that Breakwell had attained.[100"871 He was buried in the Pantin Cemetery in Paris. About a year after his passing, 'Abdu'l-Bahi received an envelope that contained a letter and a violet attached to a postcard. On the card, written in gold ink was written, "He is not dead. He lives on in the AbhP Kingdom" and at the bottom of the card, "This flower was picked from Breakwell's grave." In the enclosed letter it said, "Praised be God, my dear son left this world having recognized the true station of 'Abdu'l-Bahh and tasted the sweetness of His love."[88:138-421
BRITTINGHAM, ISABELLA (1852-1924). (Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahP.) She was born on 21 February 1852, the daughter of an Episcopal clergyman. She married James D. Brittingham in 1886 and attended her first Bahb'i study class in 1898. Almost immediately on accepting the Faith she began to travel to share it. In September 1901 she visited 'Abdu'l-BahP in 'AkkP. After her visit she wrote a scholarly instructive essay, The Revelation of Bahb'u'llbh, which was published in 1902 by the Baha'i Publishing Society. Whenever she witnessed a new declaration of faith she would, week after week, send off their letters to 'Abdu'l-Baha, Who on one occasion said laughingly, "Mrs. Brittingharn was our Baha'i-maker." One such distinguished person who studied the Faith with her was Dr. Susan Moody, who later rendered heroic services to the Faith as a doctor, educator, and Baha'i teacher in TihrPn, h n . Mrs. Brittingham received the full support of her husband, James, who was not able to accompany her on her teaching trips. She made her second pilgrimage to the Holy Land in October 1909. She continued her traveling for the Faith to the end of her life and, in the home of the Revel1 sisters in Philadelphia, she dictated 11 letters to Jessie Revell on the evening of 28 January 1924 and then passed away later that same evening. BROWN, RUTH (1887-1969). See RANDALL, RUTH BROWN. BROWNE, EDWARD GRANVILLE (1862-1926). A Cambridge orientalist who, among other major scholarly activities, studied and wrote about the BPbi and Baha'i Faiths. During the period 15-20 April 1890 he was granted four successive interviews with BahP'u'llPh over a five-day period. Following his meetings Browne
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wrote his now famous pen portrait of Bahi'u'llhh: "The face on whom I gazed I can never forget, though I cannot describe it. Those piercing eyes seemed to read one's very soul; power and authority sat on that ample brow; while the deep lines on the forehead and face implied an age which the jet-black hair and beard flowing down in indistinguishable luxuriance almost to the waist seemed to belie. No need to ask in whose presence I stood, as I bowed myself before one who is the object of a devotion and love which kings might envy and emperors sigh for in A few sentences fkom these interviews were quoted at the World Parliament of Religions held in 1893 in Chicago. Browne also wrote of his first meeting with 'Abdu'l-Bahh: Seldom have I seen one whose appearance impressed me more. A tall strongly-built man holding himself straight as an arrow, with white turban and raiment, long black locks reaching almost to the shoulder, broad powerful forehead indicating a strong intellect combined with an unswerving will, eyes keen as a hawk's, and strongly-marked but pleasing features-such was my first impression of Abb6s Efendi, "the master" (Aka) as he par excellence is called by the Bibis. Subsequent conversation with him served only to heighten the respect with which his appearance had from the first inspired me. One more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Mulprnmadans, could, I should think, scarcely be found even amongst the eloquent, ready, and subtle race to which he belongs. These qualities, combined with a bearing at once majestic and genial, made me cease to wonder at the influence and esteem which he enjoyed even beyond the circle of his father's followers. About the greatness of this man and his power no one who had seen him could entertain a doUbt.[l~2:1051 When the Bahi'is refused to become involved in himian politics, Browne transferred his interest to the Azalis, though his translation and the report of his interview with of A Traveller b Bahi'u'llhh have earned him a place in Bahi'i history. His relationship with the Babi and Bahi'i Faiths is covered in considerable detail in Balyiui's book Edward Granville Browne and the Bahri 'iFaith[ll91 and Momen's book Selectionsfiom the Writings of E. G. Browne on the Bribi and Bahri'i BULLOCK, MATTHEW W. (1891-1972). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An American believer (1940) who was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States in 1952. He traveled
CALAhaIES AND CRISES
85
extensively at his own expense promoting the Faith. In 1955 he pioneered to Curaqao, Dutch West Indies, and in so doing helped form the first Spiritual Assembly there. He was designated a Knight of Bahh'u'llhh for his pioneer move.[14:535, 93:3011 BURIAL, ~&'i. According to Baha'i law the human body, having been the temple of the spirit (soul), must, after physical death, be It ~must : ~ ~be ~] respected, treated with honor, and buried, not ~ r e m a t e d . [ ~ and should buried within an hour's journey from the place of death[71:621 : ~ ~ lengraved with be wrapped in a shroud of silk or ~ o t t o n . [ ~A~ring, the inscription "I came forth from God, and return unto Him, detached from all save Him, holding fast to His Name, the Merciful, the Compassi~nate"[~~'~~] should be placed on a finger. The co£Fin should be ~ :a~specific ~ ] Prayer for the of crystal, stone, or hard fine ~ o o d , [ ~and Dead is said or chanted before interment.[71'23, loll This formal prayer and the ring are obligatory for only those Baha'is who have attained the age of maturity (15 years). The coffi is placed in the ground so The that the face of the body looks towards the Qiblih (Bahji).[87:1981 recitation of the special prayer is the only obligatory part of the funeral service, and the family may have additional readings, music, and speeches if they wish. See also DEATH, LIFE AFTER. BUTT, ABBASALLY (1894-1959). An early Indian believer who was called to the Holy Land by 'Abdu'l-BahP to assist in the translation of His Tablets to the Western believers and their letters to Him. The beginning of World War I forced his return to India, where he was for many years the chairman of the National Spiritual Assembly of India, Phkisthn, and Burma. He was the first member of the Asian 93:3"1 Auxiliary Board appointed in
CALAMITIES AND CRISES. In the latter part of the 19th century, BahP'u'llPh warned humanity of the problems facing humankind both then and in the future. He wrote, in part, "The world is in travail and its agitation waxeth day by day. Its face is turned toward waywardness and unbelief. Such shall be its plight that to disclose it now would not be meet and seemly. Its perversity will long continue. And when the appointed hour is come, there shall suddenly appear that which shall cause the limbs of mankind to quake. Then, and only
86
CALAMITIESAND CRISES
then, will the Divine Standard be unfurled, and the Nightingale of Elsewhere, Bahb'u'llhh wrote, Paradise warble its rnel0dy."[~~:~'*1 Every discerning eye clearly sees that the early stages of this chaos have daily manifestations affecting the structure of human society; its destructive forces are uprooting time-honoured institutions which were a haven and refuge for the inhabitants of the earth in bygone days and centuries, and around which revolved all human affairs. The same destructive forces are also deranging the political, economic, scienlSc, literary, and moral equilibrium of the world and are destroying the fairest h i t s of the present civilization. Political machinations of those in authority have placed the seal of obsolescence upon the root principles of the world's order. Greed and passion, deceit, hypocrisy, tyranny, and pride are dominating features afflicting human relations. Discoveries and inventions, which are the h i t of scientific and technological advancements, have become the means and tools of mass extermination and destruction and are in the hands of the ungodly. Even music, art, and literature, which are to represent and inspire the noblest sentiments and highest aspirations and should be a source of comfort and tranquility for troubled souls, have strayed from the straight path and are now the mirrors of the soiled hearts of this confused, unprincipled, and disordered age. Perversions such as these shall result in the ordeals which have been prophesied by the Blessed Beauty in the following words: ". . . the earth will be tormented by a fresh calamity every day and unprecedented commotions will break out." "The day is approaching when its (civilization's) flame will devour the ~ i t i e s . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Behold the disturbances which, for many a long year, have afflicted the earth, and the perturbation that hath seized its peoples. It hath either been ravaged by war, or tormented by sudden and unforeseen calamities. Though the world is encompassed with misery and distress, yet no man hath paused to reflect what the cause or source of that may be. Whenever the True Counsellor uttered a word in admonishment, lo, they all denounced Him as a mover of mischief and rejected His claim. How bewildering, how confusing is such behaviour! No two men can be found who may be said to be outwardly and inwardly united. The evidences of discord and malice are apparent everywhere, though all were made for harmony and union. The Great Being saith: 0 wellbeloved ones! The tabernacle of unity hath been raised; regard ye not one another as strangers. Ye are the h i t s of one tree, and the leaves of one branch. We cherish the hope that the light of justice may shine upon the world and sanctify it from tyranny. If the rulers and kings of the earth, the symbols of the power of God, exalted be His glory, arise and resolve to dedicate themselves to whatever will promote the highest interests of the whole of humanity, the reign ofjustice will assuredly be established amongst the children of men, and the effulgence of its
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light will envelop the whole earth. The Great Being saith: The structure of world stability and order hath been reared upon, and will continue to be sustained by, the twin pillars of reward and punishment. And in another connection He hath uttered the following in the eloquent tongue: Justice hath a mighty force at its command. It is none other than reward and punishment for the deeds of men. By the power of this force the tabernacle of order is established throughout the world, causing the wicked to restrain their natures for fear of punishment. In another passage He hath written: Take heed, 0 concourse of the rulers of the world! There is no force on earth that can equal in its conquering power the force of justice and wisdom. I, verily, a h that there is not, and hath never been, a host more mighty than that of justice and wisdom. Blessed is the king who marcheth with the ensign of wisdom unfixled before him, and the battalions of justice massed in his rear. He verily is the ornament that adorneth the brow of peace and the countenance of security. There can be no doubt whatever that if the day-star of justice, which the clouds of tyranny have obscured, were to shed its light upon men, the face of the earth would be completely transformed. The Great Being, wishing to reveal the prerequisites of the peace and tranquility of the world and the advancement of its peoples, hath written: The time must come when the imperative necessity for the holding of a vast, an all-embracing assemblage of men will be universally realized. The rulers and kings of the earth must needs attend it, and, participating in its deliberations, must consider such ways and means as will lay the foundations of the world's Great Peace amongst men.[128:1631
In 1949 Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary, "No doubt to the degree we Baha'is the world over . . . strive to spread the Cause and live up to its teachings, there will be some mitigation to the suffering of the peoples of the world. But it seems apparent that the great failure to respond to Bahi'u'llhh's instructions, appeals and warnings issued in the 19th Century, has now sent the world along a path, and released forces, which must culminate in a still more violent upheaval and agony. The thing is out of hand, so to speak, and it is too late to avert catastrophic t r i a l ~ . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Earlier, in 1933, he wrote to an individual believer describing the forces of darkness that beset the society of that day: "Whatever our shortcoming may be, and however formidable the forces of darkness which besiege us today, the unification of mankind as outlined and insured by the World Order of Bahai'u'llah will in the fullness of time be firmly and permanently established. This is Baha'u'lltih's promise, and no power on earth can in the long run present or even retard its adequate realization. The fiends should, therefore, not lose
88 CALAMITIESAND CRISES
hope, but fully conscious of their power and their role they should persevere in their mighty efforts for the extension and the consolidation of Bahti'u'llhh's universal Dominion on earth.'7[87'3301 In 1969 the Universal House of Justice wrote to the Bahti'is of the world, In the worsening world situation, fraught with pain of war, violence and the sudden uprooting of long-established institutions, can be seen the Mllment of the prophecies of Bahir'u'llih and the often repeated warnings of the Master and the beloved Guardian about the inevitable fate of a lamentably defective social system, an unenlightened leadership and a rebellious and unbelieving humanity. Governments and peoples of both the developed and developing nations, and other human institutions, secular and religious, finding themselves helpless to reverse the trend of the catastrophic events of the day, stand bewildered and overpowered by the magnitude and complexity of the problems facing them. At this fatefid hour in human history many, unfortunately, seem content to stand aside and ring their hands in despair or else join in the Babel of shouting and protestation which loudly objects, but offers no solution to the woes and afflictions plaguing our age. Nevertheless a greater and greater number of thoughtful and fair-minded men and women are recognizing in the clamor of contention, grief and destruction, now reaching such horrendous proportions, the evidences of Divine chastisement, and turning their faces towards God are becoming increasingly receptive to His Word. Doubtless the present circumstances, though tragic and awfid in their immediate consequences, are serving to sharpen the focus on the indispensability of the teachings of Bahir'u'llih to the needs of the present age, and will provide many opportunities to reach countless waiting souls, hungry and thirsty for Divine gui~lance.[*~~~~fl In 1983 the Universal House of Justice wrote, "Both within and without the Cause of God, powerful forces are operating to bring to a climax the twin tendencies of this portentous century. Among the many evidences which reveal this process may be cited . . . the continual increase of lawlessness, terrorism, economic confusion, immorality and the growing danger from the proliferation of weapons of destruction, and on the other, the world-wide, divinely propelled expansion, consolidation and rapid emergence into the limelight of world affairs of the Cause itself, a process crowned by the wonderful efflorescence of Mount Carmel, the mountain of God, whose Divine springtime is now so magnificently b~rgeoning."[~~:l~~] Writing to the Bahd'is of the world in their April 2002 Ridvsin letter, the Universal House of Justice advised of the completion of the Mount Carmel projects and its positive impact and cause for hope:
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The onrush of happenings within and without the Faith at the beginning of the Fifth Epoch of the Formative Age [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"] presents a spectacle that is awe-inspiring. Inside the Cause, the historic importance of the events last May that marked the completion of the edifices on Mount Carmel dazzled the senses as their impact was instantly communicated throughout the planet by satellite broadcasts and by the most extensive media coverage ever accorded a Bahl'i occasion.As the latest evidences in the tangible unfolding of the Tablet of Carmel were laid bare in breathtaking splendour before the eyes of the world, the Cause of Bahi7u'll& leapt to new prominence in its continuing rise from obscurity. . . . Our inescapable task is to exploit the current turmoil, without fear or hesitation, for the purpose of spreading and demonstrating the transformational virtue of the one Message that can secure the peace of the world. Has the Blessed Beauty not empowered and reassured us with potent words? "Let not the happenings of the world sadden you" is His loving counsel. "I swear by God," He continues; "The sea of joy yearneth to attain your presence, for every good thing hath been created for you, and will, according to the needs of the times, be revealed unto y0u."[61:82] . ..Unhampered by any doubts, unhindered by any obstacles, press on, then, with the Plan in hand.
In that same month, the Universal House of Justice wrote to the World's Religious Leaders calling on them to accept their responsibility for and role in bringing mankind's suffering to an end. In a follow-up document, entitled One Common Faith, issued in March 2005, they wrote that their action arose out of awareness that the disease of sectarian hatreds, if not decisively checked, threatens harrowing consequences that will leave few areas of the world unaffected. The letter acknowledged with appreciation the achievements of the interfaith movement, to which Bahl'is have sought to contribute since an early point in the movement's emergence. Nevertheless, we felt we must be forthright in saying that, if the religious crisis is to be addressed as seriously as is occurring with respect to other prejudices afflicting humankind, organized religion must find within itself a comparable courage to rise above fixed conceptions inherited from a distant past. Above all, we expressed our conviction that the time has come when religious leadership must face honestly and without further evasion the implications of the truth that God is one and that, beyond all diversity of cultural expression and human interpretation, religion is likewise one. It was intimations of this truth that originally inspired the interfaith movement and that have sustained it through the vicissitudes of the past one hundred years. Far from challenging the validity of any of the great revealed faiths, the
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i
principle has the capacity to ensure their continuing relevance. In order to exert its influence, however, recognition of this reality must operate at the heart of religious discourse, and it was with this in mind that we felt that our letter should be explicit in articulating
At the heart of the processes involved in overcoming and dispelling, once and for all, the religious prejudices and hatreds that are the cause of the current crisis lies the principle of unity. Also known as the Badi calendar, it was CALENDAR, BM~. instituted by the B i b and approved by Bahi'u'llih, Who stated that it should commence with the New Year's day of the year of the Bhbys Declaration (21 March 1844). It is based on the solar year of 365 days, five hours and 50 minutes with Naw-Riiz (New Year) beginning on the spring equinox (usually 21 March, but if it takes place after sunset on the 21st, then Naw-Riu is celebrated on the 22nd). The calendar consists of 19 months of 19 days each. The 19th month is one of fasting and is preceded by the four Intercalary Days (five in a leap year) known as Ayyim-&Hi. The BahB'i day begins and ends at sunset. The names of the months are taken from the names of God invoked in a prayer said during the month of fasting in Shi'ih I s l h . Refer to appendix 14 for a listing of BahB'i calendar events. CALIPH. Vicar, deputy: successor of the Prophet M&ammad, supreme civil and spiritual head of the I s l h i c world, a title claimed by successive d y n a s t i e ~ . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ I ~ CALUMNY. Any act of speaking maliciously, making false charges with the aim of damaging another person's reputation; it ranks in the Bahh'i Faith along with backbiting. In the 'Wotes" section of the Kitdb-i-Aqdas, we find the following elucidation: "Backbiting, slander and dwelling on the faults of others have been repeatedly condemned by Bahh'u'llhh." In the Hidden Words, He clearly states, "0 Son of Being! How couldst thou forget thine own faults and busy thyself with the faults of others? Whoso doeth this is accursed of Me." And again: "0 Son of Man! Breathe not the sins of others so long as thou art thyself a sinner. Shouldst thou transgress this command, accursed wouldst thou be, and to this I bear witness." This strong admonition is firther reiterated in His last work, "the Book of My Covenant7':"Verily I say, the tongue is for mentioning what is good, defile it not with unseemly talk. God hath forgiven what is past. Henceforward everyone should utter that which is meet and seemly, and should refiain from slander, abuse and whatever causeth sadness in men."[71:1811
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CAPARI, REFO. The first Albanian Bahd'i. Following his acceptance of the Faith in New York he returned to Albania in 1931. In its May/ June 2003 edition, the Bah6 'iJournal UKreported that "he ultimately became an education ministry official" and "translated some of the Baha'i Writings into Albanian. Soon some prominent people adopted the religion, including Xhafer Bej Preza, chief of police in Tirana, in 1935. Today there are about 14,000 Baha'is in Albania. There are 19 Local Spiritual Assemblies in 36 districts. The first National Spiritual Assembly, was elected in 1992."[130: Volume 20, No.l-MaylJune, 20031 CARAVANSERAI (-SERA, -SARY). An exchange, market; inn: an inn constructed around a central court where caravans (trains of pack See also -KH~LN. animals) may rest for the night.[18:7381Q CARDELL, EDMUND JOHN (TED) (1918-1999). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) A British-born believer (St. Neots) who accepted the Faith in Canada in 1948. He worked alternatively as a farmer, photographer, and businessperson. In 1952 he pioneered to Kenya, becoming the first Bahd'i to arrive in that country, and served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Nairobi. Subsequently, in 1953, he moved to Namibia, again being the first Bahd'i to arrive and for which service he was designated a Knight of Bahd'u'llih. He served as a member of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Southwest Africa and later as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of East and Central Africa until forced, due to political pressures, to return to the United Kingdom, where he took up residence on his father's farm. In 1974 he was elected to the National SpiritualAssembly of the United Kingdom and served until 1980, when he moved to the United States, where he passed away in Calif~rnia.[~~~O~] THE CAUSE. Used interchangeably by Baha'is to designate the Baha'i Faith. CENTENARY. See WORLD CONGRESS. CENTRAL FIGURES. The Bib, Bahh'u'llhh, and 'Abdu'l-Bahh. CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF THE TEXTS. One of five buildings situated on the Arc on Mount Carmel. It serves as "the seat of an institution of Bahd'i scholars" that assists "the Universal House of Justice in consulting the Sacred Writings, and will prepare
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CENTRE OF THE COVENANT
translations of and commentaries on the authoritative texts of the ~~ith.,,[69:52] CENTRE OF THE COVENANT. A station conferred on 'Abdu'lBahai by Bahai'u'llaih in His Will and Testament (Kitaib-i-'Ahd). Although the phrase "Centre of the Covenant" is not explicitly stated in the text of the Kithb-i-'Ahd, it is nevertheless clearly implied: 0 ye My Branches! A mighty force, a consummate power lieth concealed in the world of being. Fix your gaze upon it and upon its unifying influence, and not upon the differences which appear from it. The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the AagBn, the Afnin and My Kindred to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: "When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched fiom this Ancient Root." The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch (Abdu'l-Baha). Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powerfd. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch (MirzB Muhammad 'hi to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch (Abdu'l-Baha). He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen "the Greater" after "the Most Great", as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the AllInformed [71:62, 122:221]
'Abdu'l-BahB interpretated the foregoing verses as follows: By His supreme pen He hath explicitly declared that the object of the following verse of the Kitib-i-Aqdas is the Most Great Branch: "When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root." Its meaning briefly is this: that after My ascension it is incumbent upon the A&&, the A f n h and the kindred, and all the friends of God, to turn their faces to Him Who hath branched from the Ancient R o ~ t . [ ~ l ' ~ ~ l He also plainly saith in the Kitiib-i-Aqdas: "0ye people of the world! When the Mystic Dove will have winged its flight fiom its Sanctuary of Praise and sought its far-off goal, its hidden habitation, refer ye whatsoever ye understand not in the Book to Him Who hath branched from this mighty Stock." Addressing all the people of the world He saith: When the Mystic Dove flieth away fiom the orchard of praise to the Most Supreme and Invisible Station-that is, when the Blessed Beauty turneth away from the contingent world towards the invisible realm-refer whatever ye do not understand in the Book to Him Who
CHANCE, HUGH EMERY
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hath branched fkom the Ancient Root. That is, whatever He saith is the very mth.[100:2131 And in the Book of the Covenant He explicitly saith that the object of this verse "Who hath branched fkom this Ancient Root" is the Most Mighty Branch. And He comrnandeth all the A&&, the A h h , the kindred and the Baha'is to turn toward Him. Now, either one must say that the Blessed Beauty hath made a mistake, or He must be obeyed. 'Abdu'lBaha hath no command for the people to obey save the diffusion of the fragrances of God, the exaltation of His Word, the promulgation of the oneness of the world of humanity, the establishment of universal peace, and other of the commands of God. These are divine commands and have nothing to do with 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Whoever wisheth may accept them, and anyone who rejecteth them may do as he p l e a ~ e t h . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
'Abdu'l-Bahii, speaking on 2 December 1912 in the New York City home of Mr. and Mrs. Edward B. Kinney, further clarified the meaning of Bahii'u'll6h's Words: As to the most great characteristic of the revelation of Bahi'u'lliiha specific teaching not given by any of the Prophets of the past-it is the ordination and appointment of the Center of the Covenant. By this appointment and provision He has safeguarded and protected the religion of God against differences and schisms, making it impossible for any one to create a new sect or faction of belief. To insure unity and agreement He has entered into a Covenant with all the people of the world including the Interpreter and Explainer of His teachings so that no one may interpret or explain the religion of God according to his own view or opinion and thus create a sect founded upon his individual understanding of the divine words. The Book of the Covenant or Testament of Baha'u'llah is the means of preventing such a possibility, for whosoever shall speak from the authority of himself alone shall be degraded. Be ye informed and cognizant of t h i ~ . [ ' ~ l : ~ ~ ]
CHALICE, "SISTER" GRACE (d. 1948). A nurse by profession and a Quaker by background, Sister Challis heard of the Faith from Dr. Esslemont; she accepted the Faith at the gathering of the Bournemouth Bahii'is called to hear of the passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahai. She was an active teacher of the Faith throughout her Bahii'i life. She also served on the National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahii'is of the United Kingdom for 15 of its first 18 years. She served mainly as its chair. She died in Bournemouth in October 1948.[41:4711 CHANCE, HUGH EMERY (1911-1998). (Member, Universal House of Justice.) A Baha'i administrator and lawyer by profession (B.A.,
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CHARACTER
Cornell College, 1933; J.D., College of Law, State University of Iowa, 1935), he practiced law fiom 1935 to 1944 in Iowa. From 1942 to 1944 he was international president of the International Association of Young Men's Clubs. Over the period 19441946 he served in the U.S. Navy Judge Advocate General's Corps. From 1946 to 1962 he served as legal counsel for the International ChiropracticAssociation. In 1946 he was elected secretary of the National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahi'is of the United States. He was elected to the Universal House of Justice at its inception in 1963 and served as a member of that body until he retired in 1993, when he returned to his birthplace of Winfield, Kansas. On his death on 25 March 1998 the Universal House of Justice issued the following message: "Hearts heavy with sorrow at profound loss to Bahi'i world of Hugh E. Chance, our dearly loved former colleague, staunch, far-sighted supporter cause Bahi'u'llih. Constant optimism, adamantine faith, indomitable will characterised his notable three-decade-long services as member Universal House of Justice subsequent to his membership National Spiritual Assembly United States. His manifold contributions organisation World Centre Faith, his untiring efforts promote interests Cause especially Far East Asian and Pacific regions, his vigorous assistance development external affairs activities BahP'i International Community have left imperishable record achievements. Supplicating ardently holy threshold that his noble soul may reap rich rewards 'AbhP Kingdom."
CHARACTER Bahai'u'llaih wrote, "A good character is, verily, the best mantle for men fiom God. With it He adorneth the temples of His loved ones. By My life! The light of a good character surpasseth the light of the sun and the radiance thereof. Whoso attaineth unto it is accounted as a jewel among men. The glory and the upliftment of the world must needs depend upon it. A goodly character is a means whereby men are guided to the Straight Path and are led to the Great Announcement. Well is it with him who is adorned with the saintly attributes and 'Abdu'l-Bahai added that character of the Concourse on High."[1U:361 "A good character is in the sight of God and His chosen ones and the possessors of insight, the most excellent and praiseworthy of all things, but always on condition that its center of emanation should be reason and knowledge and its base should be true CHARTERS. See THREE CHARTERS. CHASE, THORNTON (1847-1912). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahai; Thibit-Steadfast.) He was born in Springfield, Massachusetts, 22
CHASTE AND HOLY LIFE
95
February 1847. In June 1894 when a traveling insurance salesman in Chicago, he met Ibrhhim Kheiralla, who introduced him to the Bahi'i Faith. Later that same year, along with four others, he embraced the Cause and began actively to teach. Although not the first believer chronologically he was nevertheless referred to as the ~ ' ~visited ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Baha in 'Akkii in first by ' A b d ~ ' l - B a h i i . [ ~He 1907, and shortly after his return he was transferred to California, where his teaching of the Baha'i Faith intensified. He published several books (principle among which was his memoir of his visit with 'Abdu'l-Bahi entitled In Galilee and In Spirit and In Tr~th['~~]), letters, and poems before his death on 30 September 1912, in Los Angeles. When 'Abdu'l-Bahi was in America that year and learned of his passing, He made a special journey to Inglewood Cemetery, and after some words of prayer said, "This is a personage who will not be forgotten. For the present his worth is not known, but in the future it will be inestimably dear. His sun will be ever shining, his star will ever bestow the light."[123:111 For further information about this important American believer, refer to Stockman's biography, Thornton Chase: First American CHASTE AND HOLY LIFE. The highest standard of moral behavior is expected of a Baha'i. The writings of Shoghi Effendi are most explicit on this subject: A chaste and holy life must be made the controlling principle in the
behavior and conduct of all Bahi'is, both in their social relations with the members of their own community, and in their contact with the world at large. It must adorn and reinforce the ceaseless labors and meritorious exertions of those whose enviable position is to propagate the Message, and to administer the affairs, of the Faith of Bahh'u'llhh. It must be upheld, in all its integrity and implications, in every phase of the life of those who fill the ranks of that Faith, whether in their homes, their travels, their clubs, their societies, their entertainments, their schools, and their universities. It must be accorded special consideration in the conduct of the social activities of every Bahir'i summer school and any other occasions on which Bahi'i community life is organized and fostered.It must be closely and continually identified with the mission of the Bahi'i youth, both as an element in the life of the BahB'i community, and as a factor in the future progress and orientation of the youth of their own country. Such a chaste and holy life, with its implications of modesty, purity, temperance, decency, and clean-mindedness, involves no less than the exercise of moderation in all that pertains to dress, language, amusements, and all artistic and literary avocations. It demands daily vigilance in the control of one's carnal desires and corrupt
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inclinations. It calls for the abandonment of a frivolous conduct, with its excessive attachment to trivial and often misdirected pleasures. It requires total abstinence fiom all alcoholic drinks, fiom opium, and fiom similar habit-forming drugs. It condemns the prostitution of art and of literature, the practices of nudism and of companionate marriage, infidelity in marital relationships, and all manner of promiscuity, of easy familiarity, and of sexual vices. It can tolerate no compromise with the theories, the standards, the habits, and the excesses of a decadent age. Nay rather it seeks to demonstrate, through the dynamic force of its example, the pernicious character of such theories, the falsity of such standards, the hollowness of such claims, the perversity of such habits, and the sacrilegious character of such exce~ses.[~l'~~fl
In another passage he wrote, "It must be remembered, however, that the maintenance of such a high standard of moral conduct is not to be associated or confused with any form of asceticism, or of excessive and bigoted puritanism. The standard inculcated by Bahk'u'llih, seeks, under no circumstances, to deny anyone the legitimate right and privilege to derive the fullest advantage and benefit from the manifold joys, beauties, and pleasures with which the world has been so plentifully enriched by an All-Loving Creat~r."[~l'~~] CHEE, LEONG TAT (1910-1972). A Malaysian believer who served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Malacca. He served as treasurer of the Regional Spiritual Assembly of Southeast Asia from 1957 until 1964. He had the privilege of being the only Malaysian believer to participate in the election of the first Universal House of Justice in 1963. In 1964he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Malaysia, and later that same year he was appointed as an Auxiliary Board member-the first Malaysian to serve in that capacity. In 1969, despite failing health, he and his wife pioneered to Singapore in an effort to raise up a National SpiritualAssembly in 93:4161 that country (a goal that was realized in 1972).[14:527,
C H I H ~ Q The . fortress (castle) in northeastern irhn where the Bhb was imprisoned for most of the last two years of His life and where He wrote many of His important works. One of the main objectives of the Conference of Badaht was to find a way to free the B6b from this prison. The events associated with this period are dealt with in ~ " ~byf f ] some detail by 'Abdu'l-Bahh in A Traveller $ N a r r a t i ~ e [ ~ ~and Nabil-i-A9?amin The D a w n - B r e a k e r ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ l a CHIPOSI, LEONARD (1928-1993). One of the earliest (1956) indigenous believers in Zimbabwe, he served as a member of two
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97
National Spiritual Assemblies: South Central A£rica (1964-1970) followed by Zimbabwe (197&1973).[18:3201 CHOSEN BRANCH. A title conferred on 'Abdu'l-BahP by Bahii'u'lliih. CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM KENNETH (1913-1959). (Knight of Bahii'u'lliih.) An early American believer and member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States for several years. In 1953 he pioneered, with his wife, Roberta Kaley (1913-1971), and family, first to Southern Rhodesia (for which service he and Roberta were designated Knights of Bahh'u'llih), then to Athens, Greece, and finally to Indonesia, where he was the first Bahh'i to be buried in the Bahh'i burial ground in CHURCH AND STATE. In future Bahh'i states (nations) both church and state will be bound together in matters of government. 'Abdu'lBahii wrote, "He has ordained and established the House of Justice, which is endowed with a political as well as a religious function, the ~ ' ~also ~~] consummate union and blending of church and ~ t a t e . " [ ~See UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE. CIVILIZATION, DIVINE. That civilization that will result from the establishment of the World Order of Bahii'u'lliih. CLERGY. The Bahh'i community has no clergy; all leadership and administrative powers are vested in elected bodies functioning at local, national, and international levels. To provide a long-term overview of Bahh'i affairs, to maintain the continuity of guidance, to be uninvolved in periodic elections, to be regarded as the "learned" as different from the "rulers," BahP'u'llPh established the unique institution of the Hands of the Cause of God. These two "arms" of the Baha'i administration may therefore be regarded as the "elected" and the "appointed." Baha'u711ihwrote, "Blessed are the rulers and learned in Shoghi Effendi wrote, "the 'learned7 are, on the one hand, the Hands of the Cause of God and, on the other, the teachers and diffisers of His teachings who do not rank as Hands, but who have attained an eminent position in the teaching work. As to the 'rulers7 they refer to the members of the local, national The Universal House of and international Houses of Justi~e."[~~'"~] Justice wrote in 1972, "The existence of institutions of such exalted rank, comprising individuals who play such a vital rele, who yet have
98 CLERGY
no legislative, administrative or judicial authority, and are entirely devoid of priestly functions or the right to make authoritative interpretations, is a feature of Bahh'i administration unparalleled in the ~ ~ ~ ] the blessings conferred by the religions of the p a ~ t . " [ ' ~Among appointment of such souls has been the elimination of the internal conflicts, which throughout past ages have characterized religious communities, between those who are recognized for their learning and wisdom and those who are given the authority to govern, which were often reflected in hostility between church and state, priests and kings, intellectuals and the establishment. The overconcentration of power seen when priests or doctors of religious law have both powers of interpretation and of legislative and governing authority has no place in Bahh'i administration. Furthermore, Bahii'u'llih forbade monasticism and living in seclusion, commanded priests to many, and prohibited the confession of sins. In a Tablet addressed to "The Clergy and People of Various Faiths," Bahh'u'llhh wrote, in part, as follows: This is the Day of God; turn ye unto Him. . . .The Beloved One loveth not that ye be consumed with the fire of your desires. Were ye to be shut out as by a veil from Him, this would be for no other reason than your own waywardness and ignorance. . . . We, verily, have come for your sakes, and have borne the misfortunes of the world for your salvation. . . . 0 Concourse of patriarchs! He Whom ye were promised in the Tablets is come. Fear God, and follow not the vain imaginings of the superstitious.Lay aside the things ye possess, and take fast hold of the Tablet of God by His sovereign power. Better is this for you than all your possessions. Unto this testifieth every understanding heart, and every man of insight. Pride ye yourselves on My Name and yet shut yourselves out as by a veil from Me? This indeed is a strange thing! . . . 0 Concourse of archbishops! He Who is the Lord of all men hath appeared. In the plain of guidance He calleth mankind, whilst ye are numbered with the dead! Great is the blessedness of him who is stirred by the Breeze of God, and hath arisen from amongst the dead in this perspicuous Name. . . .0 Concourse of bishops! Trembling hath seized all the kindreds of the earth, and He Who is the Everlasting Father calleth aloud between earth and heaven. Blessed the ear that hath heard, and the eye that hath seen, and the heart that hath turned unto Him Who is the Point of Adoration of all who are in the heavens and all who are on earth. . . . 0 Concourse of bishops! Ye are the stars of the heaven of My knowledge. My mercy desireth not that ye should fall upon the earth. My justice, however, declareth: "This is that which the Son (Jesus) hath decreed." And whatsoever hath proceeded out of His blameless, His truth-speaking, trustworthy mouth, can never be altered. . . .
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The stars of the heaven of knowledge have fallen, they that adduce the proofs they possess in order to demonstrate the truth of My Cause, and who make mention of God in My name. When I came unto them, in My majesty, however, they turned aside from Me. They, verily, are of the fallen. This is what the Spirit (Jesus) prophesied when He came with the truth, and the Jewish doctors caviled at Him, until they committed what made the Holy Spirit to lament, and the eyes of such as enjoy near access to God to weep. . . .0 Concourse of priests! Leave the bells, and come forth, then, ffom your churches. It behoveth you, in this day, to proclaim aloud the Most Great Name among the nations. Prefer ye to be silent, whilst every stone and every tree shouteth aloud: "The Lord is come in His great glory!" . . . He that summoneth men in My name is, verily, of Me, and he will show forth that which is beyond the power of all that are on earth. . . . Let the Breeze of God awaken you. Verily, it hath wafted over the world. Well is it with him that hath discovered the fragrance thereof and been accounted among the well-assured. . . . 0 Concourse of priests! The Day of Reckoning hath appeared, the Day whereon He Who was in heaven hath come. He, verily, is the One Whom ye were promised in the Books of God, the Holy, the Almighty, the All-Praised. How long will ye wander in the wilderness of heedlessness and superstition? Turn with your hearts in the direction of your Lord, the Forgiving, the Generous. . . . 0 Concourse of monks! Seclude not yourselves in churches and cloisters. Come forth by My leave, and occupy yourselves with that which will profit your souls and the souls of men. Thus biddeth you the King of the Day of Reckoning. Seclude yourselves in the stronghold of My love. This, verily, is a befitting seclusion, were ye of them that perceive it. He that shutteth himself up in a house is indeed as one dead. It behoveth man to show forth that which will profit all created things, and he that bringeth forth no fruit is fit for fire. Thus counselleth you your Lord, and He, verily, is the Almighty, the All-Bounteous. Enter ye into wedlock, that after you someone may fill your place. We have forbidden you perfidious acts, and not that which will demonstrate fidelity. Have ye clung to the standards fixed by your own selves, and cast the standards of God behind your backs? Fear God, and be not of the foolish. . . . 0 Concourse of monks! If ye choose to follow Me, I will make you heirs of My Kingdom; and if ye transgress against Me, I will, in My longsuffering, endure it patiently, and I, verily, am the Ever-Forgiving, the All-Merciful. . . .[42:87a
See also PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND RULERS. COBB, STANWOOD (1881-1982). An educator and author of some 15,N0. American believer who met note, he was an early (1906)[105:V01. 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Haifa in 1908,when he was a guest in His home, and
100 COLLINS, AMELIA ENGELDER
again in 1910 in the pilgrim house. He met 'Abdu'l-Bahi again in both France and the United States. During his life he published some 20 books on religion, philosophy, and education, as well as several books of verse. In 1924 he was appointed editor of Star of the WesPoS,lo61 and its successor, World Order, a post he held until 1939. He continued to lecture on Baha'i subjects well into his 100th year.[17'815*93:3171 COLLINS, AMELIA ENGELDER (MILLY) (1873-1962). (Hand of the Cause of God.) The only Hand who was informed of her rank before it was bestowed, she was advised by Shoghi Effendi in 1947 but not publicly appointed until 24 December 1951 (in the first contingent of appointees). Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on 7 June 1873, daughter of a German Lutheran clergyman, she was the 7th of a family of 14 children. She became a Bahi'i toward the end of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's life and received a letter from Him dated 6 December 1919 that set the pattern of her life. When 'Abdu'l-Bahi passed away and His Will appointing Shoghi Effendi was read, she turned to him and was known to say, "How I prayed that God would help me to make him and often said, "To see the Guardian smile ~ ~ ~ 1 letters just once was worth a lifetime of s ~ f f e r i n g . " [ ~In~numerous and messages Shoghi Effendi referred to her "indomitable spirit of faith and love," her "single-minded and wholehearted devotion," and her "self-sacrificing efforts," examples that "will live and influence many a s o ~ l . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 In 1923 she made her first pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Shortly after her husband died in 1937, she made a second pilgrimage. She was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada in 1924 and served on it for many years. She was also most active in travel teaching and visiting most centers in the States and Canada as well as those in South and Central America. By living simply, allowing herself no luxuries, she was an outstanding benefactress but rarely spoke of the generous contributions she made. She was frequently the first to respond to a call from Shoghi Effendi, and most contributions were known only to God, to Shoghi Effendi, and to Milly herself. Many were of such significance that Shoghi Effendi acknowledged them publicly, particularly in respect to the properties on Mount Carmel; the American Temple (Mahriqu'l-Amkiir) and its dependencies; temple sites in Latin America, Europe, and Asia; the developments around the Bahi'i Holy Places in Israel; the purchase of national Bahi'i headquarters ) ; endowments in five continents. (see ~ ~ R A T U ' L - Q U D S and
COLLINS, AMELIA ENGELDER
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In Shoghi Effendi's last message to the Bahi'i world he referred to Milly's "munificent d o n a t i ~ n " [ ~toward ~ : ~ ' ~ ]the building of Houses of Worship in Europe, Afica, and Australia. Her travels on behalf of the National Spiritual Assembly and for Shoghi Effendi was frequently mentioned in his letters to her, and one such reads, "The Bahi'is, East and West, North and South, admire and are thankful for such signal services. . . . Be happy, and persevere in your exemplary and historic servi~es."['~:~~~] In January 1947 she received a letter from Shoghi Effendi, the contents of which she had to keep locked in her heart for almost five years. He not only appointed her as a Hand of the Cause but as one of the Nine Hands who, according to the terms of 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Te~tament,[~~:l~] were to serve the Guardian in a very special capacity. In the words of his secretary, the Guardian is quoted as saying, "So you see you are not only worthy to be a Hand of the Cause, but have rendered a service which ordinarily would be performed by this select body of nine. You must realize that by his conferring this rank upon you is not as an inducement to you to perform future tasks, but as a well-deserved recognition of those already perf~rmed."['~:~~~] His own postscript to the letter contains the following excerpts: "The high rank you now occupy and which no Bahi'i has ever held in his own lifetime has been conferred solely in recognition of the manifold services you have already rendered. . . . Indeed the character of this latest and highly significant service you have rendered places you in the category of the Chosen Nine who, unlike the other Hands of the Cause, are to be associated directly and intimately with the cares and responsibilities of the Guardian of the Faith."[12:8391 In January 1951 the International Bahh'i Council was appointed by Shoghi Effendi with Milly as vice president. This appointment required her to live in Haifa, though she had to return to the United States for some time for treatment for arthritis. In December of that year she carried out some special assignments for Shoghi Effendi in Turkey and Cairo, which she executed though ill and in constant pain through her increasingly crippling arthritis. Shoghi Effendi made public the news of her appointment as a Hand with the announcement of the first contingent later that month. She was appointed to accompany 'Amatu'l-Bahii Ruwyyih miinurn to the 1953 All-America Conference in Chicago and as his representative to the European Intercontinental Conference in Frankfurt, Germany, in July 1958. By that time Shoghi Effendi had died, and her tribute to him at the close of that conference provided a unique insight into his life and work. It was
102
COLLISON, MARY GALE
subsequently published for the benefit of fbture generations and concluded with a most moving appeal: "Let us not fail him, for he never failed us. Let us never forget him, for he never forgot U S . " [ ~ ~ ~ : ' ~ ] On 20 November 1960 she returned to Germany to discharge a trust delegated to her by Shoghi Effendi-to lay the cornerstone of the European Bahi'i House of Worship. She returned to Haifa after an overseas visit in October 1961 to attend the annual meeting of the Hands of the Cause where, in spite of an arm broken in a fall that required hospitalization and severe illness, she was able to go to all but one of the sessions. On 1 January 1962 she passed away in the arms of 'Amatu'l-Bahi Ri&iyyih a i i n u m and was buried in the Bahh'i cemetery at the foot of Mount Carmel. To the U.S. National SpiritualAssembly the Hands of the Cause cabled, "With deepest regret share news Bahi'i World passing dearly loved Hand Cause outstanding benefactress Faith Amelia Collins. Unfailing support love devotion beloved Guardian darkest period his life brought her unique bounty his deep affection esteem confidence and honor direct association work world Center. Signal services every field Bahh'i activity unforgettable. Purchase site Mount Carmel, generous gifis hastening future Maslniqu'l-Acl&hr construction Mother Temples four continents, acquisition national Ha$ratu71-Quds, endowments, constant support home-fronts, worldwide teaching enterprises, among her munificent donations. Urge national assemblies hold memorial gatherings particularly Temples, commemorate her shining example ceaseless services maintained until last COLLISON, MARY GALE (1892-1970). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An early (1923) American believer of Canadian birth. In 1928 she and her husband (Reginald Collison) visited a large number of Bahh'i communities during a 17,000-mile teaching trip by automobile across the United States (which, in the absence of an Interstate highway system and the general mechanical unreliability of automobiles of that time, was undoubtedly an undertaking of some considerable difficulty). In 1952 she and her husband pioneered to Uganda. In 1953 they were the first American believers to arise in response to the Ten Year Crusade call for pioneers. They resettled in Ruanda-Urundi, for which service they were designated Knights of Bahi'u'llih. In 1955 they returned to Uganda, where they served as Custodians (until 1966) of the Mother Temple (Mafiriqu'l-Amkhr) of Africa after its dedication in 1961.[14:4861
CONCOURSE ON HIGH
103
COLLISON, REGINALD (REX) (1884-1983). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) Rex was born in central Ohio in 1884 and married Mary Gale (Collison) in 1920. They accepted the Bahh'i Faith together in 1923. He retired in 1945 as chief of research and professor emeritus at Cornell University after 33 years in plant research and associated studies. He then moved with his wife to a house they owned in Geyserville and in 1952 pioneered to Uganda, where for about a year they were caretakers of the Hagratu'l-Quds in Kampala. Leaving to pioneer with a student fiend, Duduzu Chisiza, they settled in Ruanda-Urundi, where their names were in the first list of Knights of Bahb'u'llhh announced by Shoghi Effendi. When they returned to Kampala, Rex was walking across the newly bulldozed piece of land where the Bahb'i Temple (Ma&riqu'l-Aakhr) was to be erected and picked up a piece of stone that he said was a stone-age hand ax. This was sent for identification and carbon dating to Nairobi and confirmed as being a 20,000-year-old artifact. In 1966 they returned home to Geyserville, where Rex continued to serve, give lectures, and hold firesides. Although Mary died in 1970, Rex carried on actively until he was almost 100 years old. He had a radiant nature, and like one of the pieces of his hobby, he was "a gemstone finely cut and supremely p o l i ~ h e d . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] COLONEL J A L -EH. ~
See ~
E
HCOLONEL , JALAL.
COMMUNITY, ~ ~ a ' Used i . in three ways-to refer to those Bahh'is who live in a local or national Bahb'i administrative unit or to the Bahh'is worldwide. CONCLAVE OF THE HANDS OF THE CAUSE OF GOD. When Shoghi Effendi passed away in November 1957 the Hands of the Cause of God convened a confidential meeting of the body in the Holy Land to determine the future of the Cause. These meetings were continued annually until the election of the Universal House of Justice. CONCOURSE ON HIGH. In Bahh'i Writings this phrase refers to the Manifestations of God and holy souls in the spiritual w ~ r l d . [ ~ l ' ~ ~ ] The "Supreme Concourse" and the "Celestial Concourse" are also used in this context. For example, 'Abdu'l-BahP wrote in one of His Prayers: "These souls are Thy heavenly army. Assist them and, with the cohorts of the Supreme Concourse, make them victorious, so that
104 CONFERENCE OF BADASIIT
each one of them may become like unto a regiment and conquer these countries through the love of God and the illumination of divine teachings."[40:341 CONFERENCE OF BADAWT. A gathering convened by the Baib for some 81 of His followers in mid-1848. It lasted for 22 days, during which several significant events took place. In the absence of the Bkb, Who was at that moment imprisoned in the fortress of Chihriq, the organization and leading role fell to Mirzi Husayn 'Ali (Bahai'u'llaih). One of the objectives of the conference was "to make a sudden, a complete and dramatic break with the past, with its order, During the its ecclesiasticism, its traditions and cerem~nials."[~~'~~] conference each participant was given a new name by Mirzii Husayn 'Ali (henceforth entitled "Bah~'u'1liih"). The last Letter of the Living became known as "Quddfis," and the only woman, Qurratu'l'Ayn, became "Thhirih." After much discussion with many differing opinions, the climax of the conference came when Thhirih, to demonstrate her rejection of the old laws and customs, appeared before the assembled believers unveiled-her face uncovered for all to see. This caused great upset among those present, and some fled in dismay, one tried to cut his throat, and some fell away entirely from their belief in the Bab's Cause. According to one historian, "When those who had remained steadfast left the hamlet it was to go out into a world [which], for them, was greatly changed. . . . They were determined to assert their freedom from the fetters of the The events associated with this period are dealt with in detail by and by Nabfl-i-A'5am in The Shoghi Effendi in God Passes By[37:31-51 Drn~n-Breakers.[~~:~~~ff] CONFESSION OF SINS. Forbidden in the Kitrib-i-Aqda~.[~l:~~] See also ABSOLUTION; SINS. CONSOLIDATION. The systematic process of education whereby Bahi'is acquire deeper knowledge of their Faith and follow more closely its precepts in order to assume their teaching and administrative responsibilities. CONSTANTINOPLE. (Istanbul.) Designated by Bahai'u'llaih as "the it was the place to which He was exiled from B a a Great City,"[109:331 d i d in 1863. He remained there for four months before being exiled onward to Adrianople.
CONSULTATION 105
CONSULTATION. The technique of discussion, decision making and problem solving used both within the Bahb'i administration and by individual Bahb'is. BahP'u'llPh wrote, "The heaven of divine wisdom is illumined with the two luminaries of consultation and compassion. Take ye counsel together in all matters, inasmuch as consultation is the lamp of guidance which leadeth the way, and is the bestower of ~nderstanding."[~~~:'~~1 'Abdu'l-Bahai said that "true consultation is spiritual conference ~ ~ describes : ~ ~ ] the process in the attitude and atmosphere of l o ~ e . " [ He in these words: The prime requisites for them that take counsel together are purity of motive, radiance of spirit, detachment from all else save God, attraction to His Divine Fragrances, humility and lowliness amongst His loved ones, patience and long-suffering in difficulties and servitude to His exalted Threshold. Should they be graciously aided to acquire these attributes, victory from the unseen Kingdom of Bahd shall be vouchsafed to them. The members thereof must take counsel together in such wise that no occasion for ill-feeling or discord may arise. This can be attained when every member expresseth with absolute freedom his own opinion and setteth forth his argument. Should anyone oppose, he must on no account feel hurt for not until matters are fully discussed can the right way be revealed. The shining spark of truth cometh forth only after the clash of differing opinions. If after discussion, a decision be carried unanimously well and good; but if, the Lord forbid, differences of opinion should arise, a majority of voices must prevail. The first condition is absolute love and harmony amongst the members of the assembly. They must be wholly free from estrangement and must manifest in themselves the Unity of God, for they are the waves of one sea, the drops of one river, the stars of one heaven, the rays of one sun, the trees of one orchard, the flowers of one garden. Should harmony of thought and absolute unity be nonexistent, that gathering shall be dispersed and that assembly be brought to naught. The second condition is that the members of the assembly should unitedly elect a chairman and lay down guide-lines and by-laws for their meetings and discussions. The chairman should have charge of such rules and regulations and protect and enforce them; the other members should be submissive, and refrain from conversing on superAuous and extraneous matters. They must, when coming together, turn their faces to the Kingdom on high and ask aid from the Realm of Glory. They must then proceed with the utmost devotion, courtesy, dignity, care and moderation to express their views. They must in every matter search out the truth and not insist upon their own opinion, for stubbornness and persistence in one's views will
106 CONSULTATION
lead ultimately to discord and wrangling and the truth will remain hidden. The honoured members must with all freedom express their own thoughts, and it is in no wise permissible for one to belittle the thought of another, nay, he must with moderation set forth the truth, and should differences of opinion arise a majority of voices must prevail, and all must obey and submit to the majority. It is again not permitted that any one of the honoured members object to or censure, whether in or out of the meeting, any decision arrived at previously, though that decision be not right, for such criticism would prevent any decision from being enforced. In short, whatsoever thing is arranged in harmony and with love and purity of motive, its result is light, and should the least trace of estrangement prevail the result shall be darkness upon darkness. . . . If this be so regarded, that assembly shall be of God, but otherwise it shall lead to coolness and alienation that proceed from the Evil One. . . . Should they endeavour to hllil these conditions the Grace of the Holy Spirit shall be vouchsafed unto them, and that assembly shall become the centre of the Divine blessings, the hosts of Divine confirmation shall come to their aid, and they shall day by day receive a new effusion of SPirit.[100:871
In the 'Wotes" section of the fist English language version of the KitcibdAqdas, the Universal House of Justice indicated that "Bahb'u'llhh has established consultation as one of the fundamental principles of His Faith and has exhorted the believers to 'take counsel together in all matters'. Shoghi Effendi states that the 'principle of consultation . . . constitutes one of the basic laws' of the Bahb'i Administrative Order."[71:N190]
It is also encouraged for all decision making, even in business and within the family. It involves the sharing of ideas in a spirit of love and harmony while encouraging full and frank discussion with a healthy clash of opinions but without the clash of personalities. 'Abdu'l-Bahb said that consultation must have for its object the investigation of truth. He who expresses an opinion should not voice it as correct and right but set it forth as a contribution to the consensus of opinion, for the light of reality becomes apparent when two opinions coincide. A spark is produced when flint and steel come together. Man should weigh his opinions with the utmost serenity, calmness and composure. Before expressing his own views he should carellly consider the views already advanced by others. If he finds that a previously expressed opinion is more true and worthy, he should accept it immediately and not willfully hold to an opinion of his own. By this excellent method he endeavors to arrive at unity and truth. Opposition and division are deplorable. It is better then to have the opinion of a wise, sagaciousman; otherwise, contradictionand altercation, in which
CONTINENTALBOARDS OF COUNSELLORS 107
varied and divergent views are presented, will make it necessary for a judicial body to render decision upon the question. Even a majority opinion or consensus may be incorrect. A thousand people may hold to one view and be mistaken, whereas one sagacious person may be right. Therefore, true consultation is spiritual conference in the attitude and atmosphere of love. Members must love each other in the spirit of fellowship in order that good results may be forthcoming. Love and fellowship are the fo~ndation.[~~"~fl
When a decision is reached, either in unanimity or by majority vote, it becomes the decision of the collective body and, as such, is obeyed by that body, thereby maintaining unity. Parties to the decision are called upon to give their unqualified active support, thus ensuring that where an incorrect decision has been taken and implemented, it will quickly become apparent and reopened without losing the essential unity of the body.
CONTINENTAL BOARDS OF COUNSELLORS. An institution created by the Universal House of Justice in 1968 to extend into the future the functions of the Hands of the Cause of God because the House of Justice had determined that it could see "no way in which ~ ~ ~21] June additional Hands of the Cause could be a p p ~ i n t e d . " [ On 1968 they cabled the following announcement to all National Spiritual Assemblies: Rejoice announce momentous decision establish eleven Continental Boards Counsellors protection propagation Faith three each for Afiica AmericasAsia one each for Australasia Europe.Adoption this significant step following consultation with Hands Cause God ensures extension future appointedhctions their institution. ContinentalBoardsentrusted in close collaboration Hands Cause with responsibility direction Auxiliary Boards and consultation National Spiritual Assemblies. Hands Cause God will henceforth increase intercontinental services assuming world-wide role protection propagation Faith. Members Auxiliary Boards will report be responsible to Continental Boards Counsellors. Hands Cause residing Holy Land in addition serving liaison between Universal House of Justice and Continental Boards Counsellors will assist future establishment International Teaching Centre Holy Land foreshadowed Writings beloved Guardian. Details new developments being conveyed by letter. Fervently supplicating holy threshold divine confirmations further step irresistible unfoldment mighty Administra-
tive Order BahB'~'llBh.[~~:~~~] Membership is presently by appointment for a five-year term (with provision in the Constitution of the Universal House of Justice for the ~:l~] Counsellors (as board term to be set by that B ~ d y ) . [ ~Continental
108 CONVENTION, INTERNATIONAL ~ A H t i ' i
members are known) are not eligible for election to any Bahh'i administrative body except the Universal House of Justice. If so elected, a Counsellor ceases to be a member of the board. They may be appointed by the Universal House of Justice to the International Teaching Centre but must then relinquish membership of their Continental Board. The duties assigned to them by the Universal House of Justice include (but are not limited to) directing the Auxiliary Boards in their respective areas, consulting and collaborating with National Spiritual Assemblies, and keeping the Hands of the Cause and the Universal House of Justice informed concerning the conditions of the Cause in their areas. The Auxiliary Boards for Protection and Propagation will henceforth report to the Continental Boards as circumstances may require. . . .[39:'41fl The Counsellors are responsible for stimulating, counseling and assisting National Spiritual Assemblies, and also work with individuals, groups and Local Assemblies. If the Counsellors find that a National SpiritualAssembly is not h c tioning properly, they should not hesitate to consult with the National Spiritual Assembly about this in a frank and loving way.[98'30, 321
CONVENTION, INTERNATIONAL BAIL&'^. A quinquenial gathering of the members of National Spiritual Assemblies, as provided for in the Constitution of the Universal House of Justice to elect the members of that Body. These conventions have been held in Haifa since April 1963; with provision, if as decided by the Universal House of Justice, "it is impracticable or unwise to hold the International Convention it shall determine how the election shall In addition to the election of the nine adult (curtake pla~e."[~~ll] rently set in the Constitution of the UniversalHouse of Justice at age 21[74:81)men to the Body by secret b a l l ~ t , [the ~ ~principal ~ ~ ] business of the convention is "to deliberate on the affairs of the BahB'i Cause throughout the world, and to make recommendations and suggestions for the consideration of the Universal House of J u ~ t i c e . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] CONVENTION, NATIONAL. The annual gathering of delegates in every national Bahh'i community at which the National Spiritual Assembly is elected. In the larger national Bahh'i communities there are preliminary unit, area, district, state, or other conventions that elect the delegates for the national convention. The number of delegates for each national community is established by the Universal House of Justice, and the responsible National Spiritual Assembly
COOPER, ELLA GOODALL
109
determines the size of these subnational conventions so that, on the basis of proportional representation of adult Bahh'is, each such subconvention has one delegate. Normally the annual convention is held during the Ridvsin Festival (21 April-2 May), and the delegates consult on the affairs of the national community and, midway in the proceedings, elect the National Spiritual Assembly from the ranks of adult Bahh'i community members who are 21 years of age or 01der.L~~:~' With regard to the proceedings themselves, Shoghi Effendi indicated "the necessity of adopting the essential method of a full, frank and unhampered consultation between the National Assembly and the assembled delegates." He went on to stress that it is the vital duty of the delegates to unburden their hearts, state their grievances, disclose their views, and explain their motives. It is the vital duty of the national Assembly to give earnest, prompt and prayer1 1consideration to the views of the delegates, weigh carellly their arguments and ponder their considered judgments, before they resort to voting and undertake to arrive at a decision according to the dictates of their conscience. They should explain their motives and not dictate: seek information and invite discussi~n.[~~:~~] How great the privilege, how delicate the task of the assembled delegates whose function it is to elect such national representatives as would by their record of service ennoble and enrich the annals of the Cause! If we but turn our gaze to the high qualifications of the members of Bahfi'i Assemblies, as enumerated in 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Tablets, we are filled with feelings of unworthiness and dismay, and would feel truly disheartened but for the comforting thought that if we rise to play nobly your part every deficiency in our lives will be more than compensated by the all-conquering spirit of His grace and power. Hence it is incumbent upon the chosen delegates to consider without the least trace of passion and prejudice, and irrespective of any material consideration, the names of only those who can best combine the necessary qualities of unquestioned loyalty, of selfless devotion, of a well-trained mind, of recognized ability and mature e x p e r i e n ~ e . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ f l COOKSON, ALEXE (1918-1980). A believer who was born on the
Outer Hebrides island of Harris, Scotland, and embraced the Cause in 1964 in Wanganui, New Zealand. She was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of New Zealand for 10 years (1958-1 968), during 8 of which she served as secretary. She was appointed an Auxil93:3221 iary Board member in 1968.[17:730, COOPER, ELLA GOODALL (1870-1951). (Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahai; Herald of the Covenant.) An early American believer. She met
1 10 COURTESY
'Abdu'l-BahB on several occasions, including during a pilgrimage to ' A M in 1908. Following this she copublished (with her mother, who was on pilgrimage with her) an account of their experiences entitled Shoghi Effendi Daily Lessons Received at Acca-January, 1908.[1371 wrote on her passing, "Deeply grieved at sudden passing of herald of the Covenant, Ella Cooper, dearly loved handmaid of 'Abdu'l-Bahh, greatly trusted by Him. Her devoted services during concluding years of Heroic Age and also Formative Age of Faith unforgettable. [For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age."] Assure relatives, friends, deepest sympathy for loss. Praying 92:9ff,123:211 for progress of her soul in Abhh Kingd~rn."[ll:~~~~ COURTESY. A virtue enjoined upon believers in the Kitcib-i-Aqdas: "Adorn your heads with the garlands of trustworthiness and fidelity, your hearts with the attire of the fear of God, your tongues with absolute truthfulness, your bodies with the vesture of courtesy. These are in truth seemly adornings unto the temple of man, if ye be of them that r e f l e ~ t . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] COVENANT. A mutual agreement between two or more parties to undertake or refrain from doing certain acts; the responsibilities or commitments of the parties in such an agreement. In the case of religion, God is both the originator and main Party to the Covenant, and in that context a "Covenant" can be defined as a promise by God of a blessing to be fulfilled on compliance with a stated condition or conditions. The noted Bahh'i scholar and Hand of the Cause of God George Townshend, in a pamphlet titled The Covenant: An identified seven types of religious covenant:
1. The Ancient or Eternal Covenant between God and His creation (humankind) 2. Between God and each Messenger 3. Between a Messenger and the faithful (Greater Covenant) 4. An Ethical Covenant of faith and obedience between the Messenger and the faithful 5. A Covenant of Succession between the Messenger and the faithful (Lesser Covenant) 6. Between the Messenger and a disciple 7. Between the immediate Successor and the faithful: a Covenant of continuing succession and an Ethical Covenant
COVENANT 11 1
The Baha'i Writings hold that God made an Ancient or Eternal Covenant with His Creation, namely the promise, made by God to Adam, on behalf of the entire human race, that He would never leave humanity devoid of His love and Guidance. Bahb'u'llhh states that this promise has been discharged through the appearance of God's Manifestations in every age through the vehicle of progressive revelation to every people. The Bab wrote that "the Lord of the universe hath never raised up a prophet nor hath He sent down a Book unless He hath established His covenant with all men, calling for their acceptance of the next Revelation and of the next Book; inasmuch as the outpourings of His bounty are ceaseless and without limit."[139:86] The Covenant between God and His Messenger is confirmed in the following passage from the Bab: "Fear ye God and breathe not a word concerning His Most Great Remembrance other than what hath been ordained by God, inasmuch as We have established a separate covenant regarding Him with every Prophet and His followers. Indeed, We have not sent any Messenger without this binding covenant and We do not, of a truth, pass judgment upon anything except after the covenant of Him Who is the Supreme Gate hath been established. Ere long the veil shall be lifted £rom your eyes at the appointed time. Ye shall then behold the sublime Remembrance of God, unclouded and vivid."[139:451 Importantly, Bahi'u'llhh, in numerous Tablets and passages throughout His Writings, lays claim to be the Manifestation for this age: This is the Day, 0 my Lord, which Thou didst announce unto all mankind as the Day whereon Thou wouldst reveal Thy Self, and shed Thy radiance, and shine brightly over all Thy creatures. Thou hast, moreover, entered into a covenant with them, in Thy Books, and Thy Scriptures, and Thy Scrolls, and Thy Tablets, concerning Him Who is the Day-Spring of Thy Revelation, and hast appointed the B a y h to be the Herald of this Most Great and all-glorious Manifestation, and this most resplendent and most sublime Appearan~e.['~~~'~] The Revelation which, from time immemorial, hath been acclaimed as the Purpose and Promise of all the Prophets of God, and the most cherished Desire of His Messengers, hath now, by virtue of the pervasive Will of the Almighty and at His irresistible bidding, been revealed unto men. The advent of such a Revelation hath been heralded in all the sacred Scriptures. Behold how, notwithstanding such an announcement, mankind hath strayed from its path and shut out itself from its g10ry.[131:91
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COVENANT
He adds that whereas in previous revelations the full accumulated blessings promised by God in the Ancient Covenant could not be revealed or fulfilled, they are, in Him, as the "Lord of the Day of the Covenant," now fully revealed and d i s ~ h a r g e d : [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] I testify, 0 my God, that this is the Day whereon Thy testimony hath been Ilfilled, and Thy clear tokens have been manifested, and Thine utterances have been revealed, and Thy signs have been demonstrated, and the radiance of Thy countenance hath been diffused, and Thy proof hath been perfected, and Thine ascendancy hath been established, and Thy mercy hath overflowed, and the Day-Star of Thy grace hath shone forth with such brilliance that Thou didst manifest Him Who is the Revealer of Thyself and the Treasury of Thy wisdom and the DawningPlace of Thy majesty and power. Thou didst establish His covenant with every one who hath been created in the kingdoms of earth and heaven and in the realms of revelation and of c r e a t i ~ n . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] Specifically, in another context, Bahi'u'llhh states, The Revelation which, from time immemorial, hath been acclaimed as the Purpose and Promise of all the Prophets of God, and the most cherished Desire of His Messengers, hath now, by virtue of the pervasive Will of the Almighty and at His irresistible bidding, been revealed unto men.[141:51 Verily I say, this is the Day in which mankind can behold the Face, and hear the Voice, of the Promised One. The Call of God hath been raised, and the light of His countenance hath been lified up upon men. It behoveth every man to blot out the trace of every idle word from the tablet of his heart, and to gaze, with an open and unbiased mind, on the signs of His Revelation, the proofs of His Mission, and the tokens of His glory. Great indeed is this Day! The allusions made to it in all the sacred Scriptures as the Day of God attest its greatnes~.[l~~:l~] The responsibilities devolving to humankind in the Ancient Covenant are twofold: The first duty prescribed by God for His servants is the recognition of Him Who is the Day Spring of His Revelation and the Fountain of His laws, Who representeththe Godhead in both the Kingdom of His Cause and the world of creation. Whoso achieveth this duty hath attained unto all good; and whoso is deprived thereof, hath gone astray, though he be the author of every righteous deed. It behoveth every one who reacheth this most sublime station, this summit of transcendent glory, to observe every ordinance of Him Who is the Desire of the world. These twin duties are inseparable. Neither is acceptable without the other. Thus hath it been decreed by Him Who is the Source of Divine inspiration.
COVENANT 113
They whom God hath endued with insight will readily recognize that the precepts laid down by God constitute the highest means for the maintenance of order in the world and the security of its peoples. He that turneth away fiom them, is accounted among the abject and foolish. We, verily, have commanded you to refuse the dictates of your evil passions and corrupt desires, and not to transgress the bounds which the Pen of the Most High hath fixed, for these are the breath of life unto all created things. The seas of Divine wisdom and divine utterance have risen under the breath of the breeze of the All-Merciful. Hasten to drink your fill, 0 men of understanding! They that have violated the Covenant of God by breaking His commandments, and have turned back on their heels, these have erred grievously in the sight of God, the All-Possessing, the Most High.[78:330]
Failure to discharge these twin duties is addressed in this passage fiom Bahh'u'llah: Blessed the one who hath remained faithful to the Covenant of God, and woe betide him who hath broken it and disbelieved in Him, the Knower of secrets. Say: This is the Day of Bounty! Bestir yourselves that I may make you monarchs in the realms of My Kingdom. If ye follow Me, ye shall behold that which ye were promised, and I will make you My companions in the dominion of My majesty and the intimates of My beauty in the heaven of My power forevermore. If ye rebel against Me, I will in My clemency endure it patiently, that haply ye may awaken and rise up fiom the couch of heedlessness. Thus hath My mercy encompassed you. Fear ye God and follow not in the ways of those who have turned away from His face, though they invoke His name in the daytime and in the night s e a ~ o n . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
Significantly, Bahb'u'llih lays no claim that His Revelation is the end of God's guidance through His Divine Manifestations. Indeed, Shoghi Effendi quotes Bahh'u711ih on this subject in the following passage: " 'Whoso layeth claim to a Revelation direct fiom God,' is the express warning uttered in the Kithb-i-Aqdas, 'ere the expiration of a full thousand years, such a man is assuredly a lying imposter. We pray God that He may graciously assist him to retract and repudiate such claim. Should he repent, God will no doubt forgive him. If, however, he persists in his error, God will assuredly send down one who will deal mercilessly with him. Terrible indeed is God in punishing!' 'Whosoever,' He adds as a further emphasis, 'interpreteth this verse otherwise than its obvious meaning is deprived of the Spirit of God and of His mercy which encompasseth all created things.' 'Should a man appear,' is yet another conclusive statement, 'ere
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the lapse of a full thousand years-ach year consisting of twelve months according to the Qur'h, and of nineteen months of nineteen days each, according to the Bayh-and if such a man reveal to your eyes all the signs of God, unhesitatingly reject him!'"[36:1321 Baha'u'llih indicates that His Dispensation heralds the culmination of the Adamic cycle of the Ancient Covenant and the subsequent advent of the Bahi'i cycle as the era in which humankind will partake fully of the blessings promised at the commencement of the Adamic cycle-namely, the Kingdom of God upon earth. The Dispensation of Bahi'u'llih is the end of the Prophetic cycle and the beginning of the Era of Fulfillment: "It is evident that every age in which a Manifestation of God hath lived is divinely ordained, and may, in a sense, be characterized as God's appointed Day. This Day, however, is unique, and is to be distinguished £rom those preceding it. The designation 'Seal of the Prophets' hlly revealeth its high station. The Prophetic Cycle hath, verily, ended. The Eternal Truth is now come. He hath lifted up the Ensign of Power, and is now shedding upon the world the unclouded splendor of His R e v e l a t i ~ n . " [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] Just as revelation is the sole link between God and His creation, so too it is the common factor in the cycles through which men, under the shelter of the Ancient Covenant, must pass. The Ancient Covenant is renewed with the advent of each new Manifestation. To accomplish this renewal, God covenants with each Manifestation as to the specifics of His particular revelation: "I testify before God that each one of these Manifestations hath been sent down through the operation of the Divine Will and Purpose, that each hath been the bearer of a specific Message, that each hath been entrusted with a divinely-revealed Book and been commissioned to unravel the mysteries of the almighty Tablet. The measure of the Revelation with which every one of them hath been identified had been definitely fore-~rdained."[l~~:~~] This form of Covenant is then the basis of the absolute authority of the Manifestation over humankind. The authority derived therefrom allows the Manifestation, on behalf of God, to enter into a Lesser Covenant with humankind and normally contains an "ethical ~ : ~ ~ ] concerning the Covenant of faith and o b e d i e n ~ e , " [ ~a~Covenant advent of the next Manifestation, [143:141 and a Covenant appointing an immediate Successor to the Manifestation (who in turn may covenant concerning continuing "succession" on his own death): His Holiness Abraham, on Him be peace, made a covenant concerning His Holiness Moses and gave the glad-tidings of His coming. His Holiness Moses made a covenant concerning the Promised One, i.e.
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His Holiness Christ, and announced the good news of His Manifestation to the world. His Holiness Christ made a covenant concerning the Paraclete and gave the tidings of His coming. His Holiness the Prophet Muhammad made a covenant concerning His Holiness the Bib and the Bib was the One promised by Muhammad, for Muhammad gave the tidings of His coming. The Bib made a Covenant concerning the Blessed Beauty of Baha'u'llah and gave the glad-tidings of His coming for the Blessed Beauty was the One promised by His Holiness the Bib. Bahi'u'lltih made a covenant concerning a promised One who will become manifest after one thousand or thousands of years. He likewise, with His Supreme Pen, entered into a great Covenant and Testament with all the BahB'is whereby they were all commanded to follow the Center of the Covenant after His departure, and turn not away even to a hair's breadth fiom obeying Him.[131:3581
Devolving from the Ancient Covenant are Greater and Lesser Covenants, which the Manifestation enters into with His followers: " . . .the Greater Covenant which every Manifestation of God makes with His followers, promising that in the fullness of time a new Manifestation will be sent, and taking from them the undertaking to accept Him when this occurs. There is also the Lesser Covenant that a Manifestation of God makes with His followers that they will accept His appointed successor after Him. If they do so, the Faith can remain united and pure. If not, the Faith becomes divided and its force spent."[144:731 In the case of His own succession, Bahi'u'llih, in both the Kitiibi-'Ahd and the Tablet of the Branch, appointed His son, 'Abdu'lBahii, as the Centre of His Covenant toward Whom all were to turn following His death: The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the Aavbn, the A f n h and My Kindred to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: "When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched fiom this Ancient Root." The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch (Abdu'l-Baha). Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powehl. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch (Mirzh Muhammad-'hi to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch ('Abdu'l-Bahi). He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen "the Greater" after "the Most Great", as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Inf~rmed.[~~~:~~~]
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Of paramount importance to such succession is the undisputed fact that it was written and sealed by Bahb'u'llhh Himself, and, as such, precluded dispute as to who was to succeed Him as leader of the Faithful, and Interpreter of His Word. That some did, however, attempt and fail to break His Covenant by forcing a schism is a matter of historical fact (see COVENANT BREAKER). While not accorded the station of a Manifestation of God, 'Abdu'lBahh clearly occupies a unique station as the Chosen Branch, the sole authorized Interpreter of His Father's Writings and Perfect Exemplar of His teachings. Shoghi Effendi, writing as Guardian, elaborated as follows: He is, and should for all time be regarded, first and foremost, as the Center and Pivot of Bahi'u'llirh's peerless and all-enfolding Covenant, His most exalted handiwork, the stainless Mirror of His light, the perfect Exemplar of His teachings, the unerring Interpreter of His Word, the embodiment of every Baha'i ideal, the incarnation of every Baha'i virtue, the Most Mighty Branch sprung from the Ancient Root, the Limb of the Law of God, the Being "round Whom all names revolve," the Mainspring of the Oneness of Humanity, the Ensign of the Most Great Peace, the Moon of the Central Orb of this most holy Dispensation-styles and titles that are implicit and find their truest, their highest and fairest expression in the magic name 'Abdu'lBahi. He is, above and beyond these appellations, the "Mystery of God"-an expression by which Bahi'u'llih Himself has chosen to designate Him, and which, while it does not by any means justify us to assign to Him the station of Prophethood, indicates how in the person of 'Abdu'l-Bahi the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely h a r m o n i ~ e d . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] "I affirm," is 'Abdu'l-Baha's own written comment on the Tablet of the Branch, "that the true meaning, the real siguficance, the innermost secret of these verses, of these very words, is my own servitude to the sacred Threshold of the AbhP Beauty, my complete self-effacement, my utter nothingness before Him. This is my resplendent crown, my most precious adorning. On this I pride myself in the kingdom of earth and heaven. Therein I glory among the company of the well-favored!" 'Wo one is permitted," He warns us in the passage which immediately follows, "to give these verses any other interpretation." "I am," He, in this same connection, a£firms, "according to the explicit texts of the KitPb-i-Aqdas and the Kit6b-i-'Ahd the manifest Interpreter of the Word of God. . . . Whoso deviates from my interpretation is a victim of his own fmcy."[36'1381
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I am the Covenant, appointed by Bahb'u'llih. And no one can refute His Word. This is the Testament of Bahi'u'llih. You will find it in the Holy Book of Aqdas. Go forth and proclaim, "This is the Covenant of God in your ~ n i d s t . " [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
'Abdu'l-Bahd, in His Will and Testament, established His own Covenant of Succession through the creation of the Guardianship and the appointment of the great grandson of Bahd'u'lldh, and His own grandson, Shoghi Effendi Rabbhi, as its first incumbent. Bahd'is view the Covenant as the power that unites and protects their Faith from schism: Were it not for the protecting power of the Covenant to guard the impregnable fort of the Cause of God, there would arise among the Bahi'is, in one day, a thousand different sects as was the case in former ages. But in this Blessed Dispensation, for the sake of the permanency of the Cause of God and the avoidance of dissension amongst the people of God, the Blessed Beauty (may my soul be a sacrifice unto Him), has through the Supreme Pen written the Covenant and the Testament; He appointed a Center, the Exponent of the Book and the annuller of disputes. Whatever is written or said by Him is conformable to the truth and under the protection of the Blessed Beauty. He is infallible. The express purpose of this last Will and Testament is to set aside disputes from the world. Suffer the fiends to become firm in the Covenant and give the message of the Kingdom of 'Abhi to other s o ~ l s . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Know this for a certainty that today, the penetrative power in the arteries of the world of humanity is the power of the Covenant. The body of the world will not be moved through any power except through the power of the Covenant. There is no other power like unto this. This Spirit of the Covenant is the real Center of love and is reflecting its rays to all parts of the globe, which are resuscitating and regenerating man and illuminating the path to the Divine
COVENANT BREAKER. In Bahd'i theology, a person who accepts the Bahd'i Faith believes that Bahh'u'llhh is the Manifestation of God for this day and accepts His Covenant including the line-ofsuccession through 'Abdu'l-Bahh, the designated Centre of His Covenant (1892-1921); Shoghi Effendi, His appointed successor (Guardian of the Bahd'i Faith, 1921-1957); and the Universal House of Justice (since its election in 1963), and then publicly denies one or more links in this succession, rebels against the Head of the Faith or Centre of the Covenant, or works to undermine the
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Covenant may be declared a "Covenant breaker." While the Bahh'i Writings acknowledge that some will undoubtedly attempt to break Bahh'u'llhh's Covenant, they assert too that permanent schism is impossible due to the inherent safeguards embedded in those Writings dealing with this area of faith as well as the appointment of 'Abdu'l-Baha as the Centre of the Covenant. In an excellent unpublished article on the Covenant, Dr. Moojan Momen identifies four classifications of Covenant breakers. First, those who challenge leadership, that is, those "who dispute the authority of and legitimacy of the head of the religion and advanced claims either for themselves or for another"; second, dissidents, that is, "those who disagree with the policies and actions of the head of the religion without, however, advancing an alternative claim for leadership"; third, those manifesting disobedience, that is, they disobey "a direct instruction from the head of the religion"; and fourth, "apostates who maliciously attack the Bahh'i Faith" (www.northil1 .demon.co.uk~relstud~covenant.htm). During the life of Bahh'u'llhh, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, and Shoghi Effendi the decision to declare an individual a Covenant breaker was taken by them individually. Expulsion of a believer from the Faith is now a h c t i o n of the institution of the Hands of the Cause of God (and the International Teaching Centre) with the approval of the Universal House of Justice: The International Teaching Centre is invested with the mandate to watch over the security and ensure the protection of the Faith of God. It must investigate all cases of incipient Covenant-breaking-mploying, as necessary, the services of the Continental Counsellors and their auxiliaries and evaluating their reports-and decide whether the offender should be expelled from the Cause, submitting the decision to the Universal House of Justice for its consideration. It follows a similar procedure for the reinstatement of a contrite Covenant-breaker. More broadly, it needs to be attentive to the spiritual health of the BahB'i community, urging the Counsellors and their auxiliaries to strengthen the believers to resist the influence of both external and internal sources of opposition to the Cause, and to assist National and Local Spiritual Assemblies in resolving questions that could raise doubt about the integrity of the Faith and its Teaching~.[l~~~]
Bahh'is are forbidden to associate with Covenant breakers. 'Abdu'lBahh explained that just as certain physical diseases are contagious, "likewise spiritual diseases are also infectious. If a consumptive should associate with a thousand safe and healthy persons, the safety
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and health of these thousand persons would not affect the consumptive and would not cure him. . . . But when this consumptive associates with those thousand souls, in a short time the disease of consumption will infect a number of those healthy persons." While they must shun the Covenant breakers completely, they are to pray for them, as "these It would appear, then, that the main souls are not lost fore~er."[~~''~~1 cause of this spiritual disease is related to the ego of the individual, the desire for leadership, for authority that gradually dominates the person. Bahi'u'llih characterizes the cause of the disease as follows: And now, consider and reflect a moment upon the waywardness of this people. What could have been the reason for such denial and avoidance on their part? What could have induced them to refuse to put off the garment of denial, and to adorn themselves with the robe of acceptance? Moreover, what could have caused the nonfulfilment of the divine promise which led the seekers to reject that which they had accepted? Meditate profoundly, that the secret of things unseen may be revealed unto you, that you may inhale the sweetness of a spiritual and imperishable fragrance, and that you may acknowledge the truth that from time immemorial even unto eternity the Almighty hath tried, and will continue to try, His servants, so that light may be distinguished from darkness, truth from falsehood, right from wrong, guidance from error, happiness from misery, and roses from thorns. . . . Ponder upon these things. What could have caused such contention and conflict? Why is it that the advent of every true Manifestation of God hath been accompanied by such strife and tumult, by such tyranny and upheaval? This notwithstanding the fact that all the Prophets of God, whenever made manifest unto the peoples of the world, have invariably foretold the coming of yet another Prophet after them, and have established such signs as would herald the advent of the future Dispensation. To this the records of all sacred books bear witness. Why then is it that despite the expectation of men in their quest of the Manifestations of Holiness, and in spite of the signs recorded in the sacred books, such acts of violence, of oppression and cruelty, should have been perpetrated in every age and cycle against all the Prophets and chosen Ones of God? . . . Reflect, what could have been the motive for such deeds? What could have prompted such behaviour towards the Revealers of the beauty of the All-Glorious? Whatever in days gone by hath been the cause of the denial and opposition of those people hath now led to the perversity of the people of this age. To maintain that the testimony of Providence was incomplete, that it hath therefore been the cause of the denial of the people, is but open blasphemy. How far from the grace of the AllBountill and from His loving providence and tender mercies it is to single out a soul from amongst all men for the guidance of His creatures,
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and, on one hand, to withhold from Him the full measure of His divine testimony, and, on the other, inflict severe retribution on His people for having turned away from His chosen One! Nay, the manifold bounties of the Lord of all beings have, at all times, through the Manifestations of His divine Essence, encompassedthe earth and all that dwell therein. Not for a moment hath His grace been withheld, nor have the showers of His loving-kindness ceased to rain upon mankind. Consequently, such behaviour can be attributed to naught save the petty-mindedness of such souls as tread the valley of arrogance and pride, are lost in the wilds of remoteness, walk in the ways of their idle fancy, and follow the dictates of the leaders of their faith. Their chief concern is mere opposition; their sole desire is to ignore the truth. Unto every discerning observer it is evident and manifest that had these people in the days of each of the Manifestations of the Sun of Truth sanctified their eyes, their ears, and their hearts from whatever they had seen, heard, and felt, they surely would not have been deprived of beholding the beauty of God, nor strayed far fkom the habitations of glory. But having weighed the testimony of God by the standard of their own knowledge, gleaned fiom the teachings of the leaders of their faith, and found it at variance with their limited understanding, they arose to perpetrate such unseemly acts. Leaders of religion, in every age, have hindered their people from attaining the shores of eternal salvation, inasmuch as they held the reins of authority in their mighty grasp. Some for the lust of leadership, others through want of knowledge and understanding, have been the cause of the deprivation of the people. By their sanction and authority, every Prophet of God hath drunk from the chalice of sacrifice, and winged His flight unto the heights of glory. What unspeakable cruelties they that have occupied the seats of authority and learning have inflicted upon the true Monarchs of the world, those Gems of divine virtue! Content with a transitory dominion, they have deprived themselves of an everlasting sovereignty. Thus, their eyes beheld not the light of the countenance of the Well-Beloved, nor did their ears hearken unto the sweet melodies of the Bird of D e ~ i r e . [ ~ ~ * - ' ~ ]
Importantly, those who recant their faith and withdraw from the Bahzi'i community and then go on to oppose one or more aspects of the Covenant are not designated Covenant breakers. An unpublished letter of Continental Board of Counsellors member Dr. Abdu'l Missagh Ghaderian, 23 October 2003, made this distinction: Those who are not members of the Faith (even though they may have been at one time), who may simply actively oppose the Faith in one degree or another, are usually termed "enemies," or in milder instances "disputants." These people are a separate category, not the same as a Covenant breaker in the eyes of the Bahi'i Authorities. While Bahb'is
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may be advised fiom time to time not to associate with enemies of the Faith and to "leave them to God" or "eschew the fellowship of the ungodly," generally there is no hard and fast rule prohibiting association other than using one's own wisdom. Indeed, Bahi'is are encouraged in the Writings to associate with fellowship and wisdom with "enemies" such as those whose opposition is born of ignorance. The exception to this spiritual advise is in the case of Covenant breakers.
There have been several separate incidences of Covenant breaking in the successive ministries of Bahb'u'llhh, 'Abdu'l-Bahb, and Shoghi Effendi. Following the execution of the Bib, Mirzii Yahyai Azal, a younger half brother of Bahb'u'llhh, labored pusillanimously to establish himself as the leader of the Bbbi community. Following the Declaration of Bahb'u'llhh as Him Whom God shall make manifest Y&yb evinced the same claim. On learning of Y&ybYsclaim Bahb'u'llhh immediately broke ties with him, thereby expelling him fiom His Faith. Further details of Azal's rebellion can be found in the dictionary entry under his name. Among those who broke the Covenant on the passing of Bahh'u'llhh through public opposition to 'Abdu'l-Bahb as His appointed Successor was the half brother of Bahb'u'llhh, Mirzai Muhammad'Ali, later designated by Shoghi Effendi as the Arch-Breaker ~ : ' ~ ~ ]Mul;lammad-'Ali had been of Bahb'u'llhh's C o ~ e n a n t . [ ~ Mirzb appointed by Bahh'u'llhh in His Will and Testament (see IUT~LB-I'AHD) to be next in the line of succession to 'Abdu'l-Bahii, and he would, had he remained firm in the Covenant, been Head of the Faith for many years after the passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahb (instead of living and dying in ignominy). He was joined in his powerful but ultimately barren leadership challenge to Shoghi Effendi by nearly all members of Bahb'u'llhh's family as well as a number of other sycophant or disaffected believers. (For a detailed discussion of those opposed to Bahh'u'llhh and their activities, as well as Mul;lammad-'Ali's actions, refer to Adib Taherzadeh's book The Covenant of B a h a ' ~ ' l l i h . ) [ ~ ~ ~ ] A firsthand account of Mulpmmad-'Ali's machinations (along with the covenant-breaking activities of others associated with him) and 'Abdu'l-Bahb's method of handling of such individuals is detailed throughout Youness Afrumteh's personal memoires, Memories of My Nine Years in 2M.[881 In the United States, the fist Bahb'i teacher to settle was a Syrian doctor, Ibrhhim George Kheiralla. On arrival he initiated a series of highly successful classes on the Bahb'i Faith in Chicago in February
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1894. Early in 1898 he was invited to move to New York City, where he brought a large number of highly intelligent, cultured, respected believers into the Faith. Most of these souls remained faithhl to the Covenant when Kheiralla turned £rom 'Abdu'l-Bahh and openly sought leadership of the Western Baha'i community for himself. For a period of time he associated himself with Mirzi M&ammad-'Ali, but this proved ineffectual, and the association quickly dissolved. Kheiralla's American activities are detailed comprehensively in Robert Stockman's excellent history of the early American Baha'i community, The Bahd 'iFaith in AmericeOrigins 1892-1 900.[491 Following the death of 'Abdu'l-Bahh in 1921, Mrs. Ruth White (an American) openly and actively disagreed with Shoghi Effendi's systematic development of the Administrative Order of the Faith. Taherzadeh describes her activities in his book The Child of the Covenant[811as follows: "A veteran believer, she had visited 'Abdu'l-Bahi in the Holy Land in 1920. She claimed that 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Will and Testament was inauthentic and created a great deal of agitation in the community by attacking the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada, whose establishment she considered to be against the teachings and wishes of 'Abdu'l-Bahk. For several years Mrs. White persevered in her determination to prevent the establishment of the institutions of the Faith. One of her actions was to write a letter to the United States Postmaster General asking him, among other things, to prohibit the National SpiritualAssembly fiom "using the United States mails to spread the falsehood that Shoghi Effendi is the successor of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and the Guardian of the Bahi'i C a ~ s e . " [ ~Elsewhere ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] in that same work, he elaborated on this unsuccessful confrontation as follows: It is interesting to note that no one who has studied the Will and Testament of 'Abdu'l-Bahii, with the exception of Mrs. White and a few others whom she influenced, has ever questioned its authenticity. Even other Covenant-breakers who rose up against Shoghi Effendi did not agree with her. Ahmad Sohraib and Subhi for example, who had both served 'Abdu'l-Bahii as His secretary, never questioned the authenticity of the Will. Neither did M~ammad-'Ali,nor Badi'u'llhh nor other enemies who were looking for any excuse they could find to attack the Guardian of the Faith. It must be remembered that the Will and Testament was in 'Abdu'lBahii's handwriting and bore His seal. These were very familiar to the Persian believers because 'Abdu'l-BaM had written innumerable Tablets in His own hand and almost every Bahii'i family in Persia had
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received one or more of them. Thus, when the photostatic text of the Will and Testament was sent to Persia and elsewhere, it was easily acknowledged by everyone to be in the handwriting of 'Abdu'l-Bahh. Another criterion for the Will's authenticity was 'Abdu'l-Bahir's unique style and mode of expression, with which the Persian fiends were familiar. Indeed, anyone who is versed in the writings of the Faith in the original language can easily tell the difference between the writings of Bahh'u'llih, 'Abdu'l-Bahb and Shoghi Effendi, as each has its own special tone and ~ t y l e . [ ~ ' : ~ ~ ~ ]
In addition to Mrs. White's ineffectual and baseless rejection of Shoghi Effendi as Guardian, a more serious but equally unfounded challenge came £rom Ahmad Sohrkb, a one-time secretary and interpreter of 'Abdu'l-BahB and Mrs. Julie Chanler. SohrBb had been sent to the United States by 'Abdu'l-BahB to work as a servant to Mirzk Ab~'l-Fa@-i-Gulpkygkni.[~~~:~~~1 Following his arrival he became proficient in English and served as an interpreter for 'Abdu'lBahB during His visit to the United States. He also was known as an outstanding and charismatic speaker. Notwithstanding his loyalty to 'Abdu'l-Bahh while He was alive, he rejected His appointment of Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Faith and began methodically undermining Shoghi Effendi's systematic development of the administrative structure of the Faith. Taherzadeh summarizes as follows: The first to arise in opposition to Shoghi Effendi in the West was m a d Sohriib. He had been to the United States when he was a teenager to act as a servant and cook for Mirza Abu'l-Fa, whose solitary habits caused the friends deep concern for his health. When Mirzi Abu'l-Fa left the United States in 1904, Alynad was ordered by 'Abdu'l-Bahh to accompany him but he disobeyed and remained in the United Statesuntil 1912 when the Master took him back to the East, although he seemed loath to go. While in America, Alynad became proficient in English and when the Master went to the United States he served Him as interpreter. From the beginning, however, Alynad showed signs of insincerity and faithlessness and many times his behaviour caused 'Abdu'l-Bahii deep sorrow. But he remained with 'Abdu'l-Baha throughout the journey and when he later went to Haifa he continued to serve Him as a secretary. The Master knew that Alynad would rebel against the Centre of the Cause after His passing and had intimated this to one or two people who were close to Him. Indeed, the Master's prediction was fulfilled. One of the believers, Mrs. Nellie French, has recounted the reaction of Alynad Sobrhb when she communicated to him the contents of the Will and Testament of
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'Abdu'l-Bahi. Intensely agitated, his face black, and pacing back and forth, he exclaimed: "This cannot be. Shoghi Effendi knows nothing about the Cause. He was never with 'Abdu'l-BahB as I have been. I am the one who should have been appointed." (Letter from Nellie French to Albert Windust, 20 April 1948)[81:2971
Among SohrBb7s attempts to undermine and thwart the Covenant was the formation of The New History Society. Aligning this organization with the name and teachings of the Faith but clearly denouncing the directives of Shoghi Effendi in respect to the building of the BahB9iAdministrative Order he succeeded attracting a few people to membership. In 1930 he created a sister organization, the Caravan of East and West, with the principal purpose of international corresponden~e.[~~:~~~] He was eventually expelled £rom the Faith but continued to oppose the Cause until he died in April 1958 with every hope frustrated, every plan extinguished, and every ambition thwarted. (For summary details of SohrBb's activities, refer to Adib Taherzadeh's books The Covenant of Bahd'u 'lldh[1121and The Child of the Sadly, Shoghi Effendi (like 'Abdu'l-BahB before him) found it necessary to expel the majority of his family members either for direct opposition to him or for their disobedience in associating with Covenant breakers. Following the death of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, a distinguished Hand of the Cause, Charles Mason Remey, mounted a leadership challenge in 1960 by claiming to be the second Guardian. This claim, so clearly contrary to BahB'i Sacred Texts, was made almost 30 ~~~~] months after he had signed a Unanimous P r o c l a m a t i ~ n [issued by the entire body of the Hands stating that the Guardian had not left a will and not appointed a successor, nor could he have done since there was no one able to qualify for consideration according to 'Abdu'l-BahB's Will and Testament. Remey based his claims on the patently absurd premise that because Shoghi Effendi has chosen him as president of the International Bahai'i Council, designated by Shoghi Effendi as the embryonic Universal House of Justice, coupled with the fact that 'Abdu'l-BahB's Will and Testament clearly specified that the Guardian was to be the "sacred head" of that Body when it ~ : ~he, ~ ]Remey, had been clearly chosen by came into e x i s t e n ~ e , [ ~that Shoghi Effendi as the second Guardian. Ignored in this claim was the fact that in that same Will and Testament we fmd the instruction that the Guardian must "appoint in his own life-time him that shall become his successor, that differences may not arise after his passing. He that
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is appointed must manifest in himself detachment from all worldly things, must be the essence of purity, must show in himself the fear of God, knowledge, wisdom and learning. Thus, should the first-born of the Guardian of the Cause of God not manifest in himself the truth of the words: 'The child is the secret essence of its sire,' that is, should he not inherit of the spiritual within him (the Guardian of the Cause of God) and his glorious lineage not be matched with a goodly character, then must he (the Guardian of the Cause of God) choose Clearly, Remey was not a direct another branch to succeed him."[77:111 descendant and for this reason alone was ineligible for appointment as Guardian. In laying such claim he broke the Covenant, relinquished his right to the station of a Hand of the Cause, and engendered his own designation as a Covenant breaker. Add to this the fact that Remey had been a signatory to the "unanimous proclamation" issued by the Hands on 25 November 1957, which stipulated that "WHEREAS THE Guardian of the Bahb'i Faith, His Eminence the late Shoghi Effendi Rabbhni, passed away in London (England) on the 4th of November, 1957, without having appointed his successor; . . . "[59:291 lays bare the bizarre nature of his announcement. Remey's claim was repudiated by his fellow Hands and by 11 of the 12 National Spiritual Assemblies then existent. The dissenting National Spiritual Assembly was that of France; it was immediately disenfranchised, and five of its members, who proved unyielding in their acceptance of Remey, were expelled from the Cause as Covenant ~ " ~ ~ was a declared a Covenant breaker breakers by the H a n d ~ . [ ~Remey on 26 July 1960. (For a detailed review of the activities associated with Remey during this period, refer to the letters of the Hands of the Cause of God in The Ministry of the Custodians, 1957-1963[59:199ffl and Adib Taherzadeh's The Covenant of Bah6'~'116h.[~~~]) Remey's abortive coup d'Ctat resulted in a number of other claims to the Office of Guardianship. These are covered in a January 31, 1997 letter from the Universal House of Justice to all National Spiritual Assemblies and include discussion of such organizations as the National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahh'is of the United States under the Hereditary Guardianship (1964; subsequently dissolved by Remey himself) and Remey's Second International Bahh'i Council (1964) under the presidency of Joel Marangella (again dissolved by Remey; 1966). In 1967 Remey formally appointed one of his followers, Donald Harvey, to succeed him on his death as "third Guardian of the Faith." In 1969 Marangella announced that he, and not Harvey, should be regarded as Remey's successor because Remey had so appointed
126 COVENANT,CITY OF THE
him in a written text and that it was obvious that Remey was behaving irrationally. Marangella then created the National Bureau of the Orthodox Bahb'i Faith with himself as guardian. In response, Remey appointed 5 of an intended "twenty-four elders" who would administer the Faith of Bahii'u'lltih' in cooperation with Harvey. As before, however, he dissolved the body without completing the appointments of the remaining 19; Harvey himself died in 1991 without appointing a successor or showing any interest in exercising his "guardianship." Several other bit players emerged during the ensuing years, but the only one still active appears to be Marangella. As serious as these Covenant-breaking attempts within the Baha'i community may appear, ultimately they have proved universally superficial and effete. COVENANT, CITY OF THE. When on 19 June 1912 'Abdu'l-Bahii spoke in New York of Bahii'u'lliih's Tablet of the Branch, He declared that His own station was that of the "Centre of the Covenant" and ~:~ ~~] also that that city, New York, was the "City of the C o ~ e n a n t . " [ ~See c ~ L-BAHA; ~ ~ uCOVENANT. y COVENANT, DAY OF THE. (26 November.) One of the two Baha'i Holy Days on which work is not suspended. It commemorates the appointment of 'Abdu'l-Bahii as the Centre of the Covenant. It was so designated by 'Abdu'l-Baha, Who said that this day should be used instead of a celebration of His birthday-which falls on the same day as the Declaration of the Biib.[87:2991 COY, GENEVIEVE LENORE (18861963). An early American believer who visited 'Abdu'l-Bahii in 'Akkii in 1920. In 1922, with the approval of 'Abdu'l-Bahh, she moved to Tihriin, hiin, as director of the Tarbiyat School for girls. On her return to the United States she served for many years on the local Spiritual Assembly of New York City. During those years she also served as a senior administrator and chairman of the Program Committee of Green Acre Bahb'i School. In 1958 she pioneered to Salisbury, Rhodesia (now Harare, ZimbabWe).[13:326,93:325, 147:199] CRADLE OF THE ADMINISTRATION. (United States of America.) Shoghi Effendi wrote, "Indeed so preponderating has been the influence of its members in both the initiation and the consolidation of Baha'i administrative institutions that their country may well
CREATION
127
deserve to be recognized as the cradle of the Administrative Order which Bahh'u'llhh Himself had envisaged and which the Will of See also the Center of His Covenant had called into being.77[37:3291 'ABDU'L-BAHA, WILL AND TESTAMENT OF.
CRADLE OF THE FAITH. (irhn~ersia.)Birthplace of the Bahh'i Revelation. CREATION. All existence (creation) is an emanation of God, the Creator. Bahai'u'llaih wrote, "Know thou that every created thing is a sign of the revelation of God. Each, according to its capacity, is, and will ever remain, a token of the Almighty. Inasmuch as He, the sovereign Lord of all, hath willed to reveal His sovereignty in the kingdom of names and attributes, each and every created thing hath, through the act of the Divine Will, been made a sign of His glory. So pervasive and general is this revelation that nothing whatsoever in the whole universe can be discovered that doth not reflect His splendor. Under such conditions every consideration of proximity and remoteness is obliterated. . . . Were the Hand of Divine power to divest of this high endowment all created things, the entire universe would become desolate and v ~ i d . " [ ~ ~ : ' ~ ~ ] While in Paris, in response to a question on what is eternal and what is contingent and whether creation is a manifestation or emanation of God, 'Abdu'l-Bahh said, There are two kinds of eternities. There is an eternity of essence, that which is without first cause, and an eternity of time, that which has no beginning. When you will understand these subjects all will become clear. Know of a certainty that every visible thing has a cause. For instance, this table is made by a carpenter; its originator is the carpenter. Therefore as such objects are not self created, they are not in the nature of things eternal; but need an auxiliary-transforming force, although in their essence they are very ancient in time; but their ancient and eternal existence is not due to the temporary form. For instance, the world of elements cannot be annihilated, because pure existence cannot be annihilated; and what we observe are but transformative modifications in the composition of the essence. The combination of different elements has formed physical man; when the composition is destroyed the elements will return to their component parts. Complete annihilation cannot take place. The universe has never had a beginning. From the point of view of essence it transforms itself. God is eternal in essence and in time. He is
128
CRISIS
his own existence and cause. This is why the material world is eternal in essence, for the power of God is eternal. A power is like a kingdom; it needs subjects and armies, for the constituents of a kingdom are rulers and subjects. The power of God is eternal and there have always been beings to manifest it; that is why we say that the worlds of God are infinite-there has never been a time when they did not exist. One can bring nothing forth from nothing, in the same way that which exists is never destroyed; the apparent annihilation is merely transmutation. A mineral compared to us may be said to be non-existent, but in its own sphere it lives. When we die our bodies return to the mineral and vegetable world. This example shows the inter-relationship of the different kingdoms which is erroneously called annihilation. All the wealth of contingencies is misery. If we know not the eternal, we are nothing, and as God is eternal, knowing God is a link to eternity. I pray you to reflect deeply upon this, that you may understand clearly. Many people think that creation is a manifestation of God, that the divine reality like unto the embryo in a seed, has come forth out of the seed and become a trunk, branches, leaves, flowers. The prophets teach differently. Creation is an emanation from the creator. It is impossible that the eternal should become limited. A tree never becomes a creature: it never acquires sight nor smell; yet both are creations of God-creations in emanation. Creation is like the sunlight; God is the sun. This light comes forth from the sun; that does not mean that the sun has become the light. The light emanates from the sun. Seek always to prove mysteries in the light of the rational mind. We must all become the light of this sun which is God; the light of the sun, the heat of the sun, the brilliancy of the sun, the bestowals of this sun. . . . God in his wisdom has created all things.V48:1061
CRISIS. See CALAMITIES AND CRISES. CUELLAR, YVONNE LIEGEOIS (1896-1983). The first (1940) Bolivian believer of French birth. She served with her husband (Col. Arturo Cuellar Echazu, who in 1946 became a Bahh'i through her efforts) on the first local Spiritual Assembly of La Paz (also the first in Bolivia). She proclaimed the Faith widely by way of radio programs on Radio Illimani and Radio Bolivar of La Paz. In 1947 she arranged for an audience (and presentation of a Bahh'i book) to the Bolivian president, Enrique Hertzog, which in turn led to the official recognition of the Cause by the Bolivian government later in 1947. She and her husband made substantial contributions toward
CYCLE, PROPHETIC
129
the translation of Bahi'i literature into the Spanish language. In 1953 she moved to the United States but returned to Bolivia in 1956 at the request of the National Spiritual Assembly of that country. In 1958 she traveled to France to help with the formation of the National Spiritual Assembly there. In 1969 she returned to the United States but continued to visit Bolivia and other c o u n t r i e ~ . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] CULVER, JULIA (1861-1950). An early American believer who traveled throughout Europe with Miss Martha Root. On settling in Geneva she took on responsibility for the financial upkeep of the International Bahsi'i Bureau in Geneva (with the assistance of a donation of £6.00 per month fiom Shoghi Effendi).[10'5071 CYCLE. (Era, Ages, Epochs.) The Bahi'i Cycle, as designated by Bahai'u'llaih, is a period lasting at least 5,000 ~ e n t u r i e s . [ ~The ~'~~1 Bahi'i Era comprises the Dispensations of the Bsib and Bahi'u'llih. The Dispensation of Bahi'u'llih will last at least 1,000 y e a r ~ . [ ~ l : ~ ~ ] The first 77 years ofthe preceding century, constitutingthe Apostolic and Heroic Age of our Faith, fell into three distinct epochs, of 9, of 39, and of 29 years' duration, associated respectively with the Bibi Dispensation and the ministries of Bahi'u'llih and of 'Abdu'l-Bahsi. . . . The last 23 years of that same century coincided with the first epoch of the second, the Iron and Formative, Age of the Dispensation of Bahii'u'llih-the first of a series of epochs that must precede the inception of the last and Golden Age of that Dispensation-a Dispensation that, as the Author of the Faith has Himself categorically asserted, must extend over a period of no less than 1,000 years, and that will constitute the first stage in a series of Dispensations, to be established by future Manifestations, all deriving their inspiration fiom the Author of the Bahii'i Revelation, and destined to last, in their aggregate, no less than 5,000 centurie~.[~~'~l-~] For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age." CYCLE, PROPHETIC. The period of time that began with Adam and ended with the Bib, during which a great number of Manifestations of God, all of Whom prophesied the coming of Bahsi'u'llsih. This Cycle has been succeeded by the Era of Fulfillment (the Bahi'i Era).[37:1001 For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age."
D A L V ~ S& ,~N (sH~~N (1956-1983). ) (Martyr.) A young Bahh'i who, in June 1983, along with other coreligionists, was executed in s i r & , irhn, by the government for refusing to recant her belief in B a h h ' ~ ' l l h h . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l DANIELSEN, EDITH MAY MILLER (1909-1984). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An American believer who embraced the Cause in 1949 (to be followed in 1951 by her husband, Theodore). In 1953 she pioneered under the Ten Year Crusade to the Cook Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahh'u7116h. She left the Cook Islands halfway through the Ten Year Crusade, returning first to the United States and then moving on to New Zealand-where she was elected to the first (1968) National Spiritual Assembly of New Zealand. She subsequently returned to the United States for a final time, passing away there in Kirkland, Washington, on 29 January 1984.[18:6251
DARV&IJ. (Religious.) Mendicant, dervish, Muslim mystic. See also ~mi.[18:736]EQ
DAUGHERTY, ORPHA MAUD (1912-1985). An American believer who embraced the Cause in 1944 while living in Hawaii. In 1945 she returned to Seattle, Washington, and from there she traveled widely throughout the United States in the promotion of the Cause. In 1960 she settled in the Philippines on the island of Cebu, where she found employment as a radio announcer. She was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Philippines in 1964. In 1965 she was appointed an Auxiliary Board member for Eastern Asia, moved to Thailand, and traveled widely throughout Laos visiting hill tribes and by canoe on rivers in Sarawak and Brunei. She lived for a while in Ceylon and visited Vietnam and Cambodia. In 1967 she pioneered to Taiwan, where she remained until 1969, when she was requested to move to Macau. In 1970 she returned to the Philippines and in 1974 to Hiroshima, Japan. In 1982 she moved to Korea, where in October 1984 she "climbed a mountain to bring the message of Bahh'u'llhh to Chong Hak Dong-the People of the Pure White Cranes community of people who, about half a century ago, isolated themselves on a Korean mountaintop to await word of a great prophet." Many of these people embraced the C a u ~ e . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
DE FORGE, WILLIAM
13 1
DAWE, ETHEL (1902-1954). An early Australian believer who came to the Faith through her cousin Maysie Almond. In 1937 she was appointed temporary collaborator for Australia to the League of Nations and visited Geneva in that capacity. She met Shoghi Effendi in 1938, who entrusted her to carry a lock of Bahzi'u'llzih's hair as a gift to the Australian DAWN-BREAKERS. The martyrs and heroes of the early days of the Faith-followers of the Brib, so named because of their association with the beginnings of the new age. Shoghi Effendi wrote of them as follows: "We behold, as we survey the episodes of this first act of a sublime drama, the figure of its Master Hero, the Bib, arise meteor-like above the horizon of SJiraiz, traverse the somber sky of Persia fkom south to north, decline with tragic swiftness, and perish in a blaze of glory. We see His satellites, a galaxy of God-intoxicated heroes, mount above that same horizon, irradiate that same incandescent light, burn themselves out with that self-same swiftness, and impart in their turn an added impetus to the steadily gathering momentum of God's nascent Their inspiring story is told in the book The Dawn-Breaker~[~~] by Nabil-i-A'+am (translated from Persian into English by Shoghi Effendi). This book also describes the role of Baha'u'llih as a Bribi up to His banishment to B a a d i d . DE ARAUJO, VICTOR (1922-2001). A British-born U.S. citizen (1954), diplomat and educator by profession. He came to the United States in 1946 as a vice-consul to the Brazilian Consulate in Chicago, which was the same year that he became a Baha'i. In 1967, he became the Bahzi'i International Community's full-time principal representative to the United Nations; a position he held until his retirement in 1990. He was the author of a great many Baha'i statements, on subjects as varied as human rights, the environment, the family, the equality of men and women, and children and youth, as well as chairing numerous Baha'i and UN-NGO committees (including the Executive Committee of NGOs) over his 23 years of Baha'i service.[30:269,149:Feb 26,20011 DE FORGE, WILLIAM (1899-1963). An American believer who traveled widely as a teacher of the Faith. In 1954 he was among the first contingent of Auxiliary Board members appointed by the Hands of the Cause of God. This appointment led him to travel
132
DEAN, SIDNEY I.
throughout the United States, Canada, Alaska, and most of the Latin American republics. He also traveled widely through Europe, where he died in 1963.[13:3301 DEAN, SIDNEY I. (1920-1971). An American believer who pioneered to Hong Kong, India (where he was principal of the New Era Bahi'i School in Panchgani), Taiwan, Hawaii, Kenya, and DEAN, UNA TOWNSHEND (1921-2003). (Knight of Bahi'u'llih.) Daughter of Hand of the Cause of God George Townshend. She was the first Bahi'i to settle in Dublin, Ireland (1946), and was a member of that city's first local Spiritual Assembly. She also helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly of Liverpool, England. In 1953 she pioneered to Malta (which was still recovering from the effects of the countless bombs dropped there during World War 11), for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahh'u'llhh. In 1954 she returned to Ireland to care for her ailing father. Following his passing in 1957 she moved to Canada. During a trip to Seattle she met and married Richard Dean. The couple settled in Edmonton, where she served as a member of that city's local Spiritual Assembly until 1987.[32:2691 DEATH. Bahh'u'llih wrote of the spiritual and physical aspects of death: Know thou that every hearing ear, if kept pure and undefiled, must, at all times and from every direction, hearken to the voice that uttereth these holy words: "Verily, we are God's, and to Him shall we return." The mysteries of man's physical death and of his return have not been divulged, and still remain unread. By the righteousness of God! Were they to be revealed, they would evoke such fear and sorrow that some would perish, while others would be so filled with gladness as to wish for death, and beseech, with unceasing longing, the one true Godexalted be His glory-to hasten their end. Death proffereth unto every confident believer the cup that is life indeed. It bestoweth joy, and is the bearer of gladness. It conferreth the gift of everlasting life.[78:3441 0 Son Of Being! Bring thyself to account each day ere thou art surnmoned to a reckoning; for death, unheralded, shall come upon thee and thou shalt be called to give account for thy d e e d ~ . [ ' ~ ~ : ~ l ] 0 Son Of The Supreme! I have made death a messenger of joy to thee. Wherefore dost thou grieve? I made the light to shed on thee its splendor. Why dost thou veil thyself therefrom? [150:A321
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'Abdu'l-Bahsi indicated that the purpose of the soul's journey through life to death is to acquire heavenly virtues and knowledge of God: According to divine philosophy there are two important and universal conditions in the world of material phenomena: one which concerns life, the other concerning death; one relative to existence, the other nonexistence; one manifest in composition, the other in decomposition. Some define existence as the expression of reality or being and nonexistence as nonbeing, imagining that death is annihilation. This is a mistaken idea, for total annihilation is an impossibility. At most, composition is ever subject to decomposition or disintegration-that is to say, existence implies the grouping of material elements in a form or body, and nonexistence is simply the decomposing of these groupings. This is the law of creation in its endless forms and infinite variety of expression. Certain elements have formed the composite creature man. This composite association of the elements in the form of a human body is, therefore, subject to disintegration, which we call death, but after disintegration the elements themselves persist unchanged. Therefore, total annihilation is an impossibility, and existence can never become nonexistence. This would be equivalent to saying that light can become darkness, which is manifestly untrue and impossible. As existence can never become nonexistence, there is no death for man; nay, rather, man is everlasting and ever-living. . . . The conception of annihilation is a factor in human degradation, a cause of human debasement and lowliness, a source of human fear and abjection. It has been conducive to the dispersion and weakening of human thought, whereas the realization of existence and continuity has upraised man to sublimity of ideals, established the foundations of human progress and stimulated the development of heavenly virtues; therefore, it behooves man to abandon thoughts of nonexistence and death, which are absolutely imaginary, and see himself ever-living, everlasting in the divine purpose of his creation. He must turn away from ideas which degrade the human soul so that day by day and hour by hour he may advance upward and higher to spiritual perception of the continuity of the human reality. If he dwells upon the thought of nonexistence, he will become utterly incompetent; with weakened willpower his ambition for progress will be lessened and the acquisition of human virtues will cease. . . . Therefore, you must thank God that He has bestowed upon you the blessing of life and existence in the human kingdom. Strive diligently to acquire virtues befitting your degree and station. Be as lights of the world which cannot be hid and which have no setting in horizons of darkness. Ascend to the zenith of an existence which is never beclouded by the fears and forebodings of nonexistence. When man is
134
DEATH, LIFE AFTER
not endowed with inner perception, he is not informed of these important mysteries. . . . [53:871 Without knowledge there is ignorance; therefore ignorance is simply the lack of knowledge. Death is the absence of life. Therefore on the one hand we have existence; on the other, nonexistence, negation or absence of existence. Briefly; the journey of the soul is necessary. The pathway of life is the road which leads to divine knowledge and attainment. Without training and guidance the soul could never progress beyond the conditions of its lower nature which is ignorant and defecti~e.[l~l:~~]
See also DEATH, LIFE AFTER.
DEATH, LIFE AFTER. According to Bahi'i Writings this earthly life is the second stage of the development of the human soul-the first being fiom conception to birth. This association of the soul with the material body allows it to develop, through the exercise of its free will, those spiritual qualities that will equip it for its "real" life in the world of the spirit to which it evolves after physical death. Whereas the physical body decomposes, the soul has eternal life. In the world of the spirit it continues to develop as it journeys toward God. The true nature of this afterlife cannot be fully understood, but glimpses of what this may be like are given by BahP'u'llPh and 'Abdu'lBahP. For example, Bahb'u'llhh wrote, The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother. When the soul attaineth the Presence of God, it will assume the form that best befitteth its immortality and is worthy of its celestial habitati~n.['~l:'~~] Know thou of a truth that the soul, after its separation fiom the body, will continue to progress until it attaineth the presence of God, in a state and condition which neither the revolution of ages and centuries, nor the changes and chances of this world, can alter. It will endure as long as the Kingdom of God, His sovereignty, His dominion and power will endure. It will manifest the signs of God and His attributes, and will reveal His loving kindness and bounty. . . . The honor with which the Hand of Mercy will invest the soul is such as no tongue can adequately reveal, nor any other earthly agency describe. Blessed is the soul which, at the hour of its separation from the body, is sanctified from the vain imaginings of the peoples of the world. Such a soul liveth and moveth in accordance with the Will of its Creator. . . the Prophets of God and His chosen ones will seek its companionship. With them that soul will freely converse, and will recount unto them that which it hath been made to endure in the path of God, the Lord of all worlds. If any man
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be told that which hath been ordained for such a soul in the worlds of God, . . . his whole being will instantly blaze out in his great longing to attain that most exalted, that sanctified and resplendent station. . . . The nature of the soul after death can never be described, nor is it meet and permissible to reveal its whole character to the eyes of men!78:155fl
'Abdu'l-Bahi elaborated: Though death destroy his body, it has no power over his spirit-this is eternal, everlasting, both birthless and deathless. As to the soul of man after death, it remains in the degree of purity to which it has evolved during life in the physical body, and after it is freed from the body it remains plunged in the ocean of God's Mercy. From the moment the soul leaves the body and arrives in the Heavenly World, its evolution is spiritual, and that evolution is: The approaching unto God.[52:661 In this world he must prepare himself for the life beyond. That which he needs in the world of the Kingdom must be obtained here. Just as he prepared himself in the world of the matrix by acquiring forces necessary in this sphere of existence, so likewise the indispensable forces of the divine existence must be potentially attained in this world. What is he in need of in the Kingdom which transcends the life and limitation of this mortal sphere? That world beyond is a world of sanctity and radiance; therefore it is necessary that in this world he should acquire these divine attributes. In that world there is need of spirituality, faith, assurance, the knowledge and love of God. These he must attain in this world so that after his ascension from the earthly to the heavenly Kingdom he shall find all that is needful in that life eternal ready for him. That divine world is manifestly a world of lights; therefore man has need of illumination here. That is a world of love; the love of God is essential. It is a world of perfections; virtues or perfections must be acquired. That world is vivified by the breaths of the Holy Spirit; in this world we must seek them. That is the Kingdom of life everlasting; it must be attained during this vanishing existence. By what means can man acquire these things? How shall he obtain these merciful gifts and powers? First, through the knowledge of God. Second, through the love of God. Third, through faith. Fourth, through philanthropic deeds. Fifth, through self-sacrifice. Sixth, through severance from this world. Seventh, through sanctity and holiness. Unless he acquires these forces and attains to these requirements he will surely be deprived of the life that is eternal. But if he possesses the knowledge of God, becomes ignited through the fire of the love of God, witnesses the great and mighty signs of the Kingdom, becomes the cause of love among mankind, and lives in the utmost state of sanctity and holiness, he shall surely attain to second birth, be baptized by the Holy Spirit and enjoy everlasting e ~ i s t e n c e . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
136 DECLARATION
DECLARATION. The Announcement by the Manifestation of God of His Appointment as God's Messenger of God for the Day in which He manifests. Bahai'u'llaih wrote, "By virtue of this station, they have claimed for themselves the Voice of Divinity and the like, whilst by virtue of their station of Messengership, they have declared themselves the Messengers of God. In every instance they have voiced an utterance that would conform to the requirements of the occasion, and have ascribed all these declarations to Themselves, declarations ranging from the realm of divine Revelation to the realm of creation, and from the domain of Divinity even unto the domain of earthly existence. Thus it is that whatsoever be their utterance, whether it pertain to the realm of Divinity, Lordship, Prophethood, Messengership, Guardianship, Apostleship or Servitude, all is true, beyond the shadow of a d o ~ b t . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] DECLARATION OF BELIEF OR ACCEPTANCE. A statement of belief, made verbally or in writing or by signature on a suitably worded card or other document, in which the new declarant accepts the Stations of the Baib, Bahai'u'llah, and 'Abdu'l-Bahai and all that They have revealed. The Universal House of Justice explained, "The declarants need not know all the proofs, history, laws and principles of the Faith, but in the process of declaring themselves they must in addition to catching the spark of faith, become basically informed about the Central Figures of the Faith, as well as the existence of laws they must follow and an administration they must 0bey."[~~:~~1 DEEDS, ACTIONS. Bahai'u'llah stated, "The triumph of this Cause hath depended, and will continue to depend, upon the appearance of holy souls, upon the showing forth of goodly deeds, and the revela~ : ~essence ~] of faith is tion of words of consummate ~ i s d o m . " [ ~"The fewness of words and abundance of deeds; he whose words exceed And his deeds, know verily his death is better than his life."[122:1561 again, "Verily I say unto thee: Of all men the most negligent is he that disputeth idly and seeketh to advance himself over his brother. Say, 0 brethren! Let deeds, not words, be your ad~rning."['~~~] See also STEADFASTNESS; TRUSTWORTHINESS. DEEPENING. Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary, "To deepen in the Cause means to read the Writings of BahP'u'llPh and so thoroughly as to be able to give the Master (see 'ABDU'L-B&) it to others in its pure And "In their efforts to achieve
this purpose they must study for themselves, conscientiously and painstakingly, the literature of their Faith, delve into its teachings, assimilate its laws and principles, ponder its admonitions, tenets and purposes, commit to memory certain of its exhortations and prayers, master the essentials of its administration, and keep abreast of its current affairs and latest de~eloprnents."[~~:~~1 DEPUTIZATION. "Center your energies" are Bahii'u'lliih's words, "in the propagation of the Faith of God. Whoso is worthy of so high a calling, let him arise and promote it. Whoso is unable, it is his duty to appoint him who will, in his stead, proclaim this Re~elation."[~l:~~fl These words underpin the principle of deputatization, that is, the provision of financial support for a pioneer or teacher (see TEACHING) by another person. DETACHMENT. Submission to the will of God, seeking His good pleasure, ridding oneself of pride in one's knowledge, position, and accomplishments all combine in the achievement of true detachment: "Should a man," Bahii'u'lliih Himself reassures us, "wish to adorn himself with the ornaments of the earth, to wear its apparels, or partake of the benefits it can bestow, no harm can befall him, if he alloweth nothing whatever to intervene between him and God, for God hath ordained every good thing, whether created in the heavens or in the earth, for such of His servants as truly believe in Him. Eat ye, 0 people, of the good things which God hath allowed you, and deprive not yourselves from His wondrous bounties. Render thanks and And in praise unto Him, and be of them that are truly thankfu1."[141:2761 another place He wrote, "The essence of detachment is for man to turn his face towards the courts of the Lord, to enter His Presence, behold His Countenance, and stand as witness before Him.7y[122:1551 DHIKR. -
Mention, remembering; remembrance of God; praise and thanksgiving; recital of the names of God, religious exercise or ceremony; the Qur'an. The Word of God. Plural: A-clA. See also
MAS_HRIQU'L-ADHK~LR.[~~:~~~]~ DHIKRU'LLAH -
U ~ E M(1904-1986). (Hand of the Cause of God.) An educator, writer, and s c h ~ l a r , [ lhe ~ ~was ~ ~ ]born into a distinguished Baha'i family in Tihriin, hiin, in 1904. He received as formal an education as was possible for the h n i a n Baha'is of that time. He showed considerable aptitude as a linguist, becoming
proficient in Persian, Arabic, English, and French. For many years he was chief interpreter and director of the Education Department of the hglo-irhnian Oil Company and developed an accelerated method of teaching Persian to English speakers. He later became secretary of the 'Iraqi Embassy in Tihrhn. He became known as an Old Testament scholar and was well versed in the history of the Bahi'i Faith and other world religions. He was author of several books about the Baha'i Faith in Persian and English. In 1933 he married the secretary, t friend, and companion of Keith Ransom-Kehler, J a v i d ~Javid. At the relatively young age of 34 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of irin and served on that body for the next 21 years. He made trips to the Holy Land in 1939 and 1940. He served as the receiving and distribution conduit for communications from Shoghi Effendi for the hhnian believers-a service he discharged for 17 years. He was also instrumental in securing many precious B6bi and Baha'i archives for safe preservation in the Holy Land. These included the famous sword wielded in defense of the Bhbis by Mull6 Husayn at B h r M & in 1848, when with one stroke he cut through a tree, the barrel of a gun and his adversary. He was elevated to the rank of Hand of the Cause in the second contingent appointed by Shoghi Effendi in February 1952. For the remainder of his life Qxidem undertook, first on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, then for the Hands of the Cause, and later for the Universal House of Justice, an enormous number of assignments including the promotion and protection of the Faith as well as the general encouragement of the Baha'is in the achievement of their global teaching plans. He was an inspirational speaker who seemed always to convey to his audience his deep love and knowledge of the Faith as well as his devotion to Shoghi Effendi and later, to the Universal House of Justice. His discharge of whatever duties or tasks were assigned to him was known always to be characterized by "instant, exact and complete 0bedience."[~~~~~~1 His worldwide travels included the following: in 1953 he attended all the four (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conferences and visits to centers in Central and South America; in 1954-1955 he visited centers in India, P M s t h , the Arabian Peninsula, and 'Iraq; later in 1955 he went to Pikisthn, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Thailand, Burma, and India; in 1957 he represented Shoghi Effendi at the Convention of Central America in Panama and visited centers in Italy, Switzerland, Denmark, the United States, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, British Honduras,
Mexico, Canada, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France; in 1958 he participated in the Intercontinental Conference in Sydney, Australia, and visited centers in Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, and India; he attended the conference in Frankfurt, followed by visits to centers throughout Europe and attendance at the conference in Djakarta and Singapore and then as a substitute member of the Nine Hands in the Holy Land in October to December; in 1959 he attended the inaugural convention of the National SpiritualAssembly of Turkey followed by visits throughout Europe. In November he was asked to settle in the United States as a Hand of the Western Hemisphere, visiting centers in Europe en route to his new home; in 1960 he again visited centers in Europe; in 1961 he was representative of the World Centre at the conventions of Costa Rica and of Panama followed by visits to England, Holland, and Switzerland. During the next few years he attended conferences and conventions throughout the United States, Canada, Alaska, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Tobago in 1971; and in 1973 and 1974 he visited hh. These trips, from November 1959, were from his new home in the United States. The Universal House of Justice assigned him the complex and exacting task of compiling an "International Registry of Baha'i Holy Places and Historic Sites in the Holy Land." He completed this by August 1976 and went on to document the places visited by 'Abdu'lBaha in England, Scotland, the United States, and Canada. This was followed by visits to National Spiritual Assemblies in the West and other visits to hiin. There were two sigdcant events in 1979 in the United States-the 70th National Convention in April and a "Spiritual Enrichment" conference in August-September. In January 1981 he attended a significant conference in Frankfurt, Germany, and later in the year attended a convention in Chicago. In the few years that remained to him he attended conferences, conventions, summer schools, and general Baha'i gatherings, where his inspired talks galvanized the Baha'is into greater efforts in the promulgation of their Faith. His travels took him to every continent and saw him return to kin on several occasions to carry out special missions there. Throughout his life B a d e m enjoyed good health, but, in July 1986, he was diagnosed with a fatal illness that confined him to bed for much of the time. Notwithstanding this, he continued actively dictating letters and talks. In October 1986 he wrote to the U.S. National Spiritual Assembly thanking the members "from the bottom of my heart for all the kindnesses you have shown to me over the past
26 years." He passed away in the early hours of 13 November 1986, and the Universal House of Justice cabled, "With sorrowful hearts announce passing indefatigable fearless defender Faith, deeply-loved Hand Cause Dhikru'llhh B i d e m . His sterling services to the Cause, his total consecration to tasks assigned to him by beloved Guardian, his outstanding efforts as member National Spiritual Assembly Cradle Faith, his valuable soul-uplifting stimulation imparted body believers North America particularly United States Bahi'i Community, his untiring endeavors through his talks and writings in safeguarding Covenant and in instilling appreciation love for Shoghi Effendi shed undying lustre over period his admirable stewardship Cause God. Offering prayers Holy Shrines progress his radiant soul Abhai Kingdom. Urge hold befitting memorial gatherings his name all Houses of Worship as well as in all local Bahi'i communities." For additional biographical information refer to the biography t Zikrullah Khadem: The Itinerwritten by his wife, J a v i d ~ Javid, ant Hand of the Cause of DISCIPLES OF 'ABDU'L-BAIL&. A number of outstanding Bahi'is from the West were given this title by Shoghi Effendi. (Refer to appendix 7.) They were also known by him as "Heralds of the Covenant." In its message "to the followers of Bahi'u'llih attending the second Bahi'i World Congress" 23 November 1992, the Universal House of Justice throws light on the reason behind the designation: "It was during His epic journey to North America that 'Abdu'l-Bahai, recently released fiom imprisonment, impressed upon the early occidental believers the pivotal importance of the new Covenant; and it was in New York City that He chose to disclose to His disciples the special characteristics of that Covenant and His true station as its appointed DISPENSATION. Frequently used in Bahi'i Writings in relation to the period of time during which the laws and teachings of a Manifestation of God endure. For example, the Dispensation of the Baib began with His Declaration on 23 May 1844 and ended with the Declaration of Bahai'u'llaih at Ridvain 1863. Shoghi Effendi, writing of the Dispensation of Bahii'u'llhh, said that it was "a Revelation, hailed as the promise and crowning glory of past ages and centuries, as the consummation of all the Dispensations within the Adamic Cycle, inaugurating an era of at least a thousand years' duration, and a cycle destined to last no less than five thousand centuries, signalizing the
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end of the Prophetic Era and the beginning of the Era of FulfillFor a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of ment."[37:1001 the Formative Age." DIVE, DULCIE BURNS (d. 1962). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) An early New Zealand believer who pioneered to the Cook Islands, for which she was designated a Knight of Bah6'u711&. She was a member for some years of the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand and then the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the South P a c i f i ~ . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] DIVINITY. See GOD. DIVORCE. Although divorce is strongly censured by Bahii'u'llhh in it is nevertheless allowed in His Book of Laws (Kitcib-i-Aqda~),[~l:~~fl cases where at least one of the husband or wife in a marriage feel extreme antipathy and aversion toward the other. Before a divorce can be granted, there must be a year of waiting or "year of patience7' during which time every effort should be made by the couple (with spiritual and professional counseling) to effect a reconciliation. The administrative guidance relating to divorce is as follows: When a Spiritual Assembly receives an application for divorce its first duty is to try to reconcile the couple. When it determines that this is not possible, it should then set the date of the beginning of the year of waiting. That could be the date on which the Assembly reaches the decision, unless the couple are still living together, in which case it must be postponed until they separate. If the couple had already separated some time before, the Assembly may back-date the beginning of the year; however, the earliest date on which it can be set is the date on which the couple last separated with the intention of obtaining a divorce. . . .Thus the date of the beginning of the year of patience normally commences when one of the parties notifies the Assembly that they have separated with the intention of divorce. However, the Assembly may establish the beginning of the year of patience on a prior date provided it is satisfied such prior date reflects the actual date of separation and there is good reason for so doing. . . . The parties to a divorce must live apart in separate residences during the year of waiting. Any cohabitation of the parties stops the running of the year of waiting. If thereafter a divorce is desired a new date for the beginning of a new year of waiting must be set by the Assembly. . . . It is the responsibility of the husband to provide support for his wife and children during the year of waiting. . . . It is the responsibility of the Assembly to assist the divorced couple to
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DODGE, ARTHUR PILLSBURY
arrive at an amicable settlement of their financial affairs and arrangement for the custody and support of the children rather than let these matters be a subject of litigation in the civil courts. If the Assembly is unable to bring the couple to an agreement on such matters then their only recourse is to civil court. . . .It is not possible to shorten the period of waiting as this is a provision of the Kitiib-i-Aqdas. However, a Spiritual Assembly may, if circumstances justify it, back-date the beginning of the year provided that this is not earlier than the date the parties last separated with the intention of obtaining a divorce. . . . The Assembly should determine, before setting the date of the beginning of the year of waiting, that irreconcilable antipathy exists. . . . It is the Assembly's responsibility to conduct its own investigation and come to a decision. Assemblies are, of course, discouraged from probing unnecessarily into details of personal lives and the examination of a divorce problem should not go beyond what is necessary to ascertain whether or not such antipathy does, indeed, e ~ i s t . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ f f l
DODGE, ARTHUR PILLSBURY (1849-1915). (Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahai.) An industrialist and inventor, he was both a journalist and lawyer by profession. Coming originally from English ancestry (1629), he numbered Major Richard Dodge of Bunker Hill fame and General Grenville M. Dodge of the Union Pacific Railroad among his forbears. During the American Civil War he served as a drummer boy under his father, Colonel Simon Dodge. Born on 28 May 1849, he often heard his parents and grandparents speak about the millennium, and he himself became a passionate searcher after truth. After working as a journalist he studied law and gained admission to the bars of New Hampshire and Massachusetts. With a fiiend he founded three illustrated magazines and had plans for a fourth "to educate the public unawares." This required capital, which he did not possess, so he made contact with George M. Pullman, the inventor and manufacturer of Pullman Palace Cars. While not providing him with the capital necessary, Pullman did show him an abandoned invention of a stearn-driven motor car and suggested that Arthur try to develop it. Having had no engineering experience but being possessed of an inquiring mind, he reengineered the car in ways that made it commercially viable. Early in 1896, despite a cash offer of some 10 million dollars for a controlling interest in his Kinetic Power Company, he refused and tried to set up his business in Boston. This failed, and he returned to Chicago, where almost immediately he came in touch with Bahh'i teacher Ibraihim Kheiralla. In early 1898 he moved to New York and invited Kheiralla to join him. In the company of such celebrated future believers as the
DOWRY
143
Brittinghams, the MacNutts, Lillian Kappes, and Hooper Harris, the Dodges held many meetings in their home. The Dodges went to the Holy Land in August 1900 and called in London on the way home, where Arthur gave the Bahh'i Message to Canon Wilberforce of Westminster Abbey (who was later to arrange for 'Abdu'l-Bahsi to speak in London in St. John's Smith Square). He also had talks with Professor E. Dennison Ross and Professor E. G. Browne, who had met Bahii'u'lliih in 1890. Browne translated some precious letters that he (Arthur) had received from 'Abdu'l-Bahh. On returning to New York the Dodges once again threw themselves into teaching the Bahh'i Faith and organized many very large public meetings. In 1901 he wrote a short book on the "cause and purpose of our being on earth"The Truth of It. He continued to develop his motor car and eventually bought a factory and a small farm on the Delaware River. This farm became the Dodges' summer home, but in 1907, the electrification of street and elevated railroads, combined with the Wall Street panic, resulted in the loss of his large fortune. Since he had become so absorbed in spreading the Faith, this no longer meant much to him. On 14 March 1915,14 believers signed a declaration constituting themselves the founder members of the first Bahh'i Assembly of Hempstead, Nassau, State of New York, and 9 of the signatories had the last name of Dodge. Arthur received his last letter from the Holy Land dated 12 August 1915; and he read it out with difficulty (as he had a tube in his throat) to a meeting in his home on 10 October, typed out a notice of a meeting that he hoped to hold on the following Sunday afternoon. Soon after 7 AM on the next morning, he passed away. After his death, Shoghi Effendi referred to him as one of "that immortal galaxy now gathered in the glory of Bahh'u'llhh" who "will for ever remain associated with the rise and establishment of His Faith in the American continent, and will continue to shed on its annals a lustre that time can never dim."[36:811 DOKTOROGLU, SAM1 (1901-1979). An early (c. 1925) Turkish believer. He was a member of the first (1952) local Spiritual Assembly of Istanbul; he served also as an Auxiliary Board member and was the trustee of the Huqliqu'lliih in Turkey. In Turkish history books he is noted as the founder of travel agencies in DOWRY. The payment of a dowry by the groom to the bride (fixed at 19 miaqhls of pure gold for city dwellers, and 19 rniaqhls of silver for village dwellers) is stipulated by Bahsi'u'llsih in His Book of Laws
144 DREAMS
(the Kitcib-i-Aqda~)[~~:~~] as a requirement for Bahh'i marriage. At the time of writing, this law has not yet been put into general effect. DREAMS. While the majority of dreams are of no significance, BahP'u'llPh said of the phenomenon that "it is the most mysterious 'Abdu'l-Bahsi identifies of the signs of God amongst men."[122:187fl the phenomenon with the functioning of the human soul: Furthermore man sees in the world of dreams. He travels in the East, he travels in the West, although his body is stationary, his body is here. It is that reality in him which makes the journey while the body sleeps. There is no doubt that a reality exists other than the outward,physical reality. .. . The body goes to sleep, becomes as one dead but that reality is moving about, comprehending things, expressing them and is even conscious of itself. This other and inner reality is called the heavenly body, the ethereal form which corresponds to this body. This is the conscious reality which discovers the inner meaning of things, for the outer body of man does not discover anythmg. The inner ethereal reality grasps the mysteries of existence, discovers scientific truths and indicates their technical application. . . . It is the inner reality which comprehends things, throws light upon the mysteries of life and being, discovers the heavenly Kingdom, unseals the mysteries of God and differentiates man from the brute. Of this there can be no doubt. As we have before indicated, this human reality stands between the higher and the lower in man, between the world of the animal and the world of divir1ity.[~~"~~~1 Shoghi Effendi elaborated: That truth is often imported through dreams no one who is familiar with history, especially religious history, can doubt. At the same time dreams and visions are always colored and influenced more or less by the mind of the dreamer and we must beware of attaching too much importance to them. The purer and more free from prejudice and desire our hearts and minds become, the more likely is it that our dreams will convey reliable truth, but if we have strong prejudices, personal likings and aversions, bad feelings or evil motives, these will warp and distort any inspirational impression that comes to us. . . . In many cases dreams have been the means of bringing people to the truth or of confirming them in the Faith. We must strive to become pure in heart and 'free from all save God.' Then our dreams as well as our waking thoughts will become pure and true. We should test impressions we get through dreams, visions or inspirations, by comparing them with the revealed Word and seeing whether they are in 111harmony t h e r e ~ i t h . [ ~ ~ ~ l ~ f l DREYFUS-BARNEY, HIPPOLYTE (d. 1928). (Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahsi.) The first French BahB'i, a lawyer by profession, he is perhaps
DREYFUS-BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD
145
better known within the Bahb'i community as a scholar and translator of Bahb'i materials. He was introduced to the Faith in 1901 by May Ellis Bolles, later Mrs. May Maxwell. He married a Bahb'i, also introduced to the Faith by May Maxwell-an American living in Paris, Laura Clifford Dreyfus-Barney (nCe Barney). On marrying they adopted the surname Dreyfus-Barney. He was a scholar of some note and learned Persian and Arabic to enable him to translate the Writings of Bahai'u'llaih and 'Abdu'l-Bahai (among which were the Kita'b-i-Aqdas, 'Abdu'l-Bahai's Will and Testament, and Some Answered Questions). He visited the Holy Land on several occasions and kept closely in touch with 'Abdu'l-Bahb as well as being in attendance during His visits to Europe. He was the first European Bahb'i to visit irain and undertook extensive journeys for the Faith in Canada, the United States, and North Africa and as far east as India, Burma, Indochina, and Japan. In his field of scholarship he made several significant contributions to Bahii'i literature and translated many of the Bahb'i Writings into French. He gave valuable assistance to Shoghi Effendi in the efforts to obtain justice for the Bahb'is in 'IrPq and Egypt in the early years of the Guardianship. When he passed away following a slow and painful illness in December 1928, Shoghi Effendi wrote a lengthy "Appreciation" that included these words: "His gifts of unfailing sympathy and penetrating insight, his wide knowledge and mature experience, all of which he utilized for the glory and propagation of the Message of Bahb'u'llih, will be gratefully remembered by future generations who, as the days go by, will better estimate the abiding value of the responsibilities he shouldered for the introduction and consolidation of the Bahb'i Faith in the Western world. . . . To me . . . he was a sustaining and comforting companion, a most valued counsellor, an intimate and trusted friend.'' [2:210,92:155ffl DREYFUS-BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD (1879-1974). Born in 1879 into a family of artists and scholars, daughter of Alice Barney, a gifted poetess, painter, dramatist, musician, architect, and craftswoman whose paintings are to be found in most of the important museums of the United States and who gave the Neighborhood-House to the city of Washington. She was living in Paris when she became acquainted with May Ellis Bolles (later May Maxwell). Around 1900 she embraced the Cause and subsequently visited 'Abdu'l-Bahai on many occasions. Soon after her own conversion she introduced her mother to the Faith, who then joined her on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1905. Laura had a keen intelligence, logical mind, and
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DREYFUS-BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD
investigating nature and devoted her whole life from her adolescence to improving human relations, bringing together peoples of different races, classes, and nations. She was a brilliant speaker and made several trips around the world lecturing on the necessity of a united world based on BahB7u'll6h's Teachings on the oneness of mankind. Those who knew her over a period of many decades testified that her undaunted zeal for the objective of the brotherhood of man remained alive and glowing to the very last day of her life on earth. As one of the early pilgrims from the West who visited 'Abdu'lBahB, she was privileged to spend long periods of time with Him and His immediate family. It was during the years 1904-1906 that she was permitted to put certain questions to 'Abdu'l-BahB. On one occasion He said to her, "I have given you my tired rnoment~."[~~:~~] Shoghi Effendi later wrote, "Laura Barney, whose imperishable service was to collect and transmit to posterity in the form of a book, entitled 'Some Answered Questions,' 'Abdu'l-Bahb's priceless explanations, covering a wide variety of subjects, given to her In in the course of an extended pilgrimage to the Holy Land."[37'2591 another place he wrote, "It was at this juncture that that celebrated compilation of His table talks . . . was made, talks given during the brief time He was able to spare, in the course of which certain fundamental aspects of His Father's Faith were elucidated, traditional and rational proofs of its validity adduced, and a great variety of subjects regarding the Christian Dispensation, the Prophets of God, Biblical prophecies, the origin and condition of man and other kindred ~ ~ ~book ~ ~ ]was first published themes authoritatively e ~ p l a i n e d . ' ? The in London in 1908. It was such an important book that the distinguished French scholar, the first French BahB7i,Hippolyte Dreyfus, offered to translate it into French. It was during their collaboration on this translation that they decided to marry (191 1) and adopted the name Dreyfus-Barney. They undertook many other joint activities in the sewice of the Faith, which included visits to the prison fortress of Msih-Ku and other parts of Persia, 'I&qBbBd, Russian Turkistk, Indochina, and other parts of Eastern Asia. 'Abdu'l-BahB referred to her on numerous occasions, and she received many gifts from the ladies of 'Abdu'l-BahB's household. These were eventually entrusted to Ugo Giachery to deliver to the Universal House of Justice. Another outstanding service she rendered was the purchasing of the land and the construction of a suitable home for 'Abdu'l-BahB and His family (No. 7 Haparsim Street, Haifa; subsequently the home of Shoghi Effendi).
DRUGS
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It is not possible in a work of this nature to list all Laura's services in America, Europe, and other parts of the world. During World War I she served in Paris in the American Ambulance Corps and after the war gave her full support to the League of Nations, representing in that body the International Council of Women. She was the only woman named by the League Council to sit on the subcommittee of experts on education-a post she held for many years. On 23 July 1925 she was appointed Chevalier de la Legion d'Honneur and subsequently served on many international committees. In the 1930s she served on numerous international bodies, particularly those connected with education and educational cinematography. Under the auspices of the International Institute of Educational Cinematography of the League of Nations she convened the first congress for women, held in Rome in 1934, specializing in the dissemination of educational material for peace by means of motion pictures. At this congress she was elected one of the six vice presidents and in 1937 was elected president of the Peace and Arbitration Commission of the International Council of Women. After the death of her husband in December 1928, her efforts for the Faith intensified. In 1941 she was a member of the American delegation to the Conference on Cultural Co-operation, Havana, Cuba. During World War I1 she was a delegate of the French National Committee of Women to the Commission on Racial Affairs, and on the formation of the United Nations she became an officer of the Commission of the Council of Women for the Control and Reduction of Armaments, located in Geneva. In the years that followed she was very active in the United Nations Economic and Social Council in Geneva. Toward the end of her life she lived in Paris, and although she suffered greatly from rheumatism, her mind remained as alert as ever. She died on 18 August 1974 within five years of the centenary of her birth. She is buried in the Passy Cemetery of Paris. On her passing, the Universal House of Justice cabled this tribute: "Ascension distinguished maidservant Laura Dreyfus-Barney further depletes small band promoters Faith Heroic Age. Member first historic group Paris taught by May Maxwell she achieved immortal fame through compilation Some Answered Questions unique entire field religious history. Offering ardent prayers Sacred Threshold progress her soul Abhh Kingdom. Urge all communities France hold memorial gatherings gratitude outstanding achie~ement."[l~~~~,~~:~~ffl
DRUGS. Habit-forming drugs and all intoxicants are forbidden in the Kitrib-i-Aqdas except where prescribed for medical treatment
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DUNN, CLARA HOLDER
by a competent physi~ian.[~l'~~, 881 'Abdu'l-BahP wrote particularly "Deliver them strongly against alcohol, hashish and opium:[100'1491 from alcohol and tobacco, and save them from opium, the purveyor of m a d r ~ e s s ! " [ ~and ~ ~"It : ~requires ~ ~ ] total abstinence from all alcoholic drinks, from opium, and from similar habit-forming d r ~ g s . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] DUNN, CLARA HOLDER (DAVIS) (1869-1960). ("Mother Dunn"; Mother of Australia; Hand of the Cause of God.) Born in London, England, on 12 May 1869, the sixth child of a London policeman, Thomas Holder, and an Irish mother, she settled in the United States and met John Henry Hyde Dunn when she was in her late 30s. (She had previously married at the age of 16, but her husband had been killed in an accident; a child of that marriage had been given over to his family to care for.) She learned of the Faith from him, and following the visit of 'Abdu'l-BahP to San Francisco (1912) they married in 1913, and for the next six years their home became a center of Baha'i activity. In 1919 they decided, in response to the goals set out to pioneer to Australia. in the Tablets of the Divine In 1932, after over a decade of dedicated travel teaching with her husband throughout Australia, she went alone on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Together, they subsequently witnessed in 1934 the formation of the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Australia and New Zealand. With the passing of Hyde in 1941 she continued her teaching with unabated vigor. As the last remaining link in Australia with 'Abdu'l-Bahh she had a particularly important role to play. This became apparent when, in the second contingent to be appointed by Shoghi Effendi as Hands of the Cause and aged 84, she assumed her increased responsibilities with enthusiasm. Frail in body but with a remarkable memory and a vibrant personality, she attended the Intercontinental Conference in New Delhi in October 1953 and a summer school in New Zealand in 1954 and, later in that year, visited every state in Australia. In 1957, as Shoghi Effendi's representative, she attended the convention when the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of New Zealand was elected. On the passing of Shoghi Effendi she attended the first Conclave of the Hands of the Cause in Bahji, Israel, and was able, as appointed by Shoghi Effendi before he died, to participate in the Australian Intercontinental Conference when the foundations of the House of Worship (Maariqu'l-AdJkPr) were dedicated. Her scintillating wit inherited from her Irish mother remained fresh until
DUNN, JOHN HENRY HYDE
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her passing in November 1960 in Sydney, where she was laid to rest beside her husband-unique in Baha'i history-two Hands of the Cause, man and wife, pioneers and the openers of a continent, together in one grave. On 21 November 1960 the Hands of the Cause sent the following cable to the U.S. National SpiritualAssembly: "Grieve announce passing Hand Cause Clara Dunn distinguished member American Baha'i Community who with Hyde Dunn spiritual conqueror Australia, responded Master's appeal Divine Plan arose carried Faith Antipodes, rendered unique unforgettable pioneer service over forty year period. Advise hold memorial gathering Temple."[12:859,5 9 : W 93:331,147:1531 DUNN, JOHN HENRY HYDE (1855-1941). (Hand of the Cause of God; Father of Australia.) Born in London, 5 March 1855, he was the son of a pharmacist; interestingly, he had childhood contact with Charles Dickens. In early adult life he engaged in business in Great Britain and Europe before emigrating to the United States. On arrival in America he came in contact with the Baha'i Faith and quickly accepted it. He maintained close contact with such outstanding Baha'i teachers as Lua Getsinger, Thornton Chase, and Helen S. Goodall. As a traveling salesman for the Borne's Milk Company he moved around the country teaching the Faith, but his real confirmation came with his meeting with 'Abdu'l-Bahai in San Francisco in the autumn of 1912. Fanny, his first wife, had become a Baha'i but died in 1911 before the visit of 'Abdu'l-Bahii. Shortly after Hyde's meeting with the Master he married Clara Holder Davis (Dunn), a Baha'i who had settled in San Francisco, where their "open house" became a center of Baha'i teaching and hospitality. The couple were reading one of 'Abdu'l-Bahii's messages to America in 1918 (Tablets of the Divine when, as Hyde later wrote, "His appeal was so penetrating and thrilling it pierced our hearts. . . . Mother [Clara] looked up and said, 'Shall we go Father' [Hyde]?' 'Yes' was my reply, and no further discussion took p l a ~ e . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l They decided to "openy'Australia to the Faith and set sail in early 1919, stopping en route for two months in Honolulu; they disembarked in Sydney on 18 April 1919. Hyde was not in good health, and Clara was the first to obtain employment, but after five months Hyde applied for and was given employment with the Bacchus Marsh Milk Company (later acquired by NestlB). This allowed him to travel throughout Australia and New Zealand and while doing
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so to share the Bahb'i message. The position finally paid sufficient income for Clara to leave her job and travel with him. They lived for various periods in New South Wales, Victoria, Western Australia, and Queensland. They were responsible for the foundation of several local Spiritual Assemblies and witnessed the formation of a National Spiritual Assembly in 1934. When he died in Sydney on 17 February 1941, the National Spiritual Assembly's obituary contained many tributes to "Father" Dunn, which included the following: "It was not alone the great message of which he was the bearer that arrested attention but in addition, the unearthly light that suffused his whole personality when giving the message, endowing him with a quality which set him on a spiritual plane to which others were blindly groping, a height reached only through the surrender of personal will and In his cable to America, Shoghi Effendi wrote, "I share your sorrow in the loss and participate in your rejoicings for the triumph of beloved Father Dunn. The magnificent career of this veteran warrior of the Faith of Bahsi'u'llsih reflects the purest lustre of the world historic mission conferred upon American community by 'Abdu'l-Bahb. . . . Advise hold national memorial gathering . . . befitting the rank of Australia's spiritual c o n q u e r ~ r . " [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] To the Australian National Spiritual Assembly Shoghi Effendi wrote on 19April 1941 that the co~munityhad "lost a great leader. . . . The influence he has exercised will however continue to live, and the example he has set will inspire the rising generation to perform deeds as great and brilliant as those which will ever remain associated with his name. Our dear friend, Mr. Hyde Dunn, will, from his exalted station intercede on your behalf, and you should, on your part strive to emulate one whom Bahb'i historians will recognize and acclaim as Australia's spiritual ~onqueror."[~~~:~~1 When, in February 1952, Clara Dunn was appointed a Hand of the Cause of God, Shoghi Effendi, in response to an inquiry from Australia, cabled, "Hyde Dunn regarded as Hand."[8:593* 147:1531 DUNNING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1885-1967). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) An English (Yorkshire) Bahb'i who embraced the Faith at the age of 63, he pioneered first to Belfast (1948), then to Sheffield, and finally to the Orkney Islands (1953), for which latter service he was designated a Knight of Bahb'u'llhh. I11 health eventually forced him to move to Cardiff. He met Shoghi Effendi in Haifa in January 1957.[13:305,93:333]
ECONOMICS
15 1
EBO, ANTONIO FRANCISCO (d. 1977). The first (1956) Angolan believer of the KiMbundu tribe, he served as a member of the first (1956) local Spiritual Assembly of Luanda and in 1957 as a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Malange. In the 1940-1950s he was well known for his radio programs on the Bahi'i Faith, which were broadcast in Esperant0.['~~~~1 ECHTNER, VUK (1905-1994). Born in Southern Bohemia, he was one of the first (c. 1944) believers in Czechoslovakia. During the late 1950s he was incarcerated for two years for his b e l i e f ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS, SPIRITUAL SOLUTION TO. One of the social teachings of the Bahi'i Faith is the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty, which is to be achieved both by taxation and by voluntary giving (which in turn depends upon the spiritual transformation of the people). Both are found in the Bahi'i community. No funds for Bahi'i purposes are accepted from nonBahi'is, but all contributions to the Bahi'i funds are voluntary and are left to the conscience of the believer. Even the Bahi'i tax of Huqtiqu'llaih is paid only after the believer has individually assessed his or her standard of living, so here also the principle of sacrike is given expression. See also PROSPERITY; SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; WEALTH; WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF. ECONOMICS. Shoghi Effendi wrote, "There are practically no technical teachings on economics in the Cause, such as banking, the price system, and others. The Cause is not an economic system, nor can its Founders be considered as having been technical economists. The contribution of the Faith to this subject is essentially indirect, as it consists in the application of spiritual principles to our present-day economic system. Bahi'u'llhh has given us a few basic principles which should guide hture Bahi'i economists in establishing such institutions which will adjust the economic rela~ : ~also ~ ~ ECONOMIC ] PROBLEMS, tionships of the ~ o r l d . " [ ~See SPIRITUAL SOLUTION TO; PROSPERITY; SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; WEALTH; WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF.
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EDUCATION
EDUCATION. 'Abdu'l-Bahh wrote that education is of three kinds: material, human and spiritual. Material education is concerned with the progress and development of the body, through gaining its sustenance, its material comfort and ease. This education is common to animals and man. Human education sigtufies civilization and progress-that is to say, government, administration, charitable works, trades, arts and handicrafts, sciences, great inventions and discoveries and elaborate institutions, which are the activities essential to man as distinguished from the animal. Divine education is that of the Kingdom of God: it consists in acquiring divine perfections, and this is true education; for in this state man becomes the focus of divine blessings, the manifestation of the words, "Let Us make man in Our image, and after Our likeness." This is the goal of the world of hmanity.[121:71
In another place He wrote that "we should earnestly seek and thoroughly investigate realities, recognizing that the purpose of the religion of God is the education of humanity and the unity and fellowship of mankind.'7[131:2741 Bahi'is believe that each individual soul is absolutely unique and is endowed with capacities and talents not possessed by others. The purpose of education is, then, to discover and develop these individual gifts so that each person may achieve fullillment by doing those things for which he or she was created. "A man who has not had a : ~ ~ ~ ] education the ignorant spiritual education is a b r ~ t e . " [ ' ~ l"Through become learned; the cowardly become valiant. Through cultivation the crooked branch becomes straight; the acid, bitter fruit of the mountains and woods becomes sweet and delicious; and the five-petaled flower becomes hundred petaled. Through education savage nations become civilized, and even the animals become domesticated. Education must be considered as most important, for as diseases in the world of bodies are extremely contagious, so, in the same way, qualities of spirit and heart are extremely contagious. Education has a universal influence, and the differences caused by it are very great."[121'2141 Given that ignorance and the lack of education erect barriers among the human race, education should be universal. Parents have the obligation to educate their children; if they are unable to do this, the representatives of the people (government, spiritual assemblies) should provide for this vital need of every child. "Partaking of knowledge and education is one of the requisites of religion. The education of each child is obligatory. If there are no parents, the community must look after the child. It is suggested that the childless educate a
EGO
153
~ h i l d . " [ ~Males ~ ~ : ~and ~ ] females should follow the same curriculum and have the same opportunities. Should resources be limited, girls should be given priority as the education of women, as the first trainers of the next generation, is held to be more important than that of men. Education is also a means whereby women may be empowered and thereby assume their rightful place as coequal with men. The position of the teacher and educator, therefore, ranks very highly in Bahi'i understanding. Bahi'u'llih wrote, "The learned of the day must direct the people to acquire those branches of knowledge which are of use, that both the learned themselves and the generality of mankind may derive benefits therefrom. Such academic pursuits as begin and end in words alone have never been and will never be of any ~ o r t h . " [ ' ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] EDWARDS, HERMIONE VERA KEENS-DOUGLAS (1908-1981). A Grenadian who embraced the Cause in 1958 in Monrovia, she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Monrovia. In 1964 she was appointed an Auxiliary Board member. Between 1964 and 1979 she wrote monthly letters to the believers in Gambia, Senegal, Sierra Leon, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Ghana, Nigeria, and Mali.[17:7781 EFFENDI. A Turkish title of respect equivalent to sir. EGGLESTON, HELEN LATIMER (WHITNEY) (1892-1979), AND EGGLESTONE, LOU W. (1872-1953). Early (1909 and 1930) American believers who in 1931 started the Louhelen Bahi'i School near Davison, Michigan. In 1948 they deeded the nine-acre property and buildings to the National Spiritual Assembly. Both Helen[17:6751 and ~ ~ ~ [ 1 1 : 793:3351 1 2 , were tireless administrators of the school from its inception; during the years of their service many thousands of people passed through it, and they made everyone feel special. EGO. The human self. Through his secretary Shoghi Effendi wrote, Self has really two meanings, or is used in two senses, in the Bahft'i Writings; one is self, the identity of the individual created by God. This is the self mentioned in such passages as "he hath known God who hath known himself' etc. The other self is the ego, the dark, animalistic heritage each one of us has, the lower nature that can develop into a monster of selfishness,brutality, lust and so on [see EVIL ONE]. It is this self we
154 ELECTIONS
must struggle against, or this side of our natures, in order to strengthen and free the spirit within us and help it to attain perfection. Self-sacrifice means to subordinate this lower nature and its desires to the more Godly and noble side of ourselves. Ultimately, in its highest sense, self-sacrifice means to give our will and our all to God to do with as He pleases. Then He purifies and glorifies our true self until it becomes a shining and wonderfid reality. . . . The ego is the animal in us, the heritage of the flesh which is full of selfish desires. By obeying the laws of God, seeking to live the life laid down in our teachings, and prayer and struggle, we can subdue our egos. We call people "Saints" who have achieved the highest degree of mastery over their ego. . . . Life is a constant struggle, not only against forces around us, but above all against our own "ego." We can never afford to rest on our oars, for if we do, we soon see ourselves carried down stream again. . . . Sometimes . . . people fail because of a test they just do not meet, and often our severest tests come from each other. Certainly the believers should try to avert such things, and if they happen, remedy them through love. . . . The only people who are truly free of the "dross of self' are the Prophets, for to be free of one's ego is a hallmark of perfection. We humans are never going to become perfect, for perfection belongs to a realm we are not destined to enter. However, we must constantly mount higher, seek to be more p e r f e ~ t . [ ~ ~ " ~ s
'Abdu'l-Bahsi wrote that "The 'Master Key' to self-mastery is selfforgetting. The road to the palace of life is through the path of renunc i a t i ~ n . " [ ' ~ ~ '3481 ~ ~Shoghi ~~ Effendi clarified this when he wrote, "The more we search for ourselves, the less likely we are to find ourselves; and the more we search for God, and to serve our fellowmen, the more profoundly will we become acquainted with ourselves, and the more inwardly assured. This is one of the great spiritual laws Of life."[87:1141 -9
ELECTIONS. Leadership and community organization in the Bahi'i community derives from the authority vested in local and National Spiritual Assemblies under the overall leadership and direction of the Universal House of Justice. Members are elected to these bodies by secret ballot without nominations, canvassing, or electioneering and in an atmosphere of prayer. Electors are urged to keep before them the guidance given by Shoghi Effendi: "Hence it is incumbent upon the chosen delegates to consider without the least trace of passion and prejudice, and irrespective of any material consideration, the names of only those who can best combine the necessary qualities of unquestioned loyalty, of selfless devotion, of a well-trained mind, of recognized ability and mature e x p e r i e n ~ e . " [ And, ~ ~ ~ ~"I] do not feel it to be in keeping with the spirit of the Cause to impose
EMANATION
155
any limitations upon the freedom of the believers to choose those of any race, nationality or temperament, who best combine the essential qualifications for membership of administrative institutions. They should disregard personalities and concentrate their attention on the qualities and requirements of office, without prejudice, passion or partially. The Assembly should be representative of the choicest and most varied and capable elements in every Bahi'i c0111111unity."[~~:~fl The results of Bahi'i elections are based on a plurality vote; the nine members with the highest number of votes constitute the elected body. Tied votes are decided by further secret balloting. Elections for officers of the elected bodies are by a majority vote of the elected members. ELSTON, MARY ASHLEY (1898-1974). An American believer (c. 1950) who pioneered to East Africa in 1952. Throughout her time there she lived in Uganda and Tanzania, helping to form local Spiritual Assemblies in each country. She was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Tanzania and served for a number of years as its ~ecretary.['~:~~~] EMANATION. 'Abdu'l-Bahai wrote that "the world of existence is Elsewhere He an emanation of the merciful attribute of God."[151:791 wrote, Know that proceeding is of two kinds: the proceeding and appearance through emanation, and the proceeding and appearance through manifestation. The proceeding through emanation is like the coming forth of the action from the actor, of the writing from the writer. Now the writing emanates from the writer, and the discourse emanates from the speaker, and in the same way the human spirit emanates from God. It is not that it manifests God-that is to say, no part has been detached from the Divine Reality to enter the body of man. No, as the discourse emanates from the speaker, the spirit appears in the body of man. But the proceeding through manifestation is the manifestation of the reality of a thing in other forms, like the coming forth of this tree from the seed of the tree, or the coming forth of the flower from the seed of the flower, for it is the seed itself which appears in the form of the branches, leaves and flowers. This is called the proceeding through manifestation. The spirits of men, with reference to God, have dependence through emanation, just as the discourse proceeds from the speaker and the writing from the writer-that is to say, the speaker himself does not become the discourse, nor does the writer himself become the writing; no, rather they have the proceeding of emanation. The speaker has perfect ability and power, and the discourse emanates from him, as the
156
EMANATION
action does from the actor. The Real Speaker, the Essence of Unity,has always been in one condition, which neither changes nor alters, has neither transformation nor vicissitude. He is the Eternal, the Immortal. Therefore, the proceeding of the human spirits from God is through emanation. When it is said in the Bible that God breathed His spirit into man, this spirit is that which, like the discourse, emanates from the Real Speaker, taking effect in the reality of man. But the proceeding through manifestation (if by this is meant the divine appearance, and not division into parts), we have said, is the proceeding and the appearance of the Holy Spirit and the Word, which is from God. As it is said in the Gospel of John, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God"; then the Holy Spirit and the Word are the appearance of God. The Spirit and the Word mean the divine perfections that appeared in the Reality of Christ, and these perfections were with God; so the sun manifests all its glory in the mirror. For the Word does not signify the body of Christ, no, but the divine perfections manifested in Him. For Christ was like a clear mirror which was facing the Sun of Reality; and the perfections of the Sun of Reality-that is to say, its light and heat-were visible and apparent in this mirror. If we look into the mirror, we see the sun, and we say, "It is the sun." Therefore, the Word and the Holy Spirit, which signify the perfections of God, are the divine appearance. This is the meaning of the verse in the Gospel which says: "The Word was with God, and the Word was God"; for the divine perfections are not different from the Essence of Oneness. The perfections of Christ are called the Word because all the beings are in the condition of letters, and one letter has not a complete meaning, while the perfections of Christ have the power of the word because a complete meaning can be inferred from a word. As the Reality of Christ was the manifestation of the divine perfections, therefore, it was like the word. Why? because He is the sum of perfect meanings. This is why He is called the Word. And know that the proceeding of the Word and the Holy Spirit from God, which is the proceeding and appearance of manifestation, must not be understood to mean that the Reality of Divinity had been divided into parts, or multiplied, or that it had descended fiom the exaltation of holiness and purity. God forbid! If a pure, fine mirror faces the sun, the light and heat, the form and the image of the sun will be resplendent in it with such manifestation that if a beholder says of the sun, which is brilliant and visible in the mirror, "This is the sun," it is true. Nevertheless, the mirror is the mirror, and the sun is the sun. The One Sun, even if it appears in numerous mirrors, is one. This state is neither abiding nor entering, neither commingling nor descending; for entering, abiding, descending, issuing forth and commingling are the necessities and characteristics of bodies, not of spirits; then how much less do they
EQUALITY OF MEN AND WOMEN
157
belong to the sanctified and pure Reality of God. God is exempt from all that is not in accordance with His purity and His exalted and sublime sanctity. The Sun of Reality, as we have said, has always been in one condition; it has no change, no alteration, no transformation and no vicissitude. It is eternal and everlasting. But the Holy Reality of the Word of God is in the condition of the pure, fine and shining mirror; the heat, the light, the image and likenesethat is to say, the perfections of the Sun of Reality-appear in it. That is why Christ says in the Gospel, "The Father is in the Son9'-that is to say, the Sun of Reality appears in the mirror. Praise be to the One Who shone upon this Holy Reality, Who is sanctified among the b e i n g ~ ! [ ~ ~ l ' ~ ~ ~ ]
See also GOD, INCARNATION OF. ENROLLMENT. Each National Spiritual Assembly determines the methods to be used in the area of its jurisdiction for the registering of its declared believers. See also DECLARATION OF BELIEF OR ACCEPTANCE. EPISTLE. A formal letter that often serves to instruct; it is used fiequently to designate specific letters fiom Bahai'u'llaih to particular the last individuals-for example, Epistle to the Son of the WolJ;[lo91 large volume revealed by Bah6'u'llhh in Bahji in 1891, which contains many quotations from His previous Writings and was translated into English by Shoghi Effendi. (For a detailed discussion of the epistolary style of writing, refer to Ann Boyles's essay "The Epistolary Style of Shogh~Effendi.'y)[157'9ffl EPOCH. An extended period of time usually characterized by a distinctive development or by a memorable series of events. For a detailed analysis of epochs within a Baha'i context, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age." EQUALITY OF MEN AND WOMEN. Bahai'u'llaih wrote, "The Pen of the Most High hath lifted distinctions from between His servants and handmaidens, and, through His consummate favors and allencompassing mercy, hath conferred upon all a station and rank of the same 'Abdu'l-BahP stated, "There is no doubt that when women obtain equality of rights, war will entirely cease among mankind."[53"751 He also said,
158 ERICKSON, LOUISE M.
In reality, God has created all mankind, and in the estimation of God there is no distinction as to male and female. The one whose heart is pure is acceptable in His sight, be that one man or woman. . . . Furthermore, the education of woman is more necessary and important than that of man, for woman is the trainer of the child from its infancy. If she be defective and imperfect herself, the child will necessarily be deficient; therefore, imperfection of woman implies a condition of imperfection in all mankind, for it is the mother who rears, nurtures and guides the growth of the child. . . .Again, it is well established in history that where woman has not participated in human affairs the outcomes have never attained a state of completion and perfection. On the other hand, every influential undertaking of the human world wherein woman has been a participant has attained importance. . . . The world of humanity consists of two parts: male and female. Each is the complement of the other. Therefore, if one is defective, the other will necessarily be incomplete, and perfection cannot be attained. There is a right hand and a left hand in the human body, functionally equal in service and administration. If either proves defective, the defect will naturally extend to the other by involving the completeness of the whole; for accomplishmentis not normal unless both are perfect. If we say one hand is deficient, we prove the inability and incapacity of the other; for single-handed there is no 111accomplishment. Just as physical accomplishment is complete with two hands, so man and woman, the two parts of the social body, must be perfect. It is not natural that either should remain undeveloped; and until both are perfected, the happiness of the human world will not be realized.[53:133fl
See also HUMAN RIGHTS.
ERICKSON, LOUISE M. (d. 1960). An early Swedish believer who learned of the Faith while in the United States (where she met 'Abdu'lBahl in 1912 in New York). On her return to Sweden she arranged (in cooperation with Mrs. Rudd-Palmgren) for the translation into Swedish of Bahci'u'llah and the New Era. She also "gave the Message" to the then Swedish head of state, Carl Lindhagen. On hearing what she had to say he said, "Louise, the Crown Prince must know about this." He promptly telephoned the Royal Palace and arranged an interview with the Crown Prince, which lasted two h o ~ r s . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ESSLEMONT, JOHN EBENEZER (1874-1925). (Hand of the Cause of God; Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahh.) Aphysician by profession (he ran a clinic in Bournemouth, England), he was the first Western (Scottish) Bahb'i to be appointed a Hand of the Cause of God. Along with George Townshend and Thomas Breakwell he was designated
ESSLEMONT, JOHN EBENEZER
159
"one of three luminaries shedding brilliant lustre annals Irish English Scottish Bahi'i c ~ m m u n i t i e s . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] He was well recognized in the medical field, having practiced in Australia and South Africa. As a student he had contracted tuberculosis, and he devoted his time to applying new techniques to its treatment and eventually developed a scheme for its total eradication. One of his principal concerns was the need for a state medical service, and with a number of his associates he set up the State Medical Service Association in 1912, which produced the Dawson Report, which in turn became the foundation of the British National Health Service. He was introduced to the Faith around 1914 through the wife of a colleague on the State Medical Service Association. He was a proficient linguist, fluent in French, Spanish, and German, a keen advocate of Esperanto, and, after accepting the Bahi'i Faith, a student ofArabic and Persian. His name is known worldwide the first through his seminal work Bahh'u'llhh and the New nine chapters of which were written during World War I and submitted to 'Abdu'l-Bahsi for His comments. 'Abdu'l-Bahi encouraged him to complete the book and bring it to Him in the Holy Land. He first met 'Abdu'l-Baha on 6 November 1919 but due to a serious deterioration in his health was unable to attend many of His talks. He returned to England at end of January 1920 and by August had completed his book. It was first published by George Allen and Unwin in September 1923 and has since become a basic textbook on the Faith, with subsequent printings in many languages. By 1923 he had returned to Aberdeen, Scotland, before returning to Bournemouth, England, as his health again deteriorated. In 1924 he was invited by Shoghi Effendi to visit Haifa again, and he arrived there in November of that year. He assisted Shoghi Effendi with the translation of the Writings of Bahsi'u'llsih as well as serving as his English language secretary. On the 22 November 1925, he passed away in Haifa at the early age of 51. Shoghi Effendi cabled the British National Spiritual Assembly, "Beloved Esslemont passed away. Communicate friends and family distressing news. Urge believers dedicate special day for universal prayer and remembran~e."[~~:~~] On 30 November 1925 Shoghi Effendi wrote a glowing tribute to the Bahi'i world, which included the following passages: His close association with my work in Haifa, in which I had placed the fondest hopes, was suddenly cut short. His book, however-an abiding monument to his pure intention-will, alone, inspire generations
160
ESTRADA, SALOMON PACORA
yet unborn to tread the path of truth and service as steadfastly and as unostentatiously as was trodden by its beloved author. The Cause he loved so well, he served even unto his last day with exemplary faith and unstinted devotion. His tenacity of faith, his high integrity, his self-effacement, his industry and painstaking labors were traits of a character the noble qualities of which will live, and live forever after him. To me personally he was the warmest of friends, a trusted counsellor, an indefatigable collaborator, a lovable companion. . . . By the beauty of his character, by his knowledge of the Cause, by the conspicuous achievements of his book he has immortalized his name, and by sheer merit deserved to rank as one of the Hands of the Cause of God [62:459,76:97,93:337, 123:171]
ESTRADA, SALOMON PACORA (1889-1969). ("Blue Mountain.") One of the first (1938) of Inca descent to embrace the Cause, he played an important role in spreading the teachings throughout Mexico and South A r n e r i ~ a . [ l15:5681 ~~~~,
ESTY, FRANCES (1878-1963). An early American believer who in 1930 arranged for the painting of a portrait of 'Abdu'l-Bahh by the ~~~, Polish American artist Sigismond I v a n o ~ s k i . [13:3331
EVIL. The absence of good (in the same way that darkness is the absence of light). 'Abdu'l-Bahh said, In creation there is no evil; all is good. Certain qualities and natures innate in some men and apparently blameworthy are not so in reality. For example, from the beginning of his life you can see in a nursing child the signs of greed, of anger and of temper. Then, it may be said, good and evil are innate in the reality of man, and this is contrary to the pure goodness of nature and creation. The answer to this is that greed, which is to ask for something more, is a praiseworthy quality provided that it is used suitably. So if a man is greedy to acquire science and knowledge, or to become compassionate, generous and just, it is most praiseworthy.If he exercises his anger and wrath against the bloodthirsty tyrants who are like ferocious beasts, it is very praiseworthy; but if he does not use these qualities in a right way, they are blameworthy. . . . Then it is evident that in creation and nature evil does not exist at all; but when the natural qualities of man are used in an unlawful way, they are blamew~rthy.[~~l:~'~] And elsewhere: "The intellectual realities, such as all the qualities and admirable perfections of man, are purely good, and exist. Evil is simply their non-existence. So ignorance is the want of knowledge;
EVOLUTION 161
error is the want of guidance; forgetfulness is the want of memory; stupidity is the want of good sense. All these things have no real eXiStenCe."[121:2631 Shoghi Effendi wrote, "We know absence of light is darkness, but no one would assert darkness was not a fact. It exists even though it is only the absence of something else. So evil exists too, and we cannot close our eyes to it, even though it is a negative existence. We must seek to supplant it by good, and if we see an evil person is not influenceable by us, then we should shun his company for it is ~ n h e a l t h y . " [ See ~ ~ ~also ~ ~ ]EVIL ONE. EVIL ONE. (Satan.) According to 'Abdu'l-Bahh, man's lower nature or ego "is symbolized as Satan-the evil ego within us, not an evil personality o ~ t s i d e . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] The reality underlying this question is that the evil spirit, Satan or whatever is interpreted as evil, refers to the lower nature in man. This baser nature is symbolized in various ways. In man there are two expressions: One is the expression of nature; the other, the expression of the spiritual realm. The world of nature is defective. Look at it clearly, casting aside all superstition and imagination. If you should leave a man uneducated and barbarous in the wilds of AfXca, would there be any doubt about his remaining ignorant? God has never created an evil spirit; all such ideas and nomenclature are symbols expressing the mere human or earthly nature of man. It is an essential condition of the soil of earth that thorns, weeds and f i t l e s s trees may grow from it. Relatively speaking, this is evil; it is simply the lower state and baser product of nature. It is evident, therefore, that man is in need of divine education and inspiration, that the spirit and bounties of God are essential to his development. That is to say, the teachings of Christ and the Prophets are necessary for his education and guidance. The wisdom and purpose of Their training is that man must pass from degree to degree of progressive unfoldment until perfection is attained.[53:2941
See also EVIL. EVOLUTION. 'Abdu'l-Bahai explained that change is a basic law of the universe: "Know that nothing which exists remains in a state of repose--that is to say, all things are in motion. Everything is either growing or declining; all things are either coming from non-existence into being, or going fiom existence into non-existence. So this flower, this hyacinth, during a certain period of time was coming from the world of non-existence into being, and now it is going fiom being into
162
EXEMPLAR, PERFECT
non-existence. This state of motion is said to be essential-that is, natural; it cannot be separated from beings because it is their essential requirement, as it is the essential requirement of fire to burn. . . .Thus it is established that this movement is necessary to existence, which is either growing or declining. Now, as the spirit continues to exist after death [see DEATH, LIFE AFTER], it necessarily progresses or declines; and in the other world to cease to progress the same as to decline; but it never leaves its own condition, in which it continues to develop."[121:2331 'Abdu'l-Bahh also said that man, whatever his shape or form, has always been a distinct species: "As man in the womb of the mother passes fi-omform to form, fi-om shape to shape, changes and develops, and is still the human species from the beginning of the embryonic period-in the same way man, from the beginning of his existence in the matrix of the world, is also a distinct species-that is, man-and has gradually evolved fi-om one form to another. Therefore, this change of appearance, this evolution of members, this development and growth, even though we admit the reality of growth and progress, does not prevent the species fi-om being original. Man from the beginning was in this perfect form and composition, and possessed capacity and aptitude for acquiring material and spiritual perfections, and was the manifestation of these words, 'We will make man in Our image and likeness."'[121:193fl EXEMPLAR, PERFECT. See
'ABDU'L-BM.
EZIUKWU, ISAAC (1934-1973). Born in Nigeria, he was one of the first people (1956) to embrace the Cause in Bangui, Central A k a n Republic. In 1962 he was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Bangui. He pioneered to Gabon at the beginning (1964) of the Nine Year Plan and in 1961 served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of L i b r e ~ i l l e . [ l93:3431 ~'~~~,
FACEY, JAMES VASSAL (1896-1975). He was among the first five people to embrace the Cause in Panama (1945) and helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly of Colbn, Panama. He was elected a member of the first Regional Spiritual Assembly of Central America and the Antilles in 1951; in 1961 he was elected to the first National
Spiritual Assembly of Panama and served as its treasurer until his retirement in 1968.[15:5561 FAITH. In the Bahi'i view, faith requires not only belief but also action: By faith is meant, first, conscious knowledge, and second, the practice of good d e e d ~ . [ ' ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] The essence of faith is the abundance of deeds; he whose words exceed his deeds, know verily his death is better than his True belief in God and recognition of Him cannot be complete save by acceptance of that which He hath revealed and by observance of whatsoever hath been decreed by Him and set down in the Book by the Pen of The faith of no man can be conditioned by any one except himSe1f.[141:1431 If religion is opposed to reason and science, faith is impossible; and when faith and confidence in the divine religion are not manifest in the heart, there can be no spiritual attainn~ent.[~~:~~~] . . . the love that flows from man to God. This is faith, attraction to the Divine, enkindlement, progress, entrance into the Kingdom of God, receiving the Bounties of God, illumination with the lights of the Kingdom, This love is the origin of all philanthropy; this love causes the hearts of men to reflect the rays of the Sun of Reality.[52'1801 The first sign of faith is love. The message of the holy, divine Manifestations is love; the phenomena of creation are based upon love; the radiance of the world is due to love; the well-being and happiness of the world depend upon it, Therefore, I admonish you that you must strive throughout the human world to diffuse the light of love.[53:3371 For faith, which is life eternal, is the sign of bounty, and not the result of justice. The flame of the fire of love, in this world of earth and water, comes through the power of attraction and not by effort and striving. Nevertheless, by effort and perseverance, knowledge, science and other perfections can be acquired; but only the light of the Divine Beauty can transport and move the spirits through the force of a t t r a c t i ~ n . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ]
See also SOUL. THE FAITH. Used interchangeably by Bahi'is to designate the Bahi'i Faith.
FAI?;~, ABU'L-QASIM (19061980). (Hand of the Cause of God.) A dedicated and gifted school teacher by profession, Faui, as he liked to be known, was probably born in 1906 (he himself did not know the
date). According to his wife, Gloria Faui, he did not like birthdays other than those of the Manifestations of God to be celebrated. His early years were spent in the fundamentalist Muslim environment of Qum, irln. He moved later with his parents to Tihrln. Though not a Baha'i, his father allowed Faizi to go to a Baha'i school, where he excelled in studies and in sports. His fellow students, many of whom became lifelong £riends, loved and respected him. Through his association with Baha'i students and the example shown by his dedicated teachers, he became a Baha'i, a commitment that gained the approval of his mother, though she herself was a devout Muslim. She subsequently learned that her other child, Fai@ elder brother, had become a Baha'i in another part of Persia, and many years later she too became a firm believer. In 1927 Faui went to the American University, Beirut, Lebanon, and shortly after arriving went on pilgrimage to Haifa, where he met Shoghi Effendi, to whom he instantly, completely, and forever surrendered his heart. From that moment to the end of his life, he had but one desire, to serve him, becoming selfless in this servitude. The great love he cherished for Shoghi Effendi was the source of his own inspiration and flowed out from him to countless other souls. He and a kindred soul, Hasan Balyiizi, organized a multitude of activities in Beirut, and when they visited Haifa together, Shoghi Effendi would encourage them in every way. Intending to return to h h after his studies to work in the Baha'i school where he had accepted the Faith, his plans were shattered when he first had to do two years of compulsory military service. Three weeks before that was completed, all Baha'i schools were closed down by the frinian government because the National Spiritual Assembly of fran had decided not to open them on Baha'i Holy Days. He reluctantly accepted a post with the h g l o - h i a n Oil Company, with a good salary and every prospect for advancement, although this did not really appeal to him because he wanted to dedicate his life in service to the Faith. When the Baha'is in a remote village, Najafibhd, needed a volunteer teacher, he gave up his job to go there. When reading of this in a report from the National Spiritual Assembly, Shoghi Effendi wrote, "This spontaneous decision will attract divine confirmation and is a clear proof of the high endeavor, the pure motive, and the self-sacrifice of that favored servant of the divine Threshold. I am extremely pleased and grateful to him and I pray from the depths of my heart for the success of that active, radiant y o ~ t h . " [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] In the five years he remained in Najafhbhd he went from house to house teaching children of all ages, training teachers to carry on after
he left, transcribing Bahh'i Writings in a beautiful calligraphy, listening to the older Bahh'is tell of the early struggles for their Faith. He also helped set up a library, encouraged the Bahh'is to build a public bath-there were no private baths, and the Baha'is were forbidden entry to the one owned by Muslims-traveling to teach in nearby towns, and translating for visitors from other countries when they came to the nearby larger towns. He was asked by the National Spiritual Assembly to move to Qazvin, where he stayed for a year. Then, responding to a call to pioneer outside of Persia, he moved with his wife to B a a d i d in the winter of 1941 to try to obtain a visa for one of the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. During the year they had to wait, living in very straitened circumstances due to wartime conditions, he threw himself into teaching and continued to collect stories of the early days of the Faith fkom the time of Bahh'u'llhh's exile in that city; under these dire conditions he was a ray of joy with his ever ready humor, his patience, and his absolute dedication. After exhausting his meager savings he was offered a job in Bahrain, but this was withdrawn after his arrival when it was learned that he was a Bahh'i. The family had two children and had to meet test after test, yet the terrible heat, lack of water, proper food, and every means of comfort, as well as the hostility of the religiously fanatical populace, could not shake his determination to stay. Gradually his sincere love for his fellows won the hearts of many, and large numbers became his fiends. He received many young visiting Baha'is who were to pioneer in other lands, and his correspondence with them and with their parents developed. This was extended to pioneers in other parts of the world. He would share with them news of the teaching work, quotations from the Writings, and anecdotes to make them laugh. In addition he wrote many articles and literary works for publication. Shoghi Effendi wrote of him, "The unceasing meritorious services of that radiant youth in these past years illumine the Cause of God and set an example for all to follow" and referred to him as the "Spiritual Conqueror of Arabia."[17'6641 In 1954 he was among the first group of believers to be appointed an Auxiliary Board member serving Asiatic countries. When he finally left the Middle East in 1957, there was a National Spiritual Assembly in Arabia, and he lived to see five others established in the area. In 1953 he attended the Intercontinental Conference in New Delhi and then accompanied a Hand of the Cause as a translator on a visit to Australasia. He was in Europe when he learned of his own appointment as a Hand in the last contingent announced
in October 1957. A few weeks later Shoghi Effendi passed away, and after attending the fbneral F*i lost all desire to live but persevered to complete the tasks that Shogh~Effendi had given to him by throwing himself into the service of the Hands of the Cause in the Holy Land (where he had been selected to be one of nine residents). His health suffered, and although in and out of the hospital he continued to be a liaison between those Hands who did not understand English and their Persian colleagues. He corresponded widely in Persian and English and was proficient in Arabic and French. The burden of his writing was very heavy. He was also very much in demand in the Holy Land, meeting with the pilgrims and taking them to the Bahh'i Holy Places. In addition to this he traveled throughout the world, representing the Universal House of Justice at numerous conferences and conventions; he was active in the defense of the Faith against the attacks of Covenant breakers; he visited National Spiritual Assemblies to counsel them; he met with heads of state and world leaders, addressed many public meetings, conducted study classes, and above all encouraged the youth with his inspirational stories and published works. He never ceased his writing of letters even when he was too ill to receive visitors. Even fiom the Writings among his last papers were a few gifts-uotations in his own calligraphy with a note, "For the dear pilgrims." Among his best-known works are Payam-i-D&t va Bahar-i-Sad-uBist, Dastcin-i-Dustan, The Priceless Pearl (translated into Persian), Three Meditations on the Eve of November the Explanation of the Greatest Our Precious Trusts, The Wonder Lamp, 851 and Storiesfiorn the Delight of Hearts (tran~lation).['~~~~, On 20 November 1980 the Universal House of Justice cabled, Hearts filled with sorrow passing indefatigable self-sacdicing dearly loved Hand Cause God Abu'l-Qbsim Faki. Entire Bahb'i world mourns his loss. His early outstanding achievements in Cradle Faith through education children youth stimulation fiends promotion teaching work prompted beloved Guardian describe him as luminous distinguished active youth. His subsequent pioneering work in lands bordering i r h won him appellation spiritual conqueror those lands. Following his appointment Hand Cause he played invaluable part work Hands Holy Land. Traveled widely penned his literary works continued his extensive inspiring correspondence with high and low, young and old, until after long illness his soul was released and winged its flight Abhi Kingdom. Call on fiends everywhere hold befitting memorial gatherings his honor, including special commemorative meetings his name Houses of Worship [see M A ~ Q U ' L - A D - K h ] all continents. May his shining example consecration continue inspire his admirers every land.
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167
Praying Holy Shrines his noble radiant soul may be immersed in ocean Divine mercy continue its uninterrupted progress in infinite worlds beyond.V7:6591
FAI@, GLORIA (1921-2004). The author of 15 Bah6'i books, a Bah6'i teacher, and wife of Hand of the Cause of God Abu'l-Qhsim Fa*, she was born into the distinguished A1aYifamily and met Shoghi Effendi when, as a child, she accompanied her father on a visit to the Holy Land. She married Abu'l-Qisim Fa$ when she was 17 and worked with him as his helper and coworker until his death in 1980; at the time of her own death on 29 June 2004 she was writing his biography. Her best known work is, perhaps, The Bahri'i Faith: An Introduction, which was published in 21 languages and sold more than 200,000 copies during her lifetime.[lz41 FANATICISM, RELIGIOUS. In a statement presented to the 43rd session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (Agenda item 23: Implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief) in Geneva, Switzerland, FebruaryIMarch 1987, the Bahh'i International Community wrote, "Religious fanaticism and hatred are a world-devouring fire, whose violence none can quench." These words, written by the Founder of the Bahi'i Faith over 100 years ago, are as true today as they were in the nineteenth century. Indeed, a resurgence of fanatical religious fervor, and its attendant violence, is one of the outstanding social phenomena distinguishing the closing years of the twentieth century. . . . There has been a revival of religious fanaticism in all parts of the globe, and among people of varied faiths. It is a truly worldwide phenomenon and, in our view, a deeply disturbing one, for religious fanaticism breeds hatred and violence. We need not look far to find numerous examples in the world today of the civil strife, terror and human suffering that religious fanaticism has wreaked upon religious communities and entire nations. Its pernicious influence can be found at the root of all too many of the wars, conflicts and other ills undermining peace in the world, including the problem of terrorism. Fanaticism represents a perversion of religion and is directly contrary to the humane teachings brought by the Founders of all the great religions of the world. We believe that the purpose of every religion has been to promote unity among all the peoples of the world, and to outlaw war and violence in human affairs. All the major religions have taught the "Golden Rule." The violence and disruption associated with religious fanaticism testifies to its spiritual emptiness. Fanaticism destroys
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the very foundations of human solidarity by dividing the world into contending factions, each believing itself to be superior to others and to have an exclusive claim on religious truth. These actions and attitudes negate the very purpose of religion. The current outbreak of religious fanaticism, while overturning the spiritual values conducive to the unity of mankind, also works to undermine the unique achievements of each of the religions it pretends to serve. The outstanding contributions made to the welfare of society by the teachings of the great religions are steadily being overshadowed by the atrocities committed in the name of those same religions. Fortunately, the contemporary phenomenon of religious fanaticism does not, in our view, signal the dawn of a new era of religious strife. Instead, we believe that it represents the dying convulsions of doctrines and societies which have openly defied the altruistic teachings of their own faiths. Fanaticism may seem to prevail for a time on the international scene, but ultimately it will die an ignominious death as peoples around the world come to recognize and rediscover the unifying truths enunciated so clearly in all the great religions of the world. . . . We believe that all men and women of good will can contribute towards hastening the end of religious fanaticism. They can do this, first, by living up to the high ideals of love, unity and tolerance that lie at the center of their own religions or beliefs. . . . Bahir'i communities around the world are already implementing educational programmes along these lines as their contribution to eliminating fanaticism under any guise and to implementing the principle of unity among peoples of every faith and belief. They will persevere in their efforts until the fire of religious fanaticism and hatred is finally extinguished.[l6O1
FANTOM, MARY TILTON (1879-1972). The first Hawaiian to embrace the Cause. She served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Maui (1928).[14:5291 F A ~ EFFENDI. S Possibly the first (1868) Christian to become a Bahil'i. Faris, a Syrian by birth, was a physician by profession. In August 1868, he was languishing in prison (in relation to certain financial matters) in Alexandria, Egypt, when he met Nabil-i-A'5am (also in prison because of false charges laid against him by the Persian consul-general in Cairo) and, following an effort to convert him to Christianity, declared himself a Bahil'i in a letter to Bahh'u'llhh. The letter was actually delivered to Bahil'u'llhh on board the ship carrying Him to the next, and final, place of exile ('Akkh), which was at that moment lying in the harbor of Alexandria taking on supplies for the final leg of its journey to Haifa. Bahil'u'llilh was, therefore,
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169
able to respond immediately to Faris Effendi's declaration and subsequently shared part of his letter with the Persian Bahh'is "that they might read and ponder upon the creative power of the Word of God which is capable of transforming the human heart and leading it to the world of the ~pirit."[~~:~ffl
F&N.
Order, command, edict, royal d e ~ r e e . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~
FARMER, SARAH JANE (1847-1916). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahh.) She will be known to posterity not only as a Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahai, but as the originator of the concept of the first universal platform in America, which, during its first 33 years, developed into the Green Acre school and conference center (comprising some 200 acres along the banks of the Piscataqua River in Eliot, Maine, four miles up from the sea and opposite the city of Portsmouth, New Hampshire). One writer said of her in 1928, "She stands as the actual fulfiller of Emerson in terms of applied influence" and "The roll of speakers who have taken part in the Green Acre Conferences represent well-nigh the flower of modern liberal thought." It was typical of her vision that when opening the center on 4 July 1894 she raised, at the end of the ceremony, a flag of world peace. Two years after the opening, she found and embraced the Faith. She went immediately to see 'Abdu'l-Bahh in ' A M to offer her services to Him. The letters He addressed to her during subsequent years continued to guide her in her work. When He came to America in 1912, He spent a week in August at Green Acre (although Sarah herself was by this time confined to a sanitarium in Portsmouth, which she left for a few hours to welcome Him). Green Acre continues to flourish and develop as a Bahh'i school, thereby fulfilling the vision of this remarkable woman and in accordance with the guidance given by 'Abdu'l-Bahh in its earliest days. FARR&J.
Footman, lictor, attendant.[18'7371m
slim. The head farrh&.[18:7371m FASTING. An annual obligation specified in the Kithb-i-Aqdas for adult Bahh'is between the ages of 15 and 70 years: "0 Pen of the Most High! Say: 0 people of the world! We have enjoined upon you fasting during a brief period, and at its close have designated for you NawRiiz as a f e a ~ t . " [ ~The ~ : ~19th ] month of the Bahh'i calendar-'Alh'
(2-20 March) is the Bahb'i month of fasting. No food or drink is taken between sunrise and sunset on each of the 19 days. Those exempted are those below the "age of maturity" (15); those who are weak from illness or age (70); travelers; women who are pregnant, nursing, or menstruating; and those engaged in heavy labor. 'Abdu'l-BahB wrote, "Ye had written of the fasting month. Fortunate are ye to have obeyed the commandment of God, and kept this fast during the holy season. For this material fast is an outer token of the spiritual fast; it is a symbol of self-restraint, the withholding of oneself from all appetites of the self, taking on the characteristics of the spirit, being carried away by the breathings of heaven and catching fire from the Subsequently, Shoghi Effendi, writing through his love of God."[100:691 secretary, threw further light on the subject: "It essentially is a period of meditation and prayer, of spiritual recuperation, during which the believer must strive to make the necessary readjustments in his inner life, and to refresh and reinvigorate the spiritual forces latent in his soul. Its significance and purpose are fundamentally spiritual in character. Fasting is symbolic, and a reminder of abstinence from selfish and carnal d e s i r e ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
FATIMIH
-UM (1828-1904). (Mahd-i-'Ulyi.) A cousin of Bahii'u'lliih who became His second wife in Tihriin in 1849. She had six children, of whom four survived, and all traveled with Bahb'u'lliih in all His exiles. This wife, her daughter, and three sons all violated the Covenant of Bahi'u'lliih (see COVENANT BREAKERS) through their rejection of 'Abdu'l-Bahii and, in so doing, caused untold sufferings to Him. She survived Bahi'u'lliih by 12 years. Refer to appendixes 1 through 4.
FATVA. A legal pronouncement or decree by a Muslim M ~ f t i . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 " FEAST. See NINETEEN DAY FEAST. FEATHERSTONE, H. COLLIS (1913-1990). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Born in Quorn, South Australia, on 5 May 1913. He was educated in Adelaide, where he founded a precision engineering business that he owned and operated for over 35 years. During this time he became widely recognized in the industry for his excellent workmanship and business integrity. He married Madge Green in 1938, and they had five children. The Featherstones learned of the Faith together from Bertha and Joe Dobbins and accepted it in December 1944.
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171
In 1945, Collis[19:8091 wrote the first of many letters to Shoghi Effendi, and his zeal and enthusiasm for teaching developed to the extent that he began to travel long distances to attend meetings. He and Madge were on the first local Spiritual Assembly of their district of Woodville in 1948, which was only the sixth Assembly in Australia and New Zealand. The following year he went to the annual convention and was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly, on which he served until 1962. In 1953 the Featherstones were able to attend the New Delhi Intercontinental Conference and then go on pilgrimage. When Hand of the Cause Mother Dunn appointed her first two Auxiliary Board members, Collis was one of these souls. He was elevated to rank of Hand of the Cause in the last contingent in October 1957 and participated in the Intercontinental Conference, Sydney, in March 1958. He represented the World Centre at the inaugural convention of the South Pacific Islands in April 1958 and during the next three years visited centers in Ceylon, Malaya, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, Pakistan, hiin, Italy, Germany, France, England, the United States, Hawaii, Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala, San Salvador, Mexico, India, the Arabian Peninsula, and 'Irhq and thereafter bore the burden of responsibility for the whole of the vast area of Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the islands of the South Pacific. He visited remote outposts, attended conferences, conventions, and summer schools and often represented first the Hands of the Cause of God and later the Universal House of Justice. In the ensuing years he continued with visits to Europe, Canada, the United States, Alaska, Eastern Asia, and the Western Pacific. In 1976 he started off on a round-the-world trip from a conference in Anchorage, Alaska, to East and Southern Africa and Bahi'i communities in the Indian Ocean and methodically visited numerous other countries. In 1977 he and Madge moved fkom Adelaide to Rockhampton, Central Queensland, and during the last 14 years of his life he made a total of 243 visits to 95 countries on all continents. Throughout these years of traveling he had many radio interviews and met with many dignitaries and highly placed officials to share with them the Bahi'i teachings. In 1979 he made his third African journey. On all these worldwide tours he was accompanied by his wife. In 1983 they had a particularly successful tour of the Philippines, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, and several cities in Australia. This was the pattern of their lives and continued right up to the end of his life.
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FERNIE, ROY
In September 1990, he and Madge planned to visit Pakistan, Thailand, Burma, Nepal, India, Bangladesh, and Malaysia and then go back to Sydney. Travel difficulties and visa problems allowed for only the visits to Thailand and Nepal. Immediately prior to leaving Australia, he was telephoned with a request to attend a special activity in Fiji. He responded immediately in his usual way, leaving himself four days to fly from their home in Rockhampton, Australia, to Suva, Fiji, attend various functions, and get back, and giving themselves only another four days to prepare for the long Asian journey. He was very tired and developed a cough on the return flight that persisted throughout his Thailand visit. His brief but busy tour of Nepal was to be followed by a flight to New Delhi at 7 AM on 26 September, but he developed chest pains during the night of the 25th and was taken to the hospital early that morning. He seemed to be much improved and on the 28th was discussing plans to attend a Youth Conference in Lahore, Pakistan, but he passed away midmorning on Saturday, 29 September. He was buried in an underground vault in the foothills of the Himalayas in the Bahb'i cemetery "on the top of the world." The Universal House of Justice cabled on 1 October 1990,"Deeply grieved announce passing valiant Hand Cause God Collis Featherstone while visiting Kathmandu, Nepal course extensivejourney Asia. His notable accomplishmentsas staunch, fearless defender Covenant, his unceasing commitment propagation Cause all parts world, especially Pacific Region, his unremitting perseverance fostering establishment local, national institutions Administrative Order, his exemplary devotion to Writings Faith, his outstanding personal qualities unswerving loyalty, enthusiasm, zeal and dedication, distinguish his manifold services throughout many decades. Offering prayers Holy Shrines bountiful reward his radiant soul Abhh Kingdom. Advise Friends everywhere hold befitting memorial gatherings, particularly in Maariqu'lA u k h r , recognition his m a m c e n t achievements." FERNIE, ROY (1922-1964). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An American believer born in the Panama Canal Zone (son of the owner of the C. Fernie Steamship Company), who became a Bahb'i in 1953 (for which action his father disinherited him). He pioneered to the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1953 and was thus designated a Knight of B&b~U~ll&.[13:308, 93:345] FERRABY, DOROTHY CANSDALE (1904-1994). An early (c. 1934) British believer, she served for many years as a member
FERRABY, JOHN
173
of the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles and was a member of the first Auxiliary Board in Europe. During the period 1957-1963 she served at the World Centre. (She was the wife of Hand of the Cause of God John Ferraby, who was during that time a "Hand resident in the Holy Land.") In 1968 she was appointed a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Europe and served with distinction for 17 y e a r ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] FERRABY, JOHN (1914-1973). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Born in Southsea, England, on 9 January 1914 of Jewish background. He had a classical education-King's College, Cambridgeand heard of the Faith £rom a friend when living in London. He found a book in the local library and finally located the Bahd'is who, because of the intense bombing raids on London, were able to visit the Bahd'i Center only for called meetings. After a few such meetings he accepted the Faith and became very active in its affairs; in less than a year he was a member of both the London local Spiritual Assembly and the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles. In 1943 he married a fellow member of the National Spiritual Assembly, Dorothy Cansdale Ferraby, and in 1946 was elected its secretary. In 1950 he became its first full-time secretary and the first resident secretary of the National Hwiratu'l-Quds (27 Rutland Gate, London) when it was purchased in the fall of 1954. For many years he was also manager of the British Bahd'i Publishing Trust and was most active in the teaching field and on several national committees. From 1951 to 1956 he was involved deeply in the work of the Africa campaign, which included much contact with government bodies. He wrote one of the two booklets that became the basic literature for translation into more than 100 African languages. He attended the Intercontinental Conference in Frankfurt, Germany, 1958, the convention that elected the National Spiritual Assembly of Austria, 1959, and the election of the National Spiritual Assembly of Norway, 1962. He was on pilgrimage in the Holy Land in January 1955, which inspired him on his return to write his major work All Things Made New. He was appointed a Hand in the last contingent, October 1957, and in that capacity was involved in the arrangements associated with the funeral of Shoghi Effendi in November 1957. He attended the first gathering of the Hands of the Cause in the Holy Land following the funeral and remained there for over three months. In December 1959 he went to reside in Haifa, where he remained until the election of
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FIORENTINI, PROFESSOR MARIO
the Universal House of Justice in April 1963. He then returned to England and took up residence in Cambridge, where for a few years he served as a Hand dealing with secretarial matters and traveling a great deal. For the remainder of his life, his health prevented his active service, but right up to his death in September 1973, the Faith was his first concern, as it had been throughout his 42 years as a Bahi'i. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "Regret sudden passing Hand Cause John Ferraby. Recall long services Faith British Isles crowned elevation rank Hand Cause valuable contribution Bahi'i literature through his book 'All Things Made New.' Requesting befitting gatherings Maariqu'l-Amkirs memorial meetings all communities Bahi'i
FIORENTINI, PROFESSOR MARIO (1887-1967). An Italian believer who was introduced to the Faith during a visit to Haifa in the early 1940s. He embraced the Cause in 1948 in Rome and became a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of that city. In 1953 he was elected to the Italo-Swiss National Spiritual Assembly. In 1964 he was appointed an Auxiliary Board member.[13'336, 93:3491 FIRESIDE. A meeting, usually held in a home, for the study and teaching of the Bahi'i Faith. Shoghi Effendi encouraged Bahi'is to personally host fireside meetings as frequently as possible. He wrote, through his secretary to an individual believer, "The principle of the fireside meeting, which was established in order to permit and encourage the individual to teach in his own home, has been proven the most effective instrument for spreading the and "the most effective method of teaching is the Fireside group, where new people can be shown Bahh'i hospitality, and ask all questions which bother them. They can feel there the true Bahh'i spirit-and it is the spirit that qui~keneth."[l~~~~] FIRM&. See FOREL, AUGUSTE-HENRI (1848-1931). An eminent Swiss psychiatrist and who, following correspondence with 'Abdu'l-Bahi, embraced the Cause circa 1920-although throughout the remainder of his life he did appear to vacillate in his acceptance of certain aspects of the Faith. Following his death in 1931, Shoghi Effendi in a letter to his daughter, Mrs. Marta Brauns-Forel, acknowledged Dr. Forel's seemingly contradictory position:
In regard to your father's spiritual testament, which betrays on the part of the author an inadequate knowledge of the Bahb'i Faith, the Guardian feels that you should make it clear to all the inquirers that the late Dr. Forel, as many other persons who have embraced the Cause, did not have a complete understanding of the fundamentals of the Bahb'i religion. He was particularly interested in the social aspect of the Movement and owing to some psychological reasons he did not lay much emphasis on its doctrinal side. This can be explained by the fact that our lamented doctor being advanced in age at the time of his acquaintance with the Bahb'i teachings was not able to devote all his time to a deep study of the tenets of the Faith. Shoghi Effendi, however, in his letter addressed personally to your father explained to him that the Bahl'is should firmly believe in the existence of God and in the immortality of the soul and in many other fundamental teachings which the BahB'is share with the adherents of many other religions. Our lamented doctor may have most probably considered it unwise to declare openly that he had rejected all his previous conceptions in regard to the existence of God and such similar ideas and preferred to express in an indirect way the many changes which the knowledge of the Faith had brought in his mind by declaring that he had become a Bahi'i. At any rate there is no doubt whatever that the well-known Tablet revealed by 'Abdu'l-Bahb for him had brought a tremendous change in his monistic theories and induced him to accept the Message openly. However great the contradictions in Dr. Forel's testament in regard to his attitude towards the Cause we cannot fail but to recognize him as a Bahl'i who had but a partial glimpse of the Bahb'i Revelation. No one can claim that his knowledge of this Revelation is adequate, especially at this time when the Bahh'i Faith is still in the embryonic stage of its development. Dr. Fore1 was sincere in his convictions but like every human being his comprehension was limited and this was not in his power to ~ h a n g e . [ ~ ~ ' ~ f l Dr. Forel's last Will and Testament actually testifies to his acceptance: "In the year 1920, at Karlsruhe, I first made acquaintance with the supraconfessional world-religion of the BahB'i, founded in the East seventy years ago by the Persian Bahh'u'llih. It is the true religion of the welfare of human society, it has neither priests nor dogmas, and it binds together all the human beings who inhabit this little globe. I have become a Bahii'i. May this religion continue and be crowned with success; this is my most ardent wish."[48:4481 He is perhaps best remembered in the Bahh'i community as the recipient of a several Tablets fiom 'Abdu'l-Bahh, among which was the one which resulted in his declaration of faith,[37:3071 known simply as Tablet to Dr: F ~ r e l . [ ' ~ ~ ]
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FOZDAR, KHODADAD M.
FOZDAR, KHODADAD M. (1898-1958). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) The first Indian P h i (Zoroastrian) to become a believer, circa 1925. He pioneered to Singapore in 1935, where he later started a £tee school teaching underprivileged women to read and write. In 1953 he pioneered to the Andarnan Islands and received the title Knight of B~a'U'llfi.[lZ:8921 FREE WILL. 'Abdu'l-Bahai equates free will with the freedom given by God to man to choose whether or not to recognize Him and to obey His commands. He said, Some things are subject to the fiee will of man, such as justice, equity, tyranny and injustice, in other words, good and evil actions; it is evident and clear that these actions are, for the most part, left to the will of man. But there are certain things to which man is forced and compelled, such as sleep, death, sickness, decline of power, injuries and misfortunes; these are not subject to the will of man, and he is not responsible for them, for he is compelled to endure them, But in the choice of good and bad actions he is fiee, and he commits them according to his own will. For example, if he wishes, he can pass his time in praising God, or he can be occupied with other thoughts. He can be an enkindled light through the fire of the love of God, and a philanthropist loving the world, or he can be a hater of mankind, and engrossed with material things [see MATERIALISM]. He can be just or cruel. These actions and these deeds are subject to the control of the will of man himself; consequently, he is responsible for them.['21'2481
FREEDOM. See LIBERTY. FUJITA, SAICHIRO (18861976). The second (1905) Japanese Bahh'i to embrace the Cause in Oakland, Califo~-nia.[~~:~~] He met 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Chicago (where he was invited to join Him for dinner). 'Abdu'l-Bahb invited him to accompany Him to California-a request he acceded to without hesitation. It was during 'Abdu'lBaha's visit that Fujita (as he was known to everyone) expressed the desire to return with 'Abdu'l-Bahi to the Holy Land and to serve Him. 'Abdu'l-Bahh accepted his offer and said he would send for him when circumstances permitted. For the next seven years Fujita lived with the True family (see TRUE, CORINNE KNIGHT), during which time he received many Tablets from 'Abdu'l-Bahh. Finally, in 1919, he received the long-awaited invitation to go to Haifa, where, with the exception of a three-month visit to his family in Japan, he remained continuously until 1938 serving first 'Abdu'l-Bahii and
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177
then Shoghi Effendi. In 1938, just prior to the outbreak of World War 11, Shoghi Effendi sent him to Japan, where he remained for the next 17 yem-returning to Haifa in 1955 and remaining there On his death the Universal House of until his death in 1976.[16:4071 Justice sent the following cable to the National Spiritual Assembly of Japan: "Dearly-loved tireless steadfast Saichiro Fujita passed to Abhii Kingdom after long years service sacred threshold. His rank in vanguard first Japanese believers. His labours World Center his dedication humility sincerity love will forever be remembered and provide shining example to rising generations Japanese Bahii'is who will view with pride distinction conferred upon him. Praying Holy Shrines progress his radiant soul under loving grace his Master and Guardian both of whom he served so well."
FUNDS (OF THE FAITH). Shoghi Effendi wrote, And as the progress and execution of spiritual activities is dependent and conditioned upon material means, it is of absolute necessity that immediately after the establishment of local as well as National Spiritual Assemblies, a Bahi'i Fund be established, to be placed under the exclusive control of the Spiritual Assembly. All donations and contributions should be offered to the Treasurer of the Assembly, for the express purpose of promoting the interests of the Cause, throughout that locality or country. It is the sacred obligation of every conscientious and faithful servant of Bahb'u'llhh who desires to see His Cause advance, to contribute freely and generously for the increase of that Fund. The members of the SpiritualAssembly will at their own discretion expend it to promote the Teaching Campaign, to help the needy, to establish educational Bahi'i institutions, to extend in every way possible their sphere of service. I cherish the hope that all the fiends, realizing the necessity of this measure, will bestir themselves and contribute, however modestly at first, towards the speedy establishment and the increase of that Contributions to the various funds of the Bahii'i Faith are accepted only £rom registered believers. There are funds for the conduct of local, national, regional, and international purposes, and there are those for special projects such as the building of Bahii'i Houses of Worship (Mahriqu'l-Amkiir), the Bahii'i World Centre on Mount Carmel, and the deputization of pioneers and travel teachers (see TEACHING). Response to appeals and statements of needs are left entirely to individual believers who make their donations in confidence to the appropriate authority. No pressure is placed on any believer, and what is given is a measure of that person's wish to
sacrifice for the good of the Faith. Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary, "We must be like the fountain or spring that is continually emptylng itself of all that it has and is continually being refilled £tom an invisible source. To be continually giving out for the good of our fellows undeterred by the fear of poverty and reliant on the unfailing bounty of the Source of all wealth and all good-this is the secret of right See also IJUQUQU'LL~LH. FURUTAN, 'AL~AKBAR. See 'ALi AKBAR FURUTAN.
GAIL, MARZIEH (1908-1993). A gifted author, essayist, and translator, she was the eldest daughter of the first Bahb'i marriage between a Persian father ('Ali-Kuli U P n ) and an American mother (Florence Breed Usin). She was renowned for her literary skills and wrote and translated many works. Among her better know works are The ShelBarium: The Greatest Holy L e ~ J [ lDawn ~ ~ l Over tering and Other People, Other She also carried Mount Hira;[1671 out historical research on the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, which led to the publication of The Three Popes. Two other Bahb'irelated publications worth mention are Six Lessons in Islrim and Bahri'i On her passing in 1993 the Universal House of Justice wrote on 19 October, "Deeply saddened passing Marzieh Gail faithful maidservant Bahb'u'llhh. Her pioneering efforts and her various endeavors as English translator original Bahb'i literature and as author books and articles ensure enduring remembrance her outstanding services Cause God. Fervently praying Holy Shrines progress her soul AbhP GAMBLING. It is forbidden in the Kitrib-i-Aqda~.[~l'~~] GARDEN OF RIDVAN. See B A H ~ U ~ L L A DECLARATION H, OF; RIDVAN.
GARDNER, LLOYD G. (1915-1985). An early Canadian believer who embraced the Cause in 1938 in Toronto. In 1948 he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Canada, on which he served for some 20 years. In 1968 he was appointed to the newly formed Continental Board of Counsellors in North America and
served fiom 1980 onward as trustee of the Continental Fund for the Americas.[18:6631 GEARY, MABEL GRACE (188S1965) AND IRVING (1887-1984). (Knights of Bahai'u'llaih.) In 1937 the Gearys agreed to allow a visiting Bahi'i (Mabel Ives) to hold meetings in their home in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. During the course of these meetings they embraced the Cause and in 1938 formed the first local Spiritual Assembly of Moncton (which was also the first in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada). They later pioneered to Prince Edward Island, where they served as members of the first (1944) Spiritual Assembly of Charlottetown. In 1953 they pioneered to Cape Breton Island, for which they were designated Knights of Bahii'u'llih. [13:310, GENERAL 'ALA'~ (1889-1984). ( ~ u ' i ' u ' l l i h 'Ali'i; Hand of the Cause of God.) A professional soldier, he was born in TihrPn, irhn, on 16 November 1889 into a theological environment. His father held several theological degrees and expected Shu'a'u'llih to become a divine in accordance with family tradition. When a close £riend became a Bahi'i, he attempted to bring him back into the Muslim faith, but in so trying he himself became convinced of the truth of the Bahi'i religion. Proclaiming his newfound faith with fervor, he was condemned to death as a heretic in his native village and fled to Tihrin, where he eventually became a physician in the court of the a a i h . When Shu'i'u'llih was seven years old, his father received a letter fiom 'Abdu'l-Bahi and passed it to his son to commit to memory. The letter contained such sentences as "0flame of the love of God . . . beseech thou the Lord to enable thee to give illumination and enlightenment, to brighten the horizons and to consume the world with the fire of the love of God. I hope that thou mayest attain such a station, These became the blueprint for his life. nay surpass it."[Z0:5931 He studied first at home, then attended the newly opened Bahi'i school in Tihrh. He then went to medical college but eventually left to study accountancy. At the age of 19 he was appointed financial officer of the police department, and later, during World War I, he served as the treasurer of the Ministry of Justice. For 25 years he was comptroller and chief financial officer to the army, rising to the rank of general. During this time he carried out many important official assignments, as his trustworthiness and integrity were proverbial.
He was elected to the local Spiritual Assembly of Tihrh in 1913 and served on that body for the next 30 years. When the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of h h came into being in 1934, he was elected to that body and served on it until he was appointed a Hand of the Cause in the second contingent in February 1952. He attended the first four Intercontinental Conferences of 1953 and visited centers in the United States, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, India, Pakistan, North Afica, and the Middle East. In 1956 he toured centers in India, Ceylon, Indonesia, and Malaya and participated in the first Southeast Asia Teaching Conference in August of that year. Within idn he managed extensive real estate properties and carried out important negotiations with the government. He also represented the Guardian and later the World Centre at the inaugural National Conventions of Pakistan (1957), Colombia and Jamaica (1961), and Ceylon (1962). In 1959-1960 he visited centers in India, Pakistan, Hong Kong, Macau, Japan, Vietnam, and Malaya. In 1961 he traveled to centers in the United States, France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and Turkey. The 1970s saw very turbulent times for the Bahi'is in kin,in which he was inevitably intimately involved, but his international travels continued, with visits to the United Kingdom and Europe. In Germany he presented Bahi'i literature to many distinguished orientalists for their state and university libraries. He was able to visit the Holy Land for important consultations, attended the International Convention of 1978, and settled in France later that year. He attended the National Convention of Austria in 1979 and moved on to Scottsdale, Arizona, in January 1981. There, on the 96th anniversary of his birth, he passed away surrounded by his family and fiends. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "Grieved announce passing Hand Cause Shu'i'u'llhh 'AlB7i 16 November thus ending more than seventy years uninterrupted dedicated services Threshold Bahi'u'llhh. He was tower strength Cradle Faith where he served eminently, devotedly in its emerging administrative institutions since their inception. His membership many decades National Assembly frequently as chairman bears witness trust Bahi'is h h placed his noble person. His exemplary courage representing interests Faith high places, his integrity performing official duties enhanced prestige beloved Faith he so diligently sincerely championed entire life. His manifold achievements crowned honor appointment Hand Cause 29 February 1952. This enabled him extend services Faith international arena. Supplicating Sacred Threshold progress radiant soul AbhP Kingdom. Advise hold memorial gatherings Baha'i world including all Ma&riqu'l-A&kPr~."[~~~~~]
GETSINGER, EDWARD CHRISTOPHER (1866-1935). A physician by profession, he was one of the earliest American believers. He and his wife Lua (Louisa Aurora Moore Getsinger), came into the Faith through Ibrhhim Kheiralla. Dr. Getsinger was one of the State of Michigan's official delegates to the World Congress of Scientists, Chicago's World Fair in 1893.Along with his wife, he was among the first Western pilgrims to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahii (10 December 1898). It was following the continual solicitation of Dr. Getsinger that 'Abdu'lBahh consented to a recording of His voice on a phonograph record (subsequently brought to America by Dr. G e t ~ i n g e r ) . [92:9ff, ~ : ~93:3621 ~~~ GETSINGER, LOUISA AURORA MOORE (LUA) (1871-1916). (Livh-Banner; Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Baha; Herald of the Covenant; Mother Teacher of the West.) One of the earliest Bahh'is in the United States. Along with her husband, Edward Christopher Getsinger, she heard about the Cause in 1896 through Ibrahim Kheiralla and embraced it in 1897. In that same year she and her husband were invited to visit Mrs. Phoebe Hearst at her hacienda. Mrs. Hearst, the wealthy widow of Senator George Hearst, was introduced to the Faith by Lua and began to make plans to go to the Holy Land. Prior to this, Lua had introduced the Faith to May Ellis Bolles (Maxwell), who became the fist believer in France and later in Canada. Lua shone among those early American Bahd'is earning such titles as Livd (Banner)[37:2571 £rom 'Abdu'l-Bahai. She was later designated "The mother teacher of the West" and "Herald of the dawn of the Day of the Covenant" by Shoghi Effendi.[37:25fl So trusted was she that she was on occasion a special emissary for 'Abdu'l-Bahii. In 1902 she again went on pilgrimage, staying this time for more than a year to teach English in the household of the Master. She traveled widely to teach the Faith, with visits to India and Egypt, where she died in 1916. She was buried in the Protestant cemetery in Cairo, but her remains were later transferred to the Bahh'i cemetery and reinterred next to the grave of Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh Mirzh Abu'l-Fa(Wi-G~lphyghni.[~~:~~~] GHUQN. Literally Branch: -
son or male descendant of Bahh'u'llhh. (Plural ~ m $ h . ) [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~
GHUSN-I-ATHAR. The Purest Branch: title conferredby Bahii'u'llhh -
on Mirzh Mihdi, brother of 'Abdu'l-Bahh, who died in the Most Great Prison in 'Akk8.[18:7371"
GHU$N-I-A'?;AM. -
The Most Great Branch: title conferred by Bahh'u'llhh on 'Abd~'l-Bahh.['~~~~]"
GIACHERY, ANGELINE (d. 1980). Born in Sweden, she embraced the Cause in early 1920s while visiting friends in Boston. She married Ugo Giachery in 1926 in New York City. In 1948 she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Rome. In 1954 she was appointed in the first contingent of Auxiliary Board members in Europe and served in that capacity until 1964. During that time she traveled widely throughout not only Italy but also Corsica, Malta, Rhodes, Greece, Monaco, and Switzerland. In 1964 she returned to the United States and traveled extensively in the promotion of the Cause. She passed away in 1980 and is buried in Cap d'Ail Cemetery, near Monac0.['~'~~~1 GIACHERY, UGO (1896-1995). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Born ~ : ~ educated ~~] there and received in Palermo, Sicily, Dr. G i a ~ h e r y [ l was a doctorate in chemistry. He served with distinction in World War I and lived for many years in the United States, where he accepted the Bahk'i Faith. He and his wife (Angeline Giachery) pioneered to Rome in 1947. In 1948 he was appointed by Shoghi Effendi as his personal representative for all the work in Italy associated with the construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Bib on Mount Carmel, Haifa. He was in the first contingent of the Hands of the Cause, appointed in December 1951, and in 1952 Shoghi Effendi appointed him as member at large of the International Bahi'i Council. In 1953 he became chairman of the first National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahk'is of Italy and Switzerland. He was Shoghi Effendi's representative at the Intercontinental Conferences of Stockholm in 1953 and Chicago in 1958. For a number of years he was the Bahi'i observer to the United Nations Economic and Social Council in Geneva. Throughout his life he also worked translating Bahi'i literature into Italian. When the building of the International Archives Building on Mount Carmel began in 1954 (see ARC), he was once again appointed Shoghi Effendi's personal representative in Italy. For his distinguished and dedicated services to the Faith in the Holy Land, Shoghi Effendi honored him by naming the southwestern door of the original Shrine the "Bkb-i-Giachery." After the passing of Shoghi Effendi, his travels for the Faith intensified, with visits to the Far East, Australia, and the Pacific Islands as
GIACHERY, UGO
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well as Europe and the Americas. He returned to live in the United States in 1964 and played a prominent role in an international proclamation campaign in 1968, when he presented a special volume of the Writings of Bahb'u711& to the Vatican via Cardinal Paolo Morella on 9 April. He attended the Intercontinental Conference in Sydney in October 1967 and was in Samoa when, on the 27th he was able to present a copy of the same volume of Baha'u'll&'s Writings to His HighnessMalietoa Tanumafili I1 of Western Samoa. The book was so warmly received by the monarch that by early December Dr. Giachery had received letters stating that His Highness wished to become a Bahii'i. The Universal House of Justice asked him to revisit Samoa and discuss this historic decision with the Malietoa. During that visit the Malietoa confirmed his belief and in so doing became the first reigning monarch to embrace the Faith. The very close relationship that developed between the Hand and the Malietoa was unique. On one occasion, when His Highness was visiting London, Dr. Giachery accompanied Him, along with members of the United Kingdom National Spiritual Assembly, on the first visit by a monarch to the grave of Shoghi Effendi. In April 1989 he traveled to Samoa for a prolonged visit and was met as he stepped off the plane by the Malietoa. He lived in Samoa for three months, but his health suffered and he was often in great pain; during this time, the Malietoa visited him frequently as well as receiving him officially at his residence. Dr. Giachery made plans to return to his home in Monaco, but on 5 July his condition seriously deteriorated, and he was admitted to the hospital, where he passed away the same evening. He was buried in a beautiful spot overlooking the House of Worship (Ma&riqu'lAukair) at Tiapapata, Apia, Western Samoa, where on 12 July 1989 a very moving ceremony was attended by the Malietoa, the prime minister, and four members of cabinet, many local dignitaries, and over 200 Bahii'is from the Pacific communities. The Universal House of Justice cabled on 27 September 1989, Deeply grieved loss valiant, indefatigable, dearly-loved, distinguished Hand Cause Dr. Ugo Giachery. His passing in course historic visit Samoa adds fresh laurels to crown already won during ministry beloved Guardian, and reinforces spiritual distinction vast Pacific region, already blessed by interment four other Hands. His magnificent accomplishments as Member at Large of International Bahl'i Council in connection raising superstructure Shrine of the Bib, which prompted Guardian to name one of the doors of that noble edifice
184 GIBSON, AMOZ EVERETT
after him, his painstaking efforts in promoting on the local, national and international levels, paramount interests of the Faith, his notable achievement in establishment Italo-Swiss National Spiritual Assembly on eve of launching Ten Year Crusade, his outstanding qualities of zeal, fidelity, determination and perseverance, which characterized imperishable record his arduous labors-all combine to richly adorn annals Faith over period his superb, assiduous exertions, and undoubtedly assure him bountiful reward in Kingdom on High. Advise all National Spiritual Assemblies hold befitting memorial gatherings his name, particularly in Mamqu'l-A-ir in recognition his unique position, splendid
GIBSON, AMOZ EVERETT (1918-1982). (Member, Universal House of Justice.) An American believer who before (and even after) his election to the Universal House of Justice in 1963 traveled widely throughout North America, Persia, Europe, and Mexico in the promotion of the Cause. Although born into a Baha'i family (his parents accepted the Cause in 1912), he did not himself register as a Baha'i until 1944. Born to a mother whose grandfather was a fullblooded Creek Indian and a Scots-Irish father whose mother was a mulatto slave, Amoz spend many years living and working among the North American Indian peoples. In 1959 he was appointed an Auxiliary Board member for the western United States and traveled widely in that region as well as to Jamaica and Haiti. In 1960 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and in 1961 represented them at the dedication of the Mother Temple (Maariqu'l-Amsir) ofAfrica in Kampala, Uganda. In 1963 he was elected to the first Universal House of Justice. He served as a member On of that body for 13 years until his "in office" death in 1982.[17:6661 his death, the Universal House of Justice cabled the following: "With sorrowhl hearts lament loss our dearly loved brother Arnoz Gibson who passed away after prolonged heroic struggle fatal illness. Exemplary self-sacrificing promoter Faith achieved brilliant unblemished record constant service founded on rock-like staunchness and deep insatiable love for teaching work particularly among Indian and black minorities western hemisphere and indigenous peoples Africa. His notable work administrative fields North America crowned final nineteen years incalculable contribution development World Centre world-embracing Faith. Praying Shrines bountiful reward his noble soul throughout progress Abhh Kingdom. Express loving sympathy valiant beloved widow partner his services and bereaved children
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185
advise hold befitting memorial gatherings everywhere Bahd'i world and commemorative services all Ma~hriqu'l-Adhkhr.~:~~~1 GILLEN, CHARLOTTE THOMAS ZUTAVERN (1869-1962). An early (1901) American believer, she met 'Abdu'l-Bahsi in Chicago in 1912. She turned a shovelful of earth in the name of Alaska during the laying of the foundation stone of the Wilmette Temple (Maariqu'l-Aasir). She later received two Tablets from 'Abdu'lBahd. In 1959, at the age of 90, she pioneered to Alaska, where she lived for a year.[13:3413 93:3691 GILLESPIE, JOHN BIRKS ("DIZZY") (1917-1993). This renowned jazz trumpeter embraced the Cause in 1968 and spoke widely of it ~~:~~~, during his many public p e r f o r m a n ~ e s . [ 1711 GIORGI, MARJORIE (1921-2002). Of British origin, Marjorie emigrated to the United States in the early 1940s. She embraced the Cause in California and for some time lived as an isolated believer. In 1959, following the death of her husband, she responded to the Guardian's 1957 call for pioneers to settle in Europe by moving to Neuchitel, Switzerland. She served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Switzerland for a number of years before returning in 1972 to Scotland, where she served on the local Spiritual Assembly of Inverness. GOALS. A term used by Bahd'is to specify specific objectives to be achieved in the plans adopted by the Bahd'i Community beginning in 1937. In the mid-1930s Shoghi Effendi called on the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada to carry out a campaign with specific objectives or goals. From this initiative the first Seven Year Plan was launched at RidvBn 1937. All goals of this plan were achieved by Ridvh 1944. In the next few years other National Spiritual Assemblies were given or adopted teaching plans with goals assigned to them by Shoghi Effendi. The last was his Ten Year Plan or global Ten Year Crusade, launched at Ridvh 1953 and completed, under the direction of the Hands of the Cause, after his passing, at Ridvih 1963. Since then the Universal House of Justice has continued the practice of launching global plans, each with specific goals of expansion and consolidation, such as Nine, Five, and Seven Year Plans. Each of these plans has been based upon, or was
186 GOD
supplementary to, the goals listed by 'Abdu'l-BahB in His Tablets of the Divine Plan revealed by Him during World War I and given to the Bahi'is of North America in 1919. Refer to the introduction. GOD. The transcendent Supreme Being and Creator of all existence,
unknowable to human beings but through the manifestation of His Attributes and the progressive appearance of His Divine Manifestations of God. According to both the B i b and Bahi'u'llih human beings cannot comprehend the nature of God the Creator. God may be known only through His attributes such as love, mercy, justice, trustworthiness, wisdom, and so on. The transcendence of God is captured in these passages from the Bib: Immeasurably exalted art Thou, 0 my God, above the endeavours of all beings and created things to praise Thee and recognize Thee. No creature can ever comprehend Thee as beseemeth the reality of Thy holy Being and no servant can ever worship Thee as is worthy of Thine unknowable Essence. Praise be unto Thee; too high is Thine exalted Self for any allusions proceeding from Thy creatures ever to gain access unto Thy presence. Whenever, 0 my God, I soared into Thy holy atmosphere and attained the inmost spirit of prayerfulness unto Thee, I was led to recognize that Thou art inaccessible and that no mention of Thee can ever reach Thy transcendent court. Therefore I turn towards Thy Loved Ones-They upon Whom Thou hast graciously conferred Thine Own station that They might manifest Thy love and Thy true knowledge. Bless Them then, 0 my God, with every distinction and goodly gift which Thy knowledge may reckon within the domain of Thy power. Far be it from me to extol Thy virtues save by what Thou hast extolled Thyself in Thy weighty Book where Thou sayest, "No vision taketh in Him but He taketh in all vision. He is the Subtile, the AllPerceiving." Glory be unto Thee, 0 my God, indeed no mind or vision, however keen or discriminating, can ever grasp the nature of the most insignificant of Thy signs. Verily Thou art God, no God is there besides Thee. I bear witness that Thou Thyself alone art the sole expression of Thine attributes, that the praise of no one besides Thee can ever attain to Thy holy court nor can Thine attributes ever be fathomed by anyone other than Thyself. Glory be unto Thee, Thou art exalted above the description of anyone save Thyself, since it is beyond human conception to befittingly magnify Thy virtues or to comprehend the inmost reality of Thine Essence. Far be it fiom Thy glory that Thy creatures should describe Thee or that any one besides Thyself should ever know Thee. I have known Thee, 0 my God, by reason of Thy making Thyself known unto me, for hadst
GOD
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Thou not revealed Thyself unto me, I would not have known Thee. I worship Thee by virtue of Thy summoning me unto Thee, for had it not been for Thy summons I would not have worshipped Thee. . . .Nothing can ever comprehend Thee as is worthy of Thee nor can any servile creature worship Thee as beseemeth Thine adoration. So perfect and comprehensive is Thy proof, 0 my God, that its inner essence transcendeth the description of any soul and so abundant are the outpourings of Thy gifts that no faculty can appraise their infinite range.[172200ffl The pictures of Divinity that come to our mind are the product of our fancy; they exist in the realm of our imagination. They are not adequate to the Truth; truth in its essence cannot be put into words. Divinity cannot by comprehended because it is comprehending. Man, who has also a real existence, is comprehended by God; therefore, the Divinity which man can understand is partial; it is not complete. Divinity is actual Truth and real existence, and not any representation of it. Divinity itself contains All, and is not ~ontained.[~l:~l
Material creation (see GOD, KINGDOMS OF) reflects one or more attributes of the Creator; the human race, uniquely, has the capacity to reflect all the attributes of God. The purpose of religion is to reveal those attributes, just as the purpose of education is to help humankind to develop these in each person. The purpose of life on this earth is to struggle to achieve those latent perfections through service to one's fellow man and the recognition of, and obedience to, the Manifestation of God in the day and age in which He appears. BahA7u'llCh wrote, To every discerning and illuminated heart it is evident that God, the unknowable Essence, the Divine Being, is immensely exalted beyond every human attribute, such as corporeal existence, ascent and descent, egress and regress. Far be it £torn His glory that human tongue should adequately recount His praise, or that human heart comprehend His fathomless mystery. He is, and hath ever been, veiled in the ancient eternity of His Essence, and will remain in His Reality everlastingly hidden £rom the sight of men. . . . The door of the knowledge of the Ancient of Days being thus closed in the face of all beings, the Source of inhite grace . . . hath caused those luminous Gems of Holiness to appear out of the realm of the spirit, in the noble form of the human temple, and be made manifest unto all men, that they may impart unto the world the mysteries of the unchangeable Being, and tell of the subtleties of His imperishable E~sence.[~~~'~']
Every created thing has been made the recipient of at least one of these signs or attributes of God, but each human being, uniquely in creation, has been endowed with the capacity to reflect all these attributes and may therefore be said to be made in the "image" of
188
GOD, INCARNATION OF
God. This capacity may be developed only through the influence of those Whom God has created to reveal these attributes in their fullest forrr-the Manifestations of God, the founders of the world's revealed religions. See also GOD, INCARNATION OF; MANIFESTATION OF GOD; ONENESS OF GOD. GOD, INCARNATION OF. In a letter dated 8 February 1934 "To the beloved of God and the handmaids of the Merciful throughout the West," Shoghi Effendi dispels any notion that the Divine Manifestations of God incarnate God: To whoever may read these pages a word of warning seems, however, advisable before I proceed W e r with the development of my argument. Let no one meditating, in the light of the afore-quoted passages, on the nature of the Revelation of Baha'u'llfth, mistake its character or misconstrue the intent of its Author. The divinity attributed to so great a Being and the complete incarnation of the names and attributes of God in so exalted a Person should, under no circumstances, be misconceived or misinterpreted. The human temple that has been made the vehicle of so overpowering a Revelation must, if we be faithful to the tenets of our Faith, ever remain entirely distinguished from that "innermost Spirit of Spirits" and ''eternal Essence of Essences"-that invisible yet rational God Who, however much we extol the divinity of His Manifestations on earth, can in no wise incarnate His infinite, His unknowable, His incorruptible and all-embracing Reality in the concrete and limited frame of a mortal being. Indeed, the God Who could so incarnate His own reality would, in the light of the teachings of Bahi'u'llfth, cease immediately to be God. So crude and fantastic a theory of Divine incarnation is as removed fiom, and incompatible with, the essentials of Bahir'i belief as are the no less inadmissible pantheistic and anthropomorphic conceptions of God-both of which the utterances of Bahi'u'llfth emphatically repudiate and the fallacy of which they expose. He Who in unnumbered passages claimed His utterance to be the "Voice of Divinity, the Call of God Himself' thus solemnly affirms in the ~itcib-i-jqcin: "To every discerning and illumined heart it is evident that God, the unknowable Essence, the Divine Being, is immeasurably exalted beyond every human attribute such as corporeal existence, ascent and descent, egress and regress. . . . He is, and hath ever been, veiled in the ancient eternity of His Essence, and will remain in His Reality everlastingly hidden from the sight of men. . . . He standeth exalted beyond and above all separation and union, all proximity and remoteness. . . . 'God was alone; there was none else beside Him' is a sure testimony of this truth."
GOD, KINGDOMS OF
189
"From time immemorial," Bahl'u'llih, speaking of God, explains, "He, the Divine Being, hath been veiled in the ineffable sanctity of His exalted Self, and will everlasting continue to be wrapt in the impenetrable mystery of His unknowable Essence. . . . Ten thousand Prophets, each a Moses, are thunderstruck upon the Sinai of their search at God's forbidding voice, 'Thou shalt never behold Me!'; whilst a myriad Messengers, each as great as Jesus, stand dismayed upon their heavenly thrones by the interdiction 'Mine Essence thou shalt never apprehend!"' "How bewildering to me, insigrdlcant as I am," Bahl'u'llih in His communion with God affirms, "is the attempt to fathom the sacred depths of Thy knowledge! How futile my efforts to visualize the magnitude of the power inherent in Thine handiwork-the revelation of Thy creative power!" "When I contemplate, 0 my God, the relationship that bindeth me to Thee," He, in yet another prayer revealed in His own handwriting, testifies, "I am moved to proclaim to all created things 'verily I am God!'; and when I consider my own self, lo, I find it coarser than clay!" "The door of the knowledge of the Ancient of Days," Bahl'u'llhh M e r states in the Kithb-i-iqh, "being thus closed in the face of all beings, He, the Source of infinite grace . . . hath caused those luminous Gems of Holiness to appear out of the realm of the spirit, in the noble form of the human temple, and be made manifest unto all men, that they may impart unto the world the mysteries of the unchangeable Being and tell of the subtleties of His imperishable Essence. . . .All the Prophets of God, His well-favored, His holy and chosen Messengers are, without exception, the bearers of His names and the embodiments of His attributes. . . . These Tabernacles of Holiness, these primal Mirrors which reflect the Light of unfading glory, are but expressions of Him Who is the Invisible of the Invisibles." That Bahl'u'llih should, notwithstanding the overwhelming intensity of His Revelation, be regarded as essentially one of these Manifestations of God, never to be identfied with that invisible Reality, the Essence of Divinity itself, is one of the major beliefs of our Faith-a belief which should never be obscured and the integrity of which no one of its followers should allow to be c o m p r o m i ~ e d . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f f 1
See also ONENESS OF GOD. GOD, KINGDOMS OF. A description used in Baha'i Writings for the different levels or kingdoms found in creation, such as the mineral, the vegetable, the animal, and the human kingdoms. Baha'i Scripture states, If we look with a perceiving eye upon the world of creation, we find that all existing things may be classi6ed as follows: First-Mineral-
190 GOD, KINGDOMS OF
that is to say matter or substance appearing in various forms of composition. Second-Vegetable-possessing the virtues of the mineral plus the power of augmentation or growth, indicating a degree higher and more specialized than the mineral. Third-Animal-possessing the attributes of the mineral and vegetable plus the power of sense perception. Fourth-Human-the highest specialized organism of visible creation, embodying the qualities of the mineral, vegetable and animal plus an ideal endowment absolutely minus and absent in the lower kingdoms-the power of intellectual investigation into the mysteries of outer phenomena. The outcome of this intellectual endowment is science, which is especially characteristic of man. This scienti6c power investigates and apprehends created objects and the laws surrounding them. It is the discoverer of the hidden and mysterious secrets of the material universe and is peculiar to man alone. The most noble and praiseworthy accomplishment of man therefore is scienti6c knowledge and attainment.[131:2421 In the world of existence man has traversed successive degrees until he has attained the human kingdom. In each degree of his progression he has developed capacity for advancement to the next station and condition. While in the kingdom of the mineral he was attaining the capacity for promotion into the degree of the vegetable. In the kingdom of the vegetable he underwent preparation for the world of the animal and from thence he has come onward to the human degree or kingdom. Throughout this journey of progression he has ever and always been potentially man.[151:631 As existence can never become non-existence, there is no death for man [see DEATH, LIFE AFTER]; nay, rather, man is everlasting and everliving. The rational proof of this is that the atoms of the material elements are transferable from one form of existence to another, from one degree and kingdom to another, lower or higher. For example, an atom of the soil or dust of earth may traverse the kingdoms from mineral to man by successive incorporations into the bodies of the organisms of those kingdoms. At one time it enters into the formation of the mineral or rock; it is then absorbed by the vegetable kingdom and becomes a constituent of the body and fiber of a tree; again it is appropriated by the animal, and at a still later period is found in the body of man. Throughout these degrees of its traversing the kingdoms from one form of phenomenal being to another, it retains its atomic existence and is never annihilated nor relegated to non-existence. Non-existence therefore is an expression applied to change of form, but this transformation can never be rightly considered annihilation, for the elements of composition are ever present and existent as we have seen in the journey of the atom through successive kingdoms, unimpaired; hence there is no death; life is everlasting. So to speak, when the atom entered into the composition of the tree, it died to the mineral kingdom, and when consumed by the
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animal, it died to the vegetable kingdom, and so on until its transference or transmutation into the kingdom of man; but throughout its traversing it was subject to transformation and not annihilati~n.[l~~:~~~fl When we were in the mineral kingdom, although endowed with certain gifts and powers, they were not to be compared with the blessings of the human kingdom. In the matrix of the mother we were the recipients of endowments and blessings of God, yet these were as nothing compared to the powers and graces bestowed upon us after birth into this human world. Likewise if we are born from the matrix of this physical and phenomenal environment into the fieedom and loftiness of the life and vision spiritual, we shall consider this mortal existence and its blessings as worthless by ~omparison.[l~~'~~~f1 Just as the vegetable kingdom is unaware of the world of man, so we, too, know not of the Great Life hereafter that followeth the life of man here below. Our non-comprehension of that life, however, is no proof of its non-existence. The mineral world, for instance, is utterly unaware of the world of man and cannot comprehend it, but the ignorance of a thing is no proof of its non-exi~tence.[l~~:~~~]
GOD, MANIFESTION OF. See MANIFESTATION OF GOD. GOD, ONENESS OF. See ONENESS OF GOD. GOD, UNITY OF. See ONENESS OF GOD. GOLFER, PAUL (18861961). An early German believer. He met 'Abdu'l-Bahai in Stuttgart in 1913 and later received a Tablet £rom Him. He visited Shoghi Effendi in 1936. He was for many years a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany and Austria. He was a moving force following World War I1 in securing recognition of the Bahh'i Faith in Germany.[173'9331 GOODALL, HELEN MIRRELL (1864-1922), AND COOPER, ELLA GOODALL (d. 1951). Helen (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahai) was born in Maine and moved to San Francisco in 1864, where, in 1868, she married Edwin Goodall. They had one daughter, Ella (Herald of the Covenant). In 1898 mother and daughter learned of the Faith, but before they could investigate fully, the teacher with whom she was to study, Lua Getsinger, left with Mrs. Phoebe Hearst and others on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Not willing to wait for Mrs. Getsinger's return, Helen and Ella went by train in September 1898 to New York to study with another Bahh'i teacher. Sadly, however,
192
GOODALL, HELEN MIRRELL
Helen became ill and could not leave her room, and her investigation was further postponed. When she recovered sufficiently to return to California, Ella responded to a call fiom Mrs. Hearst to join the pilgrims in Cairo, and she and a £tiend left in February 1899. In March 1899 Ella witnessed a meeting between 'Abdu'l-BahB and his grandson Shoghi Effendi in the house of 'Abdu'llih Pa&i in 'Akksi. She left this description of the meeting: One day . . . I had joined the ladies of the Family in the room of the Greatest Holy Leaf for early morning tea, the beloved Master was sitting in His favorite corner of the divan where, through the window on His right, He could look over the ramparts and see the blue Mediterranean beyond. He was busy writing Tablets, and the quiet peace of the room was broken only by the bubble of the samovar, where one of the young maidservants, sitting on the floor before it, was brewing the tea. Presently the Master looked up from His writing with a smile, and requested Ziyyih =hum to chant a prayer. As she finished, a small figure appeared in the open doorway, directly opposite 'Abdu'l-Bahfr. Having dropped off his shoes he stepped into the room, with his eyes focused on the Master's face. 'Abdu'l-Baha returned his gaze with such a look of loving welcome it seemed to beckon the small one to approach Him. Shoghi, that beautifid little boy, with his cameo face and his soulll appealing, dark eyes, walked slowly toward the divan, the Master drawing him as by an invisible thread, until he stood quite close in front of Him. As he paused there a moment 'Abdu'l-Bahi did not offer to embrace him but sat perfectly still, only nodding His head two or three times, slowly and impressively, as it to say-"You see? This tie connecting us is not just that of a physical grandfather but something far deeper and more sigmficant." While we breathlessly watched to see what he would do, the little boy reached down and picking up the hem of 'Abdu'l-Bahl's robe he touched it reverently to his forehead, and kissed it, then gently replaced it, while never taking his eyes from the adored Master's face. The next moment he turned away, and scampered off to play, like any normal child. . . .At that time he was 'Abdu'l-Bahi's only grandchild. . . and, naturally, he was of immense interest to the pilgrim^!^^^]
On her return to the United States she found that her mother had already attracted a small group to the Faith in Oakland, and over the years their house became a center for visiting speakers. In 1904, Ella married Dr. Charles Miner Cooper. Late in 1907, mother and daughter received permission to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahh. They reached 'Akkii on 4 January 1908. They continued jointly to serve the Faith and jointly published a book entitled
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193
Daily Lessons Received at Akkci, January 1908[1371 detailing their experiences. Following Edwin's death in 1909 Helen and her son Arthur moved to the house where Ella and her husband Charles lived. When 'Abdu'l-Bahi came to America, the ladies accompanied Him to many places, and He once remarked about Helen, "God has certain treasures hidden in the world which He reveals when the time comes. She When in San Francisco 'Abdu'lis like one of those trea~ures."[l~~:~~] Bahi asked Helen to visit Him every morning and remain all day if possible. 'Abdu'l-Bahi, in 1920, gave permission for Helen and Ella to visit Haifa again, and although Helen was very fkail, they reached there on 21 October 1920. When 'Abdu'l-Bahi passed away on 21 November 1921, it was remembered that Helen had often been heard to say to her fiends and family that as soon as the Master had left this world she hoped to do the same, and she passed away on 19 February 1922. Shoghi Effendi in God Passes By[37:2571 and in America and ~ : ~ l ]to the consecrated, imperishable the Most Great P e a ~ e [ ~ refers services of Helen S. Goodall. Ella continued to serve the Faith with loyalty and fidelity until her own passing in July 1951, upon which Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Deeply grieved at sudden passing of herald of the Covenant, Ella Cooper, dearly loved handmaid of 'Abdu'l-Bahi, greatly trusted by Him. Her devoted services during concluding years of Heroic Age and also Formative Age of Faith unforgettable. Assure relatives, fiends, deepest sympathy for loss. Praying for progress of her soul in Abhii K i n g d ~ r n . " [ ~ ~ : ' ~ ~ ] GOSSIP. See BACKBITING. GOVERNMENT, OBEDIENCE TO. Baha'is are forbidden to parmust be ticipate in subversive activity and, as an article of faithJ71:lS71 obedient to the laws of the government of the country in which they live. 'Abdu'l-Bahii said, "Let them obey the government and not meddle in political affairs, but devote themselves to the betterment of character and behavior, and fix their gaze upon the Light of the WOrld~"[100:319] Shoghi Effendi wrote on the same subject, "Absolute impartiality in the matter of political parties should be shown by words and by deeds, and the love of the whole humanity, whether a Government, or a nation, which is the basic teaching of Bahii'u'lliih, should also ~ ~ ~FAITH.) fl be shown by words and by d e e d ~ . " [ l ~(See
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For whereas the fiends should obey the government under which they live, even at the risk of sacrificing all their administrative affairs and interests, they should under no circumstances suffer their inner religious beliefs and convictions to be violated and transgressed by any authority whatever. A distinction of a fundamental importance must, therefore, be made between spiritual and administrative matters. Whereas the former are sacred and inviolable and hence cannot be subject to compromise, the latter are secondary and can consequently be given up and even sacrificed for the sake of obedience to the laws and regulations of the government. Obedience to the state is so vital a principle of the Cause that should the authorities. . . decide to-day to prevent B U i s f?om holding any meeting or publishing any literature they should obey. . . . But, as already pointed out, such an allegiance is codined merely to administrative matters which if checked can only retard the progress of the Faith for some time. In matters of belief, however, no compromise whatever should be allowed, even though the outcome of it be death or e x p ~ l s i o n . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 No loyal believer should under any circumstances commit himself in any way to a political program or policy formulated and upheld by a political party for affiliation with such a party necessarily entails repudiation of some principles and teachings of the Cause, or partial recognition of some of its fimdamental verities. The fiends should, therefore, keep aloof from party politics. What they should mainly keep away from under all circumstances and in all its forms is p a r t i s a n ~ h i p . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
GRAEFFE, ETTY (1897-1969). An early Belgian believer who became a Baha'i in America during the 1940s. She was one of the first contingent ofAmerican pioneers to set out for Europe during the first Seven Year Plan. She moved to Switzerland and following the direction of Shoghi Effendi set up an office under the adjunct of the International Bahai'i Bureau. Throughout her Baha'i life she traveled and pioneered extensively within E u r ~ p e . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
GREATER BRANCH. See MIRZA MQNMMAD-'ALI. GREATER COVENANT (OR ANCIENT COVENANT). God's promise to His creation, humankind, that He will never leave them without guidance. See also COVENANT; LESSER COVENANT; MANIFESTATION OF GOD; PROGRESSIVE REVELATION.
m.
GREATEST HOLY LEAF'. See BAH~YYIH
GREATEST NAME. Of the names or attributes of God there is said to be one which is "hidden.77[71:1801 Baha'is believe that it is revealed
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in the name Baha', which means splendor, light, or glory and is the source of the derivative Ya' Bahk'u'l-Abhri. Another derivative, AllPh'u'AbhP, is used as a greeting between Bahi'is and, in accordance with the instruction given in the Kitrib-i-Aqdas, is repeated 95 times once per day.[71:251 A calligraphical form designed by MishkinQalam is used as a revered wall hanging in many Bahi'i homes. Another form is used on the Bahi'i ring stone. For a detailed overview of this subject refer to A. Q. Fabi's short pamphlet entitled Explanation of the Symbol of the Greatest Name.La41 GREEN ACRE ~ a ' SCHOOL. i A Bahi'i-owned property in Eliot, Maine. It was gifted to the U.S. Bahi'i Community by Sarah Farmer and opened as a Bahi'i summer school in 1929. GREENLEAF, CHARLES (1856-1920). (Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahh.) Along with his wife, Elizabeth, he heard of the Faith from Thornton Chase. In turn they became students of Dr. IbrPhim Kheiralla. After some time their teacher made a suggestion to his class that they send a petition to 'Abdu'l-Bahi asking Him to confer infallibility on Kheiralla for the West. Elizabeth refused to sign this letter, and later, when Kheiralla left the Faith, they realized the wrongness of his suggestion (see COVENANT BREAKERS). Those who signed the letter drifted away, and those who remained firm in their Faith became the founders of the American Bahi'i community. Charles and his wife were indefatigable in their services to the Faith. Rosemary and Emeric Sala wrote an essay about this dedicated couple, The Greenleafs: An Eternal Union. In 1921, another writer wrote of Charles, "He was a giant in mind and body, and a guide to great numbers of souls in their search for the Truth. He was one of the three recognized pillars of strength of the Cause in the early days-being closely associated with Thornton Chase and Arthur S. In 1907 Charles received a powerful and confirmatory letter from 'Abdu'l-Bahi that contained the sentence, "Thy services and those of thy revered wife are acceptable in the Kingdom of Abhii, for ye have made your home a nest for the birds of God, and have engaged in teaching the Cause of God." Charles passed away on 24 May 1920.[105:321fl GREEVEN, INEZ MARSHALL COOK (1889-1983). A direct descendant of John Marshall, one of the signatories to the Declaration of Independence, she embraced the Cause in 1919. She traveled
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twice to visit 'Abdu'l-BahB in Haifa. In 1926 she married Max Greeven, who embraced the Faith the next year. She moved with her husband to Europe in 1930 and returned to the United States when Holland was invaded in 1940.[18:6081 GREEVEN, MAX (1869-1951). An early American believer. It was through his efforts (acting on the request of the local Spiritual Assembly of New York) that a specially bound set of Bahi'i Writings was presented to the Emperor of Japan (c. 1928). In 1930 he moved to Bremen, Germany, where he was responsible for publishing a number of Bahi'i titles in Dutch. In the years following the Nazi ascent to power he was in the forefront of the work with the Ministry of Church Affairs in an effort (albeit unsuccessful) to have them rescind the edict curtailing Bahi'i activities. In 1937 he was forced to move to Holland, and Shoghi Effendi advised that all further appeal efforts should be forgone lest they have the effect of displeasing still further the Nazi authorities, who by that time had banned the Bahii'i Faith.[66:9091 GREGORY, ALMA CYNTHIA (1908-1998). An American-born British believer, she registered as a Bahh'i in 1942. While the date of her formal declaration of faith was not until 1942, her association with the Faith stretches back to the time of 'Abdu'l-BahB's visit to North Arnerica in 1911-1 9 12 when "she remembers her mother, Louise Ginman, going from town to town in the United States trying to find the Master, Further details of but reaching the place shortly after He had left."[41:1911 her life are to be found in a letter I wrote (while secretary of the British National Spiritual Assembly) following her passing in 1998: There was no other believer in these Islands who could claim to have sat on the knees of Hyde Dunn, long before he responded to the call of the Master to leave his home in America to become the one who opened to the Faith the Australasian Continent. Nor will there be many left anywhere in the world who were deepened in the Faith by such outstanding stalwarts as Mary Hanford Ford, 'Ali-Kuli m a n , Mrs. Goodall, Ella Cooper, Lady Blomfield, Ethel Rosenberg, Claudia Coles, George Simpson, Dr. Esslemont and Martha Root. And how many today can remember meeting Shoghi Effendi when he was in England before he became the Guardian? Alma had many unique qualities among them being her amazing recall of a wealth of stories of her experiences with these believers whose names stand out in Bahi'i history. . . . Her real services to the Faith in the United Kingdom began with her pioneering from Cheltenharn to Northampton (August 1946) and her membership of its first local Spiritual Assembly, her secretaryship of the National
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Youth Committee and later the Assembly Development Committee. During the [period 1948 to 19561 . . . she served with considerable distinction on the National Spiritual Assembly, while continuing her committee work and also serving in the pioneering field in Liverpool, Bristol, Exeter and finally in the Western Isles (fiom where she was asked by the National Spiritual Assembly to go for a period to help in Malta) and return to Storno~ay.['~~:']
On learning of her passing the Universal House of Justice wrote in part as follows: "Grieve passing dearly loved highly admired stalwart maidservant Bahi'u'lliih Alma Gregory. Her indomitable faith coupled with her loving and radiant nature enabled her render distinguished services administrative teaching pioneering fields. The crowning achievement her life was her indefatigable services despite old age challenging pioneer post Outer Hebrides. The memory of her noble life is bound to inspire rising generations emulate her outstanding example. Praying Holy Shrines progress her triumphant soul AbhP Kingdom. Advise hold memorial gatherings United
GREGORY, ERNEST W. (1899-1978). A British believer (1951), he was the third local resident of Sheffield to embrace the Cause. He served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles from 1954 to 1963. In 1963 he was appointed an AUXiliary Board member and served in that capacity until 1974. During that time he traveled widely throughout the British Isles, Iceland, and the Faroes in the promotion of the Cause. From 1974 until his death in 1978 he and his wife served at the Bahi'i World Centre in Haifa.[16:455,41:489] GREGORY, LOUIS G. (1874-1951). (Hand of the Cause of God; Herald of the Kingdom.) The first of his race to be appointed (posthe was humously) to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God,[35:1641 born in Charleston, South Carolina, 6 June 1874. He was the son of a freed slave who passed away when he was five years old. His mother later remarried, and his stepfather apprenticed him to a tailor and later helped him to attend Fisk University, where he obtained scholarships and worked cleaning, pressing, tailoring, and waiting tables during the vacations. He went on to study law at Howard University and received his L.L.B. degree in 1902. Following graduation he partnered with another lawyer, James A. Cobb, who later became a judge of the district court, while Louis moved into the United States Treasury Department. Judge Cobb later wrote of Louis, "I knew him
198 GREGORY, LOUIS G.
as a student, teacher, practicing lawyer, lecturer and friend, and in each capacity he was strong and understanding. In other words he was a fine student, a lovely character and a person with a great mind which he devoted to the betterment of mankind. . . . In fact, he was one of those who enriched the life of He learned of the Bahi'i Faith in 1908 while employed with the government. He later visited 'Abdu'l-BahB in Egypt and again in Haifa and 'AkkB. The inspiration of the first message Louis received from 'Abdu'l-Bahi set the course of his life for the next 43 years: "I hope that thou mayest become the Herald of the Kingdom, become the means whereby the white and colored peoples shall close their eyes to racial differences and behold the reality of humanity, and that is the universal unity which is the oneness of the kingdom of the human race, the basic harmony of the world and the appearance of the Bounty of the Al~nighty."[~~~~Ofl In 1912, on the suggestion and encouragement of 'Abdu'l-Bahh, he married Louise Mathews (Gregory), thereby consummating the first interracial marriage in the U.S. Bahi'i community. Despite a great many severe socially imposed difficulties the marriage proved enduring. According to one writer, "It is probable that no individual teacher in the Faith traveled more extensively throughout the United States than Mr. Gregory. Living in the utmost simplicity, sacrificing at every turn, he spoke in schools, colleges, churches, forums, conferences, and with individuals throughout the land. With a marvelous blending of humility and courage, of tenderness and adamantine firmness and steadfastness, he met high and low, rich and poor, educated and ignorant. . . . He spoke in Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish schools and before nondenominational groups, and everywhere he was For more than 35 years he was the mainspring behind the work for the Race Amity movement initiated by 'Abdu'l-Bahb (indeed, he shares with Agnes Parsons the status of c o f o ~ n d e r ) . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] He was for many years a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United States; he shone not only as a speaker and a writer but also as an administrator. When he passed away on 30 July 1951, Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Profoundly deplore grievous loss dearly beloved, noble-minded, golden-hearted Louis Gregory, pride example Negro adherents Faith, keenly feel loss one so loved, admired and trusted by 'Abdu'lBahi. Deserves rank first Hand of the Cause of his race. Rising generation Afr-ican continent will glory in his memory and emulate his example."[ll:666,35:164,92:156f, 93:371]
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GREGORY, LOUISE MATHEWS (18661956). Born in England, she moved to America in 1912. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Egypt, Paris, and America. With His encouragement and at His suggestion she married Louis Gregory in New York in 1912; indeed, 'Abdu'lBaha officiated at their wedding. In 1927 she traveled extensively in Europe, while her husband devoted himself to similar extensive travel in America. She faced a great deal of bigotry and prejudice during her marriage to Louis, which she faced bravely and with dignity.[12:8761 GROSSMANN,ANNA (1905-1984). An early (192 1) German believer, she married her childhood sweetheart Hermann Grossmann in 1924. She and her husband lived in Germany throughout the war years. After the war she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany and Austria and served as its secretary. In 1954 she was appointed an Auxiliary Board member. She accompanied her husband on several of his teaching trips and generally supported him throughout the entire period he functioned as a Hand of the Cause of God. Following his death she joined her son as a pioneer in Finland. After serving for several years on the easternmost local Spiritual Assembly (Savonlinna) in Europe she died on 12 June 1984.[18:6391 GROSSMANN, ELSAMARIA(1896-1977). (Knight of Bahii'u'lliih.) Born in Argentina of German parentage, in 1909 she returned to Germany with her family, where, in 1919 or 1920, she embraced the Cause. She was imprisoned briefly for her faith during World War 11. In 1953 she pioneered to Westerland, Frisian Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahh'u'llhh. During her years on these islands she translated the following materials into German: Gleaningsfrom the Writings of Bahci'u 'llcih and (in collaboration with her brother, Hermann Grossmann) The Proclamation of Bahci'u 'llcih and Paris Talks.[16:4401 GROSSMANN, HERMANN (1899-1968). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Born of German parents in Rosario, Argentina, on 16 February 1899, his early environment was one of love and tolerance. The family returned to Germany when Hermann was 10 years old. Toward the end of World War I he served in the German army. In the summer of 1920 he heard of the Faith fiom Grace and Harlan Ober. He and Lina and George Adam Benke quickly accepted the truth of this new message. In his enthusiasm Hermann wrote to 'Abdu'l-Bahii and received an answer letter dated 9 December 1920.
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In 1924 he obtained a doctorate in political science in Hamburg. After continuing his studies of the Faith in Leipzig he returned to Hamburg, where he witnessed the acceptance of the Faith by his mother and sister. He married another Bahti'i, Anna Grossmann, and settled in Neckargemiind, where he built the house that was to become the focal point for Bahi'i activities; he lived there with his parents, sister, wife, and children. Throughout the remainder of his life he translated many of the Bahti'i Writings £rom English into German, published several major writings on the Faith in German, and for some years published a monthly magazine in Esperanto. The most important works that came from his pen were The Dawn of a New Age, A Change-over to Unity, What is the Bahri 'i Religion? and Godb Covenant in Revealed Religions. In 1937 Hermann, his wife, and his sister went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. During World War I1 he and his fellow Bahti'is suffered persecution at the hands of the Nazi authorities. During this period most of the early Bahh'i compilations were seized and destroyed by the Gestapo, and he and his sister suffered imprisonment. Their home, however, escaped destruction, and from the small amount of material on the Faith he had been able to preserve, he was able to prepare new compilations that served the new German Bahh'i community that emerged after the war. Interestingly, the archives and records of the German National Spiritual Assembly (housed elsewhere) were also seized by the Gestapo. At the end of the war, they were transferred by the Russian occupation forces to KGB headquarters in the Soviet Union; following the collapse of the USSR these very documents were found safe and intact within the KGB's voluminous archives. In December 1951 he was in the first contingent of Hands of the Cause to be appointed by Shoghi Effendi, and in spring 1957 he and Anna went on their second pilgrimage. After the passing of Shoghi Effendi in November 1957 he is reputed to have made significant contributions to the consultations that followed when the Hands met in the Holy Land. A fellow Hand later wrote that Herman's breadth of vision and capacity to find a judicious balance were a valued factor throughout their deliberations. In 1959 the Hands asked him to return to South America to help the two Regional National Spiritual Assemblies there, as each had the enormous responsibility of guiding five countries. Although suffering £rom ill health, he traveled throughout the continent and to some
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of the countries in the interior and was able to report that 10 new National Spiritual Assemblies could be formed in 1961. In January 1960 he visited the continent again, this time with Anna, spending more than seven months there; he revisited the region again in April 1961. Finally in 1962, "distinct signs of exhaustion had begun to show," and "once more it was his galvanizing enthusiasm and iron will that took him from place to place to bring to a good end one of his most difficult In spite of his weakened health he was able to witness the election of the Universal House of Justice in April 1963 and to participate in the Bahi'i World Congress in the Albert Hall, London, which immediately followed, but his travels became shorter and less frequent, and he passed away on 7 July 1968. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "Deeply regret announce passing Hand Cause Hermann Grossmann greatly admired beloved Guardian. His grievous loss deprives company Hands Cause outstanding collaborator and world community staunch defender promoter Faith. His courageous loyalty during challenging years tests persecutions Germany, outstanding services South America immortalized annals Faith. Invite all National Spiritual Assemblies hold memorial gather93:3771 ings befitting his exalted rank exemplary ser~ices."[l~:~~~, GROUPS, BU~. Communities with fewer than nine adult Baha'is normally constitute a "Bahi'i Group." Although they have no administrative status, they are encouraged to hold Nineteen Day Feasts, maintain a fund, and create and execute local teaching plans in preparation for the time when numbers permit them to assume local Spiritual Assembly status. THE GUARDIAN. (Vali.) A title conferred on Shoghi Effendi by 'Abdu'l-Bahi in His Will and Te~tament.[~~llfl See also THE GUARDIANSHIP. THE GUARDIANSHIP. (Vilaiyat.) The institution of the Guardianship derives its existence and authority from the Covenant of Bahi'u'llih as articulated in 'Abdu'l-Bahi's Will and Testament. In that document, 'Abdu'l-Bahi set out His Covenant of Succession through the creation of the Guardianship and the appointment of Shoghi Effendi as its first incumbent. 'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote, 0 my loving friends! After the passing away of this wronged one, it is incumbent upon the A&@n [Branches], the A f n h [Twigs] of
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the Sacred Lote-Tree, the Hands (pillars) of the Cause of God and the loved ones of the Abhh Beauty to turn unto Shoghi Effendi-the youthful branch branched from the two hallowed and sacred Lote-Trees and the h i t grown from the union of the two offshoots of the Tree of Holiness,-as he is the sign of God, the chosen branch, the guardian of the Cause of God, he unto whom all the A&&, the Afnh, the Hands of the Cause of God and His loved ones must turn. He is the expounder of the words of God and after him will succeed the first-born of his lineal descendants. . . . The sacred and youthful branch, the Guardian of the Cause of God, as well as the Universal House of Justice, to be universally elected and established, are both under the care and protection of the Abhi Beauty, under the shelter and unerring guidance of His Holiness, the Exalted One (may my life be offered up for them both). Whatsoever they decide is of God. Whoso obeyeth him not, neither obeyeth them, hath not obeyed God; whoso rebelleth against him and against them hath rebelled against God; whoso opposeth him hath opposed God; whoso contendeth with them hath contended with God; whoso disputeth with him hath disputed with God; whoso denieth him hath denied God; whoso disbelieveth in him hath disbelieved in God; whoso deviateth, separateth himself and turneth aside from him hath in kuth deviated, separated himself and turned aside from God. . . . The mighty stronghold shall remain impregnable and safe through obedience to him who is the Guardian of the Cause of God. It is incumbent , upon the members of the House of Justice, upon all the A g h ~ h the A h h , the Hands of the Cause of God to show their obedience, submissiveness and subordination unto the Guardian of the Cause of God, to turn unto him and be lowly before him.[76:6fl
In the foregoing provision we find the authority necessary for ongoing, unbroken interpretation of those portions of Revelation not already interpreted by Bahd'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahh. Importantly, the office of Guardian is not accorded the station of Prophethood (see MANIFESTATION) or even that of the Centre of the Covenant. Neither is the Guardian accorded the status of Exemplar, but solely as the office, or channel, through which "official" interpretation might flow. Shoghi Effendi summarizes the office as follows: No Guardian of the Faith, I feel it my solemn duty to place on record, can ever claim to be the perfect exemplar of the teachings of Bahh'u'llih or the stainless mirror that reflects His light. Though overshadowed by the unfailing, the unerring protection of Bahii'u'llfih and of the Bhb, and however much he may share with 'Abdu'l-Baha the right and obligation to interpret the Baha'i teachings, he remains essentially human and cannot, if he wishes to remain faithll to his trust, arrogate to himself, under any pretense whatsoever, the rights, the privileges and
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prerogatives which Bahi'u'llih has chosen to confer upon His Son. In the light of this truth to pray to the Guardian of the Faith, to address him as lord and master, to designate him as his holiness, to seek his benediction, to celebrate his birthday, or to commemorate any event associated with his life would be tantamount to a departure from those established truths that are enshrined within our beloved Faith. The fact that the Guardian has been specifically endowed with such power as he may need to reveal the purport and disclose the implications of the utterances of Bahi'u'llih and of 'Abdu'l-Bahi does not necessarily confer upon him a station co-equal with those Whose words he is called upon to interpret. He can exercise that right and discharge this obligation and yet remain infinitely inferior to both of them in rank and different in nature. To the integrity of this cardinal principle of our Faith the words, the deeds of its present and hture Guardians must abundantly testify. By their conduct and example they must needs establish its truth upon an unassailable foundation and transmit to future generations unimpeachable evidences of its reality.[36:'511
Moreover, 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Testament linked the office of Guardian and the Universal House of Justice ordained by Bahii'u'lliih in the Kitdb-i-Aqdas as "Twin Successors": In His Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Bahi conferred the mantle of Guardian of the Cause and infallibleInterpreterof its teachings upon His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, and confirmed the authority and guarantee of divine guidance decreed by Bahi'u'llih for the Universal House of Justice on all matters "which have not outwardly been revealed in the Book." The Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice can thus be seen to be, in the words of Shoghi Effendi, the "Twin Successors" of Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahi. They are the supreme institutions of the Administrative Order that was founded and anticipated in the Kithb-iAqdas and elaborated by 'Abdu'l-Bahi in His Wi11.[71:31
In describing their relative functions Shoghi Effendi, as Guardian, wrote, From these statements it is made indubitably clear and evident that the Guardian of the Faith has been made the Interpreter of the Word and that the Universal House of Justice has been invested with the function of legislating on matters not expressly revealed in the teachings. The interpretation of the Guardian, functioning within his own sphere, is as authoritative and binding as the enactments of the International House of Justice, whose exclusive right and prerogative is to pronounce upon and deliver the h a 1 judgment on such laws and ordinances as Bah8'u'llih has not expressly revealed. Neither can, nor will ever, infringe upon the sacred and prescribed domain of the other. Neither will seek to curtail the specific and undoubted
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authority with which both have been divinely invested. . . . Though the Guardian of the Faith has been made the permanent head of so august a body he can never, even temporarily, assume the right of exclusive legislation. He cannot overridethe decision of the majority of his fellow-members, but is bound to insist upon a reconsideration by them of any enactment he conscientiously believes to conflict with the meaning and to depart from the spirit of Baha'u'llWs revealed utterances. He interprets what has been specifically revealed, and cannot legislate except in his capacity as member of the Universal House of Justice. He is debarred from laying down independently the constitution that must govern the organized activities of his fellow-members, and from exercising his influence in a manner that would encroach upon the liberty of those whose sacred right is to elect the body of his collaborators.[36'149fl
Under the supervision of the Hands of the Cause of God, the Universal House of Justice was elected during the 1963 RiqvPn period. Among the earliest matters it considered was the question of the Guardianship.Although 'Abdu'l-Bahi's Will and Testament provided for the appointment of future Guardians ("And after him will succeed the first-born of his lineal Shoghi Effendi left neither Will and Testament nor offspring. The lack of a Will and Testament and in the absence of any other written (or spoken) directions led the Universal House of Justice to conclude that it was not possible to appoint future Guardians. On 6 October 1963 they wrote to all National Spiritual Assemblies advising them, "After prayerful and careful study of the Holy Texts bearing upon the question of the appointment of the successor to Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Cause of God, and after prolonged consultation which included consideration of the view of the Hands of the Cause of God residing in the Holy Land, the Universal House of Justice h d s that there is no way to appoint or to legislate to make it possible to appoint a second Guardian to succeed Shoghi Notwithstanding this conclusion, it is clear that the Covenant did provide for the existence of the Universal House of Justice without there being a Guardian. In a letter of 9 March 1965 the Universal House of Justice addressed the subject of the appointment of a future Guardian: The following excerpts from a Tablet of 'Abdu'l-BahB state clearly and emphatically the principles with which the friends are already familiar from the Will and Testament of the Master and the various letters of Shoghi Effendi, and explain the basis for the election of the Universal House of Justice. This Tablet was sent to Persia by the beloved Guardian himself, in the early years of his ministry, for circulation among the believers.
THE GUARDIANSHIP 205
"For 'Abdu'l-Baha is in a tempest of dangers and infinitely abhors differences of opinion. . . . Praise be to God, there are no grounds for differences. "The Bib, the Exalted One, is the Mom of Truth, the splendor of Whose light shineth through all regions. He is also the Harbinger of the Most Great Light, the Abha Luminary. The Blessed Beauty is the One promised by the sacred books of the past, the revelation of the Source of light that shone upon Mount Sinai, Whose fire glowed in the midst of the Burning Bush. We are, one and all, servants of Their threshold, and stand each as a lowly keeper at Their door. "My purpose is this, that ere the expiration of a thousand years, no one has the right to utter a single word, even to claim the station of Guardianship. The Most Holy Book is the Book to which all peoples shall refer, and in it the Laws of God have been revealed. Laws not mentioned in the Book should be referred to the decision of the Universal House of Justice. There will be no grounds for difference. . . . Beware, beware lest anyone create a rift or stir up sedition. Should there be differences of opinion, the Supreme House of Justice would immediately resolve the problems. Whatever will be its decision, by majority vote, shall be the real truth, inasmuch as that House is under the protection, unerring guidance, and care of the one true Lord. He shall guard it fiom error and will protect it under the wing of His sanctity and infallibility. He who opposes it is cast out and will eventually be of the defeated. "The Supreme House of Justice should be elected according to the system followed in the election of the parliaments of Europe. And when the countries would be guided the Houses of Justice of the various countries would elect the Supreme House of Justice. "At whatever time all the beloved of God in each country appoint their delegates, and these in turn elect their representatives, and these representatives elect a body, that body shall be regarded as the Supreme House of Justice. "The establishment of that House is not dependent upon the conversion of all the nations of the world. For example, if conditions were favorable and no disturbances would be caused, the friends in Persia would elect their representatives, and likewise the friends in America, in India, and other areas would also elect their representatives, and these would elect a House of Justice. That House of Justice would be the Supreme House of Justice. That is all." (Persian anddrabic-Tablets of 2bdu 'I-Bahb, Vol. 111, pp. 499-50 1) The friends should realize that there is nothing in the Texts to indicate that the election of the Universal House of Justice could be called only by the Guardian. On the contrary, 'Abdu'l-Bahh envisaged the calling of its election in His own lifetime. At a time described by the Guardian as "the darkest moments of His (the Master's) life, under
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'Abdu'l-Harnid's regime, when He stood to be deported to the most inhospitable regions of Northern Africa," and when even His life was threatened, 'Abdu'l-Bahir wrote to Hhji Mirzh Muhammad-Taqi-iA f n h , the cousin of the Bib and chief builder of the 'I&qirbkl Temple (Mawqu'l-Amkrir), commanding him to arrange for the election of the Universal House of Justice should the threats against the Master materialize.
The same letter addresses the relationship of the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice and the provisions found in the Covenant for each Institution to stand alone: Divorced from the institution of the Guardianship the World Order of BahB'u'llih would be mutilated and permanently deprived of that hereditary principle which, as 'Abdu'l-Bahh has written, has been invariably upheld by the Law of God. "In all the Divine Dispensations," He states, in a Tablet addressed to a follower of the Faith in Persia, "the eldest son hath been given extraordinary distinctions. Even the station of Prophethood hath been his birthright." Without such an institution the integrity of the Faith would be imperiled, and the stability of the entire fabric would be gravely endangered. Its prestige would suffer, the means required to enable it to take a long, an uninterrupted view over a series of generations would be completely lacking, and the necessary guidance to define the sphere of the legislative action of its elected representatives would be totally w i t h d r a ~ n . [ ~ ~ l ~ * ] Let the friends who wish for a clearer understanding of this passage at the present time consider it in the light of the many other texts which deal with the same subject, for example the following passages gleaned from the letters of Shoghi Effendi: They have also, in unequivocal and emphatic language, appointed those twin institutions of the House of Justice and of the Guardianship as their chosen successors, destined to apply the principles, promulgate the laws, protect the institutions, adapt loyally and intelligently the Faith to the requirements of progressive society, and consummate the incorruptible inheritance which the Founders of the Faith have bequeathed to the ~ o r l d . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ l It must be also clearly understood by every believer that the institution of Guardianship does not under any circumstances abrogate, or even in the slightest degree detract from, the powers granted to the Universal House of Justice by Bahft'u'llfh in the Kitib-i-Aqdas, and repeatedly and solemnly confirmed by 'Abdu'l-Baha in His Will. It does not constitute in any manner a contradiction to the Will and Writings of Bahb'u'llhh, nor does it nullify any of His revealed instructions. It enhances the prestige of that exalted assembly, stabilizes its supreme position, safeguards its unity, assures the continuity of its labors, without presuming in the slightest to infringe upon the inviolability of its
THE GUARDIANSHIP 207
clearly defined sphere of jurisdiction. We stand indeed too close to so monumental a document to claim for ourselves a complete understanding of all its implications, or to presume to have grasped the manifold mysteries it undoubtedly c o n t a i n ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ] From these statements it is made indubitably clear and evident that the Guardian of the Faith has been made the Interpreter of the Word and that the Universal House of Justice has been invested with the function of legislating on matters not expressly revealed in the teachings. The interpretation of the Guardian, functioning within his own sphere, is as authoritative and binding as the enactments of the International House of Justice, whose exclusive right and prerogative is to pronounce upon and deliver the final judgment on such laws and ordinances as Bahir'u'llAh has not expressly revealed. Neither can, nor will ever, idiinge upon the sacred and prescribed domain of the other. Neither will seek to curtail the specific and undoubted authority with which both have been divinely i n v e ~ t e d . [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ] Each exercises, within the limitations imposed upon it, its powers, its authority, its rights and prerogatives. These are neither contradictory, nor detract in the slightest degree from the position which each of these institutions o ~ c u p i e s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Though the Guardian of the Faith has been made the permanent head of so august a body he can never, even temporarily, assume the right of exclusive legislation. He cannot override the decision of the majority of his fellow m e m b e r ~ . [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ] Above all, let the hearts of the friends be assured by these words of Bahir'u'llfi The Hand of Omnipotence hath established His Revelation upon an unassailable, an enduring foundation. Storms of human strife are powerless to undermine its basis, nor will men's fanciful theories succeed in damaging its s t r u c t ~ r e . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 1 'Abdu'l-Bahi elaborated as follows: Verily, God effecteth that which He pleaseth; naught can annul His Covenant; naught can obstruct His favor nor oppose His Cause! He doeth with His will that which pleaseth Him and He is powerful over all things ![159:Vol. In, 5981 It should be understood by the friends that before legislating upon any matter the Universal House of Justice studies carefully and exhaustively both the Sacred Texts and the writings of Shoghi Effendi on the subject. The interpretations written by the beloved Guardian cover a vast range of subjects and are equally as binding as the Text itself. There is a profound difference between the interpretations of the Guardian and the elucidations of the House of Justice in exercise of its function to "deliberate upon all problems which have caused difference, questions that are obscure, and matters that are not expressly recorded in the Book." The Guardian reveals what the Scripture means;
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his interpretation is a statement of truth which cannot be varied. Upon the Universal House of Justice, in the words of the Guardian, "has been conferred the exclusive right of legislating on matters not expressly revealed in the Bahb'i Writings." Its pronouncements, which are susceptible of amendment or abrogation by the House of Justice itself, serve to supplement and apply the Law of God. Although not invested with the function of interpretation, the House of Justice is in a position to do everythmg necessary to establish the World Order of Bahi'u'llih on this earth. Unity of doctrine is maintained by the existence of the authentic texts of Scripture and the voluminous interpretations of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi, together with the absolute prohibition against anyone propounding "authoritative" or "inspired" interpretations or usurping the function of Guardian. Unity of administration is assured by the authority of the Universal House of Justice. "Such," in the words of Shoghi Effendi, "is the immutability of His revealed Word. Such is the elasticity which characterizes the functions of His appointed ministers. The first preserves the identity of His Faith, and guards the integrity of His law. The second enables it, even as a living organism, to expand and adapt itself to the needs and requirements of an ever-changing ~ o c i e t y . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] Every true believer, if he is to deepen in his understanding of the Cause of BahP'u'llih, must needs combine profound faith in the unfailing efficacy of His Message and His Covenant with the humility of recognizing that no one of this generation can claim to have embraced the vastness of His Cause nor to have comprehended the manifold mysteries and potentialities it contains.
In other words, The provenance, the authority, the duties, the sphere of action of the Universal House of Justice all derive from the revealed Word of Bahi'u'llih which, together with the interpretations and expositions of the Centre of the Covenant and of the Guardian of the Cause--who, after 'Abdu'l-Bahb, is the sole authority in the interpretation of BahP'i S c r i p t u r ~ o n s t i t u t ethe binding terms of reference of the Universal House of Justice and are its bedrock foundation. The authority of these Texts is absolute and immutable until such time as Almighty God shall reveal His new Manifestation to Whom will belong all authority and po~er.[~~:~] The vehicle in this resplendent Age for the practical fulfillment of these duties is the Covenant of Bahft'u'llih; it is, indeed, the potent instrument by which individual belief in Him is translated into constructive deeds. The Covenant comprises divinely conceived arrangements necessary to preserve the organic unity of the
See also UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE.
GUNG, CLAIRE (KLEINE) (1904-1985). (Knight of Bahsi'u'llsih; Mother of Africa.) An early (1939) British believer of German birth, she pioneered nine times over 39 years (five times in Great Britain and four times in Africa). In 1946 she pioneered to Northampton and became a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly formed during the British Six Year Plan (1944-1950). Subsequently she pioneered to Cardiff, where she was again a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of the city; she then moved on to Brighton, and then to Belfast. In 1950 she was the first British believer actually to leave in response to Shoghi Effendi's call for pioneers to go to Africa as part of the Two Year Plan (1951-1953), an action that won for her the accolade "Mother of Africa." She settled first in Lushoto, Tanganyika (now Tanzania), where, known as "Auntie Claire," she established the first multiracial kindergarten. After two years she moved to Nairobi, Kenya, where she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of that country. Two years later she moved again, this time to Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia (now Harare, Zimbabwe), for which she was designated a Knight of BahB'u'llih. Approximately 18 months later she moved to Limbe, Nyasaland (now Malawi), and finally in 1957, for a period of 28 years, to Kampala, Uganda. At her passing in 1985 the Universal House of Justice cabled, "Deeply grieved news passing devoted maidservant God, Knight of BahB'u'llAh, Claire Gung. Her distinguished record services Holy Cause as first pioneer leave her home community signalising inauguration African Campaign in response to beloved Guardian's call won her accolade 'Mother of Africa.' Her notable achievements in pioneer fields in United Kingdom, Tanzania, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Uganda deserve high praise particularly her contributions to education children spiritual heart Africa. Praying Holy Shrines progress her noble soul Abhsi Kingdom. May valiant souls arise from Africa's fertile soil follow in her foot~teps."['~:~~~]
W R A T . Literally, presence. Placed before a name, in the form of H a & - a t - i - ,the word is a courtesy signifying "His Majesty," "His Holiness."[18:7371~ WRAT-I-'ALA. His Holiness, The Most Exalted One; a title of Bah~'U'U~h.[18:7371m
WNER OTTO , (1908-1978). An early European believer who met 'Abdu'l-Bahi on two separate occasions: the first time when he was three in Paris, and the second when he was five in Esslingen. Photographs of the period show 'Abdu'l-Bahi embracing him. Otto went on in later life to serve the Cause with loyalty and devotion. He was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany for some 20 years (serving throughout as treasurer) and a member of the local Spiritual Assembly of Esslingen until the end of his life.[16:4731 HAIFA. A major city and port in northern Israel. The city itself is built around and on Mount Carmel " 'the Hill of God and His Vineyard,' the home of Elijah, extolled by Isaiah as the 'mountain of the Lord,' :~~~ was l BahP'u'llPh's to which 'all nations shall f l o ~ . " ' [ ~ ~Haifa arrival point in the Holy Land before His transference across the bay to the prison city of ' A M . He visited Haifa on four occasions, His last visit being for four months in 1890. It was during one of these visits that He pointed out to 'Abdu'l-Bahi the spot where the Bib's sacred Remains should be interred. It is too the city that for many years was the home of 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi. It is today the administrative World Centre of the Bahi'i Faith. HAINSWORTH, CAPTAIN PHILIP (1919-2001). A stalwart, lionhearted, long-standing British believer who accepted the Faith in 1938[176:141 and who served with distinction on its local and national administrative bodies for over 50 years. He was also an ardent pioneer, moving over the course of his life to many locations within the United Kingdom during the first British Six Year Plan (1944-1950). When war broke out in 1939, he was among those called up by the British government. He registered immediately as a conscientious objector and sought noncombatant service. At his official hearing on 24 November 1939 the tribunal ruled that he was sincere and rendered a unanimous decision to place him in Category I11 (noncombaHe was assigned duty as a stretcher bearer with a tant ~ervice).[l~~l~ffl Guard's Brigade in the British First Army; by the end of the war he had earned the rank of acting major (but could wear the insignia only of captain) in the Royal Army Medical Corps. Undoubtedly, this was a rare achievement for someone classified for noncombatant service and without doubt a true testament of his character and courage. In 1945, while still in service, he traveled to Haifa, Palestine, to attend a course on economics. While there he met with Shoghi Effendi for some 14 hours over a period of several days. In the
HAINSWORTH, CAPTAIN PHILIP
2 11
ensuing years he received from him no fewer than 15 letters and 16 cables. Over the coming years he also maintained a correspondence with many other eminent Bahi'is, among whom was 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rfihiyyih m h n u m . One of her letters (written just following the death of his mother in 1951) to him gives a feeling for the man as seen through the eyes of his contemporaries: My heart goes out to you in this hour of trial. I can imagine how you feel about losing your Mother, and when you are so far from her. It takes the real spiritual stuff in us to rise to these moments in lif-but you have it. . . . You are much dearer to me than you could imagine. I admire you so much and feel so proud to see you go on and up, and not come to a standstill, as so many do! . . . The work you did in England was wonderful. (Shall you get a swelled head if I tell you what I really think?) I felt you really set the place on fire when you got back fiom Haifa, and you never knew how much the Guardian worried over you in Haifa, lest your own pure faith be tested by finding the family gone and the place so empty! I always felt you would go back to Africa, and was so happy you did. Oh Philip go on putting the Cause first! So many fall by the wayside and abandon the heights for some soft little human spot to incubate in, to be just like everyone else in! I am sure one of the ways God shows His mercy to us in the next world is to blind our eyes so we will not clearly see the things we could have done, but did not. Otherwise I am sure we would go mad. There is a sentence of Bahi'u'llih where He says: "and if the believers had been occupied with that which We commanded them, now all the world would be adorned with the robe of faith." (I am quoting from memory, so the exact wording may be incorrect but the thought is there.) . . . I envy you working in Africa. I love Africa and always wanted to go there. The Guardian is so enthusiastic about the work there. There is nothing you could have done that would have made him happier than your going out there. And I know, Philip, your dear, good Mother was proud of you and will be with you in spirit now as her tired old body never could have been on this plane. Death confers youth, and your father and mother must be very like you now. At least I like to think of it this way and feel I am right. God bless you dear, and give you everyhng good in life.[176'1341
On his discharge from the army he returned to England, where he was appointed to service on the National Youth Committee and then the National Teaching Committee of the National Spiritual Assembly. In April 1947 he was elected to membership of the British National Spiritual Assembly and served as assistant secretary until 1951 when, in response to a general request issued by Shoghi Effendi for believers to "open" A£iica to the Faith, he pioneered to Uganda. Following his
arrival he obtained work with the Uganda Medical Service. In April 1956 he was elected to the fist Regional National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Central and East Afiica, on which body he served as secretary. Among his many services in Uganda he will surely be remembered for his oversight of the building of the first Mahriqu'lA U M r on the African continent (in Kampala, Uganda). In April 1963 he participated in the election of the Universal House of Justice and was appointed by that body as one of three keynote speakers at the World Congress gathering in the Royal Albert Hall in London in the last week of April. On his departure from Uganda in 1964 he returned to England, where in 1967 he was again elected to the British National Spiritual Assembly. He served that body for the next 27 years (serving for 2 years as secretary and on many occasions as chair or vice chair). He passed away on 16 December, 2001 and is buried in New Southgate Cemetery in close proximity to the resting place of Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahi'i Faith. On learning of his passing the Universal House of Justice sent the following message: "We were deeply grieved at the news of the passing of Philip Hainsworth, whose outstanding record of dedicated services in the United Kingdom and in Afiica is unforgettable. He distinguished himself through his wholehearted devotion to the beloved Guardian, his staunch perseverance, and his indefatigable efforts to proclaim and teach the Cause. We advise you to hold, on the national and local levels, memorial gatherings in his name. We are also asking the National Spiritual Assembly of Uganda to hold similar memorial gatherings in the Mother Temple of Africa, and elsewhere in the country. Kindly assure his beloved wife and dear children of our deepest sympathy and of our fervent prayers in the Holy Shrines for the progress of his soul in the 'Abhai Kingdom." Refer to Hainsworth's autobiography, Looking Back in for additional biographical information.
HAJ~,
MJJ.A
Muslim who has performs a pilgrimage to
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . [ l 8 : 7 3 7 l a
@&h ABu'L-@~SAN-I-ARDIK~~. See a ~ AM^. i @&h ~
N (1842-1910). D (Hiji Mulli 'Ali-Akbar-i-S&ihmirzidi; Hand of the Cause of God; Apostle of Bahh'u'llaih.) He was born about 1842, the son of a Mullh, and became a Bhbi when he
was in his late teens. He later accepted Bahh'u'llhh and suffered many imprisonments (upwards of seven years in all) and torture for his faith. Eventually, Bahh'u'llhh asked him to travel in Persia to deepen the believers in their Faith. In 1873 he attained the presence of Baha'u'llhh for a period of six months; in 1888 he was again in Bahti'u'llhh's presence. He was the recipient of a great many letters £rom Bahti'u'llhh and was referred to by Him as a Hand of the Cause of God. He passed away in Tihrsin in 1910.[111:294a
@h
' A L ~YAZD~(1845-1943). An early Persian who arrived in ' A M a few days after Bahh'u'llaih was removed fkom the barracks and who stayed until the end of his life. He is remembered for the gift he made of the tract of land in Bahji on which Bahh'u'llhh's Tomb was b ~ i l t . [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l
@a A M ~ N(d.
1928). (Hiji Abu'l-Hasan-i-Ardikhi; Aminu'lIlhhi-Trusted of God; Hand of the Cause of God; Apostle of Baha'u'llsih; trustee of the Huququ'llah.) Appointed posthumously by Shoghi Effendi to the rank of a Hand of the Cause of God, he was also an Apostle of Bahsi'u'llaih and trustee of the Huqfiqu'llhh. Bahti'u'llhh gave him the name Aminu'l-Ilhhi. In the company of Hiijiji &ah Muhammad-i-Manaadi he was the first believer to succeed in entering the city of 'Akkai following Bahti'u'llhh's incarceration there. He was the first pilgrim to meet Bahi'u'lltih while He was in a public bath in 'Akkai, though unable to approach Him or give any sign of recognition. He collected the Huqfiqu'llhh (Right of God) for the first trustee, Hhji Shh-Mulpmmad ManAadi, and was himself appointed trustee on Manhadi's death in 1880. He was a faithful steward of both Bahh'u'llhh and 'Abdu'l-Bahh, and following his own death in 1928 he was posthumously named a Hand of the C a u ~ e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ f f l
@h M~RZAIJAsAN-I-AD~B (1839-1919).
(Hand of the Cause of God; Apostle of Bahh'u'lliih.) Before accepting the Faith in his early forties in 1889, he was distinguished in the learned circles surrounding the Persian royal family, and in recognition of his outstanding accomplishments in the field of literature he was given the title "Adibu'l-'Ulamil" (the Literary man of the Muslim Divines) and at one time held the high religious post of ImBmJum'ih. Such were the qualities of his scholarship that on accepting the Faith, his literary output, it is reputed, reached new heights of sublimity. Following
his conversion, he devoted his life to the Faith. Although Bahh'u'llhh never met him, He nevertheless designated him a Hand of the Cause after he had been a Bahb'i for only a very short time. He was also designated an Apostle of Bahh'u'llih. After the passing of Bahh'u'llhh he continued to serve under the guidance of 'Abdu'l-Bahh and is well remembered for his teaching as well as his inspirational poetry, proofs of the truth of the Faith, and historical works. He played an important role in the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of Tihrhn and served for some time as its chair. He was instrumental in the founding of the Tarbiyat Boys' School and the Tarbiyat Girls' School. He traveled widely for the propagation of the Faith. He died in Tihrin in 1919 and is buried there. [111:312ffl
MRZA~ Y D A R - ' A L (d. ~ 1920). Among the most illustrious disciples of Bahh'u'llhh, Hhji Mirzh Haydar-'Ali[85,1771 recorded his reminiscences of Him along with many historically significant events He was an able in his book Bihjatu's-Sudzir (Delight of teacher of the Cause and defender of the Covenant. On becoming a Bahh'i he traveled widely throughout Persia and the Middle East proclaiming its Message. During these travels he suffered a great deal of persecution and was on several occasions imprisoned for His beliefs. For example, on the instructions of Bahh'u'llih he journeyed to Egypt and Sudan, where he spoke out fearlessly concerning the advent of Bahb'u'llbh as the Promised One. He was placed in stocks, chains, and fetters as well as being imprisoned in a number of jails and prisons. Eventually he was incarcerated in Khartoum, where he languished for some nine years; his release was secured at the request of the British governor, General Gordon (Gordon Pi&). In 1877 he journeyed to 'Akkii,via Mecca and Beirut, where he was reunited with Bahh'u'llhh. After a visit of three months, again at the request of Bahb'u'llih, he undertook a trip to Persia (via 'Irhq) that lasted several years. He was the recipient of several Tablets from B a h b ' ~ ' l l i h . [ ~Following ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1the passing of Bahh'u'llih he joined the believers resident in Haifa. He was much loved by 'Abdu'l-Bahh, who was known to refer to him as the "Angel of Camel."[43:194ff, 438% 111:323, 1121371
H A J ~ M ~ R Z A M U H A M M A D - T A Q ~ A F N ~ .(Apostle
of Bahh'u'llhh; Kabir-i-Ahhn-literally big or great Afnhn.) A cousin of the Bhb and son of Hhji Mirzh Siyyid Mulpmrnad to whom Bahh'u'llhh revealed the itl lib-i-iqlin. He was an eminent members of the A h i n family and had the title Vakilu'd-Dawlih (a state
title meaning deputy or representative). He was a highly respected merchant in the city of Yazd, and not long before the passing of Bahi'u'llih he purchased a number of properties in 'I&qPbPd, Turkisth, where there was a nucleus of Persian Bahi'i families. Baha'u'llih expressed the wish that one of these properties be used as the site for a Baha'i House of Worship (Mashriqu'l-Adhksir), and, after His death (1892) Mu~ammad-Taqimoved to 'Ishqibad and took on a key role in the building of the first Baha'i House of Worship. On the completion of the building in 1907 he went to the Holy Land, where he served 'Abdu'l-Bahai. He is buried in the Bahi'i cemetery on the slopes of Mount Carmel.[110:198a
*fi
M ~ R Z AM U @ ~ M M A D - T A Q ~ - 1 - A H B A (d.~ 1917). (Surnamed Ibn-i-Abhk, Hand of the Cause of God.) While living in Qazvin, his father (Mirzi Ibrhhim-i-AbhM) and family, already BPbis, became Bahi'is about the time BahP'u'llPh issued His Proo lamation to the while in exile in Adrianople (1868). He traveled extensively throughout Persia, Caucasia, Turkmenistan, and India and suffered imprisonment for his Faith. Bahi'u'llih appointed him as a Hand of the Cause of God (a rank subsequently confirmed by 'Abdu'l-Bahai in His references to him). At the time of the passing of Bahi'u'llih he was in prison in Tihrain and, for a time, wore the same heavy and notorious chains that had been placed on Bahi'u'llih some 40 years previously. He served, along with the four other Hands in Persia, as a member of the first Spiritual Assembly in the Bahi'i world. The Assembly, founded in Tihrin in 1897, under the guidance of 'Abdu'l-Bahh, met intermittently with the result that it evolved gradually into what is now known as a local Spiritual Assembly that served simultaneously as Persia's Central Spiritual Assembly and as the governing body of the local community in the ~ a p i t a l . [ ' ~Following ~ : ~ ~ ] his settlement in Tihrin he encouraged and supported his wife-the daughter of Hsiji ~ ~ u n d - i nthe founding of the first girls' school in that city. In 1907 he traveled extensively throughout India in the company of two of the early American Baha'is, Hooper Harris and Harlan Ober. He passed away in Tihrh in 1917.[111:198ffl
*fi
MU@4MMAD-'ALh-BARFURUSH~. See QUDDUS.
H A J ~MULLA 'ALi-AKBAR-1-SHAHMIRZAD~.See H A J ~ -D.
G J a~ ~ MU@~MMAD-I-MANSH~~.(Aminu'l-Bayh-
Trusted of the Bayh; trustee of the Huqliqu'lllh.) The fmt trustee of the Huqfiqu'llih. In the company of Hljf Amin he was the first believer to succeed in entering the city of 'Akkl following Bahl'u'lllh's incarceration there. He was entrusted with a number of missions by Baha'u'llih including the transfer of the casket containing the remains of the Bhb to another location in Persia after its whereabouts became public knowledge. In 1881 he was caught up and killed in a massacre by the Kurds of the people of the village of Miyhnd~iib.[~~:~~a
&&M, D R L U T F U ' L L ~(188S1968). (Member, Universal House of Justice.) He met 'Abdu'l-Bahh in 1911 while in London studying physiotherapy and became a friend of Dr. John Esslemont (who was at that time studying the Faith). He received many Tablets fiom 'Abdu'l-Bahh and was eventually summoned by Him to serve in Haifa. In 1920 'Abdu'l-Bahh entrusted His grandson, Shoghi Effendi (the future Guardian of the BaM'i Faith), to Lu~fu'llih'ssafekeeping when he was sent to England to study. Lutfu'llih was in Haifa when 'Abdu'l-Baha passed away in 1921 and was one of those to greet Shoghi Effendi on his return to that city. In 1924 he returned to Persia, where he worked for a time as an assistant in the clinic of Dr. Susan Moody. In 1950, with Shoghi Effendi's approval, he returned to England. In 1951 he was summoned by Shoghi Effendi to Haifa and in 1952 was appointed by him to the first International Bahh'i Council. In 1963 he was elected a member of the first Universal House of Justice. In October 1967 he asked to be released fiom service due to ill health, and this was granted (being only six months fiom the second International Convention, no by-election was held). He died in August 1968; the Universal House of Justice cabled on 12 August 1968, "Following cable sent National Spiritual Assembly Persia 'Grieve announce passing Luffu'llhh Hakim dedicated servant Cause God. Special missions entrusted him full confidence reposed in him by Master and Guardian his close association with early distinguished believers East West including his collaboration Esslemont his services Persia British Isles Holy Land his membership appointed and elected International BaM'i Council his election Universal House of Justice will always be remembered immortal annals faith Baha'u'llih. Inform believers hold befitting memorial meetings all centres. Convey all members his family expressions loving sympathy assurance prayers progress his radiant soul Abhh Kingdom.' Request hold memorial gathering Mother Temple
WM MASIH, ARASTU
-
HAND OF THE CAUSE OF GOD
2 17
(1877-1934). The first Jewish He agreed believer and the grandfather of Lutfu'llPh Hakim.[97:181 to act as physician to the BPbis imprisoned in the SiyPh-mil. "He was later to become court physician to Mulpunmad &hh who met TPhirih in BaadPd, and was deeply impressed by her eloquence and masterly exposition. Years later, while attending his son, he met Mullsi Ssidiq-i-Muqaddas, a survivor of m a y u Tabarsi, to whom Baha'u'llhh had given the designation of Ismu~llhhu'l-&daq (the Name of God, the Most Truthful). This encounter led Hakim See also M&A 'AL~ Masib to embrace the Bahh'i Faith."[4'414~44:1651 MQIAMMAD.
HALL, EDWARD THEODORE (188s1962). An early English believer (c. 1910, Salford, Lancashire) he was among those forming the second Bahh'i Group in the British Isles. In 1912, he was among those at the pier in Liverpool to greet 'Abdu'l-BahP on His arrival in Great Britain. He received some five Tablets from 'Abdu'l-Bahh in the ensuing years. He had close contact with Shoghi Effendi during the period of his studies at Cambridge University and was entrusted by him with part of his early diaries; following Shoghi Effendi's appointment as Guardian he was among those who maintained close correspondence with him. In 1922 he was among those elected to the first local Spiritual Assembly of Manchester and represented that He was region on the first National Spiritual Council in 1922.[41:241 subsequently elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles and served on it until 1928. He passed away on 5 December 1962 at age 82.[41:46761 HAND OF THE CAUSE OF GOD. A station bestowed on 50 erninent Bahh'is by BahP'u'llPh, 'Abdu'l-BahP, and Shoghi Effendi. Bahh'u'llhh appointed 4 Hands to serve Him in His own lifetime, but 'Abdu'l-Bahh, while describing their station and functions, did not Himself appoint any additional Hands. He did, however, refer to four outstanding teachers of the Faith as Hands after their passing. In His Will and Testament, 'Abdu'l-Bahsi vested Shoghi Effendi as Guardian with the power to appoint Hands of the Cause of God and summarized their functions as follows: "The Hands of the Cause of God must be nominated and appointed by the Guardian of the Cause of God. All must be under his shadow and obey his command. . . . The obligations of the Hands of the Cause are to diffuse the Divine Fragrances, to edify the souls of men, to promote learning, to improve
2 18
HAND OF THE CAUSE OF GOD
the character of all men and to be, at all times and under all conditions, sanctified and detached from earthly things. They must manifest the fear of God by their conduct, their deeds and their ~ o r d s . " [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] From the time of 'Abdu'l-BahB's passing in 1921 and taking up his appointment as Guardian, Shoghi Effendi over 30 years appointed 10 Hands posthumously and then, in December 1951 appointed a contingent of 12 living Hands. This was followed by the appointment of a further 12 and a final group of 8 in October 1957, barely a month before he passed away unexpectedly. In his letter about this final contingent he described them as the "Chief Stewards of BahB'u'llhh's embryonic World Commonwealth."[38~1271 In a 4 June 1957 cablegram to National Spiritual Assemblies Shoghi Effendi wrote, "Divinely appointed Institution of the Hands of the Cause, invested by virtue of the authority conferred by the Testament of the Center of the Covenant with the twin functions of protecting and propagating the Faith of Bahd'u'llhh, now entering new phase in the process of the unfoldrnent of its sacred mission. To its newly assured responsibility to assist National Spiritual Assemblies of the Bahb'i world in the specific purpose of effectively prosecuting the World Spiritual Crusade, the primary obligation to watch over and insure protection to the BahB'i world community, in close collaboration with these same National Assemblies, is now added."[38'121 When Shoghi Effendi died on 4 November 1957 the Hands in their capacity of Chief Stewards assumed responsibility for the ongoing unity of the Bahd'i community, the winning of the goals of the Ten Year Crusade, and the election of the Universal House of Justice at the end of the Crusade. In its first message to the Bahd'is of the world, 30 April 1963, the Universal House of Justice paid tribute to them as follows: "We do not wish to dwell on the appalling dangers which faced the infant Cause when it was suddenly deprived of our beloved Shoghi Effendi but rather to acknowledge with all the love and gratitude of our hearts the reality of the sacrifice, the labour, the self-discipline, the superb stewardship of the Hands of the Cause of God. We can think of no more fitting words to express our tribute to these dearly loved and valiant souls than to recall the words of Bahi'u'llhh Himself: 'Light and glory, greeting and praise be upon the Hands of His Cause, through whom the light of long-suffering hath shone forth, and the declaration of authority is proven of God, the Powerful, the Mighty, the Independent; and through whom the sea of bestowal hath moved, and the breeze of the favour of God, the Lord of mankind, hath wafted."'
HAND OF THE CAUSE OF GOD
2 19
Writing in the introduction to The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963-An Account of the Stewardship of the Hands of the Cause, 'Arnatu'l-Bahi R3iyyih Khhnum reminded the Bahi'i world that "to this unique testimony should be added the fact that although the Hands were firmly established as the ruling and guiding body of the entire Bahi'i world, I can bear witness that never for a single instant were the Hands influenced by either ambition or self-esteem. Our sole objective, the purpose of our every effort, was to succeed in electing in 1963 the Universal House of Justice." The Universal House of Justice itself testified that "the entire history of religion shows no comparable record of such strict self-discipline, such absolute loyalty, and such complete self-abnegation by the leaders of a religion finding themselves suddenly deprived of their divinely inspired guide. The debt of gratitude which mankind for generations, nay, ages to come, owes to this handful of grief-stricken, steadfast, heroic souls is beyond estimati~n."[~*~] After the passing of Shoghi Effendi the Universal House of Justice decided that they had no authority to appoint further Hands of the Cause of God and, in a letter dated November 1964, wrote as follows to the Bahi'is of the world: Once again the World Centre of our Faith has been the scene of historic events, affectingprofoundly the immediate prosecution of the Nine Year Plan and the future development of the World Order of Bahi'u'llzih. The occasion was the gathering in the Holy Land, for a period of fourteen days, of the Hands of the Cause of God to discuss their vital responsibilities, and particularly as Standard-bearers of the Nine Year Plan. The Universal House of Justice took advantage of this opportunity not only to receive the advice, opinions and views of the Hands on the progress of the Nine Year Plan but to consult them on the highly important goal announced at Ridvan 1964 under World Centre Goals as "Development of the Institution of the Hands of the Cause of God, in consultation with the body of the Hands of the Cause, with a view to the extension into the future of its appointed functions of protection and propagation." It was apparent that the elucidation of this vital goal, affecting as it does the relationship of the Hands of the Cause of God to all other institutions of the Cause, was imperative to the prosecution of the all-important teaching work and the development of the Bahi'i World Order. Accordingly, the Universal House of Justice gave its 111 attention to this matter and, after study of the sacred texts and hearing the views of the Hands of the Cause themselves, has arrived at the following decisions:
220
HANEY, ' ' MARY IDAn
There is no way to appoint, or to legislate to make it possible to appoint, Hands of the Cause of God. Responsibility for decisions on matters of general policy affecting the Institution of the Hands of the Cause, which was formerly exercised by the beloved Guardian, now devolves upon the Universal House of Justice as the supreme and central institution of the Faith to which all must turr1.[~~:~~1
Approximately three and a half years later, on 21 June 1968, the Universal House of Justice announced the creation of a new institution, the Continental Board of Counsellors, to ensure the extension into the future of the appointed functions of the Hand of the Cause of God.[98:'3'JI Refer to appendix 8 and the introduction for key events associated with this period. HANEY, "MARIAM" MARY IDA (PANKHURST) (1872-1965). An early (1900) American believer, she met 'Abdu'l-BahB in 'AkkB in 1909. He subsequently named her "Mariam," which she used from that moment on. He also blessed her unborn son, Paul Haney, who was later to become a Hand of the Cause of God. She met 'Abdu'lBahi again during His visit to America in 1912. In later years she was associate editor of the Bahi'i magazine Star of the Wesr[lo5,lo61 and later served on the editorial board that produced the first two volumes of the ~ ~ 'i world h d yearbook.[l,13:343,50,92:189ff, 93:384, 123:139] HANEY, PAUL EDMUND (1909-1982). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Paul has the distinction of having been on pilgrimage before he was born in August 1909. His parents, Charles Freeborn Haney and Mary Ida Pankhurst (Haney), were married in 1893 and had become Bahi'is in 1900. They were among the first believers from America to visit 'Abdu'l-BahB in ' A M at a time when Paul's mother was carrying him in her womb. His parents came from God-fearing religious stock of the Methodist tradition, and once they accepted the Bahi'i Faith their commitment to 'Abdu'l-Bahi was total. Paul, their only child, was brought up with his whole being dedicated to the Covenant. It was 'Abdu'l-Bahi who had given his mother the name "Mariam," and it was 'Abdu'l-Bahi who gave His own name, " 'Abdu'l-Bahh" to Paul to be his "real" name. In a letter to Mariam, we find these phrases: "The new-born babe is blessed, and acceptable in the Divine Kingdom. . . . I ask God that my namesake, may grow and develop day by day and that his radiant face, may be illumined with the light of the greatest b e s t o ~ a l . " [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
HANEY, PAUL EDMUND
22 1
As he went through school, his mother's loving education and the bestowal of 'Abdu'l-Bah6 caused him to flourish spiritually. There was a pure-heartedness about him that seemed an essential, unforced part of his nature. It was natural that he should grow up in Bahb'i service, following the example of his mother (his father died when Paul was barely 12 years old). At 22 he was appointed to the National Teaching Committee of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of the United States and Canada. By 1934 he had studied at night school and then at Northwestern University and become a professional economist, publishing his first article, "The Economic Organization of Society in the New World Order." He became a member of the first National Youth Committee of the United States and was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada in 1946, remaining on it when Canada elected its own National Spiritual Assembly in 1948, and served as its chair fiom 1950 to 1957. During these years Paul represented the National SpiritualAssembly at the formation of several goal National SpiritualAssemblies--Canada (1948), the Regional National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of South America (1951), and the Regional National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of Italy and Switzerland (1953). His stature in the Bahb'i world was such that it came as little surprise when on 19 March 1954 Shoghi Effendi announced his elevation to rank of Hand of the Cause. This came in a special announcement and not as part of the announcement of a larger contingent. He continued his international services to the Faith, representing the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States at the convention in South and West Africa (1956) and representing Shoghi Effendi at the first Alaskan convention in Anchorage (1957). Paul married Helen Margery Wheeler in July 1942, and the couple went to live in Washington not far from Mariam. They remained there until they moved to Haifa in 1958, when Paul was called upon to be one of the Nine Hands residing in the Holy Land. This required the utmost dedication from Paul; not only was he to be far away from his beloved mother, but in his professional life, he was within sight of appointment to a very high and well-paid position. His mother is on record as having written to a close friend, "The beloved Paul is so pure-hearted, so conscientious, so noble a soul that when this great blessing and honor came to him . . . he said he could not live with himself had he not accepted this tremendous spiritual bounty. . . . Naturally I miss Paul-the pure-hearted-but I believe I am with him daily in his service. Distance is no real
222
HANEY, PAUL EDMUND
separation when there is understanding and love."[17'6171 Mariam passed away on 1 September 1965. From the time Paul moved to Haifa until the end of his life, his total energies were concentrated on service to the Cause. He prepared a definitive statement on the Hands of the Cause and their activities up to the election of the Universal House of Justice; he played an important part in the drafting of the messages of explanation and encouragement that flowed from the Hands of the Cause in Haifa; he traveled the world as their representative; he attended conventions of longestablished national and newly inaugurated National SpiritualAssemblies; he presented a significant paper on the importance of the World Centre of the Bahi'i Faith to the 1963 (Jubilee) World Congress in the Albert Hall; and he was one of the five Hands of the Cause invited by the Universal House of Justice to remain in the Holy Land to carry out special duties and act as advisors to them. One such position was appointment to the editorial committee that was responsible for the gathering of information from the entire Bahi'i world and rewriting and editing it for distribution to all the National Spiritual Assemblies. He represented the Universal House of Justice in visiting communities throughout the world. In the words of one writer, "Paul Haney, distinguished, incorruptible, adamantine in his defense of the Covenant, sound in his judgment and greatly loved by Bahi'is everywhere. . . . He attended diplomatic and governmental functions in Jerusalem as representative of the Bahi'i World Center."[17'6171 He played a significant role in the development of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and the International Teaching Centre and participated in all four of the International Conventions (see CONVENTION, INTERNATIONAL BAHA'~)that took place during his lifetime. In August 1982 he represented the Universal House of Justice at a continental conference in Quito, Ecuador, and on his return, delighted all the Bahi'is at the World Centre with his characteristically jovial, spiritually uplifting, and informative account of his visit. Within three months all were shocked and grief-stricken when he was killed in a car accident in Haifa. The Universal House of Justice cabled the Baha'i world, With stricken hearts announce sudden irreparable loss through automobile accident 3 December highly distinguished greatly prized Hand Cause God staunch defender Covenant Paul Haney. This distinguished servant Bah6'uYll&hwas blessed childhood through attainment presence 'Abdu'l-Bahb. His natural gentleness, genuine humility, unaffected unbounded love, his uprightness, integrity, his single-minded devotion Cause since youthll years, his unfailing reliability meticulous attention
detail characterized his historical services both national and international levels. Spanning more than half century his tireless labors included long-time membership American National Assembly. Since 1954 he consecrated his energies as member unique company Chief Stewards Faith and later as member body Hands Cause residing Holy Land at one of most crucial periods BahB'i history. Last decade his earthly life was Mly dedicated development newly formed International Teaching Center. Generations yet unborn will glory in his imperishable achievements and be inspired by his unique fortitude. Ardently supplicating Holy Threshold progress his noble soul Abhh Kingdom. Advise hold throughout BahB'iworld including all MaMqu'l-Aakhrs memorial gatherings befitting his high rank and his meritorious s e r v i ~ e s . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
HANNEN, JOSEPH H. (d. 1919). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahii.) He was introduced to the Baha'i Faith at the turn of the century by his wife, Pauline Knobloch Hannen. Joseph and Pauline were two rare souls, teaching at every level of society and to people from every background. They healed the sick, consoled the distressed, visited prisoners in jail, and taught children and the aged. Wherever they went they were a healing and harmonizing inhence. They made their pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1909 and later published the story of the inspiration they received there in a pamphlet, Hkkh M e n 'Abdu'l-BahP was in America, He graced their home in Washington and received a large number of visitors on 12 November 1912. "Brother Joseph" died suddenly in 1919, leaving his widow to carry on their outstanding record of service. HANNEN, PAULINE KNOBLOCH (d. 1939). An early (1903) American believer (the daughter of Amalie Knobloch), she became a Baha'i within three days of hearing of the Faith and witnessed a similar acceptance by her mother and her two sisters, Fannie and Alma Knobloch. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahii during a visit to Haifa in 1909 and again during His visit to America in 1912.Apublished account of her She received 1909 visit was printed in l e d e t form (Hkkri 92:137ffl several Tablets from 'Abd~'l-Bahii.[':~~~, IjARAM. Sanctuary, sacred precinct, or court. See also HILL.[18:7371m IjARAM-I-AQDAS. The Most Holy Court; a description given by Shoghi Effendi to the northwestern quadrant of the garden surrounding the Shrine of Bahii'u'lliih in Bahji. It lies immediately outside the entrance to Bahh'u'lliih's tomb. [18:7371m
224
HARRIS, HOOPER
HARRIS, HOOPER (1866-1934). An early American believer who traveled to India to share the Message of Bahh'u'llhh. Shoghi Effendi wrote on his death, "His passing in these early days of the formative period of our faith is, indeed, a severe loss not only to his friends and relatives but also mainly to the American followers of the movement who had found in his person not only a real and sincere fellow-believer but also an active and capable exponent of the teach~:~~~~ ings and principles of the C a u ~ e . " [92:36ffl HARVEY, WINNIFRED (d. 1990). A prominent Canadian Bahil'i teacher and administrator, she was a statistician by profession. She learned of the Faith from Rowland Estall, who had himself been taught by May Maxwell ('Amatu'l-Bahh Riihiyyih mhnum). She was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Ottawa, Canada (formed on 21 April 1948). She was known as an eloquent public speaker. She served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada from 1950 to 1961.[66:641 In 1956 she met Shoghi Effendi while on pilgrimage. During her pilgrimage she asked Shoghi Effendi how it would be possible for some of the indigenous people living in the Artic reaches of Canada to understand the meaning of the Writings when reference was made to things of which they had no experience--for example, the scent of a rose[79'1591-andwould it be advisable for the fiends to change such references to phrases that may have meaning for them. Shoghi Effendi said that the Words should not be changed. At the time of his farewell to her (at the end of her pilgrimage) he gave her two small vials containing attar of roses and told her that one was for the indigenous people she'd spoken of that they may know firsthand the scent of the rose, and the other was for her own use. I learned of the foregoing when, in 1971, Miss Harvey "anointed" me from the vial given to her those many years before by Shoghi Effendi. On her retirement in 1970 she moved to the Bahh'i World Centre, where she served in a number of capacities until her death in 1990; she is buried in the B a ' i cemetery in Haifa.[1791 HASAN MUVAQQAR BALYUZ~. See BALYUZ~, HASAN MWAQQAR. HATCHER, WILLIAM S. (1935-2005). A prominent American believer (1957) and distinguished scholar whose published works encompassed mathematics, logic, philosophy, religion, and ethics (having written some 50 articles, books, and monographs). He was a
HEALING
225
member of the National Spiritual Assemblies of Switzerland (196265), Canada (1983-91), and the Russian Federation (1996) and was also a founding member of the Association for Bahb'i Studies in North America. He traveled widely as a Bahb'i teacher in Central and West Africa and Russia. Dr. Hatcher is one of the eight Platonist philosophers listed in the section devoted to the latter half of the 20th century in the Encylopedie Philosophique Universelle. On his passing, the Universal House of Justice wrote that "The BahB'i world has lost one of its brightest minds, one of its most prolific pens . . ." and of his "stalwart faith, forceful exposition, and penetrating insights, which characterized nearly half a century of ceaseless service to the B&yi Faith."[124:Dec.,20051 HAYDEN, ROBERT EARL (1913-1980). A gifted, internationally recognized poet who, in 1980, was invited by President and Mrs. Carter to read his poetry in the White House. He was born Asa Bundy Sheffey. Following the separation and divorce of his parents, while still an infant, he was renamed by his foster parents, William and Sue Ellen Hayden. It was not until he was 40 years old that he discovered that it was not his legal name; he made it legal in 1978. He embraced the Faith in 1943 and during his BahB'i life served as a member of the local Spiritual Assemblies of Nashville, Tennessee, and Falls Church, Virginia. He traveled widely giving readings of his poetry. From 1968 until his death he was an associate editor of World Order BahAyimagazine.[17:71691801
~&~@~ATu'L-QUDS. (The Sacred Fold.) The name by which local and national Bahb'i centers are known. The national Ha&atuYl-Quds is the seat of the National Spiritual Assembly and the pivot of all national Bahb'i administrative activity. Ideally, as the Bahb'i Faith develops, it will, in addition to the Mashriqu'l-AakPr, provide the seat for the secretariat, the treasury, the archives, the library, the publishing office, a council chamber, an assembly hall, and accommodation for visitors. HEALING. Bahai'u'llaih commands His followers when ill to consult competent physicians: "Resort ye, in times of sickness, to competent physician~."[~~:~~] The Bahb'i Writings indicate that healing is possible by several means-physical medicine, psychological treatment, prayer, and spiritual healing. In a table discussion early in the 1900s 'Abdu'l-BahB said,
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HEART
Now let us speak of material healing. The science of medicine is still in a condition of infancy; it has not reached maturity. But when it has reached this point, cures will be performed by things which are not repulsive to the smell and taste of man-that is to say, by aliments, h i t s and vegetables which are agreeable to the taste and have an agreeable smell. For the provoking cause of disease-that is to say, the cause of the entrance of disease into the human body-is either a physical one or is the effect of excitement of the nerves. . . . But the principal causes of disease are physical, for the human body is composed of numerous elements, but in the measure of an especial equilibrium. . . .As long as this equilibrium is maintained, man is preserved from disease; but if this essential balance, which is the pivot of the constitution, is disturbed, the constitution is disordered, and disease will supervene. . . . For instance, there is a decrease in one of the constituent ingredients of the body of man, and in another there is an increase; so the proportion of the equilibrium is disturbed, and disease occurs. . . .When by remedies and treatments the equilibrium is re-established, the disease is banished. . . . All the elements that are combined in man exist also in vegetables; therefore, if one of the constituents which compose the body of man diminishes, and he partakes of foods in which there is much of that diminished constituent, then the equilibrium will be established, and a cure will be obtained. So long as the aim is the readjustment of the constituents of the body, it can be effected either by medicine or by food. . . . It is, therefore, evident that it is possible to cure by foods, aliments and fruits; but as today the science of medicine is imperfect, this fact is not yet fully grasped. When the science of medicine reaches perfection, treatment will be given by foods, aliments, fiagrant f i t s and vegetables, and by various waters, hot and cold in temperature.[121:257ffl
HEART. Frequently used in Bah6'i Writings as a symbol of the spiritual center of an individual. BahB'u'llPh wrote, "My first counsel is this: Possess a pure, kindly and radiant heart, that thine may be a "Thy heart sovereignty ancient, imperishable and ~ ~ the ~ ~ garden ] of thy is My home; sanctify it for My d e s ~ e n t . " [ l "In heart plant naught but the rose of love, and from the nightingale of affection and desire loosen not thy h ~ l d . " [ ' ~ ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bahai wrote, "In this day, to thank God for His bounties consisteth in possessing a radiant heart, and a soul open to the promptings of the spirit. This is the essence of thanksgi~ing."['~~~~~] HEARST, PHOEBE APPERSON (1842-1919). A philanthropist, the wife of Senator George Hearst (they married when she was 19 and he 41) and the mother of William Randolph Hearst, the newspaper
HEARST, PHOEBE APPERSON 227
magnate. She was widowed in 1891 and inherited her late husband's wealth-which was considerable since, in addition to having been a senator of California, he had been a very successful businessman. Sometime before 1898, she received a visiting Baha'i teacher, Mrs. Lua Getsinger, in her home in San Francisco. Mrs. Getsinger introduced the Faith to her while her butler, Robert Turner, served tea to them. She was deeply moved by what she heard and decided to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahsi in the Holy Land to conduct her own investigations. In 1898 she arranged for the first group of pilgrims to visit Haifa. The party of 15, for reasons of security, traveled from Port Said in three separate groups-Mrs. Getsinger and Mrs. ThornburghCropper in the first group on 10 December, May Ellis Bolles (Maxwell) and Robert Turner among the second, arriving on 16 February 1899, with the remainder of the party reaching there a few days later. of her three days of meetings with Mrs. Hearst later ~rote[":~~lfl 'Abdu'l-Bahb that they "were the most memorable days of my life. . . . The Master I will not attempt to describe: I will only state that I believe with all my heart that He is the Master, and my greatest blessing in this world is that I have been privileged to be in His presence, and look upon His sanctified face. . . . Without a doubt Abbas Effendi is the Messiah of this day and generation, and we need not look for another." "I must say," she wrote in another letter, "He is the most wonderful Being I have ever met or ever expect to meet in this world. . . . The spiritual atmosphere which surrounds Him and most powerfully affects all those who are blest by being near Him, is indescribable. . . . I believe in Him with all my heart and soul, and I hope all who call themselves believers will concede to Him all the greatness, all the glory, and all the praise, for surely He is the Son of 48:701 God-and the spirit of the Father abideth in Him."[37:258, Notwithstanding her feelings toward 'Abdu'l-Baha, not long after her return to the United States she became estranged from the Faith due to several financial and material approaches made toward her by erstwhile members of the Baha'i community, including the Covenant breaker Dr. Ameen Farid. Hasan Balylizi later wrote briefly as follows: of this period in his book on 'Abd~'l-BahB[~~] Mrs. Hearst, who had led the first party of American pilgrims to the Holy Land, was estranged from the Faith. But she was still su£liciently attached to come in person and invite 'Abdu'l-Bah6 and His attendants to spend a long weekend at her palatial home in the vicinity of Pleasanton. Because her invitation was sincere, 'Abdu'l-BahB accepted it. As was customary for a woman of Mrs. Hearst's standing she had arranged
22 8
HEAVEN AND HELL
a large house party that week-end, composed of the elite of Californian society. Mrs. Hearst herself went to San Francisco on October 13th to escort 'Abdu'l-Bahi to her home. During the three days as her guest, He made no direct reference to the Faith, until she herself requested it while recalling her pilgrimage. Mrs. Hearst recollected also the effect that the chanting of an Arabic prayer had had on her all those years ago in 'Akki, and expressed her ardent desire to hear such a prayer once again. 'Abdu'l-Bahi's voice rang out powefily as He acceded to her wish and chanted a prayer in Arabic. The other guests sat spellbound, although they were not familiar with the language. . . . Before departing for San Francisco on the 16th, 'Abdu'l-Bahi asked to see all those who served in Mrs. Hearst's household: maids, pages, groom, cook. He spoke to them affectionately. He stood as a father to them, He said, and wished them to have a memento of His visit. To each He gave two guineas. Then Mrs. Hearst escorted 'Abdu'l-BahB back to San Francisco. On the way, He warned her not to consider anyone a true BahB'i who was covetous of the goods of others and who tried to extort money fkom them. Mrs. Hearst's estrangement had, in fact, originated in such acts on the part of one or two individuals, she herself being the v i ~ t i m . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
Although never regaining her former close association with the Faith, Mrs. Hearst did nonetheless maintain cordial relations until her death in 1919 (she succumbed a victim of the worldwide influenza epidemic of 1918-1919). Refer to Marzieh Gail's book, Arches of the for a fuller coverage of her association with the Faith.
HEAVEN AND HELL. In the Bahh'i Writings these terms refer to the spiritual condition of a human soul both in the physicaVmateria1 world and in the spiritual world to which souls progress following physical death (that is, these terms do not refer to physical or mate~ : ~ ~ ~ ] is nearness to God, a condition that is rial p l a c e ~ ) . [ l ~"Heaven" attained by striving to acquire spiritual virtues through the exercise of free will while still on this earth. "Hell" is the awareness of one's deprivation of these virtues and being remote from God. Bahii'u'lliih wrote, "'Where is Paradise, and where is Hell?' Say: 'The one is Shoghi Effendi, reunion with Me; the other thine own self."'[122:1181 writing through his secretary to a believer in 1947, clarified the subject still further: "Heaven and hell are conditions within our own beingS."[182:481 HEGGIE, JAMES (1915-1992). An Australian (of Scottish birthright) Bahh'i teacher, administrator, scholar, compiler of Bahb'i writings, and chiropractor by profession. He was 22 years old when
THE HIDDEN WORDS OF B ~ U ' L L229 ~
he embraced the Cause in Sydney, Australia. Four years later, while serving as a member of Australia's medical corps in the Middle East, he met Shoghi Effendi in December 1941. After the war he returned to Australia and was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of that country; his service on this body covered the years 1947-1 95 1, 1953-1968, and 1969-1972. He was elected secretary each year from 1947 to 1951 and, with the exception the period 1957-1959, served as secretary from 1954 to 1967. Over the course of his Baha'i life he produced a number of Islamic and Baha'i indexes and concordances, the majority of which were circulated in mimeograph format. Two important works were published, however: An Index of Quotations and Bahd 'i References to JudaJiom the Bahd 'i Sacred Writings[lg31 Following his death in 1992 the Uniism, Christianity and versal House of Justice cabled as follows: "Deeply distressed learn passing James Heggie who rendered outstanding services Cause Bahh'u'llhh in Antipodes over five decades. His devoted endeavours many years member National Spiritual Assembly Australia including lengthy period secretary contributed establishment sound administrative foundation national community. Lovingly recall his constant dedication teaching Cause. His enthusiasm study Writings Faith. His scholarly works various aspects Teachings. . . . "[lS51
HELL. See HEAVEN AND HELL. HERALD OF THE COVENANT. A title conferred by 'Abdu'l-Bahsi on those believers who both proclaimed and remained faithful to the Covenant. THE HERALD. The Bhb. THE HIDDEN WORDS OF BAH~U'LLAH.Words of Bahh'u'llhh revealed in Arabic and Persian in Baadsid in 1858.[l5O]Described by Shoghi Effendi as "a marvelous collection of gem-like utterances, the 'Hidden Words' with which Baha'u'llah was inspired, as He paced, wrapped in His meditations, the banks of the Tigris." "The significance of this dynamic spiritual leaven cast into the life of the world for the reorientation of the minds of men, the edification of their souls and the rectification of their conduct can best be judged by the description of its character given in the opening passage by its Author: 'This is that which hath descended fiom the Realm of Glory, uttered by the tongue of power and might, and revealed unto the
Prophets of old. We have taken the inner essence thereof and clothed it in the garment of brevity, as a token of grace unto the righteous, that they may stand faithful unto the Covenant of God, may fulfill in their lives His trust, and in the realm of spirit obtain the gem of Divine virtue. "[37:140] HILL. Nonsacred ground, an antonym of Haram.[18'7371m HIM WHOM GOD SHALLIWILL MAKE MANIFEST. (ManY~hiruhu'llih.)References made by the B i b to "Him Whom God in essence, the One Who would appear in shall make manifest";[186:6a the future and for Whom He was preparing the way. Understood by the Bahd'is to refer to Bahi'u'llih as the Promised One. [18:7391m HIPP, SUZETTE (1901-1984). Through the efforts of Honor Kempton she became the first (1947) believer to embrace the Cause in Luxembourg. She served as a member of the first (1949) local Spiritual Assembly of Luxembourg-Ville (also the first in Luxembourg). She also served on the first (1962) National Spiritual Assembly of Luxembourg. Throughout her life she pioneered within Luxembourg to assist with the formation of local Spiritual Assemblies in Ettlebruck, Kopstal-Bride], and Walferdange.[18'6411 HOAR, WILLIAM H. (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahi.) A prominent Bahi'i teacher whose home in Fanwood, New Jersey, 'Abdu'l-Bahi visited on 3 1 May 1912. HOFMAN, DAVID (1908-2003). (Member, Universal House of Justice, 1963-1988.) An eminent author, orator, Bahi'i teacher, and administrator, he was born a British citizen in Poona, India, and accepted the Faith in the Montrdal, Canada, home of May and Sutherland Maxwell in 1933. Prior to his election to the Universal House of Justice in 1963, he worked as a radio announcer and actor and following his return to England (January 1936) had the distinction of being the only p r e o r l d War I1 male announcer for BBC Television for a brief period in 1937. In April 1936 he was elected to the British National Spiritual Assembly, on which body he served, except for brief intervals, for the next 27 years. Along with a number of other stalwart believers (including his wife, Marion Holley Hofman) he was a moving force and central player in winning the goals of that country's first Six Year Plan, to say nothing of
HOFMAN, MARION HOLLEY
23 1
subsequent plans and campaigns, particularly the spread of the Faith in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland as well as the opening of many countries and territories throughout Africa. In 1943 he founded the George Ronald Publishing Company (now George Ronald Publisher Ltd.) as an "occasional" publisher of Bahi'i materials; in 1947, with the encouragement of Shoghi Effendi and the British National Spiritual Assembly, the business was established as a full-time publishing house and since that time has served as a major source of Bahi'i literature. His own works include Commentary on Bahci'u'llbh: The Prince the Will and Testament of ;4bd~'l-Bahb,[~~~] and The Renewal of of Peace,[ll31 George Townshend, A Following his release from service on the Universal House of Justice he traveled widely throughout the world promoting the Bahb'i Teachings. On his death at the age of 94 in May 2003, the Universal House of Justice issued the following message to the Bahb'i world: We have learned, with sorrowing hearts, of the passing, in his ninetyfi& year, of our dearly loved former colleague, David Hohan, a vigorous promoter of the Faith for nigh on seven decades. From the moment of his acceptance of the Message of BahB'u'lltih in Montrkal, in July 1933, David served with exemplary zeal in Canada, the United States, the British Isles, the World Centre and, finally, to the last reserves of his strength, as a traveling teacher throughout the world. He will be remernbered for an adamantine loyalty to the Cause, an unfailing response to the call and guidance of the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice, a central role in the advancement of the British Bahi'i community and the launching of the brilliant f i c a Campaign, and his outstanding contributions to BahB'i literature both as an author and a publisher. His life was crowned by twenty-five years of distinguished service as a member of the Universal House of Justice kom 1963 to 1988. We are offering ardent prayers at the Sacred Threshold that his valiant soul may be richly in the 6Abhh ~ ~ n g d o m ~ [ 1 3 0 : V o l 20, No.2-Jul/Aug., 2W3,149:June5,2W3]
HOFMAN, MARION HOLLEY. A gifted Bahi'i teacher and administrator as well as an entrepreneur (publisher), she was born in California on 17 May 1910. She and her mother heard of the Faith from May Maxwell in 1917. Although Marion was brought up as a Bahi'i, she lost her belief in God during her university years and did not regain it until studying with Keith Ransom-Kehler in 1932. She became very active in teaching, writing, and administration and served on the United States National Teaching Committee throughout the first Seven Year Plan in 1937. With an already distinguishedrecord of service she
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went to England in 1945 to marry David Hofman, whom she had met many years previously while he was in the United States. Together they pioneered to Northampton, Birmingham, Oxford, Cardiff, and Watford. During this time they both served on the National Spiritual Assembly of the United Kingdom as well as its National Teaching Committee. Also during this time she continued her travel and teaching (and was known to be a brilliant speaker), raised two children, and took on a large amount of the editorial and business arrangements of her husband's publishing firm (George Ronald Publishing). In 1954 she served as one of the first two Auxiliary Board members appointed by Hand of the Cause of God George Townshend. This resulted in her traveling to many of the developing Baha'i communities in Europe. On the election of her husband to the Universal House of Justice in 1963 she assumed responsibility for the management of their publishing company and eventually relinquished her membership on the National Spiritual Assembly and the Auxiliary Board, thereby allowing her to join him in Haifa. On arrival, at the request of the Universal House of Justice, she used her deep knowledge of the Faith and capacities for meticulous research on their behalf. When her husband relinquished service on the Universal House of Justice they resettled in Oxford, England, where she again became involved in teaching and led study classes in Norway, Sweden, Holland, Czechoslovakia, and Ireland right into her 80s. In a tribute by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United Kingdom on her passing in December 1995, they wrote, "Her understanding of the World Order of Baha'u'llhh was unique and greatly enhanced by the answers to her questions given at the dinner table by Shoghi Effendi when on pilgrimage. When she returned to England from Haifa she continued to endear herself to all with whom she came into contact and her service to the Faith only lessened as her health deteriorated. Only future historians will be able to do justice to her unforgettable contributions to the progress of the Faith made 19961 during more than sixty years of her life."[130'Jm The Universal House of Justice cabled, Profoundly lament loss dearly loved, highly admired, stalwart handmaiden Bahii'u'll6h Marion Hofman now gathered glory Abh6 Kingdom. Community Most Great Name robbed of one of its tireless promoters whose accomplishments were praised beloved Guardian. Her service National Teaching Committee United States during first Seven Year Plan, National Spiritual Assembly British Isles, First Auxiliary Board Europe, and at World Centre Faith lovingly remembered.
HOLLEY, HORACE HOTCHKISS 233
Her promotion teaching, pioneering plans throughout British Community, her notable contribution enrichment Bahgi literature, her indomitable faith, unswerving devotion Covenant coupled with her loving nature, unflagging zeal and radiant spirit, greatly aided advancement Cause God. Confident her distinguished labours extending over period six decades British Isles, United States will inspire present future generation Baha'i 'emulate shining example her life. Assure fervent '~~~~ prayers Holy Shrines progress her noble s ~ u l . " [19961
HOKAFONU, MOSESE (1927-1979). A Tongan (Tongatapu Island) believer who donated the land for the Tongan national Hqiratu'lQuds. In 1968 he was appointed an Auxiliary Board member and traveled extensively in the islands of the South Pacific in the promotion of the C a u ~ e . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] HOLLEY, DORIS (PASCAL) (1894-1983). An early (1913) American believer of Irish birth, she was the wife of Hand of the Cause of God Horace Holley. Following his death in 1960 she moved in 1961 to Neuchiitel, Switzerland, where she remained as a pioneer for seven years before moving to Lausanne. In 1971 she moved to Limerick, Ireland, and then in 1976 to Dun Laoghaire to save the local Spiritual Assembly. In 1980 she moved to Greystones for the purpose of forming the local Spiritual Assembly of County Wicklow.[17:8221 HOLLEY, HORACE HOTCHKISS (1887-1960). (Hand of the Cause of God.) A gifted writer, poet, and Bahi'i administrator, he was born to a well-to-do family in Tomngton, Connecticut, 7 April 1887. He majored in literature at Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, graduating in 1909. He traveled, studied, and worked in Europe until the war broke out in 1914. On the cross-Atlantic voyage to Europe in 1909 he met and married a young artist, Bertha Herbert. It was Bertha who first introduced the Bahi'i Teachings to him. While living in Italy in 1911 they learned of the visit of 'Abdu'lBahh to Thonon-les-Bains, France, and were able to meet Him there and subsequently in Paris. It was in Paris that his first two books of poems were published, and it was there that he founded and became director of the Ashur Gallery of Modern Art. Following their return to the United States in 1913, he published his first book on the Bahi'i Faith, Bahd 'ism-The Modem Social Religion. In 1914 he moved to New York with his family. For the next 46 years his pen was never
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HOLLEY, HORACE HOTCHKISS
i d l e h e wrote poetry, books, articles, advertising material, editorials, lectures, compilations of Bahi'i scripture, and a vast correspondence carried out for the American National Spiritual Assembly. In 1919 Horace and Bertha were divorced, and that same year he married Doris Pascal (Holley). In 1923 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada and served that body as its full-time secretary for 34 years of his 36-year term. Interestingly, he did not resign his membership in the Episcopal Church (which he had joined sometime following his 1919 return fiom Europe) until 1933. The Administrative Order of the Bahi'i Faith was for the most part developed by Shoghi Effendi writing to the American Bahi'is through Horace. It was Horace who, on receipt of a letter fiom Shoghi Effendi, would study it, give it a title, divide it into chapters with subtitles, and produce it for the Bahi'i world. The close collaboration between Horace and Shoghi Effendi the Guardian is reflected in one of the many personal letters Shoghi Effendi wrote to him: "My dearest co-worker: I have lately followed your activities and efforts, as reflected in the minutes of the meetings you sent me, with true satisfaction and pleasure. . . . Your personal contribution to so many aspects and phases of the Movement, performed so diligently, so effectively and so thoroughly are truly a source of joy and inspiration to me. How much I feel the need of a similar worker by my side in Haifa, as competent, as thorough, as methodical, as alert as yourself. You cannot and should not leave your post for the present. Haifa will have to take care of itself for some time."[12:8531 It was, however, never to be. In 1925 Horace gave up earning his living in various companies to devote his entire life to Bahi'i service. The partnership that developed between Horace and Shoghi Effendi was dealt with in depth in by 'Amatu'l-Bahl Riihiyyih m l n u m when she penned an "In Memoriam" article for publication in the annual yearbook Baha'i World "That it worked so well, bore such fruit and survived the acid test of time, is a great compliment to the two people involved. For Shoghi Effendi was not dealing with a sycophant but a man of strong personality, views and capacity, and Horace was not dealing with a mere leader but a divinely inspired, infallibly guided spiritual r ~ l e r . ' ' [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Although constantly overworked, writing, editing, lecturing, participating in symposia, and being the pivot around which the vast majority of the administrative work of the U.S. National Spiritual Assembly revolved, he kept up his close correspondence with
HOLY PLACES
235
Shoghi Effendi, who, in turn, poured out his encouragement and appreciation. "Your ready pen, your brilliant mind, your marvelous vigor and organizing ability, above all your unwavering loyalty are assets that I greatly value and for which I am deeply grateful" (193 l).[12:854ffl "Assure you my ever deepening admiration your unrivaled services . . . " (1933).[12:854ffl A heart attack in 1944 left him with weakening health, but he attended the first Canadian National Convention in 1948 and the convention in 1951 in Panama City, when the first Central American National Spiritual Assembly was elected. He was in the first contingent of living Hands of the Cause to be appointed by Shoghi Effendi and was able to attend the Intercontinental Conferences in 1953 in Kampala, Stockholm, Chicago, and New Delhi in that capacity. In December 1953 he went on pilgrimage and met Shoghi Effendi for the first time. When Shoghi Effendi died suddenly and unexpectedly in November 1957, Horace was himself in hospital and unable to attend the h e r a l in London. Virtually an invalid, he attended the first and most vital Conclave meeting of the Hands of the Cause in the Holy Land in December 1957 and lent his considerable literary talents to the drafting of the proclamation sent to the Bahi'i world following the Conclave. It was during this meeting that the decision was taken that he should resign fiom the U.S. National Spiritual Assembly and take up residence in the Holy Land. He arrived with his wife in Israel on 31 December 1959, only to pass away after a brief six months on 12 July 1960. The Hands of the Cause, in their capacity as Custodians of the BahB'i Faith, sent the following message to the Bahi'i world: "Grieved announce passing Haifa much loved distinguished Hand Cause Horace Holley outstanding champion Faith since days Master, praised by beloved Guardian for unique contribution development Administrative Order. His indefatigable services protection teaching administrative fields culminating service Holy Land inspiring example present future generations Bahjl'iS."[12:849ff, 93:388, 1472141 HOLY DAYS, BAIL&'^. Eleven special days in the Bahi'i calendar year that commemorate significant events and on nine of which work is suspended. Refer to appendix 14 for a listing of Bahii'i calendar events. HOLY PLACES. Sites in irhn, 'IrPq, Turkey, and Israel that are associated with significant events in the lives of the Bib, BahP'u911Ph,
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and 'Abdu'l-BahP. These include the Houses of the three Central Figures of the Faith (see ~ h HOUSE , OF; B ~ ' u ' L L ~ , HOUSE OF) and their Shrines-the most sacred spot on earth being for Baha'is the Shrine of Bahb'u'llhh, Bahji, Israel (see BAB, SHRINE OF). These, and the houses SHRINE OF; B & ' u ' L L ~ , of the Bab in airsiz, kin, and that of Bahi'u'llhh in Baadaid, 'Iraq, are places for pilgrimage. Other places regarded as holy include the Shrine of the Bhb and the Shrine of 'Abdu'l-Baha in Haifa, Israel, as well as the Shrines of the other revered members of Baha'u'llhh's family on Mount Carmel, the Mansion at Bahji, and the grave of Shoghi Effendi, London. On the general theme of Holy Places, 'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote, "Holy places are undoubtedly centers of the outpouring of Divine grace, because on entering the illumined sites associated with martyrs and holy souls, and by observing reverence, both physical and spiritual, one's heart is moved with great t e n d e r n e s ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 HOLY SPIRIT. "The Holy Spirit is the Bounty of God and the luminous rays which emanate from the Manifestati~ns."[~~~:~~~] The term is used to indicate the outpouring from God to His Manifestations. Just as the nature of God is unknowable, so also is the nature of the Holy Spirit, and so it is frequently referred to in all dispensations in some symbolic form, such as the dove that "descended" upon Jesus; the angel Gabriel who appeared to M&ammad; the voice of God that "spoke" with Moses through the burning bush. Bahai'u'llaih refers to the "Maid of Heaven" when writing of His call to arise to proclaim His Mission. It is through the power of the Holy Spirit that God's Manifestations infuse all mankind with the capacity to evolve spiritually and carry out His purpose, as indicated in this passage from 'Abdu'l-Bahii: "Unless the Holy Spirit become intermediary, And again: one cannot attain directly to the bounties of God."[131:3671 "The world of humanity cannot advance through mere physical powers and intellectual attainments; nay, rather, the Holy Spirit is essential. The divine Father must assist the human world to attain maturity. The body of man is in need of physical and mental energy but his spirit [see SOUL] requires the life and fortification of the Holy Spirit."[131:2411 HOLY WAR. See J
I
~
.
HORNELL, KATHLEEN BROWN (1890-1977). (Lady Hornell.) An early (1923) British believer, she served as a member of the British
HUFFMAN, EVELYN 237
National Spiritual Assembly fiom 1936 until 1945. She also served as a member of the local Spiritual Assembly of London from 1932 until 1945 except for one year during World War I1 when she lived in Torquay (and even then she served on that local Spiritual Assembly). She traveled extensively throughout the country promoting the Cause and pioneered to such places as Nottingham, Belfast, and then Bangor, Northern Ireland, where she served on the first (1959) local Spiritual Assembly. In 1960 she pioneered to Venice and remained there until 1965, when she pioneered on to Cagliari, Sardinia. Toward the end of her life she returned to England to live with her son-in-law, Hand of the Cause of God Hasan Balyhzi, and her daughter, Molly Brown Balyiui. She died in London in September 1977 and was buried near the grave of Shoghi Effendi. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "Passing Lady Hornell robs British Community one of few remaining links early days Faith. Her unwavering faith constant dedicated services pioneer teaching administration fields over so many years assure her high station annals Cause provide shining example present future generations. Advise hold befitting memorial meeting. Assure ardent prayers Sacred Threshold progress her loving soul Abhh K i n g d ~ m . " [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] HOUSES OF JUSTICE. Administrative governing institutions of ~ " ~local ] the Bahh'i Faith. The Universal House of J ~ s t i c e [ ~and ~ ' ~ ~ ] known as local Spiritual AssemHouses of J u s t i ~ e , [ ~currently In blies, were ordained by Bahh'u'llhh in the Kitrib-i-Aqda~.[~~'~~] that Book He set out their functions and duties, both of which were further explained and delineated by 'Abdu'l-Bahh and Shoghi Effendi. The temporary designation of "Spiritual Assemblies" was one introduced by 'Abdu'l-Bah6 and will, at some future point, evolve into "Houses of Justice." Shoghi Effendi wrote, "This clearly places heavy responsibilities on the local as well as national Assemblies, which in the course of time will evolve, with the Master's power and guidance, into the local and national Houses of Jusof the National Spiritual Assembly ("sect i ~ e . " [ ~The ~ ' l ~institution ] ondary" House of Justice) was created in 'Abdu'l-Baha's Will and Testament with the remit of governing Bah6'i affairs at a national level. It is also the body whose members elect the members of the Universal House of J ~ s t i c e . [ ~ ~ : ' ~ ] HUFFMAN, EVELYN (1911-1978). She and her husband (Vern, 19061974) were among the early (1945) believers in Alaska. A year
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or so after becoming Baha'is they moved from Anchorage (which was the only Baha'i community in Alaska at that time) to a property about 10 miles fiom the town and in so doing formed the nucleus of what was to be the second local Spiritual Assembly in Alaska. In 1957 Evelyn was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Alaska and served as its secretary for 7 of her 10 years on that body. The Huffmans donated the land on which the Alaskan national Hqiratu'l-Quds is built. In 1965 they pioneered to Prince of Wales Island. Following the death of her husband (1974) Evelyn served for 1 year at the Baha'i World Centre (1976-1977). She returned to Alaska, and despite her deteriorating health, she continued her teaching activities among the Indian and Eskimo peoples until her own passing in 1978.[16:4671 HUMAN RIGHTS. 'Abdu'l-Bahh said, "Bahh'u'llhh teaches that an equal standard of human rights must be recognized and adopted. In the estimation of God all men are equal; there is no distinction or preferment for any soul in the dominion of His justice and eq~ity."[l~~:~~0fl Elsewhere He said that "the Baha'i Cause covers all economic and social questions under the heading and ruling of its laws. The essence of the Baha'i spirit is that, in order to establish a better social order and economic condition, there must be allegiance to the laws and principles of government. . . .The governments will enact these laws, establishing just legislation and economics in order that all humanity may enjoy a full measure of welfare and privilege; but this will always be according to legal protection and procedure. Without legislative administration, rights and demands fail, and the welfare of the commonwealth [see WORLD COMMONWEALTH] cannot be r e a l i ~ e d . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ l In February 1947, the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of the United States and Canada presented a statement to the Human Rights Commission entitled A Bahh 'i Declaration of Human Obligawhich set out in four chapters the Baha'i position tions and Rights,[lg01 on human rights. The underlying purpose of the statement was not to catalog every desirable human right but to suggest an approach by which the nature of essential rights can be determined. As here defined, a human right is an expression of man's divine endowment given social status by a moral and sovereign body. A right attains social status only after it has become a moral value asserted and maintained as a necessary quality of human relationships by the members of the community. Among the essential human rights characterizing the new world era are those concerned with: (1) the individual; (2) the family;
(3) race; (4) work and wealth; (5) education; (6) worship; (7) social order. . . . World order has become legally possible, socially imperative, and divinely ordained. The principle of federation has already united previously independent communities diverse in race, language, religion and size of population. The nations can find just expression for their legitimate rights and needs through proportionate representation in a supranational body. Until world citizenship is guaranteed as a social status, the human rights and privileges developed in the past are undermined by the disruption of modern s ~ c i e t y . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ l
Further developing this theme, the Bahsi'i International Community, as an outcome of the Earth Summit, June 1992, presented a statement to the first session of the Commission on Sustainable Development, June 1993, entitled World CitizenshipA Global Ethic for Sustainable Development. Referring to the educational programs called for in Agenda 21, they wrote, "Based on the principle of the oneness of the human race, they should cultivate tolerance and brotherhood, nurturing an appreciation for the richness and importance of the world's diverse cultural, religious and social systems and strengthening those traditions that contribute to a sustainable, world civilization. They should teach the principle of 'unity in diversity' as the key to strength and wealth both for the nations and for the world community. They should foster an ethic of service to the common good and convey an understanding of both the rights and the responsibilities of world citizenship." In a statement issued in time for wide use at the Social Development Summit, Copenhagen, 1995, the Bahi'i International Community wrote that "at the heart of the discussion of a strategy of social and economic development, therefore lies the issue of human rights. The shaping of such a strategy calls for the promotion of human rights to be freed from the grip of the false dichotomies that have for so long held it hostage. Concern that each human being should enjoy the freedom of thought and action conducive to his or her personal growth does not justify devotion to the cult of individualism that so deeply corrupts many areas of contemporary life."[191'10fl By 2005 the Bahi'i International Community had issued some 55 statements on human rights themes (all of which are available on See also PERSECUTION. their web~ite).[l~~] HUMAN SPIRIT. See MIND; SOUL.
HUQUQ. See NQUQU'LL~II-THE RIGHT OF GOD.
HUQUQU'LL~-THE RIGHT OF GOD. (Huqtiq.) The voluntary payment of 19 percent of an individual's disposable income when his or her assessable possessions reach or exceed the value of 19 miaqhls of gold. This law was ordained by Bahh'u'llhh as both a spiritual obligation and a bounty. Clear guidelines are given by Him in His Book of Law (Kitdb-i-Aqdas) and amplified by 'Abdu'l-BahB, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice. The Universal House of Justice summarized the law of Huququ'llih as follows: One of the fundamental Bahb'i ordinances of the Bahi'i Faith, it is a great law and a sacred institution laid down by Bahi'u'llih in the Kitiibi-Aqdas. It is one of the key instruments for constructingthe foundation and supporting the structure of the World Order of BahB'u'llih. Its far-reaching ramifications extend fiom enabling individuals to express their devotion to God in a private act of conscience that attracts divine blessings and bounties for the individual, promotes the common good, and directly connects individuals with the Central Institution of the Faith, to buttressing the authority and extending the activity of the Head of the Faith. The law prescribes that each Bahi'i shall pay a certain portion of his accumulated savings after the deduction of all expenses and of certain exempt properties such as one's residence. These payments provide a fund at the disposition of the Head of the Faith for carrying out beneficent activities. Huququ'llkh is administered by the Universal House of Justice, and payments are made to trustees appointed by the Universal House of Justice in every country or region. In providing a regular and systematic source of revenue for the Central Institution of the Cause, Bahi'u'llih has assured the means for the independence and decisive functioning of the World Centre of His Faith. . . . The law was codified in 1987 and made universally applicable as of Ri(lvhn 1992 to all who profess belief in B a h b ' ~ ' l l i h . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
The payment of Huqtiqu'llhh is based on the gold standard. The amount due is 19 percent of income after living expenses. Each believer, individually, must decide on what "standard of living" is to be observed before the required 19 percent is paid. This therefore combines the freedom of the individual with the compulsory payment and allows for the full expression of each Baha'i to determine how much of an element of sacrsce is involved. The Bahi'i Writings make it clear that no one should ever feel forced to pay, nor may a Baha'i be solicited for payment. The use of the funds raised by this payment is for the promotion of the Faith and for charitable purposes. There is a difference between the normal contributions to the Baha'i fund and Huqtiqu'llih: the latter is seen, as the name implies, to be "the right of God," while ordinary donations are entirely in
the province of the believer to determine when, how much, and to which fund to make contributions. Bahii'is believe that the payment of Huqfiqu'llih actually purifies the possessions of those who pay it. Bahb'u'llhh wrote that "it is clear and evident that the payment of the Right of God is conducive to prosperity, to blessing, and to honor and Divine protection. Well is it with them that comprehend and recognize this truth and woe betide them that believe not. And this is on condition that the individual should observe the injunctions prescribed in the Book with the utmost radiance, gladness and willing acquiescence. It behoveth you to counsel the friends to do that which is right and praiseworthy. Whoso hearkeneth to this call, it is to his own behoof, and whoso faileth bringeth loss upon himself. Verily our Lord of Mercy is the All-Sufficing, the All-praised."[87'3401 Bahii'u'llhh Himself answered a question concerning the precedence of Huqfiqu'llhh as a payment as follows: "Thou hast asked which is to take precedence: the Huqfiqu'llhh, the debts of the deceased, or the cost of burial. It is God's command that the cost of burial take precedence, then payment of debts, then the Right of God. Verily He is the One Who will pay due recompense, the All-Rewarding, the AllGenerous. If the property is not equal to the debts, the estate must be distributed in direct proportion to each debt. The settlement of debts is a most important command set forth in the Book. Well is it with him who ascendeth unto God, without any obligations to Huqfiqu'llih and to His servants. It is evident that the Huqfiqu'llih hath priority over all other l i a b i l i t i e ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bahii wrote that "the Lord, as a sign of His infinite bounties, hath graciously favored His servants by providing for a fixed money offering muqfiq), to be dutifully presented unto Him, though He, the True One and His servants have been at all times independent of all created things, and God verily is the All-Possessing, exalted above the need of any gift from His creatures. This fixed money offering, however, causeth the people to become firm and steadfast and draweth Divine increase upon them. It is to be offered through the Guardian of the Cause of God, that it may be expended for the difision of the Fragrances of God and the exaltation of His Word, for benevolent pursuits and for the common ~ e a l . " [ ~ ~ ' l ~ ] HUSAYN. The third Imaim, second son of 'Ali and Fiilimih, martyred on the plains of Karbilii in A.D. 680.[18:7371m HUSAYN~YIH.A place where the martyrdom of the I m h Husayn is mourned or where Muslim passion plays may be presented. The
term is the designation that was given to Bahh'u'llhh's Most Great House in B a a d i d after its forcible occupation by the a i ' a h community.[18:737]Q2 HYDE-DUNN. See DUNN, JOHN HENRY HYDE.
-I-. Sound inserted in pronunciation (though not represented in Persian script) at the end of a word to indicate that the following word stands in a possessive or adjectival relation to it.[18:7371"
IBN-I-ABHAR. See H A J ~ M ~ R Z A MUHAMMAD-TAQ~Y-I-
AH BAR^. IBN-I-ASDAQ. See I ~ R Z A 'AL~MU~AMMAD.
i ~Clan, . t~-ibe.['~:~~~]" 1MkV. Head, chief, leader. (1) Muslim cleric who leads the congregation in prayer. (2) Title applied by the ni'ahs to each of the 12 successors of M4ammad in the line of 'Ali.[18:7371m 1MkV-JUM'IH. Muslim clergyman who performs the Friday prayers, the chief Imhm in a town or city; chief of the mullhs, who recites the Friday prayers for the so~ereign.['~:~~~1" 1 M k V - Z ~ I HDescendant . of an Imsim, or his ~ h r i n e . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ~ INCARNATION. See GOD, INCARNATION OF. INDEPENDENT SEARCH AFTER TRUTH. Shoghi Effendi wrote that the independent search after truth needs to be "unfettered by and that it is one of the cardinal social superstition or traditi~n"[~~:~~'] principles of the Bahii'i Faith. 'Abdu'l-Bahsi explained that this was one of the first principles of Bahh'u'llhh and said, Among these teachings was the independent investigation of reality so that the world of humanity may be saved from the darkness of imitation
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and attain to the truth; may tear off and cast away this ragged and outgrown garment . . . and may put on the robe woven in the utmost purity and holiness in the loom of reality. As reality is one and cannot admit of multiplicity, therefore different opinions must ultimately become fused into one.[100:2981 Man must cut himself free from all prejudice and from the result of his own imagination, so that he may be able to search for truth unhindered. Truth is one in all religions, and by means of it the unity of the world can be realized. All the peoples have a fundamental belief in common. Being one, truth cannot be divided, and the differences that appear to exist among the nations only result from their attachment to prejudice. If only men would search out truth, they would find themselves ~ n i t e d . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Another new principle revealed by His Holiness Bahi'u'llih is the injunction to investigate truth' that is to say, no man should blindly follow his ancestors and forefathers. Nay, each must see with his own eyes, hear with his own ears and investigate the truth himself in order that he may follow the truth instead of blind acquiescenceand imitation of ancestral beliefs. His Holiness Bahi'u'llih has announced that the foundation of all the religions of God is one; that oneness is truth and truth is oneness which does not admit of plurality. This teaching is new and specialized to this M a n i f e ~ t a t i o n . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ]
Writing on the subject of truth, Shoghi Effendi said that "Divine Truth is relative and that is why we are enjoined to constantly refer the seeker to the Word itself-and why any explanations we make to ease the journey of the soul of any individual must be based on the ~ ~also l ~ ] TRUE SEEKER. Word-and the Word a l ~ n e . " [ ~See INFALLIBILITY. Bahi'is understand there to be two kinds of infallibility (freedom from error): that which is "conferred" and that which is "inherent." Inherent infallibility rests only with the Manifestation of God that Bahai'u'llaih describes in the Kitkb-i-Aqdas as "He [Who] doeth whatsoever He Willeth."[71:361 'Abdu'l-Bahai explains the concept as follows: Infallibility is of two kinds: essential infallibility and acquired infallibility. In like manner there is essential knowledge and acquired knowledge; and so it is with other names and attributes. Essential infallibility is peculiar to the supreme Manifestation, for it is His essential requirement, and an essential requirement cannot be separated from the thing itself. The rays are the essential necessity of the sun and are inseparable from it. Knowledge is an essential necessity of God and is inseparable from Him. Power is an essentialnecessity of God and is inseparablefrom
Him. If it could be separated from Him, He would not be God. If the rays could be separated from the sun, it would not be the sun. Therefore, if one imagines separation of the Most Great Infallibility from the supreme Manifestation, He would not be the supreme Manifestation, and He would lack the essential perfections. But acquired infallibility is not a natural necessity; on the contrary, it is a ray of the bounty of infallibility which shines from the Sun of Reality upon hearts, and grants a share and portion of itself to souls. . . . To epitomize: essential infallibility belongs especially to the supreme Manifestations, and acquired infallibility is granted to every holy soul. For instance, the Universal House of Justice. . . will be under the protection and the unerring guidance of God. If that House of Justice shall decide unanimously, or by a majority, upon any question not mentioned in the Book, that decision and command will be guarded from mistake. Now the members of the House of Justice have not, individually, essential infallibility; but the body of the House of Justice is under the protection and unerring guidance of God: this is called conferred infallibility.[121:171ffl
While Bahh'u'llhh therefore had the Most Great Infallibility, infallibility was conferred by Him through His Covenant (Kitaib-i-'Ahd) to ' A b d ~ ' l - B a h h [ ' ~and ~ ~ ~the ~ ] Universal House of Justice, and by 'Abdu'l-Bahh, on Shoghi Effendi acting as Guardian. In this respect, however, Shoghi Effendi wrote, "The infallibility of the Guardian is confined to matters which are related strictly to the Cause and interpretation of the teachings; he is not an infallible authority on other subjects, such as economics, science, e t ~ . " [ ' ~ ~ : ~ ~ f l Writing on the subject of its infallibility the Universal House of Justice wrote in an unpublished letter of 14 June 1996, In describing the House of Justice, 'Abdu'l-BahP states clearly, "Whatever will be its decision, by majority vote, shall be the real truth, inasmuch as that House is under the protection, unerring guidance and care of the one true Lord. He shall guard it from error and will protect it under the wing of His sanctity and infallibility. He who opposes it is cast out and will eventually be of the defeated." It is the exclusive sphere of the Universal House of Justice to "pronounce upon and deliver the finaljudgment on such laws and ordinances as BahP'u'llkh has not expressly revealed." It carries responsibility for the application of the revealed Word, the protection of the Faith, as well as the duty "to insure the continuity of that divinely-appointed authority which flows from the Source of our Faith, to safeguard the unity of its followers and to maintain the integrity and flexibility of its Teachings." However, the Universal House of Justice is not omniscient, and the fiends should understand that there is a difference between infallibility and omniscience. Like the Guardian, the House of Justice
INTELLECT 245
wants to be provided with facts when called upon to render a decision, and like him it may well change its decision when new facts emerge, or in light of changed conditions at some point in the future.[lg31
IN-s~%&'A'LL~. If God ~ i l l s . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ~ INSTITUTIONS. Several types of institutions draw their existence and authority from Bahh'u'llhh, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, Shoghi Effendi (as Guardian), and the Universal House of Justice. Among these are local Spiritual Assemblies, the Nineteen Day Feast, Continental Boards of Counsellors, Auxiliary Boards, the Maariqu'l-Aaksir, the International Teaching Centre, various funds, Huququ'llsih, and summer schools, as well as a number of other similar organizational entities found in the Bahi'i Writings. INTELLECT. The capacity of the human mind, as the common faculty linking the physical senses and the soul (which is, in turn, that unique power that places human beings above all other life forms), extracts from the Words of ~ : ~following ~l for rational t h o ~ g h t . [ ~The 'Abdu'l-Bahh are particularly descriptive: All the powers and attributes of man are human and hereditary in origin, outcomes of nature's processes, except the intellect, which is supernatural. Through intellectual and intelligent inquiry science is the discoverer of all things. It unites present and past, reveals the history of bygone nations and events, and confers upon man today the essence of all human knowledge and attainment throughout the ages. By intellectual processes and logical deductions of reason, this super-power in man can penetrate the mysteries of the future and anticipate its h a p p e n i n g ~ J ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] Science is the first emanation fiom God toward man. All created beings embody the potentiality of material perfection, but the power of intellectual investigation and scientific acquisition is a higher virtue specialized to man a l ~ n e . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] We find in him (humankind) justice, sincerity, faithfulness, knowledge, wisdom, illumination, mercy and pity coupled with intellect, comprehension, the power to grasp the realities of things and the ability to penetrate the truths of exi~tence.['~~''~~1 God's greatest gift to man is that of intellect, or understanding. . . . The understanding is the power by which man acquires his knowledge of the several kingdoms of creation, and of various stages of existence, as well as of much which is invisible. . . . Possessing this gift, he is, in himself, the sum of earlier creationehe is able to get into touch with those kingdoms; and by this gift, he can frequently, through his scientific knowledge, reach out with prophetic vision. "Intellect is, in truth,
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the most precious gift bestowed upon man by the Divine Bounty. Man alone, among created beings, has this wonderful This light of the intellect is the highest light that exists, for it is born of the Light Divine.[5269] The power of the intellect is one of God's greatest gifts to men, it is the power that makes him a higher creature than the animal!5z:721
INTERCALARY DAYS. See AYYAM-I-HA. INTERCESSION. The action of pleading on someone's behalf through prayer and supplication. 'Abdu'l-Bahh makes it clear that this is an important part of Bahh'i belief The wealth of the other world is nearness to God. Consequently it is certain that those who are near the Divine Court are allowed to intercede, and this intercession is approved by God. But intercession in the other world is not like intercession in this world: it is another thing, another reality, which cannot be expressed in ~ o r d s . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] The progress of man's spirit [see MIND; SOUL] in the divine world, after the severance of its connection with the body of dust, is through the bounty and grace of the Lord alone, or through the intercession and the sincere prayers of other human souls, or through the charities and important good works which are performed in its name.[121:ml
INTERCONTINENTAL CONFERENCES. See INTERNATIONAL TEACHING CONFERENCES. INTERNATIONAL ARCHIVES BUILDING. An institution of the Bahh'i Administrative Order situated on the Arc on Mount Carmel. It preserves the sacred relics of Bahh'u'llhh, the Bhb, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, and Shoghi Effendi, as well as other personal artifacts associated with some early believers. Among the items held are portraits and original manuscripts of the Central Figures along with a few remaining personal effects. Bahh'i pilgrims are allowed to view these relics and archives. The building was completed in 1957 (under the direct supervision of Shoghi Effendi) and was the first of five buildings on the Arc to be constructed. INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE. In the Kithb-iAqdas, Bahh'u'llhh mandates the selection of a single universal language and a common script whereby the peoples of the world may l:~~] stated, communicate with each ~ t h e r . [ ~'Abdu'l-Bahh
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dCOUNCIL i
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One of the great steps towards universal peace would be the establishment of a universal language. Bahi7u'll& commands that the servants of humanity should meet together, and either choose a language which now exists, or form a new one.[52:1551 Bahii'u'llfi advocated one language as the greatest means of unity and the basis of international conference. He wrote to the kings and rulers of the various nations, recommending that one language should be sanctioned and adopted by all governments [see PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND RULERS]. According to this each nation should acquire the universal language in addition to its native tongue. The world would then be in close communication, consultation would become general, and dissensions due to diversity of speech would be rem~ved.[~~:~~~]
INTERNATIONAL ~ a ' BUREAU. i In March 1925, on the instruction of Shoghi Effendi, this bureau was established in Geneva by Mrs. Stannard, to function as an intermediary between Haifa and other Bahi'i centers. It subsequently gained official recognition by the League of Nations. During its existence it published a bulletin, Messenger Bahd'i, in English, French, and German. In 1925 and 1926 it hosted the international Esperanto Congresses, and it was at these gatherings that Lydia Zamenhof met the Faith, became a Bahi'i, and for several years helped occasionally in the work of the Bureau. It was closed in 1957 and its work taken over by the Bahai'i International Community. INTERNATIONALBAIX&'~COUNCIL. On 9 January 1951 Shoghi Effendi cabled, through the National Spiritual Assembly of United States, "Proclaim National Assemblies East West weighty epochmaking decision formation first International Bah6'i Council, forerunner supreme administrative institution [see UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE] destined emerge fullness time within precincts beneath shadow World Spiritual Center Faith already established twin cities Akkai Haifa. . . . Most significant milestone evolution Administrative Order Faith Bahi'u'llih course last thirty years. . . . Invested threefold function-first, forge link authorities newly emerged State; second assist me discharge responsibilities involved erection mighty superstructure Baib's Holy Shrine; third, conduct negotiations related matters personal status civil authoritie~."[~~:~] Naturally, other functions were added as the Council evolved and developed. Initially it had six members; two more were added, and then another in 1955, raising the total to nine. During Shoghi
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dLIBRARY i
Effendi's lifetime, membership came through his appointment. On his death in 1957 the Council continued to function under the guidance of the Hands of the Cause of God, and in April 1961 it became an elected body of nine members. All adult Bahb'is in good standing were eligible, and the members of all the Regional and National Spiritual Assemblies elected in 1960 were called upon to cast their votes by mail. Having served its function it was dissolved on the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963.
INTERNATIONAL BAHA'~LIBRARY. One of five buildings situated on the Arc on Mount Carmel. The Universal House of Justice has described its function as follows: "This Library is the central depository of all literature published on the Faith, and is an essential source of information for the institutions of the World Centre on all subjects relating to the Cause of God and the conditions of mankind. In hture decades its functions must grow, it will serve as an active center for knowledge in all fields, and it will become the kernel of great institutions of scientific investigation and d i s ~ o v e r y . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] INTERNATIONAL TEACJ3ING CENTRE. One of five buildings situated on the Arc on Mount Carmel. It was first established by the Universal House of Justice in 1973 when they announced both its creation and its duties: The time is indeed propitious for the establishment of the International Teaching Center, a development which, at one and the same time, brings to fruition the work of the Hands of the Cause residing in the Holy Land and provides for its extension into the future, links the institution of the (Continental) Boards of Counsellors even more intimately with that of the Hands of the Cause of God, and powefily reinforces the discharge of the rapidly growing responsibilities of the Universal House of Justice. The duties now assigned to this nascent institution are: To co-ordinate, stimulate and direct the activities of the Continental Boards of Counsellors and to act as liaison between them and the Universal House of Justice. To be l l l y informed of the situation of the Cause in all parts of the world and to be able, from the background of this knowledge, to make reports and recommendations to the Universal House of Justice and give advice to the Continental Boards of Counsellors. To be alert to possibilities, both within and without the BahB'i community, for the extension of the teaching work into receptive or needy areas, and to draw the attention of the Universal House of Justice and
INTERNATIONAL TEACHING CONFERENCES 249
the Continental Boards of Counsellors to such possibilities, making recommendations for action. To determine and anticipate needs for literature, pioneers and traveling teachers and to work out teaching plans, both regional and global, for the approval of the Universal House of Justice. All the Hands of the Cause of God will be members of the International Teaching Center. Each Hand will be kept regularly informed of the activities of the Center through reports or copies of its minutes, and will be able, wherever he may be residing or traveling, to convey suggestions, recommendations and information to the Center and, whenever he is in the Holy Land, to take part in the consultations and other activities of the
Basically, its prime functions are the protection and propagation of the Cause as well as the development of social and economic life inside and outside the Bahh'i community. Its permanent seat, as one of the five buildings on the Arc, was inaugurated in January 200 1. INTERNATIONAL TEACHING CONFERENCES. There have been several kinds of Bahii'i International Teaching Conferences. One is Intercontinental Conferences, such as the first four that took place in 1953 in Kampala, Uganda; Chicago, United States; Stockholm, Sweden; and New Delhi, India. A second series took place in 1958-in Kampala, Uganda, Sydney, Australia; Chicago, United States; Frankf?urt,Germany; and Djakarta-Singapore.Under the auspices of the Universal House of Justice a new series of Intercontinental Conferences began-six in 1967-in Chicago, Sydney, Kampala, Frankfurt, New Delhi, and Panama City. In August 1968 the first Bahii'i Oceanic Conference took place in Palermo, Sicily, to commemorate the centenary of the voyage of BahP'u'llPh fiom Gallipoli to ' A M . In 197&1971 there was a Continental Conference in La Paz, Bolivia, and an Oceanic Conference in Rose Hall, Mauritius; a Continental Conference in Monrovia, Liberia; and the Oceanic Conferences of the South China Seas in Singapore; of the Caribbean in Kingston, Jamaica; of the South Pacific in Suva, Fiji Islands; of the North Pacific in Sapporo, Japan; of the North Atlantic in Reykjavik, Iceland. The first designated International Teaching Conference was held in Helsinki, Finland, in July 1976 followed by those in Anchorage, Alaska; Paris, France; Nairobi, Kenya; and Hong Kong; in 1977 in Auckland, New Zealand; then in Bahia, Brazil; and Merida, Mexico. In 1982 there were Commemorative International Conferences in Dublin, Ireland; in Qulto, Ecuador; in Lagos, Nigeria; in Canberra, Australia; and in Montrkal, Canada.
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INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL. See SUPREME TRIBUNAL. INTERPRETATION. Through His Covenant (Kitsib-i-'Ahd), BahB'u'llBh invested the sole authority to interpret His Words to His Eldest Son and Successor, 'Abdu'l-BahB: "The Will of the divine Testator is this . . . 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch (Abd~'l-Bahii)."['~~:~~~] 'Abdu'l-Bahi's Will and Testament in turn invested that same sole authority on His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi, through his appointment as Guardian. 0 my loving friends! After the passing away of this wronged one, it is incumbent upon the Ag4$an [Branches], the Afnhn [Twigs] of the Sacred Lote-Tree, the Hands (pillars) of the Cause of God and the loved ones of the Abhk Beauty to turn unto Shoghi Effendi-the youthful branch branched from the two hallowed and sacred Lote-Trees and the fruit grown from the union of the two offshoots of the Tree of Holiness,-as he is the sign of God, the chosen branch, the Guardian of the Cause of God, he unto whom all . . . must turn. He is the Interpreter of the Word of God and after him will succeed the first-born of his lineal de~cendants.[~~ll]
When Shoghi Effendi died intestate, and in the absence of other written or oral instructions on the subject of succession, there was no means of appointing fkther successors. The pronouncements of the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice on the inability of the House of Justice to assume the interpretative function include these: There are those prerogatives and duties which lie exclusively within the sphere of the Guardian himself and, therefore, in the absence of a Guardian, are inoperative except insofar as the monumental work already performed by Shoghi Effendi continues to be of enduring benefit to the Faith. Such a function is that of authoritative interpretation of the Teaching~.[~~~l~] A clear distinction is made in our Faith between authoritative interpretation and the interpretation or understanding that each individual arrives at for himself from his study of its teachings. While the former is confined to the Guardian, the latter, according to the guidance given to us by the Guardian himself, should by no means be suppressed. In fact such individual interpretation is considered the fiuit of man's rational power and conducive to a better understanding of the teachings, provided that no disputes or arguments arise among the friends and the
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individual himself understands and makes it clear that his views are merely his own. Individual interpretations continually change as one grows in comprehension of the
The role of the Universal House of Justice is, however, clarified in this extract: In a letter dated 9 March 1965, the Universal House of Justice stresses the "profound difference" that exists between the "interpretations of the Guardian and the elucidations of the House of Justice in exercise of its h c t i o n to 'deliberate upon all problems which have caused difference, questions that are obscure, and matters that are not expressly recorded ~ : ~ ~ l these is the outlining of such steps as are in the B o ~ k . " ' [ ~ Among necessary to establish the World Order of Bahii7u'll& on this earth. The elucidations of the Universal House of Justice stem fiom its legislative function, while the interpretations of the Guardian represent the true intent inherent in the Sacred Texts. The major distinction between the two functions is that legislation with its resultant outcome of elucidation is susceptible of amendment by the House of Justice itself, whereas the Guardian's interpretation is a statement of truth which cannot be ~ a r i e d . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
INTERREGNUM. See THE MINISTRY OF THE CUSTODIANS. INTOLERANCE, RELIGIOUS. See FANATICISM, RELIGIOUS. IOAS, LEROY C. (1896-1965). (Hand of the Cause of God.) A businessman by profession, he was born in Wilmington, Illinois, on 15 February 1896 of German parents: His father came from a Lutheran background, and his mother was a Roman Catholic. They accepted the Bahil'i Faith in 1898 and remained dedicated servants until their passing. They met 'Abdu'l-Bahai in Chicago in 1912, and it was Leroy who led his parents to greet Him in a crowded hotel lobby. In that same year he started work in the railway industry, which he continued for 40 years, rising fiom an insignificant position to a senior executive. He married Sylvia Kuhlman (Ioas) in 1919 and settled in San Francisco. Almost immediately he wrote to 'Abdu'l-Bahb begging for confirmation for his family and children unborn as well as for his own severance from the world, knowledge, and steadfastness. The Ioas opened their home for deepening study classes, and he found himself almost unaided conducting classes with 100 students in attendance. This, along with the responsibilities of his job, the chairmanship of the San Francisco local Spiritual Assembly
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and membership on the Western States Teaching Committee, began to affect his health. In response to the shortage of trained Bahb'i teachers he was instrumental in the creation of three different plans of teaching-to develop very large unity conferences; to establish a teaching plan, which later found its consummation in the first Seven Year Plan (1937-1944); and to find a place (see SUMMER SCHOOLS) where people could gather for a period of one or two weeks for the dual purpose of deepening their understanding of the Faith and preparing them for public teaching. These ideas developed into projects that greatly influenced the growth of the Faith not only in America but also throughout the Bahh'i world. He had a creative vision, a practical sense, and determination, and his hopes for the expansion of the Faith seemed boundless. With the support of Dr. David Starr Jordan, Rabbi Rudolf Coffee, and other civic leaders he organized the first Conference for World Unity in the Palace Hotel, San Francisco on 2&22 March 1925. The Bahb'is then sponsored a series of such conferences in 16 cities in the United States and Canada during the next two years. With John Bosch and George Lather, he planned and established the Geyserville Summer School, which opened in 1927. In 1932 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada (as its youngest member) and was at once appointed to the National Teaching Committee and served as its chairman for 14 years. In September 1935 he placed before Shoghi Effendi the committee's plans for the teaching work and was himself an ardent worker throughout the subsequent Seven Year Plan, which achieved all its goals of establishing Spiritual Assemblies in the 34 states and provinces of the United States and Canada, trebled the number of localities where Bahh'is lived, and realized all its goals in Latin America. Leroy began to participate in international circles in 1948, and his reputation in groups outside the Bahb'i Faith was increasing. He was in the first contingent of Hands of the Cause appointed in December 1951 and was called to Haifa as secretary-general of the International Bahsi'i Council, a position he held fiom 1952 to 1961. He represented Shoghi Effendi at the Kampala (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in1953 and the dedication of the British Hqiratu'l-Quds, London, in 1955. He visited centers throughout Germany in 1956 and participated in the International Teaching Conferences in Chicago in April-May 1958 and DjakartaSingapore, in September 1958. He also toured Bahb'i communities in the British Isles in September-October 1961 and Scandinavia, Germany, and Luxembourg in July-September 1962.
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On his arrival in Haifa in March 1952 he not only found himself one of the four Hands of the Cause to reside there and the secretary-general of the International Bahb'i Council, but he also served Shoghi Effendi as an assistant secretary. Among his duties were the consolidation of the Council's relationship with the civil authorities in Israel, negotiations for the purchase of a number of properties in Israel, the establishment of Israeli branches of four National Spiritual Assemblies, and the supervision of the construction of the drum and dome of the Shrine of the Bsib and the International Archives Building on Mount Carmel-working all the time under close direction from Shoghi Effendi. His contact with non-Bahb'i organizations developed, and he lectured widely and gave press interviews, which resulted in much favorable publicity in the United States, South Africa, and Europe. His crowning service in the Holy Land was "the final and definite purification, after the lapse of no less than six decades, of the Outer Sanctuary of the Most Holy Shrine of the Bahh'i world," the securing, on 2 December 1957, of the title to the Shrine of Bahsi'u'llsih, the Mansion at Bahji, and all other buildings and lands from those defectors and Covenant breakers. No doubt this heavy workload, with its concomitant enormous pressures, continued to task his health, and by 1953 his heart was severely weakened-so much so that he required long periods of rest and cure, which he undertook almost annually in Europe or America. To him, however, teaching was "the creative phase of the Faith," and following the Shoghi Effendi's passing he was called upon more and more to share with the fiends his intimate knowledge of him and his works as well as what he had himself experienced though his life-long service to the Faith. He was able to "evoke the life, the spirit and the very presence of the Guardian," and as one writer said, "your spiritual power is . . . entirely irresi~tible."[~~:~~~] In February-April 1964 he traveled to meet the Balxi'is of eight regions of the States, including Florida, Georgia, Arizona, and California. A photograph taken at the time gave evidence of his increased frailty, with chronic bronchitis adding to his heart condition. This was bad enough that he was unable to return to Haifa until October. However, his teaching contribution was unique, as during this period he met nearly 1,600 Bahi'is, many of them new believers. He returned to Haifa broken in health but rejoicing in spirit that he had been able to carry out a hope expressed long before by Shoghi Effendi: "You will, I am sure, persevere till the very end." Following some weeks in hospital he died on 22 July 1965 and was buried in the Mount Carmel Bahi'i Cemetery near his lifelong colleagues Milly Collins and Horace Holley. The Universal House of
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Justice cabled, "Grieved announce passing outstanding Hand Cause Leroy Ioas. His long serviceBahb'i Community United States crowned elevation rank Hand Faith paving way historic distinguished services Holy Land. Appointment first Secretary General International Baha'i Council, personal representative Guardian Faith two intercontinental conferences, association his name by beloved Guardian octagon door Bib's Sepulcher, notable part erection International Archives building, all ensure his name immortal annals Faith."[13:291* 39:1571 IOAS, MARL4 B. (18651953). An early American believer and mother of Hand of the Cause of God Leroy Ioas. Shoghi Effendi wrote on her passing, "Share your grief at passing of esteemed veteran of Faith, Maria Ioas. Soul rejoicing in the Abhsi Kingdom at the services rendered by her dear son at the World Center of the Faith in the triple function of Hand of the Cause, Secretary-General of the Council and supervisor of construction of the dome of the Bsib's SepUlCher."[ll:688,93:389] IOAS, SYLVIA KUHLMAN (1895-1983). An early (19 19) American believer of Czech parentage, she married Leroy Ioas. In May 1955 she was appointed the ninth member of the International Bahsi'i Council by Shoghi Effendi. She was returned by election to the Council in 1961 and served on it until 1963, when the Universal On her passing in August 1983 House of Justice replaced it.[18:6111 the Universal House of Justice cabled the Bahb'i world as follows: "Saddened passing devoted maidservant Bahh'u'llbh Sylvia Ioas. Her long years service divine threshold constant support close collaboration her distinguished husband crowned by her appointment by beloved Guardian as member International Baha'i Council and her subsequent election same historic institution and as its vicepresident. Her gracious manner, cheerful disposition, hospitable spirit remain as indelible impressions her fruitful life. Fervently praying Holy Shrines her radiant soul may be richly rewarded 'Abhsi Kingdom. Urge National Assemblies hold befitting memorial ServiCeS."[98:5871
iRkN. Also known as Persia, it was the birthplace of both the Biib and Bahsi'u'llsih. It is known as the Cradle of the Faith. ' I ~ QThe . country in southwest Asia that has borders with i r h , Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, and Jordan. Its capital is Baadhd,
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to which Bahl'u'lllh was exiled from i r h . It was in this country, in 1863, just prior to His further exile to Turkey, that He declared His Station as the Manifestation of God for this day. IRIZARRY, DORA MAR^ TETE (1903-1977). Born Maria Teressa Martin Quifiones in Puerto Rico, she was the first (c. 1938) person to embrace the Cause in the Dominican Republic and the first Puerto Rican Bahii'i. She returned to Puerto Rico in 1949 and was for a time the only Bahii'i ' I ~ Q A B A D .( A ~ m a b a d . The ) city in Russian Turkistiin (Turkmenistan) where the first Baha'i House of Worship (Mahriqu'l-Aukair) was built. At the time there was a large Bahii'i community with schools, dispensary, travelers' hostel, and other services in the area. In 1928 the Temple was seized by the government, converted to a museum 10 years later, then damaged in an earthquake, and finally demolished in 1963. Since perestroika the Bahii'i community has been reestablished, but to date there has been no attempt to reconstruct the Ma&riqu'l-A&khr.
I ~ R A Q A T .Splendors: title of one of the Tablets of B a h a i ' ~ ' l l a i h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] revealed after the Kitdb-i-Aqda~.[~~]
'ISH~Q~ 'INAYATU'LL~ , (1922-1983)' 'IZZAT J ~ A M I (1926-1983)' AND RU'YA (1960-1983). (All Martyrs.) A family of himian believers who, along with other coreligionists, were executed by the irainian government in Shirk on June 1983 for refusing to recant their belief in B a h l ' ~ ' l l i i h . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ISM. Name.[18:7381m ISM-I-A'ZAM. The Greatest Name.[18'7381" I S M U ' L L ~ .Literally, the Name of God.[18:7381m
ISOLATED BELIEVERS. Baha'i believers who are the only ones resident in a particular locality. When two or more are resident they may form and be designated a Baha'i Group. IVES, HOWARD COLBY (1867-1941). A Unitarian minister who was an early American believer. He met 'Abdu'l-Bahl in New York and subsequently described the meeting and other events associated with 'Abdu'l-Baha's visit to America in the book Portals to Free923402 93:399, 123:155, 1941 dOm.[8:608,
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JABAL
JABAL. M ~ u n t a i n . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ I ~
JABAL-I-BASIT,
JABAL-I- SHAD^.
The Open Mountain and the Grievous Mountain: the Bhb's allusions to the fortress of Mhh-Kii and the castle of m i h r i q respectively.[18'7381m
JACK, MARION (1866-1954). An artist and heroic Bahi'i pioneer, she was an early Canadian believer (she became a Bahi'i in Paris). She was much loved by both 'Abdu'l-Bahh and Shoghi Effendi. Miss Jack pioneered to Bulgaria in 1930, where she remained, despite considerable hardship, for 24 years until her passing in 1954. Shoghi Effendi wrote, Mourn loss of immortal heroine, Marion Jack, greatly loved and deeply admired by 'Abdu'l-Baha, a shining example to pioneers of present and future generations of East and West, surpassed in constancy, dedication, self-abnegationand fearlessnessby none except the incomparable Martha Root. Her unremitting, highly meritorious activities in the course of almost half a century, both in North America and Southeast Europe, attaining their climax in the darkest, most dangerous phase of the second World War, shed imperishable luster on contemporary Bahh'i history. This triumphant soul is now gathered to the distinguishedband of her co-workers in the AbhP Kingdom; Martha Root, Lua Getsinger, May Maxwell, Hyde Dunn, Susan Moody, Keith Ransom-Kehler, Ella Bailey and Dorothy Baker, whose remains, lying in such widely scattered areas of the globe as Honolulu, Cairo, Buenos Aires, Sydney, TihrPn, IsfPhPn, Tripoli and the depths of the Mediterranean Sea attest the magnificence of the pioneer services rendered by the North American Baha'i Community in the Apostolic and Formative Ages of the Baha'i Dispensation [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"]. Advise arrange in association with the Canadian National Assembly and the European Teaching Committee a befitting memorial gathering in the Mashriqu'l-AmMr. Moved to share with the United States and Canadian National Assemblies the expenses of the erection, as soon as circumstances permit, of a worthy monument at her grave, destined to confer eternal benediction on a country already honored by its close proximity to the sacred city associated with the proclamation of the Faith of BahP'u'llPh. Share mes93:4051 sage with all national a~semblies.[ll:~~~,
JALAL -EH.
See &EH,
COLONEL JALAL.
J&,
SALAH 257
JAMAL-I-MUB~AK. Literally, the Blessed B e a ~ t y . [ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] " JANKKO, GRETA (1902-1973). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) A Canadian believer (1951) of Finnish birth. She pioneered to the Marquesas Islands in 1953, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahii'u'lliih. In 1955 she pioneered to Finland, living successively in Helsinki, Hyvinkaa, Lahti, and Tampere. In 1957 she pioneered to Oslo, Norway, for one year. During the period 1961-1963 she pioneered to both the Swedish and Finnish areas of Lapland. Within a 10-year period she served on all the local Spiritual Assemblies that existed in Finland. She translated a great many Bahii'i Writings into
J&H, SALAH (,!$ALAW'D-D~N JARR&) (1918-1989). A devoted servant of Shoghi Effendi, he served him directly (often in difficult discussions with Covenant breakers in and around ' A M ) £rom 1942 to his passing in 1957. Born in 'Akki of Arab Bahii'i parents, he was the grandson of a i l i d JarrilJ, who had for a time been the personal physician of Bahai'u'llaih. In his early life he worked for the post office in 'Akki, and during the years he served Shoghi Effendi he personally transported his mail fiom Haifa to Beirut by way of small fishing boats. He and his mother, Fiitimih JarrilJ, were appointed as caretakers of the Shrine of Bahii'u'llih in an effort to protect it fiom the machinations and destructive negligence of Covenant breakers who were then in residence throughout the properties at Bahji. (He later played an active role in 1957 in assisting the Hands of the Cause of God in demolishing an adjacent building that had been occupied by them.) Following the passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957 he pioneered in 1958 to Djibouti, where he remained until 1975, when, following the acquisition of the House of 'Abdu'llih PA&i in 'Akkii by the Universal House of Justice, he returned there to assist 'Amatu'l-BahP Riihiyyih U P n u m in its restoration. In 1982, at the request of the Universal House of Justice, he transferred his residence to London, where he served as Custodian of Shoghi Effendi's resting place in New Southgate Cemetery. In January 1989, during a visit to the Holy Land, he was struck and killed by a car in Haifa. The Universal House of Justice issued the following message: "Deeply grieved passing outstanding faithkl servant Cause Salah Jarrah in tragic car accident. His exemplary custodian-ship resting place beloved Guardian was culmination of lifelong record loving self-sacrificing exertions at World Centre, chiefly as caretaker Shrine Bahii'u'lliih, followed by
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JESSUP, REV. HBNRY
devoted pioneering services in A£iica. Convey members his family deep sympathy. Praying Holy Shrines eternal progress his noble soul AbhP Kingdom."[lg:9311 JESSUP, REV. HENRY. While he was the director of the Presbyterian Missionary Operations in Syria, he prepared a paper in which he used the Words of Bahai'u'llaih spoken to Edward Granville Browne in 1890. He was the chairman of the closing session of the World Parliament of Religions (1893) and read what he had written in his paper to the delegates. This was among the first major public men~ : ~to ~ ~Momen's ] book tions of the Bahci'i Faith in A r n e r i ~ a ; [ ~refer The Bdbi and Bahci'i Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary Western Accounts [Ig5] for other earlier references. J I H ~ Literally . striving, endeavor; crusade; holy war, enjoined in the Qur'hn and abrogated by Bahsi'~'lllh:['~:~~~1" "0people of the earth! The first Glad-Tidings which the Mother Book hath, in this Most Great Revelation, imparted unto all the peoples of the world is that the law of holy war hath been blotted out from the Book. Glorified be the All-Merciful, the Lord of grace abounding, through Whom the door of heavenly bounty hath been flung open in the face of all that are in heaven and on JINAB. Literally, threshold; placed before a name it is a courtesy title signifying "His Excellency," "His H o n ~ r . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] " See MULLA ZAYNU'L-
JINAB-1-ZAYNU'L-MUQARRAB~N. c
~
~
~
~
.
JORGENSEN, ELSE (1907-1977). A Norwegian Bahb'i who embraced the Cause in 1945 in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and in so doing helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly of that town. In 1948 she returned to Norway and in April that year became a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Oslo. In 1949 she pioneered to Madrid, Spain. In 1953 she returned to Norway and married Roberto Cazcarra, only to pioneer again, this time to Portugal, in 1954. In 1956 she joined her husband in Montevideo, Uruguay, where she was elected to the local SpiritualAssembly of Montevideo. In 1957, along with her husband, she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia. She was asked by the Assembly to visit every local Spiritual Assembly under
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259
the purview of the National Spiritual Assembly (a task that took her five months and saw her give numerous public addresses and talks). On her return she found a letter appointing her an Auxiliary Board member for Latin Arnerica-an appointment that saw her embark, yet again, on a lengthy and exhausting series of t r a v e l ~ . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] JOSHI, ASANAND CHAGLA (1910-1982). An early (1945) Indian believer, he was a lawyer by training and served as honorary legal advisor to the Bahi'i administration for 30 years. He was also for many years a member of the local Spiritual Assembly of Karachi. In 1948 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of India, Pfistiin, and Burma. With the formation of the National Spiritual Assembly of Pfistiin in 1958 he was elected its chairman until his appointment as an Auxiliary Board member in 1974. Having learned 11 languages (mastering 9), he was a powerful advocate of the Cause. In 1972 he was instrumental in acquiring government recognition of the Faith as a separate minority religion-the first to achieve that recognition in an I s l h i c country. He also secured tax exemption for Bahi'i JUBILEE, GREAT AND MOST GREAT. The centenary of the Declaration of the B i b was in retrospect referred to by Shoghi Effendi as the first Jubilee. The second, described by him as the "Great Jubilee," was the centenary of the assumption by Bahi'u'llih of His prophetic Mission in the S i y i h - a i l in Tihrin in summer 1852; it was observed as a Holy Year in 1952 and included four Continental Conferences as well as the launching of the Ten Year Plan (alternatively, World or Global Crusade). The Jubilee culminated in the Most Great Jubilee in 1963 (being the centenary of His Declaration in the RitJvhn Garden in B a a d h d (22 April-3 May 1863). Shoghi Effendi wrote, in outlining some of the aspects of the decade-long period between the two Jubilees, of the preeminent role to be played by the Bahh'is of the North American continent, "May this comnunity-the spiritual descendants of the dawn-breakers of the Heroic Age of the Bahi'i Faith [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"], the chief repository of the immortal Tablets of 'Abdu'l-Baha's Divine Plan, the foremost executors of the Mandate issued by the Center of Bahi'u'llih's Covenant, the champion-builders of a divinely conceived Administrative Order, the standard-bearers of the all-conquering army of the Lord of Hosts, the torchbearers of a future divinely inspired world civilization-arise,
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JUSTICE
in the course of the momentous decade separating the Great from the Most Great Jubilee to secure, as befits its rank, the lion's share in the prosecution of a global crusade designed to difise the light of God's revelation over the surface of the entire planet."[35'1091 Referring to the rapid progress being made from the centenary of the Declaration of the Biib to the closing weeks of the first year of the Crusade, Shoghi Effendi wrote that "the total number of virgin areas, inscribed on the scroll with the names of conquerors since the launching of the World Crusade last Ridviin, has mounted to fifty. The number of territories included in the orbit of the Faith has been raised within an unbelievably short time to one hundred and seventy-eight, marking an increase of one hundred countries since the celebration of the first Jubilee nine years Further clarification of the Holy Year was given by Shoghi Effendi writing through his secretary: "The 'Year Nine' is an abbreviation of 1269 A.H. The beginning of the Year Nine occurred about two months after His (Bahd'u'llhh) imprisonment in that dungeon. We do not know the exact time He received this first intimation. . . . We therefore regard the entire Year Nine as a Holy Year, and the emphasis should be placed . . . on the entire year, which started in October, 1852. This means our Centenary Year of Celebration will be from October, 1952 to October, 1953."[162:841 In a cable announcing the Crusade, on 8 October 1952, Shoghi Effendi included in its objectives, "Convocation of a World Bahd'i Congress in the vicinity of the Garden of Ridvh, Baadiid, third holiest city of Bahd'i world, on the occasion of the worldwide celebrations of the Most Great Jubilee, commemorating the Centenary of the Ascension of Bahd'u'llhh to the Throne of His So~ereignty."[~~:~~] The Most Great Jubilee was commemorated by the first Bahb'i World Congress, held in the Royal Albert Hall, London, during the period 28 April-2 May 1963. It coincided with the victorious completion of the Ten Year PladGlobal Crusade and the establishment of the Universal House of Justice elected a few days earlier in Haifa, Israel. JUSTICE. The following brief selections from Bahd'i Scripture demonstrate the preeminent role of justice in the Bahd'i Faith. Bahh'u'llhh wrote, "The best beloved of all things in My sight is Justice; turn not away therefrom if thou desirest Me, and neglect it not that I may confide in thee. By its aid thou shalt see with thine own eyes and not through the eyes of others, and shalt know of thine
own knowledge and not through the knowledge of thy neighbor. Ponder this in thy heart; how it behooveth thee to be. Verily justice is My gift to thee and the sign of My loving-kindness. Set it then ~ ~prayer ~ ~ ] of Bahii'u'llih reads, "0God, my before thine e y e ~ . " [ ' A God! Attire mine head with the crown of justice, and my temple with the ornament of equity. Thou, verily, art the Possessor of all gifts and boUn~ieS."["J~121 Shoghi Effendi wrote on this theme, "The light of men is Justice," He [BahB'u'llAh] moreover states, "Quench it not with the contrary winds of oppression and tyranny. The purpose of justice is the appearance of unity among men." "No radiance," He declares, "can compare with that ofjustice. The organization of the world and the tranquility of mankind depend upon it." "0 people of God!"He exclaims, "That which traineth the world is Justice, for it is upheld by two pillars, reward and punishment. These two pillars are the sources of life to the world." "Justice and equity," is yet another assertion, "are two guardians for the protection of man. They have appeared arrayed in their mighty and sacred names to maintain the world in uprightness and protect the nations." "Bestir yourselves, 0 people," is His emphatic warning, "in anticipation of the days of Divine justice, for the promised hour is now come. Beware lest ye fail to apprehend its import, and be accounted among the erring." "The day is approaching," He similarly has written, "when the faithful will behold the daystar of justice shining in its full splendor from the dayspring of gl~ry.''[~~:~~]
The emphasis placed on justice is reflected in the future designation of Houses of Justice, to be given to current-day local and National Spiritual Assemblies, to the name Universal House of Justice given to the supreme administrative body of the Faith, and to the command of Bahii'u'llih to the individual: "And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbor that which thou choosest for t h y ~ e l f . " [ l ~"Whoso ~ : ~ ~ ] cleaveth to justice, can, under no circumstances, transgress the limits of moderation. He discerneth the truth in all things, through the guidance of Him Who is the All-Seeing."[78:3421 "Be fair to yourselves and to others, that the evidences of justice may be revealed, through your deeds, among Our faithful servant~."['~:~~~]
KAB~R.Literally great, big, 01d.[18:7381m KAB~R-I-AFNAN. See H A J ~M ~ R Z AMUHAMMAD-TAQ~-IAFNAN.
262
KABU, TOMMY
KABU, TOMMY (1922-1969). The first (c. 1964) Papuan belie~er.['~:~~~] KAHALOA, SOLOMON (1932-1980). His family was the first to accept the faith in Hawaii and was instrumental in the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Puna. In the early 1970s he and his family moved to South Hilo on the Big Island for the purpose of promoting the Cause. In 1975 he and his family pioneered to Guam. He was killed in a car accident while visiting the Mariana Island of Rota in 1980.[17:7401
KAL~M.Speaker, interlocutor. Title given by Bahai'u'llaih to His faithful brother, Mirzai K h W L 'ABBAS. See 'ABBAS-RIDA, WIL. KAPPES, LILLIAN F. (d. 1920). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahai.) She was among that first group ofAmerican Bahii'is to be active in teaching the Faith at the turn of the 20th century. She pioneered to Persia, where she became a distinguished teacher in the first Bahh'i school in Tihrain-the Tarbiyat School. She was much loved, and her services highly valued, by 'Abdu'l-BahP. She passed away at an early age in Tihrhn on 1 December 1920. KAVELIN, HOWARD BORRAH (1906-1988). (Member, Universal House of Justice.) A real estate developer by profession, Kave1in[19:821]was born in Russia to a distinguished Jewish family on 16 March 1906, the sixth of seven children. The family emigrated to the United States when he was three years old and remained in Denver, Colorado. His father was a greatly beloved rabbi in Denver, a pillar of the Jewish community, and well known as a healer; he lost his life caring for others during an influenza epidemic. His mother was founder of the Beth Israel Hospital and Old Folks' Home in Denver. As a young boy, Borrah had obtained a job as an usher at an opera house. His love for music drew him to New York City, and his debut as an operatic tenor occurred on the stage of Carnegie Hall. Through music, he met Martha Hamilton, a pianist studying at the Juilliard School of Music in New York. They were married in 1936. Those years of the Great Depression were difficult financial times for
KAVELIN, HOWARD BORRAH
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everyone, and a singer's income could not support a family. So he turned from his musical career to become a secretary to the director of a real estate firm. His diligence and ability were soon recognized, and he became a partner in that original firm. He had an untarnished reputation for trustworthiness and honesty, considered by some to be rather unusual qualities in the New York City realty world of that time. He was introduced to the Bahi'i Faith in the late 1930s, and he and his wife accepted it, after some years of study, in 1940. From 1941 to 1950 he served on the local Spiritual Assembly of New York City. In 1950, he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States, where he served for 13 years, with a number of years as treasurer, and from 1958 to 1963 as chair. In 1957, on their behalf, he chaired the first National Convention for the formation of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Benelux Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg) and represented them at the International Teaching Conference held the following year in Kampala, Uganda. Shoghi Effendi, to whom Borrah Kavelin was deeply and personally devoted, invited him to come on pilgrimage directly after the conference. He had never had the bounty of meeting Shoghi Effendi personally, and he was deeply touched by the opportunity to pay homage to him. However, this meeting was never to occur. The greatest blow of his life came when he learned of Shoghi Effendi's untimely death in London, shortly before they were to meet. He grieved openly, as did so many others. After this, he dedicated increasing time to service to the Cause for which Shoghi Effendi had given his life. He was elected to the International Bahii'i Council and served the Council as member at large rather than in residence in Haifa; he was also given permission to continue serving on the U.S. National Spiritual Assembly. He was elected to the Universal House of Justice in 1963 and served on that body for a full quarter of a century, until 1988. He represented the Universal House of Justice on four significant missions to iriin to consult with the Bahi'is in that country about the financial needs of the Faith. After the Islimic revolution in k i n in 1979, he again represented the Universal House of Justice at a time when the Bahd'i world was reeling from loss of income from the irhnian Bahh'i community (which the then new I s l h i c government had forbidden to function). During a 10-week mission, he traveled throughout Europe, Canada, and the United States meeting with thousands of Bahi'is who thronged to hear him. His mission was to explain the state of the Persian friends and the financial impact on the Bahi'i world community of their open
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KAVELIN, HOWARD BORRAH
persecution. In 1987, after nearly 25 years of service, at 81 years of age, he asked to be released from service as a member of the Universal House of Justice. Within two weeks fiom the time his release was announced he was hospitalized for cancer surgery. He recovered and felt ready to begin a life of retirement in the United States. The National Spiritual Assembly of the United States asked him to serve as a keynote speaker at six regional Vision to Victory conferences throughout the United States. This became the driving force of his day-to-day life. When the cancer recurred, and his health began rapidly to fail, he was driven even more to fullill his commitment to these conferences. He was able to address the first conference in Boston, Massachusetts: His frail voice did not diminish the ardor with which he spoke to the friends of the imperative necessity to raise the Arc on Mount Carmel. However, by the time his plane arrived at the second conference site, in Chattanooga, Tennessee, he was so ill that he had to be rushed to the hospital in acute distress. His undeviating concern about making his promised presentation was creatively solved by a doctor who asked if the Bahh'is could videotape his talk there, in the hospital room. Mr. Kavelin agreed, and arrangements were swiftly made to tape his talk. Shortly after the talk, Mr. Kavelin lapsed into a coma. However, he recovered to the extent that two minor "miracles" were to occur. One was to give a Thanksgiving dinner to thank the doctor and all the many Bahk'i friends in Chattanooga who had been so kind to him. The other was to return home to Albuquerque. He lived another three weeks in his home in Albuquerque; then on 18 December 1988, he passed away. "You wander all your life in search of meaning and then you find at the end, at the core, there is only the Covenant." These were among the last words of Borrah Kavelin, a man who lived to his last breath the commitment he had made to Bahai'u'llaih. One of his favorite passages, read at his funeral, attended by hundreds of friends, was "As ye He was laid have faith, so shall your powers and blessings be."[152:5M1 to rest in the Fairview Memorial Park in Albuquerque, New Mexico. His epitaph reads simply, "Howard Borrah Kavelin, 1906-1988, Charter Member of the Universal House of Justice" @om an unpublished memorial by Linda Kavelin Popov). The Universal House of Justice cabled on his passing, Hearts laden with sorrow over loss to BahB'i world our dearly-loved former colleague H. Borrah Kavelin outstanding servant Cause Bahzi'u'llih. Indomitable faith, rigorous conscientiousness, irrepressible optimism, unfailing reliability, unblemished trustworthiness among brilliant qualities which shone through his nearly half century
KEMPTON, HONOR
265
monumental services to Cause he constantly promoted and defended to last days his distinguished life. His extensive involvement Bahb'i administrative affairs began in 1941 with his nine years on local Spiritual Assembly New York and included 13 years on National Spiritual Assembly United States, two years on International Bahb'i Council followed by quarter century membership on Universal House of Justice. His manifold services especially marked by his diligent endeavors to assist development external affairs agencies Bahb'i International Community, his deftness for dignified promotion financial interests faith, his lustrous record in connection acquisition important properties including Mansion Mazra'ih and House 'Abdu'llfh Pishb. Offering ardent supplications Holy Threshold that his noble soul may be richly rewarded Abhh Kingdom and that Blessed Beauty may surround his beloved wife Flore and dear children with divine mercy and assistance. Advise hold memorial gatherings in his honor all Houses Worship and throughout Baha'i community.
KELSEY, CURTIS DEMUDE (1894-1970). An early (1917) American believer who installed electric lighting at the Shrines of Bahai'u'llaih and the Baib (three lighting plants having been acquired by Roy Wilhelm). On first seeing the Shrine of the Bib illumined with light, 'Abdu'l-Bahai, in tears, said, "In all the years of imprisonment (in Maih-Ku), the Bib spent all the nights in utter darkness. Yea, not even a candle was allowed [Him]. . . . Therefore, God willing, I shall illumine His Sublime Shrine with one hundred electric lamps." On his return to the United States he served tirelessly in 196:5841 many administrative and teaching KELSEY, OLIVIA (1889-1981). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An early (1932)American believer who married Francis Arthur Kelsey (a Bahi'i) Folin 1929. In 1947 she compiled a book entitled Bahh 'iAnswers.[19fl lowing the death of her husband in 1937 she pioneered during the second Seven Year Plan to Louisville, Kentucky. In 1944 she moved to Kansas, and in 1954, in response to the Ten Year Crusade goals, she pioneered to Monaco, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahi'u7ll6h. Following the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Monaco she moved to France, where she lived for a time in Toulouse and then Montpelier. In 1964 she returned to the United States. In 1974 she undertook extensive teaching visits to South Carolina and West Virginia (she was then 85 years KEMPTON, HONOR (1892-1981). (Mother of Alaska.) An early (1930s) American believer of English birth (she came into the Faith
2 66
KENNY, SARA M.
through meetings with Leroy and Sylvia Iaos), she responded immediately to Shoghi Effendi's cable of 26 January 1939 calling for "Nine Holy Souls" to open the remaining virgin territories of North America (Alaska, Delaware, Nevada, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, West Virginia, Manitoba, and Nova Scotia) by moving to Alaska (thereby earning the title of spiritual mother of that Bahb'i community). She settled in Anchorage, where she opened the town's first book shop (The Book Cache). She served on the first (1943) local Spiritual Assembly of Anchorage (also the first in Alaska). In 1947 she pioneered to Luxembourg, the smallest of the still unopened second Seven Year Plan goal countries, becoming the Knight of Bahb'u'llih for that country and adding a second honorific title as the spiritual mother of that Bahb'i community. In 1949 she moved to Geneva, Switzerland, to serve as the European Teaching Committee representative at the International Bahii'i Bureau. She also served as a member of the Italo-Swiss National Spiritual Assembly. When the International Bahb'i Bureau closed in 1957, she opened the French towns of Lille and Nancy to the Cause. She returned to Luxembourg in 1959 and was elected to the Regional On ~ 'her ~~~] National Spiritual Assembly of the Benelux c o u n t r i e ~ . [ ~ death in 1981, at the venerable age of 90, the Universal House of Justice sent the following cable to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States: Ascension Abhii Kingdom outstanding dearly loved maidservant Bahi'u'llih Honor Kempton in her ninetieth year and at final pioneer post Kopstal Luxembourg terminates forty five years dedicated service Cause God. Responding immediately beloved Guardians call in 1939 for nine holy souls to open remaining virgin areas North America she pioneered to Alaska became mother that flourishing community. In 1947 she became first pioneer to Grand Duchy Luxembourg and for rest of her life served with great distinction in European continent ultimately settling Luxembourg and recognized mother that community. Her life steadfast dedication constitutes brilliant episode early years Formative Age Faith. Advise hold memorial service Mother Temple West befitting tribute servant Blessed Beauty whose shining record emblazoned annals American Bahgi community. Offering ardent prayers sacred Threshold bountill reward progress soul Abhi kingdom.
KENNY, SARA M. (1900-1968). (Knight of Bahii'u'lliih.) An early (1930) American believer who in 1953 pioneered, in the company of her mother, Mrs. Ella Duffield, to the Madeira Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahb'u'llih. In 1954, with
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FLORENCE BREED 267
the permission of Shoghi Effendi, she moved to France, where in 1958 she was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of the country and served as its vice chairperson until 1963.[14:4411
KHADkJIH -UM. -
The mother of Bahh'u'llhh. She was a widow with three children (a son and two daughters) when she married Mirzh Buzurg. In his historical biography, Bahd'u'lldh, the King of Glory, Hasan Balyiizi details the marriage as follows: "She had one son and two daughters by her first marriage, namely, Mirz6 M&ammad-'Ali, Sakinih Khhum and Sub9 Khhum. Mirza Buzurg took Khadijih =hum as his wife and wedded her daughter, Sakinih Khhum, to his younger brother, Mirza M&ammad. Khadijih Khanum was the mother of Baha'u'llih (Mirzi Husayn-'Ali). The first-born of that marriage was a daughter, Sarih Khanum; she is generally known as 'Ukht', Arabic for sister, because BahBYu'llAhhas thus referred to her. The next was a son, Mirzh Mihdi, who died in his father's lifetime; and Mirzi Husap'Ali (Bahi'u'llih) was the third-born. The fourth was another son, Mirzh Mush, entitled Aqiiy-i-~alimlater years, and the fifth was another daughter, Nisa' Khhum, who was married eventually to Mirzi Majid-i-Ahi, a secretary of the Russian Legati~n."[~~ Refer : l ~ ]to appendixes l through 4 for geneaologies.
KHADhIH-BAGUM. The wife of the Bhb. They were childhood playmates in mirsiz, were married in August 1842, and had one child, a son, Alpnad, who died in infancy. She was a devout and fervent Bhbi and remained faithful after the BabysMartyrdom. She immediately accepted Bahh'u'llah when she learned of His D e ~ l a r a t i o n . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ 1 She died in 1882. Refer to Hasan Balyuzi's book Badijih Bagum, the Wfe of the Bdb[lg81for further biographical details of her life. See appendixes 1 through 4 for genealogies. K H h . Prince, lord, nobleman, chieftain. Originally used as a courtesy -
title for officers and high-ranking officials, Qin came to denoteplaced after a given name--simply "gentleman.'' Also an exchange, market; inn, c a r a v a n ~ e r a i . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~
KHh, -
FLORENCE BREED (1875-1950). An early American believer. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahh on her way to Persia. She married 'Ali-Kuli m h n in 1904 in what was one of the first American92:146ffl Persian Baha'i marriages.[ll:703,
K H h , M ~ R Z A'AL~-KULI.See 'ALi-KULI =AN. K H ~ u M .Lady; wife. Placed after a woman's -
name, Khinum is a courtesy title meaning "gentlewoman," comparable to Khin.[18:7381m
&EH, -
COLONEL JALAL (1897-1990). (Hand of the Cause of God.) A veterinary doctor and soldier by profession, Khhzeh[19:7881 was born in Tihrain, Persia, in 1897. His father, Ghulam-&id&,had suffered so many persecutions that he was always in poor health and died at age 35, when Jalal was only 7 and his sister, Faruundih, was only 5. At the age of 17 he began his study of veterinary medicine at the military academy and served as a veterinarian in many parts of irain before reaching the rank of lieutenant at 19. He retired from the army with the rank of colonel in 1943. He began serving the Faith when he was only 15, and in spite of his army career he was able to serve on committees and local Spiritual Assemblies. He married when he was 19 and over the years fathered five children. In 1944 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Persia and served for five years. He was then elected to the local Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Tihrin and served as its secretary for three years. He traveled extensively in kin, reporting on the local situation to Shoghi Effendi, who praised and encouraged his works. He was strong, well built, courageous, and outspoken to government officials if they failed in their duties. He resigned from the local Spiritual Assembly at the end of 1951 to give full-time attention to travel teaching. He received permission to go on pilgrimage in 1952 and traveled to Haifa in March of that year. While he was there, Shoghi Effendi advised him to concentrate on traveling throughout Persia to acquaint the Baha'is with the news of the teaching goals and arouse them to greater service, and this he did assiduously for two and a half years. On 23 October 1952, Shoghi Effendi called on him to attend the Kampala (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in February 1953. This was followed by a tour of Africa (Abyssinia, Eritrea, Kenya, Aden, and the Gulf States) before resuming his travels in Persia. Shoghi Effendi greatly appreciated his reports and wrote that his "services are the cause of glory and honor," and they "set an example for the friends in hin." At the end of December 1953 Colonel Khhzeh had returned to a certain town after a two-month teaching trip when he was awakened
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COLONEL J A L ~269
at about four AM by three Bahii'is who wanted to congratulate him. On inquiring about the reason for the congratulations he was amazed and astonished to learn that a telegram had been following him around £tom Shoghi Effendi, dated 7 December, raising him to the rank of Hand of the Cause. Although he was again elected onto the National Spiritual Assembly, Shoghi Effendi encouraged him to continue to travel and stimulate the friends. He represented Shoghi Effendi at the Convention of Northeast Asia in 1957 and then visited centers in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Burma, and Pikistiin. After the passing of Shoghi Effendi he was one of the Nine Hands of the Cause of God chosen to be resident in the Holy Land until the election of the Universal House of Justice. Notwithstanding this, he found time to travel widely, with visits to Europe, India, and Ceylon. After the election of the Universal House of Justice, for some years he made his headquarters in South America and traveled extensively throughout the Americas, as well as visiting centers in Europe and Persia. He initiated a newsletter in Spanish for use in Latin America. Under the guidance of the Universal House of Justice he and his wife returned to live in i r k in 1969, but he continued to represent the Universal House of Justice in many conventions and conferences, including those in West Africa (1970) and Malaysia (1972). When back in h k he concentrated on teaching and protecting the Cause. During 1973-1974 he again set out on a number of globeencircling tours. By the time of the International Convention in Haifa in 1978 he had become quite weak, and then, after his wife passed away in Bibul&ir, i r k , the Revolutionary Guards attacked his home and confiscated his writings, documents, and books. He moved to Tihrin and from there to other places regularly to avoid arrest by the authorities. In 1984, at the age of 87, he moved to Canada and during the next six years was confined almost entirely to his house due to ill health and failed eyesight. He passed away on 21 February 1990. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "Deeply grieved announce passing staunch tireless promoter Faith Hand Cause God Jaliil Uiizeh. His strenuous endeavors Cradle Faith, Holy Land, Latin America and world-wide travels after passing beloved Guardian set shining example of unshakable dedication and courage, of undeviating loyalty and perseverance. Imperishable record his sterling services as gifted teacher, defender Cause never to be forgotten. His noble spirit now Abhh Kingdom will undoubtedly intercede behalf Persian Bahb'i community whose vital interest he served with such high distinction over several decades. Fervently praying Holy Shrines for progress his illumined soul in
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K H A Y R U ' L L ~I, B R h h GEORGE
realms on high. Advise fiiends everywhere hold befitting memorial gatherings his honor particularly all Houses of KHAYRU'LLAH, -
I B ~ H ~ GEORGE. M See KHEIRALLA, I B ~ H ~GEORGE. M
KHEIRALLA, I B R ~ I ~ GEORGE M (1849-1929). (Alternatively spelled Khayru'llih; Covenant breaker.) The first BahL'i teacher to settle in the United States, he was Syrian by birth and a physician by profession. In the years following his arrival he was responsible for a large number of declarations of faith in Bahai'u'llaih. Sadly, despite many honors conferred on him by 'Abdu'l-Bahai, he vied with Him for the official leadership of the Western believers. Shoghi Effendi wrote of his unfaithfulness as follows: He who had been instrumental in inaugurating so splendid an era in the history of the Faith, on whom the Center of Baha'u'lliih's Covenant had conferred the titles of "BahB's Peter," of the "Shepherd of God's Flocks," of the "Conqueror ofAmerica," upon whom had been bestowed the unique privilege of helping Abdu'l-Bahi lay the foundationstone of the Bhb's Mausoleum on Mt. Carmel-such a man, blinded success and aspiring after an uncontrolled domiby his extraor* nation over the beliefs and activities of his fellow-disciples, insolently raised the standard of revolt. Seceding from Abdu'l-Bahi and allying himself with the Arch-Enemy of the Faith of God, this deluded apostate sought, by perverting the teachings and directing a campaign of unrelenting vilfication against the person of Abdu'l-Bahfi, to undermine the faith of those believers whom he had during no less than eight years, so strenuously toiled to c o n ~ e r t . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
He died in 1929 having lived long enough to see his attempt at usurpation come to naught. Kheiralla's American activities are detailed comprehensively in Robert Stockman's excellent history of the early American BahL'i community, The Bahd 'i Faith in America-Origins 1892-1 900.[49'
KIDDER, ALICE GERTRUDE. See OBER, ELIZABETH MERIEL KIDDER. KING. See KINGSHIP, INSTITUTION OF. KING, MELBA M. CALL (1910-1979). The first (1943) full-blooded Yupik Eskimo believer; she traveled widely among both Eskimo and Indian peoples in the promotion of the C a ~ s e . [ l ~ : ~ * ~ ]
KINNEY, CARRIE 271
KINGSHIP, INSTITUTION OF. Provided monarchs rule with justice and fair-mindedness, this form of government is endorsed by Bahii'u'lliih: Although a republican form of government profiteth all the peoples of the world, yet the majesty of kingship is one of the signs of God. We do not wish that the countries of the world should remain deprived thereof. If the sagacious combine the two forms into one, great will be their reward in the presence of God.[122:281 One of the signs of the maturity of the world is that no one will accept to bear the weight of kingship. Kingship will remain with none willing to bear alone its weight. That day will be the day whereon wisdom will be manifested among mankind. Only in order to proclaim the Cause of God and spread abroad His Faith will anyone be willing to bear this grievous weight. Well is it with him who, for love of God and His Cause, and for the sake of God and for the purpose of proclaiming His Faith, will expose himself unto this great danger, and will accept this toil and t r o ~ b l e . [ ~ ~ : ~ l ] Shoghi Effendi elaborated: Let none, however, mistake or unwittingly misrepresent the purpose of BaM'u'll6h. Severe as has been His condemnation pronounced against those sovereigns who persecuted Him, and however strict the censure expressed collectively against those who failed signally in their clear duty to investigate the truth of His Faith and to restrain the hand of the wrongdoer, His teachings embody no principle that can, in any way, be construed as a repudiation, or even a disparagement, however veiled, of the institution of kingship. The catastrophic fall, and the extinction of the dynasties and empires of those monarchs whose disastrous end He particularly prophesied, and the declining fortunes of the sovereigns of His Own generation, whom He generally reproved-both constituting a passing phase of the evolution of the Faith-should, in no wise, be confounded with the future position of that institution. Indeed if we delve into the writings of the Author of the Bahl'i Faith, we cannot fail to discover unnumbered passages in which, in terms that none can misrepresent, the principle of kingship is eulogized, the rank and conduct of just and fair-minded kings is extolled, the rise of monarchs, ruling with justice and even professing His Faith, is envisaged, and the solemn duty to arise and ensure the triumph of Bahl'i sovereigns is incul~ated.[~~:~l] KINNEY, CARRIE (1878-1959). (Vaffa-literally, one who completes everything; a Pillar of the Cause of God.) An early American believer. 'Abdu'l-Bahai bestowed the name "Vaffayyon her. Designated, along
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KINNEY, EDWARD BEADLE
with her husband Edward Kinney ("Saffa"), a Pillar of the Cause of GOd.[12:864,123:43] KTNNEY, EDWARD BEADLE (1863-1950). (Saffa: Arabic for Peter or Rock; a Pillar of the Cause of God.) An early American believer, of whom Shoghi Effendi wrote on his passing, "Grieve at passing of dearly loved, highly admired, greatly trusted, staunch, indefatigable, self-sacrilicing teacher, pillar of Faith, Saffa Kinney. His leonine spirit, exemplary steadfastness, notable record of services enriched annals of closing period of Heroic Age and opening phase of Formative Age of BahL'i Dispensation [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"]. Beautiful reward assured in Abhai Kingdom beneath the shadow of the Master he loved so dearly, served so nobly, defended so heroically until last breath."[ll:677, 123:43] KTNNEY, HOWARD M. (1905-1938). An early American believer. 'Abdu'l-Bahsi conferred His own name on him ('Abdu'l-Bahii) during a visit his family made to ' A M in 1909.[7:6701
=TAB-I'AHD OR KIT^-I‘AHD~. (Book of the Covenant.) Bahai'u'llaih's last Will and Testament, written entirely in His own hand and entrusted to 'Abdu'l-Bahai shortly before His passing in 1892. In it He appointed 'Abdu'l-Bahii as His Successor and the Centre of His Covenant, thereby providing for the continuation of divine authority within the Faith. He designated this last Tablet as "His Most Great Tablet" and alluded to it as the "Crimson Tablet."[37:2391 KITAB-I-AQDAS. The Most Holy Book, it is the chief repository of the laws promulgated by Bahai'u'llaih. It was revealed in 'Akkai in 1873. It was later supplemented through a series of Tablets revealed by Bahii'u'lliih in the years after 1873 (now collected and published as MoreTablets of Bahri'u'llrih Revealed affer the Kitrib-i-Aqda~['~~]). over, Bahii'u'lliih also permitted one of His trusted scribes, Mullai zaynu91- bidin in, to question Him regarding the meaning of certain passages. In response to Shoghi Effendi's statement that the English : ~ ~ ~questions, "] version should be "copiously a n n ~ t a t e d " [ ~ ~these along with Bahii'u'lliih's answers, are appended to English language editions of the Book.
Shoghi Effendi summarized the contents of the Aqdas in this passage: In this Charter of the future world civilization its Author . . . announces to the kings of the earth the promulgation of the "Most Great Law," pronounces them to be His vassals; proclaims Himself the "King of Kings;" disclaims any intention of laying hands on their kingdoms; reserves for Himself the right to "seize and possess the hearts of men;" warns the world's ecclesiastical leaders not to weigh the "Book of God" with such standards as are current amongst them; and a h s that the Book itself is the "Unerring Balance" established amongst men. In it He formally ordains the institution of the "House of Justice," defines its functions, fixes its revenues, and designates its members as the "Men of Justice," the "Deputies of God," the "Trustees of the All-Merciful," alludes to the future Center of His Covenant, and invests Him with the right of interpreting His holy Writ; anticipates by implication the institution of Guardianship; bears witness to the revolutionizing effect of His World Order; enunciates the doctrine of the "Most Great infallibility" of the Manifestation of God; asserts this infallibility to be the inherent and exclusive right of the Prophet; and rules out the possibility of the appearance of another Manifestation ere the lapse of at least one thousand years. In this Book He, moreover, prescribes the obligatory prayers; designates the time and period of fasting; prohibits congregational prayer except for the dead; fixes the Qiblih; institutes the Huq6qu'llBh (Right of God); formulates the law of inheritance; ordains the institution of the Ma&riqu'l-Aakhr; establishes the Nineteen Day Feasts, the Bahi'i festivals and the Intercalary Days; abolishes the institution of priesthood [see CLERGY]; prohibits slavery, asceticism, mendicancy, monasticism, penance, the use of pulpits and the kissing of hands; prescribes monogamy; condemns cruelty to animals, idleness and sloth, backbiting and calumny; censures divorce; interdicts gambling, the use of opium, wine and other intoxicating drinks; specifies the punishments for murder, arson, adultery and the& stresses the importance of marriage and lays down its essential conditions; imposes the obligation of engaging in some trade or profession, exalting such occupation to the rank of worship; emphasizes the necessity of providing the means for the education of children; and lays upon every person the duty of writing a testament and of strict obedience to one's government. Apart from these provisions Bahii'u'llih exhorts His followers to consort, with amity and concord and without discrimination, with the adherents of all religions; warns them to guard against fanaticism, sedition, pride, dispute and contention; inculcates upon them immaculate cleanliness, strict truthfulness, spotless chastity, trustworthiness; hospitality, fidelity, courtesy, forbearance, justice and fairness; counsels them to be "even as the fingers of one hand and the limbs of one body;" calls upon them to arise and serve His Cause; and assures them of His undoubted aid. He, furthermore, dwells
upon the instability of human affairs; declares that true liberty consists in man's submission to His commandments; cautions them not to be indulgent in carrying out His statutes; prescribes the twin inseparable duties of recognizing the "Dayspring of God's Revelation" and of observing all the ordinances revealed by Him, neither of which, He a&s, is acceptable without the
And again, he wrote that "the Laws revealed by Bahi'u'llhh in the Aqdas are, whenever practical and not in direct conflict with the Civil laws of the land, absolutely on every believer or Bahi'i institution whether in the East or in the West. Certain laws, such as fasting, obligatory prayers, the consent of the parents before marriage, avoidance of alcoholic drinks, monogamy, should be regarded by all believers as universally and vitally applicable at the present time. Others have been formulated in anticipation of a state of society destined to emerge from the chaotic conditions that prevail t~day.''[l~~:~] A number of the laws of the Aqdas are not yet in effect as elaborate by the Universal House of Justice: The laws governing betrothal; The law concerning the payment of a dowry by the groom to the bride on marriage; The laws concerning the traveling of a husband away from his wife; The laws relating to the virginity of the wife; That part of the divorce law relating to fines payable to the house of Justice; The law of inheritance. This is normally covered by civil laws of intestacy at the present time; The law of pilgrimage; The law of the Maskiqu'l-AmkBr is gradually being put into effect; The Bahb'i Festivals are being celebrated by the western friends on their anniversaries in the Gregorian calendar until such time as the Universal House of Justice deems it desirable to pass supplementary legislation necessary for the full implementation of the Badi calendar; The age of maturity applies only to Bahi'i religious duties as yet. On other matters it is subject to the civil law of each country. The age of administrative maturity in the Bahb'i community has, for the time being, been fixed at 21; For the burial of the dead the only requirements now binding in the West are to bury the body (not to cremate it), not to carry it more than a distance of one hour's journey from the place of death, and to say the Prayer for the Dead if the deceased is a believer over the age of 15; The law of tithes; The law concerning the hunting of animals; The laws relating to the finding of lost property, the disposition of treasure trove, the disposal of objects held in trust and compensation for manslaughter are all designed for a future state of society. These matters are usually covered by the civil law of each country; Arson, adultery, murder and theft are all forbidden to Bahb'is, but the
IUYANI, KHOJASTEH KHORSHAND
275
punishments prescribed for them in the Kitib-i-Aqdas are designed for a future state of society. Such matters are usually covered by the civil laws of each country; The laws prohibiting the use of the type of pools which used to be found in Persian baths, the plunging of one's hand in food, the shaving of one's head and the growth of men's hair below the lobe of the ear. All the exhortations listed in section IV.D.3 are applicableuniversally at the present time insofar as it is possible for the fiends to implement them: for example, the exhortation to teach one's children to chant the Holy Verses in the Ma~hriqu'l-Adlkhrcan be literally carried out only on a limited scale at the present time, but the friends should, nevertheless, teach their children the Holy Writings as far as
K I T ~ B - I - I ' Q(Book ~ . of Certitude.) Described by Shoghi Effendi as "Foremost among the priceless treasures cast forth from the billowing ocean of Bahi'u'llih's Revelation ranks the Kithb-i-iqh (Book of Certitude), revealed within the space of two days and two nights, in the closing years of that period (1278 A.H.-1862 A.D.). It was written in fulfillment of the prophecy of the Bib, Who had specscally stated that the Promised One would complete the text of the d n i s h e d Persian Bayhn, and in reply to the questions addressed to Bahi'u'llhh by the as yet unconverted maternal uncle of the Bib, Haji Mirza Siyyid M ~ a m m a d while , on a visit, with his brother, Haji Mirza Hasan-'Ali, to Karbila. A model of Persian prose, of a style at once original, chaste and vigorous, and remarkably lucid, both cogent in argument and matchless in its irresistible eloquence, this Book, setting forth in outline the Grand Redemptive Scheme of God, occupies a position unequalled by any work in the entire range of Baha'i literature, except the Kitib-i-Aqdas, Bahi'u'llhh's Most Holy Book. Revealed on the eve of the declaration of His Mission, it proffered to mankind the 'Choice Sealed Wine,' whose seal is of 'musk,' and broke the 'seals' of the 'Book' referred to by Daniel, and disclosed the meaning of the 'words' destined to remain 'closed up' till the 'time of the end."'[37:1381 KIYANI, KHOJASTEH KHORSHAND (1917-2002). Born in Tihrhn, i r i n , to Bahi'i parents, she served actively as a Bahi'i including service on the Committee for the Advancement of Women. She also established and financed a free school for village children in ~harif- bid, Q d n . In the mid-1950s she resettled in Italy, where she helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly of Padova before moving to Paris, France. Here she married Hossein-Gholi Kiyani, and
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KNIGHT OF B & ' U ' L L ~
together they donated the building now serving as the Hqiratu'lQuds of the National Spiritual Assembly of France. She also participated in the acquisition of the building where 'Abdu'l-Bahh stayed during his visit to Paris in 1913.[32:2711 KNIGHT OF B & ' u ' L L ~ . "The title given by Shoghi Effendi to Bahh'is who settled in the goal countries enumerated at the outset of the Ten Year World Crusade as having no Bahh'is living in them. All those who settled in such territories during the Holy Year October 1952-October 1953 and, thereafter, the first to settle in the remaining When a territories were designated Knights of Bahii'~'lliih."[~~:~~~] Bahh'i moves to a different geographic location to help promote the Bahh'i Faith, he or she became known as a pioneer, and the success of the Bahd'i teaching plans has been due primarily to the large number of pioneers who have arisen since the inception of such plans in 1937. In the fist truly "global" plan in 1953, the Ten Year Crusade, Sho& Effendi assigned all the National Spiritual Assemblies specific goals to achieve and announced the need, on 28 May 1953, for 130 pioneers, "the number required to fill the gaps in the still unconquered territories of the globe." He went on to say that he was "planning to inscribe, in chronological order, the names of the spiritual conquerors on an illuminated Roll of Honor, to be deposited at the entrance door of the inner Sanctuary of the Tomb of Bahh'u'llih, as a permanent memorial of the contribution by the champions of His Faith at the victorious conclusion of the opening campaign of ~ : ~ ~ ] four months he announced that the Global C r u ~ a d e . " [ ~Within over 300 pioneer offers had been made with 40 assigned to virgin areas and with almost a quarter of those required for the opening phase already inscribed on the Roll of Honor. By 8 February 1954 he cabled the Bahh'i world, "The nine months which have elapsed since the launching of the spiritual world-encompassing Crusade have witnessed the entry of the Knights of Bahh'u'llih in well-nigh and by 21 four score and ten territories throughout the planet,"[38'551 March "ninety-one virgin areas have been opened to the Faith since ~ :4~May ~ ] 1954 he cabled that one the launching of the C r u ~ a d e . " [ ~By year after the launching of the Crusade the Roll of Honor was closed except for those '"first arriving in the few remaining virgin territories As these inside and outside Soviet Republics and satellite~."[~~:~~] remaining territories were opened, the new Knights of Bahd'u'lliih were enrolled, with the Knight for Mongolia arriving in December 1988 and the two for Sakhalin reaching their goal from Japan in
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March 1990. Accordingly, the Roll of Honor was finally placed in its allotted site, in the presence of the members of the Universal House of Justice, the Hands of the Cause, most of the surviving Knights, and a vast assemblage of Bahfi'is selected to represent every territory of the world, at an impressive ceremony at the Shrine of Bahi'u'llih held during the Holy Year commemorations (1992) that marked the centenary of the Passing of Bahi'u'llih. Refer to appendix 10 for a complete listing of the Knights of Bahi'u'llih and their arrival dates at their pioneer posts. KNOWLEDGE. 'Abdu'l-Bahii stipulates that knowledge is acquired by one of four methods: through the physical senses, through rational thought or reason, through reference to accepted thought or tradition, Bahh'u'lliih links and through the bounty of the Holy Spirit.[121:2971 true knowledge with knowledge of God: The beginning of all things is the knowledge of God, and the end of all things is strict observance of whatsoever hath been sent down fiom the empyrean of the Divine Will that pervadeth all that is in the heavens and all that is on the eartl~.[~W The spirit that animateth the human heart is the knowledge of God, and its truest adorning is the recognition of the truth that "He doeth whatsoever He willeth, and ordaineth that which He p l e a ~ e t h . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] The source of all learning is the knowledge of God, exalted be His Glory, and this cannot be attained save through the knowledge of His Divine Manifestation.[1221s6] For man's knowledge of God cannot develop filly and adequately save by observing whatsoever hath been ordained by Him and is set forth in His heavenly
According to 'Abdu'l-Bahii, "the gift of God to this enlightened age is the knowledge of the oneness of mankind and of the fundamental oneness of religion. War shall cease between nations, and by the will of God the Most Great Peace shall come; the world will be seen as a new world, and all men will live as brother~."[~~:~~1 He explains that knowledge is of two kinds, "the knowledge of and the essence of a thing, and the knowledge of its qualitie~,"[l~~:~~~] three dimensions, the knowledge of God, the acquisition of knowledge, and self-knowledge: The glory of man is in the knowledge of God, spiritual susceptibilities, attainment to transcendent powers and the bounties of the Holy Spirit. The glory of man is in being informed of the teachings of God. This is the glory of h ~ m a n i t y . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
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The knowledge of the Reality of the Divinity is impossible and unattainable, but the knowledge of the Manifestations of God is the knowledge of God, for the bounties, splendors, and divine attributes are apparent in them. Therefore if man attains to the knowledge of the Manifestations of God, he will attain to the knowledge of God; and if he be neglectful of the knowledge of the Holy Manifestation, he will be bereft of the knowledge of God.[131:3231 True knowledge, therefore, is the knowledge of God, and this is none other than the recognition of His Manifestation in each Dispensation.[10~891
Knowledge of one's true self is dependent on acquiring knowledge of God: Whatever duty Thou hast prescribed unto Thy servants of extolling to the utmost Thy majesty and glory is but a token of Thy grace unto them, that they may be enabled to ascend unto the station conferred upon their own inmost being, the station of the knowledge of their own ~elves.[~~'~fl
Knowledge of the material world is linked to those areas that are conducive to spiritual growth: Arts, crafts and sciences uplift the world of being, and are conducive to its exaltation. Knowledge is as wings to man's life, and a ladder for his ascent. Its acquisition is incumbent upon everyone. The knowledge of such sciences, however, should be acquired as can profit the peoples of the earth, and not those which begin with words and end with w o r d ~ . [ ' ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
KRISHNAN, G. S. SANTHANAM (1945-1975). Although a believer for only four years before his untimely passing, Mr. Krishnan promoted the Cause widely throughout his native India. He traveled extensively without thought for his own well-being and in the words of the Universal House of Justice was a "devoted, brave and steadfast pioneer" whose "passing in the field of service to the Cause of God" would undoubtedly "confer upon him a special bounty which will be the cause of the progress of his soul in the eternal Kingdom Of GOd."[15:5631 KRUKA, AMINDA JOSEPHINE (1892-1971). (Mother of Finland.) An early (1935) American believer designated by Shoghi Effendi as the "Mother of Finland." She pioneered to Cuba during the first Seven Year Plan, and following several visits to Finland she moved there in 195&spending the summer months in that country and
LAW
279
returning to Cuba each winter. In 1957 she moved to Finland and lived there for six years. She served as a member of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Finland (1962).[14:4931 KULL-I-LHAY'. Literally, all things: the term, whose numerical value is 361, signifies 19 cycles of 19 years in the Badi' ~ a l e n d a r . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] " KUNZ, ANNA (1889-1973). An early (c. 1914) American believer of Swiss birth. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahsi in 1921 while on pilgrimage in Haifa and 'Akksi. At the age of 58 she pioneered to Switzerland. In 1953 she was elected a member of the Italo-Swiss Regional Spiritual Assembly and served as its secretary for nine years. In 1962 she was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Switzerland, and following service for one year as secretary? she continued a member until her 80th year, when she asked to be allowed to stand doWn.[15:520,93:409]
LAITE, GORDON (1925-1978). An American believer (1955), he lived and traveled among the Navajo, Zuni, Hopi, Taos, and other Southwest Indian tribes over a long period of his Bahh'i life. He also pioneered to Honduras and Puerto Rico, where he and his wife (Jeanne Shchez de Laite) served as members of the National Spiritual A s ~ e m b l y . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] LAMPRILL, GRETTA STEVENS (1890-1972). (Knight of Bahsi'u'llsih; Mother of Tasmania.) The first (1924) Tasmanian believer, she was designated by Shoghi Effendi as the "Mother of Tasmania." She served as the first secretary of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Hobart. While serving as secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia she pioneered at the beginning of the Ten Year Crusade (1953) to Tahiti, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahi'u'llih. She later pioneered during the Ten Year Plan in Australia to Devonport, Tasmania, and in so doing allowed the first Spiritual Assembly of Devonport to be formed.[14:5341 LAW. The Bahh'i Writings are explicit with regard to obedience to law and the prohibition of all forms of subversion. Religious law is
280
LAW
composed of two kinds or degrees-laws that have eternal application and that are restated in each Dispensation, such as the need to acknowledge and worship God, to love one's fellow man, often referred to as the "Golden Rule"; and "secondary" or social laws that particularly address the needs of a specific age. These secondary laws are concerned with, among other matters, diet, marriage, fasting, and prayer and are equally binding on the followers of the Faith; it is, however, recognized that they may be changed or modified by the next Manifestation of God. Simplistically, humanity has throughout history ordered its affairs according to two prime methods: the rule of force and the rule of law. One general definition of "law" might be that it constitutes those rules for the conduct of human affairs in society as derived fiom an absolute basis and by a definite prescribed method (jurisprudence). The basis of law is that it is the point beyond which one cannot pass. In other words, there cannot be a law where one can imagine a more basic starting point-if a more basic starting point can be imagined, then the law has been undercut and rendered ineffective. The law offers a way of ordering life on an ultimate basis. Of course, people's perspective on what constitutes the ultimate basis of the law may differ, but it must be accepted as the ultimate basis. Law by definition carries authority and is self-authenticating. When human society was composed mainly of isolated groups or physically dominant groupings, the law was relatively straightforward and largely unquestioned. However, by and large, the peoples of our modern age no longer live in isolation or without knowledge of what is happening elsewhere. As such they are able to compare their own circumstances to those of other peoples and in so doing lay open to question the "ultimate" basis of their own law. This inevitably leads to contention as to which "ultimate basis" is truly ultimate. Usually any difference of opinion is settled by force, or the threat of force. In short, humanity suffers unmercifully fiom the instruments of its own making. In the words of the Universal House of Justice in a statement to the peoples of the world entitled The Promise of World Peace, Those who care for the future of the human race may well ponder this advice. If long-cherished ideals and time-honored institutions, if certain social assumptions and religious formulae have ceased to promote the welfare of the generality of mankind, if they no longer minister to the needs of a continually evolving humanity, let them be swept away and relegated to the limbo of obsolescent and forgotten doctrines. Why should these, in a world subject to the immutable law of change and
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decay, be exempt fkom the deterioration that must needs overtake every human institution? For legal standards, political and economic theories are solely designed to safeguard the interests of humanity as a whole, and not humanity to be crucified for the preservation of the integrity of any particular law or
Yet humanity, despite its suffering, continues stubbornly to hold to outworn belief systems. Bahi'u'llih elucidates the reasons for mankind's confusion and resultant suffering as well as offering insight into how such suffering can be alleviated in the following Words: Behold the disturbances which, for many a long year, have afflicted the earth, and the perturbation that hath seized its peoples. It hath either been ravaged by war, or tormented by sudden and unforeseen calamities. Though the world is encompassed with misery and distress, yet no man hath paused to reflect what the cause or source of that may be. Whenever the True Counsellor uttered a word in admonishment, lo, they all denounced Him as a mover of mischief and rejected His claim. How bewildering, how conhsing is such behaviour! No two men can be found who may be said to be outwardly and inwardly united. The evidences of discord and malice are apparent everywhere, though all were made for harmony and u n i ~ n . [ ' ~ ~ : ' ~ ~
He goes on to say that "if the rulers and kings of the earth, the symbols of the power of God, exalted be His glory, arise and resolve to dedicate themselves to whatever will promote the highest interests of the whole of humanity, the reign of justice will assuredly be established amongst the children of men, and the effulgence of its light will envelop the whole earth."[199''631 Concomitantly, large blocks of society no longer seem to feel that because something is legal (i.e., governed by law), it is necessarily right, moral, or good. Where are they to turn for an absolute unimpeachable source of legal authenticity and authority? The Bahi'i Writings posit that the ultimate basis of law in any given age or era can be found only in the Word of God as revealed through His historically chosen Divine Manifestation of God. Given that Bahi'is believe Bahi'u'llih to be God's Spokesperson for the age in which we now live, He is therefore seen as the Point toward which humanity must turn in its search for ultimate truth and the foundation of law (see SADRATU'L-MUNTA~). Devoid of divine input, the law is an empty letter; when it draws its source from revelation, it is the spirit that moves men's hearts and drives their actions in ways that are both pleasing to their Creator and conducive to the well-being, prosperity, and development
of the entire planet. In this regard, BahSYu'llhhstipulates religion as the source of law: The purpose of religion as revealed from the heaven of God's holy Will is to establish unity and concord amongst the peoples of the world; make it not the cause of dissension and strife. The religion of God and His divine law are the most potent instruments and the surest of all means for the dawning of the light of unity amongst men [see ONENESS]. The progress of the world, the development of nations, the tranquility of peoples, and the peace of all who dwell on earth are among the principles and ordinances of God. Religion bestoweth upon man the most precious of all gifts, offereth the cup of prosperity, imparteth eternal life, and showereth imperishable benefits upon mankind. It behoveth the chiefs and rulers of the world, and in particular the Trustees of God's House of Justice, to endeavour to the utmost of their power to safeguard its position, promote its interests and exalt its station in the eyes of the world. It is incumbent upon everyone to b l y adhere to and observe that which hath streamed forth fiom Our Most Exalted Pen. God, the True One, beareth Me witness, and every atom in existence is moved to testify that such means as lead to the elevation, the advancement, the education, the protection and the regeneration of the peoples of the earth have been clearly set forth by Us and are revealed in the Holy Books and Tablets by the Pen of Gl0ry.[l~~:l~9fl Clearly, for BahB'is, the ultimate basis for law must be the Word of God as revealed by BahB7u'llfi, augmented by 'Abdu'l-BahB, interpreted by Shoghi Effendi, and legislated and applied by the Universal House of Justice. These make up the "point" that cannot be transcended or transgressed-the source of law. Refer also to the introduction. L A W . Literally, slate, sheet, table; Tablet.[18'731a LEACH, BERNARD (1887-1979). (C.H., C.B.E., O.S.T.)Apotter, artist, and painter of international renown and significance, he first heard of the BahB7iFaith 1914, but it was not until he met Mark Tobey in the early 1930s that his faith took root. From 1909 to 1920 he lived in Japan, and for his cultural services to that country he received the highest honor to be conferred upon a British commoner by the Japanese government: The Order of the Sacred Treasure, second class. In 1962 he was made a Commander of the British Empire (C.B.E.) by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth 11; in 1973 he was the first craftsman to be made a Companion of Honour (C.H.) in a private audience with Her Majesty. Through his art he taught the Bahii'i Faith and sought
LETTERS OF THE LIVING
283
to bring greater unity between East and W e ~ t . [ ' ~He ' ~ ~shared ~ l his religious beliefs in his 1979 book, Mjr Religious LEARNED ARM. See ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER, BAHA'~; HAND OF THE CAUSE OF GOD. LESSER COVENANT. The Covenant made by the Manifestation of God with His followers that normally includes an "ethical Covenant of faith and obedience," a Covenant concerning the coming of the next Manifestation (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION), and a Covenant of Succession (appointing an immediate successor, who may in turn covenant in respect to ongoing succession). LESSER PEACE. See PEACE, LESSER. LETTERS OF THE LIVING. The first 18 people to arise spontaneously and accept the station of the BPb as the Manifestation of God for that time. MullP Husayn was the first to arise, and Quddlis was the last. During His first meeting with Mulla Husayn the Bab spoke these words: "0 thou who art the first to believe in Me! Verily I say, I am the Bab, the Gate of God, and thou art the Bkbu'l-Bkb, the gate of that Gate. Eighteen souls must, in the beginning, spontaneously and of their own accord, accept Me and recognise the truth of My Revelation. Unwarned and uninvited, each of these must seek independently to find Me. And when their number is complete, one of them must needs be chosen to accompany Me on My pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. There I shall deliver the Message of God to the Sharif of M e c ~ a . " [ ~He ~ ~then ~ 1 instructed him that "it is incumbent upon you not to divulge, either to your companions or to any other soul, that which you have seen and heard."[44'221 The last to arise and accept Him was Quddh; and it was he whom the Bab selected to accompany Him on pilgrimage to Mecca and to deliver to the Sharif of Mecca His invitation to embrace the new Of the other Letters of the Living (refer to appendix 5), half of them suffered martyrdom before the Bhb Himself was executed in 1850. The appellation "Letters of the Living" was explained in a letter written on behalf of the Universal House of Justice to an individual believer, November 13, 1980: "The Bib made use of the numerical value of words to symbolize spiritual concepts. The Persian for 'The Letters of the Living' is Huruf-i-Hay'; there were 18 of the first disciples of the Bhb and the numerical value of
284
LIBERTY
the word 'Hay' is 18. These 18 letters together, with the Bhb Himself, constitute the first 'Vahid' of the Revelation. The word 'Vahid' has a numerical value of 19, and means 'Unity'. It symbolizes the unity of God, and thus the number 19 itself symbolizes the unity of God, and it was used by the Bab as the basis for His Calendar."[87'4151 See also ~ hDECLARATION , OF. LIBERTY. The Oxford English Dictionary defines liberty as the "exemption or release from captivity, or slavery" and theologically as ''freedom from the bondage of sin, or of the In the Kitdbi-Aqda~,[~l] Bahh'u'llhh wrote, True liberty consisteth in man's submission unto My commandments, little as ye know it. Were men to observe that which We have sent down unto them from the Heaven of Revelation, they would, of a certainty, attain unto perfect liberty. Happy is the man that hath apprehended the Purpose of God in whatever He hath revealed fiom the Heaven of His Will, that pervadeth all created things. Say: The liberty that profiteth you is to be found nowhere except in complete servitude unto God, the Eternal Truth. Whoso hath tasted of its sweetness will refuse to barter it for all the dominion of earth and h e a ~ e n . 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 The Ancient Beauty hath consented to be bound with chains that mankind may be released fiom its bondage, and hath accepted to be made a prisoner within this most mighty Stronghold that the whole world may attain unto true Liberty must, in the end, lead to sedition, whose flames none can quench. Thus warneth you He Who is the Reckoner, the All-Knowing. Know ye that the embodiment of liberty and its symbol is the animal. That which beseemeth man is submission unto such restraints as will protect him from his own ignorance, and guard him against the harm of the mischief-maker. Liberty causeth man to overstep the bounds of propriety, and to infringe on the dignity of his station. It debaseth him to the level of extreme depravity and wickedness. . . . Regard men as a flock of sheep that need a shepherd for their protection. This, verily, is the truth, the certain truth. We approve of liberty in certain circumstances, and refuse to sanction it in 0thers.1~~~~~1 In a letter written to "the Followers of Bahi'u'llih in the United States of America" on 29 December 1988, the Universal House of Justice wrote, Freedom of thought, fieedom of expression, freedom of action are among the freedoms which have received the ardent attention of social thinkers across the centuries. The resulting outaow of such profound thought has exerted a tremendous liberating influence in the shaping
LI'lTLE, MARION
285
of modern society. Generations of the oppressed have fought and died in the name of freedom. Certainly the want of freedom from oppression has been a dominant factor in the turmoil of the times: witness the plethora of movements which have resulted in the rapid emergence of new nations in the latter part of the twentieth century. A true reading of the teachings of Baha'u'lliih leaves no doubt as to the high importance of these freedoms to constructive social processes. Consider, for instance, Bahi'u'llih's proclamation to the kings and rulers. Can it not be deduced from this alone that attainment of freedom is a significant purpose of His Revelation? His denunciations of tyranny and His urgent appeals on behalf of the oppressed provide unmistakable proof. But does not the freedom foreshadowedby His Revelation imply nobler, ampler manifestations of human achievement? Does it not indicate an organic relationship between the internal and external realities of man such as has not yet been attained?
In his summary of significant Bahd'i teachings, Shoghi Effendi wrote that Bahd'u'llhh "inculcates the principle of 'moderation in all things'; declares that whatsoever, be it 'liberty, civilization and the like', 'passeth beyond the limits of moderation' must 'exercise a pernicious influence upon men'; observes that western civilization has gravely perturbed and alarmed the peoples of the world; and predicts that the day is approaching when the 'flame' of a civilization 'carried to excess' 'will devour the cities'." Expounding the theme of liberty, Baha'u'llhh asserted that "mankind in its entirety must firmly adhere to whatsoever hath been revealed and vouchsafed unto it. Then and only then will it attain unto true LIFE AFTER DEATH. See DEATH, LIFE AFTER. LIFEBLOOD OF THE CAUSE. A term used to designate Bahd'i funds. LINFOOT, CHARLOTTE MAY (18951976). A leading figure in the growth and development of the Cause in America for nearly 50 years. In 1953 until her death in 1976 she served as both a member and assistant secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States. Simultaneously she served on the editorial committees of Bah6 'i News and the Baha 'i W~rld.['~:~~~] LITTLE, MARION (1891-1973). An early (c. 1915) American believer, she was actively involved for many years as secretary of the
286
LOCAL SPIRITUALASSEMBLY
Bahh'i publishing committee; she produced Volume I11 of the Bahri'i for which service she earned "the unqualified gratitude7'of Shoghi Effendi "in producing such a noteworthy publication."[203: No.49, Mar lg31,2-31 She also contributed greatly toward the publication of which again earned her an accolade in a cable The Dawn-Breaker~,[~~] dated 12 April 1932 from Shoghi Effendi: "Excellent Production Eminently Satisfactory Every Respect Abiding Gratitude." This was followed by a handwritten note on 5 May 1932: "It is a striking and abiding evidence of the efficiency, competence and exemplary devoOCt1932, 4l In tion which characterizes your work for the cau~e."[~~~:~O. 1933, as part of the second Seven Year Plan (194&1953), she pioneered to Western Europe, where she traveled extensively. She was a member of the first Italo-Swiss Regional Spiritual 679
LOCAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLY. An elected institution of the Bahh'i Administrative Order composed of nine adult Bahb'is, it is responsible for the administration of the Faith in a locality. Each year in any locality where the number of adult Bahb'is "in good standing" (see ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS) exceeds nine in number, a local Spiritual Assembly is elected on 21 April (Ridvan). Once elected, by secret ballot, without any electioneering or nomination and by plurality vote, the Assembly elects its officers by majority vote. It functions by consultation, and its officers have only the powers given to them in session. Its duties are to promote and oversee the teaching work, conduct marriages and burials and funerals, provide for the Bahh'i education of the whole community, ensure that the Bahh'i calendar is observed with Feast and Holy Days properly conducted, give guidance and assistance to those in difficulty, approve the enrollment of newly declared believers, consult closely with its community every 19 days, and be responsible for the Bahh'i funds. The authority for their existence is found in BahP'u'llPh's own words in the Kitdb-i-Aqdas: "The Lord hath ordained that in every city a House of Justice be established wherein shall gather counsellors to the number of Bahh, and should it exceed this number it does not matter. It behooveth them to be the trusted ones of the Merciful among men and to regard themselves as the guardians appointed of God for all that dwell on earth. It is incumbent upon them to take counsel together and to have regard for the interests of the servants of God, for His sake, even as they regard their own interests, and to choose that which is meet and ~ e e m l y . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] Shoghi Effendi wrote that
LOFT, ALFRED JAMES
287
the importance, nay the absolute necessity of these local Assemblies is manifest when we realize that in the days to come they will evolve into the local Houses of Justice. . . .The matter of Teaching, its direction, its ways and means, its extension, its consolidation, essential as they are to the interests of the Cause, constitute by no means the only issue which should receive the full attention of these Assemblies. . . . Other duties, no less vital to the interests of the Cause, devolve upon the elected representatives of the fiends in every locality. . . . They must endeavor to promote amity and concord amongst the fiends, efface every lingering trace of distrust, coolness and estrangementfrom every heart, and secure in its stead an active and whole-hearted co-operation for the service of the Cause. They must do their utmost to extend at all times the helping hand to the poor [see WEAL,TH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF], the sick, the disabled, the orphan, the widow, irrespective of color, caste and creed. . . . They must promote by every means in their power the material as well as the spiritual enlightenment of youth, the means for the education of children, institute, whenever possible, Bahh'i educational institutions, organize and supervise their work and provide the best means for their progress and development. They must undertake the arrangement of the regular meetings of the fiends, the feasts and the anniversaries,as well as the special gatherings designed to serve and promote the social, intellectual and spiritual interests of their fellow-men. . . . They must supervise in these days when the Cause is still in its infancy all Bahii'i publications and translations, and provide in general for a dignified and accurate presentation of all Bah8'i literature and its distribution to the general p ~ b l i c . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ f f ]
LOCKE, ALAIN LEROY (18861954). (A.B. and Ph.D.) An early American believer who was a noted black author, educator, and Bahh'i philosopher. Two of his works appear in Bah6 'i World volumes: voland volume V, The Orientation of ume 111, Impression of Haifa,[2'2801 Hope.[4:5271 The reader wishing further biographical detail may refer to Christopher Buck's Alain Locke: Faith and Philo~ophy.[~"1 LOFT, ALFRED JAMES (1908-1973). A Mohawk Indian who was born in Hiawatha, Ontario, Canada. When he was a young boy he was sitting on a fence watching a train pass by and saw a man clothed in flowing white robes wave to him. The memory stayed with him, and in 1948 when he embraced the Cause (through the efforts of his wife, Sarah Melba Whetung Loft), he recognized the man to have been 'Abdu'l-BahP. Following guidance fiom Shoghi Effendi he returned to share his newfound faith with his fellow Indians. Over the course of the remaining years of his life he promoted the Cause
288
LOFT, SARAH MELBA WHETUNG
with vigor among the Mohawk peoples. He died in May 1973, and his grave marker bears the simple legend "Alfred 'Jim' Loft-Bahh'i Pioneer" and is engraved with the Indian thunderbird symbol and a nine-pointed star.[15:514,93:4171
LOFT, SARAH MELBA WHETUNG. (Kinaaj-Kwe.) An Ojibwa Indian, born on the Curve Lake Indian Reserve, near Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, she was the first (1938) native Indian believer to embrace the Cause in Canada. She was the wife of Alfred James Loft. She served on the first (1979) local Spiritual Assembly of Tyendinaga. She was active in the promotion of the Cause among the Indian peoples throughout her entire Bahi'i life and also traveled as far as Europe in 1978 (visiting Denmark, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Austria, and Swit~erland).['~~~~] LORD OF HOSTS. Refers to Bahsi'u'llsih. In His own words, "The Promised Day is come and the Lord of Hosts hath appeared. Rejoice ye with great joy by reason of this supreme felicity. Aid Him then ~~~] through the power of wisdom and u t t e r a n ~ e . " [ l ~'Abdu'l-BahB explained, "The blessed Person of the Promised One is interpreted in the Holy Book as the Lord of Hosts, i.e., the heavenly armies. By heavenly armies those souls are intended who are entirely freed from the human world, transformed into celestial spirits and have become divine angels. Such souls are the rays of the Sun of Reality who will illumine all the c o n t i n e n t ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] LOVE. Bahh'u'llsih revealed that the source of all creation is God's love; moreover, He stipulates that humankind, if it is to be faithful to its collective Covenant with God, must reciprocate that love: "Veiled in My immemorial being and in the ancient eternity of My essence, I knew My love for thee; therefore I created thee, have engraved on thee Mine image and revealed to thee My beauty. . . . I loved thy creation, hence I created thee. Wherefore, do thou love Me, that I may name thy name and fill thy soul with the spirit of life. . . . Love Me, that I may love thee. If thou lovest Me not, My love can in no wise reach thee. Know this, 0 servant. . . . Thy Paradise is My love; thy heavenly home, reunion with Me. Enter therein and tarry not. This is that which hath been destined for thee in Our kingdom above and Our exalted Dominion. If thou lovest Me, turn away from thyself; and if thou seekest My pleasure, regard not thine own; that thou mayest die in Me and I may eternally live in thee."[150'3ffl
'Abdu'l-Bahai wrote, Were it not for the love of God, the hearts would not be illumined. Were it not for the love of God, the pathway of the Kingdom would not be opened. Were it not for the love of God, the Holy Books would not have been revealed. Were it not for the love of God, the divine Prophets would not have been sent to the world. The foundation of all these bestowals is the love of God. Therefore, in the human world there is no greater power than the love of God. It is the love of God which has brought us together here tonight. It is the love of God which is affiliating the East and the West. It is the love of God which has resuscitated the World.[100:2571
In another passage He elaborated four kinds of love: There are four kinds of love. The first is the love that flows fiom God to man; it consists of the inexhaustible graces, the Divine efilgence and heavenly illumination. Through this love the world of being receives life. Through this love man is endowed with physical existence, until, through the breath of the Holy Spirit-this same l o v e h e receives eternal life and becomes the image of the Living God. This love is the origin of all the love in the world of creation. The second is the love that flows fiom man to God. This is faith, attraction to the Divine, enkindlement, progress, entrance into the Kingdom of God, receiving the Bounties of God. . . . This love is the origin of all philanthropy; this love causes the hearts of men to reflect the rays of the Sun of Reality. The third is the love of God towards the Self or Identity of God. . . . This is the reality of love, the Ancient Love, the Eternal Love. Through one ray of this Love all other love exists. The fourth is the love of man for man. The love which exists between the hearts of believers is prompted by the ideal of the unity of spirits. This love is attained through the knowledge of God, so that men see the Divine Love reflected in the heart. . . . This love will make all men the waves of one sea, this love will make them all the stars of one heaven and the h i t s of one tree. This love will bring the realization of true accord, the foundation of real unity.r52''801
L U Q M ~ MW&UWMAD ~ , I B R ~ ~ ~(18961981). M J ~ (Spiritual Conqueror of Ceylon.) One of the best-known and well-respected early (1920) Bahh'is of India. He served as a member of the local Spiritual Assembly of Bombay and was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of India in the 1930s. In the 1940s he pioneered to Hyderabad, after which he moved to Swat and Sholapur. In 1949 he pioneered to Sri Lanka (Ceylon), for which service Shoghi Effendi later referred to him as the spiritual "Conqueror" of Ceylon. In 1956 he returned to India and settled in A ~ r a n g a b a d . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
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MACARTHUR, EDYTHE (1906-1994). (Knight of Bahi'u'llih.) An early (1944) Canadian believer who introduced the Faith to the Queen Charlotte Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahii'u'llhh. In 1954 she pioneered to South Africa, where she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Cape Town. She then returned to Canada, where her pioneering helped raise up five new local Spiritual Assemblies.[18:3211 MACDONALD, CHARLES ROBERTSON (1916-1991). (D.S.O. and D.F.C.) A highly decorated veteran of World War 11, a British Overseas Airways Corporation airline captain, and a senior civil servant in Northern Ireland, he was also a BahB'i teacher and administrator of the first order. Born in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, of recently emigrated Irish parents, he returned to Belfast, Northern Ireland, with his mother following the death of his father. Following his education at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution he joined the Northern Ireland Civil Service. On the outbreak of war in 1939 he was inducted into the Royal Air Force, qualifying for his wings in July 1940 (the same month he married Yvonne Kirkwood). During the course of the war he rose to the rank of a squadron leader in Bomber Command serving throughout with exemplary courage, leadership, and skill-surviving two full tours of duty and earning both the Distinguished Service Order (D.S.O.), awarded for individual instances of meritorious or distinguished service in war in combat against the enemy, and the Distinguished Flying Cross (D.F.C.) for acts of valor, courage, or devotion to duty performed while flying in active operations against the enemy (both were presented to him by King George VI). At the end of the war he was seconded as an airline captain to the British Overseas Airways Corporation (now British Airways). His first assignment was to pilot the chair of the company (then the Viscount Knollys, G.C.M.G., M.B.E., D.F.C.) on a world-encircling tour negotiating new and expanded flight routes for BOAC. Placing his family before his career he resigned his prestigious position to settle in Northern Ireland to work once more in the Northern Ireland Civil Service. He was introduced to the Bahh'i Faith in 1956 by his wife's parents and embraced the Cause that same year. In November 1957 he was appointed as one of several stewards at the funeral of the Guardian, Shoghi Effendi. In 1961 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the
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United Kingdom in a by-election (replacing Ian Semple, who had been elected to the International Bahh'i Council). For several years he served as treasurer until, in April 1970, he was elected secretary-whereupon he resigned his senior civil service post in Northern Ireland and moved, with his family, to London, where they took up residence in the British national Hqiratu'l-Quds. In 1974 he and Yvonne offered themselves as pioneers and at the request of the Universal House of Justice moved to India, where he was appointed as manager of the Indian Bahii'i Publishing Trust and secretary of the National Teaching Committee. While in India he also served as an Auxiliary Board member as well as assisting in the construction of the Maariqu'l-Amkhr in New Delhi. In 1981 he and Yvonne returned to the United Kingdom, and once again he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly, again serving first as treasurer and then, from 1985 to 1987, as secretary. He is perhaps the only British Bahii'i to have held the position of treasurer and secretary on two separate occasions during two separate periods of service on the National Spiritual Assembly. Prior to the April 1991 National Convention he asked to be relieved of service on the National Spiritual Assembly because of deteriorating health due to cancer-to which he succumbed in September 1991. On learning of his death the Universal House of Justice sent the following message: "Deeply grieved passing dearly loved stalwart servant of Baha'u'lltih Charles Macdonald. His long record distinguished services teaching, administration fields over three decades notably enriched annals Faith British Isles, India. His loving nature, sterling qualities, radiant spirit animated by his intense love for the Blessed Beauty endeared him to his fellow believers. Confident members United Kingdom community will be inspired by his noble life. Praying Holy Shrines progress his radiant soul Abha K i n g d ~ m . " [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
MACNUTT, HOWARD (1898-1926). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahk.) A businessman and president of the Standard Motive Power Company of New York. It was in January 1898 that Howard and his wife, Mary, heard of the Baha'i Faith, and they soon became believers. After some four years in New York City (during which time he was elected to the first Bahii'i Board of Council of New York City) they moved to a larger house in Eastern Parkway, Brooklyn, to enable them better to serve their Faith. Howard became a powerful and convincing teacher, particularly after they went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1905. In the years leading up to 'Abdu'l-Bahii's visit to America,
undoubtedly under the influence of Ibrhhim Kheiralla, Howard misrepresented the station of 'Abdu'l-Bahh as being similar to that of the Apostle Peter. This caused considerable concern and discord within the community (some even ostracized him), which was only partially The resolved while 'Abdu'l-Baha was in New York in 1912.[la1:ll1ffl MacNutts hosted meetings for 'Abdu'l-Baha on several occasions during His stay in New York, and every time he heard 'Abdu'l-Baha speak, Howard took copious notes as well as collecting all he could in the way of photographs and reports of all the Master's meetings. Desiring to make a permanent record of all this priceless material, he sought 'Abdu'l-Bahii's approval, and in giving it He wrote on 20 July 1919, "Name the book which Mr. MacNutt is compiling, The As to its Introduction, it should Promulgation of Universal be written by Mr. MacNutt himself when in heart he is turning toward the Abhh Kingdom, so that he may leave a permanent trace behind him.yy[123:411 The MacNutts died as a result of accidents in Miami, Florida, he on the 16 December 1926 and she a month later.
MAHD-I-'ULYA. See FATIMIH w. MAHDi. See i V d ~ - K U . (Jabal-i-Basit; the Open Mountain.) One of the fortresses in which the B i b was imprisoned for nine months during the last three years of His brief ministry. Shoghi Effendi refers to this period of His life: The period of the Bib's banishment to the mountains of ~ & i r b i ~ j h n , lastingno less than three years, constitutes the saddest, the most dramatic, and in a sense the most pregnant phase of His six year ministry. It comprises His nine months' unbroken confinement in the fortress of M a Kfi, and His subsequent incarceration in the fortress of uihriq, which was interrupted only by a brief yet memorable visit to Tabri~.['~:l~] The fortress of M a - K I ~ ,not far from the village of that same name, whose inhabitants had long enjoyed the patronage of the Grand Vizir [see VAZ~R],situated in the remotest northwestern corner of ~ d h i r b i y j h was , the place of incarceration assigned by Mubarnmad for the Bib. No more than one companion and one attendant from among His followers were allowed to keep Him company in those bleak and inhospitable s~rroundings.[~~'~~] On His way to that fortressthe BSlb passed a number of days in Tabriz, days that were marked by such an intense excitement on the part of the populace that, except for a few persons, neither the public nor His
a&,
followers were allowed to meet Him. . . . So great, indeed, became the clamor that the town crier was ordered to warn the inhabitants that any one who ventured to seek the Bib's presence would forfeit all his possessions and be imprisoned. Upon His arrival in Ma-Ku, surnamed by Him Jabal-i-BLit (the Open Mountain) no one was allowed to see Him for the first two weeks except His amanuensis, Siyyid Husayn, and his brother. So grievous was His plight while in that fortress that, in the Persian Bayiin, He Himself has stated that at night-time He did not even have a lighted lamp [see KELSEY, CURTIS DeMUDE] and that His solitary chamber, constructed of sun-baked bricks, lacked even a door, while, in His Tablet to Mulpnmad &6h, He has complained that the inmates of the fortress were codned to two guards and four dogs. Secluded on the heights of a remote and dangerously situated mountain on the frontiers of the Ottoman and Russian empires; imprisoned within the solid walls of a four-towered fortress; cut off from His family, His kindred and His disciples; living in the vicinity of a bigoted and turbulent community who, by race, tradition, language and creed, differed from the vast majority of the inhabitants of Persia . . . the Prisoner of M6hKu seemed in the eyes of His adversary to be doomed to languish away the flower of His youth, and witness, at no distant date, the complete annihilation of His hopes. That adversary was soon to realize, however, how gravely he had misjudged both his Prisoner and those on whom he had lavished his favors. A n d y , a proud and unreasoningpeople were gradually subdued by the gentleness of the Bab, were chastened by His modesty, were edified by His counsels, and instructed by His wisdom. They were so carried away by their love for Him that their first act every morning, notwithstanding the remonstrations of the domineering 'Ali and the repeated threats of disciplinary measures received fiom Tihrhn, was to seek a place where they could catch a glimpse of His face, and beseech fiom afar His benediction upon their daily work. In cases of dispute it was their wont to hasten to the foot of the fortress, and, with their eyes fixed upon His abode, invoke His name, and adjure one another to speak the t r ~ t h . [ ~ ~ : ' ~ ] The great bulk of the writings emanating from the Bhb's prolific mind was, however, reserved for the period of His confinement in MihKu and a i h r i q . To this period must probably belong the unnumbered Epistles which, as attested by no less an authority than Bahh'u'llhh, the Bfrb specifically addressed to the divines of every city in Persia, as well as to those residing in Najaf and Karbila, wherein He set forth in detail the errors committed by each one of them. It was during His incarceration in the fortress of Mah-Ku that He . . .revealed no less than nine commentaries on the whole of the Qur'h+ornmentaries whose fate, alas, is unknown, and one of which, at least the Author Himself a f i e d , surpassed in some respects a book as deservedly famous as the Qayy6mu'l-Asmh. Within the walls of that same fortress the
min,
Bayh-that monumental repository of the laws and precepts of the new Dispensation and the treasury enshrining most of the Bib's references and tributes to, as well as His warning regarding, "Him Whom God will make manifest7'-was
See also CONFERENCE OF BADABT. M A H m M ,Z -N ~I M ~ (1965-1983). A (Martyr.)A young BahB'i who was executed along with other coreligionists in Shirk, irhn, by the government in June 1983 for refusing to recant her belief in Bah~'u'll&h.[18:6001 MALIETOA TANUMAFILI 11, HIS HIGHNESS KING (1913-). The first head of state (Western Samoa) and reigning constitutional monarch to embrace the Faith. His private declaration of Faith on 19 February 1968 followed the presentation to him in 1967 of The by Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Proclamation of Bahci'~'llhh[~~] Giachery. A public announcement of his acceptance of BahP9u'llhh was delivered on 7 May 1973 when the Universal House of Justice released the news to the world: It is now possible to share with you all the news of an event which crowns the victories with which Bahi'u'llih has blessed His followers during the Nine Year Plan, an event of which the true significance will be fully understood only in the course of centuries to come: a reigning monarch has accepted the Message of Bahi'u'llih. Among those to whom The Proclamation of Bahi'u'llih was presented in 1967 was His Highness Malietoa Tanumdli 11, the Head of State of the independent nation of Western Samoa in the heart of the Pacific Ocean. His Highness, who had already heard of the Faith, showed immediately that the sacred Words had touched his heart, and the Universal House of Justice thereupon asked the Hand of the Cause Dr. Ugo Giachery, who had presented the book to him, to return to Westem Samoa for further audiences with His Highness. Following this visit the Malietoa conveyed his acceptance of the Faith of Bahir'u'llih to the Universal House of Justice and became the first reigning sovereign to enter beneath the shade of this Cause. His Highness decided, with the full agreement of the Universal House of Justice, that it was not propitious to make his declaration public at that time. He has been visited fiom time to time by Hands of the Cause and other believers, and continual touch with His Highness has been maintained by the House of Justice through Mr. Suhayl 'Ali'i, a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Australasia. Gradually the Malietoa has let it be known to those around him that he
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has accepted Bahl'u'llih. Now he has judged the time ripe to share this wondrous news with his fellow-believers in all parts of the world, by addressing to the International Bahi'i Convention the gracious and inspiring message. . . . The message, read to the convention by Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahi Rfihiyyih KJinum, was as follows: Precious Members of the Universal House of Justice, Beloved Hands of the Cause, Respected Counsellors, Esteemed Delegates attending the 5th International Bahi'i Convention: My dear spiritual Brothers and Sisters, While our hearts turn with sorrow and grief to the events enguliing our fellow believers in the cradle of the Faith and witness with profound admiration their exemplary steadfastness and spiritual strength, our grateful hearts turn to Bahi'u'llih in thanksgiving for the many victories which have come to the Bahi'i World. The completion of the magnificent permanent Seat of the Universal House of Justice, the simultaneous rising of the two Houses of Worship [see MA~QU'L-AD-&R] in Asia and the Pacific, the unprecedented support and recognition of the Cause by many distinguished leaders of Governments, are but a few historic milestones our generation has been fortunate to witness. A new momentum, a new spirit is felt in this part of the world. In Samoa we witness a new surge of enthusiasm, activity and devotion by the believers and recognition and respect by the friends of our precious Faith. Our grateful appreciation goes to the Universal House of Justice who chose this small nation to be the recipient of that wonderful gift-the first Mashriqu'l-Auk of the Pacific. We are equally gratified by the support of the friends of God all over the world, even the smallest and remotest villages in all continents, that are giving for the completion of this enterprise. May this historic convention be a source of joy and solace to your hearts. Our most sincere prayers and good wishes are with you during the course of your d e l i b e r a t i ~ n s . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] MANIFESTATION. See CREATION; EMANATION; MANIFESTATION OF GOD. MANIFESTATION O F GOD. Designation of a Prophet "endowed with c o n s t a n ~ y " ; [ ~the ~~~ title ~ ] given in Bahh'i Writings to the founders of the world's revealed religions; mentioned particularly (but not exclusively) are Abraham, Buddha, Zoroaster, Moses, Christ, Muhammad, the B i b , and Bahi'u'llih. Noah, Hfid, and
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Shlih are also mentioned. Bahh'u'llhh stipulates that God's Message is revealed (see REVELATION) through the Holy Spirit via His Manifestations and that They, in turn, become the educators (see EDUCATION) of humankind. These Tabernacles of Holiness, these Primal Mirrors which reflect the light of unfading glory, are but expressions of Him Who is the Invisible of the Invisibles. By the revelation of these Gems of Divine virtue all the names and attributes of God, such as knowledge and power, sovereignty and dominion, mercy and wisdom, glory, bounty, and grace, are made manifest. These attributes of God are not, and have never been, vouchsafed specially unto certain Prophets, and withheld fiom others. Nay, all the Prophets of God, His well-favored, His holy and chosen Messengers are, without exception, the bearers of His names, and the embodiments of His attributes. They only differ in the intensity of their revelation, and the comparative potency of their light. . . . That a certain attribute of God hath not been outwardly manifested by these Essences of Detachment doth in no wise imply that they who are the Day Springs of God's attributes and the Treasuries of His holy names [see GREATEST NAME] did not actually possess it. Therefore, these illuminated Souls, these beauteous Countenances have, each and every one of them, been endowed with all the attributes of God, such as sovereignty, dominion, and the like, even though to outward seeming they be shorn of all earthly majesty. These sanctified Mirrors, these Day Springs of ancient glory, are, one and all, the Exponents on earth of Him Who is the central Orb of the universe, its Essence and ultimate Purpose. From Him proceed their knowledge and power; £rom Him is derived their sovereignty. The beauty of their countenance is but a reflection of His image, and their revelation a sign of His deathless glory. They are the Treasuries of Divine knowledge, and the Repositories of celestial wisdom. Through them is transmitted a grace that is infinite, and by them is revealed the Light that can never fade.[78'46ffl
'Abdu'l-Bahsi elaborated as follows: The real Manifestation of God must be endowed with divine knowledge and not dependent upon learning acquired in schools. He must be the educator, not the educated; his standard intuition instead of tuition. He must be perfect and not imperfect, great and glorious instead of being weak and impotent. He must be wealthy in the riches of the spiritual world and not indigent. In a word, the holy divine Manifestation of God must be distinguished above all others of mankind in every aspect and qualification, in order that he may be able to effectively train the human body politic, eliminate the darkness enshrouding the human world, upliR humanity fiom a lower to a higher kingdom, be
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able through the penetrative power of his Word to promote and spread broadcast the beneficent message of universal peace among men, bring about the unification of mankind in religious belief through a manifest divine power, harmonize all sects and denominations and convert all nativities and nationalities into one nativity and fatherland.["':"21 The purpose of this is to show that the holy Manifestations of God, the divine prophets, are the first teachers of the human race. They are universal educators and the fundamental principles they have laid down are the causes and factors of the advancement of nation~.['~':~~] The mission of the prophets, the revelation of the holy books, the manifestation of the heavenly teachers and the purpose of divine philosophy all center in the training of the human realities so that they may become clear and pure as mirrors and reflect the light and love of the Sun of Reality.[131'2621 The most vital duty, in this day, is to purify your characters, to correct your manners, and improve your conduct. The beloved of the Merciful must show forth such character and conduct among His creatures, that the fragrance of their holiness may be shed upon the whole world, and may quicken the dead, inasmuch as the purpose of the Manifestation of God and the dawning of the limitless lights of the Invisible is to educate the souls of men, and reline the character of every living m a n s o that blessed individuals, who have freed themselves from the murk of the animal world, shall rise up with those qualities which are the adomings of the reality of man. The purpose is that earthlings should turn into the people of Heaven, and those who walk in darkness should come into the light, and those who are excluded should join the inner circle of the Kingdom, and those who are as nothing should become intimates of the everlasting Glory. It is that the portionless should gain their share of the boundless sea, and the ignorant drink their fill from the living fount of knowledge; that those who thirst for blood should forsake their savagery, and those who are barbed of claw should turn gentle and forbearing, and those who love war should seek instead for true conciliation; it is that the brutal, their talons razor-sharp, should enjoy the benefits of lasting peace; that the foul should learn that there is a realm of purity, and the tainted find their way to the rivers of holiness. Unless these divine bestowals be revealed from the inner self of humankind, the bounty of the Manifestation will prove barren, and the dazzling rays of the Sun of Truth will have no effect whatever. Wherefore, 0 beloved of the Lord, strive ye with heart and soul to receive a share of His holy attributes and take your portion of the bounties of His sanctity-that ye may become the tokens of unity, the standards of singleness, and seek out the meaning of oneness; that ye may, in this garden of God, lift up your voices and sing the blissful anthems of the spirit.['OO'a
This process, known in its historical unfoldment as progressive revwhereby humanity evolves both spiritually e l a t i ~ n , [ ~is~the : ~ means ~]
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and materially. In the Kitcib-i-Aqdas, Bahh'u'llhh indicates that the next Manifestation of God will not appear for at least 1,000 y e a r ~ . [ ~ ' : ~ ~ ] See also MANIFESTATION OF GOD, THREE STATIONS OF. MANIFESTATION OF GOD, THREE STATIONS OF. 'Abdu'lBahsi addresses this subject in Some Answered Questions as follows: Know that the Holy Manifestations, though They have the degrees of endless perfections, yet, speaking generally, have only three stations. The first station is the physical; the second station is the human, which is that of the rational soul; the third is that of the divine appearance and the heavenly splendor. The physical station is phenomenal; it is composed of elements, and necessarily everything that is composed is subject to decomposition. It is not possible that a composition should not be disintegrated. The second is the station of the rational soul, which is the human reality. This also is phenomenal, and the Holy Manifestations share it with all mankind. Know that, although the human soul has existed on the earth for prolonged times and ages, yet it is phenomenal. As it is a divine sign, when once it has come into existence, it is eternal. The spirit of man has a beginning, but it has no end; it continues eternally. In the same way the species existing on this earth are phenomenal, for it is established that there was a time when these species did not exist on the surface of the earth. Moreover, the earth has not always existed, but the world of existence has always been, for the universe is not limited to this terrestrial globe. The meaning of this is that, although human souls are phenomenal, they are nevertheless immortal, everlasting and perpetual; for the world of things is the world of imperfection in comparison with that of man, and the world of man is the world of perfection in comparison with that of things. When imperfections reach the station of perfection, they become eternal. This is an example of which you must comprehend the meaning. The third station is that of the divine appearance and heavenly splendor: it is the Word of God, the Eternal Bounty, the Holy Spirit. It has neither beginning nor end, for these things are related to the world of contingencies and not to the divine world. For God the end is the same thing as the beginning. So the reckoning of days, weeks, months and years, of yesterday and today, is connected with the terrestrial globe; but in the sun there is no such thing-there is neither yesterday, today nor tomorrow, neither months nor years: all are equal. In the same way the Word of God is puriiied fiom all these conditions and is exempt from the boundaries, the laws and the limits of the world of contingency. Therefore, the reality of Prophethood, which is the Word of God and the perfect state of manifestation, did not have any beginning and will
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not have any end; its rising is different fkom all others and is like that of the sun. For example, its dawning in the sign of Christ was with the utmost splendor and radiance, and this is eternal and everlasting. See how many conquering kings there have been, how many statesmen and princes, powerful organizers, all of whom have disappeared, whereas the breezes of Christ are still blowing; His light is still shining; His melody is still resounding; His standard is still waving; His armies are still fighting; His heavenly voice is still sweetly melodious; His clouds are still showering gems; His lightning is still flashing; His reflection is still clear and brilliant; His splendor is still radiating and luminous; and it is the same with those souls who are under His protection and are shining with His light. Then it is evident that the Manifestations possess three conditions: the physical condition, the condition of the rational soul, and the condition of the divine appearance and heavenly splendor. The physical condition will certainly become decomposed, but the condition of the rational soul, though it has a beginning, has no end: nay, it is endowed with everlasting life. But the Holy Reality, of which Christ says, "The Father is in the Son," has neither beginning nor end. When beginning is spoken of, it signifies the state of manifesting; and, symbolically,the condition of silence is compared to sleep. For example, a man is sleeping-when he begins to speak, he is awake-but it is always the same individual, whether he be asleep or awake; no difference has occurred in his station, his elevation, his glory, his reality or his nature. The state of silence is compared to sleep, and that of manifestation to wakefulness. A man sleeping or waking is the same man; sleep is one state, and wakefulness is another. The time of silence is compared to sleep, and manifestation and guidance are compared to wakefulness. In the Gospel it is said, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God." Then it is evident and clear that Christ did not reach to the station of Messiahship and its perfections at the time of baptism, when the Holy Spirit descended upon Him in the likeness of a dove. Nay, the Word of God fiom all eternity has always been, and will be, in the exaltation of s a n c t 5 ~ a t i o n . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
MANTON, ERIC (1911-1984). An early (1946) British believer who served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Edinburgh, Scotland. In 1952 he pioneered to Africa and had the distinction of being the first Bahii'i to set foot in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). He served on the first (1956) local Spiritual Assembly of Luanshya, Northern Rhodesia. In 1964 he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of South Central Aflica and served as chairman until 1967, when the Universal House of Justice called for the election of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Zambia. He served as
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chairman for nine consecutive years and then on other occasions until his retirement in 1982.[18:6471 MANY BEARS, EDMOND (1905-1968) AND JEAN (1910-1968). The first Canadian Indians from the Blackfoot tribe to embrace the Cause. They traveled extensively among the Indian peoples sharing their faith.[13:3571
MAN-YUZHIRUHU'LL~.See HIM WHOM GOD SHALLIWILL MAKE MANIFEST. MARANGELLA, PHILIP ANTONIO (1895-1974). An early (192 1) American believer of Italian birth who traveled extensively throughout the United States promoting the Cause. In 1947 he pioneered for 1 year to Italy before returning to the United States. In 1953 he again left America as a pioneer, this time to Japan, where he spent the next 20 years. In 1971, at the request of the Universal House of Justice, he visited 20 established and 4 newly formed National Spiritual Assemblies. In 1972 he pioneered to Hong Kong. Throughout the period of his stay in the Far East he traveled extensively in the promotion of the C a u ~ e . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ~ A B AWelcome! . Bravo! Well done![18:7391u MARRIAGE. While it is not obligatory, Bahai'u'llaih highly commends obedience to the law of marriage: "And when He desired to manifest grace and beneficence to men, and to set the world in order, He revealed observances and created laws; among them He established the law of marriage, made it as a fortress for well-being and salvation, and enjoined it upon us in that which was sent down out of the heaven of sanctity in His Most Holy Book. He saith, great is His glory: 'Marry, 0 people, that from you may appear he who will remember Me amongst My servants; this is one of My commandments unto you; obey it as an assistance to y o u r s e l ~ e s . " ~ [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] The "primary purpose of marriage is," therefore, "the procreation Of Chil&en."[87:3791 In the Kitrib-i-Aqdas, Bahi'u'llih mandates that both parties to a marriage must be at least 15 years must first make their own decision, and then must obtain consent of all living natural pare n t ~ . [ ~He ~ :gives ~ ~ ] instructions about the length of engagement (no and the payment of a more than 95 days)[71"501
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There is no prohibition in regard to the remarriage of divorced peoThe Kitrib-i-Aqdas ple; however, plurality of wives is f~rbidden.[~l:~O~fl appears at first glance to allow bigamy; however, the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice clari6ed this: "The text of the Kithbi-Aqdas upholds monogamy, but as it appears also to permit bigamy, the Guardian was asked for a clarification, and in reply his secretary wrote on his behalf. 'Regarding Bahii'i marriage: in the light of the Master's Tablet interpreting the provision in the Aqdas on the subject of the plurality of wives, it becomes evident that monogamy alone is permissible, since, as 'Abdu'l-Bahii states, bigamy is conditioned upon justice and as justice is impossible, it follows that bigamy is not permissible, and monogamy alone should be practised."'[98:4491 Bahb'is must have a Bahii'i marriage ceremony, which may be as simple or as elaborate as the parties wish providing the basic requirements are met. These are that the bride and bridegroom repeat separately, in the presence of witnesses, "We will all, verily, abide by the A local Spiritual Assembly must be assured that Will of God."[71:1051 neither party is already married; that consent of the parents has been obtained, that, in places where Bahii'i marriage is not legally recognized, a civil marriage has taken place within the previous 24 hours, and that approved representatives have witnessed the recitation of the prescribed verses. Describing Bahii'i marriage 'Abdu'l-Bahai wrote, As for the question regarding marriage under the Law of God: first thou must choose one who is pleasing to thee, and then the matter is subject to the consent of father and mother. Before thou makest thy choice, they have no right to interfere. . . . BahB'i marriage is the commitment of the two parties one to the other, and their mutual attachment of mind and heart. Each must, however, exercise the utmost care to become thoroughly acquainted with the character of the other, that the binding covenant between them may be a tie that will endure forever. Their purpose must be this: to become loving companions and comrades and at one with each other for time and eternity. . . . The true marriage of Bahi'is is this, that husband and wife should be united both physically and spiritually, that they may ever improve the spiritual life of each other, and may enjoy everlasting unity throughout all the worlds of God. This is Bahi'i marriage.[100:1181
When one of the partners is not a Bahii'i, the Bahh'i may participate in the religious service of the other providing it does not involve a declaration of faith in the other religion nor commit the Bahii'i to allow any children to be brought up as n0n-Bahii'is.['~~~~1
302 MARTYR
MARTYR. One who submits to death rather than renounce or recant his or her faith. Also a person whose sacrifices for the Faith merit this special designation. The first martyr in the Bahb'i era was MullP 'My-i-Baspimi. Shoghi Effendi said that he was followed by no fewer than 20,000 martyrs who gave their lives in the early days, and these martyrdoms and persecutions continue up to the present time. Bahsi'u'llsih explained that it was possible to live and still be counted as a martyr. Indeed, Shoghi Effendi wrote that "every day has certain needs. In those early days the Cause needed Martyrs, and people who would stand all sorts of torture and persecution in expressing their faith and spreading the message sent by God. Those days are, however, gone. The Cause at present does not need martyrs who would die for the faith, but servants who desire to teach and establish the Cause throughout the world. To live to teach in the present day is like being martyred in those early days. It is the spirit that moves us that counts, not the act through which that spirit expresses itself; and that spirit is to serve the Cause of God with our heart and soul."[72v0'11~p~51 MASEHLA, WILLIAM MMUTLE. An early (1954) South African believer who served on the first (1956) local Spiritual Assembly of Alexandra. He went on to serve on the local Spiritual Assemblies of Dube, Soweto (1957), and DubeMofolo (1958). In 1956 he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of South and West Africa. He chaired the final session of the first Bahb'i World Congress in London in 1963. In 1968 he was appointed an Auxiliary Board member, and in 1976 he was raised to the rank of Continental Counsellor, in which positions he traveled widely throughout the southern half of Afiica in the promotion of the C a ~ s e . [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] MA~QU'L-AD-&. (The Dawning Place of the Praise of God.) The Bahb'i House of Worship (Bahb'i Temple). This Arabic term implies much more than a simple building-it covers several institutions built around a central house for worship that together cater to the various spiritual and administrative needs of the community. 'Abdu'l-Bahii said that "the MaMqu71-Amir is one of the most vital institutions in the world, and it hath many subsidiary branches. Although it is a House of Worship, it is also connected with a hospital, a drug dispensary, a traveler's hospice, a school for orphans, and a university for advanced studies. Every Ma&riqu'lA&ir is connected with these five things."[100'991
Shoghi Effendi wrote that "from the Ma~uiqu'l-A_dhr, ordained as a house of worship by Bahh'u'llhh in the Kithb-i-Aqdas, the representatives of Bahi'i communities, both local and national, together with the members of their respective committees, will, as they gather daily within its walls at the hour of dawn, derive the necessary inspiration that will enable them to discharge, in the course of their day-to-day exertions in . . . their administrative activities -their duties and responsibilities as befits the chosen stewards of His Faith."[37:3401 There are presently some seven of the central Houses of Worship in the world, some of which have one or more of the satellite buildings. These are in Wilmette, Illinois; Kampala, Uganda; Frankfurt, Germany; Sydney, Australia; Western Samoa; Panama; and New Delhi, India. While the styles of architecture are widely varied, each central building must be nine sided and have a dome; it must be open to all peoples of all races and religions; only the human voice will be used reading, singing, or chanting from the world's religious scriptures. Writing at Ridvh 2001, the Universal House of Justice set out plans for the construction of the last of the continental temples (bring the total number to eight) and the beginning of the raising up of national Houses of Worship: A feature of the Fifth Epoch [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"] will be the enrichment of the devotional life of the community through the raising up of national Houses of Worship, as circumstances in national communities permit. The scheduling of these projects will be determined by the Universal House of Justice in relation to the advancement of the process of entry by troops within countries. This development will unfold throughout successive stages of 'Abdu'l-Bahir's Divine Plan. Upon the completion of the Mother Temple of the West, the Guardian started a programme of constructing continental temples. The first among these were the Machriqu'l-AUiir in Kampala, Sydney and Frankfixt, which were built in response to Ten Year Plan goals. The Universal House of Justice continued along these lines with the building of Temples in Panama City, Apia, and New Delhi. But this continental stage has yet to be completed: one more edi6ce remains to be built. It is with profound thankfulness and joy that we announce at this auspicious moment the decision to proceed with this last project. During the Five Year Plan, erection of the Mother Temple of South America in Santiago, Chile, will commence and thus fulfil a wish clearly expressed by Shoghi Effendi.
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MASTER. ( ~ ~ 9A. title ) of 'Abdu'l-Bahh referring to the virtues He manifested and to His role as an enduring model for humanity to em~late.[~~:~~*] MATERIALISM. Merriam-Webster b Unabridged Dictionary defines materialism as "a doctrine, theory, or principle according to which physical matter is the only reality and the reality through which all being and processes and phenomena can be explained; a doctrine, theory, or principle according to which the only or the highest values or objectives of living lie in material well-being and pleasure and in the furtherance of material progress; a preoccupation with or tendency to seek after or stress material things rather than intellectual or spiritual things." Lacking a sense of balanced detachment, the present age is obsessed by the pursuit of material possessions to the exclusion of spiritual objectives; such materialism is strongly condemned in Bahh'i Writings, though the desire for wealth and the appropriate use of the planet's resources are not in themselves blameworthy. Shoghi Effendi wrote about the crass materialism, which lays excessive and ever-increasing emphasis on material well-being, forgetful of those things of the spirit on which alone a sure and stable foundation can be laid for human society. It is this same cancerous materialism, born originally in Europe, carried to excess in the North American continent, contaminating the Asiatic peoples and nations, spreading its ominous tentacles to the borders of Africa, and now invading its very heart, which Bahai'u'llaih in unequivocal and emphatic language denounced in His Writings, comparing it to a devouring flame and regarding it as the chief factor in precipitating the dire ordeals and world-shaking crises [see CALAMITIES AND CRISES] that must necessarily involve the burning of cities and the spread of terror and consternation in the hearts of men. . . .It is this same all-pervasive, pernicious materialism against which the voice of the Center of Bahh'u'llhh's Covenant ('Abdu'l-Bahh) was raised, with pathetic persistence, from platform and pulpit, in His addresses to the heedless multitudes, which, on the morrow of His fateful visit to both Europe and America, found themselves suddenly swept into the vortex of a tempest which in its range and severity was unsurpassed in the world's history. . . . Collateral with this ominous laxity in morals, and this progressive stress laid on man's material pursuits and wellbeing, is the darkening of the political horizon, as witnessed by the widening of the gulf separating the protagonists of two antagonistic schools of thought which, however divergent in their ideologies, are to
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be commonly condemned by the upholders of the standard of the Faith of Bahi7u'llAhfor their materialistic philosophies and their neglect of those spiritual values and eternal verities on which alone a stable and flourishing civilization can be ultimately e ~ t a b l i s h e d . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
'Abdu'l-Bahh remained optimistic about humanity's ultimate triumph over materialism: "It is certain that spirituality will defeat materialism, that the heavenly will subdue the human, and that through divine education the masses of mankind generally will take t those who are great steps forward in all degrees of l i f ~ x c e p for And "therefore, let your blind and deaf and mute and dead."[100'1911 faces be more radiant with hope and heavenly determination to serve the Cause of God, to spread the pure fragrances of the divine rose garden of unity, to awaken spiritual susceptibilities in the hearts of mankind, to kindle anew the spirit of humanity with divine fires and to reflect the glory of heaven to this gloomy world of materialism. When you possess these divine susceptibilities, you will be able to awaken and develop them in others. We cannot give of our wealth to the poor unless we possess it. How can the poor give to the poor? [SeeWEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF.] How can the soul that is deprived of the heavenly bounties develop in other souls capacity to receive those bounties? Array yourselves in the perfection of divine virtues. I hope you may be quickened and vivified by the breaths of the Holy Spirit. Then shall ye indeed become the angels of heaven whom Christ promised would appear in this Day to gather the harvest of divine planting. This is my hope. This is my prayer for y o ~ . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ] MATURITY. The age of spiritual maturity in the Baha'i Faith is set at 15 year~.[~l:ll~] This is the age when a Baha'i may get married[71:1341 and when the believer must begin to observe the obligations of p r a ~ e r [ ~ l and : l ~ ~f ]a ~ t i n g . [ ~The ~ : ~right ~ ~ l to vote (administrative rights) in Baha'i elections and serve on local Spiritual Assemblies and National Spiritual Assemblies is set at 21.[87:641 MAXWELL, MARION LORD (1889-1977). The first (1942) Jamaican believer to embrace the Cause in Jamaica. She was elected a member of the first (1943) local Spiritual Assembly of Kingston and became its first t r e a ~ u r e r . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] MAXWELL, MARY SUTHERLAND. See 'AMATU'L-BAHA RUH~VVIH~ A N U M .
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MAXWELL, MAY ELLIS BOLLES (1870-1940). (Disciple of Abdu'l-Bahb; Martyr; Spiritual Mother of France; Spiritual Mother of Canada.) The wife of Hand of the Cause of God William Sutherland Maxwell, and mother of the wife of Shoghi Effendi, Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahh Riihiyyih u h n u m (Mary Maxwell). May M a x ~ e l l [ ~ ~is: ~ further ~ ~ f fimmortalized l with the station of a martyr and the designation of "Spiritual Mother of Canada."[66:81 She was born in Englewood, New Jersey, on 14 January 1870. From her earliest days she had a capacity for affectionate and enduring ties, an eagerness for truth, and an independent nature. When she was 14, she declined further formal education. She said later, "I felt very distinctly there was another way of acquiring knowledge." (See INDEPENDENT SEARCH AFTER TRUTH.) She spent many years in Paris, 11 of which were in residence for the benefit of her brother Randolph's architectural studies at the EcBle des Beaux Arts. In spite of the beauty and comfort of her surroundings and the warmth of the relationship between herself, her mother, and her brother, she had a great deal of difficulty due to her health, which was later referred to by her husband William Sutherland Maxwell: "May had courage and her sublime faith inspired her to carry on, very frequently under a handicap of health that would have daunted This weakness confined her to bed for two years before a close family friend, Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, brought a party of American tourists to her apartment on the Quai d'Orsay. Though their plan was to go up the Nile, May instinctively felt there was another purpose, and she learned from Lua Getsinger that they were to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahh in ' A M , Palestine, and would be the first pilgrims from the West to visit Him. She joined the party, and in the company of Mrs. Thornburgh, Lua Getsinger, Robert Turner, and a few others, she was in the group that reached 'Abdu'l-Bahb on 17 February 1899. She wrote of her experiences in Palestine and of the dedication to Him that characterized her whole life from that time (An Early On her return to Paris she established its first Bahi'i center and began teaching the Faith. She was responsible for introducing to it some of its early outstanding workers, including Charles Mason Remey, Laura @reyfus)-Barney and Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney, Agnes Alexander, Thomas Breakwell, and, among a great many others, Juliet Thompson, Marion Jack, and Sydney Sprague. After her marriage to William Sutherland Maxwell in 1902 they settled in Montrkal, Canada, and in so doing, she "opened" Canada
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to the Faith. Their home quickly became a center for teaching and for visitors from all over the world, many of them with the most distinguished Baha'i names of that generation: 'Ali-Kuli m h n , Agnes Alexander, Martha Root, Keith Ransom-Kehler, Zih Baadhdi, and David Hofman, among many others who later spread the Faith with dedication and devotion. From there she traveled widely, and always she carried with her the spirit of 'Abdu'l-Baha. The writer (her daughter) of the In Memoriam for her wrote, "So potent was the force of His attraction on her heart that she in turn became a magnet of love drawing everyone to God. This alone was her method of l] teaching, the hidden source of an inimitable e f f e ~ t . " [ ~In~ ~addition to her wide teaching activities she was very active in the civic life of Montrdal. She supported a Childrens' Court, maintained the Colbourne Milk Station, brought from New York a Montessori teacher, and started the first school of this type in the top floor studio of her own home (then 716 Pine Avenue, now 1548 Pine Avenue); Shoghi Effendi subsequently designated the property a Bahh'i Shrine.[207'481 She became renowned in the East through the frequent mentions of her name by 'Abdu'l-Baha, and it was on her second visit that the Holy Mother (Munirih mainurn, wife of 'Abdu'l-Bahi) said to her, "First as a young girl, now with your husband; on your next visit, you A daughter, Mary (later to become will come with your ~hild."[~:~~l] the wife of Shoghi Effendi and receive from him the honorific title 'Amatu'l-Bahi R@iyyih KJhum) was born to them in 1910. In August 1912, after five months in the United States, 'Abdu'lBahii went to Montrkal, Canada, and stayed with the Maxwells for four days before moving to the Windsor Hotel at the corner of Dorchester and Peel Streets, facing Dominion Square (the main part of the hotel was destroyed by fire in 1953, and the Annex was converted into an office building); the move was made to allow easier access to the great number of people wishing to meet with Him. Later He was to say, "May Maxwell is really a Baha'i. . . . She breathed no breath and uttered no word save in service to the Cause of God. . . . Whosoever meets her feels from her association the susceptibilities of :~~~] the Kingdom. Her company uplifts and develops the s o ~ l . " [ ~Her ceaseless services to the Faith took her to many parts of Canada and the United States, carrying out the wishes first of 'Abdu'l-Bahii and then of Shoghi Effendi. Of the tributes to her none can match those of 'Abdu'l-Bahii: "Thy Lord shall strengthen thee in a manner, whereby the Queens of the world will envy thy happy state, throughout all time and ages. Because, verily, the Love of God is as a glorious Crown
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upon thy head, the brilliant jewels of which are glistening forth unto all horizons. Its brilliancy, transparency and effulgence shall appear in future centuries when the signs of God will encompass the heart of all the people of the earth!"[7:6311 It was in response to Shoghi Effendi's appeal to the Baha'is of America to turn toward Europe that she, with her husband, daughter, and two other relatives, left for a "brief visity'to that region. In reality it was two years before they returned. They traveled in Germany, Belgium, and France. She then went to Haifa, during which time she prayed in the Holy Shrines for martyrdom. It was while she was there that she had the bounty of witnessing her daughter's marriage to Shoghi Effendi. After she left in May 1937, she never saw her daughter again nor experienced Shoghi Effendi's immediate, revitalizing force, "yet in a deeper sense she lived there, hour by hour to her last day."[62:5261 For many years she had been deeply attracted to South America, and when Shoghi Effendi called upon the American Bahi'is to settle in that continent, she was "immediately captivated." She at one stage mentioned this to her daughter; she was astonished when Shoghi Effendi responded by cable, "heartily approved winter visit to Buenos Aire~."[~:~~l] Securing the consent of her husband and physician, she sailed on 24 January 1940 with her niece, Jeanne Bolles. In the cities of Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Buenos Aires she had fine teaching experiences, and her niece wrote, "As we drove through the streets, precious Aunt May was like a girl of sixteen in her joyous enthusiasm. . . . She leaned out of the taxi and exclaimed words of delight."[7:6311On the morning of 1 March, she had a terrible pain and passed away that afternoon. To her husband, Shoghi Effendi said in his cable of condolence, "Her tomb designed by yourself, erected by me, on spot she fought, fell gloriously, will become historic center pioneer Bahi'i a~tivity."[~~:l~~] Shoghi Effendi's announcement to Baha'i world summarizes her outstanding life: " 'Abdu'l-Baha's beloved handmaid, distinguished disciple May Maxwell gathered glory Abha Kingdom. Her earthly life, so rich, eventful, incomparably blessed, worthily ended. To sacred tie her signal services had forged, priceless honor martyr's death now added. Double crown deservedly won. Seven Year Plan, particularly South American campaign, derive fresh impetus example her glorious sacrifice. Southern outpost Faith greatly enriched through association her historic resting-place destined remain poignant reminder resistless march triumphant army Bahii'u'llih Advise believers both Americas hold befitting memorial gathe~ing."[~~~l]
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In his message to the American Convention in April that year the following paragraph appeared: "And now as this year, so memorable in the annals of the Faith, was drawing to its close, there befell the American Bahi'i community, through the dramatic and sudden death of May Maxwell, yet another loss, which viewed in retrospect will come to be regarded as a potent blessing conferred upon the campaign now being so diligently conducted by its members. Laden with the fruits garnered through well-nigh half a century of toilsome service to the Cause she so greatly loved, heedless of the warnings of age and ill-health, and &re with the longing to worthily demonstrate her gratitude in her overwhelming awareness of the bounties of her Lord and Master, she set her face towards the southern outpost of the Faith in the New World, and laid down her life in such a spirit of consecration and self-sacrifice as has truly merited the crown of martyrdom.,,[7:631,60:69,92:151ffl MAXWELL, WILLIAM SUTHERLAND (1874-1952). (Hand of the Cause of God.) An eminent Canadian architect of Scottish Canadian ancestors, he was born in Montreal, Canada, in 1874 and became the first Canadian Bahh'i sometime around 1903. From an early age he demonstrated an ability for drawing and design and, according to the custom of the day, in 1899 went to Paris to study and learn his chosen profession (architecture). It was here that he met the sister of a fellow student, May Ellis Bolles (Maxwell). He subsequently proposed marriage to her but had to return to Canada unwed when she refused to leave Paris ('Abdu'l-Bahai having previously instructed her to remain there). Following the declaration of Thomas Breakwell, in which May played a crucial role, 'Abdu'lBahh approved her leaving Paris and blessed the proposed marriage. They were married on 8 May 1902 in London, England, and moved thereafter to Montreal. He formed a partnership with his brother, Edward. By the start of World War I their firm, Edward and W. S. Maxwell, had become the largest and most famous firm of architects in Canada, with many public landmarks, offices, and private homes to their credit. Refer to the Maxwell Archives available on McGill University's Canadian Architecture Collection website (http://digital.library.mcgill.ca~cac/ Maxwells/cove~ames.htrn)for a sampling of their work; the site also contains detailed biographical information. In 1909, Sutherland and May went on pilgrimage to 'Akkai, where he reconfirmed his belief.
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MAXWELL, WILLIAM SUTHERLAND
Their only child, Mary Sutherland Maxwell ('Amatu'l-Bahh Rfihiyyih Khhnum), was born in 1910. It was written of him that "he was upright, truthful and never approached a human being except in courtesy, fkiendliness and that ~:~~] graciousness that is the essence of the democratic ~ p i r i t . " [ ~His achievements and talents brought many honors in the fields of art and architecture. One of the greatest changes in his life came in 1937 when he was called to Haifa to be present at the marriage of his daughter Mary to Shoghi Effendi. The health of his wife, May, which for all their 35 years of marriage had bordered on invalidism, was deteriorating, and following her death in 1940 he accepted Shoghi Effendi's invitation to move his residence to Haifa, where he spent the next 12 years in service to his beloved Guardian and son-in-law. Quiet, unassuming, and steadfast, he stood by Shoghi Effendi during some of the most difficult times of his Guardianship. His crowning glory was when Shoghi Effendi appointed him the architect of the Arcade and superstructure of the Bhb's Sepulcher on Mount Carmel. Design proposals were submitted to Shoghi Effendi in 1942, and a model of the completed and accepted design was exhibited to those who had gathered at the Shrine on the centenary of His Declaration. By 1946, Shoghi Effendi had delegated much of his outside work to Sutherland, who dealt with visitors, mail, government contracts, and other assignments. Possibly the pressure of this work contributed to a breakdown in his health, which culminated in a broken blood vessel in his ear, leaving him deaf, shaken, and dizzy for long periods of time. Nevertheless, in 1948 he flew to Italy to place the contract for the stonework for the Shrine's superstructure. In spite of failing health he continued to work on the detailed working drawings until his health broke down completely in 1949. During a series of collapses and partial recoveries, with no hope offered at all by the best doctors, he seems to have been kept alive by the reciprocating love between himself and Shoghi Effendi until he was able to visit the completed Arcade of the Shrine. His cherished wish was again to visit Montreal, and arrangements were made for him to spend the summer of 1951 there and to return to Haifa in the autumn. The food he needed to keep him fiom relapsing could not be obtained in Israel, so he remained in Canada through the winter, and it was during this period that he was elevated to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God. He passed away on 25 March 1952 with his nurse and favorite
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nephew at his bedside. As was the case with her mother, his daughter Mary was unable to be present when he passed away. Shoghi Effendi cabled the Bah6'i world, With sorrowful heart announce through National Spiritual Assemblies Hand of the Cause of Bahi'u'llih highly esteemed dearly beloved Sutherland Maxwell gathered into the glory of the Abhh Kingdom. His saintly life extending well-nigh four-score years, enriched during the course of 'Abdu'l-Baha's ministry by services in the Dominion of Canada, ennobled during Formative Age of the Faith [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"] by decade of service in Holy Land, during darkest days of my life, doubly honored through the association with the crown of martyrdom won by May Maxwell and incomparable honor bestowed upon his daughter, attained consummation through his appointment as architect of the Arcade and Superstructureof the Bab's Sepulcher as well as his elevation to the fiont ranks of the Hands of the Cause of God. . . . The mantle of Hand of the Cause now falls upon the shoulders of his distinguished daughter, 'Amatu'l-BahB Rwyyih, who has already rendered and is still rendering no less meritorious self-sacrificing services at World Center of Faith of B&$u'll&.[fl:67v 62:640,93:4371
&IND&.
See TABARS~.
MAZRA'IH. The summer mansion some four miles north of 'Akkai that 'Abdu'l-Bahai rented for Bahai'u'llaih and to which He moved in June 1877. He lived there for two years before moving to the Mansion of Bahji. Mazra'ih was eventually purchased by the Universal House of Justice and renovated as one of the places visited by Bahil'i pilgrims. See also McNEILL, LILIAN VAUGHAN. MCDANIEL, ALLEN B. (1879-1965). An early (19 15) American believer. He was elected a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada in 1925 and continued to serve (mostly as chair) until 1946. It was his company that received the contract to construct the superstructure of the Wilmette Temple (Maariqu'l-Aakair) in 1930.[13:3641 MCKINLEY, HUGH (1924-1999). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) A stalwart of the British Bahil'i community, he was instrumental in winning the goals of the first British Six Year Plan (1944-1950) serving alternately as secretary of the National Youth Committee, the National Teaching Committee, and the National Consolidation
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C ~ r n r n i t t e e . [ ~He ~ ~ was : ~ ~ ~also f l a home-front pioneer (he pioneered from Torquay to Cardiff in 1947, serving on the first local Spiritual His dedication Assembly when it was formed there in 1948).[41:4781 was such that Marion Hofman, in a letter to Philip Hainsworth, wrote, "Hugh McKinley is buying a motorbike so as to be able to He was born into a Baha'i family in get to all the goal towns."[176'521 Oxford in 1924. He had a good singing voice (having studied to be an opera singer as a young man) and wrote Along with his mother, Violet McKinley, he pioneered to Nicosia, Cyprus, in 1953, then moved to Famagusta in 1958, for which services they were designated Knights of Bahi'u'lliih. In 1966 he again pioneered, this time to Syros in the Cyclades Islands (Greece), returning finally to On his passing, the the United Kingdom in October 1977.[15:512,41:4781 Universal House of Justice wrote, "His indefatigable labours pioneering field, his teaching activities coupled with profound knowledge of the Holy Writings and firmness in the Covenant brought great victories to the C a u ~ e . ~ ' [ ~ ~ ~ ] MCKINLEY, VIOLET JESSIE (1882-1959). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) An early (c. 1925) British believer. She was a member of the first (1946) local Spiritual Assembly of Torquay. A year later she moved to Cardiff and helped form the first (1947) local Spiritual Assembly in that town. She pioneered along with her son (Hugh McKinley) to Cyprus in the fist year of the Ten Year Crusade (for which they both were designated Knights of Bahi'~'lliih).[~~'~~~1 MCNEILL, LILIAN VAUGHAN (1879-1949). She was born into a military family on 1 December 1879. While her father was acting governor of Malta and the Duke of Edinburgh, the second son of Queen Victoria, was commander of the British Fleet in the Mediterranean, she met and played with the four daughters of the duke. One of the four was the future HRH Queen Marie of Romania, the first member of royalty to accept the Baha'i Faith. Later the five girls continued their friendship at Buckingham Palace and Clarence House, London. All were married while they were quite young, Marie to HRH King Ferdinand I of Romania and Lilian to a young officer who was killed in action in the Sudan while Lilian was carrying his son in 1898. Queen Victoria was the godmother to the new baby, and Lilian lived very quietly as a young widow. Eventually she married again-to her husband's fellow officer Angus McNeill. In 1922 the McNeills went to Palestine, where Angus was called upon to open and develop a
MEDITATION
3 13
stock-breedingproject near 'Akki. Lilian became acquainted with the Bahd'i Faith in Palestine at about the same time that Queen Marie was meeting with Martha Root. In 1929 the McNeills discovered a rundown old house with a Bedouin family living in tents in the garden. It had a great attraction for Lilian, and in May 1931 the McNeills took a lease on the house and were able to restore it. The House, now known to Baha'is as Mazra'ih, was in fact the one that Bahh'u'llhh first visited and lived in on leaving 'Akki. On learning of the association with Bahi'u'llih they kept the floor that Bahi'u'llih had used untouched. Lilian had hoped to renew her friendship with Queen Marie when she visited Palestine, but it was not to be, and afterwards they exchanged correspondence, during which the Queen wrote to Lilian saying, "To think that you are of all things living near Haifa and are, as I am, a follower of the Bahd'i Faith. It interests me that you are living in that special house." From the correspondence it would seem that Shoghi Effendi visited the McNeills on many occasions. Lilian died in August 1949, and Angus wrote to Shoghi Effendi saying that she had hoped that she and her old school friend, Queen Marie, could have visited the Shrines together. He died in Cyprus some six months after Lilian. Shoghi Effendi was able to obtain the Mansion on lease fiom the Israeli Government, and the Universal House of Justice purchased it in March 1973. Lilian's first son was killed in Tanzania in 1946, and her son by Angus, Major-General John McNeill, collaborated closely with the writer (Lois Hainsworth) of the article fiom which the above notes were taken and gave his warm approval for the Universal House of Justice to erect an appropriate memorial stone over the grave of Lillian, discovered in 1981.[18:779!4 MEDITATION. The action or practice of profound spiritual or religious reflection or mental contemplation; continuous thought on one subject; (a period of) serious and sustained reflection or mental contemplati~n.[~O~I While no set form of meditation is pres~ribed[l~~:~~] in Baha'i Writings, and the Baha'is are warned against allowing superstitious its role in Baha'i practice is emphasized: ideas creeping into it,[87:4561 Meditate profoundly, that the secret of things unseen may be revealed unto you, that you may inhale the sweetness of a spiritual and imperishable fragrance, and that you may acknowledge the truth that fiom time immemorial even unto eternity the Almighty hath tried, and will continue to try, His servants, so that light may be distinguished from darkness, truth fiom falsehood, right from wrong, guidance fiom error, happiness from misery, and roses from t h o r n ~ . [ ~ ~ : ~ ]
3 14
MEJIA, BLANCA VICTORIA
Do thou meditate on that which We have revealed unto thee, that thou mayest discover the purpose of God, thy Lord, and the Lord of all worlds. In these words the mysteries of Divine Wisdom have been trea~ured.[~~:l~~] Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves. . . . This faculty of meditation frees man from the animal nature, discerns the reality of things, puts man in touch with God. . . . This faculty brings forth fiom the invisible plane the sciences and arts. Through the meditative faculty inventions are made possible, colossal undertakings are carried out; through it governments can run smoothly. Through this faculty man enters into the very Kingdom of The inspiration received through meditation is of a nature that one cannot measure or determine. God can inspire into our minds things that we had no previous knowledge of, if He desires to do Prayer and meditation are very important factors in deepening the spiritual life of the individual, but with them must go also action and example, as these are the tangible result of the former. Both are e~sential.[~~:~~~]
MEJIA, BLANCA VICTORIA (1911-1975). The first (1941) Nicaraguan to become a Bahk'i, she shared her faith with many people from all walks of life. She was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Le6n.[15:5501 MESSENGERS OF GOD. See MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD. MIESSLER, EDMUND (1902-1977). An American believer who learned of the Faith from Hand of the Cause of God Dorothy Baker in Lima, Ohio. Following the death of his wife (Muriel Auble, 1945) he pioneered to Slo Paulo, Brazil, where he helped form the first (1947) local Spiritual Assembly of Slo Paulo. He was later elected to the first and succeeding Regional National Spiritual Assembly of South America. In 1961 he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Brazil. He was later appointed an Auxiliary Board member.[16:431,93:441] MIGETTE, LUCIENE (1903-1983). An early (1936) French believer who came into the Cause through the efforts of May Maxwell. She worked closely with the International BahP'i Bureau in Geneva. In 1940 she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Lyon and,
MIND
31 5
after World War 11, on the local Spiritual Assembly of Paris. In 1958 she was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of France. She remained a member of the National Assembly until her appointment as an Auxiliary Board member in 1965.[18:6101
MIHD~.Literally, directed, guided; one who is rightly guided; the Mahdi: a designation of the twelfth Imiim; a title of the ManifestaSee also M~RZAMIHD~. tion expected by Isliim.[18:7391m MILLS, MARY OLGA KATHERINE (1882-1974). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) An early (mid-1920s) American believer of German birth. She met Shoghi Effendi while on pilgrimage sometime before 1930. She spent the war years in Leipzig and at the request of Shoghi Effendi moved to the British Isles in early 1948. She was adamantine in her desire to serve her Faith and placed herself entirely at the disposal of the National Teaching Committee. She was always ready to move in the best interests of the Faith and carried out no fewer than six important pioneer projects in the last two years of the first Six Year Plan. In 1953 she pioneered to Malta, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahii'u'llih. At the age of 91 she was elected to the first local Spiritual Assembly of Malta.[15'5311 MILLS, MONTFORD (d. 1949). (Alternatively Mountford.) A lawyer by profession, he was an early American believer who made two pilgrimages to 'Akkai to meet 'Abdu'l-Bahai. He also met 'Abdu'l-Bahii during His historic visit to America. He was the first chairman of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada when it formed in 1922. Mr. Mills prepared the first draft of the Declaration of Trust and By-Laws adopted by the National Spiritual Assembly in 1927. He was instrumental, under the direction of Shoghi Effendi, in drawing up the appeal to the League of Nations concerning the House of Bahh9U911hh.[10:5W,92311ffI MIND. 'Abdu'l-Bahai deals at considerable length with the intellectual powers of the mind: The human spirit [see SOUL; BODY, MIND, SPIRIT], unless assisted by the spirit of faith, does not become acquaintedwith the divine secrets and the heavenly realities. It is like a mirror which, although clear, polished, and brilliant, is still in need of light. Until a ray of the sun reflects upon it, it cannot discover the heavenly secrets. But the mind is the power of the human spirit. Spirit is the lamp; mind is the light which
31 6
THE MINISTRY OF THE CUSTODIANS
shines fiom the lamp. Spirit is the tree, and the mind is the h i t . Mind is the perfection of the spirit, and is its essential quality, as the sun's rays are the essential necessity of the Now concerning mental faculties, they are in truth of the inherent properties of the soul, even as the radiation of light is the essential property of the sun. The rays of the sun are renewed but the sun itself is ever the same and unchanged. Consider how the human intellect develops and weakens, and may at times come to naught, whereas the soul changeth not. For the mind to manifest itself, the human body must be whole; and a sound mind cannot be but in a sound body, whereas the soul dependeth not upon the body. It is through the power of the soul that the mind comprehendeth, imagineth and exerteth its influence, whilst the soul is a power that is free. The mind comprehendeth the abstract by the aid of the concrete, but the soul hath limitless manifestations of its own. The mind is circumscribed, the soul limitless. It is by the aid of such senses as those of sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch, that the mind comprehendeth, whereas, the soul is free fiom all agenThough in infancy the signs of the mind and spirit appear in man, they do not reach the degree of perfection; they are imperfect. Only when man attains maturity do the mind and the spirit appear and become evident in utmost perfection. So also the formation of man in the matrix of the world was in the beginning like the embryo; then gradually he made progress in perfectness, and grew and developed until he reached the state of maturity, when the mind and spirit became visible in the greatest power. In the beginning of his formation the mind and spirit also existed, but they were hidden; later they were manifested. In the womb of the world mind and spirit also existed in the embryo, but they were concealed; afterward they appeared.[121:1981 The spirit is the power of life, the mind is the power which apprehendeth the reality of things, and the soul is an intermediary between the Supreme Concourse (or Spiritual World) and the lower concourse (or material ~ o r l d ) . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l
See also CONCOURSE ON HIGH.
THE MINISTRY OF THE CUSTODIANS. (Interregnum.) After the death of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, with no will and testament or scope for the appointment of a successor, the affairs of the Faith devolved, with the complete support of then existent National Spiritual Assemblies, to the control of the Hands of the Cause of God, referred to in Shoghi Effendi's last general message as "the Chief Stewards of Bahd'u'llhh's embryonic World Commonwealth."[38"271 This control was characterized by a complete devotion to what Shoghi Effendi had already made known in his letters and approved
MIRACLES
3 17
plans, to the precise discharge of the mandates found therein as well as to the preparations necessary for the election of the Universal House of Justice and was therefore consistent with and within the parameters of the Covenant.
The Ministry of the Custodians ceased with the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963, which then, in accordance to the statements of Bahh'u'llhh and 'Abdu'l-Bahh, assumed its rightful place as the supreme governing and legislative body of the Bahh'i Faith. Following its election, the Universal House of Justice penned this tribute and confirmation of the mandate and actions of the Chief Stewards: Following the passing of Shoghi Effendi the international administration of the Faith was carried on by the Hands of the Cause of God with the complete agreement and loyalty of the National Spiritual Assemblies and the body of the believers. This was in accordance with the Guardian's designation of the Hands as the "Chief Stewards of Bahi'u'llih's embryonic World Commonwealth." From the very outset of their custodianship of the Cause of God the Hands realized that since they had no certainty of divine guidance such as is incontrovertibly assured to the Guardian and to the Universal House of Justice, their one safe course was to follow with undeviating firmness the instructions and policies of Shoghi Effendi. The entire history of religion shows no comparable record of such strict selfdiscipline, such absolute loyalty and such complete self-abnegation by the leaders of a religion finding themselves suddenly deprived of their divinely inspired guide. The debt of gratitude which mankind for generations, nay, ages to come, owes to this handful of grief-stricken, steadfast, heroic souls is beyond e s t i m a t i ~ n . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ]
The period is covered in detail in the compilation of letters and cables of the Hands entitled The Ministry of the Custodians-19571963.[591
M~R A contraction of Amir, used, when prefixed to a name, to denote descent from the House of the Prophet Mulpmmad. See also SIyyID.[18:7391" MIRACLES. Merriam- Websterb Unabridged Dictionary defines a
miracle as "an extraordinary event taken to manifest the supernatural power of God fulfilling his purposes; an event or effect in the physical world deviating from the laws of nature." Although both real and important, Bahh'is do not regard such events as proof of the divinity of Bahh'u'llhh, for as 'Abdu'l-Bahh wrote,
3 18
MIRANDA, ROQUE CENTUUON
Though if I wish to mention the supernatural acts of Bahl'u'llih, they are numerous; they are acknowledged in the Orient, and even by some nonBahi'is. But these narratives are not decisive proofs and evidences to all; the hearer might perhaps say that this account may not be in accordance with what occurred. . . . From what evidence may we know that those are false and that these are true? . . . Consequently, these accounts are not satisfactory proofs. Yes, miracles are proofs for the eyewitness only, and even he may regard them not as a miracle but as an en~hantment.['~~:~q The Holy Manifestations are the sources of miracles and the originators of wonderful signs. For Them, any difficult and impracticablething is possible and easy. For through a supernaturalpower wonders appear from Them; and by this power, which is beyond nature, They influence the world of nature. From all the Manifestations marvelous things have appeared. But in the Holy Books an especial terminology is employed, and for the Manifestations these miracles and wonderful signs have no importance. They do not even wish to mention them. For if we consider miracles a great proof, they are still only proofs and arguments for those who are present when they are performed, and not for those who are absent. . . . But in the clay of the Manifestation the people with insight see that all the conditions of the Manifestation are miracles, for They are superior to all others, and this alone is an absolute miracle. . . . The outward miracles have no importance for the people of Reality. . . . The meaning is not that the Manifestations are unable to perform miracles, for They have all power. But for Them inner sight, spiritual healing and eternal life are the valuable and important things. Consequently, whenever it is recorded in the Holy Books that such a one was blind and recovered his sight, the meaning is that he was inwardly blind, and that he obtained spiritual vision, or that he was ignorant and became wise, or that he was negligent and became heedfd, or that he was worldly and became heavenly. . . .As this inner sight, hearing, life and healing are eternal, they are of i m p o r t a n ~ e . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
The great miracle of BahAYu'llahis the way in which He changes the hearts of people, turns hatred into love, brings unity and peace where there was discord and war, and has laid the foundations for a new civilization and a new human race that will manifest in a new world order: literally, the real miracle is the effect of His Words on the hearers. MIRANDA, ROQUE CENTURION (d. 1957). The first person to accept the Cause in Parag~ay.['~:~~~1 M~RZA.A contraction of Amir Zadih, meaning "son of an Amir." When affixed to a name it sigmfies "Prince"; when prefixed, it either
denotes a clerk, secretary, scribe, or scholar or conveys a merely honorific sense: Mi~ter.['~:~~~]"
~ (Apostle of M h Z A A B U ' L - F ~ L - I - G U L P A Y G ~(1844-1914). Bahii'u'lliih.) Outstanding scholar and writer of rare erudition, unequaled amongst the followers of Bahii'u'lliih, in the East or in the West, in the first century of the Bahi'i Faith. Born in 1844, he embraced the Faith in 1876 and devoted the rest of his 70 years to traveling, teaching, and writing about the Bahi'i Faith. He compiled the Genealogies of Bahi 'u 'llih. At the request of 'Abdu'l-Bahii, he spent almost four years in America at the turn of the century countering and dispelling the fallacious statements and machinations of a number of ~ O aof the books he wrote that have been Covenant b r e a k e r ~ . [ ~ ~Some translated into English are The Bahi 'i Proofs, The Brilliant P r o ~ J ; [ ~ ~ ~ l and Miracles and Refer to Taherzadeh's four-volume work entitled The Revelation of Bahi'u 'llih for further biographical material of interest.[43:44C46ff, 96~96%433a M ~ R Z A'ALi-KULI
-.
See 'ALf-KULI &N.
MiRZA 'ALi MU .(Ibn-i-Asdaq; Hand of the Cause of God; Apostle of Bahii'u'lliih; fiiihid-ibn-i-fiihid; martyr, son of the martyr.) As a young boy in the company of his father, he met Bahii'u'lliih in B a a d i d . Soon after their return to Persia they were arrested for being Biibis, put into chains, tortured, and thrown into the Siyiih-ail (where Bahii'u'lliih Himself had been chained before His exile to Ba&&d). Father and son remained chained together in that foul dungeon for over two years, and young 'Ali Mul?amrnad became seriously ill. The chief jailer agreed to send for a physician, but none could be found who would treat a Bhbi. Finally he found a Jewish doctor, Hakim Masih, who treated the boy for two months. As a result of these visits, Hakim Masih accepted the Faith and eventually refused to leave prison until the other Bahi'i prisoners were ~:l~] released, thereby spending 28 months behind b a r ~ . [ ~Ibn-i-Asdaq traveled widely throughout Persia with his father, teaching the Faith. As he matured he grew in spirit. When he was about 30 years of age he wrote to Bahi'u'llih begging Him to confer upon him the state of "utter self-sacrifice" and pleaded for the crown of martyrdom. In January 1880 Bahh'u'llih responded saying that He would pray that he may attain the station of the most great martyrdom, that service to the Cause is the greatest of all deeds, that martyrdom is
not confined to the shedding of blood, and that it is possible to live a life of service and sacrifice and still be counted as a martyr in the sight of God. Two years later he again wrote along similar lines to Bahh'u'llhh, Who replied with words of appreciation and praise for his devoted services and called upon him always to live a saintly life. He bestowed upon him the title ahhid-ibn-i-ahhid (martyr, son of the martyr), thereby bestowing the station of martyr on both father He subsequently and son without their suffering physical death.[111'3031 appointed him a Hand of the Cause. He was also designated an Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh. M ~ Z A ' A L ~M U W M A D VARQA. See VARQA, M~RZA'AL~ MUI&4MMAD. M ~ Z A B A D ~ J ' L (1890-1950). L~ (Covenant breaker.) The youngest son of Fhtimih m h n u m (a cousin and second wife of Bahh'u'llhh), he supported fully the early plots and schemes of his brother Muhammad-'AH to displace 'Abdu'l-Bahh as the Centre of the Covenant and later Shoghi Effendi as Guardian. Badi'u'llhh later betrayed Mul;larnmad-'Ali by publishing a signed denunciation of his actions against Bahai'u'llaih. A record of this is found in the compilation of Bahiyyih mainurn's writings: Look at the treatise that their second chief wrote, regarding their first chief and his associates-in which he described, with his own pen, in minute detail, their shameful purposes and actions relative to the Centre of the divine Covenant-aims and acts that no perverse and godless tyrant would consider permissible treatment for anyone. Their second chief tells how, to a despotic and oppressive government, they brought false and malicious accusations against 'Abdu'l-Bahk how they undertook to uproot the holy Tree; how they forged Tablets, in Bahi'u'llih's name, that denounced the Centre of His Covenant; how they altered and corrupted the holy Texts to such a degree that he said his confidence in the reliability of the holy Tablets was virtually shattered. These and their other shameless activities are all set forth; and strangest of all is this, that he, their second chief-the very one who wrote the confession so full of the abominable acts of their first chief and his associateenow cleaves to the first one like flesh to bone.[l16:13'1 A footnote relating to the foregoing text reads, On p. 14 of "An Epistle to the Bahi'i World" written by Mirzi Badi'u'llih, translated by Dr Aminu'llih Farid, and published by the Bahi'i Publishing Society in Chicago in 1907, there is the following
passage concerning the falsification by Mulpmmad-'Ali of a Tablet in which Bahb'u'llhh relates the misdeeds of Mirzh Yahyh, to whom He refers as "My brother". Mirzi Badi'u'llih writes: "A few moments passed and I saw him (Mdpmmad-'Ali) take up the Tablet, erase 'My brother' and replace it with 'My Greatest Branch'. Having seen this, I immediately said: 'This deed is a great sin and a breach of trust. If you show this Tablet, this servant will divulge the whole account, will point out the interpolation, and this will cause all the writings in your possession to be considered unreliable. Hereafter whatsoever of the writings traced by the Supreme Pen you may show me, I will not accept as authentic until I have carefully compared the manuscript with the original handwriting which is elsewhere preserved and have examined the same with a magnifying glass.'"[116:1371
However, sometime later he again joined forces with Muhammad-'Ali only to become alienated fiom him a second time. He died in 1950 after almost 60 years of acts of treachery and deceit, which sorely stained the history of the Faith established by his own illustrious Father. MiRZA B U Z U R G - I - V A ~(d. 1839). (Mirzh 'Abbhs of Nh.) The father of Bahai'u'llaih. He was well known for his charm, character, and the beauty of his calligraphy. For further biographical details, refer to Balykzi's book Bahh 'u 'llhh, The King of G l ~ r y . [ ~ ~ : ' ~ f f ] M ~ R Z AD ~ Y A ~ U ~ L L A(Covenant H. breaker.) The second son of Faitimih mainum (a cousin and second wife of Bahai'u'llaih) was a weak, vacillating individual entirely under the influence of his elder brother, Mirzai Badi'u'llaih. He lived and died prematurely in the property adjacent to the Mansion of Bahji, which was in the hands of the covenant-breaking family of Muhammad-'Mi. Like his brother he strove to displace 'Abdu'l-Bahai as the Centre of the Covenant and later Shoghi Effendi as Guardian. See also COVENANT.
See AM@-I-AMh. M ~ R Z AGHUL~W-RIDA. MiRZA H b i . Fifteenth Letter of the Living. M ~ R Z AHUSAYN. See MIBK~N-QALAM. M ~ R Z AHUSAYN 'AL~-I-NW.See B A ~ ' U ' L L & . MiRZA M A l J M b F U R U ~(Apostle ~ . of Bahai'u'llaih.) A staunch fearless defender of the Faith, he was designated an Apostle of
Bahi'u'llhh. He is "the only irinian Bahi'i teacher who was given the chance to meet face to face a &hh of the Qijhr, for the purpose of making him comprehend the nature and the aim of the Bahi'i Faith, and to set his mind at rest by assuring him that Bahi'is are not anarchists, that they do not wish to jeopardize the tranquility of the realm and foment rebellion and contention. That monarch was Muzaffari'd-Din &hh, the ruler whose edict terminated autocracy in irh. The meeting of Mirzi M h 6 d with Muzaffari'd-Din &Ah lasted more than two hours and the details of that historic encounter are given by Mirzi M h 6 d in a short a~tobiography."[~~"~~1
M~RZAMIHD~(1848-1870).
mugn-i-Athar; the Purest Branch.) The second son of Bahii'u'lliih and the brother of 'Abdu'l-Bahii, he was born in Tihrrin in 1848. He was exiled along with his family and died at the age of twenty-two while incarcerated in the prison in 'Akkii in June of 1870. His tragic and untimely death is described by Shoghi Effendi in these words: To the galling weight of these tribulations was now added the bitter grief of a sudden tragedy-the premature loss of the noble, the pious Mirzi Mihdi, the Purest Branch, 'Abdu'l-Bahb's twenty-two year old brother, an amanuensis of Bahir'u'llih and a companion of His exile from the days when, as a child, he was brought from TihrAn to Baadhd to join his Father after His return from Sulayrniiniyyih.He was pacing the roof of the barracks in the twilight, one evening, wrapped in his customary devotions, when he fell through the unguarded skylight onto a wooden crate, standing on the floor beneath, which pierced his ribs, and caused, twenty-two hours later, his death, on the 23rd of Rabi'u'l-Awal 1287 A.H. (June 23, 1870.) His dying supplication to a grieving Father was that his life might be accepted as a ransom for those who were prevented from attaining the presence of their Beloved. In a highly sign& cant prayer, revealed by Bahi'u'llirh in memory of His son-a prayer that exalts his death to the rank of those great acts of atonement associated with Abraham's intended sacrifice of His son, with the cruc~xion of Jesus Christ and the martyrdom of the Imim Husayn-we read the following: "I have, 0 my Lord, offered up that which Thou hast given Me, that Thy servants may be quickened, and all that dwell on earth be united." And, likewise, these prophetic words, addressed to His martyred son: "Thou art the Trust of God and His Treasure in this Land. Erelong will God reveal through thee that which He hath de~ired."[~~:l~~] After he had been washed in the presence of Bahi'u'llh, he "that was created of the light of Bahi," to whose "meekness" the Supreme Pen had testified, and of the "mysteries" of whose ascension that same Pen
had made mention, was borne forth, escorted by the fortress guards, and laid to rest, beyond the city walls, in a spot adjacent to the shrine of Nabi Sd&, from whence, seventy years later, his remains, simultaneously with those of his illustrious mother, were to be translated to the slopes of Mt. Carmel, in the precincts of the grave of his sister, and under the shadow of the Biib's holy ~epulcher.[~~:'~~fl
In 1939, Shoghi Effendi transferred Mirzii Mihdi's earthly remains to Mount Carmel, where they now rest in the Monument Gardens alongside his mother (Nawhb) and his sister (Bahiyyih KJhnum). M ~ R Z AMU@UWMAD-'AL~ (d. 1937). (The Greater Branch; Covenant breaker.) The eldest son of Bahii'u'lliih and Fiitimih KJiinum was born in Baadiid, nine years after the birth of 'Abdu'l-Bahiithe Most Great Branch. From his earliest days he showed himself to be jealous of his brother, 'Abdu'l-Bahii, Who was surnamed by Bahii'u'lliih "the Master," and sought to occupy the same eminence and station as bestowed upon Him. Bahii'u'lliih's intentions as to His Successor, the Centre of His Covenant, are, however, clear: "The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the A a ~ i i n , the Afniin and My Kindred to turn,one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch ('Abdu'l-Bahh). . . . Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch (Maammad-'A10 to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch [Abd~'l-Bahii].''[~~~:~~~1 After the passing of Baha'u'llhh his opposition to 'Abdu'l-Bahii increased immensely, and while accepting the authenticity of Baha'u'lliih's Will and Testament (Kitiib-i6Ahd), he tried by interpolation and corruption of other Writings and by forged documents to discredit 'Abdu'l-Bahii (see M ~ R Z ABAD~~U'LLAH).Initially undertaken covertly, this opposition grew into a most vicious campaign of open hostility that created a most serious crisis in Bahii'i development. Describing a distressing period of this opposition, Shoghi Effendi wrote that all that 'Abdu'l-Bahb could do, during a period of four distressful years, His incessant exhortations, His earnest pleadings, the favors and kindnesses He showered upon him, the admonitions and warnings He uttered, even His voluntary withdrawal in the hope of averting the threatening storm, proved to be of no avail. Gradually and with unyielding persistence, through lies, half-truths, calumnies and gross exaggerations, this "Prime Mover of sedition" succeeded in ranging on his side almost the entire family of Bahb'u'llih, as well as a considerable number of those who had formed his immediate entourage.
Bahi'u'llih's two surviving wives, His two sons, the vacillating Mirzi Diyi'u'llih and the treacherous Mirzi Badi'u'llhh, with their sister and half-sister and their husbands, one of them the infamous Siyyid 'Ali, a kinsman of the Bib, the other the crafty Mirzir Majdi'd-Din, together with his sister and half-brothers-the children of the noble, the faithful a l l in a determined effort to and now deceased ~ ~ t i ~ - i - ~ a l i m -united subvert the foundations of the Covenant which the newly proclaimed Will had laid.[37:x71
Had he remained firm in the Faith he would have, according to the Will and Testament of BahB'u'llBh, become Head of the Faith after the passing of 'Abdu'l-BahB in 1921. Instead, he continued to work against it and died in 1937, alone and unsupported, and was buried in an unmarked grave.
M ~ R Z AMUWMAD-'AL~-1-ZUNUZ~. (Anis.) The youthful disci, ple chosen by the BPb to share His martyrdom (see ~ h 3MARTYRDOM OF). He related how he was chosen in the following passage from Nabil's narrative, The Da~n-Breakers[~~1: One day, as I lay confined in my cell, I turned my heart to Him (the Bib) and besought Him in these words: "Thou beholdest, 0 my BestBeloved, my captivity and helplessness, and knowest how eagerly I yearn to look upon Thy face. Dispel the gloom that oppresses my heart, with the light of Thy countenance." What tears of agonising pain I shed that hour! I was so overcome with emotion that I seemed to have lost consciousness. Suddenly I heard the voice of the Bib, and, lo! He was calling me. He bade me arise. I beheld the majesty of His countenance as He appeared before me. He smiled as He looked into my eyes. I rushed forward and flung myself at His feet. "Rejoice," He said; "the hour is approaching when, in this very city, I shall be suspended before the eyes of the multitude and shall fall a victim to the fire of the enemy. I shall choose no one except you to share with Me the cup of martyrdom. Rest assured that this promise which I give you shall be fUlfilled."[34:3061
M ~ R Z AM ~ M M A D - ' A L ~ Y - 1 - Q A Z ~Sixteenth ~ N ~ . Letter of the Living. M ~ R Z AMUHAMMAD-'AL~Y-I-zUNUZ~. See AN~S. M ~ R Z A MUHAMMAD-HASAN. (Siyyid Hasan; Apostle of BahP'u'llPh; Sulthnu'sh-Shuhadii; King of M a r t y r ~ . ) [ ~ One ~ : ' ~of ~] two brothers in Isfhhhn, given the title Sul&u'sh-Shuhadii,' the King
of the Martyrs, he was given a special mission to prepare for the journey to ' A M of Fhtimih KJhnum, the wife-to-be of 'Abdu'lBahh. He and his brother, Mirzh Muhammad-Husayn, the Beloved of Martyrs, both well loved and respected in Isfihhn for their generosity, trustworthiness, kindliness, and piety, were denounced as Bsibis while Bahsi'u'llsih was still imprisoned in 'Akksi. All their possessions were confiscated, and they were placed in chains, decapitated, and dragged through the streets of the town. For several years Bahi'u'llih in His Tablets continued to extol their virtues and voice His grief at their passing.
M~RZA MUmMMAD-HUSAYN.
(Apostle of Bahsi'u'llsih; Mahbhbu'sh-Shuhadii; Beloved of M a r t y r ~ . ) [ ~See ~ l also ~ ~ ] M~RZA mAMMAD-HASAN.
M ~ R Z AMU@~MMAD-QUL~.A half brother of Bahh'u'llhh, who accompanied Him into exile in January 1853, then to Turkey, and finally to 'Akkh. When Bahi'u'llih passed away, Mirzi MdymmadQuli remained firm in the Covenant, devoting himself entirely to God, supplicating and praying. He was known for calling to mind the days of Bahi'u'llih and expressing his grief because he himself lived on. One poignant testimony stated, "After the departure of Bahi'u'llih, he did not draw an easeful breath; he kept company with no one, but stayed by himself most of the time, alone in his small refuge, burning with the fires of s e p a r a t i ~ n . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] M ~ R Z AM m M M A D RAW&IIH-=~I-YAZD~ of the Living.
Eighth Letter
M ~ R Z AMUSA (d. 1887). (bLqiY-i-~alim;Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh.) The younger blood brother of Bahh'u'llhh who became His firm follower and was later designated as an Apostle of Bahi'u'llih. He remained a devoted disciple of Bahi'u'llih throughout his life, undertaking many missions at His request. Most notably, at the request of Bahi'u'llih, he concealed the casket containing the remains of the B i b and His faithful disciple, Anis. He accompanied Bahi'u'llih into exile and for many years acted as Bahi'u'llih's deputy in meetings with officials and religious leaders. He remained to the end of his life a staunch and valued supporter, the ablest and most distinguished among his brothers and sisters, and one of the "only two persons who," according to Bahi'u'llih's testimony, "were
adequately informed of the origins" of His Faith (the other was Mirzh Muhammad-Quli, a half brother, who, in spite of the defection of some of his relatives, remained loyal to the end to the Cause he had espoused). He died in 1887. M ~ R Z ASIYYID 'ALi. The maternal uncle of the Bib. He raised the Bib following the death of His father Siyyid Muhammad-Rida. MiRZA YAWA AZAL (d. 1912). (Covenant breaker; archbreaker Subh-i-Azal-morning of eterof the Covenant of the Bib;[37:1651 nity.) A younger half brother of Bahi'u'lliih, he was the son of the fourth wife of Mirzi Buzurg, the father of Bahi'u'lliih. Sadly, he exhibited a corrupt, irresolute, and pusillanimous character. While in prison in Mhh-Kii the Bib wrote a letter to Bahi'u'lliih requesting Him to be responsible for the upbringing of Mirzi Y&yi (who was then in his late teens), a duty that Bahb'u'lliih discharged with diligence and forbearance. Subsequently, the Bhb appointed Y&yi as the nominal head of the Bibi cornrn~nity.[~~:~~1 Following the exile of Bahi'u'lliih from Persia, notwithstanding his high calling, Yahyi fled the country in disguise and later joined the exiles in B a a d i d . He turned increasingly away from Bahi'u'lliih, and though he physically followed Him into exile in Turkey, he plotted constantly against Him, indeed, on several occasions attempting to Y&yi9s first attempt on Bahi'u'llih's life was by kill Him.[37:166,81:1171 poison; this brought Him close to death and left Him with a trembling hand, witness of which can be seen in Tablets written from that time forward. Led and spurred on by Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfhhhni, who was later to become notorious as the "Antichrist of the Bahi'i R e ~ e l a t i o n , " [ ~Yahyi ~ ~ ~ ~first 1 claimed to be the actual successor of the Bbb and, after Bahi'u'lliih had openly announced that He was indeed "Him Whom God would make manifest," Y a y a advanced that same claim for himself, whereupon Bahi'u'lliih expelled him from the ranks of the faithful and broke ties with him. Y a y i had a small number of followers who became known as Azalis. They instigated so much unrest in Adrianople that the government took drastic action against all the exiles and their families. When Bahi'u'llih's exile culminated in His being sent to the penal city of 'Akki, He was accompanied by some of His faithful followers as well as some Azalis. Yahyi, with the remainder of his followers and some Bahi'is, was sent in exile to Cyprus. Y&yi, regarded by Bahi'i historians as the archbreaker of the Covenant of the Bib, lived long
enough to witness every hope he had so maliciously conceived reduced to naught while eking out a miserable existence in Cyprus, termed by the Turks "the Island of Satan.'' A pensioner first of the Turkish and later of the British government, he was subjected to the further humiliation of having his application for British citizenship refused. Eleven of the 18 "witnesses" he had appointed forsook him and turned in repentance to Bahi'u'llih. He himself became involved in a scandal that besmirched his reputation and that of his eldest son, deprived that son and his descendants of the successorship with which he had previously invested him, and appointed, in his stead, the perfidious Mirzi Hidiy-i-Dawlat-Abh~liw~:~~]-a notorious Azali, who on one occasion was seized with such fear that during four consecutive days he proclaimed fiom the pulpit-top, and in most vituperative language, his complete repudiation of the Bhbi Faith, as well as of Mirzh Yahyh, his benefactor, who had reposed in him such implicit con6dence. For a detailed review of this subject refer to Momen's two publications Materials for the Study of the Bdbi Religion I2l11 and Selections from the Writings of E. G. Browne on the Babi and Bahd'i Mirzi Y&yi died in Cyprus in 1912, his nefarious attempts to undermine the Covenant and usurp Bahh'u'llih's Station as "Him Whom God would make manifest" (the Manifestation of God for this age) having proved effete. M I ~ & N - Q A L A M (d. 1912). (Musk-scented pen; Apostle of BahP'u'llPh.) Also known as Mirzh Husayn and Aqi Husayn-iIsfahhi. He was a calligrapher and art designer par excellence, holding, before he became a Bahh'i in Isfihh, a high position in the court of the Sih in TihrPn. 'Abdu'l-BahP wrote of him as follows: "He wielded a musk-black pen, and his brows shone with faith. He was among the most noted of mystics, and had a witty and subtle mind. The fame of this spiritual wayfarer reached out to every land. He was the leading calligrapher of Persia and well known to all the great. . . . He was famed throughout Asia Minor; his pen was the wonder of all calligraphers, for he was adept at every calligraphic style. He was Following his converbesides, for human virtues, a bright star."[99'971 sion to the Faith, he did not return to the Court of the fiih but went to Adrianople, where he met with BahP'u'llPh and joined Him and His fellow exiles in their banishment. Subsequently, he was sent by Bahh'u'llhh to Constantinople to allay the fears of the Persian ambassador toward the Faith caused by the machinations of Siyyid
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M&ammad and Aqh J ~ I I . [He ~ ~was : ~ imprisoned ~~ while there and then sent on to Gallipoli. When Bahh'u'llhh arrived in that port on His way to the prison in ' A M , Mi~hkin-Qalam,to his great distress, was exiled with three other of Bahh'u'llhh's disciples to Cyprus along with MirzP YahyP and a number of his followers (Azalis). So deep was his devotion to Bahi'u'llhh that although he was for about nine years in close association with Azal, he remained true to the Faith and on his release rejoined the Baha'is in 'Akkh. He passed away in the Holy Land in about 1912. Mi~hkin-Qalamhas been described as "unsurpassed as a calligrapher, and a genius in the creation of exquisite designs from letters and MITCHELL, WILLIAM ARTHUR WELLESLEY (1907-1985). The second Jamaican to embrace the Cause (two days after Marion Lord Maxwell). He served on the first (1943) local Spiritual Assembly of Jamaica (formed in Kingston). In 1961 he was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Jamaica. He was the first (1965-1969) native believer to be appointed an Auxiliary Board member.[18:6841 M I ~ Q A LA. unit of weight, equivalent to a little over 3.5 grams, used in the Kithb-i-Aqdas with reference to quantities of gold or silver for various purposes, usually in amounts of 9, 19, or 95 miaqhls. The equivalents of these in the metric system and in troy ounces (which are used in the measurement of precious metals) are as follows: 9 mithqhls = 32.775 grams = 1.05374 troy ounces; 19 mithqhls = 69.192 grams = 2.22456 troy ounces; 95 m i ~ q h l = s 345.958 grams = 11.12282 troy ounces.[71:2531m MKHIZE, NHLUMBA BERTHA (1889-1981). An early (1959) South African believer who at the age of 70 arose to teach the cause in Natal and Zululand (where she lived as a pioneer in Gezinsila, Eshowe). During the nine years she lived in KwaZulu, she helped to raise up some 28 Bahh'i communities. In 1968 she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of South and West Africa. She also translated Bahh'i literature into Z U ~ U . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ MOFFETT, RUTH J. (1880-1978). An early (1912) American believer and noted Bahh'i lecturer and writer. She first saw 'Abdu'lBahP from a train platform in Chicago in 1912. She attended one of His lectures and took up active service in 1919. Her early teaching
MOHAPI, CHADWICK
329
efforts were instrumental in establishing the Bah6'i community in America. Her teaching took her throughout the Americas, Europe, the Near East, Asia, Egypt, and Canada. She often used the name " R ~ h ~ ~ i y y(connoting ih'~ spirituality, joy, and beauty), which had been given to her by the Greatest Holy Leaf (Bahiyyih UP93:4431 During a meeting with Shoghi Effendi she was the recipient of the most concise, complete, and effective formula she has ever seen, for the Dynamics of Prayer. After saying to stress the need of more prayers and meditation among the friends, he said to use these five steps if we had a problem of any kind for which we desired a solution or wished help. First Step: Pray and meditate about it. Use the prayers of the Manifestations as they have the greatest power. Then remain in the silence of contemplation for a few minutes. Second Step: Arrive at a decision and hold this. This decision is usually born during the contemplation. It may seem almost impossible of accomplishment but if it seems to be as answer to a prayer or a way of solving the problem, then immediately take the next step. Third Step: Have determination to carry the decision through. Many fail here. The decision, budding into determination, is blighted and instead becomes a wish or a vague longing. When determination is born, immediately take the next step. Fourth Step: Have faith and confidence that the power will flow through you, the right way will appear, the door will open, the right thought, the right message, the right principle or the right book will be given you. Have confidence, and the right thing will come to your need. Then, as you rise fiom prayer, take at once the fifth step. Fifth Step: Then, he said, lastly, act; act as though it had all been answered. Then act with tireless, ceaseless energy. And as you act, you, yourself, will become a magnet, which will attract more power to your being, until you become an unobstructed channel for the Divine power to flow through you. Many pray but do not remain for the last half of the first step. Some who meditate arrive at a decision, but fail to hold it. Few have the determination to carry the decision through, still fewer have the confidence that the right thing will come to their need. But how many remember to act as though it had all been answered? How true are those words-"Greater than the prayer is the spirit in which it is uttered" and greater than the way it is uttered is the spirit in which it is carried out. [This] statement belongs properly to the class of statement known as "pilgrim's notes" and as such as no authority but, since it seems to be particularly helpfid and clear, it was felt that believers should not be deprived of it.[101:901
MOHAPI, CHADWICK (1888-1978). Led by his wife, Mary Mohapi, he was the first (1954) of the Bakoena clan (the royal clan of Lesotho,
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MOHAPI, MARY
descendants of Mohoeshoe I, the father of the Basuto nation) to accept the Faith in Lesotho (formerly B a s u t ~ l a n d ) . [93:4451 l~~~~* MOHAPI, MARY (d. 1968). Along with her husband, Chadwick Mohapi, she was the first (1954) of the Bataung clan, a direct descendant of the famous chieftain Molestane to become a Bahti'i in LeSO~o.[16:4511 MONAJEM, JAMSHID (1912-1999). An eminent himian believer, a fourth-generation Bahti'i, noted Bahii'i travel teacher, author, pioneer, and administrator. His great-grandfather fled his village with his family when persecuted because he was a BPbi. The family moved to Shirk. His father, Dr. Mohammad Monajem, was a physician and Dr. became the private doctor of the late &ih's father (Reza Mohammad was one of the original founders of the famous Tarbiyat Bahii'i school in TihrPn. Jamshid studied political science and economics at the American University of Beirut. With his roommates and classmates Abu'l-Qsisim Fa@ and Hasan Muvaqqar Balyiin' (both later appointed Hands of the Cause of God), he spent summer vacations in Haifa in the presence of Shoghi Effendi during the time of his Guardianship. He pioneered with his family (wife Zarin and son Fo'ad) in 1942 to Mosul, 'Irtiq, to comply with the Guardian's Two Year Plan. In response to the Guardian's Ten Year Plan (1953-1963), he set out with his family (now including daughters Shohreh and Fetneh and son Farokh) as a pioneer to Ethiopia. He served as secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of North Africa and as an Auxiliary Board member. Following the election of the first Universal House of Justice in 1963, the elected members and the Hands of the Cause who had been the Custodians of the Faith since the passing of the Guardian attended the Jubilee World Congress in London. He was afforded the unique honor of being appointed as Custodian of the Holy Land until the Universal House of Justice reconvened in Haifa. Later he pioneered to Canada, Nigeria, Jamaica, and Swaziland. In 1977, 'Amatu'l-BahP Riihiyyih m P n u m asked him to travel through Africa representing her on a teaching tour she had committed to but could not fulfill for reasons of failing health. He drove by himself through central Africa for several months, covering every country on the schedule. He died a pioneer in Mbabane in a car accident while returning fiom leading a deepening on 14 June 1999.
a&).
MONAGAMY. See MARRIAGE.
MOODY, SUSAN I.
331
MONARCHY. See KINGSHIP, INSTITUTION OF. MONUMENT GARDENS. The area on Mount Carmel in the vicinity of the Shrine of the Bsib where, embraced within the Arc and gardens, memorial monuments (designed and erected by Shoghi Effendi) have been raised over the tombs of the mother (Navvsib), sister (Bahiyyih Khsinum), brother (Mirzsi Mihdi), and wife (Munirih msinum) of 'Abdu'l-Bahsi. MOODY, SUSAN I. (1851-1934). (Handmaid of the Most High.)[76:731 A was born in Amsterdam, physician by profession, Susan Moody[48:5281 New York, of Scots-Covenanter parents on 20 November 1851. She received a good education, became a teacher, and then entered the Women's Medical College, New York City. She later studied music, painting, and sculpture in Chicago, New York, and Paris and finally concluded her study of medicine in Chicago. She accepted the Faith in 1903 and conducted the first Bahh'i Sunday school in Chicago. Following the visit to irhn in 1908 of a party of Americans, when some doctors asked if it would be possible for a woman doctor to go to Tihrsin to care for women who were at that time deprived of skilled medical care, she received a message from 'Abdu'l-Bahsi saying that she had been chosen for this great medical work in kin, and she proceeded immediately to comply. En route to i r k she visited 'Abdu'l-Bahh in the Holy Land and arrived in Tihrhn on 26 November 1908. She served there for 15 years, suffering many difficulties and hardships but remembering throughout that 'Abdu'lBahh had said she would need patience. She became fluent in the Persian language and kept up a fiequent correspondence with her fiends in America describing the situation of the women in kin. Not only was she much appreciated for her medical work, she was also acclaimed for founding the Tarbiyat School for Girls (see SHARP, ADELAIDE). Dr. Moody was the first and longest serving of four American Bahh'i women to work for the Faith in Persia. She visited Haifa on her journey back to America in late 1924 and reached New York to a tremendous reception in January 1925. She remained in the States, where, among her lecturing visits, she took up the study of Esperanto at the age of 75. In November 1928, at age 77, she returned to khn accompanied by Miss Adelaide Sharp of San Francisco. They traveled via Haifa, where they received a warm welcome. She continued her devoted services, but her health gradually deteriorated, and on her passing on 23
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MORALITY
October 1934 Shoghi Effendi cabled on 28 October, "Passing dearly beloved Susan Moody deprives Bahh'i world far-famed pioneer who, through her indomitable spirit, ceaseless services, earned unique distinction forge first link in chain uniting spiritual destinies Cradle of our Faith and community stalwart defenders in great American Republic. Instructing Persia rear monument perpetuate memory her noble mission. Am gladly defraying whatever expense incurred as token my admiration for community to which she originally belonged and on which her sacred life shed imperishable lustre. Advise hold 92:174ffl Memorial gathering Temple Foundation Hall."[5'4833 MORALITY. BahP'u'llPh deals with a range of moral issues throughout the Kitrib-LAqdas, especially the moral purpose of this earthly 'Abdu'l-BahP surnlife, the living of a chaste and holy life.[61'29fl marizes the purpose of morality as follows: All the Prophets have come to promote divine bestowals, to found the spiritual civilization and teach the principles of morality. Therefore, we must strive with all our powers so that spiritual influences may gain the ~Ctory.[":'21 The greatest bestowal of God in the world of humanity is religion; for assuredlythe divine teachings of religion are above all other sources of instruction and development to man. Religion confers upon man eternal life and guides his footsteps in the world of morality. It opens the doors of unending happiness and bestows everlasting honor upon the human kingdom. It has been the basis of all civilization and progress in the history of r n a n k i ~ ~ d . [ l ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] BahB7u'll6h made the utmost efforts to educate [His people] and incite [them] to morality, the acquisition of the sciences and arts of all countries, kindly dealing with all the nations of the earth, desire for the welfare of all peoples, sociability, concord, obedience, submissiveness, instruction of [their] children, production of what is needful for the human race, and inauguration of true happiness for mankind; and He continually kept sending tracts of admonition to all parts, whereby a wonderful effect was prod~ced.['~~:~~1
MORTENSEN, FRED (1887-1946). An early American believer. He traveled across America to meet 'Abdu'l-Bahii "riding the rods" of ~ : ~ ~ ~Effendi ] included the story of this railway c a r r i a g e ~ . [ ~Shoghi journey in GodPasses By.[10:483,37290, 123:1111 MOST GREAT BRANCH. A title conferred on 'Abdu'l-Bahh by BahP'u'llPh.
MO'ITAHEDEH, MILDRED ROOT
333
MOST GREAT NAME. A title of Bahsi'u'llsih. MOST GREAT PEACE. See PEACE, MOST GREAT. MOST GREAT PRISON. The designation given by Bahsi'u'llsih to the prison city of 'Akksi, where He was imprisoned from 3 1 August 1868 until June 1877.[61:7481 MOST MIGHTY BRANCH. A title conferred on 'Abdu'l-Bahh by Bahsi'u'llsih. MOST HOLY SHRINE. The Shrine of BahP'u'llPh, Bahji, Israel. MOTHER TEMPLE. The term used by Shoghi Effendi for the first House of Worship (Maariqu'l-Aakiir) to be built in any specific geographical area. For example, the Mother Temple of the West is in Wilmette, Illinois, the Mother Temple of Africa is in Kampala, Uganda. MOTTAHEDEH, MILDRED ROOT (1908-2000). (Alternatively, Mottehedeh; member of the International Bahi'i Council.) A muchloved and highly esteemed early (1929) American believer, she was a skilled Bahh'i diplomat as well as a businesswoman of considerable international repute. She represented the Bahii'i Faith at the signing of the United Nations charter and served as the first Bahsi'i International Community official representative to the UN (with the status of recognized observer) when it was recognized as an NGO in 1948. She founded the Speakers Research Committee for the UN and served in various other capacities for 20 years. In April 1961 she was elected to membership of the International Bahh'i Council. Throughout her life she was a pioneer in the field of Bahii'i social and economic development (founding primary and secondary schools in Tilling and Odusai, Uganda, the Mottahedeh Foundation in Maharashtra State, India, as well as the Faizi Women's Development Institute and the New Era Development Institute). Her pioneer work in these and other areas is continued through the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States' nonprofit Mottahedeh Development Services. She was recognized and acknowledged as an expert in Chinese and other porcelains and was widely consulted by museums and art institutes around the world. She was a connoisseur of fine porcelain and art, as well as a collector and designer of international renown. (Her private collection
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MOTTAHEDEH, MILDRED ROOT
of Chinese artifacts was acknowledged by Nelson Rockefeller in the foreword to China for the West as "without comparison in its field.") Mildred used her expertise in this area to create with her husband, Rafi Y. Mottahedeh, a company of international stature: Mottahedeh & Company (designers and producers of reproduction porcelains and other decorative art). In addition to commercial reproductions, Mottahedeh pieces can be found in the Metropolitan and the Museum of Modern Art in New York; Mottahedeh reproductions have also been commissioned for a number of U.S. presidents, U.S. State Department officials, and members of the British aristocracy. Mrs. Mottahedeh was the recipient of many business awards including the prestigious Order of Prince Henry the Navigator from the government of Portugal (1987). She was a fellow of the Royal Society (FRSA) for the encouragement of Arts, Manufacturing & Commerce, London, a fellow of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and a member of the Oriental Ceramic Society and the China Society. Following her passing the Universal House of Justice issued the following message to the Bahh'i world on 20 February 2000: We are deeply grieved at the passing of Mildred Mottahedeh, so esteemed, so greatly loved, so staunch and trusted a supporter and defender of the Cause of Bahh'u'llhh. With her departure from this earthly life the Baha'i world community has lost an outstanding figure of the opening epochs of the Formative Age of the Bahii'i Dispensation. [For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age."] Her more than half a century of tireless endeavor in its sewice involved her in teaching and administrative activities at the local, national, continental and international levels. At the same time she maintained a rigorous schedule as a businesswoman, a contributor to the arts, and a promoter of humanitarian works. To these manifold tasks, she brought the combined resources of a selfless spirit, a compassionate heart, a creative mind, a practical sense, and a leonine will tempered by humility, candor and wit. She remained for almost three decades at the forefront of the external affairs work of the Baha'i International Community and in the service of the world center of the Faith, culminating in her membership on the International Bah8'i Council, the first globally elected Baha'i body. With assured hearts, we supplicate in the Holy Shrines for the progress of her illumined soul throughout the divine worlds. Our loving sympathy is extended to the members of her family and all others who mourn her loss. National Spiritual Assemblies are urged to hold befitting memorial gatherings in her honor in all Houses of Worship and other center^.[^^:^^^*, 1491
MOUNT CARMEL. The mountain in Israel that is referred to by Isaiah as the "mountain of the Lord," to which "all nations shall flow." It was also the home of the prophet Elijah, on and around which stands the modern city of Haifa. On its northern slopes, leading down to the Bay of Haifa, stand the buildings of the Baha'i World Centre. On several occasions Bahai'u'llaih pitched His tent on Mount Carmel, and, in 1891, He revealed the Tablet of Carmel, "the charter of the world spiritual and administrative centers of the Bahi'i Faith,"[61:7481 as well as indicating to 'Abdu'l-Bahai the spot where the Shrine of the Baib should be built. See also ARC; TERRACES. MUF'T~. Expounder of Muslim law; gives a fatvh or sentence on a point of religious j u r i s p r u d e n ~ e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ I ~ MUHAMMAD-'AL~. See COVENANT BREAKER; M ~ R Z A MU~~AMMAD-'AL~. (Nephew of Mullai Husayn.) MUIJAMMAD BAQIR-1-BUSHRU'~. Third Letter of the Living. M
m HASAN-I-BU~RU'~.(Brother of Mullai Husayn.) Second Letter of the Living.
MUHAMMAD MUSTAFA. (Apostle of Bahai'u'llaih.) He was reported to be a brave and vigilant custodian and bearer of the remains of the Baib, which, along with those of His disciple, Mirza Mdpmmad-'Ali-i-Zunki (surnamed Anis), were retrieved after His martyrdom, wrapped in silk, placed in a casket, and then hidden until they were secretly transported from train to bAkkaivia B a a did, Damascus, and Beirut, reaching there on 3l January 1899-50 lunar years after His martyrdom. F ~1946). (Hand of the Cause MUjMVMAD T A Q ~ - I - I $ (d. of God.) A Persian Baha'i who accepted the Faith in its early days and who visited Egypt via ' A M in 1878. From there he made many more trips to the Holy Land, and on the second, Bahai'u'llaih advised him to settle permanently in Egypt. During 'Abdu'l-Bahai's visit to Egypt in 1910-1912 he was His host, and many other distinguished believers were received at his home. Mirzai Abu'l-Fadli-Gulpaiygaini in 1914 and Mrs. Lua Getsinger in 1916 both spent the last few days of their respective lives in his house. He was a very
h e teacher and introduced many Egyptians to the Faith; he was also a stalwart in the Covenant protecting the Faith from serious opposition. He was a dedicated translator and author. On his passing on 13 December 1946 when he was in his mid-90s, Shoghi Effendi cabled the Bahii'i world, "Hearts grief stricken passing beloved outstanding steadfast promoter Faith, Muhammad Taqiy-i-Isffihi. Long record his magnificent exemplary services imperishable deserves rank [him among the] Hands Cause of God.7'[62:6321 MUI%&JIR,R A ~ J M A T U ' L L (1923-1979). ~ (Hand of the Cause of God; Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) A physician by profession, he was born in irhn in 1923 into a distinguished and dedicated Bahii'i family. From his earliest childhood he was involved in the continual succession of meetings held in his parents' home. This infused him with the concept of pioneering, and he deferred his university training n . studfor two years to live and teach the Faith in ~ m i r b h ~ j hHe ied medicine, and he surprised his fiends by leaving a few months before graduation to spend three months teaching in a needy area and then returning to complete his studies, graduating with honors. He married in 1951 a few months before graduation and, with his wife ( i r h F d t a n , the daughter of 'Ali Akbar Furutan), went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1952. Shoghi Effendi spoke with him at length during his visit about the potential for Bahii'i teaching in the Malaysian Peninsula and the Pacific Islands. When it was announced at the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in New Delhi in 1953 that a physician was needed to fill a goal in Mentawai Islands, R a b a t volunteered immediately, resigned from his job, and within two months set off with his wife to Indonesia without a permit to stay or a job to go to. He arrived on the Island of Muara Siberut in February 1954. He was immediately employed by the Ministry of Health, given a permanent residence visa, and assigned to the Mentawai Islands. In spite of the most inhospitable living conditions, among a people ridden with tropical diseases of all kinds, with no other medical help available, he won their respect and real affection, improved their living and their environmental circumstances, instituted schools, and securely established the Bahii'i Faith there. During the next few years he received many letters and cables of praise and encouragement from Shoghi Effendi, though the letters were delivered only every six to eight months by government mail boat. He was appointed a Hand in the last contingent in October
1957, and although he had intended to remain in his pioneer post for the rest of his life, the untimely passing of Shoghi Effendi changed all his plans. It was not possible for him in the critical years that lay ahead to remain in a place without telephone or telegram service where he was cut off from the rest of the world except by means of a boat, which for most of the year was out of service. It was only after months of persuasion by the other Hands of the Cause, and many hours of prayer, that he agreed to leave the people he loved so much and had served so well. He left in 1958 after 4 years of work and witnessing the acceptance of some 4,000 native believers. A UN World Health Organization committee that visited Mentawai in 1960 paid tribute, not only to his medical work, but also to his contribution to the development of the islands, the schools he established, his work in the eradication of disease, and the cleanliness and order he brought to the villages. The next 20 years of his life were dedicated to traveling, inspiring individuals and administrative bodies to teach, establishing concrete plans for massive enrollments, and putting into practice his extraordinary qualities of recognizing the needs of an area and suggesting valuable and practical methods for first establishing goals and then achieving them. In the years between 1958 and 1979 he visited all the Bahb'i national centers and in 3 years between 1974 and 1977 visited no fewer than 50 countries, traveling by sea and air, in buses and bullock carts, on foot and hitchhiking, always choosing the most economical way in the time allowed, staying in moderately priced hotels and always living most austerely. He had utter reliance on and submission to the will of God and was never discouraged. Wherever he went his emphasis was on mass teaching, with his greatest successes in India and the Philippines. In India in 1961 there were on record a mere 850 Bahii'is; as a direct result of Dr. Muhiijir's work and encouragement there were, within two years, no fewer than 65,000. Publishing Bahii'i writings in the local languages was another favorite activity, and he initiated the production of a simple information folder as an important tool for proclamation; he proposed and helped prepare a Bahii'i correspondence course and wrote a book on methods of Bahii'i education of children. He used the media extensively, appearing frequently on television, giving radio talks, having interviews with dignitaries at every level, from royalty and prime ministers down to local mayors. He frequently lectured in universities in many countries.
338
m S H L E G E L , ADELBERT
His death came in the way he had always wanted-while in service to the Faith. Remote fiom home but among Bahi'i friends, he had traveled to Quito, Ecuador, arriving extremely fatigued, for a special teaching conference. He suffered a heart attack on the second day and passed away at the end of October 1979, in one of the cities he loved most and among people for whom he had a deep and selfless affection, to which they responded unreservedly. The Universal House of Justice cabled on 29 October 1979, Profoundly lament untimely passing in Quito Ecuador beloved Hand Cause Ralpnatu'lla Muhijir following heart attack course his latest South American tour. Unstinted unrestrained outpouring of physical spiritual energiesby one who offered his all path service has now ceased. Posterity will record his devoted services youthful years Cradle Faith, his subsequent unique exploits pioneering field Southeast Asia where he won accolade Knighthood BahSyu'll&, his ceaseless efforts over two decades since his appointment Hand Cause stimulating in many lands East West process entry by troops. Friends all continents who mourn this tragic loss now suddenly deprived collaboration one who endeared himself to them through his gentleness, his luminous personality, his exemplary unflagging zeal, his creative enthusiastic approach to fulfillment assigned goals. Urge fiends everywhere hold memorial gatherings befitting his high station unique achievements. May his radiant soul Abhai Kingdom reap rich harvest his dedicated self-sacrificing services Cause God.[17:6521
MUHLSHLEGEL, ADELBERT (1897-1977). (Hand of the Cause of God.) A physician by profession, he was born on 16 June 1897 in Berlin, where his father was a military doctor and his mother the daughter of a pastor. The combination of the two influenced him in his choice of profession and imbued him with a deep sense of spiritual values. He served in the German Medical Corps during World War I and studied medicine in Freiburg, Greifswald, and Tiibingen. In 1920 he received a letter fiom his mother telling him of the new Faith she had accepted. It aroused his interest, and he himself soon became a Baha'i. He opened his first medical practice in Stuttgart in 1922 and married Herma Weidle in 1926. He and Herma went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1936. Throughout World War I1 he practiced as a doctor in Stuttgart, where their apartment was bombed. In 1945 when the occupation authorities rescinded the prohibition on the Faith imposed in 1937, their new home became a true center for Baha'i activities with a warm atmosphere full of humor and hospitality.
MikLSHLEGEL, ADELBERT
339
He had a working knowledge of several European languages and was fluent in Esperanto. He translated much Bahh'i literature into German and had many articles on the Faith accepted for publication. He served for many years as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of Germany and Austria. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause of God in February 1952 and served with distinction in Europe. He had a profound spiritual experience that moved him to an even greater degree of service when, on the sudden passing of Shoghi Effendi, he was called by his widow, 'Amatu'l-Bahii R~hiyyihmiinurn, to fly at once to London to wash Shoghi Effendi's body and prepare it in accordance with Bahh'i burial law for interment. The following sentences are taken fkom his description of that experience: My first impression was the contrast between the body left behind and the majestic, transfigured face, a soul-stirring picture of the joyous victory of the eternal over the transient. My second impression . . . was that in this degree of consecration to the work of God I should work all my life, and mankind should work a thousand years, in order to construct "the Kingdom" on earth; and my third thought was, as I washed each member of his body and anointed it, that I thanked those beloved hands which had worked and written to establish the Covenant, those feet that had walked for us, that mouth that had spoken to us, that head that had thought for us, and I prayed and meditated and supplicated that in the short time left to me, the members of my body might hasten to follow in his path of service. . . .A great deal of mercy, love and wisdom were hidden in that
Adelbert's devoted wife, Herma, was his constant supporter and companion, and he cared for her with loving attention throughout a long and severe illness that preceded her death in 1964. He subsequently moved to Vienna to help the struggling national community, and after a year he married the secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly, Ursula Kohler. In 1970 he registered in the University of Freiburg, Switzerland, and he and Ursula established a strong Bahh'i community, fiom which they traveled extensively throughout Europe. In 1969 he had made his first trip to other continents when at the request of the Universal House of Justice he had visited Persia, India, West P6kistii1-1(Bangladesh), and Nepal. In 1971 and 1972, he and Ursula traveled to Africa. In 1974 they settled in Hofieim, Germany, where their home became a center of hospitality and study. In 1975 they visited South America. Although his heart began to fail physically, he developed a yearning again to serve in a challenging pioneer post, and in 1977 at the
340 MUJTAHID
age of 80 he settled in Athens, where yet again the Miihlschlegels' home became a center of harmony and learning. On 29 July 1980 he passed away and was buried on the shores of the Mediterranean. The Universal House of Justice cabled, "With sorrowful hearts announce passing beloved Hand Cause Adelbert Miihlschlegel. Grievous loss sustained entire Bahi'i world particularly felt Europe, main area his distinguished service Cause God. Serving for many years National Spiritual Assembly Germany he became, after elevation rank Hand Cause one of champion builders emerging European Bahi'i community constantly traveling encouraging raising spirits friends, residing wherever services most needed, finally pioneering Greece and surrendering his soul pioneer post. His constant willingness serve, his ability endear himself believers and others alike by his loving gentleness, serene humility, radiant cheerfulness, his never ceasing pursuit knowledge and total dedication Blessed Beauty provide wonderful example Bahi'i life. Advise friends commemorate his passing and request befitting memorial services all Mother Ternple~."[l~:~~~] MUJTAHID. Muslim doctor of law.[18:7391" MULLA. Muslim trained in theology and I s l h i c jurisprudence; theologian, priest.[18:7391m MULLA A B U ' L - ~ S A N - 1 - A R D A K ~See ~ . *~i AM&.
MULLA AHMAD-1-IBDL-I-&GHI'~. Living.
Twelfth Letter of the
m.
MULLA ' A L ~ - A K B A R - I - ~ ~ M ~See R HAJ~ Z~~. MULLA 6
~
MULLA AQA
~
h
-
Fourth ~ - Letter ~ ~of the ~ Living. ~ ~ ~
i
MU&~MMAD-I-QA'IN~(d. c. 1892). (Hand of the Cause of God; Apostle of BahB'u'llBh; Fadil-i-Qi'ini-the Learned One of Qi'in; Nabil-i-Akbir-literally, one who is the greatest archer, darter, thrower; skillful in shooting arrows; one who has He was or makes arrows; skillful, ingenious, dexterous, considered a prodigy among scholars and acknowledged as one of the most outstanding men of learning in Persia. He became a BBbi in about 1853 and some six years later visited BahB'u'llBh in B a a did and quickly recognized His Station as a Manifestation of God.
.
Bahh'u'lltih instructed him to return to Persia and teach the Faith, which he did with great devotion and in the face of much persecution, being arrested three times. He died in B a h - 6 soon after the passing of Bahi'u'lltih in 18%. 'Abdu'l-BahP designated him a Hand of the Cause; he was also designated an Apostle of Baha'u'lltih.
MULLA
BAQIR-I-TAB~Z~.Thirteenth Letter of the Living. Entrusted by the Baib with the delivery of His Writings, ring, and pen case to Bahai'u'llaih: Now the Siyyid Bab had disposed all His affairs before setting out from Chihriq towards Tabriz, had placed His writings and even His ring and pen-case in a specially prepared box, put the key of the box in an envelope, and sent it by means of Mulld Biiqir, who was one of His first This trust Mullh BQir associates, to Mulli 'Abdu'l-Karim-i-Qazvini. delivered over to Mulld 'Abdu'l-Karim at Qum in presence of a nurnerous company. At the solicitations of those present he opened the lid of the box and said, "I am commanded to convey this trust to Baha'u'lltih: more than this ask not of me, for I cannot tell you." Importuned by the company, he produced a long epistle in blue, penned in the most graceful manner with the utmost delicacy and firmness in a beautiful minute $&astih hand, written in the shape of a man so closely that it would have been imagined that it was a single wash of ink on the paper. When they had read this epistle [they perceived that] He had produced three hundred and sixty derivatives fiom the word Bahd. Then Mulli 'Abdu'l-Karim conveyed the trust to its de~tination.[~~~:~~1
MULLA BUSAN-I-BAJIST~~. Sixth Letter of the Living. MULLA ~ S A Y N - I - B U W R U ' ~(Babu'l-Btib-gate of the Gate; . first Letter of the Living.) The first to believe in the Baib when He made His Declaration to him during the night of 22 May 1844 (see ~ h DECLARATION , OF). He thereby became the first of the Letters of the Living. He was killed during the siege of the Fort of a a y & Tabarsi on 2 February 1849, but his heroism has been recorded for posterity. Shoghi Effendi wrote, The audacity of Mull6 Husayn who, at the command of the Bab, had attired his head with the green turban worn and sent to him by his Master, who had hoisted the Black Standard, the unfixling of which would, according to the Prophet Mul;lammad, herald the advent of the vicegerent of God on earth, and who, mounted on his steed, was marching at the head of two hundred and two of his fellow-disciples to meet and lend his assistance to Qudd6s in the Jaziriy-i-IQ&d [Verdant Isle]-
his audacity was the signal for a clash the reverberations of which were to resound throughout the entire country. The contest lasted no less than eleven months. Its theater was for the most part the forest of M k indarin. Its heroes were the flower of the Bib's disciples. Its martyrs comprised no less than half of the Letters of the Living, not excluding Quddus and Mulla Husayn, respectively the last and the first of these Letters.[37:381 We are struck with wonder as we contemplate the super-human prowess of Mulla Husayn which enabled him, notwithstanding his fragile frame and trembling hand, to slay a treacherous foe who had taken shelter behind a tree, by cleaving with a single stroke of his sword the tree, the man and his musket in
Nabfl-i-A'zam, in his immortal narrative The Dawn-Breakers writes of him, "The traits of mind and of character which, £tom his very youth, he displayed, the profundity of his learning, the tenacity of his faith, his intrepid courage, his singleness of purpose, his high sense of justice and unswerving devotion, marked him as an outstanding figure among those who, by their lives, have borne witness to the glory and power of this new MULLA JAL~L-1-URUM~. Eleventh Letter of the Living.
MULLA KAZIM-I-SAMANDAR. RABT~.
See SHAYKH
MULLA WDA-BAKJsH-1-QUC-i. Mullh 'Ali.) Fiflh Letter of the Living.
KAZIM-I-
(Subsequently known as
MULLA M A l J M b - 1 - ~ u ' I . Tenth Letter of the Living.
MULLA MUHAMMAD-RIDAY-1-MUHAMMAD-ABAD~. See S H A m MUljAMMAD RIDAY-1-YAZD~. MULLA M ~ M A D - 1 - Z A R ASee N NAB~L-1-A'ZAM. D~. MULLA S~IQ-1-MUQADDAS. (Ismu~lliihu~l-Asdaq; Hand of the Cause of God.) The father of the Apostle of Bahh'u'lliih Ibn-iAsdaq (MirzB 'Ali Muhammad), he was one of the early followers of the BBb. As a &aymf he had met the Bhb in Karbilii prior to His declaration and had wondered at the reverence shown by the leader of the &ay&i community, Siyyid KQim, to this young man. He was introduced to the Writings of the Bhb by MullP Husayn, shortly
after His own declaration in 1844, and became an ardent Bhbi. Although a most distinguished Muslim divine, he suffered persecution and was one of the fist three Bibis to be severely tortured. He was then old and frail and withstood the lashes, which exceeded 900, with serenity, calm, and even laughter. This was just the first of many tortures suffered as he traveled throughout Persia teaching the Faith. He met Bahii'u'lliih in Baadiid and immediately recognized Him as the Promised One so much evident in the Writings of the Bib. He then returned to Persia to teach with increased fervor and was again imprisoned, at one time in the Siyiih-aiil, where he was responsible for introducing the Faith to the first member of the Jewish faith (Hakim Masih). He was summoned by Bahi'u'lliih to visit Him, probably in the early part of 1874, when he was well advanced in years and after almost 30 years of sufferings and hardships. Many special letters were revealed by Bahi'u'lliih in his honor and naming him, posthumously, as a Hand of the Cause of God. 'Abdu'l-Bahh wrote, "He was like a surging sea, a falcon that soared high. His visage shone, his tongue was eloquent, his strength and steadfastness astounding. When he opened his lips to teach, the proofs would stream out; when he chanted or prayed, his eyes shed tears like a spring cloud. His face was luminous, his life spiritual, his knowledge both acquired and innate; and celestial was his ardor, his detachment £rom the world, his righteousness, his piety and fear of G ~ d . " [ ~ ~ : ~ l
MULLA WSUF-I-ARDIB~L~. Fourteenth Letter of the Living. MULLA ZAYNU'L-'ABID~N. (Jinhb-i-Zaynu7l-Muqarrabinthe ornament of them who are nigh unto God;[110:251 Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh.) One of the most assiduous and trusted scribes of Bahh'u'llhh. Before his acceptance of the Bhbi Faith he was an outstanding mujtahid (doctor of IslSunic law) in his native town of NajafAbad. Following his conversion he was persecuted by the very people who had previously respected him. He moved to Baadiid, where he met Bahii'u'lliih and became a most ardent follower. He took such great care in his transcription of the voluminous Writings of Bahi'u'llih that anything in his handwriting is considered to be accurate. He was the one who received permission from Bahi'u'lliih to ask the questions on the laws of the Kitlib-i-Aqdas that form part of that essential part of Bahi'i Scripture. He joined M i w n - Q a l a m in being noted for his great sense of humor. He was also designated an Apostle of Bahi'u'lliih. [110:261
MUN~RIH -UM (1848-1938). (Fhiimih; the Holy Mother; wife of 'Abdu'l-BahP.) She came from an illustrious BPbi family and was born while her father and uncle were at the Conference of B a d a a t (JuneJuly 1848). During her wedding feast, her husband, apparently in perfect health, suddenly collapsed, became gravely ill, and died soon afterward. Fhtimih then spent her days in prayer and meditation until an emissary from Bahai'u'llaih, then in prison in 'Akkai, called her, with her relatives, to join the exiles. In somewhat miraculous circumstances she reached the prison city and after almost five months received the gift of a new name from Bahh'u'llih Himself-Munirih (Illuminedeand the call to marry His eldest son, 'Abdu'l-Bahh. When she entered the presence of Bahh'u'llhh, He said, "0 thou My blessed leaf and maid-servant. We have chosen thee and accepted thee to be the companion of the Greatest Branch and to serve Him. . . . Thou must be very thankful, for thou has attained The marriage took place to this most great favor and besto~al."[~~~'fl in 1873. Near the end of her life, speaking of her married life with 'Abdu'l-Bahh, she said, "If I were to write the details of the fifty years of my association with the Beloved of the world, of His love, His mercy and bounty, I would need fifty more years of time and opporShe died in Haifa at the age of 90 in tunity in order to write it."[7:2621 1938 and was buried by Shoghi Effendi in the Monument Gardens on Mount Carmel; her shrine is on a level below that of the Greatest Holy Leaf and those of Nawaib and the Purest Branch. MUNSIFF, MEHERANGHIZ i R h 1 (1923-1999). (Knight of BahP'u'llPh.) Born in Bombay, India, she was an "archetypal" itinerant travel teacher of heroic proportions who, over the course of her Bahh'i life, visited more than 150 countries and territories sharing the Bahh'i Teachings and deepening local Bahh'is in their faith. When she was but fourteen years old she traveled with Martha Root when she visited northern India and Bombay. (Her actions in this regard paralleled those of her mother, who, at the request of 'Abdu'l-BahP, had accompanied Lua Getsinger throughout her travels in India.) She pioneered in April 1953 to Madagascar and was designated a Knight of Bahh'u'llih when she was the first pioneer to arrive in French Cameroon in April 1954.[29:3081
(1954-1983). (Martyr.) A young M U Q ~ ~ A B Y ~ ZARIUN IH, Bahh'i who, along with other coreligionists, was executed in mirhz
MYSTERY OF GOD
345
by the irhnian government in June 1983 for refusing to recant her belief in B a h h ' ~ ' l l h h . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] MURRAY, ETHEL (18861972). An early (1920s) American believer who was among the first to respond to the call to teach the Indian peoples-from 1954 until 1970 she lived (in conditions of hardship) on the Cherokee Reserve in North Carolina. This move was especially meaningful since Shoghi Effendi had chosen the Cherokee language as the first of the North American languages into which Bahh'i Writings should be tran~lated.[l~:~~~] MURRAY, FRED (18861963). The first Australian Aborigine to embrace the Cause (1961).[13:368,93:4591
MUSTAFA, MUWMMAD (1898-1981). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An Egyptian believer who in 1914 embraced the Cause. He received three Tablets from 'Abdu'l-Bahh. He was a member of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Egypt (for many years its secretary, and later its chair). He was the first to marry in an exclusively Bahh'i marriage ceremony (that is, without Muslim rites); he was the first Egyptian Bahh'i to register his children as Bahh'is fiom birth; he was the first Egyptian to be appointed an Auxiliary Board member as well as the first to be elevated to the rank of a Continental Counsellor. In 1953 he pioneered to the Spanish Sahara, for which service he was designated a Knight of Baha'u'llfi. Denied permanent residence in that region he pioneered on to Benghazi, Libya. Between 1954 and 1960 he traveled extensively throughout North, East, and West Africa. In 1958 he returned to Egypt and suffered a number of imprisonments for his faith. He continued to travel extensively throughout Africa for the remaining years of his
MU STAG HA^. (He Who Is Invoked [for Help]; God.) A term used by the Bhb in reference to the advent of Bahh'u'llhh on the Day of the Latter R e s ~ r r e c t i o n . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ MYSTERY OF GOD. Sirm'llfi-a title conferred by Bahh'u'llhh on Shoghi Effendi 'Abdu'l-Bahh (the Centre of the Co~enant).[l~:~~]" wrote as follows on the subject: Upon Him that loving and unerring Father had chosen to confer the unique title of "Sirm'llirh" (the Mystery of God), a designation so
appropriate to One Who, though essentially human and holding a station radically and fundamentally different from that occupied by Bahi'u'llhh and His Forerunner, could still claim to be the perfect Exemplar of His Faith, to be endowed with super-human knowledge, and to be regarded as the stainless mirror reflecting His l i g l ~ t . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] He is, above and beyond these appellations, the "Mystery of God'-an expression by which Bahi'u'lliih Himself has chosen to designate Him, and which, while it does not by any means justify us to assign to Him the station of Prophethood, indicates how in the person of 'Abdu'l-Bahi the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely h a r m o n i ~ e d . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ]
NAB~L.Learned, N A B ~ L - 1 - ASee KB MULLA ~ AQA MUHAMMAD-I-QA'IN~. NAB~L-1-A'?;AM (d. 1892). (Mu116 Maammad-i-Zarandi; apostle of Bahh'u'llhh.) One of the followers of the Bhb who visited with Bahh'u'llhh at His home in Tihrhn. He became not only a renowned teacher of the Faith but also an outstanding poet and historian, recording in detail the lives of the early believers. The first section of his epic, The Dawn-Breakers, was one of the earliest works translated (in part) by Shoghi Effendi into English. He described it, among other things, as "a source of inspiration in all literary and artistic pursuits, an indispensable preliminary to future pilgrimage to Bah6'u'llah7s native land, and as an unfailing instrument to allay distress and resist attacks of a critical, disillusioned h~manity."[~@~] On the passing of Bahi'u'llhh he was so grief-stricken that he ended his life by throwing himself into the sea at 'Akkh.
N A ~ J A V A N J~ ,A L (1917-1982). ~ Born in Baku, Southern Russia, but raised in the Holy Land under the watchful eye and guidance of Shoghi Effendi, he went on to become a pioneer and staunch servant of the Cause. In 1937, at the request of Shoghi Effendi, he left the Holy Land for irsin. In 1943 he married Darakhandih Na'imi, and in 1950 he pioneered to Africa (being the first pioneer to set foot on the soil of East Africa). He settled in Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika (now Tanzania), and was joined in June 1951 by his wife and family. He
NATIONAL SPIRITUALASSEMBLY
347
served on the first (1952) local Spiritual Assembly of Dar es Salaam and was elected to the first (1954) Regional Spiritual Assembly of Central and East Afiica. In 1954 he was appointed one of nine first contingent Auxiliary Board members and traveled extensively for the Cause in the following years. In 1967 he and his family moved to West Germany, where he was a valued member of the local Spiritual Assembly of HamburgEimsbuttel. He later pioneered to Neumuenster, West Germany, to enable the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly of that town. In 1978 he and his wife moved to Canada, where he took up service on the local Spiritual Assembly of Selkirk, Manitoba. During the last years of his life he traveled extensively throughout Canada in the promotion of the C a u ~ e . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
a~
NASIRI'D-D~N (1831-1896). &ih of kin fiom 1848-1896. In 1852 an attempt was made on his life by two Bhbis; he responded with prolonged persecution of the BAbi community. He was assassinated in the Shrine of && 'Abdu'l-'Azim (which lies just south of Tihrh) in May 1896 by a certain Mirzii Ri@i of Kirmh. Because he was well known to be a bitter and highly outspoken Muslim enemy of the Biibi Faith, blame was at first apportioned to the Biibi community. Along with Sulfsin 'Abdu'l-'Aziz, ruler of the Turkish Empire at the time of Bahsi'u'lliih, he was complicit in His exile, imprisonment, and suffering. NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLY. A national-level administrative institution of the World Order of Bahsi'u'llsih. While Bahii'u'lliih Himself created the institutions of the Universal House of Justice and the local Spiritual Assembly, it was 'Abdu'l-Bahsi Who, in His Will and Testament, announced the need to establish and indicated that these bodies "secondary houses of j~stice"[~~:'~] would provide the members who would elect the Universal House of Justice. These secondary Houses of Justice are today referred to as National Spiritual Assemblies. Their functions were developed by Shoghi Effendi, who explained the qualifications for membership, outlined the method of their election at an annual convention, called on them to become legally incorporated and to hold endowments, and dealt directly with them and encouraged them fiom their formation. In 1944, when there were seven such bodies functioning, he wrote, In countries where the local Bahii'i communities had sufficiently advanced in number and in influence measures were taken for the
348
NATIONALISM
initiation of National Assemblies, the pivots round which all national undertakings must revolve. Designated by 'Abdu'l-Bahb in His Will as the "Secondary Houses of Justice," they constitute the electoral bodies in the formation of the International House of Justice, and are empowered to direct, unify, co-ordinate and stimulate the activities of individuals as well as local Assemblies within their jurisdiction. Resting on the broad base of organized local communities, themselves pillars sustaining the institution which must be regarded as the apex of the Bahi'i Administrative Order, these Assemblies are elected, according to the principle of proportional representation, by delegates representative of Bahb'i local communities assembled at Convention during the period of the Ridvan Festival; are possessed of the necessary authority to enable them to insure the harmonious and efficient development of Bahi'i activity within their respective spheres; are freed from all direct responsibility for their policies and decisions to their electorates; are charged with the sacred duty of consulting on the views, of inviting the recommendations and of securing the confidence and co-operation of the delegates and of acquainting them with their plans, problems and actions; and are supported by the resources of national funds to which all ranks of the faithful are urged to contrib~te.[~~:~~~1 As of April 2004 there were 183 National Spiritual Assemblies in the Bahi'i global community; and in some regions, certain areas of their responsibilities have been devolved to newly created Regional Bahh'i Councils. Refer to appendix 15.
NATIONALISM. A dedication to and love of one's country (usually of birth) that has in modem times been carried to rampant militant extremes and become the cause of much suffering and persecution in the world. Bahii'u'llhh stated, "The world is but one country, and mankind its citizens"; "Let not a man glory in that he loves his country; let him rather glory in this, that he loves his kind"; "Ye are the h i t s of one tree, and the leaves of one branch"; "Bend your minds and wills to the education of the peoples and kindreds of the earth, that haply all mankind may become the upholders of one order, and the inhabitants of one ~ i t y . " [ ~ ~ : l l ~ ] Shoghi Effendi condemned a "capricious and militant nationalism" but not "a sane and intelligent patriotism." [36:411 He wrote that there should be no misgivings as to the animating purpose of the world-wide Law of Bahh'u'll*. Far fiom aiming at the subversion of the existing foundations of society, it seeks to broaden its basis, to remold its institutions in a manner consonant with the needs of an ever-changing world. It can conflict with no
legitimate allegiances, nor can it undermine essential loyalties. Its purpose is neither to stifle the flame of a sane and intelligentpatriotism in men's hearts, nor to abolish the system of national autonomy so essential if the evils of excessive centralization are to be avoided. It does not ignore, nor does it attempt to suppress, the diversity of ethnical origins, of climate, of history, of language and tradition, of thought and habit, that differentiate the peoples and nations of the world. It calls for a wider loyalty, for a larger aspiration than any that has animated the human race. It insists upon the subordination of national impulses and interests to the imperative claims of a unified world. It repudiates excessive centralization on one hand, and disclaims all attempts at uniformity on the other. Its watchword is unity in di~ersity.[~~~I]
He further describes the kind of world in which this healthy patriotism may flourish: A world community in which all economic barriers will have been permanently demolished and the interdependence of Capital and Labor definitely recognized; in which the clamor of religious fanaticism and strife will have been forever stilled; in which the flame of racial animosity will have been finally extinguished; in which a single code of international law-the product of the considered judgment of the world's federated representatives-shall have as its sanction the instant and coercive intervention of the combined forces of the federated units; and finally a world community in which the fUry of a capricious and militant nationalism will have been transmuted into an abiding consciousness of world citizenship-such indeed, appears, in its broadest outline, the [World] Order anticipated by Baha'u'llhh, an Order that shall come to be regarded as the fairest fruit of a slowly maturing
NA-~, ' A Z I Z U ' L L ~(1913-1987). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) An h i a n believer, he was an international lawyer by profession. He won the praise of Shoghi Effendi for his courageous defense of the Bahh'i community both in irhn and elsewhere in the world. He was a fearless defender of the downtrodden whether Bahh'i or not. Interestingly, he refused to defend those he knew to be guilty. Eventually the government of i r h appointed him as a legal advisor to the Ministry of Defense. In 1953 he pioneered with his wife, Sharnsi, to Monaco, for which service they were both designated Knights of BahB'u'llih. It was here that he earned a degree in international law £rom the University of Paris. He was appointed an Auxiliary Board member in the early 1950s. In 1955 Shoghi Effendi appointed him to the BahB'i commission that appealed to the United Nations following the severe persecutions that occurred in irhn during the period. In the following years he was active in the defense of the Bahh'i communities of
northern Africa (particularly in Morocco). In 1968 he and S a m s i again pioneered, this time to Mauritius. On his passing in July 1987 the Universal House of Justice cabled as follows: "Grieved passing devoted dedicated servant Cause Knight Bahb'uYll&Aziz Navidi. His fearless defense oppressed Bahii'is Cradle Faith highly praised by beloved Guardian. His continuous services pioneering field crowned by outstanding successes gain recognition Faith by many African countries obtained through his utter reliance Bahii'u'llih and his indefatigable resourcefulness sacrificial efforts. All shed lustre upon his loving memory. Requesting National Spiritual Assembly Uganda hold memorial service mother Temple Africa recognition unique services that continent. Assure ardent prayers progress soul Abhai Kingdom. Advise hold memorial gathering L o n d ~ n . " [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] N A W ~ (1817-1886). (Grace, Highness; Asiyih Khhum; Most Exalted Leaf.) The first wife of Bahai'u'llaih; she was married to Him in Tihrhn in 1835 (when He was 18 years old). There were seven children of this marriage, of whom only three survived-'Abdu'l-Bahai, Bahiyyih KJhnum, and MirzP Mihdi. She was outstanding in her devotion to Bahd'u'llhh and suffered a great deal at the hands of those within her family who subsequently opposed her beloved Husband, but her faith remained resolute and unshakable (see COVENANT BREAKERS). As one writer testified, "Among those who shared His exile was His wife, the saintly Nawiib, entitled by Him the 'Most Exalted Leaf,' who, during almost forty years, continued to evince a fortitude, a piety, a devotion and a nobility of soul which earned her from the pen of her Lord the posthumous and unrivaled tribute of having been made His 'perpetual consort in all the worlds of God.'"[37:1081 'Abdu'l-Bahii stated that the 54th chapter of Isaiah referred to Nawiib. She passed away in 'Akka in 1886. In 1939, Shoghi Effendi reinterred her remains in the Monument Gardens on Mount Carme1.[37'3481 Refer to appendixes 1 through 4 for genealogies. NAW-RUZ. (New Day; New Year; 21 March.) One of the nine Bahd'i Holy Days, which coincides with Bahd, the first month of the Bahii'i calendar year. It occurs on the spring equinox, which in the West normally falls on 21 March. Should the equinox fall after sunset on 21 March, Naw-Rkz is celebrated on the 22nd. It marks the end of the month of fasting and is a Holy Day of joyous celebration. In the future it will be celebrated according to the lunar calendar.
N A Y ~ Z See . vA@D.
NIEDERREITER, LEO
35 1
NICHOLS, VALERIA LAMB (1903-1985). An American believer (1937) who served on the first (1940) local Spiritual Assembly of Beverley Hills, California. During the second Seven Year Plan she pioneered in 1947 to Europe. After a brief stay in Holland she pioneered to Portugal, where she remained until 1951 and where she assisted in the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Lisbon. In 1953 she pioneered to Central America, where she remained for the balance of her life. Initially she stayed in Costa Rica but then moved to Mexico, settling first in Mexico City and then, in 1964, in MCrida, Yucatin. She served on the National Spiritual Assembly of Mexico for a number of y e a r ~ . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] NICKLIN, EVE BLANCHE (18951985). (Spiritual Mother of Peru.) An early American believer who in 1941 pioneered to Lima, Peru (the first believer to do so), an action that earned her the accolade "Spiritual Mother of Peru." She served on the first (1944) local Spiritual Assembly of Lima (also the first in Peru). In 1948, with the approval of Shoghi Effendi, she pioneered to Punta Arenas, Chile, to assist with the strengthening of the work in that country. On her return to Peru she settled in Callao and served on the first (1949) local Spiritual Assembly of that town. In 1951 she was elected to the National Assembly of South America. She lived for a year in Uruguay (1952-1953) and two and a half years in Paraguay (1953-1955). In 1955 she returned to Peru but in 1958 went back to Paraguay, where she remained until 1962, when she again moved to Peru. In 1965 she was appointed an Auxiliary Board member. By the time of her death in 1985 there were almost 600 local Spiritual Assemblies in Peru.[18:6701 NIEDERREITER, LEO (1920-1999). A physician by profession, he was born and died in his native Austria. In 1953 he and his wife were shipwrecked on the coast of Ethiopia (now Eritrea) while on their way to the Seychelles in a homemade boat. On learning of their presence in the country, Emperor Haile Selassie invited them to practice medicine in his country. Eventually the couple settled in Asmara, where in 1956they met two B M i s and accepted the Faith. Dr. Niederreiter was elected to the local Spiritual Assembly of Asmara and subsequently to the National Spiritual Assembly of Northeast M c a and Ethiopia. In 1978 he was severely wounded by bandits and felt compelled to return to Austria, where he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly. He served on that body until his appointment as a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Europe in 1980 (serving until 1990).[29:3091
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NINE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES
NINE CONCENTRIC CIRCLES. Described by Shoghi Effendi as follows: For, just as in the realm of the spirit, the reality of the Bib has been hailed by the Author of the Bahi'i Revelation as "The Point round Whom the realities of the Prophets and Messengers revolve," so, on this visible plane, His sacred remains constitute the heart and center of what may be regarded as nine concentric circles, paralleling thereby, and adding further emphasis to the central position accorded by the Founder of our Faith to One "from Whom God hath caused to proceed the knowledge of all that was and shall be," "the Primal Point from which have been generated all created things." The outermost circle in this vast system, the visible counterpart of the pivotal position conferred on the Herald of our Faith, is none other than the entire planet. Within the heart of this planet lies the "Most Holy Land," acclaimed by 'Abdu'l-BahB as "the Nest of the Prophets" and which must be regarded as the center of the world and the Qiblih of the nations. Within this Most Holy Land rises the Mountain of God of immemorial sanctity, the Vineyard of the Lord, the Retreat of Elijah, Whose return the Bib Himself symbolizes. Reposing on the breast of this holy mountain are the extensive properties permanently dedicated to, and constituting the sacred precincts of, the Bib's holy Sepulcher. In the midst of these properties, recognized as the international endowments of the Faith, is situated the most holy court, an enclosure comprising gardens and terraces which at once embellish, and lend a peculiar charm to, these sacred precincts. Embosomed in these lovely and verdant surroundings stands in all its exquisite beauty the mausoleum of the Bib, the shell designed to preserve and adorn the original structure raised by 'Abdu'l-Baha as the tomb of the MartyrHerald of our Faith. Within this shell is enshrined that Pearl of Great Price, the holy of holies, those chambers which constitute the tomb itself, and which were constructed by 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Within the heart of this holy of holies is the tabernacle, the vault wherein reposes the most holy casket. Within this vault rests the alabaster sarcophagus in which is deposited that inestimable jewel, the Bib's holy dust. So precious is this dust that the very earth surrounding the edilice enshrining this dust has been extolled by the Center of Bahi'u'lliih's Covenant, in one of His Tablets in which He named the five doors belonging to the six chambers which He originally erected after five of the believers associated with the construction of the Shrine, as being endowed with such potency as to have inspired Him in bestowing these names, whilst the tomb itself housing this dust He acclaimed as the spot round which the Concourse on high circle in a d o r a t i ~ n . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ]
See also BAB, SHRINE OF.
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NINETEEN DAY FEAST. An institution inaugurated by Bahi'u'llih in the Kitcib-i-Aqdas: "Verily, it is enjoined upon you to offer a feast, once in every month, though only water be served; for God hath purposed to bind hearts together, albeit through both earthly and This injunction constitutes the ordination of heavenly mean~."[~l:~~] the Nineteen Day Feast. In the Arabic Bayiin the B i b called upon His followers to gather together once every nineteen days to show hospitality and fellowship. Bahii'u'lliih conhned this law and noted the unifying role of such occasions. 'Abdu'l-Bahh and Shoghi Effendi gradually made known the institutional significance of this injunction. 'Abdu'l-Bahii emphasized the importance of the spiritual and devotional character of these gatherings. Shoghi Effendi, besides further elaborating the devotional and social aspects of the Feast, developed the administrative element of such gatherings and, in systematically instituting the Feast, made provision for a period of consultation on the affairs of the Baha'i community, including the sharing of news and messages. In answer to a question as to whether this injunction is obligatory, Bahii'u'llih stated it was not. Shoghi Effendi in a letter written on his behalf commented further: "Attendance at Nineteen Day Feasts is not obligatory but very important, and every believer should consider it a duty and privilege to be ~ ~ : ~481~ ~'Abdu'l-Bahii ~ wrote, "You present on such o ~ c a s i o n s . " [QaANO have asked as to the feast in every Bahb7imonth. This feast is held to foster comradeship and love, to call God to mind and supplicate Him with contrite hearts, and to encourage benevolent pursuits. That is, the friends should there dwell upon God and glorify Him, read the prayers and holy verses, and treat one another with the utmost And again, "As to the Nineteen Day Feast, affection and love.7'[100'911 it rejoiceth mind and heart. If this Feast be held in the proper fashion, the friends will, once in nineteen days, find themselves spiritually restored, and endued with a power that is not of this Ideally, Nineteen Day Feasts are to be held on the fist day of each Bahii'i calendar month. Although there are traditionally three sections to a Feast4evotions7community businesslaffairs (consultation), and socialization segments-there is no prescribed ritual attached to how they are carried out; indeed, the format of a Nineteen Day Feast varies greatly according to cultural preferences and tastes. Basically, the three segments generally follow a pattern of devotions, consultation, and socialization; however, the order of these segments is sometimes changed. The devotional segment consists mainly of readings and prayers fiom the Writings of Bahb'u'lliih, the Bhb, or 'Abdu'l-Bahii.
The community businesslaffairs (consultation) section includes the presentation of community-related correspondence and messages, and the local Spiritual Assembly presents its report (normally followed by consultation on the affairs of the community). Also during this section the treasurer reports on the state and needs of the local fund. All believers have the opportunity to participate in the consultation, and recommendations may be made to the local Spiritual Assembly or through them to the National Spiritual Assembly. The remaining part of the Feast is social in nature and includes the serving of refreshments and an opportunity for fellowship. Only Bahi'is are permitted to attend the Feast; in the event that non-Bahi'is are present and it is not deemed appropriate to request them to absent themselves for the community businesslaffairs (consultation) portion, the Feast is postponed, and the gathering becomes purely social in nature; this is sometimes referred to as a Unity Feast. ~ ~ (Martyr.) A young Bahb'i N~R~ANM D , A H (19551983). who was executed, along with other coreligionists, by the irhnian government in &irk in June 1983 for refbsing to recant her belief in Bahh'U'fl&.[18:6'J'J1
NJANG, ELIZABETH IDANG (1928-1983). An early (1956) Nigerian believer who served as a member (1967) of the National Spiritual Assembly of West Central Africa. She was a notable teacher of the Cause and was referred to as "Tihirih of Nigeria" by the Hands of the Cause of God attending the 1960 Annual Convention.[17'819,93:4631 NJIKI, SAMUEL NJENJI (19351983). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) The first (1954) Bamilike tribesman in Batala-Bangante, Nde Division, Western Province, Republic of Cameroon, to embrace the Cause. In April 1954 he arose and pioneered to Doula in French Cameroon, for which service he was designated a Knight of B a h i ' ~ ' l l i h . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] NORDSTROM, ADDIE (1885-1968). An American believer (c. 1940) who at the advanced age of 78 pioneered to the Aleutian I~lands.[l~:~~~] NOURSE, CATHERINE ELIZABETH (1904-1985). An early American believer; her mother, Elizabeth Nourse, was 'Abdu'l-Bahh's hostess on a number of occasions during His 1912 visit to America. In 1937 she pioneered to Hawaii, where she served on the local
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SpiritualAssembly of Honolulu. In 1957 she served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Hilo, the Big I ~ l a n d . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ]
NUQTIY-I-ULA. The Primal Point: a title of the Baib.[18:7391" N U ~ U G A TMALAKAT ~, (d. 1937). An early Egyptian Baha'i. Her burial was the first in Egypt to be performed solely according to Baha'i burial law.[4:5501
OBEDIENCE TO GOVERNMENT. See GOVERNMENT, OBEDIENCE TO; POLITICS. OBER, ELIZABETH MERIEL KIDDER (1902-1979)' AND KIDDER, GERTRUDE (1902-1981). Identical twin sisters (osteopathic, homeopathic, and naturopathic physicians by profession), both heard of the Baha'i Faith in 1934 at the same time but in different cities and from different people. On becoming Baha'is they shared the news with each other only to discover the Faith was already known and embraced. Elizabeth married Harlan Ober in 1941. In 1954 Alice pioneered to South Africa and set up a medical practice. In 1956 she was joined by Elizabeth and Harlan. In April 1956 they formed the first local Spiritual Assembly of Pretoria, to be followed in 1958 by the first local Spiritual Assembly ofAtteridgeville. In 1958 Alice moved to Haifa to serve as personal physician to 'Amatu'l-Bahai Rhhiyyih mainum. In 1969 the sisters returned to the United States, but in 1975 they again pioneered to Guadalajara, Mexico. In 1978 they were elected to the local Spiritual Assembly of Zapopan. Just as they lived most of their lives together, their remains are buried together in the Cemeterio Municipal de Guadalajara, MeXiC0.[17:6781 OBER, HARLAN FOSTER (1881-1962).An early American believer. He met 'Abdu'l-Bahai during His 1912 visit to America and received several Tablets. 'Abdu'l-Bahi Himself married Harlan and his wife, 147:1181 Harlan made Grace Robarts (of Canada), on 17 July 1912.[7:6563 three pilgrimages to the Holy Land. After the third pilgrimage he
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pioneered (with his second wife, Dr. Elizabeth Kidder Ober, Grace having passed away in 1938)to South Afiica (1956), where he helped form the first all-African local Spiritual Assembly in Pretoria. He was appointed a member of the Auxiliary Board for protection in October l957.[12:866,92:176ff,147:118] OBLIGATORY PRAYER. See PRAYER, OBLIGATORY. OLINGA, ENOCH (19261979). (Hand of the Cause of God; Knight of Bahii'u'lliih; Abu'l-Fuhlh-Father of Victories.) He was born in the province of Teso, North East Uganda, on 24 June 1926. A year later his father moved the family back to his native village of Tilling-a village whose name will forever be associated with the first substantial expansion of the Faith in the Bahi'i world, with Afiica's only native Hand of the Cause and with the first Bahb'i school to be established on the Afiican continent. At 3 1 years of age he was the youngest person ever to be appointed a Hand. In August 1951, Enoch, who was at that time working in the Department of Education in Kampala, learned of the Faith through Crispin Kajubi (the first Muganda to become a Bahi'i). In February 1952, he became the first of the Teso tribe and the fourth Ugandan to enroll, enabling him to become the ninth member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Kampala on 21 April 1952. Shortly afterward he returned to Tilling on vacation and began to teach the Faith and, with the help of some of the pioneers, began the process that led to the large-scale enrollment, which Shoghi Effendi hailed with great joy in his subsequent messages to the Bahb'i world. In August 1953, responding to the call for pioneers for West and Central Afiica, Enoch and two other new Afiican Bahi'is, with Violette N a a v b n i in a car purchased by her father, Mlisii Baniini, and driven by 'Ali N a a v b n i , set off on an epic journey across Afiica. They left one African to pioneer in the Belgian Congo (Zaire) and the second one to pioneer in French Equatorial Afiica (Congo Republic). Then for the longest part of the journey they drove through deep tropical jungles and disease-decimated areas of Gabon, with the car breaking down frequently, or sticking in deep mud and making little progress4ne day they made only 100 kilometers in 16 hours. When on one occasion the car broke down completely, Enoch volunteered to walk 50 miles to the nearest garage. 'Ali eventually got the car to limp along and caught up with Enoch after he had walked 35 miles. By this time all three travelers were ill, and Enoch had to spend two
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days in the hospital and could not travel for a week. On 10 October they reached French Cameroons but pushed on, as Enoch's goal was to reach British Cameroons, which he did only within hours of the deadline date to "open" that country and become its Knight of Baha'u'llfi. On 16 October 1953 the party reached Victoria, where Enoch was to live for the next 10 years. Accommodation was eventually found for Enoch in the home of David Tanyi, who subsequently became the first native of the Cameroons to accept the Faith and in so doing became the Knight of BahB7u'lliih for French Cameroons. Dedicated to teaching new believers, Enoch began to enroll each one imbued with the same spirit of teaching. Among these were many who became, like Enoch, stalwarts in the Faith. In February 1957 Enoch had the privilege of a pilgrimage, afler which he taught with renewed zeal, and Shoghi Effendi gave him the title Abu'l-Fuhlh. He was elevated to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God in the last contingent appointed by Shoghi Effendi in 1957. This made him the only African Hand, the second of his race to be granted that honor (the first being Louis G. Gregory), and the first native African Bahb'i to obtain a pilgrimage. Although the formalities required to get to London prevented Enoch fiom attending the funeral of Shogh~Effendi, he was able to get to the Holy Land for the first Conclave of the Hands of the Cause immediately following Shoghi Effendi's passing. In 1958 he was able to attend the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in Kampala and participate in the laying of the foundation stone for the Kampala House of Worship (Mashriqu'l-AdhMr). He finally returned to his native village of Tilling and built a house there for his family. From there he traveled in every continent and visited many countries as well as attending conferences on behalf of the Universal House of Justice. He was selected by the other Hands to be the chair of the opening session of the 1963 World Congress in the Albert Hall, London. Throughout his life as a Hand he traveled widely. Afler attending the Singapore conference in 1958 he toured Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, Samoa, and Pakistan; in 1960 he went to many places in West and North Africa, Sicily, and Italy; in 1961 he went to Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Cuba. Subsequent travels included the Greater Antilles and Central America; in 1962 East Africa, the Sudan, Ethiopia, and the Congo. On behalf of the Universal House of Justice, he attended many conventions in Africa and the outlying islands and the large Mediterranean conference in Palermo, Sicily, in 1968 and was later received by the Dalai Lama in his Indian headquarters.
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In 1970 he traveled to many parts of Africa, made an extensive tour of South and Central America, the Antilles, and the United States, and fiom there went on to many parts of the Pacific islands and Japan. In 1971 he visited Iceland, Scandinavia, the British Isles, and then kin. For the next few years he spent a great deal of time in different African countries, with other visits to Brazil and Mexico, finally returning to Uganda to help in his home country, which was in great turmoil with civil war, terrorism, and chaos, and where the Faith had been officially banned. Not only was Enoch known as a Baha'i of international repute, but he was also a well-known, capable, and prosperous businessman with relatives and friends in high places, and as such he was a target of subversive elements. He was aware he was on a list for "eliminationy'but refused to leave his home. He had, at one stage, purchased the house in Kampala where he had studied the Faith, where he had learned of his appointment as a Hand, and that was so interwoven with the early history of the Faith in Uganda. It was a family custom of the Olingas to gather together on special days. Such a day was called for 16 September 1979; they had a picnic on the grounds of the House of Worship and then all met in the Kampala house. It was a very joyous occasion, with Enoch and his wife joining in the singing and dancing that followed the Bahh'i serDue to various unforeseen vice in the Temple @laslxiqu'l-Ad&hr). circumstances several members of the family were unable to reach Kampala that night, and only Enoch, his wife, Elizabeth, and three children (Tihirih, Lennie, and Badi') were present. The family had their evening meal and then, at about 8:30 PM, five or six armed men entered the compound, and all five were brutally murdered. Every night afierward during curfew hours heavy gunfire was heard, and during that week many other entire families were wiped out. These were acts of terrorism, and it is not known who the murderers were nor their motive in killing the Olinga family. The Universal House of Justice announced to the Baha'i world, "With grief-stricken hearts announce tragic news brutal murder dearly loved greatly admired Hand Cause God Enoch Olinga by unknown gunmen courtyard his Kampala home. His wife Elizabeth and three of his children Bad', Lennie and Tihirih have also fallen innocent victims this cruel act. Motive attack not yet ascertained. His radiant spirit his unwavering faith his all-embracing love his leonine audacity in the teaching field his titles Knight Bahi'u'llhh, Father Victories conferred beloved Guardian all combine distinguish him as pre-eminent member his race in annals Faith African continent. Urge friends everywhere hold
ONENESS OF GOD
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memorial gatherings befitting tribute his imperishable memory. Fervently praying Holy Shrines progress his noble soul and souls four 93:4711 members his precious family."[17:634*
OLSEN, HENDRIK (d. 1967). The first (1965) indigenous Greenland belie~er.[l~:~~~] ONENESS OF GOD. 'Abdu'l-Bahh wrote, "The prophets of God have been divine shepherds of humanity. They have established a bond of love and unity among mankind, made scattered peoples one nation and wandering tribes a mighty kingdom. They have laid the foundation of the oneness of God and summoned all to universal peace. All these holy, divine Manifestations are one. They have served one God, promulgated the same truth, founded the same instiWriting elsewhere on the tutions and reflected the same light."[151:141 "trinity" 'Abdu'l-Bahi also addressed the oneness of God: The Divine Reality, which is puri6ed and sanctified from the understanding of human beings and which can never be imagined by the people of wisdom and of intelligence, is exempt fiom all conception. That Lordly Reality admits of no division; for division and multiplicity are properties of creatures which are contingent existences, and not accidents which happen to the self-existent. The Divine Reality is sanctified from singleness, then how much more from plurality. The descent of that Lordly Reality into conditions and degrees would be equivalent to imperfection and contrary to perfection, and is, therefore, absolutely impossible. It perpetually has been, and is, in the exaltation of holiness and sanctity. All that is mentioned of the Manifestations and Dawning-places of God signi6es the divine reflection, and not a descent into the conditions of existence. God is pure perfection, and creatures are but imperfections. For God to descend into the conditions of existence would be the greatest of imperfections; on the contrary, His manifestation, His appearance, His rising are like the reflection of the sun in a clear, pure, polished mirror. All the creatures are evident signs of God, like the earthly beings upon all of which the rays of the sun shine. But upon the plains, the mountains, the trees and f i t s , only a portion of the light shines, through which they become visible, and are reared, and attain to the object of their existence, while the Perfect Man is in the condition of a clear mirror in which the Sun of Reality becomes visible and manifest with all its qualities and perfections. So the Reality of Christ was a clear and polished mirror of the greatest purity and fineness. The Sun of Reality, the Essence of Divinity, reflected itself in this mirror and manifested its light and heat in it; but from the exaltation of its holiness, and the
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ONENESS OF MANKIND
heaven of its sanctity, the Sun did not descend to dwell and abide in the mirror. No, it continues to subsist in its exaltation and sublimity, while appearing and becoming manifest in the mirror in beauty and perfection. Now if we say that we have seen the Sun in two mirrors-ne the Christ and one the Holy Spirit-that is to say, that we have seen three Suns, one in heaven and the two others on the earth, we speak truly. And if we say that there is one Sun, and it is pure singleness, and has no partner and equal, we again speak truly. The epitome of the discourse is that the Reality of Christ was a clear mirror, and the Sun of Reality-that is to say, the Essence of Oneness, with its infinite perfections and attributes-became visible in the mirror. The meaning is not that the Sun, which is the Essence of the Divinity, became divided and multiplied-for the Sun is one-but it appeared in the mirror. This is why Christ said, "The Father is in the Son," meaning that the Sun is visible and manifest in this mirror. The Holy Spirit is the Bounty of God which becomes visible and evident in the Reality of Christ. The Sonship station is the heart of Christ, and the Holy Spirit is the station of the spirit of Christ. Hence it has become certain and proved that the Essence of Divinity is absolutely unique and has no equal, no likeness, no equivalent. This is the sigdication of the Three Persons of the Trinity. If it were otherwise, the foundations of the Religion of God would rest upon an illogical proposition which the mind could never conceive, and how can the mind be forced to believe a thing which it cannot conceive? A thing cannot be grasped by the intelligence except when it is clothed in an intelligible form; otherwise, it is but an effort of the imagination. It has now become clear, from this explanation, what is the meaning of the Three Persons of the Trinity. The Oneness of God is also prOVed.[121:f121 ONENESS O F MANKIND. (Oneness and Wholeness of the Human
Race.) This central overarching and undergirding pivotal principle of the Bahb'i Faith is "at once the operating principle and ultimate goal" of Bahh'u'llhh's Revelation and, furthermore, "implies the achievement of a dynamic coherence between the spiritual and practical requirements of life on earth."[69'71Shoghi Effendi, elaborating as long ago as 1931 on the implications of both BahB'u'll6h's and 'Abdu'l-Bahii's teachings on this cardinal point, wrote, Are not these intermittent crises [see CALAMITIESAND CRISES] that convulse present-day society due primarily to the lamentable inability of the world's recognized leaders to read aright the signs of the times, to rid themselves once for all of their preconceived ideas and fettering
ONENESS OF MANKIND
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creeds, and to reshape the machinery of their respective governments according to those standards that are implicit in Bahb'u'llih's supreme declaration of the Oneness of Mankind-the chief and distinguishing feature of the Faith He proclaimed? For the principle of the Oneness of Mankind, the cornerstone of Bahl'u'llih's world-embracing dominion, implies nothing more nor less than the enforcement of His scheme for the unification of the world-the scheme to which we have already referred. "In every Dispensation," writes 'Abdu'l-Bahl, "the light of Divine Guidance has been focused upon one central theme. . . . In this wondrous Revelation, this glorious century, the foundation of the Faith of God and the distinguishing feature of His Law is the consciousnessof the Oneness of Mankind." The principle of the Oneness of Mankindthe pivot round which all the teachings of Bahb'u'llih r e v o l v e i s no mere outburst of ignorant emotionalism or an expression of vague and pious hope. Its appeal is not to be merely identified with a reawakening of the spirit of brotherhood and good-will among men, nor does it aim solely at the fostering of harmonious co-operation among individual peoples and nations. Its implications are deeper, its claims greater than any which the Prophets of old were allowed to advance. Its message is applicable not only to the individual, but concerns itself primarily with the nature of those essential relationships that must bind all the states and nations as members of one human family. . . . It implies an organic change in the structure of present-day society, a change such as the world has not yet experienced. It constitutes a challenge, at once bold and universal, to outworn shibboleths of national creeds4reeds that have had their day and which must give way to a new gospel, fundamentally different from, and infinitely superior to, what the world has already conceived. It calls for no less than the reconstruction and the demilitarization of the whole civilized world-a world organically unified in all the essential aspects of its life, its political machinery, its spiritual aspiration, its trade and finance, its script and language, and yet infinite in the diversity of the national characteristics of its federated units.[36:421 Shoghi Effendi augmented the foregoing as follows: Of the principles enshrined in these Tablets the most vital of them all is the principle of the oneness and wholeness of the human race, which may well be regarded as the hall-mark of Bahl'u'llih's Revelation and the pivot of His teachings. Of such cardinal importance is this principle of unity that it is expressly referred to in the Book of His Covenant, and He unreservedly proclaims it as the central purpose of His Faith. "We, verily," He declares, "have come to unite and weld together all that dwell on earth." "So potent is the light of unity," He fUrther states, "that it can illuminate the whole earth."[37'216fl
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ONENESS OF RELIGION
World Unity the Goal Unification of the whole of mankind is the hall-mark of the stage which human society is now approaching. Unity of family, of tribe, of city-state, and nation have been successively attempted and fully established. World unity is the goal towards which a harassed humanity is striving. Nation-building has come to an end. The anarchy inherent in state sovereignty is moving towards a climax. A world, growing to maturity, must abandon this fetish, recognize the oneness and wholeness of human relationships, and establish once for all the machinery that can best incarnate this hdamental principle of its life.W2021 ONENESS O F RELIGION. The significance given to this theme is emphasized by the fact that 'Abdu'l-Bahii made it the main subject
in His first public address given in the City Temple, London, England. Of this occasion Shoghi Effendi wrote that " 'Abdu'l-Bahii's first public appearance before a western audience significantly enough took place in a Christian house of worship, when, on September 10, 1911, He addressed an overflowing congregation from the pulpit of the City Temple. Introduced by the Pastor, the Reverend R. J. Campbell, He, in simple and moving language, and with vibrant voice, proclaimed the unity of God, affirmed the fundamental oneness of religion, and announced that the hour of the unity of the sons of men, of all races, religions and classes had s t r u ~ k . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] In Bahii'u'lliih's own words, "Know thou assuredly that the essence of all the Prophets of God is one and the same. Their unity is absolute. God, the Creator, saith: There is no distinction whatsoever among the Bearers of My Message. They all have but one purpose; their secret is the same secret. To prefer one in honor to another, to exalt certain ones above the rest, is in no wise to be permitted. Every true Prophet hath regarded His Message as fundamentally the same as the Revelation of every other Prophet gone before Him."[78:781 Shoghi Effendi again refers at length to this "unity" or oneness in his letter of 21 March 1932 addressed to the Baha'is of the United States and Canada: Let no one, however, mistake my purpose. The Revelation, of which Bahi'u'llih is the source and center, abrogates none of the religions that have preceded it, nor does it attempt, in the slightest degree, to distort their features or to belittle their value. It disclaims any intention of dwarfing any of the Prophets of the past, or of whittling down the eternal verity of their teachings. It can, in no wise, conflict with the spirit that animates their claims, nor does it seek to undermine the basis of any man's allegiance to their cause. Its declared, its primary purpose is to enable every adherent of these Faiths to obtain a fuller understanding
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of the religion with which he stands identified, and to acquire a clearer apprehension of its purpose. It is neither eclectic in the presentation of its truths, nor arrogant in the affirmation of its claims. Its teachings revolve around the fundamental principle that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is progressive, not final [see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION]. Unequivocally and without the least reservation it proclaims all established religions to be divine in origin, identical in their aims, complementary in their functions, continuous in their purpose, indispensable in their value to mankind. "All the Prophets of God," asserts Bahl'u'llih in the itr rib-i-hrin, "abide in the same tabernacle, soar in the same heaven, are seated upon the same throne, utter the same speech, and proclaim the same Faith." From the '%eginning that hath no beginning," these Exponents of the Unity of God and Channels of His incessant utterance have shed the light of the invisible Beauty upon mankind, and will continue, to the "end that hath no end," to vouchsafe fi-esh revelations of His might and additional experiences of His inconceivable glory. To contend that any particular religion is final, that "all Revelation is ended, that the portals of Divine mercy are closed, that fi-om the daysprings of eternal holiness no sun shall rise again, that the ocean of everlasting bounty is forever stilled, and that out of the Tabernacle of ancient glory the Messengers of God [see MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD] have ceased to be made manifest" would indeed be nothing less than sheer bla~phemy.[~~~']
While in Paris, 'Abdu'l-BahB said, "All religious laws conform to reason, and are suited to the people for whom they are fiamed, and for the age in which they are to be obeyed. . . . Religion has two main parts: (1) The Spiritual. (2) The Practical. The spiritual part never changes. All the Manifestations of God and His Prophets have taught the same truths and given the same spiritual law. They all teach the one code of morality. There is no division in the truth. The Sun has sent forth many rays to illumine human intelligence, the light is always the same. The practical part of religion deals with exterior forms and ceremonies, and with modes of punishment for certain offenses. This is the material side of the law, and guides the customs See also ONENESS OF GOD; and manners of the ONENESS OF MANKIND. ORBISON, VIRGINIA (1902-1985). (Knight of BahP'u'llih; Mother of Spain.) An American believer (1933) who pioneered to Santiago, Chile, in 1942 and in so doing helped form the first (1943) local Spiritual Assembly of Santiago (the first in Chile). In the following fouryear period she traveled relentlessly in the promotion of the Cause: In 1943 she visited Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia; in 1944 she visited
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OUTHEY,JEANNETTE
Peru, Bolivia, and Ecuador; in 1945 she returned for six months to Wilmette for "hospitalization and rest" only to travel fiom there back to Brazil, where she stayed until December 1946. In 1947 she responded to a call for pioneers to go to Europe by moving to Spain, where she was the first believer to arrive. By 1948 there were sufficient believers to form the first local SpiritualAssembly of Madrid (on which she served as corresponding secretary). A second local Spiritual Assembly in Barcelona followed in 1949. By 1954 there were Spiritual Assemblies in Murcia and Tarrasa. In 1953 she pioneered to the Balearic Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahi'u'llith. In 1954 she was imprisoned and questioned by police in Barcelona during the Iberian Teaching Conference. In 1956 she moved to Lisbon. In 1957 she was elected to the first Iberian Regional Spiritual Assembly. In May 1959 she was expelled fiom Portugal on police order for "Baha'i activities.'' She then moved to Dudelange, Luxembourg, to help maintain the local Spiritual Assembly. In 1962 she served on the first National Spiritual Assembly of Luxembourg. In 1968, on doctor's orders to move to a warmer climate, she returned to Malaga, Spain. In 1972 she was elected to the first local Spiritual Assembly of Malaga. For her services in the Iberian Peninsula she earned the accolade "the Mother of Spain."[18:6911 OUTHEY, JEANNETTE (d. 1980). The first (1961) Caledonian believer, she served on the first (1961) local Spiritual Assembly of Noumea (for a period of 19 years). In 1971 she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Southwest Pacific Ocean. In 1977 she replaced her mother as Custodian of the National Hqiratu'l-Quds in N ~ u m e a . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
PALU, JOHANNES (1913-1994). He and his wife, Raia, were the first (1968) Estonian Baha'is. He served on the first (1990) local Spiritual Assembly of Tallinn.[18:3211 PARKE, GLADYS IRENE (d. 1969). (Knight of Bahsi'u'llsih.) An Australian believer who embraced the Cause in Tasmania (the first to do so in Northern Tasmania). In 1953 she pioneered to Tahiti in the Society Islands, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahii'u'llhh. She later returned to Tasmania, where she remained active in the teaching field.[14:4S71
PARSONS, AGNES S.
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PARSONS, AGNES S. (1861-1934). In about 1861, Agnes, daughter of General and Mrs. Royal, was born into a materially endowed and sheltered world with every advantage that social position and material wealth could bring. Until she heard of the Bahi'i Faith, circa 1908, it is believed she had not known nor associated with anyone outside her immediate social circle, which makes her outstanding future services even more remarkable. She was then living happily with her husband, Arthur Jeffrey Parsons, and their two children, Jeffrey and Royal, in Washington, D.C. Two years later she made a pilgrimage to Haifa to meet 'Abdu'l-Bahi, and it was in that environment that she accepted and became confirmed in her Faith. During 'Abdu'l-Bahi's visit to Washington in the spring of 1912 she entertained Him and worked indefatigably to make His visit the success that has been recorded in the history of that time. Many talks that He gave are recorded in Promulbut there were numerous visits to Him by gation of Universal groups and individuals in her home, some of which were noted in her own records. In August 'Abdu'l-Bahb visited her again but in her home in Dublin, New Hampshire; the pattern was repeated, and He Himself referred to her spirituality and sigmficant services to her Faith. She visited 'Abdu'l-Bahi again in late 1919 or early 1920, and it was during this second pilgrimage that she received His instructions, which not only caused her considerable surprise but gave her a specific mission. She had long been closely associated with societies working for the improvement of the relationships between America and P e r ~ i a J l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ . " but when she received the command from 'Abdu'l-Bahi, "I want you to arrange a Convention for unity of the colored and white races. : ~ l ~carried ] You must have people to help y o ~ , " [ ~ she out His wishes implicitly. With a group of eminent Bahi'is she organized the First Racial Amity Convention [see RACIALISM/RACISM],which opened on 19 May 1921 in the First Congregational Church, Washington, D.C. The pastor opened it with a prayer, and William H. Randall chaired the fist session. One of Agnes's coworkers on the convening committee had been Montford Mills, who was in Haifa when the convention opened but returned in time to chair one of its sessions. He brought with him a message from 'Abdu'l-Baha "Say to this Convention that never since the beginning of time has a Convention of more importance been held. It will become the cause of the removal of hostility between the races. It will become the cause of the enlightenment ofAmerica. It will, if rightly managed and continued, check the deadly struggle between these races which otherwise will inevitably break out."[lOS'VO1~ xc 6, 1151 Immediately on receipt of a cable from Mrs. Parsons-"Convention successful. Meetings crowded. Hearts comforted"'Abdu'1-Bahi
replied, "The whitelcolored Convention produced happiness. Hoping will establish same in all America." Subsequently an eminent Bahh'i said, " 'Abdu'l-Bahii gave to this first convention for amity the station of 'mother' and said that its spirit would spread to other ~ities."[l:~~~] At the Annual Convention of the BaM'is of North America, Chicago, 22-25 April 1922, the h t National Spiritual Assembly of that continent was elected, and Agnes was a member for three consecutive years. She remained active in the field of racial amity and was for years the chair of the National Race Unity Committee (National Interracial Committee). On 19 January 1934 she was struck by a passing automobile and died on 23 January. In Progress in Racial Amity, Nellie French wrote, "Whenever the thought of racial amity passes before the mind's eye there appears simultaneously the vision of that gentle and loving spirit, Mrs. Agnes S. Parsons. . . . Her memory will ever be kept alive by those who seek to follow in her footsteps and take up the misShoghi Effendi cabled, sion laid down by her untimely "Greatly deplore loss distinguished handmaid of Bah6'u7ll6hThrough her manifold pioneer services she has proved herself worthy of the implicit confidence reposed in her by 'Abdu'l-BaM. Advise American believers hold befitting memorial gatherings. Assure relatives heartfelt sympathy, prayers."[4:410, 147:761
PASHA. Honorary title formerly given to a Turkish officer of high rank such as a military commander or provincial g o v e r n ~ r . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ~
PATTERSON, ROBERT HENRY (1925-1975). An Australian believer (1956) of Scottish birth, he first pioneered within Australia and then in 1968 he went to Apia, Western Samoa. He was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Samoa when it formed in 1970. His death in 1975 earned him the designation of being the first pioneer to Samoa to give up his life at his PAVON, RAUL M E ~ DE A (1933-1983). An early (1958) Ecuadorian believer who served on the local Spiritual Assemblies of Otavalo and Quito as well as on the National Spiritual Assembly of Ecuador. In 1973 he was appointed a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in South America and then (when the boards were merged) as a member of the Americas Board. He played a lead role in the establishment of Radio Bahii'i, Ecuador-the first Bahii'i-owned and -operated radio station in the world. Through his efforts, his parents also embraced the Faith.[18:6161
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PAYMAN, KHODARAHM HORMOZDYAR (1921-2002). Born in Yazd, iran, to a Baha'i family, he pioneered to Bombay, India, in 1942. Following his arrival he was elected to the Regional Spiritual Assembly of India, Pakistan, and Burma. In 1950 he again pioneered (this time with his wife, Parvin Siroosi) to Indonesia (then the Dutch East Indies), where he remained until his death in August 2002. He was a founding member of the local Spiritual Assembly of Jakarta and a member of the first Regional Spiritual Assembly of Southeast Asia on its formation in 1957. He served first as an Auxiliary Board member and then, in 1968, was appointed by the Universal House of Justice as a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Asia-an office he held for the next 22 years. During the later part of his life he was also a member of the Regional Board of Trustees of the Huqiiqu'llhh Southeast Asia.[32:2721 PEACE. Baha'i Writings abound in references to peaceworld peace, Lesser Peace, Most Great Peace, inner p e a c e a n d the Bahi'i Teachings emphasize that peace must be firmly and collectively established at every level of human society-from the individual to the family, society, the nation, and the whole world. Bahk'u'llkh wrote that "the purpose underlying the revelation of every heavenly Book, nay, of every divinely-revealed verse, is to endue all men with righteousness and understanding, so that peace and tranquility may be firmly established amongst them. Whatsoever instilleth assurance into the hearts of men, whatsoever exalteth their station or promoteth ~:~~~l their contentment, is acceptable in the sight of G ~ d . " [ ~'Abdu'lBahh commented as follows: Universal Peace is assured by Baha'u'lliih as a fundamental accomplishment of the religion of God; that peace shall prevail among nations, governments and peoples, among religions, races and all conditions of mankind. This is one of the special characteristics of the Word of God revealed in this Manife~tation.['~~:~'] When the banner of truth is raised, peace becomes the cause of the welfare and advancement of the human world. In all cycles and ages war has been a factor of derangement and discomfort whereas peace and brotherhood have brought security and consideration of human interests. This distinction is especially pronounced in the present world conditions, for warfare in former centuries had not attained the degree of savagery and destructivenesswhich now characterizes it.['5':201 The primary purpose, the basic objective, in laying down power1 1laws and setting up great principles and institutions dealing with
368 PEACE, LESSER
every aspect of civilization, is human happiness; and human happiness consists only in drawing closer to the Threshold of Almighty God, and in securing the peace and well-being of every individual member, high and low alike, of the human race; and the supreme agencies for accomplishing these two objectives are the excellent qualities with which humanity has been The time has come when all mankind shall be united, when all races shall be loyal to one fatherland, all religions become one religion and racial and religious bias pass away. It is a day in which the oneness of humankind shall uplift its standard and international peace like the true morning flood the world with its light.[151:171 PEACE, LESSER. According to Bahi'i Writings, world peace will be established in two stages, the first being a political or "lesser" peace established by the governments of the world which, in turn, in the fullness of time, will evolve into "the Most Great Peace." Shoghi Effendi wrote, In His Tablet to Queen He [Bahh'u'llaih], more-over, invites these kings to hold fast to "the Lesser Peace," since they had refused "the Most Great Peace;" exhorts them to be reconciled among themselves, to unite and to reduce their armaments; bids them refrain from laying excessive burdens on their subjects, who, He informs them, are their "wards" and "treasures;" enunciates the principle that should any one among them take up arms against another, all should [See PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND rise against hirn.[37:2061 RULERS; TABLETS TO THE KINGS.] "Now that ye have refused the Most Great Peace," He, admonishing the kings and rulers of the earth, has written, "hold ye fast unto this the Lesser Peace, that haply ye may in some degree better your own condition and that of your dependants." Expatiating on this Lesser Peace, He thus addresses in that same Tablet the rulers of the earth: "Be reconciled among yourselves, that ye may need no more armaments save in a measure to safeguard your territories and dominions. . . . Be united, 0 kings of the earth, for thereby will the tempest of discord be stilled amongst you, and your peoples find rest, if ye be of them that comprehend. Should any one among you take up arms against another, rise ye all against him, for this is naught but manifest j ~ s t i c e . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Suffice it to say that this consummation will, by its very nature, be a gradual process, and must, as BahB'u'll6h has Himself anticipated, lead at first to the establishment of that Lesser Peace which the nations of the earth, as yet unconscious of His Revelation and yet unwittingly enforcing the general principles which He has enunciated, will themselves
See also CALAMITIES AND CRISES.
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PEACE, MOST GREAT. According to the Bahh'i Writings, following the establishment of the Lesser Peace by the governments of the world, there will come a time when the problems facing the global community that have resulted from its warring past will have to be confronted and resolved. Gradually, through the slow spiritualization of the masses, the human race will become aware of its oneness, and a peace founded on universal love will evolve. This is repeatedly referred to in Baha'i Writings; 'Abdu'l-Bahii wrote, "Today there is no greater glory for man than that of service in the cause of the 'Most Great Peace.' Peace is light whereas war is darkness. Peace is life; war is death. Peace is guidance; war is error. Peace is the foundation of God; war is satanic institution. Peace is the illumination of the world This of humanity; war is the destroyer of human foundati~ns."['~~'~~~] is the goal to which Bahh'is dedicate their efforts: the building of the foundations of the Most Great Peace by carrying out their teaching plans, by endeavoring to live their lives in accordance with the teachings of BahP'u'llPh, and by establishing those institutions by which this peace may function. Shoghi Effendi described the process in some detail: This momentous and historic step, involving the reconstruction of mankind, as the result of the universal recognition of its oneness and wholeness, will bring in its wake the spiritualization of the masses, consequent to the recognition of the character, and the acknowledgment of the claims, of the Faith of Baha'u'llih-the essential condition to that ultimate fusion of all races, creeds, classes, and nations which must signalize the emergence of His New World Order. Then will the coming of age of the entire human race be proclaimed and celebrated by all the peoples and nations of the earth. Then will the banner of the Most Great Peace be hoisted. Then will the world-wide sovereignty of Bahb7u'll&-the Establisher of the Kingdom of the Father foretold by the Son, and anticipated by the Prophets of God before Him and aRer Him-be recognized, acclaimed, and firmly established. Then will a world civilization be born, flourish, and perpetuate itself, a civilization with a fullness of life such as the world has never seen nor can as yet conceive. Then will the Everlasting Covenant be fulfilled in its completeness. Then will the promise enshrined in all the Books of God be redeemed, and all the prophecies uttered by the Prophets of old come to pass, and the vision of seers and poets be realized. Then will the planet, galvanized through the universal belief of its dwellers in one God, and their allegiance to one common Revelation, mirror, within the limitations imposed upon it, the effulgent glories of the sovereignty of Bahh'u'llih . . . be made the footstool of His Throne on high, and acclaimed as the earthly heaven, capable of Wiling that
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ineffable destiny fixed for it, from time immemorial, by the love and wisdom of its Creat~r.[~~:'~~]
See also CALAMITIES AND CRISES. PEACE, THE PROMISE OF WORLD. A by the Universal House of Justice addressed "to the Peoples of the World" in October 1985 for particular use during the United Nations International Year of Peace, 1986. Copies were presented to heads of state and governments, either directly or through their ambassadors at the United Nations, and to civic leaders, scholars, and leaders of thought in most countries. In all, over one million copies in more than 90 languages were distributed during 1985 alone. The statement has been the basis for many books and media articles, and the presentation of copies to influential people has been a continuing process. Among the issues it addresses are the inevitability of world peace; the role of religion as a source of world order, the results of the turning away from it, and the rise of materialistic ideologies; the hopeful signs in the declarations and conventions of the United Nations; and such root causes of war as racism, disparity between those possessed of great material wealth and the poor, unbridled nationalism, religious strife, denial of the full equality of men and women, lack of education in many parts of the world and of full communication between peoples. It suggests ways for establishing world order and directs attention to Bahb'u'llhh's call for a convocation of the "rulers and kings of the earth." It offers the Bahb'i experience as a model for study and ends on a high note of optimism. See also CALAMITIES AND CRISES; PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND RULERS; TABLETS TO THE KINGS. PERCIVAL, STEPHEN CHARLES (1929-2002). (Susuga Papali'itelehigh chief.) A businessman by trade, he was born in Nuku'alofa, Tonga, and became a Bahb'i in 1957. He served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Apia as well as being elected to the Regional Spiritual Assembly of the South Pacific in 1959. He will be remembered, among other things, for the donation of the land on which the first Bahb'i center in Samoa was constructed. He was also instrumental in securing the property on which the MaWqu7lA m b r was constructed at Tiapapata.He obtained official government recognition of Bahb'i Holy Days by the Samoan government. He was a close friend of His Highness Susuga Malietoa Tanumafili 11, who titled him "Papali'itele."[32:2721
PINCHON, FLORENCE E.
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PERSECUTION. From their inception in 1844 the followers of the Bhbi and Bahh'i Faiths have, in several primarily Isliunic countries, suffered severe persecution and deprivation of even basic human rights. This has been the most prolonged and intensive in k i n , by both the state and the I s l h i c clergy. The most recent wave began with the I s l h i c Revolution of 1979 and has included sentences of death and the prohibition of Baha'i institutions, as well as followers being deprived of employment, pensions, food permits, schooling, attendance at university, the right to bury their dead, and freedom of movement as well as fieedom to manifest their religious belief. Many cases of imprisonment, torture, and execution have been brought to the attention of the United Nations Human Rights Commission. Persecution has also been suffered by Bahh'is in North Afkica, the Middle East, and some Asian countries. Most cases are of religious For detailed origin with pressure on Bahh'is to recant their faith.[32:1391 historical and current analysis of the persecutions suffered by Bahh'i communities throughout much of the Middle East refer to the "Bahb'i International Community" section of the bibliography. PILGRIM (PILGRIMAGE). A Bahh'i pilgrim is one who makes a special journey (pilgrimage) with the intention of visiting a shrine "For Bahh'is or holy place as prescribed in the Kitcib-i-Aqd~s.[~~'~~1 it is both a privilege and an obligation, although it is only obligawho are able to make the journey. In the Kithb-itory for men"[71:301 Aqdas Bahii'u'lliih specifically ordains pilgrimage to the House of Bahh'u'llhh in B a a d h d and to the House of the Bhb in &irBz. On the day of Bahh'u'lliih's ascension, the room where His Holy Dust was laid became a third center of pilgrimagethe most holy spot and the Qiblih of the Bahh'i world-for at least the next thousand years. Under current conditions, Bahh'is assume that the obligation of pilgrimage is satisfied by a visit to the Shrine of Bahh'u'lliih and the Shrine of the Bhb in the Holy Land.[98'7491 In short, at this time it is not possible to visit the House of the Biib in &irk, hiin, because of its destruction during irhnian government-sponsored anti-Bahh'i activities in 1978 combined with the subsequent severe persecution of Bahh'is in that country; it is too early to tell whether recent developments in 'Irilq will open that country to pilgrimage in the near future. PINCHON, FLORENCE E. (d. 1966). An early (1916) British believer, she came into the Cause through the efforts of Dr. John
372 PIONEER
Esslemont. She received a Tablet from 'Abdu'l-Bahh in 1920. She wrote extensively (for Star of the West and World Order magazines) 2131 She and published the volume The Coming of the Glory.[13:370, traveled as a Bahi'i teacher before World War I1 but suffered £rom indifferent health for many years before her death in Bournemouth in March 1966.[41:4711 PIONEER. A Bahi'i pioneer is a believer who moves from his or her home to another place in the interests of or to teach the Faith. Bahi'is consider it a great bounty to be able to pioneer, and in some instances it is a service that takes precedence over all others. The Universal House of Justice has clarified that "the duties of teaching and pioneering are enjoined upon all believers. There are no special categories of believers for these functions. Any Bahii'i who spreads the Message of Bahh'u'llhh is a teacher, any Bahii'i who moves to another area to spread the Faith is a pi0neer."[~~~~~1 Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary that "while it carries great responsibilities; and difficulties; yet its spiritual blessings are so great, they overshadow everytlllng else; and the opportunities for special victories of the Faith so abundant; the soul who once tastes the elixir of pioneering service, seldom will do anything else." To a National Spiritual Assembly he wrote that "the principle is that pioneers entering the pioneer field should realize that they are going there to represent the Cause, in fact, to be the Cause. Their minds and their hearts should be centered in their new tasks and in their new environment. They should not be thinking of when they can return home, or when they can go somewhere else. Only when the Faith is firmly established should they give any thought to m o ~ i n g . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] In 1966 the Universal House of Justice wrote, "The perseverance of the pioneers in their posts, however great the sacrifices involved, is an act of devoted service, which as attested by our teachings, will have an assured reward in both ~ o r l d s . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l The pioneer is not an employee nor a minister, as there is no professional clergy in the Bahi'i Faith. Shoghi Effendi's call in May 1953, however, proved irresistible for an army of volunteers: "The hour is ripe to disencumber themselves of worldly vanities, to mount the steed of steadfastness, unfurl the banner of renunciation, don the armor of utter consecration to God's Cause, gird themselves with the girdle of a chaste and holy life, unsheathe the sword of Bahh'u'llih7s utterance, buckle on the shield of His love, carry as sole provision implicit trust in His promise, flee their homelands, and scatter
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373
far and wide to capture the unsurrendered territories of the entire planet."[87'5701 See also KNIGHTS OF BM'u'LL~LH. PLANS, TEACHING. The 14 Tablets of the Divine Plan written by 'Abdu'l-Baha to the North American Baha'i Community toward the end of His life set in place the overall world vision of the role of the North American Baha'is in the establishment of the World Order of Bahii'u'lliih. Beginning in October 1935, Shoghi Effendi began to prepare the American and Canadian believers to take on "nationfollowed wide, systematic sustained efforts in the teaching field,"[115:51 three months later by such stirring words as "an effort unexampled Four in its scope and sustained vitality is urgently req~ired.'~ll~'~] months later he added, "Humanity entering outer fringes most perilous stage its existence. Opportunities of present hour unimaginably precious. Would to God every State within American Republic and every Republic in American continent . . . might embrace the light of Finally, to the National Convention of the Faith of Bahi'~'llhh."[~'~~] 1937, he cabled, "Dual gift providentially conferred American Baha'i community invests recipients with dual responsibility fulfill historic mission. First prosecute uninterruptedly teaching campaign inaugurated last convention in accordance divine plan. Second resume with inflexible determination exterior ornamentation entire structure temple. Advise ponder message conveyed delegates esteemed coworker Fred Schopflocher. No triumph can more befittingly signalize termination first century Baha'i era than accomplishment this twofold task. Advise prolongation convention sessions enable delegates consult National Assembly to formulate feasible Seven Year Plan to ensure success temple enterprise. No sacriiice too great for community so ~ ~ ,385" 65'251 abundantly blessed repeatedly h ~ n o r e d . " [ ~39, It was this cable that prompted the creation and launch of the first Baha'i plan-the Six Year Plan. [115:91 While the North American goals were set by Shoghi Effendi, the National Spiritual Assembly of India, P&ist&, and Burma followed by launching its own Six Year Plan. On learning of the success of the American plan, the British National Convention of 1944 adopted a Six Year Plan. They cabled Shoghi Effendi asking for "goals'' and were quickly assigned the task of raising the number of local Spiritual Assemblies from 5 to 19. Following tremendous effort, the British Baha'is achieved a six-fold increase by 1950, and Shoghi Effendi awarded them another plan for opening new territories in British Africa by 1953. 95
409
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PLANS, TEACHING
Following a two-year respite, a second American plan, the Seven Year Plan, was launched in April 1946. It contained the following goals: A twofold responsibility urgently calls vanguard dawnbreakers west champion builders Bahi'u'lliih's order torchbearers world civilization executors 'Abdu'l-Bahh's mandate arise simultaneously bring fruition tasks already undertaken launch fiesh enterprises beyond borders western hemisphere. First objective new plan consolidation victories won throughout Americas involving multiplication Bahb'i centers bolder proclamation faith masses. Second objective completion interior ornamentation holiest house worship Bahi'i world designed coincide fiftieth anniversary inception historic enterprise. Third objective formation three national assemblies pillars Universal House Justice Dominion Canada Central South America. Fourth objective initiation systematic teaching activity war torn spiritually famished European continent cradle world famed civilizations twice blest 'Abdu'l-Bahi's visits whose rulers Bahi'u'llih specifically collectively addressed aiming establishment assemblies in Iberian Peninsula Low Countries Scandinavian States and Italy.[60:87fC62:39%65~331 On 14 April 1944, Shoghi Effendi wrote to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Canada (about to be formed during the convention later that month) congratulating them and urging them to adopt a Five Year Plan: Hearts uplifted in thanksgiving to Bahi'u'llih for the epoch-making event of the coming of age of the dearly beloved Canadian Bahi'i community, the formation of the first National Convention in the City of Montreal and the forthcoming election of Canada's National Assembly constituting the ninth pillar of the institution of the Universal House of Justice. . . . I am moved to appeal to assembled delegates to arise in conjunction with the first Canadian National Assembly, as a token of gratitude for the manifold blessings of Divine Providence, to initiate in the hour of the birth of their national activities a Five Year Plan designed to associate them, formally and systematically and independently, with their sister community of the United States, in the common task of the prosecution of their world-encompassing mission. The llfillment of this collective task confronting the rapidly maturing community necessitates the incorporation of the Canadian National Assembly, the establishment of National Baha'i Endowments, doubling the number of Local Assemblies throughout the Dominion and raising to one hundred the total number of localities where Bahi'i reside throughout the Provinces, the constitution of a group in Newfoundland and the formation of a nucleus of the Faith in the Territory of Greenland, singled out for special mention by the Author of the Divine Plan, and the participation of Eskimos and Red Indians in membership to share administrative 66:71 privileges in local institutions of the Faith in
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On 14 March 1947, Shoghi Effendi wrote to the National Spiritual Assembly of Australia and New Zealand encouraging them to adopt a plan (Six Year Plan, 1947-1953): "I wish to appeal, through you, to the members of the entire community in both Australia and New Zealand, to arise, in these opening years of the Second BahB'i century, and lend, through their concerted, their sustained, and determined efforts, an unprecedented impetus to the growth of the Faith, the multiplication of its administrative centers, and the consolidation of its nascent institutions. The initiation of a plan, carefully devised, universally supported, and designed to promote effectively the vital interests of the Faith, and attain a definite objective within a specified number of years, would seem, at the present hour, highly desirable and opportune, and will, as a magnet, attract, to an unprecedented degree, the blessings of Bahi'u'llhh on the members of both communities, both individually and collectively."~41'69~62:4071 Three months later he wrote praising them in these words: The Plan, on which the National elected representatives of the Bahl'i communities of Australia and New Zealand have spontaneously embarked marks a turning-point, of great spiritual sigmficance, in the evolution of the Faith in those far-off lands, and is an evidence of the truly remarkable spirit that animates them as well as the communities they represent. I welcome this mighty step they have taken with joy, pride and gratitude, and have hastened to transmit to them my contribution as a token of my keen appreciation of their high endeavors, of my confidence in their ability, and of my admiration for their zeal and noble determination in the service of the Faith. The attention of the members of both communities must henceforth be focused on the Plan, its progress, its requirements, its sipficance and immediate objectives. All must participate without exception without reserve, without delay. The Administrative Order which they have labored to establish must henceforth, through its organs and agencies be utilized for the promotion of this vital purpose, this supreme end. For no other purpose was it created. That it may serve this end, that the Plan may speedily develop and yield its destined fruit and demonstrate through its consummation the worthiness, the capacity and high-mindedness of the organized body of the followers of Bahl'u'll6h in those distant lands are the objects of my fervent and constant prayers at the Holy Shrines.[41:69fs624W1
In April 1950 Shoghi Effendi announced to the British National Convention that they were to launch what was subsequently called the Africa Plan (1951-1953): Heart floodedjoy striking evidence bountill grace Bahl'uYll6henabling valorous dearly loved Bahb'i community British Isles triumphantly
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conclude first historic plan half century British Bahb'i history. Herald Author Faith Centre Covenant concourse on high acclaim superb collective achievement immortalising opening decade second Bahir'i century unprecedented history Faith British Isles unrivalled annals any BahB'i community European continent unparalleled percentage members community responding pioneer call throughout BahB'i world since termination Apostolic Age Bahh'i Dispensation. Historic pledge British BahB'i community nobly redeemed. Tribute memory Martyr Prophet Faith worthily paid. Spiritual potentialities prosecute subsequent stage unfolding mission fully acquired. Triumphant community now standing threshold catching first glimpse still dimly outlined future enterprises overseas. Hour propitious galvanised h l y knit body believers brace itself embark after one year respite yet another historic undertaking marking formal inauguration Two Year Plan constituting prelude initiation systematic campaign designed carry torch Faith territories dark continent whose northern southern &ges were successively illuminated course ministries Bahh'u'llAh 'Abdu'l-Baha Hour struck undertake preliminary steps implant banner Faith amidst African tribes mentioned Tablet Centre Covenant signalking association victorious British Bahir'i community with sister communities United States Egypt designed lay structural basis Bahh'i administrative order scale comparable foundation already established North South American European Australian continents. Projected plan itself prelude double task to be undertaken course future plans destined simultaneously broaden base operations home kont and prosecute systematic campaign dependencies British Isles. First objective Two Year Plan consolidation nineteen assemblies painstakingly established England Scotland Wales North Ireland Eire. Second objective formation nuclei three dependencies British crown either East West Africa. Third objective translation publication dissemination Bahb'i literature through publishing trust three African languages addition three already undertaken course &st Plan. Successful prosecution contemplated plan will pave way large scale operations calculated lay foundation promised Kingdom earth through establishment administrative order infinitely more glorious empire built rulers British Isles throughout that continent and will enable British BahB'i community share honour sister community across Atlantic prosecuting successfully two successive Plans registering double victory laying twice repeated sacrifice altar Faith anticipation approaching celebrations commemorating Centenary birth Bahb'u7llAh's prophetic Mission. Contributing one ~:~~~~ thousand pounds first contribution furtherance noble p u r p o ~ e ! ~624131
The second American Seven Year Plan; a Five Year Plan of the newly resurgent National Spiritual Assembly of Germany and Austria; a Four-and-one-half Year Plan of India, Phkisthn, and Burma; an hnian Four Year Plan; a Six Year Plan of Australia and New Zealand;
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an 'Irhqi Three Year Plan; an Egyptian Five Year Plan; a 19-Month Plan adopted by the Persian National Spiritual Assembly in 1951; and a Five Year Plan adopted by the Canadian National Spiritual Assembly in 1948-a11 terminated successfully by 1953-enabled Shoghi Effendi to launch, in April of that year, a global Ten Year Plan or global Ten Year Crusade aimed at opening wherever possible all the territories in the world mentioned by 'Abdu'l-Baha in His Tablets of the Divine Plan. Hail, with feelings of humble thankhlness and unbounded joy, opening of the Holy Year commemorating the centenary of the rise of the Orb of Bahh'u'llkh's most sublime Revelation marking the consummation of the six thousand year cycle ushered in by Adam, glorified by all past prophets and sealed with the blood of the Author of the Babf Dispensation. . . . Feel hour propitious to proclaim to the entire Bahh'i world the projected launching on the occasion of the convocation of the approaching Intercontinental Conferences on the four continents of the globe the fate-laden, soul-stirring, decade-long, world-embracing Spiritual Crusade involving the simultaneous initiation of twelve national Ten Year Plans and the concerted participation of all National Spiritual Assemblies of the Bahh'i world aiming at the immediate extension of Bahii'u'lliih's spiritual dominion as well as the eventual establishment of the structure of His administrative order in all remaining Sovereign States, Principal Dependencies. . . . The four-fold objectives of the forthcoming Crusade, marking the third and last phase of the initial epoch of the evolution of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Divine Plan are destined to culminate in the world-wide festivities commemorating the fast-approachingMost Great Jubilee. First, development of the institutions at the World Center of the Faith in the Holy Land. Second, consolidation, through carefully devised measures on the home fiont of the twelve territories destined to serve as administrative bases for the operations of the twelve National Plans. Third, consolidation of all territories already opened to the Faith. Fourth, the opening of the remaining chief virgin territories on the planet through specific allotments to each National Assembly functioning in the Bahb'i world.[12~'7~m417ffl
The successll completion of all these plans, under the continued encouragement of Shoghi Effendi during his lifetime and faithllly pursued by the Hands of the Cause of God, in their capacity as the Chief Stewards during the interregnum period of the Ministry of the Custodians (1957-1963), enabled the election of the Universal House of Justice to take place during the Most Great Jubilee period (Ridvsin 1963). Immediately following their election, the Universal House of Justice launched its first global plan-a Nine Year Plan (1964-1973)
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to maintain the momentum of a triumphant global community. Since that time there have been a succession of global plans, with each newly emerging National Spiritual Assembly being given its share of the systematic teaching campaign as foreseen by 'Abdu'l-Bahb. Following the Nine Year Plan, the following plans have been announced: a Five Year Plan (1974-1979), a Seven Year Plan (1979-1986), a Six Year Plan (1986-1992), a one-year respite during the 1992 Holy Year, a Three Year Plan (1993-1996), a Four Year Plan (1996-2000), a One Year Plan (2000-2001), and a set of four Five Year Plans covering the years 2001-2006,2006-2011,2011-2016, and 2016-2021. Refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age" and the introduction. POLITICS. While in the strict meaning of the word-the science or art of government-the Bahb'i administrative approach to government is political but eschews any and all involvement in "party" or competitive types of government. Indeed, Bahh'is are forbidden to participate in partisan politics, as Shoghi Effendi emphasized: To enter the arena of party politics is surely detrimental to the best interests of the Faith and will harm the C a ~ s e . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ] No loyal believer should under any circumstances commit himself in any way to a political program or policy formulated and upheld by a political party for affiliation with such a party necessarily entails repudiation of some principles and teachings of the Cause, or partial recognition of some of its fundamental verities. The fiends should, therefore, keep aloof from party politics. What they should mainly keep away from under all circumstances and in all its forms is p a r t i s a n ~ h i p . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] We see, therefore, that we must do two things-shun politics like the plague, and be obedient to the government in power in the place where we reside. We cannot start judging how a particular government came into power, and therefore whether we should obey it or not. This would immediately plunge us into politics. We must obey in all cases except where a spiritual principle is involved such as denying our Faith. For these spiritual principles we must be willing to Though loyal to their respective governments, though profoundly interested in anything that affects their security and welfare, though anxious to share in whatever promotes their best interests, the Faith with which the followers of Baha'u'llfth stand identified is one which they firmly believe God has raised high above the storms, the divisions, and controversies of the political arena. Their Faith they conceive to be essentially non-political, supra-nationalin character, rigidly non-partisan, and entirely dissociated from nationalistic ambitions, pursuits, and purposes. Such a Faith knows no division of class or of party. It subordinates,without hesitation or equivocation, every particularistic
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interest, be it personal, regional, or national, to the paramount interests of humanity, firmly convinced that in a world of inter-dependent peoples and nations the advantage of the part is best to be reached by the advantage of the whole, and that no abiding benefit can be conferred upon the component parts if the general interests of the entity itself are ignored or n e g l e ~ t e d . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] Let them refiain fiom associating themselves, whether by word or by deed, with the political pursuits of their respective nations, with the policies of their governments and the schemes and programs of parties and factions. In such controversies they should assign no blame, take no side, further no design, and identify themselves with no system prejudicial to the best interests of that world-wide Fellowship which it is their aim to guard and f o ~ t e r . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] It must characterize the attitude of every loyal believer towards nonacceptance of political posts, non-identification with political parties, non-participation in political controversies, and non-membership in political organizations and ecclesiastical in~titutions!~"~~1
Writing in 1970 on noninterference in political affairs, the Universal House of Justice summarized the Bahil'i rationale as follows: One of these issues, and by far the most important, is a lack of appreciation of the implications of the Bahi'i principle of noninterference in political affairs. We find that 'Abdu'l-Bahi and Shoghi Effendi have given us clear and convincing reasons why we must uphold this principle. These reasons are summarizedbelow for the study and deepening of the fiends. It is our hope that these observations will not only help the fiends to intelligently and radiantly follow the holy teachings on this matter, but will help them to explain the Bahi'i attitude to those who may question its wisdom and usefulness: The Faith of God is the sole source of salvation for mankind today. The true cause of the ills of humanity is its disunity. No matter how perfect may be the machinery devised by the leaders of men for the political unity of the world, it will still not provide the antidote to the poison sapping the vigor of present-day society. These ills can be cured only through the instrumentality of God's Faith. There are many wellwishers of mankind who devote their efforts to relief-work and charity and to the material well-being of man, but only Bahi'is can do the work which God most wants done. When we devote ourselves to the work of the Faith we are doing a work which is the greatest aid and only refuge for a needy and divided world. The Bahh'i Community is a worldwide organization seeking to establish true and universal peace on earth. If a Bahl'i works for one political party to overcome another it is a negation of the very spirit of the Faith. Membership in any political party, therefore, necessarily entails repudiation of some or all of the principles of peace and
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unity proclaimed by Bahi'u'llih. As 'Abdu'l-Bahl stated: "Our party is God's party; we do not belong to any party." If a Baha'i were to insist on his right to support a certain political party he could not deny the same degree of freedom to other believers. This would mean that within the ranks of the Faith, whose primary mission is to unite all men as one great family under God, there would be Bahii'is opposed to each other. Where, then, would be the example of unity and harmony which the world is seeking? If the institutions of the Faith, God forbid, became involved in politics, the Bahi'is would find themselves arousing antagonism instead of love. If they took one stand in one country, they would be bound to change the views of the people in another country about the aims and purposes of the Faith. By becoming involved in political disputes, the Bahi'is instead of changing the world or helping it, would themselves be lost and destroyed. The world situation is so confused and moral issues which were once clear have become so mixed up with selfish and battling factions, that the best way Bahi'is can serve the highest interests of their country and the cause of true salvation for the world, is to sacrificetheir political pursuits and affiliations and wholeheartedly and fully support the divine system of Bahi'u'llih. The Faith is not opposed to the true interests of any nation, nor is it against any party or faction. It holds aloof from all controversies and transcends them all, while enjoining upon its followers loyalty to government and a sane patriotism. This love for their country the Baha'is show by serving its well-being in their daily activity, or by working in the administrative channels of the government instead of through party politics or in diplomatic or political posts. The Bahi'is may, indeed are encouraged to, mix with all strata of society, with the highest authorities and with leading personalities as well as with the mass of the people, and should bring the knowledge of the Faith to them; but in so doing they should strictly avoid becoming identi£ied, or identifymg the Faith, with political pursuits and party programs. So vital is this principle of noninterference in political matters, which must govern the acts and words of Baha'is in every land, that Shoghi Effendi has written that "Neither the charges which the uninformed and the malicious may be led to bring against them, nor the allurements of honors and rewards" would ever induce the true believers to deviate from this path, and that their words and conduct must proclaim that the followers of Bahi'u'llih "are actuated by no selfish ambition, that they neither thirst for power, nor mind any wave of unpopularity, of distrust or criticism, which a strict adherence to their standards might provoke." "Difficult and delicate though be our task," he continues, "the sustaining power of Bahi'u'llah and of His Divine guidance will assuredly assist us, if we follow steadfastly in His way, and strive to uphold
PRAYER* 381
the integrity of His laws. The light of His redeeming grace, which no earthly power can obscure, will if we persevere, illuminate our path, as we steer our course amid the snares and pitfalls of a troubled age and will enable us to discharge our duties in a manner that would redound to the glory and honor of His blessed Name."[98'451
POLLINGER, FRANZ (1895-1979). An early (19 14) Austrian believer, he received two Tablets from 'Abdu'l-Bahi and was mentioned by name in another to Alma Knobloch. He was a member of the first (1926) local Spiritual Assembly of Vienna and the first 93:4811 (1959) National Spiritual Assembly of Au~tria.['~:~~~g POVERTY. See WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF. PRAYER. The daily practice of prayer is mandated as law for Baha'is by Bahh'u'llhh in the Kitcib-i-Aqdas: "We have commanded you to pray and fast from the beginning of maturity; this is ordained by and "Intone, God, your Lord and the Lord of your forefather~,"[~l] 0 My servant, the verses of God that have been received by thee, as intoned by them who have drawn nigh unto Him, that the sweetness of thy melody may kindle thine own soul, and attract the hearts of With the exception of the prayer for the dead, congreall men."[78:2951 In other words, prayer is an indigational prayer is pr~hibited.[~':~~] vidual requirement. Both Bahh'u'llhh and 'Abdu'l-Bahi have left a truly significant number of prayers and meditations, covering almost every exigency of daily life and human spiritual and material growth. Although not prohibited from using one's own words in prayer, Baha'is mainly opt to recite or chant those of the Bib, BahB'uYll~ and 'Abdu'l-Baha. Shoghi Effendi wrote that he felt that "it would be better. . .to choose excerpts from the Sacred Words to be used. . . rather than just something made up. Of course prayer can be purely spontaneous, but many of the sentences and thoughts combined in Baha'i writings of a devotional nature are easy to grasp, and the revealed Word is endowed with a power of its In the long Obligatory Prayer (see PRAYER, OBLIGATORY), Bah6'u3llhh writes: "I beseech Thee by them Who are the DaySprings of Thine invisible Essence, the Most Exalted, the AllGlorious, to make of my prayer a fire that will burn away the veils which have shut me out from Thy beauty, and a light that will lead me unto the ocean of Thy P r e s e n ~ e . " [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote on this subject as follows:
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Thou spiritual fiend! Thou hast asked the wisdom of prayer. Know thou that prayer is indispensable and obligatory, and man under no pretext whatsoever is excused from performing the prayer unless he be mentally unsound, or an insurmountable obstacle prevent him. The wisdom of prayer is this: That it causeth a connection between the servant and the True One, because in that state man with all heart and soul turneth his face towards His Highness the Almighty, seeking His association and desiring His love and compassion. The greatest happiness for a lover is to converse with his beloved, and the greatest gift for a seeker is to become familiar with the object of his longing; that is why with every soul who is attracted to the Kingdom of God, his greatest hope is to find an opportunity to entreat and supplicate before his Beloved, appeal for His mercy and grace and be immersed in the ocean of His utterance, goodness and generosity. Besides all this, prayer and fasting is the cause of awakening and mindfulness and conducive to protection and preservation from t e s t ~ . [ l ~ l : ~ ~ ~ ]
Shoghi Effendi supplemented this through his secretary: The daily prayers are to be said each one for himself, aloud or silent makes no difference. There is no congregational prayer except that for the dead. We read healing and other prayers in our meetings, but the daily prayer is a personal obligation, so someone else reading it is not quite the same thing as saying it for y o u r ~ e l f . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] The important thing that should always be borne in mind is that with the exception of certain specific obligatory prayers, Bahl'u'llih has given us no strict or special rulings in matters of worship, whether in the Temple [Maariqu'l-Amkhr] or elsewhere. Prayer is essentially a communion between man and God, and as such transcends all ritualistic forms and For prayer is absolutely indispensable to their inner spiritual development, and this . . . is the very foundation and purpose of the religion of God.[162:871
Prayers are usually said in private, though they are used during the Nineteen Day Feast and publicly at meetings, Unity Feasts, Holy Days, and special devotional meetings and at the Mashriquyl-AUh. See also MOFFETT, RUTH J. PRAYER, OBLIGATORY. Bahh'u'llhh revealed three special prayers, one of which must be used each day by all believers who are over the age of maturity (15 years). The prayer should be said privately, after the performance of ablutions and facing the Qiblih and with any other requirements made in the Kitrib-i-Aqda~.[~~:~~] The believer is £ree to use whichever one he or she wishes. The short one
PRINCIPLES, ~
d
383i
is recited between noon and sunset; the medium one is recited three times per day; and the long one is used once in 24 hours.
PREJUDICE, ELIMINATION OF. All forms of prejudice are condemned in the Bahi'i Writings. 'Abdu'l-Bahl said, His Holiness Bahb'u'lltih addressing all humanity, said that . . . inasmuch as your origin was one, you must now be united and agreed; you must consort with each other in joy and fragrance. He pronounced prejudice, whether religious, racial, patriotic [nationalism], political, the destroyer of the body-politic. He said that man must recognize the oneness of humanity, for all in origin belong to the same household and all are servants of the same God.[131:2331 Among the teachings of Baha'u'lltih is, that religious, racial, political, economic and patriotic prejudices destroy the edifice of humanity. As long as these prejudices prevail, the world of humanity will not have rest.[131:2861 But there is need of a superior power to overcome human prejudices, a power which nothing in the world of mankind can withstand and which will overshadow the effect of all other forces at work in human conditions. That irresistible power is the love of God.[53:681 Religion is a mighty stronghold, but it must engender love, not malevolence and hate. Should it lead to malice, spite, and hate, it is of no value at all. For religion is a remedy, and if the remedy bring on disease, then put it aside. Again, as to religious, racial, national and political bias: all these prejudices strike at the very root of human life; one and all they beget bloodshed, and the ruination of the world. So long as these prejudices survive, there will be continuous and fearsome wars.[lmx81
Shoghi Effendi wrote that "the call of Bahi'u'llhh is primarily directed against all forms of provincialism, all insularities and prejudices. If long-cherished ideals and time-honored institutions, if certain social assumptions and religious formulae have ceased to promote the welfare of the generality of mankind, if they no longer minister to the needs of a continually evolving humanity, let them be swept away and relegated to the limbo of obsolescent and forgotten d o c t r i n e ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] PRIMAL POINT. (Nuqtiy -i-~18.)A title of the Biib.[18:7391m PRINCIPLES, BAHA'~. The basic principles enunciated by Bahii'u'lliih and enlarged upon by 'Abdu'l-Bahii during His visits to Europe and America were listed by Shoghi Effendi as follows: "The independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition; the oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and
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fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between religion and science; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind."[37:2811 'Abdu'l-Bahh said in one of His talks in America in November 1912 that "everyone who truly seeks and justly reflects will admit that the teachings of the present day emanating from mere human sources and authority are the cause of difficulty and disagreement amongst mankind, the very destroyers of humanity7whereas the teachings of BaM'u'll6h are the very healing of the sick world, the remedy for every need and condition. In them may be found the realization of every desire and aspiration, the cause of the happiness of the world of humanity, the stimulus and illumination of mentality, the impulse for advancement and uplift, the basis of unity for all nations, the fountain source of love amongst mankind, the center of agreement, the means of peace and harmony, the one bond which will unite the East and the West."[53:4401 PRINTEZIS, NIKOLAS (1921-1984). An early (1960) Greek believer who served on the first (1977) National Spiritual Assembly of Greece. He was the first Bahh'i born in Greece to have his religion stated on his Greek registration ~ a r d . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] PROCLAMATION. Statement or deed proclaiming the advent and Station of Bahai'u'llaih as the Promised One of All Ages; the Manifestation of God for this day. PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND RULERS. Throughout His Ministry Bahai'u'llaih issued a series of Proclamations announcing His advent and Station collectively to the Kings and ~ : "rulers" ~l of A m e r i ~ a , [ ~the ~:~ "elected ~] Rulers of the ~ o r l d , [ ~the the religious leadrepresentatives of the peoples in every land,"[42:671 the "clergy and people of various F a i t h ~ , " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] ers of the day,[42:731
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and "mankind" in general.[42'1111 He wrote also to individuals, namely, Napoleon 111,[42:171 Czar Alexander 11,[42:271 Queen Kaiser Wilhelm Emperor Francis Sulthn 'Abdu'lcAziz,[42:471 Nh~iri'd-Din Shhh,[42:571 and Pope Pius IX.[42:831 See also PEACE, LESSER, PEACE, MOST GREAT; TABLET TO THE KINGS. PROGRESSIVE REVELATION. A fundamental and central element of God's eternal Covenant with His creation. Bahti'i belief that revelation is never final and that the founders of the world's religions, the Manifestations of God, have each revealed the laws and teachings of the one Creator according to the needs and conditions of the world of Their day. 'Abdu'l-Bahai addressed the subject of progressive revelation in a talk he gave in Sacramento, California, 26 October 1912: There are some who believe that the divine bounties are subject to cessation. For example, they think that the revelation of God, the effulgence of God and the bounties of God have ended. This is self-evidently a mistaken idea, for none of these is subject to termination. The reality of Divinity is like unto the sun, and revelation is like unto the rays thereof. If we should assert that the bounties of God are not everlasting, we are forced to believe that Divinity can come to an end, whereas the reality of Divinity enfolds all virtues and by reason of these bounties is perfect. Were it not possessed of all these perfections or virtues, it could not be Divinity. The sun is the sun because of its rays, light and heat. If it could be dispossessed of them, it would not be the sun. Therefore, if we say that the divinity or sovereignty of God is accidental and subject to termination, we must perforce think that Divinity itself is accidental, without foundation and not essential. God is the Creator. The word creator presupposes or connotes creation. God is the Provider. The word provider implies recipients of provision. Another name for the Creator is the Resuscitator, which demands the existence of creatures to be resuscitated. If He be not the Provider, how could we conceive of creatures to receive His bounty? If He be not the Lord, how could we conceive of subjects? If He be not the Knower, how could we conceive of those known? If we should say that there was a time in past ages when God was not possessed of His creation or that there was a beginning for the world, it would be a denial of creation and the Creator. Or if we should declare that a time may come when there will be a cessation of divine bounties, we should virtually deny the existence of Divinity. It is as though man should conceive of a king without country, army, treasury and all that constitutes
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sovereignty or kingdom. Is it possible to conceive of such a sovereign? A king must be possessed of a dominion, an army and all that appertains to sovereignty in order that his sovereignty may be a reality. It is even so with the reality of Divinity which enfolds all virtues. The sovereignty thereof is everlasting, and the creation thereof is without beginning and without end. Among the bounties of God is revelation. Hence revelation is progressive and continuous. It never ceases. It is necessary that the reality of Divinity with all its perfections and attributes should become resplendent in the human world. The reality of Divinity is like an endless ocean. Revelation may be likened to the rain. Can you imagine the cessation of rain? Ever on the face of the earth somewhere rain is pouring down. Briefly, the world of existence is progressive. It is subject to development and growth. Consider how great has been the progress in this radiant century. Civilization has unfolded. Nations have developed. Industrialism and jurisprudence have expanded. Sciences, inventions and discoveries have increased. All of these show that the world of existence is continuously progressing and developing; and therefore, assuredly, the virtues characterizing the maturity of man must, likewise, expand and g r o ~ . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1
Shoghi Effendi later wrote, That Bahb'u'llhh should . . . be regarded as essentially one of these Manifestations of God, never to be identified with that invisible Reality, the Essence of Divinity itself, is one of the major beliefs of our F a i t h a belief which should never be obscured and the integrity of which no one of its followers should allow to be compromised. . . . Nor does the Bahii'i Revelation . . . attempt, under any circumstances, to invalidate those first and everlasting principles that animate and underlie the religions that have preceded it. The God-given authority, vested in each one of them, it admits and establishes as its firmest and ultimate basis. It regards them in no other light except as different stages in the eternal history and constant evolution of one religion, Divine and indivisible, of which it itself forms but an integral part. It neither seeks to obscure their Divine origin, nor to dwarf the admitted magnitude of their colossal achievements. It can countenance no attempt that seeks to distort their features or to stultify the truths which they instill. Its teachings do not deviate a hairbreadth from the verities they enshrine, nor does the weight of its message detract one jot or one tittle from the influence they exert or the loyalty they inspire. . . . It should also be borne in mind that, great as is the power manifested by this Revelation and however vast the range of the Dispensation its Author has inaugurated, it emphatically repudiates the claim to be regarded as the final revelation of God's will and purpose for mankind. To hold such a conception
THE PROMISED ONE OF ALL AGESIRELIGIONS 387
of its character and functions would be tantamount to a betrayal of its cause and a denial of its truth. It must necessarily conflict with the fundamental principle which constitutes the bedrock of Bahir'i belief, the principle that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is orderly, continuous and progressive and not spasmodic or final. . . . "To believe that all revelation is ended, that the portals of Divine mercy are closed, that fiom the daysprings of eternal holiness no sun shall rise again, that the ocean of everlasting bounty is forever stilled, and that out of the tabernacle of ancient glory the Messengers of God have ceased to be made manifest" must constitute in the eyes of every follower of the Faith a grave, an inexcusable departure from one of its most cherished and fundamental principle~.[~~ll~]
See also ONENESS OF GOD; REVELATION; THE PROMISED ONE OF ALL AGESIRELIGIONS. T H E PROMISED ONE O F A L L AGESIRELIGIONS. This title has a double significance in Bahi'i Scripture in line with the centrality of progressive revelation. The Bhb was the promised Qri'im of Shi'ah I s l h ; Bahri'u'llrih was the Promised One of all religions as well as being more specifically the One promised by the Bib as "Him Whom God shall make Manifest." Under the first heading we have the statement made by Mullri Husayn, who said, when recalling the first hours he had with the Bib, when He made His Declaration, "I felt possessed of such cour-
age and power that were the world, all its peoples and its potentates, to rise against me, I would, alone and undaunted, withstand their onslaught. The universe seemed but a handful of dust in my grasp. I seemed to be the voice of Gabriel personified, calling unto all mankind: 'Awake, for, lo! the morning Light has broken. Arise, for His Cause is made manifest. The portal of His grace is open wide; enter therein, 0 peoples of the world! For He Who is your promised One is Of the wider significance Bahi'u'lliih Himself wrote: come! "'[37:61 Mighty, inconceivably mighty is this Day! . . . Every Prophet hath announced the coming of this Day, and every Messenger hath groaned in His yearning for this Revelation-a Revelation which, no sooner had it been revealed than all created things cried out saying, "The earth is God's, the Most Exalted, the Most Great!" The Day of the Promise is come, and He Who is the Promised One loudly proclaimeth before all who are in heaven and all who are on earth, "Verily there is none other God but He, the Help in Peril, the Self-Subsisting!" I swear by God! That which had been enshrined from
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PROPHET
eternity in the knowledge of God, the Knower of the seen and unseen, is revealed. Happy is the eye that seeth, and the face that turneth towards, the Countenance of God, the Lord of all being. Great indeed is this Day! The allusions made to it in all the sacred Scriptures as the Day of God attest its greatness. The soul of every Prophet of God, of every Divine Messenger, hath thirsted for this wondrous Day. All the divers kindreds of the earth have, likewise, yearned to attain it.[61:77fl Verily I say, this is the Day in which mankind can behold the Face, and hear the Voice, of the Promised One. The Call of God hath been raised, and the light of His countenance hath been lifted up upon men. It behoveth every man to blot out the trace of every idle word from the tablet of his heart, and to gaze, with an open and unbiased mind, on the signs of His Revelation, the proofs of His Mission, and the tokens of His Shoghi Effendi, when writing on this theme, wrote of Bahb'u'llhh's letter to Pope Pius IX as follows: It was to him who regarded himself as the Vicar of Christ that Bahi'u'llih wrote that "the Word which the Son (Jesus) concealed is made manifest," that "it hath been sent down in the form of the human temple," that the Word was Himself, and He Himself the Father. It was to him who styling himself "the servant of the servants of God" that the Promised One of all ages, unveiling His station in its plenitude, announced that "He Who is the Lord of Lords is come overshadowed with clouds." It was he, who, claiming to be the successor of St. Peter, was reminded by Bahi'u'llih that "this is the day whereon the Rock (Peter) crieth out and shouteth . . . saying: 'Lo, the Father is come, and that which ye were promised in the Kingdom is fulfilled."' It was he, the wearer of the triple crown, who later became the first prisoner of the Vatican, who was commanded by the Divine Prisoner of ' A M to "leave his palaces unto such as desire them," to "sell all the embellished ornaments" he possessed, and to "expend them in the path of God," and to "abandon his kingdom unto the kings," and emerge fiom his habitation with his face "set towards the Kingd~m."[~~:~~fl
PROPHET. There are two types of prophets. Normally these parallel the I s l h i c classification of Rash1 and Nabi. They differ primarily, but not exclusively, on the crucial issue of the station or nature of the Prophet as a Manifestation of God or divine intermediary. The station of Manifestation of God applies only to the R a ~ h l . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ f l 'Abdu'l-Bahh, using the terms "independent Prophet" and "universal Prophet" as designations for a Rasfil, and "follower," or "promoter" for a Nabi, explains the differences £rom a Bahb'i viewpoint:
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Universally, the Prophets are of two kinds. One are the independent Prophets Who are followed; the other kind are not independent and are themselves followers. The independent Prophets are the lawgivers and the founders of a new cycle. Through Their appearance the world puts on a new garment, the foundations of religion are established, and a new book is revealed. Without an intermediary They receive bounty from the Reality of the Divinity, and Their illumination is an essential illumination. They are like the sun which is luminous in itself: the light is its essential necessity; it does not receive light from any other star. These Dawning-places of the morn of Unity are the sources of bounty and the mirrors of the Essence of Reality. The other Prophets are followers and promoters, for they are branches and not independent; they receive the bounty of the independent Prophets, and they profit by the light of the Guidance of the universal Prophets. They are like the moon, which is not luminous and radiant in itself, but receives its light from the sun. The Manifestations of universal Prophethood Who appeared independently are, for example, Abraham, Moses, Christ, Muhammad, the Bib and Bahi7u'll&. But the others who are followers and promoters are like Solomon, David, Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. For the independent Prophets are founders; They establish a new religion and make new creatures of men; They change the general morals, promote new customs and rules, renew the cycle and the Law. Their appearance is like the season of spring, which arrays all earthly beings in a new garment, and gives them a new life. With regard to the second sort of Prophets who are followers, these also promote the Law of God, make known the Religion of God, and proclaim His word. Of themselves they have no power and might, except what they receive fiom the independent P r o p h e t ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
PROSELYTIZING. Bahh'is are forbidden to proselytize: to attempt to convert someone on the basis of a threat (e.g., that they will suffer eternal damnation if they do not accept) or a promised reward (e.g., they will go to heaven or be among the "saved"). Bahh'is are enjoined to share their faith as if offering a gift to a king. Bahsi'u'llsih wrote, "Consort with all men, 0 people of Bahh, in a spirit of friendliness and fellowship. If ye be aware of a certain truth, if ye possess a jewel, of which others are deprived, share it with them in a language of utmost kindliness and good-will. If it be accepted, if it fulfill its purpose, your object is attained. If anyone should refuse it, leave him unto himself, and beseech God to guide him. Beware lest ye deal unkindly with him. A kindly tongue is the lodestone of the hearts of men."[109"51
'Abdu'l-BahB elaborated that "this activity [teaching] should be tempered with wisdom-not that wisdom which requireth one to be silent and forgetful of such an obligation, but rather that which requireth one to display divine tolerance, love, kindness, patience, a goodly character, and holy deeds."[100'2681 Shoghi Effendi cautioned that "care, however, should, at all times, be exercised, lest in their eagerness to further the international interests of the Faith they frustrate their purpose, and turn away, through any act that might be misconstrued as an attempt to proselytize and bring undue pressure upon them, those whom they wish to win over to their C a ~ s e . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] The Universal House of Justice also cautioned that "it is true that Bahh'u'llhh lays on every Bahh'i the duty to teach His Faith. At the same time, however, we are forbidden to proselytize, so it is important for all believers to understand the difference between teaching and proselytizing. It is a significant difference and, in some countries where teaching a religion is permitted, but proselytizing is forbidden, the distinction is made in the law of the land. Proselytizing implies bringing undue pressure to bear upon someone to change his Faith. It is also usually understood to imply the making of threats or the offering of material benefits as an inducement to conversion. In some countries mission schools or hospitals, for all the good they do, are regarded with suspicion and even aversion by the local authorities because they are considered to be material inducements to conversion and hence instruments of proselytizati~n."[~~:~~~] PROSPERITY. The BahB'i International Community Statement for the 1995 World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen, The deals in some depth with the Bahh'i Prosperity of approach to the issues that are far wider than merely increasing the material wealth of people; rather it seeks to eliminate extremes of wealth and poverty. It broadest aim is summarized in the following excerpt: "[The] rising impulses for change must be seized upon and channeled into overcoming the remaining barriers that block realization of the age-old dream of global peace. The effort of will required for such a task cannot be summoned up merely by appeals for action against the countless ills afflicting society. It must be galvanized by a vision of human prosperity in the fullest sense of the term-an awakening to the possibilities of the spiritual and material well-being now brought within grasp. Its beneficiaries must be all of the planet's inhabitants, without distinction, without the imposition of conditions
unrelated to the fundamental goals of such a reorganization of human affairs."[lgl:ll
PUBLISHING TRUSTS, ~ a ' iA .growing number of National Spiritual Assemblies have publishing houses whose main work is the publishing and distribution of Bahii'i Scripture, books about the Faith, biographies, history and audiovisual materials. As of April 2004 there were 33 publishing trusts in the Bahii'i global community. Refer to the bibliography for a partial listing. THE PUREST BRANCH. See M~RZAMIHD~.
Q ~ I M He . Who Shall Arise: title designating the Promised One of 1~1~.[18:739]~ QALAM-I-ALk. The Pen of the Most High: a designation of Bahh'U'llhh.[18:7401"
Q A ~ M U ' L - A S M The ~ . Biib's commentary on the Qur'iinic Siuih of Joseph, the first chapter of which was revealed to Mullii Husayn during the night of 22 May 1844. Written in Arabic, comprising more than 9,300 verses, it was later translated in full into Persian by Thhirih. Specifically, it is the XIIth S ~ (chapter) h of the Qur'iin and the one that Mulld Husayn had secretly selected as the one to be commented upon, without request or prompting, by the "Promised One" for whom he was searching. On the evening he first met the Biib, unasked, He revealed His commentary on this Siuih with great power (see BAB, DECLARATION OF). From a description of that event by Shoghi Effendi we read that "a more significant light, however, is shed on this episode, marking the Declaration of the Mission of the Biib, by the perusal of that 'first, greatest and mightiest' of all books in the Biibi Dispensation, the celebrated commentary on the Siuih of Joseph, the first chapter of which, we are assured, proceeded, in its entirety, in the course of that night of nights from the pen of its divine Revealer. The description of this episode by Mullii Husayn, as well as the opening pages of that Book attest the magnitude and force of that weighty Declarati~n."[~~:~]
QIBLIH. The "Point of Adoration9'-the place to which believers turn when in prayer. With the Christians it was Jerusalem; with Muslims it is Mecca; and for Baha'is it is the Most Holy Shrine (of Bahh'u'llhh) at Bahji, near cAkkh.[18:7401" QUDDUS (d. 1849). (Pure, Holy, Blessed; Hkji Mulla Mdpmmad'Ali-i-Birfunl&i; Nuqiiy-i-mi-the Last Point; Ismu'-llzihi'lLast Name of God.) The 18th Letter of the Living. He ranks next in lineage and in spiritual capacity to The Baib Himself. He was given the name Qudd& by Bahai'u'llaih during the Conference of Badaht. His father died while he was still in his teens, and he devoted himself then to the pursuit of learning, becoming the outstanding pupil of Siyyid KiPm in Karbilh. The Bib had intimated to Mullai Husayn that on the day following His Declaration 18 holy souls (Letters of the Living) would arise unbidden and declare their belief in Him. A few days after Mull6 Husayn's meeting with the Bhb on 23 May 1844 Quddcs approached him saying to him (Mullii Husayn), "Why do you seek to hide Him from me? I can recognise Him by His gait."[44:23fl In so doing he became the last of the Letters of the Living. He accompanied the Bab on pilgrimage to Mecca; he was later tortured and finally died in appalling circumstances. Shoghi Effendi spoke of him in these words: Quddh, immortalized by Him [Bahi'u'llhh] as 1smu'-llahi'l-bir [the Last Name of God]; on whom Bahi'u'llih's Tablet of Kullu'tT a ' h later conferred the sublime appellation of N u q t i y - i - W i [the Last Point]; whom He elevated, in another Tablet, to a rank second to none except that of the Herald of His Revelation; whom He identifies, in still another Tablet, with one of the "Messengers charged with imposture" mentioned in the Qur'h, whom the Persian Bayin extolled as that fellow-pilgrim round whom mirrors to the number of eight Vahids revolve; on whose "detachment and the sincerity of whose devotion to God's will God prideth Himself amidst the Concourse on high;" whom 'Abdu'l-BahQ designated as the "Moon of Guidance;" and whose appearance the Revelation of St. John the Divine anticipated as one of the two "Witnesses" into whom, ere the "second woe is past," the "spirit of life from God" must enter-such a man had, in the full bloom of his youth, suffered, in the Sabzih-May& of Birfi.mi&, a death which even Jesus Christ, as attested by Bahi'u'llhh, had not faced in the hour of His greatest ag0ny.[~~~9fl
QUEEN MARIE OF ROMANIA, HRH (1875-1938). Granddaughter of Queen Victoria and the first crowned head to accept the Baha'i
Faith.[7:269, 93:4271 She was introduced to the Faith by Martha Root, who was granted eight audiences with her and with whom she maintained a correspondence throughout the years following her declaration. Queen Marie wrote of her meeting with Miss Root in her syndicated column (entitled "Queen's Counsel") in the Toronto Daily Star on May 4,1926: A woman brought me the other day a Book. I spell it with a capital letter because it is a glorious Book of love and goodness, strength and beauty. She gave it to me because she had learned I was in grief and sadness and wanted to help. . . . She put it into my hands saying: "You seem to live up to His teachings." And when I opened the Book I saw it was the word of 'Abdu'l-Baha, prophet of love and kindness, and of his father the great teacher of international goodwill and understanding-of a religion which links all creeds. Their writings are a great cry toward peace, reaching beyond all limits of frontiers, above all dissension about rites and dogmas. It is a religion based upon the inner spirit of God, upon the great, not-to-be-overcome verity that God is love, meaning just that. It teaches that all hatreds, intrigues, suspicions, evil words, all aggressive patriotism [seeNATIONALISM] even, are outside the one essential law of God, and that special beliefs are but surface things whereas the heart that beats with divine love knows no tribe nor race. It is a wondrous Message that Baha'u'llfh and his son 'Abdu'l-Bahi have given us. They have not set it up aggressively, knowing that the germ of eternal truth which lies at its core cannot but take root and spread. There is only one great verity in it: Love, the mainspring of every energy, tolerance toward each other, desire of understanding each other, knowing each other, helping each other, forgiving each other. It is Christ's Message taken up anew, in the same words almost, but adapted to the thousand years and more difference that lies between the year one and today. No man could fail to be better because of this Book. I commend it to you all. If ever the name of Bahh'u'llfh or 'Abdu'l-Baha comes to your attention, do not put their writings from you. Search out their Books, and let their glorious, peace-bringing, love-creating words and lessons sink into your hearts as they have into mine. One's busy day may seem too full for religion. Or one may have a religion that satisfies. But the teachings of these gentle, wise and kindly men are compatible with all religion, and with no religion. Seek them, and be the happier.L71 Following the queen's first public reference to the Cause in this series, two additional references appeared, one on 26 September and one on 27 September 1926.[70:N0. 15, Jan 1927,p See also McNEILL, LILIAN VAUGHAN.
394
QURRATU'L-'AYN
QURRATU'L-'AYN. Literally, Solace of the Eyes. (1) A title conferred upon Tihirih by Siyyid KQim. (2) Term used by the B i b in the Qayyzimu'l-Asma' to refer to both Bahi'u'llih and Himself.[18'7401m
R A B B The ~ ~ Persian family name given to Shoghi Effendi by 'Abdu'l-Bahai so that he would not be confused with his cousins, who were all of the family of the Baib-the Afnain. It was also used as a family name by Shoghi Effendi's brothers and sisters. Literally, Rabbihi means divine, godly, a doctor of
RABBAN~, MADAME. See 'AMATU'L-BAHA RUH~YYIH
-KHhLNUM. RABB-I-A'LA. B&b.[l8:740]"
Exalted Lord: one of the designations of the
RACIALISMIRACISM. All forms of racism are condemned by Bahai'u'llaih, as it is the antithesis of His most basic teaching on the oneness of mankind: "0 Children of Men! Know ye not why We created you all from the same dust? That no one should exalt himself over the other. Ponder at all times in your hearts how ye were created. Since We have created you all from one same substance it is incumbent on you to be even as one soul, to walk with the same feet, eat with the same mouth and dwell in the same land, that from your inmost being, by your deeds and actions, the signs of oneness and the essence of detachment may be made manifest. Such is My counsel to you, 0 concourse of light! Heed ye this counsel that ye may obtain the fruit of holiness from the tree of wondrous 'Abdu'l-Bahai spoke on this same theme on various occasions when He was in America. At one meeting He said, "Today I am most happy, for I see here a gathering of the servants of God. I see the white and colored people together. In the estimation of God there is no distinction of color; all are one in the color and beauty of servitude to Him. Color is not important; the heart is all-important. It matters not what the exterior may be if the heart be pure and white within. God does not behold differences of hue and complexion; He looks at the hearts. He whose morals and virtues are praiseworthy is preferred in the presence of God; he who is devoted to the Kingdom
RANDALL, WILLIAM HENRY
395
is most beloved. In the realm of genesis and creation the question of color is of least i m p o r t a n ~ e . " [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] Shoghi Effendi wrote, To discriminate against any race, on the ground of its being socially backward, politically immature, and numerically in a minority, is a flagrant violation of the spirit that animates the Faith of Bahb7u'll&. . . . "God," 'Abdu'l-Bahi Himself declares, "maketh no distinctionbetween the white and the black. If the hearts are pure both are acceptable unto Him. God is no respecter of persons on account of either color or race. All colors are acceptable unto Him, be they white, black, or yellow. Inasmuch as all were created in the image of God, we must bring ourselves to realize that all embody divine p~ssibilities."[~~:~~~~~] The theories and policies, so unsound, so pernicious, that deify the state and exalt the nation above mankind, that seek to subordinate the sister races of the world to one single race, that discriminate between the black and the white, and that tolerate the dominance of one privileged class over all others-these are the dark, the false, and crooked doctrines for which any man or people who believes in them, or acts upon them, must, sooner or later, incur the wrath and chastisement of God [64:113]
RANDALL, RUTH (BROWN) (1887-1969). An early (19 12) American believer, she met 'Abdu'l-Bahii while lying on a sick bed with what was considered to be an incurable illness. On meeting her 'Abdu'l-BahB said to her three times, "You are not sick, you are the healthiest person here." From that point the healing began, and she became an ardent believer. She and her husband (William Randall) contributed the funds (1922) for the construction of the Pilgrim House built opposite the House of 'Abdu'l-Bahb in Haifa. In 1953 she pioneered with her second husband (Mr.Bishop Brown) to Durban, South Africa.[14'463,93:2991 RANDALL, WILLIAM HENRY (HARRY) (d. 1929). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahii.) An early American Bahi'i, known as an eloquent upholder of the Faith. He and his wife and daughter visited 'Abdu'lBahii in Haifa among the groups of pilgrims that began to arrive in the Holy Land immediately following World War I. At the request of 'Abdu'l-BahB he worked, in cooperation mainly with Roy Wilhelm and Howard MacNutt, to promote and foster BahB'i relations with Japan.[90'51He succeeded Sarah Jane Farmer as the chair of Green Acre Fellowship (later Summer School). On his passing in February 1929 Shoghi Effendi wrote, "I wish to refer . . . to the sad
396 RANDRIANARNO, DANIEL
and untimely death of our dearly beloved and highly distinguished brother and fellow-worker, Mr. Harry Randall. The unsparing efforts which he exerted for the promotion of the Faith, the passionate eloquence with which he diffused its teachings, the mature judgment and ripe experience he contributed to its councils . . . and above all his upright and generous character, are traits that will long live after him, and which bodily separation can never remove." RANDRIANARIVO, DANIEL (1924-1985). The first Malagasy (Madagascar) to embrace the Cause (1954), he served on the first (1955) local Spiritual Assembly of Tananari~e.[l~:~~~] RANSOM-KEHLER, KEITH (1878-1933). (Martyr; Hand of the Cause of God.) A socialite and itinerant teacher of the BahL'i Faith, she was born in America in 1878 and died of smallpox in Isf&hn, Persia, on 23 October 1933, thereby becoming America's first Bahb'i martyr and first Hand of the Cause of God. After traveling for the Faith for two years in China, Japan, Australia, and India she visited Haifa in mid-1932, where Shoghi Effendi chose her to take on a most important mission-he asked her to go to Persia to make personal representations to His Majesty Reza && Pahlavi in respect to the persecution of the Bahi'is of that land. She carried impeccable credentials from the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United States and Canada, and her purpose was to ask for permission for Bahi'i books and magazines published in the West to be released to their fellow BahL'is in Persia. On 20 August 1932 she cabled, "Mission successful." The court minister in Tihriin was cabled a message of gratitude, and a press release was issued in America. Keith received a tremendous welcome fi-om Bahi'i communities throughout Persia, but it soon became obvious that changes had been made in the office of the court minister, and Keith had to start again. In spite of the most moving appeals written to His Majesty and powerful letters to every cabinet minister and the president of parliament, it soon became apparent that the && himself never received any communication.In the meantime the American-Canadian National Spiritual Assembly was making similar representations through diplomatic channels, but without success. From her correspondence with her friends in the West, it was becoming obvious that Keith, with her intensive workload of letter writing, interviewing of officials, and traveling to meet with Bahi'i communities, was suffering from frustration with the authorities. Exhausted from her
RAYNOR,ALLAN FREDERICK 397
journeys and her constant battle against ill health, during a visit to the Bahi'is of Isfihh, she fell victim to smallpox and died within a few hours of contracting the virus. The American press reported in detail the news of her death, and the following extract from the New York American of 28 October 1933 illustrates the coverage she received: In August, 1932 Mrs. Ransom-Kehler . . . went to Persia on a special mission to represent the American Bahi'is in appealing to the Shih's government for removal of the ban on entry of Bahi'i literature into the country of the origin of the world religion established by Bahi'u'llih nearly seventy years ago. Fromthe Court Minister, Mrs. Keith RansomKehler received assurance that the prohibition, passed under the former regime while the M&ammedan clergy were at the height of their power, would be rescinded. This promise, was, however, unfulfilled and Mrs. Ransom-Kehler devoted the remaining months of her life to the task of penetrating the imperial entourage and presenting to the Shih in person a formal petition prepared by the American Bahi'i Assembly on behalf of the sixty Bahi'i communities of the United States and Canada.
The following message fiom Shoghi Effendi to the Bahh'i world, dated 30 October, remains the most poignant testimonial to Keith's supreme service to her Faith: "Keith's precious life offered up in sacrifice to beloved Cause in Bahi'u'llih's native land. On Persian soil, for Persia's sake, she encountered, challenged and fought the forces of darkness with high distinction, indomitable will, unswerving, exemplary loyalty. The mass of her helpless Persian brethren mourns the sudden loss of their valiant emancipator. American believers grateful and proud of the memory of their first and distinguished martyr. Sorrow stricken, I lament my earthly separation fiom an invaluable collaborator, an unfailing counsellor, an esteemed and faithfbl fiiend. I urge Local Assemblies befittingly to organize memorial gatherings in memory of one whose international services entitled her to an eminent 62:473*2151 rank among the Hands of the Cause of Bahi'~'llih.''[~'~~~,
RATIONAL SOUL. See SOUL. RAYNOR, ALLAN FREDERICK (1910-1979). A chartered life underwriter by profession, this Canadian believer (1945) was twice a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada (1954-1960, 1963-1964) and a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of North York. He was renowned for his knowledge of the Covenant
398 RECTITUDE OF CONDUCT
and traveled widely throughout Canada deepening the believers in this crucial aspect of Bahh'i life. In 1971 he served as the fist member of the Legal Affairs Department of the National Spiritual Assembly 93:4851 The Universal House of Justice cabled as folof Canada.[17:693, lows on learning of his death in 1979: "Saddened learn passing Allan Raynor devoted stalwart servant Blessed Beauty pillar Faith Canada many years service National Assembly promoter Faith to last moment earthly life. Kindly convey wife family loving condolences assurance ardent prayers sacred Threshold progress his noble soul Abhh Kingdom. Suggest hold befitting memorial meeting his behalf."[171
RECTITUDE OF CONDUCT. Shoghi Effendi wrote on this subject as follows: A rectitude of conduct, an abiding sense of undeviating justice, unobscured by the demoralizing influences which a corruption-riddenpolitical life so strikingly manifests; a chaste, pure, and holy life, unsullied and unclouded by the indecencies, the vices, the false standards, which an inherently deficient moral code tolerates, perpetuates, and fosters; a fraternity freed from that cancerous growth of racial prejudice [see RACIALISMIRACISM], which is eating into the vitals of an already debilitated society-these are the ideals which the . . . believers must, from now on, individually and through concerted action, strive to promote, in both their private and public lives, ideals which are the chief propelling forces that can most effectively accelerate the march of their institutions, plans, and enterprises, that can guard the honor and integrity of their Faith. . . .This rectitude of conduct, with its implications of justice, equity, truthfulness, honesty, fair-mindedness, reliability, and trustworthiness, must distinguish every phase of the life of the Bahti'i community. . . . Such a rectitude of conduct must manifest itself, with ever-increasing potency, in every verdict which the elected representatives of the BahB'i community, in whatever capacity they may find themselves, may be called upon to pronounce. It must be constantly reflected in the business dealings of all its members, in their domestic lives, in all manner of employment, and in any service they may, in the future, render their government or people.[61:23s261
REGIONAL BAIX&'~COUNCILS. An administrative body created by the Universal House of Justice 30 May 1997 to which National Spiritual Assemblies devolve certain administrative responsibilities: The expansion of the Bahb'i community and the growing complexity of the issues which are facing National SpiritualAssemblies in certain countries have brought the Cause to a new stage in its development.
REGIONAL ~
dCOUNCILS i
399
They have caused us in recent years to examine various aspects of the balance between centralization and decentralization. In a few countries we have authorized the National Spiritual Assemblies to establish State Bahii'i Councils or Regional Teaching and Administrative Committees. From the experience gained in the operation of these bodies, and from detailed examination of the principles set forth by Shoghi Effendi, we have reached the conclusion that the time has arrived for us to formalize a new element of BahP'i administration, between the local and national levels, comprising institutions of a special kind, to be designated as "Regional Bahi'i Councils." Regional Bahi'i Councils will be brought into being only with our permission and only in countries where conditions make this step necessary. . . . The institutions of the Administrative Order of Bahh'u'llah, rooted in the provisions of His Revelation, have emerged gradually and organically, as the Baha'i community has grown through the power of the divine impulse imparted to humankind in this age. The characteristics and functions of each of these institutions have evolved, and are still evolving, as are the relationships between them. The writings of the beloved Guardian expound the fundamental elements of this mighty System and make it clear that the Administrative Order, although different in many ways from the World Order which it is the destiny of the BahP'i Revelation to call into being, is both the "nucleus" and pattern of that World Order. Thus, the evolution of the institutions of the Administrative Order, while following many variants to meet changing conditions in different times and places, should strictly follow the essential principles of Bahi'i administration which have been laid down in the Sacred Text and in the interpretations provided by 'Abdu'lBahh and the Guardian. One of the subtle qualities of the Baha'i Administrative Order is the balance between centralization and decentralization. This balance must be correctly maintained, but different factors enter into the equation, depending upon the institutions involved. For example, the relationship between a National or Local Spiritual Assembly and its committees is of a different nature from that between National and Local Spiritual Assemblies. The former is a relationship between a central administrative body and "its assisting organs of executive and legislative action," while the latter is a relationship between national and local levels of the House of Justice, each of which is a divinely ordained institution with clearly prescribed jurisdiction, duties and prerogatives. Regional Bahii'i Councils partake of some, but not all, characteristics of Spiritual Assemblies, and thus provide a means of carrying forward the teaching work and administering related affairs of a rapidly growing Bahi'i community in a number of situations. Without such an institution, the development of a national committee structure required
400
REGIONALNATIONAL SPIRITUALASSEMBLIES
to cover the needs in some countries would run the danger of overcomplexity through adding a further layer of committees under the regional committees, or the danger of excessive decentralization through conferring too much autonomy on committees which are characterized by the Guardian as "bodies that should be regarded in no other light than that of expert advisers and executive assistants." The distinguishing effects of the establishment of Regional Bah8'i Councils are the following: It provides for a level of autonomous decision making on both teaching and administrativematters, as distinct fiom merely executive action, below the National Assembly and above the Local Assemblies. It involves the members of Local Spiritual Assemblies of the area in the choice of the members of the Council, thus reinforcing the bond between it and the local believers while, at the same time, bringing into public service capable believers who are known to the friends in their own region. It establishes direct consultative relationships between the Continental Counsellors and the Regional Bahh'i Councils. It offers the possibility of forming a Regional Bahh'i Council in an ethnically distinct region which covers parts of two or more countries. In such a situation the Council is designated to work directly under one of the National Assemblies involved, providing copies of its reports and minutes to the other National Assembly. The greater degree of decentralization involved in the devolution of authority upon Regional Bahh'i Councils requires a corresponding increase in the capacity of the National Spiritual Assembly itself to keep l l l y informed of what is proceeding in all parts of the territory over which it has ultimate jurisdiction. For those National Spiritual Assemblies which have already established Regional Bah8'i Councils or Regional Teaching and Administrative Committees . . . formed by appointment rather than election. . . .L2l61
As of April 2004 there were 141 Regional Bahzi'i Councils in the Bahzi'i global community. REGIONAL NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES. A Bahzi'i administrative composite of several nations that will later devolve to separate National Spiritual Assembly status. REINCARNATION. 'Abdu'l-Bahh spoke and wrote on many occasions on the subject of reincarnation: The subject of reincarnation has two aspects. One is that which the Hindustani people believe, and even that is subdivided into two: reincarnation and metempsychosis. According to one belief the soul goes and then returns in certain reincarnations; therefore, they say that a sick
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401
person is sick because of actions in a previous incarnation and that this is retribution. The other school of Hinduism believes that man sometimes appears as an animal-a donkey, for instanceand that this is retribution for past acts. I am referring to the beliefs in that country, the beliefs of the schools. There is a reincarnation of the prophetic mission. Jesus Christ, speaking of John the Baptist, declared he was Elias. When John the Baptist was questioned, "Art thou Elias?" he said, "I am not." These two statements are apparently contradictory, but in reality they do not contradict. The light is one light. The light which illumined this lamp last night is illuminating it tonight. This does not mean that the identical rays of light have reappeared but the virtues of illumination. The light which revealed itself through the glass reveals itself again so that we can say the light of this evening is the light of last evening relighted. This is as regards its virtues and not as regards its former identity. This is our view of reincarnation. We believe in that which Jesus Christ and all the Prophets have believed. For example, the Bhb states, "I am the return of all the Prophets." This is significant of the oneness of the prophetic virtues, the oneness of power, the oneness of bestowal, the oneness of radiation, the oneness of expression, the oneness of r e v e l a t i ~ n . [ ~ ~ : l ~ ~ ]
The Universal House of Justice summarizes the Bahi'i position in these extracts: It is clear £rom the Teachings of Bahh'u'llhh about the nature of the soul and of life after death as published in Gleaningsfiom the Writthat the Bahi'i position on this subject is wholly ings ofBahhlu 'll~ih,[~~] incompatible with the theory of reincarnation. We suggest that you refer this fiend to the explanation of "return" as given by Bahi'u'llfi in the ~ita'b-i-iqa'n and the statements made by 'Abdu'l-Bahi in "Some Answered Questions." No revelation from God has ever taught re-incarnation;this is a manmade conception. The soul of man comes into being at conception. The Bahb'i view of "reincarnation" is essentially different from the Hindu conception. The Bahi'is believe in the attributes and qualities, but maintain that the essence or the reality of things cannot be made to return. Every being keeps its own individuality, but some of his qualities can be transmitted. The doctrine of metempsychosis upheld by the Hindus is fallacious. Evolution in the life of the individual starts with the formation of the human embryo and passes through various stages, and even continues after death in another form. The human spirit is capable of inkite development. Man's identity or rather his individuality is never lost. His reality as a person remains intact throughout the various states of his development. He does not pre-exist in any form before coming into this
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We know from His Teachings that Reincarnation does not exist. We come on to this planet once only. Our life here is like the baby in the womb of its mother, which develops in that state what is necessary for its entire life afler it is born. The same is true of us. Spiritually we must develop here what we will require for the life afler death. In that future life, God, through His Mercy, can help us to evolve characteristics which we neglected to develop while we were on this earthly plane. It is not necessary for us to come back and be born into another body in order to advance spiritually and grow closer to God. This is the Bahi'i Teaching, and this is what the followers of Bahi'u'llih must accept, regardless of what experiences other people may feel they have. You yourself must surely know that modem psychology has taught that the capacity of the human mind for believing what it imagines, is almost inhite. Because people think they have a certain type of experience, think they remember something of a previous life, does not mean they actually had the experience, or existed previously. The power of their mind would be quite sufficient to make them believe firmly such a thing had happened.[87:5381
See also RESURRECTION.
RELIGION. Many facets of "religiony'are addressed in Bahi'i Writings and embrace the origin of religion and its purpose and relationship to the individual and society as well as its role in personal spiritual development and in the creation of justice, peace, unity, and order among people (see LAW). 'Abdu'l-Bahh wrote as follows: In truth, religion is a radiant light and an impregnable stronghold for the protection and welfare of the peoples of the world, for the fear of God impelleth man to hold fast to that which is good, and shun all evil. Should the lamp of religion be obscured, chaos and confusion will ensue, and the lights of fairness and justice, of tranquility and peace cease to ~ h i n e . [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ] Religion is, verily, the chief instrument for the establishment of order in the world, and of tranquility amongst its peoples [seeWORLD ORDER]. The weakening of the pillars of religion hath strengthened the foolish, and emboldened them, and made them more arrogant. Verily I say: The greater the decline of religion, the more grievous the waywardness of the ungodly. This cannot but lead in the end to chaos and c o n f u ~ i o n . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ 1 We should earnestly seek and thoroughly investigate realities, recognizing that the purpose of the religion of God is the education of humanity and the unity and fellowship of mankind. Furthermore, we will establish the point that the foundations of the religions of God are one foundation [see ONENESS OF GOD]. This foundation is not
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multiple, for it is reality itself. Reality does not admit of multiplicity, although each of the divine religions is separable into two divisions. One concerns the world of morality and the ethical training of human nature. It is directed to the advancement of the world of humanity in general; it reveals and inculcates the knowledge of God and makes possible the discovery of the verities of life. This is ideal and spiritual teaching, the essential quality of divine religion, and not subject to change or transformation. It is the one foundation of all the religions of God. Therefore, the religions are essentially one and the same [see ONENESS OF RELIGION]. The second classification or division comprises social laws and regulations applicable to human conduct. This is not the essential spiritual quality of religion. It is subject to change and transformation according to the exigencies and requirements of time and p l a ~ e . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ l The essential purpose of the religion of God is to establish unity among mankind. The divine Manifestations were Founders of the means of fellowship and love.[53'2021 Religion must be the source of unity and fellowship in the world. If it is productive of enmity, hatred and bigotry, the absence of religion would be Religion, moreover, is not a series ofbeliefs, a set of customs; religion is the teachings of the Lord God, teachings which constitute the very life of humankind, which urge high thoughts upon the mind, refine the character, and lay the groundwork for man's everlasting h o n ~ r . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
REMEY, CHARLES MASON (1874-1974). (Covenant breaker; Hand of the Cause of God.) One of the earliest American believers, he was born on 15 May 1874 in Burlington, Vermont. A well-known and distinguished architect by profession, he accepted the Faith in Paris on 3 1 December 1899. He was declared a Covenant breaker following his absurd claim to be the second Guardian of the Baha'i Faith (see COVENANT BREAKER). He received much love and praise from both 'Abdu'l-Bahsi and Shoghi Effendi and gave sterling service to the Faith of Bahsi'u'llsih in the United States and Hawaii, as well as making teaching visits to several countries including, notably, Japan. In November 1950, Shoghi Effendi appointed him to the newly formed International Bahsi'i Council and called him to live in Haifa. He was elevated to the rank of Hand of the Cause of God in the first contingent in December 1951 and then appointed president of the International Baha'i Council. He was among the Hands of the Cause present at all the 1953 (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conferences and represented the Guardian at the conference in New Delhi. He
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was subsequently appointed as the Guardian's representative at the conference in Sydney, Australia, in March 1958 and was present at the conference in Wilmette in May of that same year. His architectural achievements are truly significant. Under close guidance from Shoghi Effendi, he designed the Bahi'i Houses of Worship (Mahriqu'l-Auksir) for Kampala, Uganda, and Sydney, Australia. Moreover, Shoghi Effendi approved the design submitted by him for the Mashriqu'l-Adhkir of Bahi'u'llih's native land, Peras well as the Mashriqu'l-Adhkir to be constructed on Mount sia,[38:751 Carme1;[87:2461 Remey's designs for a number of other Mashriqu'lAdhkirs were also considered (including the Mother Temple of the West (Wilrnette, Illinois). When his design for the Wilmette Temple tied with that of Louis Bourgeois, he withdrew it in favor of Bour54:131 (in Frankfurt, where it was left to the geois'~[~ ~ : and ~ ~ ~Europe , National Spiritual Assembly of Germany to decide between Remey's and that of the German architect, Teuto Rocholl, with Rocholl's winning In addition, he designed the International Bahai'i Archives building on the Arc on Mount Carmel. [38:741 Despite these distinguished services and his obvious knowledge of the teachings of the Faith and the Covenant of Bahi'u'llih, he will be remembered in Bahi'i history as one who fell from the highest rank to that of a Covenant breaker, shunned by all but a mere handful of his one-time fellow believers when he laid claim to be the second Guardian of the Faith and, in so doing, precipitated his own expulsion from the ranks of the faithful. He was declared a Covenant breaker on 26 July 1960. About 15 Bahi'is initially followed Remey and were accordingly themselves declared Covenant breakers. Perhaps predictably, Remey died alone and isolated, in his 100th year, all of his erstwhile followers having long since deserted him or been expelled by him for their breaches of his (Remey's) covenant. He was buried by his young secretary, who was not a Bahi'i, without religious ceremony. A day after his passing on 4 February 1974, the Universal House of Justice noted the occasion with the following cablegram: "Charles Mason Remey Whose Arrogant Attempt Usurp Guardianship After Passing Shoghi Effendi Led To His Expulsion From Ranks Faithful Has Died In Florence Italy In Hundredth Year Of His Life Without Religious Rite Abandoned By Erstwhile Followers." RESURRECTION. Bahi'is believe in the spiritual rather than the physical significance of resurrection. It may refer to the return of qualities or characteristics as when a perfect rose again blossoms on
RESURRECTION 405
the bush that produced one on the previous season. It may also refer to the appearance of a Manifestation of God. These two instances may apply to the resurrection of the dead on the Day of Judgment. Bahh'u'llhh wrote, "This is the Day that hath been illumined by the effulgent light of the Countenance of God-the Day when the Tongue of Grandeur is calling aloud: The Kingdom is God's, the Lord of the Day of Re~urrection."['~~~~~1 Referring to the resurrection of Christ 'Abdu'l-Bahii explained that the meaning of Christ's resurrection is as follows: the disciples were troubled and agitated after the martyrdom of Christ. The Reality of Christ, which signifies His teachings, His bounties, His perfections and His spiritual power, was hidden and concealed for two or three days after His martyrdom, and was not resplendent and manifest. No, rather it was lost, for the believers were few in number and were troubled and agitated. The Cause of Christ was like a lifeless body; and when after three days the disciples became assured and steadfast, and began to serve the Cause of Christ, and resolved to spread the divine teachings, putting His counsels into practice, and arising to serve Him, the Reality of Christ became resplendent and His bounty appeared; His religion found life; His teachings and His admonitions became evident and visible. In other words, the Cause of Christ was like a lifeless body until the life and the bounty of the Holy Spirit surrounded it.[1Z1:1041
Emphasizing the spiritual meanings of miracles in general, but of importance in the context of resurrection, is this passage fiom 'Abdu'l-Bahi: The outward miracles have no importance for the people of Reality. If a blind man receives sight, for example, he will finally again become sightless, for he will die and be deprived of all his senses and powers. Therefore, causing the blind man to see is comparatively of little importance, for this faculty of sight will at last disappear. If the body of a dead person be resuscitated, of what use is it since the body will die again? But it is important to give perception and eternal life-that is, the spiritual and divine life. For this physical life is not immortal, and its existence is equivalent to non-existence. So it is that Christ said to one of His disciples: "Let the dead bury their dead;" for "That which is born of the flesh is flesh; and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit." Observe: those who in appearance were physically alive, Christ considered dead, for life is the eternal life, and existence is the real existence. Wherever in the Holy Books they speak of raising the dead, the meaning is that the dead were blessed by eternal life; where it is said that the blind received sight, the sigmikation is that he obtained the true
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perception; where it is said a deaf man received hearing, the meaning is that he acquired spiritual and heavenly hearing.[121'1011
See also REINCARNATION. REVELATION. The means chosen by God to disclose His love and communicate knowledge of His attributes and laws to His Manifestations of God (Prophets), Who, in turn,in compliance with God's Covenant, convey His Word to humankind according to the needs and requirements of the speciiic age in which They manifest and in accordance with humanity's capacity at that time (see PROGRESSIVE REVELATION). God has sent forth the Prophets for the purpose of quickening the soul of man into higher and divine recognitions. He has revealed the heavenly Books for this great purpose. For this the breaths of the Holy Spirit have been wafted through the gardens of human hearts, the doors of the divine Kingdom opened to mankind and the invisible inspirations sent forth from on high. This divine and ideal power has been bestowed upon man in order that he may purify himself from the imperfections of nature and uplift his soul to the realm of might and power. God has purposed that the darkness of the world of nature shall be dispelled and the imperfect attributes of the natal self be effaced in the effulgent reflection of the Sun of Truth. The mission of the Prophets of God has been to train the souls of humanity and free them from the thralldom of natural instincts and physical tendencies. . . . If the world of nature were perfect and complete in itself, there would be no need of such training and cultivation in the human world-no need of teachers, schools and universities, arts and crafts. The revelations of the Prophets of God would not have been necessary, and the heavenly Books would have been superfluous. If the world of nature were perfect and sufficient for mankind, we would have no need of God and our belief in Him. Therefore, the bestowal of all these great helps and accessories to the attainment of divine life is because the world of nature is incomplete and i m p e r f e ~ t . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
'Abdu'l-Bahii explains that revelation is composed of two parts: "Each divine revelation is divided into two parts. The first part is essential and belongs to the eternal world. It is the expression of the love of God, the knowledge of God. This is one in all the religions, unchangeable and immutable. The second part is not eternal; it deals with practical life, transactions and business and changes according to the evolution of man and the requirements of the time of each prophet."[156:~501
REVELL, ETHEL COWAN
407
Bahh'u'llhh's experience of revelation in the Siyhh-ahl is reported in these words of Shoghi Effendi: "One night in a dream," He Himself, calling to mind, in the evening of His life, the first stirrings of God's Revelation within His soul, has written, "these exalted words were heard on every side: 'Verily, We shall render Thee victorious by Thyself and by Thy pen. Grieve Thou not for that which hath befallen Thee, neither be Thou afraid, for Thou art in safety. Ere long will God raise up the treasures of the earth--men who will aid Thee through Thyself and through Thy Name, wherewith God hath revived the hearts of such as have recognized Him."' In another passage He describes, briefly and graphically, the impact of the onrushing force of the Divine Summons upon His entire being. "During the days I lay in the prison of Tihrhn," are His own memorable words, "though the galling weight of the chains and the stench-filled air allowed Me but little sleep, still in those infrequent moments of slumber I felt as if something flowed from the crown of My head over My breast, even as a mighty torrent that precipitateth itself upon the earth from the summit of a lofty mountain. Every limb of My body would, as a result, be set afire. At such moments My tongue recited what no man could bear to hear." In His Epistle to Na~iri'd-DinShah. . . occur these passages which shed M e r light on the Divine origin of His mission: "0 King! I was but a man like others, asleep upon My couch, when lo, the breezes of the All-Glorious were wafted over Me, and taught Me the knowledge of all that hath been. This thing is not from Me, but from One Who is Almighty and All-Knowing. And he bade Me lift up My voice between earth and heaven, and for this there befell Me what hath caused the tears of every man of understanding to flow. . . . This is but a leaf which the winds of the will of Thy Lord, the Almighty, the All-Praised, have stirred. . . . His all-compelling summons hath reached Me, and caused Me to speak His praise amidst all people. I was indeed as one dead when His behest was uttered. The hand of the will of Thy Lord, the Compassionate, the Merciful, transformed Me." "By My Life!" He asserts in another Tablet, 'Wot of Mine own volition have I revealed Myself, but God, of His own choosing, hath manifested Me." And again: "Whenever I chose to hold My peace and be still, lo, the Voice of the Holy Spirit, standing on My right hand, aroused Me, and the Most Great Spirit appeared before My face, and Gabriel overshadowed Me, and the Spirit of Glory stirred within My bosom, bidding Me arise and break My s i l e n ~ e . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
REVELL, ETHEL COWAN (1897-1984). She was only 10 years old when she embraced the Cause at the same time as her mother,
Mary Revell, and older sister, Jessie Revell, after hearing of it from
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REVELL, JESSIE
Annie McKinley (her mother's sister). She met 'Abdu'l-Bahh when He visited America and received a number of Tablets from Him. In 1936 she, along with her sister, bought a car to allow them better "teaching" access to neighboring towns and villages. On 14 November 1950 Shoghi Effendi cabled the American National Spiritual Assembly as follows: "Appreciate extend financial assistance Revel1 sisters come Haifa require their services." On 22 November he sent a second cable to Ethel and her sister: "Welcome your presence Haifa." On 2 March 1951 he cabled the Bahi'i world to advise them of the formation of the International Bahai'i Council and the membership thereof: Both Ethel and Jessie were among those named. Ethel served in the household of Shoghi Effendi and 'Amatu'l-Bahai Ruhiyyih Khainum as well as acting as "guide" to the many pilgrim groups that visited in the years after her amval. When Shoghi Effendi died in the early hours of 4 November 1957, along with her sister, Jessie Revell, Sylvia Ioas, and Leroy Ioas, she helped seal and bar his office to protect its contents and then deposit ~ : ~continued ~] all keys to the apartment in a sealed e n v e l ~ p e . [ ~She to serve almost to the very end of her long life.[lRQ71On her passing, the Universal House of Justice cabled as follows: "Deeply grieved announce passing Ethel Revel1 saintly steadfast self-sacrificing promoter Cause God blessed by association 'Abdu'l-Bahi course His visit America and receipt Tablets from Him. Her tireless labors sterling qualities earned admiration Shoghi Effendi who appointed her International Bahi'i Council as its Western assistant secretary. This crown her services continued membership elected Council subsequent services many capacities World Center including secretary Hands Holy Land. Urge National Assemblies hold befitting memorial gatherings her honor in all Mashriqu'l-Adhkhr other Centers. Praying Holy Shrines progress her radiant soul Abhh K i ~ g d o m . " [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ 1 REVELL, JESSIE (1891-1966). An early (1906) American believer, she met 'Abdu'l-Bahai in Philadelphia and New York in 1912. In 1921 she received permission to visit 'Abdu'l-Baha in 'Akkai. Sadly, 'Abdu'l-Bahi passed away before she could make the trip. In 1951 Shoghi Effendi asked her and her sister, Ethel Revell, to move to Haifa to assist him in his work. At first she served as his secretary. She was appointed by Shoghi Effendi to membership of the first International Bahai'i Council (on which body she served as treasurer and continued to serve when it became an elected position). When Shoghi Effendi died in the early hours of 4 November 1957,
along with her sister, Ethel Revell, Sylvia Ioas, and Leroy Ioas, she helped seal and bar his office to protect its contents and then deposit all keys to the apartment in a sealed e n v e l ~ p e . [Following ~~~~] Shoghi Effendi's death she served as a companion to 'Amatu'l-Bahsi Ruhiyyih m s i n u m both at home and during her t r a v e l ~ . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] RHEIN, OTTILIE (1903-1979). (Knight of Bahsi'u'llsih.) An American believer (1941) of German birth, she pioneered to Mauritius in 1953, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahi'u'lliih. She enrolled the first believer (Mr. Him Lin) within a few months, and in 1956, when her visa expired, there were 40 Bahh'is on the island, enough to form three local Spiritual As~emblies.['~~"1
R I D V ~ The . 12-day Festival (21 April to 3 May 1863) that commemorates the days spent by Bahsi'u'llsih in the Najfbiyyih garden preparing for His exile from B a a d s i d to Constantinople in 1863 and during which time He announced that He was the "Promised One of all ages." Shoghi Effendi described the event in these words: The arrival of BahB7u'll& in the Najibiyyih Garden, subsequently designated by His followers the Garden of Ridvh, signalizes the commencement of what has come to be recognized as the holiest and most significant of all BahB'i festivals, the festival commemorating the Declaration of His Mission to His companions. . . . As to the significance of that Declaration let BahB'u'llhh Himself reveal to us its import. Acclaiming that historic occasion as the "Most Great Festival," the "King of Festivals," the "Festival of God," He has, in His Kit6b-iAqdas, characterized it as the Day whereon "all created things were immersed in the sea of purification," whilst in one of His specific Tablets, He has referred to it as the Day whereon "the breezes of forgiveness were wafied over the entire creation." "Rejoice, with exceeding gladness, 0 people of Bahh!," He, in another Tablet, has written, "as ye call to remembrance the Day of supreme felicity, the Day whereon the Tongue of the Ancient of Days hath spoken, as He departed from His House proceeding to the Spot ftom which He shed upon the whole of creation the splendors of His Name, the All-Merciful." And again: "The Divine Springtime is come, 0 Most Exalted Pen, for the Festival of the All-Merciful is fast approaching. . . . The Day-Star of Blissfulness shineth above the horizon of Our Name, the Blissful, inasmuch as the Kingdom of the Name of God hath been adorned with the ornament of the Name of Thy Lord, the Creator of the heavens. . . . This is the Day whereon the unseen world crieth out: "Great is thy blessedness,
41 0
R U V GARDEN ~
0 earth, for thou hast been made the footstool of thy God, and been chosen as the seat of His mighty throne.". . . Say. . ."He it is Who hath laid bare before you the hidden and treasured Gem, were ye to seek it. He it is who is the One Beloved of all things, whether of the past or of the fu~e."[37:151,1531
The lst, 9th, and 12th days are three of the nine Holy Days when work is suspended. On the 1st day of Ridvh all elections for local Spiritual Assemblies take place, while during the remaining 11 days all the National Spiritual Assemblies are elected, and once in five years the election for the Universal House of Justice takes place.
R I D v ~GARDEN. (Najibiyyih.) See also RIDVAN. R I D v ~GARDEN. (Na'mayn.) A garden near the walls of 'AkkP, Israel, first rented in 1875 and then purchased in 'Abdu'l-BahP's name for Bahsi'u'llsih. It became a favorite retreat for Him. He Himself described it: "One day of days We repaired unto Our Green Island. Upon Our arrival, We beheld its streams flowing, and its trees luxuriant, and the sunlight playing in their midst. Turning Our face to the right, We beheld what the pen is powerless to describe; nor can it set forth that which the eye of the Lord of Mankind witnessed in that most sanctified, that most sublime, that blest, and most exalted S p ~ t . " [ l ~ ~ : l ~ ~ ] RITUAL. In general, ritual is minimized in the Bahi'i Faith. The Universal House of Justice summarizes the Bahi'i approach to ritual as follows: Concerning rituals, the beloved Guardian's secretary wrote on his behalf to an individual believer on 24 June 1949: "Bahai'u'llaih has reduced all ritual and form to an absolute minimum in His Faith. The few forms that there a r e l i k e those associated with the two longer obligatory daily prayers [see PRAYER, OBLIGATORY]-are only symbols of the inner attitude. There is a wisdom in them, and a great blessing but we cannot force ourselves to understand or feel these things, that is why He gave us also the very short and simple prayer, for those who did not feel the desire to perform the acts associated with the other two." Thus it can be seen that the Faith has certain simple rites prescribed by Baha'u'lltih, such as the obligatory prayers, the marriage ceremony and the laws for the burial of the dead, but its teachings warn against developing them into a system of uniform and rigid rituals incorporating man-made forms of practices, such as exists in other religions where rituals usually consist of elaborate ceremonial
ROBARTS, JOHNALDHAM 41 1
practices performed by a member of the clergy. In another letter written on behalf of the Guardian his secretary stated: "In these days the friends should, as much as possible, demonstrate through their deeds the independence of the Holy Faith of God, and its freedom from the customs, rituals and practices of a discredited and abrogated
RIZA'I, FUAD (19462002). A third-generation i r ~ n i a nBahb'i who emigrated to the United Kingdom in the early 1970s. He served as a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Tunbridge Wells (1975). Immediately after the 1978 revolution in i r h he was appointed by the National Spiritual Assembly of the United Kingdom to the Bahb'i Advisory Committee to assist Bahb'i refugees forced to flee their native lands due to insufferable persecutions. From 1991 to 1998 he rendered invaluable and multifarious services as a "special assistant" to the secretary-general of the National Assembly; moreover, he was a key member of the National Property Committee of that same body fiom 1991 until his passing. On learning of his passing the Universal House of Justice wrote that he had "served the Faith of Bahb'u'llhh with exceptional devotion and dedication throughout his lifetime. His invaluable contribution to the work of the British Bahh'i community, particularly in the loving assistance he extended to irhnian Bahh'i refugees, is recalled with deep appreciati~n."[~~'~~~] ROBARTS, AUDREY FITZGERALD (1904-2000). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) The stalwart companion and wife of Hand of the Cause of God John Robarts. She and John pioneered first to South Africa and then in 1953 to Bechuanaland (now Botswana), earning her the title of Knight of Bahh'u'llhh. Throughout their married life she worked alongside her husband in the teaching field and later shared his worldwide travels. On her passing on 22 August 2000 the Bahb'i Native Circle of Ontario remembered her as "one of Canada's most treasured souls." ROBARTS, JOHN ALDHAM (1901-1991). (Hand of the Cause of He was born on 2 November God; Knight of Bahai'~'llaih.)[l~~~~] 1901 in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. He was for many years a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of Canada, often as its chair. In 1950 he accepted an invitation fiom the British National Teaching Committee to undertake an intensive teaching trip to the British Isles, where he witnessed the acceptance of many new
41 2
ROBARTS, JOHN ALDHAM
Bahd'is-thereby playing a sigmflcant role in the victories achieved in the first British Six Year Plan.[176:91ffl In 1954 he was among the first contingent of believers appointed as Auxiliary Board members and, in October 1957, he was elevated to the rank of Hand of the Cause. He pioneered from Canada to South Africa in 1953 and, along with his wife, Audrey Robarts, became a Knight of Bahd'u'llih for Bechuanaland when he moved there in February 1954. He was among the first to be appointed as an Auxiliary Board Member for Hand of the Cause Mtisai Banaini. He participated in the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conferences in Kampala, Chicago, and Frankfurt in 1958. In January and July 1960 he visited almost all Bahd'i centers then extant in the Dominion of Canada. Throughout the years 1959 to 1966 he traveled extensively in Africa, Europe, the United States, Canada, and Alaska before returning to Canada, where he settled in Rawdon, Qukbec. In 1971 he represented the Universal House of Justice at the North Atlantic Oceanic Conference in Reykjavik, Iceland. During the ensuing years he carried on his travels to many parts of the world and attended conferences and conventions, including the International Conventions in Haifa every five years. Following the 1973 convention in Haifa, he flew to Kenya and London and attended the annual conventions of the United Kingdom and Canada. He attended many summer schools and conferences in Canada and the United States. In 1976 he attended the International Teaching Conferences in Anchorage, Paris, and Nairobi, after which he undertook assignments in South and East Africa. In 1978 he visited the American South, followed a year later by a visit to Mexico. At an exceptionally large convention in the United States in April 1979 he joined forces with Hands of the Cause William Sears and Dhikru'llaih maidem in inspiring more than 1,800 Bahd'is. From there he traveled in September to Italy. In 1980 he attended the first International Conference of the Canadian Association for Bahd'i Studies. Glowing reports of his teaching activities in various parts of Canada during 1980 were followed by visits to the United Kingdom and South Africa in 1981. In 1982 he represented the Universal House of Justice at an International Teaching Conference in Lagos, Nigeria, and at International Conferences in Dublin, Ireland, and MontrCal, Canada. In the following year he attended the dedication of land for a Bahd'i House in Yukon and visited North American Indian areas. Two years later he attended the actual dedication of the Yukon
ROOT, MARTHA LOUISE 41 3
House. He was adopted as an elder into the Johns clan of the Tlingit people with the name of "Gooch Ooxu" (Wolf Teeth). Although by 1986 he was suffering fiom rapidly deteriorating health, he nevertheless made a final international trip to 11 cities in Ireland. In 1987 he attended a conference in MontrCal. In 1989 he attended the Canadian National Convention-his last public appearance. He passed away quietly in June 1991. On 19 June the Universal House of Justice cabled, With saddened hearts announce passing much-loved staunch promoter Faith, Knight Bahii'u'llfi, Hand Cause God, John Robarts. His distinguished administrative teaching pioneering activities in his native Canada, in AEca and Europe, during ministry beloved Guardian and subsequently on world scale through his international travels were source abundant inspiration countless Eends many lands. His reliance and emphasis on prayer in all efforts promotion Cause and his sustained service path love for Blessed Beauty were characterised by spirit certitude, self-effacement and vigour which set a standard of stewardship that has enriched annals Faith. He has assuredly earned bountiful reward Abha Kingdom. Praying Holy Shrines progress his radiant soul. Advise hold befitting memorial gatherings in his honour throughout world including all Houses W o r ~ h i p . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
ROBERTS, CHARLEY (d. 1969). The first Athabascan Indian north of the Arctic Circle to embrace the Cause, he taught widely among Indian peoples throughout the n ~ r t h . [ l 93:4871 ~:~~~, ROBOMAN, ANDREW (d. 1992). A chief of the Council of Chiefs, Yap Island, Micronesia, he embraced the Cause in 1970.[20:2751 ROOT, MARTHA LOUISE (1872-1939). (Hand of the Cause of God; Herald of the Kingdom; Lioness at the Threshold.) She was a school teacher by training and later a journalist by profession. Shoghi Effendi designated her the "archetype of Bahh'i itinerant teachers and the foremost Hand Raised by Bahsi'u'llsih since 'Abdu'l-Bahii's passing."[37:3861 She was born in Richwood, Ohio, on 10 August 1872. During her youth she studied traditional classical subjects: Latin, Greek, French, German, English literature, psychology, mathematics, and the Bible. Af'ter starting her professional career as a teacher, school administrator, and lecturer, she began writing, and in 1900 her future as a newspaper reporter commenced with an editorship followed by the first of
41 4
ROOT, MARTHA LOUISE
her travels-to France as an automobile magazine editor in 1902. She was introduced to the Bahb'i Faith by Roy C. Wilhelm in 1908 and embraced it in early 1909. Another of Martha's mentors was the first American Baha'i, Thornton Chase. Her first newspaper article on the Faith appeared in the Pittsburgh Post on 26 September 1909. She obtained several hundred copies and mailed them to people all around the world, including many to her new Baha'i £riends, to be used for local publicity. Her dedication to her Faith was confirmed during the visit of 'Abdu'l-Bahh to the United States in 1912, when she attended as many meetings as possible including two private interviews. She spoke of one of the high points in her life being her attendance at a picnic for 'Abdu'l-Bahh at the home of the Wilhelms, West Englewood, New Jersey, on 29 June. At the age of 40 she embarked on a new career. She had long wanted to travel to other lands to spread the Faith, and the first of her legendary round-the-world trips began on 30 January 1915-a feat that she accomplished four times, with extensive stays in China and Japan (four visits) and India (three visits). These tours included every major city in South America, 26 states in America, Canada, Europe, Asia, the Middle East, A£iica, Australia, and Central America. By 1912, Martha was eagerly studying Esperanto and later used it extensively during her travels. She addressed many audiences and helped in the translation of Baha'i literature into that language. She attended some 12 international Esperanto Congresses and even taught for a while in an Esperanto school in China. In his history of the first Baha'i century, God Passes By, Shoghi Effendi wrote of Martha, Not only through her preponderating share in initiating measures for the translation and dissemination of Bahi'i literature, but above all through her prodigious and indeed unique exertions in the international teaching field, [she] has covered herself with a glory that has not only eclipsed the achievements of the teachers of the Faith among her contemporaries the globe around but has outshone the feats accomplished by any of its propagators in the course of the entire century. To Martha Root, that archetype of Bahi'i itinerant teachers and the foremost Hand Raised by Bahi'u'llih since 'Abdu'l-Bahb's passing, must be awarded, if her manifold services and the supreme act of her life are to be correctly appraised, the title of Leading Ambassadress of His Faith and Pride of Bahii'i teachers, whether men or women, in both the East and the West.[37:386fl [She] transmitted the message of the New Day to kings, queens, princes and princesses, presidents of republics, ministers and statesmen, publicists, professors, clergymen and poets, as well as a vast
ROSENBERG, ETHEL JENNER 41 5
number of people in various walks of life, and contacted, both officially and informally, religious congresses, peace societies, Esperanto associations, socialist congresses, Theosophical societies, women's clubs and other kindred organization~.[~~~~~fl Her eight successive audiences with HRH Queen Marie of Romania resulted in the Queen embracing the Cause. In her book The Guardian of the Bahh'i Faith, 'Amatu'l-Bahh R@iyyih Uhum wrote, "Martha Root reported to Shoghi Effendi the account of the first of her eight interviews with Queen Marie of Rumania, which took place on January 30,1926, in Controceni Palace in Bucharest, at the request of the Queen herself, after she had received Dr. Esslemont's book, Bah6'u'llhh and the New Era, sent to her by Ma~-tha."[~~:~~] One of the main results of this report was to begin a long series of correspondences between Shoghi Effendi and Queen Marie. As she traveled around the world, the pain of a back injury incurred when she was a youth caused her to experience excruciating pain in her back, legs, and neck. Not long before her death the cause of her pain was diagnosed as cancer (which had apparently been present but undiagnosed as far back as 1912). After an intensive 15-month teaching tour in India she set sail on 29 December 1938 for Australia and New Zealand, where, during the course of 40 lectures and several broadcasts in Sydney in four weeks, she had a minor heart attack. She continued with her intensive teaching schedule and sailed fiom New Zealand for San Francisco at the end of May 1939 and reached Honolulu, Hawaii, on 7 June, in such pain that she could not address the many fiiends who had gathered to greet her. She had to go to the hospital and on 28 September 1939, gently, peacefully, and finally out of pain, passed away. Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Martha's unnumbered admirers throughout Baha'i world lament with me earthly extinction her heroic life. Concourse on high acclaim her elevation rightful position galaxy Baha'i immortals. . . . Advise hold befitting memorial gathering Temple honor one whose acts shed imperishable lustre American Baha'i community."[7:6437 59,93:491,115:291 For further biographical details refer to Martha Root, Herald of the Kingdom: A ROSENBERG, ETHEL JENNER (1858-1930). Designated by Shoghi Effendi as "England's outstanding Baha'i pioneer ~orker,"[~~ she : ~ was ~ 1 born in Bath, England, on 6 August 1858 and became a Baha'i in mid-1899. An artist by profession, she was well known in the London art world as a prolific and accomplished
41 6
ROWLING, MARGARET
miniature portrait painter and was much in demand in social circles. One of these "social circle" ladies, Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper, possibly the first Bahb'i in England, introduced her to the Bahb'i Faith. Over the coming years she devoted ever-increasing time to its promotion. She went on pilgrimage in 1901, staying in the Holy Land for four months as the guest of 'Abdu'l-Bahsi before traveling onward to America with Mirzsi Abu'l-Fadl-i-Gulpsiygsini. In all, she made three visits to the United States and visited Paris frequently, meeting with the small but growing French community and working with Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper and May Maxwell. During one such visit she taught the Faith to Lady Blomfield. She accompanied Laura Clifford Barney to 'Akksi for eight months in 1904 and while there assisted her in the compilation of Some Answered Questions. She was a gifted lecturer and wrote several pieces of introductory literature. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahh when He arrived in England and later assisted Lady Blomfield in the production and distribution of Paris Talks. She was on the first Bahb'i administrative body in England and went to the Holy Land again in early December 1921, only to find 'Abdu'l-Bahb had passed away. She remained for a time in Haifa and was able to be of considerable assistance to Shoghi Effendi and the ladies of the Holy Family. She was treated with the greatest respect by Shoghi Effendi, and in his letters to her after her return he would refer to her as "dear and precious Rosa." On her return to England, despite declining health, she worked ceaselessly for the Faith, being secretary of the London local Spiritual Assembly and a member of the National Spiritual Assembly. Some time later she returned to Haifa, where she worked as a secretary and collaborator to Shoghi Effendi, leaving finally for England again in 1927. In October of that year he wrote to her, "I grieve to learn of your failing health and mental restlessness. How much I miss you this year. I will most assuredly pray for you from the bottom of my heart. Your past services are engraved upon my heart and mind." She passed away on 17 November 1931, and Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Deeply grieved passing Rosenberg England's outstanding Bahh'i pioneer worker. Memory her glorious service will never die. 'Abdu'l-Bahb's family join me in expressing heartfelt condolences her brother relatives. 123:55,2191 Urge fiiends hold befitting memorial service."[3:262,41:90, ROWLING, MARGARET (1897-1981). An early (1938) Australian believer, she pioneered to Nournea in 1954. Throughout the period 1956 to 1975 she traveled extensively throughout the islands of the
RUHE, DAVID S.
41 7
Pacific in the promotion of the Cause. In 1957 she was appointed an Auxiliary Board member, and in 1963 she was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the South P a ~ i f i c . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] RUHE, DAVID S. (1913-2005). (Member, Universal House of Justice, 1968-1 993.) A distinguished physician by profession (1941, Temple University School of Medicine), he was also an educator (serving as the first professor of medical communications at the University of Kansas Medical School), a filmmaker, watercolorist, medical illustrator, and author. He served in World War I1 as a malaria researcher in the United States Public Health Service (eventually reaching the rank of medical director). Among his medical accomplishments were the introduction of optical fibers for endoscopic cinematography, the projection of high-definition images in surgical theaters, and videotaping of psychiatric sessions for peer review. During his career he created many award-winning medical films (for example, he received the Golden Reel award, the Venice Film Festival award, and the Royal Photographic Society of Great Britain award for his productions). His work in this area saw his appointment as director of the Medical Film Institute for the Association of American Medical Colleges.[149: Omb" 16, 20051 Among his Bahti'i publications were two books: Door of (a detailed explanation of the history and significance of Baha'i holy places in Israel) and Robe of Light[ll41(a historical account of Bahb'u'llhh's early years). He became a Baha'i in Philadelphia in 1941. In 1959 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahti'is of the United States, serving as secretary £rom 1963 to 1968, when he was elected to the Universal House of Justice, and retiring in 1993. On his death on 8 September 2005, the Universal House of Justice wrote as follows: The passing of David S. Ruhe, our dearly loved former colleague, deprives the world community of a steadfast, tireless, long-standing servant of the Blessed Beauty-a loss deeply deplored. Imbued with an enthusiasm for the Teachings based on a vast knowledge of the Cause, and gifted with capacity to nurture dedication in others, he pursued a wide range of BahB'i endeavours over a period of more than six decades. These were marked by his work as a member and later the Secretary of the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and were subsequently highlighted by his outstanding services as a member for 25 years of the Universal House of Justice. Physician, artist, author, film-maker, he devoted the force of his many talents to the promotion
41 8
RULERS
of the Faith of Bahh'u'llhh with a humanitarian spirit and strength of will characteristic of his approach to the teaching and administrative activities that engaged his energies. Moreover, during his sojourn in the Holy Land, he contributed significantly to educational efforts of the medical institutions in Haifa. . . . May his valiant soul receive a joyous welcome in the Abhii Kingdom and be blessed with perpetual progress throughout the spiritual worlds. We ardently pray in the Holy Shrines for these divine bestowals. The friends everywhere are advised to hold befitting memorial gatherings, including cornrnemorative services in his honour in all the Houses of Worship (Maariqu'l-
A&khrs).[149:0ctnb~16,20051
RULERS. See ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER, ~
a ' f .
R U T F J ~ L NILS , (1895-1970). He and his wife, Sigrid, were the first Samer (Lapps) to embrace the Cause (1961).[14:4831 RUTSTEIN, NATHAN (1931-2006). An American believer perhaps best known within the Bahi'i community for his work in race relations, he cofounded a program known as "Institutes for the Healing of Racism," which has some 200 centers throughout the United States, Canada, Fiji, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. He was drafted into the U.S. military and served in Okinawa, where he became a Bahi'i. His professional life included work as a journalist for local newspapers and radio stations, culminating in news reporting for TV news in Minneapolis, Philadelphia, and New York; in the last location he worked as a producer and editor of international news for ABC and NBC networks. He was known, too, for his work as an educator (he was a Kellogg Foundation lecturer on racism) and author of some 20 books, including works on racism, biography, spirituality, media, and educational reform.
SA'AD, 'ABDU'L-JAL~L BEY. See 'ABDU'L-JAL~LBEY SA'AD.
S ~ I R S~~, M
~(1958-1983). N (Martyr.) A young Bahi'i who was executed along with other coreligionists in miriiz, hain, by the government in June 1983 for refusing to recant her belief in BahP'u'fl&.[18:6001
S A B ~ISOBEL , LOCKE
41 9
s A B ~W , S A N ABDEL-FATTAH (1922-2000). A mechanical engineer by profession, he was born in Cairo, Egypt. He served on the local Spiritual Assembly of Cairo as a young man before traveling to England to complete postgraduate studies. While in the United Kingdom (1945-1950) he served on a number of local SpiritualAssemblies as well as on the National Youth Committee and the National Teaching Committee. In 1951 he married an American believer, Isobel Locke Sabri, and immediately pioneered with his new bride to Dares Salaam, Tanzania. In 1954 they relocated to Kampala, Uganda, and some years later fiom there to Kenya. In 1983, at the invitation of the Universal House of Justice they moved to Haifa, where he was instrumental in the establishment of the Office for Social and Economic Development. Following the death of his wife (1992) he married Betty Goode (1994) and continued his services at the Bahi'i World Centre. In 1996 the couple moved to the United K i n g d ~ m . [On ~ ~ learning ~~~] of his passing on 11 November 2000 the Universal House of Justice wrote as follows to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United Kingdom: "The news of the passing of our valued co-worker and promoter of the Cause, Hassan Sabri, has deeply saddened our hearts. From the time of his youth in Egypt he energetically participated in Baha'i activities. This was followed by his wholehearted support of the teaching and pioneer work in the United Kingdom, in East Africa and, indeed, throughout the African Continent, to be crowned by his devoted services in the Holy Land. He subsequently enriched the record of his services with teaching trips to many parts of the world, encouraging the friends in the execution of their teaching and community plans. He is now undoubtedly reaping in the Abhi Kingdom the rewards of a lifetime of courageous, sustained and strenuous efforts in the path of His love. We pray in the Holy Shrines for the continued progress of his noble soul in the heavenly realms." s A B ~ ISOBEL , LOCKE (19261992). An American believer (1945), she pioneered to the United Kingdom in 1946 as a Bahb'i pioneer and teacher. She moved with her husband (Hasan Abdel Fattah Sabrf) to East Africa following a call from Shoghi Effendi for pioneers. They served the Cause in Tanganyika, Uganda, and Kenya. She served on the Regional Spiritual Assembly of Central and East Africa before being appointed in 1968 a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in AfXca. In 1983 she was appointed a member of the International Teaching Centre (of which she remained a 93:1511 member until her death in England).[20:275,
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SACRIFICE
SACRIFICE. According to Bah6'i teachings there are many aspects of sacrifice. In addition to the giving up of one's life (martyrdom) there is also the voluntary relinquishing of home, position, wealth, and even family and health in certain pioneer circumstances, and without being a pioneer, one can sacrifice time, wealth, and position to serve the Faith. 'Abdu'l-BahB, referring to Christ, wrote, Notwithstanding His knowledge of what would befall Him, He arose to proclaim His message, suffered all tribulation and hardships fiom the people and finally offered His life as a sacrifice in order to illumine humanity-gave His blood in order to guide the world of mankind. He accepted every calamity and sufferingin order to guide men to the truth. Had He desired to save His own life, and were He without wish to offer Himself in sacrifice,He would not have been able to guide a single soul. There was no doubt that His blessed blood would be shed and His body broken. Nevertheless, that Holy Soul accepted calamity and death in His love for mankind. This is one of the meanings of sacrifice. As to the second meaning: There could be no question that the physical body was born from the womb of Mary. But the reality of Christ, the Spirit of Christ, the perfections of Christ all came fiom heaven. Consequently, by saying He was the bread which came from heaven He meant that the perfections which He showed forth were divine perfections, that the blessings within Him were heavenly gifts and bestowals, that His light was the light of Reality. He said, "If any man eat of this bread, he shall live for ever." That is to say, whosoever assimilates these divine perfections which are within me will never die; whosoever has a share and partakes of these heavenly bounties I embody will find eternal life; he who takes unto himself these divine lights shall find everlasting life. How manifest the meaning is! How evident! For the soul which acquires divine perfections and seeks heavenly illumination fiom the teachings of Christ will undoubtedly live eternally. This is also one of the mysteries of sacrifice. . . . Christ outwardly disappeared. His personal identity became hidden from the eyes, even as the identity of the seed disappeared; but the bounties, divine qualities and perfections of Christ became manifest in the Christian community which Christ founded through sacrificing Himself. When you look at the tree, you will realize that the perfections, blessings, properties and beauty of the seed have become manifest in the branches, twigs, blossoms and h i t ; consequently, the seed has sacrificed itself to the tree. Had it not done so, the tree would not have come into existence. Christ, like unto the seed, sacrificed Himself for the tree of Christianity. Therefore, His perfections, bounties, favors, lights and graces became manifest in the Christian community, for the coming of which He sacrificed H i r n ~ e l f . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] 'Abdu'l-Bah6 continued, saying,
SALA, EMERIC 42 1
For instance, consider the substance we call iron. Observe its qualities; it is solid, black, cold. These are the characteristics of iron. When the same iron absorbs heat from the fire, it sacrifices its attribute of solidity for the attribute of fluidity. It sacrifices its attribute of darkness for the attribute of light, which is a quality of the fire. It sacrifices its attribute of coldness to the quality of heat which the fire possesses so that in the iron there remains no solidity, darkness or cold. It becomes illumined and transformed, having sacrificed its qualities to the qualities and attributes of the fire. . . . Likewise, man, when separated and severed from the attributes of the world of nature, sacrifices the qualities and exigencies of that mortal realm and manifests the perfections of the Kingdom, just as the qualities of the iron disappeared and the qualities of the fire appeared in their p l a ~ e . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l
SADRATU'L-MUNTA~.The Divine Lote Tree, the Tree beyond which there is no passing: symbolic of the Manifestation of God.[18:7401m See also LAW.
S&JIBU'Z-ZAM~. Lord of the Age: one of the titles of the promised Qai'im (the Baib).[18:7401m
S@D-I- HIND^. Ninth Letter of the Living.
SALA, EMERIC (1906-1990). An early (1929) Canadian Baha'i, he was born in Havas Dobrovica, Hungary, of Jewish parents. After World War I he joined the German Merchant Marine as a ship's helper and in 1927 "jumped ship" during a visit to Montrkal, Canada. In 1929 he attended a Baha'i meeting in the home of Mrs. May Maxwell and quickly embraced the Cause. He was a member of the first Canadian Baha'i Youth Group (the first organized Baha'i youth class in the Western Hemisphere). Another member of the group was his future wife, Rosemary Scott Gillies (Sala); they married in 1934. A polyglot, speaking English, Romanian, German, French, Italian, and Hungarian, he launched a successful import business, which allowed him to travel coast to coast and be an active teacher and promulgator of the Faith. In 1937 he met Shoghi Effendi and recorded his visit and discussions in a pamphlet entitled Shoghi Efendi b Q ~ e s t i o n . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f In 1945 he published a general introduction to the Baha'i Faith, This In 1948 he was elected to the first National Earth Is One Spiritual Assembly of Canada and served on that body until 1953, when he and his wife set out as pioneers to the Comoro Islands off the coast of East A£iica. They were refused residence by the French
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SALA, "ROSEMARY" MARY SCOTT GILLIES
authorities and resettled in Zululand. They returned to Canada briefly in the late 1960s before resettling in Guadalajara, Mexico, in 1971. Following the death of Rosemary, Emeric remarried and traveled widely with his second wife, Donya Knox (reaching as far afield as America, China, India, and Europe). SALA, "ROSEMARY" MARY SCOTT GILLIES (1902-1980). An early Canadian believer (1927) of Scottish birth. Shortly after learning of the Faith in Montrkal she attended the Bahd'i summer school in Greenacre, Maine, where she was one of three Marys present on that occasion and, to avoid confusion, was given the name Rosemary by George Spendlovc-the name by which she was known in the Bahd'i community for the rest of her life. She served as a member of the first (1948) National Spiritual Assembly of Canada for 6 years. She went on pilgrimage in 1952, during which time she met Shoghi Effendi. Following the announcement of the Ten Year Crusade she and her husband (Emeric Sala) pioneered in 1954 to Zululand. When their visas were not renewed, they moved the following year to Port Elizabeth, South Africa, where they remained for some 13 years (during which time she served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of South and West Afica) before returning to Canada. ~~~ learning ~] of In 1971 they moved to Guadalajara, M e x i c ~ . [ l On her passing, the Universal House of Justice wrote to her husband, "Extend loving sympathy passing your beloved companion after long years united service Faith. Have sent following cable National Spiritual Assembly Canada 'Express our profound sorrow passing Rosemary Sala dedicated veteran servant Bahd'u'lliih pioneer teaching fields Africa Americas member first National Assembly Canada tireless effective devoted Bahd'i teacher throughout long Bahd'i life. Assure prayers Holiest Shrines progress her soul worlds God."' SALAM. Peace, salutation. Saldmun 'Alaykum, Peace be with you! A greeting among Muslims. Va's S a l h , and peace (be with yoU)~[~~~7401Q
SAMAND&, T & Z U ' L L ~ (1874-1968). (Hand of the Cause of God.) A calligrapher and scribe of considerable note, he was born in 1874 in Qazvin, Persia, of illustrious Baibi parents, his father being the Apostle of Bahai'u'llaih Mullai -em-i-Samandar. He is unique, not only among the Hands of the Cause, but also in the wider Bahh'i community, in that he had the privilege of actively serving
the Faith under Bahh'u'llhh, the entire period of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's ministry, the entire period of Shoghi Effendi's Guardianship, and the interregnum years of the Ministry of the Custodians as well as five years under the Universal House of Justice. He was 17 years old when he first met Baha'u'llih and was in His entourage for six months before His passing in 1892, during which time he was given the name Tarh'llih. 'Abdu'l-Baha referred to him as "Mirzti Tar&," while Shoghi Effendi addressed him as "Jinib-i-Samandari." Taught at home, he became a noted calligrapher, and throughout his life he copied the Baha'i Scriptures. Regarded as a well-educated man he was in fact without formal education but deeply immersed in the Scriptures he had copied and memorized. He spent most of his life in traveling for the Faith and undertaking commissions of great importance for 'Abdu'l-Bahh and Shoghi Effendi. Tributes to his steadfastness and dedication appear in a large number of their letters. Mr. Samandari was among the first contingent of living Hands of the Cause appointed on 24 December 1951, and he continued to serve with distinction right up to his passing on 2 September 1968. In 1953, he attended the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conferences in Kampala, Wilmette, Stockholm, and New Delhi. He visited many centers in the U.S. in that same year and attended the Arabian Peninsular Convention in 1957 and the Intercontinental Conferences of Kampala and Singapore in 1958 and the Convention of Burma in 1959. He carried out extensive travels throughout 'Irsiq, irsin, P6kisti1-1, India, Ceylon, Burma, and Turkey during the period 1959-1 963. In 1967 he represented the Universal House of Justice at an Intercontinental Conference in Wilmette, where, as the only surviving Hand who had met Bahh'u'lliih, his small upright figure, his clear and resonant voice, his courtesy, dignity, and kindliness thrilled and inspired the more than 3,000 Baha'is attending the conference. During this visit to the West he also met Baha'is and addressed meetings, at the age of 92, in Alaska, Canada, the United States, England, and Germany. In late August 1968 he visited the Holy Land to attend the commemorations of the centenary of Baha'u'llhh's arrival on those shores, but his health deteriorated, and he went into the hospital. Many of the friends visited him and found his mind lucid and his radiance undimmed; he asked only that the fiiends pray that he remain steadfast to the end of his fast-fading life. He passed away content. One report of the funeral indicated that "nearly 1,000 souls attended, most of them joining the funeral cortkge proceeding from the Master's House,
where the service was held, to the Bahh'i Cemetery at the foot of Mt. Carmel. . . . The fbneral was one of the largest and most impressive since the time of the Master." The Universal House of Justice cabled, "With sorrowful hearts announce passing Hand Cause God, Shield His Faith, dearly-loved Tartiq'llih Samandari ninety-third year his life on morrow commemoration centenary Baha'u'llih's arrival Holy Land. Faithful to last breath instructions his Lord, his Master, his Guardian, he continued selfless devoted service unabated until falling ill recent teaching mission. Unmindful illness he proceeded Holy Land participate Centenary. Ever remembered hearts believers East West to whose lands he traveled bearing message his Lord whose communities he faithfully served. This precious remnant Heroic Age who attained presence Blessed Beauty year His Ascension, now laid rest foot mountain God throng believers assembled vicinity very spot Bahh'u'llih first trod these sacred shores. Request all National Assemblies hold memorial services including four Mother Temples Bahh'i World befitting long life dedicated exemplary service Lord Hosts by one assured Center Covenant loving welcome presence Bahh'u'llih AbhP Kingdom. Extend loving sympathy assurance prayers members distinguished
SAMANDAR~, URSULA NEWMAN (1909-2003). (Knight of Bahai'u'llaih.) An English believer (1936), born Ursula Newman in Mitcham, Surrey, she rendered many historically significant pioneering and teaching services in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Africa. She was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles (1945-195 I), Northeast Africa (1961-1970), and Cameroon (1972-1974, 1975-1980). She was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Belfast, Northern Ireland; Dublin, Republic of Ireland (indeed Dublin was the first local Spiritual Assembly in Ireland); and Mogadishu, Somalia (her move to Somalia in 1953 with her husband Mihdi Sarnandari, whom she had married in 1951, earned them the honorific title Knights of Bah6'u'lliih). She also served on the English local SpiritualAssemblies of London and Bristol and as well as that of Nairobi, Kenya. While resident in Ireland she served as secretary to Hand of the Cause of God George T o ~ n s h e n d . [ ~ l : ~ ~ ~ ]
-.
S& The officer in charge of the Christian Armenian regiment that made the first unsuccessful attempt to execute the BPb. See also ~ hMARTYRDOM , OF.
SCHOLARSHIP 425
S A ~ R - A Q A Literally, . the Honorable Master. A designation of 'Abdu'l-Bahh.[18:7401m SATAN. See EVIL ONE. SCHEFFLER, CARL (1883-1962). An early American believer. He became a BahB'i at the age of 16; he was the 665th to have declared his faith in Chicago. In 1907 he visited 'Abdu'l-Bahai in 'Akkai. He was a member of the first House of Justice of Chicago (which later evolved into the local Spiritual Assembly of Chicago). In 1925 he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada, on which he served until 1938.[12:939,92:65ffl SCHMIDT, EUGEN (1901-1982). An early (1924) German believer, he was a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of Germany fiom 1932 onward. He was also a member of the local Spiritual Assemblies of Stuttgart and then Leinfelden-Echterdingen. He served as editor of Bah6 'iNachrichten (a monthly Bahh'i newsletter) and of Sonne der Wahrheit (a Bahh'i periodical). He contributed greatly to the raising up of the German national Hq'ratu'l-Quds (1952) and the building of the Mother Temple of Europe (Mahriqu'l-Aakhr) (1964), both of which are in Langenhain near Frankfurt. In later years he served as an Auxiliary Board member.[17:8001 SCHOLARSHIP. Scholarship has a high rank in the Cause of God, and the Universal House of Justice continually consults the views of scholars and experts in the course of its work. However, . . . scholars and experts have no authority over the Institutions of the Cause. In a letter written on behalf of the Guardian, on 14 March 1927, to the Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Istanbul, it is pointed out how, in the past, it was certain individuals who "accounted themselves as superior in knowledge and elevated in position" who caused division, and that it was those "who pretended to be the most distinguished of all" who "always proved themselves to be the source of contention." "But praise be to God" he continued, "that the Pen of Glory has done away with the unyielding and dictatorial views of the learned and the wise, dismissed the assertions of individuals as an authoritative criterion, even though they were recognized as the most accomplished and learned among men and ordained that all matters be referred to authorized centres and specified assemblies. Even so, no assembly has been invested with the absolute authority to deal with such general matters as affect the interests of nations. Nay,
426
SCHOLARSHIP
rather, He has brought all the assemblies together under the shadow of the one House of Justice, one divinely-appointed Centre, so that there would be only one Centre and all the rest integrated into a single body, revolving around one expressly-designated Pivot, thus making them all proof against schism and Elsewhere in a letter to an individual, the Universal House of Justice wrote that it believes that it will be helpful to set the problem in the context of the current intellectual and spiritual crisis afflicting society at large. Scholarly W i n g and professional experience will have sensitized you to the implications for the study of religion of certain assumptions about human nature and the processes of civilization that a purely materialistic interpretation of reality has imposed on scholarly activity of every kind, at least in the Western world. A related paradigm for the study of religion has gradually consolidated itself in the prevailing academic culture during the course of the present century. It insists that all spiritual and moral phenomena must be understood through the application of a scholarly apparatus devised to explore existence in a way that ignores the issues of God's continuous relationship with His creation and His intervention in human life and history. Yet, from a Bahgi point of view, it is precisely this intervention that is the central theme of the Teachings of the Founders of the revealed religions ostensibly being studied. As a result of this insistence, opinions that should have remained matters of learned speculation have tended to assume the character of dogma. Equally regrettable is an intolerant attitude toward other perceptions of reality, which too often characterizesthe expression of these opinions. In the context of historical circumstance, this development is understandable. The rigid intolerance exhibited in the past by much of organized religion, together with the domination of scholarship long exercised by theological elites, could not but arouse strong negative reactions. From a Bahii'i point of view, however, bigotry is retrograde and unacceptable in whatever form it chooses to present itself. Such conditions would not normally be a matter for comment; they represent only a few among the host of less than encouraging circumstances in which the Cause must carry out its work. Devotion to learning has been an integral feature of Bahb'i life and belief fiom the beginning. It ensures that the community will not be deterred by shortcomings in any of the traditions of scholarship from according these traditions the full respect they merit or fiom seeking to benefit to the utmost fiom such endeavours. Problems will arise, rather, if an attempt is made to impose, on the Bahii'i community's own study of the Revelation, materialistic methodologies [see MATERIALSIM] and attitudes antithetical to its very
SCHOPFLOCHER, SIEGFRIED 427
nature. The Faith is not the possession of any among us, but belongs to Bahh'u'llhh. Through the Covenant, which is a distinguishing feature of His Revelation, He has specified in unmistakable terms the means by which He wills to preserve the integrity of His message and to guide the implementation of His prescriptions for humankind. If one accepts the Bahii'i Teachings, one cannot, in good conscience, claim to be studying the Faith while ignoring the centrality of BahB'u'llhh's Covenant to all aspects of the religion He has e ~ t a b l i s h e d . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 1
In a letter dated 10 December 1992 the Universal House of Justice expressed the view that scholarship was not to be limited solely to academics: "There should be room within the scope of Bahii'i scholarship to accommodate not only those who are interested in theological issues and in the historical origins of the Faith, but also those who are interested in relating the Bahii7i Teachings to their field of academic or professional interest, as well as those believers who may lack formal academic qualifications but who have, through their perceptive study of the Teachings, acquired insights which are of interest to Earlier, in 1974, the Universal House of Justice called upon the Canadian Bahii'i community to cultivate opportunities for formal presentations, courses, and lectureships on the Bahii'i Faith in universities and other institutions of higher learning from which a Canadian Association for Studies on the Bahii'i Faith was established. Based on that model, a number of other countries set up their own national and regional Associations for Bahd'i Studies. These associations publish papers from their annual and theme conferences, and other Bahii'i agencies and forums have become affiliated with each, publishing their findings in such periodicals as Bahh'i Studies.[170,lK5,223-2321 See the bibliography for a listing of current associations. SCHOPFLOCHER, FLORENCE (KITTY OR LOROL) ( 1 8 8 6 1970). An early (early 1920s) Canadian believer who is reputed to have traveled around the world nine times sharing the Bahii'i MesS a g e . [ 1 0 5 : V ~ l . ~ L NOS.3,s & 6 , PP. 90,150, 1861 She was the wife of Hand of the Cause of God Siegfried S~hopflocher.['~:~~~1 SCHOPFLOCHER, SIEGFRIED (FRED) (1877-1953). (Hand of the Cause of God.) Although he was born in Germany of orthodox Jewish parents, he drifted away from orthodoxy, and later, following his emigration to Canada, he embraced the Cause in 1921. He was an extremely astute and successful businessman rising to the presidency
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SCHUBARTH, JOHANNA
of the Bronze Powder Works (which held global patents for bronze powder). Following his acceptance of the Faith, he made the first of many visits to the Holy Land as a Bahb'i in 1922. He quickly evinced devotion to Shoghi Effendi and carried out many assignments at his behest. His business responsibilities saw him visit many corners of the globe, and he invariably set aside time to meet local Baha'is. His main concerns in North America were the building of the first House of Worship in the West (Mahriqu'l-Aakiir) in Wilmette, Chicago, for which Shoghi Effendi named him "the Chief Temple B~ilder,"[~~:~~l and the repair, development, and expansion of the permanent Bahb'i summer school at Green Acre, and later the one at Geyserville. Beginning in 1924 he was elected for 15 of the next 23 years to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada, and when Canada formed a separate national body in 1948, he was elected and remained a member until his death. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause by Shoghi Effendi in the second contingent on 29 February 1952. He learned of his appointment while on pilgrimage. 'Amatu'l-Bahh Riihiyyih m h n u m wrote of his appointment, "I was present when he told Fred Schopflocher at the Pilgrim House table that he was making him a Hand; Freddie turned so white I thought he was going to faint!"[59'31 He attended the Canadian National Convention the following April (1953) and planned to attend the Indian (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference later that year in New Delhi but passed away in Montrkal on 27 July. Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Profoundly grieved passing dearly-loved, outstandingly staunch Hand Cause Fred Schopflocher. His numerous, magnificent services extending over 30 years administrative teaching spheres United States, Canada, Institutions Bahb'i World Center greatly enrich annals Formative Age Faith. [For a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age."] Abundant reward assured Abhh Kingdom. Advising American National Assembly hold befitting memorial gathering Temple he generously helped raise. Advise hold memorial gathering Maxwell home to commemorate his eminent part rise Administrative Order Faith Canada. Urge ensure burial close neighborhood resting place distinguished Hand of Cause ~:~~~, Sutherland M a ~ w e l l . " [ ~62:6471 SCHUBARTH, JOHANNA (1877-1952). (Spiritual Mother of Norway.) The founding member of the Norwegian Bahb'i cornmunity-
SCIENCE 429
entitled the "Mother of the Norwegian community" by Shoghi ~ff~~di.[ll:694,93:499] SCHWARTZ, ALBERT (1871-1931). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-BahP.) Born 14 December 1871, Consul Schwartz became a most active promoter of the Bahb'i Faith in Germany and was the chairman of its National Spiritual Assembly £rom its formation up to the time he passed away on 13 January 1931. During the visit of 'Abdu'lBahii to Germany in 1913, he and his wife, Alice Schwarz-Solivo, entertained Him on several occasions. They took Him to the hotel and mineral bath they owned at Bad Mergentheim, some 60 miles from Stuttgart. Later he followed 'Abdu'l-Bahb to Paris and enjoyed several days in His presence. He had planned to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahb in Haifa, but He passed away unexpectedly before the consul and his wife were able to make the journey. They later went on pilgrimage at the invitation of Shoghi Effendi. On his passing Shoghi Effendi cabled Albert's family, "Inexpressibly sad profoundly deplore passing Germany's outstanding Bahb'i pioneer worker. Memory his distinguished service imperishable. Greatest Holy Leaf joins me assurance affectionate prayer, heartfelt condolen~es."[~:~~~] SCHWARZ-SOLIVO, ALICE (1875-1965). An early German believer, she learned of the Cause in 1912 from Edwin Fisher, an American dentist and the first Bahb'i to go to Germany. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahii in 1913 in Stuttgart and received Him in her home as a guest (she was the wife of Consul Albert Schwarz). She later received a Tablet from 'Abd~'l-Bahi.[l~:~~~] SCHWEIZER, ANNEMARIE (1884-1957). One of the earliest German believers. She met 'Abdu'l-BahP several times, and He stayed in her home when visiting Stuttgart. She visited Shoghi Effendi in 1934. During the prohibition of the Bahi'i faith by Hitler she was arrested by the Gestapo, tried before a court, and sentenced to imprisonment for her SCIENCE. Bahii'u'lliih wrote, Arts, crafts and sciences uplift the world of being, and are conducive to its exaltation. Knowledge is as wings to man's life, and a ladder for his ascent. Its acquisition is incumbent upon everyone. The knowledge of such sciences, however, should be acquired as can profit the peoples of the earth, and not those which begin with words and end with words.
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SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Great indeed is the claim of scientists and craftsmen on the peoples of the It is permissible to study sciences and arts, but such sciences as are useful and would redound to the progress and advancement of the people.[~2~261 The source of crafts, sciences and arts is the power of reflection [see INTELLECT; MEDITATION, MIND]. Make ye every effort that out of this ideal mine there may gleam forth such pearls of wisdom and utterance as will promote the well-being and harmony of all the kind r e d ~of the
'Abdu'l-Bahsi said, Encourage the children from their earliest years to master every kind of learning, and make them eager to become skilled in every art-the aim being that through the favoring grace of God, the heart of each one may become even as a mirror disclosing the secrets of the universe, penetrating the innermost reality of all things; and that each may earn world-wide fame in all branches of knowledge, science and the arts [87:144] No individual should be denied or deprived of intellectual training although each should receive according to capacity. None must be left in the grades of ignorance, for ignorance is a defect in the human world. All mankind must be given a knowledge of science and philosophy; that is, as much as may be deemed necessary. All cannot be scientists or philosophers but each should be educated according to his needs and deserts.[87:2111 Thus for the first time religion will become harmonized with science and science will be the handmaid of religion, both showering their material and spiritual gifts on all humanity. In this way the people will be lifted out of the quagmires of slothfulness and
See also SCIENCE AND RELIGION.
SCIENCE AND RELIGION. 'Abdu'l-Bahsi said, There is no contradiction between true religion and science. When a religion is opposed to science it becomes mere superstition: that which is contrary to knowledge is ignorance. . . . How can a man believe to be a fact that which science has proved to be impossible? If he believes in spite of his reason [see INTELLECT; MEDITATION; MIND], it is rather ignorant superstition than faith. The true principles of all religions are in conformity with the teachings of ~ c i e n c e ! ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Religion and science are in complete agreement. Every religion which is not in accordance with established science is superstition. Religion must be reasonable. If it does not square with reason, it is
SEARS, WILLIAM BERNARD PATRICK MICHAEL TERRANCE
43 1
superstition and without foundation. It is like a mirage, which deceives man by leading him to think it is a body of water. God has endowed man with reason that he may perceive what is true. If we insist that such and such a subject is not to be reasoned out and tested according to the established logical modes of the intellect, what is the use of the reason which God has given man?[53:631 Religion must stand the analysis of reason. It must agree with scientilic fact and proof so that science will sanction religion and religion fortify science. Both are indissolubly welded and joined in reality. If statements and teachings of religion are found to be unreasonable and contrary to science, they are outcomes of superstition and imaginati0n.[~~"~~1
In describing the future world civilization, Shoghi Effendi wrote, "In such a world society, science and religion, the two most potent forces in human life, will be reconciled, will cooperate, and will harSee also WORLD COMMONWEALTH; moniously devel0p."[~~~~~1 PRINCIPLES, B M ' ~ . SEARS, WILLIAM BERNARD PATRICK MICHAEL TERRANCE (BILL) (1911-1992). (Hand of the Cause of God.) An awardwinning radio and television personality by profession, to say nothing was born on 28 March 1911 in of a prolific author, Bill Sears[19'7951 Duluth, Minnesota, of an Irish father and a mother of mixed European background. He was raised in a Roman Catholic environment and from a very early age was interested in deeply religious questions (his mother had become a Catholic on her marriage, but his grandfather was an inquiring Protestant who introduced him to the Bible). At a young age he began writing poetry and later wrote some oneact plays. He had two children in his first marriage (his wife died, leaving him a widower). He found work as a radio announcer, first as a newsreader and later as a sports commentator. A few years later he was introduced to the Bahti'i Faith by a young lady, Marguerite Reimer, who became his wife in 1940. Soon after their marriage he became a Bahti'i while researching his first full-sized book, Thief in the He progressed in the world of media, becoming a well-known sportscaster and then the host of a regular television feature, In The Park. In 1951 The Bill Sears Show won an Emmy award as the best sports series of the year. In 1953 Marguerite attended the first (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in Kampala and fell in love with Africa. Later, at the Chicago Conference they
432
SEARS, WILLIAM BERNARD PATRICK MICHAEL TERRANCE
responded to the call for overseas pioneers and settled in South Africa. The move came at a time when he had achieved financial success, awards, and fame, both locally and nationally, and new contract offers and opportunities that would have assured him of superstar status, such was the development of the television industry. The decision to move to Africa for his faith called for him to walk away from his hard-earned fame and fortune. Soon after his arrival in Africa he had his first heart attack. He recovered and took a job in radio. In 1954 he made his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He was one of the first (1954) contingent of AuHiliary Board members appointed by Hand of the Cause of God Mush Banhni and was himself elevated to that exalted rank by Shoghi Effendi in his last contingent in October 1957. Although he had periods of serious ill health, he continued to travel widely, attending the Kampala Conference in 1958, followed by visits to the convention in France and centers throughout France, Italy, and Greece. He spent six months as one of the Nine Hands resident in Haifa. He also visited Egypt, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Zanzibar, Tanzania, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Mozambique, South Africa, Swaziland, Basutoland, and Mauritius, all in that same year. In 1959 he was assigned as Hand to the Western Hemisphere and returned to the Americas, where he toured, during the next few years, North, Central, and South America, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Alaska, El Salvador, and Guatemala, frequently as representative of the World Centre. Bill tackled the problems of ill health and aging with characteristic courage and ingenuity-he simply soldiered on. He was a member of the Nine Hands of the Cause resident in the Holy Land fiom 1961 to 1963. In 1963 he attended the (Jubilee) World Congress in the Albert Hall, London, where he shared the platform with Philip Hainsworth at the public meeting, which had an audience of more than 7,000. After this he visited Hawaii, Australia, and Africa, returning to the United States in February 1964. In 1966 he returned yet again to Africa when Hand of the Cause John Robarts returned to Canada. He traveled widely during the next few years in Europe, the Americas, Persia, and Africa. From his temporary new base in Canada in 1974, he continued his writing; the production of audio cassettes, radio, and television programs; and visits to Korea, Japan, Hawaii, Samoa, Iceland, the Scottish Islands, and centers throughout Canada and the United States. He attended conferences, summer schools, conventions, and meetings with National Spiritual Assemblies and the Continental Board of Counsellors, often as the
SEARS, WILLIAM BERNARD PATRICK MICHAEL TERRANCE
433
representative of the Universal House of Justice. He launched and inspired many teaching campaigns, galvanizing the fiends to tremendous activity with his vivid presentations and powerll oratory. Examples of these were seen at an International Convention in Haifa and the conference that followed the dedication of the Indian House of Worship (Mashriqu'l-Adhksir), New Delhi. His book on the perreleased secutions of the Bahi'is of hiin, A C v J i o m the in early 1982, became a potent force in raising the consciousness of its readers to the persecutions and sufferings and steadfastness of the h h i a n believers, and it was widely used in most parts of the Englishspeaking Bahi'i communities. Bill taped a dramatic appeal for support for a Bahi'i radio station in South Carolina, and it was broadcast in more than 1,000 Bahh'i communities on 12 December 1983. This resulted in an unprecedented outpouring of funds. He was a powerful public speaker, and when it was known he was to speak, there would be standing room only at his meeting. During the later years of his life when he was unable to travel widely, he continued to inspire conferences and gatherings of all kinds with his taped messages, which always conveyed his dedication to the Faith, his deep love for Shoghi Effendi, his comprehensive knowledge of the Bahi'i Scripture, his vision of the future development of the Cause, and his supreme optimism for its triumph. In October 1991 he began an intensive tour, stopping in Massachusetts, Arizona, California, and Oregon. In February of the following year he visited New York City; Cleveland, Ohio; Washington, D.C.; and Chicago, Illinois. In March he was in Atlanta, Georgia, and Minneapolis, Minnesota. This exhausting itinerary does not convey the additional pressures of hours of waiting in airports in the middle of the night, the missed connections, the terrible weather conditions, or the traveling in a wheelchair. His 81st birthday would have been 28 March 1992, but he passed away the morning of the 25th, and the Universal House of Justice cabled, "Our hearts deeply saddened, Bahd'i world greatly deprived, by passing Hand Cause God William Sears, vibrant, consecrated, stout-hearted Standard-Bearer Faith Bahh'u'llhh. His more than half century unbroken service marked by unflinching devotion to beloved Guardian, infectious enthusiasm for teaching, galvanizing sense drama, disarming humor, special love for children, unflagging determination in face difficulties. He will ever be remembered for dedicating full range his creative and energetic capacities as writer, editor, lecturer, radio and television program director, to his various
434
SECURITY
services as traveling teacher to numerous countries, particularly in the Americas, and as pioneer to Africa where he was member of Auxiliary Board and of National Spiritual Assembly South and West A k a when in 1957 he was elevated rank Hand Cause. He later served a member body Hands Holy Land. His loss acutely felt in North America where he expended last measure his ebbing strength promotion teaching activities. Dynamic effects his work will endure through his many books and recordings. Generations to come will rejoice in rich legacy left them through his historic accomplishments. Fervently praying Holy Shrines progress his illustrious soul Abhii Kingdom. Advise friends throughout world commemorate his passing. Request befitting memorial services in his honor all Houses of WOrShiP."[130:May19921 For further biographical information, refer to the biography Bill: A Biography of Hand of the Cause of God William by his wife, Marguerite Reimer Sears. SECURITY. See CALAMITIES AND CRISES; PEACE. SEEPE, LOT MAX (1908-1982). He and his wife (May Martha Seepe) were the first black believers (1955) to embrace the Cause in South Africa. He served as chair of the local Spiritual Assembly for Western, Newclare, and Sophiatown Townships. In 1956 he was elected to the first Regional Spiritual Assembly of South and West Africa and served in that capacity for 25 years until his passing in 1982. He traveled widely throughout the region in the promotion of the C a ~ s e . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] SEEPE, MAY MARTHA. She and her husband (Lot Max Seepe) were the first "colored" believers to accept the Faith in South A£rica. She was a polyglot (English, A£rikaans, Sesotho, Zulu, and Xhosa), a skill that enhanced her teaching activities, which stretched over seven countries in Southern Africa. She served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Johannesburg for some 30 y e a r ~ . [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] SENNE, DOROTHY KEDIBONE (1931-1977). The first (1955) African woman in South Africa to embrace the C a u ~ e . [ '93:5031 ~~~~, SERVICE. Service to others, to society, and to the work of the Faith is viewed as highly meritorious. Bahi'u'lliih wrote, "That one indeed is a man who, today, dedicateth himself to the service of the entire
SHARP, ADELAIDE 435
human race. The Great Being saith: Blessed and happy is he that ariseth to promote the best interests of the peoples and kindreds of the earth. . . . Wert thou to consider this world, and realize how fleeting are the things that pertain unto it, thou wouldst choose to tread no path except the path of service to the Cause of thy And again, elsewhere, he said that "man's merit lieth in service and virtue and not in the pageantry of wealth and 'Abdu'l-Bahai said, "Consecrate and devote yourselves to the betterment and service of all the human "Forget thou entirely the ease, tranquility, composure and living of this transitory world and occupy thyself with the well-being and the service of the human world and conduct thyself in accord with the advices and exhortations of God."[159:6591 Shoghi Effendi, through his secretary, wrote, "Every individual, no matter how handicapped and limited he may be, is under the obligation of engaging in some work or profession, for work, especially when performed in the spirit of service, is according to Bahb'u711&, a form of ~ o r s h i p . " [ l ~And ~ : ~again: ~ ] "Vie ye with each other in the service of God and of His Cause. This is indeed what profiteth you in this world, and in that which is to come. Your Lord, the God of Mercy, is the All-Informed, the All-Kno~ing."[~~:~~1
S&-BAHR~. -
World Savior and Promised One of the Zoroastrians, identified by Bahh'is with Bahai'~'llaih.[~~~~~]"
SHARI'AT, -
SHARI'AH. Literally, path, way, custom. Law. Muslim canonical law.[18:7401m
SHARP, ADELAIDE (1896-1976). An American believer who, being the daughter of Clara Sharp, an early believer, was fiom her birth a Bahii'i. In 1929 she accompanied Dr. Susan I. Moody to Persia to serve as principal of the Tarbiyat Girls' School in Tihriin. In 1934 the minister of education refused to allow the school to close on Bahii'i Holy Days, and Shoghi Effendi ordered it closed on the anniversary of the martyrdom of the Bhb that same year. Miss Sharp stayed on
and organized classes for boys and girls. In 1954 she was the first woman to be elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of irhn and served on that body for some 14 y e a r ~ . [ ' ~ ~ l ~ ] S H A m . Venerable old man; tribal or village chief, patriarch, sheik; learned man, elder; professor; clerical dignitary, superior of dervish order.[18:7411~
=-
AHMAD-I-AHSA'~. The founder of the a a y h i school of I ~ l h m , [ " ~fiom : ~ ~ ~which ] many of the first Bibis came. Among his doctrines, in addition to the imminent dual advent, was that the Prophet Mu~ammad'smaterial body did not ascend to heaven on the He foretold the coming of the B i b and night of the Mi'rhj.[18:7411m Bahi'u'llih: S a y & mad-i-&sP'i, that luminous star of Divine guidance who had so clearly perceived, before the year sixty, the approaching glory of Bahi'u'llih, and laid stress upon the twin Revelations which are to follow each other in rapid succession, had, on his part, made this significant statement regarding the approaching hour of that supreme Revelation, in an epistle addressed in his own hand to Siyyid K@m: "The mystery of this Cause must needs be made manifest, and the secret of this Message must needs be divulged. I can say no more. I can appoint no time. His Cause will be made known after Hin."[37:921
SHAYKIJ -
K&IM-I-RA=T~. (Apostle of Bahi'u'llih.) Also referred to as Mull6 Kiqim-i-Samandar, he was a native of Qazvin. He was an outstanding teacher of the Faith and described by Shoghi He paid special attenEffendi as "a flame of the love of God."[96:881 tion to the education of his children, taking into his residence a learned teacher to whom he had introduced the Faith and who was commended by Bahi'u'llih for being the first teacher to implement one of the laws of the Kitcib-i-Aqdas regarding the education of children. Bay& K k i m was given the title "Samandar" (literally, "flame within") after he had written a most powerful treatise, in Arabic, denouncing the claims of Mirzi Yahyi. One of his many children was Hand of the Cause of God Mirz6 TarQu'llih-iSamandari.[96:88fl
SHAYKIJ M U W M A D -
'AL~. (An Apostle of Bahi'u'llih.) An eloquent teacher of the Faith and its learned champion in Russian Turkisthn.
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437
S H A Y m MUWMMAD RIDAY-1-YAZD~. (Hand -
of the Cause of God.) Also known as Mu119 Mdpmmad-RiNy-i-MuhammadAbadi.[96:1921 He became a Bah9'i through the perusal of a single Tablet of Bahai'u'llaih, Qasidiy-i-Varqh'ljyih. On reading it he exclaimed, "I can see the Promised One of the Bayain made manifest and seated upon the throne of the words which have been revealed in this Tablet."[110'841
SHAmi. -
(Follower) of the school founded by &aym Ahmad-i-
Ahsai'i. Priest, Grand Mufti highest rank in the s H A ~ u ' L - I S L ~ High . Muslim religious hierarchy; also title of the head of a religious court, appointed to every large city by the f&sih.[18:7411" S&'AH, -
&'IH. Literally, faction, party sect: partisans of 'Ali and his descendants as the sole lawild "Vicars of the Prophet." The w'ahs reject the first three caliphs, believing that the successorship in I s l h belonged by divine right to 'Ali (first Imaim and fourth caliph) and to his descendants. Originally, the successorship was the vital point of difference, and I s l h was divided because M&ammad's (albeit verSee also SUNNAH. bal) appointment of 'Ali was di~regarded.[l~~~~]"
Member of the &i'ah S ~ i ' i SHIITE. , Shi'ah branch -
(or party) of 'Ali; Muslim of the
of I s l h .
S H -
~ ~ The Z . city in the province of Fars, irain, where the Baib was born and where, during the night of 22-23 May 1844, He revealed Himself to Mullai Husayn as the promised Qai'im. The House wherein this Declaration took place has been designated by Bahai'u'lliih in the Kitcib-i-Aqdas as a place of pilgrimage.[71'1161 The House itself has over the last 100 years been desecrated several times, and, most recently in September 1979, it was destroyed by himian religious zealots acting under the authority of the government of irh.[236:169ffl
SHOGHI EFFENDI ( R A B B ~ (1897-1957). ~) (Guardian of the Bahh'i Faith; the Sign of God on Earth; Expounder of the Words of God.) The great-grandson of Bahsi'u'llhh and the grandson of 'Abdu'l-Bahsi @IS mother being Diy9'iyyih Qhum, 'Abdu'l-Bah6's eldest daughter). His father was Mirz9 H9di S i r h i , a relative of the
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SHOGHI EFFENDI
Bhb. He was born on 1 March 1897 in ' A M , Palestine. He went to school first in Haifa and then in Beirut, where in 1918 he received a B.A. at the American University. 'Abdu'l-Bahh sent him to Oxford University, England, where he entered Balliol College in the spring of 1920. The whole of his education, he believed, was to equip himself better to serve his beloved grandfather, but he, in common with all his family, had no idea that he was being prepared for the role of Guardian as decreed in 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Testament. This document was handed to him on his arrival in Haifa by train just one month after 'Abdu'l-Bahh's death in the early hours of 28 November 1921. The Will was in three parts, and even in the first section, which had been written when Shoghi Effendi was but a small child, as well as in the other two, he was named as the "Guardian of the Cause of God," "the sign of God," "the chosen branch," and the "Center of the Cause." The Covenant of Bahh'u'llih had appointed 'Abdu'l-Bahh as His Successor as Head of the Bahh'i Faith with authority to provide for further succession. It was a grievous blow to him to learn of the passing of his grandfather, as he had not been aware that He was ill. But when this was added to the news of his "appointment" when he reached Haifa and was handed 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Will, it was almost more than he could bear. Added to these twinblows were the attacks made upon him by illwishers, Covenant breakers, and later, by those who unsuccessllly challenged the authenticity of the Will. From the beginning it became clear to those around him how wise had been 'Abdu'l-Bahi's choice of a Successor, as we read fiom Twenty-JiveYears of Guardianship:"We beheld a young man of only 24 standing at the helm of the Cause and some of the fliencls felt impelled to advise him about what it would be wise for him to do next. It was then that we began to know not only the nature of our first Guardian but the nature of the entire Institution of Guardianship, for we quickly discovered that Shoghi Effendi was 'unreachable.' Neither relatives, old Bahh'is or new Bahii'is, well wishers or ill wishers could sway his judgment or influence his decisions. We quickly came to realize that he was not only divinely guided but had been endowed by God with just those characteristics needed to build up the Administrative Order, unite the believers in common endeavor and co-ordinate their world-wide In her tribute written after the passing of Shoghi Effendi, Amelia Collins wrote that she first met him in 1923 and found him a young man . . . full of determination to carry forward the great work entrusted to his care. He was so spontaneous, so trusting and loving and
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439
outgoing in the buoyancy of his beautiful heart. Through the years we all watched with wonder . . . the unfoldment of Bahi'u'llih's Divine Order which he built up so patiently and wisely all over the world. But . . . at what great cost to himself! In 1951 I began to learn what he had passed through. His face was sad, one could see his very spirit had been heavily oppressed by the agony he went through for years during the period when the family pursued their own desires and finally abandoned the work of the Faith and went their own way. . . . For a number of years we . . . seldom saw him smile. . . . I do not know in any great detail the day to day afflictions of Bahi'u'llih and 'Abdu'l-Bahb, but I sometimes wonder if they could have been any more heartbreaking than those of our beloved Shoghi Effendi. . . .After his final separation from them, there came a new joy and hope to our beloved Guardian. The rapid progress made in the attainment of so many of the goals of the World Crusade lifted him up. . . . His conscientiousness was like a fire burning in him; from his earliest childhood he showed the sensitive, noble, painstaking qualities that characterized him, and grew stronger as he matured and throughout his Guardian~hip.[l~~:l]
Shoghi Effendi married Mary Maxwell in 1937 (later entitled by him 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rtihiyyih usinurn). Outstanding among Shoghi Effendi's achievements are the spread of the Faith to all parts of the world through his plans; the development of the Administrative Order; the vast number of letters of guidance, encouragement, explanation, and interpretation; the translations of numerous passages fiom Bahh'i Scripture; the massive amount of research that went into the writing of the history of the first Bahh'i century, God Passes the translation of such works as Nabilb the defense of the Faith fiom the attacks and actions of the Covenant breakers; the acquisition of the lands and properties in 'Akkh and Haifa, and their development for future pilgrimages; the landscaping of the sites on Mount Carmel and the construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Bhb and of the International Archives Building; and the establishment of the close relationships with the local and national government officials in the State of Israel. Shoghi Effendi died of Asiatic flu in London on 4 November 1957. His funeral took place on 9 November with the cortege of well over 60 cars leaving the British Hqiratu'l-Quds (27 Rutland Gate, Knightsbridge) at 10:30 AM. The burial was in the Great Northern London Cemetery (now the New Southgate Cemetery), New Southgate, London, and was preceded by a service in the chapel in the presence of his widow, Hands of the Cause of God, and a host of grieving Bahh'is from every corner of the world.
440
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Following the funeral, 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rf&iyyih Khhnum returned to Haifa. On her return a search was undertaken to discover whether Shoghi Effendi had left a Will and Testament or other written instructions in the event of his death. She describes that activity in these words: This morning immediately after 9:00 a.m. we, the five Hands of the Cause assigned to service at the World Centre of the Faith, R@iyyih IQhum, Mason Remey, Amelia E. Collins, Ugo Giachery, and Leroy Ioas as well as Hands of the Cause Hasan Balyuzi, a member of the Afnan family, Mr. Horace Holley, representing the believers of the Western Hemisphere, Musa Banhi; representing the believers of the African continent, and Dr. 'Ali-Muhammad Varqi, Trustee of the beloved Guardian, representing also the Asian continent, (totaling to the number of Bahi) have met, in order to open the Guardian's safe and desk [and] search for a Will and Testament if one was executed by Shoghi Effendi. They found that the seals placed on the safe by the five Hands in the Holy Land were intact and untouched; and similarly the seals containing the keys to the safe were intact and untouched and similarly that the sealed desk was intact. The undersigned nine Hands of the Cause, appointed by the first Guardian, Shoghi Effendi each in the presence of the others, do hereby individually and collectively certify to the following: That the safe and desk have been opened and searched and the non existence of a Will and Testament AS FOLexecuted by Shoghi Effendi was definitely established. SIGNED LOWS: R*iyyih, Mason Remey, Amelia E. Collins, Ugo Giachery, Leroy Ioas, Hasan M. B a l m i , Horace Holley, M.B. ( M M Banhi), Dr. A. Vargh&[59:271
It seems obvious that because all living members of Bahi'u'lliih's family broke the Covenant, Shoghi Effendi could not, in conformity with the provisions of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Will and Testament, appoint a Successor. When he passed away in November 1957, the Guardianship was then left without an incumbent Guardian. As an institution, however, the Guardianship lived on through the voluminous writings and guidance of Shoghi Effendi and in those areas that were jointly the responsibility of the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice, by the Universal House of Justice since its inauguration in April 1963. For a true appreciation of the life and works of Shoghi Effendi, particular reference should be given to the biographical works of his wife, 'Amatu'l-Bahi RQiyyih a i n u m . These include The Priceless and The Guardian of the Bahd'i The book written is by Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Giachery, Shoghi Efler~di,[~~~] also of great value in understanding his genius.
SIMS, ELLEN CATHERINE 441
In the Priceless Pearl Amatuyl-BahbR@iyyih Khhurn wrote a magnificent summary of his achievements, from which the following few sentences are taken: The Guardian had fhed in the alembic of his creative mind all the elements of the Faith of Bahh'u'llih into one great indivisible whole; he had created an organized community of His followers which was the receptacle of His teachings, His laws and His Administrative Order; the teachings of the twin Manifestations of God and the Perfect Exemhad been woven into a shining cloak that plar [see 'ABDU'L-B&] would clothe and protect man for a thousand years, a cloak on which the fingers of Shoghi Effendi had picked out the pattern, knitted the seams, fashioned the brilliant clasps of his interpretations of the Sacred Texts, never to be sundered, never to be tom away until that day when a new Law-giver comes to the world and once again wraps His creature man in yet another divine garment. . . . It would be hard indeed to find a comparable figure in history who, in a little over a third of a century, set so many different operations in motion, who found the time to devote his attention to minute details on one hand and on the other to cover the range of an entire planet with his plans, his instructions, his guidance and his
Refer to the introduction for key events associated with his life. SHOGHI EFFENDI, RESTING PLACE OF. The only Holy Place in the Western world. It is situated in the New Southgate Cemetery (originally the Great Northern London Cemetery), New Southgate, London. It is in a central position of an area owned by the BahB'i Faith, with many graves of BahB'is in the vicinity. The tomb itself is beneath a white marble column, crowned by a Corinthian capital on which rests a globe, with a map of Africa facing the Qiblih. BahB'is fiom all over the world visit the grave for prayer and meditation. SIMPLE, PETER (1899-1971). The second Athabascan Indian north of the Arctic Circle to embrace the Cause (the first being Charley 935101 RObertS).[14:498, SIMS, ELLEN CATHERINE. An American believer (1938) who pioneered with her husband (Stuart) extensively throughout South America in Paraguay, Colombia, and Bolivia. She was a member of the Regional Spiritual Assembly of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguayy and Uruguay, as well as the National SpiritualAssembly of Colombia and then, separately, the National Spiritual Assembly of B ~ l i v i a . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
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SIN. In a talk given in Paris in December 1912 'Abdu'l-BahB said, "Sin is the state of man in the world of the baser nature, for in nature exist defects such as injustice, tyranny, hatred, hostility, strife: these are characteristics of the lower plane of nature. These are the sins of the world, the h i t s of the tree from which Adam did eat. Through education we must free ourselves from these imperfections. The Prophets of God have been sent, the Holy Books have been written, so that man may be made free. Just as he is born into this world of imperfection from the womb of his earthly mother, so is he born into the world of spirit through divine education. When a man is born into the world of phenomena he finds the universe; when he is born from this world to the world of the spirit, he finds the Kingd0rn."[~~~~~1 "Original sin," on the other hand, is held to be nonexistent. Evil is the absence of good; confession of sins before another is f ~ r b i d d e n [ ~ ~ ' l ~ ~ ] (though consultation with a local SpiritualAssembly about dealing with personal problems is not in this category); repentance of sin is en~ouraged;[~l:~~] the concealment of the sins of others is a personal r e s p ~ n s i b i l i t y . [ The ~ ~ ~following ~~~] passages convey the Bahii'i attitude toward sin: If ye become aware of a sin committed by another, conceal it, that God may conceal your own Breathe not the sins of others so long as thou art thyself a sinner. Shouldst thou transgress this command, accursed wouldst thou be. . . . Know thou of a truth: He that biddeth men be just and himself committeth iniquity is not of Me, even though he bear My name.[150:271 Wherefore, hearken ye unto My speech, and return ye to God and repent, that He, through His grace, may have mercy upon you, may wash away your sins, and forgive your trespasses. The greatness of His mercy surpasseth the fury of His wrath, and His grace encompasseth all who have been called into being and been clothed with the robe of life, be they of the past or of the fut~re.[~~'~O] With all his heart he should avoid fellowship with evil-doers, and pray for the remission of their sins. He should forgive the sinful, and never despise his low estate, for none knoweth what his own end shall be. How often hath a sinner attained, at the hour of death, to the essence of faith, and, quaffing the immortal draught, hath taken his flight unto the Concourse on High![78:1301 When the sinner findeth himself wholly detached and freed from all save God, he should beg forgiveness and pardon from Him. Confession of sins and transgressions before human beings is not permissible, as it hath never been nor will ever be conducive to divine forgiveness. Moreover such confession before people results in one's humiliation and
abasement, and God-xalted be His glory-wisheth not the humiliation of His servants. Verily He is the Compassionate, the Mercill. The sinner should, between himself and God, implore mercy from the Ocean of mercy, beg forgiveness fiom the Heaven of If there was no wrong how would you recognize the right? If it were not for sin how would you appreciate virtue? If evil deeds were unknown how could you commend good actions? If sickness did not exist how would you understand health? Evil is non-existent; it is the absence of good; sickness is the loss of health; poverty the lack of r i c h e ~ . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] All sin comes from the demands of nature, and these demands, which arise from the physical qualities, are not sins with respect to the mimals, while for man they are sin. The animal is the source of imperfections, such as anger, sensuality, jealousy, avarice, cruelty, pride: all these defects are found in animals but do not constitute sins. But in man they are sins.[121:1191
See also ABSOLUTION; BAPTISM; CONFESSION OF SINS. SINGH, PRITAM (1881-1959). Professor Singh was the first (c. 1908)
member of the Sikh Faith in the Indian subcontinent to become a B&h,i.[l2:874] SIRR. Secret, mystery. Aql-i-Sirr. Literally, the Land of Mystery: Adrian~ple.[l~'~~~]"
SIRRU'LLAH. See MYSTERY OF GOD. SIYAH-c&. The "Black Pit," the underground dungeon in Tihrain, hain, where Bahsi'u'llaih was imprisoned for four months (AugustDecember) in 1852 along with His fellow Baibis and some 150 thieves and murderers. Chained in darkness three flights of stairs below ground, and in the most appalling physical circumstances, He received the first intimations of His future call to be the "Promised One of All Ages." We have Bahil'u'lliih's own description of this event as recorded in these Words: They apprehended Us, and . . . conducted Us, on foot and in chains, with bared head and bare feet, to the dungeon of Tihrh. . . . We were consigned for four months to a place foul beyond comparison. As to the dungeon in which this Wronged One and others similarly wronged were confined, a dark and narrow pit were preferable. Upon Our arrival We were first conducted along a pitch-black corridor, from whence We descended three steep flights of stairs to the place of confinement assigned to Us. The dungeon was wrapped in thick darkness, and Our
fellow-prisoners numbered nearly a hundred and fifty souls: thieves, assassins and highwaymen. Though crowded, it had no other outlet than the passage by which We entered. No pen can depict that place, nor any tongue describe its loathsome smell. Most of these men had neither clothes nor bedding to lie on. God alone knoweth what befell Us in that most foul-smelling and gloomy Shoghi Effendi described Bahi'u'llhh's experience of His place in
the progressive revelation of God's Will as follows: A Revelation, hailed as the promise and crowning glory of past ages and centuries, as the consummation of all the Dispensations within the Adamic Cycle . . . signalizing the end of the Prophetic Era and the beginning of the Era of Ful6llment, unsurpassed alike in the duration of its Author's ministry and the fecundity and splendor of His mission-such a Revelation was, as already noted, born amidst the darkness of a subterranean dungeon in Tihrh-an abominable pit that had once served as a reservoir of water for one of the public baths of the city. Wrapped in its stygian gloom, breathing its fetid air, numbed by its humid and icy atmosphere, His feet in stocks, His neck weighed down by a mighty chain, surrounded by criminals and miscreants of the worst order . . . painfully aware of the dire distress that had overtaken its champions, and of the grave dangers that faced the remnant of its followers--at so critical an hour and under such appalling circumstances the "Most Great Spirit," as designated by Himself. . . descended upon, and revealed itself, in the form of a "Maiden," to the agonized soul of Bah$u'll&.[37:"J0fl Was not the Bearer of such a Revelation, at the instigation of Shi'ah ecclesiastics and by order of the && himself forced, for no less than four months, to breathe, in utter darkness, whilst in the company of the vilest criminals and freighted down with galling chains, the pestilential air of the vermin-infested subterranean dungeon of Tihrh-a place which, as He Himself subsequently declared, was mysteriously converted into the very scene of the annunciation made to Him by God of His P r o p h e t h o ~ d ? [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
SIYAWM~, J A M ~ ~(19461983) D AND T ~ I R I HARJUMANDI (1951-1983). (Martyrs.) A husband and wife who were executed along with other coreligionists in m i r h z , irhn, by the government in June 1983 for refusing to recant their belief in Bahh'U'fl&.[18:5981 SIYYID. Literally, chief, lord, prince: descendant of the Prophet M&afnrnad.[l8:741lu SIYYID 'AL~MUHAMMAD. See ~
h .
SIYYID HUSAYN-1-YAZD~.An amanuensis to the BPb and surnamed by Him 'Aziz; he shared the Bhb's imprisonments in both MPh-Kii and mihriq; seventh Letter of the Living. SIYYID K & I M - I - R A ~ T ~A. disciple of &aykJ Ahmad-i-AhsP'i, the founder of the &aykJi school of He assumed leadership of the sect on the death of &ayU Alpnad. Along with ShayB Alpnad he was referred to by Bahh'u'llhh as a "resplendent light."[79:651 SIYYID M U @ ~ M M A D - I - I $ F ~ & N(Covenant ~. breaker; Antichrist of the Baha'i Revelation.) Stigmatized by BahP'u'llPh in the ~itdb-i-iqdnas the "one-eyed man"[79:x81who corrupted and led It was he who urged Y&yh to lay claim astray Mirzsi Yahysi.[71:164,248fl to be the One Promised by the Biib. He also intrigued and encouraged Y a y 6 in his attempted murder of Bahi'u'llhh. SIYYID MU@AMMAD-RIDA. The father of the Bab. ~ (Hand of the Cause of SIYYID M U $ T A F & - I - R ~ ~(1846-1945). God.) He was of an 'Iraqi family resident in Madras, India, when, in his early 20s, he came into contact with SulaymPn main Ilyas. He quickly became a Baha'i. He traveled widely with his new teacher, reaching Burma in 1878, where he settled in Rangoon and married into a wealthy family. Being an erudite scholar and well versed in Muslim theology he was able to develop the small Baha'i groups in Rangoon and Mandalay into strong communities. In 1899 he carried the marble sarcophagus in which the bodies of the Bib and His companion, Anis (Mirzri Muhammad-'Ali-i-Zuniizi), were to be entombed to the Holy Land. In 1910 the business with which he was associated failed, and a little later his wife died, thereby allowing him to spend his time entirely in service to the Faith. Invited to the village of Daidanaw by the headman, who had been assisted in a court case by some Bahh'is, R h i so impressed the elders of the village that the whole village embraced the Faith, and he devoted much time to its development as a Bahh'i village. After the passing of Bahh'u'llhh and 'Abdu'l-BahP, he was a tower of strength in observing the Covenant and protecting purity of the Faith. When he passed away in 1945 as he approached his 99th birthday, Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Hearts grief-stricken passing Supreme Concourse distinguished pioneer Faith Baha'u'llhh, dearly loved staunch high minded noble soul Siyyid Mu~tafa.Long record his superb services both teaching
administrative fields shed lustre on both heroic and formative ages Bahh'i Dispensation. His magnificent achievements fully entitle him join ranks Hands Cause Bahh'u'llhh. His resting place should be regarded foremost shrine community Burmese believer^."[^'^^^* 62:589, 238:260]
SIYYID Y ~ A Y - I - ~ h h BSee i . vA@D. SLAVERY. Forbidden in the Kitcib-i-Aqd~s.[~~'~~] SMOKING. Smoking is discouraged but not forbidden. 'Abdu'l-Bahii wrote that [there are] the things forbidden by an absolute prohibition and of which the perpetration is a grave sin; they are so vile that even to mention them is shameful. There are other forbidden things which do not cause an immediate evil and of which the pernicious effect is only gradually produced. They are also abhorred, blamed and rejected by God, but their prohibition is not recorded in an absolute way, although cleanliness and sanctity, spotlessness and purity, the preservation of health and independence are required by these interdictions. . . . One of these last prohibitions is the smoking of tobacco, which is unclean, malodorous, disagreeable and vulgar and of which the gradual harmfulness is universally recognized.All clever physicians have judged, and have also shown by experiment, that one of the constituents of tobacco is a mortal poison and that smokers are exposed to different indispositions and maladies. That is why cleanly people have a marked aversion for its ~ s e . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1
Elsewhere He wrote saying that "in the sight of God, the smoking of tobacco is a thing which is blamed and condemned, very unclean, and of which the result is by degrees injurious. Besides it is a cause of expense and of loss of time and it is a harmful habit. So, for those who are firm in the Covenant, it is a thing reprobated by the reason and by tradition, the renouncement of which giveth gradual repose and tranquility, permitteth one to have stainless hands and a clean mouth, and hair which is not pervaded by a bad odor. . . . Without any doubt, the fiends of God on receiving this epistle will renounce this injurious habit by all means, even if it be necessary to do so by degrees. This is my h ~ p e . " [ ' ~ l : ~ ~ ~ ]
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (SED). Many of the teachings of the Bahh'i Faith are of immediate importance to development issues, but these demand that spiritual development should go hand in hand with material development. Of particular
SOCIALAND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 447
significance are the social teachings relating to universal education, the equality of men and women, the requirement for all government officials to observe a rectitude of conduct, the use of techniques of consultation in the solution of problems and in making decisions, the establishment of economic justice, the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty, the need for unity, and the recognition of the oneness of mankind. The development of the Bahh'i Administrative Order throughout the globe provides a "delivery" network of local and National Spiritual Assemblies that reaches every country of the world, thereby enabling them to propagate these principles and processes on a global scale. Important too is the encouragement of Bahh'is to engage in "individual initiative" SED projects. As long ago as 1983 the Universal House of Justice, addressing the Bahii'is of the world, requested that "the process of this development should be incorporated into its regular pursuits." In this same letter it established an Office of Social and Economic Development to "assist [it] to promote and coordinate the activities of the fiiends throughout the world in this new field." Bahh'is were encouraged to start the development projects they specifically initiated at the grassroots level, and the projects were to receive their driving force fiom those sources rather than fiom top-imposed programs and plans. The BahP'i International Community website identifies six main development processes that form the basis of a pattern of action by Bahh'i communities around the world: Organic growth: In general, social and economic development activities best begin with a relatively simple set of actions at the grass roots. The desire for change must come directly from individuals and communities and cannot be imposed from the outside. As experience is gained from action, grassroots initiatives can naturally grow in complexity. A tutorial school, for example, can in principle become a center for activities such as health education, family counseling, and reforestation, but in most cases, it will start simply as a school focusing all its resources on the children it proposes to serve. Although simple, welldefined projects have the greatest likelihood of success, to raise local action to a reasonable level of effectiveness may eventually require that development initiatives extend beyond the village level to regional and national levels. Capacity building: Development is not a product to be delivered by the "developed" to the "underdeveloped." Rather, it is a process in which individuals and communities in all parts of the world, regardless of the degree of their material prosperity, become the principal actors in defining, analyzing, and solving their own problems. While concrete
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action in any project should be directed toward visible improvement of some aspect of life, the success of a development initiative is ultimately measured by its impact on the capacity of a community to address development issues at increasingly higher levels of complexity and effectiveness. A people's ability to participate fully in its own process of development entails a number of interrelated elements. Generating and sustaining an integrated set of social and economic activities relate directly to the development of specific capacities at the personal and group level. Certain key capacities include learning how to take initiative in a disciplined and imaginative manner; adopting methods of decision making that are nonadversarial and inclusive in nature; thinking systematically in understanding problems and searching for solutions; replacing relationships based on dominance and competition with relationshipsbased on reciprocity, collaboration, and service to others; encouraging recognition of the essential nobility of human beings; fostering rectitude of conduct at all levels of society; and developing the skills and commitment necessary to generate and apply technical knowledge. Learning: Learning to apply Bahi'u'llzih's teachings to individual and collective life is the centerpiece of Bahi'i social and economic development. This learning takes place at all levels and involves all the members of BahB'i communities, whatever their capacities and experiences. It entails not only study, but a systematic and ongoing process of consultation, reflection, and action designed to bring about consistent patterns of change. Such a learning process can occur in a very simple manner at the village and local level, but with greater sophistication at the regional and national levels. In this regard, every Bahh'i development project, regardless of size, endeavors to become a center for learning concerned with promoting material, moral, and spiritual well-being. Development of human resources: Intimately related to learning and building of capacity is the development of human resources. Training methods-which foster participation and an open attitude toward learning-principally involve individuals and groups at the grass roots, but can also include professionals and students from other regions and countries. In this way, a worldwide process of learning is encouraged. That development ideas and projects are not imposed from above, and that institutions should respond to the aspirations and initiatives of communities at the local level, are established characteristics of Bahi'i development. However, the application of these principles does not preclude the possibility of utilizing proven and well-conceived approaches to training developed at the national or international levels. Thus, project sites may be seen as locations where training is provided for an increasing number of individuals from all parts of the world and from all sectors of society.
SOCIALAND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 449
Contributing to the advancement of society: The application of the teachings of Bahb'u'llih to social and economic development is part of a larger process of creating stability and prosperity in human affairs. Development activities offer opportunities for the Bahb'i community to become directly involved in the life of society. Bahb'i projects are thus designed to engage and benefit all the members of a community and not only BahB'is. Collaboration with organizations and leaders of thought concerned with social, moral, and economic advancement is an irnportant component of Bahi'i development endeavors. Integration: The world's experience has shown that fragmented activities in differentfields do not bring about development. The knowledge that should be brought to bear on development problems does not fit into a single discipline. The integration of efforts across various fields, such as health, education, agriculture, and environmental preservation, is essential for real progress in a region. Such integration can be achieved when simple grassroots initiatives evolve to more stable and complex stages of operation. In Bahi'i development, the concept of integration also pertains to the integration of material progress and spiritual development. Social and economic development activities are therefore an expression of faith in action. Underpinning the BahB'i approach to development is the belief that every culture and segment of humanity represents a distinct heritage that must be encouraged to flourish and contribute to an emerging global civilization. The Bahi'i commitment to social change and progress derives directly fiom Baha'u'llfth's vision of humanity as one people. Fostering unity of purpose among individuals, groups, and institutions is consequently an essential characteristic of all Bahi'i development pursuits.
A partial listing of official international level participation as well as documents relating to SED principles and processes can be found on the Bahti'i International Community website (www.bahai.org/article -1-8-0-l.htm1). In February 1998, the Bahti'i International Community presented a concept paper to the World Faiths and Development Dialogue, hosted by the president of the World Bank and the archbishop of Canterbury at Lambeth Palace, London, The paper focused on the importance of creating measures to assess development progress through the perspective of spiritual principles and outlined a Bah6'i perspective on development. It recognized the necessity of indicators to measure both qualitative and quantitative progress and introduced the concept of using a "spiritual base" for such performance metrics: "Spiritually based indicators assess development progress as a function of the application of spiritual
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principles." Spiritual principles, the B&'i Writings state, are those essential truths given to mankind by that ultimate reality, that unknowable essence of essences called God. The religions brought to mankind by a succession of spiritual luminaries (see MANIFESTATIONS OF GOD) have been the primary link between humanity and that ultimate reality, and have galvanized and refined mankind's capacity to love, to comprehend reality and to achieve social progress. Further, These indicators are based on universal principles which are essential to the development of the human spirit and, therefore, to individual and collective progress. These measures emerge from a vision of development in which material progress serves as a vehicle for spiritual and cultural advancement. Spiritually based indicators help to establish, clarify and prioritize goals, policies and programs. At the heart of their conceptualization is the understanding that human nature is fundamentally spiritual and that spiritual principles, which resonate with the human soul, provide an enormous motivational power for sacri6ce and change. Therefore, the peoples of the world will be much more inclined to support policies and programs that emerge from the development of indicators based on spiritual principles than they would be to endorse objectives and initiatives which are based on a purely material conception of life. The use of these measures could, thus, help to transform not only the vision but the actual practice of development. The components of a spiritually based indicator include a vision of a peaceful and united future; the selected principle@) crucial to the realization of that future; the policy area addressed by the principle@); and the goal toward which the measure assesses progress. The indicator is quantitatively or qualitatively measurable and verifiable, and it is adaptable within a wide diversity of contexts without violating the integrity of the principle(s) invol~ed.[~~~1
The spiritual base of the indicators stems from five "foundational principles": unity in diversity, equity and justice, equality of the sexes, trustworthiness and moral leadership, and the independent investigation of truth. In the view of the BahB'i International Community these should be applied to five "priority policy economic development; education; environmental stewardship; meeting basic needs in food, nutrition, health, and shelter; and governance and participation. The paper concludes by offering several examples of how the foregoing might be applied to real-world situations. See also ECONOMIC PROBLEMS, SPIRITUAL SOLUTION TO; PROSPERITY; WEALTH; WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF.
SOUL 451
SOH-,
('ABU'L). See AljMAD S O H ~ B .
SOMBEEK, GEORGETTE STRAUB-VAN BLEYSWIJK VAN (19061979). One of the first (1946) Baha'is in the Netherlands. Along with her sister, Rita Van Bleyswijk Sombeek, who introduced Georgette to the Faith, she translated Baha'i literature into the Dutch language, including The Hidden Words of Bahd 'a'lkih, Bahd 'u 'llah and the New Era, and the various p r a y e r ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] SOMBEEK, LUDMlLA (OTT) VAN (1893-1979). An early (1922) American believer of Austrian birth who worked tirelessly throughout the southern United States for the promotion of racial unity. She was a member of the first (1962) local Spiritual Assembly of Durham, North Carolina. She traveled extensively behind the (then) Iron Curtain countries of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Bulgaria (1958, 1963, 1965, and 1967). In 1958 she toured Russia and in 1967 visited k i n , both in the promotion of the C a ~ s e . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] SOMBEEK, RITA VAN BLEYSWIJK (1903-1981). One of the first (1945) Dutch believers, she embraced the Cause in America after attending a lecture by Stanwood Cobb; she then introduced her sister Georgette Straub-Van Bleyswijk Van Sombeek to the Faith. In 1946 she pioneered to Europe, where she lived for various lengths of time in Holland, Italy, and Luxembourg. She helped raise up the first (1947) local Spiritual Assembly of Amsterdam and later (1970) served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Doesburg, Luxembourg, and in 1973 helped form the first local Spiritual Assembly of Z e i ~ t . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] SOME ANSWERED QUESTIONS. One of the three books that Shoghi Effendi said "should be mastered by every BahB7i.They The other two are should read these books over and over again."[x0:271 i n [ ~The ~ lDawn-Breaker~.[~~] See also DREYFUSthe ~ i t d b - i - ~ ~ r and BARNEY, LAURA CLIFFORD.
SOUL. The human spirit, also designated as the rational soul, is the immortal aspect unique to human beings that distinguishes them fiom all other forms of creation. The Baha'i Scriptures contain a great many references to the soul, its development, its relation to the body, and its progress after death. Each human soul comes into existence at conception and is unique and eternal. The purpose of human life on this earth is to develop spiritual qualities that will equip the soul for its eternal life after physical death. After "death" it continues
452
SOUL
to progress according to the mercy of God, the prayers and intercession of its £tiends and relatives, and even through charity performed in its name. A few passages have been selected £rom the Writings of BahP'u'llPh that illustrate the concept of the soul. Know thou that the soul of man is exalted above, and is independent of all infirmities of body or mind. . . .Every malady afflictingthe body of man is an impediment that preventeth the soul from manifesting its inherent might and power. When it leaveth the body, however, it will evince such ascendancy, and reveal such influence as no force on earth can equal. Every pure, every refined and sanctified soul will be endowed with tremendous power, and shall rejoice with exceeding g l a d n e s ~ . [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ] Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly, return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved. By the righteousness of God! It shall attain a station such as no pen can depict, or tongue describe. The soul that hath remained faithful to the Cause of God, and stood unwaveringly firm in His Path shall, after his ascension, be possessed of such power that all the worlds l6l1 which the Almighty hath created can benefit through him.[78:154, He hath endowed every soul with the capacity to recognize the signs of God. How could He, otherwise, have f i l l e d His testimony unto men, if ye be of them that ponder His Cause in their hearts. He will never deal unjustly with any one, neither will He task a soul beyond its power. He, verily, is the Compassionate, the All-Mer~iful.[~~:~~~] Know thou of a truth that the soul, after its separation from the body, will continue to progress until it attaineth the presence of God, in a state and condition which neither the revolution of ages and centuries, nor the changes and chances of this world, can alter. It will endure as long as the Kingdom of God, His sovereignty, His dominion and power will endure. It will manifest the signs of God and His attributes, and will reveal His ~ l ~DEATH, ~fl LIFE AFTER.] loving kindness and b o ~ n t y . [ ~[See I loved thy creation, hence I created thee. Wherefore, do thou love Me, that I may name thy name and fill thy soul with the spirit of life.[lsO:41 'Abdu'l-Bahsi explained, The human spirit which distinguishes man from the animal is the rational soul; and these two names-the human spirit and the rational soul-designate one thing. This spirit, which in the terminology of the philosophers is the rational soul, embraces all beings, and as far as human ability permits discovers the realities of things and becomes cognizant of their peculiarities and effects, and of the qualities and properties of beings. But the human spirit, unless assisted by the spirit of faith, does not become acquainted with the divine secrets and the
ST. BARBE, RICHARD BAKER
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heavenly realities. It is like a mirror which, although clear, polished, and brilliant, is still in need of light. Until a ray of the sun reflects upon But ~'~ the ~ ~mind ] is the it, it cannot discover the heavenly s e c r e t ~ . [ l ~ power of the human spirit. Spirit is the lamp; mind is the light which shines fiom the lamp. Spirit is the tree, and the mind is the h i t . Mind is the perfection of the spirit and is its essential quality, as the sun's rays are the essential necessity of the sun.[121:208fl The spirit is the power of life, the mind is the power which apprehendeth the reality of things, and the soul is an intermediary between the Supreme Concourse (or Spiritual World) [see CONCOURSE ON HIGH] and the lower concourse (or material ~ o r l d ) . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary that "what the Bahh'is do believe though is that we have three aspects of our humanness, so to speak, a body, a mind and an immortal identity-soul or spirit. We believe the mind forms a link between the soul and the body, and the ~ : ~also ~ I BODY, MIND, SPIRIT; two interact on each ~ t h e r . " [ l ~See MIND. SPENDLOVE, F. ST. GEORGE (1897-1962). An archeologist by profession, he was an early member of the Canadian Baha'i community. He traveled widely in the promotion of the Baha'i Faith and was a founder member of the first (1927) organized Baha'i Youth Group in North America. In 1932 and 1933 he made pilgrimages to Haifa to meet Shoghi Effendi. In 1934 he moved to England and began training as an archeologist at the Courtauld Institute of the University of London, specializing in Chinese archeology. On graduation he assisted the Royal Academy with the preparation of its catalogue of the International Exhibition of Chinese Art displayed at Burlington House in 1935. During his time in London he served on the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles. In 1936 he returned to Canada to take up a position on the staff of the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, where he had oversight of their Japanese and East Indian collections. A few years later he was appointed the curator of the modern European collection as well as a special lecturer in the Department of Art and Archeology at the University of Toronto. In 1952 he was appointed curator of the Canadians coll~~~~~ lection in the Royal Ontario M u s e ~ r n . [933:5151 SPIRIT. See SOUL. ST. BARBE, RICHARD BAKER. See BAKER, RICHARD ST. BARBE.
454
STAR OF THE KEST
STAR OF THE WEST. The first Bahh'i magazine published in the West.[lo5,lo61 It was printed in the United States from 1910 until 1924. It is a source of considerable historical data, and although long out of print it is available in CD disk electronic STATE
COUNCILS. See REGIONAL ~
a 'COUNCILS. i
STEADFASTNESS. "The first and foremost duty prescribed unto men, next to the recognition of Him Who is the Eternal Truth, is the duty of steadfastness in His Cause. Cleave thou unto it, and be of them whose minds are firmly fixed and grounded in God. No act, however meritorious, did or can ever compare unto it. It is the king of all acts, and to this thy Lord, the All-Highest, the Most Powerful, will testify. . . . The virtues and attributes pertaining unto God are all evident and manifest, and have been mentioned and described in all the heavenly Books. Among them are trustworthiness, truthfulness, purity of heart while communing with God, forbearance, resignation to whatever the Almighty hath decreed, contentment with the things His Will hath provided, patience, nay, thankfulness in the midst of tribulation, and complete reliance, in all circumstances, upon Him. These rank, according to the estimate of God, among the highest and most laudable of all acts. All other acts are, and will ever remain, secondary and subordinate unto them. . . . The spirit that animateth the human heart is the knowledge of God, and its truest adorning is the recognition of the truth that 'He doeth whatsoever He willeth, and ordaineth that which He pleaseth.' Its raiment is the fear of God, and its perfection steadfastness in His Faith. Thus God instructeth whosoever seeketh Him. He, verily, loveth the one that turneth towards Him. There is none other God but Him, the Forgiving, the Most Bountiful. All praise be to God, the Lord of all ~ o r l d s . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 STEFFES, MARIAN (1900-1978). Among the first Oneida Indians to embrace the Cause. She was an outstanding teacher of the Cause among the Indian p e ~ p l e s . [ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] STEINMETZ, ELSA (d. 1970). An early American believer who pioneered to Switzerland in 1947 and assisted in the formation of the first Bahh'i community in Berne, later the first local Spiritual Assembly (1949). She served on the first Italo-Swiss Regional Spiritual Assembly and then on the National Spiritual Assembly of
SUMMER SCHOOLS, ~
d
455i
STEVENSON, MARGARET BEVERIDGE (d. 1941). The first 93:5201 believer in New Zealand.[8:600, STOUT, JANET WHITENACK (1907-1985). Although born in Pelham, New York, she was the first (1939) person to embrace the Cause in Alaska. In 1943 she moved fiom her pioneer post in the Eskimo village of Tulaksak to Anchorage to form the first local Spiritual Assembly in Alaska. In 1957 she was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Alaska. Shortly thereafter she and her husband (Verne) pioneered as the first Bahi'is in Palmer; they then moved five miles outside the town to "open" the Matanauska Valley. She also served as the first editor of the monthly newsletter Alaska Bahri'i STRUVEN, EDWARD (1875-1965). An early (1904) American believer, he was among those who welcomed 'Abdu'l-Bahii on His arrival in New York. He worked professionally on the construction of 92:214ffl the Wilmette temple (Ma&riq~'l-Amkiir).[l~:~~~, SUBH-I-AZAL. (Morning of Eternity.) See also M~RZAY A ~ A AZAL.
$ U F An ~ exponent of Sufism, a Muslim mystic or d a r ~ i & . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] " ILYAS. (Jarnil Effendi.) The first Bah6'i teacher sULAYM~ sent by BahP'u'llPh in 1875 to promote the Faith in India. s U L T ~ Sovereignty; . king, sovereign, monarch, sultk. s U L T ~'ABDU'L-'A&. Ruler of the Turkish Empire at the time of Bahii'u'lliih. Along with Nii~iri'd-Dinmiih of Persia he was complicit in His exile, imprisonment, and suffering. S U L T ~ U ' S H - ~ u H A D ~King ~ ' . of Martyrs. See also M~RZA mAMMAD-IjASAN. SUMMER SCHOOLS, BAHA'~.These are sessions of instruction, fiequently in residential accommodation, which may last for a few days or for one or more weeks. Different aspects of the Faith are studied in depth (see DEEPENING), and those attending enjoy the experience of Bahi'i fellowship. Some are dedicated to a particular
456
SUNNAH
theme, and others focus on the arts. All are participatory, and experts, Bahh'i and non-Bahh'i, are invited to give lectures or run training sessions. Some countries have permanent establishments where courses can run all through the year. Most of them are open to the public for those who wish to investigate the Faith. SUNNAH. Literally, way, custom, practice; the Way of the Prophet Mdpmmad as reported in the Hadith. Designates by far the largest sect of Isliim, which includes the four so-called orthodox sects: Hanbalites, Hanafites, Malakites, and Shafiites. S u d s accept the caliphs as legitimate, believing that the position of caliph is elective. See also ~~i,~~.[18:741]m sUNN~,SUNNITE. Muslim of the Sunnah branch of Isliun.[18'7411m SUPREME CONCOURSE. See CONCOURSE ON HIGH. SUPREME TRIBUNAL. Described alternatively and interchangeably as an "International Tribunal" or "World Tribunal." In 1931 Shoghi Effendi wrote about the world superstate that the nations would need to adopt to achieve the Lesser Peace and listed it as one of the institutions that would need to come into being: "Such a state will have to include within its orbit an international executive adequate to enforce supreme and unchangeable authority on every recalcitrant member of the commonwealth; a world parliament whose members shall be elected by the people in their respective countries and whose election shall be confirmed by their respective governments; and a supreme tribunal whose judgment will have a binding effect even in such cases where the parties concerned did not voluntarily agree to submit their case to its con~ideration."[~~:~~fl In describing some of the features of a future World Commonwealth, Shoghi Effendi wrote, "A world tribunal will adjudicate and deliver its compulsory and final verdict in all and any disputes that may arise between the various elements constituting this universal s y ~ t e m . " [ ~ 'Abdu'l-Bahii, ~~~~] while in America in 1912, said that "the world is in greatest need of international peace. Until it is established, mankind will not attain composure and tranquility. It is necessary that the nations and governments organize an international tribunal to which all their disputes and differences shall be referred. The decision of that tribunal shall be final. Individual controversy will be adjudged by a local tribunal. International questions will
TABARS~,FORT OF =YKH
457
come before the universal tribunal, and so the cause of warfare will be taken a ~ a y . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l In answering a letter from an inquirer, Shoghi Effendi through his secretary wrote, "The Supreme Tribunal is an aspect of a world Super-state; the exact nature of its relationship to that state we cannot at present foresee. Supreme Tribunal is the correct translation; it will be a contributing factor in establishing the Lesser SURIH. Name of a chapter of the Qur'in; used by the Bab and Bahai'u'lliih in the titles of some of Their Own W r i t i n g ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ~ S
~ OFH JOSEPH. See QAYY~%~W'L-ASM'.
SZ~TO-FELBERMANN, RENEE (1900-1984). She was the first (1936) Hungarian to embrace the Cause some three years after listening to a lecture by Martha Root in Budapest. In 1956 she managed to flee (two months after the uprising) to London. In 1980 she published her memoirs in a book entitled Rebirth-The Memoirs of Renke S~anto-Felbermann.[~~] In 1981 she moved to Germany, where she passed away on 28 February 1984.[18:6331
pi.The 19th letter of the Persian alphabet, with a numerical value of nine. Ard-i-Ti. Literally, Land of Ti: TihrBn.[l8Iu
TABARS~,FORT OF %HAY=. A fort "built by some 300 believ"around ~ ~ ~ ~the ] mausoleum of ers, mostly students and r e c l ~ s e s " [ ~ Shayu Tabard, in the heart of the forests of M h ~ i n d a r i i n ,just ~'~~~ south of the city of Bh~-furix&,Persia, it was in 1848 the scene of an 11-month siege battle between Persian government troops (reportedly 20,000 in number), inspired and instigated by Muslim clerics, and a small group of several hundred Bhbis including, especially, Quddiis and Mullh Husayn. The latter of these two was noted for his seeming superhuman strength and prowess in battle (although he was without any form of military training or experience). Shoghi Effendi describes, in part, the events that transpired: We remember with thrilling hearts that memorable encounter when, at the cry "Mount your steeds, 0 heroes of God!" Mulld Husayn, accompanied by two hundred and two ofthe beleaguered and sorely-distressed
458
TABARS~, FORT OF SHAYKH companions, and preceded by Quddh, emerged before daybreak from the Fort, and, raising the shout of "Yi $@ibu7z-Zamh!,"rushed at full charge towards the stronghold of the Prince, and penetrated to his private apartments, only to find that, in his consternation, he had thrown himself from a back window into the moat, and escaped bare-footed, leaving his host confounded and routed. We see relived in poignant memory that last day of Mulla Husayn's earthly life, when, soon after midnight, having performed his ablutions, clothed himself in new garments, and attired his head with the Bib's turban, he mounted his charger, ordered the gate of the Fort to be opened, rode out at the head of three hundred and thirteen of his companions, shouting aloud "Yi S@ibu7z-Zamirn!,"charged successively the seven barricades erected by the enemy, captured every one of them, notwithstanding the bullets that were raining upon him, swiftly dispatched their defenders, and had scattered their forces when, in the ensuing tumult, his steed became suddenly entangled in the rope of a tent, and before he could extricate himself he was struck in the breast by a bullet. . . .We acclaim the magnificent courage that, in a subsequent encounter, inspired nineteen of those stout-hearted companions to plunge headlong into the camp of an enemy that consisted of no less than two regiments of infantry and cavalry. . . . Nor can we fail to note the superb fortitude with which these heroic souls bore the load of their severe trials; when their food was at first reduced to the flesh of horses brought away from the deserted camp of the enemy; when later they had to content themselves with such grass as they could snatch fi-om the fields whenever they obtained a respite from their besiegers; when they were forced, at a later stage, to consume the bark of the trees and the leather of their saddles, of their belts, of their scabbards and of their shoes; when during eighteen days they had nothing but water of which they drank a mouthful every moming; when the cannon fire of the enemy compelled them to dig subterranean passages within the Fort, where, dwelling amid mud and water, with garments rotting away with damp, they had to subsist on ground up bones; and when, at last, oppressed by gnawing hunger, they, as attested by a contemporary chronicler, were driven to disinter the steed of their venerated leader, Mulli Husayn, cut it into pieces, grind into dust its bones, mix it with the putrefied meat, and, making it into a stew, avidly devour it. . . . Nor can reference be omitted to the abject treachery to which the impotent and discredited Prince eventually resorted, and his violation of his so-called irrevocable oath. . .whereby he . . .undertook to set free all the defenders of the Fort, pledged his honor that no man in his army or in the neighborhood would molest them, and that he would himself, at his own expense, arrange for their safe departure to their homes. And lastly, we call to remembrance, the final scene . . . when, as a result of the Prince's violation of his sacred engagement, a number of the betrayed companions of Quddhs were assembled in the camp of
TABLETS OF THE DNirNE PLAN
459
the enemy, were stripped of their possessions, and sold as slaves, the rest being either killed by the spears and swords of the officers, or tom asunder, or bound to trees and riddled with bullets, or blown fiom the mouths of cannon and consigned to the flames, or else being disemboweled and having their heads impaled on spears and lance~.[~~:~O]
Later in that same source he went on to say that " . . . During the building phase of the fort it was visited by Bahii'u'lliih who offered suggestions as to its construction and defense. He left meaning to return but was prevented by his arrest in h u l where he was tortured and bastinadoed until his feet bled."[37:681
TABLET. The written Words of Bahii'u'lliih, the Biib, and 'Abdu'lBahii. TABLET OF THE BRANCH. (S~riy-i-@u~n.)['~~:~~ff] Revealed by Bahii'u'lliih describing the station of ' A b d ~ ' l - B a h i i . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] TABLET OF CARMEL. (Law~-i-Karmil.)[122:'l Revealed by Bahii'u'lla during one of His visits to Haifa in 1890. Written in Arabic, it is described by Shoghi Effendi as one of the three Charters for the worldwide development of the Faith (the other two being 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Testament and the Tablets of the Divine P l ~ n ) . [ ~Writing ~ : ~ ~in ] God Passes By, Shoghi Effendi refers to this Tablet as one "in which the Author significantly makes mention of 'the City of God that hath descended from heaven,' and prophesies that 'erelong will God sail His Ark' [see ARC] upon that mountain, ~ : ~ ~prophecies ~] and 'will manifest the people of B a h ~ i . ' " [ ~These were fulfilled through the construction of the buildings on the Arc on Mount Carmel in 2000. TABLETS OF THE D N I N E PLAN. (~lvcih-i-~abli&i-i-hrik~.)[~~l During World War I, 'Abdu'l-Bahii wrote 14 messages addressed to the Bahi'is of North America setting out His vision for the spiritual conquest of the planet. Described by Shoghi Effendi as one of the three Charters for the worldwide development of the Faith (the other two being 'Abdu'l-Bahii's Will and Testament and the Tablet of Carmel (La~h-i-Kdrmil).[~~:~~] Shoghi Effendi wrote of the circumstance presaging the Divine Plan in these words: "And yet during these somber days, the darkness which was reminiscent of the tribulations endured during the most dangerous period of His incarceration in the prison-fortress of
460
TABLETS OF F!ISITATION
'Akkh, 'Abdu'l-Bahh, whilst in the precincts of His Father's Shrine, or when dwelling in the House He occupied in 'Akkh, or under the shadow of the Bhb's sepulcher on Mt. Carmel, was moved to confer once again, and for the last time in His life, on the community of His American followers a signal mark of His special favor by investing them, on the eve of the termination of His earthly ministry, through the revelation of the Tablets of the Divine Plan, with a world mission, whose full implications even now, after the lapse of a quarter of a century, still remain undisclosed, and whose unfoldrnent thus far, though as yet in its initial stages, has so greatly enriched the spiritual as well as the administrative annals of the first BahB'i ~~~tu~y.),[37:305] Although revealed during the war they were not released to the U.S. and Canadian Bahh'i communities until the 1919 National Convention in New York City. Outstanding among those who reacted immediately to 'Abdu'l-Bahh's call were Martha Root and the Hyde Dunns, but it was only in 1937, with the launching of the American Seven Year Plan, that a concerted, planned, stage-by-stage response was initiated. The Tablets of the Divine Plan are the charter documents on which all BahB'i Plans to date have been formulated. TABLETS OF WSZTATZON. Special Prayers and Readings to be used in certain Holy Places or as devotional offerings on Holy Days. The one frequently used in the Shrines of Bahai'u'llaih and and on the Holy Days associated with Their lives is a the Baib[140:3101 composite of passages from the Writings of Bahh'u'llhh compiled ~~:~~~] by Nabfl-i-A'zam on the instruction of ' A b d ~ ' l - B a h h . [ ~One, used frequently in private prayer, at meetings, on the commemorations associated with 'Abdu'l-Bahh, and in His Shrine, was revealed by Him and commences with the words "Whoso reciteth this prayer with lowliness and fervor will bring gladness and joy to the heart of this servant; it will be even as meeting Him face to face."[100:3191 TABLETS TO THE KINGS. (Shriy-i-Mulzik.) Throughout His Ministry, as part of a wider Proclamation of His Advent and Station, to the kings and rulBahai'u'llaih addressed a series of ers of the time. These included Napoleon 111,[42:171 Czar Alexander 11,[42:271 Queen V i ~ t o r i a , [ ~Kaiser ~ : ~ ~ Wilhelm l Emperor Francis J o ~ e p h , [ Sultan ~ ~ : ~ ~'Abd~'l-'Aziz,[~~~~1 ] and Nhtiri'd-Din &$h.[42:571 In His collective proclamation to the rulers and kings of the world, BahB'u'llPh called upon them to hold a convocation to establish
TAHERZADEH, AD~B 461
world peace, to reduce their armaments, and to recognize His Mission and made specific appeals to several of them. In His Tablet to Queen Victoria He reiterated this instruction, which Shoghi Effendi quotes in God Passes By: "In His Tablet to Queen Victoria He, moreover, invites these kings to hold fast to the 'Lesser Peace,' since they had refused the 'Most Great Peace;' exhorts them to be reconciled among themselves, to unite and to reduce their armaments; bids them refrain from laying excessive burdens on their subjects, who, He informs them, are their 'wards' and 'treasures;' enunciates the principle that should any one among them take up arms against another, all should rise against him; and warns them not to deal with Him See also as the 'King of I s l h ' and his ministers had dealt."[37:206fl PEACE, LESSER; PEACE, MOST GREAT; PROCLAMATION TO THE KINGS AND RULERS. TAB&. The city in northwest irhn where the Bhb was held for 40 days before His imprisonment in the fortress of Mhh-Kii and where He was again taken to be questioned and tortured and finally, on 9 July 1850, to suffer martyrdom. See also CHIHR~Q;MARTYRDOM OF THE ~ h .
TAFFA, TERESA PIA (1915-1984). An Italian believer who was the only woman elected to the first (1962) National Spiritual Assembly of Italy. She served as its secretary for 5 of her 13 years on that body. In 1966 she pioneered to the Aeolian I s l a n d ~ . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] TAHERZADEH, A D h (1922-2000). (Member, Universal House of Justice, 1988-2000.) An author, scholar, historian, and, by profession, an electrical engineer, he was born Yazd, hh.His early (1940s) educational studies took him to the United Kingdom before he pioneered to the Republic of Ireland (Dublin) in 1950. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s he served first as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles (which held responsibility for both the province of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland) and then, on its formation in 1972, as a member of the National SpiritualAssembly of the Republic of Ireland. In 1976 he was appointed a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Europe, in which capacity he served until his election to the Universal House of Justice in 1988, following which he moved his residence to Haifa, Israel. His literary works in the English language include a four-volume series on the life and Writings of Bahai'u'llaih entitled The Revelation of
Bahd 'u'11dh,[43, 96, 11°, l1l1 as well as two works on the Covenant, "The and The Child of the Covenant: A Study Covenant of Bahd'u'lldh[1121 Guide to the FWl and Testament of ; 4 b d ~ ' Z - B a h . a 811 [~~:~~~, Following his passing in January 2000, the Universal House of Justice wrote to the Bahi'is of the world, The passing of our dearly loved co-worker, Adfb Taherzadeh, has deepened our sorrows. We recall with admiration his devoted and unremitting services to the Cause of God for over half a century. His exemplary enthusiasm for the teaching work and his capacity to inspire the believers endeared him to all who knew him. As a self-sacrificing pioneer, as a champion of the Covenant, as a member of the National Spiritual Assemblies of the British Isles and of the Republic of Ireland, as a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Europe, and as a member of the Universal House of Justice, he evinced complete consecration, unshakeable faith, and unyielding resolve. At an early point in his life he was seized by the desire to make available to his fellow believers in the West the riches of the history and teachings of the Faith. It was this longing that found expression in the body of writings that will remain forever associated with his memory. We extend our heartfelt sympathy to the bereaved family, most particularly to his dear wife and beloved children, and assure them of our fervent prayers in the Holy Shrines for bountihl rewards to be vouchsafed to him in the Abhh Kingdom. All National Assemblies are advised to hold memorial gatherings in his name, including devotional programmes in his honour in all Houses of
T-RIH (1817-1853). (Letter of the Living; martyr; Qurratu'l'AynSolace of the Eyes; Zarrin-TijXrown of Gold; the Pure One; Mother of the Faithful.) The 17th Letter of the Living (the only woman to be so designated), she was born Fhtimih Urnm-Salamih and grew to be a gif'ted poet, writer, and sufiagette (at a time when that concept was little known and practiced not at all). Indeed, she was eventually martyred for her acceptance of the B i b and her actions in the arena of the emancipation of women. Bahi'u'llih gave her the title Ttihirih during the Conference of Badaht. She was also known as Qurratu'l-'Ayn and Zarrin-Taj. Shoghi Effendi summarizes her extraordinary story as follows: Apoetess, less than h r t y years of age, of distinguished birth, of bewitching charm, of captivating eloquence, indomitable in spirit, unorthodox in her views, audacious in her acts, immortalized as Thhirih [the Pure One] by [Bahh'u'llhh] and surnamed Qurratu'l-'Ayn [Solace of the Eyes] by Siyyid *my her teacher, she had, in consequence of the appearance of
the Bib to her in a dream, received the first intimation of a Cause which was destined to exalt her to the fairest heights of fame, and on which she, through her bold heroism, was to shed such imperishable lustre [during the Conference of Badasht]. . . . One day . . . T M , regarded as the fair and spotless emblem of chastity and the incarnation of the holy Fitimih, appeared suddenly, adorned yet unveiled, before the assembled companions, seated herself on the right-hand of the aEghted and infuriated QuddCs, and, tearing through her fiery words the veils guarding the sanctity of the ordinances of I s l h , sounded the clarion-call, and proclaimed the inauguration, of a new Dispensation. The effect was electric and instantaneous. She, of such stainless purity, so reverenced that even to gaze at her shadow was deemed an improper act, appeared for a moment, in the eyes of her scandalized beholders, to have defamed herself, shamed the Faith she had espoused, and sullied the immortal Countenance she symbolized. Fear, anger, bewilderment, swept their inmost souls, and stunned their faculties. . . . Undeterred, unruffled, exultant with joy, Thhirih arose, and, without the least premeditation and in a language strikingly resembling that of the Qur'h, delivered a fervid and eloquent appeal to the remnant of the assembly, ending it with this bold assertion: "I am the Word which the Qh'im is to utter, the Word which shall put to flight the chiefs and nobles of the e a ~ - t h ! " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l Her meteoric career, inaugurated in Karbili, culminating in Badaat, was now about to attain its final consummation in a martyrdom that may well rank as one of the most affecting episodes in the most turbulent period of Bahi'i history. . . . A scion of the highly reputed family of Hiji Mulli Silih-i-Baraqini . . . designated as Zarrin-Tij [Crown of Gold] and Zakiyyih [Virtuous] by her family and kindred; born in the same year as Bahi'u'llab regarded from childhood, by her fellowtownsmen, as a prodigy, alike in her intelligence and beauty; highly esteemed even by some of the most haughty and learned 'ularnis of her country, prior to her conversion, for the brilliancy and novelty of the views she propounded . . . established her first contact with a Faith which she continued to propagate to her last breath, and in its hour of greatest peril, with all the ardor of her unsubduable spirit. Undeterred by the vehement protests of her father; contemptuous of the anathemas of her uncle; unmoved by the earnest solicitations of her husband and her brothers. . . . [37:821
'Abdu'l-Bahh tells of her martyrdom in this passage: "She was sentenced to death. Saying she was summoned to the Prime Minister's, they arrived to lead her away from the Kalhntar's house. She bathed her face and hands, arrayed herself in a costly dress, and scented with attar of roses she came out of the house. . . . They brought her into a garden, where the headsmen waited; but these wavered and then
refused to end her life. A slave was found, far gone in drunkenness; besotted, vicious, black of heart. And he strangled Thhirih. He forced a scarf between her lips and rammed it down her throat. Then they lifted up her unsullied body and flung it in a well, there in the garden, and over it threw down earth and stones. But T&hirih rejoiced; she had heard with a light heart the tidings of her martyrdom; she set her eyes on the supernal Kingdom and offered up her life.'7[99'202fl Shoghi Effendi completes her story: "Thus ended the life of this great Bibi heroine, the first woman suffrage martyr, who, at her death, turning to the one in whose custody she had been placed, had boldly declared: 'You can kill me as soon as you like, but you cannot stop the emancipation of women.'"[45,99:75, 243, 2441 An English-language translation of a collection of her poems has been published by Kalimat Press under the title Thhirih: A Portrait in Poetry: Selected Poems of Qurratu'l- 'Ayn.[2451
TAJ. Literally, crown. Tall felt headdress adopted by BahP'u'llPh in 1863 on the day of His departure £tom His Most Holy House in Ba&d6d.[18:7411m
TAJALLMT. Efilgences: title of one of the Tablets of Bahai'u'llaih revealed after the KitBb-i-Aqda~.['~:~~~, 122:451m
TAMASESE, SAIALALA LEALOFI I1 (1912-1965). The first indigenous Samoan to embrace the C a ~ s e . [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] T ~ A ~ Z AOrnaments: T. title of one of the Tablets of BahP'u'llPh revealed after the Kitrib-i-Aqda~.['~~:~~~]"
TARAZU'LLAH SAMANDAR~. See
SAMANDAR~, T A ~ -
ZU'LLAH.
TEACHERS (TEACHING PROFESSION). Educators and teachers are held in high esteem to the extent that Bahai'u'llaih has specified that Bahi'i teachers should inherit a set proportion of a Bahi'is eState.[71:26.115, 1171 TEACHING. The sharing of the revelation of Bahai'u'llaih with those who seek knowledge of it. While proselytizing is Bahi'u'llhh nevertheless specifies that each Bahi'i has an obligation to teach His Cause. Shoghi Effendi elaborated as follows:
TEN YEAR CRUSADE 465
To teach the Cause of God, to proclaim its truths, to defend its interests, to demonstrate, by words as well as by deeds, its indispensability, its potency, and universality, should at no time be regarded as the exclusive concern or sole privilege of Bahi'i administrative institutions, be they Assemblies, or committees. All must participate, however humble their origin, however limited their experience, however restricted their means, however deficient their education, however pressing their cares and preoccupations, however unfavorable the environment in which they live. "God," Bahi'u'll&, Himself, has unmistakably revealed, "hath prescribed unto everyone the duty of teaching His Cause." "Say," He further has written, "Teach ye the Cause of God, 0 people of Bahi, for God hath prescribed unto everyone the duty of proclaiming His Message, and regardeth it as the most meritorious of all deed~.''[~l:~~]
Bahii7u'llAhdescribes the prerequisites of teaching: Whoso ariseth among you to teach the Cause of his Lord, let him, before all else, teach his own self, that his speech may attract the hearts of them that hear him. Unless he teacheth his own self, the words of his mouth will not influence the heart of the seeker. Take heed, 0 people, lest ye be of them that give good counsel to others but forget to follow it t h e m ~ e l v e s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Should any one among you be incapable of grasping a certain truth, or be striving to comprehend it, show forth, when conversing with him, a spirit of extreme kindliness and good-will. Help him to see and recognize the mth, without esteeming yourself to be, in the least, superior to him, or to be possessed of greater endow~nents.[~~~]
Due to the emphasis given to teaching and especially to the teaching of children, teaching as a profession is highly regarded in the Bahii'i Faith.
TEACHINGS. The Writings of the Central Figures of the 'Bahii'i Faith. See also WORD OF GOD. TEN YEAR CRUSADE. Originally Shoghi Effendi had anticipated three Seven Year Plans for the North American Bahii'is-the first in 1937-1 944, the second in 1946-1953, and the third in 1956However, the outstanding success of the Two Year Plan of 1963.[115:881 the British Bahii'is in their coordination of the efforts of their sister National Spiritual Assemblies in the African Campaign and the victories being won by the American Bahii'is in the prosecution of their second Seven Year Plan apparently persuaded him of the merits of changing the American Third Plan. He eliminated the three-year
466
TEO, GEOK LENG
respite and launched a Ten Year Plan, with specific goals, for all thenexisting National Spiritual Assemblies, to coincide with the centenary of the birth of Bahh'u'llhh's Mission (1953). It was also known as the "Global Crusade." Its primary aim and means of execution, as summarized by Shoghi Effendi in a letter of 4 May 1953 to the All American Intercontinental Conference, was none other than the conquest of the citadels of men's hearts. The theater of its operations is the entire planet. Its duration a whole decade. Its commencement synchronizes with the centenary of the birth of Bahh'u'llhh's Mission. Its culmination will coincide with the centenary of the declaration of that same Mission. The agencies assisting in its conduct are the nascent administrative institutions of a steadily evolving divinely appointed order. Its driving force is the energizing influence generated by the Revelation heralded by the Bhb and proclaimed by Bahl'u'llhh. Its Marshal is none other than the Author of the Divine Plan. Its standard-bearers are the Hands of the Cause of God appointed in every continent of the globe. Its generals are the twelve national spiritual assemblies participating in the execution of its design. Its vanguard is the chief executors of 'Abdu'l-Bahh's master plan [see TABLETS OF THE DIVINE PLAN], their allies and associates. Its legions are the rank and file of believers standing behind these same twelve national assemblies and sharing in the global task embracing the American, the European, the African, the Asiatic and Australian fronts. The charter directing its course is the immortal Tablets that have flowed from the pen of the Center of the Covenant Himself. The armor with which its onrushing hosts have been invested is the glad tidings of God's own message in this day, the principles underlying the order proclaimed by His Messenger, and the laws and ordinances governing His Di~pensation.[~~'~~~1
See also KNIGHTS OF B ~ ' u ' L L ~ . TEO, GEOK LENG (1907-1986). The first (1952) Chinese believer in Singapore, he served on the first (1952) local Spiritual Assembly of Singapore as well as serving on the first (1972) National Spiritual Assembly of Singapore (for eight years as treasurer). In 1973 he was appointed by the government of Singapore to solemnize Bahi'i marriage. He served in that capacity until 1984 and conducted a great many such ceremonies before his passing in 1986.[18:7011 TERRACES. A series of 38 garden terraces centered upon the Shrine of the BBb, stretching fiom the foot to the crown of Mount Carmel, as envisaged by 'Abdu'l-BahB, developed by Shoghi Effendi, and
completed by the Universal House of Justice. In conjunction with the A r c and the Monument Gardens they provide a jewel-like setting for the Shrine of the Bhb and 'Abdu'l-Bahh as well as the World Bahh'i Administrative O r d e r Buildings. In a letter dated 24 May 2001 "To the Believers Gathered for the Events Marking the Completion of the Projects on Mount Carmel" the Universal House of Justice issued a statement, part of which is here quoted: The majestic buildings that now stand along the Arc traced for them by Shoghi Effendi on the slope of the Mountain of God, together with the magnificent flight of garden terraces that embrace the Shrine of the Bib, are an outward expression of the immense power animating the Cause we serve. They offer timeless witness to the fact that the followers of Bahh'u'llhh have successllly laid the foundations of a worldwide community transcending all differences that divide the human race, and have brought into existence the principal institutions of a unique and unassailable Administrative Order that shapes this community's life. In the transformation that has taken place on Mount Carmel, the Bahi'i Cause emerges as a visible and compelling reality on the global stage, as the focal center of forces that will, in God's good time, bring about the reconstruction of society, and as a mystic source of spiritual renewal for all who turn to it. Reflection on what the Bahi'i community has accomplished throws into heartbreaking perspective the suffering and deprivation engulfing the great majority of our fellow human beings. It is necessary that it should do so, because the effect is to open our minds and souls to vital implications of the mission Bahzi'u'llhh has laid on us. "Know thou of a truth," He declares, "these great oppressions that have befallen the world are preparing it for the advent of the Most Great J u s t i ~ e . " [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] "God be praised!" 'Abdu'l-Bahi adds, "The sun of justice hath risen above the horizon of Bahl7u'll6h. For in His Tablets the foundations of such a justice have been laid as no mind hath, fkom the beginning of creation, concei~ed."[~~:~~] In the final analysis, it is this Divine purpose that all our activities are intended to serve, and we will advance this purpose to the degree that we understand what is at stake in the efforts we are making to teach the Faith, to establish and consolidateits institutions, and to intensify the influence it is exerting in life of society. TERRORISM. Condemned in all its forms in the Bahh'i Writings. See
also FANATICISM, RELIGIOUS; JI&; T ~ -
PEACE; SECURITY.
I Tm, A R (1958-1983). (Martyr.) A young Bahii'i who was executed along with other coreligionists in Shiriz, hiin, by the government in June 1983 for refking to recant her belief in B a h i i ' ~ ' l l h h . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
468
THOMAS, WILMA
THOMAS, WILMA (1913-1977). An early American believer. She served as a pioneer in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela throughout the period from 1955 until her passing in 1977. She was elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Colombia in 1961. In 1973 she was appointed an Auxiliary Board member for Venezue1a.[16:4361 THOMPSON, JULIET (1873-1956). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahai.) An artist by calling, she was born in Washington, D.C., in 1873 and at a very early age displayed a talent for painting. Her father died when she was 12, leaving very little money, but she was able to sell her pastel portraits and by the age of 16 had already gained a fine reputation for her work. When a small child, she was on the verge of death fiom diphtheria when she overheard the doctor telling her mother of his prognosis. As she lay there she "dreamed" that a wonderful-looking man assured her she would get well, and when she awoke the fever had broken, and she recovered. Many years later, while studying art in Paris, she saw a picture of 'Abdu'l-BahP and immediately recognized Him as the man who had come to her in her dream. In 1901 she was associating with May Ellis Bolles Maxwell, Lua Getsinger, and others of that circle of early BahB'is and embraced the Cause during that period. Returning to the States after completing her studies at the Sorbonne, she began to teach the Faith in New York. In 1909 she was able to visit the Holy Land and kept a diary of her encounters with 'Abdu'l-BahB; later pubIt includes her "awesome" lished as The Diary of Juliet experience of being invited by 'Abdu'l-Bahi to be present when He was dictating to His secretary as well as personal observations of Him and those associated with the Faith in those early days. When 'Abdu'l-Bahi visited New York City, she was there to meet Him as He disembarked from the SS Cedric in New York harbor. While in New York He invited her to paint His portrait and promised three sittings. She describes these occasions vividly in her diary. She was known to be an excellent teacher, with a radiant love of 'Abdu'lBahi, and held meetings in her home to the end of her life. Many photographs were made of her painting of the Master, but it was in pastels, and the original was eventually lost. In her diary entry of 8 July 1909, she confides that 'Abdu'l-Baha thought that Mason Remey would be a better choice of husband than Percy Grant. Bowing to his suggestion she and Remey became engaged. From her own diary entries it would seem, however, that she had an aversion to Remey, and the engagement was eventually broken
THORNBURGH, MRS., AND THORNBURGH-CROPPER, MARY VIRGINIA
469
off. One can only speculate how this may have changed the course of Remey's life. She passed away on 9 December 1956, on which Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Deplore loss much-loved greatly admired Juliet Thompson, outstanding, exemplary hand-maid 'Abdu'l-Bahi. Over half-century record manifold meritorious services, embracing concluding years Heroic opening decades Formative Age Bahi'i Dispensation won her enviable position glorious company triumphant disciples beloved Master Abhii Kingdom. Advise hold memorial gathering Maariqu'l-Aukair pay befitting tribute imperishable memory one so wholly consecrated Faith Bahi'u'llih fired such consuming devo:~~~, tion Centre His C o ~ e n a n t . " [ l ~123:731 THORNBURGH, MRS., AND THORNBURGH-CROPPER, MARY VIRGINIA (d. 1938). Mrs. Thornburgh (a disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahh and possibly the first person resident in the British Isles to become a Bahh'i) was staying with her daughter, Mrs. Mary Virginia Thornburgh-Cropper (Maryam Khhum), in London when they heard of the Bahi'i Faith by mail £rom a friend, Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, in San Francisco. Mrs. Hearst promised in her letter to tell them more when she came to London en route to ' A M , Palestine. Following her arrival in London she shared her "secret" with them, and they decided to accompany Mrs. Hearst in the first Western pilgrim group in December 1898. Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper visited the Holy Land again in 1906 and by that time had an active group meeting in London. During the visits of 'Abdu'l-Bahi to London in 1911 and 1912-1 913 she placed her car at His disposal and with her close fiend Lady Blomfield arranged the very intensive schedule of visitors for Him. Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper was associated with the administration of the Faith in the British Isles from its beginning. On 6 June 1922 the first meeting of a Bahh'i Spiritual Council for England met in her house, and she was one of the seven members from London (with one each from Bournemouth and Manchester) on that body. The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahh'is of the British Isles, which replaced the Council, met for the first time in her house on 13 October 1923. Notwithstanding her failing health, in January 1932 it was reported that she, Lady Blomfield, and Mrs. George had commenced work on a history of the Faith in England. Sadly, however, by that time she was an invalid and unable to participate in any active sense. She passed away on 15 March 1938 in London.[7:649,93:521, 147:171
470
THREE CHARTERS
THREE CHARTERS. Shoghi Effendi identified three separate documents as Charters for the creation of the Baha'i Faith. He wrote of ''the triple impulse generated through the revelation of the Tablet of Carmel by Bahsi'u'llsih and the Will and Testament as well as the Tablets of the Divine Plan bequeathed by the Center of His Covenant-the three Charters which have set in motion three distinct processes, the fist operating in the Holy Land for the development of the institutions of the Faith at its World Center and the other two, throughout the rest of the Baha'i world, for its propagation and the establishment of its Administrative Order."[38:841
TIH-. Capital city of k i n ; the city hailed by Bahi'u711& as the "mother of the world" and the "dayspring of the joy of mankind."[61'41 It was Bahsi'u'llsih's home for many years and the city in which He received a Message £rom the Bsib, sent through Mullsi Husayn, that resulted in His acceptance of the Bab as the Qsi'im. It was the scene of many Babbi martyrdoms and the site of the infamous Siysih-msil, where Bahi'u'llih received the first intimations of His Revelation in 1852. See also TA. TOBEY, MARK (1890-1976). An early (1918) American believer who was renowned for his genius as an abstract painter. Although his main services were through his art and public association with the Baha'i Faith, he also served as a member of several local Spiritual Assemblies (Seattle, Washington; Victoria, British Columbia; Basel, Switzerland) and for three years served as a member of the National Spiritual Assembly of the British Isles. He gave countless lectures and talks wherever he went.[16,246, 2471 TOBIN, ESTHER (NETTIE) (d. 1944). An early American believer. Mrs. Tobin found and delivered the stone used by 'Abdu'l-Bahi as 93:5251 the cornerstone of the Mahriqu'l-Amksir in Wilmette.[9'543, TOWNSHEND, GEORGE (18761957). (Hand of the Cause of God; sometime canon of St. Patrick's cathedral of the Church of England in Ireland and archdeacon of Clonfert.) Born in Dublin of distinguished Irish parents on 14 June 1876, he was destined to become the only Irish Hand of the Cause of God and one of the three to be appointed fiom Europe in the first contingent on 24 December 1951. He was the eldest of seven children of his father's second wife, the first wife having died at the early age of 43 after also giving birth to seven children. In his
TOWNSHEND, GEORGE 471
youth he was a notable athlete and studied classics and English, first at Uppingham Public School and later at Hertford College, Oxford, from which he graduated with a modest B.A. and a good collection of trophies for his athletic prowess. Living in the family home in Dublin, he took a degree in law and was called to the bar. At the same time his literary talents were developing, and he became a leader and writer for the Irish Rmes while officially practicing as a barrister between 1903 and 1920. In fact, he never argued a case, disliking the narrow life of Dublin and the grave social problems of Ireland. With his father's support, he spent from early 1904 until the end of 1905 riding around the Rocky Mountains, ending up in Salt Lake City, where he studied and was ordained as a priest in the Episcopal Church of America. Eventually he abandoned the ministry for a new ethical movement and made a living by teaching at the Salt Lake City High School while living with his sister Kathleen, who was nursing at the hospital. He returned to Ireland in 1916, and an eye trouble reoccurred that led to complete blindness for a while. This prevented him from returning to America, and so he took up employment with the Church of Ireland. In the winter of 1916, with his sight returning, he learned of the Bahi'i Faith from some pamphlets sent by a librarian in Sewanee, Tennessee, with whom he had boarded. He sent off for more literature, which eventually arrived in July 1917 on the very day he met Nancy Maxwell, whom he married in 1918. Shortly after he was appointed to the incumbency of Ahascragh, Ballinasloe, County Galway, which became their home for the next 28 years. On 10 June 1919 he wrote his first letter to 'Abdu'l-Bahsi and received a reply six weeks later. A few months later he accepted the Faith by writing a poem to 'Abdu'l-Bahi, from which the following lines are culled: Thy words are to me as fragrances borne from the garden of heaven, Beams of a lamp that is hid in the height of a holier world, Arrows of fire that pierce and destroy with the might of the levin, Into our midnight hurled. . . . [188:491
In His response, 'Abdu'l-Bahi included a phrase that was to become the guiding light for the remainder of George's life: "It is my hope that thy church will come under the Heavenly J e r ~ s a l e m . " [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] He did not resign formally from the church until 1947,[41:2021 and he moved with his family from church accommodation into a bungalow in Dundrum, Dublin. His letter The Old Churches and the New World Faith, addressed primarily to the clergy, was printed as
472
TOWNSHEND, UNA
a pamphlet and was widely distributed in February 1949, with some 10,000 copies being sent to Christian clergymen throughout the British Isles; 5,000 went to Australia, 2,000 to the United States, and 4,000 to Canada. He subsequently traveled to several British Bahb'i communities to teach the Faith but due to failing health was able to attend only one of the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conferences in Stockholm. During the last years of his life he spent varying periods in different nursing homes, including his old home in Dublin, which had been turned into a clinic. He passed away, with one of the first copies of his last book, Christ and Bahh'u'lkih, in his hands, in the Baggot Street Hospital on 25 March 1957. Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Deeply mourn passing dearly loved much admired greatly gifted outstanding Hand Cause George Townshend. His death morrow publication his crowning achievement robs British followers Bahh'u'llbh their most distinguished collaborator and Faith itself one its stoutest defenders. His sterling qualities his scholarship his challenging writings his high ecclesiastical position unrivaled any Bahh'i western world entitle him with Thomas Breakwell, Dr. Esslemont one of three luminaries shedding brilliant lustre annals Irish, English, Scottish Bahh'i communities. His fearless championship Cause he loved so dearly, served so valiantly constitutes significant landmark British Bahb'i history. . . . Confident his reward inestimable Abhh K i n g d ~ m . " [93:529, l ~ ~188:3651 ~~~ TOWNSHEND, UNA. See DEAN, UNA TOWNSHEND. TRIGG, MARTHA "NAKIYA" NOYAKUK (1944-1978). An Eskimo born in Mary's Igloo, Alaska, she embraced the Cause in 1961. When her husband (Jerome) became a Bahb'i (1967), they were the first Bahb'i Eskimo couple in the world. She and her husband promoted the Cause extensively among the Eskimo peopleS.[16:448,93:536] TRINITY. See ONENESS OF GOD. TRUE, CORINNE KNIGHT (1861-1961). (Hand of the Cause of God; Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahh.) Born in Oldham County, Kentucky, on 1 November 1861, she married Moses Adam True in 1882 and had eight children. Although brought up in a strictly orthodox Presbyterian family, she soon embraced the Bahh'i Faith aRer hearing of it in 1899. She turned to 'Abdu'l-Bahh for a set of guiding principles and in
TRUE,CORINNE KNIGHT 473
response received the first of more than 50 letters from Him. Early in 1907 she made the first of her nine pilgrimages to the Holy Land; her last was in 1952 following her appointment as a Hand of the Cause. During her entire Bahii'i life she dedicated herself to carrying out explicitly the guidance given to her by 'Abdu'l-Bahii with respect to the construction of the Maariqu'l-Aakair in Wilmette, Illinois. He had said to her during her first pilgrimage, "Devote yourself to this project-make a beginning and all will come right," and He gave her a description of what this should incorporate. She returned from her pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1922 to attend the first convention for the election of the National Spiritual Assembly of United States and Canada, to which body she was duly elected. During her last pilgrimage Shoghi Effendi remarked that "Mrs. True is to be regarded as the most venerable figure among the pioAlthough her neers of the Faith of Bahii'u'llih in the West."[12:8481 name will always be linked with the development of the Temple (Mashriqu'l-Adhkhr), she was an outstanding teacher of the Faith, and though she had no training and was shy before the public, she remembered 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Who had told her to turn her heart and mind to Him, and He would never fail her. Encouraged by Shoghi Effendi, she spent many years in the training of teachers and during the years 1948-1952 visited many new centers in Western Europe. As Shoghi Effendi's representative, she attended, at the age of 95, the Convention of the Greater Antilles in April 1957. While it was in 1907 that 'Abdu'l-Bahii had given Corinne the Temple mandate, she had the privilege of being hostess to Him when He came to Chicago to dedicate the ground selected for its construction. It was her crowning joy to see its completion in 1953 and be present at its dedication on 2 May of that year. On the passing of Shoghi Effendi in November 1957, Corinne True was, at the age of 96, unable to travel to the Holy Land for the Conclave of the Hands of the Cause but was able to sign an affidavit approving their proclamation, thus making it a unanimous document of all 27 living Hands of the Cause. She died in her 100th year on 2 April 1961. On 4 April 1961 the following cable was issued by the Hands resident in the Holy Land: "Grieved loss distinguished disciple 'Abdu'l-Bahii Hand Cause Corinne True. Her long association early history Faith America, raising Mother Temple West, staunch unfailing championship Covenant, steadfast support beloved Guardian every stage unfoldrnent World
474
TRUE, KATHERINE KNIGHT
TRUE, KATHERINE KNIGHT (1893-1963). An early American believer who at the age of nine wrote to 'Abdu'l-Bahsi. She wrote several other letters to Him and received a number of responses. She was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States for the period 1956 to 1960.[13:3831 TRUE SEEKER. In the ~ i t c i b - i - i ~ c i n ,Bahsi'u'llsih [~~l states clearly the requirements of the true seeker. The statements include this passage: 0 my brother, when a true seeker determineth to take the step of search . . . he must, before all else, cleanse and purify his heart, which is the seat of the revelation of the inner mysteries of God, from the obscuring dust of all acquired knowledge, and the allusions of the embodiments of satanic fancy. . . . That seeker should also regard backbiting as grievous error, and keep himself aloof from its dominion, inasmuch as backbiting quencheth the light of the heart, and extinguisheththe life of the soul. . . . With all his heart should the seeker avoid fellowship with evil doers, and pray for the remission of their sins. He should forgive the sinfid, and never despise his low estate, for none knoweth what his own end shall be. . . . He must purge his breast, which is the sanctuary of the abiding love of the Beloved, of every defilement, and sanctify his soul from all that pertaineth to water and clay, from all shadowy and ephemeral attachments. He must so cleanse his heart that no remnant of either love or hate may linger therein, lest that love blindly incline him to error, or that hate repel him away from the truth. . . . When the detached wayfarer and sincere seeker hath M l l e d these essential conditions, then and only then can he be called a true seeker. . . .Then will the manifold favors and outpouring grace of the holy and everlasting Spirit [see HOLY SPIRIT] confer such new life upon the seeker that he will find himself endowed with a new eye, a new ear, a new heart, and a new mind. He will contemplate the manifest signs of the universe, and will penetrate the hidden mysteries of the
TRUSTWORTHINESS. BahP'u'llPh places great emphasis on the virtue of being worthy of confidence: Adorn your temples with the adornment of trustworthiness and piety. Help, then, your Lord with the hosts of goodly deeds and a praiseworthy c h a r a ~ t e r . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] The purpose of the one true God in manifesting Himself is to summon all mankind to truthfulness and sincerity, to piety and trustworthiness,
TURNER, ROBERT
475
to resignation and submissiveness to the Will of God, to forbearance and kindliness, to uprightness and ~ i s d o r n . [ ~ * ' ~ ~ ~ ] Adorn your heads with the garlands of trustworthiness and fidelity, your hearts with the attire of the Fear of God, your tongues with absolute truthfulness, your bodies with the vesture of courtesy. These are in truth seemly adornings unto the temple of man, if ye be of them that reflect.[143:211 Trustworthinessis the greatest portal leading unto the tranquility and security of the people [see PEACE]. In truth the stability of every affair hath depended and doth depend upon it. All the domains of power, of [See STEADgrandeur and of wealth are illumined by its light.[1ZZ:371 FASTNESS.]
TRUTH. See INDEPENDENT SEARCH AFTER TRUTH. TRUTHFULNESS. See STEADFASTNESS. TSAO, Y. S. (d. 1937). An early Chinese believer, who heard of the Faith through Martha Root when he was president of Tsing Hua College, the Boxer Indemnity C ~ l l e g e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] T u M ~ Discontinued . unit of irhian c ~ r r e n c y . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ TURNER, ROBERT (18551561909). (Disciple of 'Abdu'l-Bahi.) The first member of the "negro" race in the Western Hemisphere to embrace According to Stockman, Turner was born in Virginia the Faith.[37:2591 ~1855156and it is possible therefore that he was born enslaved.[14* 23, 20051 He was for some 35 years a butler in the household of Mrs. Phoebe Hearst (eventually becoming her personal butler-a position of considerable responsibility). Shortly before 1898, Mrs. Hearst received Mrs. Lua Getsinger in her San Francisco home. Mrs. Getsinger introduced the Faith to her while he was in attendance serving tea. Naturally, he overheard the conversation and, like Mrs. Hearst, was touched by what he heard. He was with Mrs. Hearst when, in 1898, she arranged for the first group of "pilgrims" to visit 'Abdu'l-Bahii in ' A M . On 10 December 1898 he was warmly received by 'Abdu'lBaM Who raised him to his feet and embraced him when, on first seeing the Master, he had dropped to his knees calling out, "My Lord! My Lord! I am not worthy to be here." On a later occasion 'Abdu'l-Bahii said, "Robert, your Lord loves y o ~ . " [ ~ ~Robert : ~ ~ ,later ~ ~encountered ~:~~l many difficulties, but remained staunch in his new faith, he died not 181:54f1 many years a h his return fiom the Holy Land.[lZ3:l3,
476
TURVEY, REGINALD
TURVEY, REGINALD (1882-1968). (Spiritual Father of South Afiica.) An early South Afiican believer designated by Shoghi 93:5421 Effendi as "the Spiritual Father of South Afi-i~a."[l~:~~~, TWIGS. See A F N ~ .
'uL&. Literally, learned men, scholars; clerical authorities, theologians, divines; the Muslim religious hierar~hy.[l~~~l]" ULLRICH, MARGARITE HOPE IAOS (MARGE) (1898-1984). The daughter of Hand of the Cause of God Leroy Ioas, she met 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Chicago when she was a young girl of 13 and later (1920) received a Tablet from Him. She married Clarence Ullrich (1894-1969) in 1922, who in 1940, to make up the ninth member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Oak Park, Michigan, had embraced the Cause. In 1941 the family moved to Mansfield, Ohio, then back to Oak Park in 1945. In 1959, as part of the Ten Year Crusade, they pioneered to Camaguey, Cuba, and in 1960 formed the first local SpiritualAssembly of that town (which assisted, in turn, in the formation in 1961 of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Cuba). During this time they also helped with the teaching work in Curagao, Netherlands Antilles. While away fiom Cuba, visiting family, they learned that the U.S. government would not permit their return to Cuba. This led to a pioneer move to Jamaica, where in 1961 they were both elected to the first National Spiritual Assembly of Jamaica. Sometime after the Bahh'i World Congress (1963) they moved for health reasons to Florida, where Marge was elected to the local Spiritual Assembly of Manatee County in 1966 and remained in that 18:6221 position until forced to retire in 1975.[14:465, UMM. M ~ t h e r . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] " UNITED NATIONS, B A ~ ' AND ~ S THE. See BAHA'~INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY. UNITY. (Vihid.) The Bahi'i Faith emphasizes the unity or oneness of God, oneness of religion, and oneness of mankind. It is a fundamental concept around which all the other Teachings revolve. Bahh'u'llhh wrote,
UNITY
477
The light of men is Justice. Quench it not with the contrary winds of oppression and tyranny. The purpose of justice is the appearance of unity among men.[61:271 The Divine Messengers have been sent down, and their Books were revealed, for the purpose of promoting the knowledge of God, and of 141 furthering unity and fellowship amongst rnen.[lo9:l2* With the utmost unity, and in a spirit of perfect fellowship, exert yourselves, that ye may be enabled to achieve that which beseemeth this Day of God. . . . It beseemeth all men, in this Day, to take firm hold on the Most Great Name, and to establish the unity of all mankind. . . . Set your faces towards unity, and let the radiance of its light shine upon you. Gather ye together, and for the sake of God resolve to root out whatever is the source of contention amongst yo^.[^^:^^^, 203, 217, 2881 Please God, that we avoid the land of denial, and advance into the ocean of acceptance, so that we may perceive, with an eye purged fiom all conflicting elements, the worlds of unity and diversity, of variation and oneness, of limitation and detachment, and wing our flight unto the highest and innermost sanctuary of the inner meaning of the Word of God [79:160]
'Abdu'l-Bahi wrote, The first candle is unity in the political realm, the early glimmerings of which can now be discerned. The second candle is unity of thought in world undertakings, the consummation of which will erelong be witnessed. The third candle is unity in freedom [see LIBERTY], which will surely come to pass. The fourth candle is unity in religion which is the cornerstone of the foundation itself, and which, by the power of God, will be revealed in all its splendor. The fifth candle is the unity of nations-a unity which, in this century, will be securely established, causing all the peoples of the world to regard themselves as citizens of one common fatherland. The sixth candle is unity of races, making of all that dwell on earth peoples and kindreds of one race. The seventh candle is unity of language, i.e., the choice of a universal tongue in which all peoples will be instructed and converse. Each and every one of these will inevitably come to pass, inasmuch as the power of the Kingdom of God will aid and assist in their realization.[fi4:1211 From the beginning of time the light of unity hath shed its divine radiance upon the world, and the greatest means for the promotion of that unity is for the peoples of the world to understand one another's writing and speech. . . .The tabernacle of unity hath been raised; regard ye not one another as strangers. Ye are the fruits of one tree, and the leaves of one
See also INTERNATIONALAUXILIARY LANGUAGE.
478
UNITY FEAST
UNITY FEAST. Unlike a Nineteen Day Feast, a Unity Feast is open to the public. Bahk'i Scriptures are read or chanted with the emphasis being on fellowship in a devotional atmosphere. It is inspirational in nature and is usually accompanied by refreshments. It is not a part of the Baha'i administrative structure; indeed, there is nothing in Baha'i writings as to how it might be conducted, being but one way adopted by some communities to bring Baha'is and non-Baha'is together in a happy environment. 'Abdu'l-Bahai Himself hosted some such "Feasts" while He was in America. Occasionally, if any non-Bahk'is are present at a Nineteen Day Feast, thereby making it improper to have the consultative part, rather than cause unhappiness to the visitors by requesting them to absent themselves, the business consultative segment is postponed. The Universal House of Justice throws light on the subject in this extract from a letter to a National Spiritual Assembly: Bahi'i communities have come to use the term "Unity Feast" to indicate events which resemble a Nineteen Day Feast but in which the adrninistrative portion is not conducted due to the presence of non-Bahi'is or because it is being jointly celebrated by more than one community. It is important to note that such an event is purely social and enjoys no special station in Bahi'i community life. A Unity Feast cannot take the place of a Nineteen Day Feast, an Institution of the Faith, which includes the administrativeportion as an essential element. It is not quite correct to say that a Nineteen Day Feast is changed into a Unity Feast as a result of the presence of non-Bahi'is. What can happen is that the consultative portion of the Feast has to be postponed. . . . If it is decided to postpone part or all of the consultative portion of the Feast, the House of Justice states that it is within the discretion of the Local SpiritualAssembly to decide whether another meeting should be held during the Bahi'i month to complete it, or whether it can be postponed until the following Nineteen Day
UNITY IN DIVERSITY. The Baha'i understanding of unity does not imply uniformity. On the contrary, there is an emphasis on diversity, the keynote being absolute unity in essentials but the widest diversity possible in nonessentials. Shoghi Effendi outlines these concepts and quotes 'Abdu'l-Bahai: Its watchword is unity in diversity such as 'Abdu'l-Bahi Himself has explained: "Consider the flowers of a garden. Though differing in kind, color, form and shape, yet, inasmuch as they are refreshed by the waters of one spring, revived by the breath of one wind, invigorated by the rays of one sun, this diversity increaseth their charm and addeth unto
UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE 479
their beauty. How unpleasing to the eye if all the flowers and plants, the leaves and blossoms, the fruit, the branches and the trees of that garden were all of the same shape and color! Diversity of hues, form and shape enricheth and adorneth the garden, and heighteneth the effect thereof. In like manner, when divers shades of thought, temperament and character, are brought together under the power and influence of one central agency, the beauty and glory of human perfection will be revealed and made manifest. Naught but the celestial potency of the Word of God, which ruleth and transcendeth the realities of all things, is capable of harmonizing the divergent thoughts, sentiments, ideas and convictions of the children of men."[36'421 It is not uniformity which we should seek in the formation of any national or local assembly. For the bedrock of the Bahi'i administrative order is the principle of unity in diversity, which has been so strongly and so repeatedly emphasized in the writings of the Cause. Differences which are not hdamental and contrary to the basic teachings of the Cause should be maintained, while the underlying unity of the administrative order should be at any cost preserved and insured. Unity, both of purpose and of means is, indeed, indispensable to the safe and speedy working of every Assembly, whether local or n a t i ~ n a l . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] The diversity in the human family should be the cause of love and harmony, as it is in music where many different notes blend together in the making of a perfect chord. . . . Bahb'is should obviously be encouraged to preserve their inherited cultural identities, as long as the activities involved do not contravene the principles of the Faith. The perpetuation of such cultural characteristics is an expression of unity in diversity.[87:5531
See also NATIONALISM. UNITY OF GOD. See ONENESS OF GOD. UNITY OF HUMAN RACE. See WORLD COMMONWEALTH. UNITY OF MANKIND. See ONENESS OF MANKIND. UNITY OF RELIGION. See ONENESS OF RELIGION; PROGRESSIVE REVELATION.
UNIVERSAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE. See INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE.
UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE. Ordained by Bahii'u'lliih in the Kitrib-i-Aqd~s,[~~1 the Universal House is the supreme governing
480
UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE
(executive), judicial, and legislative body of the Baha'i Faith. Together with the Guardianship they represent "the twin, crowning institutions of the Bahb'i Administrative Order. Elected every five years at an international BahP'i convention, the Universal House of Justice gives spiritual guidance to and directs the administrative activities of the world-wide Bahb'i community. It is the institution Baha'u'llih ordained as the agency invested with authority to legislate on matters not covered in His Writings. In His Will and Testament 'Abdu'l-Bahii [see 'ABDU'L-B&, WILL AND TESTAMENT OF] elaborates on its functions and affirms that it is infalli~ : ~ ~ ~in] religious history; its duties and functions bly g ~ i d e d . " [ ~Unique are clearly outlined in many passages in Baha'i Writings. Shoghi Effendi, quoting both Bahii'u'llhh and 'Abdu'l-Bahh, wrote, Concerningthe House of Justice which God hath ordained as the source of all good and fieed fiom all error [see INFALLIBILITY] it must be elected by universal suffrage, that is, by the believers. Its members must be manifestations of the fear of God and daysprings of knowledge and understanding, must be steadfast in God's faith and the well-wishers of all mankind. By this House is meant the Universal House of Justice, that is, in all countries, a secondary House of Justice [seeNATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES] must be instituted, and these secondary Houses of Justice must elect the members of the Universal one. Unto this body all things must be referred. It enacteth all ordinances and regulations that are not to be found in the explicit Holy Text. By this body all the difficult problems are to be resolved and the Guardian of the Cause of God is its sacred head and the distinguished member for life of that b~dy.[~~:'O] What has not been formulated in the Aqdas [seeIUTAB-I-AQDAS] in addition to matters of detail and of secondary importance arising out of the application of the laws already formulated by Bahi'u'llih, will have to be enacted by the Universal House of Justice. This body can supplement but never invalidate or modify in the least degree what has already been formulated by Bahb'u'llih. Nor has the Guardian any right whatsoever to lessen the binding effect much less to abrogate the provisions of so fundamental and sacred a B o ~ k . [ l ~ ~ : ~ ] He has ordained and established the House of Justice, which is endowed with a political as well as a religious function, the consummate union and blending of church and state. This institution is under the protecting power of Bahi'u'llih Himself. A universal, or international, House of Justice shall also be organized. Its rulings shall be in accordance with the commands and teachings of Bahb'u'llih, and that which the Universal House of Justice ordains shall be obeyed by all mankind. This international House of Justice shall be appointed and organized from the Houses of Justice of the whole world [see
UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE 481
NATIONAL SPIRITUAL ASSEMBLIES], and all the world shall come under its administrati~n.[~~:~~~] It is incumbent upon the members of the House of Justice, "Bahi'u'llhh . . . declares . . . to take counsel together regarding those things which have not outwardly been revealed in the Book, and to enforce that which is agreeable to them. God will verily inspire them with whatsoever He willeth, and He verily is the Provider, the Omniscient." "Unto the Most Holy Book" (the Kikib-i-Aqdas), 'Abdu'l-Bahi states in His Will, "every one must turn, and all that is not expressly recorded therein must be referred to the Universal House of Justice. That which this body, whether unanimously or by a majority doth carry, that is verily the truth and the purpose of God Himself. Whoso doth deviate therefrom is verily of them that love discord, hath shown forth malice, and turned away ~ ' ~ ~KIT^-I-'AHD.) 1 from the Lord of the C o ~ e n a n t . " [ ~(See The men of God's House of Justice have been charged with the affairs of the people. They, in truth, are the Trustees of God among His servants and the daysprings of authority in His countries. . . . 0 people of God! That which traineth the world is Justice, for it is upheld by two pillars, reward and punishment. These two pillars are the sources of life to the world. Inasmuch as for each day there is a new problem and for every problem an expedient solution, such affairs should be referred to the Ministers of the House of Justice that they may act according to the needs and requirements of the time. They that, for the sake of God, arise to serve His Cause, are the recipients of divine inspiration from the unseen Kingdom. It is incumbent upon all to be obedient unto them. All matters of State should be referred to the House of Justice, but acts of worship must be observed according to that which God hath revealed in His Book. . . .It is incumbent upon the Trustees of the House of Justice to take counsel together regarding those things which have not outwardly been revealed in the Book, and to enforce that which is agreeable to them. . . . First: It is incumbent upon the ministers of the House of Justice to promote the Lesser Peace so that the people of the earth may be relieved from the burden of exorbitant expenditures. This matter is imperative and absolutely essential, inasmuch as hostilities ~~~~~~ and conflict lie at the root of affliction and ~ a l a r n i t y . [ 891 68r
The successll conclusion of the Ten Year Crusade provided a sufficiently strong foundation for the election of this body, and the members of the 56 National Spiritual Assemblies in existence in 1962 served as its electors. The election was announced to the Bahii'i world on 5 November 1961 by the Hands of the Cause of God, to take place on the first through the third days of Ridvhn 1963. The duly elected Universal House of Justice presented their first Message at the Most Great Jubilee at the Albert Hall, London (28 April-2 May). Its fist major concern was to effect the complete transfer of
482
UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE, SEAT OF
the administrative responsibilities that the Hands of the Cause had had to assume as Chief Stewards during the interregnum period of the Ministry of the Custodians, including the legal transfer of all rights and properties, and to terminate the legal entity of the Custodians (completed by 7 June 1963). In its earliest meetings it decided to have no officers, and it planned to announce its first detailed plan of expansion for the whole Baha'i community to be launched at Ridvh 1964. By June it announced details of the offices it had taken over in Haifa and the continuation of pilgrimages. It also had to confkm that "there is no way to appoint or to legislate to make it possible to By Octoappoint a second Guardian to succeed Shoghi Effendi."[39'111 ber it had announced that the plan for the following April would be for the duration of nine years. Also during its first five years of office it made announcements for the development of the institution of the Hands of the Cause and the Auxiliary Board members, clarified the relationship between the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice, launched a campaign to commemorate the proclamation of Bahb'u'llhh to the kings and rulers, held the First Oceanic Conference in Sicily to commemorate the centenary of Baha'u'llih's transfer to the Most Great Prison, and appointed the Continental Board of Counsellors. On 26 November 1972 it signed the declaration of trust in which it confirmed the existing and bylaws for its con~titution,[~~1 administrative principles for the formation and fhctioning of local and national Spiritual Assemblies and established that its own elections would take place every five years at an International Baha'i Convention. In the ensuing years it has continued to guide the Baha'i community through the launching of global plans, ensuring the preservation of the Sacred Texts and safeguarding their inviolability, enacting laws and ordinances not expressly recorded in the Sacred Texts, issuing compilations on vital issues, answering questions fiom individuals and institutions, ruling on disputes, protecting the Faith, and dealing with a wide range of matters at the international It also undertook the completion of the Arc and Terraces on Mount Carmel as mandated by Bahi'u'llhh in the Tablet of Carmel. Refer to the introduction for key events associated with this body.
UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE, SEAT OF. The building that is the administrative seat of the Universal House of Justice as anticipated by Shoghi Effendi in his message to the Baha'i world on 27 November 1954 and that, in addition to its council chamber, houses its offices and ancillary services, banqueting facilities, storage vaults, and a concourse for the reception of pilgrims and dignitaries. In the
words of the Universal House of Justice, it is "a building that will not only serve the practical needs of a steadily consolidating administrative center but will, for centuries to come, stand as a visible expression of the majesty of the divinely ordained institutions of the Administrative Order of Baha'~'ll6h."[~~'~~~1 In 1973 at the third International Convention, the delegates were shown the site of the proposed Seat; in 1978 at the fourth International Convention the delegates gathered on a special platform erected to enable them to witness the placing of a casket containing dust from the Shrines of the Baib and Bahai'u'llaih in a niche in the new building at a dedication ceremony; the inauguration took place on 17 July 1982, and during January 1983 the members of the Universal House of Justice transferred their offices to the Seat. At the fifth International Convention in April 1983, the actual election of the Universal House of Justice took place in the Reception Concourse. In October 1983 the fist guest to be honored with a banquet was the president of Israel, Chaim Herzog. The Seat comprises six stories, is clad in marble, and provides 11,000 square meters of floor space. In 1978 the Italian firm of marble carvers Industria dei Marmi Vicentini of Chiamp0 (which also produced the carved marble for the International Archives Building) issued an impressive brochure that pointed out that their quarries will provide 85,000 cubic feet of Caesar's White marble of Pentelikon quality-the same marble that was used in the Parthenon in Athens-that the Parthenon has 46 columns each 3 1.5 feet high while the new Seat has "a peristyle of 58 columns, each 33 feet high . . . decorated with magnificent entablatures and surmounted by a great dome." Its architect was Husayn Amanat (a Persian Bahh'i now resident in the United States). See also ARC; TERRACES. 'URVATU'L-WTHQA. The Sure Handle, Firm Cord: a Qur'hic term, used in the Bahh'i Writings to symbolize the Covenant and Te~tament.[l~:~~~]~ U S T ~ Teacher, . professor; mechanic, artisan, crafisman.[18'7411m
VMDAT, YADU'LLAH (1910-1981). (Martyr.) An irhian believer who (along with his wife Qudsiyyih) was arrested in a i r & in February 1981 for his belief in Bahi'u'llih. He was executed in May 1981.[17:7591
VAHID. Literally, unity, one, single; the One, Invisible God.[18:7411m It is used in the Badi' calendar for a period or cycle of 19 years. In its Arabic original its numerical value is 19, and it symbolizes the unity of God.
VW~D. (Siyyid Yabyhy-i-Dbhbi; Martyr.) The title given to an outstanding scholar, Siyyid Y&yhy-i-D6rabi; (meaning single, unique, p e e r l e ~ s ) [ l ~and : ~ ~about ~ ] whom Shoghi Effendi wrote, The commotion had assumed such proportions that the Sib, unable any longer to ignore the situation, delegated the trusted Siyyid Y&yay-i-DMtbi, surnamed V&id, one of the most erudite, eloquent and influential of his subjects-a man who had committed to memory no less than thirty thousand traditions-to investigate and report to him the true situation. Broad-minded, highly imaginative, zealous by nature, intimately associated with the court, he, in the course of three interviews, was completely won over by the arguments and personality of the BBb. . . . V&id, pronounced in the ~ i t B b - i - i ~ Bton be the "unique and peerless figure of his age," a man of immense erudition and the most preeminent figure to enlist under the banner of the new Faith, to whose "talents and saintliness," to whose "high attainments in the realm of science and philosophy" the Bab had testified in His Dall'il-i-Sab'ih (Seven Proofs), had already, under similar circumstances, been swept into the maelstrom of another upheaval, and was soon to quaff in his turn the cup drained by the heroic martyrs of M&indarBn.[37:ll. 501 His martyrdom and the events leading up to it are described by Taherzadeh in Volume I of The Revelation of Bah6 'u'Il6h: When in 1850 V&id arrived in Nayriz, awakening a spiritual turmoil far-reaching in its consequences, a considerable number of devoted souls were deeply affected, rallied around V&id and embraced the Faith of the Bib. . . . ~apu'l- bidi in KJh, the Governor of Nayriz, was alarmed by the tumultuous reception accorded to V*id by the people of the town, and was shocked and angered when he saw that great numbers were entering the Faith within the span of a few days. He decided to take immediate action, and ordered the army to wipe out the newly-formed community and kill its leader. Soon there was a great upheaval and the followers of the Bab were forced to take refuge in an old fort outside the town. Though vastly outnumbered by the army, and in spite of their lack of training, these defenders of the fort of Khijih fought with such courage and heroism that their enemies suffered humiliating defeat and were forced to withdraw in terror.
Having realized the Mlity of his armed intervention, Zaynu'l-
bid in K h h resorted to deception and treachery. Cunningly, he raised the cry of peace, sent a message in writing to the defenders of the fort to invite V&id and other leaders to visit him in the army camp, and pledged his word to investigate the truth of the Cause of the Bib and to end all bloodshed and strife. In order to beguile those simple and purehearted men, he and his staff a&ed their seal to the Qur'h and sent it with this message as a testimony of their honesty and truthfulness. V&id knew their treachery, but to honour the Qur'h he emerged from the fort and went to the camp, where he was at first ceremoniously received. There he rebuked the authorities for their tyranny and blindness and called on them to investigate and embrace the new-born Faith of God. So penetrating were his words that the Governor and his men were confounded by the force of his argument. Recognizing the profundity of his knowledge and the sincerity of his beliefs, the Governor became apprehensive lest some of his men transfer their allegiance to V&id. Within three days, through deceit and treachery, the Governor succeeded in evacuating the fort. But its heroic defenders walked into a trap, and most were massacred by the army. Vaid was shamellly put to death and his body was dragged through the streets and bazaars of Nayriz to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals, while men and women danced merrily around him. V&id's martyrdom shed an imperishable lustre upon the Faith of God. The story of his life adorns the pages of the history of the Cause and the example he has left will guide and inspire countless generations throughout the ages. He was peerless in the realm of learning and knowledge, indomitable in his faith, challenging in his public discourse, heroic in the defense of the Cause of God and unsurpassed in his love for the Bib. In the Siriy-i-Sabr (Verse of P a t i e n ~ e , [ l l ~Bahft'u'llfih ~ ~ ~ - ~ ] ) describes the proclamation of the Faith by V a d and the circumstances which led to the upheaval in Nayriz. He recounts, at some length, the events which led to the incarceration of the believers and lauds their heroism, self-sacrifice, and eventual martyrdom. He portrays the agony and sufferings which were inflicted upon the survivors, mainly women and children, who were forced to accompany the heads of the martyrs which were carried aloft on lances to &irk and paraded in the streets and bazaars of that city. He severely condemns the perpetrators of such atrocities and warns them not to rejoice in their actions, but to fear the wrath of an almighty God who will justly, in the next world, punish them for the cruelties they have inflicted upon His loved
V A I ~ LM , U N ~ R(1900-1976). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) A thirdgeneration 'Irhqi believer (his grandfather and father accepted the
486
VAKIL, NARAYENRAO RANGNATH
Faith during Bahai'u'llaih's time in B a a d i d ) , he met 'Abdu'l-BahP when he was a young boy, and his mother and sister served in His house for a period. On the death of his father he inherited responsibility for the care of the House of Bahi'u'llih in Ba&dhd. He was a member of the first National Spiritual Assembly of 'Iriq. In 1953 he pioneered to the Kuria Muria Islands, for which service he was designated a Knight of Bahi'u'llih. Following service in those islands he pioneered to the Seychelles Islands in 1955 and stayed until the formation of the first local Spiritual Assembly in Victoria, Mahe. Before his departure he purchased and maintained the Hqiratu'lQuds in Victoria. In 1962 he returned to VAKIL, NARAYENRAO RANGNATH (18661943). The first Hindu believer in VALi. G ~ a r d i a n . [ ' ~ : ~See ~ ~also ] " GUARDIANSHIP.
VAL^. Governor of a provin~e.['~:~~~1"
VAL~YU'LLAH VARQA. See VARQA, VAL~U'LL~LH. VARAQIH. Leaf; often used metaphorically in the Bahi'i Writings to refer to a ~ o m a n . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l ~ VARAQIY-I-'ULYA. Literally, the Most Exalted Leaf; the Greatest Holy Leaf title of Bahd'iyyih (or more commonly Bahiyyih num), saintly daughter of Bahai'u'llaih and the "outstanding heroine of the Bahh'i Di~pensation."['~~~~1"
mai-
VARQA. Bird, nightingale; the Heavenly Dove.[18:7421"
VARQA, ' A L ~MUMMMAD (1912-).
(Hand of the Cause of God; Trustee of Huququ'llaih.) A geologist by profession, he was born in Tihrain, irain, in 1912. His father was Valiyu'llaih Varqai, the third son of Mirzai 'Ali Muhammad, the martyr. Valiyu'llih Varqi had attended the American University in Beirut, deepening his knowledge of the Bahi'i teachings under the guidance of 'Abdu'l-Bahai during his summer vacations. Later, he accompanied the Master on His historic journey to Europe and America, serving as an interpreter. 'Ali M ~ a m m a dwas born while his father was in the United States.
'Ali Mulprnrnad attended primary and secondary school in Tihriin, and always participated in Bahi'i activities. As a youth, he served on many committees and was a teacher of Bahi'i children's classes. The government of iriin sent him to France to study geomorphology, a branch of science that deals with the land and submarine relief features of the earth's surface. On his return to kin, he became of professor of geology at the University of Tihriin. He continued his academic career at the university, becoming the head of the Department of Geography. His services to the Faith were never ending, encouraged by his father, who was a trustee of the Huqhqu'llih and who was in the first contingent of Hands of the Cause of God appointed by Shoghi Effendi on 24 December 1951. His father, Valiyu'llih Varqi, died on 12 November 1955, following a long illness. In the cable announcing his passing, sent on 15 November, Shoghi Effendi included this statement: "His mantle as Trustee Huqhq now falls on 'Ali Mul;lammad, his son. . . . Newly appointed Trustee Huqhq now elevated rank Hand C a u ~ e . " [ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ] He served as Shoghi Effendi's representative at the convention of the Region of Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia in Buenos Aires, April 1957 and then visited centers in Argentina and Chile. His international travels then included the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in Djakarta-Singapore in 1958, centers in France in 1961, the Convention of Belgium and Luxembourg in 1962, and centers in the British Isles in 1962 and 1963. He continued his professorial duties at the University of Tihriin with outside travels during his vacations. In the summers of 1973, 1974, and 1975 he was on teaching tours in Western Europe and in 1974 visited West Afiica. During the period 1976 to 1979 he carried on his developing work as trustee of the Huqhqu'llih, spent a great deal of his time assembling historical data at the request of the Universal House of Justice, traveled extensively in the Caribbean and parts of Central Afiica and in 1978 in Western Europe and Canada.[12,181 Dr. Varqi had retired £rom his post as head of the Geography department at the university and was on a teaching trip to Francophile countries in Europe when the Islimic Revolution broke out in hiin in 1978. While he was in Luxembourg, he received a cable suggesting that he not return to h n "for a while." He and his wife went to live in Montrkal, Canada, where they still maintain a residence. Since 1992, Dr. Varqii has also spent part of each year in Haifa. The persecution of the Bahi'i community of hiin has caused immense problems to be dealt with in relation to the safeguarding and
sale of properties donated for the Huqhqu'llhh as well as a multitude of other historic tasks. Dealing with these problems has fallen to Dr. Varqii in his capacity as a Hand of the Cause of God. The universal application of the Law of Huqhqu'llhh, beginning at Ridvhn 1992, required the establishment of an Office of Huqhqu'llih in the Holy Land and the appointment of deputies and representatives in many countries of the world. This task fell to Dr. Varqi as the trustee of the Huqhqu'llih. While living in North America, Dr. Varqi has often attended gatherings of the fiiends at conventions, summer schools, or other meetings. He has also traveled to represent the Universal House of Justice at the elections of the first National Spiritual Assembly of Czechoslovakia in April 1991;of Greenland in May 1992; of the Ukraine, Belarus, and Moldova in May 1992; and of Slovenia and Croatia in May 1994. At the time this second edition of the Dictionary was going to press he was the last surviving Hand of the Cause of God.
VARQA, M ~ R Z A' A L ~ MUHAMMAD. (Martyr; Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh; Hand of the Cause of God.) Entitled "Varqh, . . . he was a poet of outstanding caliber, knowledgeable in the science of ancient medicine and well-versed in religious subjects. He was an erudite and eloquent teacher of the Cause, one who had truly recognized the Station of Bahh'u'llhh; he was filled with His love and radiated the power and the beauty of the Faith to those who came in contact with him."[111:531 He met Bahd'u'llhh on two o c c a s i ~ n s . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ Varqii had four sons: 'Azizu'llhh, Rihu'llhh, Valiyu'llhh (see VARQA, and Badi'u'llhh (who died at a young age).[111'53a In vAL~YU'LL~LH), early 1896, along with several other Bahb'is, he was falsely charged with involvement in the assassination of the &hh. Although the charges were totally spurious, he and his coreligionists were executed by the hhnian authorities in Tihrhn on 1 May 1896; he was stabbed to death, and his body cut to pieces in front of his 12-year-old son, Rihu'llhh, who was then, in turn, strangled with a rope for refusing to recant. 'Ali M&ammad was named a Hand of the Cause by 'Abdu'lhe was also designated an Apostle of Bahi'u'llih. Bahh;[111:53631 VARQA, V A L ~ Y U ' L L(1884-1955). ~ (Hand of the Cause of God; trustee of Huqliqu'llhh.) Although born in 1884 in Tabru, irhn, into a distinguished Bahii'i family (his father and brother were both martyrs), his grandmother was a committed Muslim who endeavored to turn him against his father. Eventually, his welfare was taken over by
his uncle, who was a devout Bahii'i, thereby securing his education in the Faith. He studied Arabic and English and spent some time in the Holy Land, where he met with 'Abdu'l-BahP and continued his studies in Beirut. He was employed in the Russian embassy as a secretary and was able to obtain permission from 'Abdu'l-Bahii and his employers to travel with Him on His visit to America. On his return he was employed as first secretary translator at the Turkish embassy. During all these years, beginning at the age of 20 until his death at age 71, he continued with unabated zeal and enthusiasm to serve the Cause, particularly after the death of Amin-i-Amin in 1938, when Shoghi Effendi appointed him as trustee of the Huququ'llih. He was appointed a Hand of the Cause in the first contingent on 24 December 1951. He attended the (Intercontinental) International Teaching Conference in Kampala in 1953 as well as the one in Chicago, and then on Shoghi Effendi's directions did some travel teaching in Brazil and Chile. After attending the conference in Stockholm, Sweden, he visited a large number of Bahii'i centers in Germany. While in Stuttgart he became ill and spent a week in the hospital and then a month in Ulm, where he had surgery. He left to attend the New Delhi Conference, cutting down on his convalescence, and then proceeded to 'Irhq, where his illness worsened. A h a short recovery, he visited several centers in Egypt and fiom there went to Turkey, where his suffering increased, and Shoghi Effendi instructed him to return to kin. Shoghi Effendi then permitted him to go on pilgrimage, during which time he was inspired with new life. He then went on to Germany to complete his course of treatment and £rom there to Austria; in Vienna he addressed large audiences prior to his return to hhn. In March 1955 he again experienced severe pain and left for treatment in Germany, calling on the way to teach in Paris and Italy. He went into the hospital in Tiibingen, where, after 41 days, teaching fiom his bed whenever he could, he passed away on 12 November 1955. On 15November Shoghi Effendi cabled, "Profoundly grieved loss outstanding Hand Cause God, exemplary Trustee Huquq, distinguished representative most venerable community Bahii'i world, worthy son brother twin immortal martyrs Faith, dearly beloved disciple Center Covenant. Shining record services extending over half century enriched annals heroic formative ages Bahii'i Dispensation. His reward AbhP Kingdom inestimable. Advise erect my behalf befitting monument his grave. His 11mtle as trustee funds Huqfiq now falls on 'Ali M m a d , his son. Instruct Rowhani Tihrh arrange befitting memorial gatherings capital provinces honor memory mighty pillar
Faith Bahh'u'llhh. Newly-appointed trustee Huqcq now elevated rank Hand Cause."[12'8311 From a letter addressed to those who had attended the funeral, the following extract written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi by his secretary is of particular interest: "The Bahii'is could not have a better example before them of nobility and faithfulness than this distinguished Hand of the Cause; and it is a blessing for the German friends that their country should have received his dust. The Guardian urges you all to follow in the footsteps of this beloved Hand."[12:8341 V A ~ R Vizir, . minister (of state), vizier. Vazir-i-A'zam: grand vizier, prime minister.[18:7421a VERMEESCH, ARIANE DROLLET (1901-1964). The first (1920) Tahitian to embrace the C a u ~ e . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] VIERA, EDUARDO DUARTE (1921-1966). (The first African martyr.) Born in Portuguese Guinea, he embraced the Cause while on a visit to Lisbon in the mid-1950s. He was arrested for his beliefs and ~'~~~~ died under "mysterious circumstances" while in p r i ~ o n . [ '15:5681
VOELZ, GENEVIEVE E. An early (1904) American believer. The funeral of her mother (Mrs. Laura Thime) in 1905 (who accepted the Cause at the same time as her daughter) is thought to be the first Bahh'i funeral and burial in America. She met 'Abdu'l-Bahh in 1912 when he visited Kenosha. All of her five children became Bahh'is (with one serving on the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States for 40 y e a r ~ ) . [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] VOTING RIGHTS. See ADMINISTRATIVE RIGHTS. WJDAN~,B-R (1922-1979). (Martyr.) An irhnian believer who was executed by the irhnian authorities on 27 September 1979 for his belief in B a h h ' ~ ' l l h h . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
WARD, NAIRNE FORSYTH (1897-1969). An early (1921) American believer who for many years (1927-1941) directed summer
WEALTH
491
school activities at the Geyserville school. In 1959 he and his wife (Janet) set out as pioneers to Uganda. Enroute they made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, where they were asked to accept, and did, appointment as Custodians of the Shrine of Bahh'u'llhh at Bahji-a service Nairne performed until he passed away while walking in the Gardens at Bahji in 1969.[14:4511 WAYENECE, EMMA (1927-1976). The first (1961) Melanesian woman of New Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands to embrace the Cause. She was elected to the first (1962) local Spiritual Assembly of Noumka; and in 1971 she pioneered with her husband (Georges) to Yahouk to assist in the formation of the first local SpiritualAssembly of that town.[16'4151 WEALTH. Bahh'u'llhh wrote that the "essence of wealth is love for Me; whoso loveth Me is the possessor of all things, and he that loveth Me not is indeed of the poor and needy."[122'1551 In a concept paper entitled Valuing Spirituality in Development, presented to the World Faiths and Development Dialogue, hosted by the president of the World Bank and the archbishop of Canterbury at Lambeth Palace, London, England, 18-19 February 1998, the Bahai'i International Community wrote, Wealth is praiseworthy in the highest degree, if it is acquired by an individual's own efforts and the grace of God, in commerce, agriculture, art and industry, and if it be expended for philanthropic purposes. Above all, if a judicious and resourceful individual should initiate measures which would universally enrich the masses of the people, there could be no undertaking greater than this, and it would rank in the sight of God as the supreme achievement, for such a benefactor would supply the needs and insure the comfort and well-being of a great multitude. Wealth is most commendable, provided the entire population is wealthy. If, however, a few have inordinate riches while the rest are impoverished, and no fruit or benefit accrues fiom that wealth, then it is only a liability to its possessor. If, on the other hand, it is expended for the promotion of knowledge, the founding of elementary and other schools, the encouragement of art and industry, the t r a i n g of orphans and the poor-in brief, if it is dedicated to the welfare of society-its possessor will stand out before God and man as the most excellent of all who live on earth and will be accounted as one of the people of paradise. Central to the task of reconceptualizing the organization of human affairs is arriving at a proper understanding of the role of economics. The failure to place economics into the broader context of humanity's social
492
WEALTH AND POVERTY,ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF
and spiritual existence has led to a corrosive materialism in the world's more economically advantaged regions, and persistent conditions of deprivation among the masses of the world's peoples. Economics should serve people's needs; societies should not be expected to reformulate themselves to fit economic models. The ultimate h c t i o n of economic systems should be to equip the peoples and institutions of the world with the means to achieve the real purpose of development: that is, the cultivation of the limitless potentialities latent in human consciousness. Society must develop new economic models shaped by insights that arise from a sympathetic understanding of shared experience, fiom viewing human beings in relation one to another, and from a recognition of the central role that family and community play in social and spiritual well-being. Within institutions and organizations, priorities must be reassessed. Resources must be directed away from those agencies and programs that are damaging to the individual, societies and the environment, and directed toward those most germane to furthering a dynamic, just and thriving social order. Such economic systems will be strongly altruistic and cooperative in nature; they will provide meani n g l l employment and will help to eradicate poverty in the world. Each individual has the right to meaningful work and the responsibility to support his or her family and to contribute to the well-being of the community. By engaging in an occupation or craft in a spirit of service, the individual contributes something of value to society. For its part, society recognizes the value of its members by creating opportunities for each to earn a livelihood and to make a contributionto the common good, thus assisting the individual's spiritual development. For it is by contributing to the common good that an individual acquires true spiritual
Ultimately, the aim should be to eradicate extremes of wealth and poverty and eliminate the pernicious effects of unbridled materialism. See also ECONOMIC PROBLEMS, SPIRITUAL SOLUTION TO; PROSPERITY; SOCIALAND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF. WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF. 'Abdu'l-BahB addressed this subject in many of His talks, including this passage: What could be better before God than thinking of the poor? For the poor are beloved by our heavenly Father. . . .When a rich man believes and follows the Manifestation of God it is a proof that his wealth is not an obstacle and does not prevent him from attaining the pathway of salvation. After he has been tested and tried it will be seen whether his possessions are a hindrance in his religious life. But the poor are
WEALTH AND POVERTY, ELIMINATION OF EXTREMES OF
493
especially beloved of God. Their lives are full of difficulties, their trials continual, their hopes are in God alone. Therefore you must assist the poor as much as possible, even by sacrifice of yourself. No deed of man is greater before God than helping the poor. Spiritual conditions are not dependent upon the possession of worldly treasures or the absence of them. When physically destitute, spiritual thoughts are more likely. Poverty is stimulus toward God. Each one of you must have great consideration for the poor and render them assistance. Organize in an effort to help them and prevent increase of poverty. The greatest means for prevention is that whereby the laws of the community will be so framed and enacted that it will not be possible for a few to be millionaires and many destitute. One of Bahh'u'llhh's teachings is the adjustment of means of livelihood in human society. Under this adjustment there can be no extremes in human conditions as regards wealth and sustenance. For the community needs financiers, farmers, merchants and laborers just as an army must be composed of commanders, officers and privates. All cannot be commanders; all cannot be officers or privates. Each in his station in the social fabric must be competent; each in his fimction according to ability; but justness of opportunity for all.[151:361
Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary that social inequality is the inevitable outcome of the natural inequality of man. Human beings are different in ability and should, therefore, be different in their social and economic standing. Extremes of wealth and poverty should, however, be abolished. . . . The Master has definitely stated that wages should be unequal, simply because men are unequal in their ability and hence should receive wages that would correspond to their varying capacities and r e s o u r c e ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] We must be like the fountain or spring that is continually emptying itself of all that it has and is continually being refilled from an invisible source. To be continually giving out for the good of our fellows undeterred by fear of poverty and reliant on the unfailing bounty of the Source of all wealth and all good-this is the secret of right l i ~ i n g . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ' ]
In 1985, the Universal House of Justice wrote that "the inordinate disparity between rich and poor, a source of acute suffering, keeps the world in a state of instability, virtually on the brink of war. Few societies have dealt effectively with this situation. The solution calls for the combined application of spiritual, moral and practical approaches. . . . It is an issue that is bound up not only with the necessity for eliminating extremes of wealth and poverty but also with those spiritual verities the understanding of which can produce a new universal attitude.'7[68"01
494
WEEDEN, BENJAMIN DUNHAM
In a statement to the Copenhagen Summit in 1995, entitled The Prosperity of Humankind, the BahP'i International Community dealt in some depth with the problem of p o ~ e r t y . [ 'While ~ ~ ' ~ recog~~ nizing that the trend toward the latter part of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century is for the rich to become richer and the poor poorer, the nations of the world must address this challenging issue. Bahi'is speak to the rich and to the poor as well as seeking at the same time to bring about a more just and caring society, as the following extracts indicate: Bestow My wealth upon My poor, that in heaven thou mayest draw from stores of unfading splendor and treasures of imperishable g l ~ r y . [ ' ~ ~ ~ ] To the poor be a treasure of wealth, and to the sick a remedy and healing. Be a helper of every oppressed one, the protector of every destitute one, be ye ever mindful to serve any soul of mankind.[131'2161 Be generous in prosperity, and thankful in adversity. Be worthy of the trust of thy neighbor, and look upon him with a bright and friendly face. Be a treasure to the poor, an admonisher to the rich, an answerer to the cry of the needy, a preserver of the sanctity of thy pledge. Be fair in thy judgment, and guarded in thy speech. Be unjust to no man, and show all meekness to all men.[109:931 Know ye that the poor are the trust of God in your midst. Watch that ye betray not His trust, that ye deal not unjustly with them and that ye walk not in the ways of the treacherous.Ye will most certainly be called upon to answer for His trust on the day when the Balance of Justice shall be set, the day when unto every one shall be rendered his due, when the doings of all men, be they rich or poor, shall be Be not troubled in poverty nor coddent in riches, for poverty is followed by riches, and riches are followed by poverty. Yet to be poor in all save God is a wondrous gift, belittle not the value thereof, for in the end it will make thee rich in God, and thus thou shalt know the meaning of the utterance, "In truth ye are the poor," and the holy words, "God is the all-possessing," shall even as the true morn break forth gloriously resplendent upon the horizon of the lover's heart, and abide secure on the throne of ~ e a l t h . [ l ~ ~ ~ l ] That is why, in the religion of God, it is prescribed and established that wealthy men each year give over a certain part of their fortune for the maintenance of the poor and unfort~nate.[l~~:~~~] See also ECONOMIC PROBLEMS, SPIRITUAL SOLUTION TO; WEALTH; PROSPERITY; SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.
WEEDEN, BENJAMIN DUNHAM (1892-1979). (Knight of Bahai'u'lliih.) An American believer who embraced the Cause in
WHITAKER, OSWALD ALFRED
495
1948. He moved that same year to Haifa to assist in the construction of the superstructure of the Shrine of the Bhb. While in Haifa he met and married Gladys Anderson in what was the first Bahh'i marriage within the newly formed State of Israel. In 1950, Shoghi Effendi advised Ben and his wife that they were to be members of the first International Bahh'i Council. Regrettably, ill health forced him to return to the United States in 1951, and, therefore, the appointment did not take effect. In 1952, at the request of Shoghi Effendi, he and his wife traveled to all the then 48 states and visited 75 major Baha'i communities. In 1953 he pioneered with his wife to Antigua, for which service he was designated a Knight of Bahh'u'll~hih.[14'4781
WEEDON, GLADYS ANDERSON (1906-1979). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An American believer (1937), she was taught the Faith by 'Amatu'l-Bahh Riihiyyih mhnum (then Mary Maxwell). During the later part of the Seven Year Plan (1942) she pioneered to Brattleboro, Vermont (where she was the first Baha'i), and served on the first local Spiritual Assembly of that town when it formed in 1943. In 1947 she received a cable £rom Shoghi Effendi asking her to come to Haifa to assist him in administrative matters and act as a companion to 'Arnatu'l-Baha R@iyyih =hum. It was during this period that she met her (second) husband, Benjamin Dunham Weeden. After her marriage they often represented Shoghi Effendi at social and official functions. In 1951 Shoghi Effendi advised her that she and her husband were to be members of the first International Bahh'i Council; due to her husband's ill health they were forced return to the United States, and the appointment did not take effect. AEter journeying to the United States to ensure proper medical attention for her husband, she returned to Haifa for several months to hand over her administrative duties to coworkers. In 1953 she pioneered with her husband to Antigua, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahh'u'llAh. In 1973 she returned to Haifa for five months to assist 'Amatu'l-Bahh Rwyylh with the renovation of the House of 'Abdu'l-Bahh in Haifa.[17'6931
mhum
WELLS, ARNOLD (d. 1986). The second (early 1950s) Bahamian believer, he served on the first (1955) local Spiritual Assembly of NaSSaU.[248:7021 WHITAKER, OSWALD ALFRED (d. 1941). The first Australian belie~er.[~:~O~]
496
WHITE, ROGER
WHITE, ROGER (1929-1993). A gifted poet and writer, he was onetime clerk to the county court in Belleville, Ontario, Canada; assistant editor of Hansard (the daily record of the Canadian House of Commons' debates); an on-call shorthand reporter to the United Nations; and recorder with the Supreme Court of British Columbia, Canada. He became a Bahi'i in 1951. The following year (1952) he married a fellow believer, Helen Owens (the marriage ended in divorce in 1962, and Roger never remarried). He pioneered in 1966 to Nairobi (as secretary and research assistant to Hand of the Cause of God William Sears) and remained there until 1969, when he moved to Palm Springs, California, when the Sears family left Africa for that city. From 1971 to 1991 he served as the head of the publishing department at the Bahi'i World Centre as well as an aide to Universal House of Justice member David Hofman. In the wake of major heart surgery in 1991 he retired to Canada, where following a battle 93:5431 with cancer, he died in April 1993.[20:276, WILES, GEORGIE BROWN (1899-1939). An early American believer who worked in the field of race relation^.[^'^^^* 93:5531 WILHELM, ROY C. (1875-1951). (Hand of the Cause of God; Herald of the Covenant.)A businessperson and early American believer, he was born in Zanesville, Ohio, on 17 September 1875. His parents moved from Ohio to West Englewood, New Jersey; they opened an import business in New York City, which Roy actively conducted until the last few years of his life. Already a Bahi'i, he and his mother visited 'Abdu'l-Bahh in 'Akkh in 1907. From his earliest days as a Bahi'i he was involved in making Bahi'i writings available. He printed hundreds of thousands of pamphlets during his lifetime, and quotations were used in his business advertisements in trade magazines. He personally received many messages fiom 'Abdu'l-Bahi and was also responsible for the receipt and distribution of letters from 'Abdu'l-Bahi addressed to Bahi'i groups and individuals throughout North America. The first Bahi'i national administrative body in America was elected in 1909, and with the exception of one year of ill health, he was elected annually for the next 37 years to that body and to the National Spiritual Assembly that replaced it, serving as treasurer for many years. The author of his obituary wrote, "No other American believer has achieved a comparable record." After the passing of 'Abdu'l-Bahi in 1921, Roy and Mr. Montford Mills were summoned by Shoghi Effendi to Haifa for discussions. On
WINCKLER, BAH~YYMFORD
497
24 December 1951 Shogh~Effendi announced the first of the Hands to be appointed by him in their own lifetimes. Sadly, Roy had died on 20 December and was, therefore, raised posthumously to rank of Hand. Shoghi Effendi issued the following cable to the Baha'i world on Roy's passing: "Heart filled sorrow loss greatly prized much loved highly admired herald Baha'u'lltih's Covenant. Distinguished career enriched annals concluding years Heroic and opening years Formative age Faith. Sterling qualities endeared him to his beloved Master, 'Abdu'l-Bahi. His saintliness indomitable faith outstanding services local national international, his exemplary devotion, qualify him join ranks Hands of Cause, insure him everlasting reward Abhii Kingdom. Advise hold memorial gathering Temple befitting his unforgettable services and lofty rank."[11:662, 62:645,92:317ff, 123:87] WILKS, HELEN HAZEL (1903-1980). An American believer (1934) who pioneered to A£rica (Swaziland) in 1963. She was appointed an Auxiliary Board member, first in Swaziland and later in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). She traveled extensively throughout South A£rica, Lesotho, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, Seychelles, and Mauritius in the promotion of the C a ~ s e . [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] WILL AND TESTAMENT. Baha'is are enjoined by Bahii'u'lliih in His Kitcib-i-Aqdas to execute a will and testament. They are fiee to leave their possessions and make bequests in any way they wish, but should a Baha'i die intestate, Bahd'u'lltih has specified the allocation of any inheritance among relatives and teachers, thereby, undoubtedly, suggesting the manner in which inheritances should be app~rtioned.[~~:~~fl WINCKLER, BAH~YYIHFORD (1907-2000). Born Margaret Peregrine Randall in Medford, Massachusetts, she often said that she had become a Baha'i at the age of 5 when she met 'Abdu'l-Bahii when He visited her sick mother during His visit to the United States. She had the good fortune to again meet 'Abdu'l-Bahi when, at the age of 12, she went on pilgrimage to Haifa (a visit she subsequently recounted in a book entitled My Pilgrimage to Haifa: November 1919.[x91 It was during this visit that 'Abdu'l-Bahh named her Bahiyyih (Arabic for "beautiful"), a name she used fiom that moment forth. In April 1919 she had the privilege, along with 10 other young ladies, of reading sections of the Tablets of the Divine when they were unveiled to the Baha'is in the McAlpine Hotel, New York
498
WINDUST, ALBERT ROBERT
City. (Mary Maxwell, later 'Amatu'l-BahP Riihiyyih KJPnum, was among the others selected for this honor.) During a pilgrimage in 1952 she was asked by Shoghi Effendi to undertake visits to 15 European countries to encourage newly settled Bahh'is in those regions. She discharged Shoghi Effendi's request over a four-month period giving two lectures a day in various cities and towns. In 1953 she pioneered with her second husband (Harry Ford) to South Africa (he passed away in 1954, and in 1973 she married Godfried Winckler, who in turn died in 1976). She was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly in South Africa as well as serving on the National Spiritual Assembly of South and West Africa during two separate periods: 1960-1966 and 1967-1968. In 1968 she was appointed a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors for Africa and served in that capacity for 17 years. The Universal House of Justice cabled as follows on her passing in September 2000: "We grieve at the passing of Bahiyyih Ford Winckler, a radiant supporter of the Cause of BahP'u'llPh, so dearly cherished and profoundly appreciated for her devoted services in her native United States and for her subsequent pioneer work of more than four decades in southern Africa. Her childhood associations with the beloved Master and her pilgrimage to the Holy Land at the age of twelve left an indelible influence on her warm personality that shone throughout her life and distinguished her activities as a Continental Counsellor for Africa and, earlier, as a member of the National SpiritualAssembly of South and West Africa. We extend our loving sympathy to the members of her family and all others who mourn her loss, and assure them of our heartfelt prayers at the Holy Threshold for the progress of her noble soul in the 'Abhii Kingdom. In honour of so outstanding a life, we advise your National Assembly to hold memorial gatherings throughout South Africa. The National Assembly of Uganda is also being advised to hold a memorial service in the Mother Temple of A f r i ~ a . ' ' [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] WINDUST, ALBERT ROBERT (1874-1956). (Disciple of 'Abdu'lBahii; Herald of the Covenant.) An early American believer designated by 'Abdu'l-Bahh as a Herald of the Covenant. He was a member of the first local Spiritual Assembly of Chicago. He was the 92:25ffl first publisher of the Writings of the Faith in WISDOM. BahP'u'llPh wrote, As the body of man needeth a garment to clothe it, so the body of mankind must needs be adorned with the mantle of justice and wisdom. . . .
WOLCOTT, CHARLES 499
Take heed, 0 concourse of the rulers of the world! There is no force on earth that can equal in its conquering power the force of justice and wisdom. . . . Blessed is the king who marcheth with the ensign of wisdom unfurled before him, and the battalions of justice massed in his rear. He verily is the ornament that adorneth the brow of peace and the countenance of security. There can be no doubt whatever that if the day star of justice, which the clouds of tyranny have obscured, were to shed its light upon men, the face of the earth would be completely trmSfomed.[78:81s2191 Above all else, the greatest gift and the most wondrous blessing hath ever been and will continue to be Wisdom. It is man's unfailing Protector. It aideth him and strengtheneth him. Wisdom is God's Emissary and the Revealer of His Name the Omniscient. Through it the loftiness of man's station is made manifest and evident. It is all-knowing and the foremost Teacher in the school of existence. It is the Guide and is invested with high distinction. Thanks to its educating influence earthly beings have become imbued with a gem-like spirit which outshineth the heavens. . . . The beginning of Wisdom and the origin thereof is to acknowledge whatsoever God hath clearly set forth, for through its potency the foundation of statesmanship, which is a shield for the preservation of the body of mankind, hath been firmly established.[122:1511
WOLCOTT, CHARLES (1906-1987). (Member, Universal House ~ ~ ] professional musician, composer, and of J u s t i ~ e . ) [ ' ~A~ gifted conductor, he was born in Flint, Michigan, on 29 September 1906. His father, Frederick Charles Wolcott, whose business interests were overshadowed by his love for music, formed a small-town orchestra in which his son participated, on the piano and accordion, from an early age. By the time Charles reached high school, he had his own four-piece orchestra (piano, banjo, saxophone, drums) that played at school dances. When he attended the University of Michigan, his larger band, Charley Wolcott and his Wolverines, played for faculty (ballroom) dances and his smaller bands for fraternity and sorority (tea) dances. In the 1920s he went to the larger city of Detroit to play piano in hotels and ballrooms with the Jean Goldkette Organization and also performed on radio shows. He married Harriett Marshall on 30 August 1928, and they moved £rom Flint to New York, where he seemed always to be able to find work as a pianist, composer, arranger, or conductor with the Paul Whiteman Band, Benny Goodman, the Dorsey brothers, Columbia Records, and the network radio programs of performers such as Burns and Allen (George and Gracie), Kate Smith, and Bob Hope.
500
WOMEN, STATUS OF
Intrigued by the color and sound developments being made in motion pictures, he moved the family to Hollywood, California, in 1937 and soon began working at the Walt Disney Studios, writing music for cartoon shorts, then feature films, such as Pinocchio and Bambi. In about 1935 both he and his wife were introduced to the Baha'i Faith but did not embrace it until August 1938 in Los Angeles, where they remained until 1960. During this period he composed music as a setting for some of the prayers of Bahi'u'llih including "From the Sweet Scented Streams," "0Thou by Whose Name," and "Blessed Is the Spot." By 1944he had become general musical director at Disney Studios. In 1950 he transferred to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) Studios as associate general musical director and in 1958 became general musical director. In 1955, after he placed Bill Haley's song "Rock around the Clock" in the MGM movie Blackboard Jungle, the rock and roll music craze spread worldwide. He was appointed to be a member of the Inter-America Bahii'i Teaching Committee (1942-1944), served as chairman of the National Audio-visual Education Committee (194&1948), and was elected to the Los Angeles local Spiritual Assembly (1948-1960). In 1953, he was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States, where he served as vice-chair until 1960. When Hand of the Cause of God Horace Holley was called to the Baha'i World Centre as one of the Nine Hands to serve in the Holy Land, Charles was elected secretary of the National Assembly in 1960. In January 1960 he resigned his position as head of the music department at MGM Studios, and he and his wife moved to Wilmette, Illinois, so he could take up his duties in the National Baha'i Center. At Ridvain 1961, he was one of the nine elected to the International Bahai'i Council, which then elected him to be its secretarygeneral. He moved to the Baha'i World Centre in 1961 to take up his two-year post on the International Baha'i Council, not knowing that his service to the Faith would keep him in that Holy Spot for another 26 years, until his death. In 1963 he was elected a member of the Universal House of Justice and reelected to subsequent terms in 1968, 1973, 1978, and 1983. He died suddenly, toward the end of his last term, on 26 January 1987 and was buried in the Bahh'i cemetery at the foot of Mount Carmel.
WOMEN, STATUS OF. Baha'is hold the raising of the status of women (see VARAQIH) to be a central feature in the establishment of world
WOMEN,STATUS OF 501
peace. In 1985, in its contribution to the peace process, the Universal House of Justice wrote, "The emancipation of women, the achievement of full equality between the sexes, is one of the most important, though less acknowledged pre-requisites of peace. The denial of such equality perpetrates an injustice [see JUSTICE] against one half of the world's population and promotes in men harmful attitudes and habits that are carried £rom the family to the workplace, to political life, and ultimately to international relations. There are no grounds, moral, practical, or biological, upon which such denial can be justified. Only as women are welcomed into full partnership in all fields of human endeavor will the moral and psychological climate be created in which international peace can Should financial constraints exist in a family that allow for the education of only some of the children, then the education of girl children must first receive priority. During His visit to the West in 1911-1 9 13, 'Abdu'l-BahP addressed this issue on many occasions, and the Universal House of Justice seeks constantly to encourage the Baha'is to put it into practice: The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated over women by reason of his more forcell and aggressive qualities both of body and mind. . . . But the balance is already shifting-force is losing its weight and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendancy. Hence the new age will be an age, less masculine, and more permeated , speak more exactly, will be an age in with the feminine i d e a l ~ rto which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more evenly b a l a n ~ e d . [ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ] Therefore, striveto show in the human world that women are most capable and efficient,that their hearts are more tender and susceptible thanthe hearts of men, that they are more philanthropic and responsive toward the needy and suffering, that they are inflexibly opposed to war and are lovers of peace. Strive that the ideal of international peace may become realized through the efforts of womankind, for man is more inclined to war than woman, and a real evidence of woman's superiority will be her service and efficiency in the establishment of universal The decision-making agencies involved would do well to consider giving first priority to the education of women and girls, since it is through educated mothers that the benefits of knowledge can be most effectively and rapidly diffused throughout society. In keeping with the requirements of the times, consideration should also be given to teaching the concept of world citizenship as part of the standard education of every
502
WORD OF GOD
The duty of women in being the first educators of mankind is clearly set forth in the Writings. It is for every woman, if and when she becomes a mother, to determine how best she can discharge on the one hand her chief responsibility as a mother and on the other, to the extent possible, to participate in other aspect of the activities of the society of which she forms a part.[87'6191 The equality of men and women is not, at the present time, universally applied. In those areas where traditional inequality still hampers its progress we must take the lead in practicing this Bahi'i principle. Bahi'i women and girls must be encouraged to take part in the social, spiritual and administrative activities of their c ~ m m u n i t i e s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Refer to appendix 15.
WORD OF GOD. Bahii'u'lliih writes that the Word of God is the king of words and its pervasive influence is incalculable. It hath ever dominated and will continue to dominate the realm of being. The Great Being saith: The Word is the master key for the whole world, inasmuch as through its potency the doors of the hearts of men, which in reality are the doors of heaven, are unlocked. No sooner had but a glimmer of its effulgent splendour shone forth upon the rnirror of love than the blessed word "I am the Best-Beloved" was reflected therein. It is an ocean inexhaustible in riches, comprehending all things. Every thing which can be perceived is but an emanation therefrom. High, immeasurably high is this sublime station, in whose shadow moveth the essence of loftiness and splendour,rapt in praise and adoration. Methinks people's sense of taste hath, alas, been sorely affected by the fever of negligence and folly, for they are found to be wholly unconscious and deprived of the sweetness of His utterance. How regrettable indeed that man should debar himself fiom the f i t s of the tree of wisdom while his days and hours pass swiftly away. Please God, the hand of divine power may safeguard all mankind and direct their steps towards the horizon of true understanding.Verily our Lord of Mercy is the Helper, the Knowing, the Wise.D":1731
See also MANIFESTATION OF GOD, THREE STATIONS OF. WORK. Bah6'is are called upon by Bahii'u'lliih in the Kita'b-i-Aqdas to engage in useful trades, crafts, and professions that are of benefit to humankind, and such work, done to the best of one's ability and in the spirit of sewice to humanity, is ranked as ~ o r s h i p . [ ~ l : ~ ~ ] Begging and the giving of alms to beggars are both forbidden in Bah6'u'lltih's book of laws (Kitab-i-Aqda~).[~~:~~] He wrote, "Waste not your time in idleness and sloth. . . . Occupy yourselves with that
WORLD CENTRE, ~
d 503 i
which profiteth yourselves and others. . . . The most despised of men in the sight of God are those who sit idly and beg."[71:301 In that same Book, Bahii'u'llhh also states that if a person is not able to work to earn a living, the Universal House of Justice and the wealthy must make the necessary provision. The rich are exhorted to engage in charity to the need~.[~l:~O] The implications of these teachings to society, to work relations, to involvement in strikes and to idleness are far-reaching. Shoghi Effendi, writing through his secretary, explained that with reference to BahB'u'llih's command concerning the engagement of the believers in some sort of profession; the Teachings are most emphatic on this matter, particularly the statement in the "Aqdas" to this effect which makes it quite clear that idle people who lack the desire to work can have no place in the new World Order. As a corollary of this principle, Bahi'u'llih further states that mendacity should not only be discouraged but entirely wiped out £rom the face of society. It is the duty of those who are in charge of the organization of society to give every individual the opportunity of acquiring the necessary talent in some kind of profession, and also the means of utilizing such a talent, both for its own sake and for the sake of earning the means of his livelihood. Every individual, no matter how handicapped and limited he may be, is under the obligation of engaging in some work or profession, for work, specially when performed in the spirit of service, is according to Bahh'u'llih a form of worship. It has not only a utilitarian purpose, but has a value in itself, because it draws us nearer to God, and enables us to better grasp His purpose for us in this world. It is obvious, therefore, that the inheritance of wealth cannot make anyone immune from daily ~ o r k . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1
WORLD CENTRE, ~ A l d ' i .Shoghi Effendi referred in numerous places to the great significance of the raising of the buildings of the Bahii'i world administrative system in the vicinity of the Shrines on Mount Carmel. In 1944 he announced that as a further testimony to the majestic unfoldment and progressive consolidation of the stupendous undertaking launched by Bahh'u'llhh on that holy mountain, may be mentioned the selection of. . . the precincts of the Shrine of the Baib as a permanent resting-place for the Greatest Holy Leaf. . . (comparable in rank to those immortal heroines such as Sarah, Asiyih, the Virgin Mary, Fiiimih and Tbhirih, each of whom has outshone every member of her sex in previous Dispensations.) And lastly, . . . the transfer, a few years later, to that same hallowed spot . . . of the Purest Branch, the martyred son of Bahi'u'llih. . . . To this same burial-ground, and on the same day the remains of the
504
WORLD CENTRE, ~
d
i
Purest Branch were interred, was transferred the body of his mother, the saintly Nawhb, she . . . whom Bahi7u'll6h in His Tablet, has destined to be "His consort in every one of His worlds." . . . The conjunction of these three resting-places, under the shadow of the Bib's own Tomb, embosomed in the heart of Carmel, facing the snow-white city across the bay of 'Akkk, the Qiblih of the Baha'i world, set in a garden of exquisite beauty, reinforces, if we would correctly estimate its significance, the spiritual potencies of a spot, designated by Bahiyu'll& Himself the seat of God's throne. It marks, too, a further milestone in the road leading eventually to the establishment of that permanent world Administrative Center of the fbture Bahb'i Commonwealth [see WORLD COMMONWEALTH], destined never to be separated from, and to function in the proximity of, the Spiritual Center of that Faith, in a land already revered and held sacred alike by the adherents of three of the world's outstanding religious ~ y s t e m s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
In November 1954, Shoghi Effendi set forth a vision of future developments that subsequently became the goal for the Universal House of Justice, namely that the raising of this Edifice [the International Archives Building], will in turn herald the construction,in the course of successive epochs of the Formative Age of the Faith [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"], of several other structures . . . in the shape of a far-flung arc, and following a harmonizing style of architecture, surround the resting-places of the Greatest Holy Leaf, ranking as foremost among the members of her sex in the Bahi'i Dispensation, of her Brother . . . and of their Mother. . . . The ultimate completion of this stupendous undertaking will mark the culmination of the development of a world-wide divinely-appointed Administrative Order whose beginnings may be traced as far back as the concluding years of the Heroic Age of the Faith. This vast and irresistible process, unexampled in the spiritual history of mankind, and which will synchronise with two no less significant developments-the establishment of the Lesser Peace and the evolution of Bahi'i national and local institutions-the one outside and the other within the Bahb'i world-will attain its final consummation, in the Golden Age of the Faith, through the raising of the standard of the Most Great Peace, and the emergence, in the plenitude of its power and glory, of the focal Center of the agencies constituting the World Order of Bahh'u'llhh. The final establishment of this seat of the future Baha'i World Commonwealth will signalize at once the proclamation of the sovereignty of the Founder of our Faith and the advent of the Kingdom of the Father repeatedly lauded and promised by Jesus C h r i ~ t . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ f l
See also ARC.
WORLD COMMONWEALTH
505
WORLD COMMONWEALTH. Described by Shoghi Effendi as a world community of nations governed by a world federation: The unity of the human race, as envisaged by BahB'u'llBh, implies the establishment of a world commonwealth in which all nations, races, creeds and classes are closely and permanently united, and in which the autonomy of its state members and the personal freedom [see LIBERTY] and initiative of the individuals that compose them are definitely and completely safeguarded. This commonwealth must, as far as we can visualize it, consist of a world legislature, whose members will, as the trustees of the whole of mankind, ultimately control the entire resources of all the component nations, and will enact such laws as shall be required to regulate the life, satisfy the needs and adjust the relationships of all races and peoples. A world executive, backed by an international Force, will carry out the decisions arrived at, and apply the laws enacted by, this world legislature, and will safeguard the organic unity of the whole commonwealth. A world tribunal [see SUPREME TRIBUNAL,] will adjudicate and deliver its compulsory and final verdict in all and any disputes that may arise between the various elements constituting this universal system. A mechanism of world inter-communication will be devised, embracing the whole planet, freed from national hindrances and restrictions, and hctioning with marvelous swiftness and perfect regularity. A world metropolis will act as the nerve center of a world civilization, the focus towards which the unifying forces of life will converge and from which its energizing influences will radiate. A world language [see INTERNATIONAL AUXILIARY LANGUAGE] will either be invented or chosen fiom among the existing languages and will be taught in the schools of all the federated nations as an auxiliary to their mother tongue. A world script, a world literature, a uniform and universal system of currency, of weights and measures, will simplify and facilitate intercourse and understanding among the nations and races of mankind. In such a world society, science and religion, the two most potent forces in human life, will be reconciled, will cooperate, and will harmoniously d e v e l ~ p . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f l
Among the many other references of Shogh~Effendi on this subject, the following excerpts are both informative and representative: During this Formative Age of the Faith, and in the course of present and succeeding epochs [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"], the last and crowning stage in the erection of the framework of the Administrative Order of the Faith of BahB'u711ih.. .will have been completed. . .the Lesser Peace will have been established,the unity of mankind [seeONENESS OF MANKIND] will have been achieved and its maturity attained, the Plan conceived by
506
WORLD COMMONWEALTH
'Abdu'l-Bahh will have been executed, the emancipation of the Faith from the fetters of religious orthodoxy will have been effected, and its independent religious status will have been universally recognized, whilst in the course of the Golden Age, destined to consummate the Dispensation itself, the banner of the Most Great Peace, promised by its Author, will have been unfurled, the World Bahii'i Commonwealth will have emerged in the plenitude of its power and splendor, and the birth and efflorescence of a world civilization, the child of that Peace, will have conferred its inestimable blessings upon all mankindJ35:61 It is the creative energies which His Revelation has released . . . to all mankind, that have instilled into humanity the capacity to attain this final stage in its organic and collective evolution. It is with the Golden Age of His Dispensation that the consummation of this process will be forever associated. It is the structure of His New World Order, now stirring in the womb of the administrative institutions He Himself has created, that will serve both as a pattern and a nucleus of that world commonwealth which is the sure, the inevitable destiny of the peoples and nations of the To the general character, the implications and features of this world commonwealth, destined to emerge, sooner or later . . . I have already referred in my previous communications. Suffice it to say that this consummation will, by its very nature, be a gradual process, and must, as Bahi'u'llih has Himself anticipated, lead at first to the establishment of that Lesser Peace which the nations of the earth, as yet unconscious of His Revelation and yet unwittingly enforcing the general principles which He has enunciated, will themselves establish. This momentous and historic step, involving the reconstruction of mankind, as the result of the universal recognition of its oneness and wholeness, will bring in its wake the spiritualization of the masses, consequent to the recognition of the character, and the acknowledgment of the claims, of the Faith of Bahi'u'llih-the essential condition to that ultimate fusion of all races, creeds, classes, and nations which must signalize the emergence of His New World Order. . . . Then will the coming of age of the entire human race be proclaimed and celebrated by all the peoples and nations of the earth. Then will the banner of the Most Great Peace be hoisted. Then will the world-wide sovereignty of Bahi'u'llfh-the Establisher of the Kingdom of the Father foretold by the Son, and anticipated by the Prophets of God before Him and after Him-be recognized, acclaimed, and firmly established. Then will a world civilization be born, flourish, and perpetuate itself, a civilization with a lllness of life such as the world has never seen nor can as yet conceive. Then will the Everlasting Covenant be fulfilled in its completeness. Then will the promise enshrined in all the Books of God be redeemed, and all the prophecies uttered by the Prophets of old come to pass, and the vision of seers and poets be reali~ed.[":~~~1
WORLD ORDER OF B ~ U ' L L507 ~
WORLD CONGRESS (FIRST AND SECOND). The First World Congress was called to commemorate the centenary of the Declaration of BahP'u'llPh (RidvPn 1963), the conclusion of the Ten Year Crusade, and the election of the Universal House of Justice. Shoghi Effendi had hoped that it would be possible to have it in B a a d l d , but the situation in 'Iraq was such that the Hands of the Cause of God changed the venue to London and were able to hire the Albert Hall, which was filled to capacity by more than 7,000 Baha'is. The Second World Congress was called by the Universal House of Justice for November 1992, the Holy Year commemorating the centenary of the Ascension of Bahk'u'llfi (see B & ' u ' L L ~ , ASCENSION OF). It was held in the Jacob Javits Convention Center, New York City-the "City of the Covenant"-and commemorated the centenary of the Covenant of 'Abdu'l-Bahh. Nearly 30,000 Baha'is made it the largest ever Baha'i gathering, and the total number of Baha'is participating was increased enormously by satellite conferences, held simultaneously in Apia, Western Samoa; Buenos Aires, Argentina; Sydney, Australia; New Delhi, India; Nairobi, Kenya; Panama City, Panama; Bucharest, Romania; Moscow, Russia; and Singapore. WORLD EXECUTIVE. See WORLD COMMONWEALTH. WORLD GOVERNMENT. See SUPREME TRIBUNAL; WORLD COMMONWEALTH. WORLD ORDER OF BAH~U'LLAH.A central element of Bah6'i teachings is its reference to a new World Order-the basis for which is established in the Writings of BahP'u'llPh and 'Abdu'l-BahP and described in some detail by Shoghi Effendi. The words of Baha'u'llfi set the pattern: "The world's equilibrium hath been upset through the vibrating influence of this most great, this new World Order. Mankind's ordered life hath been revolutionized through the agency of this unique, this wondrous System-the like of which mortal eyes have never ~itnessed."[~~:ll~] The nature of the World Order ordained by Bahb'u'll6l-1 is detailed by Shoghi Effendi as follows: The Revelation of Bahl'u'llih, whose supreme mission is none other but the achievement of this organic and spiritual unity of the whole body of nations, should, if we be faithiid to its implications, be regarded as signalizing through its advent the coming of age of the entire human
508 WORLD ORDER OF B A H ~ ~ ' L I ' L L ~
race. It should be viewed not merely as yet another spiritual revival in the ever-changing fortunes of mankind, not only as a further stage in a chain of progressive Revelations, nor even as the culmination of one of a series of recurrent prophetic cycles, but rather as marking the last and highest stage in the stupendous evolution of man's collective life on this planet. The emergence of a world community, the consciousness of world citizenship, the founding of a world civilization and culture . . . should, by their very nature, be regarded, as far as this planetary life is concerned, as the furthermost limits in the organization of human society, though man, as an individual, will, nay must indeed as a result of such a consummation, continue indefinitely to progress and d e v e l ~ p . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ]
Summarizing its evolution, he wrote, The first epoch [for a detailed analysis of epochs, refer to "The Epochs of the Formative Age"] witnessed the birth and the primary stages in the erection of the framework of the Administrative Order of the F a i t h the nucleus and pattern of its World Order according to the precepts laid down in 'Abdu'l-Bahh's Will and Testament, as well as the launching of the initial phase of the world-encompassing Plan bequeathed by Him to the American Bahl'i Community. . . . It witnessed on the one hand, the emergence and the laying of the groundwork of that embryonic World Order whose advent was announced by the Bab in the Bayan, whose laws were revealed by Baha'u'lltih in the Kitcib-i-Aqdas, and whose features were delineated by 'Abdu'l-Bahl in His Will and Testament. It was marked . . . by the launching, in the Western Hemisphere, of the first stage of a Plan whose original impulse was communicated by the Herald of our Faith in His Qayy6mu'l-Asmh to whose implications the Author of the Bahi'i Revelation alluded in His Tablets, and whose Charter was revealed by the Center of His Covenant in the evening of His life.[35'51
Summarizingthe stage of development on the passing of Bah8'u'llih, Shoghi Effendi wrote, "God's new-born Faith, the cynosure of all past Dispensations, had been fully and unreservedly proclaimed. The prophecies announcing its advent had been remarkably fulfilled. Its fundamental laws and cardinal principles, the warp and woof of the fabric of its future World Order, had been clearly enunciated. Its organic relation to, and its attitude towards, the religious systems which preceded it had been unmistakably defined. The primary institutions, within which an embryonic World Order was destined to mature, had been unassailably established. The Covenant designed to safeguard the unity and integrity of its world-embracing system had been irrevocably bequeathed to posterity. The promise of the
WORLD ORDER OF B ~ U ' L L509 ~
unification of the whole human race, of the inauguration of the Most Great Peace, of the unfoldment of a world civilization, had been incontestably g i ~ e n . " [ ~ ~ " ~ ] Describing some of the features of the new World Order he wrote, I feel it, however, incumbent upon me by virtue of the responsibility attached to the Guardianship of the Faith, to dwell more fully upon the essential character and the distinguishing features of that world order as conceived and proclaimed by Bahb'u'llih. . . . I consider it my duty to warn every beginner in the Faith that the promised glories of the Sovereignty which the Baha'i teachings foreshadow, can be revealed only in the fullness of time, that the implications of the Aqdas and the Will of ~ ~ WILL ~ AND ~ TESTAMENT], y ~ - as ~ ~ 'Abdu'l-Baha [see 6 the twin repositories of the constituent elements of that Sovereignty,are too far-reaching for this generation to grasp and fully appreciate. I cannot refiain from appealing to them who stand idenaed with the Faith to disregard the prevailing notions and the fleeting fashions of the day, and to realize as never before that the exploded theories and the tottering institutions of present-day civilization must needs appear in sharp contrast with those God-given institutions which are destined to arise upon their ruin. . . . It is towards this goal-the goal of a new World Order, Divine in origin, all-embracing in scope, equitable in principle, challenging in its features-that a harassed humanity must strive. . . . To claim to have grasped all the implications of Bahi'u'llih's prodigious scheme for world-wide human solidarity, or to have fathomed its import, would be presumptuous on the part of even the declared supporters of His Faith. To attempt to visualize it in all its possibilities, to estimate its future benefits, to picture its glory, would be premature at even so advanced a stage in the evolution of mankind. All we can reasonably venture to attempt is to strive to obtain a glimpse of the first streaks of the promised Dawn that must, in the fullness of time, chase away the gloom that has encircled humanity. All we can do is to point out, in their broadest outlines, what appear to us to be the guiding principles underlying the World Order of Bahb'u'llih, as amplsed and enunciated by 'Abdu'l-Bahi, the Center of His Covenant with all mankind and the appointed Interpreter and Expounder of His Word. . . . The central, the underlying aim which animates it is the establishment of the New World Order as adumbrated by Bahi'u'llih. The methods it employs, the standard it inculcates, incline it to neither East nor West, neither Jew nor Gentile, neither rich nor poor, neither white nor colored. Its watchword is the unification of the human race; its standard the "Most Great Peace"; its consummation the advent of that golden millennium-the Day when the kingdoms of this world shall have become ~~~~~~*the Kingdom of God Himself, the Kingdom of B a h i r ' ~ ' l l i h . [ ~1571
~
5 10 WORLD PARLIAMENT
WORLD PARLIAMENT. See WORLD COMMONWEALTH. WORLD PARLIAMENT OF RELIGIONS. The conference, where the first public mention of Bahai'u'llaih was made on American soil, was held in Chicago on 23 September 1893, though ambitious and historically significant, did not achieve the objectives of its organizers. Each representative of the many Faiths presenting papers seemed more concerned with justifying his or her own beliefs, even somewhat aggressively, than in seeking to find common ground and a basis for working together. It was in an effort to bring some harmony into the proceedings that the Rev. George A. Ford introduced Henry Jessup's paper. It was featured in Shoghi Effendi's history of the first Bahb'i century: "It was on September 23, 1893, a little over a year after Bahb'u'llhh's ascension [see BAM'u'LL~LH, ASCENSION OF], that, in a paper written by Rev. Henry H. Jessup, DD, Director of Presbyterian Missionary Operations in North Syria, and read by Rev. George A. Ford of Syria, at the World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago, in connection with the Colombian Exposition, commemorating the four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America, it was announced that 'a famous Persian Sage,' 'the Baibi Saint,' had died recently in 'Akkai, and that two years previous to His ascension 'a Cambridge scholar' had visited Him, to whom He had expressed 'sentiments so noble, so Christlike' that the author of the paper, in his 'closing words,' wished to ~ : ~ ~ ~£tom ] E. G. Browne's share them with his a u d i e n ~ e . " [ ~Extracts interview with Bahb'u'llhh follow: We desire but the good of the world and the happiness of the nations . . . that all nations should become one in faith and all men as brothers; that the bonds of affection and unity between the sons of men should be strengthened; that diversity of religion should cease, and differences of race [see RACISM] be a n n ~ l l e d . [ ~ l ' ~ ~ ] These fruitless strifes, these ruinous wars shall pass away, and the "Most Great Peace" shall come. . . .These strifes and this bloodshed and discord must cease, and all men be as one kindred and one familyJ&1'1161
This first public mention of the Bahb'i Faith in America aroused the interest of several people who were moved to investigate further. Within a few years several hundred supporters were reported in Chicago and Kenosha. At the centenary of that first Interfaith Conference, held in Chicago in 1993, there was a much larger gathering, much more sincere dialogue was witnessed, and members of the Bahb'i community presented several papers.
WRIGHT, IONITA
51 1
WORLD TRIBUNAL. See SUPREME TRIBUNAL. WORSHIP. Given that there is no fixed form of religious service, minimal rituals, and no clergy in the Bahi'i Faith, worship is largely a private and personal concern. Bahii'is worship God in prayer, by deeds and action in daily life in accordance with Bahi7iTeachings, and by work carried out in the spirit of service. It is in the Mahriqu'l-Amkairs that forms of service are observed, but these are carried out as planned by a committee appointed for the purpose by a local or National Spiritual Assembly, with each service, therefore taking on a specifically unique form. Common elements may well be the inclusion of passages from the Writings of the Central Figures of the Faith, which may be read, chanted, or sung a cappella. In answering questions about the form of worship to be followed in Shoghi Effendi wrote through his secretary the Ma~fiqu'l-A* that he wished "in this connection to urge the friends to avoid all forms of rigidity and uniformity in matters of worship. There is no objection to the recital or chanting of prayers in the Oriental language, but there is also no obligation whatsoever of adopting such a form of prayer at any devotional service in the auditorium of the Temple [Ma&riqu'l-A&k6r]. It should neither be required nor prohibited. The important thing that should always be borne in mind is that with the exception of certain specific obligatory prayers [see PRAYERS, OBLIGATORY], Bahi'u'llzih has given us no strict or special rulings in matters of worship, whether in the Temple or elsewhere. Prayer is essentially a communion between man and God, and as such transcends all ritualistic forms and f0nnulae."['~~~~1 Linking work and worship together 'Abdu'l-BahP said that humanity should "strive as much as possible to become proficient in the science of agriculture for in accordance with the Divine Teachings, the acquisition of sciences and the perfection of arts [are] considered as acts of worship. If a man engages with all his power in the acquisition of a science or in the perfection of an art, it is as if he has been worshipping God in the churches and temples. Thus as thou enterest a school of agriculture and strivest in the acquisition of that science thou art day and night engaged in acts of worshipacts that are accepted at the threshold of the Almighty. What bounty greater than this that science should be considered as an act of worship and art as service to the Kingdom of G~d."[l~l:~'~fl WRIGHT, IONITA (1915-1968). The first inhabitant of San Andrks Island to become a
5 12
WRITINGS
WRITINGS. While this is generally understood to be a reference to "Sacred Scripture," that is, the Writings of the Central Figures of the Faith (the Bsib, Bahsi'u'llsih, and 'Abdu'l-Bahsi), they may in some cases be taken to include those of Shoghi Effendi (but these are never designated as Scripture). Those Writings that Bahsi'u'llsih calls upon the believers to read daily are solely from those of the Central Figures. In relation to copyright, however, the Universal House of Justice referred to both: "The Universal House of Justice has . . . [made] it clear that the Spiritual Assemblies and individual believers are free to quote in their publications from any of the Writings of the three Central Figures of the Faith or from the writings of the beloved Guardian, whether in the original language or in translation, without obtaining clearance from the copyright holder, unless the copyright holder in the case of a translation is an individual or is a non-Bahb'i institution. . . .The ruling is made to ensure that the Sacred Scriptures of our Faith and the writings of the beloved Guardian may be freely used by the believers; it does not change the existing requirements for individual believers to submit their works on the Faith for review before publication, neither does it relieve Spiritual Assemblies of their responsibility to protect the dignity of the Faith and uphold the proper standard of reverence in the use of its Sacred S c r i p t u r e ~ . " [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] See also WORD OF GOD.
YA. Vocative particle meaning ~ o . ~ [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ I ~
YA BA~'U'L-ABHA. ous.[18:736]68
0 Thou the Glory of the Most Glori-
YAW& M ~ R Z AAZAL. See M~RZAY
~ AZAL. A
Y A L D ~ B~ ,A H ~ M (19551983). (Martyr.) A young Bahb'i who was executed along with other coreligionists in airsiz, irsin, by the government in June 1983 for refusing to recant his belief in t Yaldsi'i, was also exeBahsi'u'llsih. His mother, N u ~ r a mufrsini cuted for refusing to recant her faith.[181 Y A L D ~ NUSRAT ~, M U F (1929-1983). ~ ~ (Martyr.) A Bahb'i who was executed (following severe torture that included at least 200
YAZD~,'AZiZ ISMAYN
5 13
lashes) along with other coreligionists in & i r k , irhn, in June 1983 for refusing to recant her belief in Bahh'u'llhh. Her son, Bahrhm Yaldh'i, was also executed for refusing to recant his faith.[18'6001 YAMAMOTO, KANICHI (1879-1961). The first (1902) Japanese person to embrace the Cause in Hawaii. In 1903 he moved to America as a butler in the Goodall household. In 1912 he met 'Abdu'l-Bahi in Oakland. He received four Tablets from 'Abdu'lB&g.[12:931, 93:556, 147:176]
YAZD~,' A Z h ISMAYN (1909-2004). Born to Baha'i parents in Alexandria, Egypt; while still a child he had the bounty of living in Haifa and being in the presence of 'Abdu'l-Bahai on many occasions over a period of several years. As a young man he studied banking in Egypt before moving to England, where he graduated as an electrical engineer, and taking up work in the oil industry in irain. Over the course of his life he lived and served the Faith in Egypt, Syria, kin, Iraiq, the United Kingdom, Uganda, Kenya, Israel, and, finally, in 1988, Canada. He was elected to membership of the National Spiritual Assembly of Central and East Africa and later of Kenya. In 1954 he was in the first contingent of believers to be appointed as Auxiliary Board members in Africa by Shoghi Effendi; in 1968 the Universal House of Justice appointed him as a member of the Continental Board of Counsellors in Central and East Africa; in 1973 the Universal House of Justice appointed him as an inaugural Counsellor member of the International Teaching Centre in Haifa. He served on that body £rom 1973 until his retirement in 1988. On his passing the Universal House of Justice e-mailed the Baha'i world as follows: Our hearts are heavy with sorrow at the passing, in his ninety-fifth year, of dearly loved, devoted promoter of the Cause 'Aziz Ismayn Yazdi. His life was characterized by an imperishablerecord of selfless service, steadfast action and instant obedience. From his earliest days in Egypt, and inspired by his association with the beloved Master in Haifa during his youth, he dedicated himself to the advancement of the Cause as a self-sacrificing pioneer and an outstanding teacher and administrator in various lands. Subsequent to his efforts in the United Kingdom, Iriq and bin, he responded to the Guardian's call for pioneers to Africa and moved with his family to Kenya in 1951, where his consecrated endeavours included membership on the National Spiritual Assembly of Central and East Africa and later of Kenya, the Auxiliary Board in Afica, and then the Continental Board of Counsellors in Central and
East Africa. Following his appointment to the newly formed International Teaching Centre in 1973, he relocated to the Holy Land where his invaluable services became worldwide in scope. Upon his retirement in 1988 he undertook tireless travels, teaching the Cause and inspiring the believers in various communities throughout the globe to the last reserves of his strength. With assured hearts we are offering ardent prayers at the Sacred Threshold that his illumined soul may be richly rewarded in the 'AbhP Kingdom, that he may be joyously reunited with his beloved wife, Soraya, and that the hearts of his family members may be solaced. National Spiritual Assemblies are advised to hold befitting memorial gatherings in his honour in all Houses of Worship and in Bahh'i communities throughout the ~ o r l d . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
YEAR OF WAITING. Alternatively, year of patience. See also
DIVORCE. YEN, HILDA YANK SING (1905-1970). Born in a wealthy, promi-
nent family that held an indisputably high profile in the new China that emerged after the revolution of Sun Yat-sen, she became a Bahi'i in 1944. At the end of World War I1 she was part of the Chinese delegation at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, and in 1945 she joined the Department of Public Information when the United Nations was formed. She was instrumental in assisting the recognition of the Bahi'i International Community as a nongovernmental ~rganization.[l~:~~~] YOUTH. The present adult age for a Bahi'i to have administrative rights is 21. However, a Bahi'i youth is, according to Bahi'u'llih, mature, for obedience to the obligatory laws, such as fasting, prayer, and marriage, at age 15. Young Bahi'is, however, continue
to be involved in youth activities into their late 20s. Throughout its history the Bahi'i Faith has been noted for the outstanding contributions made by its youth. These range fiom the youthfulness of the B i b when He declared His Mission to the tender ages of many of its martyrs, pioneers, and teachers (see TEACHING) when they opened new places, even new countries, to the Faith, and even to the young ages of its administrators. The Universal House of Justice recognized this when they wrote in May 1975 that the endurance of youth under arduous conditions, their vitality and vigor, and their ability to adapt themselves to local situations, to meet new
YOUTH 51 5
challenges, and to impart their warmth and enthusiasm to those they visit, combined with the standard of conduct upheld by Bahl'i youth, make them potent instruments for the execution of the contemplated projects. Indeed, through these distinctive qualities they can become the spearhead of any enterprise and the driving force of any undertaking in which they participate, whether local or national. Our expectant eyes are fixed on Bahii'i youth! . . . From the very beginning of the Bahii'i Era, youth have played a vital part in the promulgation of God's Revelation. The Biib Himself was but twenty-five years old when He declared His Mission, while many of the Letters of the Living were even younger. The Master, as a very young man,was called upon to shoulder heavy responsibilities in the service of His Father in 'Irhq and Turkey, and His brother, the Purest Branch, yielded up his life to God in the Most Great Prison at the age of twenty-two that the servants of God might "be quickened, and all that dwell on earth be united." Shoghi Effendi was a student at Oxford when called to the throne of his guardianship, and many of the Knights of Bahh'u'llhh, who won imperishable fame during the Ten Year Crusade, were young people. Let it, therefore, never be imagined that youth must await their years of maturity before they can render invaluable services to the Cause of God.[78:6321
In 1944 Shoghi Effendi's secretary wrote on his behalf that "the greatest need of youth today is character training. Prayer is only one factor in this; they must learn to live up to the ethical teachings of the Faith. . . . Once young people become convinced of the existence of the soul they should not need much convincing that material training and material progress are not sufficient. The soul needs training and help too. He feels that teaching the Faith to the youth is of the utmost importance in these days, as they will not only become the workers of the future but will be able to widely spread the Message among their own generati~n."[~~:~~O] A few years later he wrote again through his secretary urging the believers "to make up your minds to do great, great deeds for the Faith; the condition of the world is steadily growing worse, and your generation must provide the saints, heroes, martyrs and adrninistrators of future years. With dedication and will power you can rise to great height~."[~~:~~O] In 1982 the Universal House of Justice wrote that Bahii'i youth are "legatees of the heroic early believers and now standing on their shoulders" and called "upon them to redouble their efforts, in this day of widespread interest in the Cause of God, to enthuse their contemporaries with the divine Message and thus prepare themselves for the day when they will be veteran believers able to assume whatever
tasks may be laid upon them. We offer them this passage from the Pen of Bahb'u'llhh: 'Blessed is he who in the prime of his youth and the heyday of his life will arise to serve the Cause of the Lord of the beginning and of the end, and adorn his heart with His love. The manifestation of such a grace is greater than the creation of the heavens and of the earth. Blessed are the steadfast and well is it with those who are firm. "[78:628,98:538] 7
Z ~ I H Born; . offspring, son. Used as a suffix after a proper name it means "Son of -."[18:7421" ZAMENHOF, LYDIA (19041944). An early European believer and the daughter of Dr. Ludwig L. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto. Miss Zamenhof, along with members of her family, was executed by the Nazis during World War I1 (she perished in Treblinka concentration camp in August 1944).[9:533,93:561,2501
ZANJ~A . province in the northwest of kin. Following a visit by the Bib in 1850, it was the scene, between May 1850 and January 1851, in and around the fort of 'Ali-Mardiin K h h , of a massacre of some 1,000 or more Bbbis by government t r o o p ~ . [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Z--TAJ.
See T ~ I R I H .
Z A ~ ' A. term signifying Ba&dhd.[18:7421" ZAYNU'L-ABID~, FAWZ~(1911-1975). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An Egyptian believer who pioneered (1953) with his wife (Bahiyyih 'Ali Sa'd'id-Din) to Spanish Morocco, for which service they were designated Knights of B a h b ' ~ ' l l h h . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] ZAYNU'L-MUQARRAB~N. Literally, Ornament of the Near (or Favored) ZINKY, EDITH (KAY) MEHRING (1903-2000). (Knight of Bahh'u'llhh.) An American believer who, in addition to being a trained operatic singer, invented and patented a method for making
ZONNEVELD, ARNOLD
51 7
silk stockings that did not run.In 1954 she pioneered to the Magdalen Islands, Canada, for which service she was designated a Knight of Bahhyu'llhh.She will be remembered for her research work in the British Museum Library, which helped uncover some 300 previously unknown BahB'i documents and T a b l e t ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] ZONNEVELD, ARNOLD (1933-1983). A Dutch believer (196 1) who pioneered first to Spitzbergen Island (196 1-1 963) and then to Bolivia with his wife (Gisela) and family (1966-1983).[17:8251
Appendix 1
Genealogy of the BahB'u'llBh: Descended from Yazdigird I11 and First-Generation Descendants 1. Yazdigird I11 2. S M y i r Hasan 3. Aqd Fakhr 4. Aqa Mul?ammad-'Ali 5. Hdji Mul?ammad-Ri& Big 6. Mirzd 'Abbh 7. Mirzd 'Abbds-i-NM + Qadijah-Qhum 8. Husayn 'Ali-i-NM (BahByu'llBh)(1817-1892) 1. Husayn 'Ali-i-NM (BahByu'llAh)(1817-1 892) + Asiyih-~hhum(NawBh) (Unknown1886) 2. &im 2. 'AbduYl-BahhAbbhs (1844-1921) + F d W Munirih m h u m 3. Diyi'iyyih-QSmum + Mirzd Hidi S i r b i (1864) 4. Shoghi Effendi R a b b h i (1897-1957) + Mary Maxwell ('Amatu'l-Bahh) R~hiyyihmBnum (19 10-2000) 3. R b g i z 3. Husayn 3. Fu'ayyih 3. Munawar 3. Mihdi 3. R w 3. Tilbd 3. Tilbd 2. 'Ali-Mul?ammad [l] 2. Bahiyyih-UBnum 2. 'Ali-Mul?ammad [2] 2. Mirzh Mihdi, 2nd wife of Husayn 'Ali-i-NM (Bahd'u'llhh) + Fhm-KJhnum (1828-1904) 2. Muhammad-'AU 2. 'Ali-Mdpunmad 2. Niyi'u'llih 2. Sddhijiyyih 2. Samadiyyih 2. BadiyuyllBh(1867-), 3rd wife of [I] Husayn 'Ali-i-NM @ahi'u'llih) + Gawhar=hum 2. Funighiyyih
Appendix 2
Genealogy of the 'Abdu'l-Bahi: First-Generation Descendants
1. 'Abdu'l-Bahh Abbas (1 844-1921) + Fhiimih Munirih mhnum 2. Diyh'iyyih-Khanurn + Mirzh Hhdi Birhzi (1 864- ) 3. Shoghi Effendi Rabbhni (1897-1957) + Mary Maxwell ('Amatu'l-Bahh Riihiyyih mhnum) (1 9 1CL2000) 2. Rihangiz 2. Husayn 2. Fu'idiyyih 2. Munawar 2. Mihdi 2. Riihh 2. Tlibh 2. Tlibh
Appendix 3
Genealogy of the Bib: Relationship to Shoghi Effendi and the Descendants of the Mirzi bid
1. Mirzi bid 2. Mirzi 'Ali 3. Hiji Mirzi Abu'l-Qisim 4. Siyyid M4ammad-Husayn 5. Mirzi HSldi mrhzi (1864- ) + Diyi'iyyih-K&mm 6. Shoghi Effendi Rabbhi (1897-1957) + Mary Maxwell ('Amatu'l-Bahi R3iyyih KJhum) (19 10-2000) 2. Mirzi Mfiammad-Husayn 3. Fitimih-Bagim + Mirzi M4ammad-Ri&i 4. 'Ali-Mfiammad (The Bhb) (1819-1 850) + KJadijahBagum (1821-1882) 5. m a d
Appendix 4
Kinship Listing of the Bahh'u'llhh
Name Husayn-'Ali Bahh'u'llhh 'Abdu'l-Bahh 'Abbh Mirzh 'Abbhs 'Ali-Muhammad 'Ali-Muhammad (1) 'Ali-Mhammad (2) Mirzh Aqa ~~h~-i-ICalirn ~si~ih-~hhnm Badi'u'llhh Bahiyyih u s i n u r n Hhji Mul?ammad-Rid6 Big Vazir-i-Niri Mirzh B w g Diyh'iyyih-ahnum Aqh Fakhr Fhtimih-ahnm Fhtimih-ahnm Fhtimih-Sulthn-Khhum Fu'hdiyyih Funighiyyih Gawhar-Kbhum ShWytk Hasan Husayn Husniyyih-IQhnum Mirzh Ibrihim 'I z z i y i h - Q h ~ ~ ~ mirn Khadijih Qhnum Khan-Nanih Kkhik-ahnum Kulthh-Qhum-i-Niri
Relationship with Bahsi'u'llhh Self Son Grandfather Son Son Son Half brother Brother Wife Son Daughter Great-grandfather Father Granddaughter Third great-granddaughter Daughter-in-law Wife Half sister Granddaughter Daughter Wife Fourth great-grandfather Grandson Half sister Half brother Half sister Son Mother Wife of the father Wife of the father Wife of the father 522
KINSHIP LISTING OF THE B ~ U ' L L523 ~
Mahd-i-Ulyb Mary Maxwell Mihdi Mirzh Mihdi Mirza Mihdi Mubammad-'Ali Aqzi Muhammad-'Ali Mirzi M&ammad- 'Ali Mirzi M&ammad-Hasan Mirzb M&ammad-Quli Munawar Munirih-=hum Mirzai M6sB Nabbt-Uhnum Nawhb Nisb-ahurn Niyb'u'llhh Parishhn Shoghi Effendi Rabbhni Hhji Mirzb Ridh-Quli Rilhb Rihangiz Sadhijiyyih Sakinih-K&num Samadiyyih Shrih-KJhnum Fath 'Ali &ih Shah-Sultan Mirza Ha& a i r h i Sughrti-ahurn Mirzii Taqi Tlibi Tlibi Turkambniyyih Mirzh Yabyh Yazdigird I11
Wife Wife of the great-grandson ('Amatu'lBahh R 6 ! $ y i h ~ h n u m ) Grandson Son Brother Son Second great-grandfather Half brother Half brother Half brother Granddaughter Daughter-in-law Brother Wife of the father Wife Sister Daughter Half brother Great-grandson Half brother Granddaughter Granddaughter Daughter Half sister Daughter Sister Wife of the father Half sister Husband of the granddaughter Half sister Half brother Granddaughter Granddaughter Wife of the father Half brother Fifth great-grandfather
Appendix 5
Letters of the Living
Mull6 Husayn-i-Bu&ru'i; B6buYl-B6b. M4ammad Hasan-i-Bu~mi'i;brother of Mull6 Husayn. Mdpmmad B6qir-i-Bu~mi'i;nephew of Mull6 Husayn. Mull6 'Aliy-i-Basthi. Mu116 KhudB-Bak -i-Qhch6ni; subsequently known as Mull6 'Ali. Mull6 Husan-i-Bajistini. Siyyid Husayn-i-Yazdi; an amanuensis to the B i b and surnamed by Him 'Aziz; he shared the B6b's imprisonments in both M6h-Kii and CJihriq. Mirz6 M ~ a m m a dRawdih-K&n-i-Yazdi. S&id-i-Hindi. Mu116 Malpnhd-i-Bu'i. Mu116 Jalil-i-Unimi. Mu116 m a d - i - I b d h l - i - M a r ' i . Mull6 Bhqir-i-Tabrizi. Mu116 Yhsuf-i-Ardibili. Mirza Ha&. Mirzi M4ammad-'Aliy-i-Qazvini. Fhiimih Umm-Salamih; titled T6hirih (the Pure One) during the Conference of Bada&t; also known as Qurratu'l-'Ayn (Solace of the Eyes) and Zarrin-T6j (Crown of Gold). H6ji M4amrnad-'Aliy-BirfW&i; titled Quddiis (the Most Holy) during the Conference of Badas&.
Appendix 6
Apostles of BahaSuS115h
Note: Numbers refer to photos on page 4 of the photospread. 1. Mirzh Miish, surnamed Kalim; the only full brother of Bahh'u'llhh. 2. Mirzii Buzurg, surnamed Badi; executed following delivery of a letter fkom Bahi'u'llih to the Nasiri'd-Din Shih. 3. Siyyid Hasan, surnamed Sulthnu'sh-Shuhadh'; one of two brothers from Isfihiin, who was executed for his faith. 4. Mullh Abu'l-Hasan, surnamed Amin; steward to Bahh'u'llhh. 5. Mirzh Abu'l-Fadl; designated by Baha'is as the "foremost and authoritative expounder of the Baha'i Revelation." 6. Mirz6 'Ali-Maammad, surnamed Varqh; a poet and teacher of the Baha'i Faith; the first trustee of the Huqcqu'llih. 7. A&%. See Mirzd Hasan. 8. Mirza Malpncd. 9. Mirza Mdpmmad, surnamed Nabil-i-Akbar. 10. Hhji Mirzh Myhammad Taqi, surnamed Kabir-i-Afniin; an Apostle of Bahk'u'llhh; a cousin of the Bib and the principal builder of the Mashriqu'l-Adhkar of 'Ishqibi~d. 11. Hhji Mirza Maammad Taqi; an Apostle of Baha'uYll6h. 12. Mulla Maammad-i-Zarandi, surnamed Nabil-i-A'?am. 13. Shaykh KQim, surnamed Samadar. 14. Muhammad Musfafh; the custodian and bearer of the remains of the Bib. 15. Mirzi Husayn, surnamed Mishkin-Qalam; an Apostle of Bahi'u'llih and a distinguished calligraphist. 16. Mirza Hasan, surnamed A&%; an Apostle of Bahh'u'llhh. 17. Shaykh Mulpmrnad 'Ali. 18. zapu'l- bidin in; noted scribe. 19. Mirzh 'Ali Muhammad, surnamed Shhhid-ibn-i-Shhhid.
Appendix 7
Disciples of 'AbduS1-BahB: Heralds of the Covenant Note: Numbers 1-19 refer to photos on page 5 of the photospread. 1. John E. Esslemont 2. Thornton Chase 3. Howard McNutt 4. Sarah Farmer 5. Hippolyte Dreyfus-Barney 6. Lillian Kappes 7. Robert Turner 8. Consul A. Schwartz 9. William H. Randall 10. Lua M. Getsinger 1 1. Joseph H. Hannen
12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 2 1.
C. I. Thacher
Charles Greenleaf Isabella Brittingham E. J. Rosenberg Helen S. Goodall Arthur P. Dodge William H. Hoar George Jacob Augur Mrs. Thornburgh-Cropper May Maxwell
Appendix 8
Hands of the Cause of God (by Contingent) Note: Numbers refer to photos on pages tS8 of the photospread. Bahh'u'llhh 1. 2. 3. 4.
H6ji Mu116 'Ali-Akbar-i-Bahmirzhdi, surnamed Hhji ~ m ~ n d Hhji Mirzh Muhammad-Taqiy-i-Abhari, surnamed Ibn-i-Abhhr Hhji Abu'l-Hasan, surnamedAdib Mirzh 'Alf Muhammad, surnamed Ibn-i-Asdaq
'Abdu'l-Bahh (Posthumously by 'Abdu'l-Bahh) 5. 6. 7. 8.
Mullh Aqh Muhammad-i-Qh'ini, surnamed Nabil-i-Akbar Mirz6 'Ali-Muhammad, surnamed Varqh &aym Muhammad Riphy-i-Yazdi Mullh $hdiq-i-Muqaddas, known as Ismu'llhhu'l-Asdaq
Posthumously by Shoghi Effendi 9. H6ji Abu'l-Hasan, surnamed Hhji Amin and known alternatively as Mull6 Abu'l-Hasan, July 1928 10. John E. Esslemont, 30 November 1925 11. Lewis G. Gregory, 5 August 1951 12. Keith Ransom-Kehler, 28 October 1933 13. Martha L. Root, 2 October 1939 14. Siyyid Mustafh R b i , 14 July 1945 15. 'Abdu'l-Jalil Bey Sa'ad, 25 June1942 16. Roy C. Wilhelm, 23 December 1%1 17. John Henry Hyde Dunn, 26 April 1954 18. Muhammad Taqiy-i-Igfahhni, 12 December 1946 First Contingent: Shoghi Effendi (24 December 1951) 19. Dorothy B. Baker 20. Amelia E. Collins
528 APPENDIX 8
2 1. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
'Alf Akbar Furlitan Ugo Giachery Hermann Grossman Horace Holley Leroy Ioas William Sutherland Maxwell Charles Mason Remey (later expelled as a Covenant breaker) Tariip'llaih Samandari George Townshend Valiyu'llaih Varqai
Second Contingent: Shoghi Effendi (29 February 1952) 3 1. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
Shu'si'u'llsih 'AlP'I' Musai Banaini Clara Dunn Dhikru'llaih Khaidem Adelbert Miihlschlegel Siegfried Schopflocher Corrine Knight True
Individual Single Appointments: Shoghi Effendi 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.
'Amatu'l-Bahsi Riihiyyih usinurn, 26 March 1952 Jalail uaizeh, 7 December 1953 Paul E. Haney, 19 March 1954 'Ali Muhammad Varqai, 15 November 1955 Agnes B. Alexander, 27 March 1957
Third (Final) Contingent: Shoghi Effendi (2 October 1957) 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50.
Enoch Olinga William Sears Hasan Muvaqqar Balylin' John Robarts John Ferraby Collis H. Featherstone Rahmatu'llaih Muhaijir Abu'l-Qaisim Faui
Appendix 9
First Five Auxiliary Boards Appointed by the Hands of the Cause of God on the Instructions of the G~ardian[ll'~~] African John Allen Elsie Austin 'Ali N w a v h i Jalsil Na!&javsini John Robarts
William Sears Mdymmad Mu&ifh Sulaymh Valerie Wilson 'Azu Yazdi
Asian Agnes Alexander Elena Marsella Fernie Abu'l-Qaisim Fa@ 'Abbh-'Ali Butt
Carl A. Scherer David Toeg K k i m Kkimzidih
Australian H. C. Featherstone
Thelma Perks
American Continent: Canadian Rowland Estall
Central American Esteban Canales
South American Gayle Woolson
Margot Worley 529
530 APPENDIX 9
U.S. and Inter-American William de Forge Marjery McCormick Katherine McLaughlin
Florence Maybeny Sarah Pereira
European Marion Hofman Dorothy Ferraby Eugen Schmidt Anna Grossmann Louis Hknuzet
Joel Marangella (Covenant breaker) Elsa Steinmetz Angeline Giachery Tove Deleuran
Appendix 10
Knights of Bahii'u'llah
Knight of Bahai'u'llaih AbbPs, Kamil Adams, Paul Aftabi, Gulnar Aftabi, Roshan Alai, Aynoddin Alai, Tahirih Allen, Carole Allen, Dwight Allen, Frederick Allen, Jeanne Allen, John Allen, Valera Anderson, Raymond Ankersrnit, Gertrud Ardekani, Husayn Ardekani, Nosrat 'AsaarzPdih, DiP'u'llPh Atwater, Marcia Austin, Elsie Avery, Gail Bagdadi, Adib Bagdadi, Mahida Bagley, Carol Bagley, Florence Bagley, Gerrold Bagley, Stanley Bagley, Susan Bahovee, Grace Banhi, Amin Banhi, Sheila Bates, Margaret
Date Awarded 1953 Nov. 1958 Jun. 1953 Dec. 1953 Jul. 1953 Dec. 1953 Dec. 1953 Sep. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954Apr. 1954Apr. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1953 Nov. 1953 Nov. 1953 Sep. 1954Aug. 1953 Oct. 1954 Feb. 1953 Dec. 1953 Dec. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1953 Aug. 1953Aug. 1957 Jul. 531
Location Seychelles Spitsbergen Diu Island Goa Southern Rhodesia Southern Rhodesia Greece Greece Cape Breton Island Cape Breton Island Swaziland Swaziland Yukon Frisian Islands Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Channel Islands Marshall Islands Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Baranof Island Hadhramaut Hadhramaut Sicily Sicily Sicily Sicily Sicily Baranof Island Greece Greece Nicobar Islands
532 APPENDIX 10
Battah, Amin Baxter, Evelyn Becking, Elly Bender, Carle Bevan, Elizabeth Bihari-Lal, Shyam Blakely, Dudley Blakely, Elsa Blum, Alvin Blum, Gertrude Bolton, Stanley, Jr. Bond, John Jameson Bond, Kathleen Breaks, Virginia Buapiah, Albert Bullock, Matthew Caldwell, Elaine Caldwell, Jenabe Cardell, Ted Chang, John Z. Chisiza, Dunduzu Christian, Kenneth Christian, Roberta Ciocca, Marie Clark, Harry Clark, Mildred Collison, Mary Collison, Reginald "Rex" Crane, Arthur Crane, Ethel Craney, Geraldine Curwin, Gail Curwin, Gerald Curwin, Leeanna d'Jalili, Moharnmad Daganegi, Feroza Dahmobadi, Kaykhosrow Danielsen, Edith Danjon, William Dayton, Charles Dayton, Mary
1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1953 Jan. 1954 Jan. 1953 Aug. 1954 Jul. 1954 Jul. 1954 Mar. 1954 Mar. 1954 Jan. 1953 Sep. 1953 Sep. 1953 Dec. 1954 Apr. 1953 Nov. 1954 May 1953 Aug. 1953 Oct. 1959 Aug. 1953 Jun. 1954 Jan. 1954 Jan. 1953 Nov. 1954 Feb. 1953 Aug. 1953 Jun. 1953 May 1953 Jul. 1953 Jul. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Jan. 1953 Oct. 1953 Jul. 1953 Dec. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Feb. 1954 Feb.
Rio de Oro Channel Islands Dutch New Guinea Leeward Islands Rhodes Pondicherry Tonga Islands Tonga Islands Solomon Islands Solomon Islands Tonga Islands Franklin Franklin Caroline Islands British Togoland Dutch West Indies Aleutian Islands Aleutian Islands South West Africa Hainan Island Ruanda-Urundi Southern Rhodesia Southern Rhodesia Sardinia Brunei Lofoten Islands Ruanda-Urundi Ruanda-Urundi Key West, FL Key West, FL Hebrides Islands Bahama Islands Bahama Islands Bahama Islands Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Goa Diu Island Cook Islands Andorra Leeward Islands Leeward Islands
de Palacios, Zunilda Deleuran, Jean Deleuran, Tove Dive, Dulcie Dobbins, Bertha Duffield, Ella Duncan, Charles Dunning, Charles Edwards, Julius Eisenberg, Gertrude Elias, Fahimah Elias, Sabri Esfahani, Habib Esfahani, Labib Evans, Esther Faroodi, Ardeshir Fernie, Elena Fernie, Roy Fitzner, Florence Fitzner, Harold Fleming, Earleta Fleming, John Fozdar, Dr. B. Fozdar, John Frankel, Jeanne French, Nellie Friedland, Eberhard Geary, Grace Geary, Irving Gilliland, Howard Groger, Louise Grossmann, Elsa Guhrke, Bernard Gung, Claire Halabi, Hussein Hasselblatt, Brigitte Haug, Rolf Haumont, Daniel Heller, Frances Hezari, Munachir Hinton, Sean
1953 Oct. 1953 Dec. 1953 Dec. 1954 Jan. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1954 Feb. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1954 May 1954 May 1954 Apr. 1953 Nov. 1953 Oct. 1954 Jun. 1954 Mar. 1954 Mar. 1954 Jun. 1954 Jun. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Nov. 1954 Apr. 1957 Jul. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Apr. 1954 Jun. 1953 Sep. 1954 Feb. 1953 Oct. 1954 Feb. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1955 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1988 Dec.
Chiloe Island Balearic Islands Balearic Islands Cook Islands New Hebrides Madeira Brunei Orkney Islands Northern Territories Prot. Canary Islands French Somaliland French Somaliland French West Africa French West Africa Windward Islands Bhutan Gilbert and Ellis Islands Gilbert and Ellis Islands Port Timor Port Timor Spanish Morocco Spanish Morocco Andaman Islands Brunei Nicobar Islands Monaco French Guiana Cape Breton Island Cape Breton Island Labrador Chiloe Island Frisian Islands Kodiak Island Southern Rhodesia Hadhramaut Shetland Islands Crete Loyalty Islands Macoa Island Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Mongolia
534 APPENDIX 10
Hoehnke, Violet Holmes, Ethel Holmes, Maurice Hopper, Elizabeth Huffinan, Jack Huxtable, Catherine Huxtable, Clifford Ioas, Charles Jankko, Greta Janssen, Alyce Jensen, Leland Jensen, Opal Kamali-Sarvistani, Aqa Khan Katira, Abbhs Katira, Rezvanieh Kellberg, John Kellberg, Marjorie Kelsey, Olivia Kenny, Sara Kenyerezi, Max Kevorkian, Haik Khazrai, Fereidun King, Malcolm Kirmani, Salisa Kruger, Annemarie Kurlawala, Ghulamal 'Ali Lamprill, Gretta Lawrence, Loyce Laws, Elizabeth Laws, Frederick Leonard, John Ljungberg, Eskil MacArthur, Edythe Manga, Martin Manuchihri, Arnir Hushmand Marques, Jose Matthew, Bruce Matthisen, Andrew Matthisen, Nina Mckay, Luella McKinley, Hugh
1954 Jul. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1953 Jun. 1959 Sep. 1959 Sep. 1954 Jan. 1954 Mar. 1953 Oct. 1954 Mar. 1953 Oct. 1955 Mar. 1990 Mar. 1990 Mar. 1954 Apr. 1954Apr. 1954 Mar. 1953 Sep. 1953 Sep. 1954 May 1968 Nov. 1953 Oct. 1953 Aug. Unknown 1953 Jun. 1953 Oct. 1953 Aug. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Feb. 1953 Aug. 1953 Aug. 1954 Apr. 1953 Aug. 1954 Jul. 1954Apr. 1954 Jan. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep.
Admiralty Islands Bahama Islands Bahama Islands Madeira Kodiak Island Gulf Islands Gulf Islands Balearic Islands Marquesas Islands Spanish Morocco Reunion Island Reunion Island Socotra Sakhalin Island Sakhalin Island Dutch West Indies Dutch West Indies Monaco Madeira French Equatorial Africa Galapagos Islands Rumania British Guiana Karikal Moldavia Daman Society Islands Lofoten Islands Basutoland Basutoland Falkland Islands Faroe Islands Queen Charlotte Island Northern Territories Prot. Liechtenstein Port Timor Labrador Bahama Islands Bahama Islands Spanish Morocco Cyprus
McKinley, Violet Meerburg, Rex Menking, Howard Menking, Joanne Meyer, Ruth Middlemast, Lillian Mills, Olga Mitchell, John Mojgani, Khodarahm Muhijir, Iran Muhiijir, Rahmat Munsiff, Meheranghiz Murday, Puva Nahvi, Saeed Nahvi, Shawbat Navidi, Azizu'llhh Navidi, Shamsi Njiki, Samuel Nolen, Lois Nolen, Richard Noorani, Shirin Nymon, Mavis Oballa, Benedict Olinga, Enoch Oliver, Cora Olson, Cynthia Orbison, Virginia Parke, Gladys Pawlowska, Ola Payman, Sohrab Payman, Tabandeh Peraji, Lionel Perkal, Rose Powers, Robert Putney, Elinor R d i , Abbiis R d i , Ali Akbar R d i , Shavesteh Rahman, Abdu'l Rhein, Ottilie Rice, Emma
1953 Nov. 1954 Apr. 1954 Jan. 1954 Jan. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Nov. 1954 Jul. 1954 Mar. 1954 Feb. 1954 Feb. 1954 Apr. 1957 May 1953 Jul. 1953 Nov. 1954 Feb. 1954 Feb. 1954 Apr. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Aug. 1954 May 1954 Apr. 1953 Oct. 1953 Sep. 1954 May 1953 Aug. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Apr. 1953 Nov. 1953 Oct. 1953 Jul. 1953 May 1954 May 1953 Nov. 1953 Nov. 1953 Nov. 1954 Jan. 1953 Nov. 1953 Oct.
Cyprus Dutch New Guinea Cape Verde Island Cape Verde Island Margarita Windward Islands Malta Malta MahC Mentawai Island Mentawai Island French Cameroons Chagos Archipelago Pondicheny Pondicheny Monaco Monaco French Cameroons Azores Azores Karikal French Togoland Ashanti Protectorate British Cameroons British Honduras Mariana Islands Balearic Islands Society Islands MiquelodSt. Pierre Islands San Marino San Marino Mahd Kodiak Island Mariana Islands Aleutian Islands Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Seychelles Mauritius Sicily
536 APPENDIX 10
Richardson, Doris Robarts, Audrey Robarts, John Robarts, Patrick Robinson, Helen Rodrigues, Hilda Rodrigues, Jose Roozebehyan, Faiborz Rowhani, Behiya Rowhani, Qudratollah Rowhani, Shapoor Ruhany, Shawki Samandari, Mehdi Samandari, Suhayl Samandari, Ursula Schechter, Fred Scherer, Carl Scherer, Loretta Schott, Ada Schreiber, David Schreiber, Elise Schreiber, Elise Sevin, Jean Singh, Udai Narain Singh, Udainarayan Snider, H. Sohaili, Mehraban Soliman, Muhamad Mustafa Stamp, Elizabeth Stanton, Dick Stewart, Bula Suhm, Mary L. Suhm, Richard Tabe, Edward Tanyi, David Tormo, Avela Tormo, Salvador Townshend, Una (Dean) True, George True, Marguerite Ullrich, Florence
1953 Sep. 1954 Feb. 1954 Feb. 1954 Feb. 1953 Sep. 1953 Sep. 1953 Sep. 1954 Feb. 1953 Dec. 1954 Mar. 1954 Jun. 1954 Jun. 1953 Nov. 1953 Mar. 1953 Nov. 1953 Aug. 1953 Dec. 1953 Dec. 1953 Sep. 1954 May 1954 Feb. 1954 May 1954 Jan. 1955 Sep. 1953 Aug. 1953 Sep. 1954 Aug. 1953 Oct. 1954 May 1953 Sep. 1954 Apr. 1954 Apr. 1954 Apr. 1954 Apr. 1954 Apr. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Jun. 1954 Mar.
Grand Manan Island Bechuanaland Bechuanaland Bechuanaland Baranof Island Port Guinea Port Guinea Gambia Diu Island MahC Bhutan Canary Islands Italian Somaliland Italian Somaliland Italian Somaliland French Somaliland Macoa Island Macoa Island Madeira Leeward Islands St. Thomas Island Spanish Guinea Tuamotu Archipelago Tibet Sikkim Key West, FL Comoro Islands Spanish Sahara St. Helena Keewatin Swaziland Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Morocco (Int'l. Zone) British Togoland French Togoland Juan Ferdandez Islands Juan Ferdandez Islands Malta Canary Islands Canary Islands Monaco
Vakil, Abbas Vakil, Munir Vakil, Samira von Brunn, Ursula Walters, Evelyn Walters, Richard Ward, Shirley Weedon, Benjamin Weedon, Gladys Wesson, Vivian Weston, Kathleen Winkelbach, Helmut Wolff, Elinor Wolff, Robert Woolson, Gayle Wyss, Frank Wyss, Lillian Zabolotny, Mary Zahrii'i, IzzatullAh Zandem, Hormoz Zaynu'l-'Abidin, Bahia Zaynu'l-'Abidin, Fawzi Zinky, Kay
1953 Aug. 1954 Jan. 1953 Aug. 1953 Nov. 1954 Apr. 1954 Apr. 1953 Oct. 1953 Jan. 1953 Jan. 1954 May 1953 Sep. 1978 Dec. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Apr. 1955 Jun. 1954 Jan. 1956 Apr. 1953 Nov. 1953 Sep. 1953 Oct. 1953 Oct. 1954 Apr.
cyprus cyprus Cyprus Frisian Islands Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Morocco (Int'l. Zone) British Honduras Leeward Islands Leeward Islands French Togoland Magdalen Islands White Russia Dutch Guiana Dutch Guiana Galapagos Islands Cocoa Island Samoa Island Anticosti Island Southern Rhodesia Morocco (Int'l. Zone) Spanish Morocco Spanish Morocco Magdalen Islands
Appendix 11
Members of the International Bahri'i Council[59'2911
Appointed 9 January 1951
Hand of the Cause of God 'Amatu'l-Bahai Ruhiyyih mainurn, liaison between the Guardian and the Council Hand of the Cause of God Mason Remey, President (Covenant breaker) Hand of the Cause of God Amelia Collins, Vice President Hand of the Cause of God Leroy Ioas, Secretary-General Jessie Revell, Treasurer Ethel Revell, Western Assistant Secretary Luffu'llhh Hakim, Eastern Assistant Secretary Appointed but Did Not Take Office Due to Ill Health Ben Weeden
Gladys W e e d ~ n [ ~ ~ : ~ ]
Additional Appointee 8 March 1952
Hand of the Cause of God Ugo Giachery, Member at large Additional Appointee 4 May 1955 Sylvia Ioas Elected Ridvain April 1961 Jessie Revell, Treasurer Ali Nwaviini, President Luffu'llaih Hakim, Member at large Ethel Revell, Member at large Charles Wolcott, SecretaryGeneral
Sylvia Ioas, Vice President Mildred Mottahedeh, Member at large Ian Semple, Assistant Secretary Borrah Kavelin, Member at large 538
Appendix 12
Members of the Universal House of Justice (1963-2005) Name Lutfu'llsih Hakim Amoz Gibson Charles Wolcott H. Borrah Kavelin David Hofman Hugh Chance Hushmand Fatheazam Ali NakbJavhni Ian Semple David Ruhe Glenford Mitchell Peter ah Hooper Dunbar Ad& Taherzadeh Farziun Arbiib Douglas Martin Kiser Barnes Firaydoun Javaheri Hartmut Grossmann Paul Lample Payman Mohajer
Year Elected-Year Completed 1963-1 968 (deceased) 1963-1982 (deceased) 1963-1 987 (deceased) 1963-1 988 (deceased) 1963-1988 (retired) 1963-1 998 (retired) 1963-2003 (retired) 1963-2003 (retired) 1963-2005 (retired) 1968-1 993 (retired) 1982 1987 1988 1988-2000 (deceased) 1993 1993-2005 (retired) 2000 2003 2003 2005 2005
Appendix 13
Obituaries: Bahd'z' Year Book Volumes
Allen, John William['7'7251 Allen, Valera Al-Mall*, Mulla Alpnad[12:8931 Almond, Maysie[12'9361 Almond, Percy Meade['4:4891 Altass, Florence E l i ~ a b e t h [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ l Amin-Amin, Haji Ghuliun&&[7:659]
Arnreliwala, G. A. [20:2731 Anderson, Angela Annette[16:4171 Anderson, Jennie Ottilia[12:9111 Ani, Daoud Anvari, H o u ~ h m a n d [ ~ ~ : l ~ ~ ] Anwar, Abdullah ('Abdu'llih Anva)['8:6141 Anwar, Munireh (Munirih Anvar)['8:6141 Appa, Seewoosumbur Jeehoba[17:7541 &-babyR@i[l5:5481 Archibald, Ethna Ariki, Pa T e p a e r ~ [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Armstrong, Leonora Stirling['7:7331 Arnadbttir, Hblmfridur['2:9431 Arpushana, Francisco pimienb['3:3191 &gharzadih, D i b ' ~ ' l l i h [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Ashen, Elizabeth Ann (Anna)['5:5541 Ashton, Beatrice Owen[19'8961 Ashton,
OBITUARIES: BA&
'iYE4RBOOK VOLUMES 541
kamikhih, Q~dratU'llith['~:~~~1Belcher, Rodney Lynn[25:3091 'Azzhvi, Siyyid M~ammad[16:4251Benetar, Salvator ''Sue"[24:3131 Benke, George B Berdjis, Bergamaschi, Napole0n['~~~~1 Backwell, Dr. S u l a y ~ n h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Berjis, Baghdidi, 'AbbBs Ihsh[15:5441 Bernal De Shchez, Aura Baghdadi, Adib Radhi[19:9121 Mda[19:838] Bagdidi, Dr. Zia[6:5351 Bishoff, Palle[31:3031 Bagley, Florence E.[19:loo31 Bishop, Helen Pilkingt0n['~'~~1 Bagley, Stanley T.[22:3191 Blackwell, Ells~orth['~:~~~1 Bahii'i, Blake, Cecilia King[17:7231 Bailey, Ella[11:6851 Blakely, Dudley Baker, D~rothyrll:~~~] Blakely, Elsa Lilian ( J ~ d y ) [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Baker, Effie[13:3201 Blomfield, Lady[7:6511 Baker, Frank Albert[13:3211 Blue Mountain, Paco~-a['~:~~~] Baker, Richard St. Barbe[lT8021 Blum, Alvin J.[14:4391 Bakhshandegi, Shamam[22:1471 Blum, Gertr~de[~~~~~] Bakhtiy&ri, I ~ f a n d i y ~ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Blundell, Sarah[5:4961 Ballard, Doris[31:3011 Ballerio, G i o ~ a n n i [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Blundell, Hugh K.[16:4211 Boddy, Peter[29:3041 Balylizi, Hasan M.['7:6361 Banhi, Mfis8[14:4211 Bode, Edward L.[15:5671 Bode, Mary H o t ~ h k i s s [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Banhi, Samiheh[25:3121 Bolton, Mariette G e r ~ n a i n e [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Baqii, Shidrukh A~nh-Kiyii[l~:~~~] Stanley William[13:3231 Bolton, Bare, Boman, Barney, A l i ~ e [ ~ : ~ ' ~ ] Boon, Choo Yeok[16'4041 Barrett, Bashir, Dr. M & a r n n ~ a d [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Bosch, John David[10:4881 Bosch, L ~ u i s e [ ~ ' : ~ ~ ~ ] Basin, Shanta[33:2321 Bosio, M a ~ d [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Bates, Margaret Kelly[27:2711 Bouchoucha, M u ~ t a p h a [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Battrick, Alfred Bowman, A ~ n e l i a [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Battrick, Jeannette Hilda[16:4701 Baumgartner, Thomas R., Jr.[32:2671 Brauns-Forel, Bausani, Alessandr0[~~~~~1 Bray, Joseph G.[7:6721 Baxter, Breaks, Virginia[22:3201 Beard, F r a n ~ e s [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Brechtefeld, Henry[17:8051 Becker, Matilda (Betty)[15:5391 Brown, Ramona Allen Becton, James Henry Brown, Robert S.[12:9371 Bedikian, V i ~ t o r i a [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Brown, Ruth Randa11[14:4631 Belcher, E d ~ a r d [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Brunn, Ursula von[32:2761
542
APPENDIX 13
Bullock, Matthew W[14:5351 Burton, Esmie[14'5051 Busey, Carreta Helen[16'4221 BushniYi,Badi'[14:5451 Butt, Abbasally[12'8851
Couto, Sergio Re~endeP~~O~] Cowan, Angus W e l d ~ n [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Coy, Dr. G e n e v i e ~ e [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Crawford, Lacey[32'2691 Cuellar, Yvonne Liegedis[18:611 Culver, Julia[10:5071
Cabezas, Emma[20'2741 Camacho, Jo~ephina[~~:~"] Dilvand, S h a h (Shirin)[18:6001 Campbell, Margaret[7:6681 Daniel, S ~ b h i [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Camrass, J 0 a n [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Danielsen, Edith May Miller[18:6251 Cardell, Ted[29:3041 Daugherty, Orpha[18:6661 Carey, Frederika Davids, Mogamat Roeshdi (RUshdi)[18:6501 Carney, Magdalene M~g~et[lg:10211 Davis, Gail Avery[25:3121 Carpenter, Howard L ~ x m o o r e [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Ethe1[12:9401 Dawe, Caswell, L o u i ~ e [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] de ArJauo, Vi~tofi~O:~~~] Chalabi, Ibr6him[13:3251 de Bons, Edith[12:8781 Chamberlain, Isabel Fraser de Bons, (S~raya)[~:~~~] de Burafato, Chance, Hugh Emery[27:2711 de Calderon, Isabel Chee, Leong Tat[14'5271 de Vogel, Pieter J.[24:3141 Cheney, Elisabeth Dean, Martha Ross[14:5071 Chinniah, I n p a r a j ~ [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Dean, Sidney Dean Una[322691 Chiposi, Chirivito, F r a n c i s c ~ [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] deForge, William[13:3301 Christian, Roberta K.[14:4971 Deleuran, Tove[26:3071 Christian, William de Matamoros, Marcia Steward[13:3W Chung, Joon[33:2321 Clark, Mildred Eileen[13:3031 Derozhinsky, Pamela[16'4651 Cobb, S t a n w o ~ d [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Dewing, Coles, C. S.[3:2631 Dhabih, I s h r i q i y ~ i h [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Collins, Amelia E.[1Z:8341 Dhacoo, Louis Pierre Henri[17'7281 Diri(jz, 'AbdU'1-Qidir[13:3321 Collison, Mary Gale[14'4861 Collison, Reginald "Rex'y[18'5951 Dive, Dulcie B ~ r n s [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Cookson, Alexe[17'7301 Dixon, Margaret[8:6251 Cooper, Ella Gooda11[11:6811 Dloomy, Salmiin[13:3321 Coppock, William P a ~ 1 [ ~ ~ ~ Dobbins, ~ ~ 1 Bertha[19:8481 Corbin, Doris Foye[14:4611 Doktoroglu, Sami[17'6841 Costas, Aramis[32:2681 Dole, D a g 1 n a P ~ ~ ~ 1
OBITUARIES: B
Dreyhs-Barney, Laura Clifford[15:5361 Duckett, Elmore E.[6:5431 Duffield, Ella W.[12:9221 Duna, Rudolf0['~:~~~1 D m , Clara['2:8591 Dunn, John Henry Hyde[8:5931 Dunne, Major E.[27:2721 Dunning, Charles William['3:3051
A 'iITAR ~ BOOK VOLUMES
543
F
Faizi, Ab~'l-Qhsim['~:~~~1 Fallhh, Mulpmrnad 'Ali Ahh[l7:711] Fanhhpadhir, ' I n h y a t ~ ' l l 6 h ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Fantom, Mary T i l t ~ n [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] FarajuYll6h,Shawkat cAli[12:9151 Farhangi, Fa@ 'Azam, N~ri'd-Din[ll:~~~] Fath 'Azam, Ridpngiz[16:4671 Featherstone, H. C o l l i ~ [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Fendell, Ruth Shook[20:2741 Earl, David M.[26:3071 Fernie, Roy['3:3081 Earl, Joy Hi11[14:5311 Ferraby, Ebo, Antdnio Francisc0['~~~~1 Fenaby, John[15:5111 Echtner, V ~ k [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Fiorentini, Mari0['~:~~~1 Edelstein, Frances B.[32:2701 Maude Elizabeth Edwards, D a ~ n [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Fisher, Todd['2:9021 Edwards, Hermione Vera KeensFitz-Henley, DoUglas[17:7781 Fitzner, Harold Th0rnas['~~~~1 Edwards, Julius A.G.[18:6651 Fitzner, Sarah Floren~e['~"~] Edwards, Roger John[27:2721 Henry Bert~-on[l~:~~~] Fitzpatrick, Eggleston, Helen[17:6751 Ford, Harry Edwin[12:9241 Eggleston, L. W.[11:7121 Ford, Mary H anf~rd[~~~~] Eilers, Foster, William R.[25:3131 Eisenberg, Gertr~de[~~:~"] K. M.[12:8921 Fozdar, Dr. El-Hamamsi, Haj Taha[10'4861 Fozdar, Shirin[19''0271 El Khemiri, 'Abd~'l-Hamid['~:~~~] Franchino, L e t i ~ i a [ ' ~ ~ ' ~ ] Elias, Sabrir25:3121 Francis, Dor0thy['~~~~1 Elihs, S ~ b l ~ i [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Frankland, Kathryn[13:3371 Elston, Mary A ~ h l e y [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] French, Nellie Stevis~n["'~~~~ Enongene J o ~ e p h [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Eberhard K.[19:10251 Friedland, Epyeru, Enos[24:3141 From, Hen~ietteI'~:~~] Erickson, Louise M.[12:9131 Fujita, S a i ~ h i r o [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Esfahani, Habib[30:2701 F-ghi, pm[14:514] Estrada, Salomdn P a c ~ r a [ ~ ~ ' ~Funighi, ~~ R@u'll&['7:6911 Esty, F r a n ~ e s [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ 1 Funitan, 'Ali Akb&33:2271 Evans, E ~ t h e r r ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Evans, G Eyford, R ~ t h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Eziukwu, Isaac[15:5231 Gable, Carole L ~ m b a r d [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
544
APPENDIX 13
Gail, M a r ~ i e h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ O ] Gupta, N a t h ~ l a l [ ' ~ ~ ~ 1 Garcia Vazquez, M a n ~ e P ~ ~ ~Gutos, ~ l Javan[16'4551 Gardner, Lloyd G.[18:6631 Gates, Rose Perkal[30:2701 Geary, Irving[18:6521 Geary, Mabel Gra~e[l~:~lO] Habibi, Habib[19:9471 General, Haddhd, Akbar[19:9911 George, F l o r e n ~ e [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ] Haenni de Bons, Mona[lg'lolol George, P r u d e n ~ e [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Hgfner, Otto[16:4731 George, Wanita[26'3081 Hainsworth, Philip[31:3Ml 'Ali Yaz&[8:6241 Getsinger, Edward C.[5:4931 Getsinger, L ~ a [ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Hhji Mahmhd Q a s s a b ~ h i [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Ghadimi, Hhji Mirzh Buzurg Afniin 'Alh'i[8:599] Ghobad, Isfandiyar (Isfandiyhr Qubhd)[17:7W Hakim, ArastC Khiin[4:4141 Giachery, Angeline[17'7171 Hakim, L u t f ~ ' l l h h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] H&im, Mm~chihr[17:7451 Giachery, Ugo[19:7771 Gibson, Amoz Halabi, Husayn (Husayn Gilbert, Hilda[8:6071 Ri~tibu'l-Halabi)[~~~~~1 Ham&, -ad[l4:4961 Gillen, Charl~tte[l~:~~l] Gollmer, P a ~ l [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Haney, Mariam[13:3431 Gomez, Luisa Mapa[16'4411 Haney, Paul E d r n ~ n d [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Graeffe, Etty[14:4531 Hannen, Carl A.[14:5101 Graham, Fred[15:5591 Hannen, Pauline K n o b l o ~ h [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Greenleaf, Elizabeth R.[8:6081 Harris, H o ~ p e r [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Greeven, Inez Marshall Cook[18:6081Harvey, Philip[31:3051 Greeven, Max[12:9091 Harvey, Wint~ifi-ed[~~:~~~] Greeves, Lisbeth[17:8081 Hasan, Mar'i Tanthwi[10:5051 Gregory, Alma Cynthia[27:2731 Hasan, Sayyid[13:3461 Gregory, Hawthorne, Rose[19:9141 Gregory, L o u i ~ [ l l : ~ ~ ~ ] Hayden, R ~ b e r t [ l ~ : ~ l ~ ] Gregory, Louisa M a t h e ~ [ l ~ ~ ~Heller, ~ ] France~[l~~~~] Grossmann, Anna[18:639] Henderson, Prof. George W.[9:5381 Grossmann, Elsa Maria[16:4401 Henseler, J ~ l i ~ s [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Grossmann, Hermann[14'4161 Herbert, L e ~ n a r d r ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Gualavisi Farinango, Rufino[19'9651 Hezari, Ardeshir (Ardeshir Gulbtinih, A b ~ ' l - Q h s i m [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Hiza)[17:777] Gulick, Robert, Jr.[19:8821 Hill, Gulov, Ra~hid[~l:~O~] Hill, Eileen Dewar[25:3131 Giiney, M u ~ a f f e r [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Hillanes, Gung, Claire[18:6531 Himmati, B u z ~ r g m i h r [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]
OBITUARIES: B&'~EXR
BOOKVOLUMES 545
Hiong, Lee Cheung (Mrs. George Lee)[29:3061 Hipp, S u ~ e t t e [ l ~ : ~ ~ l ] Hoagg, Henrietta Emogene Martin[9:520] Hoahania, H a m ~ e l [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] H ~ e gJ, o h a n t ~ e [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Hofman, David[33:2341 Hofman, M a r i ~ n [ ~ ~ : ~ l ~ ] Hogberg, Alethe H o l ~ a p p l e [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Hogberg, Carl S i g ~ r d [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Hokafonu, M o s e ~ e [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Jachakolla, A n d r e ~ [ ~ ~ l ~ ] Jack, M a r i ~ n I l l ' ~ ~ ~ ] Holley, Doris117:8221 Jadhhbini, M~ammad[9:5371 Holley, Horace H o t ~ h k i s s [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Janeo, Greta[14:5431 Hollibaugh, E l e a n ~ r [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Janssen, Holmes, Ethel May Jan*, Saliih[19:9311 Holmlund, Marie Ciocca[144371 Jensen, K n ~ d [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Holmsen, Sverre[20'2741 Jin~b-i-F&-$1[13:3341 Hopper, Elizabeth G.['3:3111 Hopper Welsh, Eleanore Lorraine Jones, Rose[29:3051 (Rene)['9:9161 Jorgensen, Else[16'4281 Hornby, Helen[20'2741 Joshi, Asanand Chagla[17'7961 Hornell (Kathleen, Lady H~rnell)[l~~~~] Huffman, E ~ e l y n [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Kabu, Tommy[14'4591 Huffman, Vern[16:4661 Kahaloa, Hutchinson-Smith, Jean[17:6811 Mirzi Aqi Huxtable, Catherine H e ~ a r d [ l ~ : ~Kamhli-SarvisW, l~] Khjm[l7:817] Kanyerezi, Max[19:10131 Karimi, Yad~'lliih[l~:~~~] Kaszab, M a t t h e ~ [ ~ : ~ l ~ ] inin, Majd~'d-Din[l~:~~~] Katirai, Abba~[~l:~O~] 'Iniyati, Mishi'11&[27:2731 I o a ~F&[lZ:9191 , Kavelin, Howard B ~ r r a h [ l ~ ~ ~ l ] Kayvhn, Ghul~bn-Husayn[~~:~~~1 Ioas, L e r ~ y [ l ~ : ~ ~ l ] Ioas, Maria B.[11:6881 Kazemi (Kkimi), Sharon RiCkey[17:8201 Ioas, S y l ~ i a [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Iqbil, ' A b d ~ ' l - H u s a y d ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Kazemzadeh, Kazem[19:9451 Amri, 'Abb&s[18:6761 'Ilmi, Siyyid M a l ~ @ u ' l - H a q [ l ~ ~K&imph ~~] Irizarry, Maria T.116:4371 Kbim-Pir, M i n i Irwin, Arthur B o n s h a ~ [ ~ ~ : ~ l ~ ] Muhammad[6:5471
546 APPENDIX 13
Kunz, Anna[15:"11 Kelsey, Curtis Kelsey, Harriet Kurlawala, Gh~lSlm-'Ali[~~~~~l Kelsey, O l i ~ i a [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Kempton, Honor[17:7491 Kennedy, C h a r l e ~ [ l l : ~ ~ ~ ] Kenny, Sara M.[14:4411 Labib, M~ammad[1T7511 Kevorkian, Haik[14'4831 Lacey, James V a s ~ a l [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Khabj'qyh, ' ~ f ~ ' ~ ' l l & [ l ~ 8 3 2 1 Laite, Khadem, Z i k r ~ l l a h [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Lake, GretaW6871 Khan, Fazal M ~ h a m a d [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ]Lamb, Artemus D ~ i g h t [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ l Lamprill, Gretta Khin, Florence Breed[11:7031 Khin, MirzSl A l i - K ~ l i [ l ~ : ~ ~ l ] Latimer, George Orr[10:5111 Lawrence, Loyce D ~ - u g a n [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Khin-i-Vujdani, YusuP4131 KhSlvari, Is~~q[14:5181 Laws, Elizabeth S.[16:4591 Laws, F r e d e r i ~ k [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Khazeh, Jala1[19:7881 Khazrai, F e r e y d ~ u n [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]Leach, Lentz, Marga~-et[l~:~~~] Khianra, Dipchand L.[19:B291 Leong, Yan Kee[19:8341 Khin, Daw Tho~ng[~~:~"1 Khonou, C o r n e l i ~ s [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Lesch, Fannie[10:4691 Lesch, Khulase, Christopher V.[15:5461 Khusravi, F a r k h ~ n d i h [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Lewis, Beulah S t o r r ~ [ l @ ~ ~ ~ ] Lindstrom, Kidder, Alice G,[17:6781 Kilford, Susan G ~ l d e n [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ]Linfoot, Charlotte M.[16:4231 Lismore, Viva Elisa[24:3141 King, M a l c ~ l m [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Lith, Jacob Eduard (Bob) King, Melba M. Call[17:6881 van[17:818] %mey, CarrieL12:8641 Little, Kinney, Edward B.[11:6771 Kinney, Howard M.[7:6701 Ljungberg, Eskil J.[18:6581 Kiyani, K h o j a ~ t e h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Locke, Alain LeRoy[12:8941 Locke, Patri~ia[~~:~O~] Klebs, Ma~-garet[~:~~O] Loft, Alfied J a r n e ~ [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Klitzing, L i ~ b e t h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Loft, Melba W l ~ e t u n g [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Knobloch, Alma[8'6411 Lohse, Dori~[l~:~~O] Knobloch, Fanny A.[10:4731 Knowlton, Lbpez, Juana OrtUiio[25:3151 Koestlin, LshSlqi, 'Lzzat Jinami[18:5961 Lukmani, M. E. (Mdpmmad Koirala, Mashid iqini[19:8441 Korean, Suliana Halahol0[l~~~~1 Ibriihimji L ~ q m i n i ) [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Krishnan, G. S. Santhanam[15:5641 Lunt, Alfred E.[6:5311 Lutchrnaya, Roddy Krug, Dhmah[l9:94O1 Kruka, Arninda Lynch, Anne S l a s t i ~ n a [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Kulecho, Isaya[27'2731
M Mayberry, Florence V i r g i r ~ i a [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] MacArthur, E d y t l ~ e [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ l ] Mazakmat, A p e l i ~ [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Macdonald, Charles[1g:10151 McAllister, Amy Isabel[12'9211 McCormick, M a r g e ~ - y [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Madella, Louisito Walter L., Jr.W3141 McCulloch, Mary[25:3141 Malpn6di, Zhink Ni'mat[17'7811 McDaniel, Allen B.[13:3641 McDonald, Olive[27:2741 Malpn6dnizhiid, Munh[18'6001 Maka, McKay, Doris[2@2741 Makwelung, Rose[18:6721 McKay, L o ~ e l l a [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Malakooti, E h s a n ~ l l a h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~McKinley, ] Vi~let['~'~~~] Malkin, S e y m ~ u r [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] McLaren, Edith[lg'lolll Malmiri, Hhji M&arnrnad McLaughlin, Robert W.[19:9501 ~&i~[11:692] Meerburg, Hector Alexander (LeX)[26:3081 Mamani, Felician0['~'~~~1 Mamaqini, Ralpnan Kulayni[11'7101Mejia, Blanca V i c t ~ r i a [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Mani Mehta[l@5121 Menking, JoAnne L.[19:9071 Merhatsion, Abaineh[29:3061 Manton, E r i ~ [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Mesbah, ' A b d ~ ' l l i h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Many Bears, Mesbih, 'Aziz'~'llih[~:~~~1 Many Bears, Jean[13:3571 Mesbah, Amine (Amin'u'llih Mapp-Robinson, Zylpha[31:3071 MiSb&)[17:8131 Marangella, Philip A.[15:5261 Marlow, R i ~ h a r d [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Mesbah, Jeanne (Marie-Jeanne Marshall, Lucy Jane[13'3581 Irady M i ~ b i t h ) [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Marswella, Elena[31:3081 Meyer, E ~ g e n i e [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Martail, Meymoun, Ismail H i ~ a r i [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Masehla, William M r n ~ t l e [ ' ~ : ~ ~Miessler, ~] Edm~nd['~:~~~] Masipei, Evotia[27:2741 Miessler, Muriel A ~ b l e [ ~ ~ ' ~ ] Master, M a h ~ a s h [ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] Migette, L u ~ i e n n e [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Mather, George Mihrabhi, Bahman[13'3661 Mathews, Loulie Albee[13:3601 Miller, William M.[7:6761 Mills, Mary Olga Katherir~e['~:~~~] Matthisen, Andrew F.[14:5291 Mills, Mountfort ( M o n t f ~ r d ) [ ~ @ ~ ~ ~ ] Matthisen, Nina B.[14:5291 Mattoon, Edwin Whitaker[12:9261 Mimi, Siyyid Mus@fi[g:5171 Maulvi M&ammad 'Abdu'llhh Mingorance Fernandez, Jos6[19:837] Vaki1[10:515] Mavaddat, Nasrollah (Nasru'llih Mir 'Ali Asghar Faridi usfi[8:637] MaViddat)['7:7911 Maxwell, Marion Lord[16:4291 Miranda, Roque C e n t u r i ~ n [ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] Maxwell, May E l l i ~ [ ~ : ~ ~ l ] Mirzh 'Abdu'l-Rahim K h h Hfizu's-Sihhih[8:6131 Maxwell, William Mi&ar,*gab&b:i791 S~therland[ll:~~~]
548 APPENDIX 13
Missaghiyeh, Abdul-Missagh Muqbil, K a y k h u s r a ~ [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] ('Abdu'l-Mithaq Muqimi-Abyhih, Zarrin[18'6001 Mithaqi~ih)['~~~~] Murchie, G ~ y [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Mitchell, Dr. John Murray, Murray Fred[13:3681 Mitchell, William[18:6841 Mkhize, Musa, M ~ h a m m e d [ ~ @ ~ ~ ~ ] Mobedzadeh, Shah Behrarn (Shih Mussa, Mfiammad EffendPa41 Bahrhm M~bidzBdih)[l~~~~]Mu~Mfi,M~&arnrnad[l~~~~] Moffett, Ruth J.[16:4631 Mofokeng, Andrew S. R.[27:2751 Mogharrabi, ' A b d ~ ' l l a h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Mohapi, C h a d ~ i c k [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ] Nabil-i-Akbar Tawfiq, N&dirih[18:674] Mohapi, Mary[16:4491 Molitor, Marthe[M3151 Nabili, 'Ali-M~ammad[*5411 Monajem, Jam~hid[~*~O~] Nadiri, A~adu'llhh[*~~~1 Moncho, Nahvi, Saeed[1*8711 ~ ~ ] M~b~bih[1S:5411 Moncho, Stella M o t ~ h e d i [ ~ ~ : ~Na'imi, Mondschein, JeMey[26:3091 Naimi, Philip Effendi[8:a31 Montenegro, Nakhjavani, Ja1i1[17'7971 Moody, Susan I.[5:4831 Namdar, F e i ~ o l l a h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Moore, Marie B.[7:66q Nang, Elizabeth Idang[17'8191 Morais, Kenneth Allad17:7621 Navidi, A z i z ~ l l a h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Mortensen, Newman, Beatri~e[l*~~~] Morton, F l o r e n ~ e [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Newton, Horace M o z a ~ - t [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Morton, James F.[8:6291 Nichols, Valeria Lamb[18:6901 Mosadegh, Afshin Nicklin, Eve B.[18:6701 Sho~koufeh[~~;~~~1 Niederreiter, Leo[29:3091 Mottahedeh, Mildred[29:3071 Nielsen, Moul, GeorgineA.[18:7061 ~ik-A'in, Mu'ayyad, Habib[14:5011 Ninhmd, M a h ~ h i d [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ] Mubarak and Winnanik[19:8271 Njiki, Samuel (Njiki Samuel Njenji)[18:6151 Muhajir, Ralp~iatu'llih['~~~~1 Muhijir-Zihid, H a ~ a n [ * ~ ~ ~ ] Nodada, Cecilia Mkize[17'7201 Mfiammad-Taqi I ~ f ~ h i n i [ ' @ ~ ~Nodata, ~1 Julia[26:3091 Miihlschlegel,Adelbert[17:6121 Nolen, Lois[27:2761 Miihlschlegel, Nolen, R i ~ h a r d [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Mujahid, Siyyid A~nir-Shiih[l~:~~~] Noorani, Shirin (Shirin Nk6&)[18:636] Munjazeb, Aqh Mfiammad$adiq[24:3151 Nordstrom, Addie[14:4441 Munje, Harila1[19:9331 Nounou, Salim[19:9751 Munsiff, Meherangi~[~*~O~] Nourse, Catharine E.[18:6801
Percival, Papi'itele Perdu, Joyce H o n e y ~ n a n [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Pereira, Sarah MartinrM3l61 Perks, Thelma[19:9031 Pinchon, Florence E.[13:3701 Pinizbakht, Col. Dr. I.[6:5451 Pollinger, Franz[17:7011 Ober, Elizabeth Kidder[17:6781 Posy, A m p e l i u ~ [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Ober, Grace R o b a r t ~ [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Pringle, R ~ t h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ 1 Ober, Harlan F ~ s t e f i ' ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] Printezis, N i k ~ l a s r l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Odemyr, Hans[30:2701 Oglesby, Mabry C.[9:5421 Q Olinga, E n o ~ h [ l ~ ~ l ~ ] Olitzki, Walter[10'4701 Qamar, Oliver, Cora H.[27:2761 Qazvini, ' A l i - A ~ g h a r [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Olsen, H e n d r i l ~ [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Quant, Ella C.[14:5061 Olson, C ~ n t h i a [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Quigley, Robert J o ~ e p h [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Olson, E d g a ~ ? ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Orbison, Vi~-ginia[l~:~~l] R Ortiz Gutierrez, A p a r i ~ i a [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Osborne, Alfred[20:2751 Rafi'i, S h h y i ~ t i h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Osborne, Frank E.[8:6281 RafsanjSmi, 'Ali Akbar Rafi'i[13:3181 Otiniera, Barere[14'5161 Rabatu'llah, 'Alil'i[7:6551 Outhey, J e a n ~ ~ e t t e [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Raman, Appu[17:7871 Randrianarivo, Danie1[18'6691 Ransom-Kehler, Ratu, Alick[33:237] Palu, J o h a n n e ~ [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Raver, Harry[s:6301 Papai, L ~ d w i g I l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] RawhM, 'Abd~'l-Vahhtib1~~~~~1 Pappiloud, Bertha[12:9441 Rawhimi, B&am[l 117051 Parke, Gladys Rawhimi, Muhammad HuSap[13:3731 Parker, Herbert[18:6811 Parsa Mazzoni, N ~ r a n i e h [ l ~ ~ ~ RawhM, ~] Mura~sa'[l~~~~] Parsons, Agnes14:4101 Rawhhi, Q u d r a t u ~ ' l l i , h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~ Parsons, Ronald James[27:2761 Raynor, Allan[17:6961 Raavi, Riaz[22:1471 Patterson, Robert Henry[15:5491 Pav6n, Clementina Mejia de Revell, Ethel Pavbn, II[l7:6721 Revell, Pavhn, RaS18:6161 Revell, Mary J.[8:6021 Pawlowska, 01a[33:2361 Rexford, O r ~ e l l a [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Payman, K h o ~ l a r a h t n 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Rezh'i, Shahrb127:2771
550
APPENDIX 13
Rezvani, Ehsanollah (@sh'uYllih Shbiri, Simh[18:6001 RidvAni)[18:6821 Sabri, 'Abd~'l-FattAh[~~~~~1 Rezvani, Monireh[l9:loo11 Sabri, Hassan Abdel-Fattah[30:2731 Rhein, Ottilie[17:7'M1 Sabri, Isobe1[20:2751 Rice, Emma Mandell[18:6771 Sidiqi, P a r ~ i z [ ' ~ ~ l ~ ] Rice-Wray, Edris R a w ~ h a n [ ' ~ : ~ ~Saeed, ~] S h a p o ~ r [ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ] Rice-Wray, Safi-ang, G u l b h ~ l [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Richardson, Doris[16:4101 Sala, E m e r i ~ [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Ridvhi, Siyyid 'Ali[13:3741 Sala, R o ~ e m a r y [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Rizai, Fuad[32:2731 Salazar,Anguel Maria[16:4201 Robarts, A ~ d r e y [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Shlih, Dr. M.[8:6061 Robarts, John[19:8011 Sdim, Mustafi Effen~li[l~:~~l] Robert, Saliyanto, SamanM, 'AzizU'llfi[12:9371 Roberts, &man&, Cyrus[lZ:9251 Robiati, Roboman, Andrew[20:2751 Samandari, M o ~ a f f a r [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ~] Rodrigues, Jost C. X a ~ i e r [ l ~ : ~ ~samandari, ~ar~iiih[~4:4~1 Romer, Annie[13:3751 Samandari, Ursula[33'2371 Samimi, &nad[16:4111 Romer, Harry H.[5:4881 Root, Martha L.[7:6431 Shchez, Mercede~[~~~lO] Rosenberg, Ethe1[3:2621 Shchez Martinez, J ~ a n [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Ross, Peggy[29:3091 Sandando, Y o ~ a n e [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Rostampour, Ardeshir (Ardashir Sanderson, Edith[12:8891 RUStamPh)[17:7921 Scheffler, Rowhani, Shapoor Aspandiar Scherer, Carl A.[17:7391 (Shipin Isfandiyir Scherer, Loretta L.[17:7391 Rawhhi7)[18:6891 Schmidt, Eugen[17:8001 Rowling, Margaret[17'7581 Schopflocher, Florence (Loro1)[14:4881 Ruggoo, Arthur Joseph GUStaVe[17:7611 Schopflocher, Siegfried[11:6641 R@i, H u ~ a y n [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Schubarth, J ~ h a n n a [ l l : ~ ~ ~ ] Rushdi, ' A b d u ' r - R a l p ~ h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~Schwarz, ] Consul A l b e ~ - t [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Rushdy, Abbas[29:3091 Schwarz-Solivo, Rutfjall, Schweizer,A n r ~ e m a r i e [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Schweizer, F r i e d r i ~ h [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Scott, E d ~ i n [ ~ ~ l ~ ] Scott, J o ~ t p h i n e [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Saad, 'Abdu'l-Jalil Bey[8:5971 Sears, William[19:7951 Saavedra Gallardo, Melit6n[19:9211 Seepe, Lot M a ~ [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Sabet, Habib[19:9611 Seepe, May Martha[22:3u1 Sabet, R o ~ t a m [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Senne, Dorothy K e d i b ~ n e [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ]
OBITUARIES: B
A 'iIZAR ~ BOOK VOLUMES
55 1
Seto, Anthony Yuen[12:8861 Steffes, Marian[16'4581 Seto, Mamie Steinmetz, Shhhquli, Col. Stettler, Karl D ~ n a l d [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Shaikhzadeh, Stevenson, Margaret[8:6001 Sharghi, Heshmat'u'llah Stone, Roan Sabet[32:2731 Storch, Juanita Marie[19'8631 Shanna, Ram Dayal[13:3661 Stout, Janet W h i t e n a ~ k [ l ~ ~ ~ l ] Sharp, Adelaide[16:4181 Strand, Gerd[32:2751 Shaver, F r i t ~ i r ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Struven, Ed~ard[l~:~~O] Shhyhi, 'hizu'll&[l9'9101 Suhm, Marie Louise[32'2751 Shaydh-Shidi, A b u ' l - Q h ~ i m [ ~ ~Suhm, : ~ ~ ~ ]Richard T.[26:3101 Shepherd, H a ~ - o l d [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Suhrhb, Col. A.[13:3811 Sherrif, Velma L.[26:3101 Sulaymh, M~ammad[7'6801 Shishvh, Facjl'ullahh ~sthni[32:~7~1 Sulaymhiy-i-Ardakhi, 'him'll&[18:642] Shrivastava, K a i l a ~ h [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Silver, Suleimani, Ridvaniyyih Simple, PeteP4981 (Ridvhivyih S ~ l a m h i ) [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Sims, Barbara R ~ t l e d g e L ~ ~ ~ ~ Suleimani, ~] S~leiman[l~~~~] Sims, Ellen Sumah, Mohamed Lamin[19'8751 Singh, H a r v a n ~ h [ ~ ~ ~ l l ] Sundram, Chellie J.[20:2761 Sin&, Pritam[12:8741 Sunshine, Rersi[14:4731 Sivapiragasam, Kandiah[19'8911 Szanto-Felbermann, RenCe[18'6331 Siyhvushi, J a m ~ h i d [ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] Siyiivushi, Thhirih Arjwan&[l8:598] Slater, Ida B o ~ l t e r [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Ta'yidi, JahangirC12:9331 Smith, Elton Taffa, Tere~a[l~:~"~] Sneider, Mabel Adelle[17'7061 Taherzadeh, Adib[2g:3111 Snider, Howard J.r14:4811 Taherzadeh, Habib[25:3151 Soltani, F a t ~ l l a h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Talon, Ama Dahan[25:3161 Sombeek, Ludmila Van[17:6891 Tamasese, Saialala[13:3821 Tanyi, David[30:2741 Sombeek, Rita van BleySWijk[17:7631 Tanyi Tambe, Sommerau Ala[13:3791 Tartab6, Elena H e r n a n d e ~ [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Soraya, N ~ r r e c l i n 151 [~~:~ Tasi, Leala[25:3161 Spendlove, F. St. Taym~-Muqadam, Sprague, Philip G ~ d d a r d [ l l : ~ ~ ~ ] R@'u'llhh[16:4331 Sprague, Te Paa, Ephraim[19'9711 Stamp, E l i ~ a b e t h [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Teo Geok Leng[18:7011 Steams, John P.[9:5391 Terrel, R o ~ a n n e [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l Akhtar[18:6001 ] Stebbins Dodge, I ~ a b e l l e [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~Thhbit,
552
APPENDIX 13
Thiele, Paul Thomas, Wilma[16:4361 Thompson, JUliet[12:8621 Thornburgh-Cropper, Mrs.[7:6491 Tijssen-Hartrnann, Emma Margaret[16:4741 Tobey, Mark[16:4011 Tobias, Lottie[33:2381 Tobin, E ~ t h e f i ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] Toeg, Tormo, Salvad0r['~~~~1 Towers, M a r ~ [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Townshend, G e ~ r g e [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Trigg, Martha 'Nakiya' NOya~[16:4471 Trojhkovb-Bendovii, Jdiha[19:857] True, Corinne True, Edna M.[19:9251 True, George Russell[18:6351 True, Katherine Knight[13:3831 Tsao, Dr. Y. S.[6:5481 Turvey, Reginald[13:3851
Vakil, Narayenrao R a n g ~ ~ a t h [ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Van Sombeek, G e ~ r g e t t e [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Vargas, Pedro[17:7441 Varqii, V a l i y ~ ' l l i h [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Va@nkhih, B. K.[13:3871 Vento, Elsa M a t i l ~ l a [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Venturini, Verena[15:5611 Vermeesch, Ariane D r ~ l l e t [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Vieira, Eduardo D ~ a r t e [ l ~ ' ~ ~ ~ ] Viera, Eduardo D ~ r a n t e [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Villiers-Stuart, Jane[19:9811 Voelz, Genevieve E.[18:6371 Vuj&d, Bahar['7:6991 VUj&d, Farbarz['4:5'41
Waite, Louise R. ( S h h a z Kh&um)17:6611 Wakil, 'Abbiis ('Abbiis Vakil)[18'"61 Walker, Zlmarian S t ~ a k l e ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Walsh, Laura[14'5011 Walters, Richard Harding[29:3121 Walton, Jim[33:2391 Ward, F ~ r s y t h [ ' ~ ~ ~ ' ] Warde, Shirley A.[19:10231 Wayenece, Emma[16:4141 Weeden, Benjamin Dunharn[14'4781 Weedon, Gladys A n d e r ~ o n [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Weinberg, Seymour[32:2761 Wells, A r n ~ l d [ l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Wells, F r a n c e ~ [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Weson, Whitaker, Oswald A.[8:6061 White, Rogefi20'2761 White, Tumanuvao William[19:8511 Wiles, Georgie B r o w ~ P ~ ~ ] Wilhelm, Laurie C.[6:5391 Wilhelm, Roy C.[11:6621 Wilks, Helen Haze1[17:7081 Willems, Wilhelmina[26:3111
Y a d M , mad[16:4381 Williams, Irene Wilson, Yazdi,'Abdul H u s ~ e i n [ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Winckler, Bahiyyih R a n ~ l a l P ~ ~Yazdi, ~ ~ ] Aziz[33:2391 Windust, Albert R.[12:8731 Yazdi, Htiji Muha~nmad[~:~~] Winnanik and M ~ b a r a k [ l ~ ~ ~ ~Yen, ] Hilda Yank Wolcott, C h a r l e ~ [ ' ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] Yighnigi, Nicmat[13:361 Woodard, Young, Mollie Ankeny[12'9291 Worley, Margeurite ( M a r g ~ t ) [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Worth Lamb, Dora @ee)[19:9181 Wright, 1 0 n i t a [ ' ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Wrout, Zabib (Dhabih), ' I z ~ a t u ' l l ~ [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Zamenhof, Lydia[9:5331 Zarqani, Abdu'l R a l ~ m a n [ ~ ~ l ~ ] Zaynu'l-'Abidin, Yaginagi, I ~ f a n d i y i P ~ ~ ~ ] Zinky, Kay[30:2751 Yaganegi, F i r o o ~ e h [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ]Zonneveld, Yaldti'i, Nusrat G h ~ f r i n i [ l ~ : ~ ~ Zucker, ~] Arthur Allen[19:10091 Yamamoto, K a n i ~ h i [ l ~ ~ ~ l ]
Appendix 14
Badi' Calendar[33'7641
Event First month Second month Third month Fourth month Fifth month Sixth month Seventh month Eighth month Ninth month Tenth month Eleventh month Twelfth month Thirteenth month Fourteenth month Fifteenth month Sixteenth month Seventeenth month Eighteenth month Intercalary Days Nineteenth month Fast First weekday Second weekday Third weekday Fourth weekday Fifth weekday Sixth weekday Seventh weekday Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day
Arabic Bahi Jalil Jamil 'Azamat Nlh Ralpnat KalimAt Kamil Asmi' 'Izzat Ma&iyyat 'Ilm Qudrat Qawl Masi'il Saraf sul@n Mulk Ayyh-i-Hi 'Ali' Jalil Jamil KamSll Fi@l 'IdAl Istijlal Istiqlil Naw-Rh
English Splendor Glory Beauty Grandeur Light Mercy Words Perfection Names Might Will Knowledge Power Speech Questions Honor Sovereignty Dominion Intercalary Days Loftiness Nineteen Day Fast Glory Beauty Perfection Grace Justice Majesty Independence New Year First Day of Ridvh Ninth Day of Ridvh Twelfth Day of Ridvh Declaration of the Bib Ascension of Bahi'u711Ah Martyrdom of the Bib
First Day March 21 April 9 April 28 May 17 June 5 June 24 July 13 August 1 August 20 September 8 September 27 October 16 November 4 November 23 December 12 December 3 1 January 19 February 7 Feb 26March 1 March 2 March 2-20 Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday March 21 April 21 April 29 May 2 May 23 May 29 July 9
Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day Holy Day Holy Days
* * Ridvh
Birth of the BAb Birth of Bah$u'll& Day of the Covenant Ascension of 'Abdu'l-BaM Feast of Ridv6.n (Paradise)
* Commemorated annually but work not suspended.
October 20 November 12 November 26 November 28 April 21-May 2
Appendix 15
Statistics
OFFICIAL BAI%&'iSTATISTICSPJ:2411 Worldwide Bahh'i population Countries where Bahh'i Faith is established Dependent territories where Bahh'i Faith is established Continental counsellors Auxiliary Board members National SpiritualAssembliesRegional SpiritualAssemblies Local Spiritual Assemblies Afica Americas Asia Australasia Europe Localities where Bahh'is reside Tribes, races, and ethnic groups represented in Bahh'i Faith Languages into which Bahh'i literature has been translated Bahh'i publishing trusts
5 million 191 45 81 990 183 9,631 3,067 2,741 2,186 777 860 100,000 2,112 802 33
GROWTH OF THE BAI%&'iFAITH: COUNTRIES AND DEPENDENT TERRITORIES WHERE THE B A & ~ FAITH IS ESTABLISHED Bhb (1844-1 853): 2 Bahh'u'lliih (1853-1 892): 12 'Abdu'l-Baha (1892-1921): 35 Source: Bahh'i World, volumes 19261928 (p. 181), 1954-1963 (p. 947), and 20032004 (p. 241)
STATISTICS
GROWTH OF THE ~ ~ a FAITH: ' i GUARDIANSHIP OF THE SHOGHI EFFENDI AND THE MINISTRY OF THE CUSTODIANS Countries and Dependent Territories Where the Bahai'i Faith Is Established 1928 total: 35 1963 total: 259
NationaVRegional Spiritual Assemblies
Africa: 1 Americas: 1 Asia: 5 Europe: 2 Total: 9
Africa: 5 Americas: 24 Asia: 9 Australasia: 3 Europe: 15 Total: 56
Local Spiritual Assemblies (Excluding Iran)
Africa: 2 Americas: 50 Asia: 20 Australasia: 7 Europe: 13 Total: 92
Localities Where Bahai'is Reside
Africa: 1,831 Americas: 2,229 Asia: 2,932 Australasia: 222 Europe: 454 Total: 7,668
Africa: 1,112 Americas: 1,799 Asia: 1,515 Australasia: 72 Europe: 180 Total: 4,678
557
558
APPENDIX 15
Publishing Trusts 1928 total: 1 1963 total: 1 Source: Bahci'i World, volumes 19261928 (p. 181) and 19541963 (p. 947)
GROWTH OF THE ~ a 'FAITH: i UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE (2004) Countries Where the Bahai'i Faith Is Established Africa: 53 Americas: 35 Asia: 45 Australasia: 14 Europe: 44 Total: 191 Dependent Territories Where the BahP'i Faith Is Established Africa: 6 Americas: 17 Asia: 3 Australasia: 13 Europe: 8 Total: 47 Continental Counselors Africa: 19 Americas: 19 Asia: 19 Australasia: 11 Europe: 13 Total: 81 Auxiliary Board Members Africa: 234 Americas: 234 Asia: 288 Australasia: 108 Europe: 126 Total: 990
STATISTICS 559
NationallRegional Spiritual Assemblies (Excluding Iran) Africa: 46 Americas: 43 Asia: 40 Australasia: 17 Europe: 37 Total: 183 Regional Bahh'i Councils Africa: 32 Americas: 40 Asia: 48 Australasia: 0 Europe: 2 1 Total: 141 Local Spiritual Assemblies (Excluding Iran) Africa: 3,067 Americas: 2,741 Asia: 2,186 Australasia: 777 Europe: 860 Total: 9,63 1 Localities Where Bahh'is Reside Africa: 26,746 Americas: 22,702 Asia: 41,057 Australasia: 4,343 Europe: 7,121 Total: 101,969 Indigenous Tribes, Races, and Ethnic Groups Represented Africa: 1,250 Americas: 340 Asia: 250 Australasia: 250 Europe: 22 Total: 2,112
STATISTICS 561
NUMBER OF NATIONAL SPIRITUALASSEMBLIES AND REGIONAL BAHA'~COUNCILS Period and Date 1921-1 957, Ministry of Shoghi Effendi 1957-1 963, Ministry of the Custodians April 1996 April 2004
NSAs 12 56 174 183
RBCs 0 0 0 141
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL SPIRITUALASSEMBLIES BY CONTINENT Continent
'96'97
'97-'98
' 9 S 3 9 9 '99-2000
Africa Americas Asia Australasia
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
15,798
13,232
12,541
Europe All Locations
3,716 3,330 3,722 877 946 12,591
200&'01
'01-'02
'02-'03
'OS'O4
3,808 3,152 2,984 856 976 11,776
3,808 3,149 2,957 856 976 11,746
3,412 2.920 2,322 800 890 10,344
3,067 2,741 2,186 777 860 9,631
Appendix 16
Martin Sheil Letter
Partial Text of a Letter to Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Office, London, 22 July 1850 Camp near Tehran, July 22nd 1850 The Right Honorable The Viscount Palmerston G.C.B. My Lord, There has been an intermission in the contest at Gengan between the Shah's troops and the Biibees of that city-The Chief of the sect in Gengan, a mollah of high station, wrote to me a short time ago, declaring that he had been falsely accused of Biibeeism and begging me to intercede and save himself and his companions from military violence. He enclosed a letter of the same purport to the Ameer i Nizam-The Persian Minister replied to their person that he was willing to accept his declaration but that in proof of his sincerity he must present himself at the Shah's Court. No notice having been taken of this condition a further body of troops has been summoned to prosecute the siege. The founder of this sect has been executed at Tabreez. He was killed by a volley of musketry, and his death was on the point of giving his religion a lustre which would have largely increased its proselytes. When the smoke and dust had cleared away after the volley, Bgb was not to be seen, and the populace proclaimed that he had ascended to the skies. The balls had broken the ropes by which he was bound, but he was dragged from the recess where after some search he was discovered and shot. His death according to the belief of his disciples will make no difference, as Biib must always exist.
***
I have the honor to be with the greatest respect-My Lordship's Most obedient humble servant Martin Sheil
Lord, Your
Notes
1. Bahfi Year Book, The Bahci'i World (19261928) Vol. IZ An International Record. 1928, New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee. 303. 2. Baha'i Year Book, The Baha'i World (1928-1930) Vol. ZII An International Record. 1930, New York: Bahl'i Publishing Committee. 377. 3. Bahfi Year Book, The Bahci'i World (193&1932) Vol. IVAn International Record. 1933, New York: Bahb'i Publishing Committee. 547. 4. Baha'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1932-1934) Vol. V An International Record. 1936, New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee. 71l . 5. Bahfi Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1934-1936) Vol. VZ An International Record. 1937, New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee. 771. 6. Baha'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (19361938) Vol. VII An International Record. 1939, New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee. 891. 7. Baha'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1938-1940) Vol. V7IIAn International Record. 1942, Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Committee. 1039. 8. Bahfi Year Book, The Bahci'i World (194&1944) Vol. IXAn International Record. 1945, Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Committee. 1003. 9. Bahb'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1944-1946) Vol. X A n International Record. 1949, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Committee. 880. 10. Bahfi Year Book, The Bahci'i World (19461950) Vol. XI An International Record. 1952, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Committee. 893. 11. Baha'i Year Book, The Bahci 'i World (195&1954) Vol. X I An International Record. 1956, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 996. 12. Bahl'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1954-1963) Vol. X I I A n International Record. 1970, Haifa: The Universal House of Justice. 1228. 13. Bahh'i Year Book, The Bahci 'i World (1963-1968) Vol. XIVAn International Record. 1974, Haifa: The Universal House of Justice. 672. 14. Bahfi Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1968-1973) Vol XVAn International Record. 1976, Haifa: Bahfi World Centre. 824. 15. Bahii'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1973-1976) Vol. XV7An International Record. 1979, Haifa: Bahfi World Centre. 740. 16. Bahi'i Year Book, The Bahci'i World (1976-1979) Vol.In?lAn International Record. 1982, Haifa: Bahfi World Centre. 652. 17. Bahb'i Year Book, The Bahci 'i World (1979-1983) Vol.XV7IIAn International Record. 1986, Haifa: Bahfi World Centre. 1015. 563
564 NOTES
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NOTES
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566 NOTES
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118. Freeman, D., From Copper to Gold: The Life of Dorothy Baker. 1984, Oxford: George Ronald. 320. 119. Balyhzi, H. M., Edward Granville Browne and the Baha'i Faith. 1980, Oxford: George Ronald. 142. 120. B a l m i , H. M., Muhammad and the Course of Islam. 1976, Oxford: George Ronald. 121. Abdu'l-Bahh, Some Answered Questions. 1981 ed. 1982, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 324. 122. Bahi'u'llih, Tablets of Bahd'u 'llcih Revealed after the Kitcib-i-Aqdas. Lightweight ed. 1982, Haifa: Bahh'i World Centre. 298. 123. Whitehead, 0.Z., Some Early Baha'is of the West. 1976, Oxford: George Ronald. 227. 124. BahB'i World News Service,
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571
159.Abdu'l-Ba, Tablets ofAbdul Baha Abbas. Vol. 3.1919, Chicago:Bahl'i Publishing Society. 485-730. 160. Bahl'i International Community, Eliminating Religious Intolerance. 1987, New York: Bahir'i International Community. Forty-third session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights: Agenda item 23: Implementation of the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, Geneva, Switzerland, FebruaryMarch 1987. 161. British Isles, "John Ferraby-In Memoriam." Baha'i Journal, 1973 (October). 162. Shoghi Effendi, Directivesfrom the Guardian. 1973, New Delhi: Bahl'i Publishing Trust. 92. 163. Vader, J., For the Good of Mankind: August Fore1 and the Bahd 'iFaith. 1984, Oxford: George Ronald. 114. 164. Abdu'l-Baha, Tablet to Dr August Forel. 165. Gail, M., The Sheltering Branch. 1970, Wilmette, IL: Bahft'i Publishing Trust. 101. 166. Gail, M., Banurn, the Greatest Holy Leaj 1982, Oxford: George Ronald. 40. 167. Gail, M., Dawn Over Mount Hira and Other Essays. 1976, Oxford: George Ronald. 235. 168. Gail, M., Other People, Other Places. 1982, Oxford: George Ronald. 275. 169. Gail, M., Baha'i Glossary. 1976, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 56. 170. The Bahd 'i Studies Review 6. 1996. Association for Bahii'i Studies UK. 171. Shipton, A., Groovin 'High: The Life of Dizzy Gillespie. 2001, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 422. 172. Bab, Untramlated work. 173. Balyki, H. M., Bahci'u'lldh: A BriefLife: Followed by an Essay on the Manifstation of God Entitled The Word Made Flesh. 1984, London, Oxford: George Ronald. 134. 174. Obituary, "Alma Gregory," The Islands Newspaper. 1997-1 998. Breacais, Isle of Skye. 175. Universal House of Justice, Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order of Baha'u'llah. 1988 (December 29). Haifa: Universal House of Justice. 22. 176. Hainsworth, P., and L. Hainsworth MBE, Autobiography of Philip Hainsworth: From 1919 to 1967: Kth a "Postscript" by Lois Hainsworth, MBE, Covering the Ears 1967-2001. 2005, Basingstoke, UK: Greenhouse Graphics Limited. 284. 177. Haydar-'Ali, H. M., Storiesfrom the Delight ofHearts: The Memoirs of Hdji Mink Haydar-Mi. 1980, Los Angeles: Kalimlt Press. 168. 178. Hannen, J. H., Akka Lights. 1909: n.p. 15. 179. Ottawa Baha'i Community, Ottawa Bahft'i Community Website, attorney @newrnexico.com, ed. Text and graphic facsimiles of Abdu'l-Bahft's U.S. immigration arrival documents. Unofficial site.
572
NOTES
180. Hatcher, J. S., From the Auroral Darkness: The Life and Poetry of Robert Hayden. 1984, Oxford: George Ronald. 342. 181. Gail, M., Arches of the Years, Oxford: George Ronald. 339. 182. Shoghi Effendi, High Endeavors: Messages to Alaska. 1976, Anchorage: National SpiritualAssembly of the Baha'is of Alaska. 85. 183. Heggie, J., An Index of Quotations from the Baha'i Sacred Writings. 1983, Oxford: George Ronald. 81 1. 184. Heggie, J., Baha'i References to Judaism, Christianityand Islam. 1986, Oxford: George Ronald. 260. 185. The Bahh 'iStudies Review 9. 199912000. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 186. BabySelections of the Writings of the B6b. 1978, Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre. 223. 187. Hofman, D., Commentary on the Will and Testament of 2bdu'l-Bahb. 4th rev. ed. 1982, Oxford: George Ronald. 53. 188. Hofman, D., George Townshend,A Life. 1983, Oxford: George Ronald. 404. 189. Hofman, D., The Renewal of Civilization. 1969, Oxford: George Ronald. 190. Baha'i InternationalCommunity, A Bahh 'iDeclaration ofHuman Rights and Obligations: Presented to the UnitedNations Human Rights Commission. 1947, New York: Bahgi International Community. 19 1. Bahb'i International Community, The Prosperity of Humankind. 1995, New York: Baha'i International Community, Office of Public Information. 192. BIC, Baha'i International Community,
[email protected], ed. English, Danish, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Simplified Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Traditional Chinese, Turkish. Official site. The Baha'i International Community is a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that both encompasses and represents the worldwide membership of the Bahb'i Faith at the UN. 193. Universal House of Justice, Letter: Infallibility, Women on the House of Justice. 14 June 1996, Universal House of Justice. 194. Ives, H. C., Portals to Freedom. 1967, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 253. 195. Momen, M., ed. The BcibiandBahci'iReligions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary WesternAccounts. 198 1, Oxford: George Ronald. 572. 196. Rutstein, N., He Loved and Served: The Story of Curtis Kelsey. 1982, Oxford: George Ronald. 185. 197. Kelsey, O., Baha'i Answers-A Compilationfrom the Wordr of The Bab, Baha 'u 'llah, 2bdu 'I-Baha and Shoghi Effendi. 1947, Chicago: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States and Canada. 198. B a l w i , H. M., B a d o i h Bagum, the Wife of the Bhb. 1982, Oxford: George Ronald. 35. 199. Baha'u'lliih, Tablets of Bahci 'u 'llih Revealed after the Kitcib-i-Aqdas. 1988, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 200. Universal House of Justice, Applicability of the Laws and Ordinances of the Kitdb-i-Aqdas, National SpiritualAssemblies, ed. 2001. Letter.
NOTES
573
201. Leach, B., M j , Religious Faith. 1979, London: National SpiritualAssembly of the Baha'is of the United Kingdom. 5. 202. Dictionary, 0. E., The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 1. 197 1, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2048 of 41 16. 203. Compilation, USBN, US. Bahh'i News: Compilation of Letters and Extracts of Writingsfrom the Guardian Published in the Bahh'i News of the Unitedstates. Vol. No. 1 to No. 88. 1924-1934. National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahi'is of the United States and Canada. 204. Buck, C., ed. Alain Locke: Faith andPhilosophy. Studies in the Bhbiand Bahh 'iReligions, ed. A. A. Lee. Vol. 18.2005, Los Angeles: Kalimlt Press. 205. Compilation, Bahh'i Prayers. 1954, Wilmette, IL: Bahl'i Publishing Trust. 189. 206. Maxwell, M. B., An Early Pilgrimage. 1917, Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Society. 33. 207. Shoghi Effendi, Messages to Canada. 1999, Toronto, ON: National SpiritualAssembly of the Baha'is of Canada. 294. 208. Various, Solas. Vol. 3. Irish ed. 2003. Association for Baha'i Studies. 209. Abu'l-Fad1 Gulpiyghi, M., The Bahh 'iProofs (Hujaja '1-Bahi'ih); and A Short Sketch of the History of the Lives of the Leaders of This Religion. Facsimile ed. of the 1929 ed. 1983, Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust. 305. 210. Abu'l-Fad1 Gulpiiygani, M., Miracles and Metaphors. 1981, Los Angeles: Kalimiit Press. 2 l l . 21 1. Browne, E. G., Materialsfor the Study of the BhbiReligion. 1961, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 380. 212. Steingass. F. J., Digital Dictionaries of South Asia: A Comprehensive Persian English Dictionary. http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/steingass/. 213. Pinchon, F. E., The Coming of 'the Glory': (As Described in the Bahai Writings). 1928, London: Simpkin Marshall Ltd. 144. 214. Adamson, H . C., "The Concept of Revelation as Found in Islam and the Bahl'i Faith," in History andPhilosophy of Religion. 1975, Montr6al, QC: Concordia. 19 1. 215. Ruhe-Schoen, J., A Love Which Does Not Wait. 1998: Riviera Beach, FL: Palabra Publications. 341. 216. Universal House of Justice, Letter: Creation of Regional Bahh'i Councils. 30 May 1997, Universal House of Justice. 217. Ruhe, D. S., Door of Hope: A Century of the Bahh'i Faith in the Holy Land. Rev. ed. 1986, Oxford: George Ronald. 247. 218. Baram, A., ed. Martha Root, Herald of the Kingdom: A Compilation,ed. C. B. K. Zinky. 1983, New Delhi: BahB'i Publishing Trust. 438. 219. Weinberg, R., Ethel Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Bmes of Englandk Outstanding Bahh'i Pioneer Worker. 1995, Oxford: George Ronald. 327. 220. Association for Baha'i Studies. Vision of Shoghi Effendi, The Proceedings of the Association for Bahh 'i Studies Ninth Annual Conference November 2-4, 1984 Ottawa Canada. 1984, Ottawa Canada: Association for Baha'i Studies.
574
NOTES
221. Sala, E., The Earth Is One Country. 1945, Boston: Bruce Humphries Inc. 185. 222. Universal House of Justice, Issues Related to the Study Compilation. 1992. Universal House of Justice. Letter. 223. The Bahri 'iStudies Review 1. 1991. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 224. The Bahri'i Studies Review 2(1). 1992. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 225. The Bahri'i Studies Review 3(1). 1993. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 226. The Bahri'i Studies Review 3(2). 1994. Association for Bahb'i Studies UK. 227. The Bahri'i Studies Review 4(1). 1994. Association for Bahb'i Studies UK. 228. The Bahri'i Studies Review 5(1). 1995. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 229. The Bahri 'iStudies Review 7. 1997. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 230. The Baha 'iStudies Review 8. 1998. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 231. The Bahri'i Studies Review 10. 200112002. Association for Baha'i Studies UK. 232. The Bahri'i Studies Review 11. 2003, Association for Bahb'i Studies UK. 233. Sears, W., Thief in the Night, or the Strange Case of the Missing Millennium. 1985, Oxford: George Ronald. 304. 234. Sears, W., A C y f r o m the Heart: The Bahri% in Irrin. 1982, Oxford: George Ronald Publisher. 219. 235. Sears, M., Bill: A Biography of Hand of the Cause William Sears. 2003, Eloy, AZ: Desert Rose Publishing. 236. Universal House of Justice, Tempestuous Ears: Persecution of the Bahri'i Community in Iran Vol. 1 1978-1979. 1998, Haifa: Baha'i World Centre. 466. 237. Giachery, U., Shoghi Effendi, Recollections. 1974, Oxford: George Ronald. 238. 238. Shoghi Effendi, Messages of Shoghi Effendi to the Indian Subcontinent 1923-1957,ed. I. F. Muhajir. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 469. 239. Baha'i International Community, Valuing Spirituality in Development: Initial Considerations Regarding the Creation of Spiritually Based Indicators for Development, Oakham, Rutland, UK: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 35. 240. Compilation, A Compilation on the Importance of Deepening Our Understanding and Knowledge of the Faith. Cover title: Deepening; Compilation Series No. 15. 1983, London: Bahb'i Publishing Trust. 44. 241. Jones, C. Star of the West. 2001. Available from wwwbahai-education. orglstarl (accessed 5 November 2005). 242. Szanto-Felbermann, R., Rebirth: The Memoirs of Renee SzantoFelbermann. 1980, London: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 185. 243. Nelson-McDermott, C., "Tahirih." Baha'i Studies Notebook l(1). 1980.
NOTES
575
244. Afaqi, S., Tahirih in History, Studies in the Bribi and Bahri'i Religions, Vol. 16: Perspectives on Qurratu'l-2yn Fmm East and West, Los Angeles: Kalimirt Press. 292. 245. Tihirih (Qurratu'l-'Ayn), Trihirih: A Portrait in PoetrySelected Poems of Qurratu '1-2yn, Ed. and trans. A. Banani. Studies in Bribi and Bahri 'i History. Vol. 17, ed. A. A. Lee. 2004, Los Angeles: Kalimat Press. 145. 246. Dahl, A. L., Mark Tobey, Art and Belie$ 1984, Oxford: George Ronald. 119. 247. Hoffman, E G., TheArt andLife of Mark Tobey:A Contribution Towards an Understanding of a Psychology of Consciousness. 1977, Los Angeles: University of California Press. 528. 248. Boutros-Ghali, B., Statement by the Secretary General of the United Nations on the Occasion of the Forty-Seventh Conference of Non-Governmental Organizations. 1994, New York: United Nations. 249. Winckler, B. R., M y Pilgrimage to Haifa November 1919. 1996, Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 104. 250. Heller, W., Lidia: The Life of Lidia ZamenhoJ;Daughter of Esperanto. 1985, Oxford: George Ronald. 260. 25 1. Bahh'u'llih, Untranslatedwork. 252. Compilation, Bahh'i Prayers. New, expanded, and revised ed. 1982, Wilmette, IL: Bahir'i Publishing Trust. 276. 253. Compilation, Bahri'i Institutions: A Compilation. 1973, New Delhi: Bahir'i Publishing Trust. 140. 254. Abdu'l-Baha, Untranslatedwork.
Bibliography
CONTENTS 1. Scriptures-The Central Figures A. The Bftb (in English) B. The Bab (Original Language Titles) C. Bah6'u'llh (in English) D. Bahh'u'lla (Original Language Titles) E. 'Abdu'l-Bahb (in English) F. 'Abdu'l-Bahh (Original Language Titles) 2. Shoghi Effendi 3. Universal House of Justice 4. Bahiyyih Khiinum 5. Compilations 6. Hands of the Cause of God 7. Works Related to the Central Figures and Other Key Figures A. The Bhb B. Bahb'u'llih C. 'Abdu'l-Bahh D. Shoghi Effendi E. Bahlyyih Khiinurn F. Asiyih Khiinurn G. Munrihih Khanurn H. 'Arnatu'l-Baha R*iyylh 8. Bibliographies 9. Yearbooks, Journals, Magazines, Colloquia 10. Historical Reference Materials A. Bibi B. Baha'i C. Other 11. Autobiographies/Biographies 12. Baha'i International Community 13. Treatise on B W i Subjects-Theological/ApologeticWorks 14. Electronic Media 15. Official Bahh'i Webites 16. Associations of Bahh'i Studies
mhum
BIBLIOGRAPHY 577
1. SCRIPTURES-THE CENTRAL FIGURES Note: This section lists all known English-language works by the Central Figures. To assist readers who may be unfamiliar with Arabic or Persian titles (which are referred to frequently in texts) I have listed the original language titles of the major works of the Bib, BaM7u'll&, and 'Abdu'l-Bahb with source references as to where their English-language equivalent can be found.
A. The Bib (in English) The Bribk Address to the Letters of the Living. Trans. unknown. New York: Bahi'i Publishing Committee, 1930s. A Compilation of Passagesfrom the Writings of the Bab. New Delhi: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. Selections of the Writings of the B6b. Trans. Habib Taherzadeh. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1978.
B. The B6b (Original Language Titles) Note that for these and other sources in the bibliography containing sources in their original language, English language translations are cited where known. Baycin, The Arabic Bayh,[172]1847, Mfh-Kc. 847, M&-Kc. Bayan, The Persian Bayh, [17z]1 Dalh 'il-i-Sub 'ih, Seven proof^,['^^:^^^] M&-Kk Basa'il-i-Sub 'ih, Supplementary to the Seven Kithb-i-Asmci', The Book of Na1nes,['~~'~~1 Chihriq. Kitcib-i-Panj-&ah, The Book of Five Kitabu'r-Ruh, The Book of the Lawh-i-Hurzifat, Tablet of the revealed in honor of Dayyh (a prominent official of some literary standing), Chihriq. Qayyzimu'l-Asmri,' Commentary on the Siuih of Joseph (the first chapter of which was revealed to Mulld Husayn 23 May 1844),[43:179, 211:3061 1844,-Shirk. Risdiy-i-Xdli'ih, Treatise on Justice,[172] third year of Bib's Ministry. Risdiy-i-aahabiyyih, The Golden Treatise,[17z]third year of Bib's Ministry. Risriliy-i-Fiqhjyih, Treatise on Jurisprudence,[172] early Ministry, Bhsihr. Risriliy-i-Furzi'i-Xdliyyih,Treatise on Aspects of Juri~prudence,[~~~1 midMinistry. Sahifahr 'l-Haramayn, Epistle between the Two Shrines (Mecca and Medina) in Answer to Questions Put by Mirza M&it-i-Kirmfmi (a leader in the Shaykhi January 1845. Sahifi-i-Jaffariyyih Epistle to Ja'far,[17zlearly Ministry. $ahifi-i-Mam2imi'ih, Treatise on early Ministry. $ahifi-i-Rahaviyyih, Treatise on SEiriy-i-Tawhid, Verse of Divine early to mid-Ministry.
578 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tafsir-i-Nubuwat-i-zQmy~ih, Treatise on the Prophethood o f M ~ l p m m a d J ~ ~ ~ 1 1847. Tafsir-i-Szirih of Kawhar, Commentary on the SIWI o f K a ~ & a r , [during ~~~] three interviews with Him by Siyyid Y&yi DMbi (V&id), Shirk. Tafsir-i-Szirih of Va'l-Xsr, Commentary on the SIWI o f Va'l-'AgJ1721 at the request o f M i n i Siyyid Mulpmmad, the Sulmu'l-'Ulami Imh-Jum'ih, 1sfmu-I. Ziyarat-i-&ah-Xbdu '1-Xzim, Verse o f Visitation-Resting Place o f the Sister o f the Bab (Okht).[1721
C. Bahh'u'llhh (in English) Epistle to the Son of the WolJ:Trans. Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1979. Gleaningsj k m the Writings of Bah6 'u 'llbh. Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1988. The Hidden Words of Bahci'u'llah. Rev. ed. Wilmette, IL: Bahfi Publishing Trust, 1985. Kitab-i-Aqdm-The Most Holy Book. Trans. A Committee o f the Universal House o f Justice. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1992. ~itcib-i-iqan,the Book of Certitude. Trans. Shoghi Effendi. 2nd ed. Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1981. Meditations of the Blessed Beauty. London: BaM'i Publishing Trust, 1992. Prayers and Meditations by Bahh 'u 'llcih. Trans. Shoghi Effendi.Wilmette, IL: Bahfi Publishing Trust, 1979. The Proclamation of Bah6 'u 'llhh to the Kings and Leaders of the World.Haifa: Bahfi World Centre, 1978. The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys. Trans. 'Ali-Kuli B a n , Marzieh Gail. 3rd. ed. rev. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1984. The Summons of the Lord of Hosts: Tablets of Bahri 'u 'llcih.Haifa, Israel: Bahfi World Centre Publications, 2002. Synopsis and Codijication of the Laws and Ordinances of the Kitcib-i-Aqdas. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1973. Tablets of Bah6 'u 'llhh Revealed after the Kitrib-i-Aqdas. Wilmette, IL: Bahfi Publishing Trust, 1988.
D. Bahi'u'llih (Original Language Titles) Alvhh-i-Laylatu 'I-Quds, Tablet o f Holy NightJ43:1641 'Akkh. Ajl-i-Kullu'l-Kkrp Words of 'Akka. Baghad. Az-Bad-i-Illbhi, From the Garden o f God,["0:2181 B&-AV-u-~idih-~cimi, A Ba&dad. Baghad. Bi&rat, Glad Tiding~,[l~l'l~~] Bagbad. Gihdr-Vhdi, Four Valleys,[110:1041 ~~~'~~] Haft-Vhdi, Seven V a l l e y ~ , [Bagbad.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
579
Halih-Halih-Yd-Bi&hrCit,Glad Ba&dM. Hzir-i- 'vab, Wondrous Ba&dM. ~unifcit-i-kll&lcit,Exalted Ba&d6d7 19 March 1886. I&raqht, S p l e n d o r ~ . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ] Kalimat-i-Firdawsiyyih, Words of P a r a d i ~ e . [ l ~ ~ ~ ~ f l Kalimtit-i-Makzinih, Hidden Wor~ls.[~~~1 Kithb-i-Xhd, Book of Kitbb i-Aqdas, Most Holy Book.r711 Kitab-i-Badz", Wondrous Book,[43:3701 Adrianople, 1867. ~itab-i-lqan,Book of Lawh-i- Xbdu 'I- %iz- Va- Vakulci, Tablet of 'Abd~'l-'Aziz.[~~~1 'M. Lawh-i-Xbdu'l-Vahhcib, Tablet of 'Abd~'l-Vahhibb,r~~~:~~] Lawh-i- Xbdu 'r-Razzdq, Tablet of 'Abdu'r-Ra~ziq.[~~~] Lawh-i-AFbhb, Tablet of the F ~ - i e n d s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Lawh-i-Ahmad, Tablet of Al,unad.[43:1371 Lawh-i-Amjad, Tablet of the Most 'Akksi. Lawh-i-Amvdj, Tablet of the Lawh-i-Anta 'I-Kaj?, Long Healing 'Akki. Lawh-i-Aqdas, The Most Holy Tablet (Tablet to the Chri~tians),[~~~~ffl Lawh-i-Ard-i-Ba, Tablet of the Land of Ba.[lz2:"7 Lawh-i- d & i q - v a - ~ a'&q, Tablet of the Lover of the B e l o ~ e d J ~'Akki. ~l] Lawh-i-A&raJ; Tablet of Ashaf7[43:2301 'Akki. 'M. Tablet of ~awh-i-kyiy-i-~zir, Lawh-i-Ayylib, Tablet of Ba&&d. Adrianople. Lawh-i-Bahh, Tablet of Bah6,[43:171] 'M. Lawh-i-Baqa, Tablet of Lawh-i-Basilah '1-&qiqih, Tablet of Uncompounded Reality,rZ5l1'Akki. Lawh-i-Bismilih, Tablet in the Name of 'M. Lawh-i-Bulbulu 'I-F'irciq, Tablet of the Nightingale of Ba&diid. Lawh-i-Burhan, Tablet of P r o ~ f s , [ ~ " 'Akki. :~~~] Lawh-i-Dahat, Tablet of Mehdi Dahat.[122'1951 Lawh-i-Dunyci, Tablet of the World,[lul 'Akki. Ba&dsid. Lawh-i-Fitnih, Tablet of Test,~"0"2al Lawh-i-@ulamu '1-Guld, Tablet of the Youth of Ba&dM. Lawh-i-Habib, Tablet of the 'M. Lawh-i-Haft-Purshish, Tablet of Seven Q ~ e s t i o n s . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Lawh-i-Hajj, Tablet of Pilgrimage, Adrianople. 1863. ~ :route ~ l Constantinople, 1863. Lawh-i-Hawdaj, Tablet of the H o ~ d a h , [ ~en Lawh-i-Hihat, Tablet of Lawh-i-Hirtik, Tablet to Hardegg.[96:28fl 1858. Lawh-i-HzirLwih, Tablet of the 'Akka. Lawh-i-Husayn, Tablet of Husayr1,[~~~1 Lawh-i-Ibn-i-Bi'b, Epistle to the Son of the Wolf,[lwlBahji, 1891. Lawh-i-Ihtaraq, The Fire Tablet. See also Lawh-i-Qad-Ihtaraqa'l-Mu&li.&.[252:214]
580 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lawh-i-Ittihad, Tablet of Unity,[96:1911 'Akki. Lawh-i-Jamd, Tablet to Jamil Brujerdi (Bahh'i Studies), 'Akki. Lawh-i-Khalil, Tablet of the Word of God.[43:2601 Lawh-i-Karim, Tablet to Karim,[2s1]'M. Lawh-i-Karmil, Tablet of Carmel,[1zz'2ffl Haifa. Ba&dM, 1854. Lawh-i-Kullu '8-Ta 'rim, Tablet of All Lawh-i-Malikih, Tablet to Queen 'Akka. 'Akkh. Lawh-i-Malik-i-Rzis, Tablet to the Czar of R ~ s s i a J ~ ~~~1 Lawh-i-Mallahu '1-Quds, Tablet of the Holy MarinerJ110:"81'Akki, 1863. Lawh-i-Manikji-S&b, Tablet of Seven Questions ( Z ~ r a ) , [ ~'Akki. ~~"~l Lawh-i-Maqszid, Tablet of Intenti~nJ~~""] 'Akki. Lawh-i-Maryam, Tablet to M a r ~ a m , [ IBaghdM. ~~] Lawh-i-Mawlzid, Tablet of 'M. Lawh-i-Mabhhilih, Tablet of Adrianople. Lawh-i-Nhpulyzin, First Tablet to Napoleon 111,[4217]'Akki. Lawh-i-N~ipulyzin,Second Tablet to Napoleon 111,[42391'Akki. Lawh-i-Nbqzis, Tablet of the BellJ43'2qBahdiid. ~:~~l Lawh-i-mir, Tablet to N i ~ i r , [ ~'Akki. Adrianople. Lawh-i-Nuqfih, Tablet of the Lawh-i-Pap, Tablet to Pope P i ~ s , [ 'Akki. ~~~~1 Lawh-i-Pisar-Xmm, Tablet to the C o ~ s i n . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ] Lawh-i-Qad-Ihtaraqa'l-Mu&liszin, The Fire Tablet. See also Lawh-iIhtaraq.[252:2141 Lawh-i-Qind ', Tablet of the Vei1,[110'3341 'Akki. 'Akki. Lawh-i-Quds, Tablet of Holiness (I & 11),[251] 'M. Lawh-i-Rafi', Tablet of Elevation,[251] Lawh-i-Ra'is, Tablet to R a ' i ~ , [ ~ ~en : ~route l l ] to 'Akkii. Lawh-i-Ra&, Tablet of the en route to 'Akki. en route to 'Akki. Lawh-i-Raszil, Tablet of the Lawh-i-Rzih, Tablet of the Spi~it,[~~:'~'] Adrianople. 1837. Lawh-i-Ru 'ya, Tablet of Visi0n,[~~~~'1 Lawh-i-Sahab, Tablet of the 'Akkii. Lawh-i-Salmrin I, Tablet to Salrnh IJ96:89fl 'M. Lawh-i-Salmrin 11,Tablet to Salmh II,[96:89fl 'Akki. Lawh-i-Sdmszin, Tablet to SSunsh (Bahi'i Studies), Constinople. Tablets with this Lawh-i-Sayybh, Tablet of the T r a ~ e l e r ; [ ~ there ~ ' ~are ~ ~several ] name revealed at different times to different recipients. Lawh-i-&.@z-Fbni,Tablet to &ay&-FM,[251] 'Akki. Lawh-i-Sulfbn, Tablet to Nisiri'd-Din &zih.[43:3371 Lawh-i-Sirhj, Tablet to Sir&j.[43:26z1 Lawh-i-Tawhid, Tablet of Divine Unity,rZ5'1'Akka. Lawh-i-Tibb, Tablet of M e d i ~ i n e . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ] Adrianople. Lawh-i-Tuqa, Tablet of the Fear of Lawh-i-Varqci, Tablet of Varq6,[111:641 'Akki. Lawh-i-YzisuJ; Tablet of Joseph, 'Akki
BIBLIOGRAPHY 581
Lawh-i-Zaynu'l-Muqarrabin,Tablet to 'Akkl. Lawh-i-Ziyhrih, Tablet of V i ~ i t a t i o n . [ ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ ] ~~~~~~] Madinatu'r-db, Tablet of the Radiant A c q u i e s e n ~ e JBa&&d. Madinatu ?-Tawhid, Tablet of the City of Divine Unity,'llo'loglBa&did. Constinople. Ma&navi, Poetical 'M. Mundjcithhy-i-Siybm, Prayer for the Qad-Ihtaraqa 'I-Muk&~zin, Fire Tablet.[96'2231 Qasidy-i-Varqh'i'ih, Ode of the Dove.[96'2061 Russh-i-%nu, Sprinkling of the Divine Cloud (Baha'i Studies), 1852. Ri&anull-Xdl, The Paradise of 'M. Ri&cinu 'I-Iqrrir, The Paradise of Ackno~ledgrnent,[~~~1 'Akkh. $ahz&-i-&#&yih, Treaty of the Torrent (Stream)J1lo'losl Ba&did. &lit-i-Mayyit, Prayer for the Dead.[25240] Ba&did. Saqi-Az-aayb-i-Baqi, The GiR of Invisible Bikkar-S&kan-&mand, Allusions to &ay& Abdu'l Husayn.[110'14q ~~~~~~] Subhbna-Rabbiya'l-A 'la, Praised Be to God-The Most E ~ a l t e d , [Ba& did, 1863. Subhbna-Yri-Hzi, Praised Be Thou Oh Ba&did, 1863. Sziratu 'llah, Verse of G ~ d J l lBa&diid. ~~~] Baadid. Sziriy-i-A&&, Verse of Baadid. Sziriy-i-Amin, Verse of Trust~orthiness,[~~~1 ~"~~] Sziriy-i-Amr, Verse of C ~ r n m a n d , [ ~Adrianople. Sziriy-i-A 'rrib, Verse of the 'M. Sziriy-i-Ashhb, Verse of the C o m p a n i ~ n , [ ~ Adrianople. ~:~~] Sziriy-i-Asmb,' Verse of the Names,[110'280] 'Akki. Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Bayan, Verse of Exposition,[251] Sziriy-i-Damm, Verse of Blood,[43:236] Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Babih, Verse of Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Bib, Verse of Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Fadl, Verse of Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Fath, Verse of Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Fu 'ad, Verse of the 'Akka, 1873. Sziriy-i-ausn, Verse of the Bran~h.[~~'"~] Sziriy-i-Hajj I, Verse of Pilgrimage I, Adrianople. Sziriy-i-HqJ II, Verse of Pilgrimage 11,[2511 Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Haykal, Verse of the Temple.[96:132] Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Hz*, Verse of Preservation,[251] Ba&&d. Sziriy-i-Hijr, Verse of Separation,[2s1] Sziriy-i- 'Ibbd, Verse of the Servant,[43'2721 'Akkir. 'Akkti. Sziriy-i-Ism, Verse of the Sziriy-i-Ismuna '1-Mursil, Verse of the Greatest Name of 'Akka. Sziriy-i-Javcid, Verse of JavadJz5l1'Akka. Sziriy-i-aifab, Verse of Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Ma 'hi, Verse of Inner MeaningJZ5l1'Akkh. Sziriy-i-Man,' Verse of 'Akkl.
582
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sziriy-i-Mulzik, Verse of the K i n g ~ , [ ~Constantinople. ~'~~1 'M. Sziriy-i-Nidci, Verse of the Sziriy-i-Nu~h,Verse of the A n n o u n ~ e m e n t , [ ~B~a~a'd~i~d ]. Sziriy-i-Qadir, Verse of O m n i p o t e n ~ e , ['M. ~~~~~~] Sziriy-i-Qahir, Verse of 'Akki. Sziriy-i-Qalam, Verse of the PenJZs11 Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Qami~,Verse of the RobeJZ5'1Adrianople. Sziriy-i-Sabr, Verse of P a t i e n ~ e , [ " ~Baghdhd, ~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ 1863. 1 'Akki. Sziriy-i-Sul&.in, Verse of the Sziriy-i-Vafa, Verse of Fidelity,[111:2051 'Akki. Sziriy-i-Zabur, Verse of P~alrns,[~~~1 'Akki. Sziriy-i-Ziydrih, Verse of Visitation for Ziyir&Jz5'1'M. Sziriy-i-Zuhzir, Verse of the Manifestation,[253] Adrianople. Tafsir-i-Hzi, Commentary of He Who Ba&did, 1860. Tafsir-i-Hunifht-i-Muqafla 'ih, Commentary on the Disconnected letter^,"^'] B a a d i d , 1860. Tafsir-i-Sziriy-i-Va @-shams, Commentary on the Verse of the Sun, (Baha'i Studies), 'Akka. Tajalliyat, E f f u l g e n c e ~ . [ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f f ] Tarbat, Ornament~.['":~~fl Ziyarat-Nhmih, The Tablet of Ziycirat-Nbmiy-i-Awliy6, The Tablet of the Comprehensive Vi~itationJ~~~] 'M. Ziycirat-Nhmiy-i-B6bu '1-Bbb va Quddzis, The Tablet of Visitation for the Shrines of Mulli Husayn and Q u d d ~ i s , ['Akki. ~~~] Ziyhrat-Nbmiy-i-Bayt, The Tablet of Visitation for the House,[251]'Akki. 'Akki. Ziydrat-Nhmiy-i-Maryam, The Tablet of Visitation of Ziycirat-Nhmiy-i-Siyyidu @-shuhadh,' The Tablet of Visitation for the Prince of Martyrs, I m h Husayn, 'Akki.
E. 'Abdu'l-Bahii (in English) A Traveler b Narrative to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab. Trans. Edward Granville Browne. New and corrected ed. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. A Traveler b Narrative Written to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab. Trans. Edward Granville Browne. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1891. Xbdu'l-Bahh on Divine Philosophy. Boston: Tudor Press, 1916. America b Spiritual Mission. Trans. Ahmad Sohrab. New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1936. Contentment: Jewels @om the Words of Abdu'l-Baha. Ed. Gordon Kerr. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1995. Foundations of World Unity. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1979. Friendship and Love: Jewelsfrom the Words ofAbdu '1-Bah6. Ed. Gordon Kerr. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1994.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 583
Happiness: Jewelsfrom the Words of Abdu '1-Bahri. Ed. Gordon Kerr. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1995. Memorials of the Faithful. Trans. Marzieh Gail. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1975. Notes Taken at Acca: Table Talks by Abdul Baha Taken Down in Persian by Mirza Hadi at Acca, Feb. 1907. Notes Taken by Corinne True. Trans. A. U. Fareed. Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Society, 1907. Paris Talks: Addresses Given by Abdu'l-Baha in Paris in 1911-1912. 9th ed. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1951. SelectionsJiom the WritingsofAbdu '1-Bahri. Trans. A Committee at the Bahzi'i World Centre and Marzieh Gail. Haifa: Bahh'i World Centre, 1978. Some Answered Questions. Trans. and comp. Laura Clifford Barney. 1981 ed. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982. Table Talks at Acca by Abdul Baha Abbas (as expressed by Mirza Moneer and Mirza Nur-ed-Din interpreters). Trans. Mirza Moneer Mirza Nur-ed-Din. Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Society, 1907. Tablets of Abdul-Baha Abbas. Vols. 1, 2, & 3. Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Society, 1919. Tablets of the Divine Plan. Wilmette, IL: Bahzi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. Tablets to Japan. New York: Bahl'i Publishing Committee, 1928. Talks by Xbdu'l-Bah6 Given in Paris: Supplementary Historical Note and Introduction. Comp. Helen Pilkington Bishop. London: 1936. The Divine Art of Living. New York: Brentano's, 1926. The Mystery of God. New Delhi: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1971. The Promulgation of Universal Peace. 2nd ed. Vols. 1 & 2. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982. 2 vols. The Reality of Man. New York: Publishing Committee of the Baha'is of the United States and Canada, 1931. The Secret of Divine Civilization. Trans. Marzieh Gail. Wilmette, IL: Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1957. The W711and Testament ofAbdu 'I-Bahb.Wilmette, IL: Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1971.
F. 'Abdu'l-Bahsi (Original Language Titles) Ad'ivih va Munbjdt, Prayers & Supplications. ~lvcih-i-~ablidi-i-kmrikh, Tablets of the Divine Plan.[131'4001 Alvbh-i-Va+dyb, Will and Testament.[77] Gitbbbt dar Uripci va kmrikh, Address to Europe A r n e r i ~ a . [ ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ ' . ~ ~ Lawh-i-AJIhki'ih, Tablet of the Sphere. Lawh-i-Xhd va Mi&.iq (kmrikh), Will and Lawh-i-Xmmih, Tablet to the ~awh-i-Ayat,Tablet of the Lawh-i-Dr. Forel, Tablet to Dr. F ~ r e l . [ l ~ ~ ] Lawh-i-Du-Nidhy-i-Falcih-va-Naj6.Ir, Tablet of
584 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lawh-i-Ha@&my Tablet of the Seven Lawh-i-Hiair-Bayti, Tablet of the One Thousand Lad-i-I&rhbn, Tablet of Q u r i ~ h . [ ~ ~ ~ ] Lawh-i-Lbhih, Tablet to the Central Organization for a Durable Peace, The Hague.[152] Lawh-i-Mahabbat, Tablet of Love (Four Kinds of L 0 v e ) . [ ~ ~ ' ~ ~ 1 Lawh-i-Mahjl-&wr, Tablet to the Assembly of the Lawh-i-Tanzih va Taqdis, Tablet of Lawh-i-Tarbiyat, Tablet of Madani'ih, The Secret of Divine Makhtib-i- 2bdu '1-Bahci, Tablets of 'Abd~'l-Bahi.[~~~I Maqriliy-i-Sayybh, A Traveler's Mufhiddt, Some Answered Questions.[l2l1 &arh-i-FUSS-i-Nigin-i-Ism-A >am, Commentary on the Ring SymbolGreatest Name. garb-i-&had+-i-Yazd va I~frihbn,The Martyrs of Yazd.[110:321-3261 Siydsi'ih, Treatise on Ta&kirat '1-Vafh,Memorials of the Tafsir-i-Bushmi'lliih-'r-Rahmani'r-Rahim, Commentary in the name of GodThe Merciful, The Tafsir-i-KuntuKanzan Ma&i'ryyan, Commentary on "I Was A Hidden Treasure" (Bahi'i Studies). Ziyrirat Ndmih, Tablet of Visitation for N h ~ i h . [ ~ ~ ~ ]
2. SHOGHI EFFENDI Note: Section 2 is a complete English-language listing of the published works of Shoghi Effendi. The Advent of Divine Justice. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1984. America and the Most Great Peace. New York: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1933. Arohanui: Letters from Shoghi Effendi to New Zealand. Suva, Fuji: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1982. The Ascension of 2bdu '1-Bahb. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1985. Bahh 'iAdministration. Wilmette, IL: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1974. The Bahb'i Faith, 1844-1952: Information Statistical and Comparative. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1953. The Bahb 'iLife. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1981. Baha'i Youth:A Compilation. Wilmette, IL: Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1973. Bahci'u'llcih $ Ground Plan of World Fellowship. London: World Congress of Faiths, 1936. Call to the Nations. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1977. Centers of Baha'i Learning. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 585
The Challenging Requirements of the Present Hour. Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States and Canada, 1947. Charter of a Divine Civilization: A Compilation. Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, 1956. Citadel of Faith: Messages to America, 1947-1957. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1980. Dawn of a New Day. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1970. Directivesfrom the Guardian. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1973. The Dispensation of Bahh 'u 'llhh.New York: Bahh'i Publishing Cormnittee, 1981. The Functions of the Institutions of the Continental Boar& of Counsellors and Their Auxiliary Boards. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1981. The Future World Commonwealth. Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United States and Canada, 1936. The Generation of the Half-Light: A Compilationfor Bahh'i Youth. New Delhi: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1974. The Goal of a New World Order. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1976. GodPasses By. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1979. The Golden Age of the Cause of Bahh'u'llhh. New York: Bahh'i Publishing Committee, 1932. The Greatest Holy Lea$ A Tribute to Bahi'ih &&ininurn. London: National SpiritualAssembly of the Baha'is of the United Kingdom, 1980. The Guardian 5. Message for the Centenary of the Martyrdom of the Bhb. Wilmette, IL: National SpiritualAssembly of the United States, 1950. Guidancefor Today and Tomorrow. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1953, 1973. High Endeavors: Messages to Alaska. Anchorage: National SpiritualAssembly of the Baha'is of Alaska, 1976. Importance and Methods of Close Collaboration Amongst the Institutions of the Faith. Ed. Continental Board of Counsellors in Africa: N.p., 1982. The Importance of Teaching Indigenous Peoples. Toronto, ON: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Canada, 1968. Letters from Shoghi Effendi to the Believers of Central America and the Antillesfrom March 28, 1949 to October 6, 1957. Mimeographed ed. San JosB, Costa Rica: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Central America and the Antilles, 196?. Letters from Shoghi Effendi, January 21,1922-November 27,1924. New York: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1925. Letters from the Guardian to Australia and New Zealand, 1923-1 95 7. Sydney, NSW, Australia: National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahi'is of Australia and New Zealand, 197 1. Lifeblood of the Cause. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1975. The Light of Divine Guidance: The Messages from the Guardian of the Baha'i Faith to Individual Believers, Groups and Bahh'i Communities of Germany and Austria. Hofheim-Langenhain: Baha'i-Verlag, 1982.
586 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Living the Life. London: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1974, 1984. Messages to America: Selected Letters and Cablegrams Addressed to the Bahh 'is of North America, 1932-1946. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1947. Messages to the Bahh 'i World l95&1957. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1971. Messages to Canada (1923-1957). Toronto, ON: National Spiritual Assembly of the BahB'is of Canada, 1965. Messagesfim the Guardian: Letters and CablegramsReceived by the National Spiritual AssemblyJiom June 21, 1932 to July 21, 1940. New York: Bahii'i Publishing Committee, 1940. Messages of Shoghi Effendi to the Indian Subcontinent. New Delhi: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1995. A Mysterious Dispensation ofprovidence: A Messagefrom the Guardian on the Persecution of the Bahh'is in hhn. Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States, 1955. The Passing of the Greatest Holy Leafi A Tribute. Haifa: N.p., 1932. Political Non-Involvement and Obedience to Government: A Compilation of Some of the Messages of the Guardian and the Universal House of Justice. Mona Vale, NSW, Australia: Bahi'i Publications Australia, 1984. Principles of Bahh 'iAdministration. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1976. The Promised Day is Come. Wilmette, IL: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1980. The Rising World Commonwealth. London: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1945. Selected Writings of Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1975. The Unfolding Destiny of the British Bahh'i Community: The Messages from the Guardian of the Bahh 'i Faith to the Bahh % of the British Isles. London: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1981. The Unfoldment of World Civilization.New York: Bahi'i Publishing Committee, 1936. The World Order of Bahh'u'llhh. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982. World Government & Collective Security: A Collection of Some Bahh'i Quotations. New Delhi: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of India, Pakistan and Burma, 1953.
3. UNIVERSAL HOUSE OF JUSTICE Note: Section 3 is a partial English-language listing of the published works of the Universal House of Justice. Analysis of the Five Year International Teaching Plan 1974-1979. Haifa: Universal House of Justice, 1975. Analysis of the Nine Ear International Plan 1964-1973. Wilmette, IL: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1964.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 587
Analysis of the Seven Ear Plan 197e1986: Second Phase Goals, 1981. Haifa: Universal House of Justice, Statistics Department, 1981. The Baha'i Faith (Statistical Information) 1844-1968: Showing Current Status and Outstanding Goals of the Nine Ear International Teaching Plan, 1964-1973. Haifa: Universal House of Justice, 1968. The Bahh 'iHoly Places at the World Center. Haifa: Universal House of Justice, 1968. Canada and the Five Ear Plan (Le Canada et le Plan de Cinq Ans). Thornhill, ON: National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahi'is of Canada, 1974. The Constitution of the Universal House of Justice. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1972. The Continental Boards of Counsellors: Letters, Extracts from Letters, and Cablesfrom the Universal House of Justice. An Address by Edna A4 True. Comp. and ed. the National SpiritualAssembly of the Bahfr'is of the United States. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1981. The Five Ear Plan, 1974-1979: Statistical Report, Ri&an 1978. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1978. The Five Ear Plan, 1974-1979: Statistical Report, Ri&bn 1979. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1979. The Five Ear Plan: 2001-2006, Messages of the Universal House of Justice. 2nd ed., Los Angeles: Palabra Publications, 2001. The Five Year Plan: Messages from the Universal House of Justice to the Bahh'is of the World and of the United States. Naw-Rziz 1974 Announcing the Objectives of the Third Global Teaching Campaign.Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1974. Individual Rights and Freedoms in the World Order of Baha'u'llah. Haifa: Universal House of Justice, 1988. 22. Messagesfrom the UniversalHouse of Justice: 1963-1986 The Third Epoch of the Formative Age. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1996. Messages from the Universal House of Justice 1968-1973. Wilmette, IL: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1976. The Mission of This Generation: Messagesfrom the UniversalHouse of Justice to Baha'i Youth. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1996. The Nine Ear Plan, 1964-1973: Statistical Report, Riban 1973. Haifa: Universal House of Justice, 1973. One Common Faith. Wilmette, IL.: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 2005. The Promise of World Peace. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1985. The Seven Ear Plan, 1979-1986: Statistical Report, Ri&hn 1983. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1983. Tempestuous Ears: Persecution of the Baha'i Community in Iran Vol. 1 19781979. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1998. Wellspring of Guidance: Messages 1963-1968. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1976. A mder Horizon: Selected Messages of the UniversalHouse of Justice (19831992). Riviera Beach, FL: Palabra Publications, 1992.
588 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Greatest Holy Lea$ Bahiyyih a d n u m . Compilation. Haifa: The Research Department, Bahii'i World Centre, 1982.
5. COMPILATIONS Note: This section lists compilations of the Writings of the Bab, Bahh'u'llah, 'Abdu'l-Bahi, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice. Baha'i Consultation.Auckland: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of New Zealand, 1978. Baha'i Education: A Compilation. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1978. Bahh'i Institutions: A Compilation. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1973. Baha'i Marriage and Family Life: Selectionsfrom the Writings of the Bahci'i Faith. Thornhill, ON: Baha'i Canada Publications, 1983. Bahci'i Prayers. New, expanded and revised ed. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1982. Baha'i Readings: Selections Ji.om the Writings of the Bhb, Bahci1u'l14h and Abdu'l-Bah6 for Daily Meditation. Thornhill, ON: Bahi'i Canada Publications, 1984. The Bahh 'iRevelation. London: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1955. Bahci 'iScriptures. New York: Brentano's, 1923. Baha'i Teachings on Economics: A Compilation. Bahii'i Teaching Committee (Committee on Economics). New York: Bahii'i Publishing Committee, 1934. Baha'i WorldFaith. (BahS'u'llhh and 'Abdu'l-Baha) Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1976. Bahi'ih &inurn, the Greatest Holy Lea$ A Compilationfrom the Bahci'i Sacred Texts and Writings of the Guardian of the Faith and Bahljyih a h n u m ' s Own Letters. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1982. The Chalice of Immortality. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1978. Compilation of Compilations. Vols. 1 & 2. Maryborough, Victoria, Australia: Bahb'i Publications Australia, 1991. Compilation of the Holy Utterances of Baha'o 'llah and Abdul Baha Concerning the Most Great Peace, War and Duty of the Bahais Toward Their Government. 2nd ed. Boston: Tudor Press, 1918. Consultation:A Compilation. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. The Covenant of Bahh'u 'llih: A Compilation. Manchester: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1950. The Declaration of the Bhb: A Compilation. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1992. Death, the Messenger of Joy. London: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1980.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 589
The Desire of the World Materialsfor the Contemplation of God andHis Manifstationfor This Day. Comp. R w y y h Rabbhi. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984. Distinctive Characteristics of a Baha'i Life: A Compilation. Continental Board of Counsellors in Africa, 1974. The Divine Art of Living. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1979. Divorce: A CompilationDealing with the Bahci 'iAttitude towards the Subject of Divorce. Mona Vale, NSW, Australia: Baha'i Publications Australia, 1985. The Establishment of the Universal House of Justice. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1984. Family Life. Mona Vale, NSW, Australia: Bahh'i Publications Australia, 1982. Fasting. Auckland: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of New Zealand, 1983. The Glad Tidings of Bah6'u'llbh. London: John Murray, 1949, 1956. The Glorious Journey to God: Selectionsfiom Sacred Scriptures on the Afterlife. Mt. Pleasant, MI: Global Perspective, 1996. The Heaven of Divine Esdom. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1978. Huqziqu'llah. Auckland: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of New Zealand, 1985. Inspiring the Hearts: SelectionsJiom the Writings of the Bcib, Bahci'u'llcih and Xbdu '1-Bah6. London: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1981. The Institution of the Hands of the Cause of God: Its Origin and Unfoldment, Auxiliary Boards, Relation to National Spiritual Assemblies. United States: N.p., 1957. Japan Will Turn Ablaze! Tablets ofAbdu'1-Bahci, Letters of Shoghi EfSendi and the Universal House of Justice, and Historical Notes About Japan. Comp. Barbara Sims. Tokyo: Baha'i Publishing Trust, Japan, 1992. Justice & Peace: A Compendium of Quotations fiom the Baha'i Writings. Paddington, NSW, Australia: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Australia, 1968. Life after Death. Honolulu: Hawaii Baha'i Press, 1976. Life Eternal: ExtractsJLom the Writingsof Bah6'u 'llcih and Xbdu'l-Bahh. East Aurora, NY: Roycrofi Shops, 1936, 1937. Lights of Guidance: A Baha'i Reference File. 2nd ed. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1988. Local Spiritual Assemblies. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 197?. The Most Great Peace. Boston: Tudor Press, 1916. The Oneness of Mankind. New York: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1927. The Onward March of the Faith. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1975. The Pattern of Bah6 'iLife. 3rd ed. London: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1983. Peace. London: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1985. The Power of Divine Assistance. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1981. Prayers and Meditations. Bahci 'u 'llih and Xbdu '1-Bahh. New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1929. Prayers Revealed by Baha'u'llah, the Bab, and Xbdu'l-Baha. Trans. Shoghi Effendi. New York: Bahb'i Publishing Committee, 1939.
590 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Prohibition ofIntoxicatingDrinks. Lagos: Publishing Committee of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Nigeria, 1982. The Pupil of the Eye: African Americans in the World Order of Bahh'u'llhh: Selectionsfrom the Writings of Bahh'u'llhh, the Bcib, Xbdu'l-Bahh, Shoghi Effendi and the UniversalHouse of Justice. Comp. Bonnie J. Taylor. Riviera Beach, FL: Palabra Publications, 1995. Racial Amity. United States: N.p., 1924. The Reality of Man. 1962 ed. Wilrnette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1979. Seeking the Light of the Kingdom: CompilationsIssued by the UniversalHouse of Justice on the Nineteen Day Feast and Bahci'i Meetings. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1977. Some Aspects of Health and Healing: Selections from the Bahci'i Writings. Auckland: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of New Zealand, 1981. Some Quotationsfrom the Bahh'i Writings Relating to Socio-Economic Development and Human Progress. Banjul: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Gambia, 1984. Spiritual Assemblies and Consultation. New Delhi: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1978. The Supreme Gift of God to Man: Selections from the Bahci'i Writings on the Value, Development and Use of the Intellect. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. The Throne of the Inner Temple. Kingston, Jamaica: University Printery and School Printing, University of West Indies, 1985. Unto Him Shall We Return: Selectionsfrom the Bahci'i Writings on the Reality and Immortality of the Human Soul. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1985. Victory Promises. Honolulu: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the Hawaiian Islands, 1978. Why Our Cities Bum: Viavs on the Racial Crisis in the United Statesfrom the Writings of the Bahci'i Faith. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1968.
6. HANDS OF THE CAUSE OF GOD Addenda to Statistical Information Published by the Hanak of the Cause in the Holy Land in Ri&hn 1963: Countries Opened to the Faith of Bahh'u'llhh and Supplementary Accomplishments. Comp. Hands of the Cause of God residing in the Holy Land. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1964. The Bahh 'iFaith, 184442963:Information and Statistical Comparison. Comp. Hands of the Cause of God residing in the Holy Land. Vol. 128. Ramat Gan: Peli, P.E.C. Printing Works (Hands of the Cause of God), 1963. The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963-An Account of the Stewardship of the Hand of the Caus+Wth an Introduction by the Hand of the Cause Amatu'l-Bahh Rzihijyih &knm. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1992.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 591
7. WORKS RELATED TO THE CENTRAL FIGURES AND OTHER KEY FIGURES A. The Bhb Balyhzi, H. M. The Bab, the Herald of the Day of Days. Oxford: George Ronald, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1994. . Khadijih Bagum, the Wife of the Bcib. Oxford: George Ronald, 1981, 1982. Nabil-i-A'zam. The Dawn-Breakers: Nabilk Narrative of the Early Days of the Baha'i Revelation. Ed. and trans. Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette. IL: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1970. Perkins, M. Hour of Dawn: The Life of the Bbb. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987. Sears, William. The Martyr-Prophet of a World Faith. Wilmette, IL: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1950. . Release the Sun. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1975.
Balyhzi, H. M. Baha'u'llah. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1938. . Baha'u'llah: A Brief Life: Followed by an Essay on the Manifstation of God Entitled The Word Made Flesh. London, Oxford: George Ronald, 1963, 1968, 1970,1972,1973,1974,1976,1984. . Bah6 'u'llbh, the King of Glory. Oxford: George Ronald, 1980. Buck, Christopher. Symbol and Secret: Qur'in Commentary in Bahci'u'lldh k Kitab-i-Iqhn. Studies in the Bhbi and Bahb 'iReligions, ed. Anthony A. Lee. Vol. 7. Los Angeles: Kalimiit Press, 1995. Cederquist, Druzelle. The Story of Bahh 'u 'lkih: Promised One ofAll Religions. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 2005. Faizi, G. Baha'u'llah: The Promised One. Baha'i Publishing Trust, 2004. Funitan, 'Ali Akbar. Stories of Bahri 'u 'llcih. Trans. Katayoon and Robert Crerar. Oxford: George Ronald, 1986. Hofinan, David. Bah6'u'llhh: The Prince of Peace. Oxford: George Ronald, 1992. Johnson, Lowell. Remember My Days: The Life Story of Bahh'u'llhh. 2nd rev. ed. Johannesburg: National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of South and West Afica, 1985. Kheiralla, Ibrahim George, and Howard MacNutt. Beha'u'llah-The Glory of God. Chicago: I. G. Kheiralla Publisher, 1900. Muhammad-Aliy-i-Salmani, Ustad. My Memories of Baha'u'llah. Trans. Marzieh Gail. Los Angeles: Kalimht Press, 1982. Perkins, Mary. Day of Glory: The Life of Bah6 'u 'Ilcih. Oxford: George Ronald, 1992. Ruhe, David S. Robe of Light: The Persian Years of the Supreme Prophet Bahh 'u 'llhh 181 7-1 853. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994.
592
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Salmini, UstM Muhammad. Memories of Bah6'u'lkih. Trans. Marzieh Gail. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1982. Samandari, TarQu711&. Moments With Bahh'u'llhh: Memoirs of the Hand of the Cause of God Tar&u'llrih Samandari. Trans. Mehdi Samandari and Marzieh Gail. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1995. Taherzadeh, Adib. The Covenant of Baha'u'llcih. Oxford: George Ronald, 1992. . The Revelation of Bahb'u'llah Adrianople 1863-68. Paperback ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.4 vols. . The Revelation of Bahci'u'llcih X M , The Early Years 1868-77. Vol. 3. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.4 vols. . The Revelation of Bah6'u'llhh Baghdad 1853-63. Paperback ed. Vol. 1. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.4 vols. . The Revelation of Bahci'u'llcih Mazra 'ih and Bahji 1877-92. Vol. 4. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.4 vols. Ward, Allan L. Xbdu '1-Bahb5. Journey in America. Wilmette, IL: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1979. Yazdi, 'Ali M. "Memories of 'Abdu'l-Baha" Baha'i Year Book 1979-1983. Vol. 18. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1986.
Xbdu'l-Bahh in Edinburgh. London: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the British Isles, 1963. Xbdu 'I-Bahb in London. London: Longmans Green & Co., 1912. Xbdu'l-Baha in New York, the City of the Covenant, April-December 1912. New York: Bahi'i Assembly, 1912. Afi-oukhteh,Y., Memories of M y Nine Years in Akka: Memoires of Dr. Youness Afroukhteh. First published 1952, Tihran, ed. T. R. Masrour. Oxford: George Ronald Publisher, 2003. Ahdieh, Hussein, and Elaine A. Hopson, eds. Xbdu'l-Baha in New York-The City of the Covenant-Commemorating the 75th Anniversary of the Esit of Xbdu'l-Baha to America. New York: Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of New York, 1987. Balyiui, H. M. Xbdu'l-Bahci, the Center of the Covenant of Bahci'u'llah. London: George Ronald, 1973. Brown, Ramona Allen. Memories of Xbdu'l-Bahh: Recollections of the Early Days of the Bahci'i Faith in California. Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1980. Cobb, Stanwood. Memories of Xbdu'l-Bahb. Washington, D.C.: The Avalon Press, 1962. Goodall, Helen S., and Ella Goodall Cooper. Daily Lessons Received at Acca, January 1908. Rev. ed. Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1979. Grundy, Julia M. Ten Days in the Light of Acca. Rev. ed. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1907, 1979.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 593
Hannen, Joseph H. Akka Lights. N.p., 1909. Haydar-'Ali, Hiji Mirzh. Storiesfrom the Delight of Hearts: The Memoirs of Hhji M i d Haydar-Mi. Trans. A. Q. Faizi. Los Angeles: Kalimht Press, 1980. Hofman, David. Commentary on the mil and Testament of Xbdu'l-Bahh. 4th rev. ed. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982. Khursheed, Anjam. The Seven Candles of Unity: The Story of Xbdu'l-Bahh in Edinburgh. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1991. Lee, Anthony A. ed., The Black Rose: A Story About Xbdu'l-Bahh in America. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1979. . The Cornerstone:A Story About Xbdu 'I-Bahh in America. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1979. . The Proud Helper: A Story About 2bdu 'I-Bahh in the Holy Land. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1979. . The Scottish Visitors: A Story About 2bdu'l-Baha in Britain. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1980. . The Unfriendly Governor: A Story About Xbdu'l-Baha in the Holy Land. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1979. . In His Presence: Vtrits to Xbdu'l-Baha. Memoirs of Roy mlhelm, Stanwood Cobb and Genevieve Coy. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1989. Mahmdd (Zarqhi, Mirzh Mahmdd-i). Mahmzidk Diary (Kithb-i-Badhyi'u'lhthhr). Vol. 1 1914; Vol. 2 1921. Bombay: n.p., 1921. 2 vols. Phelps, Myron H. The Life and Teachings ofAbbas Effendi (Cover Title: Abbas Effendi, His Life and Teachings).New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, Knickerbocker Press, 1903. . The Master in Xkkh, Including Recollections of the Greatest Holy Lea$ Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1985. Sohrab, Mirza Ahmad. Abdul-Baha in Egypt. New York: J. H. Sears & Co., for The New History Foundation, 1929. . I Heard Him Say--Words of Xbdu '1-Baha. New York: The New History Foundation, 1937. Thompson, Juliet. The Diary of Juliet Thompson. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1983.
D. Shoghi Effendi Association for Bahi'i Studies. The Vision of Shoghi Effendi. Ottawa: Association for Bahi'i Studies, 1984. Collins, Amelia. A Tribute to Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, IL: Bahh'i Publishing Trust, 1960. Giachery, Ugo. Shoghi Effendi, Recollections. Oxford: George Ronald, 1973, 1974. Khadem, Rim. Shoghi Effendi in Oxford and Earlier. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
594 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rabbbi, Ruyyih. The Guardian of the Bahh'iFaith. London: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1988. .Poems of the Passing. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. . The Priceless Pearl. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1969. . Twenty-Five Ears of the Guardianship.Wilmette, Ill.: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1948. Rabbfmi, R a y y i h , and John Ferraby. The Passing of Shoghi Effendi. London: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1958.
E. Bahiyyih mhnum Gail, Marzieh. Banurn, the GreatestHoly Lea$ Oxford: George Ronald, 1981, 1982.
F. ~ s i ~manurn ih Ma'ani, Baharieh. ~ s i y i hBdninum, The Most Exalted Leaf Entitled Nawbb. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993.
G. Munrihih mhnum Khhum, Munrihih. Episodes in the Life of the Moneereh Banum. Trans. Ahmad Sohrab. Los Angeles: Persian-American Publishing Co., 1924. ,Munirih Banurn: Memoires and Letters. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press. 1987.
H. 'Amatu'l-Bahh Ruhiyyih n h n u m Nakhjavhi, V., Amatu'l-Bahh Visits India. New Delhi: Baha'i Publishing Trust. 1984. . The Great African Safari: The Travels ofAmatu '1-BahaRuhiyyih Khanum in Africa 1969-73. Oxford: George Ronald. .A Tribute to Amatu'l-Bah6 Ruhiyyih Khanum. Toronto: Bahir'i Canada Publications and Nine Pines Publishing. 200 1.
8. BIBLIOGRAPHIES Afsharian, Payam. Dictionary of Baha'i Book Collectors, Bibliophiles, & Researchers. Los Angeles: Afsharian, 1984. Bjorling, Joel. The Baha'i Faith: A Historical Bibliography. (Sects and Cults in America: Bibliographical Guides). New York: Garland Reference Library of the Humanities; London: Garland, 1985. Collins, William P. Bibliography of English-Language Works on the B6bi and Bah6 'iFaiths 1844-1985. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990.
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Momen, Moojan. The Works of S&v@ Ahmad al-Ahsa'i: A Bibliography. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Bahb'i Studies Bulletin Monograph, 1992.
9. YEARBOOKS, JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, COLLOQUIA Section 9 lists works that form the core of publicly available historical reference materials, although a growing number of scholars are now engaged in original historical research (see section 10 also). Association for BahP'i Studies UK, The Bahd 'iStudies Review: Vol. 1 1991; Vol. 2.1 1992; Vol. 3.1 1993; Vol. 3.2 1994; Vol. 4.1 1994; Vol. 5.1 1995; Vol. 6 1996; Vol. 7 1997; Vol. 8 1998; Vol. 9 199912000;Vol. 10 200112002; Vol. 11 2003; Vol. 12 2004. Available fiom www.breacais.demon.co.uk/absl bsr-volumes.htm (accessed 5 November 2005). Baha'i News Index-No. 1 to No. 172. Ed. and cornp. May Prentiss Stebbins. Vol. 1. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1956. Baha'i News Index-No. 173 to No. 322. Ed. and cornp. May Prentiss Stebbins. Vol. 2. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1959. Baha'i News Index-No. 323 to No. 393. Ed. and cornp. Amine DeMille. Vol. 3. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1966. Baha'i News Index-No. 394 to No. 453. Ed. and cornp. Amine DeMille. Vol. 4. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1970. Bahri'iNews Index-No. 454 to No. 513. Vol. 5. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1978. BahP'i NewslStar of the West. Star of the West (Bahd'i News: The Baha'i Magazine) 1-25 (1910-1935); Reprinted: Star of the West (Reprinted Compendium Edition). Oxford: George Ronald, 1978, 1984. Bahi'i Year Book. Baha'i Ear Book (1925-1926) Vol. 1 An International Record. New York: Bahi'i Publishing Committee, 1926. . Bahci'i World (19261928) Vol. 2 An International Record. New York: Bahir'i Publishing Committee, 1928. . Baha'i World (1928-1930) Vol. 3 An International Record. New York: Baha'i Publishing Committee, 1930. . Baha'i World (193G1932) Vol. 4 An International Record. New York: Bahi'i Publishing Committee, 1933. . Baha'i World (1932-1934) Vol. 5 An International Record. New York: Bahti'i Publishing Committee, 1936. . Bahci'i World (1934-1936) Vol. 6 An International Record. New York: Bahi'i Publishing Committee, 1937. . Baha'i World (19361938) Vol. 7An International Record. New York: Bahir'l Publishing Committee, 1939. . Bahci'i World (1938-1940) Vol. 8 An International Record. Wilmette, IL: BahP'i Publishing Committee, 1942. . Baha'i World (194G1944) Vol. 9 An International Record. Wilmette, IL: BahP'i Publishing Committee, 1945.
596 BIBLIOGRAPHY
.Baha'i World (1944-1946) Vol. 10 An International Record. Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Committee, 1949. .Bahh'i World (19461950) Vol. I1 An International Record. Wilmette, IL: Bahii'i Publishing Committee, 1952. . The Bahh 'iWorld (195G1954) An International Record. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1956. .Baha'i World (1950-1954) Vol. 12 An International Record. Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1956. . Baha'i World (1954-1963) Vol. 13 An International Record. Haifa: The Universal House of Justice, 1970. . Bahh'i World (1963-1968) Vol. 14 An International Record. Haifa: The Universal House of Justice, 1974. . Baha'i World (1968-1973) Vol. 15 An International Record. Haifa: Bahii'i World Centre, 1976. . Bahci'i World (1973-1976) Vol. 16 An International Record. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1979. . Bahci'i World (1976-1979) Vol. 17 An International Record. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1982. . Bahh'i World (197S1983) Vol. 18 An International Record. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1986. . Bahh'i World (1983-1986) Vol. 19 An International Record. Haifa: Bahii'i World Centre, 1994. . Bahh'i World (19861992) Vol. 20 An International Record. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1998. . Baha'i World Reprint of Vols. 1-12. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1980-1981. . A Compendium of Volumes of the Baha'i World, An International Record, Vols. 1-12, 82-110 of the Bahci'i Era. Ed. and comp. Roger White. Oxford: George Ronald, 1981. Bahi'i Year Book, New Series. Bahh'i World (1992-1993) An International Record. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 1993. . Baha'i World (1993-1994) An International Record. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1994. . Baha'i World (1994-1995) An International Record. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 1996. . Bahh'i World (1995-1996) An International Record. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1997. . Baha'i World (19961997) An International Record. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1998. . Baha'i World (1997-1998) An International Record. Haifa: Bahb'i World Centre, 1999. . Bahb 'i World (199%2000) An International Record. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 2001. . Bahh 'i World (2000-2001) An International Record. Haifa: Baha'i World Centre, 2002.
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. Baha'i World (2001-2002) An International Record. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 2003. . Baha'i World (2002-2003) An International Record. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 2004. . Baha'i World (2003-2004) An International Record. Haifa: Bahi'i World Centre, 2005. 'Irfan Lights: Papers Presented at the 'Irfh Colloquia and Seminars--Book I, ed. I. Ayrnan. Vol. 1. Evanston, IL: Irfan Colloquia Publications, 2000, 32; Book 11, Vol. 2. 2001, 152; Book 111, Vol. 3. 2002, 201; Book IV, Vol. 4. 2003, 184; Book V, Vol. 5.2004,226; Book VI, Vol. 6. 2005,250. 10. HISTORICAL REFERENCE MATERIALS Note: For readers interested specifically in the early historical development of the North American Bahi'i Community, Dr. Robert Stockman's excellent companion volumes, The Baha 'i Faith in America: Origins 1892-1900[491 and The Baha'i Faith in America: Early Expansion 190&1912,[921remain the best source of secondary research materials. Also of significance for historical researchers is the series produced by Kalimit Press, first published as Studies in B6bi and Bahd 'iHistory, but which is now published under the title of Studies in the Bdbi and Bahci 'iReligions.
A. Bhbi Ali, Maulana Muhammad. History and Doctrines of the Babi Movement. Lahore: Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha'at-i-Islam, 1933. Ali, U. Babism and Bahaism Explained. New Kotwali, Agra: S. R. & Bros., 1956. Amanat, Abbas. Resurrection andRenewa1: The Making of the Babi Movement in Iran, 1844-1850. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1989. Browne, Edward Granville. Materialsfor the Study of the Bhbi Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1918, 1961.
B. Bahh'i Alizad, A. I. Years of Silence: Bahc.i% in the USSR 1938-1946, ed. T. B. R. Ma'ani. Oxford: George Ronald, 1999. Armstrong-Ingram, R. Jackson, ed. Music, Devotions, and Mashriqu'lAdhkhr: Studies in Bbbi and Baha'i History. Los Angeles: Kalimtit Press, 1987. 4 vols. Bahi'i Centenary (1944: Chicago). Baha'i Centenary 1844-1944 All America Program. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of the United States and Canada, 1944.
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Bahb'i Centenary (1944: London). The Centenary of the Baha'i Faith. May 23rd 1944. London: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the British Isles, 1944. Bahi'i Centenary (1953: Chicago). Centenary Birth of the Baha'i Revelation, 1853-1953. Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United States, 1953. Bahft'i Committee of Investigation, Washington, D.C. General Letters, Kircher Affair. 1917-1918. 1918. .Report of the Bahai Committee of Investigation, 1917-18. 1918. Bahi'i European Teaching Committee of the American NSA. Record of First Baha'i European Teaching Conference,May 22-27,1948. Geneva, Switzerland: 1948.33. Bahi'i Intercontinental Conference. Baha'i Centenary 1853-1953. New Delhi, 8 & 12 October 1953: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of India, 1953.4. . Baha'i Centenary, 1867-1967: Commemorating the 100th Anniversary of Baha'u'llah k Tablets to the Kings. Chicago and Wilmette, IL: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahsis of the United States, 1967. 12. Bahi'i Temple Unity Convention. Bahai Congress and Fijleenth Annual Convention of the Bahai Temple Unity. Chicago: Bahai Temple Unity, 1923.4. . Eleventh Annual Mashrekol-Azkar Convention and Bahai Congress. Chicago: Bahi'i Temple Unity, 1918. .Mashriq 'ul-Adhkar Report, 1909-1925. 1925. .Program, Bahai Temple Unity Convention, Chicago,April 27th to May 2nd 1912. Chicago: Bahft'i Temple Unity, 1912. Bausani, A. "The BahB'i Perspective on the History of Religion," in The Baha'i Faith andIslam, ed. H. Moayyad. Ottawa: Bahi'i Studies Publications, 1990. Bourgeois, Louise. The Bahai Temple: Press Comments, Symbolism. Chicago: 1921. Braun, Eunice, and Hugh E. Chance. A Crown of Beauty: The Baha'i Faith and the Holy Land. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982, 1987, 1992. . From Strength to Strength: The First Half Century of the Formative Age of the Baha'i Era. Wilmette, IL: Bahft'i Publishing Trust, 1978. .From Vision to Victory: Thirty Years of the UniversalHouse of Justice. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. . The March of the Institutions: A Commentary on the Interdependence of the Rulers and the Learned. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984. Cole, Juan R., and Moojan Momen, eds. From Iran East and West: Studies in Bhbi and Baha'i History. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1984. Gail, M., Arches of the Years. Oxford: George Ronald, 1991. Ghanea, N. Human Rights, the U.N.,and the Baha'is in Iran. Oxford: George Ronald, 2003. Hall, E. T. The Beginning of the Baha'i Cause in Manchester (Cover title: The Baha'i Dawn, Manchester). Manchester, UK: Manchester Baha'i Assembly, 1925.
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. Continuation of "The Baha 'iDawn: Manchester, " 1933. Haydar-'Ali, H. M. Bahai Martyrs in the Year 1903. Chicago: Baha'i Publishing Society, 1904. Himes-Cox, Florence. The Dawn-Breakers: ChronologicalStudy Outline. Wilmette, IL: Study Outline Committee, 195?. History Calendar. Baha'i History Calendar. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahii'is of the Hawaiian Islands, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995. Hollinger, Richard, ed. Community Histories: Studies in the Bhbi and Baha'i Religions. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1992. Hornby, Helen. Heroes of God: History of the Baha'i Faith in Ecuador, 194& 1979. Quito, Ecuador: Arqtelier, 1984. Ioas, Monroe C. Baha'i Publicity in the Berwyn-Cicero Life Newspaper, 1979-1980. Berwyn, IL: Monroe C. Ioas, 1980. Jiini Kashiini, Haji Mirzh. Kithb-i-Nuqtatu '1-Ka$ Being the Earliest History of the Babis. Ed. Edward G. Browne. Leydon: E. J. Brill; London: Luzac & Co., 1910. Lee, Anthony A. "The Rise of the BahSi Community of 'I&qabad.'' Baha'i Studies. Ottawa: Canadian Association for Baha'i Studies on the Baha'i Faith, 1979. Vol. 5: The Baha'i Faith in Russia: Two Early Instances. Martin, Douglas. "The Missionary as Historian." Baha'i Studies 4 (December 1978): 1-29. . "The Persecution of the Baha'is of Iran, 1844-1 984." Bahh 'iStudies 12-13 (1984): 86. McCormick, Jim. The History and Doctrines of the Baha'i Faith. Belfast, Northern Ireland: Great Joy Publications, 1985. Momen, Moojan, ed. The Bdbi and Baha'i Religions, 1844-1944: Some Contemporary WesternAccounts. Oxford: George Ronald, 1981. . SelectionsJiom the Writings of E. G. Browne on the Babi and Baha'i Religions. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987. . Studies in Bhbi and Baha'i History. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1982. . Studies in Honor of the Late Hasan M Balyuzi: Studies in the Babi and Bahh 'iReligions. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press. Piff, David. Ed. Conference. Proceedings of the UCLA Baha'i History Conference, August 5-7, 1983. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 1983. 88. Sims, Barbara R. Raising the Banner in Korea: An Early Baha'i History. Tokyo, 1996. . Traces That Remain: A Pictorial History of the Early Days of the Bahh'i Faith among the Japanese. Tokyo: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1989. Smith, Melanie, and Paul Lample. The Spiritual Conquest of the Planet: Our Response to Plans. Riviera Beach, FL: Palabra Publications, 1993. Smith, Peter. The Baha'i Religion: A Short Introduction to Its History and Teachings. Oxford: George Ronald, 1988.
600 BIBLIOGRAPHY
, ed. Baha'is in the West: Studies in Bhbi and Baha'i History. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press. . The Development and Influence of the BahciJiAdministrativeOrder in Great Britain, 1914-1950. Los Angeles: Kalimbt Press, 1992. . In &in: Studies in Bbbi and Baha'i History. Los Angeles: Kalimbt Press. , ed. A Short History of the Bahb 'iFaith. Oneworld: Oxford, 1996. . What Was a Baha'i? Concerns of British Baha'is, 190&1920. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1988. Stockman, Robert H. The Baha'i Faith in America: Early Expansion 190& 1912. Vol. 2. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. 3 vols. . The Baha'i Faith in America: Origins 1892-1900. Vol. 1. Wilmette, IL: Bahir'i Publishing Trust, 1985. 3 vols. Whitmore, Bruce W. The Dawning Place: The Building of a Temple, the Forging of the North American Baha'i Community.Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1984. Yazdi, M. C. Youth in the Vanguard: Memoires and Letters Collected by the First Baha'i at Berkeley and at Stanford University. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1982. C.Other Balyhzi, H. M. Edward Granville Browne and the Baha'i Faith. Oxford: George Ronald, 1970, 1975, 1980.
Note: Given that history devolves primarily from the actions of people, a substantial list of autobiographical and biographical works has been included in the hope that historians and researchers will glean much that is of historical interest from the pages of these works-if for no other reason than that they are in many instances the only available record of Bahi'i activities in a given area (and will remain so until official Bahb'i archives can be made available to researchers). Afroukhteh, Youness. Memories of My Nine Years in Akka: Memoires of DK Youness Afroukhteh. First published Tihran, ed. T. R. Masrour, 1952. Oxford: George Ronald Publisher, 2003. Alexander, Agnes Baldwin. History of the Faith in Japan 1914-1938. Osaka: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1977. .Personal Recollections of a Bahh 'iLife in the Hawaiian Islands: Forty Ears of the Baha 'iCause in Hawaii, 1902-1 942. Honolulu: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of the Hawaiian Islands, 1971. Anderson, Angela. Valley of Search. Comwall: Wordens of Comwall Ltd., 1968.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 601
Asdaq, R. One Life One Memory: In the Presence ofAbdu '1-Bahci,Haifa, January 1914. Trans. Shahbaz Fatheazam. Oxford: George Ronald, 1998. Austin, Elsie. Above AN Barriers: The Story ofLouis G. Gregory.Wilmette, IL: BaM'i Publishing Trust, 1976. Balyhzi, H. M. Eminent Bahci 'is in the Time of Bahci 'u 'llcih: JEth Some Historical Background. Oxford: George Ronald, 1985. Baram, A., ed. Martha Root, Herald of the Kingdom: A Compilation. New Delhi: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1983. Barney, Laura Clifford. Godb Heroes. London: Kegan Paul Trench Truber & Co.; Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1910. Blodeld, Lady Sarah Louisa. The Chosen Highway. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1940. Buck, Christopher, ed. Alain Locke: Faith and Philosophy. Studies in the Bcibi and Bahci'i Religions, ed. Anthony A. Lee. Vol. 18. Kalimit Press: Los Angeles, 2005. Caldwell, Jenabe. From Night to Knight. Oxford: Oneworld, 1992. Chapman, A. I., Leroy Ioas: Hand of the Cause of God. Oxford: George Ronald, 1998. Chase, Thornton, and Arthur S. Agnew. In Galilee and In Spirit and In Truth. Chicago: Bahai Publishing Society, 1908. Cobb, Stanwood, A Saga of nYo Centuries:Autobiography. Manuscript, 1979. Freeman, Dorothy. From Copper to Gold: The Life of Dorothy Baker. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984. Gail, Marzieh. Summon Up Remembrance. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987. Garis, M. R. Martha Root, Lioness at the Threshold. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1983. Hainsworth, P., and L. Hainsworth, MBE. Autobiography of Philip Hainsworth: From 1919 to 1967: JEth a "Postscript" by Lois Hainsworth, MBE, Covering the Years 1967-2001. Basingstoke, UK: Greenhouse Graphics Limited, 2005. Hatcher, John S. From the Auroral Darkness: The Life and Poetry of Robert Hayden. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984. Hellaby, Madeline. Sarah Ann Ridgeway: First Bahci 'iin the North of England. Oxford: George Ronald, 2003. Heller, Wendy. Lidia: The Life of Lidia ZamenhoJ; Daughter of Esperanto. Oxford: George Ronald, 1985. Hendry, Derald E. In the Hollow of His Hand: The Story of Ethel Murray. Morganstown, NC: Derald E. Hendry, 1984. Hofinan, David. George Townshend, Hand of the Cause of God (Sometime Canon of St. Patrickb Cathedral, Dublin, Archdeacon of Clonfert).Oxford: George Ronald, 1983. Holladay, M. D., Life, On the Fence: An Autobiography of Marvin "Doc" Holladay. Oxford: George Ronald, 2005. Hollinger, R. Abdu'l-Baha in America: Agnes Parson b Diary. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1996.
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Honnold, Annamarie, ed. Why They Became Baha 'is: First GenerationBahh 'is by 1963. New Delhi: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1994. Homby, Helen B., Heroes of God: History of the Bahh'i Faith in Ecuador, 194&1979. Quito, Ecuador: Helen Bassett Homby, 1984. Hunt, Ethel M. M., and A. J. Weinberg. A Journeyfrom Judaism to the Bahh'i Faith (with a statement on the spread of the Bahh 'iteachings among the Jews in Persia by A. J. Weinberg).N.p., 1941. Ives, Howard Colby. Portals to Freedom. Wilrnette, IL: BahS'i Publishing Trust, 1967. Jasion, Jan T. Never Be Afraid to Dare: The Story of "General Jack. 'Oxford: George Ronald, 2000. Khadem, J. Zikrullah Khadem: The Itinerant Hand of the Cause of God. Wilmette, IL: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1990. Labib, Muhammad. The Seven Martyrs of Hurmuzak. Oxford: George Ronald, 1981. Leach, Bernard. My Religious Faith. London: National Spiritual Assembly of the BahS'is of the United Kingdom, 1979. Marcus, D. L., Her Eternal Crown: Queen Marie of Romania and the Baha'i Faith. Oxford: George Ronald, 2000. Matthews, Loulie A. Not Every Sea Hath Pearls. Milford, NH: The Cabinet Press, 1951. Maxwell, May (Bolles). An Early Pilgrimage. Chicago: Bahi'i Publishing Society, 1917. Mayberry, Florence. The Great Adventure. Manotick, ON: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994. McKay, Doris, and Paul Vreeland. Fires in Many Hearts. Manotick, ON: Nine Pines Publishing, 1993. Mehrabkhani, R. Mull4 Husayn, Disciple at Dawn. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1987. Metalmann, V.P., Lua Getsinger: Herald of the Covenant. Oxford: George Ronald, 1997. Momen, Moojan. Dr John Ebenezer Esslemont, MB., Ch.B., SBEA, Hand of the Cause of God. London: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1975. Morrison, Gayle. To Move the World: Louis G. Gregory and the Advancement of Racial Unity in America. Wilrnette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1982. Nakhjavhi, Violette. Amatu 'I-Bahh Ksits India. New Delhi: BahS'i Publishing Trust, 1966, 1984. Nelson-McDennott, Catherine. "Tahirih." Baha'i Studies Notebook 1:1 (1980). Parsons, Agnes. Agnes Parsons' Diary: Supplemented with Episodes from Mahmzidk Diary April 11, 1912-November 11, 1912. Ed. Richard Hollinger. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1996. Roohizadegan, Olya. Olya k Story: A Survivor k Dramatic Account of the Persecution of the Baha'is of Iran. Oxford: Oneworld, 1993. Root, Martha L. Tahirih the Pure, Iran b Greatest Woman. Rev. ed. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1981.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 603
Rowdon, Larry. Hidden Bounties: Memories of Pioneering on the Magdalen Archipelago. Manotick, ON: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994. Ruhe, David S. Door of Hope: A Century of the Baha'iFaith in the Holy Land. Rev. ed. Oxford: George Ronald, 1986. Rutstein, Nathan. Corinne True: Faithful Handmaiden of Xbdu '1-Bahh. Oxford: George Ronald, 1987. . He Loved and Sewed: The Story of Curtis Kelsey. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982. Schopflocher, Lorol. Sunburst. London: Ryder & Co., 1937. Sears, Margeurite Reimer. Bill: A Biography of Hand of the Cause William Sears. Eloy, AZ: Desert Rose Publishing, 2003. Sears, William, and Robert Quigley. All Flags Flying! Johannesburg: National SpiritualAssembly of the BahB'is of South and West Africa, 1985. . The Flame (Cover Title: The Flame: The Story of Lua). Oxford: George Ronald, 1973. . God Loves Laughter. Oxford: George Ronald, 1984. Shipton, A., Groovin 'High: The Life of Dizzy Gillespie. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Stockman, Robert H. Thornton Chase: First American Baha'i. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 2001. Szanto-Felbermann, Renee. Rebirth: The Memoirs of Renee SzantoFelbermann. London: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. Vreeland, Claire. And the Trees Clapped Their Hands: Stories of Bahci'i Pioneers. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. Weinberg, Robert. Ethel Jenner Rosenberg: The Life and Times of Englandk Outstanding Baha'i Pioneer Worker. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995. West, Marion. Lettersfim Bonaire. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990. Whitehead, 0. Z. Portraits of Some Baha'i Women. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. . Some Baha'is to Remember. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983. . Some Early Baha 'is of the West. Oxford: George Ronald, 1976. Winckler, Bahiyyih Randall. M y Pilgrimage to Haifa November 1919 Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1996. Winckler, Bahiyyih Randall, and Garis, M. R. FV7lliam Henry Randall: Disciple of Xbdu'l-Baha. Oxford: Oneworld, 1996. Yazdi, A. M. Blessings Beyond Measure: Recollections of Xbdu'l-Bahh and Shoghi Effendi. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1988. Zohoori, Elias. A Wondrous World:A Collection of Bah6 'iSacred Writings and Accounts of Dreams and Visionsfrom Baha'i History. Kingston, Jamaica: Zoohoori, 1992.
12.
~ & ' i INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY
Note: This section lists websites that contain statements and other documents relating to the work of the Bahb'i International Community (primarily with
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the agencies of the United Nations) including such topic areas as human rights, the advancement and development of women, and social and economic development. Bahft'i International Community official website: www.bahai.org! (accessed 5 November 2005). Bahft'i International Community. Statement Library: http://statements.bahai. erg! (accessed 5 November 2005).
13. TREATISE ON B A & ~ SUBJECTS-THEOLOGICAL! APOLOGETIC WORKS Abu'l-Fad1 Gulpbygani, Mirzb. The Bahci'i Proofs (Hujaja'l-Bahijyih); and A Short Sketch of the History of the Lives of the Leaders of This Religion. Trans. 'Ali-Kuli Khan (Ishti'al Ibn-i-Kalhtar). Facsimile of the 1929 ed. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1983. . The Brilliant ProoJ; Burhane Lamd. Chicago: Baha News Service, 1912. .Letters and Essays, 1886-1913. Trans. Juan R. I. Cole. Los Angeles: Kalimlt Press, 1985. . Miracles and Metaphors. Trans. Juan Ricardo Cole. Los Angeles: Kalimftt Press, 1981. Adamson, Hugh C. The Concept of Revelation as Found in Islam and the Bahci'i Faith, in History and Philosophy of Religion. Master's thesis. Montrkal, QC: Concordia, 1975. Afaqi, S., Proofsfrom the Holy Qur 'cin (Regarding the Advent of Bahci'u'llah). New Delhi: Mir'ftt Publications, 1993. Ahan, Ruhi. Wsticism and the Bahci 'iRevelation. New York: Bahl'i Publishing Committee, 1934. Afshar, M. Images of Christ in the Writings of Ybdu'l-Bahci. Evanston, IL: Irfan Colloquia Publications, 2004. Backwell, Richard. The Christianity of Jesus. Portlaw, Ireland: Voltuma Press, 1972. Badiee, Julie. An Earthly Paradise: Bahci'i Houses of Worship Around the World. Oxford: George Ronald, 1992. Balyirzi, H. M. Muhammad and the Course of Islam. Oxford: George Ronald, 1976. Bowes, Eric. Great Themes of Life. Wilmette, IL: B W i Publishing Trust, 1958. Bryson, Alan. Light Afer Death: A Comparison of the Near Death Experience and the Teachings of the Bahci'i Faith on Life After Death. India: Sterling Publishers Private, Limited, 1993. Buck, Christopher,ed. Symbol andsecret: Qur 'cin Commentaryin Bahci 'u 'llcihh ~itcib-i-iqan:Studies in the Bcibi and Bahci'i Religions. Los Angeles: KalimM Press, 1995.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 605
Bushrui, The Style of the Kitcib-i-Aqdas:Aspects of the Sublime. Bethesda, MD: University Press of Maryland, 1995. Cameron, G., and W. Momen. A Basic Bahci'i Chronology. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. Chase, Thornton. The Bahci'i Revelation. New York: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1920. Chew, Phyllis Ghim Lian. The Chinese Religion and the Baha'i Faith. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. Cole, Juan Ricardo. "The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahi'i Writings." Association for Bahci 'i Studies: Bahci 'i Studies 9 (1982): 38. Cole, Owen W., ed. World Religions: A Handbook for Teachers. 2nd reprint. ed. London: Commission for Racial Equality, in conjunction with The SHAP Working Party on Religions in Education, 1980. Cooper, Roger. The Baha'is oflran. London: Minority Rights Group, 1982. Dahl, Arthur L. Mark Tobey, Art and Belie$ Oxford: George Ronald, 1984. Danesh, Hossain B. The Psychology of Spirituality. Manitock, ON: Nine Pines Publishing, 1994. . The Violence Free Society: A G13for Our Children. Vol. 6. Ottawa: Canadian Association for Studies on the Bahi'i Faith, 1979. Dreyfus, Hippolyte. The Universal Religion: Bahaism. Trans. (Essai sur le Bkhakme.) Chicago: Bahi'i Publishing Company, 1909. Education, Advisory Committee on. "Bahir'i School Lesson Plans Grade 1: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Bahci'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: BahB'i Publishing Trust, 1968,1976.105. . "Bahii'i School Lesson Plans Grade 2: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Baha'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahh'i Publishing Trust, 1968. 89. . "Bahi'i School Lesson Plans Grade 3: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Baha'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1970. 109. . "Bahi'i School Lesson Plans Grade 4: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Bahh 'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1970. 92. . "Bahi'i School Lesson Plans Grade 5: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Baha'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1970. 90. . "Bahi'i School Lesson Plans Grade 6: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Baha'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1968. 93. . "Bahi'i School Lesson Plans Grade 7: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Bahh 'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1968. 131. . "Bah8'i School Lesson Plans Grade 8: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Baha'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1968. 104.
606 BIBLIOGRAPHY
. "Bahl'i School Lesson Plans Grade 9: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Baha'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahh'i Publishing Trust, 1970. 92. . "Bahl'i School Lesson Plans Grade K: History, Teachings for the Individual, Social Teachings," in Bahri'i Teacher b Handbook. Wilmette, IL: Bahh'i Publishing Trust, 1976. Esslemont, John Ebenezer. Baha 'u 'llah and the New Era. 4th rev. ed. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1980. Gail, Marzieh. Baha'i Glossary. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1976. . Other People, Other Places. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982. . The Sheltering Branch. Wilmette, IL: Bahb'i Publishing Trust, 1970. Hainsworth, Philip. The Baha'i Faith and the United Nations. Paper written for the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of the United Kingdom Bahh'i community, 1995. .Baha'i Focus on Human Rights. London: Bahii'i Publishing Trust, 1985. Hainsworth, Philip, and Mary Perkins. The Baha'i Faith. London: Ward Lock Educational, 1985. Hatcher, John S. The Arc ofAscent: The Purpose of Physical Reality II. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. . "The Concept of Spirituality." Bahh 'i Studies (Associationfor Baha 'i Studies) 11 (1982): 35. ."The Metaphysical Nature of Physical Reality." Baha'i Studies (Canadian Association of Baha'i Studies) 3 (1977): 27. . The Purpose of Physical Reality: The Kingdom of Names. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1987. . "The Science of Religion." Baha'i Studies (Canadian Association for Baha'i Studies) 2 (1977): 45. Hatcher, William S., and J. Douglas Martin. The Baha 'iFaith: The Emerging Global Religion. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984, 1985. H o f i a n , Frederic Gordon, The Art and Life of Mark Tobey: A Contribution towards an Understanding of a Psychology of Consciousness. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977. Huddleston, John. The Earth Is But One Country. 2nd ed. London: Bahh'i Publishing Trust, 1976, 1980. Khan, P. J., and J. Khan. Advancement of Women: A Baha'i Perspective. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1998. Kheiralla, Ibrahim George. The Door of True Religion (Bab-Ed-din): 1,Za-ti-et Al-lah, 2, El Fi-da: Revelation from the East: Rational Argument. Chicago: Chas. H. Kerr and Company, 1897. . The Identity and the Personality of God: Za-B-Et Al-lah. Chicago: Grant's Printery, 1896. Khursheed, Anjam. The Universe mthin: An Exploration of the Human Spirit. Oxford: Oneworld, 1995. Kolstoe, J. Developing Genius: Getting the Most Out of Group Decision-Making. Oxford: George Ronald, 1995.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 607
Lakshman, H. New Heaven-New Earth: The Divine Order of Bah6'u'lldh: Historical Evolution of the Baha'i Faith and Its Covenant. Thornhill, ON: National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Canada. Lee, Anthony A., ed. Circle of Unity:A Proclamation to the Native Americans from the Bahb'iFaith. Wilmette, IL: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1980. . Circle of Unity: Baha'i Approaches to Current Social Issues. Los Angeles: Kalimat Press, 1984. Loehle, Craig. On the Shoulders of Giants. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. Marks, Geoffrey W. Call to Remembrance: Connectingthe Heart to Bah6 'u 'Ikih. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust. Matthews, Gary L. The Challenge of Bah6 'u 'llbh. Oxford: George Ronald, 1993. Malouf, D. L. Unveiling the Hidden Words: The Norms Used by Shoghi Effendi in His Translation of the Hidden Words. Oxford: George Ronald, 1997. McDaniel, Allen Boyer. The Spell of the Temple. New York: Vantage Press, 1953. McLean, J. Revisioning the Sacred: New Perspectives on a Baha'i Terminology. Studies in the Babi and Baha'i Religions, ed. A. A. Lee. Vol. 8. Los Angeles: Kalimit Press, 1997. McLean, J. A. Dimensions in Spirituality. Oxford: George Ronald, 1994. Metalmann, V. P. Lua Getsinger: Herald of the Covenant. Oxford: George Ronald, 1997. Momen, Wendi, ed. A Basic Baha'i Dictionary. Oxford: George Ronald, 1989. Mustafa, M. Baha'u'llah: The Great Announcement of the Qur'an. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Baha'i Publishing Trust, 1995. Nakhjavhi, Bahiyyih. Asking Questions: A Challenge to Fundamentalism. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990. . Responses. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983. Nash, Geofiey. Iran5 Secret Pogrom: The Conspiracy to Wpe Out the Bahh 'is. SuEolk, UK: Neville Spearman, 1982. National Teaching Committee, ed. The Covenant: Its Meaning and Origin and Our Attitude Towards It. Riviera Beach, FL: Palabra Publications, 1988. Pinchon, Florence E. The Coming of "the Glory": (As Described in the Bahai Writings).London: Simpkin Marshall Ltd., 1928. Sabet, Huschmand. The Heavens Are CIeJt Asunder. Oxford: George Ronald, 1975. Schaefer, Udo. Beyond the Clash of Religions: The Emergence of a New Paradigm. 3rd English ed. Studien zum Baha'itum. Vol. 5. Hofheim, Germany: Bahi'i-Verlag, 2002. . The Imperishable Dominion: The Bahd 'iFaith and the Future of Mankind. Trans. Janet Rawling-Keitel, David Hopper, and Patricia Crampton. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983. . The Light Shineth in Darkness: Five Studies in Revelation after Christ. Trans. Helene Momtaz Neri, Oliver Coburn. Oxford: George Ronald, 1980.
608 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Schaefer, Udo, N. Towfigh, and U. Gollmer. Making the Crooked Straight: A Contribution to Bahh 'iApologetics. Oxford: George Ronald, 2002. Sears, William. A Cry from the Heart: The Bahh'is in irhn. Oxford: George Ronald, 1982. . The Prisoner and the Kings. Toronto: General Publishing Company, 1971. . Thief in the Night, or the Strange Case of the Missing Millennium. Oxford: George Ronald, 1985. . The Wine ofAstonishment. Oxford: George Ronald, 1983. Shook, Glenn A. Mysticism, Science and Revelation. Wilmette, IL: Bahi'i Publishing Trust, 1970. Smith, Peter. Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahh 'i Faith. Oxford: Oneworld, 1999. Sours, Michael W. Bahh'u'llhh 5 Tablet to the Christians. Oxford: Oneworld, 1990. . Jesus Christ in Sacred Bahh'i Literature: A Compilation. Oxford: Oneworld, 1990. . The Prophecies of Jesus. Oxford: Oneworld, 1990. . The Station and Claims of Bahh'u 'llhh. Wilmette, IL: Bahl'i Publishing Trust, 1998. . The Tablet of the Holy Mariner: An Illustrated Guide to Bahh'u 'llhhS Mystical Writings in the SEiP Tradition. Los Angeles: Kalimlt Press, 2001. . Understanding Biblical Evidence. Preparing for a Bahh'i/Christian Dialogue. Vol. 1. Oxford: Oneworld, 1997. . Understanding Biblical Prophecy. Preparing for a Baha'i/Christian Dialogue. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oneworld, 1997. . Understanding Christian Beliefs. Preparing for a Bahh'i/Christian Dialogue. Vol. 2. Oxford: Oneworld, 1997. Taherzadeh, Adib. The Child of the Covenant: A Study Guide to the Will and Testament of 2bdu '1-Bahh. Oxford: George Ronald, 2000. Vick, H. H. Social and Economic Development: A Bahh'i Approach. Oxford: George Ronald, 1990. Wallbridge, J. Sacred Acts, Sacred Space, Sacred Time. Oxford: George Ronald, 1996. Woodman, R. Crystallizations: 20 Works by Baha'i' Artists. Ottawa: Bahl'i Studies Publications, 1996. Zohoori, E., A Wondrous World: A Collection of Bahh'i Sacred Writings and Accounts of Dreams and Visionsfrom Bahh'i History. Kingston, Jamaica: Zoohoori, 1992.
14. ELECTRONIC MEDIA Ocean Student Research L i b r a y T h e World5Religious Literature, 2000. Available fiom wwwbahai-education.org/oceanl(accessed 5 November 2005).
BIBLIOGRAPHY 609
Star of the West, 2001. Available from www.bahai-education.org/star/(accessed 5 November 2005).
15. OFFICIAL BAII&'I WEBSITES Bahii'i Reference Library, the authoritative electronic source of the BahB'i Holy Writings in the original languages and in English: http://reference.bahai. org/en/ (accessed 5 November 2005). Baha'i Statement Library, a comprehensive library of statements issued by the Bahii'i International Community's United Nations Office: http://statements. bahai.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005). Bahb'i Topics, an information resource and collection of articles on a wide range of Bahb'i topics from the teachings and history of the Faith to nature of Bahi'i community life: http://info.bahai.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005). Baha'i World News Service, current news about Bahi'i events and activities from around the world: http://news.bahai.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005). International Bahii'i Library, offering information of use to librarians and researchers: http://library.bahai.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005). International Baha'i Library FTP site containing a selection of the authorized Writings of the Founders of the Bahi'i Faith, along with other documents: http://library.bahai.org/serv/ftpc.html (accessed 4 August 2006). National Baha'i Communities, links to websites in many languages sponsored by national Bahi'i communities around the world: http://bahai.org/national (accessed 5 November 2005). One Country, the online newsletter of the Bahii'i International Community: http://www.onecountry.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005). The Bahii'i International Community official website: http://www.bahai.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005).
16. ASSOCIATIONS OF BAI%&'iSTUDIES Note: This section lists regional- and national-level Bahii'i bodies whose aim is to promote the development and dissemination of scholarship on the Bahii'i Faith. Researchers interested in specific regional or national information may find it valuable to approach one or more of these associations. Argentina: Centro de Estudios Baha'is, Otamendi 215, 1405 Buenos Aires, Argentina. E-mail:
[email protected]. Australia: Association for Bahb'i Studies, c/o PO Box 319, Rosebury, NSW 2018, Australia. E-mail:
[email protected]. Bermuda: c/o National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahii'is of Bermuda, PO Box HM 742, Hamilton, HM CX, Bermuda. E-mail:
[email protected]. Brazil: Association for Bahi'i Studies, Rua Dom Pedro 11, 1641, CP 233, 90,000 Porto Alegre, Brazil. E-mail:
[email protected].
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Cameroon: Association for BahB'i Studies, BP 4230 Yaounde, Republic of Cameroon. E-mail: enochtanyi@yahoo.£r. Chile: Asociacidn de Estudios BahB'is, c/o Asamblea Espiritual Nacional de 10s Bahii'is de Chile, Casilla 3731, Santiago 1, Chile. E-mail:
[email protected]. Colombia: Asociacidn de Estudios, Apartado Aereo 51387, Santa Fe de Bogota DC, Colombia. E-mail:
[email protected]. East, Central, and SouthernAfrica: Bahb'i Studies Association, c/o Dr. C. Ronhani, Secretary, PO Box 82519, Mombasa, Kenya. E-mail: mehrazehsani@ hotmail.com. Ecuador: Asociacidn de Estudios Bahi'is, Asamblea Espiritual Nacional de 10s BahB'is del Ecuador, Apartado 869 A, Quito, Ecuador. E-mail: ecunsa@uio. satnet.net. English-Speaking Europe Association: Association for Bahb'i Studies, 27 Rutland Gate, London SW7 lPD, United Kingdom. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www.bahai-studies.org (accessed 5 November 2005). Francophone Europe: Association des ~ t u d e sBahB'ies, 45 rue Pergolese, F75 116 Paris, France. E-mail:
[email protected]. German-Speaking Europe: Gesellschaft fiir Bahb'i Studien, c/o Hedye Fuchs, Schwarzwaldstrasse D-63477, Maintal, Germany. E-mail:
[email protected]. Ghana: Association for Bahb'i Studies, PO Box AN 7098, Accra-North, Ghana. E-mail:
[email protected]. Hawaii: c/o Robert McClelland, Secretary, 2142 Aluka. Loop, Pearl City, 1-41 96782-13 17, USA. E-mail:
[email protected]. Honduras: Association for Bahb'i Studies, Apartado 71, c/o Stover, La Ceiba, Honduras. India: Association for Bahi'i Studies, c/o Mrs. Menka Tell, Secretary, C-12 Vidyanagari, Mumbai University Santacruz (E), Mumbai 400 098, India. Japan: Association for Bahb'i Studies, c/o Tokyo Bahb'i Center, 7-2-13 Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 460-0022, Japan. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www2.gol.com~users/sfotos(accessed 5 November 2005). Malaysia: Association for Bahb'i Studies, c/o Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of Malaysia, 4 Lorong Titiwangsa 5, Setapak 53000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. E-mail:
[email protected]. New Zealand: Association for Baha'i Studies, c/o Paul Friedman, Secretary, 5 Chelsea Court, Tauranga, New Zealand. E-mail:
[email protected]. North America: Association for Bahb'i Studies, 34 Copernicus Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIN 7K4, Canada. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www. bahai-studies.cal (accessed 5 November 2005). Persia: Association for Bahi'i Studies in Persian, 596 Upper Sherman, Hamilton, Ontario L8V 3M2, Canada. E-mail:
[email protected]. Website: www.absp.org/ (accessed 5 November 2005). Philippines: Association for BahB'i Studies, c/o Humaida A. Jumalon, 20-D Macopa St., Basak Engineering 6000, Cebu City Philippines. E-mail: maphila skymet.net.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61 1
Puerto Rico: Asociaci6n de Estudios Bahb'is, c/o Dr. Cesar Reyes, Chemistry Dept., University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez 00680, Puerto Rico. E-mail:
[email protected]. Russia: Association for Bahi'i Studies, 107207 Uralskaya St., 6-1-66 Moscow, Russia. Singapore: c/o Dr. Anjam Khursheed, B 09-02 Kent Vale, 105 Clementi Road, Singapore 129789. E-mail:
[email protected]. Spain: Asociacibn des Estudios BahS'is, Matias Turribn 32, ES-28043 Madrid, Spain. E-mail:
[email protected]. Southern Africa: c/o National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahb'is of South Africa, PO Box 932, Banbury Cross, 2164 South Africa. E-mail: abs@bahai. org.za. Website: www.bahaistudies.org.za (accessed 5 November 2005). Trinidad and Tobago: Association for Bahb'i Studies, c/o Dr. H. Farabi, Secretary, PO Box 755, Port of Spain, Trinidad, West Indies. E-mail: hfarabi@ carib-link.net. Venezuela: Association for Bahh'i Studies, c/o Donald R. Witzel, Secretary Apartado 934, Barquisirneto, Edo. Lara, 3001-A, Venezuela. E-mail: dwitzel@ sa.omnes.net. West Africa: Association for Bahi'i Studies, c/o National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of Nigeria, PO Box 2029, 101001 Marina, Lagos, Nigeria. E-mail:
[email protected]. Zambia: Association for Bahi'i Studies, c/o Mr. Vandat Alavian, Box 51170, Lusaka Zambia.
About the Author
Hugh Carswell Adamson served as secretary-general of the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahi'is of the United Kingdom fiom 1987 to 1998. Born in the United Kingdom, he moved to Canada in his midteens. Educated in Canada, he obtained master's degrees in business administration (M.B.A.) and the history and philosophy of comparative religion (M.A.). He has wide business experience, including senior executive posts in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. He has served as chair of the World Congress of Faiths; patron, World Conference of Religions for Peace (U.K.); a council member, the Wyndham Place Trust; an Executive Committee member, the InterFaith Network; and hon. vice president, United Nations Association (U.K.). He was also a trustee of the International Interfaith Centre and a trustee and honorary secretary of the Bahb'i Agency for Social and Economic Development (U.K.). He is a fellow of the Institute of Directors, a fellow of the British Institute of Management, and a fellow of the Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce. Past memberships include the Royal Institute for International Affairs, the Refugee Council, the United Nations Environmental & Development Committee (U.K.), and the Association of Chief Executives of National Voluntary Organizations. He was also chair of the Institute for the Healing of Racism (U.K.). He moved to the United States in 1998, where he now lives with his wife, Lynda, in Belfast, Georgia. Currently, in addition to a number of business pursuits, he serves as an adjunct professor in the business faculties of South University and Brewton Parker College.
